THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
THE 
 
 ANATOMIST'S 
 
 VADE-MECUM. 
 
t 
 
 1 
 
 S. Gosnell, Printer, Little Queen Street, London. 
 
THE 
 
 ANATOMIST'S 
 
 VADE-MECUM: 
 
 CONTAINING THE 
 
 J* 
 ') & 
 
 Anatomy, Physiology r , Morbid Appearai 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HUMAN BODY; 
 
 i "j 
 
 THE ART OF MAKING 
 
 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, c. 
 
 To which are added, 
 
 ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, MEDICAL, AND 
 SURGICAL QUESTIONS. 
 
 THE NINTH EDITION, 
 
 GREATLY IMPROVED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 " Indocti discant, ament meminisse periti." 
 
 BY ROBERT HOOPER, M.D. 
 
 Of the University of Oxford, and the Royal College of Physicians in 
 
 London ; Fellow of the Linnaean Society ; Physician 
 
 to the St. Mary-le-bone Infirmary, &c. 
 
 * 
 LONDON 
 
 PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN; 
 THOMAS AND GEORGE UNDERWOOD; JOHN CALLOW; HIGHLEY 
 AND SON; OGLE, DUNCAN, AND CO. ; G. AND W. B. WHITTAKER j 
 JOHN ANDERSON; BURGESS AND HILL: AND ADAM BLACK, 
 AND STIRLING AND SLADE, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1820. 
 
 .. 4- 
 

 
 
- Q M5 a 
 
 H5S 
 
 TO 
 JOSHUA BROOKES, ESQ. 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, 
 
 TEACHER OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, SURGERY, 
 
 &C. &C. 
 
 4L 
 
 THIS EDITION 
 
 IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 AS A 
 
 TESTIMONY OF ESTEEM AND REGARD, 
 
 BY 
 / 
 
 HIS SINCERE FRIEND, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 & * A 3 
 
 M370353 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IT is the intention of the Writer, in the following 
 Compendium, to present to the Student a useful 
 anatomical conspectus, or pocket manual of ana- 
 tomy and physiology ; in which he will find, 
 
 1. A short but accurate description of the differ- 
 ent parts of the human body, and their functions. 
 
 2. An enumeration of the diseases to which 
 those parts are subject, and the various operations 
 of surgery that are performed on the human body. 
 
 3. The method of preparing the various parts of 
 the body, to exhibit their structure, in a natural 
 and diseased state, as far as our present knowledge 
 will enable us. 
 
 4. A glossary, or explanation of the principal 
 terms used in that science. * 
 
 5. A list of questions which he should repeat- 
 edly answer in writing from his memory, and then 
 refer to the most esteemed books to correct. 
 
 The utility of such a performance, interspersed 
 with a number of practical remarks, it is presumed, 
 
 A 4 
 
Vlll 
 
 will be generally acknowledged, especially when it 
 is considered that there is no work written upon 
 a similar plan,. 
 
 The principal motive that induced the Author 
 to form and collect together, into one small pocket 
 volume, this elementary production, was his having 
 himself experienced the want of such an assistant 
 when applying to that branch of philosophy. He 
 therefore recommends it to students, not as a work 
 wherein any thing new is to be met with, but merely 
 as their occasional companion in the prosecution of 
 their studies. 
 
 81, Savile Row, 
 1819. 
 
A 
 
 COMPENDIOUS 
 HISTORY OF ANATOMY. 
 
 FROM, the works of HIPPOCRATES, THE FATHER 
 OF MEDICINE, who flourished about Jour hundred 
 years before the birth of Christy is to be collected 
 all the information of antiquity on the subject of 
 Anatomy. This great physician, whose principal 
 attention was directed to the symptoms and cure of 
 diseases, was, nevertheless, well aware of the im- 
 portance of anatomical knowledge to perfection in 
 the healing art: hence we find^ that his works 
 abound with anatomical facts and observations, in- 
 terspersed with the prevailing doctrines of the day. 
 When it is considered, how many obstacles were 
 thrown ia the way of this science, from climate, 
 prejudice, and superstition, the perseverance and 
 acquirements of this great man, the ornament of 
 the medical profession, cannot be sufficiently ad- 
 mired. He describes come parts peculiar to the 
 
 A5 
 
human body, which could only be ascertained by 
 actual dissection. The body he made to consist of 
 solids, fluids, and spirits ; of containing and con- 
 tained parts. The elementary humours he divided 
 into four kinds : blood, phlegm, choler or bile, and 
 melancholy or occult bile. This was agreeable to 
 the philosophy of the age in which he lived ; as like- 
 wise the notions of all bodies being composed of 
 earth, air, fire, and water. He never distinguished 
 between nerves, arteries, veins, or tendons; but 
 calls the heart and its pericardium a powerful 
 muscle ; he knew the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary 
 arteries and veins, and entertained obscure notions 
 of the uses of the valves ; but considered the auricles 
 as a fan. He mentions the distributions of the ar- 
 teries and veins by trunks and ramifications from 
 the heart ; and asserts, that all the arteries originate 
 from the heart. The liver was thought to be the 
 root of the veins, the fountain of the blood ; and 
 he supposed it to separate bile. He thought the ar- 
 teries carried the spirits ; but was entirely ignorant 
 of the circulation of the blood, and of the use of 
 the diaphragm ; and his seating the soul in the left 
 ventricle of the heart, is a memorable example of 
 human vanity, and of that inherent inclination in 
 man, boldly to account for what is inexplicable. 
 The heart and lungs, he imagined, received part of 
 2 
 
XI 
 
 our drink. Of the organ of hearing, it is concluded,, 
 he knew little, for he only mentions the tympanum. 
 Of the brain, which he thought a gland (an idea 
 which has since been erroneously supposed to be- 
 long to Malpighi), the nerves and their uses, vision 
 and the senses, he was totally ignorant as to the 
 causes; yet he makes the brain the seat of wisdom. 
 The glands he imperfectly understood. The Py- 
 thagorean doctrines of conception, generation, and 
 pregnancy, are, in general, absurd and supersti- 
 tious ; as likewise his notions of the Pythagorean 
 numbers, which seem to have been the prevailing 
 philosophical follies of the day. On moles, false 
 conceptions, and the nourishment of the foetus, a 
 rational judgment is formed ; he comprehended the 
 communication from the mother to the foetus by 
 means of the umbilical cord; though, in another 
 place, he supposes that it absorbs nutriment by the 
 mouth, and from the surrounding fluid in the ovum. 
 After Hippocrates, anatomy continued to be 
 improved; but, as opportunities were extremely li- 
 mited, from the prejudices of mankind, its progress 
 was but slow, and chiefly confined to the two schools 
 of Athens and Alexandria. In the former, (he 
 names of SOCRATES, PLATO, XENOPHON, ARIS- 
 TOTLE, and THEOPHRASTUS, are still preserved 
 along with many of their works ^ and, although we 
 
 A6 
 
Xll 
 
 observe that their general attention was directed to 
 philosophy, yet natural history and anatomy were 
 far from being overlooked: their opportunities, 
 however, of examining bodies, were confined ; and, 
 after their time, the study of natural knowledge at 
 Athens sunk for ever. But while it decayed in 
 Greece and Asia, it rose with increased energy, 
 under the protection of the Ptolemies, at Alexan- 
 dria. In this school, which was so long pre-eminent, 
 ERISIS-TRATUS and HEROPHILUS were highly dis- 
 tinguished for anatomical knowledge. By the li- 
 beral patronage of the Ptolemies, they enjoyed 
 ample opportunites of dissecting human bodies ; and 
 the consequent improvements which anatomy re- 
 ceived were very great. They not only corrected 
 many former errors, but wrote with great judgment 
 upon neurology. They observed a variety of struc- 
 ture in nerves supplying different parts, and hence 
 distinguished them into those which were necessary 
 to sense, and those which were subservient to 
 motion. 
 
 Between the times of Herophilus and Erisistra- 
 tus to Galen, a period of five hundred years, As- 
 CLEPIADES, RUFUS EPHESIUS, and the sensible and 
 elegant writer CELSUS, flourished. The two latter 
 have given the appellations and situations of all the 
 parts of the human, body, in compendia, in which 
 5 
 
. B - xin 
 
 many discoveries appear to have been made from 
 the time of Hippocrates. Neither one nor the 
 other dwelt much on the uses of the parts. Rufus 
 writes Greek in the concise Attic style, and Celsus 
 is the most classical writer that ever appeared in the 
 art of medicine. 
 
 CLAUDIUS GALENUS, or GALEN, was physician to 
 four of the Roman emperors, and was, without excep- 
 tion, the most distinguished practitioner of the age 
 in which he lived. He has arranged all the prior ana- 
 tomical science that Herophilus and Erisistratus had 
 obtained from the actual dissection of human subjects, 
 and incorporated it into his voluminous treatises on 
 all the branches of medicine. The medical principles 
 of this great man, formed on the Peripatetic philo- 
 sophy of Aristotle, are not to the present purpose ; 
 except that they reigned triumphantly in the schools 
 and universities, disdaining and crushing all inno- 
 vators, or improvers, for a period of nearly fifteen 
 hundred years. The celebrated Galen, however, 
 was a man of uncommon erudition ; and he brought 
 into one point of view, with much labour, learning, 
 and industry, all the medical and philosophical sci- 
 ence of his predecessors. The anatomical part was 
 indubitably extracted from the great Herophilus and 
 Erisistratus, and, consequently, in general contains 
 what those Jirst dissectors of human bodies had 
 
XIV 
 
 observed or written. In the works of this eminent 
 physician, anatomy appears very conspicuous and 
 methodical. He gives the situation and uses of all 
 the parts of the human body, whether animal, vital, 
 or natural. What discoveries he made, cannot be 
 ascertained ; but Galen was the first author who 
 seems to have digested, in regular order, the human 
 functions, the brain and its membranes, the senses, 
 the contents of the thorax and abdomen, osteology, 
 a complete myology and neurology, in which are 
 the origin and insertion of the muscles, their action, 
 &c. ; and the distribution of the whole nervous 
 system. The lacteal vessels, likewise, were well 
 known ; though the extent of their effects, their 
 passing through the thoracic duct and subclavian 
 vein, to the blood, were not comprehended. The 
 exhalant arteries and inhalants were mentioned, 
 both by Hippocrates and Galen ; but the principles 
 of action were unknown. The circulation of the 
 blood, the real uses of the liver, glands, heart, dia- 
 phragm, pancreas, kidney, ureters, bladder, uni- 
 versal cellular structure, the power of the nervous 
 system over the arteries and veins, the lymphatic 
 absorbent system, were to him unknown. 
 
 From the time of Galen to the fifteenth century, 
 anatomy was rather on the decline, anatomists being 
 considered learned or ignorant in proportion to 
 
XV 
 
 their knowledge of his works. The destruction of 
 Alexandria introduced learning among the Ara- 
 bians : but they made little progress in the know- 
 ledge of the human body. ABDOLLALIPH, however, 
 towards the close of the twelfth century, exposed 
 many of Galen's errors in osteology, by frequenting 
 burial-grounds. 
 
 Among the early cultivators of the science of 
 anatomy in the fifteenth century, the GREAT VESA- 
 LIUS flourished, who may with propriety be styled 
 the RESTORER OF ANATOMY; being the first who 
 dared expose the errors of Galen, in medicine and 
 anatomy, by referring to the human body. This 
 wonderful man, whose perseverance and genius 
 cannot be sufficiently admired, was born at Brus- 
 sels, in 1514-. After having gone through the usual 
 studies of the age, he went to Montpellier, to study 
 medicine. The principal professors in the univer- 
 sity of Paris requested him to come there, where 
 he attended their lectures. Vesalius's zeal for me- 
 dicine, particularly anatomy, induced him to brave 
 every danger to which he was exposed, by clandes- 
 tinely procuring bodies for dissection. He did not, 
 however, confine his attention to the human subject 
 only, but opened a great number of animals. ID 
 the pursuit of his favourite science, his veneration 
 for Galen diminished in proportion as he detect- 
 
XVI 
 
 ed his inaccuracies; till at length he threw off all 
 control of this great standard of ancient medicine 
 and anatomy, and became the advocate for actual 
 dissection of the human body, to which he con- 
 stantly referred in all his disputations. 
 
 The war which commenced at that time in 
 France, obliging Vesalius to leave Paris, he returned 
 to his own country, and fixed his residence at 
 Lovain. The knowledge he had acquired in ana- 
 tomy induced him to profess it publicly in that 
 city; but, in order to extend his anatomical re- 
 searches, in 153,5, he followed the army of the 
 Emperor Charles the Fifth, against France. His 
 reputation increased. He was chosen professor of 
 anatomy in the university of Padua, by the re- 
 public of Venice, and there gave lectures on medi- 
 cine, particularly anatomy, for seven years. 
 
 In 1539, Vesalius published his anatomical 
 plates, which attracted the admiration of the learn- 
 ed. In this, and in his other works, all the errors 
 of Galen are exposed. A multitude of enemies 
 sprung up against this bold innovator of old esta- 
 blished authority. All Europe resounded with in- 
 vectives against him : Eustachius at Rome, Drian- 
 der at Marpurg, and Sylvius at Paris, became his 
 public enemies, particularly the latter, who em- 
 ployed every species of calumny to lessen him in 
 the esteem of his patrons : instead of Vesalius, he 
 
xvii 
 
 called him Vesanus, or a madman; and accused him 
 of ignorance, arrogance, and impiety. Fallopius was 
 the only one among his opponents who preserved 
 any moderation. Having been a pupil of Vesalius, 
 he never forgot how much he was indebted to his 
 preceptor ; and, although he was far more able than 
 Sylvius to criticise, from having powerful objections 
 to bring forward against the work, he proceeded in 
 the most delicate and respectful manner, influenced 
 by the greatest esteem and gratitude for the assist- 
 ance he had received from his venerable master. 
 Vesalius, on the other hand, acted towards his 
 pupil in the most gentle and honourable manner. 
 As soon as the remarks of Fallopius on his work 
 had reached Spain, Vesalius prepared to answer 
 them, and replied to him as a father would to his 
 son. Fallopius, who has rendered his name dear to 
 posterity by his extensive knowledge in anatomy, 
 possessed sentiments very different from Sylvius ; 
 he was not ashamed of acknowledging his obliga- 
 tions to Vesalius, for the greater part of his inform- 
 ation on anatomy: he admits that Vesalius has not 
 shown sufficient respect to Galen, but confesses that 
 his objections are generally correct. Notwithstand- 
 ing all opposition, the reputation of Vesalius daily 
 increased, and he established anatomy on solid and 
 permanent principles, when the Emperor Charles 
 
XV111 
 
 the Fifth, by whom he had been already honoured, 
 nominated him his first physician, and kept him con- 
 stantly at court. He now gained the confidence of 
 the nobility, and frequently gave unequivocal marks 
 of his profound knowledge in the practice of physic. 
 But an unexpected event soon reduced this great 
 man to distress. Upon the death of a Spanish no- 
 bleman, whom he had attended during life, Vesalius 
 requested permission of the relatives of the deceas- 
 ed to open the body, he being very desirous of in- 
 vestigating the obscure cause of his death; which re- 
 quest was granted. Some of the spectators, who 
 probably were not Vesalius's friends, declared they 
 saw the heart palpitate upon his opening the thorax: 
 their declaration soon reached the ears of the no- 
 bleman's relations, and raised a suspicion that the 
 body was opened alive ; in consequence of which, 
 Vesalius was prosecuted for homicide and impiety, 
 and brought before the Inquisition ; which severe 
 tribunal was about to punish him for the crime, 
 when Philip the Second, of Spain, suggested the 
 means of removing him from the decision of his 
 judges, and caused him to make a pilgrimage to 
 the Holy Land; in consequence of which, Vesalius 
 resolved to make the tour of Palestine. He passed 
 over to Cyprus with James Malateste, a Venetian 
 general, and thence to Jerusalem. Soon after the 
 
XIX 
 
 death of the celebrated Fallopius, which happened 
 in the year 1564, the senate of Venice recalled Ve 
 salius to fill the chair ; but on his voyage to Padua, 
 he was shipwrecked on the island of Zante, where 
 this great man, reduced to the utmost extremity, 
 perished with hunger, on the 15th of October 1564-, 
 at the age of fifty years. It is said that a gold- 
 smith, who landed on that part of the island soon 
 after the accident, caused him to be interred, and 
 an epitaph to be engraven on his tomb in the church 
 of the Virgin Mary in that island. 
 
 The beginning of the seventeenth century is re- 
 markable for the discovery of the most important 
 function of animated bodies, by our countryman 
 HARVEY. This great physician was born of a re- 
 spectable family at Folkstone, in Kent, on the 2d 
 of April 1578. At ten years of age he was sent to 
 a grammar-school at Canterbury, and at fourteen 
 removed to Caius college, Cambridge. At nineteen 
 he travelled through France and Germany to Padua, 
 in Italy, where, having studied physic under Eu- 
 stachius Radius, John Minadous, and Fabricius a'b 
 Aquapendente, by whom he was taught anatomy, 
 he was created doctor of physic and surgery in that 
 university in 1602. Returning soon after to Eng- 
 land, he was incorporated M. D. at Cambridge, 
 went to London to practise, and married. In 1G04, 
 
XX 
 
 he was admitted candidate of the College of Physi- 
 cians in London, and three years afterwards fellow. 
 In 1615, he was appointed lecturer of anatomy and 
 surgery in that college. 
 
 In the year 1632, he was made physician to 
 Charles the First, as he had been before to King 
 James ; and adhering to the royal cause, upon the 
 breaking out of the civil wars, attended His Ma- 
 jesty at the battle of Edgehill, and then at Oxford, 
 where, in 164-2, he was incorporated M. D. In 
 164-5, the King got him elected Warden of Merton 
 College in that University ; but, upon the surren- 
 dering of Oxford the year after to the Parliament, 
 he left that office and retired to London. In 1651, 
 he published his work on the generation of ani- 
 mals ; a book replete with interesting observations, 
 and which would have been more so but for some 
 misfortunes, by which his papers perished during 
 the time of the civil wars. On Michaelmas-day 
 1654, he was chosen President of the College of 
 Physicians in his absence ; and coming there the 
 day after, acknowledged his great obligation to the 
 electors for advancing him to such honour and dig- 
 nity, as if he had been chosen to be " Medicorum 
 omnium apud Anglos, princeps :" but his age and 
 weakness were so great, that he could not discharge 
 the duty incumbent upon that great and distin- 
 
XXI 
 
 guished office ; he therefore requested them to elect 
 Dr. Prujean, who had deserved so well of the Col- 
 lege. As Dr. Harvey had no children, he made 
 the College his heirs, ar>d settled his paternal estate 
 upon them in the July following. He had three 
 years before built them a combination-room, a li- 
 brary, and a museum ; and in 1656 he brought the 
 deeds of his estate, and presented them to the 
 College. He was then present at the first festival 
 instituted by himself to be continued annually, to- 
 gether with a commemoration speech in Latin, to be 
 spoken on the 18th of October, in honour of the 
 benefactors to the College ; having appointed a 
 handsome stipend to the orator, and also to the 
 keeper of the library and museum, which are still 
 called by his name. He died June 3, 1657, and was 
 Carried to be buried at Hemel Hemstead, in Hertford- 
 shire, where a monument is erected to his memory. 
 In the year 1616, Dr. Harvey read a course of 
 lectures, in which he first opened his discovery re- 
 lating to the circulation of the blood, which some 
 judicious anatomists had before only suspected to 
 exist in a vague and confused manner, and which 
 others had only known to take place in some parti- 
 cular part. From this period Harvey demonstrated 
 and taught in his public lectures, and by simple and 
 clear experiments proved to the most incredulous 
 
XX11 
 
 minds, that the blood not only traversed the struc- 
 ture of the lungs, but that it circulated in every 
 part of the body, by means of an admirable ar- 
 raigement, on which depends the life of man. He 
 fully evinced the alternate contraction and dilata- 
 tion of the heart ; the passage of the blood from the 
 two venae cavas into the right auricle, from thence 
 into the right ventricle, arid through the lungs ; its 
 reception into the left auricle from the pulmonary 
 veins, its expulsion thence into the left ventricle, 
 from which it was propelled through all the arteries 
 of the body, and returned by the veins. So clearly 
 were the phenomena of the whole circulation un- 
 derstood, and so admirably explained, by Dr. Har- 
 vey, that, notwithstanding he wrote near two hun- 
 dred years ago, this function has never since been 
 laid down with more truth, simplicity, and ele- 
 gance. 
 
 Soon after the discovery of the circulation of the 
 blood, ASELIUS, an Italian, discovered the lacteals, 
 which PECQUET, in 1651, traced to the thoracic 
 duct, and thence to the left subclavian vein. In 
 1653, RUDBECK and BARTHOLIN discovered the 
 lymphatics : it does not appear that there was any 
 communication between them ; both, therefore, are 
 entitled to equal praise. The latter has, however, 
 additional credit from his having entertained very 
 
XXlll 
 
 accurate ideas of the physiology of the lymphatic 
 system, which was afterwards more fully explained 
 by GLISSON. 
 
 The two last centuries have nearly perfected our 
 knowledge of the human body. Every nation in 
 Europe has produced anatomists of the greatest re- 
 putation. The iiames of ALBINUS, COOPER, DIE- 
 
 MERBROCK, HlGHMORE, CHESELDEN,LEWENHOECK, 
 
 MALPIGHI, MAYOW, RUYSCH, WILLIS, and WINS- 
 LOW, form but a small number of those who have 
 enlightened the science of Anatomy in the seven- 
 teenth century. In the eighteenth) the following are 
 particularly distinguished: HALLER, MORGAGNI, 
 ZYNN, WALTER, SCARPA, SOEMMERING, the MON- 
 ROS, the HUNTERS, CRUICKSHANK, and the BELLS. 
 Fortunately for mankind, Anatomy is now be- 
 come an indispensable branch of medical science ; 
 and throughout Europe we have every where dis- 
 tinguished teachers, who are daily adding to the 
 stock of useful information. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 ANATOHY is a science that explains the structure and use of 
 ever}' part of the human body, both solids and fluids. 
 
 The examination of brute animals, fishes, reptiles, po- 
 lypi, &c. to illustrate more clearly, or to demonstrate by 
 analogy, the structure and functions of man, is called 
 Zovtomy, or Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The human body consists of solids and fluids. The 
 solids are divided into hard and soft : the former compre- 
 hending bones and cartilages; the latter, muscles, nerves, 
 the viscera, and all the soft parts pf the body. 
 
 SOLIDS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Analysis of the solid parts demonstrates their constitu- 
 ent principles to be earthy particle$ y connected together by 
 an intermediate gluten. 
 
 When these principles are joined one to another in a 
 regular series, they form a simple or elementary fibre. 
 
 If a number of fibres be joined together by their breadth, 
 they constitute a lamina, or layer. 
 
 The union of many of these lamince, without any order, 
 forms cellular structure, cellular tissue, more commonly 
 termed cellular membrane. 
 
 A membrane is a compact or condensed cellular structure. 
 
 Thick, strong, and elastic membranes are termed 
 nients. 
 
When cellular structure is distended with a hard, elas* 
 tic, milk-coloured jelly, it forms a cartilage. 
 
 Phosphate of lime deposited in cellular structure, con- 
 stitutes either bony fibres, or lamin<p, which form bone. 
 
 A nerve is a small bundle of fibres, of a pulpy substance, sui 
 generis, called nervous, connected together by cellular tissue. 
 
 The brain is composed of this nervous substance. 
 
 Muscles consist of fibres formed of a peculiar substance, 
 nerves and vessels. Tendons are the beginnings or ends of 
 muscles, of a silver glistening colour. 
 
 Blood-vessels and absorbents are hollow canals, formed of 
 membranes, nervous and muscular fibres, and cellular tissue. 
 
 Glands are composed simply of vessels, nerves, and cel- 
 lular structure; or a. peculiar substance. 
 
 A viscus is a term given to any part which performs a de- 
 terminate office, as the lungs, the liver, intestines, the skin, 
 glands, &c. &c. The viscera are composed of a peculiar sub- 
 stance which distinguishes the organ, blood-vessels, nerves, 
 and cellular tissue. 
 
 FLUIDS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 These consist of the chyle, blood, and various Jiumour* 
 separated from the blood. See Hygrology. 
 
 The science of Anatomy comprehends, and is divided into, 
 
 Osteology, 
 
 
 Bones. 
 
 Syndesmology, 
 
 B 
 
 Ligaments. 
 
 Myology, 
 
 .- 
 
 Muscles, 
 
 Bursalogy, 
 
 O 
 
 Bursae Mucosae. 
 
 Angiology, 
 
 'T< 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Neurology, 
 
 i 
 
 Nerves. 
 
 Adenology, 
 
 T3 
 
 fe ' 
 
 Glands. 
 
 Splanchnology, 
 
 O 
 
 Viscera. 
 
 Hygrology, 
 
 
 Fluids. 
 
3 
 
 OSTEOLOGY ,- 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE BONES. 
 
 BgNES are hard, compact, inflexible, and insensible sub- 
 stances, composed of earth and gluten. They support and 
 form the stature of the body, defend its viscera, and give 
 adhesion to its muscles. 
 
 In order to demonstrate the earth and gluten of bones, it 
 is only necessary to calcine them, and expose a dried 
 bone to the action of dilute acids. The earth which 
 remains after calcination, is phosphate, and a little car- 
 bonate, of lime. The gluten into which the bone i. 
 converted by macerating in dilute acids, is gelatin. 
 
 The SUBSTANCE of bones is of three kinds : compact, as in 
 the bodies of the long- bones ; spongy, as in the extremities of 
 the long bones ; and reticular, which is also called the cancelli 
 of bones, as in the cavities of bones which have marrow. 
 
 Take a thigh-bone, macerate it well, make a perpendicu- 
 lar section, and you will observe the three, substances 
 of bones : the compact is seen forming its external part 
 and body, the spongy at the extremities, and the reti- 
 culated in its cavity. 
 
 The compact substance is formed of many laminae/ or 
 plates, composing a firm hard substance. These lami- 
 nae are easily distinguishable in bones that have been 
 partly exposed to calcination, or boiled for any length 
 of time in a strong alkaline ley, or steeped in very di- 
 lute muriatic acid. In man, and in other living ani- 
 mals, these laminse mostly separate on exposure to air, 
 and are called in surgery exfoliations. 
 
 The fibres of the spongy and reticulated substances are 
 extremely varied in their direction ; and some variety 
 occurs in this respect in the compact substance: thus, 
 in flat bones, as those of the head, they are disposed in 
 the form of rays, and are seen converging from the cir- 
 cumference to the centre ; in the cylindrical bones they 
 seem to be placed in parallel directions. 
 
4 
 
 To exhibit the above circumstances, and demonstrate the 
 direction of the bony fibres, select 
 
 i s"t, The parietal bones of a foetus ; macerate the soft 
 parts away, and preserve the bones in spirits : thus, 
 they will exhibit, very beautifully, the radiated dire- 
 tion of the fibres. 
 
 zd, A portion of the adult femur from the body of the 
 bone 5 macerate it, after depriving 1 it of its soft parts, in 
 very dilute muriatic acid, and then separate with forceps, 
 the laminae : this will exhibit the laminae of bones. 
 
 3d, The os femoris of a foetus, slink calf, or a pig ; ma- 
 cerate it, and keep it in spirit, or dry it and put it into 
 spirit of turpentine, to show the parallel direction of 
 the bony fibres. 
 
 COLOUR. This differs according to the proportions of 
 earth or blood entering their composition : hence, in the adult 
 they are whitest, and reddest in the child, more earth ex- 
 isting in the former, and more blood in the latter. 
 
 COMPOSITION. Besides phosphate and carbonate of Kme, 
 sad gluten, which form the principal part of bone, it is sup- 
 pi ied with blood-vessels, absorbents, and nerves. 
 
 FIGURE. Various, yet they are distinguished, from thetir 
 shape, into broad and flat, long and round, and cylindrical 
 bones. Long and irregular-shaped bones are divided into a 
 body and extremities ; and flat bones into body and margins. 
 
 NAMES. Bones are variously named ; some from their 
 situation, as the frontal, parietal, occipital, nasal, malar. 
 &c. ; others from their figure, as the ethmoid bone, clavicle, 
 os cuboides, naviculare, tibia, &c. ; and some from their 
 use, as the sphaenoid bone, the maxillary bone, the femur, 
 &c. The processes and cavities of bones are named after 
 their figure, as the acetabulum of the os innominatum, the 
 odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra, the cora- 
 coid process of the scapula, &c. ; or from their use, a* the 
 trochanters of the thigh-bone ; or from their situation, as 
 the nasal, palatine, orbitar processes. 
 
If a process be large, and of a spherical shape, it is term- 
 ed sometimes the caput or head: if the head is flattened, it 
 takes the name of condyk. Other processes are termed ma~ 
 toid, or mammillary, from their resemblance to a nippk ; 
 styloid and coracoid, from their similitude to a stiletto, or the 
 beak of a crow ; some sfrinous, which appear like thorns ; 
 others derive their names from their direction, as the fo*- 
 tudinal, perpendicular, horizontal, obliqite, transverse processes. 
 There is a kind of eminence peculiar to bones, called an 
 rpipkysis, which should be distinguished from an apophysis. 
 The latter is nothing more than a process ; but an epiphysis 
 is a port of a bone, connected to that bone by an intervening 
 cartilage ; thus the condyles of the thigh-bone of a child are 
 epiphyses, and are separable from the os femoris. Epiphyees 
 become apophyses as the growth advances. 
 
 Macerate the flesh from the os femoris of a child two yearr 
 old, and suspend it in spirits ; it will show the epiphyses 
 at the superior and inferior extremity. Pigs, lambs, 
 chickens' bones, are also well calculated to show the 
 qnphyses. 
 
 USE. Bones support and give statue to the body, defend 
 its viscera, and give adhesion to its muscles. 
 
 i. Besides giving support and statue, they at the same 
 time form levers, by which we are enabled to move the 
 wtiole or parts of the body in obedience to our will, to re- 
 sist certain powers, and perform the various and multiplied 
 operations of the arts. 
 
 i. In regard of the defence which they afford to parts ; 
 we observe the brain surrounded by a strong case of bone, 
 and the spinal marrow ,wonderfully guarded by vertebne, 
 which at the same time allow of motion : in the chest, the 
 heart and lungs are secure from pressure and common ac- 
 cidents ; and the most important parts of the organs of g- 
 ttf ration are defended by strong bones, 
 
 B \ 
 
3. The eminences of bones enlarge their substance, mul- 
 tiply the different points of adhesion for muscles, and aug- 
 ment their moving power, by removing their attachment 
 from the centre of motion. 
 
 4. Lastly, by the many moveable joints which bones 
 form we are allowed the vast extent of power we enjoy, and 
 fractures, which without them would continually be happen- 
 ing, are prevented : joints also permit of the great extension 
 which bones experience during their growth, 
 
 When the bones are deprived of their soft parts, and 
 hung together in their natural situation by means of wire, 
 the whole is termed an artificial skeleton: but when they 
 are kept together by means of their ligaments, it is called 
 a natural skeleton, 
 
 A Talk of the Bones. 
 
 No. 
 
 !Os frontis i 
 
 Ossa parietalia 2 
 
 Os occipitis i 
 
 Ossa temporalia 2 
 
 Os ethmoides i 
 
 sphsenoides i 
 
 f Ossa maxillaria superiora 2 
 
 jugalia 2 
 
 nasalia 2 
 
 " lachrymalia 2 
 
 palatiua 2 
 
 spongiosa inferiora 2 
 
 Os vomer i 
 
 maxillare inferior . . i 
 
 x-Incisores 8 
 
 I Cuspidati 4 
 
 DenteSy or teeth < Bicuspides 8 
 
 I Molares , 8 
 
 >- Sapientiae 4 
 
 Bone of the tongue, or . . Os hyoides i 
 
 Bones of the internal ear, C Maliei 
 situated within the 
 temporal bone * 
 
 The bones of the face 
 
 Inci 
 
 Ossa orbicularia 
 Stapides . 
 
7 
 
 {Cervical 7 
 
 Dorsal iz 
 
 Lumbar 5 
 
 coccygis * 
 
 rr* a , f Sternum * 
 
 The^m-r {cost* 24 
 
 o LThe pelvis . Ossa innominata * 
 
 55 f Claviculaj z 
 
 r The ** \Scapulae z 
 
 H The arm Ossa humeri . . z 
 
 S f Ulnae z 
 
 The /ore-am | Radii , 
 
 % rOssa navicularia z 
 
 W lunaria. . . z 
 
 * ^ cuneiformia z 
 
 i orbicularia z 
 
 p fQp,ori trapezia.. * 
 
 trapezoides z 
 
 The hand . J magna ... z 
 
 .-i unciformia z 
 
 Metacarpus i o 
 
 Pftalanges z8 
 
 "The thigh Ossa femoris . . z 
 
 *; r Patellae z 
 
 g The^g- i Tibiae z 
 
 ^ | I Fibula?, z 
 
 r"Ossa calcis .... z 
 
 *o H < I astragali . z 
 
 S a f Tarsus . ^ -< cuboides . z 
 
 B I navicularia z 
 
 55 ^ The /oof . . 3 L cuneiformia 6 
 
 | Metatarsus . , 10 
 
 " L ^Phalanges 28 
 
 Sesamoid bones of the tumb and great toe, occasion- \ fi 
 
 ally found / 
 
 The skeleton is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. 
 
 B 4 
 
8 
 
 Of the Head. 
 
 There is great variety in the shape of the heads of in- 
 dividuals. The head of females is more delicate; the inser- 
 tions of the various muscles of the face are not so strongly 
 marked. The crania of different nations also vary : in the 
 generality of Europeans the shape is oblong ; in the Turk 
 and Algerine it is round ; and in the Chinese and Tartar it 
 is broad. The cranium of the African is flattened on the 
 forehead, and the teeth and chin are extended forward. 
 The shape of the head of the Asiatic and American negro 
 also varies considerably from the European. 
 
 Some anatomists have attributed this variety in the cra- 
 nia of different nations to the management of the chil- 
 dren when very young; supposing the head of the 
 Turk to be rounded by an early use of the turban, 
 while that of the Englishman is flattened by the chin- 
 stay. Others are of opinion, that the difference in the 
 shape is not occasioned by any such accidental means, 
 but by natural causes, with which we are as yet un- 
 acquainted. 
 
 The head is divided into the cranium or skull, and face. 
 
 ADULT CRANIUM. 
 
 The shape of the adult cranium is in general spherical, 
 but there is great variety in skulls. The superior part is 
 arched ; in some this arch is greater than in others : ante- 
 riorly it is more or less flattened, posteriorly more or less 
 rounded, but always considerably more convex than on the 
 anterior part : at the sides the cranium is flattened. There 
 are a great number of processes and depressions on the under 
 surface, so as to render it very irregular in its appearance. 
 
 The adult cranium is COMPOSED of eight bones viz. one 
 s frontis, which forms the forehead; two ossa parietafia, 
 situated at the upper part aud sides of the head; two ossa 
 
9 
 
 tentjMrum, placed below the parietal bones ; one occipital, 
 forming the back part of the head; one sphtenoidal, plated 
 m the middle of the basis of the cranium ; and one ethmoid 
 bone, situated behind the root of the nose. 
 
 Upon viewing the superior part of a skull externally, 
 several zigzag lines are observable, called SUTURES : that 
 which extends from one temple across over the head to the 
 other temple, is termed the coronal suture; it unites the 
 frontal bone to the two parietal: that which proceeds from 
 behind one ear upwards, across to the other, is the occipital 
 or LainMoidcU suture ; it unites the occipital bone to the two 
 parietal: and the suture which extends upon the crown of 
 the head, from the lambdoidal to the coronal, uniting the 
 two parietal bones, is called the sagittal. These are some- 
 thne termed the true sutures, to distinguish them from two 
 spurious or squamous, which are found on each side of the 
 rranium, extending from the temple backwards, in the form 
 of an arch, and uniting part of the temporal bone to the pa- 
 rietal. Besides these two sutures, two other portions are to 
 be noticed ; the one belonging to the lambdoidal, the 
 other to the squamous suture, being, in fact, continuations 
 of them: the one is called additamentiim suturce syuainose; 
 the other additcunentutn sutures lambdoidali. There are, some- 
 times, one or more triangular-shaped bones observed in the 
 course of some of the sutures ; these are called ossivuto tri- 
 yuetra, triangularia, or Worniiatta.. 
 
 The chief use which arises from this partition of the cra- 
 nium into so many pieces, seems to be to facilitate the 
 ossification after birth, and to serve, in some measure, 
 to prevent the spreading of fractures from one bone te 
 another. 
 
 The formation of the sutures appears to be the effect of 
 the particular manner in which the bones of the era- 
 
 B 5 
 
10 
 
 wium ossify. They are all more strongly marked on the 
 external surface of the cranium. Towards old age bony 
 matter is often deposited between the bones, so as to 
 cause the sutures to disappear; and sometimes, though 
 seldom, at a very early period. The author has in his 
 collection the cranium of an African negro, whp died 
 before the age of twenty-eight, in which there is no 
 vestige of the true sutures ; and instances are related 
 of the sagittal and coronal sutures being entirely obli- 
 terated in children of only eight years of age. 
 
 Besides these sutures, there are several prominences upon 
 the upper part of the cranium ; two in the frontal bone, one 
 immediately over each eye, between it and the suture; one 
 in the middle of each parietal bone; and one in the middle 
 of the occipital : these point out the centre of ossification of 
 those bones. 
 
 Upon the internal surface of the upper part of the cra- 
 nium there are a number of gi-ooves, in an arborescent form ; 
 these are made by the spinous artery of the dura mater. 
 The sutures are here seen in the form of a line, not dove- 
 tailed, and the whole surface appears more polished than 
 the external. 
 
 The bones forming the upper part of the skull, or, as it 
 is sometimes called, the calvaria, are composed of an exter- 
 nal and an internal table, which are of a compact structure, 
 and of a spongy intervening substance, called the rncditul- 
 Hum or diploe. 
 
 The internal surface of the basis of the cranium is divided 
 naturally into eight considerable depressions, adapted to the 
 lobes of the brain and cerebellum. The two anterior are im- 
 mediately over the orbits, and are separated from each other 
 by an obvious eminence, above the root of the nose, called 
 crlsta gaiit. Immediately before this eminence is a small 
 hole, called the foramen c&cum / and on each side of it are a 
 
 4 
 
11 
 
 number of perforations, which transmit the olfactory nerves 
 into the nose; they are called the foramina cribrosa. Passing 
 backwards, there are two round holes near each other, one 
 going to the bottom of each orbit ; these are for the passage 
 of the optic nerves, and are called foramina optica : beyond 
 these holes there is a small cavity, which will admit the 
 end of one's little finger, surrounded by four processes, two 
 of which are anterior, and two posterior ; these are termed 
 clinaid processes, and the cavity in their middle, which con- 
 tains the pituitary gland, the sella turcica. Under each an- 
 terior clinoid process is a considerable fissure, the foramen 
 Itwejttm orb'dale superius, which communicates with the or- 
 bit, and transmits the third, fourth, the first branch of the 
 fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic ar- 
 tery. Beyond this fissure, proceeding backwards, there is 
 a round and then an oval hole ; the first is the foramen ro- 
 tundum, through which the second branch of the fifth pair 
 of nerves passes ; the other, the foramen ovale, is for the 
 passage of the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
 Contiguous to the foramen ovale is a small hole, the foramen 
 spinosum, through which the spinous artery of the dura 
 mater enters. Between the foramen ovale, and the poste- 
 rior clinoid process, on each side of the sella turcica, 
 there is a considerable ragged aperture, the carotid canal, 
 which is partly filled up with cartilage in the fresh subject, 
 and is for the entrance of the carotid artery, and the exit of 
 the great intercostal nerve. A projecting portion of bone 
 next presents itself, called the petrous portion of the tempo- 
 ral bone ; it has upon its posterior surface an oval opening, 
 the meatus auditorius internus, through which the nerve for 
 the organ of hearing, and the facial nerve, proceed. Im- 
 mediately below this is an irregular oval opening, formed 
 B 6 
 
12 
 
 by the junction of the occipital with the temporal bone ; this 
 is the foramen lacerum in bast cranii: through the anterior 
 part of this opening passes the eighth pair of nerves, and 
 the posterior part transmits the blood from the lateral sinus 
 of the dura mater, whose course is marked by a deep groove 
 leading to the foramen lacerum, into the jugular vein. The 
 portion of bone which proceeds backwards from the posterior 
 clinoid processes, between the petrous portions of the tem- 
 poral bone, is the cuneiform or basilary process of the occi- 
 pital bone ; it is somewhat hollowed for the reception of the 
 medulla oblongata, which lies upon it. At the bottom of 
 this process of bone is a considerable opening, called the 
 foramen magnum occipitale; it transmits the spinal marrow, 
 the vertebral arteries, and the accessory nerves of Willis ; 
 and a process of the second vertebra of the neck lies in its 
 anterior part. Between this opening, and the foramen lace- 
 rum in basi cranii, is the foramen condyloidewm antei-ms, 
 which gives passage to the ninth, or lingual pair of nerves. 
 Beyond the great occipital foramen is a crucial eminertce, to 
 which processes of the dura mater are attached ; the hori- 
 zontal eminence separates the two superior occipital cavities 
 from the two inferior. 
 
 The skull is divided into calvaria and basis. The calvaria 
 comprehends all that portion situated anteriorly, about 
 an inch above the nose, and half an inch above the 
 orbits; laterally above the semicircular ridge of the 
 parietal bones; and posteriorly about an inch above 
 the occipital tubercle. The calvaria is the part which 
 is sawed off, to examine the brain after death. The ope- 
 ration of trepanning may be performed on any part of 
 the calvaria, avoiding, if possible, that part which lies, 
 over the sinuses of the dura mater. 
 
 The diastasis, or separation, and often the absorption, of 
 the bones of the calvaria, are frequently the conse- 
 quences of an accumulation of water within the skull. 
 
13 
 
 FCET4L CRANIUM. 
 
 The bones of the skull of a foetus at birth, are far more 
 numerous than those of an adult ; for many of the processes 
 of the latter are epiphyses in the former ; thus the occipital 
 bone consists of four portions, the sphaenoidal of three, &c. 
 There are no sutures in the cranium of the foetus. The pa- 
 rietal bones and the frontal bones do not coalesce until the 
 third year, so that before that period there is an obvious in- 
 terstice, commonly called mould, and scientifically the /</- 
 tanelf or fans pidsatilis. There is also a lesser space, occa- 
 sionally, between the occipital and parietal bones, termed 
 the posterior fontand. These spaces between the bones are 
 filled up by the dura mater, and the external integuments, 
 so that, during birth, the size of the head may be lessened; 
 for at that time the bones of the head, upon the superior 
 part, are not only pressed nearer to each other, but they 
 frequently lap one over another, to diminish -the size during; 
 the passage of the head through the pelvis. 
 
 in the bones of the foetal cranium, the fibres are seen di- 
 verging from a central point of ossification towards 
 the circumference, and each bone appears to be com- 
 posed of a single lamina; so that ossification is going 
 011 from a considerable number of points at the same 
 time, and the bones conseqtiently approach each other 
 in the same proportion. After birth the bones acquire 
 greater thickness, and are soon observed to be eom- 
 posed of two laminae of fibres, each of which laminae 
 are connected by the spongy part, called the diploe. 
 These laminae soon form the two tables of the cra- 
 nium; and as the bones join each other, their edgts 
 become mutually indented, so as to form the different 
 eutures, 
 
OS FRONTIS. 
 Os frontale. 
 
 The frontal bone is situated in the anterior part of the 
 skull, forming the forehead and upper part of the orbits ; it 
 is of a semicircular shape, and when detached from the 
 other bones of the cranium, has some resemblance to a 
 cockle-shell. Externally, where it forms the forehead, it is 
 very smooth and convex ; but below, where it assists in 
 forming the orbit, it affords several processes and cavities. 
 The inner and concave surface of this bone is turned to- 
 wards the brain, and in the centre of its inferior part is the 
 ethmoid bone, which is placed at the top of the cavity of 
 the nostrils. It sometimes consists of two portions, in con- 
 sequence of the sagittal suture being continued down 
 through its middle to the nose. This is more frequent in 
 females than in males. 
 
 PROCESSES. Two frontal eminences, which mark the 
 centres of ossification; two frontal tuberosities, which are 
 situated over the frontal sinuses ; two superciliary ridges, 
 or arcJtes, which give origin to the frontal muscles, and 
 whose extremities are called the angular or orbitar processes; 
 behind each external angular process, the. surface of the 
 bone is considerably depressed, for the situation of a part 
 of the temporal muscle; this is called the temporal fossa ; 
 an external frontal spine, called also the nasal process, upon 
 which the ossa nasi rest; an internal frontal spine, to which 
 the dura mater adheres ; and two orbitar plates, which sepa- 
 rate the orbits from the cavity of the cranium. 
 
 CAVITIES. The cerebral cavity, which contains the ante- 
 rior portions of the hemispheres of the brain ; a large 
 notch between the orbitar plates for the situation of the cri- 
 
15 
 
 briform plate of the ethmoid bone ; two frontal or pituitary 
 simtses within the bone, above the root of the nose ; they 
 are always separated by a thin bony partition, and open by 
 two small holes into the nostrils, of which they form a part: 
 two orbitar cavities, in which are two depressions for the 
 situation of the lachrymal gland; a notch in each superci- 
 liary ridge for the trochlea of the superior oblique muscle ; 
 a superciliary foramen, through which passes a small ar- 
 tery from within the cranium, together with a branch of the 
 fifth pair of nerves, to be distributed to the muscles and in- 
 teguments of the forehead ; often a notch only is seen, and 
 sometimes there are two foramina on one side, and one on 
 the other; the anterior orbitar foramen, which affords a 
 passage to a branch of the ophthalmic artery, and a small 
 twig of the fifth pair of nerves into the nose ; this foramen 
 is sometimes formed by the junction of the ethmoid bone 
 with the frontal ; the posterior orbitar foramen, which is 
 smaller than the former, and deeper in the orbit ; a de- 
 pression, behind the middle of the superciliary ridge, for 
 the situation of the lachrymal gland; the foramen caecum, 
 situated below the beginning of the internal frontal spine ; 
 slight furrows and ridges on the orbitar processes occa- 
 sioned by the convolutions of the brain. 
 
 CONNEXION. The frontal bone is connected with the two 
 parietal, by means of the coronal suture ; with the two ossa 
 nasi, the two superior maxillary bones, and the two lachry- 
 mal bones, by means of what is called the transverse suture; 
 with the sphaenoid bone by means of harmony, called har- 
 monia sjihcenoidalis ; with the ethmoid bone by harmonia eth- 
 tnoidalis; and with the os jugale by means of suture. 
 
 The USE of the frontal bone is to constitute the forehead 
 pituitary sinuses, part of the orbit, and to contain and de- 
 fend the anterior lobes of the brain. 
 
16 
 
 The frontal bone at birth consists always of two portions. 
 The superciliary arches and orbitar plates are distinctly 
 formed, and sometimes the frontal sinuses. 
 
 When performing the operation of trepanning, the situa- 
 tion of the frontal sinuses, and the longitudinal sinus 
 of the dura mater, should be remembered, and cauti- 
 ously avoided. 
 
 Substances have been forced immediately over the inter- 
 nal angle of the orbit, some way into the skull, and 
 never produced any symptom common to injuries of 
 the brain: when removed, it has been ascertained that 
 these substances vrere in the frontal sin**. 
 
 OSSA PARIETALIA. 
 
 Ossa bregmatis. Ossa xyncifitis. Ossa verticaKa. Ossa verticis. 
 
 The parietal bones are situated one on each side of the 
 superior part of the cranium, and are considerably convex 
 and somewhat quadrangular. Each bone is distinguished 
 into an external and an internal surface, and four angles, viz. 
 the frontal, sphanoidal, called also, the -s/rinous process ; the 
 occipital and mastoid. 
 
 EMU-TENCES and CAVITIES. A semicircular ridge, from 
 which the temporal muscle originates; a number of fur- 
 rows marked by the fibres of the temporal muscle; and the 
 foramen parietal* , which is near the sagittal suture, and 
 transmits an artery and a reii* of the dura mater; in some 
 skulls it is wanting, sometimes there are two on one side- 
 and none on the other. Upon its internal surface are the 
 grooves of the spinous artery; and when the two bones are 
 united, there is a deep cavity extending along the sagittal 
 suture, for the longitudinal sinus of the dura mater. 
 
 Each parietal bone is CONNECTED with its fellow, by 
 means of the sagittal suture ; with the frontal bone by the 
 coronal suture; with the occipital by the lambdoidal suture;. 
 and with the temporal by the squamous suture. 
 
17 
 
 The USE of these bones is, to form the superior pan of 
 the cranium. 
 
 The parietal bone, at birth, consists of one portion, and 
 partakes of the shape of the adult bone. It shows, very 
 beautifully, the radiated bony fibres, and the centre of 
 ossification. 
 
 The situation of the parittal foramen should not be for- 
 gotten ; for, when the artery which passes through it i* 
 divided, it sometimes bleeds very profusely, and being- 
 imbedded, and somewhat retracted in the foramen, 
 cannot be secured by a ligature. Instances, it is said, 
 have occurred, where blood has collected from this 
 cause between the dura mater and cranium. 
 
 A considerable depression is sometimes found in the inter- 
 nal surface of these bones, near the longitudinal sinus ; 
 it is in consequence of the pressure of a protruding por- 
 tion of the sinus, or of the external Pacchionian glands, 
 by which absorption of the bone takes place. 
 
 The connexion of the parietal bones with the frontal, is 
 well worthy of attention. In the middle of the coronal 
 suture, where the os frontis, from its size and flatness, 
 is the most in danger of being injured, it rests upon 
 the arch formed by the parietal bones ; whereas, at the 
 sides the parietal bones rest upon the os frontis, be- 
 cause the same arch is there in the greatest danger 
 from pressure. 
 
 OS OCCIPITIS. 
 Os basilare. Os memor'uz. Os nervosum. 
 
 The occipital bone is situated in the posterior part of the 
 head, and is somewhat of a quadrate oblong shape. The ex- 
 ternal surface of the occipital bone is convex, and very irre- 
 gular, serving for the attachment of several muscles ; the 
 inferior portion of the bone is stretched forwards like a 
 wedge, and at the base of this projecting portion are two 
 eondyles, which serve for the articulation of the head with 
 the first vertebra of the necK. 
 
18 
 
 PROCESSES. Upon ttte external surface. 
 bercle, in the middle of the bone to which the ligamentura 
 nuchae adheres ; a transverse spine, proceeding from each 
 side of the tubercle, to which the trapezius and complexus 
 muscles are attached ; a lesser transverse spine, below the 
 former v , for the insertion of the recti muscles; a. prominent 
 ridge, running downwards from the occipital tubercle, and 
 forming, with the above-mentioned ridges, a crucial spine, 
 the cuneiform, or basilary process, situated before the great 
 foramen upon which the basilary artery and the medulla 
 oblongata lie ; two condyloid processes, or condyles, which 
 are united to the first vertebra of the neck ; small eleva- 
 tions, about the foramen magnum, for the insertion of liga- 
 ments, by which the head is attached to the vertebrae of the 
 ueck : there is also a roughness round the roots of the con- 
 dyles, for the attachment of their capsular ligaments. 
 
 Upon tJte internal surface. An internal o'ucial spine : the su- 
 perior branch gives adhesion to the longitudinal sinus of 
 the dura' mater, the two lateral to the lateral sinuses, and 
 the inferior to the septum cercbelli. 
 
 CAVITIES. The foramen magnum occipitale, through 
 which the spinal marrow proceeds into the spine, and the 
 vertebral arteries and accessory spinal nerves into the cra- 
 nium ; two anterior condyloid foramina, for the passage of 
 the lingual pair of nerves ; two posterior condyloid foramina 
 (which are sometimes wanting), for the passage of the occi- 
 pital vein into the lateral sinus ; two notches, which, with 
 two corresponding notches of the temporal bones, form the 
 foramina lacera in lasi cranii, for the passage of the blood 
 from the lateral sinuses into the jugular vein, and the exit 
 of the par vagura ; a considerable groove, leading to the 
 above notches, in which the lateral sinuses are situated. 
 
19 
 
 The internal surface has also four considerable depressions, 
 formed by the crucial sjnne; the two superior contain the 
 posterior lobes of the brain, and the two inferior the two 
 lobes of the cerebellum. 
 
 Man being designed for an erect posture, the foramen 
 magnum occipitale is placed nearly in the middle of the 
 basis of the human cranium, at almost an equal dis- 
 tance from the posterior part of the occiput, and the 
 anterior part of the lower jaw; whereas in quadrupeds 
 it is nearer the back part of the occiput, 
 
 CONNEXION. The occipital bone is connected by the cu- 
 neiform process to the sphaenoid bone, in the adult by syn- 
 ostosis ; hence Professor Simmering describes them as one 
 bone, os occipito-sphanoidale / but in youth by synchondro- 
 sis ; with the two parietal and two temporal bones by the 
 lambdoidal suture ; with the first vertebrae of the neck by 
 ginglymus, and with the second by syndesmosis. 
 
 The USE of the occipital bone is to constitute the poste- 
 rior and inferior part of the cranium; to contain the posterior 
 lobes of the brain, the cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, 
 and to serve for the articulation of the head with the spine. 
 
 If we except the petrous portion of the temporal bone, 
 the occipital will be found much stronger than any 
 other bone of the head. The reason of this, perhaps, is, 
 that it has to defend the cerebellum, the least injury of 
 which proves fatal ; and perhaps, also, because the oc- 
 cipital bone is more liable to fracture, and less defend- 
 ed than the other bones; for, when, we fall forward, the 
 hands naturally protect us ; and if on one side, the 
 shoulders greatly defend the head ; but when a person 
 falls backwards, the hind part of the head comes with 
 considerable force against the earth. 
 
 The occipital bone, at birth, is formed of four portions, 
 joined together by cartilages : one large portion, which 
 forms the hinder part of the head ; no trace of tubercle 
 
20 
 
 nor crucia spine is seen : the cuneiform process ; 
 and two portions between these, forming the side of th 
 foramen magnum, and the attachment with the atkts. 
 
 OS SPH/ENOIDEUM. 
 
 Os tph&noidale. Os multiforme. Os ctmeiforme. Os pterygo- 
 ideum. Os alceforme. Os vespertlliforme. Oa poly- 
 morphon. Os vespiforme. 
 
 The sphaenoidal bone is situated in the middle of the 
 basis of the cranium, extending underneath, from one 
 temple across to the other : its figure is very irregular; and 
 is compared by some to a bat with its wings extended. 
 
 PROCESSES. Two alee majores, whose anterior part forms 
 a portion of the orbit ; the inner surface has lying upon it a 
 portion of the middle lobe of the brain, and the whole exter- 
 nal surface is covered by the temporal muscle. Upon the 
 external surface. Two spinous processes, which are two nar- 
 row points, projecting one behind each foramen spinosum. 
 The sphosnoidal spine, or azygous process, upon which the ba- 
 sis of the vomer lies ; two ptery gold processes, each of which 
 is distinguished into a root, and two extended plates, or 
 wings ; one external, which gives origin on its external sur- 
 face, to the pterygoideus externus muscle, and on its inter- 
 nal surface, to the pterygoideus internus muscle ; and the 
 other internal j two hamular or hook-like processes, one on 
 the end of the internal wing of each pterygoid process, over 
 which the tendon of the circumflexus or tensor palati muscle 
 turns. Upon the internal surface. Two ate minores, which 
 form the upper part of the superior orbital fissures ; four 
 dinoid processes, two anterior and two posterior; the pro* 
 cesstts olivaris lying between and a little behind the anterior 
 dinoid processes. 
 
21 
 
 CAVITIES. The sphsnoidal pituitary sinus, which is in the 
 middle of the bone, has a communication with the nostrils, 
 an J is divided by an intermediate septum ; two pterygoid 
 depressions, one between each greater and lesser wing, for 
 the reception of a part of the palate-bone ; two foramina, 
 each leading to a canal, called the pterygoid or Fiduan canal, 
 in the root of the pterygoid process, through which the re- 
 current or Viduan branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes 
 into the cranium. Internally. The sella turcica, or ephip- 
 pium, which is surrounded by the four clinoid processes, 
 and contains the pituitary gland ; two foramina eptica, one 
 before each anterior clinoid process, which transmit the 
 optic nerves ; two grooves, one on each side of the sella tur- 
 eica, between the anterior and posterior clinoid processes, 
 formed by the pulsation of the carotid arteries; two fora- 
 imna facera arbitaliu superiora, between each greater and 
 lesser wing, through which the third, fourth, first branch 
 of the fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic 
 artery pass out of the cranium ; two foramina rotunda, for 
 the passage of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves; 
 
 two foramina, ovalia, for the third branch of the fifth pair; 
 
 tvfaforanw:a spinosa, through which the spinous artery of 
 the dura mater enters the cranium. 
 
 CONNEXION. The sphaenoid bone is connected with all 
 the bones of the cranium; with the rontal, the ethmoid, 
 the two parietal, and the two temporal by harmony, and 
 with the occipital by synostosis : it is also united to the two 
 ehetik-bones, the two superior maxillary bones, and the two 
 palate-bones by harmony, and to the vomer by gomphosis. 
 
 UsiL The use of this bone is to form the basis of the 
 cranium, to concur in forming the orbits, the pituitary si- 
 nuses of the nose, the temples, and to contain the middle 
 of the brain. 
 
22 
 
 The sphaenoid bone, at birth, consists of five portions 
 joined together by strong cartilages; one in the middle 
 surrounding the pituitary gland, the two alff majores, 
 and the two pterygoid processes. There is no sphae- 
 noidal sinus formed. The clinoid processes and <7/<? 
 minores are cartilaginous. 
 
 OSSA TEMPORALIA. 
 
 Ossa temporunt. 
 
 The temporal bones are of an irregular figure, and are 
 situated at the sides and inferior part of the cranium, con- 
 taining within them the organ of hearing. Each bone is 
 divided into a syuamous portion, which is flat, and forms the 
 squamous suture, and a part of the side of the cranium ; 
 and a petrous portion, sometimes termed the os petrosum, 
 which is very irregular, and is situated in the basis .of the 
 skull ; it is a hard, craggy protuberance, nearly of a trian- 
 gular shape, and surrounds the organ of hearing ; and be- 
 low this petrous portion is a concave angular projecting por- 
 tion, which forms a part of the lambdoidal suture. 
 
 PROCESSES. The zygomatic, which, with a process of the 
 os jugale, forms the zygoma, yoke, or arch of the temples, 
 underneath which the temporal muscle moves, and from 
 whose lower edge several muscles of the face arise, particu- 
 larly the masseter and zygomatic. The mastoid or mammary 
 process, which projects from under the ear, and has inserted 
 into its anterior part, the sterno-cleido-mastoideus muscle ; 
 and into its posterior part the complexus, the obliquus, and 
 trachelo-mastoideus. The styloid process, which is long and 
 pointed, and gives origin to a ligament of the os hyoides, 
 also to the stylo-hyoideus, stylo-pharyngeus, and stylo-glos- 
 sus muscles. The vaginal process, which surrounds the root 
 of the styloid. The auditory process, or outer bony circle of 
 
23 
 
 the auditory passage, to which the membrana tympani and 
 cartilage of the ear are fixed. The pars petrosa on its inter- 
 nal part, with a ridge ou its surface, for the attachment of 
 the tentorium. 
 
 CAVITIES. The meatiu audtioritts extemus, which leads to 
 the cavity of the organ of hearing ; the meatus auditorius 
 internus, which begins on the internal and posterior surface 
 of the petrous portion s and transmits the seventh pair of 
 nerves ; it has immediately within it the internal opening of 
 the aqueduct of Fallopius and other foramina at its bottom 
 for the branches of the portio mollis ; the aqwsductus coch- 
 leae and aqweductus vestibuli situated behind the meatus ; 
 the foramen innominatum seen on the anterior surface of the 
 pars petrosa leading backwards to transmit the Viduan 
 nerve ; the glenoid cavity, between the zygomatic auditory 
 and vaginal processes, which serves for the articulation of 
 the lower jaw, and is separated in the middle by the glenoid 
 fissure, in which the ligament that secures the articula- 
 tion of the lower jaw with this bone is fixed ; a consider- 
 able groove behind the mastoid process, from which the di- 
 gastric muscle arises; the foramen mastoideum, situated at 
 the back of the process, not always to be found, but when 
 present, it either transmits a vein to the lateral sinus, or an 
 artery to the dura mater; theforamex, stylo-mastoideum, so 
 called, from its situation between the styloid and mastoid 
 processes ; it is also called the aqueduct of Fallopius, and 
 transmits the facial nerve; the fossa jugalis, a thimble-like 
 cavity, situated below, and on the fore part of the foramen 
 stylo-mastoideum, the beginning of the internal jugular vein 
 occupies this cavity; the canalis caroticus, which begins be- 
 fore and a little above the jugal fossa; it first runs upwards, 
 and then forwards, forming a kind of elbow, and termiuates 
 
24- 
 
 at the end of the petrous portion. Through this serpentine 
 canal the internal carotid arteries proceed to the brain, and 
 two filaments of the intercostal nerve pass out to form the 
 great intercostal nerve; the Eustachian tube, which rani 
 outwards and backwards in an horizontal direction, until it 
 terminates in the cavity of the ear, called the tympanum; 
 the hiatus Fallopii, a small foramen, situated within the 
 skull, about the middle of the anterior surface of the pe- 
 trous portion ; it receives a twig of the portio dura; a. fur- 
 row, in which a part of the lateral sinus is received. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each temporal bone is united to the parietal 
 by the squamous suture ; with the occipital by the lamb- 
 doidal suture; with the sphaenoid and jugal bones by har- 
 mony, and with the lower jaw by arthrodia. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. The squamous portion consists of two 
 tables and a diploe; the mammary process, of cells which 
 communicate with the cavity of the organ of hearing ; and 
 the petrous portion is very hard and compact. 
 
 USE. To contain the middle lobes of the brain, and the 
 organ of hearing; and to concur in forming the temples arid 
 the basis of the cranium. 
 
 The temporal bone, at birth, consists of three portions : 
 the squamous, the petrous, and a ring-like bone, which 
 surrounds the opening of the tympanum. The last bone 
 is seen completely ossified at the fourth month after 
 impregnation : it is not a ring, though termed annulus 
 osseus, for its ends do not meet. After birth, this por- 
 tion is gradually elongated to form the meatus audito- 
 rius externus. It is within the petrous portion that th 
 organ of hearing is situated, which is perfectly formed 
 at birth. See Ctivity of Hearing. 
 
 Au operation is sometimes performed on the mastoid pro- 
 cess of this bone, to remedy deafness : it consists in 
 removing a portion of the bone by an instrument of 
 the trephine kind, and forming a communication of the 
 
25 
 
 external air through the mastoid cells with the cavity 
 of the tympanum. A much more simple, and perhaps 
 more certain, operation for this purpose, is perforating 
 the membrana tympani. 
 
 OS ETHMOIDEUM. 
 
 Os ethmoidale. Os cribriforme. Os cribrosum. 
 The ethmoid bone is a four-side bone, situated in the 
 anterior part of the basis of the skull, behind the root of 
 the nose, and between the orbits. 
 
 PROCESSES. A cerebral or cribriform plate, which lies hori- 
 zontally above the root of the nose, within the cavity of the 
 cranium : it is every where perforated by a number of small 
 foramina, through which the olfactory nerves pass into the 
 cavity of the nostrils. The crista galli, a process somewhat 
 like a cock's comb, which proceeds upwards from the middle 
 of the cribriform plate, and has attached to it the falciform 
 process of the dura mater. Two orbitar plates, called also 
 ossa plana and plana papyracea, which are very smooth ex- 
 ternally, and form the inner side of the orbits. The septum 
 ethmoidale, nasal plate, azy gous process, or perpendicular la- 
 myia, a considerable process, descending directly under the 
 crista galli, into the cavity of the nose, and forming with 
 the vomer the septum narium. Two cavernous substances, 
 which are curled like a piece of parchment, one on each 
 side of the septum, called improperly the superior turbinated 
 or spongy bones, and concha superiores. 
 
 CAVITIES. A number of cribriform foramimtla, situated 
 on each side of the crista galli. Two foramina orbitalianfisi, 
 one situated in the line of union between the frontal bone 
 and orbitar plate of the ethmoid, for the passage of the nasal 
 branch of the orbital nerve. A number of cells, which 
 c 
 
26 
 
 compose the internal part of the bone, and form the pitui- 
 tary sinuses of the ethmoid bone. 
 
 CONNEXION. The ethmoid bone is united to the os fron- 
 tis, the two nasal bones, the two superior maxillary, the two 
 palatine, the sphaenoid bone, and the vomer, by harmony. 
 
 USE. To form an extensive surface for the organ of smell, 
 and to constitute part of the nose, orbits, and cranium. 
 
 The ethmoid bone, at birth, is mostly cartilaginous ; part 
 of the septum ethmoidale, however, consists of bony 
 matter, and the superior turbinated bones are occasi- 
 onally found ossified. 
 
 Of t7ie Face. 
 
 The bones of the face are fourteen in number, and con- 
 sist of those of the upper and under jaw. The upper jaw is 
 formed of thirteen bones, viz. two superior maxillary, two 
 nasal, two palatine, two jugal or malar, two inferior spongy, 
 two lachrymal, and the vomer, which are united to the cra- 
 nium, and with one another by harmony. The under-jaw 
 consists of one bone. 
 
 There is an obvious line, beginning at the external angle 
 of the orbit, where the frontal bone is united to the cheek- 
 bone, which leads to the inferior opening in the orbit, pro- 
 ceeds upwards to the nose, whose root it crosses, and then 
 traverses the other orbit to the external angle : this is called 
 the transverse suture. The other harmonies of the face are 
 named after the bones which they unite, as the zygomatic, 
 nasal, palatine Jiarmonies, &c. 
 
 OSSA MAX1LLARIA SUPERIORA. 
 
 The superior maxillary bones are two hollow bones, si- 
 tuated in the anterior and middle part of the face, and assist 
 

 27 
 
 in forming the nose, orbit, and palate ; so that their shape 
 i very irregular. 
 
 PROCESSES. The nasal process, which forms the side of 
 the nose. The orbitar process, or plate, which forms part of 
 the orbit. The malar process, by which it is united to the 
 cheek-bone. The alveolar process, in which the teeth are 
 situated. The palate process, which forms the palate. A 
 spine, formed by the union of each palate portion, upon 
 which the vomer rests : a ridge on the internal part, on 
 which the os spongiosum inferms rests : the orbital mar- 
 gin: the tuberosity at the back part of the bone. 
 
 CAVITIES. The antrum maxillare, called also antrum 
 Highmori, and sinus maxillaris pituitarius, in the body of 
 the bone, between the orbital and palate processes ; it has 
 an op*ening into the nostrils. The infra-orbital canal, which 
 opens under the margin of the orbit, and transmits the in- 
 fra-orbital nerve. The lachrymal depression, situated in the 
 superior and internal part of the nasal process, for the situ- 
 ation of the lachrymal sac ; it leads to the canalis nasalis, 
 or ductus ad nasum, which conveys the tears into the nostrils, 
 The posterior palatine foramen, near the last tooth on the 
 inside, for the passage of the alveolar nerve. A notch on the 
 anterior part of the palatine process, which, with the corre- 
 sponding notch of the other superior maxillary bone, forms 
 the foramen palatimtm anticum, or foramen incisivum, which 
 transmits the anterior palatine nerve and artery. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each superior maxillary bone is connected 
 with its fellow, with the os frontis, one os nasi, one lachry- 
 mal bone, the ethmoid, sphaenoid, one os jugale, one pa- 
 latine bone, and one inferior spongy bone, by harmony ; 
 and with the voraer and teeth by gomphosis. 
 
 USE. The use of these bones is to form part of the face, 
 c 2 
 
28 
 
 palate, nose, nostrils, and orbits, and to afford a convenient 
 situation for the organ of mastication. 
 
 The superior maxillary bone, at birth, consists of one 
 portion ; so that every process and cavity can be seen, 
 but not so perfect as in the adult. The alveoli are fewer 
 in number. 
 
 When an abscess forms in the antrum of Highmore, it is 
 necessary to perform an operation, to give an exit to 
 the pus. This consists in perforating the parietes of 
 the cavity, and surgeons mostly employ a species of 
 trocar for this purpose. If the first dens molaris under 
 the affected antrum be in its socket, it is to be drawn, 
 and the trocar thrust through the alveolus into the 
 antrum. 
 
 OSSA MALARUM. 
 
 Ossajugalia. Ossa zygomatica. 
 
 The cheek-bones are situated at the sides of the face, 
 and are nearly of a quadrangular shape. 
 
 PROCESSES. The upper orbilary process, which forms part 
 of the orbit and the sharp edge of the temple. The inferior 
 orbitary process, opposite to the former, and constituting in 
 part the bottom of the orbit and the edge of the cheek. 
 The internal orbitary process, which also forms a part of the 
 orbit. The maxillary process, by which it is joined to the 
 superior maxillary bone. The zygomatic process, which is 
 joined, to the temporal bone, to form the zygoma. 
 
 CONNEXION. The os jugale is united to the frontal, su- 
 perior maxillary, sphaenoid, and temporal bone, by suture. 
 USE. To assist in forming the face and orbits. 
 
 Every part of the jugal bone is formed at birth, but the 
 shape is rather more triangular. 
 
29 
 
 OSSA NASI. 
 Ossa nasalia. 
 
 The bones of the nose are of an oblong and quadran- 
 gular shape, are formed Of a very compact substance, and 
 are placed close to each other in the superior and middle 
 part of the nose, in such a way as to form a strong arch, 
 called the bridge of the nose. 
 
 In each bone may be roticed an external and an internal 
 surface, and four margins. There is always a small foramen 
 in each bone, for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves. 
 
 USE. To form the bridge and external part of the nose. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each bone is connected with its fellow, 
 and the superior maxillary bone, by harmony, and with the 
 frontal and ethmoid by the transverse suture. 
 
 The ossanasi are perfectly formed at birth. 
 
 OSSA LACHRYMALIA. 
 
 Ossa unguis. 
 
 The lachrymal are two flat quadrangular bones, resem- 
 bling somewhat the nail of the finger, situated one in each 
 orbit at the internal angle, and separating the orbit from 
 the nostrils. The surface towards the eye is concave, and 
 has a fossa, or groove, in which the lachrymal sac is situ- 
 ated. The internal surface is convex, and covers some of 
 the ethmoid cells, and part of the nostril. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each bone is connected with the frontal, 
 ethmoid, superior maxillary, and inferior spongy bone, by 
 harmony. 
 
 The USE of these bones is to assist in covering the laby- 
 rinth of the nose, in forming the orbit, and to afford a situ- 
 ation to the lachrymal sac. 
 
so 
 
 They are completely formed at birth. 
 
 These bones are subject to caries fromjistula lachrymal-is. 
 
 The lachrymal bone is perforated obliquely downwards, 
 in the operation for fistula lachrymalis, in order that 
 the tears may be conveyed into the nostrils. 
 
 OSSA SPONGIOSA INFERIORA. 
 Ossa turbmata inferwra, Conctue inferwres. 
 
 The inferior spongy bones are situated in the side and 
 lower part of the nostrils, and are of a spiral and convolut- 
 ed figure. They are concave towards the antrum of High- 
 more, and convex towards the septum nasi. 
 
 USE. To augment the surface of the organ of smelling. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each bone is united with the superior max- 
 illary, the palate, lachrymal, and ethmoid bone, by harmony. 
 
 The inferior spongy bones are subject to caries, and total 
 destruction, from the venereal disease and nasal polypi. 
 
 OSSA PALATINA. 
 
 Ossa palati, 
 
 The palatine bones are extremely irregular in their 
 shape, and are situated in the posterior part of the nose, 
 from which they ascend laterally to the orbits. This irre- 
 gularity of their figure, and their situation being so varied, 
 give rise to their division into palatine, pterygoid, nasal, 
 and orbital portions. 
 
 PROCESSES. The palatal plate, which forms the posterior 
 part of the roof of the mouth. The spinaus process, at the 
 inner edge of the palate-plate, joining the under edge of the 
 xmier. The pterygoid process y which is situated behind the 
 last grinder. The. nasal process, which arises perpendicularly 
 
SI 
 
 from the palate, and covers a part of the antrura of High- 
 more. The orbitary process, which is situated in the orbit. 
 
 CAVITIES. The palatine cells, which communicate with, 
 and form part of, the sphsenoid cells. 
 
 USE. To form the posterior part of the palate, and part 
 of the nose and orbit. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each bone is united to its fellow, the su- 
 perior uiaxillary bone, the sphsenoid, ethmoid, inferior 
 spongy bane, and vomer, by harmony. 
 
 The ossa pakitlna are very perfectly formed at birth, but 
 cannot, without great difficulty, be separated from the 
 surrounding membranes. 
 
 VOMER. 
 
 The vomer is a bone situated perpendicularly between 
 the roof of the mouth and the septum ethmoidale, in the ca- 
 vity of the nostrils, which it divides into two parts. It bears 
 some resemblance to the. ploughshare used in former times. 
 
 USE. To sustain and divide the cavity of the nostrils. 
 
 CONNEXION. Superiorly it is united with the sphsenoid 
 bone by gomphosis, and with the ethmoid by harmony; in- 
 feriorly with the superior maxillary and palatine bones by 
 harmony; anteriorly it is united to the cartilaginous septum 
 tff the nose. 
 
 The vomer, at birth, consists of two distinct lamella, with 
 an intervening cartilage. 
 
 It is not unfrequently destroyed by venereal caries. 
 
 OS MAXILLARE INFERIUS. 
 Mandibula. 
 
 The lower jaw is shaped somewhat like a horse-shoe, 
 and occupies the inferior and anterior part of the face. 
 c 4 
 
32 
 
 PROCESSES. Two condyloid or articulatory processes, 
 which are received into the articulatory cavities of the tem- 
 poral bones. Two coronoid processes, which are sharp- 
 pointed, and give adhesion to the temporal muscles. The 
 alvtolar process, in which the teeth are fixed. The symphysis 
 of the jaw, in the middle of the chin. A ridge on the fore- 
 part of the chin, for the attachment of muscles. Small 
 eminences behind the symphyses for the attachment of the 
 fraenum linguae, and muscles of the throat. The inferior 
 margin, whose ends form the angles of the jaw. 
 
 CAVITIES. A seml'unar notch, between each coronoid and 
 condyloid process. Grooves made by the masseter muscle. 
 The ali'eoli, or cavities in which the teeth are tixel. T\v 
 posterior maxillary foramina, one above each angle, un the 
 inner surface of the jaw, which transmit the lower maxil- 
 lary nerve and artery into a canal in the middle of the bone, 
 called canalis mentalis, which conducts the same artery and 
 nerve to the anterior maxillary foramina, upon the external 
 surface of the bone, one on each side of the chin, from 
 whence the artery and nerve again emerge upon the chin. 
 
 USE. To retain the roots of the teeth in the alveolar 
 margin ; to constitute the inferior segment of the cavity of 
 the mouth,, and to afford a point of adhesion to the muscles 
 of the face, neck, larynx, and tongue. 
 
 CONNEXION. The lower jaw is united to the temporal 
 bones by ginglymus, with the teeth by gomphosis, and with 
 the os hyoides and other parts by syssarcosis. 
 
 JOINT. The ginglymus joint of this bone, with the os 
 temporis, is formed by the large articular cavity of the lat- 
 ter receiving the c;<dyloid process of the lower jaw. In 
 this joint there is a moveable interarticular cartilage, which 
 is very closely connected to the condyloid process and the 
 
33 
 
 articular cavity, by ligaments arising from their edges, and 
 the whole is surrounded by a capsular ligament, fixed to 
 the temporal bone and the neck of the condyle. By the 
 peculiar formation of this joint, the lower jaw has many mo- 
 tions ; thus, when the condyles slide forwards, the lower 
 jaw passes horizontally forwards, as in the action of biting; 
 or the condyles only may be brought forwards, while the 
 rest of the jaw passes backwards, as is the case when the 
 mouth is open. The condyles may also slide alternately 
 backwards and forwards, and vice versa, so that while one 
 condyle advances, the other moves backwards, turning the 
 body of the jaw from side to side, as in grinding the teeth. 
 The principal use of the interarticular cartilages seems to 
 be that of securing the articulation, by adapting themselves 
 to the different inequalities in these several motions of the 
 jaws, and to prevent any injuries from friction. 
 
 The lower jaw, at birth, consists of two pieces, which 
 meet at the symphysis. 
 
 Besides the usual diseases of bones, the author has seen 
 one case of necrosis of this bone, in which the whole of 
 the lower jaw came away at four different times ; and 
 another, where one half came away at one time. The 
 former was under a long-continued salivation ; the lat- 
 ter from an abscess destroying the nutritious artery. 
 Their loss was supplied by a very firm body of bone. 
 
34- 
 
 Of the Cavities formed by the Bones of the 
 Face and Cranium. 
 
 The cavities which are formed by the junction of the 
 bones of the face and cranium are, the orbits, nostrils, 
 mouth, in which are the teeth, the fauces, in the anterior 
 part of which is the os hyoides, and the cavity of hearing, 
 situated in the temporal bone. 
 
 ORBITS. 
 
 The orbits are two conoidal cavities, situated under the 
 forehead, and on each side of the root of the nose. The 
 angles of the orbits are called canthi. 
 
 CAVITIES. A depression for the lachrymal gland; a 
 notch of the orbital trochlea; a depression for the lachrymal 
 sac ; the canalis nasalis, or ductus ad nasum, for the passage 
 of the teare; a superior and inferior, or sphceno-maxillary 
 orbital fissure; the superciliary foramen-, the infra-orbital 
 canal; the foramen nasale, and the optic foramen. 
 
 Seven bones enter into the formation of each of these 
 cavities, viz. the frontal, maxillary, jugal, lachrymal, eth- 
 moid, palatine, and sphaenoid. 
 
 USE. The use of the orbits is to contain and defend 
 the organ of sight and its adjacent parts. 
 
 CAVITY OF THE NOSTRILS. 
 
 The nostrils are two pyramidal cavities, situated under 
 the anterior part of the cranium, in the middle of the face, 
 and covered anteriorly by the nose. 
 
 PROMINENCES. The septum narium; the cavernous sub- 
 stance of the ethmoid bone, improperly called the superior 
 spongy bones ; and the inferior spongy bones. 
 
35 
 
 CAVITIES. Three pair of pituitary sinuses, namely, the 
 frontal, sphaenoid, and maxillary ; the caverns of the eth- 
 moid labyrinth ; the anterior foramina of the nostrils ; 
 the dtictus nasalis; the spJueno-palatine foramina; and the 
 anterior palatine foramina. 
 
 The nostrils are composed of fourteen bones, viz. the 
 frontal, two maxillary, two nasal, two lachrymal, two infe- 
 rior spongy, the sphsenoid, vomer, ethmoid, and two pala- 
 tine bones. 
 
 USE. The use of these cavities is to form a situation for 
 the organ of smelling, and the pituitary membrane of the 
 nostrils, and to serve also for speech and respiration. 
 
 CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 The cavity of the mouth is situated between the upper 
 and under jaw, and is covered laterally and anteriorly in the 
 fresh subject by the cheeks and lips ; posteriorly it is conti- 
 nued into the fauces. The two superior maxillary bones, and 
 the palatine portions of the palate bones, form the superior . 
 part of the mouth, and anteriorly it is closed by the teeth. 
 
 TEETH. ' 
 
 The teeth are hard bones, partly covered with a peculiar 
 substance, called enamel, and fixed one after another in the 
 upper and under jaw, in such a manner, that in the adult 
 there are sixteen. belonging to each. 
 
 Every tooth is divided into a crown, which is covered by 
 the enamel ; a neck, or that part embraced by the gum ; 
 and a root, also called the fang, which is hidden within the 
 socket. There is a. foramen at the fang of each tooth, lead- 
 ing into a cavity for the entrance of the vessels and nerves 
 to the pulps. 
 
 c 6 
 
36 **., 
 
 There are four kinds of teeth : incisores, cuspidati, bwus- 
 pides, and molares. 
 
 The INCISORES are eight in number, four in each jaw ; 
 they are situated in the front of the mouth, and are flat and 
 sharp-edged, so as to cut the food ; the roots or fangs are 
 simple; those of the upper jaw are fixed obliquely back- 
 wards, so that they generally cover a small part of the inci- 
 sors of the under jaw. 
 
 The tooth on each side of the incisors is called CUSPIDA- 
 TUS, or canine; they consequently are four in number. 
 The fang of these teeth is single, and goes a considerable 
 way in the jaw, especially the two of the upper jaw, which 
 were supposed to go to the eye, and are therefore called the 
 eye-teeth. The oral part of the cuspidati is rounded, and 
 their end pointed, as their name implies. 
 
 The BICUSPIDES are eight in number, two being situated 
 next to each cuspidatus ; they appear at both extremities, 
 as if they were formed by the junction of two incisors. 
 
 The MOLARES are twelve in number, and situated three 
 at the extremity of each jaw. The fangs of these are varied; 
 those of the under jaw have two, and those of the upper 
 three. Their oral extremities are full of irregularities, so 
 that they are able to grind the food between them. The 
 two last molares are distinguished by the name of denies 
 sapient'ue; they are always the last that appear, and not un- 
 frequently the first which decay ; their fangs are squeezed, 
 as it were, into one. 
 
 The teeth are fixed in the alveoli of the jaws by gom- 
 phosis, so that each tooth fills up its appropriate socket, 
 which is separated from the next by an intermediate, thin, 
 spongy partition. 
 
 The arteries of the teeth are branches of the internal 
 maxillary ; the veins empty their blood into the internal 
 jugulars. 
 
37 
 
 The nerves of the teeth are from the fifth pair. 
 
 In the four-month's foetus, several pulpy substances are 
 observed in the alveoli, which are the rudiments of the 
 future teeth. These pulpy substances consist of a ge- 
 latinous fluid, which is enclosed by a very vascular cap- 
 sule. As the foetus advances, the pulps become firmer 
 and extremely vascular, and having increased to near 
 the size of the body of t,he tooth, bone is deposited 
 upon their extreme points, which by degrees forms an 
 osseous shell, that extends over the surface of the pulps 
 to the neck of the tooth. After the outer shell of a tooth 
 is formed, bony matter gradually penetrates the greater 
 part of the pulp, so as to form the body and cervix of 
 the tooth : the cavity of the tooth is by degrees filled 
 up, and the part of the pulp is pushed down, so as to 
 form the place of the fang, which soon becomes ossified. 
 
 As the bony substance is formed, the enamel is secreted 
 by the capsule which contains the pulp, and increases 
 in thickness till within a little time before the tooth 
 is about to pass through the gums. 
 
 In proportion as the teeth extend in their sockets, they 
 press upon the capsules, and occasion their absorption. 
 
 In children, soon after birth, a double order of teeth is 
 hidden in their sockets by the gums. The superior pro- 
 trudes through the gums about the seventh month, 
 which is called the cutting of the teeth ; first the inci- 
 sors, then the molares, and, last of all, the cuspidati. 
 These teeth are termed milk, shedding, or primary : 
 they gradually fall out about the seventh year, and are 
 succeeded by the other order, which till now had been 
 concealed in the bottom of the alveoli. 
 
 The teeth are very subject to caries, which may arise 
 from an internal, though it mostly does from an exter- 
 nal cause. 
 
 There are a variety of operations performed on the teeth : 
 extraction and scaling are the chief. 
 
 CAVITY OF THE FAUCES. 
 
 This cavity is situated under the basis of the cranium, 
 within the superior bodies of the vertebrae, and posterior 
 
38 
 
 part of the nostrils. It is composed of ten bones, viz. the 
 occipital, two palatine, the vorne*, the bodies of the three 
 first vertebrae, the os hyoides, and the two temporal bones. 
 
 USE. For the situation of the fauces, larynx, pharynx, 
 and os hyoides. 
 
 OS HYOIDES. 
 Os linguaAe. 
 
 The os hyoides is a bone of a semtlunar shape, situated 
 in the fauces, between the basis of the tongue and the larynx. 
 
 PROMINENCES. Two comua majora, and two cornua 
 minora. 
 
 USE. To serve for the adhesion of the tongue, for de- 
 glutition, and for a point of adhesion to many muscles. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected to the styloid process of 
 the temporal bone, the scapulae, lower jaw, and sternum, by 
 various muscles, and with the larynx by ligament. 
 
 CAVITY OF HEARING. 
 
 This cavity is situated within the petrous portion of the 
 temporal bones, and consists of the meatus auditorius ex- 
 ternus, the cavity of the tympanum, and the labyrinth. 
 
 The meatus auditorius externus is somewhat funnel- 
 shaped, and terminates in a larger cavity, which is the 
 tympanum, and from which it is separated, in the fresh 
 subject, by a membrane. 
 
 The TYMPANUM is an irregular cavity, covered, in the 
 fresh subject, by a membrane : it contains four bones, 
 called ossicula audittis. One is hammer-shaped, and there- 
 fore termed the malleus ; it has a round head, a narrow 
 neck, a manubrium, or handle, and two small processes. 
 Another, formed of two legs, or crura, and a body, is called 
 
39 
 
 the incus. The third resembles a stirrup in miniature, and 
 is therefore named stapes. The fourth is a very small round 
 particle of bone, not larger than the third part of a pin's 
 head ; it is generally found adhering to the long cms of the 
 incus, and is termed os orbiculare. These bones are placed 
 in the following order : the head of the malleus is turned 
 upwards, and its handle rests on the tympanum ; the body 
 of the incus is attached to the head of the malleus; the 
 short eras is attached by ligament to the edge of the mastoid 
 opening, and extends backwards ; the long crus is turned 
 downwards, at the extremity of which the os orbiculare is 
 fixed; the head of the stapes is attached to the os orbicu- 
 lare, and its crura and base lie in ao horizontal direction 
 over the fenestra ovalis. There are many inequalities in the 
 cavity of the tympanum, and the five following foramina : 
 
 i. The opening of the Eustachian tube, situated anteri- 
 orly; 2. A canal, in which the tensor tympani muscle is 
 fixed, which extends from the former opening to the fenestra 
 ovalis ; 3. An oval opening, called fenestra ovalu the stapes 
 is attached to this opening; 4. The fenestra rotunda, which 
 is less than the former; 5. An opening leading to the ma- 
 stoid cells. 
 
 The LABYRINTH is composed of three parts ; the vesti- 
 bulum, cochlea, and semicircular canals. They are placed 
 behind the cavity of the tympanum. 
 
 The VESTIBULUM is an equally rounded cavity, situated 
 between the cochlea and semicircular canals. It has seven 
 openings into it: five of the semicircular canals, the fenestra 
 ovalis, by which it communicates with the tympanum, and 
 an opening into the cochlea, called scala vestibuli, besides 
 many perforations for the transmission of nerves. There are 
 also to be noticed in the vestibulum, a small spinous process, 
 to which the barbula adheres ; and several depressions, cor- 
 
40 
 
 responding with the alveus comraunis, and the ampullise of 
 the membranaceous semicircular canals, which are de- 
 scribed in Splanchnology. 
 
 The COCHLEA has obtained its name from its figure : it 
 has a bony nucleus in the middle, formed of two hollow 
 cones, placed with their points to each other ; one is called 
 modiolus, the other infundibulum , and two spiral windings, 
 like those of a snail's shell : that which opens into the tym- 
 panum, by the fenestra rotunda, is called scala tympani , the 
 other communicates with the vestibule, and is termed scala 
 vestibuli. These scales communicate with one another at the 
 top of the modiolus. The partition between the wings is 
 called the spiral lamina ; it is partly bone, and partly mem- 
 branous. The cochlea is divided into base and apex, or 
 cupola; the base, containing the modiolus, is placed towards 
 the meatus auditorius internus, and its apex, with the in- 
 fundibulum, outwards. 
 
 The SEMICIRCULAR CANALS are three in number : one in- 
 ferior and posterior, one superior and middlemost, and one 
 exterior and foremost. They open into the vestibule, and 
 contain the membranaceous semicircular canals. 
 
 In the foetus the squamous and petrous portions are di- 
 vided by a cartilaginous substance. In consequence 
 of the bony fibres being much more delicate than in 
 the adult bone, very beautiful preparations of the bony 
 organ of hearing can be made by cutting away the sur- 
 rounding parts : thus, 
 
 1. Take the petrous portion of a five-month's foetus, cut 
 away with a scalpel the bone from around the cochlea, 
 which at this period is closed by a firmer lamina of bone 
 than that which surrounds it : and in this way the 
 cochlea will resemble exactly a snail-shell in miniature. 
 
 2. Cut away the surrounding bone from the semicircular 
 canals, and expose the vestibulum, by enlarging the 
 foramen ovale. 
 
41 
 
 3. Make sections of the vestibulum to show its depres- 
 sions, and the openings of the semicircular canals, and 
 the scala vestibuli. 
 
