DICTIONARY DYEING AND CAIICO PRINTING. A DICTIONARY OP DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING; COXTAINIXG A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF ALL THE SUBSTANCES AND PROCESSES IN USE IN THE ARTS OF DYEING AND PRINTING TEXTILE FABRICS; PRACTICAL RECEIPTS AND SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION. BY CHAELES O'NEILL, FELLOW OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, MEMBER OF THE LITERARY PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER; ACTHOK OK "CHEMISTRY OF CALICO PRINTING AND DYEING," ETC. TO WHICH IS ADDED AN ESSAY ON COAL TAR COLORS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. A. A. FESQUET, CHEMIST AND ENGINEER. WITH AN APPENDIX DYEING, AS SHOWN AT THE EXPOSITION OF 1867, FROM THE REPORTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL JURY, ETC. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 406 Walnut Street. 1869. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by HENRY CAREY BAIRD, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of the State of Pennsylvania. PHILADELPHIA : COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. PUBLISHER'S PREFACE THE AMERICAN EDITION IN presenting to the Dyers and Manufacturers of the United States an edition of so well known and justly esteemed a book as Mr. O'Neill's "DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING," the publisher deems nothing necessary except to call attention to the character and extent of the additions which have been made to it. PROFESSOR FESQUET has contributed a very comprehensive essay on COAL TAR COLORS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING, which will be found to embody the latest novelties of this branch, besides which, in an appendix, he has given the important features of the report of the International Jury of the Exposition 'of 1867, upon general improvements in other descriptions of Dyeing. PHILADELPHIA, January 1, 1869. PREFACE. THIS work is intended by the Author to form a practical hand-book of reference upon all the chemical substances and processes in use among dyers and calico printers. While written from a practical point of view, it takes a middle course between the generalities of high science and the technicalities of pure practice. Avoiding, on the one hand, the applications of chemical principles which are not yet clearly perceived, and, on the other, a detailed description of pro- cesses which would be either unintelligible or unnecessary, the Author hopes he has produced a book which may be profit- ably consulted by all who are either interested or practically engaged in printing and dyeing. The claims which the Author has to be heard upon these subjects rest upon his familiar acquaintance with calico print- ing, acquired by nine years' service in a very extensive establishment, and upon a further professional experience of three years, which has brought him into contact with nearly all styles of dyeing. This work is founded upon the Author's "Chemistry of Calico Printing," which was published only two years ago, but which has been for some time out of print. The substance of that book has been re-cast in a more popular form, all scientific formulas and laboratory processes omitted, with the addition of a large amount of matter bearing upon practical operations. yiii PREFACE. Though appearing in a condensed form, this book contains considerably more matter than the Author's previous produc- tion. In the course of the publication in parts, this book has experienced a most favorable reception ; and the Author is obliged to many writers for their kind recommendation of it. From many quarters he has been solicited to extend his plan, and make a more complete treatise; but he has felt obliged to decline these suggestions, and to adhere strictly to the course originally laid out, and finish the work within the space at first specified. Nothing would have been easier than to have doubled the size of the work ; if there is credit in its compila- tion, it lies in rejecting what was not necessary to the plan. For each receipt given, at least five have been withheld, as merely occupying space without presenting any instructive differences in their composition ; in articles upon rare or little known coloring matters, the researches and descriptions occu- pying whole pages of original memoirs have been compressed into as many lines. Nevertheless, there is nothing omitted, and nothing unduly abridged, which is of real interest in prac- tice. The Author informed his friends, some time ago, that he was engaged upon an Encyclopaedia of Dyeing and Printing, which he intended for a great comprehensive work upon the subject ; but little progress had been made when it became evident that he could not reasonably hope to accomplish this favorite project; it would require more time than he could spare from the prac- tice of his profession, and it has, in consequence, been indefi- nitely postponed. No separate work upon calico printing, by any one practi- cally acquainted with it, had appeared in England for a period of seventy years before the Author's book upon the subject ; the dyers have been more fortunate in original and translated works; but it is a matter for regret that out of so many calico PREFACE. ix printers around Manchester and Glasgow, eminent alike for scientific attainments and practical skill, not one has found leisure to write a treatise upon this important branch of British manufactures. While the Author maintains the correctness of what he has written, no one can be more sensible of the supe- rior advantages possessed by a writer who could have brought to the task that breadth of knowledge and maturity of judg- ment which is only acquired by the accumulated observations of a long life of practice. The absence of a good work upon this subject has encouraged an idea among color mixers and foremen that they were the depositaries of a secret art, and they have exercised a jealous guard over their processes, which has operated to shut out im- provement, and perpetuate a succession of absurd and empirical processes. The Author will be glad if tl^e circulation of this work among the responsible servants of dyers and printers causes them to trust less for success to supposed secrets, of doubtful value, and to rely more upon an intelligent comprehension of the nature and uses of the materials at their command. Many conspicuous improvements have originated in the color-shop and the dye-house; and, though the laboratory has carried off the honors and the profit of recent discoveries, there is much yet remaining to be found out by practical workers, if they will study the operations they are engaged upon in the light of true science. With regard to the receipts scattered throughout the body of the work, the Author can only say he knows them to be genuine, either from his. own experience or from friends in whom he has confidence. This will not, however, be incon- sistent with them proving failures in other hands; each'dyer and color rnixer has his own peculiar methods of working, and it frequently happens that the drugs and proportions which work well with one man will not answer with another. The X PREFACE. chief value of these receipts will consist in their illustrating various actual and possible means of attaining certain ends, and suggesting probable improvements or modifications upon existing processes. CHARLES O'NEILL. 92 GROSVENOR STREET, MANCHESTER, November 1, 1862. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. During the preparation of this book the author has had the undermentioned works upon his table, and has frequently referred to them, to supplement his own practical knowledge : Philosophy of Permanent Colors, by Edward Bancroft, M. D. London, 1794. Elements de 1'art de la teinture, par C. L. et A. B. Berthollet. Paris, An. xiii. (1804). Experimental Researches, etc., on Permanent Colors, by E. Bancroft, M. D. London, 1813. Manuel du fabricant d'etoffesimprimees, etc., par L. S. le Normand. Purls, 1830. Manuel du fabricant d'indiennes, par L. J. S. Thillaye. Paris, 1S34. Elements of the Art of Dyeing, by Berthollet. Translated by Dr. Ure. London, 1824. Lec.ons de chimie appliquee a la teinture, par M. E. Chevreul. Paris, 1829. Manuel du teinturier, etc., par A. D. Wrgnaud. Paris, 1832. Traite theorique et pratique de 1'irnpression des tissus, par J. Persoz. Paris, 1846. Precis de I'art de la teinture, par M. Dumas. Paris, 1846. Hulfsbiich fiir den gewerblichen chemiker von M. GersteuhiJfer. Leipzig, 1851. A Manual of the Art of Dyeing, by James Napier. Glasgow, 1853.* A Manual of Dyeing Receipts for General Use, by James Napier. Land, and Glasgow, 1858. Abridgments of Specifications of Patents relating to Dyeing and Printing. London, 1859. Practical Treatise on Dyeing and Calico Printing. Anonymous. New York, 1860. Lemons de chimie elementaire appliquee aux arts industriels, par M. J. Gi- rardin. Paris, 1860. Le teinturier an xix e siecle, par Theophile Grison. Rouen, I860. A Manual of Botany, by Robert Lindley, F. L. S. London, 1861. Chemical Gazette. 17 vols., from 1842 to 1859. Repertoire de chimie pure et appliquSe. Paris. Now publishing. Le Technologiste. Paris. Now publishing monthly. The Chemical News. London. Now publishing weekly. Handworterbuch der reinen und angewandten chemie. Braunschweig. Now publishing. Bulletin da la societe industrielle de Mulhouse. Now publishing. * Republished in the United States under the more appropriate title of "A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing." 2d edition, 1S69. ERRATUM. On p. 178, second line from bottom, far 164, read 168. GOAL TAR COLORS (ANILINE, ETC.), THEIR APPLICATION TO DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. INTRODUCTION. SINCE the publication of the last edition of Mr. O'NEILL'S DICTIONARY ON DYEING AND CALICO FEINTING, great pro- gress has been made in the manufacture and the applications of coal tar colors. Aniline remains the great source 'from whence these colors are derived. Recently, however, carbolic acid and naphthaline have added their share in the production of new dyes, and we shall mention some of them, which- have been sanctioned by practice. Many naphthaline dyes have been proposed, but on trial they have not presented the same degree of bril- liancy and fastness which aniline colors possess. These are difficulties which, in all probability, will be overcome by fur- ther study and experience. Aniline colors themselves are just emerging from a chaotic state of processes of manufacture, and of speculations relative to their nature. Their theory, at the present time, is far from being complete ; but the light which has been shed on the sub- ject has considerably simplified the processes of manufacture, improved the products, and lowered their price. We now possess a complete gamut of colors from this source alone, and the only difficulty is how to choose among the 150 or 170 names given to these dyes. Several names are often given to the same color, and many colors have not stood the test of practice, so that the number of coal tar dyes in use is not so extended as that of their names. We shall divide this essay on the applications of coal tar colors to dveing and calico printing into four chapters : 2 10 COAL TAR. COLORS. I. Mordants, thickenings, and discharges, especially em- ployed for coal tar colors. II. Dissolution and purification of coal tar colors, and their precipitation from old baths. III. General methods for dyeing and calico printing, leaving the special process to the special colors to which they refer, and which will be found in the next chapter. IV.' Coal tar colors subdivided into Reds, Purples, Violets, Blues, Yellows, Oranges, Greens, Browns, Maroons, Blacks, and Grays. The object and the limits of this work being, not to dwell on the manufacture of coal tar colors, but only to treat of their application to dyeing, we have briefly indicated their nature, from what substances they are derived, and those of their pro- perties which may be useful to the dyer. Those persons who may be desirous to become thoroughly acquainted with the manufacture and properties of coal tar colors should consult the following works : P. Schiitzenberger, Traite cfes Matieres colorantes. M. Reimann, Aniline and its Derivatives. Th. Chateau (Collection Roret), Coukurs d> Aniline, &c. F. C. Calvert, Goal Tar Colors, &c. J. Girardin, Chimie elementaire. Note. The Imperial gallon, holding 10 pounds of water, being the one in use in Mr. O'Neill's Dictionary, we .have re- tained it as the standard in our calculations for receipts. The wine gallon of New York holds only 8 pounds of water. The weights are avoirdupois. CHAPTER I. MORDANTS. DISCHARGES. THICKENINGS. THE animal fibres, silk and wool, for instance, have such an affinity for coal tar colors that, in most cases, by a simple dip- ping in a solution of these colors, they become dyed without the help of any mordant. On the other hand, the vegetable fibres are entirely devoid of such an affinity for coal tar colors (aniline black excepted.) It is therefore necessary to impart to them the property of fix- ing these colors by the help of some mordant. This opera- tion is sometimes called animalization. MORDANTS DISCHARGES THICKENINGS. 11 The mordants in use are : Albumen from the white of eggs, blood. Gluten dissolved in caustic soda (W. Crurn process). " "a weak acid (acetic acid). Scheurer Rott process. Caseine or Lactarine (curd of milk) dissolved in caustic soda (W. Crum process). Caseine dissolved in acetic acid. Gelatine. Tannnte of Gelatine. Tannin, pure, or from fresh decotions of gall-nuts, sumach, &c. Certain oils, such as those used for Turkey red. Certain acids, such as sulpho-margaric, sulpho-oleic, sulpho- glyceric, &c. Certain resins, such as gum-lac dissolved in alkalies or borax. Arsenite of Alumina. Stannate of Soda. Note MM. Depouilly recommend the preparation of the stannate of soda by precipitating the oxymuriate of tin by ammonia, and dissolving the washed precipitate with as little caustic soda as possible. Lead Salts, &c. &c. Of all these mordants, the albumen from the white of eggs is the best; with it the work is easy, and the brightness of the colors is not impaired. The only drawback is its cost. The albumen from the blood, being always more or less yel- low, is inferior to the former. Before using albumen it is al'ways prudent to pass it through a fine muslin sieve, in order to strain off certain impurities which, otherwise, would appear as dark-colored specks on the dyed cloth. Gluten dissolved in caustic soda. Wet gluten is allowed to rest for from 5 to 10 days, according to temperature, until it becomes viscous. Then, to 10 Ibs. of this gluten, add 17 or 18 ozs. of a solution of carbonate of soda, having a specific' grav- ity of 1.15, which dissolves certain impurities. The gluten re- maining over the filtering cloth is washed in cold water, and mixed with about 14 ozs. of a solution of caustic soda of 1.08 sp. gravity. The gluten becomes dissolved into a mucilage, which, afterwards, is diluted to the proper consistency for print- ing, with about 3 quarts of water: This gluten is printed first, dried, steamed, and rinsed in pure water before printing with the color, which operation is suc- ceeded by a second steaming. Lactarine. Two pounds of dried and pulverized caseine 12 COAL TAR COLOES. (curd of milk) are dissolved in gallon of water and gallon of a solution of caustic soda (1.08 sp. gr.). 4 pounds of fresh caseine may also be dissolved in the above solutions. Soap Mordant. For 20 Ibs. of cotton yarn dissolve 1 Ib. of tallow soap in sufficient water. The cotton is worked for some time in this hot bath, allowed to dry (without washing), and washed just before it is dyed in the coloring bath. By re- plenishing the soap bath with small additions of new soap, it may last a long time. Arsenite of alumina (Schultz process). Arsenite of soda 12 drachms. Acetate of alumina (10 B 6 ) ;, . . 1 pint. Magenta 65 grains. and the whole is thickened with starch. Instead of acetate of alumina, Mr. Schultz daims that solu- tions of acetate of zinc or magnesia at 10 B & may be -employed. Phosphite of soda, antimoniate or stannate of soda may also be substituted for arsenite of soda, in the proportion of 3 to 5 ozs. to 1 quart of acetate of alumina. Arsenite of alumina (A. Paraf process). The difficulty in, the employment of arsenious acid is its feeble solubility in water or acids; but glycerine dissolving its own weight of arsenious acid, Mr. Paraf uses it for preparing a mordant, as follows: 1 part of arsenious acid is dissolved in 1 part of glycerine, and a solution of acetate of alumina is made in the usual way, except that sulphate of alumina is to be preferred to alum. Then to a solution- of aniline color, already thickened with starch, is added 10 to 12 per cent, each of the above solutions. The next operations are printing, steaming for \ hour, and washing in tepid soap water. - Discharge by zinc powder (Durand process). The very fine powder of zinc produced during the distillation of this metal, will reduce the colored salts of rosaniline into white salts of leucaniline, when printed on places which must be white. But if, by repeated washings, these salts of leucaniline are not en- tirely removed, they may color again under the oxidizing in- fluence of air and light. This difficulty will not be found in the next process, where the color is destroyed, not transformed. Discharge by permanganic acid (Dangvilld and Gauthier pro- cess). The permanganate of potassa, which may be replaced by permangdnate of lime, is mixed with a slight excess of sul- phuric acid, and then, by the addition of water, is reduced to a solution holding from 1 to 6 per cent, of permanganate of DISSOLUTION OF COAL TAR COLORS. 13 For printing, the thickening materials should be kaolin, silica, or alumina, because an organic thickening would decom- pose the permanganic acid. After the operation, the destroyed aniline color is replaced by an oxide of manganese, which will be removed by washing in a sulphurous acid solution. But, if there are colors, such as coralline, which are destroyed by sulphurous acid, the washing is effected by a mixture of muriatic acid and protochloride of tin. Discharge by tin powder (Hesse process). Finely-pulverized tin is 'mixed with carbonate of soda, or other alkaline salt, and thickened with gum. After printing with this mixture, steaming and washing, the printed and previously colored places become white. Gum thickenings. It has been observed by Mr. Ach. Bulard that certain gums have the property of changing the shade of aniline reds to a dull reddish violet, when the printing mixture has stood only a few hours; and that a small quantity of al- bumen added to the mixture prevented this change of color. By further experiments, Mr. Bulard found that the best gums for printing aniline reds were the white qualities of gum Senegal, and the worst, the gum Arabic, coming by way of Alexandria, Egypt; excepting, however, those which are entirely white.* CHAPTER II. DISSOLUTION OF COAL TAR COLORS. NEARLY all the coal tar colors are remarkable for their slight solubility in water. On the other hand, they are soluble in al- cohol, wood spirit (wood naphtha, methylic alcohol), acetic acid, tartaric acid, aniline, some in glycerine, &c. The least soluble in water are certain kinds of blue and violet. The reds, such as magenta, azaleine, and roseine, are sufficiently soluble in water. When we say sufficiently soluble, we do not mean that these colors are very soluble, but that they may be directly dissolved in hot water to form a bath of sufficient strength for dyeing. Indeed, when we consider the affinity of the animal fibres for * The thickening and mordant called gum water and albumen water is gener- ally 1 pound of the dry substance dissolved in 1 quart of water (wine gallon weighing 8 pounds of water). 14 COAL TAR COLORS. these colors, too much solubility would be a disadvantage ; the colors would instantly precipitate upon the fibre, and the fabric would not be dyed evenly. It is to avoid this irregularity that it is often necessary to begin with very weak baths, and to add the coloring substances at intervals, by small quantities, while the bath is well stirred, and the fabric constantly worked. When these aniline dyes, which have been previously dis- solved in alcohol, are poured into the water of the bath, they are generally not dissolved but precipitated, as may be ascer- tained by filtering through paper. But the precipitate is so fine and light, and, if we may say so, in such a hydrated state, that the bath appears limpid, without deposit at the bottom, and in a condition to dye the yarns -or fabrics which are put into it. Therefore, the previous dissolution of certain coal tar colors in alcohol has for its object to present those dyes to the bath in a minute state of division, which could not have been obtained by mechanical means, and which allows them to be thoroughly incorporated with the water, if not entirely dissolved in it. Of all the solvents we have mentioned, alcohol is the most in use ; acetic acid and tartaric acid are sometimes mixed with it. The use of wood spirit, unless perfectly pure, should be avoided for the red colors of rosaniline, which it turns to violet, and the more so when acetic acid is mixed with the former. To sum up : when such colors as magenta, &c., are suffi- ciently soluble in water, they are boiled in it, and filtered. About 200 parts of water for 1 of color. Some soluble blues require less water. When blues and violets, insoluble in water, are to be dis- solved in concentrated alcohol, the color is gradually added to it, stirring all the time, and afterwards allowing it to rest. After a few hours, the whole is heated in a water bath to the boiling point, and the volatilized alcohol is condensed. After boiling it is well to allow the solution to rest one sight, and lastly to filter. The proportions of alcohol are variable: 30 to 50 parts of alcohol for 1 of blue ; violet; 10 to 12 Hofmann's violet. Of these latter violets there are some which are soluble in itfater, and do not require the use of alcohol. Instead of pouring the alcoholic solution directly into the bath, it is customary to dilute it with 8 to 10 times its volume of water, acidulated with tartaric or sulphuric acid. Iron, tin, a*nd zinc vessels are to be avoided in making these DISSOLUTION OF COAL TAR COLORS. 15 solutions, especially the latter, which reduce the colors. (See Discharges.} In order to avoid the rather expensive use of alcohol, va- rious decoctions of vegetable substances have been tried for dissolving coal tar colors. Soapwort (Radix saponica), Pan- ama bark (Quillaya saponica), lucern root, &c., have been pro- posed, but we believe that they have not been extensively used. Concentrated sulphuric acid has the property of rendering soluble in water certain blues and violets which were insoluble. We believe that Mr. Nicholson was the first to make use of this property, and his process is as follows: Add gradually 1 part of insoluble blue to 6 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid; the mass being thoroughly mixed by stirring, heat the whole up from 284 to 300 F.,and when cold pour the whole into cold water (8 to 10 parts of water for 1 of oil of vitriol employed). The color becomes precipitated at the bottom of the vase, is collected and washed over a cloth until the water runs blue. The blue is then soluble in about 50 parts of boil- ing water, its shade is bluer, but it has lost part of its fastness, which is caused by a chemical transformation due to the power- ful acid and great heat to which it has been submitted. Messrs. Rangod-Pe'uhiney and Ach. Bulard employ also con- centrated sulphuric acid, but act in a different way. 1 part of the color is dissolved by small quantities, gradually added to 6 parts of oil of vitriol at 66 B 6 . At each addition the mass is thoroughly mixed, allowed to stand, and stirred until all the color is dissolved. During the whole operation care is taken to prevent the acid from becoming heated. The liquid is then poured into cold water (20 times the weight of acid employed), not all at once, but slowly, at different places of the water sur- face, while a constant stirring is going on, in order to avoid too great an elevation of temperature. The color becomes precipitated, is collected, and washed on a filter until the water runs blue. The resulting paste, if not immediately employed, is mixed with glycerine which prevents it from drying. The acid solution may also be poured into the dye bath, but the excess of acid must be neutralized by some alkali. By this process the color has not been transformed, as is the case by the Nicholson treatment ; it remains as fast as before, and although it requires more water to become dissolved, it is in a state of minute division and of hydration, which is simi- lar to that of the same color dissolved in alcohol, and poured into the boiling bath. 1$ COAL TAB COLORS. PURIFICATION. Although the coal tar colors, at the present time, are to be found in the market much purer than formerly, and some of them entirely pure, it may not be out of place to indicate the means of removing their impurities. These are generally re- sinous substances soluble in benzine, and light oils from coal tar or petroleum, while the colors are insoluble in them. The operation consists therefore in washing the impure colors with these hydrocarbons. Another method, applicable to the aniline colors soluble in water, consists in adding to them 5 times their weight of fine white sand, and dissolving the color in boiling water, while the resinous substances stick to the sand. For those colors which are insoluble in water, an alcohol can be made weak enough for dissolving the color without acting on the resinous matter ; whereas if the alcohol was too concen- trated it would dissolve both the color and the impurities. Happily for the dyer, these impure colors are now rarely sold. PRECIPITATION. Under this head we mean the processes for recovering the color from baths which have not been exhausted. The first process, used by the manufacturers of aniline dyes, consists in saturating the dye-bath with chloride of sodium (common salt), or any alkaline salt ; the color becomes precipi- tated in its primitive state, and can be used again in the same manner. By the second process, a combination of the color with t'an- nic acid is formed, which is nearly insoluble in water, and may be employed for calico printing. In order to precipitate the color entirely, and to obtain a fine product, it is necessary that the bath should not be too acid, and that the liquors containing tannin (pure tannic acid, decoction of gall-nuts, &c.) should be freshly prepared. The excess of free acid is first saturated by carbonate of soda, and the color is afterwards precipitated by the above liquors, taking care not to add an excess of them, which would re-dissolve part of the precipitate.