 4. Cut away the bony lamina surrounding the scalse of 
 the cochlea, to show the spiral zone which separates 
 the two scales, and to exhibit the modiolus. 
 
 These are all the circumstances to be noticed in the dry 
 bone, connected with the organ of hearing. The soft parts, 
 which are placed in this cavity, and which form the imme- 
 diate organ of hearing, are considered in Splanchnology . 
 
 Of the Trunk. 
 
 The trunk of the skeleton is divided into the spine, 
 chest, loins, and pelvis. 
 
 SPINE. 
 
 Columna spinalis. Columna vertelralis. Theca vertebrate. 
 Spina dorsi. 
 
 The spine is a long, bony, and cartilaginous hollow co- 
 lumn, extending from the occipital bone of the head, down 
 to the os sacrum, in the posterior part of the trunk. In the 
 neck it projects somewhat forward to support the head, 
 which would otherwise require a greater number of muscles. 
 Through the whole length of the thorax it is carried in a 
 curved direction, backwards, and thus adds considerably to 
 the cavity of the chest. In the loins the spine again pro- 
 jects forwards in a direction with the centre of gravity. 
 
 The spine is formed of twenty-four bones, called VER- 
 TEBRJE, which are very intimately connected together. 
 
 Some anatomists consider the spine as extending from 
 the head to the os coccygis, thereby including the sa- 
 crum and os coccygis, and compare them to two irre- 
 gular pyramids, which are united at their basis in the 
 
42 
 
 loins, -where the last lumbar vertebra joins the sacrum, 
 The bones of the upper pyramid, or what is generally 
 called the spine, are termed true vertebra, whilst the 
 sacrum and os coccygis, which form the lower pyramid, 
 are said to be composed of false vertebra, because they 
 do not resemble the others in every respect. 
 
 . The vertebrae, from their situation with respect to the 
 jieck, back, and loins, are divided into cervical, dorsal, and 
 lumbar ; and each of these classes have particular charac- 
 ters. See Cervical vertebra, &c. 
 
 Each vertebra is diyided into surfaces, margins, a body, 
 processes, and cavities. 
 
 The BODY is the thickest and foremost part, anteriorly 
 convex, and posteriorly concave ; its upper and under sur- 
 faces are somewhat hollowed, and covered with cartilage of 
 a particular nature, called inter vertebral substance. 
 
 PROCESSES. The processes of a vertebra are seven ; two 
 transverse processes, one on each side, and so named from 
 their situation with respect to the spine ; the spinous pro- 
 cess, extending outwards posteriorly: it gives the name of 
 spine to the whole of this bony canal. The four remaining 
 are processes, called oblique, and also articular; they are 
 much smaller than the others, and two are placed on the 
 upper, and two on the lower part of each vertebra, rising 
 from near the base of the transverse processes. These four 
 processes are covered with cartilage, and the two superior of 
 one vertebra are articulated with the two inferior processes 
 of the vertebra above it ; around their edges a roughness is 
 observed, for the attachment of the articulating ligaments. 
 CAVITIES, There is a considerable foramen in each ver- 
 tebra, the anterior part of which is formed by the body, and 
 the posterior by the spiuous process : it is through this fo- 
 ramen the spinal marrow passes. There are also four notches 
 in each vertebra} two on each side, one superior, the other 
 

 43 
 
 inferior. When two vertebrae are put together, the corre- 
 sponding notches form foramina; and it is through these 
 foramina that the spinal nerves pass out, and blood-vessels 
 enter. 
 
 STRUCTURE. There is a considerable difference in the 
 size, density., and firmness of the vertebrae. As they proceed 
 from the head downwards, they gradually become larger, and 
 in proportion as they increase in size, they diminish in den- 
 sity and firmness of texture; so that the lower vertebrae, 
 though larger, are not so heavy, in proportion, as those above 
 them. In consequence of this mode of structure, the size of 
 the vertebrae is increased, without adding to their weight. 
 
 CONNEXION. The first bone of the spine is connected 
 with the occipital bone by ginglymus ; the second vertebra 
 is united with the first by trocJioides, and with the occipital 
 bone by syndesmosis. The bodies of the vertebrae are con- 
 nected with one another by the intervertebral substance ; 
 and posteriorly by a yellow elastic ligament, and by their 
 oblique processes. 
 
 The intet-vcrtebral substance is of a particular nature ; it 
 is compressible like cork : in the foetus it resembles more 
 the structure of ligament, and in the adult it has a great 
 similitude to cartilage. When cut horizontally, it appears 
 to consist of concentral curved fibres. Externally it is firm 
 and hard, internally it becomes thinner and softer, and in 
 the centre it is like mucus. A considerable change takes 
 place in the substance in advanced life, when it becomes 
 shrivelled, and loses, in a great measure, its elasticity, 
 which occasions the decrease in stature, and the stooping 
 forwards. Besides this change in old age, this substance 
 also undergoes a temporary diminution, after the full growth 
 of the subject, from the weight of the body in an erect pos-. 
 
44 
 
 ture ; so that people who have been long standing, or have 
 carried a considerable weight, are found to be shorter than 
 when they have been long in bed : hence we are taller in 
 the morning than at night. 
 
 JOINTS, ist. It is by means of the joint formed by con- 
 dyles of the occipital bone, with the articular cavities of the 
 atlas, that the motion of the head backwards and forwards 
 is performed, as in nodding. This joint is surrounded by 
 capsular ligaments, and is strengthened by several others. 
 
 zd. The trochoid joint, formed by the anterior arch of the 
 atlas moving round the odontoid process of the dentatus, 
 enables the head to rotate, as in moving from side to side : 
 but as the head cannot move sufficiently around the den- 
 tatus, without injuring the medulla spiualis, all the cervical 
 vertebrte likewise concur in this rotary motion, when iu 
 any considerable degree. Strong ligamentous fibres pass 
 from the sides of the odontoid process, over the atlas to the 
 os occipitis, which strengthen the articulation, and limit its 
 motion. The odontoid process is retained in its situation 
 by the transverse ligament of the atlas. 
 
 The USE of the spine is to support the head and trunk, 
 and to contain and defend the spinal marrow. 
 
 The vertebrae, at birth, consist of three parts, connected 
 together by cartilage ; one of these is the body, and 
 the other two the transverse processes. The anterior 
 part of the first vertebra is entirely cartilage. The 
 second vertebra often consists of five and six portions. 
 The spinous processes are all cartilage. 
 
 When aneurism of the aorta is very large, the bodies of 
 the vertebrae are occasionally absorbed, but the inter- 
 vertebral substance remains entire. This is a singular 
 fact, that bone should be sooner absorbed than carti- 
 lage. The same phenomenon takes place in caries 
 from other causes. The spinal marrow is always de- 
 fended in these cases by a deposit of coagulable lymph, 
 

 45 
 
 The spine is subject to caries, distortion, and spina bifida, 
 called also hydrnrackitis. The latter consists of a tu- 
 mour filled with water, which makes its way between 
 the processes of a vertebra, and divides it into 'two. 
 
 CERVICAL VERTEBRA. 
 
 These are seven in number ; their bodies are smaller, 
 and of a firmer texture, than the other vertebrae. The trans- 
 verse processes are short and bifurcated, and there is a fo- 
 ramen in their basis peculiar to them, for the passage of the 
 vertebral artery and vein. The spinous processes are also 
 forked, are shorter than those of the other vertebrae, and 
 are much more inclined downwards. The oblique processes 
 are more deserving of that name than either those of the 
 dorsal or lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 The two first of the cervical vertebrae differ from the rest : 
 the first is called ATLAS ; it has no body nor spinous pro- 
 cesses, but forms an arch, which anteriorly surrounds the 
 dentiform process of the second vertebra. Instead of upper 
 oblique processes, there are two articular sinuses. 
 
 The second vertebra is termed DENTATUS EPISTROPH&US ; 
 and dentata. An odontoid, or dentiform process at the upper 
 part of the body, is peculiar to it. 
 
 DORSAL VERTEBRAE. 
 
 These are twelve in number. They are distinguished by 
 a depression at the sides of their bodies, and a superficial one 
 in the points of the transverse processes, for the attachment 
 of the great and little heads of the ribs. 
 
 The bodies of these vertebrae are more flattened at their 
 sides, more convex before, and more concave behind, than 
 the other bones of the spine : their upper and lower surfaces 
 
46 
 
 are horizontal. The spinous processes are long, flattened 
 at their sides, divided at their upper and back part into sur- 
 faces, by a middle ridge, which is received by a small groove 
 in the inner part of the spinous process, immediately above 
 it, and connected to it by ligament : they are terminated by 
 a kind of round tubercle. The transverse processes are of 
 considerable length and thickness, and are turned obliquely 
 backwards. v * 
 
 LUMBAR VERTEBRAE. 
 
 The lumbar vertebrae are five in number ; they are much 
 larger than the dorsal, and the transverse processes have no 
 depressions. 
 
 THORAX. 
 
 The thorax, or chest, forms the upper part of the trunk. 
 It resembles an arched bony cavity, narrow above, broad 
 below, fiat anteriorly, hollow posteriorly, and convex late- 
 rally. The bones which compose the thorax, are the twelve 
 dorsal vertebrae already described, the sternum, and twenty- 
 four ribs. 
 
 CQST^E. 
 
 The ribs are twenty-four semicircular bones, situated 
 twelve on each side of the chest, and extending obliquely 
 from % the dorsal vertebrae round towards the sternum, to 
 which they are connected by strong cartilages. They are 
 distinguished into seven true ribs on each side, or those 
 whose cartilaginous extremities are affixed to the sternum ; 
 and five spurious or/a&f on each side, whose extremities do 
 not reach the breast-bone. Each rib may be divided into a 
 body, or middle part, two extremities, two margins, and two 
 surfaces. 
 
 The first rib is far the shortest, and is the most curved ; 
 

 47 
 
 it is broader than the other ribs, and placed in a transverse 
 direction, not oblique. The second rib is longer than the 
 first, but shorter than the rest. The other .ten differ chiefly 
 in-their length, which goes on gradually increasing, from the 
 first, or uppermost, to the seventh, or last true rib, from which 
 they gradually diminish to the twelfth. Their obliquity, in 
 respect to the spine, likewise increases as they descend, as 
 does the distance between the. head and angle of each rib, 
 from the first rih to the ninth. The two lowest ribs differ 
 from all the rest, in having no tubercle for the articulation 
 with the transverse processes, and in being much shorter. 
 
 CARTILAGES. The cartilage which unites the anterior 
 extremity of a rib to the sternum, is long, broad, and strong, 
 and in each of the true ribs reaches to the sternum, where 
 its articulation is secured by a capsular ligament- The car- 
 tilages of the sixth and seventh ribs being much longer than 
 the rest, are extended upwards to reach the sternum ; they 
 are usually united to one. The cartilages of the false ribs 
 are supported in a different manner ; they terminate in an 
 acute point before they reach the sternum, the eighth rib be- 
 ing attached by its cartilage to the lower edge of the carti- 
 lage of the seventh, or last, of the true ribs ; the ninth m 
 the same manner to the eighth, and the tenth to the ninth ; 
 the cartilage of each rib being shorter than that of the rib 
 above it. The two last are not fixed at their anterior extre- 
 mities, but hang loosely, supported by ligamentous fibres. 
 
 EMINENCES. The great food, which is connected to the 
 bodies of the dorsal vertebrae ; .the neck ,- the lesser head, 
 which is joined to the transverse processes of the dorsal ver- 
 tebrae ; and the angle formed by a considerable curvature in 
 the rib. 
 
 CAVITIES. A longitudinal groove on the inferior and in- 
 
48 
 
 terior surface of each rib, for the intercostal artery, vein, and 
 nerve. An oval fossa at the anterior edge of each rib, for 
 receiving the cartilage of the sternum. 
 
 CONNEXION. Anteriorly with the sternum, by synchon- 
 drosis, and posteriorly with the bodies and transverse pro- 
 cesses of the dorsal vertebrae, by ginglymus. 
 
 JOINTS. The joints formed by the connexion of the ribs 
 with the vertebrae aud sternum, are of the ginglymus kind, 
 allowing the alternate motions of the ribs, rising and falling, 
 as we draw in and let out our breath. The great head of 
 each rib is hinged in the intervertebral substance, touching 
 two vertebrae ; this joint is surrounded by a capsular liga- 
 ment : the little head which is joined to the transverse pro- 
 cess of a vertebra, is also covered by a capsular ligament ; 
 and this connexion is strengthened by two transverse liga- 
 ments, the one external the other internal. The cartilages 
 of the ribs which join the sternum, are also connected by 
 capsular ligaments, and ligamentous fibres, which expand 
 over the sternum. 
 
 USE. To form the thorax, to serve for respiration, to 
 defend the vital viscera, and to give adhesion to muscles. 
 
 The ribs, at birth, differ very little in substance and form 
 from those of adults. 
 
 .',>,-'* *> 
 STERNUM. 
 Os pectoris- 
 
 The breast-bone is an oblong flat bone, shaped somewhat 
 like a dagger, situated in the anterior part of the thorax, 
 between the true ribs. It is of a very spongy texture, and 
 mostly consists of two, and sometimes of three portions. A 
 sharply-pointed cartilage is attached to the inferior extremity 
 of the sternum, which is named, from its supposed resem- 
 
49 
 
 blance, the rypJioid or ensiform cartilage. It is situated at 
 the pit of the stomach. 
 
 CAVITIES. The jugular sinus, at the superior and inner 
 part. Two clavicular sinuses, for the attachment of the cla- 
 vicles. Seven costal depressions, to which the ribs adhere. 
 
 CONNEXION. The sternum is connected by arthrodia with 
 the clavicle, and with the seven true ribs by synchondrosis. 
 
 USE. To assist in forming the thorax, to give adhesion 
 to the mediastinum, and various muscles, and to serve a a 
 fulcrum for the clavicles to roll on. 
 
 The sternum, at birth, consists of cartilage shaped like 
 the adult sternum, with two, three, or four round ossi- 
 fications in its centre. 
 
 LOINS. 
 
 The bones of the loins are five lumbar vertebrae, which 
 have already been described. 
 
 PELVIS. 
 
 The pelvis, so named from its resemblance (o a basin 
 formerly used by barbers, forms, as it were, the basis of the 
 trunk of the skeleton. It. consists of four bones : two ossa 
 mnominata, the os sacrum, and the os coccygis, which are 
 situated at the bottom of the trunk, and above the lower 
 extremities. It is within the cavity formed by these bones 
 that the internal organs of generation, the urinary bladder, 
 the rectum, and occasionally part of the small intestines, 
 are situated. The pelvis also serves as a firm support to the 
 upper part of the body, and unites the bones of the trunk 
 with those of the lower extremity. 
 
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS. 
 There is considerable difference in regard of the capacious- 
 D 
 
50 
 
 ness of the pelvis in the male and female subject. The os 
 sacrum is shorter in the latter, and broader ; the iliac por- 
 tions of the ossa hmominata are more expanded, whence it 
 happens, that in women the centre of gravity does not fall 
 sp directly on the upper part of the thigh as in men. From 
 these circumstances the brim of the pel vis is nearly of an oval 
 shape, being considerably wider from side to side, than from 
 the symphysis pubis to the os sacrum; whereas in man it is 
 rounder, and every where of less diameter. The inferior 
 opening of the female pelvis is also proportionably larger in 
 the female subject, the ischia being more separated from 
 each other, and the foramen magnum ischii larger; so that 
 where the ischiatic and pubic portions of the ossa innomi- 
 nata are united, they form a greater circle : the os sacrum 
 is also more hollowed though shorter, and the os coccygis 
 more loosely connected, and therefore capable of a greater 
 degree of motion than in men. 
 
 The pelvis is a part very liable to become distorted, espe- 
 cially the female pelvis. The different kinds of distor- 
 tion are fully treated by writers on midwifery. 
 
 OSSA INNOMINATA. 
 
 Ossa ihi. Ossa ischii. Ossa pubis. Ossa coxaiwn. Ossa 
 coxendicis. Ossa anonyma. 
 
 These two bones constitute the sides and anterior part of 
 the pelvis, and are extremely irregular in their shape. 
 
 Each bone is divided into three portions, viz. ILIUM, the 
 uppermost ; ISCHIUM, the lowest ; and PUBIS, the anterior. 
 These are very commonly termed os ilium, os ischium, and 
 os pubis. 
 
 EMINENCES. The crista, or spine, of the ilium, which 
 forms an arch turned somewhat outwards : it gives origin to 
 
51 
 
 the oblique and transverse muscles of the abdomen at its 
 posterior part are two spinous processes, which give adhesion 
 to ligaments at its anterior part are also two spinous pro- 
 cesses ; the superior gives adhesion to the sartorius, tensor 
 vaginae femoris, and Poupart's ligament; the inferior ante- 
 rior spinous process, about an inch below the former, has, 
 arising from it, the rectus femoris. The external surface of 
 the iliac portion is covered by the glutaei muscles ; the inter- 
 nal by the internal iliac. Upon the internal surface there is 
 a line even with the pubis; this is called linea innominata, or 
 rim of the pelvis ; it divides the cavity of the abdomen from 
 the pelvis. Upon the ischiatic portion, or ischium, are the 
 tntberosity of the ischium, upon which we sit; the spinous pro- 
 cess of the ischium, which projects backwards, and gives 
 adhesion to the uppermost sacro-sciatic ligament; the ramus 
 ischiiy which joins the pubis. Upon the pubic portion, or 
 pubis, are the body, near the socket ; the angles, which pass 
 forwards to form the symphysis ; and the ramus, which pro- 
 ceeds downwards to meet the ascending ramus of the ischium. 
 CAVITIES. A notch between the anterior spines of fhe 
 ilium; an anterior and posterior ischiatic notch; the anterior 
 ischiatic notch gives passage to the flexor muscles of the 
 thigh, and the anterior crural vessels and nerves : the pos- 
 terior notch gives exit to the great sciatic nerve, blood- 
 vessels, and pyriform muscle; the acetabulum, which receives 
 the head of theos femoris, and the foramen thyroidenm, or 
 ovale. 
 
 CONNEXION. Each os innominatum is connected with its 
 fellow anteriorly by symphysis, with the sacrum posteriorly 
 by strong cartilages and ligaments, and with the head of 
 the thigh-bone by enarthrosis. 
 
 USE. To form the pelvis, to retain the gravid uterus in. 
 D z 
 
52 
 
 its situation, and to constitute the aeetabulum for the 
 thighs. 
 
 The os innominatum, at birth, and for a long time after, 
 consists of three distinct bones, united together by car- 
 tilage : this probably gave rise to these portions re- 
 ceiving distinct names, as os ilii, os ischii, and os pubu, 
 which in the adult form one bone, without a name, 
 and hence the term os innominatum. The form of the 
 adult pelvis is, nevertheless, perfect in the foetus. 
 
 OS SACRUM. 
 
 Os In turn. Os clunium. 
 
 The os sacrum, which derives its name either from its 
 being ottered in sacrifice by the ancients, or from its sup- 
 porting the organs of generation, which they considered as 
 sacred, is a bone of a triangular shape, bent forwards, and 
 situated at the bottom of the spine and the posterior part of 
 the pelvis. It is by many described as a bone of the spine ; 
 and from the irregularities resembling spinous and trans- 
 verse processes, and its foramina, it seems to have some 
 just claim to be considered as such. 
 
 EMINENCES. Two superior oblique piwcesses ; the appear- 
 ances of the spinous processes; the appearances of the oblique 
 atrd transverse processes ; and the appearances of the verte- 
 bral bodies. 
 
 CAVITIES. Four pair of external, and four pair of inter- 
 nal foramina, for the passage of nerves ; a notch at the infe- 
 rior part of the bone, forming a foramen with that of the os 
 coccygis, for the passage of the last spiral nerve, and five 
 longitudinal middle canals. The spinal canal, of a triangular 
 form, large above, but gradually decreasing in its descent, 
 and terminating in an irregular opening at the back part ; 
 
53 
 
 this, in the fresh subject, is covered with ligament ; it con- 
 tains the cauda equina. 
 
 CONNEXION. Superiorly with the last lumbar vertebra, 
 laterally with the ossa innominata, and inferiorly with the 
 os coccygis. 
 
 USE. To constitute the pelvis, and sustain the spine. 
 
 At birth, this bone is shaped like that of an adult, but 
 this shape is given to it by cartilage. A number of 
 ossified portions are embedded in the cartilage, and the 
 similarity to vertebrae is very conspicuous. 
 
 OS COCCYGIS. 
 
 This bone, so called from its resemblance to a cuckoo's 
 bill, consists very frequently of two, three, or four portions, 
 which are triangular or irregularly shaped ; they are placed 
 at the extremity of the sacrum; after the age of twenty they 
 unite, forming one bone : this takes place earlier in males 
 than females. 
 
 USE. To sustain the rectum, and prevent the rupture of 
 the perinaeum, in parturition. 
 
 The os coccygis, at birth, consists of several portions of 
 cartilage, and a round ossification is occasionally found 
 in the uppermost. 
 
 It sometimes happens, that in labour this bone is sepa- 
 rated from the sacrum. 
 
 Of the superior Extremities. 
 
 The upper extremities hang from the superior part of the 
 sides of the thorax, and are composed of the bones of the 
 shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and hand. 
 D 3 
 
54- 
 
 THE SHOULDER. 
 
 The shoulder consists of two bones, the clavicle and 
 scapula, which are united together immediately over the 
 top of the os brachii, and form, what is properly termed, 
 the shoulder, summitas humeri. 
 
 CLAVICULA. 
 
 Qavis. Ligula. Furcula. Os jugate. 
 
 The clavicle, or collar-bone, is a long- roundish bone, 
 shaped like the letter /, and situated obliquely in the upper 
 and lateral part of the chest. 
 
 PROCESSES. Like all long boneSj it*is distinguished into 
 a body, or middle part, and two extremities, and these are 
 called scapular and sternal: the former is slightly convex, 
 and of a triangular figure ; the latter broader, thinner, and 
 more flattened. A tubercle on the under surface, near the 
 scapular extremity, extends obliquely across the bone, from 
 which a ligament goes across to the coracoid process of the 
 scapula. 
 
 CAVITIES. A furrow, or groove, of the subclavian vessels 
 on the inferior surface. 
 
 CONNEXION. Anteriorly it is articulated to the sternum, 
 and posteriorly to the scapula, by arthrodia. 
 
 JOINTS, i st. The sternal joint of the clavicle is the hinge 
 upon which the whole of the upper extremity moves, and 
 the only joint between the arm and chest, and consequently 
 the round end of the clavicle is continually moving in the 
 articular cavity of the sternum. In this joint is a thin in- 
 terarticular cartilage, fixed around the head of the clavicle ; 
 a strong capsular ligament encloses the whole, and is sur- 
 rounded by numerous ligamentous bands.. 
 
55 
 
 id. The scapular joint of the clavicle is formed by the 
 fiat end of this bone touching the acromion process of the 
 scapula. An interarticular cartilage is occasionally found, 
 but more generally it is wanting. The joint is surrounded 
 by a capsular ligament, which is strengthened by several 
 ligamentous bands. The motion of this joint is very incon- 
 siderable, and restrained by a firm ligament passing from 
 the clavicle to the coracoid process, 
 
 USE. To connect the scapula and humerus to the tho- 
 rax, to defend the subclavian vessels, and to give origin to 
 muscles. It serves also to regulate the motions of the sca- 
 pula, by preventing it from being brought too much for- 
 ward, or carried too far backwards : it is, in fact, the axis 
 on which the whole upper extremity rolls, the scapula serv- 
 ing rather as a socket for the os humeri : hence such ani- 
 mals as make use of their fore-legs, or arms, are furnished 
 with clavicles ; as the ape, bear, bat, mouse, opossum, mole/ 
 squirrel, and hedgehog. 
 
 The clavicle is perfectly formed at birth ; indeed it is 
 completely so at the third month after conception. 
 
 SCAPULA, 
 
 Omoplata. Scoptufa. 
 
 The scapula, or blade-bone, is of a triangular figure, 
 and is situated in the upper and lateral part of the back. 
 Its anterior and internal surface is irregularly concave, from 
 the impression of muscular and tendinous packets ; its pos- 
 terior and external surface is convex, and divided into two 
 unequal parts by a considerable process or spine. 
 
 EMINENCES. The sp' me > which is in the middle of the 
 external surface, arising small from the posterior edge c'f 
 D 4. 
 
56 
 
 the scapula, and becoming gradually higher and broader, 
 as it approaches the anterior part of the scapula, where it 
 terminates in a broad and flat process, called the acromion. 
 The anterior edge of this projection of the spine is concave, 
 and forms a surface of articulation for the clavicle. The tri- 
 angular shape of this bone gives rise to the denomination of 
 angles and sides ; and of the three of the latter, the poste- 
 7-ior one, which is turned towards the vertebrae, is termed 
 the Ixisis. The coracoid process, which stands out opposite to 
 the acrornion, and gives attachment to the pectoralis minor, 
 and coraco-brachialis muscle. The borders of the bone are 
 called costfE, and the corners angles. The circle below the 
 articular cavity is called the neck. 
 
 CAVITIES. The articular, or glenoid cavity, which re- 
 ceives the head of the humerus. A svprtepinal cavity, above 
 the spinous process in which the supraspinatus muscle is 
 lodged. The.infraspinal cavity, situated below the spine, 
 is larger than the other, and gives origin to the infra- 
 pinatus muscle;* a semilunar notch on the superior margin, 
 near its fore part, for the passage of the superior scapulary 
 vessels and nerves. 
 
 CONNEXION. The scapula is united with the clavicle by 
 arthrodia, with the ribs and os hyoides by muscle, and with 
 the humerus by arthrodia. 
 
 JOINTS. The shoulder joint is one of considerable import- 
 ance ; it is loose, moveable, and very free in its motions, It 
 is formed by the large round head of the humerus, and the 
 shallow articular cavity of the scapula, the sides of which are 
 elevated with cartilage. A capsular ligament, large, wide, 
 ad loose, fixed to the neck of the scapula and humerus, 
 surrounds this joint. A considerable quantity of synovia is 
 requisite to lubricate it, and accordingly it is supplied by 
 
57 
 
 several bursse mucosae opening into it, independent of the 
 natural secretion of the capsule : of these bursae we observe 
 one under the tendon of the subscapularis, one under the 
 short head of the biceps, one between the coracoid process 
 and the scapula, and a very large one under the acromion 
 process. The motion of the shoulder-joint is restrained, 
 and the joint rendered more secure by the acromion pro- 
 cess, which projects over it : by the coracoid process be- 
 low : by a strong ligament, which extends from the cora- 
 coid to the acromion process^ by a ligament extending 
 from the acromion to the capsule of the joint : and princi- 
 pally by the action of the four muscles which are inserted 
 into the capsular ligament. 
 
 The shoulder-joint is more liable to luxation than any 
 other in the body ; and this arises from the looseness 
 of its capsuiar ligament, the shallowness of the gle- 
 noid cavity, and great exposure of the upper extremity. 
 The head of the humerus may be dislocated upwards, 
 downwards, or laterally, and the dislocation may be 
 simply the removal of the head of the humerus from 
 the articular cavity, or it may be accompanied by a 
 laceration of the capsule, the head protruding through 
 it ; in which case it is very difficult to reduce : it may 
 also be accompanied by a laceration of the long, head 
 of the biceps muscle, which passes through the joint, 
 and is attached to the side of the cavity. 
 
 USE. To defend the back, and give articulation to the 
 humerufi. 
 
 The scapula, with respect to shape, is ^perfect at birth. 
 The acromiou and coracoid processes are cartilage. 
 
 TH ARM. 
 
 The brachium, or arm, consists of one long bone, the 
 oc brachii. 
 
58 
 
 OS BRACHII. 
 Os brachiate. Os humeri. 
 
 The bone of the arm occupies the space between the 
 junction of the clavicle with the scapula and the fore-arm. 
 It is a long cylindrical bone, thickest at its ends, and dis- 
 tinguished into body and extremities. 
 
 EMINENCES. The head, which is rounded on its superior 
 part. The neck, which is immediately below the head. The 
 greater tubercle, near the neck, on which are three surfaces : 
 the first of these, which is the smallest and uppermost, 
 serves for the insertion of the supraspinatus muscle; the 
 second, or middlemost, for the infraspinatus ; and the 
 third, or lowermost, for the insertion of the teres minor. The 
 lesser tubercle, which is near the former, and has fixed to it 
 the subscapularis. On the inferior extremity are three pro- 
 cesses, namely, an extei~nal and an intwrial condyle ; these 
 condyles have a ridge continued from them upwards on the 
 sides of the bone : from the external ridge and condyle arise 
 the supinator radii longus, and the extensor muscles of the 
 fore-arm, whilst the internal ridge and condyle give origin to 
 the pronator radii teres, and flexors of the fore-arm ; and the 
 trochlea of the humerus, upon which the ulna moves. 
 
 CAVITIES. PL furrow between the tubercles, for the long 
 tendon of the biceps : the edges of this groove are continua- 
 tions of the greater and lesser tubercles, and serve for the 
 attachment of the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and 
 teres major muscles. This furrow in the fresh subject has 
 extending over it a tendinous ligament. A passage is ob- 
 served about the middle of the bone, in the fore and inner 
 part, for the medullary vessels. In the inferior extremity; 
 

 59' 
 
 a posterior fossa, for the anconoid process of the ulna; and'- 
 an anterior depression, for the coronoid process, and end of 
 the radius. 
 
 CONNEXION. The humerus is connected with three 
 bones ; with the scapula by arthrodia, and the cubit and 
 radius by ginglymus. 
 
 USE. To constitute the arm. 
 
 This bone is perfect in its shape at birth, but its extremi- 
 ties are cartilage. 
 
 THE FORE-ARM. 
 
 The fore-arm is composed of two bones, the ulna and 
 radiiis: the first forms the internal and posterior part, and 
 the second the external and anterior part. 
 
 ULNA. 
 
 Fotile majus. Cubitus. Canna major. 
 
 This bone is long, and thicker above than below. It is 
 placed in the inside of the fore-arm, from the elbow towards 
 the little finger. 
 
 EMINENCES. The olecranon, or anconoid process, situated 
 posteriorly, and upon which we lean : it has a considerable 
 tuberosity on its back part, for the insertion of the triceps 
 extensor cubiti. The coronoid process, which is opposite to 
 the former, has a tubercle that gives adhesion to the bra- 
 chialis internus muscle, and has externally a semilunar ca- 
 vity, called the lesser sigmoid, for the head of the radius. 
 In the lower extremity are, the lower Jtead, the neck, and the 
 styloid process, which gives a strong adhesion to the ligament 
 that secures the wrist. The body of the ulna is somewhat 
 triangular ; its external and internal surfaces are flat, and 
 D 6 
 
60 
 
 separated by a sharp angle or edge, which gives adhesion to 
 a strong ligament that connects it with the radius. 
 
 CAVITIES. The greater sigmoid cavity, at the upper end, 
 between the anconoid process and the olecranon. The lesser 
 tigmoid cavity, at the side of the coronoid process in which 
 the rounded sides of the head of the radius play; & foramen, 
 near its upper end, for the entrance of the nutritious vessels. 
 
 CONNEXION. Superiorly with the trochlea of the humerus 
 by arthrodia, inferiorly with the carpus by arthrodia, and with 
 the radius by trochoides, as in prouation and supination. 
 
 USE. To constitute the chief support of the fore-arm. 
 
 The ends of the ulna, at birth, are cartilaginous j the 
 body of the bone is very round. 
 
 RADIUS. 
 
 Manubrium manus. Focile minus. Canna minor. Addtia- 
 menturn ulna. 
 
 The radius, the lesser bone of the two, is long and cy- 
 lindrical, and situated in the external side of the fore-arm, 
 towards the thumb. 
 
 EMINENCES. An upper head, which is small, round, and 
 excavated ; its sides are also rounded, for immediately be- 
 hind this upper head is the neck, at the bottom of which, 
 anteriorly, is a considerable tuberosity, which gives an in- 
 sertion to the biceps flexor cubiti, and the capsular ligament. 
 A ridge, which is posterior, and extends along the body of 
 the bone tor the attachment of the interosseous ligament, 
 which unites it very firmly with the ulna. 
 
 The inferior extremity of the radius is much larger than 
 the upper, and is formed into an oblong articulating cavity, 
 called the glenoid: this extremity is sometimes termed the 
 
61 
 
 inferior head; towards its anterior and convex surface is s 
 remarkable eminence, termed the styloid process of the radius. 
 
 CAVITY. The glenoid cavity at its inferior extremity : it 
 is divided into two by a slight transverse rising. On the an- 
 terior and external surface of the lower extremity, are se- 
 veral grooves, in which the tendons of some of the muscles- 
 of the fore-arm pass. A fossa, on the opposite side to th 
 styloid process, which receives the rounded surface of the 
 ulna; a foramen, about three or four inches from its upper 
 end, for the passage of the medullary vessels. 
 
 JOINTS. The elbow-joint is constituted by three bones ; 
 the inferior extremity of the humerus, and the superior ex- 
 tremities of the radius and ulua, which are inclosed in a li- 
 gaineutous bag, called the capsular ligament, besides which 
 there is a coronary ligament peculiar to the head of the ra- 
 dius, and the joint is strengthened by the two lateral liga- 
 mtuits, a quantity of cellular substance, muscles, and tendons. 
 
 Its motions are like those of an hinge, the radius and 
 ulua bendiug backwards and forwards upon the humerus. 
 The radius has another motion, viz. that of rotation, 
 which it performs upon the ulna. 
 
 The joint is supplied with synovia. 
 
 USE. To assist in forming the fore- arm, and to serve 
 fur flexion, supination, and pronation. 
 
 CONNEXION. The radius is connected to the humerus by 
 ging-li/miui, to the cubit by an interosseous ligament and 
 trwhuides, and to the carpus by arthrodia. 
 
 Both extremities of this bone are epiphyses at birth. 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 The bones of the hand consist of those of the c<*iyut> 
 m-fftacarpus, and finger** 
 
62 
 
 CARPUS. 
 
 The carpus, or wrist, is situated between the fore-arm 
 and metacarpus. It is composed of eight bones, which lie 
 close to one another in a double row, one of which is supe- 
 rior, the other inferior. In the superior row are (from the 
 thumb to the little finger), os scaphoides, or naviculare; os 
 lunare; os cuneifornie; and os orbiculare, or sub-rotundum. 
 In the lower row are os trapezium; os trapezoides; osmagnttm, 
 and os unciforme. 
 
 All of these bones bear some resemblance to the names 
 given to them ; they are extremely difficult, nevertheless, to 
 be known when separated : in general they may be said to 
 have six unequal surfaces each : supposing, therefore, the 
 hand to be laid flat on a table, with the palm downwards, 
 the upper surface of each carpal bone will be that which is 
 towards the back of the hand ; the posterior surface will be 
 that which is nearest to the bones of the fore-arm, and the 
 anterior surface that which is placed towards the fingers ; of 
 the two lateral surfaces, the external one will be that which 
 is nearest to the little finger, and the internal one that 
 which is nearest to the thumb.. The os scaphoides has an 
 oval cavity at its anterior and inner surface, the os lunare 
 has its outer edge in the form of a crescent ; the os cunei- 
 fornie has a convexity for the articulation of the os pisi- 
 forme ; the os pisiforme is the smallest bone of the wrist ; 
 the os trapezium has four unequal edges at its posterior 
 surface ; the os trapezoides is like the former bone, but 
 smaller ; the os magnum is the largest bone of the wrist ; 
 the os unciforme has its unciform process. 
 
 .CONNEXION. The bones of the carpus are united to those 
 of the fore-arm and metacarpus by arthrodia. A capsular 
 
63 
 
 ligament surrounds them, and the joint is strengthened by 
 several others, which proceed in all directions. 
 
 USE. To assist in forming the hand. See Fingers. 
 
 The bones of the carpus, at birth, are for the most part 
 cartilage, but a small round ossification is frequently 
 found in many of them. 
 
 METACARPUS. 
 
 The metacarpus is placed between the carpus and fingers. 
 It consists of five long rounded bones ; one of the thumb, 
 and four metacarpal bones of the fingers. 
 
 The upper extremity of each is termed its base; it is ir- 
 regularly shaped, and somewhat flattened, with a small ca- 
 vity at its end, and a smooth surface laterally, where it is 
 joined to the next bone. The lower extremity is called the 
 Iiead; it is oblong and smooth, and surrounded by a depres- 
 sion, or ring ; and there is a small protuberance for the at- 
 tachment of ligament. 
 
 JOINTS. The wrist may be said to be formed of three 
 sets of articulations or joints. 
 
 The first joint is formed by the os scaphoides and lu- 
 nare, making a ball to be received into the great scaphoid 
 cavity of the radius : by this arrangement the hinge-like 
 motion is allowed. 
 
 The second joint is formed by the round end of the ulna 
 being received into the side excavation of the radius : this 
 permits pronation and supination. 
 
 The third articulation is made by the metacarpal bones 
 being united to the carpal by a series of joints. 
 
 The eight carpal bones which enter into the construction 
 of the wrist, are arranged in two rows, and are connected 
 to each other by capsular and transverse ligaments. A cap- 
 
64- 
 
 sular ligament surrounds the first joint, which incloses, be- 
 sides the end of the radius, the scaphoid and lunated bones ; 
 also a moveable cartilage, which is affixed to the end of the 
 ulna. There is a loose capsular ligament, which surrounds 
 the second joint that is inclosed by the larger capsule. The 
 joints are supplied with synovia, to prevent the effects of 
 friction. 
 
 USE. To form the middle part of the hand. See Fingers. 
 
 The extremities of the metacarpal bones, at birth, are 
 epiphyses. 
 
 D1G1TI MANUS. 
 
 The fingers are situated at the inferior extremity of the 
 metacarpus, and consist of a thumb and four fingers. The 
 thumb has two bones, and each finger three, which are 
 called phalanges, from their being placed in rows. Each 
 bone is broadest at its upper extremity, and formed into a 
 superficial cavity, whose edges are rough for the insertion 
 of ligament : the body, or middle part, is convex externally, 
 and concave before : the lower extremity is rounded, and 
 like a trochlea or pulley. 
 
 JOINTS. The joints of the fingers are formed by a round 
 head and hollow socket, secured by a capsular and lateral 
 ligaments, with a fascia from the tendons. 
 
 USE. The uses of the hand and fingers, as the instru- 
 ments of defence and labour, &c. are so well known, that it 
 Trould seem superfluous to enumerate them ; yet, it may be 
 necessary to observe, that one half has a very obscure mo- 
 tion, and serves as the base for the other, which performs 
 the chief of the motions. The carpus being composed of 
 many small bones, yields a little to our force, and accom- 
 modates itself to the different motions of the hand. The 
 

 metacarpus, by being composed of several bones, enables 
 us to form a hollow in the palm of the hand, whilst the 
 spaces between them serve for the lodgment of muscles. 
 Each finger being composed of three bones, enables us to 
 grasp, and perform several motions which could not be ef- 
 fected were it one bone. Lastly, the general convexity of 
 the bones of the hand strengthens the whole considerably, 
 while the hollow on the inside affords a safe passage to the 
 vessels and nerves. 
 
 Of the inferior Extremities. 
 
 The bones of the lower extremities consist of those of 
 the thigh, leg, and foot. 
 
 THE THIGH. 
 
 The thigh has but one bone, which is by far the largest 
 in the body, the osfemoris, or femur. 
 
 OS FEMORIS. 
 
 The os femoris, so called because it bears the body, is 
 a long cylindrical bone, thickest at its extremities, and situ- 
 ated between the pelvis and leg. 
 
 EMINENCES. The head, which is received into the aceta* 
 bulum of the os innominatum, and has a small dimple in its 
 middle, for the attachment of the round or restraining liga- 
 ment. The neck, upon which the- head stands : it is rough, 
 and gives attachment to the capsular ligament. The great 
 trochanter, which is a large unequal eminence below the 
 ufct-k., for the insertion of the glutaei muscles. The little 
 trochfinter, which receives the psoas and iliacus internus ; a 
 rvugk eminence, between the trochanters on the -back part 
 
66 
 
 of the bone for the insertion of the capsular ligament, and 
 quadratus femoris, another line on the fore part of the bone, 
 extending between the two trochanters, for the insertion of 
 the capsular ligament. The body of this bone is smooth 
 and convex before, and hollow behind, where there is a 
 rough line, called linea aspera: it originates near the tro- 
 chanters, and extends to the lower extremity, where it di- 
 vides, and. terminates in a protuberance behind each con- 
 dyle. On the inferier extremity are the external and the inter- 
 nal condyle, and between them posteriorly a deep notch, for 
 the passage of the great artery, vein, and nerve of the leg. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. Compact on the outside, spongy in the ex- 
 tremities, and cancellated internally. 
 
 CONNEXION. The femur is connected to the acetabulum 
 of the os innominatum by enarthrosis, and to the tibia and 
 patella by gingtymus. 
 
 JOINT. The hip-joint is formed by the acetabulum, the 
 deep hollow cavity of the os innominatum, and the head of 
 the thigh-bone which it receives. The socket is lined by car- 
 tilage, which rises on its edge, so as to deepen its cavity j the 
 notch observed on the dry bone, at the inferior part, has a 
 ligament stretched across it ; the round ligament keeps the 
 head of the thigh-bone down in its socket, and a very strong 
 oapsular ligament surrounds the whole joint. The varied 
 motions of the joint are facilitated by the synovia secreted, 
 particularly by a substance placed within the socket. 
 
 USE. To form part of the lower extremity. 
 
 The thigh-bone, at birth, is of the same shape as the adult 
 femur. Its head is cartilage, its inferior extremity an. 
 epiphysis. The ossification of this bone, as well as of 
 the os brachii, begins a month after conception, and 
 has the same shape at four months as at nine. 
 
67 
 
 A longitudinal section of the adult femur beautifully ex- 
 hibits the three substances of bones, viz. the reticulated, 
 which occupies the medullary cavity ; the spongy, which 
 forms the extremities ; and the compact, of which the 
 sides of the body of the bone are formed. 
 
 THE LEG. 
 
 The leg is that part of the lower extremity between the 
 femur and foot. It consists of three bones ; the tibia 1t fibula t 
 and patella, 
 
 TIBIA. 
 
 The tibia is a long, thick, triangular, and cylindrical 
 bone, much the thickest at its upper extremity, placed be- 
 tween the femur and tarsus in the anterior and inside of the 
 leg. 
 
 EMINENCES. The upper head of the tibia, which is the 
 largest part, formed at the top into two rather concave sur- 
 faces, and divided by an irregular protuberance, for its arti- 
 culation with the condyles of the femur. The tuberosity of 
 the tibia, to which the great ligament of the patella is fixed. 
 The body of the tibia is triangular, and smaller than its ex- 
 tremities : of its three surfaces, the external is slightly hol- 
 lowed by muscles ; the internal is broad and flat, and the 
 posterior is the narrowest, and nearly cylindrical. The an- 
 terior ridge, or angle of the tibia, is called the spine or shin, 
 and the external gives attachment to the interosseous liga- 
 ment. At the lower liead of the tibia there is a considerable 
 process, which forms the inner ankle. 
 
 CAVITIES. Two articular sinuses, in the upper head, for 
 the reception of the coudyles of the femur; an articular ca~ 
 vity, at the side of the head, for the reception of the fibula. 
 A deep cavity at the lower extremity of the bone, which re- 
 ceives, the astragalus of the tarsus 5 a foramen for the en- 
 
68 
 
 trance of the medullary vessels, situated at the back of the 
 bone, a little above its middle ; a surface at each extremity 
 on the outer side, for the articulation of the fibula. 
 
 CONNEXION. The tibia is connected to the femur and 
 patella by ginglymus, to the fibula by syneurosis, and to the 
 astragalus by arthrodia. 
 
 USE. To support the leg, and serve for the flexion of the 
 lower extremity. 
 
 Both extremities of the tibia, in the foetus, are cartilage ; 
 but perfectly shaped like those of the adult. The body 
 of the bone is more rounded. 
 
 This bone is more frequently attacked with venereal nodes 
 than any other, and particularly the anterior part. 
 
 FIBULA. 
 
 The JWula is a longitudinal bone, situated in the outer 
 part of the leg, by the side of the tibia. 
 
 EMINENCES. The head of the fibula, at the upper part ; 
 which is rough and protuberant, and gives attachment ex- 
 ternally to the biceps flexor cruris, and part of the gastro- 
 cnemius internus. The body of the fibula is somewhat tri- 
 angular, and appears as if it were twisted ; it is covered by 
 muscles, and gives attachment to the interosseous ligament; 
 it has a. foramen at its posterior part, for the entrance of 
 medullary vessels. At its lower extremity the bone forms a 
 considerable process, the malleolus .externus, or outer ankle. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected to the tibia by an interos- 
 BCOUJS ligament, and to the astragalus by arthrodia. 
 
 USE. To form a fulcrum for the tibia, and assist in 
 forming the leg. 
 
 The fibula, at birth, is perfectly formed as to shape; it 
 extremities are Cartilaginous. 
 
69 
 
 PATELLA. 
 
 Rotufa. 
 
 The patella, or knee-pan, is a small, triangular, or heart- 
 zhaped spongy bone, situated between the inferior extre- 
 mity of the thigh-bone, and the upper part of the tibia, 
 
 It is thickest at its middle, and gradually becomes thin- 
 ner, until it forms its edge: anteriorly it is convex and 
 rough, for the insertion of muscles and ligament : poste- 
 riorly it is smooth, and divided into two surfaces by a lon- 
 gitudinal line. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected to the condyles of the femur 
 by ginglymus, and with the tibia by syneurosis. 
 
 The patella covers the anterior part of the knee-joint, and 
 is kept in this situation by a strong ligament which 
 every where surrounds it, and adheres both to the tibia 
 and os femoris, forming a part, of the capsule. It is 
 likewise firmly connected with the tibia, by means of a 
 strong tendinous ligament, an inch in breadth, and up- 
 wards of two inches in length, which adheres to th* 
 lower part of the patella, and to the tuberosity at the 
 upper part of the tibia. On account of this connexion 
 it is very properly considered as an appendage to the 
 tibia, which it follows in all its motions, so as to be 
 with it what the oiecranon is to the ulna. There is 
 this difference, however, that the olecranon is a fixed 
 process, whereas the patella is moveable, being capable 
 of sliding from above downwards, and from below up- 
 wards; which motion is essential to the rotation of 
 the leg. 
 
 JOINT. The knee-joint is formed by the condyles of the 
 femur ; the patella, and the tuberosities of the tibia, united 
 by the capsular ligament, the crucial ligaments, the lateral 
 ligaments, and the ligaments of the patella. Two semilunar 
 cartilages are placed on the tibia, forming a more perfect 
 hollow for the reception of the condyles of the femur. Th 
 
70 
 
 joint is plentifully supplied with synovia, and surrounded 
 with very large bursae mucosae. 
 
 The strength of the joint is dependent more on its nume- 
 rous ligaments than the conformation of the bones. Its mo- 
 tions are flexion, extension, and a slight degree of rotation. 
 
 USE. To strengthen the knee-joint, and to serve as a 
 eommon pulley for the extensor muscles of the tibia. 
 
 The knee-pan is always cartilaginous at birth. Ossifica- 
 tion begins at different periods after birth, which de- 
 pends upon the activity of the system. At first the ar- 
 tery -is seen to deposit a few specks of bony matter. It 
 next appears as if the vessel were itself converted into 
 bone ; a complete ring of bone is then observed ; and 
 at length the middle of this annulus is filled with bone, 
 which goes on increasing until the whole is become 
 bone. This process in the patella forms a most beau- 
 tiful series of preparations, especially if injected. For 
 this purpose the knee-pans should be collected at all 
 periods before they are completely ossified ; dried, and 
 put into spirit of turpentine. 
 
 The patella is very frequently fractured. It is never 
 united by callus, which would subject it to be more fre- 
 quently broken ; but an union is effected between the 
 divided portions by means of ligament. 
 
 FOOT. 
 
 The bones of the foot, like those of the hand, are dis- 
 tinguished into three orders ; those of the tarsus, metatar- 
 sus, and toes. 
 
 TARSUS. 
 
 The tarsus, like the carpus, consists of a number of small 
 bones. They are seven in number, and are placed between 
 the leg and metatarsus. Viewed all together, the superior 
 part of the tarsus appears convex and headed, its hinder 
 part forming the heel, its anterior part the back of the foot. 
 Below it is concave, and affords a secure passage for the 
 blood-vessels and nerves. 4 
 
71 
 
 BONES. The seven bones of the tarsus are disposed into 
 two rows. In the fast row are : ist, the astragalus, or up- 
 permost bone. It has a large smooth convex head, flattened 
 at its sides, and surrounded by a depression or groove, by 
 which it is articulated to the tibia and fibula : anteriorly it 
 has a surface of articulation with the os naviculare, and in- 
 feriorly are two surfaces of articulation, separated by a de- 
 pression for its connexion with the os calcis. 
 
 The os calcis, or calcaneum, is the largest bone of the tar- 
 sus, and of a very irregular shape. It is long, and some- 
 what flattened at its sides, and forms the projection of the 
 heel, called its tuberosity, into which the tendo Achillis is 
 fixed. On its upper surface is an irregular prominence, 
 with a narrow groove for its articulation with the astraga- 
 lus. Anteriorly it has a surface of articulation with the os 
 cuboides. On its under surface, which is flattened and eon- 
 cave, are two tubercles that give origin to muscles. There 
 is a groove on its external surface, in which the tendon of 
 the peroneus longus passes. 
 
 In the second row are : ist, the os naviculare , or scapho- 
 ides, situated between the astragalus and ossa cuneiformia 
 at the inside of the foot. Its anterior surface is convex, and 
 has three articulatory surfaces which answer to the cunei- 
 form bones : and there is a tuberosity on its inside, into 
 which the tendon of the tibialis posticus is inserted : 
 z. The os cuboides, which is the outermost bone, is of an 
 irregular shape, and has a protuberance on its under sur- 
 face, between which and the metatarsal bone, the tendon of 
 the peroneus lougus passes: the remaining three bones 
 are called cuneiform, and distinguished into the os eunei- 
 fvrme externum, medium, and internum. 
 
 EMINENCES. The head of the astragalus, and the tube- 
 rosity of the heel. 
 
72 
 
 CONNEXION. The connexion of the bones of the tarsus if 
 -with the tibia and fibula by arthrodia; and with the meta 
 tarsal bones, and also with one another, by amphiartftrosis. 
 
 JOINTS. The ankle-joint is composed of three bones, viz. 
 the lower end of the fibula, the lower end of the tibia, and 
 the astragalus. The astragalus, with its rounded surface, 
 receives the end of the tibia, a part of which descends some 
 way down on the side of the astragalus, forming the inner 
 ankle ; on the opposite side the fibula descends, forming the 
 outer ankle, and by the end of the fibula being confined to 
 that of the tibia by means of ligaments, a hollow is formed 
 for the astragalus. 
 
 This joint is surrounded by a capsular ligament, and is 
 further strengthened by ten dons and fasciae; besides the del- 
 toid ligament, which goes from the inner ankle to the astra- 
 galus, the anterior and perpendicular fibular ligaments, 
 and some others variously placed. The tarsal bones are 
 united to each other by a complex number of ligaments. 
 The joint admits of varied motion, and is supplied with syn- 
 ovia, and surrounding bursae mucosae. 
 USE. To form the basis of the foot, and to serve for its 
 motion. 
 
 The os calcis and the astragalw are become bone at birth ; 
 but the other bones are cartilaginous. 
 
 METATARSUS. 
 
 The metatarsus is situated between the tarsus and toes, 
 and is composed of five longitudinal bones, which form the 
 back and sole of the foot. These agree in their general 
 character with those of the metacarpus, but are longer and 
 thicker : the basis, or posterior extremity of each, is thicker 
 than the other extremity, which is rounded. Their bodies 
 are somewhat triangular. 
 
73 
 
 DIGITI PEDIS. 
 
 The great toe is composed of two, and the other toes of 
 three small bones, called phalanges. The general account of 
 the fingers will apply to the boues of the toes. 
 
 JOINTS. The joints of the toes are something like those 
 of the fingers ; they have their capsular ligaments. 
 
 OSSA SESAMOIDEA. 
 
 The sesamoid bones are of the siae of a small pea, and 
 situated occasionally about the joints of the thumb and 
 great toe. 
 
 COLOUR OF BONES. 
 
 The natural colour of recent boues is various : in the 
 foetus they are of a brownish red; blueish in youth; and 
 white in old age. 
 
 By feeding animals, as pigs, pigeons, rabbits, &c. with 
 madder, the bones become of a beautiful red colour. 
 
 VESSELS AND NERVES OF BONES. 
 
 Bones have always their arteries arising from Contiguous 
 trwaks, and their veins return the blood into those in the 
 neighbourhood. In the larger and cylindrical bones there 
 is a canal for these vessels. The nerves pass in, along with 
 the arteries, from contiguous branches. The absorbents 
 corns out with the veins. 
 
 
CONNEXION OF BONES. 
 
 BONES are connected with one another, so as to admit of 
 motion, and this kind of union rs termed diarthrosis; or so 
 as to admit qf no motion, which is termed synarthrosis ; and 
 when connected with one another by an intervening sub- 
 stance, the union is termed symphysis. Diarthrosis, synar- 
 throsis, and symphysis, are to be considered as the genera 
 only of articulations, each genus comprehending several 
 species, which are arranged as follows : 
 
 Genera. Species. 
 
 f ENARTHROSIS, when the round head of one bone is 
 received into the deep cavity of another, so as to admit 
 of motion in every direction ; as the head of the os fe- 
 moris with the acetabulum of the os innominatum. 
 
 ARTHRODIA, when the round head of a bone is re- 
 ceived into a superficial cavity of another, so as to ad- 
 mit of motion in every direction ; as the head of the 
 
 l< 
 
 humerus with the gleuoid cavity of the scapula. 
 
 GINGLYMUS, when the motion is only flexion and ex- 
 tension: thus the tibia is articulated with the os femo- 
 
 ris ; and the cubit and radius with the os humeri. 
 
 TROCHOIDES, when one bone rotates upon another ; 
 as the first cervical vertebra upon the odontoid process 
 of the second, and the radius upon the ulna or cubit. 
 
 AMPHIARTHKOSIS, when there is motion, buf that 
 very obscure; as the motion of the metacarpal and 
 metatarsal bones. 
 
5/3 
 
 i 
 |< 
 
 I 
 
 75 
 
 Genera. Species. 
 
 SUTURE, when the union is by means of dentiform 
 margins : as in the bones of the cranium ; hence the 
 sagittal, lambdoidal, or occipital, and coronal sutures. 
 
 HARMONY, when the connexion is by means of rough 
 margins, not dentiform ; as in the hones of the face. 
 
 GOMPHOSIS, when one bone is fixed within another, 
 like a nail in a board ; as the teeth in the alveoli of 
 the jaws. 
 
 SCIIINDELYSIS, when one bone is furrowed into ano- 
 ther, as the bones of the septum uarium. 
 
 SYNCHONDROSIS, when a bone is united with another 
 by means of an intervening cartilage j as the vertebrae 
 and bones of the pubis. 
 
 SYSSARCOSIS, when a bone is connected with another 
 by means of an intervening muscle ; as the os hyoute* 
 with the sternum. 
 
 SYNEUROSIS, when a bone is united to another by 
 an intervening membrane ; as the bones of the head 
 of the foetus. 
 
 SYNDESMOSIS, when a bone is connected to another 
 by means of an intervening ligament ; as the radius 
 with the ulna, &c. 
 
 SYNOSTOSIS, when two bones, originally separated, 
 are united to one another by bony matter, as the occi- 
 ^pital bone with the sphaenoid. 
 
76 
 OSTEOGENY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE FORMATION AND GROWTH 
 OF BONES. 
 
 IN what manner bones are first formed, has long been a 
 matter of dispute. Duhamel was of opinion that they were 
 formed from layers of the periosteum, which gradually ossi- 
 fied. This plausible doctrine, taught for many years, was at 
 length opposed by Detleff, who, under the direction of Hal- 
 ler, made many experiments to prove its fallacy. He was of 
 opinion, from repeated observations, that the first rudiments 
 of bone are a glutinous substance, which quickly assumes 
 the consistence of cartilage, and then proceeds more slowly 
 to the firmness of bone. This hypothesis is now abandoned. 
 Modern physiologists are of opinion, that ossification is a spe- 
 cific action of small arteries, by which ossific matter is se- 
 parated from the blood and deposited where it is'required. 
 
 Whilst ossification is goifg on, very little phosphat of 
 lime (a component of ossific matter) can be detected 
 in the urine, to be compared to what exists at other 
 times. In rickets the urine is overchaged with phos- 
 phat of lime. 
 
 The first thing observable in the embryo, where bone is 
 to be formed, is a transparent jelly, which becomes gra- 
 dually firmer, and is formed into cartilage. The cartilage 
 gradually iacreases to a certain size, and, when the process 
 of ossification commences, vanishes as it advances. Carti- 
 lages, previous to the ossification, are solid, and without 
 any cavity ; but when the ossific action of the arteries is 
 about to commence, the absorbents become very active, and 
 
 4 
 
77 
 
 form a small cavity, in which the bony matter is deposited ; 
 bone continues to be separated, and the absorbents model 
 the mass into its required shape. 
 
 The process of ossification is extremely rapid in ntero ; 
 it advances slowly after birth, and is not completed in the 
 human body till about the twentieth year. 
 
 Ossification in the flat bones, as those of the skull, al- 
 ways begins from central points, and the radiated fibres meet 
 the radii of other ossifying points, or edges of the adjoining 
 bone. In these bones the ossific matter is deposited between 
 membranes ; whilst in. some flat bones, as the ossa ilia, the 
 deposition takes place in cartilage. 
 
 In long bones, as those of the arm and leg, the clavicle, 
 metacarpal and metatarsal bones, a central ring is formed in 
 the body of the bone, the head and extremities being carti- 
 lage, in the centre of which ossification afterwards begins. 
 The central ring of the body shoots its bony fibres towards 
 the head and extremities, which extend towards the body of 
 the bone. The head and extremities at length come so close 
 to the body as to be merely separated by a cartilage, which 
 becomes gradually thinner until the twentieth year. 
 
 Thick and round bones, as those of the tarsus, carpus, 
 sternum, and patella, are at first all cartilage ; ossification 
 begins in the centre of each. 
 
 At birth, the bones of the foetus are very imperfect. The 
 extremities and processes of almost all the long bones ape 
 connected to the body of the bone by cartilage. These por- 
 tions of bone are called epiphyses. The cranium has no su- 
 tures ; its bones are connected together by a firm and almost 
 cartilaginous membrane. On the anterior part of the cra- 
 nium, between the parietal bones and the frontal, is a con- 
 siderable membranous space, called the antet ior fontanel> and 
 E 3 
 
78 
 
 a similar, but smaller one, between the parietal bones and 
 the occipital, termed the posterior fontanel. The frontal bona 
 consists of two bones, and the occipital of four. The teeth 
 are partly formed, especially the enamel, and are placed in 
 a double series. The external auditory foramen is surround- 
 ed by a bony circle, in which there is a groove for the at- 
 tachment of the membrana tympani : this circle gradually 
 elongates into the meatus auditorius. The articular cavities 
 of all the bones are much more shallow than in the adult. 
 The os innominatum consists of three bones, the ilium, 
 ischium, and pubis, which are connected together by very 
 firm cartilage. The bodies of the vertebrae and its processes 
 are united by cartilages. 
 
 Mr. Howship has published in the Medico-Chirurgical 
 Transactions a very interesting paper on the growth of bone, 
 as it takes place in the human subject, in quadrupeds, ce- 
 taceous animals, and birds. In these examinations the 
 bones were recent, dried, injected, or calcined. 
 
 The most material facts ascertained by his inquiries are 
 the following : 
 
 i. That ossification in cylindrical bones is not begun by 
 cartilage (which is not then formed), but by the vessels in 
 the periosteum ; although the work is subsequently taken 
 up and completed by the agency of cartilage. 
 
 2,. That the earliest appearance of ossification at the im- 
 perfect ends of the long bones, is that of five thin ossific 
 plates, or tubular spaces, laid parallel to the general axis 
 of the bone, and consequently parallel to each other. 
 
 3. That the surface of ossification (that part of the end 
 of the bone from which, after maceration, the cartilaginous 
 epiphysis loosens and drops off) is now demonstrated to be 
 made up of two series of foramina, a larger and a smaller; 
 
79 
 
 the first occasional, but not essential ; the second indis- 
 pensable ; for, by whatever means the phosphat of lime is 
 evolved, it first appears as a deposit round the external 
 openings of the smaller series, or tubular spaces, upon the 
 ossifying surface. The former series may be seen with the 
 naked eye, the latter can only be discerned by the assist- 
 ance of the microscope. 
 
 4. That those appearances which have occasionally been 
 seen in injected cartilage, and hitherto mistaken for vessels 
 running to and fro in the cartilage, are regularly organized, 
 vascular, and secreting membranes, lining the smooth sidee 
 of spacious canals, containing a peculiar glairy fluid, ne- 
 cessary whenever the ossific fabric is required to be brought 
 rapidly forward, passing down to the surface of ossification, 
 and continuous with the larger series of foramina upon that 
 surface. 
 
 5. That although, under some circumstances, there is 
 the appearance of laminae, the ultimate texture of bone, as 
 well as that of cartilage, is reticular* 
 
 6. That the principal instrument with which nature ap- 
 pears to operate in changing the internal structure in the 
 progressive growth of bone, is the most simple that can be 
 imagined, being nothing more than the pressure from the 
 natural contents, the fluid secretions, deposited or deter- 
 mined here or there, according to the varying progress re- 
 quired in the work an opinion that will appear by no 
 means improbable to those who will for a moment consider 
 the general iucompressibility of fluids. 
 
80 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF BONES. 
 
 The bones, like other parts of the body, are subject to 
 diseases in which no alteration of structure is perceived. 
 Those which the anatomist occasionally observes are inflam- 
 mation, suppuration, necrosis, morbid thickness, morbid 
 thinness, mollities, hyperostosis, rachitis, exostosis, absorp- 
 tion, preternatural joints, diastasis, anchylosis, fracture, fis- 
 sure, tophus, sarcostosis, caries, spma ventosa, and fragility. 
 
 Inflammation. Bones are supplied with arteries, veins, ab- 
 sorbents, and nerves ; and when inflammation takes place, 
 there is a greater number of vessels perceived carrying red 
 blood than in a heulthy state ; this diseased appearance is 
 common in the bone lying immediately under old ulcers. 
 When inflammation attacks the internal structure of bones, 
 and produces suppuration, it forms the spina ventosa. 
 
 Suppuration. Abscesses in bones are not very frequent. 
 They are often attacked with caries, and form the spina 
 ventosa : but it sometimes happens that the absorbents re- 
 more a cousiderable portion of bone while pus is deposited ; 
 and, in these cases, the abscess is lined by a thick coat of 
 roagulable lymph: -this occurs most frequently in scrofu- 
 lous caries of the vertebra?. 
 
 Necros'is. This disease consists in a considerable portion 
 of bone losing its vitality, and the neighbouring vessels 
 taking on the ossiftc action, and depositing a cousiderable 
 quantity of new bone to supply its place. In most of these 
 cases the dead bone is not protruded until a new one is 
 formed. Necrosis happens most frequently in the cylindrical 
 banes, as the humerus, tibia, femur, &c. 
 
 Morbid thickness. Bones are often observed remarkably 
 f.hick, especially those of the calvaria ; it sometimes is the/ 
 
81 
 
 effect of rheumatic inflammation. The body of a bone is- 
 occasionally found considerably thickened from a deposition 
 of bony laminae over the original bone : in these cases the 
 bone is considerably heavier than in a healthy state. 
 
 Morbid thinness. This affection of the bones is mostly 
 observed in those of the head, from rickets and hydroce- 
 phalus. 
 
 AJolUties. Malacosteon. In mollities ossium there is a 
 want of the due proportion of bony particles, and the bone 
 which is formed is of a morbid nature, so that the whole 
 may be bent in any direction. This disease often exists to 
 so great a degree, that the bone may be cut with a knife. 
 
 Hyperostosis. When the whole of a bone is swelled, or 
 the extremity of a bone, the disease is called hyperostosis. 
 Anatomists frequently have occasion to examine this disease 
 in the extremity of a bone, as in white swellings. A j consi- 
 derable deposition of a morbid fluid is observed in the cells 
 of the bone, which is remarkably spongy. 
 
 Rachitis. This is merely a degree of mollities in which 
 the bones swell at their extremities, aud> unable to support 
 the weight of the body, often become deformed. 
 
 Exostotis. This disease consists in a bony excrescence 
 arising from a bone. The fangs of the teeth are very subject 
 to exostoses. When a bone has been fractured and there is 
 a'luxuriance of callus, it forms an exostosis. The structure 
 of these unnatural formations of bone is similar to that of 
 compact healthy bone. Exostoses occasionally form to a 
 considerable size, from the action of venereal and scrofu- 
 lous virus, and then the diseased bone is very spongy. 
 
 Absorption of bone. In the honeycomb caries of the cra- 
 nhim, which is the effect of the venereal disease, portions of 
 bone are removed here and there, so as to give somewhat 
 E 5 
 
82 
 
 the appearance of a honeycomb. During life, small ulcers, 
 or a spongy flesh, occupy these cavities. Bone is likewise 
 absorbed from pressure, as some of the ribs of the dorsal 
 vertebrae from aneurism. 
 
 Preternatural joints. When the patella and the collar- 
 bone of old people, and occasionally the long cylindrical 
 bones, are broken, the broken ends are united by ligament, 
 and a new joint is sometimes formed, surrounded by a cap- 
 sular ligament, 
 
 Diastasis. Bones, which in a healthy state are united by a 
 firm and immoveable connexion, occasionally are separated 
 by disease to a considerable distance from each other : thus 
 diastasis of the bones of the calvaria from hydrocephalus, 
 and diastasis of the bones of the pelvis from enlarged viscera. 
 
 Anchylosis. Bones, which in a natural state are united 
 with each other, in such a way as to admit of consider- 
 able motion, are often found united to each other by a mass 
 of bone interposing. Sections of such anchylosed joints 
 exhibit the ends of the bones sometimes in a healthy state, 
 and a considerable quantity of spongy bone going across 
 from each extremity. There is not unfrequently a morbid 
 enlargement of the extremities of such bones. 
 
 Fracture. The ends of fractured bones have been exa- 
 mined by anatomists at various periods after the accident, 
 from almost the moment after to the time of the complete 
 formation of callus. A coagulum of blood is first deposited ; 
 in a short time after, vessels are seen shooting into this co- 
 agulum, from whose extremities bone is secreted, and the 
 coagulum is then absorbed. Callus becomes bone of a more 
 or less compact structure. When a cylindrical bone is frac- 
 tured, the callus between the broken ends of the bone is a 
 

 83 
 
 solid mass, and has no medullary canal. A fractured tooth 
 never unites again. 
 
 Fissure. The bones of the skull are often found cracked, 
 or not completely divided. A fissure is observed in one 
 table, whilst the other remains whole. 
 
 Tophus. A portion of a bone is occasionally observed 
 elevated above the natural surface : when examined, it is 
 found to arise from a diseased fluid deposited between the 
 external lamellae of the bone, raising these lamellae so as 
 to form a knofe-or tumour. Such diseased appearances are 
 common to the tibia, and mostly arise from the action of 
 the venereal virus. 
 
 Sarcoxtosis. This disease consists in a loss of a portion 
 of a bone, and in its place a spongy, fleshy excrescence is 
 formed. It most frequently is observed in the cranium and 
 tibia, and generally becomes cancerous, producing death. 
 
 (Mrics. When a portion of a bone is deprived of its perios- 
 teum from disease, so that a gritty sensation may be felt by 
 touching it with a probe, it is said to be carious. The whole 
 rarious portion is often separated altogether, when the bone 
 is said to exfoliate; but H frequently happens, that in caries 
 of the spongy bones, the bone crumbles insensibly away, 
 until the whole is lost: this happens to the sternum, carpal, 
 tarsal bones, and vertebrae; whilst the long cylindrical bones, 
 the calvaria, ribs, &c. mostly, when carious, exfoliate. 
 
 Spina venlosa. Caiies of the internal structure of bones, 
 often comes under the examination of the anatomist. A 
 spina ventosa, or suppuration in the medullary canal of the 
 femur, has given rise to a tumour the sixe of a human head. 
 When the carpal and tarsal bones are examined with this, 
 disease, their internal structure is found carious and crum- 
 bling away. 
 
 6 
 
fragility. When there are more earthy particles depo- 
 sited than in a healthy state, the bones are extremely brittle. 
 This is observed in the bones of very old people; such bones 
 being commonly fractured by a force which, if applied to a 
 voung and healthy bone, would scarcely affect it. 
 
 Bone converted into chalk. The extremities of the meta- 
 tarsal bones, and of the phalanges of some gouty people, 
 are occasionally found converted into an earthy mass, of a 
 chalky whiteness. This substance often fills the joint, so as 
 to anchylose it. 
 
 CARTILAGES. 
 
 DEFINITION. White, elastic, glistening substances, grow- 
 ing to the bones. 
 
 DIVISION. Into abducent, which cover the articulatory 
 surfaces of bones ; interarticular, which are not accreted to 
 the bones, but adhere to the capsular ligament, and lie be- 
 tween the articulating extremities, as in the knee-joint, &c.; 
 and tiniting cartilages, which unite bones firmly together, as 
 the symphysis pubis, bodies of the vertebrae, &c. 
 
 USE. To lubricate the articulation of the cartilages; to 
 connect some bones by an immoveable connexion ; and to 
 facilitate the motion of some articulations. 
 
 They are covered by a membrane, called perichondriuw , 
 which serves the same purposes as periosteum does to bone. 
 
 The diseases of cartilages are little if at all understood. 
 
85 
 
 PERIOSTEUM. 
 
 A membrane which invests the external surface of all the 
 bones except the crowns of the teeth. 
 
 NAMES. Pericranium, on the cranium ; perwrbita, on the 
 orbits ; perichondrium, when it covers cartilages ; and peri- 
 desmwm, when it covers ligaments. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. Fibrous, furnished with arteries, veins, 
 nerves, and absorbent vessels. 
 
 CONNEXION. The periosteum coheres very firmly by 
 means of vessels with the substance of bones, and its ex- 
 ternal surface is connected with cellular membrane, mus- 
 cles, and ligaments. 
 
 USE. To distribute the vessels on the external and inter- 
 nal surfaces of bones, to which it also gives smoothness for 
 the easier motion of muscles on its surface. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, in which there 
 is a greater quantity of red vessels than in health, and a 
 general thickening. Gum-mi f or an elevation of the perios- 
 teum, from a spongy thickening. 
 
 Many have contended for the insensibility of the perios- 
 teum ; in a diseased state, however, it is highly sen- 
 sible, and often gives excruciating pain. 
 
 In some birds the periosteum is black, and green in some 
 fish. 
 
 MEMBRANA MEDULLAR1S. 
 
 This has improperly been termed periosteum internuin, 
 from its forming an internal lining to the bones. It form* 
 the little bags which contain the marrow, lines the cancelli, 
 and affords a surface for the dispersion of the secretory ves- 
 sels of the marrow. 
 
86 
 
 SYNDESMOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE LIGAMENTS. 
 
 LIGAMENTS are elastic and strong membranes connecting: 
 the extremities of the moveable bones. 
 
 DIVISION. Into capsular, which surround joints like a 
 bag, and connecting ligaments. 
 
 USE. The capsular ligaments connect the extremities of 
 the moveable bones, and prevent the efflux of synovia ; the 
 external and internal connecting ligaments strengthen the 
 extremities of the moveable bones. 
 
 Ligaments of the lower jaw. The condyles of the lower 
 jaw are connected with the articular sinuses of the temporal 
 bone by the capsular ligament, besides which there is a late- 
 ral ligament, which extends from the lower edge of the pos- 
 terior maxillary foramen, on each side, to be fixed in the 
 petrous portion of the temporal bone, before the vaginal 
 eminence of the styloid process. An interarticular cartilage, 
 placed on the condyles of the jaw, is enclosed by the capsu- 
 lar ligament. 
 
 Occipital bone, and vei-tefira of the neck. The condyles 
 of the occipital bone are united with the articular depres- 
 sions of the first vertebra by the capsular ligament, sur- 
 rounding its condyles; a ligamentous membrane which 
 goes from the anterior and posterior arch of the atlas to the 
 occipital bone ; a ligament passing from the odontoid pro- 
 cess to the occipital bone, called the perpendicular ligament ; 
 the lateral ligaments, which arise from each side of the 
 dentatus, and are inserted into the occiput before the con- 
 dyles ; the circular ligament, which arises from the edge of 
 
87 
 
 the spinal hole, and is inserted into the edge of the foramen 
 magnum, and the ligamentum nuchae. 
 
 Vertebra. The vertebrae are connected together by 
 meaus of their bodies and oblique processes ; the bodies, 
 by a soft cartilaginous substance, and the processes by li- 
 gaments, viz. 
 
 i st. The transverse ligament of the first vertebra, which 
 passes behind the odontoid process of the second vertebra, 
 and thus retains it in its proper situation. 
 
 When this transverse ligament is ruptured or absorbed 
 by pressure, the odontoid process presses on the me- 
 dulla spinalis. In the first case, death is the immedi- 
 ate consequence ; in the latter, a paralysis gradually 
 takes place: and if the bones do not anchylose, it at 
 length terminates fatally. 
 
 id. The interspinous, which passes between the spinous 
 processes. 
 
 3d. The intertransverse, which proceed from one trans- 
 verse process to another. 
 
 4th. An external and internal ligament common to all the 
 vertebra, extending in a longitudinal direction from the fore- 
 part of the body of the second vertebra of the neck over all 
 the other vertebrae, and becoming broader as it descends to- 
 wards the os sacrum, where it becomes thinner, and gradually 
 disappears. This external longitudinal ligament is strength- 
 ened by the other shorter ligamentous fibres, or interver- 
 tebral ligaments, which pass between the processes from one 
 vertebra to another throughout the whole spine. The inter- 
 nal ligament, the fibres of which, like the external one, ar 
 spread in a longitudinal direction, is extended over the back 
 part of the bodies of the vertebrae, where they assist in form- 
 ing the cavity of the spine : it reaches from the foramen 
 magnum occipitale to the os sacrum. 
 
88 
 
 5th. Between the crura of the spinous processes is an 
 yellowish ligament, which possesses great elasticity. 
 
 This elastic ligament is of considerable importance, and 
 very conspicuous in birds of long necks, as the swan 
 aud ostrich, in which, by its elasticity, a considerable 
 quantity of muscles is thereby rendered unnecessary. 
 
 6th. The capsular ligaments of the oblique processes; aud 
 the transverse ligament, which unites the last vertebra of the 
 loins with the os sacrum, which is strong, and passes from 
 the extremity and lower edge of the last lumbar vertebra to 
 the posterior and internal surface of the spine of the ilium. 
 
 Ribs. The posterior extremity of the ribs is united with 
 the vertebrae ; the anterior with the sternum. The liga- 
 ments of the posterior extremity are, the capsular ligaments 
 of the greater and lesser heads ; the internal and external 
 ligaments of the neck of the ribs ; the external transverse li- 
 gament, which arises from the transverse process, and is in- 
 serted into the angle of each rib ; the internal transverse liga- 
 ment, which arises from the body of each vertebra, and is in- 
 serted anteriorly a little beyond the head of each rib ; the 
 internal transverse ligaments, which arise from the inferior 
 surface of the transverse processes, and are fixed to the up- 
 per margins at the necks of the nearest ribs ; and a ligament 
 peculiar to tbe last rib. The ligaments of the anterior extre- 
 mity are, the capsular ligaments of the cartilages of the trua 
 ribs, and the ligaments of the ribs inter se. 
 
 Sternum. The ligaments counectiag the three portions 
 of the sternum to the ribs are, the membrana propria of the 
 sternum ; and the ligaments of the ensiform cartilage. 
 
 Pelvis. The ligaments which connect the ossa innoini- 
 nata with the os sacrum are, two sacro-ischiatic ligaments, 
 placed towardi the posterior and inferior part of the pelvis: :. 
 

 of these ligaments one is considerably larger than the other. 
 The greater is attached to the posterior edge of the sacrum, 
 to the tuberosity of the ilium, and the upper part of the o$ 
 coccygis, from whence it passes to be inserted into the inner 
 surface of the tuberosity of the ischium. At its upper part 
 it is of considerable breadth, after which it becomes nar- 
 rower, but expands again before it is inserted into the is- 
 chium, and extending along its tuberosity to the descending 
 ramus of the pubis, it there terminates in a fine point, and 
 forms a kind of falx, one end of which is loose, while the 
 other is fixed in the bone. The lesser sacro-ischiatic liga- 
 ment is sometimes thicker than the former, and is placed 
 obliquely before it. It extends from the transverse processes 
 of the sacrum, and the tuberosity of the ilium, on each side 
 to the spine of the ischium. These two ligaments not only 
 serve to strengthen the articulation of the ossa innominate 
 with the sacrum, but to support the viscera contained in the 
 pelvis, the back and lower part of which is closed by these 
 ligaments. The posterior and external surface of the greater 
 ligament gives attachment also to portions of the gluteus 
 maximus and gemini muscles. The ligamentum obturans of 
 ike foramen ovale, which arises from the sides of this fora- 
 men, and gives adhesion to the obturator externus and ob- 
 turator internus muscles. The liganientum Poupartii, or m- 
 guinale, which passes from the anterior superior spinous pro- 
 cess of the ilium to the horizontal ramus of the pubis. It 
 has an aperture at its upper part, for the passage of the ob- 
 turator artery, &c. The transverse ligaments, which go from 
 the transverse process of the fourth and fifth lumbar verte- 
 brae, and are inserted iuto the posterior superior spinous 
 process of the ilium. The annular ligament, which surrounds 
 the articulation of the ossa pubis. The ligamenta vaga, 
 which are small ligaments that pass from the ilium to the 
 
90 
 
 sacrum anteriorly, aud the lacertus lig-amentosus, which passes 
 anteriorly from the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra, 
 along 1 the ridge of the os innominatum to the pubis. 
 
 Os coccygis. The basis of the os coccygis is connected 
 to the apex of the os sacrum by the capsular and longitudinal 
 ligaments. 
 
 Clavicle.- The anterior extremity is connected with the 
 sternum and first rib ; and the posterior extremity with the 
 acromion of the scapula, by the inter clavicular, the capsular 
 ligament, the ligamentum rhombcideum ; and in the posterior 
 extremity, the capsular ligament. 
 
 Scapula. The proper ligament which connects the sca- 
 pula with the posterior extremity of the clavicle is, the conoid ', 
 aud the trapezoid. It extends from the whole external side 
 of the coracoid process, and stretches across to the acromion 
 k scapulae, becoming narrower as it approaches it ; so as to be 
 somewhat of a triangular shape. This ligament, and the 
 coracoid process, and acromion, are evidently intended for 
 the protection of the shoulder- joint, and to prevent a luxa- 
 tion upwards. 
 
 Humerus. The head of the humerus is connected with 
 the glenoid cavity of the scapula by the capsular ligament, 
 which surrounds the neck of the scapula and os humeri, and 
 is penetrated by the tendon of the biceps flexor cubiti. At 
 the lower extremity of the os brachii are two intermuscular 
 ligaments, which arise from the ridges going to the condyles. 
 
 Articulation of the cubit. The elbow-joint is formed by 
 the inferior extremity of the humerus, and superior extremi- 
 ties of the ulna and radius. The ligaments connecting these 
 bones are, the capsular, the brachio-cubilal, and the bra-cJtio- 
 radial ligaments. The capsular ligament is attached to the 
 anterior and posterior surfaces of the lower extremity of the 
 
91 
 
 os humeri, to the upper edges and sides of the cavities, above 
 the condyles, and also to some part of the condyles ; from 
 thence it is spread over the ulna to the edges of the greater 
 sigmoid cavity, so as to include in it the end of the olecranon 
 and of the coronoid process : it is likewise fixed around the 
 neck of the radius, so as to include the neck of that bone. 
 The bracJiio-radial and brackio-cubital ligaments descend la- 
 terally from the lowest part of each condyle of the os brachii, 
 and their fibres spread wide as they descend, so as to form 
 some resemblance to a goose's foot. The brachio-cubital 
 ligament is situated internally, and terminates in the coro- 
 noid process of the ulna ; whilst the other, which is external, 
 is lost in the radius. 
 
 Raditts.The radius is affixed to the humerus, cubit, and 
 carpus, by peculiar ligaments. Its head is bound in the late- 
 ral siginoid cavity of the ulna by a circular ligament, which 
 is attached at the two extremities of the cavity, and from 
 thence surrounds the head of the radius : a ligament extends 
 along its internal ridge, and is implanted into the opposite 
 ridge of the ulna. This is called the interosseous ligament. 
 Besides these, there are several other ligamentous fibres in 
 the superior and inferior part of the radius. 
 
 The bones of the carpus are articulated with those of the 
 fore-arm, with the metacarpus, and with each other. The 
 articulation with the fore -arai is formed by the upper surfaces 
 of the os scaphoides, lunare, and cuneiforme, with the lower 
 end of the radius ; a strong capsular ligament surrounds 
 them, strengthened by the two lateral ligaments, one of 
 which, or the external, extends from the styloid process of 
 the radius to the os uaviculare ; while the other, or internal, 
 is attached to the styloid process of the ulna, and to the os 
 cuneiforme. The connexion of the second row with the 
 
upper extremities of the metacarpal bones is surrounded by 
 a capsular ligament fastened round the neck of each meta- 
 oarpal bone, and strengthened by several short and strong 
 ligaments. All the metacarpal bones are firmly connected 
 to each other by a number of short and very strong liga- 
 ments, which extend from one bone to another, and are 
 farther strengthened by two considerable ligamentous ex- 
 pansions, which are called the external and internal annular 
 ligaments. The first of these is stretched obliquely over the 
 convex surface of the carpus from the os pisiforme to the 
 stvioid process of the radius : it is an inch and a half in 
 breadth, and serves to bind down the extensor tendons of 
 the wrist and fingers, by attaching itself to the little pro- 
 tuberances that separate them. The internal annular liga- 
 ment is spread transversely at the inside of the carpus, and 
 is attached on one side to part of the os naviculare and tra- 
 pezium, and on the other to the os pisiforme ; serving to 
 bind down the flexor tendons of the wrist and fingers, and 
 by this mechanism facilitating the action of their muscles. 
 An inter articular cartilage is placed between the head of the 
 ulna and os cuneiforme. 
 
 Fingers. The fingers and phalanges are connected toge- 
 ther, and with the metacarpus, by strong capsular ligaments. 
 
 Articulation of the femur. The head of the os femoris is 
 strongly annexed to the acetabuluni of the os innominatum, 
 by two very strong ligaments- the capsular ligament, and 
 Hgamentum teres, or restraining ligament. A cartilaginous 
 ligament surrounds the brim of the acetabulum, and a liga- 
 ment is stretched across the notch at the inferior part of the 
 acetabulum, leaving an opening behind it for the entrance 
 of vessels to the joint. 
 
 The posterior ligament of Winslow, which arises from 
 
93 
 
 the upper and back part of the external condyle of tbe os 
 femoris, and descends obliquely over the capsular ligament, 
 to be fired to the tibia : this is often wanting; then a mem- 
 brane supplies its place. 
 
 Articulation of the knee. The knee-joint is formed by the 
 condyles of the os femoris, head of the tibia, and patella. 
 The ligaments are, the capsular, the popliteal ligament, which 
 arises from the external condyle of the femur, and, passing 
 on the posterior part of the capsular, is expanded upon the 
 internal side of the joint, the external and the internal lateral 
 ligaments, which arise from the tuberosities at the sides of 
 the condyles, and are extended down to the tibia ; two 
 crucial ligaments, which arise from each condyle posteriorly : 
 one of these passes from the right to the left, and the other 
 from the left to the right, so that they intersect each other. 
 The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg upon 
 the thigh to the right or left ; and the crucial ligaments, 
 which are also attached to the tibia, prevent the latter from 
 being brought forwards. Besides these, the patella has 
 the anterior ligament, which arises from the inferior point 
 of the patella, and is inserted into the anterior tuberosity 
 of the tibia, and the alar ligaments, which proceed from 
 the inner side of the capsular ligament, and are inserted 
 into the sides of the patella. There are two interarticular 
 or semilunar cartilages, placed at the top of the tibia : the 
 cornua, or extremities, are fixed, by ligaments, to the pro- 
 tuberance of the tibia, and the anterior ccrnua are joined 
 to each other by a transverse ligament. 
 
 Fibula. The fibula is connected with the tibia by means 
 
 of the capsular ligament of the superior extremity, the inter- 
 
 osse&us ligament, and by strong ligaments of the tarsus. i 
 
 Articulation of the tarsus. The inferior extremity of the 
 
94 
 
 tibia and fibula forms the cavity into which the astragalus of 
 the tarsus is received. This articulation is effected by the 
 anterior, middle, and posterior ligaments of the fibula, the 
 Kgamentum tibice, deltoides, the consular ligament, and liga- 
 ments proper to the bones of the tarsus. 
 
 Metatarsus. The bones of the metatarsus are connected 
 in part together, and in part with the tarsus, by means of the 
 tapsular ligament, the articular ligaments, the transverse liga- 
 ments in the back and sole of the foot, and the interosseout 
 ligaments of the metatarsus. 
 
 Toes. The phalanges of the toes are united partly toge- 
 ther, and partly with the metatarsus, by the capsular and 
 lateral ligaments. 
 
 The ligaments which restrain the muscles of the foot in 
 their proper places, are found partly in the back and partly 
 in the sole of the foot. They are the vaginal ligament of the 
 tibia, the transverse or crucial ligaments of the tarsus, the 
 ligaments of the tendons of the peronei muscles, the loci- 
 niated ligament, the vaginal ligament of the extensor muscle 
 ^nd flexor pollicis, the vaginal ligaments of the flexor ten- 
 dons, the accessory ligaments of the flexor tendons, and the 
 transverse ligaments of the extensor tendons. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF LIGAMENTS. 
 
 The diseases of the ligaments are very few ; they are oc- 
 casionally found carrying more red vessels than in an healthy 
 state, and often thickened, lacerated, and gangrenous. 
 
95 
 MYOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 A MUSCLE is a fibrous body, divided into head, belly, and 
 <0t/. 
 
 ADHESION. The head and tail are firmly attached to the 
 bones ; the place of attachment of the former is called its 
 origin ; it is usually that part nearest the trunk of the body : 
 the latter is termed the insertion, which is more remote from 
 the trunk of the body, and is implanted into the part to be 
 moved. The body adheres laxly to other parts, by means 
 of the cellular membrane, in order that it may swell when 
 the muscle acts. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. Fleshy in the belly, tendinous in the extre- 
 mities. The former is composed of fleshy fibres, which are 
 irritable and sensible ; the latter of white fibres, which are 
 neither sensible nor irritable, and differ essentially, in their 
 chemical properties, from those of the muscle. When the 
 tendinous extremity of a muscle is rounded, it is called a 
 tendon ; when broad and expanded, aponeurosis, and some- 
 limes fascia. 
 
 NAMES. Muscles are variously named, according to the 
 arrangement of their fibres, or from their action, or from 
 their origin and insertion, or from their figure or situation : 
 thus, when the fibres go in the same direction, it is said to be 
 a simple muscle ; when they are in rays, a radiated muscle ; 
 when arranged like the plume of a feather, a penniform 
 muscle ; and, when two penniform muscles are contiguous, 
 at compound penniform. Muscles sometimes surround cer- 
 
96 
 
 tain cevities of the body, forming a thin lamina, as in the 
 intestinal canal, bladder, &c. When they are situated around 
 any opening, so as to shut or open it, they are termed 
 sphincters. There are many muscles named from their ac- 
 tion, as theflexors, extensors, depressors, levators, corrugatores 
 supertilii, &c. The muscles which receive names from their 
 origin and insertion are very numerous ; as the sterno-cleido- 
 mastoideus, stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus r &c. The deltoid, 
 pectineus, pyramidalis, &c. are named from their figure ; and 
 the pectoralis, lingualis, temporalis, pterygoideus, &c. from 
 their situation. Muscles that concur in producing the same 
 action, are called congeneres; and those that act contrary to 
 each other, antagonist. 
 
 VESSELS. Arteries, veins, and absorbents, abound in the 
 fleshy part ; but very few indeed in the tendinous. 
 
 NERVES of muscles are also numerous in the fleshy parts, 
 and wanting in the tendinous. 
 
 USE. Muscles are the organs of motion. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INTEGUMENTS OF THE 
 CRANIUM. 
 
 OCCIFITO-FRONTALIS*. Epicranius. Occipitalis et fron- 
 tatis. Digastricus capitis. A broad, thin, muscular expan- 
 sion, which arises from the upper ridge of the occipital bone, 
 covers the back part of the head, from the mastoid process 
 of one side around to that of the other side, becomes a flat 
 aponeurosis on the top of the head, and is inserted into the 
 
 %* T7ie reader will observe, that though the muscles (a 
 few only excepted, which are marked thus *) art in pairs, 
 mention is made only of the muscles of one side. 
 4 
 
97 
 
 skin and eyebrows, and the bone in that neighbourhood. 
 The use of this muscle is to pull the skin of the head back- 
 wards, to raise the eyebrows, and corrugate the skin of the 
 forehead. 
 