* The third process produces aniline lakes by adding alum to the bath, neutralizing the alum by carbonate of soda as long as no precipitate occurs, and lastly, by precipitating with tannin. * The precipitate is then washed over a cloth, and is better kept for use in a^_ pasty state, although it can be dried at a temperature not exceeding GENERAL METHODS FOR DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. 1' CHAPTER III. GENERAL METHODS FOR DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. IN laying down in this (^iapter certain general principles for dyeing and calico printing, our object has been to obviate the unnecessary lengthening of .this essay, by repeating for each color what can be said at once for all. . We shall illustrate these general rules by several examples. For the special methods, we refer the reader to those colors which require them, and which will be found in Chapter IV. Wool and silk are worked nearly alike, the differences being that the temperature of the bath is generally hotter for wool than for silk, and that an acidulated bath is more necessary for silk than for wool. The temperature of the bath and its degree of acidity have also some influence on the shade produced. The hotter and more acid the bath is, the bluer are the shades. Red shades are obtained by a lower temperature and less acid.* In dyeing, the fabric ought to be drawn several times in the bath, and the color be added successively in several portions. For certain colors, more soluble than others, this is indispensa- ble, in order to dye evenly. Although the animal fibres do not require any mordant to fix the aniline dyes, the shades have often been found much faster when these fibres had been previously mordanted with alum, alumina, bichloride of tin, &c. For printing, the color dissolved in alcohol, or acetic acid, is thickened with starch, or gum .Senegal, gum tragacanth, al- bumen, &c. The steaming is generally begun with a small pressure, which is afterwards increased. Brighter shades will be obtained if the printed colors do not dry too quickly. An addition of glycerine to the printing mixture will keep it moist. The aniline reds are not so fast as the blues and violets, es- pecially on calico. * It is sometimes preferable to raise the shade by drawing the fabric in another acidulate*! bath, directly after the dye-bath, or after a washing. The acid generally employed is sulphuric acid. 18 COAL TAR COLORS. Chinoline colors afford beautiful shades, but without stability. Iii this case there should be no acid in the bath. ANIMAL FIBRES (WOOL AND SILK.) Dyeing with salts of rosaniline, pure fuchsine, magenta, &c. Dissolve the dye in 200 parts of boiling water, which, after fil- tration, you pour gradually by portions into the bath. The bath is lukewarm for silk, and acidulated with tartaric or sul- phuric acid ; but for wool it is gradually brought up to the boil, and no acid is necessary. * Dyeing with violets insoluble in water. The dye dissolved in alcohol and diluted with water, as we have explained in Chap- ter II., is added by degrees to the bath which is at a temperature of from 104 to 140 F., and acidulated with some sulphuric acid, remembering that the more acid there is, the bluer is the shade.* Sometimes, for a blue shade, sulphate of indigo is added to the bath. Other persons use only aniline colors (blue and vio- let), for shading a ground of indigo or Prussian blue. Weak alcohol will dissolve that part of the dye which imparts a red tinge to certain blues. Aniline blues insoluble in water are dyed as the correspond- ing violets. Dyeing green. The paste, which, is a compound of tannin and the green color, is soluble in water acidulated with sul- phuric acid. A higher temperature is necessary for wool than for silk. It is well to leave the fabric in the bath until it cools off. Wool is sometimes mordanted with alum. Certain greens become soluble in water after having been thoroughly mixed with some sal ammoniac. Printing red aniline colors. The dye is dissolved in acetic acid or alcohol, thickened with gum Senegal, printed and steamed. A tin mordant is to be avoided. For 1 quart of alcohol, 1| ozs. of magenta crystals are used, or more, if deeper shades are wanted. This is a general process, which may be applied to many aniline dyes for printing on silk and wool. VEGETABLE FIBRES (COTTON, &C.) The yarn or fabric is to be mordanted with some of the mor- dants" already spoken of in Chapter I., and dyed in a hot and * The shades will be much faster if the wool and the silk have been mor- danted ma hot bath (1670 F.) containing a mixture of 1 part purified cream tartar and 10 parts alum. GENERAL METHODS FOR DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING. 19 acidulated bath. We shall begin the examples by one where albumen is employed, and where a very pure and bright shade is required. Dyeing with magenta crystals. For mordanting, dissolve J Ib. of albumen in 1 gallon of cold water, work the fabric or the yarn in it. Steam, in order to coagulate the albumen, and then dye in a moderately hot, and slightly acid bath. Cotton prepared with oil, the same as for Turkey red, takes very well the aniline reds and blues. The oil, olive oil for in- stance, which has been treated with sulphuric acid, becomes better adapted to act as a mordant. 1 Ib. of olive oil is well beaten with 4 ozs. of oil of vitriol, and becomes brown. It is then mixed with 1 quart of alcohol, and when all appears dis- solved, it is poured into boiling water. These proportions are sufficient for from 70 to 75 Ibs. of cotton, which is mordanted in a tepid bath. Dyeing with tannate of tin as a mordant (Perkin and Puller's process). The cloth is soaked for one hour or two in a decoc- tion of sumach or any other tanning substance, and then put into a weak solution of stannate of soda, where it is drawn and worked for one hour. It is then wrung out, dipped into di- luted sulphuric acid, and well rinsed before it is dyed in a slightly acidulated bath of aniline color.* Dyeing with a lead mordant. Cotton may be mordanted with a basic salt of lead, and dyed afterwards in a hot bath where soap and the color have been .dissolved together. Lead mor- dants are somewhat difficult to be evenly absorbed by the stuff. Dyeing with aluminate of soda for mordant. The cotton is al- lowed to rest for from 10 to 12 hours in a solution of soda marking 4 to 5 B 6 , and without rinsing is put into a solution of aluminate of soda, where it rests the same length of time. Alumina becomes fixed in a hot solution of sal ammoniac. The cotton is then dyed in a coloring bath, at the temperature of 122 F. Other methods of dyeing. Mordant with oxymuriate of tin, then with tannin, and dye. Or, dissolve caseine (curd of milk) in as little ammonia as possible ; soak the cotton in this solution diluted with water, and dry it. Then work your cotton in another bath of tannin with some muriatic acid, and dye it, after it has been carefully wrung. Mr. K. Bottger says that a solution of tannin in alcohol is sufficient for mordanting flax and cotton stuffs before dyeing. * The mordanted fabric is of a light yellow color. It is said that alum may be employed instead of stannate of soda. 20 COAL TAR COLORS. MM. Franc and Tabourin have proposed biphosphate of lime for mordanting cotton. For certain kinds of aniline blues, which have some red in them, the cotton is dyed first with Prussian blue. A violet is obtained by shading a ground of Prussian blue with aniline violet, with or without magenta. Printing with magenta crystals. Take 4 ozs. of color, and mix it thoroughly with 1 pint of warm water and 1 pint of glyce- rin, then boil the whole for 15 minutes. After filtration, thick- en the color with 1 Ib. of pulverized gum Senegal, and pass it through a sieve. On the other hand, 3| pounds of dry albumen have been dissolved in 3 quarts of water and passed through a muslin ' sieve ; this is added to the former substances. Print with the mixture, steam and wash. When the cotton fabric has been previously mordanted with alumina (red liquor), holding a trace of iron, a pure red cannot be obtained. Another method consists in mordanting with oxymuriate of tin, printing with magenta and tannic acid, and steaming, &c. Printing violet. 50 grains of rosolane in paste are dissolved in | oz. of alcohol, and thickened with 4 ozs. of gum water, and 5| ozs. of albumen water. After printing, the fabric is steamed and washed. The pressure of steam is low at the be- ginning, and is gradually increased. The preparations of gluten and caseine (lactarine) are cheaper, but are inferior to albumen, as regards the facility in printing, and the solidity and brightness of the shades. Printing with soluble blue. 1 part of the color is dissolved in 20 parts of water, which is mixed cold with 18 parts of acetate of alumina marking 15 Baume. Then thicken with gum. water, print, steam, and wash. If the blue is very soluble, it will be well to add to the mix- ture some carbonate of soda, about of the amount of the color. Printing with arsenile of alumina as a mordant (Wischine pro- cess). A mixture of arsnite of soda, acetate of alumina, and red or blue colors, is thickened, and then printed. After steam- ing, the stuff is washed in a soap bath. The shades stand washing very well. Printing violet. A paste is made by mixing and boiling for 15 minutes 1 oz. of aniline violet, pint of water, and 2 or 3 ozs. of glycerine, to which we add from 3 to 3| ozs. of gum Senegal. When the whole is cold, it is passed through a sieve and mixed with 7 ozs. of dry albumen dissolved in \ pint of water. ^ After printing, we steam and wash. Printing lyMr.E. Kopp's tannin process. We have already seen (Chapter II., precipitation) how to produce the combinations GENERAL METHODS FOR LYE1NG AND CALICO PRINTING. 21 of tannic acid with the salts of rosaniline, raauveine, and their derivatives. These combinations are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, wood spirit, and diluted sul- phuric acid ; remembering that impure wood spirit should not be used with the reds, which are turned violet or blue. The solution of the dye is thickened with gum Senegal, or gum tragacanth, or a mixture of both, or starch -dissolved in acetic acid. After printing, the fabric is steamed, and washed in cold water. The shades obtained in this way stand the action of soap well, but not so well that of light.* The following is another receipt: 1 pound of violet paste. 1 " " acetic acid No. 8. 1 " " tannic acid. 3 quarts of boiling water. 1 gallon of gum water. In this example the tannate of the color is made directly in the mixture. If the tannate was already at hand, no new tan- nin, or better, only a small quantity, would be needed. The calico to be printed may also be prepared, with stannate of soda, or alumina, gluten, caseine, gelatine, basic acetate of lead, corrosive sublimate, tartrate of antimony (only for ani- line violets), and double .chloride of potassium and antimony, which precipitate by tannin, and produce faster shades. When corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) is em- ployed, it has a tendency to turn the reds to violet. Sometimes the printing is only made with a thickened solu- tion of tannin, more or less concentrated according to the depth of shade desired. It is thus easy to obtain several shades of various intensity on the printed figures. The calico printed with tannin is steamed, drawn through a weak solution of gelatine or of a metallic salt, and thoroughly washed. The next operation will be the dyeing, when the color be- comes fixed to the parts printed with tannin, while the ground of the fabric is but very little colored. When aniline reds are employed, a washing with soap will remove all color from the ground not printed. Instead of pure tannin, gall-nuts, sumach, or tannin mixed with some fatty or resinous substance may be employed; but pure tannin gives the finer shades. Printing by the tannin process of MM. Javal and Gratrix. 1st * The reds, pinks, and some violets do not succeed well by this process. It is preferable to previously mordant the fabrics with stannate of soda. 22 COAL TAR COLORS. method Dissolve the color in alcohol or acetic acid, thicken and print it on tanned cloth, steam, and wash in pure water, or with soap if aniline reds have been employed. While steaming, the pressure begins very low, and is in- creased up to seven pounds per square inch. 2d method. Print with tannin alone, thickened, and steam as above, then draw through a bath containing a solution of an alkaline arseniate, phosphate, or silicate, and wash in pure water. Then dye in a bath at 140 F. acidulated with acetic acid, into which the color dissolved in acetic acid is added by de- grees, and which is gradually brought to the boil during the working of the cloth, which lasts about half an hour. When the white portions have absorbed some of the color, they are bleached by passing the cloth through a hot bath con- taining some mineral acid, which dissolves the coloring matter not combined with the tannin. Soapsuds, or a weak solution of printing clearing liquor, such as is used for garancine, may be employed. Lastly, rinse in pure water. Printing by the tannin process of MM. Littlewood and Wilson, or MM. Lloyd and Dak. To one gallon of gum water mix from 8 to 10 ozs. of pure and dry tannin, and enough of aniline color for the shade required. Print and steam at low pressure, and then pass the fabric through a hot solution (170 to 212 F.)of 2 ozs. of emetic or tartrate of antimony per gallon of water. Then wash and dry. If bleaching is necessary, use very weak solutions of bleaching powder, wash with soap, and rinse m pure water. Printing by Brook's process. By this process, madder printed colors may have their brightness increased by aniline colors. For this purpose, the madder mordants receive an addition of tannin and acetate of tin, and become fixed by ageing and steaming. The fabric is then dunged in cow's dung, or in phosphates, silicates, and arseniates of soda, dyed first with madder, and afterwards with aniline colors. Printing by the process of MM. J. and T. P. Miller. 1st method. Digest 1 Ib. of gall-nuts in 1 gallon of acetic acid No. 8 (Twaddle), which is mixed with a compound of tartar ic acid, stannate of soda, a small excess of acetic acid, and a suitable quantity of aniline color, then thicken with gum or starch, print, steam, &c. on a fabric which has been mordanted with a tannin solution. 2d method. Draw the fabric through a solution of 8 ozs. of soap per gallon of water, and afterwards through a bath con- taining some sulphuric acid ; then dry it. The printing mixture is made with about 12 ozs. of acetate COAL TAR COLORS. 23 of lead per gallon, to which is added the color dissolved in acetic acid. Then thicken, print, and steam. The proportion of acetate of lead is variable with the quan- tity of color. MIXED FABRICS. Dyeing. Mordant with sumach and stannate of soda, dye in a boiling bath and wash. Printing by the R. Bottger process. Liquid Violet. 1 part or volume gum tragacanth, water 4 parts or volumes. Before adding the violet, dissolve a little less than one ounce of ox- alic acid for every gallon of paste, thick or diluted. .The mix- ture is passed through a muslin sieve, and printed without albumen, which is said not to be necessary. After printing, the fabric is steamed at a low pressure for half an hour; washed and dried. These numerous examples would be incomplete without the starching process, which produces the cheapest prints in every sense of the word. No mordants whatever are required for pre- paring the cloth or printing it. A little aniline color dyes a great amount of starch. By printing with such starch, drying, and selling the fabric without washing it, the consumers will be sure to become disgusted with aniline colors. Such prints will bear no washing, and very little rubbing. A certain quantity of starch, with the proper mordants, may be useful for thickening ; but too large a proportion has the result of interposing an inactive substance between the fibre and the color. CHAPTER IY. COAL TAR COLORS. IT would be difficult to arrange these colors alphabetically, on account of the many and different names which have been given to the same dye. We shall then separate them into reds ; purples, violets, blues, &c. &c. This variety of names, which, in most cases, does not indicate the composition of the color, necessitates a brief consideration of their nature; and we shall dwell longer on those which re- quire peculiar methods for their use. The number of coal tar dyes which we present to the reader 24 COAL TAR COLORS. is more considerable than is generally found in dye-houses. We have, however, chosen only those colors which, on a large or small scale, have given sufficiently satisfactory results in the large dye houses of Alsace and England. REDS. Arsenite of rosaniline ; Crude fuchsine. The old processes for making aniline reds have all given way to the actual treatment of a mixture of aniline and tol'uidine by arsenic acid. This color is sufficiently soluble in hot water to produce directly a dye bath. It dyes a dirty red when the solution is only slightly heated, arid red-brown when heated to the boiling point. On account of its arsenic and arsenious acids, it is a highly poisonous substance which ought to be handled carefully. The dyed stuffs, however, do not retain any arsenic after a thorough washing. Hydrochlorate of rosaniline; Magenta; Fuchsine; Solferino ; Aniline red. Obtained from the above arseniate, and purified by several crystallizations. Is found entirely pure in the trade ; sufficiently soluble in boiling water, and very soluble in alcohol. Nitrate of rosaniline ; Azaleine ; Rubine ; sometimes Magenta. Produced by heating for several hours, at about 240 F., 10 parts of aniline with 7 parts of dry nitrate of mercury. Solu- ble in hot water, and very pure in the trade. Acetate of rosaniline ; Roseine ; sometimes Magenta. Obtained by combining concentrated acetic acid with rosaniline precipi- tated from the arsenite. ^ The crystals are very pure, and are soluble in water. Coralline; Peonine. Discovered by Mr. Persoz, Jr., and pro- duced by the action of ammonia upon rosalic acid, under pressure, and at the temperature of 302 F. This color is not very fast, especially on cotton, is soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and in alkaline solutions which become brown after being a certain time in contact with the air. Sulphurous acid destroys this color. (Silk and wool dyeing.) Dissolve coralline in alcohol, add some soda, and pour the solution into a large quantity of water. Then a small addition of tartaric acid will liberate the color, which will produce shades intermediate between magenta and cochineal. Dye in a cold bath. (Cotton dyeing.) Dissolve coralline in a solution of caustic soda of 12 B fe , or in a saturated solution of carbonate of soda. 1 gallon of this latter liquid will dissolve 2| Ibs. of coralline, COAL TAR COLORS. 25 which is then diluted with 2 gallons of water, and neutralized by 1 gallon of sulphuric acid at 10 B fe . The fabric, which has been mordanted with tin, sumach or tannin, is then dyed in this solution, for 1| hour, and at a tem- perature of about 85 F. raised up to 122. The shade obtained resists steaming and washing ; but soap, alkalies and light alter it rapidly. (Calico printing.) The coralline precipitated by water from its solution in acetic acid is dryed at a low temperature, inti- mately mixed with chalk or oxide of zinc, and printed with albumen. Erythro-benzine. Obtained by MM. Laurent and Casthelaz by mixing 12 parts of nitro-benzine with 12 parts of iron fil- ings, and 6 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The whole is allowed to rest for 24 hours at the natural tempera- ture. The resulting resinous mass is treated by boiling water, and the color precipitated by chloride of sodium. Soluble in alcohol, and fast on silk and wool. Isopurpurate of potassa ; Soluble ruby. Obtained by Mr. Hlasiwetz by the reaction of cyanide of potassium upon picric acid. It is sufficiently soluble in hot water, and alcohol. It is sold in paste, which should contain some glycerine to keep it always wet, otherwise it is a very dangerous product, because it detonates by the least shock. It dyes silk, wool, and cotton mordanted with albumen, a garnet and puce color, with the addition to the bath of alum and acetic acid. These shades turn to orange by steaming. Its solution, heated with acetic acid in a copper vessel, be- comes of an orange color. Wool and silk, when mordanted with corrosive sublimate, are dyed a magnificent purple. If the mordant is zinc, the color obtained is a brillant yellow. We see, therefore, that different mordants will produce different shades. The colors are very fast, except against sulphurous acid. Rubis imperial; Imperial ruby. Mixture of 300 parts of coralline with 200 parts of magenta. Dissolve 1 pound of the mixture in 12 gallons of alcohol, and dye without mordant. When coralline is in excess of the above proportion, the shade is a yellowish cherry red. If magenta is in excess, the shade is somewhat violet. Grenat; Garnet-red. (Schultz process.) It is a precipitate obtained by passing nitrous oxide gas through a solution of magenta or fuchsine in alcohol mixed with ammonia. Phcenicine ; Ponceau d? aniline. Obtained by Mr. F. Duprey by boiling bioxide of barium with a solution of acetate of rnauveine (Perkin's violet). Adding then some carbonate of 3 26 COAL TAB COLORS. soda, just enough to separate the carbonate of baryta, the solu- tion 'is filtered, and phcenicine is precipitated by chloride of sodium, washed, &c. This dye is soluble in ammonia, carbonate of soda, benzine, &c. Cerise; Cherry red. Manufactured by Mr. J. R Geigy, of Bale. Dissolve 1 part of the color in 6 parts of acetic acid; let it stand one night in a vessel which is kept hot by being put in a hot bath. Then pour the whole solution into 15 to 20 buckets of hot water, mix well, skim, filter, and dye in the hot bath. The shades are raised on silk, by a washing and a drawing through very weak and cold sulphuric acid. Wool may be mordanted with cream of tartar or alum, or both. The shades may be varied by the addition of magenta, tur- meric, sulphate of indigo, picric acid, archil, &c. " Ghkroxynaphthalic acid. Obtained by Mr. Casthelaz. It is soluble in alcohol, benzine, sulphuric acid, alkaline acetates, and in boiling water sufficiently for dyeing. It dyes wool a deep red, without mordants. Various shades are produced by the admixture of other coloring substances. It does not succeed with cotton, even animalized, on account of its great acidity. Rosolic acid. It is now scarcely used, the shades being with- out fastness, either on wool, silk, or on cotton. PURPLES, VIOLETS, AND BLUES. Sulphate of mauveine ; PerJcin's violet; indisine; aniline purple ; mauve. This color, discovered by Mr. Pefkin, was the first ani- line dye introduced to the trade. It is produced by heating a mixture of sulphates of aniline and toluidine with bichromate of potassa, and sulphuric acid, and separating the resinous im- purities by benzine. Little soluble in boiling water ; but sol- uble in alcohol, wood spirit, acetic acid, acetone, glycerine, tar- taric acid, sulphuric and muriatic acids. Aniline violet. Obtained by MM. Depouilly and Lauth, by gradually adding bleaching powder to a solution of hydro- chlorate of aniline with acetic acid until the desired shade of violet appears. This violet has the same basis as Perkin's wolet, that is to say, mauveine, which can be precipitated and dissolved in mu- riatic acid or acetic acid. Similar violets are produced by using chlorine, bi-oxides of COAL TAR COLORS. 27 lead and of manganese, permanganate of potassa, &c., instead of bleaching powder or bichromate of potassa. Bleu and violet de Mulhouse. Obtained by MM. Gros-Re- naud and Schoeffer, by boiling a solution of white shellac and soda crystals with some azaleine (nitrate of rosaniline) previ- ously dissolved in alcohol. For the violet a larger proportion of soda crystals and azaleine is required than for the blue. Thick- en the colored liquid with gum tragacanth, and print. Violet imperial. Obtained by MM. Girard and de Laire by heating for 5 or 6 hours, and at a temperature of about 330 F., a mixture of equal parts of aniline and hydrochlorate of rosaniline; the excess of aniline and magenta is removed by diluted muriatic acid, and the remaining violet is soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, wood spirit, and boiling water with some acetic acid. (Silk and wool dyeing.) Dissolve 1 part of this violet in 2 parts of alcohol, and 1 of acetic acid ; let it rest and filter. Dye in a bath acidulated by sulphuric acid, cold at the beginning, and brought up to the boil. The shade will be bluish, if the fibre is taken immediately from the hot bath, and reddish, if allowed to remain in it until it cools off. Aniline or rosaniline blues. There are a great many processes for manufacturing these blues. A blue will be produced by a mixture of aniline red and aniline, heated with an organic acid or an organic salt (acetic acid, or acetate of soda, tartaric acid, benzoic acid). By the Nicholson process, rosaniline, aniline, and acetic acid are employed. All these blues are nearly insoluble in boiling water, but are soluble in alcohol, &c., or in water after a transformation by oil of vitriol. Soluble blues. We have already seen in Chapter II. how to render soluble the above blues and many violets. By the pro- cess of cold sulphuric acid, the color becomes sufficiently sol- uble in an acid bath; by the process of hot sulphuric acid, the dye is very soluble in water; but this great solubility requires certain precautions in dyeing, otherwise the shades would be uneven. Some persons add carbonate of soda as a corrective. MM. Lachmann and Breuninger use two baths ; the first contains 1 part of soluble blue in 500 parts of water, and no acid at all ; the second bath contains water acidulated with sul- phuric acid. The cloth dyed in the first bath is of a light gray- ish-blue color, and the pure blue shade appears only in the second bath. Night blue ; bleu de nuil ; bleu lumi&re. It is so called on ac- count of being free from violet, and of keeping its true blue color in artificial light. Made by heating 4 parts of magenta or ro- 28 COAL TAR COLORS. seine, 8 parts of aniline, and 2 parts of acetate of soda, during 2 hours, and at a temperature of 392, raised up to 482 at the end of the operation. The last trace of violet is removed by several washings with diluted sulphuric, or muriatic acid. It is sufficiently soluble in boiling water with some acetic acid. Bleu de Paris. Obtained by MM. Persoz, de Luynes, and Salvetat, by the reaction of 9 parts of anhydrous bichloride of tin on 16 parts of aniline, under pressure, and at the tempera- ture of 356 F. This blue is more expensive than other kinds, but is very fast, soluble in water, alcohol, &c., and keeps a pure blue shade under artificial light. Bleu de Lyon. Prepared in a similar way as night blue, only acetate of potassa takes the place of acetate of soda. MM. Girard and de Laire use the process for making arsenite of ro- saniline, only the quantity of arsenic acid is considerably in- creased. (Silk dyeing.) 1 Ib. of the blue is dissolved in 2 gallons of alcohol, 2 or 3 ozs. of sulphuric acid are added, and after stand- ing some time the whole is filtered. The silk is drawn 5 or 6 times through the bath, which is brought up to the boil, and re- ceives the color by portions. After dyeing, the silk is worked in a hot soap bath, rinsed, and the shade raised in acidulated cold water. (Wool dyeing.) The same as for silks, but no washing in soap. (Printing.) 1 part of blue is dissolved in 33 of alcohol, and 1 part of this solution is thickened with 5 parts of gum water. Dahlia or blue violet. Many violets are obtained, the same as blues, by the reaction of aniline red with aniline and acetate of soda, and by varying the proportions, the temperature, or the length of the operation. For this dahlia color, the opera- tion lasts longer, and benzoic acid or benzoates are gradually added, until the desired shade is obtained. The mass is then cooled off rapidly, and purified in the usual way. All these violets are scarcely soluble in water alone. Ethyl or methylrosaniline violets ; Hofmann's violets ; primula ; iodine violets. These colors, remarkable by their beauty and fastness have been obtained by Mr. A. W. Hofmann by treating under pressure, for 3 to 4 hours, and at a temperature a little above 212 F., a mixture of a salt of rosaniline, iodide of ethyl or methyl, and strong alcohol. With equal parts of rosaniline and iodide of methyl or ethyl, the product is a red violet ; by doubling the quantity of iodide, the color is a blue, violet. When these violets are not separated from their iodine, they are to be dissolved in alcohol. COAL TAR COLORS. 29 When free from iodine, and combined with acetic or muriatic acid, they are soluble in about 50 parts of water. (Silk dyeing.) Use an acidulated and lukewarm bath, gra- dually raised to the boil. The color is added by degrees. (Wool dyeing.) Hot bath, without mordant or acid. Printing as by the usual methods. Aniline violet obtained by Mr. .Perkin by heating together equal parts of mauveine and iodide of ethyl, for several hours. The process bears some analogy to that of Mr. Hofmann. Ethylmauvaniline blue and violet. Obtained by MM. Girard, de Laire, and Chapoteaut, by the Hofmann process, and by sub- stituting mauvaniline for rosaniline. Methylaniline violet; Paris violet. The originators of this color are MM. Greville- Williams, Poirier, Chappat, and Ch. Lauth. Soluble in water. Violaniline and Mauvaniline. These dyes with chrysotoluidine have been extracted by MM. Girard, de Laire, and Chapoteaut, from the residues of the treatment of hydrochlorate of rosaniline. The salts of mauvaniline are soluble in water, and their color is a beautiful violet mauve. The salts of violaniline are soluble in alcohol and are blue black, with violet reactions. Regina purple. Obtained by Mr. Nicholson by carefully heat- ing pure magenta at a temperature of from 390 to 420 F., until the substance appears a dark and thick mass. Ammonia is evolved. Soluble in acetic acid, alcohol, &c. Azuline. Obtained by MM. K. Richoud and J. Persoz by gradually oxidizing aniline by coralline. Soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, &c. For dyeing silk and wool, azuline is dissolved in alcohol, and added to a hot bath acidulated with sulphuric acid, or better, tartaric acid. Heat to the boil. Azurine ; Dark indigo blue. This color, by the process of MM. F. C. Calvert, Ch. Lowe and S. Clift, is directly produced upon the cloth by dyeing or printing cotton goods with a mix- ture oftartrateor hydrochlorate of aniline, and acetic acid. After an exposure to the air, of 2 or 3 hours, a green color ap- pears (see greens emeraldine); the fabric is then drawn through a bath holding a weak solution of soap and caustic soda, or better still, one ounce of bichromate of potassa per gallon of water. The color turns indigo-blue, and even black, if too much of the aniline salts has been employed. No mordants of alumina or others are required. Aniline purple. Produced by MM. J. Dale and H. Caro by boiling in water a mixture of a salt of rosaniline with a soluble copper salt and chloride of sodium. The precipitated color is gO COAL TAR COLORS. purified by weak and boiling alkaline solution, and is soluble in alcohol. For dyeing cotton, mordant with tannin, dye in the color, and fix in a bath of tartarized antimony. Chinoline blue and violet ; Cyanine. Extracted from cincho- nine. The shades are beautiful, but without any solidity, being acted upon by light, acids, and alkalies. When dyeing, the bath should not contain any acid. Harmaline (violet). Toluidine blue. Bosolane (violet). Parme Bluish purple. Phenylamine blue. Rosotoluidine blue. YELLOWS, ORANGES. Picric acid and Picrates. Thepicrates are highly explosive, and their dyeing power is much less than that of picric acid. This color is produced by the action of nitric acid upon car- bolic or phenic acid. It dyes wool and silk a yellow color, with a green tinge. The shade is faster when these fibres have been mordanted with a mixture of alum and cream of tartar. Cotton mordanted with albumen and lactarine may be dyed with picric acid, although not very fast. That color does not bear steaming. Chrysanilim yellow; Phosphine; Victoria Orange; Yellow fuch- sine. This color was separated first by Mr. E. C. Nicholson from hydrochlorate of rosaniline in the manufacture of the lat- ter. Soluble in water acidulated by acetic acid. Dyes silk and wool a beautiful golden yellow. The sulphate of chrysaniline is very soluble in water. Chrysotoluidine Extracted by MM. Girard, de Laire, and Chapoteaut are from the residues of the manufacture of aniline red, where it is found associated with mauvaniline and violani- line. The salts of chrysotoluidine are soluble in water. Binitronaphthalic acid; Naphthylamine yellow ; Jaune d"or ; Manchester yellow. This color is due to Dr. C. A. Martius, and dyes a magnificent golden yellow, without the greenish shade of picric acid. It will support steaming. Used extensively for dyeing wool and leather. Yellow Coralline. (Printing on Wool). Dissolve 5 Ibs. of coralline in 2 gallons of caustic soda of 10 B 6 ., and at the tem- perature of 140 F. Dilute with 20 gallons of water, heat again, and add about 1 quart of bichloride of tin of 55, diluted with 1 gallon of water. After filtration, there remain 4 gal- COAL TAR COLORS. 31 Ions of lake. Then, taking 2 gallons of this unwashed and semifluid lake, mix it with 4 Ibs. of pulverized gum, and about 12 ozs. of oxalic acid; heat until all is dissolved, pass through the sieve, and print. After 12 hours' standing, the print is steamed, and is of a bright orange color. Aniline orange and yellow. Azotihine; Zinaline. By passing more or less of nitrous oxide gas through aniline kept cold, these colors are produced. Hydrochloric, or acetic acid is added, and the solution is ready for the dye-bath. Aniline yellow. This appears to be a salt of leucaniline, and has been obtained by Mr. Durand by the slow action of nascent hydrogen, during 12 or 24 hours, upon the residues of the manufacture of aniline red. After purification, the color is sufficiently soluble in boiling water to dye wool, silk, and leather without mordant. The color is a nankeen yellow, which will turn ponceau if the fabric is drawn through another bath containing a solution of bichromate of potassa. Aniline yellow, obtained by Messrs. Simpson, Maule & Ni- cholson, by the action of nitric acid on aniline. It dyes wool and silk a bright lemon yellow. If picric acid is added, the shade on wool will approach a cochineal color. These colors being volatile, do not bear steaming, and are not fast. Aniline orange. Obtained by Mr. E. Jacobsen from the residues of the preparation of azaleine (nitrate of rosaniline). It is soluble in alcohol, sufficiently so in boiling water, and dyes wool and silk a fine gold yellow. Alkalies, ammonia, for instance, change the shade to a brimstone yellow, but acids restore the primitive color. Chloroxynaphthalate of ammonia. Very soluble in water, according to Mr. Perkin, and dyes silk a gold color, which light does not affect. Safranine is a new coal-tar dye, obtained by Mr. Carves, of St. Etienne, which is said to have twice the coloring power of picric acid, and to afford yellow or red shades, according to treatment. GREENS. Mixed green. Obtained by a mixture of picric acid and aniline blue. It appears grayish under artificial light. Vert printemps ; Spring green. Picric acid and carmine of indigo produce a beautiful green, which appears violet under artificial light. Night green; Vert lumilre. Picric acid and Prussian blue. Keeps its true green color in artificial light. Aniline green; aldehyd green ; night green ; vert lumihe; UsZbe 32 COAL TAR COLOES. green; viridine. To 4 parts of aniline-red in crystals, add 6 parts of oil of vitriol and 2 parts of water. When this solu- tion is cold, gradually add to it pure aldehyd (about 6 parts), and heat the whole in a water bath to the boiling point, until a few drops of the solution, put into weak sulphuric acid, or acetic acid, produce a blue coloration. When this point is reached, the liquid is poured into a bath of water (200 times the weight of aniline red employed), containing some hyposul- phite of soda, a weight about equal to that of the sulphuric acid entering into the composition of the liquor. Two different colors are produced : a green in solution, and a grayish sub- stance called argentine, which remains in suspension in the liquid, and may be separated by filtration. Mr. Lauth obtains better results by using alkaline polysul- phides (liver of sulphur), instead of hyposulphite of soda. This green bath should be used at once, as it does not keep well. (Silk dyeing.) Put the silk into the lukewarm bath, which is gradually brought up to the boil, and let it cool off with the silk in it. (Wool dyeing.) Less acidity, and less heat than for silk. It is well to mordant the wool with alum, but this green succeeds better on silk than on other fibres, and requires some practice in its use. Aniline green in paste.-^-The above bath is employed for pre- cipitating the color by acetate of soda, or more generally by tannin. The precipitate is collected, washed, and the resulting paste is soluble in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. An addition of sal ammoniac, about T ' n of the weight of the paste is said to greatly facilitate the solution. For dyeing, follow the preceding rules for heat and acidity of the bath. (Calico printing.) Print on cloth mordanted with tannin. The color does not stand steaming well. (Wool and silk printing.) Mr. Sevez says that the green will bear steaming, if bisulphite of soda is added to the paste, which is made as follows : Gam water .... 1 quart.. Green in paste .... 10 ozs. Crystallized bisulphite of soda . 5 " Heat in a water bath until the salt is dissolved, let stand for 3 or 4 days, print and steam. If the mixture is not allowed to stand, the color is too light. This process does not succeed well on cotton. - Iodide of ethyl green By boiling Hofmann's violets with water COAL TAR COLORS. 33 and carbonate of soda, a precipitate is produced, which is re- moved by filtration. The filtered liquor is then treated by picric acid, and another precipitate is obtained of a green color, which is washed and sold in powder. Soluble in alcohol, and possibly in sal-ammoniac. Emeraldine. This is one of the few aniline colors which are directly produced on a cotton fabric, and has been discovered by Messrs. F. C. Calvert, Lowe & Cloft. (Cotton dyeing.) Draw the fabric through a bath containing 4 oz. of chlorate of potassa per gallon of water, and dry. Then 'draw it through another solution containing 1 per cent, of hy- drochlorate or tartrate of aniline, and acidulated with hydro- chloric or tartaric acid. (Cotton printing.) Print with a mixture of tartrate or hydro- chlorate of aniline 3 Ibs. Starch paste . . . . . 6 " Chlorate of potassa . . . . 1 Ib. The salt of aniline is added only when the mixture is cold. After printing, and a little steaming, the color becomes deve- loped in a few hours. Then wash the fabric. If these green prints were passed through a solution of bi- chromate of potassa, the color would be transformed into a dark indigo blue. (See Blues azurine.) This green color is fast under the action of light. Alkalies and soap turn it blue ; but acids restore the green color. Rosaniline green. Obtained by Messrs. J. A. Wanklin and Paraf, by repeatedly treating Hofmann's violets with equal parts of wood spirit and iodides of ethyl or methyl, under pressure, for 3 to 4 hours, and at a temperature of from 230 to 240 F. The coloring matter of the product is dissolved by weak solu- tions of carbonate of soda. The shade of green is very fine, is not changed by artificial light, but is not very fast. Toluidine green. Produced by a process similar to that of aldehyd green. Olive green or aniline olive. Mr. Sacc gives the following mixture for printing cotton or silk (?): Water ... 300 parts. Farina ... 36 " Chlorate of potassa . 15 " Acetate of copper . 15 " Nitric acid . . 10 ") Previously mixed Aniline . . 20 " j together. This mixture seems very thin. 34 COAL TAR COLORS. The olive shades are somewhat brown, and this formula is also used for the latter color. BROWNS, MAROONS. Havana brown. The impure arsenite of rosaniline (crude fuchsine), in a solution heated to the boiling point, dyes silk and wool a reddish-brown. The higher the temperature, the browner is the shade. Brown maroon. Obtained by Messrs. Grirard and de Laire by melting 4 parts of anhydrous hydrochlorate of aniline with 1 part of arsenite of aniline, or 1 part of aniline blue or violet. The temperature is gradually increased to 465 F., and main- tained for about 2 hours, until the mixture evolves yellow fumes, and turns brown or maroon. The color is soluble in water, alcohol, acetic acid, &c., and produces beautiful shades on silk and leather. Leucaniline brown; puce fuchsine. Mr. H. Koechlin recom- mends the following mixture for wool printing : Dissolve ^ oz. of magenta crystals (hydrochlorate of rosani- line) in 2 gills of alcohol; thicken with 1J pint of gum water, and add 2 ozs. of oxalic acid, and 5 grains of chlorate of potassa. By decreasing the quantity of chlorate of potassa, a red brown is obtained. For a yellow shade, add some yellow lake free from prot- oxide of tin. All these shades are fast, and resist acids, alkalies, and soap. Dark brown. A paste containing tartrate of leucaniline with sulphide of copper, will print shades of a pure dark brown by a process similar to that of aniline black. Brown. A brown precipitate obtained by treating a solution of magenta by hydrochloric acid and chlorate of potassa, is solu- ble in alcohol and sulphuric acid, and may be fixed upon cot- ton mordanted with albumen. Olive brown. See olive green. e Rothine or Phenicienne. Obtained by Mr. J. Roth by the ac- tion of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid upon carbolic acid. But slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, tartaric acid, and alkalies. The alkaline solutions are violet blue, and become brown by a slight excess of acid. The shades are fast on silk and wool and even resist bleach- ing powder. (Wool and silk dyeing.) No mordants are required. The shade will turn from a brown yellow to a garnet color by the addition of bichromate of potassa and some sulphuric acid. COAL TAR COLORS. 35 (Cotton dyeing.) Cotton mordanted with stannate of soda or tannin, will be dyed a dark wood color by the addition of bi- chromate of potassa to the hot bath. This color on cotton is turned blue by the alkalies, and is dissolved by soap. (Printing.) Phdnicienne prints do not succeed on either silk, wool, or cotton, the color being changed and altered by steam- ing. The results are more satisfactory on mixed fabrics, especially when wood shades are desired. JPhe'nicienne is then dissolved in acetic acid, thickened, and some chlorate of potassa and tar- taric acid are added to the mixture. Mixed brown; cerise brown. Dissolve 1 part of Geigy's cerise (see reds) in 6 parts of acetic acid, and add 2J parts of sulphuric solution of indigo. Add also some tartaric acid or cream tar- tar at the end of the operation, that is to say, at the last boil of the dye bath. Aniline brown. Obtained by Mr. E. Jacobsen by gradually heating up to 300 F., and as long as ammonia is evolved, 1 part of picric acid and 2 parts of aniline ; or by boiling a con- centrated solution of chromate of ammonia with aniline, and adding formic acid. This color is soluble in alcohol with sulphuric acid or gly- cerine, dyes wool a brown color, and silk a peculiar shade of brown, called corinth. BLACKS, GRAYS. Chloroxynaphihalic black. Wool is dyed a fine black, by mixing chloroxynaphthalic acid (see reds) with sulphate of indigo. Aniline black. (Cotton and silk dyeing.) According to Mr. Cam. Koechlin, these fibres may be dyed in a solution made of: Water ., . . . . 20 to 30 parts. Chlorate of potassa . . 1 part. Sal ammoniac . . . 1 " Chloride of copper . 1 " Aniline . . . 1 ) previously Hydrochloric acid . 1 f mixed together. The fabric or yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a low tem- perature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards. (Wool dyeing or printing.) Mr. J. Lightfoot prepares the wool by a kind of oxidation made as follows : 1 part of bleaching powder is dissolved in 10 parts of water. Then for 1 pound of wool, take about a pint of the above solution, dilute it with 36 COA1< TAR COLORS. 6 gallons of water, and add 3 ozs. of muriatic acid. In this bath, which is at the temperature of 100 F., work the wool dur- ing 20 or 30 minutes, and until it has acquired a yellowish tint. Then wash it thoroughly, and let it dry. Wool and mixed fabrics thus prepared may be dyed and printed in the usual way. (Silk printing.) In this case, silk is to be vegetablized (we have already the word animalized) by an immersion in a bath of cellulose dissolved in ammoniacal copper oxide. We think this process quite delicate, on account of the action of ammo- nia on the silk. (Calico printing.) The first application of aniline black to calico printing was made by Mr. John Lightfoot. One of the early printing mixtures was made of: Water 5| quarts. White starch . . . . 1 Ib. 14 ozs. Chlorate of potassa . .. 6 ozs. Hydrochlorate of aniline . . 1 Ib. Sulphate or chloride of copper . 5 ozs. The aniline black obtained was very fine and fast ; but the great quantity of copper salt employed was found to be inju- rious, both to the fabric and to the metallic printing rollers. Subsequent experiments made by Messrs. C. Kcechlin, Cor- dillot, and Lauth, have led to the substitution of sulphide of copper for the sulphate and chloride of this metal, whose pre- sence seems indispensable to the production of aniline black. A good printing paste, which does not weaken the fabrics, and does not corrode the scrapers and the rollers of the print- ing apparatus is made as follows : Heat and digest Water 1 Ib. Starch 2 Ibs. Sulphide of copper .... 8 ozs. On the other hand, mix and heat Torrefied starch .... 2 Ibs. 6 ozs. Water 4 " Gum tragacanth water . . .1 quart. Hydrochlorate of aniline . . 1 Ib. 9 ozs. Sal ammoniac . . . 3J ozs. Chlorate of potassa . , . 9| ozs. Then mix the two compositions, print, and expose the fabric in the ageing- room for 24 hours, and at a temperature from 77 to 104 F. COAL TAR COLORS. 37 Here is another paste by Mr Kappelin : Starch paste . . . ' 2 gallons. Chlorate of potassa . . . 7 oz. Gum tragacanth water . . . 5| Ibs. Sulphide of copper . . .14 ozs. Sal ammoniac . . . 9 ozs. A salt of aniline (tartrate) . .2^ Ibs. which is added last.