 CORRUGATOR SUPERCILH. Fronto-superciliaris. This 
 muscle appears like a slip of the former ; it arises above the 
 root of the nose, and is inserted among the fibres of the 
 occipito-frontalis. Its use is to wrinkle the eyebrows, by 
 drawing them together. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS. 
 
 ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM. OrUcularis oculi. Naso- 
 palpebralis.Tlais muscle arises and is inserted by the same 
 small tendon at the inner angle of the orbit. It is a neat, 
 regular, flat muscle, surrounding the eye, which it squeezes 
 with violence when injured, as by dust. 
 
 LEVATOR PALPEBRJE SUPERIORS. Orbito-palpebratts. A 
 small muscle, arising by a flat tendon, deep within the orbit, 
 near the optic foramen ; it becomes fleshy as it passes the 
 eyeballs, and ends in the eyelid by a broad expansion of 
 muscular fibres, which finally terminate in a short flat ten- 
 don. It opens the eye by raising the upper eyelid. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE EYEBALL. 
 
 The eyeball is completely surrounded by muscles, which 
 move it in every direction. They arise from the very bottom 
 of the orbit, around the optic foramen, and are implanted 
 into the upper, under, and lateral surfaces of the sclerotic 
 coat of the eye ; and the expansions of their colourless ten- 
 
 F 
 
98 
 
 dons form the tunica adnata, or white of the eye : these 
 muscles are termed recti. 
 
 RECTUS SUPERIOR. Attollens oculi. Levator oculi. Su- 
 perbus. This muscle lifts the eye directly upwards, and is 
 expressive of pride and haughtiness. 
 
 RECTUS INFERIOR. Depi-imens oculi. Humilis. This is 
 directly opposite to the former muscle, and is expressive 
 of modesty and submission. 
 
 RECTUS INTERNUS. Adducens oculi. Bibitorius. This 
 moves the eye towards the nose. 
 
 RECTUS EXTERNUS.- Abductor oculi. Indignabundus. 
 This muscle turns the eye outwards. 
 
 When the recti muscles all act in succession, they roll the 
 eye ; but if they act all at once, the eye is immoveable. 
 
 Besides these, there are two, the action of which turns 
 the eye obliquely. 
 
 OBLIOUUS SUPERIOR. Longissimm oculi. Trochlearis. 
 This" antes with the former, from the bottom of the orbit, by 
 a slender tendon, passes the upper part of the eyeball fleshy, 
 then forms a smooth round tendon^ which passes through a 
 cartilaginous pulley in the margin of the orbit, and return* 
 down to be inserted in the middle of the eyeball. 
 
 OBLIQUUS INFERIOR. Brevissimus oculi. This muscle is 
 opposed to the former in form, place, and office. It arises 
 from the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone, in the 
 edge of the orbit, and passes obliquely backwards and out- 
 wards under the ball of the eye, to be inserted opposite to 
 the obliquus superior. 
 
99 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. 
 
 LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORIS ALKQUE NASI. Super-mcurilla- 
 labialis major et medius. Pyramidalis. Dilator alee nasi. A 
 neat, delicate, pyramidal muscle, arising by a small double 
 tendon from the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone, 
 and spreading as it passes down the nose to be implanted by 
 two fasciculi, one into the cartilage of the nose, and the 
 other into the upper lip. Its office is to raise the upper lip, 
 and dilate the nostrils. 
 
 LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORIS PROPRIUS. Muscidus tntuivut. 
 Arises immediately under the edge of the orbit, and above 
 the incisors, by a broad flat origin, and runs downwards and 
 obliquely inwards to the. middle of the lip, where it meets 
 its fellow. It pulls the upper lip directly upwards. 
 
 DEPRESSOR LABII SUPERIORIS ALJEQUE NASI. Arises thin 
 from near the incisores and caninus of the upper jaw ; it 
 runs upwards to be inserted into the furrow of the lip : it 
 draws the upper lip and aia nasi downwards. 
 
 LEVATOR ANGULI ORIS. Super-maxilla-labialis minor. 
 J^evator labiontm- comnwnis. Caninus. The origin of this 
 muscle is between the infra-orbitar foramen of the superior 
 maxillary bone and the first molaris, immediately above the 
 canine tooth. It is inserted into the fibres of the orbicularl* 
 oris, at the corner of the mouth, so that it raises the angle 
 of the mouth upwards. 
 
 ZVGOMATICUS MAJOR. Zygomato-labialis major, fiistvr- 
 tor arts. Arises from the cheek-bone, near the zygomatio 
 suture ; runs downwards and inwards to the^ corner of the 
 mouth, and is lost in the fibres of the crbicutari* cm, and 
 
 F I 
 
100 
 
 depressor of the lip. Its action is that of distorting the 
 taouth in laughter, rage, grinning, &c. 
 
 ZYGOMATICUS MINOR. Zygomato-ldbialis minor. Arises 
 higher than the former from the cheek-bone. It is a much 
 more slender muscle than the major, and is often wanting. 
 
 BUCCINATOR. Retractor anguli oris. Bucco-labialis. A 
 large flat muscle which forms the sides of the cheek. It 
 arises chiefly from the coronoid process of the lower jaw, and 
 from the superior maxillary bone, close by the pterygoid 
 process of the sphaenoid bone, and proceeds directly forwards 
 to be implanted into the corner of the mouth. In its middle 
 it is perforated by t"he duct of the parotid gland. Its vse 
 is to flatten the cheek, assist in swallowing liquids, turning 
 the morsel in the mouth while chewing : in blowing wind- 
 instruments, it both receives and expels the wind; hence 
 its name. 
 
 DEPRESSOR ANGULI ORis.Maxitto-labialis. Triangularis 
 tabiorum. A triangular muscle arising fleshy from the edge 
 of the lower jaw. It gradually grows smaller as it runs up- 
 wards to be implanted in the angle of the mouth, which it 
 draws downwards. 
 
 DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS. Mento-tabialis. (juadra- 
 tus gena:. A small square muscle which arises under the de- 
 pressor anguli oris, and goes obliquely upwards and inwards, 
 until it meets its fellow in the middle of the lip, where it 
 mixes with the fibres of the orbicularis. It pulls the lip 
 downwards. 
 
 ORBICULARIS ORIS*. -Labialis. Constrictor oris. Sphincter 
 oris. Osculator. Semi-orbicularis superior et inferior. A r asalis 
 labti superiorly. A regularly round muscle, an inch in 
 breadth, surrounding the mouth after the manner of the or- 
 bicularis oculi, and constituting the thickness of the lip*. 
 
101 
 
 There is a crossing of the fibres at th angles of the mouth, 
 which has induced some to consider this as two semicircular 
 muscles. Often there is a small slip going from the middle 
 of the upper lip to the nose, called nasalis labii superiors. 
 The orbicularis contracts the mouth, and antagonizes with 
 the muscles inserted into it. 
 
 DEPRESSOR LABII SUPERIORIS ALJEQUE NASI. Incisivus 
 medius. Constrictor, vel compressor ala nasL A very small 
 muscle concealed under the former. It arises from the socket 
 of the fore teeth, and goes into the root of the cartilage of 
 the nose and upper lip, which it pulls down. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR NASI. Super-maxilla-nasalis. Compressor 
 nasi. A small scattered bundle of muscular fibres, which 
 crosses the cartilage of the nose, and goes to the very point 
 of the nose, meeting on the top with its fellow. 
 
 J^EVATOR MENTI. Levator labii inferioris. lucisivus infe- 
 rior. Arises from the lower jaw, at the root of the incisors, 
 and is inserted into the skin on the very centre of the chin. 
 By its contraction it draws the centre of the chin into a 
 dimple, and moves the lip at the same time. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR. 
 
 SUPERIOR AURIS. Temporo-auricularis. Attollens.\ very 
 |lhm flat expansion of muscular fibres, scarcely distinguish- 
 able from the fascia of the temporal muscle, upon which it 
 lies. It arises broad and circular from the expanded tendon 
 of the occipito-frontalis, and is inserted narrow into the root 
 of the cartilaginous tube of the ear. It appears to have 
 been intended to lift the ear upwards. 
 
 ANTERIOR AURIS. Zyg-omato-atiricularis. A delicate, 
 thin, narrow expansion, arising from near the back part of 
 r 3 
 
102 
 
 the zygoma, and inserted into the eminence behind the helix. 
 This muscle is frequently not to be distinguished from the 
 former. Its use is to raise the eminence forwards. 
 
 POSTERIOR AVRis.Mastoido-auricularis. Retrahens au- 
 ris. Triceps auris.k. very small, delicate, thin muscle, 
 arising by three narrow distinct slips from about the mastoid 
 process of the temporal bone, and going directly forwards to 
 be inserted into the concha. Its use is to draw the ear back, 
 and stretch the concha. 
 
 HELICIS MAJOR. Arises from the anterior and acute part 
 of the helix ; is inserted into the cartilage of the helix, a 
 little above the tragus. It depresses the upper part of the 
 helix. 
 
 HELICIS MINOR. Arises lower than the former, and is 
 inserted into the crus of the helix. Its use is to contract 
 the fissure. 
 
 TRAGICUS. This muscle lies upon the concha, and 
 stretches to the tragus. It depresses the concha, and pulls 
 the tragus a little outwards. 
 
 ANTITRAGICUS. A very small muscle lying in the antitra- 
 gus. It dilates the mouth of the concha. 
 
 TRANSVERSUS AURIS. Arises from the upper part of the 
 concha, and is inserted into the inner part of the helix. It 
 draws these parts together. 
 
 \lt'.9ifi< U?MQ 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INTERNAL EAR. 
 
 LAXATOR T\MP\n\.Externus mallei. This muscle arises 
 from the spinous process of the sphaenoid bone, and pro- 
 ceeds into the cavity of the tympanum, to be inserted into 
 the long process of the malleus. Its use is to draw the 
 malleus obliquely forwards towards its origin. 
 
 3 
 
103 
 
 TENSOR TYMPANI. Internus mallei. Arises from the 
 cartilaginous extremity of the Eustachian tube, within the 
 tympanum, and is inserted into the numttbrium of the mal- 
 leus. By contracting, this muscle pulls the malleus and 
 memhrana tympani inwards. 
 
 STAPEDIUS. This delicate muscle arises from a little ca-- 
 vern in the tympanum, near the cells of the mastoid process, 
 and passes in a bony furrow to be inserted into the posterior 
 part of the head of the stapes, which, by contracting, it 
 draws upwards. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW. 
 
 TEMPORALIS. Tempvro-maxittaris. This great muscle of 
 the lower jaw arises from a semicircular ridge in the lower 
 part of the parietal bone, and from the sphaenoid, tem- 
 poral, and frontal . bones in the hollow behind the eye, 
 where they meet to form the squamous suture ; and from the 
 aponeurosis which covers it. Its fibres are bundled toge- 
 ther, and pass in a narrow compass under the zygoma, to be 
 inserted all around the coronoid process of the lower jaw. 
 Its use is to pull the lower jaw upwards, which it does very 
 powerfully. 
 
 Spasm of this muscle constitutes trismus, or locked-jaw. 
 
 MASSETER. Zi/gotnato-ina.riUari!>.A. short, thick, fleshy 
 muscle, which gives roundness to the back part of the cheek.- 
 It arises from the superior maxillary bone, near its junction 
 with the cheek-bone, and also from the lower edge of the 
 zygoma, and passes over the coronoid process of the lower 
 jaw, and covers that part of the jaw quite down to its angle, 
 where it is inserted. The parotid gland lies on the upper part 
 of the masseter, and its duct passes over it, as it crosses the 
 > 4 
 
104- 
 
 cheek. The office of this muscle is the same as the tem- 
 poral is. 
 
 PTERYGOIDEUS INTERNUS. Pterygo-maxillaris minor. 
 Pterygoideus minor. Arises from the internal or flat ptery- 
 goid process of the sphaenoid bone, and passes downwards 
 nn,d outwards to be inserted into the angle of the jaw on its 
 inside. When this muscle contracts, it raises the jaw, and 
 draws it a little to one side. 
 
 PTERYGOIDEUS EXTERNUS. Pterygo-maxillaris major. 
 Pterygoideus major. This arises from the external pterygoid 
 process, and passes directly outwards, not downwards, to be 
 implanted into the lower jaw, just below the capsular liga- 
 ment, to a part of which it is connected. The use of this 
 muscle is to move the jaw, and prevent the capsular liga- 
 ment from being pinched. 
 
 MUSCLES WHICH APPEAR ABOUT THE ANTE- 
 RIOR PART OF THE NECK. 
 
 PLATYSMA MYOIDES. TJtoraco-facmlis. Musculw cutaneus. 
 Latissimus cotti. Quadratus genes. This delicate, fiat, and 
 expanded muscle arises from the cellular membrane cover- 
 ing the pectoral and deltoid muscles. Its fibres pass up- 
 wards, to be inserted into the side of the chin and integu- 
 ments of the cheek. When this muscle contracts, it pulls 
 the skin of the cheeks and face downwards. 
 
 STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOIDEUS. Sterno-mastoideus, and clei- 
 do-mastoideus. Mastoideus.This arises from the upper part 
 of the sternum, and by another head from the fore part G 
 the clavicle. These two portions pass upwards and outwards, 
 unite and form a big, strong, round muscle, which is inserted 
 into the mastoid process. When one of these muscles acts, 
 
105 
 
 the head is pulled to one side ; but, when both contract to- 
 gether, the head is bent forward. 
 
 Spasm of this muscle is one cause of the wry- neck, or 
 caput obstipum, 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER 
 JAW AND OS HYOIDES. 
 
 DIGASTRICUS. Mastoido-mentalis. Biventer majcdla in- 
 ferioris. This muscle arises fleshy from the notch along the 
 root of the mastoid process of the temporal bone, goes ob- 
 liquely forwards and downwards, and becomes a long, thick, 
 and round tendon, which perforates the stylo-hyoides muscle, 
 and is affixed by a tendinous bridle to the os hyoides ;. then^ 
 turning: upwards towards the chin, becomes again fleshy, and 
 is inserted into the lower and anterior part of the chin. When 
 the jaw is fixed, as in swallowing, this muscle raises the os 
 hyoides ; but when the os hyoides is fixed, it pulls down 
 the jaw. 
 
 MYLO-HYOIDEUS. Maxillo-kyoideus. A flat and broad 
 muscle arising from the whole semicircle of the lower jaw 
 internally, and proceeding with very regular straight fibres 
 to the basis of the os hyoides. It is divided from its fellow 
 by a white tendinous line, which extends from the symphysis 
 of the jaw to the os hyoides. When these muscles contract, 
 the os hyoides is moved upwards. 
 
 GENIG-HYOIDEUS. Mmculiu polychrestus. A small neat 
 muscle, which arises from the rough point of the chin, and 
 proceeds downwards, becoming flat and broad, to be im- 
 planted into the basis of the os hyoides. When- the jaw is 
 fixed, these muscles move the os hyoides forwards ami up- 
 
106 
 
 wards ; and when the os hyoides is fixed, they pull the jaw 
 down. 
 
 - GENIO-GLOSSUS. Arises by a narrow pointed origin from 
 the rough tubercle behind the symphysis of the chin; spreads 
 out like a fan as it proceeds towards the tongue, whose sub- 
 stance it chiefly forms. It moves the tongue in various di- 
 rections. 
 
 HYO-GLOSSUS. Basio-glosms. Cttondro-glossus. Cerafn- 
 gtossus. Basio-chondro-cerato-glossus. This muscle arises by 
 three fasciculi (one from the basis, one from the horn, and 
 the other from the cartilage of the os hyoides), which pro- 
 ceed upwards, with very slight marks of any division, to be 
 inserted into the side of the tongue, which they pull down- 
 wards ; and when both act, the tongue is made somewhat 
 round. 
 
 LINGUALIS. This muscle arises from and is inserted into 
 the tongue. It is an irregular bundle of fibres, which runs 
 along the side between the "stylo-glossus and the genio- 
 glossus, unconnected with any bone. The tongue is short- 
 ened and drawn backwards by these muscles. 
 
 MUSCLES .SITUATED BETWEEN THE OS 
 HYOIDES AND TRUNK. 
 
 STERNO-HYOIDEUS. A fiat, broad, riband-like muscle, 
 which arises from the upper part of the sternum, rather with- 
 in the breast, and partly also from the clavicle and cartilage 
 of the first rib, and goes straight up to be implanted into 
 the base of the os hyoides, which it draws downwards. 
 
 OMO-HYOIDEUS. Coraco-hyoideus. This is a very long 
 thin muscle, arising from the scapula near the coracoid pro- 
 cess, and passing around the throat, to be inserted into the 
 
107 
 
 side of the os hyoides. When one of these muscles acts, 
 the os hyoides is pulled to one side ; and when both act, it 
 is pulled downwards. 
 
 STERNO-THYROIDEUS. This muscle lies under the sterno- 
 hyuideus, which it very much resembles, except that it is 
 much shorter. It arises immediately under it, from the 
 sternum and cartilage of the first rib, and goes upwards to 
 be inserted into a rough ridge in the thyroid cartilage, which 
 it pulls downwards. 
 
 HYO-THVROIDEUS. Tliyreo-hyoideus. Arises from the 
 basis and horn of the os hyoideus, and goes down to be im- 
 planted into the lower border of the thyroid cartilage. It 
 raises the thyroid cartilage, and depresses the os hyoides. 
 
 CRICO-THVROIDEUS. A very short muscle, passing from 
 the upper edge of the cricoid to the lower margin of the 
 thyroid cartilage. It pulls the thyroid towards the cricoid 
 cartilage. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED BETtVEEN THE LOWER JAW 
 AND OS HYOIDES LATERALLY. 
 
 STYLO -GLOSSUS. Arises from the styloid process of the 
 temporal bone, goes obliquely downwards and forwards to be 
 inserted into the side of the tongue in a radiated form, so as 
 to make part of the flesh of the tongue. It? office is to pull 
 the tongue backwards into the month. 
 
 STYLO-HYOIDEUS, Stylo-hyoidtus alter. Arises, like the 
 former, from the styloid process, and goe* obliquely dewn- 
 wards and forwards to be inserted into the side of the os 
 hyoides. Just above its insertion, its fibres are slit so as to 
 form a small loop for the tendon of the digastricus to pass 
 through. The stylo-hyoideus is sometimes accompanied by 
 F 6 
 
108 
 
 a small fleshy muscle, called stylo-hyoideus alter. These 
 
 muscles draw the os hyoideus upwards. 
 
 STYLO -PHARYNGEUS. This arises from the root of the 
 
 styloid process. It is a long, slender muscle, expanding its 
 
 fibres upon the side of the pharynx. It lifts the pharynx up 
 
 to receive the food, and then straightens and compresses it 
 
 to push the morsel down the oesophagus. 
 
 CIRCUMFLEXUS pALATLPterygo-palatimcs. Tensor palati. 
 
 Palato-salpingus. Staphilinus externus, Splueno-salpingo- 
 staphilinus. Musculus tuba. Pterygo-staphitinus. This 
 muscle arises from the spinous process of the sphsenoid bone, 
 aud from the beginning of the Eustachian tube, along with 
 which it runs down betwixt the pterygoid processes ; it then 
 becomes tendons, and turns around the hamulus of the pte- 
 rygoid process to ascend again to the side of the velum : 
 hence, when in action, the soft palate is made tense, by be- 
 ing drawn downwards. 
 
 LEVATOR PALATI MOLLIS. Glosso-patotinus. Salpingo- 
 staphilinus. Sph&no-staphilimtf. Pterygo-staphilinus. Pe- 
 tro-salpingo-staphilinus. This arises from the point of the pe- 
 trous portion of the temporal bone, from the Eustachian tube, 
 and also from the sphaenoid bone, from which it descends to 
 the velum pendulum palati, and spreads out in it. When 
 these muscles contract, the soft palate is raised against the 
 posterior opening of the nostrils, and the opening of the Eu- 
 stachian tube, whilst any thing is passing into the pharynx. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE ENTRY OF 
 THE FAUCES. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR ISTHMI FAUCIUM. Glos&o-staphilinus. This 
 muscle arises from the very root of the tongue on each side, 
 
109 
 
 goes round the middle of the velum, and ends in the uvuty. 
 This semicircle, forms the first arch which presents itself 
 when looking into the mouth. Its office is to pull down the 
 soft palate, and raise the root of the tongue at the same time. 
 
 PALATO-FHARYNGEUS. Pharyngo-palatinus. Saljringo- 
 pliaryngeus. Arises in the middle of the soft palate, goes 
 round the entry of the fauces, forming the second arch in 
 the mouth, and ends in the edge of the thyroid cartilage. 
 It assists in contracting the arch of the fauces. 
 
 AZYGOS u\VLiE *. Palato-uvularis. A slip of straight 
 fibres, which goes directly down from the peak of the palate- 
 bones to the uvula, which it pulls directly upwards. 
 
 : 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE SUPERIOR PART 
 OF THE PHARYNX. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR PHARYNGIS INFERIOR. Laryngo-pharyn- 
 geus. Arises partly from the thyroid, and partly from the 
 cricoid cartilage, and meets its fellow in a tendinous middle 
 line. It assists in pushing down the morsel through the 
 pharynx. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR PHARYNGIS MEDIUS. Hyo-pkaryngeus. 
 Arises from the round point of the os hyoides and its carti- 
 lage, and is inserted into the ambit of the pharynx, its up- 
 permost part touching the occipital bone. It compresses 
 the pharynx, and at the same time draws the hyoid bone 
 upwards. 
 
 CONSTRICTOR PHARYNGIS SUPERIOR. Ceptutlo-pharyngeus. 
 Arises from the basis of the cranium, from the jaws, pa- 
 late, and root of the tongue, and surrounds, with its fellow, 
 the upper part of the pharynx, which it moves upwards and 
 forwards, and also compresses. 
 
 X 
 
110 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE GLOTTIS. 
 
 CRICO-ARYT.I;NOIDEUS posTicus. A small pyramidal 
 muscle, which arises broad from the bark part of the cricoid 
 cartilage, and goes directly upwards to be inserted by a nar- 
 row point into the back of the aryta?noid cartilage. This 
 pair of muscles pulls the arytaenoid cartilage directly back- 
 wards, and lengthens the rima glottidis. 
 
 CRICO-ARYTSNOIDEUS OBLIOUUS. Crico-aryt&noideus Ui- 
 teralis. Arises from the side of the cricoid cartilage, and 
 goes obliquely to be inserted into the side of the fcrytaenoid. 
 It opens the glottis. 
 
 Til YREO-ARYT.KNOIDEUS. Arises from the back of the 
 wing of the thyroid cartilage, from the hollow, and is in- 
 serted into the fore part of the arytaenoid cartilage. It widens 
 the glottis by pulling the arytaenoid cartilage forward. 
 
 ARYTNOIDEUS OBLIQUI-S. These delicate muscles arise 
 from the root of each arytaenoid cartilage, arid go obliquely 
 upwards to the points of the opposite one. They draw the 
 cartilages together, and close the glottis. 
 
 ARYTJENOIDEUS TRANSVERSUS*. A delicate muscle, which 
 arises from the whole length of one arytaenoid cartilage, and 
 goes across to be implanted into the whole length of the. op- 
 posite one. By drawing these cartilages together, the glottis 
 is contracted. 
 
 THYREO-EPIGLOTTIDEUS. Arises from the thyroid carti- 
 lage, and is inserted into the side of the epiglottis. It pulls 
 the epiglottis obliquely downwards. 
 
 ARYTSNO-EPIGLOTTIDEUS. This muscle arises from the 
 upper part of the arytaenoid cartilage laterally, and is inserted 
 into the side of the epiglottis, which it moves outwards. 
 
Ill 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 OBLIQUUS EXTERNUS. Cesto-abdominalis. Obliquus exter- 
 nus descettdens. Obliywts major descendens. Declivis, This 
 muscle, which is the outermost of all the abdominal mus- 
 cles, arises by distinct fleshy tongues, from the eight lower 
 ribs. Its fibres pass down all in one parallel direction with 
 each other, but oblique with respect to the abdomen. Its 
 fleshy belly ceases about the middle of the side^ and be- 
 comes a flat tendon, which goes over the fore part of the 
 belly, until it meets its fellow in the middle. This meeting 
 of the tendons, along with that of the other muscles to be 
 described, forms a white line, extending from the pubis to 
 the sternum, called tinea alba. Before the tendon of this 
 muscle reaches the middle of the belly, it unites with the 
 flat tendon of the inner oblique muscle, about four inches on 
 cither side of the linea alba, and forms a semilunar white line, 
 called linea semilunaiis. Besides the insertion of this muscle 
 into the linea alba, it is planted into the spine of the ilium, 
 and the ligament which extends from the spine of the ilium 
 to the crest of the pubis, called Poupart's ligament. It com- 
 presses the abdomen ; hence its utility is very considerable 
 iu expiration, evacuation of the faeces, urine, foetus, &c. 
 
 The operation of tapping for removing the water from 
 the cavity of the peritoneum is now performed in the 
 linea alba, in the middle between the pubis and umbi- 
 licus, care being taken to cause the urine to be evacu- 
 ated previous to it. 
 
 OBLIQUUS INTERNUS. Ilio-ibdominalis. Obliquus internus 
 asccndcns. Obliquus tmnor. This muscle arises fleshy from 
 
112 
 
 all the circle of the spine of the ilium; and by a thin ten- 
 don, common with the serratus and latissimus dorsi, from 
 the three lower spinous processes of the loins. From the 
 spine of the ilium it ascends upwards in a radiated direc- 
 tion, and crosses the abdomen to the linea alba; its higher 
 fibres reaching the sternum, and the lower ones the pubis. 
 Its flat tendon is inserted into the cartilages of all the false 
 ribs, into the sternum, and into the linea alba, throughout 
 its whole length. It acts in conjunction with the former, 
 
 TRANSVERSALIS ABDOMINIS. Lumbo-abdominalis. This 
 muscle arises fleshy from the inner surface of the six lower 
 ribs ; from the transverse processes of the four last lumbar 
 vertebrae ; from the whole spine of the ilium ; and from part 
 of Poupart's ligament. Its fibres run directly across the 
 abdomen, and are inserted tendinous into the whole length 
 ef the linea alba. This muscle also acts in conjunction 
 with the two former in compressing the abdomen. 
 
 RECTUS ABDOMINIS. Pubio-sternalis. These two mus- 
 cles cover the fore part of the abdomen, in a line between 
 the sternum and pubis, one on each side the linea alba, and 
 are enclosed all this way by a sheath of tendon, formed by 
 a separation of those of the oblique, which are uppermost, 
 from that of the transversalis, which lies underneath. The 
 origin is fleshy from the outside of the sternum ; it pro- 
 ceeds about four inches in breadth all down the abdomen, 
 and is inserted by a short flat-pointed tendon on the side of 
 the symphysis of the pubis. It is crossed at intervals by 
 four tendinous intersections. The recti muscles not only 
 compress the abdomen, but bring the trunk forwards to- 
 wards the pubis. 
 
 PYRAMIDALIS. Pubio-sub-unibilicalis. A small triangu- 
 lar muscle immediately above the symphysis pubis, from 
 
113 
 
 the side of which it arises broad, and is inserted a little 
 above into the linea alba. Its use is to assist the rectus in 
 drawing down the sternum, and also to tighten the linea 
 alba. Frequently it is wanting on both sides ; the rectus is 
 then found larger at its under end. 
 
 The umJdlicus, or navel, was originally an opening in the 
 foetus, through which the umbilical vein and two um- 
 bilical arteries passed. After birth, the vessels dege- 
 nerate into ligaments within the abdomen, and the 
 opening is closed, like a ring, in the middle of the 
 linea alba. The tendinous fibres are very firmly con- 
 nected together in this place; yet they occasionally 
 give way, and some of the abdominal viscera protrude, 
 which constitutes the exomphalos, or umbilical hernia. 
 
 The abdominal ring-, or, as it is also termed, the inguinal 
 ring, is an opening in the lower part of the abdomen, 
 just above the pubis, through which the spermatic 
 cord of men passes, and the round ligament of women. 
 It is an opening in the external oblique muscle only, 
 the other muscles having nothing to do with it ; form- 
 ed by the splitting, as it were, of its tendinous fibres 
 at that part. It begins about an inch and a half above 
 the pubis, is oblique, looking towards the pubis. The 
 tendinous fibres forming the upper part of the opening, 
 go directly towards the highest point of the pubis; 
 and the slip of fibres which form the lower edge of the 
 slit, turn in behind the upper one, and are implanted 
 into the pubis, within and behind the upper edge of 
 fibres. It is this crossing of the fibres which secures 
 the opening ; for the more the muscle pulls m pressing 
 the abdomen, the tighter the ring is drawn. Protru- 
 sions of the viscera of the abdomen at this place form 
 bubonocele. 
 
 Umbilical and inguinal hernia do not consist in the rup- 
 ture of any part to allow the viscera to protrude. The 
 tendinous fibres lose their strength, and constant pres- 
 sure upon them causes them to be elongated, or to 
 separate from one another : when this separation is ef- 
 fected, the peritoneum lining the abdomen, an elastic 
 
114- 
 
 membrane, always goes before the protruding viscus, 
 and constitutes the sac of the hernia. Original mid- 
 formation of the inguinal ring is the most frequent 
 cause of hernia in that part : this runs through families. 
 
 MUSCLES ABOUT THE MALE ORGANS OF 
 GENERATION. 
 
 DARTOS *. The membrane so termed is said by many to 
 be muscular; it appears, however, to be no more than a 
 condensation of cellular membrane lining the scrotum, 
 which admits of being corrugated and relaxed. It is placed 
 immediately under the skin of the scrotum. 
 
 CREMASTER. Musculus testis,A. number of fleshy fibres 
 which arise about the ring and Poupart's ligament, and run 
 downwards to be inserted into the tunica vaginalis testis. 
 \Vhen this flat sheet of fibres contract, the testicle is drawn 
 upwards. 
 
 ERECTOR PENIS. Ischin-supjienialis. Collateralis penis. 
 Jschw-cavei-nosus. A small muscle which lies along the crus 
 penis on each side. It arises by a slender tendon from the 
 tuberosity of the ischium, and goes fleshy, thin, and flat 
 over the crus penis, to be inserted about two inches up into 
 the crus of the penis. These muscles are supposed, by press- 
 ing the penis against the pubis, to compress the vena magna 
 ipsius penis, and so cause an erection. 
 
 ACCELERATOR VRWK.jBulbo-urethralis. Ejaculator se- 
 ikinis. Arises from the sphincter of the anus, and a little 
 above the bulb of the urethra, and meets its fellow in a 
 white tendinous line along the lower part of the bulb of the 
 urethra; so that these two muscles surround the whole of 
 the bulb. Their use is to compress the urethra in emptying 
 it of the last drops of urine, and to expel forcibly the se- 
 
115 
 
 men, which they do with a kind of involuntary or convul- 
 sive action. 
 
 TRANSVERSALIS PERIN/EI. Jschio-perinealis. Transi'ersa- 
 lis penis. Transversalis p&intei alter. Arises by a delicate 
 tendon from the tuberosity of the ischium, and crosses the 
 perinaeum, to be inserted into the very back part of the bulb 
 of the urethra. There is occasionally another muscle ac- 
 companying it, called tranwersalis perincei alter. Its chief 
 use is to prevent the anus being too much protruded in dis- 
 charging the faeces. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ANUS. 
 
 SPHINCTER AM. Coccygeo-analis. Abroad circular band 
 of muscular fibres surrounding the anus. It arises from a 
 point of the os coccygis behind, and sends a neat slip for- 
 wards, by which it is attached to the back part of the acce- 
 lerator uriruE. When it contracts, the anus is shut. 
 
 In performing the operation for fistula in ano, this 
 muscle, or some part of it, is mostly divided. 
 
 LEVATOR ANI *. Sub-pubio-cocct/geus. Musculus ani latus. 
 One broad thin muscle arising from the internal surface 
 of the fore part of the pelvis ; so that its origin is continued 
 from the internal pubis all the way round to the sacrum. 
 It grows gradually smaller as it passes downwards to sur- 
 round the anus, and is inserted into the circle of the anus, 
 the point of the os coccygis, and is mixed with the sphincter 
 ant. This muscle raises the anus, dilates it, and supports 
 it during the evacuation of the faces. 
 
116 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF 
 GENERATION. 
 
 ERECTOR CLITORIDIS. Ischio-sub-clitorideus. A small 
 delicate muscle arising from the internal part of the crus of 
 the ischium, and inserted into the upper part of the crus, 
 and into the body of the clitoris. Its use is to draw the cli- 
 toris downward, and make it tense. 
 
 SPHINCTER VAGINA *. Perirueo-clitorideus. A circular 
 bundle of fibres arising from the sphincter aui and sides of 
 the vagina, which it surrounds, and inserted into the union 
 of the cruret clitondis. It contracts the entrance of the va- 
 gina. 
 
 TRANSVERSUS PERINJEI. Origin, insertion, and use, the 
 same as in the male. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE PELVIS. 
 
 OBTURATOR INTERNUS. Marsupialis. Sursalis. This 
 muscle arises from all the internal surface of the obturator 
 ligament, from the edges of the foramen thyroideum within 
 the pelvis, and comes out by turning round the ischium in 
 the notch between the tuberosity and the spine of the ilium ; 
 it proceeds between the crura of the gemini and its tendon, 
 is united to theirs, and inserted with them by one common 
 tendon into the root of the great trochanter. It rolls the 
 thigh obliquely outwards. 
 
 COCCYGEUS. A thin flat muscle which arises by a nar- 
 row point from the inside of the spinous process of the 
 ilium, and is inserted after being expanded, fleshy into the 
 whole length of the os coccygis. It pulls the point of the 
 os coccygis upwards. 
 
117 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE CAVITY OF 
 THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM A*. Septum transverswn. The diaphragm is 
 called in English, midriff. It is a transverse vaulted muscle, 
 dividing the cavity of the thorax from that of the abdomen. 
 It is fleshy towards its borders, and tendinous in the centre, 
 convex towards the thorax, concave towards the abdomen. 
 It arises by one broad fleshy attachment from all the lower 
 borders of the chest ; and this fleshy origin constitutes what 
 is considered by some as the upper or greater muscle of the 
 diaphragm. It arises also by many small tendinous feet from 
 the fore part of the loins, which soon unite in two fleshy 
 bellies, termed the crura diaphragmatis, which, meeting, 
 form what is termed the lesser muscle of the diaphragm. The 
 middle of the diaphragm is a strong aponeurosis, and is dis- 
 tinguished by the epithet of centrum t&idinosum. The shape 
 of this tendinous centre is determined by the fleshy bellies ; 
 the large one above almost surrounds it, and the lesser one 
 below meeting the larger, the two divisions give it a pointed 
 form behind, not unlike a trefoil leaf, or the ace of hearts. 
 The tendinous centre is fixed to the spine, so that the two 
 sides form two convexities in the cavity of the chest. 
 
 Apertures. This great muscle is perforated by several 
 vessels passing reciprocally betwixt the thorax and abdo- 
 jnen ; and the apertures through which they pass, have re- 
 ceived appropriate names : i. Fvramen dextrum. The vena 
 cava passes through this foramen to the heart. The opening 
 is of a triangular shape, tendinous, and larger than the vein 
 requires, st> that there is no danger of strangulation. 
 2. The foramen sinistrum, which is in the lower fleshy belly; 
 it transmits the oesophagus and par vagum into the caTity of 
 
118 
 
 the abdomen, and the muscular fibres are so disposed as to 
 make some anatomists believe they acted as a sphincter to 
 the cardia. 3. The foramen posterius, which is formed by 
 the crura of the diaphragm bestriding it like an arch, to 
 defend it from pressure. The aorta passes through this 
 opening into the abdomen, and the thoracic duct and vena 
 azygos from the cavity of the abdomen into the thorax. 
 
 Coverings. The upper surface of the diaphragm is cover- 
 ed by the pleura, and its under surface by the peritoneum. 
 Arteries. The diaphragmatic arteries arise from the de- 
 scending aorta. 
 
 Veins. The veins follow the arborescent course of th 
 arteries, and empty their blood in the vena azygos. 
 
 Nerves. The nerves of the diaphragm are called phrenic, 
 it being formerly the supposed seat of the mind : they arise 
 from the spinal nerves of the neck. 
 
 Use. Next to thp heart, this muscle is the most useful ; 
 it is the principal muscle in respiration, and is so perfect in 
 this office, that though there be a complete anchylosis of 
 the ribs, the person lives and breathes by the diaphragm, 
 without feeling the loss. Its actions, in assisting those of 
 the abdominal muscles in agitating the bowels, expelling 
 the faeces, urine, and fo&tus during labour, are of the utmost 
 assistance. 
 
 Inflammation of the muscular or cellular tissue of the dia- 
 phragm constitutes the disease called paraphrerdtiy, or 
 diaphrag-mitis. It does not often occur as an idiopa- 
 thic affection, but more frequently from inflammation 
 of the pleura or peritoneum. 
 
 QVADRATUS LUMBORUM. Ilw-costa.Hs. A flat, oblong, 
 though somewhat square muscle, arising fleshy from the 
 back part of the os ilium and ligauxeuts of the pelvis, which 
 
119 
 
 tie the back part of the ilium to the side of the sacrum and 
 transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It goes up- 
 wards to be inserted into the points of the transverse pro- 
 cesses and the lower edge of the last rib. It supports the 
 loins, and draws the spine to one side. 
 
 PSOAS PARVUS. Pralwnbo-pubialis. A muscle of the 
 loins, which arises from the last dorsal and first lumbar ver- 
 tebrae, and passes down by the side of the psoas magnus to 
 be inserted into the brim of the pelvis, near the acetabulum. 
 It is often wanting. It bends the loins forwards. 
 
 PSOAS MAGNUS. Prcdumbo-troclumtineus. A very long 
 and fleshy muscle filling the space upon the sides of the 
 spine. It arises by an upper head from the last vertebra of 
 the back, then successively from each lumbar vertebra, not 
 only from the sides of their bodies, but likewise from their 
 transverse processes. The muscle then descends thick, round, 
 and fleshy, to be united with the internal iliac muscle, under 
 Poupart's ligament, and the common tendon then bends ob- 
 liquely round to be inserted into the lesser trochanter. The 
 psoas muscles are in constant use in moving the thigh for- 
 wards, and supporting the pelvis upon the thigh-bone. 
 
 Inflammation of the cellular membrane near this muscle 
 very frequently terminates in abscess, called psoas ab- 
 scess. Dissections prove that it more commonly hap- 
 pens in the cellular structure around the muscle, than 
 in the substance of the muscle. After a short time, the 
 pus descends under Poupart's ligament, following the 
 course of this muscle in the cellular substance sur- 
 rounding the tendon and femoral vessels. At other 
 times it insinuates itself under the fascia of the thigh , 
 and opens in various places very remote from the psoa 
 muscle ; nor is its appearance upon the loins and about 
 the hip-joint unfrequent. It mostly proves fatal. 
 
120 
 
 ILIACUS INTERNUS. Ilio-trochantineus. A thick, fleshy, 
 fan-like muscle, occupying the internal surface of the iliac 
 portion of the os innominatum. It arises from the inner edge 
 of the crista .of the ilium, and adheres to the concavity of 
 that bone down to the brim of the pelvis, to the fore part of 
 the bone under the spinous process. All its radiated fibres 
 are gathered together into a tendon under Poupart's liga- 
 ment, where it unites with the psoas, and the common ten- 
 don turns obliquely round to be inserted into the lesser 
 trochanter. It acts in conjunction with the psoas in moving 
 the thigh forwards. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART 
 OF THE THORAX. 
 
 PECTORALIS MAJOR. Pectoralis. Sterno-humeralis. A 
 large, thick, and fleshy muscle which covers all the breast. 
 It arises from the clavicle next the sternum, from the edge 
 of the sternum and the cartilaginous endings of the fifth 
 and sixth ribs. All its fibres converge to form a flat twisted 
 tendon, which goes before the armpit, to be inserted into 
 the edge of the groove in the humerus for the tendon of the 
 biceps. When this muscle contracts, the arm is brought 
 forwards obliquely. 
 
 Cancer of the breast is situated over this muscle ; and is 
 occasionally very firmly attached to it. 
 
 SUBCLAVIUS. Subclavianus. A small muscle concealed 
 under the clavicle. It arises by a flat tendon from the car- 
 tilage of the first rib, and is inserted fleshy into a great part 
 of the clavicle. Its use is to fix the davicle more firmly. 
 
 PECTORALIS MINOR. Costo-coracoidalis. Serratus minm 
 anticus. This muscle lies underneath the pectoralis major, 
 
121 
 
 close upon the ribs. It arises thick and fleshy from the 
 third, fourth, and fifth ribs, and its fibres all converge to 
 form a thick fleshy point, to be inserted into the very apex 
 of the coracoid process of the scapula. It pulls the scapula 
 directly forwards. 
 
 SERRATUS MAJOR ANTICUS. Costo-scapularis. Thi* 
 muscle covers the side of the chest. It arises by sharp- 
 pointed slips or dictations from all the true ribs, except 
 the first, and from three of the false ribs. It proceeds up- 
 wards and backwards to form a fleshy cushion, as it were, 
 for the scapula ; and its fibres all converge to be inserted 
 into the basis of the scapula. It pulls the scapula down- 
 wards and forwards. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE RIBS, AND 
 WITHIN THE THORAX. 
 
 JNTERCOSTALES EXTERNI. The external layer of muscu- 
 lar fibres between the ribs is so termed. They run from the 
 spine towards the sternum, having their fibres directed from 
 behind forwards, and stopping at the cartilages of the ribs. 
 They assist in inspiration, by raising the ribs. 
 
 INTERCOSTALES INTERNI. These muscles run from be- 
 fore backwards, underneath the former, and cross them. 
 They raise the ribs. 
 
 STER.VO-COSTALIS. Triangularis sterni. This is very ge- 
 nerally considered as a triangular muscle lying on each side, 
 chiefly on the inner face of the sternum, and on the carti- 
 lages of the ribs ; whilst some think it is three or four 
 muscles : they are, in fact, three or four slips, arising from 
 the ensiform cartilage, and going over the middle of the 
 a 
 
sternum to be inserted into the second, third, and fourth 
 rib. Their office is to depress the rib. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF 
 THE NECK CLOSE TO THE VERTEBRAE. 
 
 LONGUS COLLI. Fr<pdorso-atloideus.-- r This is the chief of 
 the muscles which lie ou the fore part of the neck. It arises 
 within the thorax, from the flat part of the bodies of the 
 three uppermost dorsal vertebrae, and from the transverse 
 processes of the four last vertebrae of the neck ; and is in- 
 serted into the fore part of the second cervical vertebra, 
 where the opposite large muscles meet. It pulls the neck 
 to one side, and, with its fellow, the head and neck directly 
 forwards. 
 
 RECTUS INTERNUS CAPITIS MAJOR. Rectus anterior longus. 
 Trachelo-sub-occipitalis major. Arises from the transverse 
 processes of the five lower cervical vertebrae, and proceed* 
 obliquely to be inserted into the cuneiform process of the 
 occipital bone, just before the foramen magnum octipilale. 
 It pulls the head and neck directly forwards. 
 
 RECTUS INTERNUS CAPITIS MINOR. Rectus anterior mim>r. 
 Trachelo-sub-occipitalis minor. A very small muscle imme- 
 diately underneath the former. It arises from the fore part 
 of the atlas, and goes obliquely inwards to be inserted into 
 the occipital bone, near the condyle. It assists the former. 
 
 RECTUS CAPITIS LATERALIS. dtloido-sub-occijritutis. A 
 very small muscle like the former. It arises from the trans- 
 verse processes of the atlas, and is inserted into the side of 
 the cuneiform processes of the os occipitis. It lies immedi- 
 ately under the exit of the internal jugular vein. It mores 
 
123 
 
 the head to one side ; and, when both act, they assist the 
 former muscles in pulling the head forwards. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED 6N THE POSTERIOR PART 
 OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 TRAPEZI us. Dorso-super-acromialis. Cucullaris. These 
 two muscles cover the back part of the neck and shoulders, 
 extending from the tip of one shoulder to the tip of the 
 other, and from the nape of the neck quite down to the 
 loins ; hence it has been compared to a monk's cowl hang- 
 ing back upon the neck. It arises by a strong tendon from 
 the most pointed part of the os occipitis, and along the 
 transverse spine to the mastoid process : from this point, all 
 down the neck, it has no hold of the vertebrae, but arises 
 from the ligamentum nuch&: it then arises from the spines of 
 the two last cervical vertebrae, and those of the back. From 
 this long origin its fibres converge into one point, the tip 
 of the shoulder, to be inserted into the scapular end of the 
 clavicle, the acromion of the scapula, and the whole length 
 of its spine. The trapezius is chiefly a muscle of the sca- 
 pula: it also bends the neck and head backwards. 
 
 LATISSIMUS DORSI. Lumbo-humerctlis. The broadest 
 muscle of the whole body. It covers all the lower part of 
 the back and loins. It arises by a broad flat tendon in the 
 middle of the back, loins, and sacrum, and fleshy from the 
 circle of the ilium. The tendon gradually becomes a flat 
 regular muscle, which proceeds upwards, passes over the 
 corner of the scapula, from which it receives a small fleshy 
 bundle, and several smaller ones as it passes over the ribs ; 
 it then becomes a twisted tendon, which, passing to the 
 c z 
 
124 
 
 axilla, turns under the os nuineri tu, be inserted into the 
 inner edge of the groove of the tendon of the biceps, Thus 
 it appears that the anterior part of the axilla is formed by 
 the pectoral'is major, and ^the posterior by the latissbnu-s 
 dorsi: hence they support the whole body when on crutches. 
 The latter muscle brings the arm down, when raised, as in 
 striking with a hammer; and downwards and backwards, 
 as in knocking with the elbow ; it also turns the palm of 
 the hand behind the back. 
 
 " SERRATUS POSTICUS INFERIOR. JLumbo-costalis. A very 
 broad thin muscle, situated in the lower part of the back 
 under the former, with which it arises from the three lower 
 dorsal and four uppermost lumbar vertebrae. It soon be- 
 comes fleshy, and divides into three or four slips, each of 
 which is inserted separately into the ninth, tenth, eleventh, 
 and twelfth lower ribs, near their cartilage. It pulls the 
 ribs downwards and backwards. 
 
 RHOMBOIDEUS. Domo-scapularis, Rhomboideits major ct 
 w'n0r.- i -A neat, flat, square muscle, situated between tlu> 
 spine and the whole length of the basis of the scapula. 
 Oqe part arises from the three lower spinous processes of 
 the cervical vertebra, and goes across to be inserted into 
 the uppermost part of the basis of the scapula. The other 
 portion arises from the spinous processes of the four first 
 dorsal vertebrae, and goes directly across under the former 
 piece, to be implanted into the lowermost part of the basi* 
 of the scapula. These are generally considered as two 
 distinct muscles, though it often happens that there is no 
 division, and most frequently only a partial one. The, v 
 of the rhomboideus is to move the scapula upward* and 
 backwards. 
 
f, 125 
 
 SPLENIUS. Sjolenius capitis. Splemus collL This muscle 
 lies immediately under the trapezuts and above the com- 
 plexus, aud is named splenius, from its lying like a surgieal 
 splint along the side of the neck. It is a flat and broad 
 tnuacle, arising from the four uppermost spinous processes 
 of the back, and five lowest of the neck, and proceeds up- 
 wards and outwards to be implanted into the whole length 
 of the occipital ridge and mastoid process of the temporal 
 bone. Immediately under this portion is another arising 
 with it, but terminating by four or five distinct tendons in 
 the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebrse. 
 This portion is considered by some as a distinct muscle, and 
 called splenitts collt> and the former splenius capitis. When 
 the muscle of one side acts, the head is pulled backwards 
 to one side ; when both act, it is drawn directly backwards j 
 and when the muscle of one side with the sterno-cleido-mas- 
 toideus of the same side act together, the ear is brought 
 down upon the shoulder. 
 
 SERRATUS SUPERIOR POSTICUS. Dorso-costalis. This is 
 a flat muscle lying on the posterior part of the chest, over 
 the splenius. It arises by a flat and shining tendon from 
 the spiuous processes of the lower cervical and two upper- 
 most dorsal vertebrae, and goes obliquely downwards under 
 the upper comer of the scapula, to be inserted into the se- 
 cond, third, awl fourth ribs, by three fleshy digitations. 
 They elevate the ribs. 
 
 SPINALIS DORSI. There is one long mass of muscular and 
 Heiuiinous fibres going from spine to spine along the whcle 
 eugth of the back and neck ; and which is divided into 
 ap-utaJ-is dorn and cervicis. The former arises from the two 
 upper spinous processes of the loins and three lower of the 
 back, and passing tw,Q spines untouched, is inserted into, all 
 6, r 
 
es 
 
 the spinous processes of the back, except the uppermost. 
 it raises the spine. 
 
 LEVATORES COSTARUM. Supra-costales, Leratores costa- 
 rum long-lores. These are twelve muscles on each side, for 
 the direct purpose of raising the ribs. They arise from the 
 transverse processes of the last cervical and eleven upper- 
 most dorsal vertebrae, and go down to the angle of each 
 rib. The three last are twice as long as the others. 
 
 SACRo-LUiMBALis. Saci'o-costalis. Additamentum ad sa- 
 cro-lumbalem. Musculi accessorii. This muscle arises by a 
 tendon common to it and the longissimus dorsi, from all the 
 spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae, from the spines 
 of the sacrum, and back part of the os ilium. Just opposite 
 the lowest rib the tendons separate, and the sacro-lumbalis 
 goes away to be inserted by a flat tendon into each rib 
 From the surface of the six or seven lowest ribs there arises 
 a small slip, which mixes with the substance of this muscle : 
 these slips are termed additamenta ad sacro-lumbalem, and 
 sometimes musculi accessorii. There is also a fleshy slip con- 
 nected with the sacro-lumbalis, sometimes described as a 
 distinct muscle, when it is termed cervicalis descendcns. 
 
 CERVICALIS DESCENDENS. This muscle is connected with 
 the former; it arises from the transverse processes of the five 
 lower cervical vertebrae, and passes downwards small and 
 slender, to be inserted into the six uppermost ribs. It turns 
 the neck obliquely backwards, and to one side. 
 
 LONGISSIMUS DORSI. Sacro-sp'malis. A round, thick, 
 iirm muscle, filling up the hollow betwixt the spine and the 
 angle of the ribs. It arises by a tendon common to it and 
 the former muscle, and is implanted by two distinct sets of 
 insertions into the heads of the ribs and the transverse pro- 
 cesses of the vertebrae. The chief use of this muscle is t<* 
 
- 127 
 
 assist in returning the spine to the erect posture, and to 
 keep it erect. 
 
 TRANSVERSAHS COLLI. Arises from the five upper trans- 
 verse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, and passes upwards to 
 be inserted into the transverse processes of the neck. It is 
 sometimes considered as belonging to thelongissimus dorsi. 
 
 COMPLEXES. Implicatus. Trigeminus. Biventer cervicis. 
 (bmplexiis major. Trachelo-occipitalis. This is so called 
 from the intricacy of its muscular and tendinous parts. It 
 lies immediately under the splenius, and arises by ten or 
 more tendinous feet from the transverse processes of the four 
 lower cervical and seven uppermost dorsal vertebrae. It then 
 becomes a large, thick, fleshy, and tendinous mass, filling 
 up the hollow by the sides of the cervical spinous processes, 
 and terminates by a broad fleshy head in the lower occi- 
 pital ridge. It draws the head backwards. 
 
 TRACHELO-MASTOIDEUS. Complexus minor. Mastoideus 
 lateralis. Arises from the transverse processes of the three 
 first vertebrae of the back and the five lowest of the neck, 
 and is inserted into the mastoid process. When one muscle 
 contracts, the head is drawn obliquely backwards ; and 
 when both act together, it is pulled directly backwards. 
 
 LEVATOR SCAPULAE. Levator proprvis angular^. Muwu- 
 lus patientitB. Trachelo-scapularis. A small thin muscle 
 which arises from the transverse processes of the four or five 
 uppermost rertebrae of the neck, by as many distinct heads, 
 which soon unite, and the muscle goes downwards to be 
 inserted into the upper part of the scapula by a thin tendon. 
 It pulls the scapula up, as in shrugging the shoulders. 
 
 SEMI-SPINALIS DORSI. Transverso-spinalis dorsi. Arises 
 from the transverse processes of the seventh, eighth, ninth, 
 and tenth dorsal, and is inserted into the spinous processes 
 G 4 
 
128 
 
 of the four uppermost and last cervical vertebra. It extends 
 the spine obliquely backward. 
 
 MULTIFIDUS SPIN&. Semi-spinalis interims, sive trans- 
 verso-spinalis dorsi. Semi-spinalis, sive transverso-spinalis colli, 
 pars interna. Transversalis lumborum, vulgo sacer. Trans- 
 versalis dorsi. Transversalis colli. The many irregular por- 
 tions of muscle, which authors have variously described, 
 running from the sacrum all along the spine to the vertebrae 
 of the neck, are comprehended under the name of multifidus 
 vpinee. It begins tendinous and fleshy from the upper part 
 of the sacrum, from the oblique processes of the lumbar 
 vertebrae, from the transve-rse processes, and from the ob- 
 lique processes of the cervical vertebras ; and its many 
 bundles are inserted into the spinous processes of the third 
 or fourth, above that from which the bundle arose. These 
 muscles prevent the spine from being too much bent for- 
 wards, and also move the spine backwards. .' ^ 
 
 SPINALIS CERVICIS. Semi-spinalis colli. Transverso-spi- 
 nalis collL Arises from the transverse processes of the six 
 uppermost dorsal vertebras, and is inserted into all the spi- 
 nous processes of the cervical vertebrae, except the first and 
 last. It stretches the neck obliquely backwards. 
 
 RECTUS CAPITIS POSTICUS MAJOR. Ojcoido-occipitatis. 
 Arises tendinous from the spinous transverse process of the 
 second cervical vertebra, and mounts up fleshy, to be in- 
 serted into the lower occipital ridge. It draws the head 
 backwards. 
 
 RECTUS CAPITIS POSTICUS MINOR. Atloido-occipitalis. 
 A shorter muscle than the former, arising tendinous from 
 the middle of the first vertebra of the neck, and is inserted 
 fleshy with the former into the lower occipital ndge. l\& 
 action assists that of, the major. 
 
129 
 
 G'BLIOUUS CAPITIS SUPERIOR. dtloido-suh-mastoideus. 
 The oblique muscles very much resemble the recti, except 
 in their direction. This arises from the transverse process of 
 the atlas, and goes obliquely to be inserted into the end of 
 the lower occipital ridge. It assists in turning the head. 
 
 OBLIQUUS CAPITIS INFERIOR. Oxoido-atloideus. Arises 
 from the spihous process of the second cervical vertebra, 
 and is inserted into the transverse process of the atlas. It 
 assists in turning the head quickly. 
 
 SCALENUS. Costo-centicalis. Sccdenus prirmts et secundus. 
 The ancients considered this as one triangular muscle. 
 It has since been distinguished as two, three, four, and even 
 five distinct muscles. It is, in fact, one great, flat, triangu- 
 lar muscle, stretching from the ribs to the neck, closing the 
 thorax above, and giving passage to the nerves and vessels 
 of the arm. It arises from the transverse processes of the 
 six lower cervical vertebrae : one part of it is inserted into 
 the flat part of the first rib close by its cartilage ; another 
 portion is inserted into the whole length of the outer edge 
 of the first rib ; and a third portion is inserted into the 
 upper edge of the rib. It moves the head forwards, or pulls 
 the neck to one side. 
 
 INTERSPINALIS. Interspincdis cotti, dorsi, et lumborum. 
 Under this term are comprehended the muscular, tendinous, 
 and ligamcntous fibres passing from one spinous process to 
 the next throughout the spine. In the neck they are mus- 
 cular; in the back, ligamentous; and in the loins, tendi- 
 nous, or ligamentous. They draw the spinous processes to- 
 wards each other. 
 
 INTER-TRANSVERSALIS. These are small bundles, strong- 
 est where there is most motion, passing between the trans- 
 verse processes of the spine. They draw these parts together. 
 G 5 
 
ISO 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 SUPRA-SPINATUS. Super-scapulo-trochitereus parvus. A 
 muscle occupying the hollow of the scapula above its spine. 
 It arises from the back, spine, and edge of the scapula ; is 
 very thick and fleshy, and is inclosed by an aponeurosis. It 
 .runs along the scapula under the acromion, and there be- 
 comes tendon, which passes over the head of the humerus, 
 to be inserted into the great tuberosity of the head of the 
 hurnerus. In its passage, taking hold of the capsular liga- 
 ment, it raises the arm directly upwards, and lifts the cap- 
 sular ligament up, so as to prevent its being pinched. 
 
 INFRA-SPINATUS. Super-scapulo-trochitereus magnus. 
 This arises from the back, spine, and lower margin of the 
 scapula, occupying the cavity below the spine of the sca- 
 pula, and is covered with a strong aponeurosis like the for- 
 mer muscle. It becomes perfectly tendinous at the capsular 
 ligament of the shoulder-joint, to which it is attached, and 
 then passes over it, to be inserted into the great tuberosity 
 of the humerus. It assists the former. 
 
 TERES MINOR. Sufer-scapulo-trochitereus minimus. A 
 flat muscle, which appears somewhat round when superfici- 
 ally dissected. It is closely connected at its origin with the 
 infra-spinatus; it is long, small, and fleshy; arises from the 
 angle and all the lower edge of the scapula, and accompa- 
 nies the infra-spinatus to be attached to the capsular liga- 
 ment, aud then inserted into the great tuberosity of the os 
 brachii. It assists the former muscles in raising the arm. 
 
 TERES MAJOR. Scapulo-humeiclis. This is a thicker 
 aud longer muscle than the former, situated below it, and 
 arising chiefly from the angle of the scapula, and is closely 
 
isi 
 
 connected with the teres minor and infra-spinatus. Its ten- 
 don passes under the long head of the triceps, and is in- 
 serted into the ridge on the inner side of the groove along 
 with the tendon of the latissimus dorsi. Its chief use is to 
 draw the arm downwards and backwards. 
 
 DELTOIDES. Sub-acroinio-humeralis. A thick, fleshy 
 muscle which covers the top of the shoulder. It arises from 
 the outer end of the clavicle ; from the point of the aero- 
 mion of the scapula, and also from the spine of the sca- 
 pula: the muscular fibres from these origins all converge 
 over the shoulder, and form a flat, strong tendon, which is 
 inserted into the os brachii, one third down. Its use is to 
 raise the arm. 
 
 CORACO-BRACHIALIS. Musculus perforatus Casserii. A 
 long and rather slender muscle, so named from its origin 
 and insertion, It arises fleshy from the coracoid process of 
 the scapula, along with the short head of the biceps, which 
 it accompanies, and is inserted by a short tendon into the 
 middle of the os brachii, and sends down an aponeurosis to 
 the internal condyle. It raises the arm obliquely forwards 
 and upwards. 
 
 SUBSCAPULARIS. Sub-scapulo-trochineus . This muscle 
 lines ail the convexity of the scapula, and is consequently 
 of a triangular shape. It is very fleshy, thick, and strong, 
 and iu fibres all converging from their origin in the two 
 edges and base of the scapula, to form a tendon, give it a 
 radiated or fan-like appearance. The tendon accompanies 
 that of the supra-spinatus, and goes round the head of tho 
 humerus to be inserted into the lesser tuberosity of the os 
 brachii. In its passage it adheres to the capsular ligament. 
 It rolls the arm inwards, and prevents the capsular liga- 
 ment from being pinched. 
 
 c 6 
 
132 
 
 The superior extremity is covered by an aponeurosis 
 -which arises from the muscles and bones of the shoulder : 
 its use is to give origin or attachment to the muscles, and 
 to increase their strength while in action. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE OS BRACHII. 
 
 BICEPS FLEXOR cvEm.Scapulo-radialis. Biceps. Biceps 
 flexw brachii.A. very thick and strong muscle situated in 
 the fore part of the arm. It arises by two distinct heads : 
 one, the larger and thicker head, arises by a long tendou 
 from the coracoid process of the scapula; the other, the 
 longer head, arises from the' edge of the glenoid cavity of 
 the scapula. About one third down the arm the two heads 
 meet, and form a firm fleshy belly, which terminates in a 
 tendon implanted into the tubercle on the fore part of the 
 radius, a little below its neck. An aponeurosis is sent off 
 from this muscle just above the flexure of the arm. It bends 
 the fore-arm with great strength. 
 
 The aponeurosis of the biceps is sometimes punctured in 
 bleeding. When the puncture is in the direction of 
 the fibres, and the arm kept still, it seldom produces 
 any mischief; but when the fibres are divided trans- 
 versely, and the muscle put into much action, inflam- 
 mation and its consequences take place. 
 
 BRACHIALR INTERNUS. Humero-cubitalis. This muscle 
 lies immediately under the biceps, which it assists. It arises 
 by a forked head from two thirds of the os brachii at its 
 fore part, and continues its attachment all the way down to 
 vrithin an inch of the joint. It is inserted by a flat tendon 
 into the coracoid process of the ulna, and into the capsular 
 ligament of the joint. 
 
 TRICEPS EXTENSOR CUBITI. Scapulo-humero-olceratieus. 
 Extensor longus. Extensor brevis. Brachialisinternus.-*- This 
 
133 
 
 muscle is situated on the back part of the arm, and was for- 
 merly described as three distinct muscles. It arises by a 
 long tendon from the edge of the scapula ; by an outer head 
 from the os brachii, just under the greater tuberosity; and 
 by an internal head, which is the shortest from the inside of 
 the os brachii, just under the insertion of the teres major. 
 All these heads unite and are continued downwards, adher- 
 ing to the os brachii, to within an inch of the joint, where 
 a strong thick tendon is formed, which is implanted into 
 the olecranon, and partly into the capsular ligament. It 
 extends the fore -arm with considerable force. 
 
 ANCONEUS. Epicondylo-cubitalis. A small triangular 
 muscle, placed on the back part of the elbow. It arises from 
 the external condyle of the os brachii, and is inserted into 
 the back part, or ridge of the ulna. It assists in extending 
 the fore-arm. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE FORE-ARM. 
 
 SUPINATOR RADII LONGUS. Humero-super-rodialis. This 
 muscle forms the very edge of the fore-arm, arising from the 
 edge above the external condyle of the os brachii, becomes 
 very fleshy as it passes the elbow-joint, then tendinous and 
 long, and is inserted into the radius, near the styloid pro- 
 cess. It assists in turning the palm of the hand upwards. 
 
 EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGIOR. Radlalis externus 
 longiar. Humero-super-metacarpeus. Arises from the ridge 
 of the os brachii, just above the external condyle : having 
 become a thick fleshy belly, it passes along the back of the 
 radius, and then forms a thin tendon, which passes over 
 the wrist, under the annular ligament, and is inserted into 
 the root of the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. It ex- 
 tends the wrist. 
 
IM 
 
 EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIOR. Radialis externus 
 brevior. Epicondylo-super-metacarpeit,<>. r \i\% muscle is al- 
 most the same in origin and use with the former. It is in- 
 serted into the fore part of the metacarpal bone of the 
 middle finger. 
 
 EXTENSOR DIGITORUM COMMUNIS. Epicondylo-super-pha- 
 langeus communis.This muscle covers the middle of the 
 back part of the fore-arm, and betwixt the extensor radialis 
 secundus and the extensor minimi digiti. It arises from the 
 outer condyle of the humerus ; it grows very fleshy and 
 thick as it descends, and about the middle of the fore-arm 
 divides into three slips. The tendons pass under the annular 
 ligament, along the metacarpal bones, and first phalanx of 
 the fingers, where they are joined by those of the interossei 
 and lumbricales, and form a tendinous sheath, which sur- 
 rounds the back of all the fingers. It extends the fingers. 
 
 EXTENSOR MINIMI DIGITI. Auricularis. The little fin- 
 ger "is raised by this muscle, as in picking the ear. It arises 
 from the outer condyles of the humerus, and accompanies 
 the extensor digitorum communis, passes under the annular 
 ligament, in a channel peculiar to it, and is inserted into 
 the second joint of the little finger. 
 
 EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS, Ulnaris externus. Cubito-stt- 
 per-metacarpeus. Arises from the external tubercle of the 
 humerus, and proceeds along the ulnar edge of the arm, to 
 be affixed tendinous into the outside of the lower head of 
 the metacarpal bone of the little finger. Its us.e is to extend 
 the carpus. 
 
 FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS. Ulnaris internus. Cubito-car- 
 pens. This muscle arises tendinous from the inner condyle 
 of the os humeri, and fleshy from the olecranon ; it proceeds 
 fleshy along the lower edge of the arm } about the middle 
 
135 
 
 it becomes tendon, which goes to be inserted into the os 
 pisiforme. The flexor carpi radialis with this muscle bend 
 the wrist with great force ; alone it pulls the hand sideways. 
 PALMARIS LONGUS. Epitrochlo-palmaris. A long, thin 
 muscle, that arises from the internal coiidyle of the os humeri ; 
 its fleshy belly is but two or three inches long ; it then forms 
 a slender tendon, and passes along the middle of the fore- 
 arm to be inserted into the annular ligament, just under the 
 root of the thumb. It expands from thence into an aponeu- 
 rosis, which covers and protects the muscles and blood-ves- 
 aels of the hand. It bends the hand. 
 
 FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS. Radialis internus. Epitrcchlo- 
 tnetacarpeus. Along, thin muscle, arising, by a thick, short, 
 and split tendon, from the internal condyle of the humerus, 
 from which it proceeds fleshy, along the middle of the fore- 
 arm in the course of the radius. Its thin tendon passes 
 under the annular ligament, in a groove peculiar to itself, to 
 be inserted into the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. It 
 bends the wrist. 
 
 PRONATOR RADII TEREs.Efntrochlo-radialis.A. small, 
 round muscle, which arises from the internal condyle of the 
 humerus, and from the coronoid process of the ulna. It is 
 chiefly fleshy, and of a conical shape, stretching obliquely 
 across the arm, to be inserted into the outer ridge of the 
 radius, about the middle of its length. It turns the hand 
 downwards. 
 
 SUPINATOR RADII BREvis. Epicondylo~radialis. A short, 
 thick, and fleshy muscle : it arises from the external condyle 
 of the os brachii, from the edge of the ulna, and from th^ in- 
 terosseous ligament ; and is turned over the radius, to be 
 inserted into its ridge. It rotates the radius outwards. 
 
 EXTENSOR ossis METACARPI POLLICIS MANLS. Culito- 
 tuper-metacarpeus pollids. Extensor primus pollids. Exien- 
 
136 
 
 sor primi internodii. Abductor longus pollicis man/is. This 
 muscle crosses the fore-edge of the radius; arising from the 
 edge of the ulna, about the middle of the arm. Its fleshy 
 belly divides into two, three, or four slips, with distinct ten- 
 dons, which go under the ligament of the carpus, to be in- 
 serted iuto the root of the first metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb. Its .use is to extend the thumb. 
 
 EXTENSOR PRIMI INTERNODII. Cubito-super-pluUangeiu 
 primus pollicis. Extensor minor pollicis manus. Extensor pol- 
 lieis primus. Extensor secundi internodii. Extensor secundus 
 poJMcis. This mxiscle lies close to the former, arising just 
 below it, and accompanying it under the ligament of the 
 wrist ; it passes on to be inserted into the first phalanx of 
 the thumb, which it extends. 
 
 EXTENSOR KECUNDI INTERNODII. Oubito-sitper-phalan- 
 geus secundus pollicis. Extensor major pollicis mantis. Ex- 
 tensor pollicis secundus. Extensor tertii internodii. Extensor 
 tertius pollicis. A thick fleshy muscle, arising higher than 
 the former on the ulna, and passing straight down that 
 bone. Its small tendon passes the ligament of the wrist in 
 a peculiar ring, and goes on to be inserted into the last 
 bone of the thumb, which it extends. 
 
 INDICATOR. Extensor indicis propriusr. Cui/ito-fiiper-pha- 
 langeus primus indicis. Arises from the ridge of the ulna, is 
 attached to the interosseous ligament : its tendon passes 
 under the annular ligament, and then joins with the indi- 
 cator tendon of the common extensor. It extends all the 
 three joints of the fore-finger. 
 
 FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUBLIMIS. Perforatus. Epitrochh- 
 phalangeus communis. A large fleshy muscle, which lies be- 
 tween the palmaris longus and flexor ulnaris; it arises 
 from the internal condyle of the os brachii, from the liga- 
 ment of the elbow-joint, the coronoid process of the ulna, 
 
137 
 
 and from the upper part of the radius. Its fleshy and thick 
 belly divides about the middle of the fore-arm into four 
 fleshy slips, each of which gives off a slender tendon, which 
 passes under the annular ligament, to be inserted, after 
 being perforated near the first phalanx of the fingers, by the 
 tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus, into the fore part 
 of the second phalanx. The use of this strong muscle is to 
 bend the first and second phalanges. 
 
 FLEXOR DIGITORUM PROFUNDUS. Perforans. Cubtio- 
 pliaiangeus communis. This muscle lies deeper than the for- 
 mer, which it accompanies : it arises from the internal sur- 
 face of the ulna, and the iuterosseous ligament ; divide* 
 into four slips, whose tendons pass under the annular liga- 
 ment, perforate those of the flexor sublimis, and are in- 
 serted into the fore part of the last phalanx of the fingers. 
 It bends the last joint of the fingers. 
 
 FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS. Radio-plialangeus pollicis. 
 Flexor tertii internodii. This muscle runs by the inside of 
 the radius, arising from it, and the interosseous ligament ; 
 it has often, also, another head from the condyle of the 
 humerus, and fore part of the ulna. It passes under th 
 annular ligament, and is inserted into the last bone of the 
 thumb. It bends the thumb. 
 
 PRONATOR RADII QUADRATUS. Cubito-radialis. This lies 
 flat upon the interosseous ligament in the fore part of the 
 arm, about two inches above the wrist. It is nearly square, 
 its fibres going across between the radius and ulna. It turns 
 the radius upon the ulna. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED CHIEFLY ON THE HAND. 
 
 LUMBRICALES. Palmo-pJialangeus. Musculi jiditinales. 
 ^Fpur round small muscles, resembling earth-worms. They 
 
138 
 
 arise in the palm of the hand, from the tendons of the pro- 
 fundus : their small tendons reach the middle of the second 
 phalanx. They are chiefly useful in performing the quick 
 short motions of the fingers on musical instruments, &c. 
 
 FLEXOR BREVIS POLLICIS MAKUS. Carpo-phalangeuspol- 
 Kcis. Flexor secundi internodii.A. two-headed muscle, situ- 
 ated on the inside of the thumb; one head arises from the 
 os trapezium, the other from the os magnum. They are 
 inserted into the sesamoid bones, and edge of the first bone 
 of the thumb. The use of this muscle is to bend the first 
 joint of the thumb. 
 
 OFPONENS POLLICIS.- Flexor ossis metacarpi pollitis. Car- 
 po-metacarpeus pollicis.Lies under the abductor pollicis, 
 arising from the os scaphoides and ligament of the wrist. It 
 is inserted into the fore part of the metacarpal bone of the 
 thumb. It bends the thumb, as in clenching the fist. 
 
 ABDUCTOR POLLICIS MWUS. Carpo-super-phalang&is pol- 
 licis^ This muscle lies immediately under the common in 
 teguments : it arises from the annular ligament of the wrist, 
 and from the os scaphoides ; then bends gradually round 
 the thumb, to be inserted into the first bone of the thumb. 
 A second muscle is described by Albinus, by the same 
 name. It pulls the thumb from the fingers. 
 
 ADDUCTOR POLLICIS MANUS. Metacarpo-phalangeus polli- 
 cls. The metacarpal bone of the middle finger gives origin 
 to this triangular muscle; it goes directly across to meet 
 the thumb, and is inserted into the root of the first phalanx. 
 It draws the thumb towards the fore-finger. 
 
 ABDUCTOR INDICIS MANUS. A flat and broad muscle: it 
 arises from the os trapezium, and the first bone of the thumb, 
 and is inserted into the back part of the first bone of the 
 finger, which it pulls forwards towards the thumb. 
 
139 
 
 PALMARIS BRFVIS. Palmar o-cutaneus. Palmaris cuta- 
 
 T. A thin, flat, cutaneous muscle: it arises from the 
 palmar apeueurosis, and stretches across the hand, to be 
 inserted into the metacarpal bone of the little finger, and 
 the superincumbent fat. It stretches the aponeurosis of the 
 palm of the hand. 
 
 ABDUCTOR MINIMI DIGITI MANUS. Carpo-phalangeus mi- 
 nimi digiti.A thin, fleshy muscle, upon which the hand 
 rests in writing : it arises from the os pisiforme, and the 
 outer end of the annular ligament, and is inserted laterally 
 into the first bone of the little finger. It draws the little 
 finger away from the rest. 
 
 ADDUCTOR MINIMI DIGITI. Cai-po-metacarpeus minimi 
 digiti. Arises from the ligament of the wrist and cuneiform 
 bone, and turns round the metacarpal bone of the little 
 ftager, to be inserted into the outside of it. It pulls the 
 metacarpal bone of the little finger towards the thumb. 
 
 FLEXOR PARVUS MINIMI DIGITI. A small thin muscle, 
 which arises from the ligament of the wrist and unciform 
 bone, and accompanies the abductor minimi digiti, and has 
 nearly the same insertion. It bends the little finger. 
 
 INTEROSSEI EXTERNI et INTERNI. Metacarpo-phalangei- 
 laterales. These are small muscles, lying between the me- 
 tacarpal bones, and assisting the lumbricales in bending the 
 fingers. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The muscles of the inferior extremity are covered by a 
 strong APONEUROSIS, or FASCIA, which appears to originate 
 from the outside of the bones of the pelvis, but is a conti- 
 nuation of the flat tendons which cover the muscles of the' 
 loins tmd the abdomen. It attaches itself to the linea aspera, 
 
14-0 
 
 to the head of the tibia and fibula, to the spine of the tibia, 
 to some of the bones of the tarsus : it forms the annular 
 ligament, and terminates upon the foot. In its course it is 
 considerably strengthened by the aponeurosis, sent off from 
 the muscles, and is strongest on the outside of the thigh. 
 Its use is to strengthen the power of the muscles when in 
 action. See Tensor Vagina; femoris, page 143. 
 
 PECTINALIS. Super-pubio-femorali!,. Pectinaus. A broad, 
 flat, square muscle, lying under the skin, and arising from 
 the os pubis, or pectinis, from that part of it which forms 
 the brim of the pelvis, immediately above the foramen thy- 
 roideum ; it then proceeds downwards, to be inserted by a 
 long flat tendon into the linea aspera of the thigh-bon, just 
 below the little trochanter. Its use is to bring the knees 
 together -, to raise the thigh upwards, and give it a degree 
 of rotation outwards. 
 
 TRICEPS ADDUCTOR FEMORIS. A broad flat muscle, \vkh 
 three heads, which have so little connexion with one an- 
 other, that they are usually described as three muscles : 
 
 1. s/dductor longus femoris, Pubio-femoralis. This is 
 the uppermost head ; it arises from the upper and fore part 
 of the pubis, by a short roundish tendon, which becomes a 
 thick fleshy belly, and is inserted by a flat tendon along the 
 middle part of the linea aspera. 
 
 2. Adductor brevis femoris. Sitk-pubw-fcmor all's. This 
 portion lies under the farmer : it arises from the symphysis 
 of the pubis, by a thick flat tendon, which swells into a 
 thick fleshy belly ; it then becomes flat, and is inserted by 
 a flat tendon, into the upper part of the linea aspera. 
 
 3. Adductor ma gnus femoris. Ischw-femoralis. The head 
 of this muscle lies behind the former : it arises from the 
 symphysis pxibis, and all along the flat edge of the foramen 
 thyroideum, from whence it goes to be inserted into th 
 
141 
 
 linea aspera throughout its whole length, its fibres having 
 various degrees of obliquity. 
 
 The use of all these muscles is the same ; to bring the 
 thigh forwards and upwards. 
 
 OBTURATOR EXTERKLS.Sub-pubio-trochanteiius externus. 
 This short muscle, so named from its origin, arises from 
 the obturator ligament, and from the ramus ischii and pubis, 
 forming the sides of the thyroid foramen. Its fleshy fibres 
 are soon gathered into a round tendon, which twists under 
 the os femoris, to be inserted into the cavity at the root of 
 the great trochanter, attaching itself to the capsular liga- 
 ment. Its use is to roll the thigh obliquely outwards, and 
 to prevent the capsular ligament from being pinehed. 
 
 GLUTEUS MAXIMUS. Sacro-femoralis. Gluteus nutgvus. 
 Glutens major. This muscle lies immediately under th 
 skin, upon the posterior part of the thigh, upon which we 
 sit : it arises fleshy from the posterior half of the spine of the 
 ilium, from the junction of the ilium and sacrum, from the 
 whole external surface of the sacrum, and from the sacro- 
 sciatic ligament. All the fibres from these origins run 
 obliquely forwards and downwards to the thigh-bone, where 
 they are gathered into a broad tendon, which is implanted 
 into about three inches of the linea aspera, at its upper and 
 outer part. It extends the thigh, by pulling it directly 
 backwards and a little outwards. 
 
 GLUTEUS MEDIUS. Ilio-trochanterius magnus. This lies 
 immediately under the former : it arises from the anterior 
 half of the spine of the ilium, and from its anterior superior 
 *pinous process. Its fibres all converge towards the great 
 trochanter, into which the muscle is inserted by a broad 
 tendon. Its use is to draw the thigh outwards and a little 
 backwards, and to roil the thigh outwards, especially when 
 it is bended. 
 
14-2 
 
 GLUTEUS MINIMUS. I/io-trochanterius pannes. Ghttrus 
 tmnor. A muscle radiated like the former, but much 
 smaller : it arises from the middle of the external surface of 
 the ilium, from a ridge which is continued from the superior 
 anterior spinous process. Its short flat tendon is inserted 
 into the fore and upper part of the great trochanter. The 
 use of this is to assist the other glutei muscles. 
 
 PVRIFORMIS. Sacro-trochanterius. Iliacus externus. Py- 
 ramidalis.This muscle is so named from its shape: it arises 
 by three fleshy and tendinous beginnings from the hollow of 
 the sacrum and sacro-sciatic notch, and growing gradually 
 narrower, it passes between the gluteus minor and gemini, 
 and its round tendon is inserted into the upper part of the 
 cavity, at the inner side of the root of the great trochanter. 
 The use of the pyriformis is to move the thigh upwards, and 
 roll it outwards. 
 
 GEMim.IscJiio-trochanterius. Getnelli.Th'is is a biceps 
 muscle, and its heads are so distinct, that they are often 
 taken for two muscles. The uppermost head is the larger 
 and stronger one : it arises from the spinous process of the 
 ischium : the smaller head begins from the outer end of the 
 tuberosity of the ischium. Both heads are fleshy in their 
 length, and, meeting, form a tendon to be inserted into the 
 root of the great trochanter. This muscle rolls the thigh- 
 bone outwards. 
 
 OBTURATOR INTERNUS. Marsupialis. Sub-jmJno trockan- 
 terius internus. A short muscle : it arises within the pelvis, 
 from the anterior half of the foramen thyroideum, and partly 
 from the obturator ligament. Its fibres converge, and give 
 off a round tendon, which passes in a hollow between the 
 spine and tuberosity of the ischium to be inserted with the 
 gemini into the root of the great trochanter : it rolls the 
 thigh obliquely outwards. 
 
H3 
 
 QUADRATUS FEMORIS. Lchio-sub-trochanterius. A thin, 
 flat muscle, which passes in a transverse direction, between 
 the tuberosity of the ischiuin and the thigh-bone. It arises 
 from the outside of the tuberosity of the ischium, and is in- 
 serted into the ridge, between the large and little trochan- 
 ters. It rolls the thigh outwards. 
 
 MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE THIGH. 
 
 TENSOR VAGINA FEMORIS. llio-aponeuroso-feinoris. fat- 
 cialis. Musculus aponeurosis, vel fasciae latte. The anterior 
 superior spinous process of the ilium gives rise to this muscle, 
 by a narrow, tendinous, and fleshy slip, from whence it pro- 
 ceeds to be inserted into the inside of the fascia of the thigh, 
 which it stretches. 
 
 SARTORIUS. llw-pratibialis. A long muscle, that extends 
 obliquely across the whole thigh. It arises tendinous from 
 the anterior superior spinous process of the ilium ; it then 
 forms a thin, flat belly, somewhat like a strap, which goes 
 obliquely round the thigh, to be inserted into the inner side 
 of the head of the tibia, by a broad aponeurosis. This 
 muscle acts in bending the leg obliquely inwards, and bring- 
 ing one leg across the other, an action common to tailors, 
 whence it is termed the tailor's muscle. 
 
 The first incision in the modern operation for popliteal 
 aneurism, is made in the middle of the thigh, in the 
 direction of this muscle ; and the dissection is by some 
 surgeons carried on below the sartorius ; whilst others, 
 not less skilful, prefer having it on the under side of 
 the incision. 
 
 Gs.iciLis.Sub-pubio-pr<ztibialis. Gracilis wternus. Rec- 
 tut ihternus /<?mom. A small, thin, and flat muscle : it 
 arises tendinous from the pubis, near its symphysis, and 
 passes directly under the integuments down to the knee, to 
 
144 
 
 be inserted under the sartorius, into the side of the head of 
 the tibia. It assists the sartorius in bending the leg. 
 
 RECTUS FEMORIS. fiio-rotuleus. Rectus cruris. Rectus 
 sive gracilis anterior. A thin flat biceps muscle, in the ante- 
 rior part of the thigh, called rectus, from its straight di- 
 rection. It arises from the inferior anterior spinous process 
 of the ilium, by a short round tendon, and from the edge 
 of the acetabulum and capsular ligament. A flat tendon is 
 formed by the union of these heads, which soon becomes 
 fleshy, and the muscle passes directly down towards the pa- 
 tella. This muscle is united at the sides to the vasti, at the 
 back part to the crurseus ; and its tendon, along with that 
 of the cruraeus, goes to be implanted into the patella. It 
 assists in extending the leg in a very powerful manner. 
 
 VASTUS EXTERNUS. Outer part of the Tri-femvro-rotuleits. 
 A large muscle, situated on the fore part of the thigh. It 
 arises by a thick and strong tendon from the root of the great 
 trochanter, and upper part of the linea aspera ; passes down 
 the thigh, attached to the cruraeus, and forms a flat tendon, 
 which embraces the patella, and goes round the head of the 
 tibia, to be inserted into the inner side of the knee. It 
 extends the leg. 
 
 VASTUS INTERNUS. Innerpart of IheTri-femoro-rotulevs. 
 This muscle resembles very much the former, but is not so 
 large. It arises tendinous and fleshy from the fore part of 
 the IHtle trochauter, and from the whole of the linea aspera : 
 its fibres run obliquely forwards and downwards, accompany- 
 ing the cruraeus, and the tendon surrounds the knee-pan, to 
 be inserted into the outer part of the head of the tibia. The 
 vastus internus assists the externus in extending the leg. 
 
 CRURJEUS. Middle of the Tri-femoro-rotuleus. Cruralig. 
 The little trochanter, and nearly the whole of the fore part 
 
145 
 
 of the os femoris, give origin to this muscle. On its outer 
 edge and fore part it is united to the vastus externus, and on 
 its inner edge and fore part, to the vastus internus. At its 
 lower part the cruralis is joined to the tendon of the rectus, 
 and forms one tendon, which is inserted into the patella. 
 
 SUBCRUR/EI. Two little muscular slips, sometimes found 
 ttnder the curaeus : they are inserted into the capsular liga- 
 meut, which they pull up. The cruraeus assists in extend- 
 ing the leg. 
 
 SEMITENDINOSUS. Jsckio-pratibialis. Seminervosus. A 
 muscle, so called because its lower half is composed of a 
 small round tendon. It arises tendinous and fleshy from the 
 posterior portion of the tuberosity of the ischium, and conti- 
 nues a little way connected with the biceps cruris ; it then 
 leaves it, and goes obliquely inwards to form a long tendon, 
 which passes down behind the inner tubercle of the knee, to 
 be inserted into the inside of the tibia, a little below its tu- 
 berosity. Its use is to bend the leg backwards, and a little 
 inwards. 
 
 SEMIMEMBRANOSUS. Jschw-poptito-tibialis. This muscle 
 begins and ends by a flat tendon, somewhat like a mem- 
 brane : it arises by a broad, thin, and flat tendon, from the 
 fore part of the tuberosity of the ischium, becomes thick and 
 fleshy in its middle, and terminates in a short tendon, which 
 is inserted behind the head of the tibia, and, with the ten- 
 don of the semitendinosus, forms the inner hamstring. Its 
 use is to bend the leg, and bring it directly backwards. 
 
 BICEPS FLEXOR CRURIS. Ischio-femoro-peronealis. Biceps 
 cruris. This muscle, so named from its having two heads, 
 lies immediately under the skin in the back part of the leg. 
 It arises tendinous from the outer part of the tuberosity of 
 the ischium, with the semitendinosus. The other, which i> 
 
, 146 
 
 the short head, begins from the linea aspera, all the way 
 down to its bifurcation. A little above the condyle of the 
 femur the two heads unite, and the muscle proceeds out- 
 wards, to be inserted into the head of the fibula, forming 
 the outer hamstring. Its use is to bend the leg. 
 
 POPLITEUS. Femoro-poplito-tibialis, A small triangular 
 muscle, lying across the back part of the knee-joint. It arises 
 from the outer condyle of the femur, and is inserted into a 
 ridge on the back part of the tibia. It assists in bending the 
 leg, and prevents the capsular ligament from being pinched. 
 
 MUSCLED SITUATED ON THE LEG. 
 
 GASTROCNEMIUS EXTERN us. Bifemoro-calcaneus* Ce- 
 mellus. The large fleshy muscle that forms the calf of the 
 leg. It arises, by two heads, from the external and internal 
 condyle of the femur : the two heads meet, and run down 
 the calf, with the appearance of a raphe between ; they then 
 form a flat tendon, very broad at its commencement, which 
 passes down the leg, and unites with the tendon of the gas- 
 trocnemius interims, a little below the ankle. 
 
 GASTROCNEMIUS INTERNUS. Tibio -calcaneus. Soleus. Ex- 
 tensor tarsi suralis.Some have compared this muscle to a 
 sole-fish. It arises, like the former, by two heads : the one 
 from the back part of the head of the fibula, the other from 
 the posterior, and upper part of the tibia : these immediately 
 unite, and form a large fleshy belly. About half way down 
 the leg it becomes tendinous, and soon unites with the ten- 
 don of the gastrocnemius externus. From this union the 
 great tendon, called tendo Achillis, is formed, which inserts 
 both muscles into the extremity of the os calcis. 
 
 PLANTARIS. Femoro-calcaneus parvus. Tibialis gracilis t 
 rulgo plantaris. Extensor tarsi minor, vulgo plantaris. 
 This muscle appears to have been named plantaris, from a 
 
147 
 
 mistaken notion that it formed the plantar aponeurosis, like 
 the palmaris of the hand. It is a long and slender muscle, 
 arising fleshy from the external condyle of the femur, and 
 adhering firmly to the capsular ligament of the knee. It 
 soon forms a small flat tendon, which runs between the inner 
 head of the external gastrocnemius, and the soleus, to be 
 attached to the tendo Achillis, with which it is inserted into 
 the inner side of the os calcis. The use of this muscle is 
 to prevent the capsular ligament of the knee-joint from be- 
 ing pinched, and to assist the gastrocnemii muscles. 
 
 TIBIALIS ANTICUS. Tibia-super-tarseus. This muscle 
 arises from the fore part and outside of the tibia, beginning 
 just under the head of that bone. About two thirds down, 
 the bone it becomes tendon, which passes obliquely over the 
 leg, crosses the ankle, and goes under the annular ligament, 
 to be inserted into the upper and inner part of the os cunei- 
 forme internuin, and metatarsal bone of the great toe. It 
 extends the foot, and turns the toes inwards. 
 
 TIBIALIS POSTICUS. Tibio-sub-tarseus. A penniform 
 muscle, so named from its situation. It arises from the 
 back part, and ridge of the tibia, from the opposite part of 
 the fibula, and from the interosseous ligament quite down 
 to the ankle. About the middle of the tibia it becomes ten- 
 dinous and fleshy, and the tendon passes in a groove at the 
 inner ankle, and expands so as to grasp the bones of the 
 tarsus, and is inserted into the two first metatarsal bones, os 
 calcis, and os cuboides. Its contraction pulls the foot in, 
 so as to put the toes together. 
 