* After 24 hours' standing in the ageing room, the prints are drawn through a bath containing 2 per ct. of carbonate of soda, steamed and washed. Acid* will turn the color to green, but alkalies will restore the black. A solution of bichromate of potassa intensifies the color; but an excess of this salt is apt to impart a reddish hue. The best aniline for black is the one which contains a mix- ture of aniline and toluidine, and which is sought for in the manufacture of reds. The sulphide of copper is made by dissolving at the ordinary temperature 2 parts of sublimed sulphur in 2 parts of caustic soda, at 38 Baume". After 24 hours' standing and frequent stir- rings, the solution is complete, and is thrown into a warm solu- tion of 10 parts of sulphate of copper in 250 parts of water. The precipitate is washed and drained until about 10 pints are ob- tained, each pint therefore corresponds to 1 pound of sulphate of copper. Lucas paste. It contains acetate of copper and hydrochlorate of aniline, without sal ammoniac, and has been submitted to a peculiar process. When used, this paste is mixed with 6 to 8 times its volume of starch paste. The temperature of the age- ing room is about 104 F. Parafs paste. It is a mixture of hydrochlorate of aniline, chlorate of potassa, hydrofluosilicic acid, and a thickening. It produces a very fine black when applied with copper or brass rollers, which furnish the copper necessary to the development of the color. If no coppqr is present, the shade is only a dirty blue. All these aniline blacks are remarkable as being very fast, unalterable by acids and alkalies, and even by chlorine to a certain point. If chlorine is not used in great excess, the black color will reappear; if in excess, the color remains fallow. * Tartrate of aniline does not corrode the steel scrapers, and is gradually transformed into hydrochlorate of aniline by the sal ammoniac of the mixture. Nitrate and hydrochlorate of aniline are the only salts of aniline which can produce the black. 88 COAL TAB COLORS. Aniline black may also be printed simultaneously with madder and most steam colors. All the compositions for producing aniline black must be acid, and the more acid there is, the more rapid is the production of the black. We ought, however, to remain within proper limits, otherwise the fibre may be weakened. The degree of acidity of the paste will also vary with the thickenings employed. Gum Senegal requires more acidity than torrefied starch, and the latter more so than white starch or gum tragacanth. In printing aniline black care should be taken not to print upon, or too near other places previously mordanted ; the mor- dant would be acted upon, and if it contains acetic acid, this acid once liberated would prevent the formation of the black, which will be only gray. There is also danger of spontaneous combustion, so rapid is the oxidation going on, when the printed piece is allowed to re- main folded and wet. It should be immediately spread out in the ageing room. Aniline grays. (Calico printing.) By diluting the above blacks with an increased proportion of thickening, nothing will be produced, unless by the addition of a mineral acid. The whole paste, in proportion to its volume, should contain as much acidity as the former black paste had. The true colors of aniline blacks and grays appear only after washing. Mauveine gray. Obtained by Mr. J. Castelhaz by dissolving 10 parts of mauveine, in paste, in 11 parts of oil of vitriol (66 B 6 ) ; 6 parts of aldehyd are then added, and the whole mass is allowed to stand 4 or 5 hours. By washing the product, the gray passes through the filter, and is precipitated by chlo- ride of sodium. Soluble in water, alcohol, &c. Mureine grays. Obtained by MM. F. Carves and Thirault by treating hydrochlorate of aniline by a mixture of bichro- mate of potassa, an iron salt, water, and sulphuric acid. By varying the proportions of the reagents, different shades are produced, which are soluble in boiling water, and stand acids and soap well. DICTIONARY OF CALICO DYEING AND FEINTING. Absorbent. A term borrowed from the French. It sig- nifies a composition for discharging mordants after padding or printing and before dyeing; but like the English word dis- charge, to which it is nearly equivalent, it often signifies a dis- charge in the widest meaning of the word. It is also used, but less frequently, to indicate a simple resist. (See DISCHARGE, KESIST.) Acetate. All compounds of acetic acid with metals or oxides are called Acetates. They form a very important class of salts, and are extensively used in dyeing and calico printing. The more important acetates are those of Alumina, Copper, Iron, Lead, and Soda, which are treated upon under the head of Acetate. General Properties of Acetates. All acetates are soluble in water; the acetates of soda, potash, magnesia, zinc, and lead, though reckoned neutral salts in chemistry, have an alkaline reaction, that is, turn red litmus paper blue, and in other ways act as alkalies ; for example, if acetate of potash be mixed with a solution of a per-salt of iron, a salt of the green oxide of chromium, or with bi-chloride of tin, it causes, upon boiling, a precipitate of the oxide of the metal, or a basic salt, much the same as would be produced by weak caustic potash or crystals of soda. When sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and other strong acids, are mixed with an acetate, the acetic acid is set free, and may be expelled by heat, because it is a weaker acid and volatilizes or passes off in vapor. The affinity of acetic acid for metals is weak, and consequently many of the acetates are decomposed spontaneously, the metallic oxide separating from the acetic acid ; thus, acetate of peroxide of iron, of chro- 40 ACETATE. mium, of tin, and of alumina, are decomposable by simply drying in the air, the acid passing away and the oxide of the metal remaining behind; this is what takes place when red liquor or iron liquor, which are respectively acetates of alumina and iron, are printed on cloth, and the cloth dried, the acid flies away and the alumina and iron are left adhering to the cloth. Sometimes a small portion of the acetic acid remains combined with the metallic oxide, forming what is called a sub-salt or a basic acetate, and this form of acetate is generally insoluble in pure water. Preparation of Acetates. Acetates are made in two general ways ; firstly, the direct method, by taking acetic acid and mixing it with the substance to be acted upon ; thus, to make acetate of soda, take any quantity of commercial acetic acid and dissolve in it soda crystals or soda ash until the sourness of the acid is neutralized; a solution of acetate of soda is produced, which, by boiling down or mixing with water, can be brought to any required strength; ground chalk or slaked lime thus mixed and dissolved in acetic acid would give acetate of lime ; litharge or oxide of lead thus dissolved would give acetate or sugar of lead. The second, or indirect method, consists in taking an acetate ready formed, so as to produce another by the process of " double decomposition," so called because two salts are decomposed or destroyed at the same time, giving rise to two new ones. To illustrate this, by a practical example, suppose it is required to make some acetate of alumina or red liquor; now the first method is not applicable, simply because the alumina which would be required is not a commercial article; but sulphate of alumina and acetate of lead are readily procura- ble, and by dissolving them in water and mixing them, the double decomposition spoken of takes place, and there is forma- tion of acetate of alumina and sulphate of lead; this last not being soluble in water settles down as a white sediment. Sul- phate of iron and acetate of lead mixed together give rise to acetate of iron and sulphate of lead; sulphate of manganese and acetate of lead give rise to acetate of manganese and sul- phate of lead, and so on. When an acetate is mixed with any soluble sulphate, nitrate, or chloride, there will be production of acetate of that sulphate, nitrate, or chloride, although no visible decomposition may take place ; thus, if acetate of soda be mixed with bi-chloride of mercury or corrosive sublimate, no visible change takes place, but there is no doubt that acetate of mercury is produced; so also a red liquor may be made by mixing acetate of soda and sulphate of alumina, but it would be less regular in its results, because containing other salts, as sulphate of soda. ACETATE OF ALUMINA. 41 Analysis of Acetates. The value of commercial acetates always depends upon the acetic acid present, and the quantity of this acid can only be ascertained by laboratory methods. I use two processes : first I liberate the acetic acid from a weighed quantity of the acetate to be examined, by acting upon it with sulphuric acid in a deep-bellied retort, heat to drive over all the acetic acid which is condensed in a well cooled receiver; near the end of the process I drive a current of steam through the retort to remove the last traces of acetic acid. The dis- tilled acid is then tested with a standard solution of caustic soda as explained in ACIDIMETRY, and the quantity of acetic acid calculated. The second method consists in turning the acetate under examination into acetate of soda, and then changing this by a red heat into carbonate of soda, the quantity of which is accu- rately ascertained by the test acid and process described in AL- KALIMETRY, and from that the quantity of acetic acid calculated. Thus, in testing acetate of lime, take 100 grains, dissolve in water, add solution of sulphate of soda until no more precipi- tate of sulphate of lime takes place, then add one-fourth of the bulk of liquor of methylated spirit, leave for a time, filter and wash the precipitate, evaporate the clear in a platinum vessel to dryness, raise the heat to a good red, stirring the mass until no more vapors are evolved, cool, warm with water, and test with the standard acid. The first process is very good in its results, but on account of a little sulphuric acid finding its way into the receiver the acetate appears better than it is; the second plan I have also found good, and its results are usually on the other side, or against the acetate. Acetate of Alumina, commonly called Red Liquor or Red Mordant, sometimes also Acetite of Alumina and Pyrolignite of Alumina. Acetate of alumina first began to be used as a mordant towards the end of the last century ; long previously, perhaps even by the Hindoos, at the time of Alexander the Great, a more or less impure acetate, mixed with other ingredients, was employed in calico printing, without any suspicion that the acetate was the really useful part of the mixture called red mordant. Preparation. The direct production of acetate of alumina from acetic acid and alumina yields the pure salt; the commer- cial acetate of alumina, which will hereafter be called Red Liquor, is always made by the process of double decomposition. I give the proportions for producing red liquor of various qualities : 4 42 ACETATE OF ALUMINA. Red Liquor from Alum and Acetate of Lead. l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Water .... gals. Alum .... Ibs. 45 100 45 100 45 200 45 190 45 190 45 129 Acetate of Lead . . Ibs. 100 129 200 190 129 100 Crystals of Soda . . Ibs. 10 10 10 19 The above red liquors were a short time ago used in Mul- house, in France, by one of the most successful houses there; they are upon the plan laid down by M. Daniel Koechlin, in his celebrated paper on the Red Mordant, in the Bulletin of the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, 1827. The alum, in a crushed state, is dissolved in the water, heated to 140 ; the crystals of soda are next dissolved with stirring, and then the acetate of lead, in coarse powder, added, and the whole well stirred for a considerable time, and afterwards at intervals during two or three days. Mr. Koechlin states that, if the crystals of soda are added after the sugar of lead, the liquors are neither so strong nor so good. Nos. 1 and 2 are common reds for calico. No. 2 being better adapted for a gum color and for blocking than No. 1; Nos. 3 and 4, strong mordants, suitable for muslin or light goods ; Nos. 5 and 6 will do for garancine, and are suitable for mixing with crystals or muriate of tin for forming a resist red. Red Liquors from Acetate of Lime. No. 7. No. 8. Acetate of Lime Liquor at 24 Alnm Sulphate of Alumina Ground Chalk . galls. . Ibs. . Ibs. . Ibs. 50 90 200 272 12 34 On account of the cheapness of acetate of lime, it is more used than acetate of lead. The above two red liquors are put together by first heating the acetate of lime liquor in a copper boiler, to a temperature of 140, then adding the alum of sul- phate of alumina, and stirring until all the lumps have disap- peared ; and, lastly, the chalk is added by small portions at a time, to avoid loss by the effervescence which would be caused if all were put in at once. The whole is then well stirred up until nearly cold, allowed to settle, the clear drawn off, and the bottoms drained upon a woollen filter and washed with water until the washings fall as low as 2 Tw., when they are not worth washing any more. The red liquor, No. 7, used at 20 ACETATE OF ALUMINA. 43 Tw., gives the darkest red obtainable on calico for madder and garancine; the No. 8 liquor, at 16 Tw., is used for resist red and for mixing with iron liquor to produce chocolates for garancine work, and also reduced for light reds. These two liquors are quite sufficient for the ordinary run of madder and garancine work. I give receipts for several other red liquors, all of which have been in use to my own knowledge either in England or France. Red Liquors for Madder Pink. No. 9. No. 10. No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. Water . . galls. *4 1 20 3 60 Alum . . Ibs. 16 3^ 75 13 125 Acetate of lead . Ibs. 12 2* 10* 100 Acetate of Lime (dry) Iba. 30 Ground Chalk . Ibs. 5 Common Salt . Ibs. 10 Nitrate of Zinc 15O Tw. galls. 1 No. 9 is for dark and No. 10 for light pink, being reduced, when used, with three parts water to one of liquor; No. 11 has done good work, the common salt having an attraction for moisture, has a tendency to make the color age well ; the nitrate of zinc, in No. 12, has a still stronger attraction for water, it is usually only added to the color after thickening, as it has a tendency to make starch and flour run thin if boiled with them. No. 13 is only for reducing for light pinks; it will not give a good dark pink. Miscellaneous Red Liquors. No. 14. ! No. 15. j No. 16. No. 17, Water . galls. 3 3* 2J 1 Alum . Ibs. 30 5 10 5 Acetate of Lead Ibs. 29 5 7* 2* Vinegar galls. H a* Crystals of Soda Acetate of Copper Ibs. oz. - - i 12* * These are all of French origin. No. 14 is an excessively con- centrated liquor, used for printing very small objects required to be well defined; in making it the drugs are finely ground and mixed up without heat. No. 15 is intended for pinks and light reds; the water is partly replaced by vinegar, with doubtful advantage. No. 16 is intended for light reds; neither theory nor practice, so far as experiments in England go, indicate 44 ACETATE OF ALUMINA. any use for the acetate of copper. No. 17 is a red liquor for garancines ; it will stand from 8 to 12 ounces of crystals of tin per gallon, and works well for a resist red. Re.marTcs on making Red Liquors. Red liquor is never a pure acetate of alumina; it is found by experience that if the quantity of acetate of lead or lime required by theory to form a pure acetate of alumina be employed, the resulting liquor is no better for giving colors than if about two-thirds of that quantity were used, while it is worse for keeping and more irregular in its results. Theory indicates that for every 10 Ibs. of potash alum, 12 Ibs. of white acetate of lead are required to change all the alumina into acetate ; for ammonia alum 12 J Ibs. are required; and for sulphate of alumina, or patent alum, about 17 Ibs. would be required. (See EQUIVALENTS.) Prac- tice has shown that if three-fourths only of these amounts be taken, the best results are produced. The use of ground chalk or crystals of soda consists of neutralizing a portion of free acid and strengthening the mordant. I prefer chalk to the crystals, using about an ounce of it for every pound of alum ; it has the. effect of withdrawing a portion of sulphuric acid from the liquor as insoluble sulphate of lime, and apparently, but not actually, decreasing the strength of the mordant ; crystals of soda neutralize the acid but leave the sulphate of soda in the liquor, making it seemingly stronger. I do not think that there is any difference between using potash or ammoniacal alum, if both are of equal purity ; sulphate of alu- mina requires special care, because it is usually more acid than alum, and cannot be so easily made into a first-class red liquor. Brown sugar of lead gives as good results as the white, and acetate of lime, if the right proportions are known, will yield excellent red liquors. Properties of Bed Liquor. The commercial acetate of alumina or red liquor is of a tawny or brown color, smells of wood tar or pyroligneous acid, has a taste of alum ; when heated to about 160 it coagulates, becoming nearly solid ; it liquefies again upon cooling ; thus reds often go thick in boiling and thin upon cooling. It parts with its alumina readily to cloth, and more especially when the acetic acid is at liberty to escape as it is upon printed goods. The affinity of the acid and alumina is not strong, so that if a quantity of red liquor be boiled to dry- ness most of the acid would leave the alumina, which would not dissolve again in fresh water, hed liquor sometimes loses alumina by standing. The quality of red liquor for a mordant can only be satisfactorily tested in the practical way, by making colors from it. By chemical analysis, the amounts of acetic acid, alumina, sulphuric acid, and other bodies can be accurately ACETATE OF INDIGO. 45 ascertained when necessary; but this information would give no indication of the value of the liquor as a mordant, without actual trial. Applications of Red Liquor. Red liquor is used in madder and garancine dyeing as a mordant for red and pink; mixed with iron liquor it is a mordant for shades of chocolate ; in log- wood dyeing, combined with iron liquor, it gives blacks. It is used in a few steam colors, and also in silk and cotton piece dyeing. Acetate of Copper, known also as Verdigris. The com- mon verdigris of commerce is a basic acetate of copper which requires an additional quantity of acetic acid to make it solu- ble in water. Crystallized acetate of copper is all soluble in water. For calico printing purposes acetate of copper is always used in the liquid state, and is prepared by the method of double decomposition from a mixture of sulphate of copper and acetate of lead. The following receipt gives a liquid ace- tate of copper suitable for catechu browns : 1 gallon of water at 160 F., 4 Ibs. white acetate of lead, 4; Ibs. sulphate of copper. The whole is stirred until all lumps have dissolved ; the clear liquor only is used. Another practical receipt gives only 2 Ibs. acetate of lead to 4 Ibs. sulphate of copper. Theoretically, 4 Ibs. common sulphate of copper or blue vitriol require about 6 Ibs. sugar of lead ; so it is evident that what is called acetate of copper in a print-works is really a mixture of sulphate and acetate of copper. Applications. This salt is chiefly used in catechu colors, in some indigo blue resists, and in a few steam colors where it appears to exercise an oxidizing action. It was used in the black dye for silk, it forms the basis for the Schweinfurt or Scheeles' green, and is sometimes prescribed in iron and red liquors, where its utility seems doubtful. Acetate of Indigo. Under this name a purified ex- tract of indigo is spoken of in some dyeing treatises. It is prepared by taking common sulphate of indigo, dissolving in water, filtering, and adding acetate of potash to the filtered liquid; a precipitate takes place, which is called the acetate of indigo ; it is in reality a combination of potash with an indigo acid, called sulphindylic acid by Dumas. This precipitate is collected on a filter; and, if required very pure, may be a second time precipitated from a watery solution. Other salts less expensive than acetate of potash give similar results, such as common salt and sulphate of soda. The name of carmine of 46 ACETATE OF IRON. indigo is also given to these purified extracts. They may be replaced in foreign receipts by English refined neutral extract. (See INDIGO.) Acetate of Iron, commonly called Iron Liquor, also Black Liquor, Pyrolignite of Iron, Tar Iron Liquor ; French, Bain noir and Bain de fer. This liquid, so extensively used in dyeing and printing, is of very ancient origin ; but under its present form it has only been in use about eighty years. It is made by steeping old iron of all sorts, such as hoops, worn-out tin plate, etc., in warm wood acid or pyroligneous acid, which is an im- pure kind of acetic acid. By continually moving the acid, and keeping up a moderate heat, the acid saturates itself with iron in a few days ; if not strong enough it is concentrated. For- merly the process was worked cold in very large vats, and lasted forty days or more. Some color mixers consider that cold made iron liquor is best. I have found no reason to think so. The iron liquor is sent out at various strengths, from 18 to 28 Tw. ; it is a black fluid by reflected light, but in narrow bottles it has a greenish-olive color ; a peculiar smell, chiefly due to tarry matters in it, and an inky taste. Iron liquor can also be made, by the process of double decomposition, from sulphate of iron, or green copperas, and the crude acetate of lime. As the acetate of lime is a drug of uncertain strength, it will require some trials to find out the best proportions to use. Here are two receipts for preparing iron liquor in this manner. The first taken from Muspratt's Chemistry (i. 42) is as follows : 400 Ibs. copperas dissolved in 100 gallons hot water, then add 75 gallons acetate lime liquor at 16 Tw. The second, used by myself with good results is as follows : 20 gallons acetate lime liquor at 24 Tw. 65 Ibs. green copperas, 2 gallons wood acid, at 7 Tw. The acetate of lime liquor is heated to 140 in a copper, the green copperas in coarse powder added and stirred till dis- solved, and then the wood acid; these quantities yield 16 gal- lons iron liquor at 24. There is no economy in making iron liquor in this way, but it is frequently advantageous to be able to make various qualities. The acetate of iron made from copperas and white acetate of lead is not so well adapted as a mordant for dyeing as that made from impure acetates containing tarry matters. The tarry matters appear useful by impeding the action of the air upon the iron, and so enabling it to form a close combination with ACETATE OF LEAD. 47 the cloth before the oxygen of the air changes its nature. (See AGEING and BUFF LIQUOR.) There is another acetate of iron called the per acetate of iron, but it has not yet received any applications. The essential salt in iron liquor is the proto-acetate of iron. Applications. Iron liquor serves as a mordant for madder, garancine, logwood, and other coloring matters; its chief con- sumption is in madder, and garancine dyeing. Iron liquor at about 6 Tw. gives a black with madder; from 4 to a very diluted state it gives various shades of purple, lilac, or violet; mixed with red liquor it gives chocolates. In piece dyeing iron liquor is not much used ; it serves, however, for all purposes in which green copperas is used, and will generally give better and quicker results. Iron liquor is best tested in the practical way. Chemical analysis can determine exactly the quantity of acetic acid, iron, water, and other matters in it, but cannot tell whether it will give good shades or not. Iran Liguor Improvers. There are generally some substances in the market purporting to enable iron liquor to give better results when mixed with them. I have made a very great number of experiments upon this point, and have tried all the substances recommended, but I never found that really good iron liquor was improved by any additions. Arsenic, under various forms, and copper salts are strongly recommended by French authorities; but upon good Lancashire iron liquor they do more harm than good. M. Henri Schlumberger, in an elabo- rate paper in the Bulletin of Mulhouse (xiii. p. 399), gives the results of his experiments upon the addition of various chemi- cal substances to iron liquor. The only decisively advanta- geous results were with the addition of copper salts, and these only when gum Senegal was used as the thickening; their effect being apparently to prevent a coagulation to which gurn Senegal of certain quality is liable. Acetate of Lead, commonly called Sugar of Lead, also Salt of Saturn. There are two kinds of sugar of lead in trade, called white sugar of lead and brown sugar of lead. The white is in soft crystalline lumps, easily crushed and very soluble in water. The brown is usually in fused lumps, much more com- pact than the white, of a deep mahogany color, does not dis- solve so readily in water, and generally leaves a residue not dissolved. The difference between the two acetates consists in a portion of tarry matter from the wood acid being left in the brown ; beyond this there is no essential difference. The brown is, however, poorer in acetic acid than the white, and somewhat richer in lead; so that as a matter of choice the white should 48 ACETATE OP LIME. be used for making acetates, and the brown for a lead mordant. An analysis of two average samples gave me the following results : White Acetate. Brown Acetate. Acetic acid ... . . 27.6 21.8 Oxide of lead ... . 58.4 59.9 Water 14.0 15.5 Insoluble matter ... 0.0 100.0 100.0 For the general use of acetates their value is in ratio of the quantity of acetic acid present; the white acetate analyzed would consequently be worth much more than the brown. Sugar of lead may be contaminated with copper and iron, the latter metal being a dangerous impurity when the acetate is used for red liquor mordants. Impure white sugar of lead will have a reddish hue if it contains iron, and a bluish if it contains copper; the best method of testing consists in adding sulphuric acid to throw down all the lead, and then applying the charac- teristic tests for the other metals, which are given in their proper places. Sugar of lead in the English market is generally free from these metals. Applications. The chief use of acetate of lead is in making acetates of alumina, iron, copper, and manganese, by the way of double decomposition. On account of the cheapness of acetate of lime, which acts quite as well, it is not so much used as formerly. It is used as a mordant for chrome orange and in several 'indigo resists. Basic Acetate of Lead. When acetate of lead is shaken up with powdered litharge (oxide of lead) it dissolves a portion of it, forming what is called basic or subacetate of lead ; if boiled together a still greater portion of lead is dissolved. This com- pound has been employed both as a mordant and as a resist ; but it has so powerful an action in coagulating all kinds of thickenings that it cannot be generally used. Only the darkest kind of calcined farina or sugar can thicken it without curdling. Acetate of Lime, known also as the Pyrolignite of Lime. This compound is sold either as a solid or liquid. In the solid state there are three varieties, called respectively white, gray, and black acetate. I analyzed samples of each, and found in one hundred parts of the solid 82, 71, and 69 parts of pure acetate of lime respectively, which was about the ratio of the prices. The liquid acetate of lime seems to be of no particular quality, I have found it of all degrees of purity, and containing muriate of lime or common salt, evidently to make it stand ACETIC ACID. 49 higher on Twaddle. Both in the solid and liquid state acetate of lime can only be accurately valued by chemical analysis. The only use of acetate of lime is in making mordants, for which purpose it answers quite as well as the more expensive acetate of lead. If any sulphate, such as sulphate of iron, be mixed with acetate of lime, the lime takes the sulphuric acid, while the acetic acid goes to the iron or other metal previously combined with the sulphuric acid. The sulphate of lime being insoluble in water settles down as a pasty mass, while the acetate remains clear above. Acetate of Manganese. This compound has been used to a small extent for bronze colors and for producing some shades in combination with catechu. It can be made from sulphate of manganese or from bronze liquor (the chloride of manganese) by mixing with acetate of lead. Acetate of Soda. This compound can be prepared by neutralizing acetic acid with crystals of soda or caustic soda, it is a commercial article, being sold in small crystals. It is very little used ; for some applications of it, see MUREXIDE and SHADED STYLES. Acetate of Tin. This compound has been slightly used in calico printing. It may be formed by first making a pulp of tin with a mixture of muriate of tin and carbonate of soda, draining the pulp and leaving acetic acid upon it for twenty-four hours. Or it may be made by dissolving 2 Ibs. crystals of tin in a gallon of cold water, and mixing 2 Ibs. ace- tate of soda and stirring, using all the mixture ; another way is to use acetate of lead instead of acetate of soda and strain off from the bottoms. Application. Only used in producing an orange color in garancine work. (See ORANGE.) Acetic Acid, known also as Vinegar, Wood acid, Pyroligneous acid, Tar acid, Acetous acid, etc. Commercial acetic acid is made by distilling wood in close retorts ; in its first stage it is a crude black tarry looking liquid, which is called wood acid or pyro- ligneous acid; by several complicated processes the tarry mat- ters or other impurities are removed and the acid left tolerably pure. Acetic acid should be as clear and colorless as water, should leave no residue when a portion is boiled away, should not blacken a piece of calico dipped in it when the calico is dried and made pretty warm by holding before a fire, 'neither should the calico be tendered ; if either blackened or tendered, mineral acids, as vitriol or spirits of salts, are present. It should have an agreeable smell ; a particular mawkish odor shows some fault in rectification ; but notwithstanding this, the acid may be still good for manufacturing purposes. It stands at 50 ACER BUBRUM ACID. from 6 to 9 Twaddle ; but owing to a strange peculiarity about acetic acid, its value cannot be ascertained by the hydro- meter, even if no adulteration has been practised. The only reliable method of valuing acetic acid consists in ascertaining how much caustic soda a given weight will neutralize (see ACIDIMETRY), and testing for mineral acids. Nitrate of silver gives a precipitate, not dissolved by nitric acid, if any muriate acid is present; and chloride of barium gives a similar precipi- tate if sulphuric acid is present. Average qualities of acetic acid contain from 18 to 22 per cent, of dry acetic acid, some- times going as high as 24. Crude pyroligneous acid or wood acid, sometimes used in printing, contains only a small per- centage of acid and a large quantity of organic matter of a tarry nature. Applications* Acetic acid is not largely used in the dyeing arts, and its uses seem all to depend upon its power of keeping bodies in solution ; and, by volatilizing, leaving them to their own affinities. Thus, in many steam colors acetic acid is evi- dently used to restrain the coloring matter and metallic oxide present from forming an insoluble compound before the color gets on the cloth ; if the color was not in solution it would be merely deposited on the fibre, and not in it, as it should be. In many colors acetic acid prevents coagulation and enables a color to work smooth in the machine which would otherwise go rough and curdy. It serves to form acetates by direct com- bination with metals and oxides. Acer Rubmm, or Scarlet Flowering ^aple of North America. According to Bancroft, the bark of this maple produces with an aluminous mordant a lasting cinnamon color both on wool and cotton ; with iron mordants, he says, it gives a more intense pure and perfect black than even galls or any other vegetable matter within his knowledge, and does not stain whites. It is not mentioned in more recent works upon dyeing, and has probably never been put to use. Acetometer. An instrument constructed like a hydro- meter, but graduated for acetic acid only. On account of peculiarities alluded to as attending the relation between the density and percentage of acid in acetic acid, the indications of such an instrument are not trustworthy. Acid. An acid in chemistry originally signified anything of a sour acid taste; it has a wider meaning now, not easy to give an exact definition of; but an acid may be characterized as a body capable of forming combinations with metals and bases, which combinations are called salts. Many of the acids in chemistry are insoluble in water and have no taste, but all the common acids are sour to the taste. A compound is said ACIDIMETRY. 51 to be acid or to have an acid reaction when blue litmus paper dipped into it is turned red. Acidity is neutralized or destroyed by the alkalies as potash, soda, or ammonia, or by lime or chalk. An acid in printing is some composition for resisting or dis- charging mordants or colors, most of which are strongly acid, but some are compounded of salts and acids, and some are not acid at all ; the latter are, however, generally distinguished as " neutral pastes," " mild paste," etc. For an account of the different acids in practical use, see their distinctive names as CITRIC ACID, SULPHURIC ACID, etc. Acidimetry, or the testing and valuation of acids. The hydrometer of Twaddle, though a most valuable instrument, sometimes leads to wrong conclusions upon the strength of liquids. The instrument will only show the density ; and though there is in general a direct relation between the density of a liquid and the quantity of solid matter it contains, it is evident that no instrument can be expected to show what kind of matter it is that gives the density. Thus take acetic acid at 8 Tw. and mix it with an equal bulk of water, it will only mark 4 ; but by adding common salt to this weak acid, it will be brought to mark 8 again, and as far as the hydrometer shows, it is as strong an acid as before. The practical method of testing acids is to ascertain how much carbonate of soda or caustic soda a given weight of acid can neutralize, and the pro- cess may be conducted as follows : Take good crystals of soda neither damp nor white from dryness the points of the large crystals are very likely to be quite pure and should be selected in preference crush them into coarse powder and keep in a closely corked or stoppered bottle ; this forms an alkaline test powder of a constant and definite strength. Suppose the object is to test the strength of a sample of nitric acid, a certain quantity, say 100 grains, is accurately weighed out and trans- ferred into a porcelain capsule and mixed with a couple of ounces of water, a few drops of solution of blue litmus are added to give the liquor a red tinge; next a quantity of the crushed crystals of soda is weighed, such a quantity is taken as is assumed to be more than the acid experimented upon will require, say 300 grains, and without removing the bulk from the dish or watch-glass in which it was weighed, small portions are taken off with a knife and put into the acid until the red color begins to change towards blue; for greater exactness it is desirable to have the liquor hot, and towards the end boiling, for then the change of color is more satisfactorily seen ; by weighing what is left of the soda crystals and deducting it from the original quantity, the amount used is ascertained. The stronger the acid the more soda crystals are required, and the 52 ADJECTIVE COLORS AGEING. weaker the less ; so that without any further reference it is easy to tell which of two acids is the strongest, and how much one is stronger than the other. I have compiled a table which in- cludes the chief acids in use, and by referring to which, it will be easy to calculate the percentage of any of the acids tested. The figures show the decimal parts of a grain of pure acid which is neutralized by a single grain of crystals of soda, so many grains of crystals that 100 grains of the sample under examination has taken so many times this decimal quantity is its percentage of real acid. One grain of crystals of soda neutralize 0.36 gr. of Acetic acid dry and pure. 0.38 " Citric acid 0.26 " Muriatic acid " 0.38 " Nitric acid 0.25 " Oxalic acid " 0.28 " Sulphuric acid " " 0.46 " Tartaricacid " If, for example, 100 grains of a sample of spirits of salts or muriatic acid had required 120 grains of crystals to neutralize them, the percentage of pure muriatic acid would be found by multiplying 0.26 by 120, the result being 31.2; and so on with the other acids. The percentage is for the pure dry, or as it is called in scientific books, anhydrous acid. For most purposes of acidimetry a solution of caustic soda, as a test alkali, is preferable to the powdered crystals of soda, and more especially with acetic acid ; but the preparation of an accurate test liquor of caustic soda requires great care and many precautions, for which I refer to works on analytical chemistry. The method detailed above is perfectly practicable, and gives results close enough for most practical purposes. Adjective Colors. A term used by Bancroft, and after him by other writers upon dyeing. It signifies colors which can only be fixed by means of a mordant, in contradistinction to other coloring matters which are fixed without mordants, and which he called substantive, colors. Madder is an adjective color, and indigo and safflower are substantive colors. Adrianople Red, The same as TURKEY RED, which see. Aerugo. An old name for VERDIGRIS, found in some old receipts. ^ Thomson says it signifies carbonate of copper. Agaric. A kind of fungus or mushroom growing on putre- fying rank vegetation ; gives a black dye with copperas. Ageing ; known also as Staving or Hanging. The operation of exposing printed or mordanted goods to the action of the AGEING. 53 air. Formerly the ageing or hanging rooms were kept hot by flues or steam pipes, whence called stoves, a name which they still retain in some places, though heat may not be used. Stoves proper are for simply drying heavy piece goods which retain too much water to be well dried over the ordinary steam dry- ing tins. Ageing is mainly intended for moistening printed or padded goods which have been dried over the steam chests of the printing machine. The necessity for ageing can be proved by a simple experiment ; take a fent printed in dark red, black, and a light shade of purple, straight from the drying tins or steam chests of the printing machine, and having divided it into two equal parts, hang one up in a cool airy place, and the other one dung and dye in the usual manner; after three days, dung and dye the first portion in a similar way; the difference of appearance will be considerably in favor of the aged or ex- posed part, the unexposed fent will have light uneven reds, the blacks will be rusty and dull, while the light purple, though inferior, will show the least difference in the two fents. The exposure to air has the effect of fixing more mordant upon the cloth, and fixing it more regularly. If we inquire what the nature of this action of the air is, we shall find that it is for the most part attributable to the vapor or steam of water which naturally exists in air, and that the effect of this vapor is to soften the dry color or mordant, to make it moist, and thus to come into closer contact with the fibre of the cloth and enter into combination with it. That it is the moisture of the air more than anything else which acts in ageing, is proved by the fact that in dry air ageing never takes place perfectly ; in a long frost the air gets very dry, all the water is frozen out of it, and then there is a complete stop to ageing ; on the other hand, steam carefully admitted to the hanging rooms hastens the ageing very much. The quick system of ageing introduced within these three years, simply consists in passing the pieces through a machine full of warm and very moist air, so that the mordant receives all the moisture it possibly can in two or three minutes. If the pieces are folded up in this soft state the ageing goes on rapidly without exposing to air, proving that all that is actually requisite is a thorough moistening of the color and a soaking of it into the cloth. During the penetra- tion of the color some chemical changes take place: the fibre does not combine with all the mordant as it is printed on, but only with a portion of it ; thus, acetate of iron is printed on for blacks and purples, the cloth only combines with the iron, not with the acetic acid; and as acetic acid, when set free from the iron, takes the vaporous form, it escapes from the cloth.and is carried away by the currents of air. If the printed cloth be 54 AGEING LIQUOR. packed so close that the air cannot circulate freely between the pieces, then the acetic acid cannot escape, and bad uneven work is produced. If the acetic acid escapes at one part it is retained at another, and the vapor of that which does escape will some- times condense on other parts, removing some mordant and producing uneven colors. In light colors, as madder lilacs and pale reds, the greatest portion of acetic acid escapes on the steam chests just after the piece has left the printing machine, because there is but little to escape; but in blacks, dark reds, and chocolates, especially in heavy blotch colors, there is a great deal of acetic acid still in the color on the piece which must escape in order to yield a good mordant. Hence these colors require a longer ageing than lighter colors ; they require more room, a freer circulation of air, and, if passed through the ageing machine, should not be afterwards laid in folds but hung up freely to the air. Another chemical action accompa- nies ageing, and this is oxidation. It only affects mordants of iron, and those in a very insignificant degree, so that experi- ments made by ageing iron mordanted cloth in gases contain- ing no oxygen show as good results as those aged in air or pure oxygen ; that iron mordants do absorb oxygen there is no doubt, but this appears the least important result of ageing. Some colors require the absorption of oxygen to make them yield their best shades; catechu colors, as printed for dyeing in garancine and madder, imperatively demand oxygen, and their ageing cannot be forced with safety; steam blues have a very light shade when just steamed, and take twenty-four hours hanging to give them their best color; this is a result of oxida- tion, but oxidation in this case is generally forced by passing the pieces through bichromate of potash or other oxidizing solutions. Indigo blue dipping is an example of the action of the oxygen of air upon colors ; as the piece rises from the vat it is yellowish, the moment it touches the air it becomes green, and in a short time blue ; the intermediate green shade is due to the admixture of the original yellow and the newly-formed blue. Ageing Liquor. Under the name of ageing liquor seve- ral compounds have been sold ; the best that I have seen was composed of chlorate of potash and arsenite of soda. It may be prepared in the following quantities : 20 Ibs. caustic soda, at 60 Tw., 20 Ibs. white arsenic, in powder. Boil until all the arsenic has dissolved ; this forms the arse- nite of soda liquor. Make a solution of chlorate of potash, by dissolving 3 Ibs. of it in 4 galls, water, and add arsenite of soda AIR ALBUMEN. 55 liquor to it until it stands at 28 Tw. This takes about three pints. One gallon of this liquor added to 16 gallons of garan- cine chocolate will enable the iron to fix with a few hours' age, instead of three or four days; but experience shows that it is not regular in its results, and not to be depended upon. It is no assistance to blacks or reds in ageing. Air. The common air is mainly composed of two gases, which have very different properties. If a piece of phosphorus be fixed with a wire at the bottom of a bottle and the bottle be turned upside down, with its neck standing in water,'it will be found in 24 hours that a portion of the air has been absorbed by the phosphorus, and water has been drawn up in correspond- ing quantity. Out of every 100 parts of air, 21 parts will have disappeared, neither more nor less; now, upon examining the air left in the bottle, it is found to be quite different to the original air ; if a lighted candle be lowered in the bottle it will be extinguished, and if a mouse or bird were put in it they would die almost immediately. The 79 per cent, of noxious air left behind is called nitrogen, and the 21 percent, of vital air absorbed by the phosphorus is called oxygen. Whenever the air acts chemically upon matters it is the oxygen which acts, and a body so acted upon is said to be oxidized, it having ab- sorbed or combined with oxygen. Nitrogen seems to have no chemically active properties. There is also in the air a small quantity of carbonic acid gas, the actions of which in dyeing or printing are too small to be reckoned of any value. In towns, other gases are found in the air resulting from the combustion of fuel, the putrefaction of animal remains, &c.; and although these things spoil the air so greatly for respiration, they never form so much as one part in a hundred of it. Water, in a state of vapor, is constantly present in the air, but in variable pro- portion; generally more in summer than in winter, and more with westerly winds than with winds from the east ; the vapor of water does not in the least interfere with the clearness of the atmosphere, and there is frequently more in the clear air of a summer day than in a winter fog. Its action upon mordants has been explained in AGEING, and further information will be found under HYGROMETER. For bleaching power possessed by air, reference must be made to BLEACHING, OXYGEN, and OZONE. Albumen, or White of Egg ; also Fish and Blood Albumen. The glairy white of eggs has long been known as albumen, and from time immemorial has been applied as a vehicle of colors and a varnish in the fine arts, but only applied to calico print- ing within the last twenty-five years. Besides eggs, a kind of albumen is obtainable from blood, and also from the roe or eggs 56 ALCOHOL. of fishes. The character which distinguishes albumen from all other animal matters is its property of coagulating by heat. If fluid white of egg be heated it begins to set at about 140 F., and at the boiling point of water it becomes solid. This coagulum does not become fluid upon cooling, nor is it capable of being dissolved by water; only strong acids and alkalies can again reduce it to the fluid condition, and that only by altering or destroying its principal properties. Commercial egg albumen is simply the white of eggs dried by a slow heat ; in dissolving it for use the water should be cold or not warmer than 90 or 100 F., if hotter the albumen will be coagulated and injured. Albumen is used in calico printing for two purposes: first, as a vehicle for printing and fixing pigment colors, such as ultra- marine blue; and secondly, as a mordant for some few colors like the mauve or aniline purple. For the pigment colors it is the coagulable power alone of albumen which is valuable; when stemmed the albumen is coagulated, becomes solid and in- soluble in water, grasping the fibre with a closeness and tenacity which fastens all colors it is mixed with, and closely resembles an actual combination. As a mordant, albumen has but few appli- cations: when coagulated it shows an affinity for all coloring matters, but with most gives only dull and worthless shades. Alkalies injure or prevent the coagulation of albumen; acids and metallic salts cause it to coagulate in the cold; acetic acid and phosphoric acid are exceptions. In using albumen it is frequently mixed with gum water; up to a certain extent it will stand this, but there are bounds which if passed cause pigment colors so applied to wash out. Ammonia, oil, and turpentine may be used in moderation to enable the albumen to work smooth and keep longer. The salt called sulphite of soda added to dissolved albumen will keep it sweet for a much longer time than without this addition. About four pounds of egg albumen to a gallon of water, brought to a suitable consistency with gum, will give good results for pigment colors. Blood albu- men of good quality works even better than egg albumen ; but it is more liable to irregularity in quality, often containing a considerable portion of insoluble matter. (See further ANI- MAL1ZATION, PlGMENT COLORS, and L.ACTARINE.) Alcohol, commonly called Spirits of Wine, Methylated Spi- rits. The low price of methylated spirits, which is alcohol mixed with 10 per cent, of wood naphtha, renders it probable that several uses will be found for it in dyeing and printing. It is already much used for dissolving the coloring matters from aniline. Generally speaking coloring matters are more soluble in alcohol than in water, and several dissolve easily in it which cannot be touched by water. It dissolves resinous ALDER BARK ALIZARINE. 