 PERONEUS LONGUS. Peroneo-sub-tarseus. Peroneu-s maxi- 
 ntus, vulgo peroneus posterior. Peroneus primus, seu posticus. 
 This muscle arises from the fore part of the head of the 
 fibula, and from the upper part of that bone. It has also 
 
 H 2 
 
H8 
 
 a small slip coming from the upper part of the tibia. About 
 the middle of the leg its tendon emerges towards the inte- 
 guments, and passing the outer ankle in a cartilaginous 
 pulley, which also transmits the peroneus brevis, it is re- 
 flected to the sinuosity of the os calcis, and runs along a 
 groove in the os cuboides, to be inserted tendinous into the 
 outside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, 
 and the os cuneiforme inters am. It moves the foot out- 
 wards, and assists in extending it. 
 
 PERONEUS BRWis.Peroneo-metatarsus magnus. Pero- 
 neus medius, vulgo peroneus anticus. Peroneus seeundus, *ew 
 anticus. Arises fleshy from above the middle of the external 
 part of the fibula, all the way down to the ankle ; it also ad- 
 heres to the tendinous partition between it and the common 
 extensors. Its tendon passes under that of the peroneus lon- 
 gus, by the outer ankle, to be inserted into the metatarsal 
 bone of the little toe. This muscle assists the former iu 
 pulling the foot outwards and extending it a little. 
 
 EXTENSOR LONGUS DIGITORUM PEDIS. Peroneo-super-pha- 
 ktngeus communis. Extensor longus. Peroneus tertius. Ao- 
 TWrS Pesalii.\ common extensor muscle of the toes. It 
 arises from the outer and fore part of the head of the tibia, 
 just below the knee ; also from the head of the fibula, the 
 interosseous ligament, and the tendinous fascia of the leg. 
 It soon becomes a thick fleshy muscle, and is divided into 
 three distinct portions, which form three round tendons, 
 that pass obliquely inwards under the annular ligament of 
 the tarsus, where the first portion divides its tendon into 
 two. These four tendons are inserted flat into the root of 
 the first joint of each of the four small toes, expanding along 
 the upper side, as far as the root of the last joint. A por- 
 ici of this muscle also arises from the middle of the fibula, 
 
149 
 
 and sends its fleshy fibres forwards to a tendon which goes 
 under the annular ligament, to be inserted into the root of 
 the metatarsal bone of the little toe. This portion is term- 
 ed, by Alb i nils, peroneus tertius. 
 
 EXTENSOR PROPRIUS POLLICIS pEDis.Peroneo-super-pha~ 
 langeus pollins. Extensor longus. An extensor muscle of 
 the great toe. It arises by an acute, tendipnus, and fleshy 
 beginning-, from the head of the fibula : it continues a slen- 
 der muscle down the fibula, and its tendon passes under the 
 annular ligament, to be inserted into the posterior part of 
 the last and first joint of the great toe. 
 
 FLEXOR LONGUS DIGITORUM PEDIS. Tibio-phalangeut 
 fommunis. Profundus. Pei'forans. This muscle arises from 
 nearly the whole of the back part of the tibia. Near the 
 ankle it becomes tendinous, crosses the tendon of the tibia- 
 lis posticus behind the ankle-joint, and goes forward in a 
 groove of the os calcis, and about the middle of the sole of 
 the foot divides into four tendons, which pass through th 
 slits of the perforatus, to be inserted into the extremity of 
 the last joint of the four lesser toes. Just before the divi- 
 sion of the tendon, it receives a considerable tendon from 
 that of the flexor pollicis longus. The use of the perforans 
 it* to bend the last joint of the toes, 
 
 FLEXOR DIGITORUM ACCE.SSORIUS. Massa carnea Jacobi 
 Sylvii. This is a small fleshy mass connected with the for- 
 mer muscle, whose office it assists. It arises from the lower 
 part of the os calcis, and from its tuberosity, and is in- 
 serted into the flexor longus digitorum pedis, at its division 
 into four tendons. 
 
 FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS PEDIS. Peroneo-sub-phaktngeus 
 pollicis. A flexor muscle of the great toe, arising fleshy 
 from the upper part of the fibula, and being continued down 
 H 3 
 
150 
 
 the same bone, almost to the ankle, by a double order of 
 pblique fleshy fibres. Its tendon passes under the annular 
 ligament, to be inserted into the last joint of the great toe. 
 
 MUSCLES CHIEFLY SITUATED ON THE FOOT. 
 
 EXTENSOR BREVIS DIGITORUM PEDIS. Calco-super-pha- 
 hutg-eus communis. Exterior brevis.A common extensor of 
 the toes, very closely connected with the extensor longus 
 digitorum pedis. It arises fleshy and tendinous fropi the 
 fore part of the os calcis, and, passing forwards, soon di- 
 vides it into distinct muscular heads, from each of which a 
 tendon is sent off to be inserted into the great toe, and the 
 three next to it, with the extensor longus. 
 
 FLEXOR BUEVIS DIGITORUM PEDIS. Perforatus. Caico- 
 sub-phalangeus communis. Sublimis. This muscle is placed 
 on the sole of the foot : it arises from the inferior and poste- 
 rior part of the os calcis, soon becomes a fleshy belly, and 
 divides into four tendons, which are split about the root of 
 the first bone of the toes for the passage of the tendons of 
 the flexor longus digitorum pedis. The tendons of the 
 brevis then go on to be inserted into the second phalanx of 
 the four lesser toes, which they bend. 
 
 LUMBRICALES PEDIS. Thesefour small muscles resemble 
 somewhat the earth-worm, or lumbricus. They arise from 
 the forks of the tendons of the flexor prof undus, and pass on 
 to be inserted by slender tendons into the inside of the first 
 joint of the four lesser toes. Their use is to bend the first 
 joint of the toes, and to draw them towards the great toe. 
 
 FLEXOR BREVIS POLLICIS PEDIS. Tarso-sub-phalangeus 
 pollidif. Arises by a long tendon from the under and fore 
 part of the os calcis, and from the os cuneiforme externum : 
 it soon divides into two heads, one of which goes to the ab- 
 
151 
 
 ductor, and the other to the adductor pollicis, and is in- 
 serted with the tendons of those muscles into the external 
 sesamoid bone and root of the first joint of the great toe, 
 which it bends. 
 
 ABDUCTOR POLLICIS PEDIS. Calco-sub-phalangeus poUicis. 
 Thenar. Arises by short tendinous fibres from the inner and 
 lower part of the os calczs* and is inserted tendinous into the 
 internal sesamoid bone and root of the first joint of the great 
 toe. Its use is to pull the great toe from the rest. 
 
 ADDUCTOR POLLICIS PEDIS. Metatarso-sub-phalangeu& 
 follicis. Antithenar. Arises by a long delicate tendon from 
 the ligament extending from the os calcis to the os cuboides, 
 soon divides into two fleshy heads, which again unite, and 
 go obliquely inwards to be inserted into the sesamoid bone, 
 or first bone of the great toe. Its use is to bring this toe 
 nearer to the rest. \ " 
 
 ABDUCTOR MINIMI DIGITI PEDIS. Calco-sub-pkalang-eus 
 minimi digiti.k slender muscle lying on the outside of the 
 foot. It arises from the tuberosity of the os calcis : it forms 
 two small tendons ; the shorter one is inserted into the root 
 of the metatarsal bone of the little toe, and the longer goes 
 on to be fixed into the root of the first bone of that toe. Its 
 use is to bend the little toe, and carry it somewhat out- 
 wards, and to support the tarsus in walking. 
 
 FLEXOR BREVIS MINIMI DIGITI PEDIS> Tarso-sub-pJut- 
 lan^eus minimi digiti. Parathenar minor. A very small 
 muscle, arising from the raetatarsal bone of the little t6e, 
 which it goes over, to be inserted into the root of the first 
 bone of the little toe. Its use is to bend this toe. 
 
 TRANSVF.RSALIS PEDIS. Metatarso-sub-phalangeus. Trans* 
 iwsalis pedis. This muscle extends transversely across the 
 sole of the foot, arising from the ligament which, connect* 
 
152 
 
 the bones of the tarsus, going across to be inserted into the 
 tendon of the adductor pollicis. It contracts the foot. 
 
 INTEROSSEI EXTERNI ET INTERNI. Metatarso-phctiangei 
 jaterales. Four small double-headed muscles situated exter- 
 nally, and four internally, all arising from the metatarsal 
 bones they lie between. Their tendons meet those of the 
 long and short extensors, forming all together the sheath 
 which covers the upper part of the toes. 
 
 The muscles situated on the sole of the foot are covered 
 by a strong flat tendon, called the plantar aponeurosu, extend- 
 ed from the os calcis to the first joint of all the toes, protect- 
 ing the muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves running under it. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND PHENOMENA OF MUSCULAR 
 MOTION. 
 
 Muscular motions are of three kinds ; namely, voluntary, 
 involuntary, and mixed. 
 
 The VOLUNTARY MOTIONS of muscles are such as proceed 
 from an immediate exertion of the active powers of the will : 
 thus the mind directs the arm to be raised or depressed, the 
 knee to be bent, the tongue to move, &c. 
 
 The INVOLUNTARY MOTIONS of muscles are those which 
 are performed by organs, seemingly of their own accord, 
 without any attention of the mind or consciousness of its 
 active power; as the contraction and dilatation of the heart, 
 arteries, veins, absorbents, stomach, intestines, &c. 
 
 The MIXED MOTIONS are those which are in part under the 
 control of the will, but which ordinarily act without our be- 
 ing conscious of their acting; as is perceived in the muscle* 
 of respiration, the intercostals, the abdominal muscles, and 
 the diaphragm. 
 
153 
 
 When a muscle acts, it becomes shorter and thicker ; 
 both its origin and insertion are drawn towards its middle. 
 The sphincter muscles are always in action ; and so likewise 
 are antagonist muscles, even when they seem at rest. When 
 two antagonist muscles move with equal force, the part 
 which they are designed to move remains at rest ; but if one 
 of the antagonist muscles remain at rest, while the other 
 acts, the part is moved towards the centre of motion. The 
 *xtensor muscles are generally weaker than the flexors : 
 hence the most natural situation, in which all the powers 
 maintain a just equilibrium, is that which our limbs take 
 during sleep. The middle state, between flexion and exten- 
 sion, we preserve the longest time without fatigue. This 
 preponderance of the flexor muscles arises from their fibres 
 being more numerous than the extensors ; their insertion 
 into bones is farther from the centre of their motions, under 
 an angle more open, and which increases in proportion as 
 the limbs are in a state of flexion. 
 
 The irritability of muscles destined to perform voluntary 
 motions, is in a direct ratio of the number and magnitude of 
 the nerves and arteries, distributed in their structure. The 
 tongue receives the greatest supply of nerves, and, of all 
 other contractile organs, is the most subject to volition. 
 
 All the muscles of living animals are constantly endea- 
 vouring to shorten themselves. 
 
 When a muscle is divided, it contracts. If a muscle be 
 stretched to a certain extent, it contracts, and endeavours to 
 acquire its former dimensions, as soon as the stretching 
 cause is removed : this takes place in a dead body, in 
 muscles cut out of the body, and also in parts not muscular, 
 and is called by the immortal Haller vis mortua, and by 
 H5 
 
154 
 
 some vis elastica. It is greater in living than in dead bodie*, 
 and is called the tone of the muscle. 
 
 When a muscle is wounded, touched, or otherwise irri- 
 tated, it contracts, independent of the will ; this power is 
 railed IRRITABILITY, and, byHaller, vis insita,- it is a pro- 
 perty peculiar to, and inherent in, the muscles. The parts 
 of our body which possess this property, are called irritable, 
 as the heart, arteries, muscles, &c. to distinguish them froni 
 those parts which have no muscular fibres. 
 
 With regard to the degree of this property peculiar to 
 various parts, the heart is the most irritable, then the sto- 
 mach and intestines ; the diaphragm, the arteries, veins, ab- 
 sorbents, and at length the various muscles follow ; but the 
 degree of irritability depends upon tbe age, sex, tempera- 
 ment, mode of living, climate, state of health, idiosyn- 
 crasy, and likewise upon the nature of the stimulus. 
 
 When a muscle is stimulated, either through the medium 
 of the will, or any foreign body, it contracts, and its con- 
 traction is greater or less in proportion as the stimulus ap- 
 plied is greater or less. The contraction of muscles is 
 different according to the purpose to be served by their con- 
 traction : thus, the heart contracts with a jerk ; the urinary 
 bladder, slowly and uniformly : puncture a muscle, and its 
 fibres vibrate ; and the abdominal muscles act slowly in ex- 
 pelling the contents of the rectum. Relaxation generally 
 succeeds the contraction of muscles, and alternates with it. 
 
 The use of this property is very considerable ; for upoa 
 it depend all muscular action, and the function of every 
 viscus, except the nerves. 
 
155 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF MUSCLES. 
 
 Muscles are subject to a variety of diseases, many of 
 Tfhich affect their functions without producing any altera- 
 tion in their organization. 
 
 The diseases of structure which are observed post mor- 
 tem, are, a conversion of a part or a whole muscle into 
 bone ; they are often seen considerably diminished in size, 
 different in their colour from surrounding muscles, inflamed, 
 suppurated, gangrenous, particularly soft, and also mor- 
 bidly contracted. 
 
 Conversion into bone. A portion of a muscle is occasion- 
 ally converted into bone : this is observed in the heart, in 
 the muscular coat of arteries, and in the diaphragm. It con- 
 sists in a diseased action of the nutritious arteries, by which 
 they deposit bony or earthy particles, instead of muscular 
 matter. 
 
 Diminution of size. A general diminution of the bulk of 
 muscles in the body, or emaciation, is a very common oc- 
 currence: but, besides this, the anatomist occasionally finds 
 an obvious wasting of a single muscle ; as the heart, the 
 biceps, &c. This, in most instances, arises from a defici- 
 ency of nervous power in the muscle. 
 
 Change of colour. The healthy colour of muscle is a 
 florid or flesh colour. Muscles that have become paralytic, 
 and muscles of dropsical subjects, are mostly of a paler hue. 
 Besides this, a muscle has been known to have changed its 
 colour to a pale yellow, resembling fat, whilst the surround- 
 ing ones possessed their healthy appearance. 
 
 Inflammation. This affection occurs very frequently. It 
 consists in an increase of vascularity j the muscle appears 
 n6 
 
156 
 
 of a dark red colour, and is more readily torn than healthy 
 muscles. 
 
 Abscess. These are frequently met with in anatomical in- 
 vestigations. It does not appear, when an abscess is found 
 in a muscle, that any part of the muscle is converted into 
 pus, but the fibres have the appearance of being separated 
 from one another, and compressed together, to make way for 
 the formation of the abscess, and very frequently they are 
 absorbed. This, perhaps, accounts for the speedy filling of 
 the space occupied by an immense abscess in two or three 
 days after affording an exit to the pus : i. e. by the elastic 
 and compressed muscular fibres regaining their former situ- 
 ation. The sides of the abscess are not formed of muscular 
 fibre, but of a condensed cellular membrane, and sometimes 
 a tunic of coagulable lymph, in which an immense number 
 of small arteries are found, as is evinced by dissection, and 
 injections. When the latter are pushed to a great extent, and 
 the injection is successful, small vessels are found to have 
 shot out here and there, so as to give the internal surface of 
 the abscess a somewhat flocculent appearance. In scrofu- 
 lous abscesses between muscular fibres, the coat of the ab- 
 scess is mostly much thicker than in other cases. 
 
 Gangrene. In this disease, the muscle is pulpy, black, 
 and fetid. 
 
 Flaccidity. This is occasionally observed to a consider- 
 able degree. In general it depends upon a sluggish action 
 of the powers of life, for some time before death. 
 
 Morbid contraction. This may arise from the want of ac- 
 tion in the antagonists, and from other causes. It con- 
 sists in a permanent contraction of the muscle to a degree 
 beyond its healthy contraction. It is met with principally 
 in the flexors of the legs of the aged. 
 
157 
 
 BURSALOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE BURS^E MUCOS^. 
 
 Bursae mucosae are mucous bags, composed of a proper 
 membrane, containing a kind of mucous fat, formed by the 
 exhaling arteries of their internal surface. They are of dif- 
 ferent sizes and firmness, and connected here and there by 
 cellular membrane, with the capsular ligaments of cavities, 
 tendons, bones, or ligaments. Their internal surface is 
 highly vascular, smooth, and shining. 
 
 SITUATION. Various. 
 
 DIVISION. Into vaginal and vesicular. 
 
 USE. To lubricate the muscles and tendons, which are 
 very frequently in motion. 
 
 BURS* MUCOSJE OF THE HEAD. 
 
 i. A bursa of the superior oblique muscle of the eye, situated 
 behind its trochlea in the orbit. 2. The bursa of the digas- 
 tricus, situated in the internal surface of its tendon. 3. A 
 bursa of the circumflexus, or tensor palati, situated between 
 the hook-like process of the sphsenoid bone and the tendon 
 of that muscle. 4. A bursa of the sterno-hyoideus musffr, 
 situated between the os hyoides and larynx. 
 
 BURS.E MUCOS& SITUATED ABOUT THE SHOULDER-JOINT. 
 
 i. The external acromial, situated under the acromion, 
 between the coracoid process, deltoid muscle, and capsular 
 ligament. i. The internal acromial, situated above the ten- 
 don of the infra- spinatus and teres major: it often comma- 
 
158 
 
 nicates with the former. 3. The coracoid buna, situated near 
 the root of the coracoid process : it is sometimes double, 
 and sometimes triple. 4. The clavicular bursa, found where 
 the clavicle touches the coracoid process. 5. The subclavia*, 
 bursa, between the tendon of the subclavicularis muscle and 
 the first rib. 6. The coraco-brachial, placed between the 
 common origin of this muscle, the biceps, and the capsular 
 ligament. 7. The bursa of the pectoralis major, situated 
 under the head of the humerus, between the internal surface 
 of the tendon of that muscle and another bursa placed on 
 the long head of the biceps. 8. An external bursa of the 
 teres major, under the head of the os humeri, between it 
 and the tendon of the teres major. 9. An internal bursa of 
 the teres major, found within the muscle where the fibres of 
 its tendon diverge. 10. A bursa of the latissimus dorsi, be- 
 tween the tendon of this muscle and the os humeri. 1 1 . Th* 
 humero-bicipital bursa, in the vagina of the tendon of the 
 biceps. There are other bursae mucosae about the humerus, 
 but their situation is uncertain. 
 
 BURSJE MUCOSJE SITUATED NEAR THE ELBOW-JOINT. 
 
 i. The radio-bicipital, situated between the tendon of 
 the biceps, brachialis,, and anterior tubercle of the radius. 
 2. The cubito-radial, between the tendon of the biceps, su- 
 pinator brevis, and the ligament common to the radius and 
 ulna. 3. The anconeal bursa, between the olecranon and 
 tendon of the anconeus muscle. 4. The capitulo-radial bursa, 
 between the tendon common to the extensor carpi radialis 
 brevis, and extensor communis digitorum and round head 
 of the radius. There are other bursae, but as their situa- 
 tion varies, they are omitted. 
 4 
 
159 
 
 BURSJE OF THE INTERIOR PART OF THE FORE-ARM AND 
 HAND. 
 
 On the inside of the wrist and hand. 
 i. A very large bursa, for the tendon of the flexor pollicis 
 longus. 2. Four sltort bursts on the fore part of the tendons 
 of the flexor sublimis. 3. A large bursa behind the tendon 
 of the flexor pollicis longus, between it and the fore part of 
 the radius, capsular ligament of the wrist, and os trapezium. 
 4. A large bursa behind the tendons of the flexor digito- 
 rum profundus, and on the fore part of the end of the ra- 
 dius, and fore part of the capsular ligament of the wrist. 
 In some subjects it communicates with the former. 5. An 
 oblong bursa between the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis 
 and os trapezium. 6. A very small bursa, between the ten- 
 don of the flexor carpi ulnaris and os pisiforme. 
 
 On the back fart of the hand and wrist. 
 7. A bursa between the tendon of the abductor pollicis 
 longus and the radius. 8. A large bursa between the two 
 exteusores carpi radiales. 9. Another below it, common to 
 the exteusores carpi radiales. 10. A bursa at the insertion 
 of the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis. n. An oblong 
 bursa, for the tendon of the extensor pollicis longus, and 
 which communicates with 9. 12. A bursa, for the tendon 
 of the extensor pollicis longus, between it and the ineta- 
 carpal bone of the thumb. 13. A bursa between the ten- 
 dons of the extensor of the fore, middle, and ring fingers. 
 14. A bursa for the extensors of the little finger. 15. A 
 bursa between the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris and 
 ligament of the wrist. There are also bursae mucosse be- 
 tween the musculi lumbricales and iiiterossei. 
 
160 
 
 BURS* SITUATED NEAR THE HIP-JOINT. 
 
 On the fore part of the joint. 
 
 i. TJie ileo-puberal, situated between the iliacus interims, 
 psoas magnus, and the capsular ligament of the head of the 
 femur. 2. TJie pectineal, between the tendon of the pecti- 
 neus and the thigh-bone. 3. A small bursa of the glutens 
 medius muscle, situated between it and the great tro- 
 t-hanter, before the insertion of the pyriformis. 4. A bursa 
 of the gluteus minimus muscle, between its tendon and the 
 great trochanter. 5. T/ie gluteo-fascial, between the gluteus 
 maximus and vastus externus. 
 
 On the posterior part of the hip-joinf. 
 6. Tlie tubero-ischiatic bursa, situated between the obtu- 
 rator internus muscle, the posterior spine of the ischium, 
 and its tuberosity. 7. The obturatory bursa, which is oblong 
 and found between the obturator interims and gemint 
 muscles and the capsular ligament. 8. A bursa of the setni- 
 membranosus, under its origin and the long head of the bi- 
 ceps femoris. 9. The gluteo-trocJianteral bursa, situated be* 
 tween the tendon of the psoas muscle and the root of the 
 great trochanter. 10. Two glutei-femoral bursts, situated 
 between the tendon of the gluteus maximus and os femo- 
 ris. ii. A bursa of the quadratus femoris, situated between 
 it and the little trochanter. 12. The iliac bursa, situated 
 between the tendon of the iliacus internus and the little 
 trochanter. 
 
 BURS2E MUCOSS SITUATED NEAR THE KNEE-JOINT. 
 
 i. The supra-genual, which adheres to the tendons of the- 
 vastvu and cruralis and the fore part of the thigh-bone. 
 
161 
 
 i. The infra-genual bursa, situated under the ligament of 
 tbe patella, and often communicates with the abore. 
 v The anterior genual, placed between the tendon of the sar- 
 torius, gracilis, and semiteudinosus, and internal and late- 
 pal ligament of the knee. 4. Tlie posterior genual, which is 
 sometimes double, and is situated between the tendons of 
 the semimembranosus, the internal head of the gastrocne- 
 mius, the capsular ligament, and internal condyle. 5. The 
 popliteal, conspicuous between the tendon of that muscle, 
 the external condyle of the femur, the semilunar cartilage, 
 and external condyle of the tibia. 6. The bursa of the biceps 
 cruris, between the external part of the tendon of the biceps 
 cruris, and the external lateral ligament of the knee. 
 
 BURSE MUCOSJE SITUATED IN THE FOOT. 
 
 On the back, side, and hind part of the foot. ' 
 
 i. A bursa of the tibialis anticus, between its tendon, the 
 lower part of the tibia, and capsular ligament of the ankle. 
 2. A bursa between the tendon of the extensor poll ids 
 pedis longus, the tibia and capsular ligament of the ankle. 
 3. A bursa of the extensor digitorum communis, between its 
 tendons, the tibia, and ligament of the ankle. 4. A large 
 bursa, common to the tendons of the peronei muscles. 5. A 
 ifursa of the peroneus brews, proper to its tendon. . The 
 foicaneal bursa, between the tendo Achillis and os calcis. 
 
 In the sole of the foot. 
 
 i. A bursa for the tendon of the peroneus longus. i. A 
 bursa common to the tendon of the flexor pollicis pedis 
 longus, and the tendon of the flexor digitorum pedis com- 
 inunis longus profundus. 3. A bursa of the tibialis pottiftts, 
 
162 
 
 between its tendon, the tibia, and astragalus. 4. Fire burst? 
 for the flexor tendons, which begin a little above the first 
 joint of each toe, and extend to the root of the third pha- 
 lanx, or insertion of the tendons. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF THE BURS*. 
 
 The bursse mucosae are very frequently found inflamed, 
 relaxed, enlarged, and containing a diseased fluid. 
 
 ANGIOLOGY; 
 
 Ott 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE VESSELS, 
 
 Vessels are long membranous canals, which carry blood, 
 lymph, chyle, or a secreted fluid. 
 
 DIVISION. Into arteries, veins, absorbents, and excre- 
 tory ducts. 
 
 SITUATION. Except the epidermis, membrana arach- 
 noidea, and nails, every part of the body has vessels, which 
 injections demonstrate. 
 
 ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Arteries are elastic membranous canals, which pulsate. 
 They always become narrower as they proceed from the 
 heart towards the extremities. 
 
 ORIGIN. From the ventricles of the heart ; namely, the 
 pulmonary artery from the right, and the aorta from the left 
 ventricle : so that there are only two arteries, the rest being; 
 branches of these two* 
 
163 , 
 
 TERMINATION. In veins, or exhaling vessels; or they 
 anastomose with one another. 
 
 STRUCTURE. They are composed of three membranes, 
 called coats; an external one, a middle coat, which is muscu- 
 lar, and an inner one, which is smooth. The arteries are 
 nourished by their own blood-vessels, termed vasa vasorum. 
 USE. To convey blood from the heart to the different 
 parts of the body, for nutrition, preservation of life, gene- 
 ration of heat, and the secretion of different fluids. 
 
 AORTA. 
 
 The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart, 
 forms an arch towards the dorsal vertebrae, then descends 
 through the diaphragm into the abdomen, in which it pro- 
 ceeds by the left side of the spine to the last vertebra of 
 the loins, where it divides into the two iliac arteries. In 
 this course it gives off, just above its origin, two coronary 
 arteries to the heart, and then forms an arch. 
 
 Ossification of the coronary arteries of the heart Is very 
 common in old age. It is sometimes the cause of an- 
 gina pectoris. 
 
 The ascending portion of the aorta and its arch, are fre- 
 quently the seat of aneurism. 
 
 The ARCH OF THE AORTA gives off three branches, which 
 supply the head, neck, and arms ,with blood : these are, 
 
 I. ARTERIA INNOMINATA, which divides into the right 
 carotid and right subclavian arteries^ 
 
 II. The LEFT CAROTID. 
 
 III. The LEFT SUBCLAVIAN. 
 
 The CAROTID ARTERIES, having emerged from the chest, . 
 run up along the neck, one on each side of the trachea, to. 
 
the angle of the lower jaw, where they divide into external 
 and internal. 
 
 The external carotid has been the seat of aneurism; and, 
 in one case, two aneurisms were found in the left ca- 
 rotid. 
 
 The EXTERNAL CAROTID gives off eight branches to the 
 neck and face : 
 
 i. Arteria thyroides, or A. laryngea superior ; or A. gultu- 
 ralis superior, which is very tortuous, supplies the thyroid 
 gland, and gives off branches to several adjacent muscles. 
 
 z. A. lingualis, which lies flat upon the side of the tongue, 
 and gives off the ramus hyoideus, dorsalis lingua, sublingua- 
 hs, and ranina. 
 
 3. A. labialis, called also the external maxillary, the an- 
 gular, and facial artery: it gives off the palatina inferior, 
 the submentalis, inferior labial, and the superior and inferior 
 coronary of the lips. 
 
 4. A. pharyngea inferior, vel ascendent, which sends a 
 number of small twigs about the fauces and basis of the 
 cranium. 
 
 5. A. occipitalis, from which the posterior temporal arises. 
 
 6. A, posterior auris, or stylo-mastoid, which furnishes 
 the parts about the cartilages of the ear with blood, and 
 transmits the arteria tympani an:l stylo-mastuideus. 
 
 7. A. maxillarisinterna, which is extremely tortuous, and 
 gives off the spinous artery, or arteria meningea, or arteria 
 dura matris, to the dura mater ; the lower maxillary artery, 
 which is included in the lower jaw, and supplies the teeth 
 and face; the pterygoid arteries, which nourish the ptery- 
 goid muscles ; two deep temporal arteries, which lie wider 
 than the temporal muscle. The internal maxillary then gives 
 off a branch, which almost immediately divides 4nto the al. 
 
165 
 
 Molar and infra-orbital; then an artery to the palate, the s*t- 
 perivr palatine ; the tipper pharyngeal, which plays about the 
 sphamoid sinus; and lastly, the nasal artery, which is trans- 
 milted through the sphaeno-palatine foramen to the cavity 
 of the nostrils. 
 
 8. A. temporalis, called also sitperficial temporal, which 
 perforates the parotid gland, and sends off the transversals 
 faciei, which inosculates with the arteries of the face ; th 
 deep temporal and several branches which go to the car, 
 forehead, and about the temples. 
 
 This artery is frequently opened in inflammatory affec- 
 tions of the head. 
 
 The INTERNAL CAROTID leaves the external at the angle 
 of the jaw, and proceeds by the par vagum and intercostal 
 nerve to the carotid canal in the petrous portion of the tem- 
 poral bone, where it is shaped like the letter s, and enter* 
 the cranium at the side of the sella turcica, having given 
 off two very small twigs to the pituitary gland, and third, 
 fourth, and fifth pair of nerves ; and when it has reached 
 Ihe anterior clinoid process, it sends off 
 
 i. Arteria ophtluilmica, which is distributed on the eye, 
 and gives off the arteria lachrymalis, centralis retinae, the 
 musculares, the ethmoidalis anterior et posterior, and the *w- 
 pra-orbitalis vel frontalis. 
 
 z. A, anterior cerebri, which proceeds before the sell* 
 turcica, unites with its fellow, and forms the circle of Wil- 
 lis, from which a branch proceeds to the third ventricle, 
 septum lucidum, and the arteria corporis callosi. 
 
 3. A. media cerebri, or fosses Sylvii, which runs between 
 the anterior and middle lobes of the brain, gives off the 
 urrtery of the choroid pkxvs, aud is lost on the middle lobe 
 of the brain. 
 
166 
 
 4. A. communicant, which proceeds backwards, and soon 
 inosculates with the vertebral. 
 
 The cerebral arteries are mostly ossified, or have opaci- 
 ties which are progressive to ossification, in old age. 
 In almost every instance of apoplexy in aged people, 
 from extravasated blood in the brain, not produced 
 by external violence, this diseased state of the arte- 
 ries exists. 
 
 The SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY arises on the right side, from 
 the arteria innominata ; and on the left, from the arch of 
 the aorta. ' 
 
 The subclavian artery is sometimes morbidly dilated. 
 Aneurism arising by the side of the clavicle has been 
 incautiously opened, by mistaking it for a common 
 abscess. 
 
 Each SUBCLAVIAN gives off five branches : 
 
 1. The internal mammary, from which arise the A. 
 thymica, A. comes phrenici, the pericardiac,-and the phrenico- 
 pricardiac. 
 
 2. The inferior thyroid, or inferior guttural, from which 
 arise the ramus thyroideus, the tracheal arteries, the ascend- 
 ing thyroid, and the transversalis humeri. 
 
 3. A. vertebralis, which proceeds into the vertebral fora- 
 mina, to ascend into the cavity of the cranium, where it 
 unites upon the cuneiform process of the occipital bone 
 with its fellow of the other side, and forms the BASILARY 
 ARTERY, which immediately gives off the postwior artery of 
 the cerebellum ; it then proceeds, upon the tuberculum an- 
 nulare, to give off four branches, two to the right, and two 
 to the left, which constitute the A. anterior cerebelli, which 
 branch to the crura cerebelli, the cerebellum, vermis, crura 
 cerebri, corpora quadrigemina, pineal gland, and fourth 
 rentricle ; and the A. posterior cerebri, which being joined 
 
167 
 
 by the communicant, supplies the thalami nervorum optteo- 
 rum, the centrum geminum semicirculare, infundibulum, 
 and crura forni^is, and the posterior lobes of the brain, in- 
 osculating with several arteries ; it also gives off the audi- 
 toria interna, for the labyrinth, 
 
 4. A. cervicalis profunda. 
 
 5. A. cervicalis superficial^, both of which are distributed 
 about the muscles of the neck. 
 
 6. A. intercostalis superior, which lies between the two 
 upper ribs. 
 
 7. A. supra-scapulttris , which sometimes arises from the 
 A. thyroidea, when it is called the transversals humeri. 
 
 As soon as the subclavian has arrived in the axilla, it 
 is called the AXILLARY ARTERY, which runs into the arm, 
 where it is termed the BRACHIAL. 
 
 The AXILLARY ARTERY gives off 
 
 1 . The four mammary arteries, called thoracica superior, 
 thoracica tongwr, thoracica humer'ma, and thoracica alaris or 
 ajc-Ula-ris, which supply blood to the muscles about the 
 
 breast. ;;..^Ht ' 
 
 2. The subscapularis, which supplies the lower surface of 
 the ecapula. 
 
 3. The circumflexa posterior. 
 
 4. Circumflexa anterior, which ramify about the joint. 
 The BRACHIAL or HUMERAL artery gives off 
 
 i . Many lateral vessels. 
 
 z. A. profunda humeri superior, which terminates at the 
 outer condyle, by a branch which anastomoses with the 
 radial recurrent. 
 
 3. A. profunda humeri inferior, which descends to the in- 
 ar condyle, and anastomoses with the ulnar and radial. 
 
163 
 
 4. Rcanuf anastwnaticui tnagnus, which anastomose* 
 round the elbow-joint, and gives off the A. nutritia. 
 
 The brachial artery is frequently the seat of aneurism. 
 
 The brachial artery then becomes the ulnar, and gives 
 off the RADIAL. 
 
 The ULNAR or CUBITAL ARTERY sends off 
 
 1. The recurrent branches, which anastomose with the 
 ramus anastomoticus magnus. 
 
 2. A. interossea communis. It then sends small branches 
 to the adjacent muscles, as it proceeds down to the wrist ; 
 just before it arrives here, it gives off A. dorsalis ulnaris, 
 which goes round to the back of the little finger. At the 
 wrist it gives off A. palmaris profunda; then forms a great 
 arterial arch, called the superficial palmar arch, which sup- 
 plies branches to the fingers. 
 
 The RADIAL gives off the radial recurrent, proceeds to the 
 wrist, where the pulse is felt, and gives off the superficial* 
 vola, and then divides into the A. dorsalis pollicis, A. radiafit 
 indiris, A. magna pollicis, and A. palmaris profunda. 
 
 The radial artery is generally felt by the physician, to 
 count the frequency of the pulse. Malformation or 
 disease about the arm often causes the pulse in one arm 
 to be different from that of the other; therefor* both 
 pulses should be felt. 
 
 The radial artery is frequently ossified throughout; it 
 then feels knotty, and the pulsation is very obsure, 
 and often wanting. 
 
 The THORACIC or DESCENDING AORTA gives off, in the 
 breast 
 
 1. The bronchial, which nourish the lungs. 
 
 2. The cesophagal, which go to the cesopbagus. 
 
 3. The intercostals, between the ribs, about ten in uum- 
 b*r, called aho aortic wtercostals. 
 
169 
 
 4- The inferior diaphragmatic, or phrenic. 
 Within the abdomen it gives off eight branches, and is 
 termed ABDOMINAL AORTA. 
 
 1. The cccliac, which divides into three branches : 
 
 i. Arteria hepatica, which gives off 
 . A. duodeno-gastrica, which sends off the right gastro- 
 eptploic and the pancreafico-duodenalis. The latter transmits 
 the pylorica inferior and the transverse ^ancreatic. 
 @. A. pylorica superior hepatica. 
 The hepatic artery then ramifies through the liver. 
 
 z. A. coronaria ventriculi, or gastrica, which gives off 
 the superior coronary and superior pyloric arteries. 
 
 $.A. splenica, from which arise the pancreatica magna 
 and pancreaticce parvte, the posterior gastric arteries, the 
 left gastro-epiploic artery, and the vasa brevia. 
 
 The cceliac artery has been found aneurismal. 
 
 2. The superior mesenteric, or meseraic, of which the co- 
 llect media, colica dextra, and the ilio-colica, are branches. 
 
 3. The renal arteries, or emulgents, which are short, and 
 divide into three or four branches in the pelvis of the 
 kidney". 
 
 4. The spermatic arteries, which are very small and long, 
 and proceed with the spermatic cord to the testicles in the 
 male, and to the ovaria and uterine tubes in the female, 
 
 5. The inferior meseraic, from which arises the left colic 
 artery and the internal h&morrhoidal. 
 
 6. The lumbar arteries, which nourish the muscles and 
 vertebrae of the loins. 
 
 7. The middle sacral artery, which is distributed about 
 the sacrum. 
 
 The aorta then bifurcates, and becomes the iliac arteries. 
 The iliac soon divides into internal aad external. 
 
170 
 
 Each INTERNAL ILIAC, Of HYPOGASTRIC ARTERY, gives off 
 
 five branches : 
 
 1. The lateral sacral arteries, three or four in number. 
 
 2. The gluteal, which ramify upon the back of the iliac 
 portion of the os iunominatum, and supply the gluteal 
 muscles. 
 
 3. The ischiatic, which turns downwards along the hip, 
 and gives off the coccygeal artery. 
 
 4. Arteria, pudica communis, which is sometimes a branch 
 of the sciatic artery; it proceeds out of the pelvis, through 
 the sciatic notch, returns into the pelvis, and runs towards 
 the symphysis of the pubis. Jn this course it gives oif 
 branches to thevesiculae seminales and prostate gland; and 
 the lower or external hcemorrhoidal artery to the anus, and 
 then forms the arteria perincei, the arteria penis, which pro- 
 ceed one on each side ; and a branch which plunges deep 
 into the substance of the penis. 
 
 5. The obturatory, which passes through the oval fora- 
 men, and is distributed on the thick muscles in the centre 
 of the thigh. A. utcrina is given off in females. 
 
 Each EXTERNAL ILIAC gives off 
 
 i. The epigastric, which is reflected from Poupart's liga- 
 ment upwards, along the abdomen ; arises from the inner 
 gide of the external iliac, as the iliac is about to pass under 
 the ligament of the thigh ; it crosses obliquely upwards 
 and inwards at the upper and outer part of the ring behind 
 the spermatic cord in the male, and round ligament in the 
 female ; it then passes obliquely under the inferior part of 
 the transversus to the origin of the pyramidalis ; it next as- 
 cends perpendicularly at the back part, and about the 
 middle of the rectus abdominis, and anastomoses with the 
 internal mammary. 
 
171 
 
 This artery is occasionally wounded by the trochar, in 
 the operation of tapping in ascites, when a fatal hze- 
 morrhage sometimes takes place. In one instance the 
 patient died about twenty minutes after perforating 
 the abdomen, which was found, post mortetn, full of 
 blood. 
 
 The improved method of tapping, however, in the linen 
 alba, does away this inconvenience. 
 
 2. Arteria circumftexa iliaca, which runs backwards 
 along the crista ilii. 
 
 The EXTERNAL ILIAC then passes under Poupart's liga- 
 ment, becomes the FEMORAL or CRURAL ARTERY, and is con- 
 tinued along the thigh into the popliteal. In this course, 
 afte^ having given off the external pudicals and several 
 smaller branches, it gives off, near the groin 
 
 i. The profunda femoris, which gives off the external 
 and internal circumflex; the arteria perforans prima, the ar- 
 teria perforans secunda magna, the arteria perforans tertia, 
 the arteria perforans quarta, which nourish the muscles of 
 the thigh. The femoral artery, after giving off the superior 
 and inferior perforants, passes under the sartorius at the 
 middla of the inside of the thigh, proceeds downwards and 
 inwards, and perforates the triceps to get round to the ham. 
 About two hands breadth from the knee it gives out 
 
 z. The ramm anastomoticus ma gnus, which ramifies 
 about t c knee-joint. 
 
 The femoral artery, having reached the ham, is called 
 the POPLITEAL, which gives off several small branches about 
 the joint, called articular.?, and divides below the ham into 
 the tibialis antiea and tibialis post ica. 
 
 The popliteal artery is frequently affected with aneurism. 
 
 The TIBIALIS ANTICA soon perforates the interosseou* 
 ligament, passes along the tibia over the bones of the tar- 
 
172 
 
 sus, and then inosculates with the back arteries. In this 
 course it gives off 
 
 1. The recurrent, which inosculates with the anterior 
 branches of the popliteal ; it then sends off small branches 
 to neighbouring muscles as it passes down the leg. 
 
 2. Arteria malleolaris interna, about the inner ankle. 
 
 3. Arteria malleolaris externa, about the outer ankle. 
 
 4. Arteria tarsea, which lies upon the bones of the tarsus. 
 
 5. Arteria metatarsea, to the tendons of the peronei 
 muscles. 
 
 6. Dorsalis externa hallucis y which runs along the meta- 
 tarsal bone of the great toe. 
 
 The TIBIALIS POSTICA passes along the back part of the 
 tibia, goes round the inner ankle, and divides at the heel 
 into the two plantar arteries. In this course it sends off 
 
 1. Arteria nutritia tibia, which gives branches to the 
 popliteus, soleus, and tibialis anticus muscles, before it 
 enters the bone. 
 
 2. Thejibttlar or peroneal and many small brunettes, as it 
 passes downwards. 
 
 3. Arteria plantaris interna, which runs along the inner 
 edge of the sole of the foot, and sends off four branches 
 about the foot. 
 
 4. Arteria plantaris interna, which forms an arch and in- 
 osculates with the anterior tibial artery, and gives off the 
 digital branches to the toes. 
 
 PULMONARY ARTERY. 
 
 The pulmonary artery arises from the right ventricle of 
 the heart, and conveys the dark-coloured blood into the 
 lungs, which is returned to the heart, of a florid colour, by 
 the veins. It does not convey this blood into the lungs for 
 
17S 
 
 their nutrition, but to receive from the air in the lungs a 
 fertain principle, necessary for the continuance of life, and 
 which the arterial blood distributes to every part of the 
 body. The pulmonary artery soon divides into a right and 
 left; the right going to the right lung, and the left to the 
 left lung, where they divide into innumerable ramifications, 
 and form a beautiful net-work t or plexus of vessels, upon 
 the air-vesicles, called the rete mirabile, and then termi- 
 nate in the pulmonary veins, which convey the blood, now 
 become florid, to the left side of the heart. 
 
 The pulmonary artery seldom becomes ossified, and is 
 very rarely attacked with aneurism. One ease, how- 
 ever, of aneurism of the pulmonary artery, the author 
 has seen, which was of the size of his fist. 
 
 ACTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 The arteries, by the impulse of the blood, from the ven- 
 tricles of the heart, are dilated and irritated, and by means 
 of their muscular coat contract upon the blood, and thus 
 propel it to the glands, muscles, bones, membranes, and 
 every part of the body, for their nutrition and the various ' 
 secretions ; and then into the veins. This dilatation and 
 contraction is called the PULSE, which is perceptible in the 
 trunks and branches of the arteries, but not in the capil- 
 lary vessels, except when inflammation is going ou. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCE OF THE ARTERIES. 
 
 The diseases of arteries, which are detected by the ana- 
 tomist post mortem, are aneurism, white patches, ossifica- 
 tion, inflammation, and redness of the internal membrane. 
 
174- 
 
 VENAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Veins are membranous canals which do not pulsate ; 
 they gradually become larger as they advance towards the 
 heart, in which they terminate, and bring back the blood 
 tr< mi the arteries. 
 
 ORIGIN. From the extremities of the arteries by ana. 
 stomosis. 
 
 TERMINATION. The termination of all the veins it iu 
 the auricles of the heart. 
 
 DIVISION. Into trunks, branches, ramuli, &c. 
 
 SITUATION. They run by the sides of arteries, but mor 
 superficially. 
 
 STRUCTURE. Veins, like arteries, are composed of three 
 membranes, but they are semi-transparent, and more de- 
 licate. 
 
 VALVES. These are thin semilunar membranous folds, 
 which are found in most veins, and prevent the blood in 
 the vein from being pressed backwards out of its natural 
 course. 
 
 The blood is returned from every part of the body into 
 the right auricle : the vena cava superior receives it from 
 the head, neck, thorax, and superior extremities ; the vena 
 cava inferior, from the abdomen and inferior extremities , 
 and the coronary vein receives it from the coronary arterie* 
 of the heart. 
 
 VENA CAVA SUPERIOR. 
 
 This vein terminates in the superior part of the right 
 auricle, into which it evacuates the blood from 
 
 The right and left tubctavian veins, and the vena azyga*. 
 
175 
 
 The right and left subclavian veins receive the blood 
 from the head and upper extremities, in the following 
 manner : 
 
 The veins of the fingers, called digitals, receive their 
 blood from the digital arteries, and empty it into 
 
 1. The cephalic of the thumb, which runs on the back of 
 the hand along the thumb, and evacuates itself into the ex- 
 ternal radial. 
 
 2. The salvatella, which runs along the little finger, 
 unites with the former, and empties its blood into the inter- 
 nal and external cubital veins. 
 
 This vein, the salvatella, is frequently opened to take away 
 blood ; the hand should be soaked for some time before 
 in warm water, and a ligature put round the wrist. 
 
 At the bend of the fore-arm are three veins, called th* 
 great cephalic, the basilic, and the median. 
 
 The GREAT CEPHALIC runs along the superior part of th 
 fore-arm, and receives the blood from the external radial. 
 
 The BASILIC ascends on the under side, and receives the 
 blood from the external and internal cubital veins, and some 
 branches which accompany the brachial artery, called vena 
 xitellitum. 
 
 The MEDIAN is situated in the middle of the fore-arm, and 
 arises from the union of several branches. It is divided into 
 two branches ; the median cephalic, and the median basilic, 
 
 Either of these veins may be opened with the greatest 
 ease ; and it is at the bend of the arm that blood is 
 most frequently taken from one of these branches. 
 
 Thrombus is nothing more than blood that escapes from 
 the bleeding vein iqto the cellular membrane ; a mere 
 . ecchymosis, or extravasation. 
 
 When the lancet penetrates the vein, and perforates the 
 artery that lies underneath at the same time, the arte- 
 rial blood rushes into the vein: This communication 
 1 4 
 
176 
 
 between the artery and vein continues ever after, and 
 the vein becomes dilated and serpentine, from the con- 
 tinual influx of the blood from the artery : and this 
 constitutes what is called a varicose aneurism. 
 
 These three veins all unite above the bend of the arm, 
 and form 
 
 The BRACHIAL VEIN, which receives all their blood, and 
 is continued into the axilla, where it is called 
 
 The AXILLARY VEIN. This receives also the blood from 
 the scapula, and superior and inferior parts of the chest, by 
 the superior and inferior thoracic vein, the vena muscular is, 
 and the scapularis. 
 
 The axillary vein then passes under the clavicle, where 
 it is called the SUBCLAVIAN, which unites with the external 
 and internal jugular veins, and the vertebral vein which 
 brings the blood from the vertebral sinuses ; it receives also 
 the blood from the mediastinal, pericardiac, diaphragmatic ; 
 thymic, internal mammary, and laryngeal veins ; and then 
 unites with its fellow, to form the vena cava superior, or, as 
 it is sometimes called, vena cava descendens. 
 
 The blood from the external and internal parts of the 
 head and face is returned in the following manner into the 
 external and internal jugulars, which terminate in the sub- 
 clavians : 
 
 The frontal, angular, or facial, temporal, auricular, sub- 
 lingual, and occipital veins receive the blood from the parts 
 after which they are named ; these all converge to each 
 side of the neck, and form a trunk called the EXTERNAL 
 JUGULAR. 
 
 The external jugular may be opened with more facility 
 than the veins in the arm. In ophthalmias it gives 
 speedier and more certain relief, and in many diseases 
 of the head is preferable to taking blood from the arm. 
 
177 
 
 The application of a bandage under the arm is useless; 
 simple pressure with the finger is far better. 
 
 The blood from the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblon- 
 gata, and membranes of these parts, is received into the 
 lateral sinuses, or veins of the dura mater, one of which 
 empties its blood through the foramen lacerum in basi 
 cranii into the INTERNAL JUGULAR, which descends in the 
 neck by the carotid arteries, receives the blood from the 
 thyroideal and internal maxillary veins, and empties itself 
 into the subclavians within the thorax. 
 
 The vena azygos receives the blood from the bronchial 
 superior oesophageal, vertebral, and intercostal veins, and 
 empties it into the superior cava. 
 
 VENA CAVA INFERIOR. 
 
 The vena cava inferior is the trunk of all the abdominal 
 veins, and those of the lower extremities, from which parts 
 the blood is returned in the following manner : 
 
 The veins of the toes, called the digital veins, receive 
 the blood from the digital arteries, and form on the back of 
 the foot three branches, one on the great toe, called tht **- 
 phalic; another, which runs along the little toe, called the 
 vena saphena; and one on the back of the foot, vena dorsa- 
 tis pedis; and on the sole of the foot they evacuate them- 
 selves into the plantar veins. 
 
 The three veins in the upper part of the foot coming to- 
 gether above the ankle, form the anterior tibial; and the 
 plantar reins, with a branch from the calf of the leg, called 
 the sttral vein, form the posterior tibial; a branch also as- 
 cends in the direction of the fibula, called the peroneal vein. 
 Tiiese three branches unite before the ham, into one branch, 
 i 5 
 
 
178 
 
 the subpopliteal vein, which ascends through the ham, 
 ing all the blood from the foot ; it then proceeds upon the 
 anterior part of the thigh, where it is termed the crural or 
 femoral vein, receives several muscular branches, and passe* 
 under Poupart's ligament into the cavity of the pelvis, 
 where it is called the EXTERNAL ILIAC. 
 
 The veins of the leg and thigh are more frequently found 
 ifc a varicose state than any other veins, especially in 
 females. 
 
 The arteries which are distributed about the pelvis, eva^ 
 euate their blood into the external Juemorrhoidal veins, the 
 kypogastric veirts, the internal pudenda!, the vena magnn *p- 
 titt-s p,-ni<i, and obturatory veins, all -of which unite in th 
 pelvis, and form the INTERNAL ILIAC VEIN. 
 
 The external iliac vein receives the bloocf from the exter- 
 nal pudendal veins, and then unites with the internal iliac 
 at the last vertebra of the loins, and forms the VENA CAVA 
 INFERIOR, or ASCENDENS, which ascends on the right side of 
 the spine, receiving the blood from the sacral, lumbar, right 
 qwrmatic veins, and the vena cava hepatica ; and, having ar- 
 rived at the diaphragm, it passes through the right foramen, 
 and enters the right auricle of the heart, into which it eva- 
 cuates all the blood from the abdominal viscera and lower 
 extremities. 
 
 The veaa cava inferior at its very commencement l. 
 been found morbidly enlarged, and filled with a coa^u- 
 Imn; as in aneurism of the arteries. 
 
 VEJMS CAV^E HEPATICE. 
 
 These veins ramify in the substance of the liver, ami 
 bring the blood into the vena cava inferior from the 
 branches of the 
 
179 
 
 VENA 
 
 A great vein which carries the blood from the abdomi- 
 nal viscera into the gubstance of the liver. The trunk of 
 this vein, about the fissure of the liver, in which it is situ- 
 ated, is divided into the hepatic and abdominal portions. 
 The abdominal portion is composed of the splenic, meseraic, 
 and internal keemcrrhoidal veins. These three venous branches 
 carry all the blood from the stomach, spleen, pancreas, 
 omentum, mesentery, gall-bladder, and the small and large 
 intestines, into the simis of the vena portae. The hepatic 
 portion of the vena portse enters the substance of the liver, 
 divides into innumerable ramifications, which secrete the 
 bile, and the superfluous blood passes into corresponding 
 branches of the ven^f cavie hepatictr. 
 
 ACTiON OF VEINS. 
 
 Veins do not pulsate ; the blood which they receive from 
 the arteries flows through them very slowly, and is conveyed 
 to the right auricle of the heart, by the contractility of their 
 coats, the pressure of the blood from the arteries, called the 
 vis a tergo y the contraction of the muscles, and respiration ; 
 and it is prevented from returning back in the vein by the 
 valves, of which there are a great number. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF VEINS. 
 
 These are, redness of the internal membrane, aneurism, 
 obliteration, air in the veins, varix, and abscess. 
 
 I 6 
 
180 
 
 ABSORBENT SYSTEM. 
 
 Absorbents are very thin and pellucid vessels, which 
 carry the lymph from every part of the body ; substances 
 applied to the surface of the body, and the chyle from the 
 intestines, into the thoracic duct. 
 
 DIVISION. Into lacteals and lymphatics. They are called 
 lacteals in the intestines and mesentery, and lymphatics in 
 every other part. 
 
 FIGURE. Branching, becoming broader as they proceed 
 towards their termination. 
 
 VALVES. Numerous, giving them a knotted appearance. 
 
 SITUATION. It is supposed that they exist in every part 
 of the body, although they have not been as yet detected in 
 some, as the brain, &c. 
 
 ORIGIN. The cellular membrane, the viscera, the excre- 
 tory ducts of the viscera, the external surface and every 
 part of the body. 
 
 TERMINATION. In the thoracic duct, or subclavian vein. 
 The ancient opinion of lymphatics terminating in neigh- 
 bouring veins, is now justly exploded, and supported only 
 by the ipse-dixit of a few. 
 
 LYMPHATIC or CONGLOBATE GLANDS are situated every 
 where in the course of the lymphatics. 
 
 STRUCTURE. They consist of tender, pellucid, strong 
 tunics. 
 
 USE. The use of the absorbents is to carry back the 
 lymph from different parts into the blood ; to convey the 
 chyle from the intestines to the thoracic duct, where it is 
 mixed and diluted by the lymph ; and to absorb substances 
 from surfaces and parts on which they originate. 
 
181 
 
 LACTEALS. 
 
 The lacteal absorbents, forming a part of the mesentery, 
 are considered in Splanchnology. 
 
 LYMPHATICS. 
 
 The lymphatic absorbents exist in every the minutest 
 part of our body: this is proved by experiments, though 
 their existence cannot be demonstrated to the eye. They 
 are divided into those of the head and neck, upper and 
 lower extremities, and those of the viscera. 
 
 LYMPHATICS OF THE HEAD AND NECK. 
 
 Absorbents are found on the scalp and about the viscera 
 of the neck, which unite into a considerable branch that ac- 
 companies the jugular vein. Absorbents have not been de- 
 tected in the human brain ; yet there can be no doubt of 
 there being such vessels. It is probable that they pass out 
 of the cranium through the canalis caroticus and foramen la- 
 cerwm in basi cranii, on each side, and join the above jugular 
 branch, which passes through some glands as it proceeds 
 into the chest to the angle of the subclavian and jugular 
 
 LYMPHATICS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The absorbents of the upper extremities are divided into 
 superficial and deep-seated. The superficial absorbents ascend 
 under the skin in every direction to the wrist, from whence 
 a branch proceeds upon the posterior surface of the fore-arm 
 to the head of the radius, over the internal condyle of the 
 humerus, up to the axilla, receiving several branches as it 
 
182 
 
 proceeds. Another branch proceeds from the wrist along 
 the anterior part of the fore-arm, and forms a net-work, with 
 a branch coming over the ulna from the posterior part, and 
 ascends on the inside of the humerus to the glands of the 
 axilla. 
 
 The deep-seated absorbents accompany the larger blood- 
 vessels, and pass through two glands about the middle of 
 the humerus, and ascend to the glands of the axilla. The su- 
 perficial and deep-seated absorbents having passed through 
 the axillary glands, form two trunks, which unite into one, 
 to be inserted with the jugular absorbents into the thoracic 
 duct, af the angle formed by the union of the subclaviau 
 with the jugular vein. 
 
 LYMPHATICS OT THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 
 
 These are also superficial and deep-seated. The super- 
 ficial ones lie between .the skin and muscles. Those of the 
 toes and foot form a branch, which ascends upon the back of 
 the foot over the tendon of the cruraeus anticus, forms, with 
 other branches, a plexus above the ankles, then proceeds 
 along the tibia over the knee, sometimes passes through a 
 gland, and proceeds up the inside of the thigh to the sub- 
 inguinal glands. 
 
 The deep-seated absorbents follow the course of the arte- 
 ries, and accompany the femoral artery ; in which course 
 they pass through some glands in the leg and above the knee, 
 and then proceed to some deep-seated subinguinal glands. 
 
 The absorbents from about the external parts of the 
 pubis, as the penis, perinaeum, and from the external parts 
 of the pelvis, in general proceed to the inguinal glands. 
 The subinguinal and inguinal glands send forth several 
 branches, which pass through the abdominal ring into the 
 cavity of the abdomen. 
 
183 
 
 LYMPHATICS Of THE ABDOMINAL AND THORACIC VISCERA. 
 
 The absorbents of the lower extremities accompany the 
 external iliac artery, where they are joined by many branches 
 from the uterus, urinary bladder, spermatic cord, and some 
 branches accompanying the internal iliac artery : they then 
 ascend to the sacrum, where they form a plexus, which pro- 
 reeds over the psoas muscles, and meeting with the lac teals 
 of the mesentery, form the receptaculum chyli, which, ia 
 adulU, is about the size of a large pea, and is the com- 
 mencement of the 
 
 THORACIC DUCT. 
 
 This is the trunk of the absorbents ; it is of a serpentine 
 form, about the size of a crow-quill : it commences from 
 an oval reservoir or membranous bag called the receptacu- 
 tum chyli, lying on the body of the first lumbar vertebra 
 behind the right crus of the diaphragm, formed by the junc- 
 tion of the lymphatics of the lower extremities and th 
 iacteals. From this sac it passes between the crura of tb 
 diaphragm, and beneath the right side of the aorta, aud 
 ascends between that vessel and the vena azygos ; it then 
 passes behind the oesophagus and curvature of the aorta to 
 ihe left side, till behind the left carotid artery, and on that 
 side of the oesophagus it ascends to the first or second dor- 
 sal vertebra ; then, leaving the carotid, makes a circular 
 turn and divides : uniting again almost immediately, it de- 
 scends behind the internal jugular vein, to the left of which 
 it enters the angle formed by the subclavian and jugular 
 veins : at the entrance a semilunar valve covers the greater 
 part of its orifice. In this course it receives 
 
184- 
 
 The absorbents of the kidneys, which are superficial and 
 deep-seated, and unite as they proceed towards the thoracic 
 duct. 
 
 The absorbents of the spleen, which are upon its peritoneal 
 eoat, and unite with those of the pancreas. 
 
 A branch from a plexus of vessels passing above and be- 
 low the duodenum, and formed by the absorbents of the 
 stomach, which come from the lesser and greater curvature, 
 and are united about the pylorus with those of the pancreas 
 and liver, which converge from the external surface and in- 
 ternal parts towards the porta of the liver, and also by se- 
 veral branches from the gall-bladder. 
 
 The absorbents of the diaphragm, pleura, lungs, faart, 
 and pericardium, 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF ABSORBENTS. 
 
 Lymphatics morbidly distended with lymph inflamma- 
 tion of the lymphatics scrofulous thickening of the coats 
 of the lymphatics cancerous thickening of the coats of 
 the lymphatics lymphatics enlarged and filled with scroftu 
 lous or sebaceous matter. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF ABSORPTION. 
 
 Absorption is the taking up of substances which are ap- 
 plied to the mouths of absorbing vessels ; thus the chyle is 
 absorbed from the intestinal tube by the lacteals, the va- 
 pour of circumscribed cavities, and of the cells of the cel- 
 lular membrane, by the lymphatics of those parts ; and thus 
 
185 
 
 mercury and other substances are taken into the system, 
 when rubbed on the skin. Absorption is less active exter- 
 nally than internally, and is performed with greater celerity 
 on those external parts the surface of which is thinly covered 
 with epidermis, as the lips, gj&us penis, &c. From the nu- 
 merous anastomoses of absorbents, metastases may be ac- 
 counted for ; liquors absorbed by these vessels in one organ, 
 may be carried into another without passing through the 
 circulation. 
 
 The principle by which this absorption takes place, is a 
 power inherent in the mouths of absorbing vessels, a vis 
 insita, dependent on the high degree of irritability of their 
 internal membrane, by which the vessels contract and pro- 
 pel the fluid forwards. Hence the use of this function ap- 
 pears to be of the utmost importance, viz. to supply the 
 blood with chyle ; to remove the superfluous vapour of cir- 
 cumscribed cavities, otherwise dropsies, as hydrocephalus, 
 hydrothorax, hydrocordis, ascites, hydrocele, &c. would con- 
 stantly be taking place ; to remove the superfluous vapour 
 from the cells of the cellular membrane dispersed through- 
 out every part of the body, that anasarca may not take 
 place ; to remove the hard and soft parts of the body ; and 
 to convey into the system medicines which are applied to 
 the surface of the body. 
 
 SANGUIFICATION. 
 
 Sanguification appears to be nothing more than the mix- 
 ing, by the action of the blood-vessels, of the chyle with the 
 blood; for, as it passes from the subclavian vein, it changes 
 its colour, and, when it has reached the heart, cannot be 
 distinguished from the mass of circulating blood. 
 
186 
 NEUROLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE NERVES. 
 
 Nerves are long, whitish, pulpy cords, composed of 
 bundles or fasciculi of fibres, which serve for sensation. 
 
 ORIGIN. The cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, 
 and medulla spinalis. Those which arise from the cere- 
 brum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, are termed ce- 
 rebral nerves ; and those from the spinal marrow, spinal 
 nerves. All the other nerves of the body arise from these. 
 
 TERMINATION. The organs of sense, viscera, vessels, 
 muscles, bones, &c. 
 
 DIVISION. Into trunks, branches, ramuli, capillary 
 fibres, papillae, nervous plexuses, and ganglions, or knots. 
 
 NUMBER. Thirty-nine pair; nine pair of cerebraV 
 nerves, and thirty pair of spinal. The nine pair of cerebral 
 nerves, are, i. The olfactory. 2. The optic. 3. Oculorum 
 motorii. 4. The pathetic, or trochleatores. 5. The trige- 
 xnini, or divisi. 6. The abducent. 7. The auditory and 
 facial. 8. The par vagum, or great sympathetic nerves. 
 9. The lingual pair. 
 
 The thirty pair of spinal nerve* are divided into eight pair 
 of cervical, twelve pair of dorsal, five pair of lumbar, and 
 five pair of sacral nerves. 
 
 All the cerebral and spinal nerves are covered at their 
 origin by the pia mater, and at their egress from the skull 
 and spine by the dura mater, which last constitutes the vagina 
 of the nerve, in the form of a firm cellular texture ; but 
 when the nerve arrives at its place of destination, it appear* 
 in a soft pulpy state. 
 
187 
 
 The ganglions, or knots of nerves, are whitish red bodies, 
 of various size and figure, somewhat harder than a nerve 
 found in the course of many of the nerves. They consist of 
 medullary and fibrous substance ; their use is not known. 
 
 Nerves receive a covering from the membranes of the 
 brain, which constitutes their vagina, and are supplied with 
 arteries and veins from the neighbouring blood-vessels. 
 
 When nerves are woven together like a net, they form a 
 plexus : these are common about the abdominal viscera. 
 
 USE. Nerves are the organs of sensation, constituting 
 the organs of the five external senses, touch, sight, hear- 
 ing, smelling, and taste ; nor can the motion of muscles,b* 
 performed without the nervous influence. 
 
 NERVES OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 Under this division, anatomists consider such as proceed 
 immediately from the brain, arise in pairs, that is, one from 
 each side of the brain, and are therefore commonly called 
 after their order, as first, second, third pair of nerves, &c. 
 And as they are all subservient to some specific purpose, 
 they have received appropriate appellations, as olfactory, 
 optic, &c. 
 
 OLFACTORY NERVES. 
 
 Theirs* pair, or olfactory nerves, arise from the corpora 
 etriata, in a triangular form ; pass forwards, becoming 
 ttatter over the spha?noid and frontal bones, one to each side 
 of the crista galli, where they are flattened and enlarged, 
 ud eud down a number of branches, which go through 
 
 4 
 
188 
 
 the cribriform foramen of the ethmoid bone, to be distri- 
 buted on the pituitary membrane of the nose. 
 
 USE. They form the organ of smelling on the pituitary 
 membrane of the nose. 
 
 A want of energy in these nerves gives rise to anosmia, 
 or want o smell, which is mostly symptomatic. 
 
 OPTIC NERVES. 
 
 The second pair, or optic nerves, arise from the thalami 
 nervorum opticorum, turn round the crura cerebri, becoming 
 thinner, decussate each other, or are united together, then 
 pass through the foramina optica, and perforate the bulb of 
 the eye, and in it form the retina. 
 
 The optic nerves being the organs of sight, most of their 
 diseases produce blindness. A diseased appearance, 
 consisting of a change of colour into a brown, and a 
 pulpiness, have been sometimes noticed about the 
 junction of these nerves. 
 
 NERVI OCULORUM MOTORII. 
 
 The third pair, or oculorum motorii, arise from the crura 
 cerebri, near the pons Varolii, pass forwards towards the top 
 of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, where they per- 
 forate the dura mater, and proceed to the orbital fissure, to 
 be inserted into the muscles of the bulb of the eye, which 
 they move. There is sometimes a branch given off from 
 this nerve to join a branch of the fifth pair in. the orbit, and 
 form a ganglion, which is termed the LENTICULAR or OPH- 
 THALMIC GANGLION, from whence small branches proceed 
 to the choroid membrane of the eye, the iris, uvea, and tu- 
 nica Bclerotica. 
 
189 
 
 NERVI PATHETICI. 
 
 The//ttr/7i pair, or the pathetic nerves, arise from the crura 
 of the cerebellum laterally, pass forward, pierce the dura 
 mater below the third pair, and proceed with them through 
 the orbital fissure to be inserted into the trochlearis muscle 
 of the eye. 
 
 NERVI TRIGEMINI. 
 
 The fifth pair, or trigemini, arise from the anterior part 
 of the crura of the cerebellum, and are divided within the 
 cavity of the cranium into three branches, viz. the ophthal- 
 mic or orbital, and the superior and inferior maxillary. 
 
 The ORBITAL nerve gives off a branch, near its origin, 
 which unites with a branch of the sixth pair, to form the 
 great intercostal nerve ; it then divides into three branches : 
 
 1. The frontal, which goes through the superciliary fora- 
 men to the muscles and integuments of the forehead. 
 
 2. The lachrymal, which goes to the lachrymal gland. 
 
 3. The nasal, which goes forwards to the inner can thus 
 of the eye, where it gives off a branch or two, then returns 
 into the cranium, and passes through the cribriform plate 
 of the ethmoid bone, and is distributed on the pituitary 
 membrane. 
 
 The SUPERIOR MAXILLARY nerve goes through the fora- 
 men rotundutn, and is divided into 
 
 i. The sphano-palatine, which goes through the sphaeno- 
 palatine foramen, sends twigs to the internal pterygoid 
 muscle, then enters the cavity of the nostrils, and is lost oa 
 the Eustachian tube, soft palate, and pituitary sinus of the 
 spheenoid bone. 
 
190 
 
 z. The posterior alveolar branch, which descends through 
 the foramen by the last grinder, and is distributed to the 
 molares. 
 
 3. The infra-orbital nerve, which goes through the infra- 
 orbital foramen, and is distributed on the muscles of the 
 cheek, nose, lips, and communicates with the facial nerve. 
 
 4. The palatine branch, or palato-m axillary, which goes 
 through the foramen palatinum posterius, and sends branches 
 to the velum palati, and roof of the mouth. 
 
 The INFERIOR MAXILLARY goes out of the cranium, 
 through theforamen ovale, giving branches to the muscles 
 and glands in its course, and to the facial nerve, and di- 
 vides as it passes over the pterygoid muscle, into 
 
 1. The internal lingual, which is connected with the 
 chorda tympani, and supplies the sublingual glands and 
 contiguous muscles, but more especially the tongue. 
 
 2. The more proper inferior maxillary, which goes into 
 the canalis mentalis of the lower jaw, gives a branch to 
 each tooth, and comes out again to supply the lower lip 
 aud ehin. 
 
 The distributions of the fifth pair of nerves on the face 
 are subject to a singular disease, the tic doloureux, 
 which is occasionally relieved by dividing the nerve*. 
 
 NERVI ABDUCENTES. 
 
 The sixth pair, or abducent nerves, arise from the poste- 
 rior part of the pons Varolii, proceed forwards, perforate the 
 dura mater, and send off some branches near the sella tur- 
 cica, which unite with branches of the ophthalmic nerve of 
 the fifth pair, to form the great intercostal nerve ; they then 
 accompany the third and fourth pair through the orbital 
 fissure, and are distributed on the recti extern! muscles of 
 the bulb of the eye. 
 
191 
 
 NERVI AUDITOR1I. 
 
 The seventh pair, or auditory nerves, as they are commonly 
 railed, originate on each side by two branches, the portio 
 dura, and portio mollis, 
 
 The PORTIO DURA is, in fact, a nerve of the face, and is 
 therefore, with more propriety, called the FACIAL NERVE: it 
 arises from the fourth ventricle of the brain, passes through 
 the aqiiceductus Fallcpii, in the petrous portion of the tem- 
 poral bone, where it gives off the chorda tympani, which joins 
 the lingual of the fifth pair, proceeds through the stylo- 
 mastoid foramen, perforates the parotid gland, and then 
 divides into seven or eight branches, which constitute the 
 pEa ANSERINUS, supply the ear, parotid gland, and muscles 
 of the face, and communicate with the branches of th 
 fifth pair on the face. 
 
 The PORTIO MOLLIS, or auditory nerve, arises from the 
 medulla oblongata, and the fourth ventricle, enters the in- 
 ternal auditory passage, and is distributed by innumerable 
 branches on the membrane of the cochlea, vestibulum, 
 and semicircular canals, forming the immediate orgau of 
 hearing. 
 
 PAR VAGUM. 
 
 The eighth pair, orparvagum, arise by several branches, 
 partly from the medulla oblongata, and partly from the 
 fourth ventricle, behind the pons Varolii. . It is connected, 
 at its origin, with the accessory nerves of Willis, which as- 
 cend through the great occipital foramen, from the fifth cer- 
 vical nerve : these nerves proceed together through the fo- 
 ramen lacerum in basi cranii. The accessory nerves then 
 separate from the par vagum, and vanish in the sterno- 
 rleido-mastoideus, and cucullaris muscles : the par vaguni 
 
192 
 
 then gives off branches in the neck to the tongue, larynx, 
 and thyroid gland, from which parts they acquire names, 
 and then descends into the cavity of the thorax, where it 
 gives off 
 
 1. The RIGHT and LEFT RECURRENT: the former arises 
 on the right side, near the subclavian artery, which it sur- 
 rounds, and then returns upwards to the thyroid gland : the 
 latter arises under the arch of the aorta, which it surrounds, 
 and then ascends to the oesophagus. Both nerves are lost 
 in the muscles of the larynx and pharynx. 
 
 2. Several branches which proceed to the superior part of 
 the pericardium, to form, with other nerves, the cardiac 
 plexus, which sends branches to the heart. 
 
 3. The par vagum then extends on the posterior surface 
 of the lungs, on each side, and gives off some brancfas, 
 which, with others from the cardiac plexus and recurrent 
 nerves, form a RIGHT and LEFT PULMONIC PLEXUS, which 
 supplies the lungs and trachea. 
 
 4. Both trunks of the par vagum then descend with the 
 oesophagus, and give off many ramifications, which form the 
 CESOPHAGEAL PLEXUS, from which the oesophagus and ad- 
 joining parts are supplied. 
 
 5. Having passed the diaphragm with the oesophagus, 
 they form, about the cardia, two STOMACHIC PLEXUSES : the 
 anterior is expanded over the anterior surface of the sto- 
 mach, and its greater curvature; the posterior over the 
 posterior surface and lesser curvature, and it transmits also 
 branches to the liver, pancreas, and diaphragm. 
 
 6. The par -vagum also sends some branches to unite with 
 the great intercostal, and thus concurs in forming the he- 
 patic, splenic, and renal plexuses. 
 
 't,,.ia 3 
 
193 
 
 NERVI LINGUALES. 
 
 The ninth, or lingual pair of nerves, arise from the me- 
 dulla oblongata, between the corpora olivaria and pyrami- 
 dalia ; pass out of the skull, through the foramina condy- 
 loidea anteriora, and communicate with the par vagum, and 
 first pair of cervical nerves ; they then proceed forwards, be- 
 tween the jugular vein and carotid artery, to be distributed 
 oa the muscles of the tongue and os hyoides. 
 
 Thus it appears that the olfactory and ophthamic nerves, 
 and the oculorum motorii, arise from the cerebrum; the 
 trochleatores and trigemini, from the cerebellum ; and the 
 auditory, par vagum, and linguales, from the medulla ob- 
 longata. 
 
 NERVES OF THE MEDULLA SPIN JUS. 
 
 Those nerves are called spinal, which pass out through 
 the lateral or intervertebral foramina of the spine. 
 
 Each nerve arises by two twigs, which unite, and form a 
 small ganglion, before the nerve leaves the vertebral canal. 
 They all receive a covering from the dura and pia mater, 
 which accompanies them to their ultimate terminations. 
 
 The spinal nerves are divided into cervical, dorsal, him- 
 bar, and sacral nerves. 
 
 CERVICAL NERVES. 
 
 The cervical nerves are eight pairs, and are to be distin- 
 guished from the nerves which pass from the brain along 
 the neck. 
 
 Ihejirst are called the OCCIPITAL; they arise from the 
 beginning of the spinal marrow, pass out between the margin 
 
194 
 
 of the occipital foramen and atlas, form a ganglion on its 
 transverse process, and are distributed about the occiput 
 and neck. 
 
 The second pair of cervical nerves send a branch to the 
 accessory nerve of Willis, and proceed to the parotid gland, 
 and external ear. 
 
 The third cervical pair supply the integuments of the 
 scapula, cucullaris, and triangularis muscles, and send a 
 branch to assist in forming the diaphragmatic nerve. 
 
 The fourth pair sends off two branches ; one to unite with 
 branches from the second and fifth cervical pairs, and this 
 union forms the accessory nerve of Willis; the other to unite 
 with a branch from the third and fifth cervical, which forms 
 ti e diaphragmatic nerve. 
 
 The fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth pairs all con- 
 verge and form the brachial plexus, from which arise the ac- 
 cessory nerve of Willis, the diaphragmatic nerve, and the 
 nerves of the upper extremities, which are therefore to be 
 considered here. 
 
 ACCESSORY NERVE OF WILLIS. 
 
 This arises on both sides of the neck, from the union of 
 branches from the second, fourth, and fifth pairs, proceeds 
 upwards through the great occipital foramen to the medulla 
 oblongata, where it joins the par vagum, and accompanies 
 it out of the skull, through the foramen lacerum in basi 
 cranii, and then leaves it to be distributed on the cucullaris 
 and sterno-cleido-mastoideus muscles. 
 
 DIAPHRAGMATIC NERVE. 
 
 The diaphragmatic nerve, which is also called tttephre- 
 nic nerve, is formed in the neck by the union of the branches 
 
 3 
 
195 
 
 from the third, fourth, and fifth cervical pairs, and by a 
 branch coming from the first pair of dorsal nerves, and an- 
 other from the great intercostal. From the neck it passes 
 between the clavicle and subclavian artery into the thorax, 
 and descends along the pericardium to the upper surface of 
 the diaphragm, where it divides into numberless branches, 
 which are lost in its substance. The right phrenic runs op- 
 posite to the superior cava aud right auricle ; while the left 
 curves over the pericardium, at the apex of the heart. 
 
 NERVES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 
 
 All the nerves of the upper extremities arise from the 5r- 
 chial plexics, situated in the neck, which is chiefly constituted 
 by the union of the five lowermost cervical nerves, and a 
 large branch of the first pair of the back. Several small 
 branches are first given off to contiguous parts, and then 
 
 1. The AXILLARY NERVE, which sometimes arises from 
 the radial nerve. It runs backwards and outwards around 
 the neck of the humerus, and ramifies in the muscles of the 
 scapula. 
 
 2. The EXTERNAL CUTANEAL, which perforates the coraco- 
 brachialis muscle, to the bend of the arm, where it accom- 
 panies the median vein as far as the thumb, and is lost in 
 its integuments. 
 
 3. The INTERNAL CUTANEAL, which descends oil the in- 
 side of the arm, where it bifurcates. From the bend of the 
 arm, the anterior branch accompanies the basilic vein, to 
 be inserted into the skin of the palm of the hand ; the pos- 
 terior branch runs down the internal part of the fore-arm, 
 to vanish in the skin of the little finger. 
 
 4. The MEDIAN NERVE, which accompanies the brachial, 
 artery to the cubit, then passes between the brachialis inter- 
 
196 
 
 BUS, pronator rotundus, and the perforates, axid perforahs, 
 Under the ligament of the wrist to the palm of the hand, 
 where it sends off branches, in every direction, to the muscles 
 of the hand, and then supplies the digital nerves, which go to 
 the extremities of the thumb, and fore and middle tinkers. 
 
 5. The ULNAR NERVE, which descends between the bru- 
 chial artery and basilic vein, between the internal condyle. 
 of the humerus, and the olecranon, and divides in the fore- 
 arm, into an internal and an external branch. The former 
 passes over the ligament of the wrist and sesamoid bone, to 
 the hand, where it divides into three branches, two of which 
 go to the ring and little finger, and the third forms an arch 
 towards the thumb, in the palm of the hand, and is lost in 
 the contiguous muscles. The latter passes over the tendon 
 of the extensor carpi ulnaris, and back of the hand, to 
 supply also the two last fingers. 
 
 6. The SPIRAL, or RADIAL NERVE, which sometimes gives 
 off the axillary nerve. It passes backwards, about the os hu- 
 ifceri, descends on the outside of the arm, between the brachi- 
 alis exteruus and internus muscles, to the cubit : then pro- 
 ceeds between the supinator longus and brevis, to the superior 
 extremity of the radius, giving off various branches to adja- 
 cent muscles. At this place it divides into two branches ; 
 one goes along the radius, between the supinator longus, and 
 radialis internus, to the back of the hand, and terminates in 
 the interosseous muscles, the thumb, and three first fingers; 
 the other passes between the supinator brevis, and head of 
 the radius, and is lost in the muscles of the fore-arm. 
 
 DORSAL NERVES. 
 
 The dorsal nerves are twelve pairs in number. Thefost 
 pair gives off a branch to the brachial plexus. All the dorsal 
 
197 V 
 
 nerves are distributed to the muscles of the back, intercos- 
 tals, serrati, pectoral, abdominal muscles, and diaphragm. 
 The five inferior pairs go to the cartilages of the ribs, and 
 are called castal. 
 
 LUMBAR NERVES. 
 
 The five pair of lumbar nerves are bestowed about the loin* 
 and its muscles, the skin of the abdomen and loins, scrotum, 
 ovaria, and diaphragm. The second, third, and fifth pair 
 unite, and form the obturator nerve, which descends over the 
 psoas muscle into the pelvis, and passes through the foramen 
 thyroideum to the obturator muscle, triceps, pectineus, &c. 
 
 The third and fourth, with some branches of the second 
 pair, form the CRURAL NERVE, which passes under Poupart's 
 ligament with the femoral artery, sends off branches to the 
 adjacent parts, and descends in the direction of the sartorius 
 muscle, to the internal condyle of the femur, from whence 
 i\ accompanies the saphena vein to the internal ankle, to be 
 lost in the skin of the great toe. 
 
 The fifth pair are joined to the first pair of the sacral 
 nerves. 
 
 SACRAL NERVES. 
 
 The posterior sacral nerves go through the foramina at 
 the back of the sacrum, to supply the gluteal muscles and 
 integuments. 
 
 There are five pair of anterior sacral nerves anteriorly, all 
 of which arise from the cauda equina, or termination of the 
 medulla spinalis ; so called from the nerves resembling the 
 tail of a horse. The four first pair give off branches to the 
 pelvic viscera, and are afterwards united to the last lumbar, 
 to form a large plexus, which gives off 
 
 The ISCHIATIC NERVE, the largest in the body, which im- 
 
198 
 
 mediately at its origin sends off branches to the bladder, 
 rectum, and parts of generation ; proceeds from the cavity 
 of the pelvis, through the ischiatic notch, between the tube- 
 rosity of the ischium and great trochanter, to the ham, 
 where it is called the POPLITEAL NERVE. In the ham it di- 
 vides into two branches: 
 
 1. The PERONEAL, which descends on the fibula, and dis- 
 tributes many branches to the muscles of the leg and back 
 of the foot. 
 
 2. The TIBIAL, which penetrates the gastrocnemii muscles 
 to the internal ankle, passes through a notch in the os cal- 
 cis to the sole of the foot, where it divides into an internal 
 and external plantar nerve, which supply the muscles and 
 epoueurosis of the foot and the toes* 
 
 GREAT INTERCOSTAL NERVES. 
 
 The great intercostal, or sympathetic nerve, arises in the 
 cavity of the cranium, from the union of a branch of the 
 sixth with a recurrent twig of the second branch of the fifth 
 pair. It passes out of the cranium through the carotid ca- 
 nal, and descends on the sides of the cervical, dorsal, and 
 lumbar vertebrae and sacrum, in which course it is joined 
 1 y filaments from all the spinal nerves, forming small gau- 
 giions at their junctions. 
 
 In the neck it forms only three ganglions, which are 
 called cervical. 
 
 i. The uppermost is situated upon the second vertebra, 
 behind the pharynx ; it sends branches which concur in 
 forming the pulmonic and cardiac plexuses ; and several 
 other twigs, which unite with the lingual nerve, the par va- 
 g-um, and the two other ganglions. 
 
 2.. The middle ganglion, which is situated on the fourth 
 cervical vertebra. 
 
199 
 
 a. The lowermost ganglion, which is the least, and placed 
 on the last cervical vertebra. A branch goes off from it, 
 and surrounds the subclavian artery and several others, 
 which unite with other branches from the par vagura, and 
 form the cardiac plexus. 
 
 The trunk of the great intercostal then descends behind 
 the subclavian artery, by the sides of the transverse processes 
 of the dorsal vertebrae, through the cavity of the chest,' re- 
 ceiving two branches from each of the dorsal nerves coming 
 from the spinal marrow, as it passes along, and forming as 
 many small ganglions. It then quits the side of the ver- 
 tebrae, accompanies the aorta, and having reached the sa- 
 crum, it produces several ganglions, with the spinal branches 
 coming from this part ; and lastly, the great intercostal is 
 reflected inwards, about the os coccygis, and joins its fel- 
 low of the opposite side. Having thus described the course 
 of this nerve, so justly termed the great sympathetic, it still 
 remains to enumerate the several abdominal plexuses which 
 arise from it, for the viscera of the abdomen are all sup- 
 plied from the great intercostal. 
 
 The fifth dorsal ganglion of the intercostal sends off a 
 nerve into the thorax ; the third dorsal ganglion also sends 
 off a nerve ; a nerve proceeds from the seventh dorsal gan - 
 glion; one also goes from the eighth ganglion; and another 
 nerve is given off from the ninth and tenth, or sometimes 
 from the eleventh dorsal ganglion. These five branches, 
 given off by the dorsal ganglia , descend in the thorax, in the 
 course of the vertebrae, and pass through the diaphragm 
 into the abdomen, where they all unite into one trunk on 
 each side ; and this nerve is called the splanchnic, or little, 
 ur anterior intercostal. 
 
 The splanchnic intercostal nerve proceeds a very little 
 
 K4 
 
200 
 
 way from the diaphragm, before it produces a large ganglion 
 on the anterior part of the aorta : this ganglion is of a semi- 
 lunar form, and termed the SEMILUNAR GANGLION ; some 
 small twigs pass a little from it, and form net-work, which 
 is termed the SOLAR PLEXUS. The two semilunar ganglia 
 send several branches to unite with, and form, the other ab- 
 dominal ganglia: thus 
 
 i. The C<ELIAC PLEXUS. This surrounds the creliac ar- 
 tery, and is formed by the union of several branches fronj 
 the solar plexus, and semilunar ganglion. 
 
 z. The HEPATIC PLEXUS. This arises from branches 
 given off from the cceliac plexus, uniting with those coming 
 from the semilunar ganglion. The hepatic plexus supplies 
 the vena portae, the gall-bladder, liver, duodenum, and 
 omentum, with nerves. 
 
 3. The SPLENIC PLEXUS. Which arises from branches 
 given off from the coeliac plexus, and right semilunar gan- 
 glion ; it passes with the vessels into the spleen, and sends 
 branches to the stomach and pancreas. 
 
 4. The SUPERIOR MESENTERIC PLEXUS. Formed by the 
 union of several branches from the semiluuar and solar 
 
 ganglion, and the former plexuses. It sends nerves to the 
 mesentery, mesocolon, and mesenteric glands. 
 
 5. The RENAL PLEXUS. Formed by branches of the se- 
 milunar ganglions, and the superior mesenteric plexus : 
 the kidnies are supplied with nerves from this plexus. 
 
 6. The INFERIOR MESENTERIC PLEXUS. Situated near the 
 inferior mesenteric artery. 
 
 7. The MESOCOLIC, or POSTERIOR MESENTERIC PLEXUS. 
 This arises from the union of several nerves sent over the 
 aorta from the superior mesenteric and renal ylexuses, adi 
 supplies the mesentery and intestines. 
 
201 
 
 8. The HYPOGASTRIC PLEXUS. Branches from the supe- 
 rior and inferior mesenteric plexus form this, which is situ- 
 ated at the fourth vertebra of the loins. The hypogastric 
 plexus soon divides into two branches, in each of which is 
 a ganglion that sends nerves to the urinary bladder, rectum, 
 and contiguous parts. 
 
 9. The SPERMATIC PLEXUS. Which supplies the sper- 
 matic vessels, testes. ovaria, &c. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF NERVES. 
 
 Although more liable than any other part of the body ta 
 disease, yet the nerves seldom present the anatomist with 
 any morbid appearance, post mortem. Those which have 
 been noticed are, a general wasting away, and a tumour of 
 a nerve. The vagina of a nerve has been found highly in- 
 flamed, from a spicula of bone irritating it, and producing 
 convulsions and tetanus. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Nerves are the organs of our senses. Bodies applied to 
 certain parts of our system, produce changes in those parts, 
 which changes are conveyed in an unknown manner to the 
 brain, by means of the nerves only, and SENSATION is pro- 
 duced ; so that sensation is a property peculiar to the nerv- 
 ous fibre, as irritability is to the muscular fibre ; and hence 
 all sentient parts are supplied with nerves, although they 
 cannot be detected by the eye. 
 
 All impressions perceived by the organs of sense, by the 
 K 5 
 
202 
 
 percipient extremities of nerves, are transmitted to one point 
 in the cerebral substance, and it is here that the sensorium 
 commune exists, considered by Des Cartes to be in the pi- 
 neal gland ; by La Peyronie, to be in the corpus callosum ; 
 and by Richerand, to be in the corpus annulare, as this is 
 a confluence of the cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 
 The senses are distinguished into internal and external. 
 The INTERNAL SENSES are ideas which the sensorium com- 
 mune, or mind, forms to itself, and may be produced from 
 the external senses, or they may be excited spontaneously : 
 such are^ memory, imagination, conscience, the passions of the 
 mind, and reasoning, by the superior excellence of which, 
 man differs so eminently from the brute. 
 
 The EXTERNAL SENSES are, smelling, seeing, tasting, touch- 
 ing, and hearing, which last is considered after the descrip- 
 tion of the ear. 
 
 SMELLING. 
 
 Smelling is a sensation by which we perceive the smell 
 of substances. 
 
 This sensation is more or less acute, according to the ex- 
 tent of surface to which odours are applied. The habitual 
 state of moisture of the membrane of this organ, is a con- 
 dition necessary to the perfection of this" sense. 
 
 The organ of smell is, the nervous papillae of the olfactory 
 or first pair of nerves, which are distributed on every part 
 of the pituitary membrane of the nose. 
 
 Richerand thinks it probable that the olfactory nerves 
 do not extend into the sinuses, and that these posterior ca- 
 vities only increase the perfection of smelling, by longer 
 retaining a greater mass of air, loaded with odorous par- 
 tides, and that the true seat of smelling is the superior part 
 
203 
 
 of the nasal fossae : as the pituitary membrane is there more 
 moist, and receives into its texture the numerous ramifica- 
 tions of the olfactory pair of nerves, which terminate in 
 forming an expansion of its filaments, by a kind of paren- 
 chymatous structure, difficult to be distinguished from the 
 texture of the membrane. 
 
 Air is the vehicle of odours ; we are only sensible of their 
 effects when we attract them by inspiration, 
 
 SEEING. 
 
 Seeing is a sensation by which we perceive bodies around, 
 us, and their visible qualities. 
 
 The organ of sight is the retina, an expansion of the optic 
 or second pair of nerves. 
 
 The object of sight is the rays of light, which penetrate 
 the bulb of the eye, ami stimulate the retina. 
 
 Light is a subtile and solid material, which emanates 
 from the sun, or any lucid body, with a very rapid motion, in 
 right lines, which are called rays of light, and penetrate to 
 the retina in the following manner : the rays of light fall on 
 the pellucid and convex cornea of the eye, by whose density 
 and convexity they are united into a focus, which passes the 
 aqueous humour and pupil of the eye, -to be more condensed 
 by the crystalline lens. The rays of light thus concentrated, 
 penetrate the vitreous humour, to stimulate the retina, upon 
 which they impress the image of external objects, to be re- 
 presented to the mind through the medium of the optic 
 nerves, 
 
 The intensity of light on the retina, is moderated by the 
 contraction of the iris, which is secondarily affected, being 
 itself insensible to luminous rays. The pupil is, therefore, 
 contracted in too strong a light, and dilated when, we are ha 
 
204 
 
 darkness, to admit light to produce the necessary impression 
 au the retina. 
 
 Tasting is a sensation by which we distinguish the quali- 
 ties of bitter, sweet, sour substances, &c. 
 
 The nervous papillae of the ninth, or lingual pair of 
 nerves, which are situated in the apex and margins of the 
 tongue, are the chief organs of taste. 
 
 The parts subservient to taste are 
 
 i. The tongue, which gives a convenient situation to the 
 nervous papillae, and by its extensive motion applies them 
 to the substance to be tasted. 
 
 z. The epidermis of the tongue, which moderates any 
 excessive stimulus. 
 
 3. The saliva, and mucus of the mouth, which assist the 
 organ of taste, when it is necessary that the substance 
 should be dissolved, in order to be tasted, and which also 
 keep the nervous papillae moist. 
 
 If there be an absolute deficiency of saliva, and the sub- 
 stance masticated be void of humidity, it will only affect the 
 dried tongue by its property of touching, and not in the least 
 by its savour; hence, in those diseases where the tongue is 
 foul, the taste is either blunted or altered. 
 
 TOUCHING. 
 
 Touching is a sensation by which we distinguish the qua- 
 lities of hardness, softness, heat, and cold, &c. of substances, 
 and by which we perceive any substance that comes in con- 
 tact with the skin, particularly at the points of the fingers. 
 
 The organs of touch are the nervous papillae of the skin, 
 which are extremely numerous and sensible at the points of 
 the fingers, and on the lips, which seem endued with a pe- 
 culiar sense of touch : the papillae swell when irritated, 
 
205 
 
 and elevate the cuticle, thereby increasing the degree of 
 sensibility. The sense of touch is increased by education. 
 Blind persons, it is said, have possessed the sense of feeling 
 to such an eminent degree, as even to distinguish the variety 
 of colours, and their different shades. 
 
 Too great a sensation is moderated by the epidermis, 
 which also defends the papillae from being dried by the air. 
 
 ADENOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE GLANDS. 
 
 A gland is a small, round, vascular body, which serve* 
 tor the secretion or alteration of a fluid. 
 
 DIVISION. Into folliculose, globate, glomerate, and con- 
 glomerate ; they are also divided, from the liquor they se- 
 crete or change, into sebaceous, muciparous, lymphatic, 
 lachrymal, salival, bilious, lacteal, &c. 
 
 A FOLLICLE, or folliculose gland, consists of an hollow, 
 vascular membrane, having an excretory duct; as the mu- 
 ciparous and sebaceous glands. 
 
 A GLOBATE GLAND consists of a glomer of lymphatic ves- 
 sels, connected together by cellular membrane, and has no 
 cavity nor excretory duct ; as the lymphatic glands of the 
 lymphatic vessels. 
 
 A GLOMERATE GLAND is formed of a glomer of sangui- 
 neous vessels ; has no cavity, but is furnished with an ex- 
 cretory duct, as the lachrymal and mammary glands. 
 
206 
 
 A CONGLOMERATE GLAND is a gland composed of man 
 glomerate glands, whose excretory ducts unite, and form 
 one large canal or duct. The pancreas and salival glands 
 belong to this class. 
 
 The excretory duct of glands is a thin canal, which goe& 
 out of the gland, and excerns the secreted fluids, by the 
 contractility of its coats* 
 
 The nerves and vessels of glands are numerous, and, in 
 most instances, come from the neighbouring parts. Some 
 particular glands are, however, supplied with vessels proper 
 to them, as the visceral glands, the thyroid, prostate, &c. 
 
 Glands are connected with other parts by cellular mem- 
 brane. They are larger in infants than in adults. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE SKIN. 
 
 The SUBCUTANEOUS GLANDS are sebaceous, and situated 
 under the skin, which they perforate by their excretory 
 ducts. 
 
 These glands are frequently found diseased. A collection 
 of a white sebaceous substance in the excretory duct 
 is among the most common diseased appearances. It 
 arises from a diseased action of the gland separating an 
 unhealthy sebaceous substance. 
 
 They are frequently found enlarged and inflamed after 
 death, constituting the diseases called plu/ma and fu- 
 rmiculus. 
 
 GLANDS IN THE CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM. 
 
 i. The GLANDS OF THE DURA MATER, called also, after 
 their discoverer, PACCIIIONIAN, are small fatty substances, 
 situated in and near to the superior longitudinal sinus of 
 the dura mater, in peculiar foveolas of the os frontis and pa- 
 rietal bones. 
 
207 
 
 The Pacchionian glands vary very much in their appear- 
 ance in the dead body. One, which is certainly a dis- 
 eased appearance, is a general enlargement, which 
 causes, in some cases, an absorption of the superin- 
 cumbent bones. 
 
 2. The GLANDS OF THE CHOROID PLEXUS, which are glo- 
 bate, and situated in the choroid plexus of the lateral ven- 
 tricles of the brain. 
 
 The glands of the choroid plexus are sometimes changed 
 into a white substance, the size of a pin's head, aad 
 larger, which is hard, and apparently of the nature of 
 scirrhus. 
 
 Whether the globular vesicles, called hydatids, are dis- 
 eased appearances of these glands, is not ascertained. 
 
 3. The PITUITARY GLAND, situated in a duplicature of the 
 dura mater, in the sella turcica of the sphaenoid bone. The 
 iiifundibulum of the brain terminates in this gland. 
 
 The pituitary gland occasionally is converted into a hard 
 subcartilaginous structure ; and, it is said, into bone. 
 
 It has been completely absorbed, in consequence of 
 pressure from disease of the brain. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE EYES. 
 
 1. MEIBOMBIUS'S GLANDS. These are small and numerous 
 sebaceous glands, situated under the skin of the eyelids, 
 near their margins. Their excretory ducts open on the 
 margins of the tarsus, and are called puncta ciliaria. 
 
 These glands are sometimes found converted into white 
 sebaceous spots ; and this state generally accompanies 
 other marks of scrofula in the habit. 
 
 2. The LACHRYMAL GLAND, which is glomerate, and si- 
 tuated above the external angle of the orbit, in a peculiar 
 depression of the os frontis. This gland has six or eight 
 
208 
 
 excretory canals, through which the tears are conveyed, and 
 which open upon the internal surface of the upper eyelids. 
 
 The lachrymal gland is sometimes found without the 
 orbit, near the external cauthus. 
 
 3. The CARUNCULA LACHRYMALIS, a small and red promi- 
 nence, obvious in the internal angle of the eye, between 
 the tarsi of the eyelids, it consists of small sebaceous 
 glands, which secrete a feculent humour. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE NOSTRILS. 
 
 The pituitary membrane lining the nostrils, and its si- 
 nuses, is every where furnished with muciparvus glands, 
 which secrete the mucus of the nose. 
 
 Inflammation of these glands constitutes, in conjunction 
 with a similar affection of the membrane itself, catarrh. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE EAR. 
 
 The CERUMINOUS GLANDS are situated under the skin of 
 the meatus auditorius externus, and secrete the wax of the 
 ears. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 The glands of the mouth which secrete the saliva, are 
 called salival; they are, 
 
 i. The PAROTIDS. Two large conglomerate glands, situ- 
 ated one under each ear, between the mammillary process 
 of the temporal bones, and angle of the lower jaw. The 
 excretory canal of this gland opens in the mouth, and is 
 called, from its discoverer, the Stenonian duct. 
 
209 
 
 The mumps is a particular affection of this gland, of an 
 inflammatory nature, and is called cynanclie parotidea, 
 or par otis. 
 
 2. The MAXILLARY. Which are conglomerate glands, 
 situated under the angles of tlie lower jaw. The excretory 
 ducts of these glands are also called, after their discoverer, 
 Warthonian. 
 
 These glands are very frequently affected with scrofula. 
 
 3. The SUBLINGUAL GLANDS, situated under the tongue. 
 
 4. The GLANDS OF THE CHEEK, situated on the internal 
 surface of the cheeks. 
 
 5. The LABIAL GLANDS, on the internal surface of the 
 lips, t i,der the common membrane of the mouth. 
 
 6. The MOLAR GLANDS, situated on each side of the 
 mouth, between the masseter and buccinator muscles. 
 Their excretory ducts open near the last dens molaris. 
 
 EXTERNAL GLANDS OF THE NECK. 
 
 I- The JUGULAR GLANDS, which are globate, and found 
 under the skin of the neck about the external jugular veins : 
 they are in general about twenty in number. 
 
 These glands are frequently enlarged and scrofulous. 
 
 2. The SUBMAXILLARY GLANDS, also globate and situated 
 in the fat under the jaw. 
 
 3. The CERVICAL, found under the cutis in the fat about 
 the neck. 
 
 4. The THYROID. A large gland lying upon the cricoid 
 cartilage, trachea, and horns of the thyroid cartilage. It is 
 uncertain whether it be globate or conglomerate. Its excre r 
 tory duct has never been detected, and its use is unknown. 
 
210 
 
 The thyroid gland is often the seat of Ironchocele, which 
 is a morbid enlargement, either from a deposition of 
 adventitious matter, or distention from air. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE FAUCES. 
 
 The glands situated under the membrane which lines 
 this cavity, are muciparous, and divided, from their situa- 
 tion, into palatine, uvular, tonsil, lingual, laryngeal, and 
 pharyngeal. 
 
 The tonsil glands, which are also called the almonds of 
 the ear, are subject to inflammation, forming the 
 cynanche tonsillaris suppuration enlargement scir- 
 rhus. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE BREASTS. 
 
 The MAMMARY, or lacteal glands, are situated under the 
 fat of the breasjts. Their excretory ducts are called tubuli 
 lactiferi, and tubuli galactoferi; they proceed to the nipple, 
 in which they open. 
 
 The tubuli galactoferi are often distended with milk, so 
 as to induce inflammation of the breast. 
 
 Inflammation of the breast, either of the cellular sub- 
 stance or glandular part, is called mastodynia, or mas- 
 titis. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE THORAX. 
 
 1. The THYMUS, a large gland, peculiar to the foetus, and 
 which disappears soon after birth : it is situated in the ante- 
 rior duplicature or space of the mediastinum, under the su~ 
 perior part of the sternum, and above the pericardium. An 
 excretory duct has not been as yet detected, but lymphatics 
 are seen going from this gland to the thoracic duct. 
 
 2. The BRONCHIAL, which are large blackish glands near 
 
211 
 
 the end of the trachea, and beginning of the bronchiae, and 
 which secrete a blackish mucus. 
 The bronchial glands are not unfrequently found ossified. 
 
 3. The CESOPHAGEAL GLANDS, found under the internal 
 membrane of the oesophagus, and which secrete the mucus 
 of that canal. 
 
 4. The DORSAL GLANDS, situated upon the fourth or fifth 
 vertebra of the back, between them and the posterior sur- 
 face of the CEsophagus. They have no excretory ducts. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 1. The GASTRIC GLANDS, which are muciparous, and situ- 
 ated under the external membrane of the stomach. 
 
 It should be remembered, that these glands only secrete 
 the mucus of the stomach, and not the gastric juice, 
 which is separated by arteries. 
 
 2. The INTESTINAL GLANDS, which are also muciparous, 
 and found under the internal membrane of the intestines, 
 especially the large. 
 
 3. The MESENTERIC GLANDS, situated here and there in 
 the cellular membrane of the mesentery. The. chyle from the 
 intestines passes through these glands to the thoracic duct. 
 
 Mescnteritis, or true inflammation of the mesentery, is, in 
 fact, inflammation of these glands ; whereas inflamma- 
 tion of the laminae of the peritoneum which form the 
 mesentery, is peritonitis mesenterica. 
 
 Mesenteric obstruction arises from disease of these 
 glands; and is a frequent cause of the marasmus of 
 children : the chyle being prevented passing the glands 
 in sufficient quantity to form good blood. 
 
 4. The HEPATIC GLANDS, also called acini biltosi, and/*m- 
 cilli, which form the substance of the liver, and separate the 
 
212 
 
 bile into small ducts, which at length terminate in the 
 ductwi hepaticud. (See Liver) 
 
 Diseases of the glandular part are not yet distinguished 
 from the diseased appearances of the cellular connect- 
 ing substance, and the other vessels of the liver. 
 
 5. The CYSTIC GLANDS, which are mudparous, and found 
 under the internal membrane of the gall-bladder, especially 
 about its neck. 
 
 6. The PANCREATIC GLANDS, which constitute the pan- 
 creas : a small duct arises from each gland, which uuite to 
 form the ductus pancreaticus. (See Splanchnology.) 
 
 7. The EPIPLOIC, or omental glands, which are globate, 
 and situated in the omentum. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE LOINS. 
 
 i. The SUPRA-RENAL GLANDS, situated in the adipose 
 -membrane, one above each kidney. An excretory duct ba* 
 never been detected, and their use is unknown. 
 
 z. The KIDNEYS. (See Splanchnology.} 
 
 3. The LUMBAR GLANDS, which are globate, and situated 
 about the beginning of the thoracic duct. 
 
 4. The ILIAC GLANDS, found about the beginning of the 
 iliac vessels. 
 
 5. The sacral, which are globate glands, and adhere to 
 the, os sacrum. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE ORGANS OF -GENERATION 
 OF MAN. 
 
 i. The ODORIFEROUS GLANDS of the glans penis, which 
 are sebaceous, and situated around the corona glandis* 
 
213 
 
 i. The MDCOUS GLAKDS or Tim URETHRA, situated undT 
 the internal membrane of the urethra. The mouths oftbeie. 
 excretory ducts are called lacuna. 
 
 When these glands secrete a bland yellow fluid,* which 
 they often do from relaxation, it forms a gleet, or leu~ 
 evir/uea; and when an increased and morbid secretion 
 takes place from vetie*eal virus, it is called gbnorrkcea 
 viwlenta. 
 
 3. COWPER'S GLANDS, go called from their discoverer, are 
 three large muciparous glands, two of which are situated 
 before the prostate gland under the accelerators urinae, 
 and the third more forward before the bulb of the urethra. 
 
 4. The PROSTATE, a very large, heart-like, firm gland, 
 situated between the neck of the urinary bladder and 
 bulbous part of the urethra. It secretes a lacteal fluid, 
 which is emitted into the urethra by ten or twelve ducu 
 near the veruuaontanum, during coition. 
 
 The prostate gland is very frequently found diseased by 
 abscess, scrofula, scirrhus, calculi, enlargement of its 
 ducts, and a diminution in size. 
 
 GLANDS OP THE FEMALE ORGANS OF 
 GENERATION. 
 
 I. The ODORIFEROUS GLANDS OF THE LABIA MAJORA AND 
 
 NYMPHS, which are sebaceous, and situated under the ski a 
 of those parts. 
 
 i. The ODORIFEROUS GLANDS OF THE CLITORIS, which 
 
 are numerous, situated about the basis of the ditoris, and 
 are of the same nature as the former. 
 
 3. The MUCOUS GLANDS OF THE URETHRA, situated under 
 the internal membrane of the urethra. 
 
 4. The MUCOUS GLANDS OP THE VAGINA, situated under 
 the internal membrane of the vagina. 
 
214- 
 
 These glands furnish the puriform fluid in leucorrhoea 
 and gonorrhoea. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 The glands of the groin, or INGUINAL GLANDS, are glo- 
 balte, or lymphatic ; they are situated in great numbers in 
 the cellular membrane of the inguinal region, and receive 
 the lymphatic vessels from the glans penis and lower extre- 
 mities. 
 
 These are the glands which inflame and form bubo in the 
 venereal disease from absorption and sympathy. 
 
 The SUBAXILLARY GLANDS are also globate, and are situ- 
 ated in the cellular membrane of the arm-pit ; they are also 
 numerous, and receive the lymphatic vessels from the breasts 
 and superior extremities. 
 
 The axillary glands sometimes form bubo from absorp- 
 tion of venereal and putrid matter. 
 
 GLANDS OF THE JOINTS. 
 
 The small fat-like masses, situated within the moveable 
 joints, are erroneously called SYNOVIAL GLANDS : their struc- 
 ture is not glandular; they are composed of adeps and an 
 arrangement of the internal vascular membrane of the 
 joint, which gives them a fimbriated appearance. By these 
 little masses the synovia is separated from the blood for the 
 easy motion of the joint. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF SECRETION. 
 
 Secretion is a particular function in an animal body, by 
 which a fluid is separated from the blood, different in its 
 properties from the blood. 
 
215 
 
 The organs which secrete the various humours, are the 
 glands. 
 
 The proximate or immediate cause of secretion is a speci- 
 fic actiou of the arteries of the glands ; for every secretion 
 is formed from the extremities of arteries. The secretion of 
 the bile is no exception to this law, for the vena portae takes 
 upon itself the function of an artery; thus the mucous 
 glands secrete mucus; the salival glands, saliva; the peni- 
 cilli of the liver, bile; the cryptae of the kidneys, urine, &c. 
 
 The secreted fluids are the proper stimuli to the recep- 
 tacles and ducts, through which the secretion is to pass to 
 its place of destination ; so that the secretions move along 
 the excretory ducts by means of the contractility of the 
 coats of the ducts and the assistance of neighbouring mov- 
 ing powers. 
 
 SPLANCHNOLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE VISCERA. 
 
 The human body is divided into head, trunk, and extre- 
 mities. 
 
 The HEAD is divided into face and hairy scalp. 
 
 The face comprehends the frons, or forehead ; tempora, or 
 temples; warns, or nose; aures, or ears ; ocuK, or eyes; os, 
 or mouth; bucca, or cheeks ; and mentum, or chin. 
 
 The hairy scalp is subdivided into vertex, or crown of the 
 head; sinciput, or forepart; occiput, or hinder part; and 
 latera, or sides. 
 
 The TRUNK is divided into neck, thvrax, abdomen, arid 
 pelvis. 
 
216 
 
 The neck is distinguished into an anterior and posterior 
 part. On the former is an eminence in males, formed by 
 the thyroid cartilage, called the'fwwww Adami; because the 
 forbidden fruit is said to have stuck there; the latter is 
 termed the nape of the neck, or nucha colti. 
 
 The thorax is divided into an anterior and posterior part, 
 and two sides. 
 
 The anterior part of the thorax is termed the stermtm -, 
 at its bottom is a hollovr, the pit of the stomach, or tcrobi- 
 rulus cordis; and the breasts are situated on each side of 
 the sternum. 
 
 The posterior part of the thorax is termed the dorsum, OP 
 back ; and its sides, latei-a thoracis. 
 
 The abdomen is distinguished into REGIONS. The anterior 
 part into three regions : 
 
 1 . The epigastric, which lies over the stomach, and whose 
 sides are termed the hypochondriac regions. 
 
 2. The umbilical, surrounding the navel, and whose sides 
 are called the epicolic regions. 
 
 3. The hypogastric, which lies over the urinary bladder, 
 and whose sides are called groins. 
 
 The pubes is the hairy part under the abdomen, between 
 the groins. Under the pubes are the parts of generation 
 in men, the scrotum and penis; in women, the labia and rima 
 vulva. 
 
 The space between the genitals and anus is called the 
 perineEum. 
 
 The EXTREMITIES are divided into superior and inferior. 
 
 The SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, into top of the humerus, bra- 
 vluum, fore-arm, and hand. 
 
 The hand, into carpus, metacarpus, and fingers. 
 
217 
 
 Fingers , into pollex, index, digitus medius, digitus annu- 
 laris, digntus auricularis. 
 
 The INFERIOR EXTREMITY is divided into femur, or 
 thigh ; cms, or leg; audpes, or foot. 
 
 The foot, into tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. 
 
 The INTERNAL DIVISION of the body is into three cavi- 
 ties, viz. cavity of the cranium, thorax, and abdomen. 
 
 The whole of the body is enveloped by 
 
 COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 
 
 So called because they are the common coverings, as it 
 were, to the body : they consist of the epidermis, rete mu- 
 conim, ctttis, and membrana adiposa. 
 
 EPIDERMIS. 
 
 Epithelium. Cuticnla. 
 
 The epidermis, scarf-skin, or cuticle, is a thin, pellucid, 
 insensible membrane, covering the whole external surface 
 of the body. It is perforated by the hairs, inhaling and ex- 
 haling vessels. Its outer surface is dry and horny, and 
 marked with many lines, in which perforations are evident. 
 Its internal surface is moist and shaggy, and connected to 
 the cutis by the rete mticosum, which lies between them and 
 the vessels and hairs. 
 
 The epidermis not only covers the external surface of 
 the body, but also many of the internal parts, as the nose, 
 mouth, anus, vagina, urethra, &c. The thickness of the 
 scarf-skin varies in different parts; it is very delicate over 
 the lips, tongue, glans penis, vagina, and rectum; very thin 
 at the finger-ends, over the face, &c. ; and very thick on 
 the soles of the feet and palms of the hands. 
 
 The colour of the epidermis is white, which proves that 
 L 
 
213 
 
 it is a peculiar secretion, and not formed by a drying of the 
 rete mucosum, which in Ethiopians is black. 
 
 The use of this common integument is to cover the very 
 sensible cutaneous papillae. 
 
 The epidermis is often seen peeling off in small scales : 
 when this is from disease, it is called furfura. 
 
 RETE MUCOSUM. 
 
 Mucus Malpigkianus. Reie Malpighianum. Corpus mucosum. 
 Corpus reticulare. 
 
 A mucous substance, said to be disposed in a net-like 
 form, between the epidermis and cutis. 
 
 The difference of colour in mankind depends 'on this 
 substance : m Europeans it is white ; in Ethiopians, black, 
 &C, 
 
 There is great variety in the thickness and transparency 
 *f the rete mucosum ; in the lips, mouth, over the glans 
 penis, nymphae, vagina, &c. it is transparent and very deli- 
 cate. It is thickest iu the scrotum. 
 
 CUTIS. 
 
 Dei-mis. Cutis vera. 
 
 The true skin is an elastic, sensible, extremely porous, 
 and thick membrane, situated between the rete mucosum 
 Srud adipose membrane, covering the whole body. 
 
 It is composed of a fibrous, vascular, and nervous struc- 
 ture. Its external surface is covered by the rete mucosum, 
 and immediately over it is the cuticle; it is here that a vast 
 number of nervous Jibrils, called papilla, are every where 
 projecting from its surface to constitute the organ of touch : 
 these are of various forms, and are most exquisitely sensible 
 *u the lips, finger-ends, &c. The use of the skin is to cover 
 
219 
 
 the wholy body, and afford a situation for the organs of 
 touch, exhalation, and inhalation. (See Physiology of Ab- 
 sorption.) 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF PERSPIRATION. Perspiration is a species 
 of secretion by which the blood is freed of a quantity of 
 aqueous fluid by the exhalaut arteries of the skin. 
 
 It is divided into insensible and sensible perspiration: the 
 former is continually going on, by which means the surface 
 of the body is kept smooth and moist ; it may be detected 
 by placing any part of the skin near a looking-glass, which, 
 will become soiled. The latter, commonly termed sueat, 
 is observed occasionally. 
 
 UNGUES. 
 
 The nails are horny laminae, situated in the extremities 
 of the fingers and toes, supposed to be a continuation of 
 the cuticle. 
 
 USE. To defend the nervous papilla; from contusion. 
 
 PILL 
 
 The hairs are thin, elastic, dry filaments, growing out 
 from the skin. 
 
 They arise from bulbs, situated in the cellular mem- 
 brane under the skin: each bulb has two capsules contain- 
 ing an oily fluid between them, which is thought to gire 
 colour to the hair. 
 
 COLOUR and SITUATION, various. 
 
 NAMES. The hairs are termed cctpilli on the head; super- 
 tilia, or eyebrows, above the eyes ; cilia, or eyelashes, on 
 the margin of the eyelids ; vibrissce, in the nostrils ; pili au- 
 riculares, in the meatus auditorius ; mystax, on the upper 
 lip ; bwba, on the lower jaw, &c. &c. 
 
220 
 
 MEMBRANA CELLULOSA. 
 
 Tela cettulosa. Membrana adiposn. Reticv.lar membrane. 
 Cellular tissue. Membranous tissue. 
 
 The cellular membrane is composed of laminae and a 
 fibrous texture, so disposed as to form cells and a web-like 
 structure. It is found in almost every part of the body, 
 connecting them together, and is well exemplified by the 
 butchers blowing up their veal, and by macerating any soft 
 part. The cellular membrane is extremely vascular, espe- 
 cially that which lies immediately under the skin, that 
 about the kidneys, mesentery, &c. 
 
 The vessels of cellular membrane occasionally separate 
 oil from the blood into the cellular structure, when it be- 
 comes adipose membrane. This does not take place gene- 
 rally ; many parts are without fat : there is no adeps about 
 the penis, tunica conjunctiva, lungs, &c. 
 
 USE. The use of the cellular membrane is very consi- 
 derable ; it connects parts together ; it constitutes the bed 
 for the origin of the absorbents ; it allows of friction by its 
 elasticity, without deforming the part; and it forms the 
 substance, of almost all the membranes. 
 
 DISEASES. The cellular membrane is subject to a va- 
 riety of diseases, such as anasarca ecchymosis emphysema 
 scirrhus, &c. 
 
 HEAD. 
 
 The parts which form the head are divided into external 
 and internal. 
 
 The external parts are, the common integuments, hair, 
 a tendinous expansion, three pair of muscles, the pericra- 
 nium, and the cranium itself. 
 
221 
 
 The internal parts are, the dura mater, membrana arach- 
 uoidea, pia mater, cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblon- 
 gata, nine pair of nerves, four arteries, and twenty-two 
 venous sinuses. . 
 
 DURA MATER. 
 Dura tneninx. 
 
 A strong, thick, fibrous, insensible membrane, covering 
 the external surface of the brain, situated immediately 
 under the cranium, to which it adheres very firmly. 
 
 It is composed of two strong membranous layers, or fa- 
 ininoe. The external lamina lines the internal surface of the 
 cranium, supplying the place of periosteum, for the internal 
 table of the cranium is nourished by its vessels. The inter- 
 nal lamina is closely connected to the external by cellular 
 structure ; in many places, however, they are separated so 
 as to form a space, or sinus, in which the blood passes as 
 through veins, to be returned towards the heart. The in- 
 ternal lamina also forms several processes, the chief of 
 which are the following :, 
 
 i. The FALX, or falciform process, or septum cerebri. This 
 originates, by a very firm attachment, from the middle of 
 the sphsenoid bone and crista galli, within the cranium, and 
 rises upwards like a bow, adhering to that part of the ex- 
 ternal lamina of the dura mater, immediately covering the 
 middle of the frontal bone, the sagittal suture, and occipi- 
 tal bone, until it arrives at the meeting of the internal cru- 
 cial spine of the occipital bone, where it unites to the ten- 
 torium. In this course the falx lies between the hemi- 
 spheres of the brain, its acute edge being in contact with 
 the cm-pus callosum. The superior part of the falx contains 
 the longitudinal sinus. 
 
 L 3 
 
222 
 
 2. The TENTORIUM, or septum transversum. This produc- 
 tion of the internal lamina of the dura mater arises from 
 the clinoid processes of the sphaenoid bone, and passes ho- 
 rizontally .backwards, attached to the horizontal ramus of 
 the crucial spine of the occipital bone. It separates the 
 cerebrum from the cerebellum. In the outer edge of this 
 process pass the lateral sinuses of the dura mater. 
 
 3, The SEPTUM CEREBELLI is a production passing below 
 the tentorium, as if it were a continuation of the falx, and 
 lying between the lobes of the cerebellum. There are se- 
 veral smaller processes which need not be mentioned. 
 
 The veins or sinuses of the dura mater are 
 
 i. The LONGITUDINAL SINUS. It commences at the ori- 
 gin of the falx, and passes within it, of a triangular form, 
 upwards, and immediately under the sagittal suture of th 
 cranium, to the occipital tubercle, where it bifurcates into 
 the lateral sinuses. 
 
 Within this sinus are a number of tendinous fibres, or 
 trabeculcp, which cross in various directions from one side 
 to another : they are the chorda Willisii. 
 
 The internal Pacchionian glands &re also occasionally no- 
 ticed in this sinus : they are small glandiform bodies, some- 
 times very numerous, rising from between the trabeculae. 
 
 i. The LATERAL SINUSES. These are continued, one along 
 each transverse or horizontal branch of the crucial spine of 
 the os occipitis downwards to the foramen lacerum in bast 
 eranii, where it passes out of the cranium like a common 
 vein, and is called the internal jugular vein. 
 
 3. The TORCULAR HEROPHILI. This is a small vein, or 
 sinus, in that part of the processes formed by the meeting of 
 the tentorium, falx, and septum cerebelli ; it proceeds di-r 
 rectly backwards to the bifurcation of the longitudinal sinus* 
 
223 
 
 Besides these sinuses, many other small ones may be 
 noticed. 
 
 The arteries of the dura mater are beautifully disposed 
 in an arborescent form ; they are branches of the arteria 
 spinosa, the meningia anterior and posterior. 
 
 Some anatomists assert it has nerves, whilst others 
 deny it. 
 
 A number of small fatty particles are found near the lon- 
 gitudinal sinus on the internal surface, about the middle, 
 called external Pacchwnian glands, or glands of the dura 
 mater. 
 
 USE. The use of this membraue is to nourish the inter- 
 nal table of the skull; to envelope the brain, and form 
 processes which prevent one part from pressing upon an- 
 other, and afford a situation for the blood to collect and 
 pass out of the cranium. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The diseased appearances of 
 this membrane are, inflammation adventitious membrane 
 coagulum between it and the cranium gangrene- 
 spongy tumours scrofulous tumours ossification coagu- 
 lum, or, as it is improperly called, polypus in the sinus 
 obliteration of the sinus abscesses of the sinus the dura 
 mater of a yellow colour. 
 
 MEMBRANA ARACHNOIDEA. 
 Membrana arachnoides. Tunica arachnoides. 
 
 A very delicate and transparent membrane, situated be- 
 tween the dura and pia mater, and surrounding the cere- 
 brum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and spinalis. It re- 
 sembles a spider's web only about the basis of the cranium, 
 where it is very vascular : in other parts it is membranous 
 and diaphanous, similar to the pleura and peritoneum. It 
 L 4 
 
224 
 
 not only covers the parts above mentioned, but it enters the 
 cavities of the brain, which it lines, and forms the mem- 
 brane covering the thalarai nervorum opticorum, corpora 
 striata, pedes hippocampi, and third and fourth ventricle. 
 The use of this membrane is unknown. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The arachnoid membrane of 
 the brain is found adhering to the dura mater covered 
 with pus distended with coagulable lymph and serum- 
 opaque and thickened highly inflamed. 
 
 PI A MATER. 
 
 Pia meninx. 
 
 The pia mater is the third covering of the brain, cere- 
 bellum, medulla oblongata and spinalis. It is a highly vas- 
 cular, delicate membrane, embracing those parts closely, 
 penetrating between their convolutions, and sending a great 
 number of vessels to the cortical substance of the cerebrum 
 and cerebellum. 
 
 The tomentum cerebri consists of the fine vessels that are 
 sent from this membrane into the brain, which, when pull- 
 ed out by artificial means, gives the internal surface of the 
 pia mater a floccose appearance. 
 
 Processes are sent from the pia mater, between the con- 
 volutions of the brain. Where one or two convolutions meet, 
 there is a larger space formed ; the pia mater falls, as it 
 were, down into these spaces ; and the arachnoid membrane 
 going directly over these excavations, a space is formed : 
 these are termed the intergyral spaces of the pia mater. 
 
 The veins of the pia mater evacuate their blood into the 
 sinuses of the dura mater. 
 
 The arachnoid membrane is said, by some anatomists, 
 to be the external lamina of the pia mater. 
 
225 
 
 USE. The use of this membrane is to distribute the 
 blood to various parts, by affording a convenient situation 
 for the cerebral arteries to ramify on. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The diseased appearances of 
 this membrane are, inflammation thickening of the pia 
 mater pus below it blood extravasated into it turges- 
 cency of vessels abscess between it and the brain. 
 
 CEREBRUM. 
 
 Enceplialon. Sensorium commune. 
 
 The cerebrum, or brain, is a large viscus, somewhat of 
 an oval figure, situated in the cavity of the cranium. That 
 which is called brain, in common language, consists of the 
 cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongatd. 
 
 The brain is composed of three substances, the medul- 
 lary, cortical, and black substance. Some anatomists have 
 enumerated a fourth. 
 
 i. The SUBSTANTIA MEDULLARIS, of a delicate white eo - 
 lour : it composes the greater part of the whole brain. 
 
 z. The SUBSTANTIA CORTICALIS, called also cineritia y 
 which encircles the whole brain, and is found in many of 
 the internal parts : the portion which covers the medullary 
 part, is highly vascular, receiving the vessels from the pia 
 mater. 
 
 3. The SUBSTANTIA NIGRA is observed by making a trans- 
 verse section through the crura cerebri, in the middle of 
 which it is situated. 
 
 Upon viewing the superior surface of the cerebrum, it 
 exhibits an uniformly convex oval, with a large fissure di- 
 viding it into two HEMISPHERES. The hemispheres are united 
 both above and below, and there are cavities formed by 
 * 5 
 
226 
 
 their union called ventricles ; those portions of the brain 
 which unite the hemispheres, are called COMMISSURES. 
 
 The under surface of the brain is more irregular, and 
 though it does not appear to be composed of two hemi- 
 spheres, yet by a deep division, anteriorly and posteriorly, 
 such a formation can be seen : it presents six distinct LOBES, 
 which correspond to the six depressions, or fosse, in the 
 basis of the skull ; so that the two anterior lobes lie on the 
 frontal bone ; the two middle, in the depressions made by 
 the sphaenoidal bone; and the two posterior lobes pass over 
 the cerebellum to occupy the superior occipital depressions. 
 
 When the pia mater is removed, the brain has somewhat 
 the appearance of an irregular convoluted mass heaped to- 
 gether: there are spaces between the convolutions, which 
 allow the processes of the pia mater to pass some way down ; 
 these are termed INTERGYRAL SPACES of the brain. 
 
 There is one convolution which goes considerably deeper 
 than the rest, causing thereby a much deeper fissure; this 
 is seen when a horizontal section of the brain is made 
 below the corpus callosum. It was first noticed by Sylvius, 
 and has ever since been termed fissura magna Sylvii* 
 
 Upon the under surface of the brain, between the middle 
 lobes, two processes are sent downwards and backwards, 
 like legs ; these are termed the CRURA CEREBRI ; they are 
 soon encompassed by the crura cerebelli, to form the PONS 
 VAROLII. There are also tvro round white bodies seen be- 
 fore these, like two peas, called the CORPORA CANDICANTIA 
 
 WlLLISlI, or CORPORA ALBICANTIA. 
 
 A cineritiaus substance is seen between the corpora albi- 
 cantia, called pons Tarinii; it is the union of the sides of 
 these bodies. 
 
 When the two hemispheres of the brain are separated a 
 
227 
 
 little from one another, a white substance presents itself ; 
 this is the COMMISSURA SUPERIOR ; it is also termed the cor- 
 pits callosum and commissura magna cerebri ; and the elevated 
 line running along its middle is the RAPHE. The commis- 
 sura superior is covered by a portion of the hemispheres of 
 the brain, which laps, as jt were, over it on each side : 
 these portions are termed the LABIA CEREBRI. 
 
 All the parts that have been hitherto enumerated may 
 be seen without cutting the cerebrum, except the three sub- 
 stances of the brain. 
 
 When the hemispheres of the cerebrum are cut away in 
 a direct line with the surface of the commissura superior, a. 
 large surface of the medullary substance is brought into 
 view ; this is the CENTRUM OVALE : the commissura superior 
 cerebri, its raphe and striae, and the cortical substance of 
 the brain, may now be examined minutely. 
 
 There are four cavities within the remaining portion of 
 the cerebrum, called VENTRICLES ; two of these are situated 
 laterally, and are called lateral ventricles: at their uppeij 
 part they are separated from each other by a very delicate 
 partition, in which is another cavity, but inferiorly they are 
 at a greater distance from each other, fb as to allow of a 
 considerable portion of brain, and a cavity, to be situated 
 between them ; and this cavity is the third ventricle. 
 
 An incision must now be made, on either side of the 
 raphe of the commissura superior cerebri, into one of the la- 
 teral ventricles, and its upper and outer parietes removed, 
 so as to completely expose the cavity. The LATERAL VEN- 
 TRICLE, so called from its situation, is now brought into 
 view: its figure is triangular, having three sinuses or horns; 
 hence it is also called the tricorn cavity. The following are 
 to be noticed in each lateral ventricle : 
 
228 
 
 i. A very delicate and pellucid membrane separating 
 one cavity from the other, called SEPTUM LUCIDUM. There 
 is, occasionally, a small cavity between the laminae com- 
 posing this septum, called the FIFTH VENTRICLE by Professor 
 Spenuneriug. 
 
 Dr. Ager and Mr. Brookes lately examined the brain of a 
 gentleman, in which they found two ounces of a pellu- 
 cid fluid in this ventricle. 
 
 z. A convex brown-coloured body, in the anterior sinus, 
 called CORPUS STRIATUM; it is of a pyriform shape, its 
 round end turned towards the face, and its taper end, or 
 eius, backwards. 
 
 3. A portion of a white convex body, called THALAMUS 
 *ERVI OPTICI, situated behind the former, and separated 
 from it by an opaque line, in which there is a blood-vessel : 
 the line of separation is called GEMINUM CENTRUM SEMICIR- 
 c CLARK, and tcenia semicircularis. 
 
 The inner and upper surfaces of the thalami nervorum 
 opticorum, are so closely connected as to present one con- 
 t inued surface, called the commissura mollis. 
 
 A part only of the thalami nervorum opticorum is seen 
 in this ventricle ; the fornix which separates the lateral ven- 
 tricles from the third ventricle, goes over their middle, so 
 that the greater part of each thalamus is seen in the third 
 Yentricle. 
 
 4. A very vascular substance lying between these parts 
 and the bottom of the septum lucidum, termed PLEXUS 
 CHOROIDES. This plexus comes into the lateral ventricle at 
 its superior and anterior cornu ; and the hole through which 
 it comes is the foramen Monroianum. 
 
 Many have denied that this foramen is open when no 
 force has been used to separate it. In collections of 
 water in the cavity, it is mostly open, and very often 
 when there is no water and no force used. 
 
229 
 
 The choroid plexus passes over the portion of the tha- 
 iamus of the optic nerve in this ventricle, into the inferior 
 tornu. 
 
 5. The CORPUS FIMBRIATUM, a flat tape-like substance, 
 which goes downwards from the bottom of the septum luci- 
 dum into the posterior and inferior horns of this cavity. 
 
 6. The UNGUIS, or hippocampus minor, a convex body like 
 the nail of the little finger, situated in the posterior horn of 
 the ventricle, and arising from the corpus fimbriatum. 
 
 7. The PES HIPPOCAMPI, called also cornu ammonis and 
 hippocampus major, a long convex substance occupying the 
 whole of the inferior cornu, and arising from the corpus 
 fimbriatum. 
 
 8. A number of columns, more evident in some brains 
 than in others, passing round the superior and posterior pa- 
 rietes of the lateral ventricle, called COLUMNA ANONYMA. 
 
 The lateral ventricles are covered with a fine membrane, 
 formed by a reflection of the pia mater, or tunica arachnoides, 
 which secretes a very subtile fluid to lubricate the cavities 
 and prevent parts from growing together. 
 
 These are all the circumstances to be noticed in the la- 
 teral ventricles. The fornix and third ventricle are next to 
 be considered. 
 
 Keeping in view the commissura superior cerebri, and the 
 process going directly downwards, called the septum luci- 
 dum, the FORNIX will not be difficult to understand. It is, 
 in fact, the bottom of the septum lucidum, which arises by 
 the inside of each corpus striatum, and passes upwards and 
 backwards, like an arch, and then divides posteriorly ; and 
 all this in less than the space of an inch. It arises, by two 
 pillars, about a quarter of an inch in length, and the thick- 
 ness of a crow-quill, ctoe from each side below the corpus 
 striatum. These two pillars are called the anterior crura of 
 
230 
 
 the fornix: one lies over the choroid plexus, and forms the 
 superior part of the foramen of Monro. These crura are 
 connected by a medullary substance. Having- passed over 
 the choroid plexus, the crura unite, and continue united for 
 a very little way ; they then separate, and proceed back- 
 wards and outwards, by the name of the posterior crura of 
 the fornix, and are soon flattened, when they become the 
 corpora Jimbriata, which pass round into the posterior ami 
 inferior horns of the lateral ventricles. 
 
 The space between the posterior crura of the fcruix is 
 triangular, and marked with a number of depressed line^, 
 not always conspicuous; it is termed the TSALTERIUM, or 
 lyra y from its supposed resemblance to David's harp. These 
 circumstances are seen by dividing the two anterior crura 
 of the fornix, and turning it backwards with the septum 
 lucidum and commissura superior cerebri. 
 
 If the fornix be carefully turned backwards, without dis- 
 turbing the choroid plexuses, a very beautiful net-work of 
 vessels will be seen running from one plexus to the other. 
 This lamina, or net-work of vessels, lies over the third ven- 
 tricle, in contact with the fornix and psalterium, and is called 
 velum inteiyosilum : in it are two veins, the vena? magnaeGa- 
 leni, which unite just before the tentorium; and the common 
 yem returns its blood into the torcular of Herophilus. 
 
 When the choroid plexuses are removed, and the velum 
 interpositum, a space, or cavity, is perceived between two 
 large rounded bodies, which space is the THIRD VENTRICLE. 
 The sides are formed by the thalami nervorum opticorum : a 
 part of them only was seen in the lateral ventricles, but the 
 whole is now brought perfectly into view. There are mostly 
 one or two elevations on the thalami ; one sometimes in the 
 portion within the lateral ventricles, and one under the cor- 
 
231 
 
 pus fimbriatum ; these are termed the csllicles of the tha- 
 lanii nen'orum opticorum. In the third ventricle are to be 
 noticed : 
 
 i. The COMMISSURA ANTERIOR CEREBRi, or anterior com- 
 missure. This is a band like a nerve, the thickness of a 
 crow-quill, going across the anterior part of the third ven- 
 tricle, and uniting, as it were, one side of the cerebrum to 
 the other : it lies horizontally immediately below the ante- 
 rior crura of the fornix ; and if the brain be carefully dis- 
 sected away, by which the striated appearance of the corpus 
 striatum will be exposed, it can be traced penetrating an 
 inch and a half on each side. 
 
 z. The third ventricle runs forwards under this commis- 
 sure, becoming smaller, until it terminates in a slender, red 
 substance, which is sometimes solid and sometimes hollow: 
 this funnel-shaped portion is the ITER AD INFUNDIBULUM ; it 
 ends in the pituitary gland, situated in the sella turcica. 
 
 3. The bottom of the third ventricle is formed by a por- 
 tion of the medullary substance of the brain, going across 
 from one side to the other, in the same way as the commis- 
 sura superior does ; it is therefore termed the COMMISSURA 
 
 INFERIOR CEREBRI. 
 
 4. There is an elevated line on the side of each thalamns 
 nervi optici in the third ventricle, which runs backwards ; 
 these meet posteriorly, and have a small, heart-shaped, pulpy 
 substance attached to them, which is the PINEAL GLAND ; 
 and the lines are termed the. peduncles, or crura of the pineal 
 gland. It requires that the plexus of vessels about this part 
 be carefully dissected away, to show the gland, which .will 
 then be seen lying over the corpora quadrigeinina to be de- 
 scribed. It is the number of vessels about this gland that 
 gives the lines on the psalterium which covers the gland. 
 
232 
 
 5. Before the* gland, and below its crura, is a nervous 
 band opposed to that in the anterior part of the ventricle, 
 called COMMISSURA POSTERIOR CEREBRI. It cannot be traced 
 penetrating the brain like the anterior. 
 
 6. Immediately under this commissure is an opening, 
 opposed to the iter ad infundibulum : this penetrates through 
 the medulla oblongata, and is termed the ITER A TERTIO AD 
 QUARTUM VENTRICULUM, or aqueduct of Sylvius. 
 
 Behind the posterior commissure are four rounded emi- 
 nences, called CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA ; two are situated 
 superiorly, and two inferiorly : they were formerly called 
 nates and testes. 
 
 The third ventricle is lined by a delicate membrane, a 
 reflection of the pia mater, or membrana arachnoides, which 
 secretes the subtle vapour by which it is lubricated. 
 
 The lateral ventricles of the brain, which are separated 
 from each other by the septum lucidum, it is asserted 
 by some writers, communicate with one another. The 
 third ventricle having been considered, and the situa- 
 tion of the fornix, this circuitous communication may 
 be explained. In the anterior part of the lateral ven- 
 tricles there is the foramen of Monro, which is some- 
 times completely shut ; and when this is the case, there 
 can be no communication whatever between the lateral 
 ventricles : but it is occasionally open, and then a 
 probe may be passed under the anterior crus of the 
 fornix into the third ventricle ; and if a probe be pass- 
 ed through the foramen of the opposite ventricle, the 
 probes will meet in the third ventricle. The commu- 
 nication, therefore, between the lateral ventricles is 
 by the intervention of the third ventricle. 
 
 The whole of the cerebrum may now be removed by di- 
 viding two processes of the crura cerebri, in the middle of 
 which the substantia nigra will be seen. 
 
 Three pair of nerves only arise from the cerebrum : 
 
 i. The olfactory. These arise from the corpora striata, 
 
233 
 
 are somewhat triangular at their beginning ; they proceed 
 forwards under the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, and be* 
 come flat and pulpy over the ethmoid bone, where they send 
 off nerves to the nose. 
 
 2. The optic nerves. These originate from the thalami 
 nervorum opticorum, by broad beginnings, which proceed 
 around the superior part of the crura cerebri, to join one 
 another: from this junction two round nerves go off through 
 the optic foramen to the eye. 
 
 3. The mvtores oculorum. These arise from the crura 
 cerebri, at their lower end, and pass forwards to penetrate 
 the dura mater just above the petrous ridge of the temporal 
 bone. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF THE CEREBRUM. These are, 
 a morbid softness a morbid firmness a general change of 
 colour inflammation a part of a pulpy consistence ab- 
 scess ulceration- a morbid hardness of a part scrofulous 
 tumours extravasation of blood vesicles, or hydatids 
 fungus absorption of the brain. 
 
 In the lateral ventricles. Inflammation of the membrane 
 lining them hydrocephalus interims, or water in these ven- 
 tricles an alteration of form from vesicles or other bodies 
 protruding. 
 
 Corpora striata. Totally destroyed by disease a number 
 of brown specks in their substance. 
 
 Geminiim centrum semicircular e. A morbid opacity. 
 
 Thalami nervorum opticorum. Thalami united in the 
 third ventricle a morbid commissure between them. 
 
 Choroid plexus. Inflammation turgescency of vessels 
 varix vesicles hydatids ? small glandiform substances in 
 the plexus of a subcartilaginous consistence worms. 
 
 Septum lucidum. A morbid opacity water in the cavity 
 between its laminae. 
 
234- 
 
 Third ventricle. Water collected the shape altered by 
 the coalescence of the thalami nervorum opticorum. 
 
 Pineal gland. Converted into a gritty substance con- 
 verted into an earthy substance scirrhus a small yellow 
 body growing to it <i general enlargement. 
 
 Plexus of vessels surrounding the pineal gland. Aaasarca 
 surrounded with coagulable lymph surrounded by pus. 
 
 CEREBELLUM. 
 
 The cerebellum, or little brain, is of a round figure, and 
 situated under the tentorium of the dura mater in the infe- 
 rior occipital depressions. It is divided into two lobes by a 
 process of the dura mater, and sends four processes, or 
 crura, forwards, which, with the crura of the cerebrum, ap- 
 pear to constitute the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum 
 is composed, like the brain, of a cortical substance, and a 
 medullary. It is closely covered by the pia mater, which 
 sends processes between its convolutions, that appear more 
 regular than the convolutions of the cerebrum. They first 
 divide the external surface of the cerebellum into laminae, 
 and each lamina is again subdivided, like the leaf of the 
 male fern, so that when the cerebellum is cut transversely, 
 this arrangement of the cortical substance has the appear- 
 ance of a tree and its branches ; and this is termed the 
 
 ARBOR VITJE. 
 
 There is a considerable fissure in each lobe of the cere- 
 bellum, proceeding directly backwards from the crura ce- 
 rebelli, at which end it is the widest : it may be termed 
 fissura magna cerebelli. 
 
 The two lobes of the cerebellum are separated anteriorly, 
 by a long triangular space, the FOURTH VENTRICLE, which 
 bas a communication with the third, by means of a 
 
235 
 
 canal, the iter a tertio ad qvartum ventriculum, in the me- 
 dulla oblongata. 
 
 The fourth ventricle is formed anteriorly by the medulla 
 oblongata, posteriorly and laterally by the cerebellum : 
 hence it is common to both. I:i U are to be observed 
 
 1. A thin medullary portion connecting the medulla ob- 
 longata to the cerebellum, and lying immediately between 
 the crura, superiorly and above the opening of the iter into 
 the fourth ventricle; this is called the VALVULA MAGNA c- 
 REBRI, or VELUM ViEUSSENii ; at the sides of which are two 
 medullary lines called COLUMN* VALVULJE VIEUSSENII, or 
 processus ad testes. 
 
 2. A plexus of vessels, and apparently small glands, 
 called the PLEXUS OF HALLER. 
 
 3. A depressed line extending down the medulla oblonga- 
 ta in the cavity, which is termed the CALAMUS SCRIPTORIUS. 
 
 4. Two or three delicate white lines, like nerves, which 
 are the origins of one branch of the portio mollis, or audi- 
 tory nerve. 
 
 The VERMIFORM PROCESSES are situated before and be- 
 hind the crura cerebelli, and are merely a portion of tb, 
 cerebellum, more protuberant than the rest, whose convolu- 
 tions are bundled round like a number of small worms. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF THE CEREBELLUM. Most of 
 the diseased appearances enumerated under the head cere- 
 brum have also been noticed in the cerebellum, viz. inflamma- 
 tion morbid softness morbid firmness pulpiness of a 
 part abscess hardness of a part scrofulous tumour 
 extravasation of blood hydatids and also bone in the c- 
 reb ellum gangrene. 
 
 Fourth ventricle. Water in the ventricle. This is a very 
 rare occurrence j or perhaps the fluid escapes before the ca- 
 vity can be examined cedema of the membrane lining it, 
 
236 
 
 MEDULLA OBLONG ATA. 
 
 A white, firm, medullary substance, situated beneath the 
 cerebrum, and before the cerebellum, and lying upon the 
 cuneiform process of the occipital bone. It is broad and 
 rounded above, and narrower below, where it is continued 
 into the medulla spinalis.* From its appearance it favours 
 the idea of its being formed by the crura cerebri in its 
 middle, encompassed by the crura cerebelli, becoming flat- 
 tened as they pass over the former. 
 
 If there be any part of the brain in which the fibres, or 
 atoms, all concentrate, it is in the medulla oblongata. 
 Upon its anterior surface are to be observed 
 
 1. The PONS VAROLII, called also corpus annulare, which 
 forms the upper and anterior part : it is convex, and covered 
 with many striae. The basilary artery runs over it. 
 
 2. The CORPORA PYRAMIDALIA. Two somewhat pyrami- 
 dal eminences proceeding from the pons Varolii towards the 
 medulla spinalis. 
 
 3. The CORPORA OLIVARIA. Two more oval eminences, 
 one on each side the corpora pyramidalia, from which they 
 are divided by a sulcus. 
 
 Through the middle of the medulla oblongata, just be- 
 fore the corpora quadrigemina, the Her a tcrtio ad quartum 
 ventriculum is to be noticed. 
 
 Three pairs of nerves have been described as originating 
 from the cerebrum ; and six more remain to be enumerated, 
 which arise from the cerebellum and medulla oblongata. 
 
 1. The fourth pair, which are very delicate and long, and 
 are to be seen arising from the valvula magna cerebri. 
 
 2. The fifth pair, ortrigemini, are very large, and proceed 
 forwards from the anterior part of the crura cerebelli. 
 
 K 
 
237 
 
 3- The sixth pair, orabducentes, are less than the former, 
 and arise from the lower end of the pons Varolii. 
 
 4. The seventh pair originate about the fourth ventricle. 
 
 5. The eighth, or par vag-urn, proceed from the corpora 
 olivaria by many small branches. 
 
 6. The ninth pair arise from the sulcus between the cor- 
 pora olivaria and pyramidalia. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the cerebrum, cerebellum, 
 and medulla oblongata, are branches of the carotids and 
 vertebral arteries, which unite in the cranium, and form the 
 eirculus arter'wsus Ffillisii, the basilary artery, the anterior 
 cerebri, and posterior cerebri. 
 
 VEINS. The veins proceed to the sinuses of the dura 
 mater. 
 
 NERVES. The brain has no nerves, but sends off nine 
 pairs. 
 
 USE. The use of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and me- 
 dulla oblongsta, is to constitute the SENSORIUM COMMUNE, 
 the organ of all the senses. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES OF THR MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 
 The right inferior eminence of the corpora quadrigemina has- 
 been converted into a brownish pulpy substance, which dis- 
 eased appearance extended a little way internally. 
 
 MEDULLA SPINAL1S. 
 
 The spinal marrow is a continuation of the medulla ob- 
 longata, beginning from the great occipital foramen, and 
 passing down the vertebral canal, through the cervical, 
 dorsal, and lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in a vast 
 number of long nerves, which, from their resemblance to 
 a horse's tail, are called the CAUDA EO.LINA. 
 
 It is composed, like the brain, cerebellum, and medulla 
 
238 
 
 oblongata, of nervous matter, which is distinguished into 
 medullary and cortical substance ; the former is external, 
 and the latter internal. 
 
 Throughout its whole course, the spinal marrow is co- 
 vered by the pia mater, tunica arachnoides, and dura mater; 
 andthereisaligamentous band in the interstices of the origin 
 of the nerves, from the first cervical to the twelfth dorsal 
 vertebra, called the ligamentum serration, or dentiwlatwri. 
 
 Thirty pairs of nerves are given off from the spiual marrow 
 in its course along the spine, which are termed spinal nerves. 
 
 Of the Action of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum, 
 Medulla Oblongata, and Medulla Spinalu. 
 
 The most important functions of an animal body are 
 those of the brain ; by its action, all the varied sensations 
 and ideas are formed. In order to explain these accurately, 
 it is necessary to mention a few experiments which have 
 been made upon animals. 
 
 Upon dividing, compressing, or tying a nerve, the muscle* 
 to which the nerve goes become paralytic. If the nerve thus 
 divided, compressed, or tied, had any particular sensation, 
 that sensation no longer exists ; but upon untying, or re- 
 moving the compression, its peculiar sense returns. 
 
 If the cerebrum, cerebellum, or medulla oblougata, be 
 irtitated, dreadful convulsions take place all over the body. 
 
 If any part of the brain be compressed, that part of the 
 body is deprived of motion which has nerves from the com- 
 pressed part. 
 
 From these phenomena, it is evident that the cause of 
 very sensation and motion in an animal body arises from 
 
239 
 
 the brain and spinal marrow, and that from these parts it is 
 conveyed to every sentient part through the medium of the 
 nerves. Hence it follows, that the nerves are the organs by 
 which the various sensations are produced. The manner, 
 however, in which the nerves exercise sense and motion ; 
 how the will is conveyed from the brain to the different 
 parts ; and how, from the different parts, sensations are con- 
 veyed to the brain, remains involved in obscurity ; several 
 hypotheses have been deduced to explain it, but none ap- 
 pear to be satisfactory. The brain and heart seem connected 
 together, by a direct dependence, and the energy of the brain 
 seems generally in proportion to the quantity of blood re- 
 ceived : thus, in deep meditation, a great quantity of blood 
 is sent to the head ; on the contrary, a partial abstraction 
 of blood from the brain produces syncope ; a total abstrac- 
 tion, death, &c. (See also the Physiology of the Nerves.} 
 
 OCULUS. 
 
 The eye is the organ of vision, and is situated in the 
 orbits on each side the nose. 
 
 The parts which form the eye are divided into external 
 and internal. 
 
 The external parts are, 
 
 1. The SUPERCILIA, or eyebrows : a layer of hair whick 
 begins at the root of the nose, and forms an arch over the 
 eye. Its use is to shade the eye from too strong a light, and 
 defend it from the sweat flowing down the forehead :' by 
 means of its muscle it also is corrugated, to express certain 
 passions of the mind. 
 
 2. The PALPEBR&, or EYELIDS, which are two semilunar 
 productions ; covered internally by the conjunctive mem- 
 
brane, and Meibomius's glands, and formed externally by 
 common integuments and a cartilage : they are extremely 
 moveable, especially the upper. The glandule? 1 Meibomiana> 
 secrete a sebaceous matter, that facilitates the motions of 
 the eyelids, and prevents their accretion during sleep. The 
 cartilage between the conjunctive membrane and the com- 
 mon integuments of the eyelid is semilunar, and termed the 
 tarsv-s. The edges of the eyelids have a number of short 
 hairs arising from them and turned outwards, called cilia, 
 or eyelashes. The use 9f the eyelids is to cover the eyes 
 during sleep ; to defend them from dust and other sub- 
 stances, and too strong rays of light ; and to lubricate the 
 conjunctiva by frequently moving its secretion over the sur- 
 face of the eye. 
 
 3. The PUNCTA LACHRYMALIA, two small orifices, one of 
 which is seen at the end of each eyelid near the nose. From 
 these openings, a canal goes downwards and inwards ; and 
 meeting about half an inch from their origin, they form a 
 sac, called saccus lachrymalis, which is continued downwards 
 through the ductus ad nasum into the nose. The tears are 
 absorbed by the puncta lachrymalia, and conveyed into the 
 nose through the sac and canal. 
 
 4. The LACHRYMAL GLAND, which is situated in the su- 
 perior part of the orbit, in a peculiar depression : it is hard, 
 globate, of an oval form, and has a number of excretory 
 ducts which convey the fluid called tears, secreted by this 
 gland, on the surface of the eye. 
 
 5. The CARUNCULA LACHRYMALIS, a small red tubercle 
 ip the internal canthus of each eye. It has a number of 
 hairs, and secretes a smegma: it is also of use to direct the 
 tears into the puncta lachrymalia. 
 
 6. The plica lunaris, or vnlvula semihtnaris, a membranous 
 
241 
 
 duplicature of the tunica conjunctiva, situated between the 
 caruncula lachrymalis and the ball of the eye. In some 
 birds and quadrupeds it is very large, forming the mem- 
 brana nictitans. 
 
 7. The TUNICA CONJUNCTIVA, or adnata, a transparent 
 vascular membrane, reflected from the edge of one eyelid 
 over the internal part of the eyelid across the, bulb, to which 
 it adheres very firmly, and then over the internal part of the 
 other eyelid to its edge. It is more loosely connected with 
 the eyelids than the eye ; and where it passes the cornea 
 transparens, it adheres so firmly that it cannot be separated. 
 Its use is to lubricate the eye by the moisture secreted from 
 its transparent arteries. 
 
 The internal parts of the eye are termed the bulb ; they 
 constitute the eye properly so called, and are 
 
 i. The SCLEROTIC MEMBRANE. A very firm, hard, white, 
 horny tunic, into which the muscles of the eye are inserted. 
 The anterior part of this coat is glassy and transparent, and 
 projects somewhat; it is called cornea transparens, to dis- 
 tinguish it from the other part, which is termed cornea 
 opaca. The optic nerve is inserted into the posterior part of 
 the sclerotic membrane, which appears to be an expansion 
 of its external tunic, continued from the dura mater. 
 
 2. Immediately under the sclerotic membrane is a very 
 vascular, soft, and rough membrane, called the MEMBRANA 
 or TUNICA CHOROIDEA. It adheres to the sclerotic from the 
 optic nerve, all around to the edge of the transparent cornea 
 by vessels ; but when it arrives here, instead of being con- 
 tinued around the concavity of the cornea transparens, it 
 passes straight downwards and inwards, forming the co- 
 loured part of the eye, w r hich is sometimes black, blue, &c. 
 This black or blue part is called the iris, which possesses a 
 
242 
 
 contractile power, by some supposed to arise from muscular 
 fibres, so as to enlarge or contract the opening in its middle, 
 which is the PUPIL. . The edge of the choroid membrane 
 that adheres to the ambit of the cornea transparens, is co- 
 vered with a white line, to which the name of CILIARY 
 CIRCLE, or LIGAMENT, is given. Some anatomists have sup- 
 posed the choroid membrane was formed of two laminae. 
 The posterior surface of the iris is termed the UVEA. 
 
 The pupil of a foetus of six months is covered by a vas- 
 cular membrane, called MEMBRANA PUPILLARIS. It is 
 continued across from the sides of the iris. 
 
 3. The posterior surface of the tunica choroides is co- 
 vered with a black mucus known by the name of the pig- 
 ment of the choroid membrane and uvea. 
 
 4. Upon the inside f the choroid membrane, correspond- 
 ing to the ciliary circle on the outside, are a number of white 
 striff, which are called CILIARY PROCESSES. The ciliary circle 
 -and stria are termed the corpus ciliare. 
 
 5. There is a whitish, pulpy, vascular membrane, cover- 
 ing the pigment of the choroides, which is the immediate 
 organ of vision, and called the RETINA. It passes forward 
 from the optic nerve, and terminates in the ciliary processes. 
 
 The membranes which have been described, are dis- 
 tended with the vitreous humour, crystalline lens, and aque- 
 ous humour. 
 
 i. Th VITREOUS HUMOUR, substance or body, is a soft, 
 round, and very transparent substance, filling the Avholc 
 hollow surface of the retina. It has a cavity in its anterior 
 surface, and is surrounded with a delicate membrane, called 
 the hyaloid membrane, which sends a number of laminae, in- 
 ternally forming cells ; and these cells are distended with a 
 transparent fluid. The hyaloid membrane sends off a:i x- 
 
243 
 
 ternal lamina, which accompanies and attaches itself to the 
 retina: this is termed the zonula ciliaris, from its circular 
 form : betweeu this ciliary zone and part where the hyaloid 
 membrane adheres to the capsule of the crystalline lens, a 
 passage is formed, called the canal of Petit. 
 
 la order to exhibit the capsule of this humour, suffer an 
 eye to get putrid, theu carefully let out the vitreou* 
 humour by an opening through the other membranes. 
 Place it on a card, so that the lens be uppermost and 
 in the centre ; then, with a curved needle, puncture 
 that part of the capsule which lies, on the card. The 
 fluid will gradually ooze out; then with a blowpipe, 
 passed between the card and capsule, throw in air, 
 which will immediately distend it. 
 
 By passing the needle up to the capsule of tae lens, and 
 puncturing it, you may distend also tire capsule of the 
 crystalline lens. 
 
 2. The CRYSTALLINE LENS lies in a depression iu tUe aa- 
 terior part of the vitreous humour. It is. a solid, transpa- 
 rent, lentiform body, like ice, aud is enclosed in a capsule, 
 called the capsule of tJte crystalline lens. 
 
 3. The AQUEOUS HUMOUR is very fluid and transparent, 
 and fills the space betweeu the crystalline leos and the cor- 
 nea transpareus, or chambers of the eye. 
 
 The space betweeu the anterior surface of the crystalline 
 lens and posterior surface of the transparent cornea, has the 
 iris hauging like a curtain in its middle, dividing it into 
 two spaces : these spaces are distinguished by the name of 
 
 ANTERIOR aud IOSTERIOR CHAMBERS. 
 
 VESSELS. The arteries of the eye are the ophthalmic, 
 the central artery of the optic nerve, and the ciliary arteries ; 
 these convey their superfluous blood into small ttins, 
 t length form the ophthalmic vein, a branch of the c 
 jugular. 
 
 M 2 
 
244 
 
 NERVES. The optic nerve is entirely lost in the retina. 
 The eye has also the ophthalmic nerve of the fifth pair, 
 and another branch of the third pair, which form a ganglion 
 that supplies the bulb. 
 
 The MUSCLES of the eyeball are described in Myology. 
 
 USE. The use of the eye is to receive, refract, and unite 
 the rays of light into a focus, and paint the objects on the 
 retina. See Vision. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The eyebrows wanting, called 
 madarosisa. double set of eyelashes, called distichiasis. 
 
 A growing together of the eyelids, called anchyUepharum 
 adhesion of the eyelids to the globe of the eye, called 
 zymblepharum infl ammati on , or blepharophthalmia cedema 
 emphysema atheroma sarcoma scirrhus cancer hor- 
 deolum, or stye a pellucid vesicle, or hydatis warts a 
 turning outwards of the eyelid, or ectropium a turning in- 
 wards, or entropntm a thickening of the margin, or tylosis. 
 
 Obstruction of the lachrymal ducts dropsy of the sac- 
 cus lachrymalis -fistula lachrymalis tumour on the outside 
 of the sac, or anchylops. 
 
 An enlargement, or excrescence, of the caruncula la- 
 chrymalis, called encanthus the caruncle wanting, or rhya*. 
 
 Inflammation of the conjunctiva, or ophthalmia ve- 
 sicles, or phlycteneeB, hard tubercle adhering to it, or 
 papula. 
 
 A morbid thickness and opacity of the cornea, or 9td- 
 phylomct abscess, or onyx too great a convexity, causing 
 shortness of sight, or myops too flat, causing preslyop$ t or 
 long sight. 
 
 Cancer of the eye a protrusion, or ophthalmoptosis. 
 
 No pupil, or synezesis. 
 
Pus in the chambers of the eye; or hypopiutn a whife 
 humour, or hypogala. 
 
 Opacities of the lens, or cataract, several species. 
 
 A turbidness of the vitreous humour, or glaucoma. 
 
 Inflammation of the retina, or ophthalmia interna. 
 
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE EYE. Removal of ex-- 
 crescences operation for fistula lachrymalis syringing the 
 lachrymal passages operation for cataract extraction and 
 vouching removal of a cancerous eye. 
 
 AURIS. 
 
 The ear is the organ df hearing. It is situated at the 
 side of the head, and is distinguished into the external and 
 internal ear. 
 
 The external ear is formed of an oval cartilage, covered 
 with common integuments ; it is concave before, and con- 
 vex behind, and has the following eminences and depres- 
 sions : 
 
 i. The helix, or external ridge; it curls inwards, z. The- 
 antihelix, a ridge situated more internally than the helix. 
 3. The concha, or cavity, bounded by the antihelix and 
 tragus. 4. The tragus, a cartilaginous eminence, covered 
 with long hairs; 5. The antitragus, a small depression op- 
 posite to the tragus, at the bottom of the antihelix. 6. The 
 lobule, which hangs downwards, and is bored for rings. 
 7. The cavitas innoniinata, situated between the helix and 
 the antihelix. 8. The scapha, or fossa navicularis , situated 
 between the anterior bifurcation of the antihelix. 
 
 In the middle of the outer ear is the auditory canal) 
 which leads to the internal ear. It is formed of a bony ca- 
 nal lined by a cartilage and common integuments, between 
 which are the glands that secrete the wax. This canal, the 
 M 3 
 
246 
 
 meattis rutditorius cxtermis, is terminated by the meiubrana 
 tympaui. 
 
 The external ear has several muscles and ligaments, 
 which have been described. 
 
 The internal ear lies concealed within the petroxis por- 
 tion of the temporal bone ; it is divided into the tympanum, 
 mastoid cells, and labyrinth. 
 
 The TYMPANUM is an irregularly round cavity, covered by 
 a muscle, called the membrana tympani, like a drum by its 
 Parchment. It contains four delicate bones, the malleus, 
 incujt, stapes, and os orliculare, and some muscles belonging 
 to them; the chorda tympani, and the membrana tympani. 
 It is evtsacy where, even the bones, covered with a very 
 vascular mejnbrane, and has several openings, which, with 
 $he mastoid ells, are described iu Osteology* 
 
 The MASTC-IP CELLS are considered with the temporal 
 bone in Osteology. 
 
 The LABYRINTH is composed of the cochlea, vestibulum, 
 ajad semicircular canals : these have also been noticed in 
 Osteology. The soft parts, which are found within these, 
 and which form the organ of hearing, are 
 
 I. The MEMBRANOUS SEMICIRCULAR CANALS, situated 
 
 within the bony semicircular canals, and loosely connected 
 to their periosteum by a fine cellular membrane, a quantity 
 of fluid being interposed, which circulates through the la- 
 byrinth. Each of these membranaceous semicircular ca- 
 nals proceeds from the vestibule, and at its commencement 
 swells into an oval AMPULLA ; these oval ampullae originate 
 from a membranaceous sacculus within the vestibulum, 
 which is termed the ALVEUS COMMUNIS. This sacculus, the 
 ajnpullse, and membranaceous canals, therefore, occupy 
 the vestibuhrm and osseous semicircular canals ; and it is 
 
by menus of the alveus commuuis that the membranous 
 canals all communicate with one another, they being, as it 
 were, tubes going from the sacculus. They are distended 
 by a very limpid fluid, called the water of the labyrinth. 
 The arteries of the labyrinth arise by one or two twigs, 
 chiefly from the vertebral artery. The small veins termi- 
 nate in the end of the lateral sinus. J4i ,. 
 
 2. The auditory nerve is expanded upon the sides of the 
 alveus commuuis and ampullae, in a beautiful manner, like a 
 fan or beard, resembling very much the mucous expansion 
 of the optic nerve in the form of the retina. There is one 
 more evident expansion of the nerve adhering to the spinous 
 process of the vestibule, which is termed the BAREULA. 
 
 3. The ZONA MOLLIS of the cochlea, composed of two 
 substances : the one is of a consistence between cartilage 
 and membrane, somewhat of a coriaceous texture ; the other 
 is perfectly membranous, and almost of a mucous consist- 
 ence. The former adheres very firmly to the spiral lamina 
 oi' the cochlea, which it accompanies throughout ; and the 
 latter, which appears to be formed of a duplicature of the 
 periosteum, is continued from the coriaceous part to the 
 side of the cochlea, so that it completes the septum divid- 
 ing the cochlea into two scalae. 
 
 4. The auditory nerve divides at the internal meatus ; 
 oue branch, or portion, goes to supply the vestibule and 
 semicircular canals ; the other part proceeds to the cochlea, 
 juid terminates by a vast number of fibres^ which proceed 
 through bony canaliculi of the modiolus, and come out ou 
 the eeiia mollis, forming a beautiful NEIUOLS PL-LI--. 
 
 M 4 
 
248 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING. 
 
 Hearing is a sensation by which we perceive the sound 
 of any sonorous body. 
 
 Sound is a tremulous motion of the air excited by striking 
 any sonorous body. Sound is conveyed to an enormous dis- 
 tance in the atmosphere, in straight lines, which are called 
 sonorous rays. Soft bodies diminish or stifle sound; elastic 
 ones increase it. 
 
 The organ of hearing is the portio mollis of the seventh 
 pair of nerves, whose pulp is beautifully distributed upon the 
 ampulla: of the membranous semicircular canals, the barbufa, 
 and the zona mollis of the cochlea. 
 
 Hearing is performed in the following manner : the rays 
 of sound emanating from a sonorous body arrive at the ear, 
 which, by its elasticity and peculiar formation, concentrates 
 them, that they may pass along the external auditory fora- 
 men to the membrana tympani, which they cause to vibrate. 
 The trembling tympanum communicates its vibrations to the 
 malleus, which is in contact with it : the malleus conveys 
 them to the incus, the incus to the os orbiculare, and the 
 os orbiculare to the stapes. 
 
 The basis of the stapes jets within the vestibulum, in 
 that part where, as in a centre, it looks towards the common 
 channel of the membranous semicircular canals, and the 
 orifice of the scala vestibuli ; therefore the sonorous vibra- 
 tions of the stapes are communicated to the water of the la- 
 byrinth, and the undulations, sent out from this part as from 
 a centre to a circumference, strike first the alveus commu- 
 nis, and are then propagated throughout the liquor of the 
 labyrinth which surrounds the membranous semicircular 
 canals. These undulations strike the membranous semicir- 
 
24-9 
 
 rular canals on their whole surface, and the canals agitate 
 the fluid they contain as well as that in the alveus commu- 
 nis; and these agitations now affect the nervous expansions 
 in the alveus communis and membranous semicircular ca- 
 nals. One scala of the cochlea opens into the vestibulum, 
 whilst the other begins from the fenestra ovalisr both scalm 
 are filled with the water of the labyrinth, and communicate 
 with each other at the apex of the cochlea ; so that the so- 
 norous vibrations are communicated also to the seals of the 
 cochlea. In the middle, between the scalae of the cochlea, is 
 the zoiia mullis, on which the nerve is also spread : hence the 
 undulations are communicated to the nerves of the cochlea. 
 In all these actions of the auditory nerve, namely, in that of 
 the ampullae of the semicircular canals, the alveus commu- 
 nis, and the spiral zone of the cochlea, hearing consists. 
 The auditory nerve conveys these vibrations to the seust)- 
 rium, where the mind is informed of the presence of sound, 
 and judges of its difference. Gravity and acuteness of sound 
 depend upon the number of vibrations given at the same 
 time. 
 
 NOSE. 
 
 The nose is a prominence of the face, between the eyes 
 and mouth. 
 
 \i is dirided into the external nose, properly so called, 
 and an internal one. The former is distinguished into root, 
 back, apex, and alae : the latter into two nostrils, five car- 
 tilages, the frontal, ethmoidal, and maxillary sinuses. 
 
 1 . The root is the superior part, contiguous to the forehead. 
 
 2. The back, or bridge, is the middle prominence, wBich 
 goes downwards. 
 
 3. The ate, or pinrue, are the lateral and moveable parts. 
 
 4. The apex, or tip, is the inferior round part. 
 
250 
 
 5. The cartilages of the nose are, one in the middle, 
 which, with the vomer, completes the septum narinm, and 
 two on each side of the septum, which form the round tip, 
 and opening into the nostrils. 
 
 6. The frontal sinuses : these communicate with the su- 
 perior part of the nostrils. 
 
 7. The sphawidal sinus, which opens into the posterior 
 nostrils. 
 
 8. The maxillary sinuses, which open into the anterior 
 nostrils at their sides. 
 
 9. Besides these parts, the nostrils have the turbinated 
 portions of the ethmoid bone, and the inferior spongy bones, 
 hanging within them. 
 
 . , i o. The opening- of the ductus ad nasum. 
 
 All these parts are covered with a very vascular PITUI- 
 TARY MEMBRANE, called the SCHNEIDERIAN, from its disco- 
 verer, upon which the excretory ducts of the mucous glands 
 open, and the olfactory nerves are beautifully distributed, 
 so that the pituitary membrane not only covers the nostrils, 
 but the sinuses communicating with them. 
 
 The nostrils terminate anteriorly in the face, and poste- 
 riorly in the fauces. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the internal soft parts are 
 branches of the internal maxillary and internal carotids. 
 
 VEINS. The veins terminate in the orbital, temporal 
 veins, which convey their blood to the internal jugular. 
 
 NERVES. Besides the olfactory nerves, the nose is sup- 
 plied by the ophthalmic nerve, and superior maxillary. 
 
 USE. The nose is the organ of smelling; and it assist* 
 in respiration and speech. 
 
 The ptysiology of smelling is delivered under the functions 
 of the nerves. See page 202. 
 
251 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation of the mucous 
 membrane, called catarrhus ulceratioii, called oztna\m>r- 
 bid thickening polypus obstruction in the ductus ad ia- 
 sum an adventitious opening through the lachrymal Loire 
 abscess of the antrum. 
 
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE NOSE. Syringing the 
 ductus ad nasum removing polypi passing a hollow tube 
 through the nostril iato the oesophagus perforating the an- 
 ti-um of Highmore plugging up the nostrils in cases of 
 haemorrhage* 
 
 MOUTH. 
 
 The cavity of the mouth is covered by the cheeks and 
 lips. 
 
 The cheeks are composed of common integuments, and 
 various muscles going downwards from under the eye, over 
 the superior maxillary, to the inferior maxillary bone. 
 
 Th lips ' are composed of common integuments and 
 muscles, and are highly vascular, which gives them that 
 beautiful redness in health. Where the lips meet together, 
 it is called the angles, or commissure of the lips. 
 
 Opposite to the incisores of the upper and under jaw, the 
 doubling of the membrane of the mouth forms a fraenuui. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the lips are the coronary and 
 angular arteries. Those of the cheeks are branches of the 
 iuferior orbital, alveolar, and facial arteries. 
 
 VEINS. The veins empty themselves into the external 
 jugular. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves are the infra-orbital, the labial 
 nerve, a branch of the inferior maxillary, and the facial. 
 
 These nerves are sometimes the seat of the tic doloureuj,. 
 
 The cavity of the mouth is bounded superiorly by the 
 M 6 
 
252 
 
 hard and soft palate, inferiorly by the tongue, anteriorly and 
 laterally by the teeth, and posteriorly it is open, communi- 
 cating with the fauces : so that the gums, the palate, the 
 velum pendulum palati, and the membrane covering these, 
 are to be considered here. 
 
 1. The GUMS, a red, vascular, spongy substance, of a 
 peculiar nature, encompassing the necks of the teeth, and 
 lying on each side the alveolar processes. 
 
 The edges of the gums have the power of secreting the 
 tartar which is found upon the teeth. 
 
 When the gums bleed, are more spongy than ordinary, 
 and ulcerate along their margin, they cause a fetor of 
 the breath, and the disease is called stomacace. 
 
 The gums are often the seat of abscess, called epulis, or 
 
 gjumboil. 
 They occasionally shoot out a very vascular production, 
 
 or fungus, difficult to cure. 
 
 2. The PALATE. The roof of the mouth is called the pa- 
 late ; the anterior portion is much harder than the posterior, 
 being partly formed of bone, and hence distinguished into 
 hard and soft palate. The hard palate is that portion of the 
 roof which is formed by the palate bones, and palatine por- 
 tions of the superior maxillary bones : it is covered with pe- 
 riosteum and the common membrane of the mouth, which 
 is formed into rugce. The soft palate, or VELUM PENDULUM 
 PALATI, extends backwards from the hard palate, forming 
 two arches : it is composed of the internal membrane of the 
 mouth, a number of glands and muscles. From the middle 
 of the velum pendulum palatinum there hangs down, over 
 the tongue, a conical body, like a nipple, seen when the 
 mouth is opened, which is the UVULA. From the sides of the 
 uvula, towards the sides of the tongue, the soft palate form* 
 
253 
 
 two arches : the anterior of these is fixed to the sides of the 
 tongue, but the posterior extends backwards to be inserted 
 into the pharynx. Between these two arches, on each side, 
 at their bottom, is an oblong gland, called the tonsil ; it 
 has several excretory ducts opening upon its surface. 
 
 The hard palate is seldom found diseased ; but the soft 
 palate, uvula, and tonsils, are quite the reverse. Inflam- 
 mation ulceration relaxation enlarged tonsils tonsils 
 filled with a sebaceous substance tonsils perforated com- 
 plete loss of the soft palate, are among the most frequent 
 diseased appearances. 
 
 3. The membrane covering the mouth, is a reflection of 
 the skin and epidermis ; it is very spongy and cellular, hav- 
 ing a number of small glands under it, and their excretory 
 dcicts opening upon its surface. 
 
 It is subject to inflammation, -which, about the tonsils 
 and soft palate, is called cynanche tonsillaris, and gangrene 
 in those parts called cynanche maligna. 
 
 The salivary glands, whose excretory ducts pour the sa- 
 liva into this cavity, are considered in Adenology. 
 
 The mouth is the organ of mastication and deglutition. 
 It also affords a passage to the air in breathing, and assist* 
 in forming the sounds for speaking. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION. 
 
 Mastication is the comminution of the food between the 
 teeth, effected by the jaws, the tongue, cheeks, and lip. 
 The powers which move these parts are their various 
 muscles, by which the lower jaw is pulled from the upper, 
 and again brought to it, whilst the tongue perpetually puts 
 the food between the teeth, and the cheeks and lips impede 
 4 
 
2.54. 
 
 it, when masticated, from falling out of the mouth. By 
 this process the food is divided, lacerated, and, as it were, 
 ground and mixed with the saliva, mucus of the mouth, 
 and the atmospherical air, and thus rendered fit to be swal- 
 lowed and digested ; so that mastication is, in futt, an inci- 
 pient digestion. 
 
 TONGUE. 
 
 A muscular body, moveable in every direction, and si- 
 tuated in the inferior part of the mouth. 
 
 It is divided into a base, body, back, an inferior surface, 
 and two sides. 
 
 The base is that part which lies on the os hyoides. 
 
 The body is the middle and larger part, which ends in 
 the more moveable part. 
 
 The superior surface is called the back : on it are to be 
 noticed the openings of several glands. 
 
 The inferior surface is connected to the parts below by 
 the membrane of the mouth, which forms a bridle, or FRJE- 
 NULUM, behind the middle incisores. 
 
 The tongue is formed of a number of muscular fibres, 
 which are considered in Myology, covered by the common 
 integuments. 
 
 The external surface is every where furnished with NER- 
 VOUS PAPILLAE, some of which are pyramidal, others conoid, 
 and some fungi-form; they are divided into three classes, 
 the maxima, medics, and minima, and are most numerous 
 en the sides and apex, and upon the middle of the back. 
 
 At the root of the tongue a hole is found, called foramen 
 ccreum; it penetrates only a small way into the substance of 
 the tongue, and receives the mouths of excretory ducts. A 
 
255 
 
 line extends along the middle of the tongue, tvhicL divides 
 it into two surfaces. 
 
 ARTERIES. This organ is plentifully supplied with arte- 
 ries, which come off from the carotid, and are termed ra- 
 nine, or lingual. 
 
 VEINS. The smaller veins empty themselves into the 
 great lingual vein, which proceeds to the external jugular. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of the tongue are also numerous, 
 arising from the fifth, eighth, and ninth pairs. 
 
 USE. The use of this viscus is to constitute the organ 
 of taste, and assist in chewing, swallowing, sucking, and 
 tasting. 
 
 The physiology of tasting is delivered under the functions 
 of the nerves. See page 204. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. Inflammation, called glossi- 
 tis abscess ; when it appears under the tongue, it is called 
 ranukt gangrene ulceration; small white ulcers are call- 
 ed aphtha : besides common ulcers, there is a species of 
 ulceration along the sides, of a chronic nature cancer 
 fraenum too short ; when the person is said to be tongue- 
 tied small vesicles on the sides of the tongue, or hydatids, 
 
 OPERATION. The clipping the fraeuum when too short. 
 
 NECK. 
 
 The parts which form the neck are divided into external 
 and internal. 
 
 The external parts are the common integuments, the 
 muscles of the neck, eight pair of cervical nerves, two ca- 
 rotid arteries, two vertebral arteries, two external jugular 
 veins, two internal jugular veins, the jugular glands, the 
 
256 
 
 thyroid gland, the eighth pair of nerves of the cerebrum, 
 and the great intercostal. 
 
 The internal parts are the fauces, pharynx, asophagus, 
 larynx, and the trachea. 
 
 FAUCES. 
 
 The cavity behind the soft palate and tongue, which 
 ends in the pharynx. 
 
 It is bounded posteriorly by the bodies of all the cervical 
 vertebrae, superiorly by the cuneiform process of the os oc- 
 cipitis, and middle of the sphaenoid bone, inferiorly by the 
 pharynx, and anteriorly it looks into the mouth. 
 
 The posterior nostrils open into the fauces behind the 
 velum pendulum palati. 
 
 There are also, at the sides of the fauces, the opening* 
 of the Eustachian tubes. 
 
 The whole of this cavity is lined with a very vascular 
 and mucous membrane, continued from the mouth and 
 nostrils, on which are the openings of many mucous glands. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of this cavity come from the 
 internal maxillary, and neighbouring branches. 
 
 VEINS. The veins evacuate their blood into the external 
 jugular. 
 
 NERVES. These are branches of the fifth and eighth 
 pairs. 
 
 USE. The use of the fauces is for deglutition, respira- 
 tion, speech, and hearing. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE FAUCES. Inflammation, or cynanclte ton- 
 nllaris ulceration, which may be either simple, venereal, 
 or aphthous polypus hanging from the nostrils obstruc- 
 
257 
 
 tion of the Eustachian tubes anasarca, or angina cedema- 
 tosa. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Removal of the nasal polypus when in the 
 fauces syringing the Eustachian tubes. 
 
 PHARYNX. 
 
 The pharynx is a muscular sac, like a funnel, situated 
 behind the larynx, adhering to the fauces, and terminating 
 in the oesophagus. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected by means of muscles, with 
 the cranium, vertebrae, and os hyoides. 
 
 USE. Its use is to receive the masticated food, and con- 
 vey it into the oesophagus. 
 
 (ESOPHAGUS. 
 
 The oesophagus, or gullet, is a membranous and muscu- 
 lar tube, situated between the pharynx and stomach, and 
 descending behind the trachea, down the neck, and along 
 the posterior space of the mediastinum into the abdomen. 
 
 It is composed of three tunics or coats : 
 
 1. A. common tunic, which is a condensed cellular mem- 
 brane. 
 
 2. A muscular one, which consists of very dilatable mus- 
 cular rings. 
 
 3. A vttlous coat, situated on the inside: between this 
 and the former tunic are a number of muciparous glands, 
 which secrete the mucus of the oesophagus. 
 
 ARTERIES. Branches of the aorta. 
 VEINS empty themselves into the vena azygos, and the 
 superior intercostal. 
 
 NERVES, from the eighth pair and great intercostal. 
 
258 
 
 USE. The oesophagus conveys the food into the stomach. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation, or tesojoJutg-itis coagulated 
 lymph thrown out on the internal surface ulceration con- 
 traction scirrhus cancer converted into cartilage fun- 
 gus pouched, i 
 
 OPERATIONS. (Esophagotomy, or cutting into the oeso- 
 phagus introduction of the probang the introduction of 
 a flexible hollow tube, to convey any stimulating substance 
 into the stomach, to recover drowned persons caustic bou- 
 gies, to remedy stricture. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION. 
 
 Deglutition is the conveying of the masticated food from 
 the cavity of the mouth into the fauces, and from the fauces 
 through the oesophagus into the stomach. This is performed 
 by the jaws shutting, so as to prevent the food from falling 
 put of the mouth ; the tongue is then applied to the palate, 
 by which the food, lying upon the back of the tongue, is 
 pressed into the cavity of the fauces, where it is received by 
 the dilated pharynx. The mucus, secreted by the toasils > 
 facilitates its passage. The pharynx then is irritated to 
 contract, by which the food is expelled into the oesophagus, 
 by the contraction of whose muscular fibres it is conveyed 
 through the cardia into the stomach. 
 
 The pharynx is dilated by its dilatory muscles, and by 
 the root of the tongue, os hyoides, and larynx, being drawn 
 forwards and backwards by their proper muscles. 
 
 The food is prevented, during the act of swallowing, 
 from passing into the posterior opening of the nostrils, the 
 Eustachiau tube, and larynx, by the velum pendulum palati 
 and uvula being pressed against the former, and the epi- 
 glottis being bent backwards over the glottis. 
 
2.59 
 
 When a fluid is to be drank, the head inclines back- 
 wards, the same actions take place, and the fluid passes on 
 each side of the epiglottis. 
 
 Solids are swallowed with much more facility than fluids : 
 the latter, from their divisibility, require the organs to be 
 more closely applied, and to compress the body to be swal- 
 lowed with greater exactness. >\ t '. 
 
 During deglutition, the food is covered with the mucus 
 of the fauces and oesophagus. 
 
 LARYNX. 
 
 A hollow body, composed of cartilages, muscles, and 
 ligaments, situated at the root of the tongue, in the fore- 
 part of the neck. 
 
 It is attached above to the os hyoides by muscles and 
 ligaments, and posteriorly to the basis of the tongue by 
 membranes, and to the pharynx by various muscles. 
 
 The cartilages which form the larynx are the following : 
 
 i. The THYROID, or scutiform, whicb forms the anterior 
 and superior part, and by far the greater part of the larynx. 
 It appears to consist of two cartilages, joined together ante- 
 riorly, and forming a projection in the male neck, called 
 the FOMUM ADAMI, but receding from each other in the pos- 
 terior part. At the upper end of each, posteriorly, is a little 
 projection ; these are termed the cornua of the thyroid car- 
 tilage ; they are joined to the cornua of the os hyoides by 
 ligament. 
 