57 bodies and partially greasy and fatty bodies; solution of shellac in methylated spirits is used in finishing velvets and velveteens, in some colors for printing the spirit is also used. It is very inflammable, both itself and its vapor. Alder Bark (Betuna Alnus). This bark is used in several parts of the world as one of the materials for dyeing black along with copperas or iron liquor; it serves to economize galls, and seems to yield satisfactory results. With tin and aluminous mordants it gives brownish-yellow or orange shades of no par- ticular value. It is used in combination with sumac, logwood, and fustic, in some receipts for brown fixed with copperas. Alloxan and Alloxantine are chemical compounds pro- duced during the manufacture of murexide or Eoman purple. They are both colorless, but on exposure to air and ammo- niacal vapors they assume a fine red color. Woollen cloth dipped in solution of either of these bodies becomes colored of a deep and beautiful purplish-red by hanging in air contain- ing ammonia, or by passing over a heated iron;. it is not a very durable color. (See MUREXIDE.) Algaroba. A coloring matter yielding brown and other dark colors, apparently of an astringent nature, is described under this name. It is obtained from Buenos Ayres, and is called after the name of the tree from which it is obtained. Ac- cording to the description of the imported product, it resembles catechu in appearance. Alizarine. Alizarine is the name of the pure coloring matter of madder. It can be obtained in beautiful needle-shaped crystals of an orange red color. These crystals when properly dissolved are capable of dyeing up all the colors which mad- der root itself dyes, and it is consequently considered that aliza- rine is the real coloring principle of madder. Pure alizarine is not yet an article of commerce. Commercial Alizarine is a concentrated preparation of madder, first prepared by Messrs. Pincoffs and Schunck. Their patented process consists in washing madder so as to free it from soluble and non-coloring principles, and then exposing it to the action of high-pressure steam for a certain period. The product dyes up first class purples, does not dye up blacks very well without assistance from garancine or logwood, is not well adapted for pinks or reds, it hardly stains the whites, and pieces can be very well cleared without soap. The name of alizarine is now fre- quently given in the market to qualities of garancine fitted to dye purples; sometimes the so-called alizarine is simply garan- cine mixed with ground chalk, but generally it is garancine finished off in a peculiar manner. After washing from the acid the garancine is boiled in very dilute caustic soda for some time,. 5 5S ALKALI ALKALIMETRY. and then a quantity of muriate of lime added; this has the effect of precipitating a quantity of lime in a very minute state of division all through the garancine. In France, I believe, garancines intended for purples are neutralized before taking from the washer by means of milk of lime. The presence of lime in some form or other appears beneficial to purple dyeing. Alkali, An alkali is the opposite to an acid, which it can neutralize or kill; alkalies turn red litmus blue, and yellow turmeric brown. Potash, soda, ammonia, and lime are alkalies. Alkalimetry. This term signifies the measuring or testing of alkalies, such as potash, soda ash, soda crystals, etc. Very- complete and accurate methods are to be found in good chemi- cal treatises; but as a method suitable for practical men, the fol- jjowing will be found to answer: Procure a quantity of pure oxalic acid, a fair quality of commercial acid is usually pure enough, if not moist; powder it and keep it in a well-corked bottle. When going to test a sample of soda ash or other alkali, weigh out first 100 grains of the alkaline substance and dissolve it in water, then weigh out 100 grains of the powdered oxalic acid in a watch glass or little dish, and with a knife blade or thin strip of metal keep putting portions of the acid to the alkali until it is neutralized, which can be ascertained by test paper or by solution of litmus. Now weigh the oxalic acid that is left, and note how much it has taken to neutralize the sample of alkali. The more acid it takes the stronger the ash, and the less acid it takes the weaker it is. The comparative value of any two samples of potash, soda ash, ammonia, etc. can be pretty closely ascertained by this method. By consult- ing the following table the actual percentage of soda, potash, ammonia in a sample of alkali may be found from the quantity of oxalic acid it has taken to neutralize the alkali; because the oxalic acid is of constant composition, and will always neutral- ize just the same amount of an alkali. One grain of oxalic acid neutralizes. 0.75 grain pure caustic potash, 0.60 " pure caustic soda, 0.27 " pure ammonia, 0.84 " pure carbonate of soda, 1.10 " pure carbonate of potash. If 100 grains of a sample of soda ash had taken 96 grains of oxalic acid, the percentage of caustic soda would be obtained by multiplying this figure by 0.5, showing 48 percent.; by multiplying the same figure by 0.84, we obtain 80.6 as the per- centage of carbonate of soda, and so on, using the other figures in case of testing potash or ammonia. ALKALINE ALKALINE PINK MORDANT. 59 Alkaline. Having the properties of an alkali, of caustic soda for example, though these properties may be very weak. A substance is said to have an alkaline reaction when it turns red litmus paper blue. If caustic soda be poured into lime juice, the first portions are neutralized by the acid, and the liquor tastes acid and reddens blue litmus paper. A stage is reached when all the acid properties of the juice are hidden and also the alkaline properties of the soda ; the liquor is then neutral, neither acid nor alkaline; the addition of a further quantity of soda makes the liquid alkaline, it now tastes like weak soda and turns red litmus blue. Borax, phosphate of soda, silicate of soda, and numerous other salts are said to be salts of an alkaline reaction, because their solutions turn red litmus blue. Alkaline Pink Mordant, or Aluminate of Potash. This mordant is a solution of alumina in caustic potash. If a strong clear solution of alum be put in a glass and strong caustic pot- ash added by degrees, the first result will be the precipitation of the aluminous basis in the form of a pulp ; by addition of a further quantity of potash this pulp dissolves up to a clear fluid, which may be called aluminate of potash, being actually a solution of the alumina in the excess of potash used. On the large scale this mordant is prepared by taking strong caus- tic potash, making it hot in a copper or iron boiler, and adding to it crushed alum or sulphate of alumina, stirring well. The following proportions will be found to yield good results : Alkaline Mordant for Dark Pink. 40 gallons caustic potash at 54 Tw., 140 Ibs. sulphate of alumina. The sulphate of alumina added by portions, and finally the whole boiled for twenty minutes. It should yield about 45 fallons of liquor, at from 32 to 36 Tw., which, thickened with ark British gum or calcined farina, will yield full dark pinks when properly fixed and dyed. Alkaline Mordant for Light Pinks. 50 gallons caustic potash at 41, 180 Ibs. potash alum. Dissolved in the same manner ; liquor should stand at about 30 Tw., to be reduced according to shade. The chief bulk of common alum is ammoniacal, and will not do for making this mordant. This mordant does not fasten upon the cloth with- out some fixing agent ; the fixing matter is usually mixed with 60 ALKANET ALUM. the dung in dunging ; sal ammoniac is the most certain mate- rial to use, muriate of zinc has also been used. (See PINK.) Alkanet, Alkanea ; orcantte. This is a root growing in warm climates; it contains a considerable quantity of coloring matter of a resinous nature which is not dissolved by water, but is readily extracted by oil, turpentine, bisulphide of carbon, alcohol, and similar solvents. It was used by the ancients for dyeing wool ; its principal consumption now is in tinting oils of a pinkish-lilac color. Dissolved in alcohol and mixed with water it dyes cotton mordanted with alumina of an agreeable bluish-lilac; with iron mordants it gives darker shades. It is not a fast color, and is only a little used for dyeing sewing thread and cotton. Its pure coloring matter is called ANCHU- SINE. Aloetic Acid. An acid derived from aloes, and which seems capable of yielding some good colors, but not yet ap- plied. Aloes. The aloes which are used in medicine when treated with nitric acid undergo some change, and communicate a pnr- ple color to silk and woollen cloth, which appears to have a fair amount of fastness. A process for obtaining this color was patented January 26, 1847, but I am not aware that it has even been practically applied. (See CHRYSAMMIC ACID.) Alloy. The mixture of two metals is called an alloy, ex- cept when mercury or quicksilver is one, when the compound is called an amalgam. The alloy used for block work is usu- ally made by melting together equal weights of bismuth, tin, and lead ; it melts at a low temperature, and when cold resists pressure tolerably well. Alterant. Term invented by Bancroft, to designate any substance employed to modify or change the hue of a dyed color ; as for example, cotton mordanted in tin and dyed in logwood, acquires a very dull color, but if passed through weak chloride of tin it assumes its proper violet color; the chloride of tin last used would be called an alterant. Alum, acids, soda, ammonia, and other bodies may thus at times become alterants by altering or changing shades already produced. The term " raising," very frequently used in dye-houses, sometimes ex- presses the use of alterants, but has more frequently a wider signification. Alum. There are two kinds of alum besides the patent alum, which is more correctly called sulphate of alumina. The old kind of alum, called potash alum, is a double salt, com- pounded of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of potash ; it is frequently called rock or roach alum and Eoman alum. The other kind of alum is called ammonia alum, and is compounded ALUMINA. 61 of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of ammonia. There is no distinguishing between these^two kinds of alum by their ex- ternal appearances ; they have the same shape of crystal, the same taste and solubility ; but they can be easily tested by means of caustic soda or potash, for when the ammonia alum is mixed with caustic it gives off a strong smell of ammonia, while the potash alum gives no smell, except sometimes when a little ammonia is accidentally contained in it, and then it gives a faint smell. These two alums are as nearly as possible of the same strength, and, for nine cases out of ten, it does not sig- nify which is used. For making alkaline mordant, ammonia alum is very unsuitable ; in two or three other cases preference is to be given to the potash alum, very little of which, how- ever, is to be found in trade. The only dangerous impurity in alum is iron, and this will show of itself, if the alum be old, by a reddish or yellowish tinge. The taste of the alum con- taining iron is quite different from good alum, and it may be tested by prussiate of potash; if it gives a blue instantly it is bad. In fresh alum crystals iron can exist without showing itself; it must then be tested for by decoction of galls, which will cause it to turn black or bluish-black ; and by logwood liquor, which will show a distinctly different hue with good and bad alum. A mixture of red and yellow prussiate is also a good test; but even good alum will show blue after an hour or two; but if a blue be produced instantly upon mixing there can be no doubt of iron being present. Alum sold in the state of flour or small crystals may contain too much water by five or ten per cent. Alum by itself is only a weak mordant; it has a strong acid reaction, and parts with very little of its base, unless something be added to neutralize the acid in part. Soda in the state of crystals is mostly used for this purpose; but it is found in practice that the acetate of alumina is by far the best mordant where deep shades are required, so that now alum is only used for light shades or in combination with copperas. The preference which was formerly given to particular species of alum, as the Roman alum, is proved to have arisen from the processes of manufacture favoring the production of a more neutral or basic compound. Alumina. This is the earthy base of alum and of all the salts of alumina. It can be made by dissolving alum in hot water and adding soda crystals ; so long as they give any pulpy precipitate, the alumina pulp can be drained on a filtering blanket and washed with water. It may be used to make oxa- late, tartrate, and nitrate of alumina from by dissolving as much of it in these acids as they can take up; it dissolves in caustic potash forming the alkaline pink mordant. It has been used 02 ALUMINA SULPHATE. as the basis of colored lakes for calico printing ; if a certain quantity of this pulp be diffused through water, and logwood liquor mixed with it and heated, the pulp will abstract all the color from the liquor and form a colored pulp or lake, which mixed with acids, etc., can be printed as a steam color. Alumina Nitrate. This salt is prepared by mixing nitrate of lead and alum, sulphate of alumina may be used instead of alum. The following proportions yield a nitrate of alumina well adapted for indigo chromed styles, that is for converting the chrome orange into yellow wherever printed on : 7 Ibs. alum, 4 gallons water at 140, dissolve and add 8 Ibs. nitrate of lead ; take the clear only. Nitrate of alumina is but little used in general printing; in some few cases of delaine and woollen colors it is employed, when it appears to have an oxidizing action owing to the nitric acid it contains. Alumina Oxalate. This salt may be prepared by dis- solving the moist gelatinous alumina in warm solution of oxalic acid until saturated. It has been used in some steam reds from peachwood, along with chlorate of potash as an oxidizing agent. Alumina Sulphate, or Patent Alum. This salt is of com- parati.vely recent introduction in the manufacturing arts; it contains all the essential principles for which alum is valued, differing from it only by the absence of the sulphate of potash or sulphate of ammonia, which is an invariable constituent of alum. It is not possible, however, to use sulphate of alumina in every case where alum has been employed ; probably because the commercial article has notyet.been produced of a correspond- ing degree of purity and saturation ; probably also, because the neutral sulphate in alum exercises some modifying action in its application. But in a great many cases a good quality of sulphate of alumina can be advantageously used in place of alum ; it is more liable to contain impurities than alum ; it is more irregular in its composition, not crystallizing like alum in clear well- defined crystals, but being boiled down until it solidifies into a white opaque cake. The ordinary good qualities contain more alumina by one-third than alum crystals, and are consequently stronger as mordants ; but the amount of water and acid it con- tains are subject to fluctuations, which have frequently produced great losses and irregularities in printing and dyeing. Chemi- cal analysis is necessary to show the amounts of acid, water, and alumina a sample may contain. ALUMEN USTUM AMMONIA. 63 Alumen Ustum, or Burnt Alum. This substance is men- tioned in some old receipts; it appears to be alum which has been heated in earthen vessels until it has become dry and white. Modern chemistry does not show that it could possess any special properties. Amber Colors. Certain shades of yellow having some re- semblance to the hue of amber are so called. On dyed goods they are all derived from a lead basis raised or dyed in chrome. The amber shades may be looked upon as yellows slightly tinged with red. On woollen the shades are obtained by modi- fying a fustic yellow with cochineal (see ORANGE) ; on calico the following processes may be followed for 100 Ibs. cloth: 10 Ibs. acetate and 10 Ibs. nitrate of lead dissolved in a sufficient quantity of cold water, work the goods in for thirty minutes, and then in warm water containing 8 Ibs. of chrome, for twenty minutes, pass finally through the lead wash, and dry. By ano- ther process the goods are mordanted in a plombate of soda bath formed by adding caustic potash or soda to solution of acetate of lead until the white pulp at first formed is dissolved up clear, having a care not to add more caustic than is just necessary; after the goods have been worked in this they are worked in warm chrome liquor. Napier states that sulphate of zinc added to the chrome improves the effect (see further CHROME COLORS). Amber on silk may be obtained from annotta modified by other coloring matters. The following receipt is a specimen of what may be used in printing to obtain amber shades : Steam Amber or Gold. 7 quarts berry liquor at 6, 1 quart cochineal liquor at 4, 3 Ibs. starch ; boil, and when nearly cold add 6 oz. crystals of tin, 2 oz. oxalic acid. Ameline. The name given to a dyeing matter of the ani- line species very lately introduced. It is a pansy color, or a blue mauve, applied in the usual manner upon delaines. Its method of manufacture is kept secret. Ammonia, Ammonia Liquor, Volatile Alkali. Ammonia liquor is a solution of the gas ammonia in water, the stronger the liquor is of this gas the lighter it is, bulk for bulk, contrary to the usual law of density; so if a Twaddle instrument con- structed for liquids lighter than water be used to test it, the lower it sinks in the ammonia the better it is. The Twaddle test is a good one for ammonia liquor, as I am not aware of 64 AMYLACEOUS MATTERS ANILINE COLORS. anything it is adulterated with in the direction of making it lighter than water. It can also be tested in the same way as soda ash as given in alkalimetry ; the more oxalic acid a given quantity neutralizes the better it is. Ammonia possesses the same powers of neutralizing acids as potash or soda, and gene- rally has similar properties to them. Ammonia is called the volatile alkali, because it flies off as gas if left exposed in an open vessel,or more quickly if heated ; it is a very good solvent of several coloring matters, especially cochineal. The gas or vapor from ammonia has been sometimes used to fasten colors or mordants ; it was used in some processes of the murexide color, and has been proposed as a substitute for ageing. In such cases the gas is best produced by letting the strong am- monia liquor drop in regulated quantity upon a hot steam pipe ; it may likewise be produced by heating a mixture of slacked lime and sal ammoniac. Amylaceous Matters. All species of starches are thus designated ; or substances containing or yielding starch, as flour, meal, etc. Anchusine. This is the name of the pure coloring matter of alkanet root, so called from the botanical name of the plant, Anchnsa Tinctoria. Aniline Colors. Aniline itself is a colorless or slightly yellow oily body, made by complicated processes from coal naphtha. When acted upon by powerful chemical agents it yields several colors, the most valuable of which are the mauve or mallow, and the magenta or red ; a blue coloring matter is also produced. The patented processes for making and apply- ing these coloring matters have been so numerous these last four years that it is impossible to give any account of them here ; the inquirer is referred to the specifications of patents, or to the pages of the Chemical News, where an .abstract of them may be found. Aniline Mauve or Lilac, is sold either in the fluid or pasty state. For silk dyeing and woollen dyeing no mordant is re- quired; the proper proportion of clear liquor is mixed with water slightly warm, any scum that may form is cleared off, and the goods entered and worked until the required shade has been obtained ; a small quantity of acetic or tartaric acid is recommended to be used in some cases. Pasty mauve is dissolved in methylated spirits before using, and great care must be taken to prevent irregularities from the tarry scum which frequently forms when the liquor is mixed with water. For printing on calico, one process consists in fixing the coloring matter with albumen or lactarine, the mauve is mixed with solution of albumen or lactarine, printed and steamed ; or, the ANIMAL1ZATION". ^65 albumen alone is printed, steamed to fix it, and then dyed in a beck with the coloring matter a quantity of soap being dis- solved in the beck to prevent the whites being too much dam- aged. The chief processes, however, of fixing the aniline colors are with tannic acid and a metallic salt, and there are various methods of applying the materials. The cloth may be prepared with tin,' as for steam colors, and a mixture of the coloring matter and tannic acid printed on and steamed with or without albumen or lactarine ; or as in the antimony process the coloring matter mixed with tannic acid is printed, steamed, and then fixed by running in a solution of tartarized antimony. Many other processes have been proposed, but these include all that have answered satisfactorily. For dyeing on cotton, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac or tannic acid, dyed in the color, and then may be fixed by tin, or the cloth may be sumaced and mordanted as usual with tin and then dyed. For magenta red precisely the same processes may be used as for the mauve. The blue is dyed in the same manner. Cloth prepared with oil preparations takes up the aniline blue ; for printing on calico it does not seem to be so applicable, and must be fixed by albumen or lactarine. The affinity of these new coloring matters for silk and woollen is very great, so that in piece dyeing precautions have to be taken to prevent irregu- larities arising from this cause. For example : in dyeing a piece of union velvet a full magenta shade, if the common "jigger" be used and the whole of the magenta liquor added at once, the first two yards will be darker than the rest, and one- half of the piece of a decidedly deeper hue than the other half, that is, the half piece first in the liquor will be darkest ; it is consequently necessary to add the requisite amount of coloring matter at two or three intervals, and in such a manner with regard to the entry of the piece that the end last in at the first addition will be first in at the second addition. Notwithstanding these precautions, the ends of the piece are mostly fuller in color than the body. In most of the pasty kinds of mauve or ma- genta, there is a quantity of tarry matter, which being dissolved by the methylated spirits, has a bad effect on the shade ; in such a case the spirits should be diluted with water as much as possible, because there is generally a strength of spirit which dissolves the coloring matter without touching the brown tarry matters ; if practicable, water would dissolve the coloring mat- ter, but as a very large quantity of water is required this plan cannot be often adopted. Aniline colors on silk are modified by sulphate of indigo to blue the mauve, and annotta to give orange or capucin shades with the magenta. Animalization. In the older theories of dy.eing, it was 66 ANOTTA. held that the animal tissues of wool and silk absorbed and re- tained colors more readily than the vegetable tissues of cotton and linen, by virtue of some peculiar animal substance they contained. As a consequence of this theory, attempts were made to communicate some animal principles to vegetable fabrics, with a view to improving their powers of receiving colors. The use of cow dung in dyeing madder goods ; the use of sheeps' dung and bullocks' blood, and urine in Turkey- red dyeing, were explained, upon the supposition that they animalized the fabric in some way or other. The present view of animalization is, that it is not possible to animalize a fabric in any other way than by actually depositing upon it the ani- mal matter in question, and that any increased facility for taking colors thus communicated, is effected by the animal matter itself held on the fabric, and not by any new property of the fabric itself. Thus, if a piece of calico is steeped in a solution of albumen, dried, and then steamed or plunged into boiling water, the albumen is fastened upon the cloth, and such cloth is then capable of receiving colors from picric acid, sul- phate of indigo, magenta, archil, and other coloring matters, which previously had no affinity for the cloth. But it is im- possible to look upon the albumen in any other light than as a kind of mordant acting as an intermediary between the color and the calico, differing, however, from ordinary mordants in some essential particulars. Besides albumen, the animal mat- ters called caseine and lactarine, possess similar properties, and have been tried on a large scale, but without any marked suc- cess as mordants or bases for some of the colors, which are not attracted by the ordinary metallic mordants. The increased affinity for colors given to calico by oil, could not correctly, under any view, be called animalization, since the oils are all vegetable oils ; but in fact there appears to be a considerable analogy between this case of mordanting and that by coagulable animal matters. Anotta ; also Annoilo, Annalto, Arnotto, etc. This coloring matter is a pulp prepared from the seeds of a South American shrub. It is generally sold as a thick paste of the consistence of putty, but is also prepared in hard dry cakes by some London houses. In the pasty state it has a very disagreeable animal odor; it is of a reddish-brown color, does not dissolve in water, but is easily dissolved by alkalies and alkaline salts ; soft soap is frequently used to dissolve it. For printing purposes anotta is used for a shade of buff orange, sometimes called salmon or nankeen color. Half a pound of good anotta dissolved with heat in a gallon of pearl-ash liquor, and half a pound of soft soap and 4 oz. borax added, thickened with tragacanth, is an ANTI-CHLORE ANTIMONY. 