 There are also two projections situated at its inferior 
 part: these are called the inferior cornua, and are fixed to 
 the cricoid cartilage. 
 
 z. Two ARYTENOID CARTILAGES, which are found behind 
 the former, placed perpendicularly upon the cricoid, aud 
 
260 
 
 forming a space between them, called the GLOTTIS, or tinia 
 glottidis, which is the opening into the larynx. 
 
 3. The CRICOID CARTILAGE, which is the basis of the 
 others : it is narrow before, and broad behind ; and is im- 
 mediately above the larynx. 
 
 4. The EPIGLOTTIS, an oval cartilage, at the root of the 
 tongue, which covers the glottis when the food passes into 
 the pharynx. 
 
 There are four ligaments of the glottis : a ligamentous 
 cord passes from each arytenoid cartilage forward, to be 
 fixed to the anterior angle of the thyroid cartilage ; under 
 these two ligaments there are two others of a larger size, 
 they have the same origin and insertion as the former. On 
 each side, between the superior and inferior ligament, is a 
 fissure, which Galen has termed ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 The larynx is every where covered with a very sensible, 
 vascular, and mucous membrane, a continuation of the 
 membrane of the mouth. 
 
 The larynx is variously contracted and dilated by muscles, 
 which are considered in Myology. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the larynx are given off from 
 the external carotid and subclavian. The veins evacuate 
 their blood into the external jugulars. 
 
 NERVES. It has nerves from the eighth pair, or par 
 vagum. 
 
 GLANDS. The thyroid gland covers the thyroid carti- 
 lage. There are also the mucous glands of the larynx, which, 
 with the thyroid gland, are considered in Adenology. 
 
 USE. The use of the larynx is to form the voice and its 
 various modifications, and to afford a passage to the air 
 into and out of the lungs. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation of the pituitary membrane, or 
 
261 
 
 -ifw ulceration enlargement of the epiglottis ossi- 
 fication of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. 
 
 OPERATION. The introduction of a flexible hollow tube 
 to-throw air into the lungs, for the recovery of drowned 
 persons. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE. 
 
 The voice is caused by the sound of the air propelled 
 through the glottis ; so that the organ of the voice is the 
 larynx and its muscles. 
 
 The shrillness and roughness of the voice depends on 
 the diameter of the glottis, its elasticity, mobility, and lu- 
 bricity, and the force with which the air is expelled : thus, 
 when the diameter is increased, the voice is more bass, and 
 lice versa. 
 
 The two arytenoid, and the thyroid cartilages only, take 
 an active part in the production of the voice, but the true 
 organ of voice is the aperture of the glottis ; for if the tra- 
 chea, or larynx, be laid open below this aperture, no voice 
 can be produced. In women and youths the glottis is more 
 narrow by one third than in man : hence the shrill, acute 
 voice of the former, and grave voice of the latter. 
 
 Speech is the modification of the voice in the cavity of 
 the mouth and nostrils. 
 
 Singing is the harmonic modulation of the voice. 
 
 Ventriloquism consists in the motion of the uvula, epi- 
 glottis, and fauces, by which the sounds are modulated 
 without the lips, teeth, or palate. The mouth being nearly 
 shut, and the voice resounding between the larynx and the 
 cavity of the nose, the sound is returned, as if emitted by 
 ome one at a distance. 
 
262 
 
 TRACHEA. 
 
 A tube which descends from the larynx in the anterior 
 part of the neck, before the oesophagus, into the thorax, 
 where it divides into two branches, called bronchia. 
 
 It is composed of cartilages, muscles, and membranes : 
 
 1. The CARTILAGES are round, but not complete rings, 
 for they are fleshy posteriorly, where they lie over the oeso- 
 phagus. 
 
 2. The MUSCLES of the trachea pass between these rings, 
 and are called MESOCHONDRIAC. They are of two kinds: 
 
 a. Musculi mesochondriaci longitudinales. These are 
 composed of muscular fibres, which go directly down- 
 wards from one cartilage to the next, throughout the 
 minutest ramifications of the bronchia. 
 
 (3. Musculi mesochondriaci transfer sales. A number 
 of muscular fibres, which go across from one end of 
 the cartilage to the opposite. 
 
 Spasmodic asthma very frequently proceeds from a spas- 
 modic affection of these muscles. 
 
 3. The internal surface of this tube is lined with an ex- 
 quisitely sensible and vascular mucous membrane, continued 
 from the larynx. 
 
 The external coats are a cellular, and a ligamentous 
 coat. 
 
 The BRONCHIA, entering the substance of the lungs, di- 
 vide into innumerable little branches, which terminate in 
 the vesicufopulmonales, or air-cells. 
 
 The GLANDS are described in Adendlogy. 
 
 BLOOD-VESSELS. The arteries and veins of the trachea 
 ?.re common with the larjux. 
 
263 
 
 It has nerves from the recurrent branch of the eighth 
 pair. 
 
 USE. The use of the trachea is to admit the ingress and 
 egress of the air into the lungs. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation of the raucous membrane, or 
 cynanche trachealis, which is of two kinds : 
 
 1. A high state of inflammation, known by seeing an 
 immense number of red vessels, which are not found in a 
 healthy state. 
 
 2. A specific inflammation, known by the formation of 
 an adventitious membrane, formed of coagulated lymph, 
 and sometimes without any apparent increase of red vessels. 
 
 Ulceration diseased state of the softer parts, from 
 scirrhus, and cancer of the oesophagus polypus seirrhus 
 ossification. 
 
 OPERATION. Tracheotomy, more frequently called broR- 
 cUotomy, to admit of respiration. 
 
 THORAX. 
 
 The thorax, or chest, is that part of the body which is 
 situated between the neck and belly, and to whose sides 
 the upper extremity is attached. 
 
 The thorax is in figure pyramidal ; broad and convex 
 below, where it is separated by the diaphragm from the ab- 
 domen; and obtuse above, where it is terminated by the 
 pleura, cellular structure, muscles, and vessels : hollow 
 behind, owing to the convexity of the ribs as they approach 
 the spine; convex laterally; somewhat flattened in front. 
 
 The cavity of the thorax is divided internally into five 
 cavities : 
 
 i. Into a right and kft cavity of the thorax. 
 3 
 
264- 
 
 2. Into the caVity of the pericardium. 
 
 3. Into the anterior space of the mediastinum. 
 
 4. Into the posterior space of the mediastinum. 
 
 The parts which constitute the chest, are divided into 
 external and internal :.r*-3$ 
 
 The external parts are the common integuments, the 
 breasts, various muscles, and bones. 
 
 The internal parts, or viscera, of the thorax are, the 
 pleura, the lungs, the thymus gland, the oesophagus, the 
 ductus thoracicus, the pericardium and heart, the arch of 
 the aorta, and the descending aorta; the venae cavae, the 
 vena azygos, par vagum, and the great intercostal nerves. 
 
 DISEASES. Besides the affections of the thoracic viscera, 
 this part is subject to empyema, or a collection of pus in the 
 cavity of the chest hydrothorax, or water in the chest a 
 collection^of pus in the anterior space of the mediastinum. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Paracentesis thoracis, for empyema and 
 hydrothorax trepanning the sternum, to give an exit to 
 the pus collected in the anterior space of the mediastinum 
 taking up the intercostal artery. 
 
 MAMM.E. 
 
 The breasts are two soft hemispheres, adhering to the 
 anterior and lateral parts of the chest, over the pectoral 
 muscle. In the male, the breasts are termed mamilte; in 
 women, mamma ; and in brutes, ubera. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The human breast is composed of much 
 soft fat, which gives it the rotundity, and is of a glandular 
 fabric, plentifully supplied with blood-vessels, nerves, &c. 
 which secrete the milk, and convey it by its excretory 
 ducts to 
 
 The PAPILLA, or nipple, a very irritable prominent body, 
 in the centre of each breast, in which the excretory ducts 
 
265 
 
 of the glands of the breast, called galactopJierous and lacti- 
 ferous ducts y open. 
 
 The nipple is surrounded by a brown circle, called the 
 AREOLA, or halo. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the breasts are branches of 
 the internal and external mammaries, many of which anas- 
 tomose with the epigastric artery. The veins bear the same 
 name, and accompany the arteries, emptying their blood 
 into the subclavian and axillary veiii. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves are very numerous, and arise from 
 the superior intercostals, which are given off from the dor- 
 sal nerves. 
 
 GLANDS. The breasts are plentifully supplied with lym- 
 phatics, which prjceed to the subaxillary glands. 
 
 USE. The use of these organs is to secrete and contain 
 the milk for new born infants. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation, or mastitis, or maatodynia 
 seirrhus cancer induration of the glandular fabric. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Opening of mammary abscess removal 
 of cancerous breast. 
 
 PLEURA. 
 
 A transparent smooth membrane, which lines the inter- 
 nal surface of each lateral cavity of the thorax, and covers 
 its viscera. Its external surface is attached by vessels and 
 cellular membrane to the ribs, intercostal muscles, ster- 
 num, bodies of the dorsal vertebrae and diaphragm; so that 
 it may be compared to two bags : the right lies close to the 
 internal surface of the ribs, down to the diaphragm, passes 
 over it, giving it a tunic ; and having reached the heart-bag, 
 near the middle of the inferior pait of the chest, it adheres 
 to it, and goes up to ths sternum, to the very top of the 
 
 N 
 
chest, where the bronchia enter, and the lungs begin ; and 
 in this part the pleura is reflected over them : the left bag 
 lines the left cavity in the same way. The pleurae of both 
 cavities at the sides of the bodies of the vertebras go directly 
 forwards to the sternum, without coining into contact with 
 one another, a vast quantity of cellular structure being in- 
 terposed, and thus divide the thorax into a right and left 
 cavity. This partition of the chest is termed mediastinum, 
 in which are two spaces : the anterior space is directly be- 
 hind the sternum ; the posterior immediately before the 
 bodies of the dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 ARTERIES. The pleura has arteries from the intercostals 
 and internal mammaries, which, in a healthy state, are not 
 visible; they return their blood by the intercostal and in- 
 ternal mammary veins. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of this membrane are few, and 
 arise from the superficial branches of the cardiac plexus. 
 
 USE. The use of the pleura is to form the mediastinum, 
 to divide the thorax into two cavities, to render the surface 
 moist by the vapour it exhales, and to give a membrane to 
 the lungs and pericardium. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation, called pleuritic adhesion to 
 the lungs converted into cartilage ossified small white 
 bodies in the pleura, like scrofulous glands. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Perforating the pleura for empyema and 
 
 hydrothorax. 
 
 >*'' 
 MEDIASTINUM. 
 
 The membranous partition formed of a dup.itature of 
 the pleura, which divides the chest into two cavities. 
 
 In the mediastinum, that is, between the two pleura 1 of 
 which it is formed, ar n the anterior part, the pericar- 
 
267 
 
 dinm, thp thymus gland in children in the posterior part, 
 the oesophagus, the bronchia, the large vessels of the heart, 
 the par vagum, great intercostals, and thoracic duct. 
 
 LUNGS. 
 
 Two viscera, situated in the cavities of the thorax, by 
 which we breathe. 
 
 DIVISION. Into right and left lung : the right has three 
 lobes, the left only two. 
 
 The substance of the lungs is bronchial, vesicular, vas- 
 cular, nervous, glandular, and parenchymatous. 
 
 1. The BRONCHIA are continuations of the trachea, and 
 are formed exactly of the same materials, viz. cartilage, 
 and intercartilaginous muscles. 
 
 2. The vesicles of the lungs are called the PULMONARY 
 or AIR VESICLES; they form by far the greater bulk of the 
 lungs, and are placed at the very extremities of the ramifi- 
 cations of the bronchia, being apparently formed of the in- 
 ternal membrane lining the bronchia. It is on the internal 
 surface of these vesicles that the pulmonary artery forms a 
 beautiful plexus of delicate vessels. 
 
 3. The VESSELS of the lungs are the pulmonary artery, 
 whose ramifications are very numerous, forming a net of 
 vessels on the internal surface of the air-vesicles the 
 pulmonary veins, which return the blood from the pul- 
 monary arteries the bronchial artery, which nourishes the 
 lungs, itod returns its blood through corresponding veins 
 into the vena azygos the absorbents of the lungs, which 
 are deep seated and superficial. 
 
 4. The NERVES of the lungs are derived from the par va- 
 gum and great intercostal, and form an anterior and poste- 
 rior pulmonic plexus. 
 
 N ^ 
 
265 
 
 5. The GLANDS about the bronchia are very numerous, 
 and are termed bronchial. Lymphatic glands are also found 
 more internally. 
 
 6. The PARENCHYMA of the lungs, or cellular membrane, 
 connects the vessels, bronchia, and vesicles, and is very 
 elastic. 
 
 CONNEXION. The lungs are connected with the heart by 
 means of the pulmonary artery and veins, and with the tra- 
 chea by means of the bronchia ; the other part is loose in 
 the cavity of the chest, having a coat from the pleura, call- 
 ed pleura pulmonalis, which invests their tunica propria, but 
 does not dip down between the lobules. 
 
 USE. The use of the lungs is for respiration and san- 
 guification. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation, called jmeumonitis abscess, 
 called voniica tuberculated scirrhus air-cells enlarged 
 converted into a substance like liver earthy matter in 
 the lungs ossification hydatids pleura pulmonalis in- 
 flamed ; covered with a coat of coagulated lymph - thick- 
 ened cartilaginous ossified adhering to the pleura cos- 
 talis. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION. 
 Respiration consists of INSPIRATION, or the ingress of the 
 air into the lungs, and EXPIRATION, or the egress of the air 
 from the lungs. 
 
 During sleep respiration is performed without our know- 
 ledge, and therefore termed spontaneous; but when it can 
 be augmented or diminished according to our will, it is 
 termed voluntary. The blood of the right side of the heart 
 is blackish and heavy : that which the pulmonary veins 
 bring back to the left side of the heart, is, on the contrary, 
 of a red vermilion colour, lighter and two degrees warmer. 
 
269 
 
 In its passage through the lungs it is deprived of hydro- 
 gen and carbon, and in becoming arterial, is loaded with 
 oxygen and caloric. In natural respiration the thorax dilates 
 about fifteen times in tfte course of a minute, and in an 
 adult man, from thirty to forty cubic inches of atmospheri- 
 cal air enter the lungs, composed of seventy-three parts ni- 
 trogen, twenty-seven parts oxygen, and 1-100 or o-ico of 
 carbonic acid ; after the atmospheric air has remained some 
 moments, it is expired, and its composition is found to be 
 altered ; 73-100 of nitrogen exists, but the oxygen has suf- 
 fered great diminution, its proportion is only 14-100 : car- 
 bonic acid constitutes the remaining 13-100, and sometimes 
 one or two parts of hydrogen, besides a quantity of aqueous 
 vapour. 
 
 The exciting cause of respiration is the air rushing into 
 the lungs, and irritating its nerves, which irritation is, by 
 consent of parts, communicated to the diaphragm and in- 
 tercostal muscles, and compels them to contract. The con- 
 traction of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, and the 
 pressure of the elastic air, therefore dilate the chest. The 
 air being deprived of its stimulus, the intercostal muscles 
 and diaphragm become relaxed, the cartilages of the ribs 
 and abdominal muscles, before expanded, return to their 
 former state, and thus the air is expelled from the lungs. 
 The small branches of the pulmonary artery form a beautiful 
 net-work of vessels on the internal membrane of the air-ve- 
 sicies. During expiration, the air-vessels are collapsed; con- 
 sequently the blood-vessels become tortuous, and the blood 
 is prevented passing; but in inspiration, the air-vesicles 
 being dilated, the tortuous vessels are elongated, and a free 
 passage afforded to the blood. The very delicate coats of 
 these vessels are rendered io thin as to suffer a CHEMICAL 
 N 3 
 
270 
 
 ACTION to take place between the air in the vesicles and the 
 blood in the vessels. This constitutes the primary use of 
 r espiration, viz. the blood absorbing the oxygen from the 
 atmospheric air, as was before mentioned ; by which the 
 nervous energy is increased, and, it is generally believed, 
 heat generated ; but this subject is yet undetermined. 
 
 PERICARDIUM. 
 
 A membranous sac surrounding the heart. 
 
 CONNEXION. It adheres to the diaphragm, pleura, ster- 
 num, cartilages of the ribs, oesophagus, aorta desceudens, 
 and the v^ins and great arteries going to and from the heart. 
 
 ARTERIES. Branches of the internal mammary and 
 mediastinal. 
 
 VEINS empty themselves into the internal mammary. 
 
 NERVES. From the superficial cardiacs. 
 . USE. To contain the heart, and to separate a fluid 
 which may lubricate and preserve it from concretion with 
 the pericardium. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation a coat of co- 
 agulated lymph on the internal membrane adhesions to 
 the heart dropsy of the pericardium, or hydro-cordis scro- 
 fulous tumours adhering to the pericardium pericardium 
 wanting. 
 
 ADULT HEART. 
 
 The heart is a hollow muscular viscus, situated in the 
 cavity of the pericardium, by whose contractile power the 
 blood is sent to every part of the body. 
 
 It is distinguished, in the dead body, whilst in the pe- 
 ricardium, into an anterior and posterior surface and mar- 
 
271 
 
 gins ; a base from which the large arteries emerge, and au 
 apex. 
 
 In the living body, the base of the heart is towards the 
 dorsal vertebrae ; its apex towards the sixth rib of the left 
 side ; so that its situation is oblique, not transverse ; the 
 right ventricle being anterior, the left posterior, and the 
 inferior surface lying upon the diaphragm. 
 
 DIVISION. The heart is distinguished into two auricles, 
 which lie upon its base, surrounding the larger arteries ; 
 two ventricles, or cavities, in the internal part ; and the ar- 
 teries and veins going from and terminating in it. 
 
 The auricles have been distinguished into the auricula 
 or proper auricle, and sinus venosus. 
 
 The RIGHT AURICLE is a large muscular sac, in which 
 the superior and inferior vena cava terminate : it has a little 
 process, or cul de sac, like an auricula, or little ear, from 
 which it took its name, and an opening at its bottom into 
 the right ventricle. 
 
 In the right auricle are the following: .'_ 
 
 1. The tuberculum Loweri. A mere projection in the 
 auricle, between the two venae cavae. 
 
 2. The valve of Eustachius. A production of the inner 
 membrane of the inferior vena cava, at its termination in 
 the auricle. It is not always present, but in most instances 
 is as complete a valve as any other. 
 
 3. The fleshy bundles crossing the auricle, like the teeth 
 of a comb, called musculi pectinati. Between these fasciculi 
 the auricle is transparent and membranous. 
 
 4. The valve of the great coronary vein, which opens into 
 this auricle. 
 
 5. Around the opening of the auricle into the right ven- 
 tricle, and rather within the auricle, is a tendinous circle. 
 
 * 4 
 
272 
 
 6. Ayfa/j membranous, oval depression, more remarkable 
 in some than in other hearts: which points out the former 
 situation of the foramen ovale. It is termed the fossa Gvaiis, 
 and its sides are called columna foraminis ovalis ; isthmus 
 J^ieussenii ; and annulus fossa ovalis. 
 
 7. The foramina Thebesii; which are seldom seen. They 
 are the minute openings, probably arteries opening into the 
 right auricle. 
 
 The RIGHT VENTRICLE is a large cavity within the heart, 
 and below the auricle. The right auricle opens into it, and 
 a large artery, the pulmonary artery, emerges from it. In 
 this cavity are to be noticed 
 
 1. The muscular pillars or columns, called earner co- 
 lumna, which cross one another in every direction, and have 
 defcp grooves between them. 
 
 The albumen of the blood insinuates itself very fre- 
 quently, in artlculo mortis, between the carnecs columnee, 
 and thus adheres very firmly to the parietes of the ven- 
 tricle : this appearance was called polypus by the an- 
 cients. The same thing occurs in the right auricle and 
 left ventricle. 
 
 2. The chorda tendinete, which connect some of the car- 
 nea columns with the valves, and insert others into the 
 parietes of the heart. 
 
 3. The tricuspid, or triglochin valves, which arise from 
 the tendinous circle, around the opening of the auricle into 
 the ventricle, and form three points, which are fastened by 
 the chordae tendinese to the parietes of the right ventricle. 
 
 4. The reticulated appearance of the carneae columuae, 
 and the smooth surface leading to the artery. 
 
 5. Three semilunar valves placed just within the pulmo- 
 nary artery. In the middle of each valve is a hard knot, 
 called corpus sesamvideum Aur&nta. 
 
273 
 
 The LEFT AURICLE is not so capacious as tbe right ; it 
 has no communication with it in a natural state ; yet the 
 foramen, ovale, which is always open in the foetus, sometimes 
 remains throughout life, or is forced open. The four pul- 
 monary veins open into this cavity. It presents the fasci- 
 culated appearance, or musculi peetinati, though not so 
 strongly as the right auricle. The opening of this auricle 
 into the ventricle is less than that of the right auricle, but 
 it is surrounded by a tendinous circle in the same way. 
 
 The foramen ovale, or opening between the auricles of 
 the foetus, which permits the blood to pass from the 
 right auricle into the left, in consequence of its not 
 having a passage through the lungs, before birth, is 
 sometimes forced open in the adult. This happens ge- 
 nerally to those who have asthma or phthisis pulmona- 
 lis, or some disease of the lungs affecting respiration, 
 so as to prevent the free circulation of the blood through 
 the lungs from the right ventricle to the left auricle. 
 The blood, therefore, accumulating in the right auricle, 
 distends it more than commonly, and the pressure 
 causes an absorption of the tender membrane which 
 closed the foramen ovale. In this manner the foramen 
 ovale is formed in adults, but it not unfrequently re- 
 mains open from birth : hence the blood continues to 
 be circulated when the respiration is suspended, as iu 
 diving, holding the breath, &c. ; and hence the circula- 
 tion of the blood is regular, notwithstanding the respi- 
 ration is obstructed in asthma, and the substance of the 
 lungs corrupted, become scirrhous, or almost wholly 
 ulcerated ; which is the case in phthisis pulmonalis. 
 
 The LEFT VENTRICLE is less than the right ; its fleshy 
 walls, or parietes, are much stronger ; and it has, like the 
 right, an opening from the auricle, and. an artery arising 
 from it. In this ventricle we observe 
 
 i. The valve arising from the circle of the auricular 
 opening, which terminates iu two fasciculi of tendons, and 
 N 5 
 
274- 
 
 hence is called, from its resemblance to a bishop's mitre, 
 valvula mitralis. The two points are connected to the car- 
 neae columnae. -Yr : 
 
 2. The carneae columuae are here remarkably strong 
 and rounded, and the chordae tendineae very firm. 
 
 3. The smooth surface towards the arterial opening. 
 
 4. The semilunar valves, just within the artery, or aorta, 
 with the corpora sesamoidea in their middle. 
 
 5. The sinuses of Vasalva at the outside of the valves ; 
 they exis^ in the pulmonary artery, but are smaller. 
 
 From this description of the heart, it appears that the 
 auricles are separated from each other, and also the ven- 
 tricles. The partition between the auricles is thin and partly 
 membranous, but that between the ventricles is about half 
 an inch in thickness, and composed of strong fleshy fibres. 
 The former is termed septum auricular um y the latter septum 
 i/etitriculorum. 
 
 STRUCTURE. With regard to the structure of the heart, 
 it is entirely muscular and well supplied with vessels ; its 
 cavities are lined by a smooth and very irritable membrane, 
 continued from the internal coat of the arteries and veins, 
 and its external surface is covered by a reflection of the in- 
 ternal tunic of the pericardium. 
 
 The muscular fibres constituting the heart, may be dis- 
 tinguished into three layers : 
 
 i. The outermost, which extends from the basis of the 
 heart towards its apex, surrounding the whole heart. 
 
 z. The middle layer, which lies below the former, and 
 passes in a transverse direction. It is by means of this layer 
 that both ventricles appear to be formed. 
 
 3. The internal layer, which runs very irregularly, its 
 fibres interlacing one another. 
 
275 
 
 VESSELS. The heart is nourished with blood by two ar- 
 teries, branches of the aorta, called coronaries, which return 
 their blood by the coronary vein y into the right auricle. 
 They also ramify on the roots of the large arteries, forming 
 the vasa vasorum. 
 
 NERVES. It has nerves from the cardiac plexus formed 
 of branches from the par vagum and great intercostal; but 
 these nerves are not under the influence of the mind, the 
 heart being a muscle of involuntary motion. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The heart has absorbents, which accom- 
 pany the direction of the arteries. 
 
 USE. The use of this viscus is to constitute the primary 
 organ of the blood*s motion. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation abscess gangrene pus, and 
 coagulated lymph in the cavities aneurism of the ventricle 
 hydatids in the ventricle rupture malformation un- 
 usually large an immense accumulation of fat about the 
 heart ossification a deposition of earthy particles in the 
 muscular structure inflammation of the external mem- 
 branea coat of coagulated lymph on it; sometimes like a 
 honeycomb ossification hydatids adhering to it pus 
 upon the surface adhesions to the pericardium a morbid 
 thickening valves ossified earth deposited in them 
 thickened burst valves between the auricles and ven- 
 tricles thickened ossified earthy the internal membrane 
 of the heart of a florid colour gangrenous the coronary 
 arteries ossified converted into a cartilaginous substance. 
 
 Almost every disease of the heart causes an irregularity 
 in its action; therefore an intermittent pulse mostly 
 accompanies diseases of this viscus : but as the heart 
 often beats irregularly in consequence of the blood not 
 being duly returned to it, as in asthma and hydrotho- 
 rax ; and as it often contracts irregularly from sympa- 
 N 6 
 
276 
 
 thy, and as the pulge may beat irregularly in conse- 
 quence of disease between the heart and the wrist ; au 
 intermitting pulse cannot be considered as a pathogno- 
 mouic symptom of a disease of this organ. 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 The blood is continually in motion, passing from the 
 auricles of the heart into the ventricles ; from the ventricle* 
 into all the arteries of the body, and from the arteries into 
 the veins, which return it again to the auricles. 
 
 The blood is brought from every part of the body to the 
 heart by the two vena cavae (the superior bringing it from 
 the head, upper extremities, and thorax, and the inferior 
 from the abdomen and inferior extremities), which termi- 
 nate in the right auricle. The right auricle, when distend- 
 ed with blood, contracts, and empties itself into the. right 
 ventricle; the right ventricle then contracts and propels 
 the blood into the pulmonary artery, the opening between 
 the ventricle and auricle being shut by the tricuspid valves. 
 The pulmonary artery conveys the blood, by its numerous 
 ramifications, into the small branches of the air-cells of the 
 lungs, where it undergoes a change, and passes into the 
 veins, which bring it by four trunks into the left auricle of 
 the heart. It is prevented returning from the pulmonary 
 artery into the right ventricle, by the three semilunar valves 
 which are placed at its origin. The blood having thus 
 passed through the lungs, and become of a florid colour, dis- 
 tends the left auricle, which is then stimulated to contract, 
 and pours the blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle 
 next contracts, and propels the blood through the aorta, 
 to be conveyed by its branches to every part of the body. 
 The mijral valves, which are placed at the auricular open- 
 ing into the left ventricle, prevent the blood from returning,, 
 
277 
 
 when the ventricle contracts, into the auricle ; and, should 
 the blood be prevented by any impediment passing imme- 
 diately along the aorta, the three semitunar valves placed 
 at its origin prevent its regurgitating into the ventricle. 
 From the numerous arteries of the aorta the blood is con- 
 veyed into the veins, where it loses its florid colour, be- 
 comes darker, and is conveyed by the two venae cavae, the 
 superior and inferior, into the right auricle. 
 
 Since the blood loses its florid hue as it passes from the 
 arteries into the veins, and again acquires it only in the 
 lungs, it follows that the blood of the right auricle and ven- 
 tricle, and also the pulmonary artery, is of a dark venal co- 
 lour ; and that of the pulmonary veins, left auricle and 
 ventricle, and aortal system, of a florid hue. 
 
 The above circumstance naturally induces the following 
 observation : that when blood is expectorated of a florid 
 hue, it comes from a ruptured vein; and when dark and 
 grumous, from the pulmonary artery. The bronchial 
 artery ramifies through the parenchyma, or cellular 
 tissue of the lungs, and when it ruptures, an ecchy- 
 mosis of the lung is the consequence. 
 
 The action of the heart consists in the alternate contrac- 
 tion and dilatation of its auricles and ventricles. After the 
 contraction of the ventricles, the arteries contract, this ac- 
 tion of arteries is called pulsation, the veins receive the 
 blood from the arteries, and return it to the auricles : the 
 valves of the veins and vis a tergo prevent the blood regur- 
 gitating. The dilatation of the heart is termed diastole, and 
 the contraction systole. 
 
 The excessive sensibility of the membrane which lines 
 the auricles and ventricles, disposes them to contraction, 
 which is effected by the irritation of the stimulus of the 
 blood, and by that cf the distention of its cavities. 
 
278 
 
 ABDOMEN. 
 
 A cavity situated between the thorax and pelvis ; divided 
 into several regions, as has already been mentioned. The 
 EXTERNAL PARTS are the common integuments, five pair of 
 abdominal muscles, and the peritoneum. The INTERNAL 
 PARTS, or VISCERA, are : the omentum, stomach, small and 
 large intestines, liver, gall-bladder, mesentery, lacteal ves- 
 sels, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, supra-renal glands, part of 
 the aorta descendens, and vena cava ascendens. 
 
 MORBID APPEARANCES. The diseased appearances of 
 the viscera will be enumerated under their respective heads. 
 The cavity of the abdomen is subject to ascites abdominalis, 
 and a complete adhesion between all its viscera, so as to- 
 tally to obliterate the cavity. 
 
 Parts of the viscera have protruded through the umbi- 
 licus, inguinal ring, diaphragm, &c. forming various species 
 of Jternia. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Paracenteris abdominis, to remove the fluid 
 in dropsy, and the operation for strangulated, umbilical, 
 inguinal, and femoral hernia 1 . 
 
 PERITONEUM. 
 
 A smooth delicate membrane lining the internal surface 
 of the abdomen, and covering all its viscera. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected, by means of cellular mem- 
 brane, with the diaphragm, abdominal muscles, vertebra 
 of the loins, bones of the pelvis, urinary bladder, uterus, 
 intestinum rectum, and all the viscera of the abdomen. 
 
 VESSELS. The arteries and veins come from the adjoin- 
 ing parts. 
 
279 
 
 USE. To contain and strengthen the abdominal viscera, 
 and to exhale a vapour to lubricate them. 
 
 MORBID APPEARANCES. An accumulation of the fluid 
 thrown out to lubricate the viscera constitutes ascites abdo- 
 minalis. Coag-ulable lymph is often separated into the ab- 
 domen in large quantities by the vessels of the peritoneum 
 pus also has been observed. Inflammation of the peri- 
 toneum is termed peritonitis. The other diseased appear- 
 ances are : adhesion, thickening, dark spots on the perito- 
 neum ; a white, soft, granulated matter adhering to the 
 peritoneum; cancerous tumours, hydatids, air in the ca- 
 vities of the peritoneum, or tympanitis. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Paractntesis abdommin, to remove the fluid 
 in dropsy ; and gcutrvraphia, or sewing of the abdomen. 
 
 *V*. ,,,/j'i 
 
 OMENTUM. 
 
 The omentum, or epiploon, is an adipose membrane, a 
 production of the peritoneum, attached to the stomach, and 
 lying on the anterior surface of the intestines. 
 
 DIVISION. It is divided into large and small omentum. 
 The former hangs pendulous from the great curvature of the 
 stomach. The small omentum fills up the space between 
 the small curvature of the stomach and liver. 
 
 Immediately behind the biliary ducts there is an open- 
 ing in the omentum, which will admit the finger, called the 
 foramen of Winslow. 
 
 ARTERIES. The omentum is supplied with arteries by 
 the cceliac artery. 
 
 VEINS. The veins empty themselves into the vena portse. 
 
 USE. To lubricate the intestines, and to preserve them 
 from concretion. 
 
280 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, which is called 
 omentitis, urepiploitisltony and earthy matter in the omen- 
 turn scirrhous enlargement like a bunch of grapes con- 
 tracted omentum adhesions with various parts. When the 
 onieatuin passes through the parietes of the abdomen, the 
 rupture is termed an epiplocele. 
 
 OPERATION. The removal of a gangrenous portion, either 
 from strangulated hernia or rupture of the abdomen. 
 
 STOMACH. 
 
 A membranous receptacle, situated in the epigastric re- 
 gion, which receives the ingesta from the oesophagus. 
 
 DIVISION. It is divided, when empty, into an anterior 
 and a posterior surface; a great and little curvature; the 
 cardia, or superior opening ; and tlfe jjylorvit, or inferior 
 opening. 
 
 CONNEXION. It is connected with the oesophagus, duo- 
 denum, omentum, and pancreas. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It is composed of three membranes, or 
 coats, viz. a peritoneal, muscular, and villous coat. Som 
 anatomists enumerate a fourth, viz. a nervous coat. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the stomach are branches of 
 the coeliac the coronaria, which goes to the small curva- 
 turethe gastrica sinistra^ which is distributed to the great, 
 and arises from the splenic artery gastrica dextra, which 
 passes to the great curvature and the pylorica^ supplying 
 the pylorus ; all of which unite with each other, and form a 
 net-work of blood-vessels. 
 
 VEINS. The gastric veins empty themselves into the vena 
 portae, corresponding with the trunks of the arteries. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of the stomach are branches of 
 the par vagi'm. 
 
281 
 
 ABSORBENTS. Those of the small curvature terminate in 
 the thoracic duct, where the coeliac artery is given off, and 
 those passing along the great curvature join with the ab- 
 sorbents of the spleen. 
 
 GLAND*. These are mwciparous, under the internal 
 tunic. ^ 
 
 USE. To receive the ingesta from the oesophagus, and 
 to retain, mix, digest, and expel them into the duodenum. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, which is termed 
 gastritis ulceratiou scirrhus cancer partly dissolved by 
 gastric juice tumour filled with a suetty substance in the 
 stomach calculi in the stomach hernia of the stomach, 
 termed gastrocele abscess between the peritoneum of the 
 parietes and stomach, bursting in the latter coagulated 
 lymph thrown out in the stomach pouch formed in the 
 stomach a morbid contraction of the whole stomach- 
 worms in the stomach. 
 
 DIGESTION. 
 
 Digestion, or chymification, is that change the food un- 
 dergoes in the stomach, by which it is converted into 
 chyme. 
 
 The circumstances necessary to effect a healthy digestion 
 of food are 
 
 1 . A certain degree of heat of the stomach. 
 
 2. A free mixture of saliva with the food in the mouth. 
 
 3. A certain quantity of healthy gastric juice. 
 
 4. The natural peristaltic motion of the stomach. 
 
 5. The pressure of the contraction and relaxation of th 
 abdominal muscles and diaphragm. -^ 
 
 From these circumstances, the particles of the food are 
 
282 
 
 softened, dissolved, diluted, and intimately mixed into a soft 
 pap, called chyme, which passes through the pylorus of the 
 stomach into the duodenum, where the nutritious part is 
 separated from it and absorbed by the lacteals. See Uiyli- 
 Jicatwn. 
 
 INTESTINES. 
 
 The membranous tube, six times longer than the body, 
 in the cavity of the abdomen, variously contorted from the 
 pylorus of the stomach to the anus. 
 
 DIVISION. The intestines are divided into small and 
 large intestines. The small are, 
 
 i. The DUODENUM, which begins at the pylorus of the 4 
 stomach, and is reflected over the spine under the perito- 
 neum. It is about twelve fingers' breadth in length, and has 
 an oblique perforation near its middle, which is the com- 
 mon opening of the pancreatic duct and ductus communis 
 choledochus. 
 
 z. The JEJUNUM and ILEUM compose the remainder of 
 the small intestines. 
 
 The small intestines always hang from the mesentery, 
 the greater part of thejm into the cavity of the pelvis. There 
 is no material alteration of structure in any part of them : 
 the termination of the one and beginning of the other is 
 imaginary. The jejunum constitutes the first half from the 
 duodenum, the other half is ileum. The small intestines 
 have internally a number of annular folds, which augment 
 the surface for the situation of the lacteal and other vessels ; 
 these are called valvtda conniventes, and are peculiar to the 
 small intestines ; they are most numerous in the duodenum, 
 and least so in the Ileum. 
 
283 
 The large intestine- are distinguishedjnto, 
 
 1. The CJECUM, which lies upon the right hip oyer the 
 iliacus internus muscle, to which it is attached by cellular 
 membrane : it is a large cul de sac: the small intestine 
 opens obliquely into it, in such a manner as to form a valve 
 to impede the return of the faeces ; and nearly opposite to 
 this valve there arises from the ciecum a small vermiform 
 canal, imperforated at its extremity, called the appendieula 
 ceeci vermiformis. The valve is called valvula cotti, and val- 
 vula Tulpii. 
 
 2. The ascending portion of the large intestine is the 
 COLON; it proceeds towards the liver by the name of the 
 ascending portion of the colon, and having reached the liver, 
 forms a transver&e arch across to the other side. The colon 
 then descends, forming what is termed its rigmoid flexure, 
 into the pelvis, where the gut is termed, 
 
 3. The RECTUM, which terminates in the anus. 
 
 The large intestines are lobulated ; have sometimes little 
 fat portions adhering to them, called appendicula epiplotca, 
 and also three longitudinal bands upon their external sur- 
 face. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The intestines are composed of three 
 membranes, or coats; one peritoneal, a muscular one, and 
 the third which is villous. 
 
 CONNEXION. They are connected with the mesentery, 
 kidneys, os coccygis, and urinary bladder; and, in women, 
 with the vagina. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the intestines are branches 
 of the superior and inferior mesenteric, duodenal, and in- 
 ternal haemorrhoidal. 
 
 VEINS. The veins run into the meseraic, which go to 
 the vena portae. 
 
284 
 
 NERVES. The intestinal nerves are productions of th* 
 eighth pair and intercostals. 
 
 LACTEAL VESSELS. These arise from th small intes- 
 tines, and run into the mesenteric glands. 
 
 GLANDS. Muciparous, under the villous coat, called 
 flanduke Brunneri. 
 
 USE. To receive the chyme, and retain it for a time ; 
 to mix it with the enteric juice and bile j to separate and 
 propel the chyle into the lacteal vessels ; and to eliminate 
 the faeces. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, which is called 
 enteritis ulceration mortification abscesses intus-sus- 
 ception stricture scirrhus cancer a morbid thicken- 
 ing of the coats of the intestines a morbid transparency 
 of the intestine the inner membrane of the large intestine 
 formed into white and yellow tubercles the folds of the 
 inner membrane of the great intestine enlarged and loaded 
 with blood small processes of the inner membrane a little 
 above the anus heemorrhoids pouches in the small in- 
 testines worms; ascaris vermicularis,ascaris lumbricoides, 
 trichuris, taenia osculis superficialibus, and ta?nia osculis 
 lateralibus thickening of the valvuke conniveutes calculi 
 in the intestines lacteals morbidly distended with chyle 
 small tubercles hanging from the intestines into the cavity 
 of the abdomen adhesions of all the intestines into one 
 mass. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Operations for strangulated intestinal her- 
 nia and wounds of the intestine. 
 
 CHYL1FICATION. 
 
 This is the change of the chyme in the small intestines 
 into chyle. The chyme in the duodenum is mixed with the 
 
285 
 
 pancreatic juice, the bile, and enteric juice; from which 
 mixture, effected by the continual peristaltic motion of the 
 intestines, a milk-like fluid is separated, termed chyle, which 
 is absorbed by the pendulous openings of the lactealsj and 
 conveyed through the mesentery into the thoracic duct, to 
 be sent into and mixed with the blood, to form new blood : 
 after the bile has effected this purpose, its oily, bitter, and 
 colouring principle adheres to the excrementitious mass, 
 and gives it stimulant properties. 
 
 Chyliftcation is performed quicker than chymification, 
 and both are effected within three hours. The progress of 
 alimentary matter in its passage through the small intes- 
 tines, is much retarded by the winding of the canal; which 
 allows the chylous part to be entirely separated. 
 
 The excrementitious particles of the food, called, the 
 faeces, facilitated in their progress by a great quantity of mu- 
 cus, secreted by the inner membrane of the intestines, are 
 propelled into the caecum, through the colon, where they 
 acquire a peculiar smell, into the rectum, to be expelled. 
 
 EXPULSION OF THE F&CES. 
 
 The irritation of the faeces in the rectum induces it to 
 contract, the diaphragm descends, and the muscles of the 
 abdomen push the abdominal viscera towards the pelvis, 
 compressing the intestines ; the sphincter relaxes, and the 
 faeces are protruded through the aperture of the anus, by the 
 pressure of the abdominal muscles, and the anus closed 
 again by the contraction of its sphincter and levator muscles. 
 The fetid smell of the faeces depends on the commencing 
 putrefactive fermentation, a great evolution of sulphurated 
 hydrogen takes place, &c. 
 
286 
 
 MESENTERY. 
 
 The mesentery is a membranous production, formed of 
 two laminae of peritoneum ; between which are a quantity of 
 cellular or adipose membrane, numerous glands, lacteals, 
 lymphatics, arteries, veins, and nerves. 
 
 DIVISION. It is distinguished into, mesentery, which ad- 
 heres to the three superior lumbar vertebrae, and has the 
 small intestines hanging to it ; mesocolon, which supports 
 the colon ; and mesorectum y a portion in the pelvis, inclos- 
 ing the rectum. 
 
 ARTERIES. The mesenteric arteries are branches of the 
 aorta ; they pass within the duplicature of the mesentery to 
 the intestines. 
 
 VEINS. The veins accompany the smaller ramifications, 
 but convey their blood into the vena portae. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of the mesentery are from the par 
 vagum and great intercostals ; they form a number of 
 plexuses, which send off twigs to the intestines. 
 
 GLANDS. The glands are very numerous : the lacteals 
 proceed from the intestines into these glands, and from 
 them to the thoracic duct. 
 
 USE. The use of the mesentery is to sustain the intes- 
 tines and afford them a peritoneal coat, and to give a pas 
 sage to the mesenteric vessels, lacteals, and nerves. 
 
 DISEASES. Inflammation of its laminae, called peritonitis 
 mesenterii thickening of the laminae of the mesentery in- 
 flammation of the mesenteric glands, called mesentcntis 
 abscess scirrhus scrofulous enlargement cancer an 
 earthy deposit in the glands ossification emphysema, or 
 air in the mesentery anasarca of the mesentery aneurism 
 
287 
 
 of the mesenterie artery hydatids adhering to the mesen- 
 tery a puckering or contraction of the mesentery. 
 
 LIVER. 
 
 The liver is the largest of all the abdominal viscera; It 
 is of a deep red colour, and situated in the right hypochon- 
 driac region, and somewhat in the epigastric, hanging by 
 its ligaments from the diaphragm. 
 
 The liver is convex above and concave below : it is ex- 
 tremely broad superiorly, but gradually becomes thinner in- 
 feriorly, and ends in a thin margin. Its surfaces are smooth, 
 being covered by the peritoneum, which forms its several 
 ligaments, viz. two which are attached to the diaphragm, 
 and are termed lateral; in the middle of its lower and an- 
 terior margin is a round ligament adhering to the navel, 
 through which the umbilical vein, &c. of the foetus passes : 
 between the round ligament and the diaphragm is another, 
 called the suspensory ligament, which adheres to the perito- 
 neum of the anterior part of the abdomen. 
 
 DIVISION. Into three lobes, one of which is very large, 
 the other smaller, and a third, which is very small, and 
 called after its describer, Spigelian, or lobulus Spigelii. There 
 are also two other lobes described by some anatomists, viz. 
 the lobulus caudatus, which is only a projection at the root 
 of the lobulus Spigelii ; and the lobulus attonymus, of a 
 square shape, placed between the passage of Ac round li- 
 gament, and the gall-bladder. 
 
 FISSURES. The fossa umbilicalis, between the right and 
 left lobes ; the sinus portarum, or sulcus transversus, where 
 the vessels of the liver enter. The fossa ductus venosi, situ- 
 atd between the left lobe and lobulus Spigelii, and the fos *a 
 
288 
 
 for the inferior cava between the great lobe and lobulus 
 Spigelii. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. The liver is a gland composed of arteries, 
 veins, nerves, lymphatics, and excretory ducts, united toge- 
 ther by a particular substance : there is also an appendage 
 on the concave surface of the liver, called the gall-bladder. 
 
 The artery of the liver is the hepatic, which nourishes 
 it : the blood it conveys does not appear to contribute any 
 thing towards the formation of bile. It is returned into the 
 venae cavae hepaticae. 
 
 The vena porta is a large vein which conveys the blood 
 from the spleen, mesentery, and stomach, into the liver. 
 As it enters the liver, it receives a strong tunic, which is 
 termed the capsule of Glysson : it then divides into innu- 
 merable branches, which, at their very minute ends, form 
 an immense number of vessels, arranged like the hairs of 
 a pencil brush, and hence called PENICILLI. These penicilli 
 constitute the glandular fabric and bulk of the liver. From 
 each penicillus arises a small duct which runs to a larger ; 
 this again unites with others, till at length they form vessels 
 of a considerable %ize, which ultimately end in one duct. 
 The smaller ducts are termed pori biliarii, and its trunk duc- 
 tus hepaticus. The small branches of the vena portac open 
 also into corresponding veins, which gradually become 
 larger, and return the blood into the vena cava at the supe 
 rior part of the liver*, these are called vena cavce hepatica. 
 
 From this description of the substance of the liver, the 
 physiology of its functions may be explained. The liver is 
 destined to separate bile from the blood. The blood is 
 brought for this purpose by three large venal trunks from the 
 stomach, omentum, spleen, large and small intestines, which 
 three trunks become one; the vena portae, which conveys 
 
289 
 
 Ae blood to its penicillated ends, which penicilli,or glands, 
 separate bile from it; and the bile passes into the begin- 
 nings of the pori biliarii, and along them into the ductus 
 hepaticus. The blood which is not wanted for this purpose, 
 and that from which bile has been separated, then passes 
 into the venae cavae hepatic ; so that the vena portae takes 
 on the action and function of an artery, and, like an artery, 
 its branches gradually become smaller. 
 
 Thejierves of the liver are very numerous, arise from the 
 hepatic plexus, and go into the substance of the liver with 
 the hepatic artery. 
 
 The absorbents of the liver are superficial and deep- 
 seated ; the former are always seen very beautifully arbo- 
 rescent on the peritoneal coat ; they pass through the dia- 
 phragm, and over the gall-bladder to the thoracic duct. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation of the peritoneal 
 oat- general adhesions partial conversion into cartilage 
 ossification abscess between the peritoneum of the liver 
 and integuments inflammation of the liver, called hepa- 
 Mw abscess mortification tubercles of several kind* 
 morbid flaccidity morbid firmness general contraction 
 hydatids cysts containing calcareous matter worms ia 
 She pori biliarii. 
 
 GALL-BLADDER. 
 
 Aa oblong membranous receptacle, situated under the 
 liver, to which it adheres very firmly in the right hypo- 
 chondrium. 
 
 DIVISION. It is divided into bottom, body, and neck, 
 which terminates in the ductus cysticus. 
 
 The ductus cysticus arises from the gall-bladder, proceeds 
 towards the duodenum, and unites with the ductus kepaticui, 
 
290 
 
 to form ihe ductns communu choledochvs, which perforates 
 the duodenum, and conveys the bile into the intestines. 
 
 Any cause obstructing the flow of bile through this duct 
 gives rise to jaundice. *."> 
 
 STRUCTURE. The gall-bladder is composed of three 
 membranes, a common, fibrous or muscular, and villous. 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the gall-bladder are branches 
 of the hepatic. 
 
 VEINS. These empty themselves into the vena port*. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The absorbents of the gall-bladder are very 
 numerous, and run into glands near the duodenum. Those 
 of the under surface of the liver pass over the gall-bladder. 
 
 NERVES, from the eighth pair and intercostals. 
 
 GLANDS, muciparous, and are placed under the internal 
 coat. 
 
 USE. To retain the gall, which regurgitates Jrom the 
 hepatic duct, there to become thicker, more bitter, and 
 acrid, and to expel it, when wanted, into the duodenum. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation adhesions 
 scirrhus ossification morbidly transparent morbidly 
 thickened gall-stones hydatids stricture of the ducts- 
 pouch in the gall-bladder. 
 
 SPLEEN. 
 
 A spongy, somewhat oblong viscus, of a blueish red co- 
 lour, situated in the left hypochondrjum, near the fundus 
 of the stomach, under the ribs. 
 
 CONNEXION. It adheres to the omentum, diaphragm, 
 pancreas, and colon. 
 
 ARTERY. The splenic artery is a branch of the coeliac. 
 
 VEINS. The veins of the spleen empty themselves into 
 the rena portee. 
 
291 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The lymphatics of the spleen are d*ep. 
 seated and superficial, but are rarely seen. 
 
 NERVES, from the par vagum and great intercostal* 
 USE, unknown. 
 
 PANCREAS. 
 
 A glandular body, of a long figure, compared to a dog's 
 tongue, situated in the epigastric region, under the stomach. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It is composed of innumerable small 
 glands, the excretory ducts of which unite and form the 
 pancreatic duct. 
 
 Its external membrane is from the mesucolon. 
 
 ARTERIES,, from the neighbouring parts and splenic 
 artery. 
 
 VEINS, evacuate themselves into the splenic. 
 
 The pancreatic duct perforates the duodenum with the 
 ductus communis choledochus, and conveys its secretion 
 into the intestines. 
 
 USE. To secrete a humour similar to saliva, and carry 
 it into the duodenum. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation morbid soft- 
 ness morbid hardness abscess calculi of the pancreas 
 worms pancreas wanting. 
 
 tACTEAL VESSELS. 
 
 The absorbent vessels of the mesentery, which convey 
 the chyle, a milk-like fluid, from the intestines into the 
 thoracic duct. 
 
 They originate from the surface of the duodenum, jeju- 
 num, and ileum, and terminate in the thoracic duct, or 
 o % 
 
292 
 
 trunk of the absorbents, which runs near the aorta on the 
 spine, and empties its contents into the jugular vein. i 
 
 As they run through the mesentery, they pass through 
 a number of glands, in which the chyle is altered, aud then 
 proceed to their trunk. 
 
 USE. To carry the chyle from the intestines into the 
 blood. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Lacteals distended with in- 
 spissated chyle rupture of the lacteals. 
 
 KIDNEYS. 
 
 Two somewhat oral viscera, situated behind the sac of 
 the peritoneum, near the bodies of the superior lumbar ver- 
 tebrae, which secrete the uriue. 
 
 DIVISION. Into three kinds of substances : a twtieal, 
 which is external and very vascular; apapilknis, which ends 
 in several papilla or nipples in the pelvis ; a tubular, which 
 goes from the cortical to the papillous substance : each pa- 
 pilla is surrounded by a membranous tube, termed infwndi- 
 bulum, or calix: these unite and form a hollow part called 
 the peliis of the kidney, lined by a smooth membrane; this 
 cavity gives off the ureter. 
 
 INTEGUMENTS. Adipose membrane, and a membraaa 
 propria. 
 
 ARTERIES. The renal arteries, or emulgents, are branches 
 of the aorta descendens ; they ramify very beautifully in the 
 substance of the kidney, and terminate in CRYPTJE, or com- 
 volutions of the artery upon itself. 
 
 VEINS. The veins empty themselves into the cara in- 
 ferior. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of the kidneys are branches of the 
 eighth pair and intercostal. 
 
293 
 
 The excretory ducts of the kidneys are called the URE- 
 TERS ; they are the tubes which convey the urine from the 
 kidneys into the bladder, and originate from the pelvis of 
 tfce kidney, which is sometimes called also the pelvis of the 
 ureter. 
 
 USE. ' To secrete urine, and convey it to the bladder. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation abscess gan- 
 grene morbid softness scirrhus hydatids converted 
 into an earthy matter calculi in the pelvis of the ureter 
 ossification total destruction of the kidney by enlarge- 
 ment of the pelvis of its ureter ulcerated surface of the 
 pelvis of the kidney kidney converted into cysts, or hy- 
 datids. 
 
 EXCRETION OF THE URINE. 
 
 The urine is separated from the blood by the extremities 
 of the renal arteries, or crypte, which open in the substance 
 of the kidney into the tubuli uriniferi, from whence it is re- 
 ceived into the pelvis of the ureter, and passes along the 
 ureter into the urinary bladder guttatim, where it usually 
 remains a few hours, in consequence of the sphincter of the 
 bladder being: contracted. It is prevented- returning into 
 the ureters by their entrance being oblique and valvular. 
 Although the urine may be accumulated in the bladder, so 
 as to press on the inferior parts of the ureters, yet the force 
 ib not sufficient to prevent the further distention : for the 
 column of fluid descending through the ureters, is higher 
 than that contained in the bladder. 
 
 .During the retention of the urine in the bladder, it be- 
 comes thicker, and of a higher colour, from the absorption 
 of its more fluid parts. The urine remains a longer cr 
 Shorter time in the bladder, in proportion to its capacity, 
 o 3 
 
294- 
 
 irritability, and extensibility ; influenced also by tbe varied 
 stimulant properties, that the urine may contain. The 
 urine having remained a few hours in the bladder, excites 
 desire to void it, by which stimulus the sphincter becomes 
 relaxed, the muscular structure of the bladder contracts, 
 and hy the assistance of the abdominal muscles, and the 
 ftcceleratores urinae, the urine is propelled along the ure- 
 thra. 
 
 SUPRA-RENAL GLANDS. 
 
 Renal capsules. Renal glands* 
 
 Two triangular fiat bodies, situated one above each 
 ^idney. 
 
 They are covered by a proper membrane, and anteriorly 
 by the peritoneum. In a healthy state, they have a small 
 cavity, in which there is a brownish fluid. They are plen- 
 tifully supplied with arteries from the diaphragm, aorta, and 
 renal arteries ; from which circumstance, one would sup- 
 pose they were to answer some purpose in the animal eco- 
 nomy, although unknown. Their veins pass into the cava 
 and renal vein, and their absorbents and nerves are in com- 
 mon with those of the kidneys. No excretory duct has yet 
 been.. detected, nor is their use known. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The supra-renal glands are 
 frequently found containing a black aqueous fluid inflamed 
 enlarged filled with scrofulous abscesses converted 
 into a spongy substance, whose cells are distended with an 
 aqueous fluid, containing small calculi of various forms aad 
 colour. 
 
295 
 
 PELVIS. 
 
 The pelvis is a cavity below the abdomen, and under 
 the pubes, containing the urinary bladder, rectum, and- 
 organs of generation. 
 
 VESICA URINARIA. 
 
 The urinary bladder is a membranous sac iu the pelvis 
 without the peritoneum, which in part gives it a coat, or 
 tunic. It is situated, in men, between the pubes and rec- 
 tum ; in women, between the pubes and uterus, being fixed 
 at its anterior and inferior part, to the arch of the pubes, by 
 its neck, and the urethra. 
 
 DIVISION. Anatomists divide the urinary bladder into a 
 fundus, which is loose in the abdomen, and, when the blad- 
 der is distended, reaches the navel, and even the stomach j. 
 a neck, before which the prostate gland is placed in men ; 
 and a body, or that part composing the chief bulk of the 
 bladder, distinguished by an-anterior and posterior part and- 
 sides. 
 
 The anterior half of this dilatable base is connected in- 
 feriorly, in man, to the rectum^ and in women, to the ute- 
 rus ; its middle part to the bones of the pelvis, by means of 
 cellular membrane and muscular fibres ; and its superior 
 part is attached loosely to the muscles of the abdomen* 
 There is also a round ligament, which proceeds from the 
 middle of the fundus of the bladder, between the perito- 
 neum and linea alba, to the umbilicus, which is called the 
 uracfyus.. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It.is compo&ed of three membranes, like the 
 intestines, one peritoneal, a muscular coat, and a villous. 
 o 4 
 
296 
 
 ARTERIES. Its arteries are branches of the hypogastrie 
 *nd haemorrhoidal. 
 
 VEINS. The veins empty themselves into the hypogastrie. 
 
 NERVES. The nerves of the bladder are branches from 
 the intercostal and sacral nerves. 
 
 Its internal surface is lubricated by mucus separated 
 from muciparous glands uuder its internal coat. 
 
 USE. The use of the bladder is to receive, retain, and 
 expel the urine brought into it by the ureters, which perfo- 
 rate its inferior part, near the neck of the bladder. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation scirrhus can- 
 cer gangrene ulceration fungous and cancerous excres- 
 cencespolypuspuckering of the internal membrane 
 muscular fibres, concentrated into bundles morbid con- 
 tractionpouches of the bladder calculi of various kinds 
 in the bladder enlarged openings of the ureters hydatids 
 in the bladder ascarides in the bladder. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Lithotomy puncturing the bladder in 
 suppression of urine passing the catheter into the bladder 
 vesica? lotura. 
 
 THE MAJLE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 
 These are, the penis, testicles, and vesiculse seminales. 
 
 PENIS. 
 
 The penis, called also membrum virile, or yard, is that 
 cylindrical part which hangs down under the mons Veneris, 
 before the scrotum. 
 
 DIVISION. It is divided into root, body, and head, called 
 giant. 
 
297 
 
 i V / 
 
 The hairy prominence which covers the pubes, is called 
 MONS VENERIS. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. The penis consists of common integuments, 
 two corpora travernosa, the corpus spongiosum urethrae, and 
 the urethra. 
 
 1. The CORPORA CAVERNOSA, which form the chief bulk 
 of the penis, are composed of a cellular and very elastic 
 eubstance, and arise by two crura, one from each ascending 
 ramus of the ischium. At their origin, they are firmly at- 
 tached to the bone by a dense cellular membrane; they 
 then converge towards the pubis, where they are also firmly 
 connected to the symphysis by a dense cellular membrane. 
 About this place, they meet their elastic ligamentous sub- 
 stance together, and, in consequence of several perforations 
 in this ligament um pectinatum, adhere: and there is a free 
 communication between the cells of one corpus cavernosum 
 and those of the other : thus adhering together, they form 
 the greater part of the penis, and end abruptly behind the 
 ivrona gfandis. The corpora cavernosa, being each some- 
 what round, and lying together in the penis, a considerable 
 excavation is left above and below; in the former the great 
 vein of th penis passes, and in the latter the corpus spon- 
 giosum urethra-.. 
 
 2. The CORPUS SPONGIOSUM begins before the prostate 
 gland, and surrounds the urethra. At its beginning, it 
 forms the bulbous part of the urethra, and then proceeds 
 forwards in the space between the two corpora cavernosa on 
 the under surface, and is expanded at the extremity of the 
 penis into a very vascular substance, called CLANS PENIS, 
 naturally covered by a fold of the skitt, called the prepuce, 
 which, at the under part of the glans, is fixed to it by a 
 frtenum. 
 
 o 5 
 
298 
 
 3. The URETHRA is a membranous canal, which proceeds 
 from the bladder, through the prostate gland and the cor- 
 pus spongiosum urethrae; and at the end of the glans penis 
 its internal membrane is reflected over the glans, forming 
 the meatus, or opening in the glans. The urethra is endowed 
 with a high degree of sensibility and contractility. 
 
 In the urethra are to be observed, 
 
 1 . The verumcmtanum, or caput gallinaginis, a cutaneous 
 eminence in the urethra, about an inch before the neck of 
 the bladder. 
 
 2. The openings of the ejaculatory ducts around the ca- 
 pnt galliuaginis. 
 
 3. The opening of the ducts of the prostate and Cowper's 
 glands. 
 
 4. The lacuna or openings of the ducts of the mucous 
 glands of the urethra. 
 
 GLANDS. Muciparous odoriferous Cowper's glands 
 and the prostate. (See Adenology.} 
 
 ARTERIES. The penis is supplied with blood by the pu- 
 dical artery, which is continued to the symphysis of the 
 pubis, where it pierces the cavernous substance : it divides 
 into several branches, one going to the bulb of the urethra, 
 another along the dorsum of the penis, and two branches 
 enter the cells of the corpora cavemosa. 
 
 VEINS. The blood of the penis is returned by a large 
 vein, called the vena magna ipsms penis, which conveys it to 
 the hypogastric vein. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The lymphatics of this organ ate deep- 
 seated and superficial. The superficial arise from the pre- 
 puce in three divisions : one on the right side of the fraenum, 
 another on the left, and a third directly on the middle of the 
 superior side. Those from the under side make a semicir- 
 4 
 
299 
 
 enlar turn from the under to the upper side of the penis, 
 whilst that on the superior side of the prepuce runs on the 
 middle of the back of the penis, exactly in the direction of 
 the symphysis pubis. At a little distance from the pubis 
 the three divisions unite into one common trunk, which al- 
 most immediately separates again into two; one going to 
 the right groin, accompanies the veins going to the inguinal 
 vein, and terminates near it, in those inguinal glands which 
 are nearest the symphysis pubis. The other trunk goes to 
 the left groin, and terminates exactly in the same manner 
 as the former. The deep-seated lymphatics accompany th 
 arteries, and pass with them on the inside of the tuberosi- 
 ties of the ischia, or under the angle of the pubis. 
 
 NERVES. Branches of the sacral and ischiatic. Those 
 distributed on the integuments and body of the penis, are 
 for common sensation : those which go to the glans penis 
 are for the peculiar sense of that part. 
 
 USE. The use of the penis is for erection, coition, effu- 
 sion of semen, and of urine. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation ulceration, 
 which, when caused by the venereal virus, is called a chancre 
 abscess gangrene phymosis paraphymosis elephan- 
 tiasis varix anasarca cancer warts, or excrescences, 
 from venereal or other causes original mal-formatiou. 
 
 Urethra. Gonorrhrea leucorrhoea enlarged lacunae 
 stricture, which is either a general contraction for a greater 
 or less space; or a constriction, like as if a piece of pack- 
 thread were tied round the urethra ; or a fine pellicle, or a 
 caruncle an artificial urethra fistula no meatus urina- 
 rius urethra converted into bone. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Amputation circumcision dividing the 
 prepuce in phymosis and paraphymosis opening concreted 
 o 6 
 
300 
 
 lips of the meatus urinarius passing a bougie catheterism 
 application of caustic bougies removing excrescences. 
 
 TESTES. 
 
 The testicles are two oval bodies, situated originally 
 within the cavity of the abdomen, from which they descend 
 before birth, or soon after, into a bag, called the scrotum, 
 placed under the root of the penis. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. The adult testicle is composed of arteries, 
 veins, and a peculiar set of vessels, which arise from the 
 minute termination of the arteries. This peculiar set of 
 vessels are 
 
 i . The vasa recta, which are found in the substance of 
 the testicle, arising from the minute ramifications of the 
 &permatio arteries. At the top of the testicle, the straight 
 vessels, which are the commencement of the excretory ducts, 
 just as the biliary pores are of the ductus hepaticus, inoscu- 
 late with one another, and form, 
 
 z. The rete vasculosum testis. This plexus of vessels sends 
 off, at the superior part of the testicle, 
 
 3. The vasa efferentia , which are ten, or more, in number. 
 They pass from the body of the testicle, form conical bundles, 
 ter/med coni vasculosi; these soon uniting into one trunk, 
 called vas deferens, form, by an immense number of convo- 
 lutions, a somewhat hard substance, called the epididymis. 
 
 EPIDIDYMIS. This is somewhat pyramidal, having a thin 
 convex head, and a flat, thin, extremity; it is formed merely 
 of a convolution of the vas defereus, or excretory duct of 
 the testicle. 
 
 VAS DEFERENS. This long, but small duct, is formed of 
 a cartilaginous substance ; its cavity is not sufficiently large 
 
301 
 
 to admit a small pin. It passes upwards from the end of the 
 epididymis, iu a zig-zag manner, by the side of the pubes, 
 where it is no longer convoluted, but proceeds straight into 
 the cavity of the pelvis to the vesiculae serninales. 
 
 COVERINGS. The testicle has a strong, white, dense 
 tunic, intimately connected to it ; this is called the tunica 
 aibuginea testis. It completely encompasses the body of the 
 testicle, and is extended over the epididymis. 
 
 The next tunic of the testicle is call tunica vaginafo. 
 Anatomists consider it as a production of the peritoneum ; 
 but this opinion does not appear to be well founded. It is 
 a delicate membranous bag, connected externally, by cel- 
 lular structure, to the dartos ; and the testicle, with its tu- 
 nica propria, or aibuginea, adheres firmly to its outside, 
 pushing itself, as it were, into it, in the same way as the 
 heart into the pericardium, the lungs into the pleura, &c. 
 so that, when the tunica vaginalis is opened, the testicle is 
 seen within it. 
 
 The dartos has already been described hi Myology. 
 
 These coverings of the testicle are surrounded by a very 
 elastic cellular membrane and common integuments, to 
 which the name of scrotum is given. 
 
 ARTERIES. The spermatic arteries, formerly termed vasa 
 prtfparantia, are two in number, and arise one from each 
 side from the aorta, near the emulgents, .and sometimes 
 from the emulgeut, especially on the right side. The reason 
 of the origin of these arteries being so remote from the tes- 
 ticles in the adult, will appear from considering that these 
 organs were before birth within the cavity of the abdomen. 
 When the spermatic artery reaches the abdominal ring, it 
 r surrounded by the vas deferens, the spermatic veins, and 
 
302' 
 
 a quantity of cellular membrane; all these together are 
 called the spermatic cord, which passes through the ring. 
 
 VEINS. The blood of the spermatic arteries is returned 
 by a number of small venal branches from the testicles, 
 which enlarge as they pass up the cord. Having passed 
 through the abdominal ring, they form a plexus around 
 the spermatic artery, to which the term corpus pampiniforme 
 is given. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The lymphatics are distinguished into 
 those of the integuments, those of the body of each testicle, 
 those of the rete testis, and those of the epididymis ; all of 
 which proceed along the cord. 
 
 NERVES. The renal plexus of nerves sends off several 
 branches to the testicles, as do also the mesenteric plexus, 
 and the great intercostal, all of which accompany the sper- 
 matic artery. The scrotum is supplied by branches from 
 the third and fourth lumbar nerves. 
 
 DESCENT OF THE TESTICLE. The testicles are always ori- 
 ginally situated within the cavity of the abdomen. About 
 the seventh month they generally leave that cavity, and 
 pass through the abdominal ring into the scrotum. There 
 is, however, great variety in the time of their descent, and 
 cases are recorded, wherein they did not appear during the 
 whole course of the person's life. When in the cavity of the 
 abdomen, each testicle is connected to the scrotum by a 
 ligamentous substance, and there is a small pyramidal body 
 at its beginning, close to the testicle, which, from its ap- 
 pearing to direct the course of the testicle, is called guber- 
 naculum testis. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, which is termed 
 orchitis, or hernia hunwralis suppuration gangrene scir- 
 rhus scrofulous enlargement pulpy cancer converted 
 
303 
 
 into cartilage ossified small and wasted hydrocele Juf- 
 matocele fmeumatocele cavity of the tunica vaginalis obli- 
 teratedfilled with hydatids the epididymis ending in a 
 cul de sac scrofulous thickening scrofulous tumour 
 stricture the spermatic veins varicose, called varicocele 
 the spermatic cord hardened anasarcous containing large 
 cysts of water cancer of the scrotum, peculiar to chim- 
 ney-sweepers. 
 
 SECRETION AND EXCRETION OF THE SEMEN. 
 
 The semen is secreted by the minute branches of the 
 spermatic arteries, that deposit it into corresponding semi- 
 nal vessels, called vasa recta, which compose the greater 
 part of the body of the testicle. The semen is the proper 
 stimulus to these vessels, which are therefore stimulated to 
 contract, and, by a very slow motion, convey it into the 
 vasa efferentia, which terminate in the epididymis. The vas 
 deferens carries it through the inguinal ring into the pelvis, 
 to be deposited m the vesiculae semiuales, where it excites 
 a desire to emit it. 
 
 The cells of the corpora cavernosa penis, the corpus 
 spongiosum, and glaus penis, are distended with blood by 
 the venereal stimulus ; hence the penis swells, and is in- 
 clined for coition ; during which action, at the time of the 
 oestrum venereitm, the vesiculae seminales contract, and the 
 semen is thrown, with an immense force, through the eja- 
 culatory ducts, opening into the urethra, where it is mixed 
 with the secretion from the prostate gland, which is expelled 
 at the same moment, and passes with it along the urethra, to 
 be propelled by the contraction of the ejaculatory muscles 
 into the cavity of the uterus. 
 
so* 
 
 VESICUL.E SEMINALES. 
 
 Two whitish membranous receptacles, situated on the 
 back part of the bladder, close to its neck, which receive 
 and contain the semen from the vasa deferentia. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. Membranous, and resembling in their struc- 
 ture an intestine variously contorted, and covered with a 
 fibrous substance. Eacli vesicula seminalis sends forth a 
 duct, which passes through the prostate gland, and are 
 called the ejaculatory ducts; they are some lines long, and 
 enter the cavity of the urethra by a peculiar orifice at the 
 top of the verumoutanum. 
 
 VESSELS and NERVES. From the neighbouring parts. 
 
 ABSORBENT VESSELS. These arise from the vesiculae semi- 
 naks, and run to the lymphatic glands about the loins. > 
 
 USE. To contain, retain, inspissate, and expel the se- 
 men into the urethra. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Morbid adhesions to neigh- 
 bouring parts wholly converted into a scrofulous sub- 
 stance ejaculatory ducts obliterated one wanting seir- 
 rhus cancer morbid enlargement of the cells contain- 
 ing a diseased fluid. 
 
 THE ORGANS OF GENERATION IN WOMEN. 
 
 The parts which serve for generation in women are di- 
 vided into external and internal. 
 
 The external parts are 
 
 i. The MONS VENERIS. The prominent portion of inte- 
 guments immediately over the ossa pubis. It is formed by 
 
305 
 
 a quantity of fat under the skin ; and, after puberty, is co- 
 vered with a short hair. 
 
 2. The LABIA MAJORA, These are the two external lips, 
 of a soft consistence, and formed of very vascular common 
 integuments. They begin from the symphysis of the pubis, 
 are covered externally with hair, but their internal surface 
 is smooth, and lubricated with the smegma of the odori- 
 ferous glands. The opening between the labia is termed 
 /<WMI magnet, and at the inferior part it is called fossa naii- 
 cuiaris. 
 
 3. The CLITORIS. A small substance, placed just below 
 the origin of, and within, the labia majora. It resembles a 
 penis in miniature, and, like it, is formed of two spongy 
 substances, which arise, by two crura, from the ascending 
 rainus of the ischium. The clitoris is also, like the penis 
 of man, covered with a foreskin. During coition, it is th 
 principal seat of pleasure, and is distended and erected by 
 the venereal stimulus. 
 
 4. The LABIA MINORA, or NYMPHS. These are the two 
 inner folds, placed at the commencement of the vagina ; 
 they begin from the foreskin of the clitoris, enlarging as 
 they pass downwards, and terminate in the under part of 
 the beginning of the vagina. Their structure is highly vas- 
 cular and sensible, and they have a number of sebaceous 
 glands to lubricate them. Their use appears to be, to assist 
 in creating the venereal pleasure, and to direct the urine 
 flowing against them out of the urethra, in such a manner 
 as to prevent it wetting the thighs, 
 
 5. The MEATUS URINARIUS. Which is a small triangular 
 opening, situated immediately under the clitoris, behind the 
 nymphae, and beset with mucous glands. 
 
 6. The HYMEN. This is seldom met with but in children. 
 
306 
 
 in whom it is mostly a semilunar membrane, situated at the 
 entrance of the vagina, behind the meatus urinarius. When 
 once lacerated, it forms several fleshy excrescences, which 
 are called caruncuke myrtiformes. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The labia majora are subject 
 to inflammation abscess gangrene adhesion with each 
 other warts necrosis, or dry gangrene. The clitoris, to 
 enlargement and its prepuce to excrescences* The nympfue 
 are often found elongated scirrhous carcinomatous. The 
 meatus urinttrius is frequently found inflamed fimbriated 
 ulcerated, The hymen, imperforate. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Separating the labia majora extirpating 
 the enlarged clitoris, or nymphae perforating the hymen 
 the mode of introducing the catheter* 
 
 The internal parts of generation are : the vagina, uterus, 
 Fallopian tubes, ovaria, broad and round ligaments of the 
 uterus, and the urethra. 
 
 VAGINA. 
 
 An elastic membranous canal, leading from the nymphae 
 upwards, under the arch of the pubis, between the bladder 
 and rectum, and terminating at the neck of the uterus, which 
 it embraces. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It is composed of three membranes : 
 
 1. Ah epidermis, whieh enters from, without. 
 
 2. A white, thick, elastic membrane, which, in the-vir* 
 gin vagina, forms several transverse rugae, or folds.. 
 
 3. A cellular coat, which is external, and connects it to 
 neighbouring parts, and on which an immense number of 
 
 Enterics are distributed, 
 
 i 
 
 Besides these coats, the vagina has also, especially at its 
 
307 
 
 anterior part, a number of muscular fibres, which surrouad 
 it like a sphincter. In the vagina the following are to be 
 noticed : 
 
 1 . A number of lacuna, which excrete the mucus of the 
 vagina. 
 
 2. In virgins, the hymen, and, where this has been once 
 ruptured, the carunculce myrtiformes, or remains of the hy- 
 men. 
 
 3. The meatus urinarius, immediately under the sym- 
 physis pubis, behind the clitoris. 
 
 4. The vaginal portion of the uterus, or os uteri. 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the vagina are very numerous ; 
 
 they arise from the pudical, forming a net-work around the 
 vagina. The blood is returned into the haemorrhoidal vein. 
 
 When women menstruate during pregnancy, the catamenia 
 are furnished by the vessels about the superior part of 
 the vagina. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. The absorbents of the vagina are very nu- 
 merous ; they tend towards the iliac glands, into which they, 
 convey their contents. 
 
 USE. The vagina embraces the penis in coition, and, by 
 its muscular fibres at its origin, and its elastic membranous 
 substance, accommodates itself to the size of that organ. 
 The catamenia pass from the uterus through the vagina ; as 
 does also the foetus in labour. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Inflammation, or eleutritis 
 abscess gangrene adhesions of its sides common ulcer- 
 ation, scrofulous and cancerous scirrhous tumours mor- 
 bid narrowness very short leucorrhoea gonorrhoea </# 
 trocele prolapsus morbid widening from pessaries, poly- 
 pus, &c. 
 
 OPERATIONS. Application of pessaries puncturing the 
 
508 
 
 wrinary bladder through the vagina dividing morbid aclhe- 
 sions removing enlarged caruneulse myrtiformes perfo- 
 rating the hymen removal of polypi. 
 
 .UTERUS. 
 
 The uterus, or wojnb, js a spongy hollow receptacle, 
 somewhat like a flattened pear, situated in the pelvis, be- 
 tween the urinary bladder and the rectum. 
 
 Anatomists divide the uterus into the vaginal portion, 
 the neck, the body, the fundus, and its appendages. 
 
 The vaginal portion is called the os uteri, and, from its 
 resemblance to the mouth of a tench fish, os tinea; mid- 
 wives usually term it os intemum, giving the name of os ex- 
 ternum to the orifice of the vagina. In virgins it is much 
 less than in those who have borne children ; it consists of ' 
 two labia, and an opening between, which leads to the ca- 
 vity of the uterus. In the internal surface of the os uteri arc 
 situated a number of folds, and occasionally several small 
 vesicles and a quantity of transparent gelatinous mucus. 
 
 The neck of the uterus is also hollow, and contains seve- 
 ral plicae or folds. In some uteri it is longer than in others ; 
 its cavity leads to that of 
 
 The body of the uterus. Children and virgins have the 
 uterus more flattened than others ; it is somewhat of a trU 
 angular shape, having its appendages going from each su- 
 perior angle, whilst the body gradually diminishes towards 
 the os uteri. The cavity in the body of the uterus is also of 
 a triaugular shape: it commences at the os uteri, is nearly 
 of the same diameter all along the neck of the uterus, and 
 enlarges in the body. At each superior angle, the cavity 
 4*f the uterus receives that of the Fallopian tube. The ute* 
 
S09 
 
 TU* is lined by a smooth vascular membrane, whos 
 secrete the menstrual blood. 
 
 STRUCTURE. The portion of the uterus which hangs into 
 t-be cavity of the pelvis, is covered by peritoneum, whilst 
 the vaginal portion receives a tunic from the epidermis, f eon- 
 tinued from the vagina. The body of the uterus is composed 
 of peculiar fibres, blood-vessels, absorbents, and nerver. 
 These fibres do not appear, in an unimpregnated uterus, to 
 be of the same nature, as those of the impregnated uterus. 
 
 VESSELS. The arteines of the uterus are the spermatic 
 and uterine, which are branches of the internal iiiac. The 
 t **m accompanying the arteries, return the blood into th 
 external haemorrhoidal, internal iliac, and spermatic veins. 
 The nerves of the uterus are branches of the sacral and 
 great sciatic nerve ; it also has branches from the meso- 
 eolic plexus. The absorbents are rarely seen; yet they are 
 numerous, and proceed to the iliac glands. 
 
 APPENDAGES OF THE UTERUS. Under this term are com- 
 prehended the round and broad ligaments, the Fallopiaa 
 tnbes, and the ovaries. 
 
 i. Round ligaments. These are two vascular ligaments, 
 about the size of a goose-quill, which arise one from each 
 side of the uterus, near its fundus, and somewhat on its aa- 
 terior surface, and proceed obliquely outwards and dow- 
 wards to the ring of the external oblique muscle, which 
 they pass through, and are lost in the fat about the lab;a 
 major*. 
 
 Relaxation of these ligaments allows the uterus to descend 
 into the vagina ; and, in many instances, this relaxa- 
 tion is so great as to suffer the uterus to be wholly 
 without the os externum. 
 
 j. The Fallopian tubes. These are also termed uttriae 
 
3 It) 
 
 tubes : they go one from each superior angle cf th uterus 
 directly across the pelvis, for the space of four inches, co- 
 rered by the peritoneum, and terminate by a fringed body, 
 the fimbria, which float in the cavity of the pelvis. The sub- 
 stance of the Fallopian tube is of a muscular nature, by 
 which means it has a peristaltic motion. In the middle of 
 the fimbriac is the opening of the tube; so that if air were 
 blown into the cavity of the vagina, it would pass into the 
 rarity of the uterus, then along the Fallopian tubes into the 
 cavity of the abdomen. 
 
 3. The broad ligaments, which consist of a duplicature of 
 the peritoneum passing over the tubes and ovaria, and go- 
 ing in form of a broad expansion to the sides of the pelvis ; 
 so that the peritoneum of the upper and under surfaces of 
 the uterus meeting at the sides, goes across the pelvis to its 
 side, forming what is called the broad ligaments : in this 
 passage it envelopes the tubes, ovaria, and blood-vessels. 
 
 4. The ovaria. Two oblong atod rather flattened bodies, 
 hanging in the duplicature of the peritoneum, at the sides of 
 the uterus, about two inches from it, and behind the broad 
 ligaments. Under the peritoneal coat of the ovarium is its 
 proper substance, which is subcartilaginous. An adult vir- 
 gin ovarium contains a number of highly vascular vesicles, 
 filled with a transparent fluid ; these are ovula, and were 
 first accurately described by De Graaf. Besides these ve- 
 sicles, there are occasionally two or more blackish spots ; 
 these are called corpora lutea , they were supposed to be * 
 certain criterion of the woman's having borne a child ; but 
 this is erroneous, for corpora lutea exist in virgins. 
 
 USE. The uterus and its appendages are for the purposes 
 of generation, and the perfection of the young. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. Uterus. Inflammation, called 
 
311 
 
 metritis and hysteritis scirrhus cancer gangrene tu- 
 bercles morbidly distended, with coagulated lymph of a 
 laminated structure ; with a fluid, called hy drops uteri 
 polypus inversion retroversion stricture of the cavity 
 converted into bony and earthy matter a mass of bone in 
 the cavity of the uterus calculi of the uterus ascarides in 
 the uterus hydatids ruptures of the uterus two uteri 
 no uterus. 
 
 faaria. Inflammation of the peritoneal coat, called pe~ 
 ritonitis ovarii ; of the substance of the ovarium ; of its ve- 
 sicles, or ovula scirrhus abscess gangrene the tunic of 
 the vesicles converted into a black membrane coagulated 
 blood in the vesicles an increase of fluid in the vesicles, 
 called hi/drops ovariitiie ovaria converted into a fatty sub- 
 stance, with hair and teeth a foetus in the ovarium a 
 morbid shrinking of the ovaria an ovarium wanting cor- 
 pora lutea, which may be distinguished into the true and spu* 
 rious: the former are yellow portions hi the ovaria, harder 
 than the surrounding parts, and which are formed by the 
 collapsing of the cavity from which an impregnated ovum 
 has escaped into the Fallopian tube. The spurious corpora 
 lutea are very similar to the former, and are found in vir- 
 gins, but never before the age of puberty ; they arise either 
 from a mature ovum having ruptured, which it is presumed 
 now and then happens to lascivious women, or from some 
 diseased action of the vessels of the ovum : these are fre- 
 quently found in the ovaria of women of the town. 
 
 Fallopian tubes. Inflammation of the tube and its fim- 
 briae adhesions to neighbouring parts hydatids adhering 
 dropsy ending in a cul de sac, the fimbriae being want- 
 inga foetus in the Fallopian tube cirrhous tumours 
 growing to the tube a tube wanting. 
 
512 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF MENSTRUATION. 
 
 By a law of nature, women menstruate in this climate 
 from about the age of fifteen to forty-five. Menstruation is 
 the efflux of a sanguineous fluid from secreting vessels 
 opening into the cavity of the uterus. During pregnancy, 
 and suckling, the catainenia, or menses, for so the discharge 
 is called, stop, except in some few instances, where it is 
 supplied by the vessels of the vagina. 
 
 Menstrual blood, if women be healthy, differs from other 
 blood in its not coagulating, which some have supposed 
 may be caused by its slow exit, and its mixture with the se- 
 twetions of the uterus and vagina. It differs, also, in quan- 
 tity, the period of its first appearance, its duration, and the 
 symptoms which precede and accompany it, according to 
 the age, temperament, habit of body, climate, season of 
 the year, mode of living, and other circumstances. 
 
 Women are said to be most susceptible of the action of 
 tbe vivifying principle of the semen virile during the period 
 of menstruation. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OP CONCEPTION. 
 
 The congress between man and woman is called coitioa. 
 
 'During coition the nymphae and clitoris are tumid with 
 blood, and the fimbria of the Fallopian tubes, by a power 
 inherent in them, are stretched out, and applied over the 
 surface of an ovum in the ovarium. 
 
 The pleasure which women experience during coition ifi 
 rery great, and a quantity of mucus is .suddenly emitted 
 from the glands of the ragina, during the venereal orgasm, 
 
313 
 
 which, in former times, was erroneously supposed to be the 
 semen of the female ; but now it is the opinion of physio- 
 logists that women have no semen, as anatomy cannot de- 
 tect any organ destined to secrete it. During the venereal 
 orgasm, the uterus is supposed to attract the semen by a 
 sort of aspiration, and contract to retain it. 
 
 In order that a woman may conceive, it is requisite 
 
 1. That she shall have menstruated. 
 
 2. That the ovum in the ovarium shall have arrived at a 
 state of maturity. 
 
 3. That the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube shall be 
 stretched over the mature ovum, so as to let the cavity of the 
 Fallopian tube come immediately over it. 
 
 Under these circumstances, if healthy male semen be 
 emitted into the uterus in the act of coition, its vivifying 
 part, which is extremely subtile, and called the auraseminis, 
 flies through the cavity of the uterus along the Fallopian 
 tube to the mature ovum, and imparts to it a principle by 
 which it is animated ; from this moment it acquires an ac- 
 tion of its own, which is independent of that of the mo- 
 ther, by which it begins to circulate its fluids. The 
 ovum, thus vivified, enlarges and ruptures the slender 
 peritoneal covering of the ovarium, in which it was enclos- 
 ed. At the time of its rupturing, the fimbrise of the Fallo- 
 pian tube embrace it, and it is rolled, by the peristaltic 
 motion of the latter, into the cavity of the uterus, there to 
 be perfected, and at the expiration of nine months to be 
 sent into the world. 
 
514 
 
 UTERUS. 
 
 When the vivified ovuluni reaches the uterus, it 
 becomes covered with flocculent branches; it then increases 
 in size, and sooner or later, ihefloccute attach themselves 
 to a part of the uterus, and form the placenta. As the 
 ovum increases in size, the uterus enlarges; but, for the 
 first three months, it retains nearly its triangular form, and 
 very little change takes places in the os tincae. The ute- 
 rus now, by gradations, becomes round as it increases, and 
 .about the end of the fourth month the mother becomes 
 sensible of the child's movements, the first perception of 
 which is called quickening; the uterus gradually ascends 
 through the pelvis, and may be felt above the pubes, ex- 
 tending nearly half way between the pubes and umbili- 
 cus ; the neck of the uterus extends, the os tincae expands, 
 but is closed by a viscid gelatinous fluid ; about the se- 
 venth month, the fundus uteri reaches the umbilicus ; at 
 the eighth, halfway between it and the scrobiculus cordis ; 
 and at the ninth, to the scrobiculus cordis. At this period, 
 the cervix uteri becomes distended, the os tincae elongated; 
 and the uterus itself assumes a pyriform shape, occupies 
 all the umbilical and hypogastric regions, and contains the 
 uterine placenta, the umbilical cord, the membranous ovum 
 of the foetus, the liquor amnii, and the foetus. 
 
 UTERINE PLACENTA. 
 
 A spongy mass, like a cake, generally adhering to the 
 fundus of the gravid uterus, composed of a net-work of 
 very numerous vessels. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. Cellular, like a sponge, and filled with 
 vessels. 
 
315 
 
 ARTERIES. The arteries of the placenta are small, and 
 branches of the two umbilical ; they ramify over the pla- 
 centa, and plunge into its substance, returning the blood 
 from the foetus, to be taken up by the veins of the uterus. 
 
 VEINS. The umbilical vein ramifies very largely and 
 beautifully over the placenta, and terminates in an immense 
 number of smaller branches, which compose the greater 
 part of its substance : these small branches receive the 
 blood from the uterine arteries. 
 
 ABSORBENTS have been lately discovered. 
 
 USE. To receive and prepare the blood from the uterus 
 for the foetus, and give off vessels to the umbilical cord. 
 
 FUNICULUS UMBILICALIS. 
 
 The umbilical cord is of an intestinal form, of the thick- 
 ness of one's finger, mostly about half a yard in length : it 
 runs from the navel of the foetus to the centre of the pla- 
 centa. 
 
 STRUCTURE. It is composed of a cutaneous vagina, or 
 sheath, a cellular substance, filled with a peculiar gelatin- 
 ous fluid, one umbilical vein, and two umbilical arteries. 
 
 USE. The umbilical vein of the foetus conveys the blood 
 from the placenta to the foetus, and the two umbilical arte- 
 ries return it from the foetus to the placenta. 
 
 MEMBRANOUS OVUM OF THE FCETUS. 
 
 The foetus is inclosed in a membranous ovum, or bag, 
 within the cavity of the uterus. 
 
 The ovum consists of three membranes : an outer, or 
 filamentous, called decidua; a middle one, which in the 
 p z 
 
316 
 
 embryo is shaggy, called the chorioti; and an inner oue, 
 termed the amnion. 
 
 USE. To include the liquor amnii, to prevent its flowing 
 into the uterus, and, at the commencement of parturition, 
 to assist in dilating the os uteri. 
 
 LIQUOR AMNII. 
 
 
 The liquor of the amnion is a lymphatic liquid, inclosed 
 
 in the cavity of the ovum surrounding the foetus, secreted 
 by the exhaling arteries of the membranes of the ovum. 
 
 QUANTITY. About the time of parturition, two or three 
 pounds. 
 
 PROPERTY. Gelatinous, like turbid serum of milk. 
 
 USE. To defend the foetus from the pressure of the 
 uterus to dilate the orifice of that organ in labour to lu- 
 bricate the vagina and, some have supposed, to give nou- 
 rishment to the foetus. 
 
 FCETUS. 
 
 During the first month of pregnancy, the ovum is about 
 the size of a pigeon's egg. The foetus swims in the middle 
 of the liquor amnii, and represents a little cloud, which 
 gradually enlarges, and its parts become more firm and 
 perfect. The parts of the foetus at birth differ from the 
 adult, in having a foramen ovale, a canalis arteriosus, a 
 canulis venosus, an umbilical cord, and the thymus gland; all 
 of which are peculiar to the foetus. The lungs are black, 
 collapsed, and sink in water. The liver is large. All the 
 small glands are also proportionately large, and the large 
 intestines are filled with meconium. 
 
 PECULIARITIES, i. The FORAMEN OVALE. This is au 
 2 
 
317 
 
 opening between the auricles in the septum auricularum, 
 by which part of the blood in the right auricle passes into 
 the left : it is of an oval form, and large enough to admit a 
 goose-quill. After birth, when the lungs dilate, and the 
 blood passes from the right ventricle through the pulmo- 
 nary arteries, this foramen is mostly obliterated, but the si- 
 tuation of it can always be perceived. 
 
 2. The CANALIS ARTERiosCs. This is an artery which 
 passes from the pulmonary artery obliquely to the ascending 
 aorta, to convey the blood into the aorta that is propelled 
 by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, for it can- 
 not all pass through the lungs. 
 
 3. The CANALIS VENOSUS. A vein about half an inch or 
 more in length, passing from the sinus of the vena portae 
 into the vena cava inferior. 
 
 4. An UMBILICAL VEIN, which goes to the liver. 
 
 5. Two UMBILICAL ARTERIES, which arise from the in- 
 ternal iliac, and run up the sides of the urinary bladder. 
 
 After birth, these vessels gradually become impervious, 
 and at length are removed by the absorbents. 
 
 6. The THYMUS GLAND, situated in the anterior space of 
 the mediastinum. 
 
 Besides these, there exists in the eye, before the ninth 
 month, a delicate membrane, which arises from the edge of 
 the iris, and completely fills up the pupil : this is called 
 MEMBRANA PUPiLLARis ; it is perfectly removed before birth. 
 
 There is also a membrane in the ear, which disappears 
 after birth. It is situated at the bottom of the meatus au- 
 ditorius externus, and covers the external surface of the 
 niembrana tympani : this is termed MEMBRANA MUCOSA. 
 
 * 3 
 
318 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IN T THE F(ET17S. 
 
 The foetus receives its blood from the mother through 
 the umbilical vein of the funis, which transmits it along the 
 ductus venosus into the vena cava, to be carried to the right 
 auricle of the heart. From the right auricle it passes partly 
 through the foramen ovale into the left auricle, and partly 
 into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle it is pro- 
 pelled into the pulmonary artery, which sends a very small 
 proportion through the lungs, and the remainder through 
 the canalis arteriosus into the aorta. In other respects, the 
 circulation of the foetus is similar to that of the adult. The 
 blood is returned from the foetus by the two umbilical arte- 
 ries, along the cord, to the mother. 
 
 HYGROLOGY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE FLUIDS. 
 
 The fluids of the body are divided into eriqle, as the 
 chyle ; sanguineous, as the blood ; lymphatic, as the lymph 
 of the lymphatic vessels ; secreted, or those separated from 
 the blood ; and excrementitious, as the urine, fa;ces, &c. 
 
 The secreted fluids are subdivided into lacteal, as the 
 juice of the prostate gland; aqueous, as the aqueous hu- 
 mour of the eye; mucous, as the mucus of the nostrils; al- 
 buminous, as the serum of the blood ; oleous, as the oil of 
 the adipose membrane ; and bilious, as the bile. 
 
 The fluids of the body are also divided, from their mo- 
 
ST9 
 
 tibn, into circulatory, which continually circulate in the ves- 
 sels ; commorant, which circulate with a slow motion, as the 
 seineu, and oil of the adipose membrane ; stagnant, which 
 remain fur a certain time in any receptacle, as cystic bile, 
 &c. 
 
 FLUIDS COMMON TO THE WHOLE 
 BLOOD. 
 
 A red fluid, which circulates in the cavities of the heart, 
 arteries, and veins. 
 
 In the arteries its colour is of & florid hue; in the veins, 
 darker, except in the pulmonary veins. 
 
 Exposed to the atmosphere blood spontaneously sepa- 
 rates by degrees into two parts ; viz. the serum, which is 
 fluid; and a cake or red mass swimming in the serum. 
 
 CRUOR, OR CRASSAMEVTUM. 
 
 This is the red mass concreted into a cake, which swim 
 like an island in the serum of the blood. 
 
 It forms more than one half of the blood. 
 
 In consistence it is thick, plastic, and like jelly. 
 
 It is ten times heavier than water, so that it falls to the 
 bottom in the serum. 
 
 It soon putrefies in the temperature of the atmosphere ; 
 but dried by a gentle heat, it becomes a brittle, dark red 
 mass. It is insoluble in water, and when boiled in it is 
 converted into a hard grumous mass, internally red. 
 
 If the cruor of healthy blood be exposed in a vessel fo 
 
 atmospheric air, the surface soon becomes of a florid red 
 
 colour, but the inferior surface is of a deep black : if it be 
 
 inverted* the surface which was before red becomes black, 
 
 p 4 
 
320 
 
 and the black surface red. This change is effected by the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere, which chemically combines with 
 the cruor ; for if the black cruor be exposed to oxygen gas, 
 although inclosed in a bladder, it becomes of a florid red. 
 The eruor of the blood consists of, 
 i. Red globules, 
 i. Fibrous gluten. 
 
 If the d'ruor be inclosed in linen and washed for some 
 time in cold water, continually pressing it with the fingers, 
 it yields its red* part to the water, and gluten remains like a 
 white, fibrous, tenacious mass: then, if the red water which 
 is washed from the fibrous gluten be distilled to dryness, it 
 leaves a carbonaceous residuum, which when incinerated 
 affords pxydized iron, attractable by the magnet. 
 
 SERUM. 
 
 The lymphatic fluid which separates from the cake when 
 blood is drawn from a vein. 
 
 It has scarcely any smell, and rather a saltish taste : is 
 of a yellowish green colour, and is somewhat of a viscid 
 aqueous consistence. 
 
 It is lighter than the cruor by a twelfth part, and thirty- 
 eight times heavier than water. 
 
 In quantity it forms scarcely one half of the blood. 
 
 The serum of the blood mixes readily with cold water, 
 becomes milky with boiling water, and affords a coagulum 
 with acids. 
 
 The constituent principles of serum are 
 
 1. Water. From forty-seven ounces of serum, forty- 
 three of insipid water are yielded by distillation. 
 
 2. Albumen. Serum, stirred about with a stick, affords 
 a large quantity of an albuminous substance like the^ white 
 
321 
 
 of an egg. Freezing tlte serum, also pouring in strong adds 
 or boiling water, separates the albumen. 
 
 3. Gelatin. If equal parts of water and serum of the blood 
 be boiled together, that part of the serum which is not co- 
 agulated, upon being cooled puts on the appearance of a 
 tremulous jelly. 
 
 4. Muriate and carbonate of soda. These are obtained 
 by treating the serum with mineral acids. 
 
 5. Phosphate of lime, obtained from the incinerated car- 
 bon along with the carbonate and muriate of soda. 
 
 USE OF THE BLOOD. To stimulate the cavities of the 
 heart and vessels to contraction; to generate the heat of the 
 body, and propagate it to every part ; to nourish every part ; 
 and to supply all the secretions, they being all separated 
 from the blood. 
 
 DISEASED APPEARANCES. The blood post mortem dees not 
 always exhibit the same appearance. It is mostly found in 
 the venal system, and distending the right auricle. Blood in 
 the dead body is chieffy, therefore, of a dark, venal colour, 
 and of the consistence of jelly, the serous part not having 
 separated from the cruor. In this state, although it distends 
 some of the larger vessels, as the vena cava, the vena portse, 
 &c. and assumes the form of those vessels, yet whn taken 
 out, it breaks with the slightest force, so that its form can- 
 not be preserved. This may be considered as the healthy 
 state of blood; and all deviations from it as disease. The 
 following have occurred : 
 
 1. The blood in a state of fluidity . This happens when 
 the body is deprived of 'life by lightning, drowning, and by 
 certain poisons. 
 
 2. The coagulating lymph separated from the other parts of 
 
 * 5 
 
322 
 
 the blood. This occurs when the person is some time in or* 
 ticulo mortis. By this separation, the coagulating lymph 
 accumulates in the auricles and ventricles of the heart, and 
 also sometimes in the pulmonary artery and aorta : these 
 concretions are improperly termed polypi; they are often 
 found assuming the complete form of the pulmonary artery, 
 which is beautifully ramified. Of the same nature is the 
 coagulum found in aueurismal sacs, though it is more com- 
 pletely laminated. 
 
 3. Air in the veins. This, which now and then is observed 
 soon after death, when there was no emphysema, and when 
 no putrefaction had commenced in the body, is most pro- 
 bably owing to a diseased state of the blood. 
 
 4. Calcareous matter in the blood-vessels. This has occur- 
 red to the author in one instance only, and that in varicose 
 veins about the ovarium ; there were three portions, each 
 about the size of a pepper-corn, covered with a layer of co- 
 agulated lymph, like a pea in its pellicle. Each portion 
 was in a separate vessel, surrounded by blood, and in no 
 way connected with the sides of the vessel. 
 
 5. Bile in the blood. This occurs very frequently : there 
 is always an obstruction in some part of the bile duct. It is 
 most commonly in the ductus communis choledochus; and 
 then the gall-bladder and hepatic ducts are distended with 
 bile, and the person has died jaundiced. If a small quantity 
 of this blood be put into a basin of clear water, the water 
 is first tinctured yellow, and then red. 
 
 These are the principal diseased appearances of the 
 blood detected after death. That an excess or deficiency of 
 serous particles, of lymph, of the fibrous part of the cruor, 
 of the red globules, &c. do occasionally exist, there can be 
 uo doubt ; such undue proportions, however, the author has 
 
323 
 
 only ascertained during life, A ehemical analysis of the 
 blood, both after death and before, is likely to throw great 
 light on the nature of some diseases, and is a department of 
 the science hitherto neglected. 
 
 LYMPH OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 A tasteless crystalline liquid, contained in the lymphatic 
 vessels. 
 
 It is ABSORBED from the surface of the body, tela cellu- 
 losa, viscera, and cavities of the viscera of the whole body; 
 and CONVEYED into the thoracic duct. 
 
 USE. To return the superfluous nutritious fluid, the va- 
 pours of cavities, and substances applied to the skin, to the 
 thoracic duct. 
 
 This fluid is frequently contaminated with acrimonious, 
 poisonous, and other substances, it being the vehicle 
 for the poison of lues venerea, hydrophobia, and every 
 thing that is taken up by the absorbents. 
 
 VAPOUR OF THE SHEATHS OF THE NERVES. 
 
 The aqueous humour contained in the vagina, and be- 
 tween the fibrils of the nerves. 
 
 It is secreted by the arteries of the sheath of the nerves. 
 USE. To moisten the nervous fibrils. 
 
 FLUIDS PROPER TO EACH PART. 
 FLUIDS IN THE CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM. 
 
 i. A vapour y between the membranes of the brain, which 
 prevents morbid adhesions. 
 
 p 6 
 
324 
 
 Aw increase of this fluid constitutes the Itydrops membra- 
 narunt, or hydrocephalus externus. 
 
 The collected fluid, it is asserted, is sometimes found be- 
 tween the dura mater and cranium, hut this the author 
 has never witnessed. It collects between the dura mater 
 and tunica arachnoidea in considerable quantity ; but 
 even this is uncommon. Water between the arachnoid 
 membrane and pia mater, especially in the intergyral 
 spaces of the pia mater, is met with very frequently. 
 
 a. The vapour in the ventricles of the brain. A thin va- 
 pour contained in the cavity of the ventricles of the brain, 
 and secreted by the exhaling arteries of their internal mem- 
 brane, and of the choroid plexus. Its use is to prevent the 
 concretion of the ventricles. 
 
 An accumulation of this fluid forms the ?iydrocephalu& 
 internus. 
 
 Jn hydrocephalus internus, when the quantity of fluid is- 
 not considerable, it generally occupies the lateral ven- 
 tricles and the third ventricle only, and then the fora- 
 men of Monro is very much dilated. The fluid some- 
 times, though rarely, distends the fourth ventricle. la 
 almost every instance, the fluid wholly evaporates when 
 exposed tq the boiling heat, and very little coagulum is 
 separated by an admixture of the mineral acids. 
 
 FLUID IN THE CAVITY OF THE NOSTRILS. 
 
 The muctts of the nostrils. The mucus secreted by the 
 muciparous glands of the pituitary-membrane, lining the 
 septum and conchae of the nostrils. Its use is to preserve 
 the nervous papillae of the olfactory nerves moist, and to- 
 moderate excessive sensibility. 
 
 In common catarrh the mucus of the nostrils is so altered 
 as to become highly acrimonious, irritating the parts 
 it passes over. Towards the decline of the disease 
 pure pus is separated for several days. 
 
325 
 
 IN THE CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 The SALIVA. A fluid secreted by the salivary glands into 
 the mputh. The secretory organ is composed of the parotid, 
 submaxillary, and sublingual glands. Its use is to aug- 
 ment the taste of the food ; to mix with, dissolve, and re- 
 solve the food into its principles; and to moderate thirst. 
 
 FLUID IN THE CAVITY OF THE FAUCES. 
 
 The mucus of the fauces. A mucus secreted by the mu- 
 ciparous glands of the tonsils, pharynx, &c. Its use is to 
 lubricate the fauces. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE EYES. 
 
 1 . The aqueous humour of the eye. A very limpid water,, 
 which fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, 
 It is secreted by the floating vessels of the corpus ciliare, 
 and exhaling vessels of the iris. Its use is to distend the 
 cornea, retain the crystalline lens and vitreous humour in, 
 their places, and to transmit the focus of the rays of light 
 to the crystalline lens. 
 
 When the secretory organ, from inflammation, separates 
 pus, or when pus becomes mixed, by the rupture of an 
 abscess, with the aqueous humour ; it falls to the bot- 
 tom of the chamber, and coustitutes the disease called 
 hypopium. 
 
 It sometimes happens that a white milky fluid is sepa- 
 rated by the secretory organ, instead of a limpid water : 
 this disease is termed hypogala. 
 
 2. The crystalline lots* A lentiform, pellucid, cellular 
 body, distended by a very limpid aqueous fluid, inclosed in, 
 a membranous capsule, and situated in a depression in the 
 
326 
 
 anterior surface of the vitreous humour. Its use is to trans- 
 mit and refract the focus of the rays of light to the vitreous 
 humour. 
 
 When the secreting organ separates a turbid fluid into the 
 cells of this lens, it forms the disease termed cataract, 
 of which there are many species, mostly distinguished 
 by the colour or nature of the opacity. 
 
 j. The vitreous humour. A pellucid vitriform or glass- 
 like body, which fills the whole bulb of the eye behind the 
 crystalline lens. It is composed of small cells, distended 
 with a limpid water. Its use is to expand the bulb, and 
 transmit and moderately augment the focus of the rays of 
 light from the crystalline lens to the retina. 
 
 This vitriform substance occasionally becomes turbid, and 
 causes a dimness of sight : this is termed glaucoma. 
 
 4. The water in the capsule of the crystalline lens. It is 
 secreted by the pellucid branches of the artery of the crys- 
 talline lens. Its use is to prevent the concretion of the 
 crystalline lens with its capsule. 
 
 5. The pigment of the iris. The coloured mucus, which 
 covers the anterior and posterior surface of the iris. Its 
 use is to reflect the rays of light. 
 
 6. The pigment of the choroid membrane. The black or 
 brownish mucus, which covers the anterior surface of the 
 choroid membrane, and the interior of the corpus ciliare. 
 
 7. The tears. A limpid fluid secreted by the lachrymal 
 gland, and flowing on the surface of the eye. Its use is to 
 moisten the surface of the eye and eyelids. 
 
 8. The juice of Meibonrius* glands. An unctuous humour 
 secreted by the sebaceous glands of Meibomius, and lubri- 
 cating the tarsi of the eyelids. Its use is to. lubricate the 
 
327 
 
 tarsi of the eyelids, and blunt the saline acridity of the 
 tears. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE CAVITY OF THE EARS. 
 
 i. The cerumen, or wax of the ears. 'A bitter ceraceous 
 fluid, secreted by the ceruminous glands of the meatus au- 
 ditorius externus. Its use is to lubricate the sensible mem- 
 brane of that canal, and to prevent insects from entering. 
 
 z. The water of the labyrinth. An insipid water contain- 
 ed in the cavity of the membranous semicircular canals and 
 cochlea. Its use is to preserve the nervous fibrils of the au- 
 ditory nerve soft and moist, and to moderate the tremors of 
 sounds. 
 
 A small white substance has occasionally been noticed, 
 by the author, floating in the fluid, distending the mem- 
 branaceous semicircular canals and alveus communis : 
 its nature has not been investigated, nor does he know 
 whether it occasioned any alteration in the function of 
 that organ. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE NECK. 
 
 1. The juice of the thyroid gland. It is of a yellowish 
 white colour, especially in infants, and its use is not known. 
 
 2. The mucus of the oesophagus : which is secreted by the 
 muciparous glands situated in the cellular membrane. Its 
 use is to lubricate the cavity of the oesophagus, and prevent 
 the concretion of its sides. 
 
 In some animals, and in most serpents, the inferior part 
 of the oesophagus has a power of secreting a fluid ca- 
 pable of digesting substances : thus, if a fish or frog, 
 too large to be contained in the stomach of the serpent, 
 be swallowed, and the animal killed some hours after, 
 that part which is in the oesophagus will be seen equally 
 digested with the portion in the stomach. 
 
 5 
 
328 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE CAVITY OF THE THORAX. 
 
 i . The mucus of the trachea, bronchia, and vesicute pul- 
 monales. This fluid is secreted by the muciparous glands 
 situated under the* internal membrane of those parts. Its 
 use \s to prevent the surface of the trachea, bronchiae, and 
 vesiculae pulmonales from becoming dry by the continual 
 passing of the air. 
 
 This fluid is frequently altered from its healthy appear- 
 ance, and varies considerably in its quantity. In com- 
 mon colds, inflammation of the membrane lining the 
 air-passages, asthma, anasarca of the lungs, phthisis, 
 and other diseases, it assumes particular appearances, 
 whose distinguishing characters have not yet been 
 pointed out. Such an investigation may lead to pa- 
 thognomonic criteria of asthma spontaneum, phthisis 
 senilis, phthisis mucosa, and phthisis puruleuta, in such 
 cases as cannot well be distinguished by the ordinary 
 consideration of the symptoms. 
 
 a. The vapour in the cavity of the thorax: which exhales 
 from the exhaling vessels of the pleura of the lungs and 
 ribs, into the cavity of the thorax. It preserves the pleura 
 soft, moist, and flexile, and defends and prevents it from 
 the friction of, and concretion with, the lungs. 
 
 Hydrothorax is an accumulation of this fluid, or of a dis- 
 eased serous secretion. 
 
 3. The vapor or liquor pericardii. Secreted by the arte- 
 rious exhaling vessels, which open upon the external sur- 
 face of the heart, and internal of the pericardium. Its use 
 is to prevent the concretion of the heart with the pericar- 
 dium, to diminish the friction, and preserve the parts soft. 
 
 When this fluid, or a diseased one, accumulates in the 
 pericardium, it forms the hydro-cordis, or hydrops peri- 
 tardii. 
 
329 
 
 4- The juice of the thymus gland. A milky j uice secreted 
 by the arteries of this gland : its we is not known. 
 
 FLUID IN THE BREASTS. 
 
 The milk of the breasts. A white, sweetish fluid, secreted 
 by the glandular fabric of the breasts of women. Its use is 
 to be an aliment to new-born children. 
 
 Nurses' milk is often unhealthy, and produces many of 
 the diseases of infants, which arc only effectually re- 
 lieved by putting the nurse on a different diet, or by 
 changing the nurse. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 1. The gastric juice. A limpid colourless fluid, secreted 
 by the exhaling vessels of the very numerous arteries which 
 bedew every part of the stomach. Its use is to digest the 
 food. 
 
 2. The pancreatic juice ; which is limpid, and secreted 
 by the pancreas, and conveyed through its excretory duct, 
 into the duodenum. Its use is to assist in the formation of 
 chyle. 
 
 3. Bile. A yellowish, green, bitter juice, formed by the 
 liver, and conveyed by the biliary ducts into the duodenum. 
 
 The secretory organs of this fluid are ibepenicilli of the 
 liver, which constitute almost the whole substance of the 
 liver, and terminate in corresponding minute canals, called 
 the biliary ducts. These biliary ducts pafes their con- 
 tents into the ductus hepnticus, which conveys the bile into 
 the ductus communis choledochtis, from whence it is in part 
 carried into the intestine. 
 
 The other part of the hepatic bile regurgitates from the 
 ductus communis choledochus through the cystic duct into 
 
330' 
 
 the gall-bladder, for the bile coming from the liver cannot 
 flow into tbe intestine except during digestion, because 
 the bowel is contracted when empty; it necessarily, there- 
 fore, goes through the cystic duct into the gall-bladder. 
 
 The branches of the vena portse contribute the most to 
 the secretion of the bile, and many physiologists believe 
 that the blood brought to it bv the abdomiual branches 
 contains a carbonic or peculiar principle, which answers 
 exactly to the nature of bile. It is not yet ascertained 1 that 
 the hepatic artery does any thing more than merely nourish 
 the liver. 
 
 From what has been said it appears that there are, as it 
 were, two kinds of bile in the human body. 
 
 a. Hepatic, which flows from the liver into the duode- 
 num : this is thin, of a faint colour, inodorous, and very 
 slightly bitter ; hence it is that the liver of calves, lambs, 
 atid other animals is eatable. 
 
 b. Cystic, which regurgitates into the gall-bladder, and 
 there becomes thicker, the aqueous parts being absorbed 
 and more concentrated. 
 
 Healthy bile has the following properties : 
 
 It is of a yellowish green colour; is plastic and thin like 
 oil : when very much agitated, it froths like soap and water. 
 
 It has a fatuous smell somewhat like musk, especially 
 the putrefying or evaporated bile of animals. 
 
 It is of a bitter taste, yet not so much so as that of brute 
 animals. 
 
 The constituent principles of healthy bile are, 
 
 a. Water, which forms the greater part of the bile. 
 
 3. An albuminous principle, which is precipitated by al- 
 cohol and acids. 
 
 7. A resinous principle, obtained by evaporating the mix- 
 
331 
 
 Hire of bile with alcohol, after separating the albumen : it 
 is a black, resinous mass, soluble in spirit. 
 
 3. A colouring principle, which adheres to the resinous 
 parts, and gives the colour to the bile. 
 
 i. Soda, in its caustic state : hence it is that bile does 
 not effervesce with acids, and affords a sulphate and mu- 
 riate of soda when bile is treated with those acids. 
 
 . Phosphate of lime, which Is obtained from the incine- 
 rated carbon with a little iron and muriate of soda. 
 
 The primary use of bile is the extrication of the chyle 
 from the food in the duodenum : this is the second and last 
 part of the process of digestion. The importance, therefore, 
 of healthy bile is apparent. It also excites the peristaltic 
 motion of the intestines, and thus moves the chyle on to be 
 absorbed, and passes the excrementitious portion into the 
 great bowel, which it stimulates also; hence it is that bile 
 which is ill conditioned retards or accelerates the expul- 
 siou of the faeces ; and hence it is that the bowels are either 
 in a healthy state, or otherwise flatulent, or abounding with 
 acidity, acrimony, mucus, or morbid saburra, and the 
 colour and consistence of the faeces unnatural. 
 
 4. Chyle. A white fluid, separated from the food in the 
 primae vise, and observed, some hours after eating, in the 
 lacteal vessels of the mesentery, and in the thoracic duct. 
 Its use is to form the blood. 
 
 5. The enteric juice. A limpid liquor, secreted by the 
 exhaling arteries in the whole course of the small and large 
 intestines. Its use is to assist digestion, and to cleanse and 
 moisten the intestines. 
 
 6. The mucus of the prinue vi&. This is secreted by the 
 muciparous glands situated under the villous coat of the 
 
332 
 
 primae viae. Its use is to lubricate the stomach and intestinal 
 canal. 
 
 7. The vapour of the cavity of the aldomen. An aqueous 
 vapour, secerned by the exhaling arteries of the peritoneum, 
 which preserves moist, and prevents the concretion of, the 
 abdominal viscera. 
 
 A collection of this fluid constitutes the ascites aldomina- 
 iis, or dropsy of the belly. 
 
 8. Urine. A saline liquid, of a citrine colour, secreted 
 in the kidneys, and dropping down from them guttatim 
 through the ureters into the cavity of the urinary bladder.- 
 Its use is to liberate the body from the superfluous water, 
 &c. 
 
 9. The mucus of the bladder. Secreted by the muciparous 
 glands situated under the innermost membrane. Its use is 
 to lubricate and defend the internal and very sensible sur- 
 face of the urinary bladder. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE FARTS OF GENERATION IN 
 MEN. 
 
 1 . The mucus of the urethra. Secreted by the muciparous 
 glands situated under the internal membrane. Its use is to 
 lubricate and defend the very sensible surface of the urethra 
 against the acridity of the urine. 
 
 \\L gonorrhoea the mucus of the urethra becomes increased 
 in quantity, and altered in quality, from the specific 
 action induced in the secretory organ by the venereal 
 virus. 
 
 In leucorrhcea, or gleet, the mucus of the urethra is of a 
 yellow colour and ropy consistence, and very different, 
 from the healthy mucus of that passage. 
 
 2. The smegma of the glans penis. An unctuous humour, 
 secreted by the sebaceous follicles on the surface of the glaus. 
 
333 
 
 and prepuce. Its use is to lubricate the sensible surface of 
 the glans, and prevent its concretion with the prepuce. 
 These sebaceous follicles are often irritated to take on 
 diseased action. When this arises from venereal virus, 
 the gonorrhoea glandis takes place ; but when from 
 other acrimonies, as that of the smegma itself, or fluor 
 albus of women, &c. there- is a thin acrimonious dis- 
 charge from the follicles, which smells intolerably. 
 
 3. The vapour of the tunica vaginalis testis: which exhales 
 from the arteries into the cavity of the tunica vaginalis tes- 
 tis. Its use is to prevent the concretion of the testes with 
 the tunica vaginalis, and preserve them moist. 
 
 Hydrocele is an accumulation of this fluid. 
 
 4. The liquor of the prostate gland. A milky juice, sepa- 
 rated by the arteries of the prostate gland, and sent through 
 its ducts, sub coitu, into the urethra with the semen. Its 
 use is to serve as a vehicle to the semen. 
 
 5. The semen. A prolific liquor secreted in the testes, 
 and carried through the epididymis and vas deferens into the 
 vesiculae seminales. Its use is to be emitted, sub coitu, into 
 the female vagina, and there, by its aura, to penetrate to, 
 and impregnate, the ovulum in the female ovarium. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE PARTS OF GENERATION IN 
 WOMEN. 
 
 1 . The smegma of the labia and vulva. An unctuous juice, 
 secreted by the sebaceous glands, and covering the internal 
 surface of the labia and riympha;. Its use is to lubricate 
 their sensible surface, and prevent any irritation post mictum. 
 
 2. The mucus of the vagina,: which is secreted by the 
 muciparous glands under the internal membrane. Its use ifs 
 to lubricate the vagina, lest it be irritated by friction, sub 
 coitu, and to prevent the concretion of its sides. 
 
334* 
 
 Leucorrhcea, or fluor albits, is an altered State of these 
 fluids, owing to a diseased action of the secretory or- 
 pan : and in many cases there is reason to believe that 
 the internal surface of the uterus supplies the dis- 
 charge. 
 
 3. The liquor of the cavity of the uterus. Secreted into it 
 by the exhaling arterious vessels. In the virgin uterus, it 
 is serous and turbid ; in the gravid, milky. Its use is to 
 moisten the cavity, and prevent its concretion. 
 
 FLUIDS IN THE ARTICULATIONS. 
 
 i. The synovia. An unctuous fluid, secreted by the in- 
 ternal membrane of the capsular ligaments surrounding the 
 articulations of the bones. Its use is to lubricate the carti- 
 laginous surfaces of the articulatory bones, and facilitate 
 their motions. 
 
 I. The jince of the bursa mvicosa. An unctuous and 
 somewhat mucilaginous juice, secreted by the vessels of the 
 internal membrane of the bursac mucosze. Its use is to lu- 
 bricate the tendons for motion. 
 
 FLUID IN THE BONES. 
 
 The marrow of bones. An oily substance secreted by the 
 arteries of a very vascular membrane lining the interstices 
 of the bony ktmelfa, and the cavities of bones. In the foetus, 
 the marrow is not oil, but a soft florid mucous fluid. 
 
 Inflammation of the membrane which secretes the mar- 
 row is sometimes the cause of spina ventosa. 
 
335 
 
 -FLUIDS OF THE COMMON INTEGUMENT^. 
 
 1. Rete mncosiim. The mucus situated between the epi- 
 dermis and cutis of the whole body, and secreted by the ar- 
 
 terious vessels of the &kin.-Its use is to conglutinate the 
 epidermis to the cutis, to moderate the sense of touch, to 
 moisten the nervous cutaneous papillae, and give the exter- 
 nal colour to the body ; hence it is white in Europeans, black 
 in ./Ethiopians, &c. 
 
 2. The oil of the ndipose membrane. Secreted by the ar- 
 teries of the cdiular membrane. Its use is to facilitate mus- 
 cular motion. 
 
 The secretory organ of the adeps occasionally takes on a 
 diseased action in some part, by which the quantity is 
 augmented, and its nature somewhat altered. This 
 gives rise to that species of wen or tumour called 
 lypoma. 
 
 3. Sweat. The aqueous perspirable matter excreted 
 through the exhaling arteries of the skin. Its use is to keep 
 the skin moist. 
 
 A morbid increase of perspiration is termed ephidrosi$ t or 
 sudor Anglicanus. 
 
THE ART OF MAKING 
 
 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, 
 
 To exhibit the Structure and diseased Appearances 
 
 OF THE 
 HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The Quicksilver Tray, and its Appendages. 
 
 The tray is to be made of mahogany, of a convenient size, 
 and to have a small hole in one corner, with an ivory plug, 
 to let out the mercury when necessary. The two uprights 
 are moveable, and cut so as to permit the cross bar to be 
 fixed at any distance from the tray. The uprights and 
 cross bar are only to be affixed occasionally, as when a 
 hand or testis is to be filled 'with mercury. 
 
337 
 
 PREPARATIONS OF THE VISCERA IN A 
 HEALTHY STATE. 
 
 THE various parts of the body may be preserved in a healthy 
 state, either to exhibit their form or structure, or to compare 
 them with morbid parts. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 i. When removed from the body, and the useless parts 
 dissected away, the part to be preserved is to be soaked in 
 water, in order to get out the blood. 
 
 z. When it is necessary to give parts their natural form, 
 which is lost by macerating ; put them into a saturated so- 
 lution of alum, or rectified spirit, retaining them by any 
 means in the required form until they become hardened. 
 If it be a hollow part, as the stomach, bladder, &c. fill it 
 with, and immerse it in, the solution, or spirit. 
 
 3. When an opening is to be exhibited, as that of the 
 ureter, the bile-duct, the lacunae of the urethra, Stenonian 
 duct, Fallopian tube, &c. introduce a bristle. After this man- 
 ner preserve the uterus, and its appendages, cutting open 
 the vagina and cavity of the uterus, the bladder, intestine, 
 stomach, heart in the pericardium, liver, spleen, kidney, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 4. All preparations of the brain are best hardened in a 
 saturated solution of corrosive sublimate. 
 
 5. The parts are to be suspended in proof spirit by raw 
 silk, in a tie- over bottle, and covered with putrid bladder, 
 taking care to exclude all air. When dry, varnish the blod- 
 
 Q 
 
338 
 
 tier with mucilage of gum arable several times ; then put a 
 sheet of thin lead over, and varnish its edges with muci- 
 lage; and, lastly, tie another bladder over, and give it a 
 coat of common spirit varnish, in which lamp-black, or other 
 colouring matter, is mixed, or with Brunswick varnish. 
 
 PREPARATIONS OF MORBID PARTS. 
 
 All morbid parts should, immediately after their removal 
 from, the body, be put into rectified spirit of wine for a day 
 or two, and then preserved in proof spirit. These prepara- 
 tions foul a great quantity of spirit, and should therefore be 
 kept in stopper-glasses, from which the spirit can easily be 
 removed, and fresh put in, until the preparation ceases to 
 foul the spirit, when it may be put into a tie-over bottle. 
 
 PREPARATIONS MADE BY MACERATING. 
 
 Preparations obtained by this process are very various. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Let the water be frequently changed, until it is no 
 longer coloured with blood, but never after the blood is 
 steeped away. 
 
 2. Let the macerating pan be placed in a warm place, to 
 facilitate putrefaction j for if it be put in a cold place, the 
 
339 
 
 spermaceti-like conversion of the soft parts will be formed, 
 and the part spoiled. 
 
 3. The soft parts surrounding bones are a long time be- 
 fore they detach themselves from the bones. 
 
 4. Bones, when macerated, should be exposed to the sun's 
 rays, and frequently wetted with clean water, or they may be 
 bleached with the diluted oxygenated muriatic acid. 
 
 BONES. 
 
 Bones are macerated, to be preserved whole ; or they are 
 sawed, to expose their internal structure. 
 
 Banes of the head. Put the whole head, without disturb, 
 ing the flesh or brains, into the pan. When sufficiently ma- 
 cerated, all the soft parts will come away with the perios- 
 teum ; then detach the vertebrae, and wash out the brain. 
 Bones are separated from each other by filling the cranium 
 with peas, and putting it into water. The same method is 
 to be adopted with other bones. 
 
 Bones in general, for structure. Divide the femur into 
 two halves: the os innominatum, the petrous portion of the 
 temporal bone, the parietal bones, &c. : these, when ma- 
 cerated, will exhibit the compact, the spongy, laminated, 
 and reticular substance of bones. 
 
 FOETUS. 
 
 Cut carefully away the fatty substance enveloping a fetus, 
 but do not cut any of the cartilages. Steep out its blood, 
 and macerate. It should be frequently looked at, and taken 
 out when the flesh is all destroyed, before the cartilages are 
 separated. The following preparations are obtained in this 
 way : 
 
 Q 2 
 
340 
 
 1. The superior extremity, to show its bones, the. pro- 
 gress of ossification, and the cartilage to be formed into 
 bone. 
 
 2. The lower extremity, to expose the same circumstance. 
 
 3. The spine, which forms a beautiful preparation. 
 
 4. The pelvis, not less elegant. 
 Preservation. In proof spirit. 
 
 CUTICLE. 
 
 The cuticle of the hand and foot may be separated by 
 maceration : the former is called chirotheca, the latter poda- 
 theca. The arm and foot of a large foetus are to be pre- 
 ferred; they are first to be well washed with a soft sponge 
 in soap and water. 
 
 Preservation. Suspend them in proof spirit : first tie the 
 part by which they are to be suspended, then put them into 
 the bottle with the spirit, and gently pour some spirit into 
 the cuticle, to distend it like a glove or stocking. 
 
 INJECTING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The celebrated Dutch anatomist, Ruysch, first invented 
 the art of injecting animal bodies : hence it is termed the 
 Ruyscliian art. 
 
 There are three kinds of apparatus used in making in- 
 jected preparations. The one for the coarse and fine injec- 
 tions, and the minute injection ; the other for injecting with 
 quicksilver ; and the third, called the oyster syringe, for in- 
 jecting minute preparations with the minute injection only. 
 
 The first consists of a brass syringe made for the purpose, 
 
341 
 
 of various sizes, from one carrying six ounces to one suffi- 
 ciently large to hold two pounds. The point of these sy- 
 ringes is adapted to the pipes into which it is to be affixed. 
 To this syringe belong a stop-cock, and a great variety of 
 pipes. 
 
 The instrument for injecting quicksilver consists of a 
 long glass tube, at whose end is fixed, by screwing in, a steel 
 pipe, the extremity of which is extremely fine. 
 
 The oyster syringe is similar to the large syringe, except 
 in size. It is so small, that when the syringe is in the hand, 
 and full, its piston may be commanded by the thumb of that 
 hand to throw its contents into any preparation in the other 
 hand. The pipe affixed by being screwed to the end of this 
 syringe is nearly as small as that belonging to the quick- 
 silver tube. 
 
 These instruments are always to be had at the surgical 
 instrument makers. 
 
 INJECTIONS. 
 
 The injections employed for anatomical purposes are of 
 four different kinds : coarse, fine, minute, and mercurial. 
 
 COARSE INJECTIONS. 
 
 Red. Yellow bees' wax, sixteen ounces the palest re- 
 sin, eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces, by mea- 
 sure finely levigated vermilion, three ounces. 
 
 Yellow. Yellow bees' wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces king's yel- 
 low, two ounces and a half. 
 
 5 
 
34-2 
 
 Fine virgin wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces best flake 
 white, five ounces and a half. 
 
 Pale blue. Fine virgin wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ouncesturpentine varnish, six ounces best flake 
 white, three ounces and a half fine blue smalt, three ounces 
 and a half. 
 
 Dark blue. Fine virgin wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces blue verditer, 
 ten ounces and a half. 
 
 Black. Yellow bees' wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces pure lamp- 
 black, one ounce. 
 
 Green. Yellow bees' wax, sixteen ounces pale resin, 
 eight ounces turpentine varnish, six ounces levigated 
 crystallized verdigrise, four ounces and a half best flake 
 white, one ounce levigated gamboge, one ounce. 
 
 Liquefy the wax, resin, and turpentine varnish over a slow 
 fire, in an earthen pipkin ; then add the colouring matter, 
 having previously mixed it in another pipkin, with a very 
 small quantity of the melted composition. Stir the whole 
 well together with a wooden pestle, so that the colouring 
 ingredients may be intimately and smoothly blended ; place 
 the whole again over the fire, and, when they have acquired 
 their due heat, the injection will be fit for use. 
 
 FINE INJECTIONS. 
 
 Brown spirit varnish, white spirit varnish, of each four 
 ounces turpentine varnish, one ounce. 
 
 These are to be put together in an earthen pipkin, over 
 a slow fire, until they have acquired the necessary degree of 
 heat. To make it of a red colour, put one ounce of finely 
 
34-3 
 
 levigated vermilion into another pipkin, and gradually add 
 the heated materials, stirring the whole with a wooden 
 pestle, that the colour may be equally diffused. 
 
 One ounce and a quarter of king's yellow two ounces 
 of best flake white one ounce and a half of fine blue smalt, 
 with one ounce and a quarter of best flake white four 
 ounces of blue verditer half an ounce of pure lamp-black 
 are the proportions for the various colours to the quantity 
 of ingredients ordered above. 
 
 MINUTE INJECTIONS. 
 
 The size, which forms the vehicle to the colouring mat- 
 ter in these injections, is made in the following manner : 
 
 Take, of the finest and most transparent glue, one pound ; 
 break it into small pieces, put it into an earthen pot, and 
 pour on it three pints of cold water; let it stand twenty-four 
 hours, stirring it now and then with a stick ; then set it over 
 a slow fire for half an hour, or until all the pieces are per- 
 fectly dissolved ; skim off the froth from the surface, and 
 strain it through a flannel for use, 
 
 Isinglass and the cuttings of parchment make an elegant 
 size for very particular injections; and those who are not 
 very nice, may use the best double size of the shops. 
 
 Red. Size, one pint Chinese vermilion, two ounces. 
 
 Yellow. Size, one pint -king's yellow, two ounces and 
 a half. 
 
 White. Size, one pint best flake white, three ounces 
 and a half. 
 
 Blue. Size, one pint fine blue smalt, six ounces 
 
 Green. Size, one pint levigated crystallized verdi^rise, 
 94 
 
two ounces best flake white, levigated gamboge, of 
 eight scruples. 
 
 Black. Size, one pint lamp-black, one ounce. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. All injectoinsareto be heated to such a degree as not 
 to destroy the texture of the vessels they are intended to fill : 
 the best criterion of this degree of heat is dipping the finger 
 into the injection. If the finger can bear the heat, the tex- 
 ture of the vessels will not be hurt. 
 
 2. All the coloured materials should be as finely levi- 
 gated as possible, before they are mixed with the injection. 
 
 3. Great care should be taken lest the oily ones boil 
 over, or bubble ; and that the heat be gentle, otherwise the 
 colour will be altered. 
 
 4. They should be constantly stirred, lest the colouring 
 material, which is much heavier than the vehicle, fall to 
 the bottom. 
 
 5. The instrument to stir them with should be a wooden 
 pestle, and there should be one for each colour. 
 
 6. A large tin pan to contain water, with two or three 
 lesser ones fixed in it for the injections, will be found very 
 useful, and prevent all accidents, and the colour from spoil- 
 ing when on the fire. 
 
 PREPARATIONS MADE WITH COARSE 
 INJECTION. 
 
 The blood-vessels are mostly filled with coarse injection, 
 and the parts dissected, to show their course ; and when tb,e 
 
345 
 
 anatomist wishes to exhibit the minuter branches, the fine 
 injection is to be thrown in first, and followed by the coarse. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 There are several circumstances to be observed in in- 
 jecting with the fine and coarse injections, which are appli- 
 cable to every part into which they are thrown ; these are 
 
 1. The part to be injected should be freed from its blood 
 as much as possible, by steeping it for several hours in 
 warm water, and repeatedly changing it. 
 
 2. Having emptied the part of its blood, the pipes are to 
 be fixed in their proper vessels, and all other vessels to be 
 tied with a ligature. 
 
 3. The heat of the water is then to be gradually increased 
 to the same temperature with the injection to be thrown in. 
 
 4. The injecting syringe should be steeped in the water 
 with the part to be injected until wanted. 
 
 5. The injection being finished, and the subject or part 
 become cold, remove the pipes, and tie up the parts they 
 were in. Whenever a blood-vessel is open, by accident or 
 otherwise, be sure to secure it by a ligature, or cover it with 
 a piece of thin and moist bladder, or the injection will al- 
 ways be oozing out. 
 
 6. The parts dissected and dried are to be varnished 
 twice with copal or hard varnish, first washing them free from 
 grease with some soap-lees, and well drying them again. 
 
 BLOOD-VESSEL SUBJECT. 
 
 Select an emaciated subject, between the age of two and 
 fourteen years. 
 
 5 
 
346 
 
 Preparation. Make an incision through the integument? 
 the whole length of the sternum : then, with a saw, divide 
 the sternum longitudinally into two equal parts ; introduce 
 a dissecting knife under the divided bone on each side, se- 
 parate it from the mediastinum, and lay open the thorax, by 
 bending back the two portions of the sternum and the car- 
 tilages of the ribs ; an incision is then to be made into the 
 pericardium, and the left ventricle of the heart, and a large 
 pipe introduced into the aorta, and secured by a ligature. 
 The subject is next to be put into warm water, and gradually 
 heated. The time generally required to heat the whole sub- 
 ject is four hours, in a large body of water. 
 
 If the veins are to be injected, three more pipes are re- 
 quired : one to be put into the angular vein, at the corner of 
 the orbit; another into a vein as near the fingers as possible ; 
 and a third into a vein as near to the toes as possible. 
 
 Injection. This subject and injection being properly 
 heated, throw the coarse red injection into the heart pipe, 
 which will fill the arterial system ; and then the coarse yel- 
 low injection into the head pipe first, and next into the pipes 
 of the extremities. The subject, when injected, should be 
 put into cold water, with its face downwards. 
 
 Dissection. Open the abdomen by an incision from the 
 sternum to the umbilicus, and thence to each ilium. Cut 
 away the abdominal viscera, the stomach, spleen, and in- 
 testines ; leaving the mesenteric vessels as long as possible*: 
 dissect away the liver, leaving the vena portae and hepatic 
 artery as long as possible. This done, dissect away the fat 
 and cellular membrane from the vessels ; secure the mesen- 
 teric vessels in an arborescent form on a piece of pasteboard. 
 The kidneys, urinary bladder, uterus, and its appendages, 
 are to be preserved and dried in their situations. From the 
 
347 
 
 thorax are to be removed the lungs and heart, or the latter 
 may remaiu. The integuments being carefully dissected 
 from the sternum, it is to be bent back, and kept in that 
 situation, to expose the internal mammary arteries. The 
 dissecting away the skin is next, in order to exhibit the 
 muscles, and expose the arteries and veins. The skin should 
 only be removed from time to time to carry on the dissec- 
 tion, and never more than that covering the part to be dis- 
 sected ; otherwise the parts from which the skin is removed 
 will become dry, and the dissection be spoiled. In dissect- 
 ing the arteries and veins, the dissector will find no diffi- 
 culty, if he proceeds cautiously from the larger trunks to- 
 wards their extremities. The brain is to be removed bv 
 sawing away a large portion of the bone on each side of the 
 longitudinal sinus of the dura mater. The cheeks should be 
 pushed out by introducing horse-hair into the mouth. 
 
 . Drying. When dissected, or before, the subject should 
 be hung up by the head in a frame : one arm is to be placed 
 at a little distance from the side, and the other turned up 
 over the head, with the palm of the hand in front ; the legs 
 at a little distance from each other, and kept in these pos- 
 tures by packthread. Should auy muscles obstruct the sight 
 of the arteries, they are to be separated to a proper distance 
 by pieces of wood. This done, expose it to a current of air, 
 in a place where it cannot get wet ; and if the weather be 
 moist, remove, from time to time, all moisture, by a soft 
 sponge. 
 
 Preservation. Varnish it several times, and keep it in a 
 dry place, and in a proper case, with a glass front and back. 
 
 Q. 6 
 
348 
 
 A HEAD, FOR ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 
 Choose an emaciated head of an adult, separated from 
 the body, by a transverse section, about the sixth or seventh 
 vertebra. 
 
 Preparation. Put a pipe into each carotid, or, what is 
 better, one bifurcated pipe : remove a portion of bone over 
 the longitudinal sinus of the dura mater, about the middle 
 of the parietal bones, and secure a pipe in the longitudinal 
 sinus, pointed towards the occiput. Put the head into warm 
 water, to soak, pressing the blood occasionally out of the 
 external [and internal jugulars. Then tie up the jugular 
 veins and vertebral arteries, and all the small vessels. 
 
 Injection. Into the carotids throw the red injection, and 
 the yellow, or dark blue, into the pipe in the sinus of the 
 dura mater. The former will fill the arteries, the latter 
 the veins. 
 
 Dissection. Follow the course of the larger trunks, dis- 
 sect out the globes of the eyes, and remove, with a fine saw, 
 the portion of the jaw-bone behind the last molares, to show 
 the course of the internal carotids. To prepare the whole 
 head, a portion of the cranium must be removed, by sawing 
 on one side of the longitudinal sinus of the dura mater, from 
 the frontal sinus to the horizontal spine of the occipital 
 bone, and then sawing horizontally above the ear, from one 
 extremity of the former incision to the other. The dura 
 mater should be removed with a pair of scissars, the brain 
 carefully washed out, and the tentorium and falx preserved. 
 It is better to make a perpendicular section of the head, a 
 little to one side of the sagittal suture, through the nose, 
 foramen magnum, and vertebrae ; and thus prepare each 
 side. The course of the cervical artery is to be shown by 
 
24-9 
 
 dissecting away the muscles, &c. from between the trans- 
 verse processes. 
 
 Preservation. Varnish it several times, and keep it in a 
 glass case, suspended ; or fix it by the neck, and cover it 
 with a glass bell. 
 
 AN ARM, FOR ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 
 Remove the superior extremity from the trunk, by sepa- 
 rating the clavicle from the sternum, raising it, and passing 
 the knife under it to the articulation, including the greater 
 part of the pectoral muscle. Then cut under the scapula, 
 so as to remove with the arm the clavicle, scapula, and 
 subscapularis muscle. 
 
 Preparation. After soaking it in warm water, force out 
 the blood from the veins, by pressing the extremity from the 
 fingers towards the shoulder. Fix a pipe in the axillary ar- 
 tery, and another in the largest vein on the back of the 
 hand; some warm water may be injected into the vein, so 
 as to wash out the blood ; and, when pressed out, the ax- 
 illary vein should be tied. Tie any muscular branches that 
 may be gaping. 
 
 Injection, Red injection may be thrown into the artery, 
 and yellow, or dark blue, into the vein. 
 
 Dissection, This is very simple ; it requires only the 
 removal of all the cellular and fatty membrane, and ex- 
 posing the course of the vessels. Tie up the limb by the 
 clavicle. 
 
 Preservation, When varnished, keep it in a cool and 
 dry plac. 
 
3.50 
 
 A L'OWER EXTREMITY, FOR ARTERIES AND 
 
 VEINS. 
 
 Having removed the contents of the abdomen, make a 
 section through the symphysis of the pubis, and the liga- 
 ments connecting the ilium and sacrum, so as to remove 
 one side of the pelvis. 
 
 Preparation. Fix a pipe in a vein as near the toes as 
 possible, and another in the iliac artery. When the limb 
 has been well soaked in warm water, press out the blood 
 from the veins, or throw in some warm water, at the venal 
 pipe ; but carefully press it out again, and tie up the iliac 
 vein. Secure all divided vessels. 
 
 Injection, Blue injection, or yellow, may be put into 
 the vein, and red into the artery. 
 
 Dissection. Expose the course of the artery and veins, 
 particularly the profuuda of the thigh. 
 
 THE GRAVID UTERUS, FOR ARTERIES AND 
 VEINS. 
 
 The gravid uterus, or the uterus soon after it has ex- 
 pelled the foetus, may be injected, to show its large and 
 tortuous vessels. It may be injected, whilst in the body ; 
 but this is always attended with much difficulty, and never 
 succeeds so well as when removed from the body. There- 
 fore separate the spermatic and hypogastric vessels as far 
 from the uterus as possible, and cut out the uterus with the 
 bladder, vagina, and external parts of generation. 
 
 Preparation. Put a pipe in each spermatic artery, and 
 each hypogastric, and also one into each spermatic and hy- 
 
351 
 
 pogastric vein ; so that, at least, there will be required four 
 pipes for arteries, and four for veins. Be very careful that 
 all the divided vessels be secured by ligature, which only 
 can ensure success. 
 
 Injection. Red and yellow are mostly preferred ; the for- 
 mer for the arteries, the latter for the veins. Be careful that 
 the red be thrown into all the arterial pipes, and the yellow 
 into the venal ; and, to prevent mistakes, it will be better 
 to have the pipes of the veins different from those of the 
 arteries. 
 
 Dissection. Distend the vagina and uterus with horse- 
 hair, either by introducing it through the vagina, or, if the 
 foetus be in it, by a perpendicular section through the an- 
 terior parietes, which is to be sewed up again. Then dissect 
 away all loose cellular structure and fat, preserving the 
 round and broad ligaments, and Fallopian tubes. Should 
 the foetus be in the uterus, an incision should be made, as 
 above directed, except the placenta be adhering there, which 
 is known by the great number of vessels, and then on the 
 opposite side, and through the membranes, to remove the 
 child ; cut the umbilical cord close to the foetus, and fix a 
 pipe in one umbilical artery, and another in the umbilical 
 vein ; the latter, carrying arterial blood, should be filled 
 with red injection, and the artery with yellow : the cord is 
 to be laid round the placenta. 
 
 Preservation. When well varnished, suspend it in a 
 case, with a glass front and back. 
 
 A PLACENTA, FOR ARTERIES AND VEINS. 
 
 This is perhaps the easiest preparation to make with 
 coarse injection; and should, therefore, be the first attempt 
 of the student. 
 
352 
 
 Preparation. Fix a large pipe in the vein, and a small 
 one in one of the arteries. The difficulty usually attendant 
 on getting the pipe into the artery is obviated in a great 
 measure by introducing the point of the scissars into these 
 vessels, and slitting them down for about half an inch, then 
 spreading the artery open upon the fore-finger, and keeping 
 it so by pressure with the thumb, by which the pipe may be 
 carried in without difficulty. A ligature should be passed 
 round each pipe with a needle, taking care not to puncture 
 any of the vessels. 
 
 Injection. The usual colours are to be selected ; but, 
 instead of throwing the yellow into the vein, it should be 
 pushed into the artery, for the artery here performs the 
 function of a vein, and vice vers&. When there are two 
 placentae, there should be different colours used. 
 
 Dissection. The spongy substance is to be carefully dis- 
 sected away from the injected vessels, the placenta soaked 
 in cold water, to get rid of its blood, and then dried, curl- 
 ing the cord around it ; and should the membranes not be 
 much torn, they may be distended with curled hair over it. 
 
 Preservation. Varnish it well ; fix its bottom in a case 
 vrith a glass top. 
 
 THE HEART, IN SITU; WITH THE HEAD, AND 
 ADJACENT VESSELS. 
 
 For this purpose choose the head of a young subject, er 
 an adult, whose heart is free from fat. The liver, stomach, 
 spleen, &c. are to be removed from the abdomen, and the 
 aorta divided just as it gives off the cceliac artery. The in- 
 cision into the chest should be carried through the integu- 
 ments, from the trachea to the ensiform cartilage, the ster- 
 
353 
 
 num sawed through, and bent one half on each side, from 
 the extremity of the cartilages nearest the ribs; then divide 
 one of the pulmonary veins as near as possible to the lungs, 
 and remove a portion of bone over the longitudinal sinus of 
 the dura mater. 
 
 Preparation. Having well soaked the parts in warm 
 water, and squeezed the blood from the heart and vessels, 
 by the inferior cava and pulmonary vein, put a pipe into the 
 longitudinal sinus of the dura mater, pointed towards the 
 occipital bone, another into the pulmonary vein, a third into 
 the vena azygos, and one into the receptaculum chyli, or 
 thoracic duct. Tie up carefully the aorta and the vena cava 
 inferior, and put a strong ligature around the middle of each 
 arm. 
 
 Injection. Three colours are required : one for the ar- 
 teries, which should be red ; another for the veins, which 
 may be yellow or blue ; and the third for the thoracic duct, 
 which should be white, to imitate chyle. Throw the red 
 injection into the pipe in the pulmonary vein, which will fill 
 the left auricle, ventricle, aorta, and all the arteries. The 
 pipe in the head is for the yellow injection : by this will be 
 filled the veins of the head, fajce, neck, and chest, the right 
 auricle of the heart, the right ventricle, and the pulmonary 
 arteries. Should the vena azygos not be injected, the yel- 
 low injection is to be thrown into it. A small quantity of 
 white injection is sufficient for the thoracic duct. 
 
 Dissection. Remove the body by a transverse section at 
 the last dorsal vertebra, then amputate the arms at their 
 middle, saw away one side of the bones of the skull, and 
 wash away the brain : then dissect away all the loose cellu- 
 lar membrane and fat, -and expose the various parts in th$ 
 
354 
 
 best manner; dissect away the lungs, leaving the pulmonary 
 arteries as long as possible. 
 
 Preservation. This is, when well done, a valuable pre- 
 paration, and deserving of great care. Varnish it well, and 
 preserve it in a square glass case. 
 
 A FCETUS, TO EXHIBIT THE PECULIARITIES OF 
 ITS CIRCULATION. 
 
 For this purpose select a still-born frctus ; and, if pos- 
 sible, one that died from a flooding of the mother, 
 
 Preparation. Dissect the umbilical vein from the arte- 
 ries, about four inches from thy umbilicus, and fix a pipe in 
 it, taking care not to include the arteries, Throw warm 
 water into this pipe, and wash out the blood, which will flow 
 out by the umbilical arteries. Having drained away as much 
 of the water as possible, tie a ligature very loose on the um- 
 bilical arteries. 
 
 Injection. The foetus being heated, throw in gently any 
 coloured injection. The water will come away first through 
 the umbilical arteries; and, when the injection appears, 
 make the ligature firm, to prevent its further egress. 
 
 Dissection. The peculiarities in the fcetal circulation arc 
 the umbilical cord, the ductus venosus, the ductus arterio- 
 sus, and foramen ovale. When the body is cold, proceed 
 to the dissection ; remove the head from the cervical ver- 
 tebrae, the arms with the scapulae, and pectoral muscles ; 
 the inferior extremity at the articulation with the pelvis, the 
 whole of the parietes of the abdomen, leaving the arteries 
 running to the cord by the sides of the bladder ; the ante- 
 rior part of the thorax, with the sternnm, cartilages, and 
 part of the ribs, the integuments and muscles of the back. 
 
355 
 
 Next cut away the lungs, and remove the pericardium; keep 
 the diaphragm in its place, and turn up the liver, so as to 
 expose the ductus venosus. Some discretion and care are 
 here necessary. Dissect away the stomach and intestines, 
 and layout the mesenteric vessels; distend the bladder with 
 air, and cut away any thing that may obstruct the view of 
 the vessels. The foramen ovale cannot be exhibited. 
 
 Preservation. After having varnished it, hang it in a 
 glass bell, with a hook at its top. 
 
 PENIS. 
 
 The penis may be injected, to show the two corpora ca- 
 vernosa, the corpus spong iosum, and glans, with the arte- 
 ries and veins. For this purpose any healthy penis will do, 
 but large ones are generally preferred. Having cut through 
 the integuments and soft parts in the pelvis, in the direction 
 the saw is to be passed, saw through the middle of each 
 crista of the pubis, straight down and through the ascend- 
 ing ramus of each ischium, close to their commencement, 
 and thus remove the pubis, with the bladder and external 
 parts of generation. 
 
 Preparation. Make an incision into either of the crura 
 of the corpora cavernosa, and into the bulbous part of the 
 urethra, as near to the prostate gland as possible ; soak it 
 in hot water, and carefully press out the blood from every 
 part. Introduce a probe along the vena magna ipsius penis, 
 by an incision at its root, to break down its valves ; fix a 
 pipe in each of these incisions, and another in each vas de- 
 ferens, at its entrance ii.to the vesiculae scminales, and se- 
 cure all the divided vessels. 
 
356 
 
 Injection. Four colours are necessary; those generally 
 preferred are red, yellow, blue, and white. Throw the red 
 into the corpus spongiosum, which will destend the glans ; 
 the yellow into the corpus cavernosum pipe ; the blue into 
 the vena magna ipsius penis ; and the white into the vasa 
 defereiitia. 
 
 Dissection. Inflate the bladder, dissect away all the soft 
 parts, and keep the penis erect against the symphysis pubis. 
 
 Preservation. In a covered box. 
 
 TESTICLE. 
 
 A testicle of au adult should be chosen free from dis- 
 ease, and great care is requisite in removing it from the 
 body. First, enlarge the ring of the oblique muscle, push 
 the testicle through from the scrotum, and separate its cel- 
 lular connecting substance ; then cut the spermatic artery 
 and pampiniform plexus as high as possible, and then the 
 vas deferens. 
 
 Preparation. When well soaked, press out the blood 
 from the veins ; put a pipe into the spermatic artery, and 
 another into a vein ; and secure all other open mouths. 
 
 Injection. Red is to be sent into the artery, and yellow 
 or blue into the vein, which is without valves. Then fix the 
 quicksilver tube in the vas deferens, and suspend it in wa- 
 ter ; this done, fill it with mercury, and in twenty-four 
 hours it may be removed to be dissected. 
 
 Dissection. Cut away the tunica vaginalis and the tu- 
 nica albuginea, which requires great care: then remove all 
 the cellular and adipose membrane, and dry it on a board 
 previously \waxed. 
 
 Preservation. In a common preparation-glass, on a blue 
 or green paper ground. 
 
357 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF THE VENA FORT,. 
 
 Remove the liver, spleeu, stomach, and intestines all 
 together, of a person whose mesentery is free from fat, cut- 
 ting away at the root of the mesentery, behind the perito- 
 neum. 
 
 Preparation. Cut into a mesenteric vein, as near to the 
 intestine as possible, and secure it with a. ligature passed 
 around it with a needle, taking care not to wound any 
 other vein. Inject warm water, and let it again run out by 
 the divided vessels. Drain its water off, and secure all the 
 veins, the haemorrhoidal especially. 
 
 Injection. Throw any colour into the pipe, which will 
 pass into the splenic, mesenteric, and internal hsemorrhoi- 
 dai vein, and into the vena portae. 
 
 Dissection, Remove all the soft parts ; the stomach, 
 spleen, and intestines; cutting the vessels as long as pos- 
 sible, and dry them in the best manner, either attached to 
 the liver, or dissect away the liver from the vena portae, 
 taking care to preserve some of its ramifications. 
 
 Preservation. In a covered box. 
 
 HEART. 
 
 The heart is mostly injected out of the body, to show its 
 common and proper vessels. For this purpose, choose a 
 lean heart. Cut through the thoracic viscera immediately 
 at the top of the thorax : divide the intercostal arteries by 
 drawing the knife down the pleura, over the ribs beyond 
 their origin ; separate the vena cava inferior and aorta, in 
 the abdomen, with the cavae hepaticae; and remove the tho- 
 racic viscera, with the portion of the diaphragm surround- 
 ing the vessels. 
 
S58 
 
 Preparation. Soak the blood and coagula out of the ca- 
 vities of the heart, and press the blood from the coronaries. 
 Put a pipe into the vena cava superior, and another into 
 one of the pulmonary veins. Then tie the lungs at their 
 root, the vena cava inferior, the arteria innomiuata, the 
 left carotid and subclavian; and pass a ligature, with a slip- 
 knot, round the sinus of the aorta, and secure all other 
 open vessels. 
 
 Injection. The common coloured injections, red and 
 yellow, only are wanted. Throw the former into the pul- 
 monary vein, which will fill the left auricle, ventricle, aorta, 
 and coronary arteries. The yellow, being sent into the su- 
 perior cava, will distend the right auricle, coronary veins, 
 right ventricle, and pulmonary artery. In order to fill the 
 coronaries well, the injector must stop two or three times 
 in the course of the process, to squeeze on the injection in 
 them with his nail ; then heat the whole again, and throw 
 in more injection. The preparation having cooled, a pipe 
 is to be fixed at the bottom of the aorta, and some red in- 
 jection, just hot enough to run through the syringe, is to 
 be pushed along the aorta, an assistant throwing cold wa- 
 ter on the intercostals, if the injection runs through them. 
 Dissection. Cut away the lungs, pericardium, and all 
 the soft parts. 
 
 Preservation. Either in a covered box, or under a glass 
 bell. 
 
 STOMACH. INTESTINES. BLADDER. 
 
 These are best injected with the whole subject, but may 
 be removed and injected separately. 
 
359 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 i. The anatomist can only succeed by having the prepa- 
 ration constantly heated as he is throwing in the injection. 
 
 z. The injection should be thrown in very gradually. 
 
 3. When injected, the part should be immediately im- 
 mersed in cold water. 
 
 PREPARATIONS WITH MINUTE INJECTION. 
 
 BONES. 
 
 The vascularity of bones is to be demonstrated, by throw- 
 ing fine injection into an extremity, cutting out the bone 
 when cold, separating it from all the soft parts, immersing 
 it in water for a few days, to soak out the blood, and then 
 putting it into a mixture of muriatic acid and water in the 
 proportion of one ounce to a quart, for three or four months, 
 adding about every month, a drachm of acid. The limb 
 of a ricketty child is to be chosen. 
 
 Injection. Put a pipe into the largest artery of the ex- 
 tremity, and throw gradually the red injection into it, fix- 
 ing the stop-cock in the pipe. 
 
 A FCETUS. 
 
 Still-born children, when injected with minute injection, 
 afford a number of beautiful preparations. 
 
 Preparation. No water should be thrown into the ves- 
 sels. Fix a pipe with a stop-cock into the umbilical vein, 
 and tie the arteries in the ligature. 
 
360 
 
 Injection, lied injection is always chosen for this pur- 
 pose ; and throw it in with great care, until the abdomen 
 and skin all over become very tumid. First, mucus corned 
 from the nose and mouth, then the meconium from the 
 anus, and often pure size. 
 
 Dissection. Cut off the head from the shoulders, the 
 arms below the shoulder-joint, and the legs just below the 
 acetabulum; then preserve a small quantity of the integu- 
 ments around the navel, and remove all the anterior pa- 
 rietes of the abdomen and chest, so as to exhibit the tho- 
 racic and abdominal viscera. Cut away the integuments 
 and posterior part of the theca vertebralis, to exhibit the 
 medulla spinalis. 
 
 Preservation. Soak out the blood, and preserve it in 
 proof spirit, to show the viscera and their vascularity. 
 
 From a well-injected foetus may be obtained the follow- 
 ing preparations : 
 
 x. If the fcetus be about seven months old, the mem- 
 brana pupillaris. 
 
 2. If it be a male of this age, the testicle in the abdo- 
 men, with the gubernaculum. 
 
 3. The vascular and radiated fibres of the parietal bones. 
 
 4. The vascular membrane, including the teeth. 
 
 5. The viscera of the chest separate, if better injected 
 than those of the abdomen, showing the vascularity of the 
 lungs, thymus gland, and heart. 
 
 6. The stomach, which is to be inverted, to show its vas- 
 cular villous coat. , 
 
 7. The intestines., which are to be separated from the 
 mesentery, and inverted, to show their villous coat. 
 
 8. The glandula renales and kidneys together, to exhibit 
 
361 
 
 their relative size, and the lobulated structure of the kid- 
 ney. 
 
 9. The uterus and its appendages, to show the long ovaria 
 and plicae of the neck of the uterus and vagina. 
 
 10. The external parts of the female organs of genera- 
 tion, to show the hymen. 
 
 11. A red portion of the skin, to exhibit its vascularity. 
 
 1 2. The imdulla sjrinalis, to show its vessels, and the 
 cauda equina. 
 
 13. The membrana tympani, to exhibit its vascularity. 
 
 14. The cavity of the tympanum, to show its vascularity, 
 and that of >the periosteum of its bones. 
 
 15. The vestibulum and cochlea, to show the membranous 
 semicircular canals of the former, with their ampullae in- 
 jected, and the vascularity of the zona mollis. 
 
 16. The head, to show the natural appearance of the 
 face, the papillae of the lips, tongue, &c. 
 
 1 7. The hand, to show its natural colour. 
 Preservation. The above preparations are all to be well 
 
 soaked from their blood, and preserved in proof spirit of 
 wine. 
 
 1 8. A portion of skin, freed of its adeps, to show its vas- 
 xailarity. 
 
 19. The membrana tympani, to show its vessels. 
 
 3.0. The heart, to show the foramen ovale, by distending 
 the cavities with air; and, when dry, cutting away the 
 outermost sides of the auricles, and introducing a bristle. 
 
 21. Any large muscle, freed from its cellular membrane 
 and fat, and dried, to show the vascularity of the muscle. 
 
 Preservation. These are all to be dried, well varnished, 
 and preserved in bottles. Some prefer putting them into 
 spirit of turpentine j but this should be avoided as much as 
 
 R 
 
362 
 
 possible, for the turpentine is always oozing in warm vvua- 
 ther, and dirtying the glass. 
 
 UTERUS. 
 
 The object of injecting a uterus with fine injection is to 
 exhibit the vascularity of its internal membrane, which 
 furnishes the catamenia. For this purpose the uterus of a 
 person whose menstruation has not been stopped by age or 
 disease is to be selected. 
 
 Preparation. Remove the uterus, by dividing the vessels 
 as long as possible, the round and broad ligaments, and as 
 mueh as possible of the vagina. Tie a pipe in each hypo- 
 gastric artery, and secure all the divided vessels. 
 
 Injection. Any coloured injection may be chosen, but 
 red looks best. 
 
 Dissection, Cut away all the loose cellular membrane, 
 bladd&r. and rectum, if there be any, from around the va- 
 gina, and.cut it open along the middle of its superior part ; 
 continue this incision on each side of the anterior part of 
 the uterus, so as to exhibit the posterior surface of its ca- 
 vity. 
 
 Preservation. If the injection be successful, which it 
 seldom is more than one time in ten, suspend it by the liga- 
 ments, and preserve it in proof spirit. 
 
 AN ADULT HEAD. 
 
 Separate the head as low as the last cervical vertebra 
 from the shoulders. 
 
 Preparation. Put a bifurcated pipe into the carotids. 
 Secure the vertebral arteries and jugular veins, and all the 
 divided parts. 
 
363 
 
 Injection. The red injection is always preferred; 
 From an adult head injected in this way may be mo*I 
 the following preparations : 
 
 1. The upper eyelid, to show the vascular! ty of Meibo- 
 mius's glands. 
 
 2. The choi'oid membrane, exhibiting its vascularity. 
 
 3. The retina, suspended by the optic nerve, exhibiting 
 its vascularity. 
 
 4. A section of the optic nerve, to exhibit the central 
 artery. 
 
 5. The whole of the cerebrum, cerebellum y and medulla 
 oblongata, with the pia mater ; or, 
 
 6. The pia mater, separated from the convolutions of 
 the brain, to exhibit the inter gyral processes and the tomen- 
 tvm cerebri. 
 
 7. One half of the nostrils, to exhibit the vascularity of 
 Schneider's membrane, and that of the membrane lining the 
 antrum of Highmore. 
 
 8. The tongue, lying in the jaw, and suspended by the 
 palatum molle, with the posterior fauces cut away, to show 
 the epiglottis and glottis, the uvula and velum pendulum pa- 
 lati, the tongue, its papillae and excretory ducts, and the 
 vascularity of the gums and sublingual glands. 
 
 Preservation. The above preparations are to be soaked 
 veil in cold water, to get out all the blood, and then pre- 
 served in proof spirit. 
 
 PREPARATIONS WITH QUICKSILVER. 
 
 Mercury cannot be coloured by any substances; it 
 must, therefore, always present the same silver colour. 
 R z 
 
364 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 i. The parts should always be injected in a proper tray, 
 made similar to the wood-cut at the beginning of this sec- 
 tion, that the mercury may be easily collected. 
 
 z. A lancet, with a citrved needle ready threaded, should 
 be always at hand ; and, likewise, 
 
 3. A bottle, whose neck is not so wide as to permit the 
 quicksilver tube going to the bottom, when put into it. 
 
 4. When injecting, if any circumstance render it neces- 
 sary for the Injector to put aside the tube with the mercury, 
 it should be placed in the bottle, the mercury remaining in 
 it, to be handy and prevent delay. 
 
 5. Injecting with mercury is always tedious, and fre- 
 quently unsuccessful. The parts exposed must be kept 
 moist by sprinkling them with cold water. 
 
 A SUPERIOR EXTREMITY. % 
 
 To inject the lymphatics of an arm, choose one from a 
 dropsical subject, without fat ; make an incision into the 
 skin around the wrist, and seek diligently with a magnify- 
 ing glass, for an absorbent, into which the pipe is to be 
 put; when the quicksilver will immediately run. The 
 shoulder should now be placed considerably lower than the 
 hand ; and, when the mercury runs out at the divided ves- 
 sels in the axilla, tie them up, and also the lymphatic, into 
 which the pipe was introduced. Then seek for another ab- 
 sorbent. When the mercury ceases to run in a lymphatk-, 
 press it a little forward ; andUf that do not succeed, tie the 
 vessel, and seek for WotfreV. 
 
 Dissection. Begin at the lymphatics, where the mercury 
 
365 
 
 entered, and trace them j removing every thing that ob- 
 structs their ^view : but preserve the glands. 
 
 AN INFERIOR EXTREMITY. 
 
 The limb for this purpose should also be taken from a 
 dropsical person, and the same methpd adopted as with 
 the superior extremity, seeking as near to the toes as pos~ 
 sible for the lymphatics. 
 
 A PAROTID GLAND. 
 
 Cut down upon the masseter muscle, and seek for the 
 Stenonian duct, which is the excretory duct of the parotid, 
 Tie the quicksilver pipe in it, then fix the tube, and pour 
 into it the quicksilver; aud, when it ceases to run, remove 
 the tube and pipe, and tie the duct. Be particularly careful, 
 in dissecting away the gland, not to cut it. 
 
 Preservation. Dry it on a waxed board, and preserve it 
 on a blue paper and pasteboard, in spirit of turpentine. 
 
 LIVER. 
 
 The lymphatics running on the peritoneal coat of the 
 liver, and over the gall-bla'dder, make a beautiful prepara- 
 tion. The liver should be well soaked for several days, and 
 the pipe put into the lymphatics of the suspensory and co- 
 ronary ligaments, and the mercury forced along them, 
 breaking down the valves with the nail, by pressing on the 
 mercury. Secure the vessels at the portae of the liver, when 
 the mercury gets there, and tie the lymphatics when filled. 
 Should the anatomist's attempt to force the quicksilver be- 
 R 3 
 
366 
 
 yond the valves be unsuccessful, he must fix upon the most 
 minute obvious branch, and let it run its proper course. 
 
 Preservation. Throw some coarse injection into the 
 favae hepaticae and vena portae, without heating the liver 
 thoroughly; inflate the gall-bladder, and dry the whole. 
 Varnish it, and preserve it in the best manrier under a glass 
 bell, or preserve the injected part in proof spirit, without 
 any wax injection. 
 
 LUNGS. 
 
 The superficial lymphatics of the lungs are to be filled 
 from the part most remote from the root of the lungs. 
 
 Preservation. Cut away the part on which the lympha- 
 tics are filled. Dry it on a waxed board, varnish it, and 
 preserve it in a bottle, on a green or blue piece of paper ; 
 or preserve it in proof spirit, without drying it. 
 
 HAND. 
 
 Select the hand of an aged female (separated from the 
 arm by a transverse section, three inches above the wrist) 
 that has died of a lingering disease. Soak out the blood in 
 *varm water ; fix the pipe in the radial artery, then add the 
 tube, and pour into it the mercury. As the mercury appears 
 in the other arteries and veins, take them up and secure 
 them with ligatures. Should the mercury still escape from 
 small branches, put a cord round the arm, and, with a 
 piece of wood, tighten it, by twisting the wood, taking care 
 ixot to prevent the mercury passing into the hand. Then 
 suspend the hand in a glass filled with water, and suspend 
 also the tube and quicksilver in the manner represented in 
 plate, page 336, for a day or two, that the mercury may 
 
367 
 
 get into the small vessels. When injected, remove th pipe, 
 and tie, by a strong string, the fore-arm; put the hand into 
 water, until putrefaction separates the cuticle. 
 
 Preservation. Dry it carefully, and varnish it ; then fix 
 the fore-arm on a pedistal of plaster of Paris, and keep thi 
 beautiful preparation under a glass bell. 
 
 LACTEALS. 
 
 Remove the mesentery and intestines, if the former be 
 perfectly free from fat, and let them remain several days in 
 water, which should be frequently changed. Search for an 
 absorbent, on the intestine, into which introduce the quick- 
 silver, which will run on to the glands in the mesentery, 
 where it will stop. When the lacteals are filled, the prepa- 
 ration will be more elegant if red and yellow coarse injec- 
 tion be thrown into the mese'nteric arteries and veins. 
 
 Preservation. Spread the mesentery on a waxed board, 
 inflate a portion of the intestine, clear away all that is use- 
 less ; dry and varnish, and preserve it in a glass frame. 
 
 CORRODED PREPARATIONS. 
 
 These preparations are made by filling the vessels with, 
 coarse injection, and corroding the soft parts, so as to ex- 
 hibit those vessels. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 i. The liquor for corrosion is to consist of three parts of 
 muriatic acid, and one of water. 
 R 4 
 
358 
 
 2. The liquor should be kept in a well-glazed earthe 
 vessel, with a top to it, also well glazed. 
 
 3. The part to be corroded should be carefully moved in 
 and out of this liquor, as the slightest force may break the 
 vessels. 
 
 4. When corroded, the pulpy flesh is to be carefully 
 washed away, by placing it under a cock of water, the 
 water flowing very slowly j or, in some instances, by squirt- 
 ing it away. 
 
 5. When the preparation is freed of its flesh, it should 
 be fixed in the situation it is to remain in, either on a plaa~ 
 ter of Paris pedistal, or on a flat surface. 
 
 6. If the flesh be not perfectly destroyed, the prepara- 
 tion is to be returned to the corroding liquor for a fortnight 
 or month longer, or until it become pulpy. 
 
 HEART AND LUNGS. 
 
 These viscera, occupying less space in children than 
 adults, are to be preferred from the former. It is of no con- 
 sequence whether they are fat or lean. The integuments 
 should be cut from the fore part of the neck ; and the tra- 
 choa, jugular veins, and carotid arteries removed, and, 
 with them, the viscera of the thorax ; carefully separating 
 the subclavian vessels from the clavicle, without injuring 
 them, and dividing the axillary vessels and the cava infe- 
 rior and aorta, just below the diaphragm. 
 
 Preparation. Soak the whole well, to free it of its blood, 
 and press out all the fluids : fix a pipe in the inferior cava, 
 and another in one of the pulmonary veins, taking care not 
 to injure the others, by tying it. Then secure the carotids, 
 the jugulars, the axillary vessels, the vertebral artery, the 
 
360 
 
 kntercostals, the aorta, after it has formed its arch, the in- 
 ternal mammaries, and every vessel that can be found. 
 
 Injection. Red and yellow are generally preferred, but 
 red and blue are more proper, and more elegant. Throw 
 the blue into the vena cava inferior, which will distend the 
 right auricle, the superior cava, the jugular veins, and 
 great coronary vein, the right ventricle, and pulmonary ar- 
 teries. The red injection will fill the left auricle and pul- 
 monary veins, the aorta, subclavians, carotids, &c. 
 
 Preservation. Great care is requisite in freeing the in- 
 jeetiou from the pulpy flesh- When done, let the apex of 
 the heart be placed immediately on a plaster of Paris pedis- 
 tal, and cover it with a glass. If the pulmonary vessels 
 are well preserved, it forms a valuable preparation. If one 
 good preparation be obtained in ten trials, it will amply 
 repay the anatomist. 
 
 HEART. 
 
 A fat heart will do for this purpose. Inject it as di- 
 rected in page 353, and put it into the corroding liquor. 
 
 Preservation. Lay it on some cotton, on a pedestal, and 
 cover it with a glass. 
 
 LIVER. 
 
 The liver of a child is to be preferred to that of an adult, 
 it occupying much less room : its vessels should be cut long, 
 and with it the portion of the duodenum, perforated by the 
 bile-duct. 
 
 Preparation. Fix a pipe into the hepatic artery, another 
 into the vena portae, a third into the ductus communis cho- 
 ledochus, and a fourth in the vena cara hepatica. 
 * 5 
 
370 
 
 Injection. The four injections are the red, yellow, dark 
 blue, and light blue. First, throw the red injection into the 
 bepatic artery, next the dark blue into the vena port*, then 
 the light blue into the cavae hepaticae, and lastly, the yellow 
 into the ductus communis choledochus. 
 
 Preservation. Remove the pipes as soon as the injection 
 will permit; and, when corroded, fix the trunks in the best 
 manner possible, upon a proper pedestal : then wash away 
 the flesh, dry it, and cover it with a glass. 
 
 KIDNEY. 
 
 Choose the kidney of an old drunkard. Cut the emul- 
 gent vessels close to the aorta and cava, and the ureter, 
 very low j then remove the kidney with all its surrounding 
 adeps. 
 
 Preparation. Soak out the blood, and press out all the 
 fluid. Fix a pipe, in the emulgent artery, another in the 
 vein, and a tiiird in the ureter; and tie up all the open- 
 mouthed vessels. 
 
 Injection. Red, blue, and yellow. First throw the yel- 
 low into the vein, then the red into the artery, and lastly, 
 the blue into the ureter. 
 
 Preservation. Under a glass bell. The kidneys of dif- 
 ferent animals form a beautiful exhibition. 
 
371 
 
 ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SURGICAL, 
 AND MEDICAL QUESTIONS, &c. 
 
 1. How many tones compose the cranium ? 
 
 2. What is the union of the bones of the skull termed ? 
 
 3. Describe the situation of the sphsenoid bone. 
 
 4. Into how many portions is the temporal bone distin- 
 ^. guished ? 
 
 5. In what bone is the organ of hearing situated ? 
 
 6. How many tables have the bones of the cranium ? 
 
 7. What is the name of the substance which unites the two 
 
 tables of the cranium ? 
 
 8. What is the name of the suture which connects the 
 
 frontal with the parietal bones ? 
 
 9. By what suture is the occipital bone united to the pa- 
 
 rietal bones ? 
 
 10. What name is given to the suture which connects the 
 
 parietal bones ? 
 
 11. How many species of sutures are there ? 
 
 i j. What bones are united by the false sutures ? 
 
 1 3. Through what foramina do the olfactory nerves pass out 
 
 of the cranium? 
 
 14. Where is the foramen magnum occipitale situated ? 
 
 15. To what bone does the crista galli belong? 
 
 * 6 
 
372 
 
 16. T6 what bone does the sella turcica belong ? 
 
 1 7. Describe the frontal bone. 
 
 1 8. Where is the os ethmoides situated ? 
 
 19. What bone separates the ethmoid from the occipital 
 
 bone? 
 
 20. To what bone does the mastoid process belong ? 
 
 21. How many bones compose the orbit ? ' 
 
 22. How many bones compose the lower jaw ? 
 
 23. What bones form the septum narium ? 
 
 24. To what bone do the superior turbinated bones, as they 
 
 are called, belong ? 
 
 25. In what bone is the antrum of Highmore situated? 
 
 26. What separates the antrum of Highmore from the orbit ? 
 
 27. la there any communication between the orbit and the 
 
 nostril ? 
 
 28. What is the name of the process of the lower jaw to 
 
 which the temporal muscle is attached ? 
 
 29. Is there any communication between the tympanum of 
 
 the ear, and back part of the mouth ? 
 
 30. How many bones are there in the tympanum ? 
 
 31. To what bone of the cranium does the styloid process 
 
 belong ? 
 
 32. What bones form the foramen lacerum in basi cranii ? 
 
 33. What are the processes of the sphaenoid bone called, 
 
 which form the sides of the posterior nostrils ? 
 
 34. What passes through the foramen lacerum in basi 
 
 cranii ? 
 
 35. Does the os palati form any part of the orbit? 
 
 36. Where is the vomer situated ? 
 
 37. Point out the situation of the zygomatic processes oa 
 
 the face. 
 
 38. Where is the os unguis situated? 
 
373 
 
 39- What U the name of the portions of the os ethftioides 
 which hang down into the nostrils? 
 
 40. What is the shape of the os malae ? 
 
 41. What are the bones called which compose the spine ? 
 
 42. Describe the spine. 
 
 43. What is there peculiar to the second vertebra ? 
 
 44. How would you distinguish a dorsal vertebra from the 
 
 rest ? 
 
 45. Where is the os hyoides situated ? 
 
 46. Describe the scapula. 
 
 47. What bone is fixed to the acromion scapulae ? 
 
 48. How many bones has the fore-arm ? 
 
 49. Where is the ulna situated ? 
 
 50. On what bone do we lean when on our elbow ? 
 
 51. What is the process called on which we lean? 
 
 52. How many bones are in the shoulder-joint ? 
 
 53. How many bones compose the elbow-joint? 
 
 54. What bone unites the arm to the thorax ? 
 
 55. How many bones compose the carpus ? 
 
 56. What receives the head of the os femoris ? 
 
 57. Where is the os tinea situated ? 
 
 58. What bone supports the leg ? 
 
 59. How many bones compose the tarsus ? 
 
 60. Where is the trochanter major situated ? 
 6-1. On what bone is the linea aspera? 
 
 6z. What are the processes on the lower end of the os fe- 
 moris called ? 
 
 63. How many bones compose the knee-joint ? 
 
 64. What are the bones of the leg called ? 
 
 65. What is the shape of the tibia ? 
 
 66. What bone forms the inner ankle ? 
 
 67. What bone forms the outer ankle ? . i , 
 
374 
 
 68. What arc the names of the bones of the tarsus ? 
 
 69. How many bones compose the pelvis ? 
 
 70. How would you distinguish a male frjom a female pelvis ? 
 
 71. Into how many portions is the os innominatum distin- 
 
 guished? 
 
 7*. What separates the ossa innominata from each other 
 behind ? 
 
 73. Is there any bone between the ossa innominata ante- 
 
 riorly ? 
 
 74. Where is the os coccygis situated ? 
 
 75. What is the name of the cavity that receives the bead 
 
 of the thigh-bone ? 
 7*6. To what bone does the acetabulum belong ? 
 
 77. What bones form the hip-joint ? 
 
 78. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium ? 
 
 79. Of what bone is the ascending ramus of the pubis a 
 
 part ? - v i 
 
 80. What bones form the thorax ? 
 
 81. What is the use of the periosteum ? 
 
 82. Describe the contents of the cranium. 
 
 83. What membrane nourishes the internal table of the 
 
 skull ? 
 
 84. What does the falciform process of the dura mater se- 
 
 parate ? 
 
 85. What vessel runs in the falciform process of the dura 
 
 mater? 
 
 86. Where is the tentorium situated ? 
 
 87. How many lobes has the cerebrum ? 
 
 88. How many lobes has the cerebellum ? 
 
 89. What are the cavities in the brain called ? 
 
 90. What separates the lateral ventricles from each other ? 
 
 91. From what part of the brain does the pineal gland 
 
 arise ? 
 
375 
 
 9*. From what part of the brain does the optic 
 arise ? 
 
 93. What nerves pass through the foramen lacerum orbitale 
 
 superius ? 
 
 94. Through what foramina do the fifth pair of nerves pass 
 
 out of the cranium ? 
 
 95. Does the arm receive nerves from the brain, or from, 
 
 the spinal marrow ? 
 $6. What nerve supplies the nose for the sense of smelling ? 
 
 97. What nerve supplies the diaphragm ? 
 
 98. Where does the great sciatic nerve arise ? 
 
 99. What is the name of that ganglion in the abdomen 
 
 which supplies most of the abdominal viscera ? 
 
 100. What does the foramen magnum occipitale transmit? 
 
 101. How many membranes has the brain ? 
 
 102. What are the processes of the dura mater called ? 
 
 103. What are the viscera of the thorax ? 
 
 104. How many lobes has the left lung? 
 
 105. What separates the chest into two cavitiea? 
 
 106. What are contained in the posterior mediastinum? . 
 
 107. What is there in the anterior mediastinum of in/an" 
 
 which disappears toward? adult age ? 
 
 108. Describe the heart. \ .t 
 
 109. Do the aunciag of the heart communicate before birth ? 
 no. Where is the Eustachian valve situated ? 
 
 in. Where is the Eustachian tube situated? 
 
 1 1 2. What is the name of the valves at the origin of the 
 
 aorta ? 
 
 113. What are the differences between the fetal .and adult 
 
 heart ? 
 
 1 14. Where is the ductus arteriosus situated ip the fetus ? 
 
 115. What viscera are contained in the abdomen ? 
 
 2 
 
376 
 
 176. What u the menabrane called, that lines the cavity and 
 covers tb.6 viscera of the abdomen ? 
 
 117. Are the kidneys completely enveloped in the perito- 
 
 neum ? 
 
 1 1 8. Describe the stomach. 
 
 119. What viscera are attached to the greater curvature of 
 
 the stomach ? 
 
 1 20. Describe the liver. 
 
 in. What is the use of the liver? 
 
 122. What are the excretory ducts of the liver called ? 
 
 1 23. How would you distinguish the small from the large in- 
 
 testines ? 
 1 14. Describe the situation and course of the colon. 
 
 125. What is the excretory duct of the kidney called ? 
 
 126. Describe the uterus. 
 
 127. Through what tube does the ovum pass from the ova- 
 
 rium into the uterus ? 
 
 128. What is the excretory duct of the testicle called ? 
 
 129. What is the proper juice of the stomach called ? 
 
 130. Where is the spleen situated ? 
 
 131. Describe the eye. 
 
 132. How many coats has the eye ? 
 
 133. How many chambers has the eye ? 
 
 1 34. What separates the anterior from the posterior cham- 
 
 ber of the eye ? 
 
 135. What is contained in the capsule of the crystalline 
 
 lens? 
 
 136. What artery nourishes the crystalline lens ? 
 
 137. Where is the pigmentum nigrum of the eye situated? 
 
 138. Where is the lachrymal sac situated ? 
 
 139. What is situated in the groove at the lower internal 
 
 edge of each rib ? 
 5 
 
 I 
 
377 
 
 140- What difference is there in the situation of the right 
 and left kidney ? 
 
 141. What ducts enter the duodenum ? 
 
 142. In what intestines are the valvulae conuiventes found ? 
 
 143. What is the name of the duct leading from the pelvi* 
 
 of the kidney to the bladder ? 
 
 144. What forms the linea alba ? 
 
 145. How many openings has the right auricle ? 
 
 146. Where do the ostia of the lacteals open ? 
 
 147. How many openings has the left auricle ? 
 
 148. What is the true organ of vision ? 
 
 149. What is the general division of the internal ear? 
 I <O. What uerVes form the gprpat sympathetic ? 
 
 151. Do the,olfactory nerves supply the nose with the senoe 
 
 of fleling ? 
 
 152. How many arteries are there ? 
 
 153. What are the arteries called, which supply the kidney? 
 
 1 54. What is the name of the vessels which nourish the heart ? 
 
 155. What are the blood-vessels of the stomach called ? 
 
 156. Where is the popliteal artery situated ? 
 
 157- What arteries are given off from the arch of the aorta? 
 
 158. What artery ramifies upon the anterior parietes of the 
 
 abdomen ? 
 
 159. What is the course and distribution of the epigastric 
 
 artery ? 
 
 1 60. What is the course of the femoral artery? 
 
 161. What are the terminations of arteries? 
 
 162. What are the veins at the flexure of the arm ? 
 
 163. What muscles are inserted into the patella? 
 
 164.. What is the name of the muscles which are inserted 
 into the os cale_i ? 
 
378 
 
 165. What is the name of the tendon which is formed by the 
 
 gastrocnemius and soleus muscles ? 
 1 66* Do the external condyles of the humerus give origin to 
 
 the extensor or flexor muscles of the arm ? 
 
 167. What muscles are attached to the coracoid process of 
 
 the scapula ? 
 