67 old receipt giving a good result. Other receipts are similar to the following Gallon of caustic potash at 14, 2 Ibs. anotta ; dissolve and add 2 oz. tartaric acid, 8 oz. alum; thicken with gum-water. Tin crystals are also used to modify the shade. For light shades neither alum nor tin are required, for anotta is one of those coloring matters which have an affinity for cotton of themselves. Dark anotta colors are not pretty on cotton; on account of the strongly alkaline nature of the color, it may be used as a buff discharge or resist for Prussian blues. For dyeing on cotton the anotta is dissolved in alkali, and the goods simply passed through the solution. For silk dyeing anotta is largely used, yielding bright lustrous shades; by aluming the silk is considered to take the dye better: as silk is easily acted upon by alkalies, the solution should be as little alkaline as possible. Acids and acid salts redden the shades from anotta. As solution of anotta is injured by keeping, no more should be made than is likely to be used in a couple of days or so. The pure coloring matter of anotta is called Itixine ; another coloring principle, named orelline, is supposed to exist in it. Orelline is a yellow principle, and bixine a red. By influence of air, moisture, and ammonia, these principles appear conver- tible. The great bulk of the anotta imported is consumed in coloring butter and cheese. Anotta is liable to be adulterated with colcothar, brickdust, and red ochre. (See BIXINE.) Anti-Chlore, Some body capable of destroying and ar- resting the action of chlorine. The chief substance employed is sulphite of lime, used in bleaching rags for paper, and re- commended in linen bleaching, after chloride of lime treat- ment. Antimony. Antimony is a metal whose chemical proper- ties more nearly resemble those of tin than any of the other common metals ; it is sufficiently abundant to receive extended application, but up to this time has not been much used. An orange color from the sulphide of antimony was first made, I believe, by Mr. Mercer ; the common black sulphide of anti- mony, in powder, was boiled with caustic soda and sulphur until it was dissolved ; the liquor had a fetid, sickly smell, well remembered by old printers. A better preparation was made by calcining the antimony with charcoal and sulphate of soda. The result in both cases was a double compound of sulphur with soda and antimony; this was thickened and printed ; containing very much sulphur, it blackened the 68 APOCREXIC ACID ARCHIL. copper rollers immediately; after drying and a short age it was passed in sours for the orange ; by running it afterwards in a beck containing blue copperas, it changed to a dark olive ; by passing in sugar of lead, a wood brown was produced. This color would stand washing and soaping well enough, but faded on exposure to air. The antimony orange is hardly ever made now. Tartarized antimony or tartar emetic is used in one of the processes for fixing the aniline colors ; antimony as a prepare for steam colors is very inferior to tin. Apocrenic Acid. This is a vegetable substance, found in water, and forms one of several bodies existing in certain qualities of water, usually designated under the head of organic matter. For the tests for it and its supposed action in dyeing, see WATER. Apricot Color. This is a shade of buff, a little redder and browner than an iron buff'. Common buff liquor is mixed with some muriate of iron and a small quantity of nitrate or sugar of lead ; and after the buff" has been raised in the usual way, it is rinsed in warm and very weak chloride of Jime ; the lead is oxidized and gives a brownish hue to the buff, which somewhat resembles the ordinary shade of an apricot. Though the name is chiefly confined to the shade so produced, a similar shade can, of course, be obtained in steam and spirit colors, and es- pecially from catechu. (See CATECHU and ORANGE.) Aqua Regia. A mixture of nitric acid and muriatic acid undergoes some chemical change, producing a liquid which possesses properties different from either acid separately. It received its name from its power of dissolving gold, the king of metals. Aqua Fortis. An old and still common name for NITRIC ACID, which see. Arabine. The name of a principle extracted from gum arabic, and supposed to exist in all similar gums. Archil ; Orchil. This coloring matter is a preparation from a kind of moss or dry leaf, growing on rocks and stones, called a lichen. The lichens, of which there are many varieties, have no color themselves; but, by a kind of fermentation and treat- ment with lime and stale urine, the coloring matter is devel- oped. There are two kinds of archil, that in paste and that in liquor; and there are besides two colors of it called red and blue archil. Archil has a particular smell easily recognized ; it mixes with water; it is turned bluer with alkalies and redder with acids. As a coloring matter it has affinity for silk and woollen, with or without mordant, but none for cotton. It is seldom used by itself for dyeing, but usually to help or top other colors; when used alone it can give very agreeable shades ARECA NUTS ARSENIC. 69 of violet, peach, and lilac, which colors are very loose in air, fading almost visibly in sunlight; in combination with other coloring matters it usually darkens them, giving chocolate colored shades* but archil is chiefly valued for a peculiar soft- ness and velvet bloom it communicates to colors. Archil is used in woollen and delaine printing, chiefly for rich chocolate shades, and in combinatipn with other coloring matters for shades of buff, chamois, wood, tan, &c. Three or four years ago a new preparation of archil, giving much faster colors, was invented and put into use. It was supplied in hard dry cakes, of a purplish color ; the method of its preparation is not clearly described, but there is no doubt that a considerable improve- ment in fastness was obtained. It was used in calico printing to a considerable extent, until the more pleasant aniline mauve displaced it. It could only be fastened by means of albumen. It was misrepresented as being as fast as madder, while, in reality, only a loose color, so that considerable loss and disap- pointment was occasioned ; it is very little used now. Cudbear and litmus are very similar to archil, as coloring matters. Archil may be adulterated with extracts of logwood or peach- wood, a careful comparison of shades produced by dyeing silk or woollen in pure and suspected archil would indicate the adulteration. Pure archil gives no color to mordanted calico, but an adulterated archil will ; pure archil mixed with water and muriate of tin, and heated, is nearly decolorized, if logwood or other extracts be present different shades will be produced. The addition of a little red prussiate to blue archil is said to give it all the properties of red archil. Areca Nuts, An Asiatic product, said to be capable of fixing colors by some agglutinating property. Algols, The crude cream of tartar goes by this name. There are red argols and gray argols used in woollen dyeing; the only valuable properties they possess are due to the bitar- trate of potash they contain. (See TARTARIC ACID and TARTAR, CREAM OF.) Arsenates, or Arseniates, are compounds of arsenic acid with bases ; they are made by neutralizing arsenic acid with the base required. The arsenate of potash was formerly used as a resist in combination with pipeclay ; the arsenate of soda has been largely used as a dung substitute; it is prepared from arsenious acid or white arsenic and nitrate of soda, heated together in a reverberatory furnace, and the product neutralized with soda. (See DUNG SUBSTITUTES.) Arsenic, Arsenious Acid, or White Arsenic. The common white arsenic is a feeble acid, and called arsenious acid in chemistry ; it is a deadly poison, and should be shunned as 70 ARSENITES ASTRINGENTS. much as possible; inhaling the dust created by moving it should be avoided. Its chief uses in connection with printing and dyeing are derived first from its weak acid properties, modifying, without neutralizing completely, th% alkalies, soda, and potash; secondly, its deoxidizing powers have been used in one or two cases, as in the chrome greens ; and, thirdly, it forms some colored compounds with the metals, the only ones used being the green, from copper and chromium. Arsenic is used in a good many receipts, where its action cannot be ex- plained, and where most probably it has no useful action at all. White arsenic does not dissolve to any considerable extent in cold water, but in hot water it is more soluble ; by prolonged boiling, water dissolves a considerable portion of arsenic; it dissolves to an almost unlimited extent in caustic potash and soda, forming the arsenites of those bases. When white arsenic is heated with nitric acid, it combines with more oxygen, forming arsenic acid; this acid is very soluble in water, and has strongly acid characters ; it has been tried as a substitute for tartaric acid, but did not succeed. The substance called red arsenic is a compound of metallic arsenic, with sulphur; it is known also as ORPIMENT, which see. Arsenites are compounds of arsenious acid with bases and metals. Artichoke Green, A patent for obtaining a green color- ing matter from artichokes and thistles was taken out June 3d, 1856, but not completed. (See CHLOROPHYLL.) Astringents. The vegetable astringents used in dyeing and printing are represented by gall-nuts, sumac, catechu, and one or two other substances. Tannic acid may be considered as the real astringent, it possessing the astringent properties in the highest degree. It is a property of astringents to have a direct affinity for vegetable fibre, so that cotton soaked in a hot decoction of galls or sumac acquires the astringent principle, and retains it so strongly that it is difficult to remove it; it is also a pretty general character of astringents to strike a black with green copperas and other salts of iron, but this is not an essential character. In the older theories of dyeing much stress was laid upon the astringent principle as an import- ant element of all colors, being that portion which contributed to the closeness of the adhesion of the color to the fabric. But many of the fastest coloring matters, such as indigo, madder, and cochineal, do not contain any astringent matter at all, in the ordinary meaning of the term astringent ; and the supposed necessity of an astringent principle is therefore disproved. At the same time, the true astringents, as tannic acid, galls, sumac, &c., do not only themselves form very stable and intimate com- ATOMIC WEIGHT AZULINE. 71 binations with vegetable fibre, but also appear to confer stability to loose colors. In the great majority of cases of cotton dye- ing, galls or sumac are used, and usually are the first substances employed; the astringent principle, or tannic acid, of the galls and sumac at once forms a fast and perfect combination with the fibre, and appears to enable the fibre to combine more easily and permanently with all mordants and colors than if the astringent matters were absent. The old doctrine of the im- portance of an astringent principle is at least partially true and worthy of attention. The method of applying the new aniline colors by means of tannic acid and salts of tin and anti- mony is a point in illustration, though it is not actually known what part the astringent acts in these cases. (See - further, GALLS, SUMAC, &c.) Atomic Weight. According to the atomic theory every substance is made up of very little atoms, and each of these atoms has a regular weight of its own ; that is, an atom of iron weighs so much, and an atom of lead so much more, the atom of lead being about four times as heavy as the atom of iron, and so on. The relative weights of these atoms have been very carefully ascertained by chemists, and the whole science of modern chemistry is built upon the knowledge of the laws of combination between atoms. Many chemists and philoso- phers do not believe in the existence of atoms at all, but allow that matter of various kinds enters into combination in certain definite proportions, which are always the same for the same substance. This is now the prevailing theory, being most in accordance with the discoveries of late years; and what were called atomic weights, are now called EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS, which see. Awl Root. An East Indian product said to possess some of the valuable properties of madder. Azaleine. Red coloring matter obtained from aniline by the action of certain metallic salts, chiefly nitrate of mer- cury. The shade of color not being so good as that obtained by other patented processes, azaleine has not been much used in dyeing. Azote. The old name of nitrogen. Azuline. This name is given to a blue coloring matter supposed to be derived from aniline. It is chiefly used in silk dyeing, yielding a very fine blue color; it requires the presence of a rather considerable amount of free sulphuric acid in the dyeing to secure good shades. On this account it has riot yet been successfully applied to calico printing. There is more than one kind of blue coloring matter sold under this name, and they are not all of equal stability. Their discovery is so 72 AZURE BARASAT VERTE. recent that no really trustworthy information upon their manu- facture can be given. Azure. A blue powder consisting of a glass colored with oxide of cobalt is sold under this name, also called smalts and zaffre. It has been used in finishing yarns, etc. Being quite insoluble in water, it must be suspended in some mucilaginous liquid, as starch, size, or soap, and requires considerable care to prevent unevenness. B. Bablah, Balulah, or Neb-nab. This is the name of a fruit imported from Senegal and the East Indies. Upon its first introduction into Europe it was said to be endowed with the most valuable properties as an astringent, communicating per- manency to all dyed colors. This was not however found to be the case, and bablah fell into disrepute, so that dyers would not buy it any price. M. Chevreul "made an examination of the rinds of the frnit, and found the Senegal bablah to yield 57 per cent, of soluble matters, and the East Indian 49 per cent., while the best quality of gall-nuts give 87 per cent. Bablah contains a considerable proportion of tannic and gallic acids, and a reddish coloring matter in small quantity. With iron and alumina mordants it gives drab and fawn colors, and may be used as a substitute for sumac ; but, where sumac gives a yellowish shade, bablah gives a reddish hue. Most authori- ties speak only of the rind of the fruit as being used in dyeing ; others include the hard kernel as well. Bandanna. A style of work so called. It consists of a white discharge upon Turkey red ; the name appears to be confined to goods produced by means of perforated lead plates, between which the Turkey red cloth in several thicknesses was tightly pressed, and the perforations being so adapted as to correspond to one another, a discharging fluid, either solu- tion of chlorine gas in water or a mixture of bleaching liquor and acid,. was run upon the upper plate and gradually soaked through : the great pressure upon the cloth prevented the liquor from spreading beyond the pattern. This is a case of DISCHARGING, which see. Barasat Verte, or Green Indigo. A substance under this name was examined by Dr. Bancroft, who reported it to be simply blue indigo contaminated with vegetable extractive matter of a useless nature which made it appear green. It did not yield any green colors upon wool or cotton which could not withstand the action of soap. (See CHINESE GREEN and INDIGO.) BARBARY BERRIES BARWOOD. 73 Barbary Berries, or Seeds, contain a coloring matter, which, according to Bancroft's experiments, in some respects resembles safflower when applied upon silk. No definite infor- mation upon these seeds was communicated to Brancroft, and he could not identify them. Barbary Gum. A natural gum, similar to Senegal gum and gum arabic. It is liable to contain more or less of a species of gum which does not dissolve in cold water, only swelling up and making the solution of gum-water pasty ; a gum contain- ing this kind of inferior gum does not work or keep well, and is not easy to wash off soft. By leaving a sample of gum in lumps for 48 hours in cold water, it will be easily ascertained whether there are any lumps of this fictitious gum or not, and what is their relative proportion to the bulk. Barilla. This is a very impure kind of soda ash imported from Spain, Sicily, and other places. It is produced by burn- ing sea weeds and collecting and preparing the ashes. It was formerly the chief source of soda, but it is now only used in some exceptional cases. In old works upon bleaching and printing, wherever barilla is mentioned or prescribed, soda ash in per- haps one-fourth of the quantity would be found to have an equivalent effect. Bark. The contracted term "bark" is generally used amongst the dyers and printers of Lancashire, to designate the quercitron bark, extensively used in garancine dyeing. The barks of a few other trees are or have been used in dyeing, such as alder bark, oak bark, pomegranate bark, pine bark, willow bark, etc., for an account of which see ALDER, etc. Barwood. This is a dyewood obtained from Angola in Africa, and neighboring places. It is one of the red woods, and closely resembles sandal wood in its properties ; it is com- pact, taking a good polish of an orange red color. Its coloring matter is not easily extracted by water, for boiling water only dissolves a small quantity of it, and this precipitates in great part as the water cools ; there is, therefore, no barwood liquor or extract, and in dyeing with it the rasped or ground wood has to be used just as madder is used in madder dyeing. The goods take the color from the water as fast as it takes it from the wood; the coloring matter is gradually transferred until the desired shade is obtained or the wood spent. The colors it gives upon the luminous mordants are reds of a yellowish- brown shade according to Bancroft ; when these are saddened by green copperas they produce a good imitation of the ban- danna red. The same author states that the red from it was used as a bottom for dark indigo blues, saving indigo. At present barwood is chiefly used in yarn dyeing to produce an imitation 74 BARYTA BASE. Turkey red. It is also used for a red lake or pigment em- ployed by the paper printers. The pure coloring matter of this wood is considered to be identical with santaline extracted from sandal wood. Barwood red is obtained by first steeping the yarn or cloth for several hours in a decoction of sumac with a little vitriol, about four pounds sumac to every twenty pounds cotton. After the sumac has had time to form an intimate combination with the cotton, the yarn is next wrought in a solution of nitro- muriate of tin, or barwood spirits standing at 3 Tw. ; the tin combines plentifully with the astringent principle of the sumac and constitutes the mordant ; the goods are now transferred to the boiler or beck, where about their own weight of barwood finely rasped is added, the water being nearly boiling, and the goods worked about until the required shade is obtained. The red so produced is more permanent than any of the other wood reds, and stands next, though considerably inferior, to madder red. The practical dyers say that it is more difficult to get regular and good results from barwood than from any other wood, and that a great many fail to obtain the best red. Barwood is said not to work well with other dyewoods, if any combinations or modifications are required by the assist- ance of other woods, they have to be applied after the barwood by a separate operation. Baryta, or Barytes. There is a very rare metal called barium, its oxide is called baryta, and has properties nearly like quicklime. The very common mineral substance, which is sold under the names of barytes, mineral white, ground heavy spar, etc., is a sulphate of baryta, prepared by finely grinding the native heavy spar. It is used for "weighting;" that is, for giving weight and apparent body and firmness to inferior goods ; it is not the only, and probably not the best substance for this purpose. China clay, pipeclay, flour, and aluminous shale are used also in this species of falsification. Beyond this use of the sulphate, the compounds of baryta have not yet been employed in printing and dyeing on a large scale. Base. In chemistry, a base is some body which neutralizes an acid, generally forming crystalline compounds with it, which are called salts. Thus, lime neutralizes acids, and is a base; litharge or oxide of lead, which is quite tasteless, would be found upon trial to completely neutralize acetic or nitric acids, producing a third body, which is a salt, either acetate or nitrate of lead ; oxide of lead is therefore a base. Nearly all the metals are bases, and form salts with acids; and when we speak of sulphate of iron, nitrate of copper, and other simi- lar salts, we understand that the bases iron, copper, etc., have BASIC SALT BERRIES. 75 neutralized the acidity of sulphuric, nitric, and other acids. Be- sides mineral bases, there are others of purely vegetable origin, and some derived from the animal kingdom. They are all distinguished by neutralizing or depriving acids of their acid characters. Basic Salt. A salt containing more than the usual quan- tity of base, as basic acetate of lead. Basspra, The name of a kind of gum, which is like traga- canth ; it swells up in water and forms a kind of paste, but does not really dissolve. It contains a principle called basso- rine, which exists also in tragacanth and salep. It seems pro- bable that a good deal of this kind of gum comes mixed with Senegal and Barbary gum, from which it cannot be easily distin- guished. It is not a good gum for calico printing, because it does not wash off well, and leaves a harshness upon the cloth. Baume'. This is the name of the hydrometer which is most generally in use on the continent, and fulfils the same purposes that Twaddle's hydrometer does in England. The degrees of the two instruments do not correspond, nor is there any simple relation between them ; but as a guide for the trans- lation of receipts, it may be considered that each degree of Baum6 is equal to 1| of Twaddle, as far as the thirtieth degree of Twaddle; thus 10 Baume is equal to 14 J or 15 Twad- dle; 20 Baume is equal to between 30 and 31 Tw.: past the 30 of Baurne, the difference is greater, equal to about If of Twaddle for each degree Baume'; at 50 Baume, each degree is equal to 2 Twaddle, and so on. A table is given in my " Chemistry of Calico Printing," of the exact correspond- ence between the degrees of these instruments. Bear-Berry (arbutus uva ursi). A substance employed in dyeing black. Berries, The only berries commonly used in dyeing or printing are used for the sake of their yellow coloring matter. There are as many as seven or eight different qualities, but all appear to be derived from the same kind of shrub, which in France is called the dyer's buckthorn (the botanical name being rhamnus infectorius), and which, besides growing extensively there, flourishes in the island of Candia,in Wallachia,and in Asia Minor. The French berries are of small size; they are gene- rally known under the name of Avignon berries ; the berries coming from Turkey are called Turkey berries, and also Per- sian berries. It is the Persian berry which is most generally consumed in England; it is larger than the Avignon berry, and contains, weight for weight, a larger amount of coloring matter. Its coloring principle is easily soluble in hot water, and may be concentrated to a strength of 20 or 30 Twaddle; 76 BICHROME BILE. during boiling the berries give off a peculiar sweetish odor ; the il berry liquor," if long kept, deposits a pale yellow starchy- looking sediment, which appears to be nearly pure coloring matter. With alumina and tin mordants berries yield a very pure and agreeable yellow, which, however, is deficient in sta- bility, not resisting well either soap or exposure to air; on this account, and because quercitron bark, fustic, and chrome oranges and yellows are cheap and manageable, Persian berries are hardly ever used in piece dyeing, their application being con- fined almost exclusively to printing. In woollen or calico print- ing the berry liquor is scarcely ever used for producing a yellow, though with crystals of tin a good yellow can be obtained. The chief consumption of berries is as the yellow part for greens ; it yields brighter and livelier greens than either bark liquor or fustic. It is used also for olives and in chocolates; added to cochineal red in small quantity, it brightens the color, turn- ing it towards the orange or scarlet ; it seems to be used by the French as a sightening for alumina mordants, but I have never seen it so employed in Lancashire. Persian berries have been slightly used in garancine dyeing to produce an orange upon an acetate of tin mordant. The yellow lake extensively used by artists and in paper hangings, called " stil de grain" and manufactured in Holland, is made by preparing a decoction of berries in alum, and precipitating it by white and pure chalk. In preparing berry liquor for yellows upon silk or wool it is desirable not to boil too long, nor to exhaust th'e berry ; the coloring matter which dissolves first is purest, and should be taken off for yellows; the liquor obtained from the second and third boilings answers very well for greens, olives, and choco- lates. The pure coloring matter of berries is called rharnnine, but Kane distinguishes two coloring matters, which he calls respectively chrysorhamnine and xanthorhamnine. Bichrome, or Chrome. An abbreviation of bichromate of potash. (See CHROMATE OF POTASH.) Bile, Ox Gall, Gall, Biliary Fluid. The biliary fluid of oxen, under the name of gall, has been employed from the earliest times as a suitable material for cleaning colored fabrics. Looking at its chemical constitution, which is nearly the same as soap, we are not at a loss to explain what its properties are owing to. It actually operates as a very mild kind of soap, dissolving grease and oily matters without injuring even the most delicate shades of color. It can be dried and preserved for an indefinite length of time, and dissolved in water as re- quired. The uses which ox-gall receives in the fine arts may possibly be extended to dyeing and printing; they are certainly deserving the attention of the experimentalist. Some beauti- BIRCH BLACK. 