 168. Where is the diaphragm situated? 
 
 i 69. What are the muscles of the abdomen ? 
 
 1 70. Where is the longest crus of the diaphragm situated ? 
 
 171. What tendon passes through the shoulder-joint ? 
 
 172. What are the salivary glands called? 
 
 173. Where is the thyroid gland situated ? 
 
 174. Where is the pituitary gland situated ? 
 
 175. Where is the lachrymal gland placed ? 
 
 176. What are the most important fasciae of the body ? 
 
 177. What are the ligaments about the shoulder- joint? 
 378. What are the ligaments of the pelvis ? 
 
 179. What is the name of the ligament which connects the 
 
 os femoris to the bottom of the acetabulum ? 
 
 180. What is the name of the ligaments within the joint 
 
 which connect the condyles of the femur to the tibia ? 
 
 18 1. What are bursae mucosae, and their use ? 
 
 182. The circulation of the blood. 
 
 183. How do you distinguish venal from arterial blood ? 
 
 1 84. What is the contraction of the heart called ? 
 
 185. In what viscus does the change from venal into arterial 
 
 blood take place ? 
 
 186. What is the colour of the blood in the pulmonary ar- 
 
 tery ? 
 
 187. What is the cause of the bile regurgitating into the 
 
 gall-bladder? 
 
379 
 
 1 88. What is the use of the urinary bladder ? 
 
 189. What is the use of the gastrie juice ? 
 
 190. How is inspiration performed ? 
 
 191. What is meant by secretion ? 
 
 192. What change is produced on the blood in the lungs ? 
 
 193. How is expiration performed ? 
 
 194. Why does not the fluid, exhaled to lubricate the differ- 
 
 ent cavities of the body, accumulate ? 
 
 195. What membrane moderates the effect of light on th* 
 
 retina ? 
 
 196. What is the use of the fluid which fills the labyrinth 
 
 of the ear ? 
 
 197. Why does not the fat gravitate to the lower extremities 
 
 after long standing; like the fluid of an anasarcous 
 limb ? 
 
 198. Why does not the urine, which is a saline fluid, excite 
 
 inflammation of the bladder ? 
 
 19.9. Does the radius or the ulna move in pronation and.su- 
 pination ? , 
 
 200. What are the symptoms of compressed brain ? 
 
 201. What are the symptoms of concussion of the brain ? 
 
 202. How would you distinguish a fissure of the cranium 
 
 from a suture ? 
 
 203. What practice would you adopt to relieve concussion 
 
 of the brain ? 
 
 204. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, how 
 
 would you endeavour to elevate it ? 
 
 iO$. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, where 
 would you apply the trephine to raise it ? 
 
 206. What do you mean by an exompbalos ? 
 
 207. What is a bubonocele ? 
 
380 
 ao8. What do you mean by a hydrocele ? 
 
 209. What are the symptoms of a strangulated intestine ? 
 
 2 10. Describe the operation for strangulated inguinal hernia. 
 
 211. What method is to be taken, if, after liberating a stran- 
 
 gulated intestine by operation, a great quantity of 
 irreducible thickened omentum exists ? 
 
 212. What is the difference between a femoral and an in- 
 
 guinal hernia ? 
 
 2*13. What are the circumstances by \vhich you judge an 
 operation is necessary to liberate a strangulated 
 hernia ? 
 
 214. What means would you have recourse to in order to 
 
 reduce a strangulated hernia, before you judge it 
 necessary to perform the operation ? 
 
 215. What are the symptoms of suppression of urine ? 
 
 216. How would you attempt to relieve a suppression of 
 
 urine, in a medical point of view ? 
 
 a 1 7. When these means fail to evacuate the urine, what 
 would you have recourse to ? 
 
 218. What do you mean by a popliteal aneurism ? 
 
 219. Describe the operation for popliteal aneurism, 
 J.ZO. Describe the symptoms of a phlegmon. 
 
 221. How would you treat a phlegmon ? 
 
 222. How would you treat a violent ophthalmia? 
 
 223. How would you treat gangrene in general ? 
 
 224. When a locked jaw arises from an injury of the great 
 
 tpe, how would you endeavour to relUve it ? 
 Z2g. When a ball is lodged in the calf of the leg, and it is 
 
 necessary to make an incision upon it ; in what dU 
 
 rection would you make that incision ? 
 226. How does the complete division of a punctured artery, 
 
 as the temporal, stop the haemorrhage ? 
 
381 
 
 247- What is the cause of the cold sensation and numbness 
 of the leg and foot, generally felt from an aneurism 
 of the popliteal artery? 
 
 *j,8. If the brachial artery be taken up near the flexure of 
 the arm, how will the circulation be carried on ? 
 
 229. How is amputation of the shoulder-joint to be per- 
 
 formed ? 
 
 230. How many species of white-swelling are there ? 
 
 231. What muscles are cut through in the operation for li- 
 
 thotomy on the male ? 
 
 232. What are th-e peculiarities of a gun-shot wound ? 
 133. How is an aneurismal tumour distinguished from other 
 
 tumours ? 
 z 34. What is the substance generally found in aneurismal 
 
 sacs ? 
 
 235. How is amputation below the knee to be performed ? 
 2 3 6. What are the consequences that generally arise from 
 
 wounded nerves ? 
 
 237. What is meant by a compound fracture ? 
 
 238. What generally takes place when a bone is denuded 
 
 of its periosteum ? 
 
 239. What bone is perforated in operating for fistula lachry- 
 
 malis ? 
 
 240. Why are luxations of the shoulder-joint more frequeat 
 
 than luxations of the hip-joint ? 
 
 141. Under what circumstances is amputation of an extre- 
 mity necessary ? 
 
 ^42. What forms the sac iu femoral hernia ? 
 
 243. In what direction is Poupart's ligament to be divided, 
 if necessary, to liberate strangulated femoral hernia ? 
 
 ^44. How many ways are there of puncturing the bladder to 
 relieve suppression of urine ? 
 
882 
 
 145- > a what part of the arm is pressure to be made before 
 
 amputation of the fore-arm ? 
 346. At what part of the aorta do aneurisms most frequently 
 
 take place? 
 
 247. What are the unfavourable circumstances in compound 
 
 fracture, that require amputation of the extremity? 
 
 248. What are the signs of a fractured cranium ? 
 
 249. What is the cause of stupor, or coma, in fracture of 
 
 the cranium ? 
 
 250. What is the medical treatment in fracture of the skull ? 
 
 251. Why are fistulas generally dilated? 
 
 252. How is the radical cure of hydrocela performed ? 
 
 253. Where does a psoas abscess generally point ? 
 
 254. What are the signs of a wounded artery ? 
 
 255. What are the terminations of inflammation ? 
 
 256. What method is to be taken after a cannon-ball has 
 
 torn off a limb ? 
 
 257. What are the circumstances which prevent the dilata- 
 
 tion of gun-shot wounds to extract the extraneous 
 body ? 
 
 258. What is the treatment of gun-shot wounds ? 
 
 259. What is the treatment of contused wounds ? 
 
 260. What are the terminations of erysipelas? 
 
 261. Under what circumstances is an artificial anus to be 
 
 formed ? 
 
 262. How is gastroraphe performed ? 
 
 263. How is emphysema produced from a wound of the 
 
 thorax? 
 
 264. What is the treatment of wounds of the joints ? 
 
 265. What is meant by spina ventosa ? 
 
 266. What is the prognosis in wounds of the abdominal 
 
 viscera ? 
 
383 
 
 *6y. Into what cavities of the body may an abscess of the 
 liver rupture ? 
 
 268. What symptoms accompany wounds of the abdominal 
 viscera ? 
 
 2.69. How is the hip-joint disease distinguished from an af- 
 fection of the knee-joint, as the forerunning symp- 
 tom of the hip-joint disease is generally pain in the 
 knee ? 
 
 270. What do you mean by tetanus? 
 
 271. How would you treat inflammation of the bowels ? 
 ,272. What is dysentery ? 
 
 273. How should dysentery be treated ? 
 
 274. What are the symptoms of enteritis ? 
 
 275. What are the symptoms of volvulus? 
 
 276. What are the symptoms of nephritis? 
 
 .277. How do you distinguish hepatitis from gastritis ? 
 
 278. What purges would you give in nephritis? 
 
 279. What are the symptoms of pneumonia ? 
 
 280. How would you distinguish cystitis from enteritis ? 
 
 281. When gangrene takes place in internal parts, what are 
 
 the symptoms ? 
 
 282. What are the symptoms of hydrocephalus ? 
 
 283. What is a typhus fever ? 
 
 284. What practice should be adopted in a typhus fever ? 
 
 285. What is the best way to destroy the fetid smell of sick 
 
 wards ? 
 
 286. What is meant by scrofula? 
 
 287. What is the best method of relieving inflammatory af- 
 
 fections ? 
 
 288. What means have been found the most effectual in de- 
 
 stroying contagion ? 
 
385 
 
 i 
 
 > 
 
 GLOSSARY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 Explanation of Anatomical Terms. 
 
 A 
 
 EN. The canty of the belly ; from abdo to hide, a* 
 
 including the intestines and other viscera. 
 
 LLUM. The cavity which receives the head of the 
 
 thigh-bone; from acetum vinegar: so called, because it 
 
 represents the acetabulum, or saucer, of the ancients, ia 
 
 which vinegar was held for the use of the table. 
 Ac i NI. A species of gland; from acinus a grape or berry. 
 ACROMION. A process of the scapula; from *xg6t extremity, 
 
 and oj/xoj the shoulder. 
 ADENOLOGY . The doctrine of the glands ; from a&r a gland, 
 
 and Xoyot a treatise. 
 AMNI ON. A membrane that surrounds the foetus, which is soft- 
 
 and shaggy; frcrcn atp.vioi a lamb's skin. 
 AMPHIARTHROSIS. A species of connexion of bones, which 
 
 admits of an obscure motion : from ap.$u both, and ofdfOTir 
 
 ait articulation. 
 AN ASTOM osis. The communication of vessels with one another ; 
 
 from y* through, and ro/*-* & mouth. 
 
 i 
 
386 
 
 ANATOMY. The dissection of animals; from y* through, 
 and n/Avu to cut. 
 
 ANCON. The elbow ; from ayxoiv, from a<yxaoj,j to embrace, 
 OMTO ra ayxjjffOai Ersfw orEw ro o$-ov, because the bones meet- 
 ing, and being there united, are folded one into another. 
 
 ANCONEUS. A muscle; so called from <yxwv the elbow. 
 
 ANCONOID Process of the cubit ; from <yx<uv the elbow, and 
 IIQOS shape. 
 
 ANGIOLOGY. The doctrine of the vessels; from afytto* a ves- 
 sel, and Ao<yoy a treatise. 
 
 AORTA. Aofrn: from anf air, and rvgtu to keep: an artery so 
 called, because the ancients supposed that only air was 
 contained in it. It may rather be derived from *af u to 
 convey, as serving to convey the blood to the rest of the 
 
 body. 
 
 APONEUROSIS. A tendinous expansion; from avo from, and 
 f ov a nerve ; from an erroneous supposition of the an- 
 cients, that it was formed by an expansion of a nerve. 
 
 APOPHYSIS. A process of a bone ; from avotpvu to proceed 
 from. A synonym of Process. 
 
 ARACHNOIDES. A web-like membrane; from otgttwn a spider, 
 and r>oj likeness. 
 
 ARTERY. From a.t\% air, and r*ifew to keep; because the 
 ancients sunposed that only air was contained in them. 
 
 ARTHRODIA. A species of connexion of bones; from /j0fo to 
 articulate. 
 
 ARYTMNOIDES. The name of two cartilages of the larynx; 
 also applied to some muscles of the larynx ; from tt^vranva. a 
 funnel, and u$os shape. 
 
 ASTRAGALUS. A bone of the tarsus; so called from its re- 
 semblance to a die used in ancient games, from rf ?AOJ 
 a cockal, or die. 
 
 ATLAS. Thefint vertebra of the neck; so called, because it 
 
387 
 
 sustains the head : from the fable of Atlas being 1 supposed 
 
 to have supported the world ; or from *r\ttu to sustain, 
 
 because it sustains the head. 
 AZYGOS. A term applied to parts without a fellow ; from the 
 
 privative particle <x, and wyoj a yoke ; because it has no 
 
 fellow. 
 
 B 
 BRACHIUM. The arm: hence os brachii, brachialis externus, 
 
 &c. ; from (3^ ttjfvs short ; because, in a well-proportioned 
 
 man, it is shorter from the shoulder to the hands than 
 
 from the hip to the feet. 
 BRONCHIA. The ramification of the trachea or wind-pipe; 
 
 from /3fx to pour, because the ancients believed that the 
 
 fluids were conveyed into the stomach by the bronchia. 
 BURS A. A bag; from t/f<r: generally applied to thebursae 
 
 mucosae. 
 BURSALOGY. The doctrine of the burse mucosas; from gi/f<r* 
 
 a bag, and Aoyo a treatise. 
 
 C 
 
 CALVAR!A. The top of the cranium; from calvus bald. 
 CANCELLI. Lattice-work,- generally applied to the reticular 
 
 substance in bones. 
 CARDTA. The superior opening of the stomach ; from xotfitet 
 
 the heart ; because it is situated near it. 
 CAROTID. The name of some arteries of the neck and head; 
 
 from xf ow to cause to sleep ; for, if tied with a ligature, 
 
 the animal becomes comatose, or has the appearance of 
 
 being asleep. 
 
 CARPUS. Ka^wof ; the wrist. 
 CHQBION. The external membrane of the foetus in utero. 
 
 Xf jo, from x*"?** to escape ; because it always escapes 
 
 from the uterus with the foetus. 
 
 S 2 
 
3S8 
 CNOROID. From yw^-, the chorion, and s<Sor likeness ; so 
 
 called on account of the many blood-vessels resembling 
 
 the chorion. 
 CLAvfc ULA. The clavicle or collar-lone, a diminutive of clatis 
 
 a key ; so called from its resemblance to an ancient key. 
 CLINOID. Four processes of the selln turcica of the ethnu.id 
 
 bone are so called; from xXvr a bed, and i.So* likeness ; 
 
 from their supposed resemblance to a couch. 
 CLITORIS. Apart of the female pudenda, enclosed by the labia 
 
 majora; from xXnw to enclose or hide. 
 COLON. The first of the large intestines; from xXo, quasi 
 
 icoiXav, from x<Xj hollow ; it generally being- found empty, 
 
 and full of wind, in the dead bedy. 
 CONDYLE. An eminence in any of the joints ; xovSvXor, from 
 
 xovcfu an ancient cup shaped like a joint. 
 CORACO. Names compounded with this word belong to 
 
 muscles which are attached. to the coracoid process of the 
 
 apapula ; as coraco-hyoideus, &c. 
 CORACOID. From xoga% a crow, and uJor resemblance ; 
 
 shaped like the beak of a crow. 
 CORONARY. From corona a crown. The vessels of the heart^. 
 
 stomach, &c. are so called, because they surround the part* 
 
 in the manner of a crown. 
 CORONOID. A process so called, from xo^wm a crow, and ejSo* 
 
 likeness ; from its resemblance to a crow's beak. 
 COTYLOID. From XOTWX-W the name of an old measure, and 
 
 nlos resemblance ; resembling the kotule. 
 CRANIUM. The skull; xfav<o, quasi xfv<o, from xf the 
 
 head. 
 CREMASTER. A muscle so called ; from xfifnau to suspend ; 
 
 because it suspends th testicle. 
 CRIBRIFORM. From cribrum a sieve ; it being perforated 
 
 like a sieve. 
 
389 
 CRICOID. Annular, round, like a ring; from Kgixos a ring, 
 
 and noos likeness. 
 CRURA. The plural of crus, a leg or root; applied to some 
 
 parts of the body, from their resemblance to a leg or root, 
 
 as crura cerebelli, &c. 
 CUBOIDES. A bone of the foot; from xvGot a cube, and sitict 
 
 likeness ; because it resembles a cube. 
 CUNEIFORM. Some bones are so called; from cuneus a w 
 
 and/orma likeness; being shaped like a wedge. 
 
 DARTOS. A muscle of the scrotum; from fy to excoriate* 
 
 DELTOID. A muscle resembling the Greek letter A : from A, 
 and i/Soj resemblance. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM. The muscle which separates the thorax from the 
 abdomen ; from Stetcpgairlu to divide. 
 
 DIARTIIROSIS. A moveable connexion of bones; from SjafSfo* 
 to articulate. 
 
 DIGASTRIC. From 5r twice, and ^arn/j a belly; having two 
 bellies. 
 
 DIPLOE. The spongy substance between the two taffies of the 
 skull; from StvXou to double. 
 
 DUODENUM. The first portion of the small intestine i so 
 called because the ancients supposed that it did not ex- 
 ceed the breadth of twelve fingers ; from duodenus, con- 
 sisting of twelve. 
 
 DURA MATER. The outermost membrane of the brain ; called 
 dura, because it is much harder than the other mem- 
 branes, and mater, from the ancients supposing it was the 
 source of all the other membranes. 
 
390 
 
 EMBRYO. The child in the womb is so called before the fifth 
 month, after which it is termed fcetusi from t^fyvu to bud 
 forth. 
 
 ENARTHROSIS. An articulation of bones; from t in, and a$- 
 BpQv a joint or articulation. 
 
 ENTERIC. Belonging to the intestines; from evrifov an entrail 
 or intestine. 
 
 EPIDERMIS. The scarf or outermost skin; from <j upon, and 
 StgfAK the skin. 
 
 EPIDIDVMIS. The small oblong- body which lies above the tes- 
 ticles; from ttri upon, and SiSv/A-os a testicle. 
 
 EPIGASTRIC. The superior part of the abdomen; from M 
 upon, and 7 rnf the stomach. 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS. A cartilage of the larynx so called ; from siri 
 upon, and tyx-trltt the aperture of the larynx ; being situ- 
 ated upon the glottis. 
 
 EPIPHYSIS. A portion of bone growing upon another bone, but 
 separated from it by a cartilage; from tvi upon, and <pvw 
 to grow. 
 
 EpFpLOON. The membranous mscus of the abdomen, which co- 
 vers the intestines, and hangs to the bottom of the stomach; 
 from nwrteu to swim upon. 
 
 EPIISTROPH&US. The second vertebra of the neck ; from g^i- 
 rpoQau to turn round; because the head is turned upon it. 
 
 ETHMOID. From tO^or a sieve, and <5oj resemblance ; be- 
 ing perforated like a sieve. 
 
 F 
 FALCIFORM. Shaped like a sickle; fsom fate a sickle. 
 
391 
 
 FASCI"A. An expansion of a muscle, inclosing others Hke a 
 
 band; from fastis a bundle. 
 
 FASCI CULUS. A little bundle, dim. of fastis a bundle. 
 FAUCES. The plural of faux the top of the throat. 
 
 GALACTOPHEROUS. From <y*Xae milk, and pef to carry; con- 
 veying the milk. 
 
 GANGLION. rVyXiov, a knot in the course of a nerve. 
 
 GASTRocNiMi us. The muscle which forms the thick of the 
 leg; from <y$-rp a belly, and XVH/AH the leg 1 . 
 
 GENIO. Names compounded with this word belong to 
 muscles which are attached to the chin, as genio-glossus 
 genio-hyoideus genio-pharyngeus, &c. ; from 7w/o 
 the chin. 
 
 GENU. The knee; from ymv, -BOL^O. ro i tt <y>; ujjy, because 
 by it the body is bent towards the earth. 
 
 GLVGLYMUS. An articulation; from ytfyXvpot a hinge. 
 
 GLENOID cavity. From 7Xnyn a cavity, and ttSos resemblance. 
 
 GLOMER, A convoluted bundle of vessels; generally applied to 
 the lymphatic glands. 
 
 GLOSSO. Names compounded with this word belong to mus- 
 cles which are attached to the tongue ; as glosso-pharyn- 
 geus glosso-staphilinus, &c,; from <yX<ra the tongue. 
 
 GLOTTIS. The superior opening of the larynx at the bottom of 
 the tongue, from 7Xc.;r7 the tongue. 
 
 GLUT^US. The name of a muscle; from yXaro* the buttocks. 
 
 GOMPHOSIS. Yopipuais inciavation, a species of imm&veable 
 connexion of bones; from yo^oy a nail; because one bone 
 is fixed in another bone like a nail in a board. 
 
 s 4 
 
392 
 
 H 
 
 HARM ON i A. A species of imnwveable connexion */ boaes, 
 t, from agM to fit together. 
 Ttie outward circle of the ear,- from i<Xcu to turn 
 
 about. 
 
 HKFAR. The liver. 'Hiro^, an abdominal viscus. 
 HYALOID. From taxot glass, and u$ likeness : the capsule 
 
 of the vitreous humour of the eye is so called, from its 
 
 transparent and glossy appearance. 
 HYGROLOGY. The doctrine of the fluids; from v-yf>oj a fluid, 
 
 and Xo7or a treatise. 
 HYMEN. The membrane situated at the entrance of the virgin 
 
 vagina; from 'Y^* Hymen, the god of marriage. 
 HYO. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles 
 
 which are attached to the os hyoides, as hyo-glossus hyo- 
 
 pharyngeus hyo-thyroideus ; from vouSts the os hyoides. 
 HYQIDES. A bone of the tongue, so called from its resemblance 
 
 to the Greek Y; from o, and gjSor resemblance. 
 HYPOCHONDIU DM. Tfutt part of the body which lies under the 
 
 cartilages of the spuriotis ribs; from VTTO under, and ^ovS^of 
 
 a cartilage. 
 
 H YPOG ASTRIC . The lower region of the fore part of tJie abdo- 
 men; from vs-o under, and 7rn/? the stomach. 
 
 I 
 
 II.F.UM. A p<n-tion of the small intestines; from Xtu to turn; 
 
 being always convoluted. 
 ILIUM. Part of the os innominatum ; so called because it 
 
 supports the jXu, or small intestines. 
 JSCHIUM. The part of the os innominatum upon which we sit; 
 
 from er^v to sustain. 
 
LACUNA. The excretory duct of the glands of the urethra and 
 
 vagina; from lacus a channel. 
 LAMBDOIDAL suture. So called, because it is shaped lik 
 
 the letter X; from X, and nSoj resemblance. 
 LARYNX. The superior part of the windpipe; XocpvyJ- the 
 
 larynx. 
 
 M 
 
 MASSETER. A muscle of the face, which assists in the action 
 of chewing; from /MUffaop,au to chew. 
 
 MASTOID. From /**$< a breast, and *Soj likeness ; shaped 
 like a nipple or breast. 
 
 MEDIASTINUM. The production of the pleura, wJtich divides 
 the thorax into two cavities ; from medium the middle, 
 quasi in medio stare. 
 
 MESENTERY. The membranes to which the intestines art at- 
 tached; from fturos the middle, and syrtfov an intestin* j 
 because it is in the middle of the intestines. 
 
 MESOCOLON. That part of the mesentery in the middle ofth* 
 colon; from JAWS the middle, and xwXoy the colon. 
 
 METACARPUS. That part of the hand between the carpus and 
 fingers; from pirat after, and xapitos the wrist. 
 
 METATARSUS. That part of the foot between the tarsus and 
 toes; from P.ITO, after, and rttpyos the tarsus. 
 
 MYLO. Names compounded with this word belong to 
 muscles which are attached near the grinders, as mylc- 
 hyoides mylo-pharyngeus, &c.; from ^vX*j a grindsr- 
 tooth. 
 
 * 5 
 
39* 
 
 MYOLOGY. The doctrine of the muschs; from >*vj a muscle, 
 and Aoyof a treatise. 
 
 N 
 
 NEUROLOGY. The doctrine of the nerves; from nvgov a 
 nerre, and Xo<yo* a treatise. 
 
 ODONTOID. Tooth-like,- from o& a tooth, and /3oj resem- 
 blance. 
 
 (ESOPHAGUS. The canal leading from the pharynx to the sto- 
 mach; from o<o> to carry, and p<x<y to eat; because it 
 carries the food into the stomach. 
 
 OLECRANON. TJie elbow, or head of the ulna ; from atevn the 
 cubit, and x?vo the head. 
 
 OMENTUM. An abdominal viscus; so called from omen a 
 guess ; because the soothsayers prophesied from the in- 
 spection of this part. 
 
 OMO. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles 
 which are attached to the scapula, as omo-hyoideus, &c. 
 from ay-toy the shoulder. 
 
 OMOPLATA. The scapula, or shoulder-blade; from up,ot the 
 shoulder, and ts^arvs broad. 
 
 ORGASM. A violent salaciousness, attended with turgescence in 
 the parts; from o^tnu to desire vehemently. 
 
 OSTEOLOGY. The doctrine of the bones.; from oytoy a bone, 
 and Aoyoj a treatise. 
 
395 
 
 PANCREAS. A viscus of the abdomen; so called from its 
 fleshy consistence ; from way all, and Mptas flesh. 
 
 PARENCHYMA. TJie substance connecting the vessels, &c. of 
 the lungs is so called ; from w*f ayxvw to pour through. 
 
 PAROTID gland', from tsapa near, and as the ear : because it 
 is situated near the ear. 
 
 PELVIS. A bony cavity, shaped like a basin; from isites a 
 basin. 
 
 PERICARDIUM. The membrane which surrounds the heart; 
 from CTE/JI around, and xotgtiia the heart. 
 
 PERICRANIUM. The membrane which covers the bones of the 
 skull; from istpi around, and x/iayoy the cranium or head. 
 
 PERIOSTEUM. The membrane which surrounds the bones; 
 from tf; around, and orsoy a bone. 
 
 PERISTALTIC motion of the intestines; from if<j-XA to con- 
 tract. 
 
 PERITONEUM. The membrane lining the abdomen, and cover- 
 ing its viscera ; from rstpirnvu to extend around. 
 
 PHALANX. The bones of the fingers and toes are called pha- 
 langes, from their regular situation, like a <p*Xa7| or army 
 of soldiers. * - 
 
 PHARYNX. A membranous bag at the end of the mouth; avo 
 ra $ipw, because it conveys the food into the stomach. 
 
 PHRENIC or diaphragmatic nerve. Qftvit the diaphragm ; 
 from $pni the mind ; because the ancients supposed it to 
 be the seat of the mind. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. That part of natural history which treats of 
 the actions and functions of an animated body; from 
 nature, and Xoy a treatise, 
 s 6 
 
596 
 Pu MATER. The innermost membrane of the brain; o called 
 
 because it embraces the brain as a good mother folds her 
 
 child. 
 PLACENTA. The after-birth; from rox<jex a cake, on account 
 
 of its resemblance to a cake. 
 PLATYSMA-MYOIDES. A muscle of the necks from urXarvr 
 
 broad, f*vs a muscle, and ti$os resemblance. 
 PLEURA. The membrane lining the thorax; roXet/pa the side. 
 PLEXUS. A kind of net-work of vessels or nerves; from plecta 
 
 to weave together. 
 PREPUCE, or foreskin of the penis; from prceputo to cut oft' 
 
 before ; because the Eastern nations usually cut it off. 
 PSOAS. A muscle so called ; from >J/o* the loin, being" situ- 
 ated in the loins. 
 PTERYGOID process. From ?ft| a pen or wing, and <So? 
 
 likeness; so called from its likeness to a pen "or wing. 
 PYLORUS. The lower vrifice of the stomach, which opens into 
 
 the intestines; from wuXow to guard an entrance ; becatise 
 
 it guards as it were the entrance of the bowels. 
 
 R 
 
 RAPH&V A suture , 'Pap* : from /7w to sew. 
 
 RENES. The kidneys, anro rov /nv, because through them 
 the urine flows. 
 
 RETINA. The net-like expansion of the optic nerve, on the in- 
 ner surface of the eye ; from rete a net. 
 
 RHOMBOIDES. A muscle so called from its shape; from /o^uCoi 
 a geometrical figure, whose sides are equal but not right- 
 angled, and 5oy a likeness. 
 
 ROTVLA. The knee-pan ; a dim. of rota a wheel, from it* 
 chape. 
 
597 
 
 SACRUM. A bone so called; from sacer sacred, because it was 
 
 once offered in sacrifices. 
 
 SALVATELLA. A vein of the foot, so called because it was 
 thought the opening of it preserved health, and cured 
 melancholy : from salvo to preserve. 
 SANGWS. The blood; o T aaeiv 7^*, because it preserve* 
 
 the body. 
 SARTORIUS. A muscle so called, because tailors cross their legs 
 
 with it; from sartor a tailor. 
 
 SCAPHA. The depression of the outer car before the anti-helix ; 
 .from <rx*(pT a little boat or skiff; from axaMr7 to dig, be- 
 cause skiffs were formerly only trees made hollow, 
 SCAPHOIDES. A bone of the carpus, so called from its resem- 
 blance to a skiff; from a*ct<pn a skiff, and n$ot likeness. 
 SCLEROTIC. A term applied to the outermost or hardest mem- 
 brane of the eye ; from <rxXjf ow to make hard. 
 SELLA TURCICA. Part of the sphaenoid is so called from its 
 
 supposed resemblance to a Turkish saddle. 
 SESAMOID bones. From awotf/.'n an Indian grain, and etSa* 
 
 likeness ; from their resemblance to the semen sesami. 
 SIGMOID. Parts are so called from their resemblance to the 
 
 letter : from , the letter Sigma, and Sos likeness. 
 SPHENOID. From <r<pny a wedge, and $o* likeness; shaped 
 
 like a wedge. 
 
 SPHINCTER. The name of several muscles whose office it ii to 
 shut up the aperture around which they are placed .- from 
 9p t ^fca to shut up. 
 
 SPLANCHNOLOG Y. The doctrine of the viscera; 
 an *ntrail, nnd Xoyo a treatise. 
 
398 
 
 SYMPHYSIS. A connexion of bones; from erv/*puw to grow to- 
 gether. 
 
 SYNARTHROSIS. A connexion of bones; from <rvy with, and 
 a^Qfov a joint. 
 
 SYNCHONDROSIS. A species of union of bones by means of car- 
 tilage; from aw with, and ^ov&fo* a cartilage. 
 
 SYNDESMOLOGY. T he doctrine of the ligaments ; from ffwy^ff^oj 
 a ligament, and Xo7oj a treatise. 
 
 SYNDESMOSIS. A species of union of bones by means of liga~ 
 ment; from <rvy$jcr/*or a ligament. 
 
 SYNEUROSIS. A species of connexion of bones by means of 
 membrane; from <rt-y with, and yevfoy a nerve; because 
 membranes, ligaments, and tendons, were by the ancients 
 considered as nerves. 
 
 SYSSARCOSIS. A species of connexion of bones by means of 
 muscle ; from <rvr with, and <r*f flesh. 
 
 SYSTOLE. The contractile motion of the heart and arteries; 
 from <rvfEXX to contract. 
 
 TENDON. From ruvu to extend. 
 
 THECA* The spinal canal is called tlieca vertebralis; from 
 
 $Y>XT a repository ; from n6n/Ai to put. 
 THORAX. agct%. The breast or chest; from So^w to leap ; 
 
 because in it the heart beats. 
 THYRO. Names compounded with this word belong to 
 
 muscles which are attached to the thyroid cartilage. 
 THYROID. From $ygoj a shield, and 3oy likeness ; shaped 
 
 like a shield. 
 TRACHEA. The windpipe, so called from its roughness j 
 
* 399 
 
 TRAPEZOID. From r^am^iof a four-sided figure, and uSos 
 
 likeness ; resembling a trapezium. 
 TROCHANTER. A process of the thigh-bone, so called from 
 
 Tfx to run; because the muscles inserted in these parts 
 
 perform the office of running. 
 TROCHLEA. A kind of cartilaginous pulley, through which 
 
 the tendon of one of the muscles of the eye passes ; from 
 
 f^f/u to run. 
 TROCHOIDES. A species of articulation of bones; from Tfo^o* 
 
 a wheel, and tt$os likeness ; because one bone moves 
 
 round upon another, like a wheel upon an axle-tree. 
 
 U 
 
 ULNA. A name for the cubit ; from a/Xsyu the cubit. 
 URETER. The canal which conveys the urine from the kidney 
 
 to the bladder ; from ngo urine. 
 URETHRA. The passage through which the urine passes from 
 
 the bladder ; from v the urine. 
 UVEA. The posterior lamina of the iris; so called, because 
 
 in beasts (which the ancients chiefly dissected) it is of the 
 
 colour of unripe grapes ; from uva an unripe grape. 
 UVULA. The glandular substance which hangs down from the 
 
 middle of the soft palate; so called from its resemblance to 
 
 a grape. A diminutive of uva a grape. 
 
 V 
 
 VALVES. Little membranes that prevent the return of the blood 
 in the veins and arteries; from valves folding doors. 
 
 VERTEBRJE. The bones of the spine are so called ; from verto 
 to turn. 
 
 VOMER. A bone of tJie nose, so called from its resemblance 
 to a ploughshare ; from vomo to turn up. 
 
400 
 
 X 
 
 XIPHOID. So called from the resemblance to a. sword ; from 
 fpoj a sword, and 3c; likeness. 
 
 Z 
 
 ZYGOMA. .The cavity under the zygomatic process of the tem- 
 poral bone; from u<yoy a yoke, because it transmits the 
 tendon of the temporal muscle like a yoke. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A Page 
 
 ABDOMEN ........... 278 
 
 Abdominal region .... ib. 
 
 --- ring ...... 113 
 
 Abductor indicis mantis 138 
 -- pollicis mantis ib. 
 -- minimi digiti 
 manus ............ 139 
 
 pedis ............. 151 
 
 -- pollicis pedis ib. 
 Abscess ............. 156 
 
 Absorbents .......... 180 
 
 -- , diseases of 184 
 Absorption, physiology of ib. 
 --- of bone ... 8 i 
 Accelerator urinse .... 114 
 
 Accessory nerve of Willis 194 
 Acetabulum .......... 51 
 
 Acromion ............ 56 
 
 Action of arteries .... 173 
 
 - veins ...... 179 
 
 - the brain . . . 238 
 Additamentum ad sacro- 
 
 lumbalem ......... 126 
 
 -- suturae 
 lambdoidali ....... 9 
 
 - : --- suturae 
 
 squamosae ib. 
 
 Adductor brevis femoris 140 
 
 longus femoris ib. 
 
 ! magnus femoris 
 
 ib. 
 
 Pa*. 
 
 Adductor minimi digiti 
 mantis ............ 139 
 
 - pollicis mantis 1 38 
 --- pedis 151 
 Adenology ........... 205 
 
 Adipose membrane . . . 220 
 Air-vesicles .......... 267 
 
 Alae majores . . . ...... 20 
 
 -- miuores ......... ib. 
 
 Almonds of the ear ... 210 
 Alveolar artery ....... 1 64 
 
 -- nerve, posterior 190 
 Alveoli .............. 27 
 
 Alveus commimis ..... 246 
 
 Amnion ............. 316 
 
 Amphiarthrosis ....... 74 
 
 Ampulla ............ 246 
 
 Anatomy ............ i 
 
 -- , comparative ib, 
 Anchyblepharum ..... 244 
 
 Anchylops ........... ib. 
 
 Anchylosis .......... 82 
 
 Ankle-joint .......... 72 
 
 Anconeus ........... 133 
 
 Anconoid process 
 Aneurism, popliteal 
 --- , varicose . 
 Angina cedematosa. 
 - pectoris ... 
 Angiology ..... 
 Angular artery 
 
 59 
 171 
 176 
 257 
 163 
 i6z 
 164 
 
 ven . 
 
402 
 
 Page 
 
 Anterior auris 101 
 
 Antihelix 245 
 
 Antitragicus icz 
 
 Antitragus 245 
 
 Antrum of Highmore.. 27 
 
 . maxillare ib. 
 
 , perforation of . 28 
 
 Aorta 163 
 
 descendens 168 
 
 Aphthae 255 
 
 Aponeurosis, plantar . . 152 
 
 Apophysis 5 
 
 Appendicula caeci vermi- 
 
 formis 283 
 
 epiploic. . . ib. 
 
 Aqueduct of Sylvius. . . 232 
 
 Aqueous humour 243 
 
 Arachnoid membrane. . 223 
 
 Arbor vitae 234 
 
 Areola 265 
 
 Arm 57 
 
 Arteria sethmoidalis ... 165 
 
 alveolaris ib. 
 
 angularis 1 64 
 
 auditoria 167 
 
 auris post 164 
 
 axillaris 167 
 
 basil aris ...... 166 
 
 brachialis 167 
 
 bronchialis . . . . 168 
 
 carotidea 163 
 
 cerebelli 166 
 
 cerebri 165 
 
 cervicalis 167 
 
 coeliaca 169 
 
 cruralis 171 
 
 cubitalis 168 
 
 duodena gastrica 1 69 
 
 epigastrica .... 1 70 
 
 facialis 164 
 
 femoralis 171 
 
 fibulae 172 
 
 '. . frontalis 165 
 
 Page 
 
 Arteria gastrica 169 
 
 glutealis ...... 1 70 
 
 gutturalis. . 164, 166 
 
 hsmorrhoidalis 170 
 
 hepatica 169 
 
 humularis 167 
 
 hypogastrica ... 17 
 
 iliaca 171 
 
 infraorbitalis .. 165 
 
 innominata. ... 163 
 
 intercostalis 167, 168 
 
 ischiatica 170 
 
 labialis 164 
 
 lachrymalis .... 165 
 
 laryngea 164 
 
 lingualis ib. 
 
 lumbalis 169 
 
 malleolaris .... 171 
 
 mammaria .... 167 
 
 mammilaris. . . . 166 
 
 maxillaris exter- 
 
 164 
 ib. 
 
 inaxill. infer. . . 
 maxillaris inter- 
 
 ib. 
 ib, 
 
 169 
 171 
 
 memngea . . 
 mesenterica 
 metatarsea . 
 
 nasalis ........ 165 
 
 obturatoria .... 170 
 
 occipitalis ..... 164 
 
 o?sophagalis ... 168 
 
 ophthahnica ... 165 
 
 palatina ....... ib. 
 
 palat. ascend. 
 infer 
 
 164 
 ib. 
 i jo 
 166 
 
 16 
 
 pens 
 
 pericardiaca .. 
 pharyngea 
 plantaris 
 poplitea ...... 
 
 posterior auris 
 profuuda femoris 171 
 
 I7 1 
 1 6 
 
403 
 
 Page 
 
 Arteria profunda humeri 16 
 
 pterygoidea .... 1 64 
 
 pudica 170 
 
 pulmonalis .... 172 
 
 radialis 168 
 
 retinae 165 
 
 sacralis 169 
 
 sperinatica ib. 
 
 . splenica ib. 
 
 stylomastoidea . 1 64 
 
 subclavicularis 
 
 163, 166 
 
 subscapularis . . 167 
 
 supra-scapularis ib. 
 
 tarsea 171 
 
 temporalis 165 
 
 temp, post 164 
 
 thymica 166 
 
 tibialis antica. . 171 
 postica . ib. 
 
 Page 
 
 Auricular vein 176 
 
 Auris 245 
 
 Axillary "artery 167 
 
 nerve 195 
 
 vein 175 
 
 Azygos uvulae 309 
 
 process 20 
 
 transversalis fa- 
 
 ciei 1 64 
 
 ulnaris 1 68 
 
 uterina 170 
 
 veualis 169 
 
 vertebralis 1 66 
 
 Arterial system 162 
 
 ib. 
 
 173 
 ib. 
 
 Arteries 
 
 , action of . . 
 
 , diseases of. 
 
 Arch, superciliary 14 
 
 of the aorta 163 
 
 Artificial skeleton 6 
 
 Arytaeno-epiglottideus . no 
 
 Arytaenoid cartilage . . . 259 
 
 Aryta-noideus obliquus. no 
 
 '- transver- 
 
 sus ib. 
 
 Ascites abdominalis ... 278 
 
 Astragalus 71 
 
 Atlas 45 
 
 Auditory canal, internal 1 1 
 
 nerves 247 
 
 | Barba 219 
 
 Barbula 247 
 
 Basilare os 17 
 
 I Basilary artery 166 
 
 | process 18 
 
 Basilic vein 175 
 
 Biceps flexor cruris .... 145 
 
 . cubiti .... 132 
 
 Bile... 2i 
 
 Blepharophthalmia .... 244 
 
 Blood 319 
 
 , circulation of the 276 
 
 Blood-vessel subject . . . 345 
 
 Bones colour of 4, 73 
 
 composition of . 3 
 
 doctrine of .... ib. 
 
 diseases of 80 
 
 growth of 76 
 
 nerves of 73 
 
 processes of. . 
 substance of . . 
 
 table of 
 
 vessels of 
 
 : Bony fibre , 
 
 | Body, principles of the 
 
 ! Brachial artery 167 
 
 vein 176 
 
 Brachialis internus .... 132 
 Brachio-cubital ligament 90 
 
 radial ligament 9 1 
 
 Breasts 264 
 
 Bronchia? 262 
 
 Bronchial glands 210 
 
 Brunner's glands ..... 284. 
 
404 
 
 buccinator .^ 100 
 
 Bursse mucosae 157 
 
 Bursalogy ib. 
 
 Caecum 283 
 
 Calamus scriptorius ... 235 
 
 Calcaneum 71 
 
 Calvaria 10-1 2 
 
 Canalis arteriosus ..... 317 
 
 caroticus 1 8 1 
 
 mentalis 32 
 
 nasalis ...'.... 27 
 
 venosus 317 
 
 Canal of Petit 243 
 
 40 
 3 
 
 99 
 219 
 
 295 
 
 -, semicircular 
 
 Cancelli 
 
 Caninus 
 
 Capilli 
 
 Caput gallinaginis 
 
 Caries of bones 83 
 
 - 1 , honeycomb .... 12 
 
 Carnese columnae 272 
 
 Carotid artery . , 163 
 
 canal 1 1 
 
 Carpus 62 
 
 Cartilage 84 
 
 Caruncula lacrymalis . . 208 
 
 Carunculae myrtiformes 306 
 
 Catamenia 312 
 
 Cataract 343 
 
 Catarrhus 251 
 
 Cavitas innominata .... 245 
 
 Cauda equina 197 
 
 Cellular membrane .... 220 
 
 Centres of ossification . 76 
 
 Centrum ovale 227 
 
 tendinosum .. 117 
 
 Cephalic vein 175 
 
 Cerato-glossus 106 
 
 Cerebellum 234 
 
 Cerebral artery 165 
 
 '. ..i . nerves ....... 186 
 
 Page 
 
 Cellular tissue 220 
 
 Cerebrum 2.^5 
 
 Cerumen aurium 327 
 
 Cerumiuous glands .... 208 
 
 Cervicalis desceadens. . 126 
 
 Cervical vertebrae 44 
 
 glands 209 
 
 Chalk in bones 84 
 
 Chamber of the eye . . . 243 
 
 Chancre $99 
 
 Cheeks 215 
 
 Chondro-glossus 106 
 
 Chorda tympani 246 
 
 Chordae Willisii ....... 222 
 
 Chorion . . 316 
 
 Choroid membrane. ... 326 
 
 Chyle 331 
 
 Chylification 284 
 
 Chymification 281 
 
 Cilia ... 219 
 
 Ciliary ligament 242 
 
 Circulation of the blood 276 
 
 in the foetus 3 1 8 
 
 Circumflexus palati ..... 108 
 
 Clavicula 90 
 
 Clavis 54 
 
 Clinoid processes. 1 1 
 
 Clitoris 305 
 
 Coccygeus i r6 
 
 Cochlea 40 
 
 Coeliac artery 169 
 
 plexus of nerves 200 
 
 Colic arteries 169 
 
 Collaterals penis . . .,. . . 114 
 
 Colon 283 
 
 Colour of bones ...... 73 
 
 Columna anonyma .... 229 
 
 spinalis 41 
 
 vertebralis ... 41 
 
 Commis. ant. cerebri *. 231 
 
 inf. cerebri ... ib. 
 
 sup. cerebri . . 227 
 
 mag. ccrebri . ib. 
 
405 
 
 Page 
 
 Conamis. post, cerebri. . 232 
 
 Commissures 226 
 
 Common integuments 217 
 
 Complexus 127 . 
 
 major ib. 
 
 minor ib. j 
 
 Compressor nasi 101 J 
 
 Conception, physiology of 3 1 2 j 
 
 Concha auris 245 i 
 
 Conchas inferiores 30 i 
 
 Conglomerate gland . . . 206 j 
 
 Coui vasculosi 300 j 
 
 Conjunctive membrane 241 
 Connexion of bones ... 74 ! 
 Constrictor isthmi fau- 
 
 cium 108 
 
 nasi 101 
 
 oris 100 
 
 pharyng. inf. 109 
 
 1 med. ib. 
 
 sup. ib. 
 
 alae nasi . . . 101 
 
 Coraco-brachialis 131 
 
 hyoideus 106 
 
 Coracoid process 56 
 
 Corda tendmeae 272 
 
 Cornea opaca 241 
 
 transparens . . . ib. 
 
 Cornu Ammouis 229 
 
 Corona glandis 212 
 
 Coronal suture 9 
 
 Coronary artery of the 
 
 lips 164 
 
 of the 
 
 stomach 169 
 
 Coronoid process 56 
 
 Condyloid foramina ... 18 
 Corpora candidantia 
 
 Willisii 226 
 
 Corpora cavernosa penis 297 
 
 lutea 310 
 
 cSivaria 236 
 
 ; quadrigemina 232 
 
 Page 
 Corpora pyramidalia. . . 236 
 
 sesamoidea . . . 272 
 
 Corpus annulare 236 
 
 callosum 227 
 
 ciliare 24* 
 
 iimbriatum .... 229 
 
 mucosum 218 
 
 pampiniforme . . 302 
 
 reticulare 218 
 
 spongiosuni penis 297 
 
 striatum 228 
 
 Corrugator supercilii . . 97 
 
 Costs 46 
 
 Cowper's glands ...... 213 
 
 Cranium, adult ......- g 
 
 , foetal 13 
 
 , honeycomb 
 
 caries of i z 
 
 Crassamentum 3 1 9 
 
 Cremaster 114 
 
 Cribriform plate ...... 25 
 
 foraminula ib. 
 
 Crico-arytaenoideus late- 
 
 ralis no 
 
 obliquus ib* 
 
 posticus ib. 
 
 thyroideus 107 
 
 Cricoid cartilage 260 
 
 Crista galli 2 j 
 
 Crucial ligaments 93 
 
 spine ...^ ig 
 
 Cruor 
 
 319 
 
 Crura cerebri 26 
 
 Cruraeus 144 
 
 Crural artery 171 
 
 nerve 197 
 
 vein 178 
 
 Cruralis 144 
 
 Crypta 291 
 
 Crystalline lens ....... 243 
 
 Cubital artery 168 
 
 Cubitus 59 
 
 Cuneiform process .... 20 
 
406 
 
 Page 
 
 Cuspidatus 36 
 
 Cutaneal nerves, bra- 
 
 chial 195 
 
 Cuticula 217 
 
 Cutis ib 
 
 Cynanche maligna 210 
 
 oedematosa . . 257 
 
 parotidea . . . 209 
 
 tonsillaris . . . 256 
 
 trachealis . . . 263 
 
 Cystic glands 112 
 
 Dartos 114 
 
 Decidua 375 
 
 Deglutition, physiology 
 
 of 258 
 
 Deltoides 131 
 
 Dentata 44 
 
 Dentatus ib. 
 
 Dentes sapientiae 37 
 
 Deprimens oculi 98 
 
 Depressor labii inferioris 100 
 
 anguli oris . . ib. 
 
 supe- 
 
 rioris et alae nasi .... 101 
 
 Dennis 218 
 
 Descent of the testicle 302 
 
 Diaphragma 117 
 
 Diaphragmatic nerve . . 1 1 8 
 
 " veins . . ib. 
 
 Diaphragmitis ib. 
 
 Diarthrosis 74 
 
 Diastasis of bones .... 82 
 
 Diastole 277 
 
 Digastricus 105 
 
 capitis .... 96 
 
 Digestion 281 
 
 Digital veins 177 
 
 Digiti mantis 64 
 
 pedis 73 
 
 Dilator alae nasi 99 
 
 Diploe 10 
 
 Page 
 
 Distichiasis 244 
 
 Dorsal glands 211 
 
 nerves 196 
 
 vertebra 45 
 
 Duct, thoracic 183 
 
 Ductus ad nasum 27 
 
 comnmnis 290 
 
 cysticus ....... 289 
 
 hepaticus ib. 
 
 pancreaticus . . . 291 
 
 Duodenum 282 
 
 Dura mater 221 
 
 meninx , ib. 
 
 Ear 215 
 
 Ejaculator seminis .... 114 
 
 Ejaculatory ducts 304 
 
 Elbow joint 61 
 
 Elementary fibre i 
 
 Empyema 266 
 
 Emulgent artery 169 
 
 Enarthrosis 74 
 
 Encanthus 244 
 
 Encephalon 225 
 
 Enteric juice 331 
 
 Enteritis 284 
 
 Entropium 244 
 
 Ephippium 21 
 
 Epicranius 96 
 
 Epidermis 204, 217 
 
 Epididymis 300 
 
 Epigastric artery 1 70 
 
 region 216 
 
 Epiglottis 260 
 
 Epiphysis 5 
 
 Epiplocele 280 
 
 Epiploic glands 212 
 
 Epiploitis 260 
 
 Epiploon 279 
 
 Epistrophaeus 45 
 
 Epithelmium 217 
 
 Epulis 244 
 
407 
 
 Erector clitoridis 
 
 penis 
 
 Page 
 
 . 116 
 . 114 
 . 16 
 
 Ethmoidal harmony 
 
 Eustachiaa tube 24 
 
 valve 271 
 
 Excretion of the urine 293 
 
 Exfoliation 3 
 
 Exostosis 8 1 
 
 Expiration 268 
 
 Expulsion of the faeces 285 
 Extensor brevis cubiti 134 
 
 dig. ped. 150 
 
 carpi rad. long. 133 
 
 - brev. 134 
 
 carpi ulnaris ib. 
 
 digit.communis 1 34 
 
 indicis proprius 136 
 
 long-us cubiti 1 34 
 
 digit, ped. 148 
 
 major poll. 
 
 mantis 136 
 
 tertius pollicis ib. 
 
 min. dig. ma- 
 
 Titis 134 
 
 pollicis primus 136 
 
 secund. inter- 
 
 nodii ib. 
 
 secund. pollicis ib. 
 
 ossis metacar- 
 
 pi pollicis mantis .... ib. 
 
 primi iuteruod. 136 
 
 primus pollicis 135 
 
 proprius poll. 
 
 ped. 
 
 tarsi minor . . 
 suralis 
 
 149 
 146 
 ib. 
 
 Eye 239 
 
 Eyelids 97 
 
 Facial artery 164 
 
 nerve 191 
 
 Faeces, expulsion of ... 285 
 3 
 
 Falciform process ..... 221 
 
 Fallopian hiatus 24 
 
 tubes 308 
 
 Falx 221 
 
 Fascia 139 
 
 of the thigh ... ib. 
 
 Fascialis 143 
 
 Fauces 256 
 
 , bony. 37 
 
 Femoral artery 171 
 
 vein 1 78 
 
 Femur 65 
 
 Fenestra ovalis 39 
 
 rotunda ib. 
 
 Fibre, elementary i 
 
 Fibula 68, 93 
 
 Fifth ventricle 228 
 
 Fingers 64, 92 
 
 Finger-joints 64 
 
 Fissura magna cerebelli 234 
 cerebri 226 
 
 Fissures 83 
 
 Flexor brevis digitorum 
 
 pedis 150 
 
 minimi di- 
 
 giti pedis 151 
 
 pollicis mantis 
 
 - pedis 
 
 138 
 150 
 '35 
 134 
 
 carpi radialis . . 
 
 ulnaris . . . 
 
 digitorum acces- 
 
 sorius 
 
 profundus 137 
 
 i sublimis 136 
 
 149 
 
 longus digitorum 
 
 pedis 149 
 
 pollicis . . 137 
 
 poll, pedis 149 
 
 parvus minimi 
 digiti 139 
 
 perforans pedis ib. 
 
 perforatus pedis ib. 
 
 profundus pedis ib. 
 
408 
 
 Page 
 Flexor sublimis pedis . . 149 
 Fluids, doctrine of .... 318 
 Focile majus 59 
 Foetus 316 
 
 Fragility of bone* 
 
 Pagfc 
 84 
 297 
 ib. 
 
 H 
 176 
 189 
 14 
 3^5 
 ib. 
 
 54 
 218 
 
 206 
 
 265 
 184 
 187 
 169 
 
 ZII 
 
 329 
 z8t 
 z8 4 
 > 146 
 ib. 
 279 
 3 
 14* 
 ib. 
 297 
 to6 
 105 
 
 74 
 205 
 
 297 
 
 245 
 57 
 
 'I 5 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 384 
 255 
 171* 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 Folliculose gland ib. 
 Fons pulsatilis 1 2 
 
 
 
 Fontanel ib 
 
 Funiculus umbilicalis 
 
 Foot 70 
 
 Foramen, anterior orbi- 
 tar i <5 
 
 
 Furfura 
 
 
 
 condyloideum 
 12, 18 
 incisivum ... 27 
 lacerum in basi 
 cranii i z 
 
 G 
 
 Galactopherous ducts . . 
 Gall-bladder . . 
 
 Ganglion of nerves . . . . 
 
 orbitale supe- 
 
 
 ; magnum occi- 
 
 
 Gastritis 
 
 of Monro . . . zz8 
 of Winslow . . z79 
 
 
 Gastrocnemius externu 
 
 
 
 parietale .... 17 
 posterior orbi- 
 tar . i < 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 
 
 rotundum ... 1 1 
 spinosum . . . ib. 
 stylo-mastoi- 
 
 Generation, organs of 
 Genio-srlossus 
 
 
 
 superciliare . . 15 
 tbyroideum . . 51 
 Foramina cribrosa .... 1 1 
 maxillaria ... 3z 
 orbitalia nasi 14 
 
 Glands, doctrine of . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thebesii .... 272 
 
 Glomerate gland 
 
 
 
 Fossit ju^alis x* 
 
 
 l^r&cturcs 8z 
 
 
 t 
 
409 
 
 Page 
 
 Gluleus magnus 141 
 
 major ib. 
 
 maximus ib. 
 
 medius ib. 
 
 minimus 142 
 
 minor ib. 
 
 Gomphosis 75 
 
 Gonorrhoea 299 
 
 Gracilis 143 
 
 anterior 144 
 
 internus 143 
 
 Growth of bones 76 
 
 Gubernaculum testis . . 302 
 
 Gummi 83 
 
 Gums 252 
 
 Gyri 226 
 
 H 
 
 Haematocele 303 
 
 Haemorrhoidal artery . . 170 
 
 Haemorrhois 284 
 
 Hairs 219 
 
 Hamular process 20 
 
 Hand 6 1 
 
 Harmonia ethmoidalis 16 
 
 sphaenoidalis ib. 
 
 Harmony 75 
 
 Harvey, life of xix 
 
 Head 8, 220 
 
 Hearing, bony cavity of 38 
 
 , physiology of 248 
 
 Heart, adult 270 
 
 Helicis major 102 
 
 minor ib. 
 
 Helix 245 
 
 Hepar 287 
 
 Hepatic artery 288 
 
 -glands 211 
 
 plexus of nerves 192 
 
 Hepatitis 289 
 
 Hernia 113, 284 
 
 humoralis 302 
 
 strangulated 113, 284 
 
 Page 
 
 Hiatus Fallopii 24 
 
 Highmore, antrum of . . 27 
 
 Hip joint 66 
 
 Hippocampus major . . . 229 
 minor . . . ib. 
 
 Honeycomb caries of the 
 
 cranium 13 
 
 Hordeolum 244 
 
 Hyaloid membrane .... 242 
 
 Hydrocele 30* 
 
 Hydrocephalus externus 
 
 et internus 324 
 
 Hydrocordis 275 
 
 Hydrorachitis ........ 44 
 
 Hydrothorax 266 
 
 Hygrology 318 
 
 Hymen 305 
 
 Hyo-glossus 1 06 
 
 thyroideus 107 
 
 Hyoides os 38 
 
 Hyperostosis 81 
 
 Hypochondriac region 216 
 
 Hypogala 245 
 
 Hypogastric artery .... 1 70 
 
 plexus of 
 
 nerves 201 
 
 --region ... 216 
 
 Hypopium 245 
 
 Iliac artery, external . . 
 , internal . . 
 
 169 
 ib. 
 
 glands 
 
 vein, external . . . 
 
 , internal .... 
 
 Iliacus externus 142 
 
 internus 120 
 
 212 
 178 
 ib. 
 
 Ilium 282 
 
 Incisivus inferior 101 
 
 medius ib. 
 
 Incisores 35 
 
 Incus 246 
 
 Indicator 1 36 
 
410 
 
 Page 
 
 Indignabundus 
 
 Inferior extremities . . . 
 
 maxillary nerve 190 
 
 Inflammation of bones 8c 
 
 Infra-orbital arteries . . 16 
 
 canal .... ^ 
 
 lufra-spinatus 13 
 
 Inguinal glands 21 
 
 Injecting instruments . . 340 
 Injections, coarse . . 
 
 , fine 342 
 
 , minute 343 
 
 Inspiration 268 
 
 Instruments for injecting 340 
 
 Integuments, common 217 
 
 Interarticular cartilages 84 
 
 Intercostal vein 177 
 
 nerve, great 198 
 
 Intercostales externi .. 121 
 
 interni , . ib. 
 
 Intergyral spaces 224 
 
 Internal maxillary artery 164 
 
 Interossei mantis externi 139 
 
 interni ib. 
 
 Interossei pedis externi 
 iuterni 
 
 154 
 
 ib. 
 129 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 Interspinales 
 
 lumborum 
 
 Intertransversales ..... i u . 
 
 Intervertebral substance 43 
 
 Intestinal glands 211 
 
 Intestines 282 
 
 Introduction vii 
 
 Iris 241 
 
 Irritability i<4 
 
 Ischiatic artery 170 
 
 nerve 197 
 
 notch 49 
 
 Ischio-cavernosus 114 
 
 Iter ad infundibulum . . 231 
 
 & tertio ad quartum 
 
 ventriculum . * 232 
 
 Pa-re 
 
 Jejunum. , 282 
 
 Joints, preternatural .. 82 
 
 Jugal fossa Zi 
 
 Jugular glands 209 
 
 vein, internal 177 
 
 Kidney . . . 
 Knee joint 
 
 K 
 
 Labia cerebri 
 rn^ajora, 
 
 nerve 
 sac . . 
 
 227 
 
 305 
 
 - mmora ib. 
 
 Labial glands /. . . 209 
 
 Labyrinth 246 
 
 Lachrymal caruncle 208, 240 
 depression. . 27 
 glaud.. . 207, 240 
 189 
 240 
 
 210 
 
 181 
 
 1*5 
 213 
 
 9 
 i 
 ib. 
 
 .aryngitis 261 
 
 L-arynx 259 
 
 Lateral sinuses 222 
 
 ventricles 227 
 
 Latissimus colli 104 
 
 dorsi ,123 
 
 ^axator ty mpani 102 
 
 "eg.......' 67 
 
 ^eucorrhoea 307 
 
 ^evator a'nguli oris. ... 99 
 
 - ani 115 
 
 - labii inferioris 101 
 
 Lacteal glands 
 
 Lacteals 
 
 Lactiferous ducts .... 
 
 Lacunae 
 
 Lambdoidal suture . . . 
 
 Lamina . , 
 
 Layer 
 
 supenons 
 
 alaeque nasi 99, 101 
 
 Lib. communis 99 
 
411 
 
 Page! 
 
 Levator menu 101 j 
 
 oculi 96 i 
 
 palati mollis . . 108 
 
 palp, super. ... 97 
 
 proprius 99 
 
 angu- 
 
 laris 127 
 
 scapulae ...... ib. i 
 
 Levatores costarum ... 126 i 
 
 longiores ... ib. ; 
 
 Ligaments 86 j 
 
 , sacro-sciatic 88 j 
 
 Ligamentum ciliare . . . 242 I 
 
 conoideum 90 
 
 deltoideum ib. 
 
 denticula- 
 
 tum 238 
 
 inguinale 89 
 
 obturans ib. i 
 
 pectinatum 297 ! 
 
 . rhomboi- 
 
 deum 90 
 
 serratum 238 
 
 teres .... 92 
 
 Light 203 
 
 Ligula 54 
 
 Linea alba 113 
 
 innominata 51 
 
 semilunaris 113 
 
 Lingual nerve, internal 190 
 
 nerves 193 
 
 Lingualis 106 
 
 Liquor amnii , . . . 316 
 
 ' pericardii 328 
 
 Lips 25 1 
 
 Liver 287 
 
 Lobulus Spigelii ....... ib. 
 
 . < caudatus anony- 
 
 mus ib. 
 
 Loins 49 
 
 Longissiinus dorsi .... 126 
 
 Longitudinal sinus .... 222 
 
 Lmigus tolli 122 
 
 Page 
 
 169 
 
 212 
 
 197 
 
 45 
 137 
 150 
 
 Lumbar arteries . . , 
 
 glands 
 
 nerves .... 
 
 vertebrae . 
 
 Lumbricaiis mantis 
 
 Lungs 267 
 
 Lymph 323 
 
 Lymphatics 18 1 
 
 Lyra -. 235 
 
 M 
 
 Malacosteon 8 1 
 
 Malleus 246 
 
 Mamillae 264 
 
 Mamillary artery, inter- 
 nal 1 66 
 
 process 24 
 
 Mammae 264 
 
 Mammary artery 166 
 
 glands 21 o 
 
 vein, internal 166 
 
 Mandibula 31 
 
 Manubrium nianfis .... 60 
 
 Marrow - 334 
 
 Marsupialis 1 1 6 
 
 Massa carnea Jacobi 
 
 Sylvii .: . 149 
 
 Masseter 103 
 
 Mastication, physiology 
 
 of 252 
 
 Mastitis 210 
 
 Mastodyuia ib. 
 
 Mustoid process 23 
 
 Mastoideas 104 
 
 lateralis . . 1*27 
 
 Maxillary artery, internal 1 64 
 
 , lower ib. 
 
 foramina ... 32 
 
 glands 209 
 
 nerve, superior 189 
 
 , inferior 193 
 
 vein, external 177 
 
 T 2 
 
412 
 
 Page 
 Meatus auditorius exter. 246 
 
 Page 
 
 
 ii, 26 
 urinarius 305 
 Median nerve 195 
 
 Milk 329 
 
 teeth 37 
 
 Modiolus ...... 38 
 
 Mediastinal vein 176 
 
 Molar glands 209 
 
 
 Molares ... 26 
 
 Meclitullium 10 
 
 
 Medulla oblongata 225, 236 
 spinalis .... 237 
 
 Mons veueris .... . . 7O4 
 
 Motion, muscular, phy- 
 siology of 152 
 Mould of the head .... 13 
 Mouth . 21^ 2i 
 
 Meibomius's glands . . . 207 
 Membrana adiposa ... 217 
 arachnoidea 223 
 cellulosa... 220 
 
 Mucus Malpighianus . . 218 
 
 conjunctiva ib. 
 decidua ... 315 
 medullaris 85 
 * - mucosa .... 317 
 
 sclerotica . . 241 
 Membrane i 
 
 Musculi accessorii ad 
 sacro-lumbalem .... 126 
 fidicinales . . . . 137 
 pectinati . . . ^71 
 
 Musculus ani latus ... 115 
 cutaneus ... 104 
 fasciae latae .. 143 
 incisivus .... 99 
 patientise ... 127 
 
 Membranous ovum of 
 
 
 lar canals 246 
 
 
 Membrum virile 296 
 
 polychrestus 105 
 
 tnVjr i nSi 
 
 Memorise os 1 7 ' 
 
 
 Menstruation, physiolo- 
 
 Myologry . ot 
 
 Mystax . 2 1 Q 
 
 Mesenteric artery, super. 169 
 
 N 
 
 glands 211 
 nerves 200 
 Me ^enteritis ... 211 ' 
 
 Nasal arteries ... i6< 
 
 nerve 180 
 
 
 Nasalis labii superioris zoo 
 Neck 21 ^ 2 <> < 
 
 Mesoc.hondriac muscles 262 , 
 Mesocola . . "'S} 
 
 
 Mesocolic plexus of 
 
 
 Nervi abducentes 190 
 
 Mesocolon 286 
 
 
 
 
 
413 
 
 Page 
 
 Nervi oculorum motorii 188 
 
 pathetici 189 
 
 trigemini ib. 
 
 Nervous system, func- 
 tions of 201 
 
 Nervosum os J$ 
 
 Nerves of bones 73 
 
 Neurology 186 
 
 Nonus Vesalii 148 
 
 Nose 215, 249 
 
 Nostrils 34 
 
 Nymphs 305 
 
 Obducent cartilages ... 84 
 Obliquus capitis inferior i 29 
 
 superior ib. 
 
 descendens . . in 
 
 dens 
 
 externus .... 
 inferior oculi 
 internus .... 
 major descen- 
 
 ib. 
 
 n i 
 
 in 
 98 
 141 
 116 
 
 superior oculi 
 
 Obturator externus . . , . 
 
 internus .... 
 
 nerve 197 
 
 Obturatory artery j 70 
 
 Occipital artery 1 64 
 
 bone 17 
 
 nerve . . 193 
 
 suture 9 
 
 tubercle .... 17 
 
 vein 176 
 
 Occipitalis et Trontalis . 96 
 
 Occipito-frontalis ib. 
 
 sphaenoidal bone 19 
 
 Oculorum motorii 1 88 
 
 Oculus 239 
 
 Odoriferous glands ... 212 
 
 CEsophageal glands ... 211 
 
 OZsophagitis . . 258 
 
 CEsophagotomy 258 
 
 Page 
 
 (Esophagus 257 
 
 CEstrum veaereum .... 303 
 
 Olecranon ^9 
 
 Olfactory nerves 187 
 
 Omentitis 280 
 
 Omentum 279 
 
 Omo-hyoideus 106 
 
 Omoplata 55 
 
 Onyx 244 
 
 Ophthalmia ib. 
 
 Ophthalmic artery .... 165 
 
 Ophthalmoptosis 244 
 
 Opponens pollicis 138 
 
 Optic nerves 188 
 
 Orbicularis oris 100 
 
 palpebrarum 97 
 
 Orbital nerve 189 
 
 Orbitar foramina 15 
 
 plates 25 
 
 Orbits 34 
 
 Orchitis 302 
 
 Organs of generation, 
 
 male . '. . 296 
 
 , female 304 
 
 Os alaeforme 20 
 
 basillare 17 
 
 brachiale 58 
 
 brachii ib. 
 
 calcis 71 
 
 cluiHum 52 
 
 coccygis 53, 90 
 
 cribriforme 25 
 
 cribrosum ........ ib, 
 
 cuboides 71 
 
 ctftieiforme 20, 71 
 
 ethmoidale 25 
 
 ethmoideum ...... ib. 
 
 externum 308 
 
 femoris 65 
 
 frontis 14 
 
 hutneri 58 
 
 hyoides ; 3 
 
 jugale '. 54, 
 
 T 3 
 
414 
 
 Page 
 Os internum 308 
 
 latum ib. 
 
 linguale ...;....,. 38 
 
 luuare 62, 7 1 
 
 magnum ib. 
 
 maxillare inferius . . 31 
 
 memoriae . . 17 
 
 multiforme ,. . 20 
 
 naviculare 62, 71 
 
 nervosum 17 
 
 occipitis ib. 
 
 occipito-sphsenoideum 19 
 
 orbiculare 246 
 
 pectoris 48 
 
 petrosum 22 
 
 polymorphon 20 
 
 pterygoideum ib. 
 
 sacrum 52 
 
 scaphoides 62, 71 
 
 sphaenoidale 20 
 
 sphaenoideuin ib. 
 
 subrotundum 62 
 
 tincae 307 
 
 trapezium 62 
 
 trapezoides ib. 
 
 unciforme ib. 
 
 uteri 307 
 
 vespiforme 2 
 
 vespertiliforme .... ib. 
 
 Osculator 100 
 
 Ossa anonyma 25 
 
 . bregmatis 16 
 
 coxarum 50 
 
 coxendicis ib. 
 
 . ... . cuneiformia ..... 62 
 
 ilii . . 50 
 
 innominata 50 
 
 - ischii ib. 
 
 jugalia 28 
 
 lachrymalia 29 
 
 malarum 28 
 
 maxillaria superiora 26 
 
 nasalia.. 29 
 
 3 
 
 Page 
 
 Ossa nasi 29 
 
 parietalia 16 
 
 plana 25 
 
 superiora . . ib. 
 
 palati 30 
 
 palatina ib. 
 
 sesamoidea 73 
 
 siiicipitis 1 6 
 
 spongiosa inferiora 30 
 
 temporalia. ...... 22 
 
 temporum ib. 
 
 turbiuata inferiora 30 
 
 unguis 29 
 
 verticalia 1 6 
 
 verticis ib. 
 
 zygomatica 28 
 
 Ossicula auditfls 38 
 
 triangularia . . 9 
 
 triquetra ib. 
 
 Wormiana ... ib. 
 
 Ossification 77 
 
 , centre of . . 10 
 
 Osteogeny 76 
 
 Osteology 3 
 
 Ovaria 313 
 
 Ovula Graafiana 310 
 
 Ovum of the foetus .... 315 
 
 Ozena 251 
 
 Pacchioman glands . . . 206 
 
 Palate 252 
 
 Palatine foramen 27 
 
 Palato-pharyngeus .... 109 
 
 salpihgus 108 
 
 Palmaris brevis 139 
 
 cutaueus ib. 
 
 longus 135 
 
 Palpebrae 239 
 
 Pancreas 291 
 
 Pancreatic duct ' ib. 
 
 glands 212 
 
 juice 329? 
 
4-15 
 
 Page 
 
 Papilla 218, 264 
 
 Papillae of the tongue . . 254 
 
 Par vagum 191 
 
 Paraphrenitis 1 18 
 
 Parathenar minor 151 
 
 Parietal bones 16 
 
 foramen ib. 
 
 Parotid glands 208 
 
 Parotis 209 
 
 Patella 69 
 
 Pectineus 140 
 
 Pectinalis ib. 
 
 Pectoralis major 120 
 
 minor ib. 
 
 Pelvis 49, 88 
 
 , female 50 
 
 , male ib. 
 
 Penicelli 288 
 
 Penis 216 
 
 Perforans 137 
 
 Perforatus 136 
 
 Pericardiac veins 176 
 
 Pericardium 270 
 
 Pericranium 85 
 
 Perichondrium ib. 
 
 Peridesmium ib. 
 
 Perineal artery 170 
 
 Perineum 216 
 
 Periorbita 85 
 
 Periosteum ib. 
 
 Peroneal nerve 198 
 
 vein 177 
 
 Pevitoneum 278 
 
 Peritonitis 279 
 
 Peroneus antkus 148 
 
 brevis 147 
 
 longus ib. 
 
 maximus .... ib. 
 
 rnedius 148 
 
 posterior .... 147 
 
 posticus ib. 
 
 primus ib. 
 
 secundus .... 148 
 
 Peroneus tertius 
 
 Page 
 
 148 
 
 Perspiration, insensible 219 
 , physiology 
 
 of 
 
 sensible 
 
 Pes auserinus 
 
 hippocampi major . 
 
 minor . 
 
 ib. 
 
 229 
 ib. 
 Petro-salpingostaphilinus 108 
 
 Petrosimus 22 
 
 Pharyngeal artery 164. 
 
 Pharynx 257 
 
 Phlyctenae 244 
 
 Phrenic nerve 194. 
 
 Phthisical teeth , 
 
 Phyma 
 
 Pia mater , 
 
 meninx 
 
 Pigment of the iris . . . 
 
 Pili 
 
 auriculares ib. 
 
 Pineal gland 231 
 
 Pituitary gland 207 
 
 membrane . . . 250 
 
 Placenta $ I q 
 
 Plana papyraeea 25 
 
 Plantar aponeurosis ... 152 
 
 Plantaris 14.5 
 
 Platysina, myoides 104. 
 
 Pleura 265 
 
 Pleuritis 2 66 
 
 Plexus ehoroides 228- 
 
 36 
 
 2 o6 
 224 
 ib. 
 242. 
 219 
 
 Plica lunaris 
 
 240 
 
 Pomum Adami 216 
 
 Pons Tarini 226 
 
 Varolii 236 
 
 Popliteal aneurism .... 171 
 
 artery ib. 
 
 nerve i pg 
 
 Popllteus 146 
 
 Pori biliarii 288 
 
 Portia dura ipj 
 
 mollis ih 
 
416 
 
 Page 
 
 Posterior auris 102 
 
 Poupart's ligament 1 1 1 
 
 Preparation corroded . 
 
 macerated 
 
 morbid . . . 
 
 natural . . . 
 
 made with 
 
 367 
 3^8 
 'ib. 
 
 337 
 
 coarse injection 344 
 
 -, with minute 
 
 injection 343 
 
 , with quick- 
 silver 363 
 
 Prepuce 297 
 
 Presbyops 244 
 
 Preternatual joints .... 82 
 
 Primary teeth 35 
 
 Principles of the body i n ^ l % 
 
 Process, mamillary ... 23 
 
 , mastoid ...... ib. 
 
 . , styloid ib. 
 
 . , vaginal ib. 
 
 > zygomatic. . . 
 
 Processes, basilary... 
 
 , clinoid .... 
 
 , cuneiform . 
 
 , how named 
 
 Processus olivaris 
 
 Pronator radii quadratus 137 
 
 . teres .... 135 
 
 Prostate gland 213 
 
 Psalterium 230 
 
 Psoas abscess 119 
 
 magnus ib. 
 
 ib. 
 164 
 
 20 
 
 108 
 104 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 . parvus 
 
 Fterygoid artery 
 
 process . . . . 
 
 Pterygo-staphilinus . . . 
 Pterygoideus externus 
 
 , internus 
 
 __ . major . . 
 
 . minor . . 
 
 Pubis os 5 
 
 Pudical arteries 171 
 
 Page 
 
 Pulmonary artery ..... 177 
 
 vesicles . . . 267 
 
 Pulmonic plexus of 
 
 nerves 192 
 
 Pulmonitis 2'o8 
 
 Puncta ciliaria 207 
 
 Pupil 242 
 
 Pylorus 280 
 
 Pyramidalis 102 
 
 Pyriformis 142 
 
 Q 
 
 Quadratus femoris .... 143 
 
 genae 104 
 
 lumborum . . 1 1 8 
 
 Quicksilver tray 336 
 
 R 
 
 Rachitis 8r 
 
 Radius 60, 9 1 
 
 Radial nerve 196 
 
 Ranula 255 
 
 Raphe 227 
 
 Rectum 283 
 
 Rectus abdominis 1 1 z 
 
 capitis lateralis . 122 
 
 posticus 
 
 major 128 
 
 posticus 
 
 minor ib. 
 
 cruris 144 
 
 externus oculi . . 98 
 
 femoris 144 
 
 inferior oculi ... 98 
 
 internus capitis 
 
 major 
 
 122 
 
 minor ib. 
 
 femoris 143 
 
 oculi . . 98 
 
 superior oculi . . ib. 
 
 Recurrent nerve, left . . 19 = 
 
 , right, ib. 
 
417 
 
 Regions, abdominal . . 
 
 Renal artery 
 
 capsules 
 
 glands 
 
 plexus of nerves 
 
 192. 
 
 Respiration 
 
 Rete Malpighianum . . . 
 
 mucosum 
 
 vasculosum testis . 
 
 Reticnlar membrane . . . 
 
 Retina 
 
 Retrahens auris 
 
 Rhomboideus 
 
 major 
 minor 
 
 Rhyas 
 
 Ribs 
 
 , spurious 
 
 , true 
 
 Ring, abdominal 
 
 Rinu-like bone 
 
 Rotula 
 
 Round ligaments 
 
 S 
 Saccus lachrymalis .... 
 
 Sacral arteries 
 
 nerves 
 
 Sacro-lumbalis 
 
 sciatic ligament . 
 
 Sagittal suture 
 
 Saliva 
 
 Salpingo-pharyngeus . . 
 
 staphilinus . . 
 
 Sanguification 
 
 Sarcostosis N . . 
 
 Sartorius 
 
 Scala cochleae 
 
 tympani 
 
 vestibuli . 
 
 Page 
 216 
 169 
 294 
 ib. 
 
 , 200 
 268 
 ii8 
 217 
 300 
 220 
 242 
 
 102 
 I2 4 
 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 244 
 88 
 46 
 ib. 
 
 "3 
 ** 
 69 
 
 287 
 
 Scalenus primus 
 
 secuudus 
 
 244 
 169 
 197 
 126 
 
 88 
 
 9 
 
 204 
 109 
 108 
 185 
 
 83 
 H3 
 
 39 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 129 
 
 ib. 
 
 Page 
 
 Scapha 245 
 
 Scapula 35, 90 
 
 Scarf skin 217 
 
 Schneider's membrane 250 
 Sclerotic membrane ... 241 
 
 Scoptula 55 
 
 Scrobiculus cordis 216 
 
 Scrotum ib. 
 
 Scutifbrm cartilages ... 259 
 Secretion, physiology of 214. 
 Seeing, physiology of .. 203 
 
 Sella turcica n, 21 
 
 Semen 333 
 
 , excretion of ... 303 
 
 Semicircular canals,mem- 
 
 branous *. . 246 
 
 Semilunar ganglion . . . 200 
 Semimembraiiosus .... 145 
 
 Seminervosus ib. 
 
 Semiorbicularis superior 
 
 and inferior 100 
 
 Semispjnalis colli iz& 
 
 dorsi 127 
 
 internus . . 128 
 
 , pars interna ib. 
 
 Semitendinosus 145 
 
 Sensation 201 
 
 Senses, external 202 
 
 , internal ib. 
 
 Sen*orium commune . . 225 
 
 Septum cerebelli 222 
 
 cerebri 221 
 
 lucidum 228 
 
 transversum ... 117 
 
 Serratus major anticus . 121 
 minor anticus . 120 
 
 posticus inferior 1 24 
 
 superior posticus 1 25 
 
 Serum 319 
 
 Shedding teeth 37 
 
 Shoulder 54 
 
 Sinus, lateral 22,4 
 
 , longitudinal .... ib; 
 
418 
 
 Page 
 
 Sinuses, frontal pituitary 1 5 
 , maxillary pitui- 
 tary 27 
 
 Skeleton, artificial 6 
 
 , natural ib. 
 
 Skin, false 217 
 
 , true 218 
 
 Smelling 202 
 
 Solar plexus 200 
 
 Soleus 146 
 
 Sound 248 
 
 Speech 261 
 
 Spermatic artery 169 
 
 cord 183 
 
 plexus of 
 
 nerves 201 
 
 Sphaeno-palatine nerve. 189 
 
 , salpingo-staphi- 
 
 linus 108 
 
 staphilinus ib. 
 
 Sphaenoidal harmony . . 16 
 
 spine 20 
 
 Sphincter ani 115 
 
 " oris 100 
 
 vaginae 1 1 6 
 
 Spigelian lobe 287 
 
 Spina bifida 46 
 
 dorsi 41 
 
 ventosa 83 
 
 Spinal lamina * 42 
 
 nerves 186 
 
 Spinalis cervicis 125 
 
 dorsi 125 
 
 Spine 41 
 
 Spinous artery 1 64 
 
 Spiral nerve j 96 
 
 Splauchnology 1 8 1 
 
 Splanchnic nerve 199 
 
 Spleen 290 
 
 Splenic artery. . , 290 
 
 plexus of nerves 192 
 
 vein 200 
 
 Splenius 125 
 
 Splenius capitis 
 colli . . 
 
 Page 
 
 "5 
 
 ib. 
 
 Spurious sutura 9 
 
 Squarnous suture ib. 
 
 Stapedius 103 
 
 Stapes . . . .' . . 39 
 
 Staphilinus exteruus ... 108 
 
 Staphyloma 244 
 
 Steno's duct 208 
 
 Sterno-cleido-mastoideus 104 
 
 costalis izi 
 
 hyoideus 106 
 
 mastoideus . . . . 104 
 
 thyroideus 107 
 
 Sternum 88, 48 
 
 Stomacace 252 
 
 Stomach 280 
 
 Stomachic plexuses .... 192 
 
 Stylo-glossus 107 
 
 hyoideus ib. 
 
 alter .... ib. 
 
 mastoid foramen . 23 
 
 pharyngeus 108 
 
 Styloid process 22> 56 
 
 Subaxiilary glands .... zi4 
 
 Subclavian artery '..... 166 
 
 vein 1 74 
 
 Subclaviauus 1 20 
 
 Subcruraei 145 
 
 Subcutaneous glands . . 206 
 
 Sublingual glands 209 
 
 vein 
 
 j Submaxillary glands . . . 
 
 Subpopliteal vein 
 
 Subscapuiaris 
 
 Substantia cerebri 
 
 corticalis . . . 
 
 medullaris . . 
 
 Superbus 
 
 Supercilia 219, 
 
 Superciliary arteries . . . 
 
 foramen . . 
 
 ridges .... 
 
 176 
 209 
 177 
 
 ib. 
 
 H 
 16 
 
419 
 
 Page 
 
 Superior auris 101 
 
 extremities ... 53 
 
 maxillary nerve 189 
 
 Supinator radii breyis. . 135 
 
 longus ....... I 3 
 
 Suppuration of bone. . . 80 
 
 Supra-costalis 126 
 
 renal glands .... 212 
 
 Supraspinatus 130 
 
 Suspensory ligament ... 287 
 
 Suture 75 
 
 Sutures of the cranium 9 
 
 Sweat 219 
 
 Symblepharum 244 
 
 Sympathetic nerve, great 198 
 
 Symphysis 75 
 
 Synarthrosis ' ib. 
 
 Synchondrosis ib. 
 
 Syndesmology 86 
 
 Syridesmosis. 75 
 
 Syneurosis . . ib. 
 
 Synezesis 244 
 
 Synostosis 75 
 
 Synovia 334 
 
 Synovial glands 214 
 
 Syssarcosis 75 
 
 Systole 277 
 
 Taenia semicircularis . . 228 
 
 Tarsus 70 
 
 Tasting, physiology of. 204 
 
 Tears 326 
 
 Temporal arteries 1 64 
 
 vein 176 
 
 Temporalis 103 
 
 Teeth 35 
 
 Tendon 95 
 
 Tensor palati ic8 
 
 tympani 103 
 
 vaginae femoris . 143 
 
 Tentorium 222 
 
 Teres major . . . . , 130 
 
 Teres muior 130 
 
 Testicle. . . .. 300 
 
 Testis ib. 
 
 Thalamus nervi optici . 228 
 Thebesian foramina . . . 272 
 
 Theca vertebralis 41 
 
 Thickness of bones ... 80 
 Thinness of bones .... ib. 
 
 Thigh 65 
 
 Thoracic duct 183 
 
 aorta 168 
 
 Thorax 215, 263 
 
 Thrombus 173 
 
 Thymus glands 210 
 
 Thyreo-arytaenoideus . . no 
 
 epiglottideus . . . ib. 
 
 hyoideus 107 
 
 Thyroid artery 166 
 
 j , ascending ib. 
 
 , artery, inferior ib. 
 
 ! cartilage 259 
 
 | gland 209 
 
 j Tibia 67 
 
 i Tibial nerve 198 
 
 vein, anterior. . . 177 
 
 , posterior . . ib. 
 
 Tibialis anticus 147 
 
 gracilis 146 
 
 posticus 1,47 
 
 Tissue, cellular i 
 
 Tic doloureux 190 
 
 Toes, joints cf 94 
 
 Tomentum cerebri .... 224 
 
 Tongue 204, 254 
 
 Tonsils 210 
 
 Tophus. 83 
 
 Torcular Herophili .... 222 
 Touching, physiology of 204 
 
 Trakecuiae 222 
 
 Trachea 262 
 
 Trachea! arteries ...... 166 
 
 Trachelo-mastoideus .. 127 
 Tragicus 102 
 
420 
 
 Page 
 
 Tragu* 245 
 
 Transversalis abdoniinis 112 
 
 colli 127 
 
 dorsi . . . 128 
 
 lumborum, 
 
 vulgo sacer 128 
 
 peclis .... 151 
 
 penis.... 115 
 
 perinaei . . ib. 
 
 al- 
 ter ib. 
 
 Transverse suture ... 16, 27 
 Transverso-spinalis colli 128 
 
 colli 
 
 pars interna 128 
 
 dorsi 127 
 
 Transversus auris 102 
 
 Trapezius , 123 
 
 Trepanning 12 
 
 Triangularia ossicula . . 9 
 Triangularis labiorum . 100 
 
 sterni .... 121 
 
 Triceps adductor femoris 1 40 
 
 extensor cubiti . 132 
 
 Tricorn cavity 227 
 
 Tricuspid valve 272 
 
 Trigemini 189 
 
 Trigeminus 127 
 
 Triglochin valve 272 
 
 Triquetra ossicula 9 
 
 Trochanters 65 
 
 Trochlearis 98 
 
 Trunk . 41 
 
 Tube, Eustachiau 24 
 
 Tubercle, occipital .... 19 
 Tuberculum Lovveri . . . 271 
 Tuberosity of the ischi- 
 
 um 51 
 
 Tubuli galactoferi 210 
 
 lactiferi ib. 
 
 uriniferi 292 
 
 Tunica albuginea testis 301 
 arachnoides ... 22} 
 
 Page 
 
 Tunica choroidea 241 
 
 conjunctiva .... ib. 
 
 sclerotica ib. 
 
 vaginalis testis . 301 
 
 Tympanum 246 
 
 U 
 
 Ulna 59 
 
 Ulnar arteries 168 
 
 nerve 169 
 
 Umbilical cord 315 
 
 region 216 
 
 Umbilicus 113 
 
 Ungues 219 
 
 Unguis 229 
 
 Uniting cartilages .... 77 
 
 Urachus 295 
 
 Urine 215 
 
 , excretion of .... 293 
 
 Uterine placenta 314 
 
 Uterus 3 8 
 
 gravid 314 
 
 Uvea 242 
 
 Uvula 252 
 
 V 
 
 Vagina 
 
 Vaginal process 
 
 Valve of Eustachius . . 
 Valvula magna cerebri 
 
 semilunaris . . 
 
 Tulpii 
 
 306 
 
 23 
 271 
 
 235 
 240 
 
 283 
 
 Valvulae conniventes. . . 282 
 
 mitrales 274 
 
 Varicocele 303 
 
 Varicose aneurism .... 176 
 
 Vas deferens 300 
 
 Vasa brevia 169 
 
 etterentia 300 
 
 praeparantia 301 
 
 recta 300 
 
 Vastus externus 144 
 
 iuternus ib. 
 
421 
 
 Page 
 
 Veins 1 74 
 
 , actions of 179 
 
 , diseases of ib. 
 
 Velum interpositum . . . 230 
 
 pendulum palati 25 2, 
 
 Vena azygos 174 
 
 basilica 175 
 
 cephalica ....... ib. 
 
 cava ascendens 
 
 hepatica . 
 
 inferior . 
 
 - superior 
 
 i 7 8 
 ib. 
 177 
 
 dorsalis pedis. ... 177 
 
 mediana 175 
 
 portae .. 179 
 
 salvatella 175 
 
 saphena 177 
 
 Venal system 174 
 
 Ventricles 227 
 
 fifth 
 
 fourth 
 
 third , 
 
 lateral 
 
 Jricorn 
 
 of the heart 
 
 228 
 
 235 
 230 
 
 2Z7 
 
 227 
 271 
 
 Ventriloquism 261 
 
 Vermiform processes . . 235 
 Vertebrae ... 41, 44, 45, 87 
 
 cervical . . 
 
 dorsal . . . 
 
 false 
 
 joints of. . 
 
 lumbar. . , 
 
 true 
 
 44 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 45 
 42 
 
 Vertebral arteries 166 
 
 Verumontanum 298 
 
 , Page 
 
 | Vesalius, life of xiv 
 
 i Vesica fellis . 289 
 
 i urinaria 295 
 
 Vesiculae pulmonales . . 267 
 
 seminales .... 304 
 
 Vessels, doctrine of ... 162 
 
 Vestibulum 39 
 
 Vibrissae 219 
 
 | Viduan canal 22 
 
 Vis elastica 154 
 
 insita ib. 
 
 niortua 153 
 
 tonica 154 
 
 Viscera, doctrine of the 215 
 
 Viscus i 
 
 Vitreous humour 242 
 
 Voice, physiology of .. 261 
 
 Vomer 31 
 
 Vomicae 268 
 
 W 
 
 Water of the labyrinth 9 
 
 Wax of the ears 327 
 
 Wormiana ossicula .... 9 
 
 Worms 284 
 
 X 
 
 Xiphoid cartilage 49 
 
 Z 
 
 Zona mollis 247 
 
 Zootomy i 
 
 Zygoma 22 
 
 Zygomatic process ib. 
 
 Zygomaticus major ... 99 
 minor. ... 100 
 
 THE END. 
 
V-, 
 
 j.^; 
 
 Printed by S. Goanell, Little Queen Street, London* 
 

 
 
 
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