77 ful, bat evanescent, shades of color are produced by the action of sulphuric acid and sugar upon ox-gall. Cow dung contains, besides the coloring matter of the bile, very frequently the biliary fluid itself. Some attempts were made to show that it had something to do with animalizing mordants, but that theory has been relinquished. According to an anony- mous writer in the Bulletin of Mulhoi.ise, ox-gall has a slight deteriorating effect when mixed with the water used in madder dyeing. Birch. The bark of the birch, or the birch broom, has been employed in dyeing, but principally by the peasantry. I have no exact information upon the nature of the coloring matter, but it is probable that these substances were valued on account of a small amount of astringent or tannic matter, which, with copperas, would stike shades of drab, gray, or olive; and with alumina mordants would give inferior yellows. Bismuth. Bismuth is a metal somewhat resembling lead. In a patent granted to Emile Kopp, July 10th, 1855, a claim is made, amongst others, for the use of aceto-nitrate of bismuth as a mordant for garancine. Prior to this date I had tried various salts of bismuth as mordants, but without obtaining any good result. The specification claims the production of bright crimson shades by means of the aceto nitrate of bismuth mordant, and dark crimson and purple crimson shades when it is used in com- bination with a nitric solution of arseniate of iron. By follow- ing the directions given I did not succeed in obtaining any- thing commercially valuable, and when I had an opportunity of seeing the results obtained by the patentee I found them no better than those I had produced: although highly ingenious, and somewhat novel, as the combinations were, for practical purposes they are of but little value. Bixa Orellana. The botanical name of the plant from which anotta is obtained. From the first part of the name comes the word bixine, the name of the supposed red coloring matter; and from the second part is derived orelline, the name of the yellow-colored principle of anotta. Bixine. Name given to the supposed pure coloring matter of anotta: also the name given to an improved preparation of the seeds of the bixa orellana, by which a much more power- ful coloring matter is produced, devoid of the repulsive animal smell of the crude product, and giving equally good or better shades of color. A sample of the commercial bixine I exa- mined was about three times as powerful as average qualities of anotta. Black. This is probably the most important of all dyed colors, whether viewed with regard to the universal use of it, 78 BLACK. or the peculiar difficulties attending its production. In a philo- sophical point of view black is not a color. It is the absence of color, or the extinction or absorption of all the colored rays of light, which produces black. There is no purely black body; such a body would be perfectly invisible, since it would neither emit nor reflect any rays of light by which it could be seen. The best blacks have always some shade of color discernible to the practised eye; hence we distinguish jet blacks, brown blacks, blue blacks, purplish blacks, red blacks, etc.: it is these shades which make black visible. Black results from a mixture of all the elementary colors; thus the artist by mixing red, blue, and yellow pigments produces the neutral shades, which when weak give gray, and when concentrated give black : the same mix- ture, when made so as to reflect light well, produces not black but white. The famous family of the Gobelins, whose success in dyeing was imputed to supernatural assistance, produced their best blacks by a mixture of the elementary colors red, blue, and yellow. The cloth was dyed red with madder, then dipped in the indigo vat for blue, and lastly finished in weld to give the yellow shade; the whole producing a very perfect and durable but expensive black. The earliest blacks we have account of in England were the so-called " mathered blacks," being a madder red dyed upon a dip blue ground ; but this was very expensive, and could only exist by legal enactments, which forbade the use of logwood in dyeing black. This law was either repealed or neglected towards the end of the last cen- tury, since which period the chief ingredients in black are galls, sumac, logwood, and salts of iron. I will first give the methods of obtaining blacks in silk by dyeing and printing; then blacks on woollen and mixed fabrics ; and lastly, blacks by dyeing and printing on cotton goods. Black Dye on Silk. The common cheap silks are dyed with logwood and fustic for coloring matters, and some iron salt as mordant ; the better class of silks are dyed with galls ; the use or non-use of galls in dyeing black on silk divides the colors into two classes. The logwood blacks are all distinguished by turning immediately a bright red when a drop of spirits of salts is put in contact with them ; the galled blacks, even when topped with logwood, do not give a red immediately, and then it is of a dull purplish color. Blacks on Silk without Galls. The silk properly scoured is worked for a greater or less time in some iron salt. I believe the common nitrate of iron is as good as any of the many mor- dants in use, sometimes ordinary green copperas is used, but that will not yield a deep black ; a per-sulphate of iron is also employed, and also a mixture of sulphate and nitrate; the ace- BLACK. 79 tate of iron or common calico printers' iron liquor is also in use and answers very well ; each dyer has his favorite mordant which he considers the best for the peculiar shade of black he wants. An hour is generally sufficient in the iron, the goods washed well in cold water to remove the unattached iron, and then worked in the logwood at a very moderate heat. To obtain a jet or brownish-black there should be about one pound of fustic for every five pounds of logwood. It is customary to add a little copperas to the dye vat to raise the color just before finishing, the goods being previously lifted. Blue Black. Mordant in nitrate of iron, raise in logwood, to which as much white soap has been added as will make a lather; no copperas must be added. Black on Blue Ground. Dye a Prussian blue, mordant in iron, raise in logwood with copperas at the end. Deep Hat Black. Work five pounds of silk in a decoction of 2 Ibs. fustic chips, 1 Ib. quercitron bark; lift, and add 6 oz. verdigris, 6 oz. copperas; work for fifteen minutes, and leave overhead all night; wash and dye in a decoction of 5 Ibs. logwood, with as much white soap as will make a lather (Napier). Union Velvets a mixed fabric in which the pile is silk and the back cotton; they are extensively dyed in the neigborhood of Manchester by one or other of the above processes. The cotton back is a very light color compared with the silk face, showing the different affinities of the two materials; no single process at present known will enable the cotton to take the same shade as the silk. Blacks on Silk with Galls. The silk having been scoured is steeped in a decoction of galls made from bruised galls by boil- ing ; for 2 Ibs. of silk 1 Ib. of 'galls is taken, after twenty-four hours the silk is rinsed in water and dipped and worked in solution of copperas, afterwards it is worked in warm decoction of logwood, then again in the iron, washed out, and if the shade is not deep enough, the same process repeated as often as neces- sary. This is essentially the old process by which silk was dyed, and it is the existing process except that galls are replaced by other cheaper astringent matters. In Franc, chestnut wood and bark is extensively used in black dyeing. An infusion of the wood and bark is prepared, the silk is steeped in it for three or foijr hours, during which time the astringent combines with the silk, and the latter acquires a yellow nankeen shade; it is well washed and steeped in the iron bath which is kept at near the boil. The iron bath is composed of green copperas or iron liquor with some metallic iron intended to keep down the 80 BLACK. acidity and supply iron to the bath as the silk withdraws it; a certain quantity of gum is dissolved in this bath, also with the intention of making it somewhat mucilaginous, so that the black particles of tannate of iron may be held suspended in the liquor: a little sulphate of copper is also added by some dyers. The silk as it comes out of the bath is reddish, but speedily goes black on exposure to the air. It requires four or six treatments to obtain a good black (Dumas). The Lyons dyers are stated to find an economy of 50 per cent, by using chestnut extract instead of galls, and to obtain better results. The Genoese dyers were formerly celebrated for the good- ness and fastness of the black colors they produced. They used immense dye vats, which were never emptied, composed of water, vinegar, sour beer or cider, oatmeal, alder bark, sumac, oak bark, gall nuts, and metallic iron, along with various other substances, the use or application of which modern chemistry does not explain. Bancroft examined a sample of Genoa black velvet, and found no blue basis as was supposed. These black vats, or twines au noir, were being continually replenished, and the sediment occasionally cleared out. By galling, silk increases in weight, so that by repeating several times the steeping in galls a very considerable increase of weight can be communicated to silk, so much so, that it has become a species of falsification, and not only is. the twenty-five per cent, of gum which silk naturally loses in scouring made up, but sometimes another twenty-five per cent, in weight or more is added to it. The deposition of so much foreign matter in the fibre of the silk injures its wearing qualities. The use of logwood in conjunction with galls is condemned, for though it gives a fuller and more blooming color it speedily becomes brown by wear. According to Dumas, the practice of giving a dip blue bottom to black is nearly abandoned. Prussian blue is sometimes used ; but logwood and copperas, with some sulphate of copper, are chiefly employed to give a blue shade to blacks. Black for Printing on Silk. These colors are comparatively simple, being derived essentially from logwood or galls as col- ouring matter, and some salt of iron as mordant. The other ingredients assist to develop or modify the shade. Black for Silk. Blotch. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 7 Tw. 10 oz. acetate of copper at 40 Tw. 16 oz. red liquor at 18, 18 oz. starch : boil, and when cold, add 7 oz. nitrate of iron at 80. For blocking, size or Carragheen moss is a suitable thickening. BLACK. 81 Black for Silk. Roller or Block. (Persoz.) 1 gallon logwood liquor at 14, 10 oz. starch, 1 Ib. 10 oz. British gum ; boil, and when cool add 10 oz. crystals of nitrate copper. 8 oz. proto- per nitrate of iron. This color should age some time before steaming. Gall Black for Silk. 1 J gallon logwood liquor at 5|, 5 oz. powered gall-nuts; boil until reduced to 1 gallon mixed logwood and gall liquor, 1 Ibs. starch; boil, and when cool add l| oz. alum, 5 oz. sulphate of copper, 1 oz. sulphate of iron, 3J oz. nitrate of iron at 80, 4 oz. melted suet or lard. Other receipts only vary in quantities or by additions of a little oxalic or tartaric acids ; it is not necessary to multiply ex- amples. Black upon Wool by dyeing. For the best quality of woollen goods the process consists in, first, giving a dark blue by means of the indigo vat, and then, after the cloth has been well washed, it is passed for an hour in a boiling decoction of sumac and logwood, using about 4 Ibs. of sumac to 1 Ib. logwood ; the strength of the decoction depends upon the weight of the cloth. At the expiration of an hour the cloth is lifted, and aired both to cool it and let the oxygen of the air act upon it ; in the mean- time green copperas is added to the dye vat, about one pound to three yards of cloth; the vat is cooled down until the hand can be held in, and the cloth entered again and worked for an hour, the heat being kept just below the scald. These opera- tions are repeated three times, or until the cloth is saturated; it is then well washed and finished. Blacks so dyed are very stable, and are said to have a very characteristic greenish hue, communicated by the blue bottom and the yellow of the sumac. This plan of dyeing is too expensive for the lower qualities of woollen cloth, which are dyed as follows : For about 70 Ibs. of woollen cloth 14 Ibs. of logwood, 4 Ibs. galls in powder, 2 Ibs. fustic ; 82 BLACK. Boiled together for half an hour, the vat cooled down, the cloth entered and moved about for four hours, during which time the vat is brought as near the boil as possible. The cloth is then lifted and aired ; 4 Ibs. green copperas are dissolved in the hot liquor, which is cooled down, and the piece entered again for an hour; this process is repeated until a satisfactory color is obtained. A variation of the above consists in adding sulphate of copper or blue copperas along with the green cop- peras ; it produces a more lustrous black, which is, however, easily faded on exposure to air and light ; acetate of copper or verdigris answers the same purpose, and is open to the same objection. In other processes no gall-nuts are used, but sumac instead. Geneva Black M. Dumas, in detailing this process, says that this black is very fine, does not injure the wool, possesses a brilliancy which no other has, and can have a lively blue tint. For a piece of cloth of about 40 yards, weighing 70 Ibs. : 6 Ibs. green copperas, 6 Ibs. tartar, 1 Ib. sulphate copper, 2 Ibs. fustic, 2 Ibs. logwood. These materials are boiled a short time, and the cloth entered and worked at the boil for three hours, then washed ; afterwards entered into a fresh vat, in which 11 Ibs. of logwood have been boiled, and boiled for an hour ; taken out, and again entered in the same vat for half an hour, and finished. It is impossible to see anything either in the materials or management which would make this black superior to the others. Tartar may be useful in preventing the wool becoming harsh, and it may modify the color; but it, is not likely to assist the fixing of the iron, nor contribute to the general stability of the color. Napier gives the following for 10 Ibs. of woollen cloth: work for one hour in a bath, with 8 oz. bichromate potash, 6 oz. alum, 4 oz. fustic; wash well, and then work for one hour in another bath, with 4 Ibs. logwood, 4 oz. barwood, 4 oz. fustic ; lift, and add 4 oz. solution of copperas, work half an hour in this, wash and dry. Richardson's patented process, May 16th, 1855, consists in boiling the woollen cloth in a mixture of bichromate of potash, tartar and sulphuric acid for an hour, this forming the mor- dant; then entering it in a vessel containing chiefly logwood, with a little camwood, fustic, sulphate of indigo, and sulphuric acid. The use of bichromate of potash in woollen dyeing has BLACK. 83 become very general within a few years, though its action is not clearly understood. Grumel's patent, April 8th, 1859, is for a black obtained by means of chromates and logwood. Another receipt from Napier, gives 8 oz. camwood, work in twenty minutes, lift and add 8 oz. sulphate of iron, leave the goods in all night; wash out and raise in a bath containing 5 Ibs. logwood and one pint chamber lye for an hour, lift and add 4 oz. copperas, work in this half an hour longer ; wash and dry. Black dyed broad cloth is nearly all sold as "woaded," an expression which originally indicated that the black had a fast blue basis derived from woad, a variety of indigo ; afterwards the indigo vat foundation, having precisely the same value as woad for practical purposes, was substituted ; but as the majo- rity of the samples of "woaded" cloth that I have tested do not indicate any blue basis, it must be presumed the term "woaded" has received some new and conventional meaning. Genuine woaded black does not turn red when a drop of muriatic acid touches it ; after a time it becomes purplish, because more or less logwood is always used ; a common logwood black acquires a bright red color instantaneously by contact with a drop of acid. Blade for Printing on Woollen Goods. Logwood is the basis of all black colors for printing on wool, iron is the chief fixing agent, nitrate of copper is the oxidizing agent, alumina is em- ployed to modify the shade, extracts of other dyewoods are added occasionally, with a view to increase the intensity of the black, or give it a shade favorable to the contiguous colors. Here is a selection of receipts, with remarks : Slack for all Wool Block. 8 Ibs. calcined farina, 4J quarts logwood liquor at 20, 12 quarts water, 1 pint sapan liquor at 20, 4 quarts red liquor at 10, 8 Ibs. crystals nitrate of copper, 2 quarts nitrate of iron at 80, 1 quart acetate of iron at 14. By altering the thickening this color would serve for roller ; instead of 8 Ibs. calcined farina, 6 Ibs. starch should be taken ; the three last ingredients to be added only when the color is cold. 84 BLACK. Blotch Black for all Wool. 4J quarts logwood liquor at 6, 4.* quarts peachwood liquor at 6, 18 oz. starch ; boil, and whilst warm add 6 025. sulphate of copper, 4 oz. sulphate of iron, 6 oz. pasty extract of indigo ; and when cold add 12 oz. nitrate of iron at 80. This is also a block color, and would be found too thin for machine. Black for Merinoes, all Wool. 6 quarts logwood liquor at 9, 2 quarts blue archil at 10, 36 oz. starch, pint gall liquor at 19 ; boil, and add 2 oz. copperas, 2- oz. sulphate of copper, 12 oz. pasty sulp. of indigo ; and when cold 15 oz. nitrate of iron at 80. A variety of blacks can be made by modification of the above receipts; the addition of ammoniacal cochineal is recommended in some, oxalic acid in small quantities is prescribed in others, some contain alum. I translate some receipts from Persoz, Dumas, and Thillaye. In French receipts it will be noticed that the logwood and other liquors are at a strength never seen in England; but as water frequently enters into the receipt, a compensation can be made by leaving out the whole or part of the water, to suit the strength of liquor obtainable. Black for Objects. Wool or Mixed Silk and Wool 1 gallon boiling water, \ gallon peachwood liquor at 22, 1 gallon logwood liquor at 48 ; add gradually i gallon water, in which has been dissolved | Ib. bichromate of potash ; thicken with 3J Ibs. starch, 4 Ibs. gurn substitute ; and while hot add 1 Ibs. sal ammoniac, 2 Ibs. acetate of cop.; when cooled a little add 1 J Ibs. oxalic acid ; then mix very well with | pint turpentine ; and when quite cold add 3 f Ibs. nitrate of iron at 90, 3 Ibs. refined extract of indigo. BLACK. 85 The use of bichromate of potash will be found to present great difficulties in practice ; very few color mixers can manage to obtain a workable color by this receipt. Black for Blotch and Objects. All Wool. 1 gallon togwood liquor at 5, 1 Ib. starch ; boil, and when cold add 1 Ib. nitrate of iron at 80, 4 oz. nitrate of copper at 80, Pint of gall liquor at 5. * Another. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 5|, 1 quart gall liquor at 8, 1 pint archil liquor, 1J Ibs. starch; boil, and add while warm 10 oz. extract of indigo; when cold add SO oz. nitrate of iron, which has been neutralized by addition of acetate of lead. Black upon Cotton by Dyeing. The old fast black upon cot- ton was obtained, by giving a blue ground with indigo, then galling and working in sulphate of iron, sometimes with addi- tion of logwood ; alder bark, and other similar substances were also employed ; and the goods usually finished in an emulsion of oil, to take off the harshness which iron mordants so gene- rally communicate. Later on, what was called the Manchester black, was obtained by first steeping in galls or sumac, then working in the copperas vat, and afterwards in logwood con- taining some verdigris, and repeating these operations until the desired shade was obtained. Galls are now scarcely ever used ; sumac, which is cheaper, being employed in substitu- tion ; and the processes, though almost infinite in details, consist essentially of steeping in sumac, then working in an iron bath, and afterwards raising in logwood. One method said to give good results, consists in steeping in sumac for twelve hours, then working through lime-water, and exposing to the air until the light green color at first produced passes to a dull heavy shade ; the goods are tben passed through solution of green copperas, and exposed to the air until they appeared black while in the wet state ; if dried, they would be found to be only gray or slate color. To fill up the color the goods are passed into the logwood bath (some authorities say it is advisa- ble to pass them through lime-water first) for a sufficient time ; lifted, some copperas added and the goods raised in it; for light goods this suffices to produce a black, heavier goods require a 86 BLACK. repetition of the processes. A rapid continuous method of dyeing black on light goods is practised in Lancashire ; the goods are passed through a decoction of catechu, then imme- diately into a solution of bichromate of potash, next into decoc- tion of logwood, then into green copperas, and lastly through a decoction of some red wood, as camwood or Brazil wood. The order of these liquids may be changed within certain limits. A simpler method of dyeing by means of bichromates is also given, which consists in steeping the goods in logwood, exposing them to the air and drying, then passing them into bichromate of potash neutralized by crystals of soda, by which the logwood is "struck" of an intense black and^xed. Velve- teens are dyed black by reiterated passages in logwood and green copperas until a dark brown is produced, then passed in sumac and sulphate of copper, with sometimes addition of peach wood or Brazil wood. Fustic is an ingredient in all dyes where a brownish or jet black is desired. Black is one of the most difficult colors to dye, and no one but a practical man understands the difficulties of obtaining regular and good results, especially when first class colors are aimed at. It is useless to give weights and quantities when these are really only inferior elements of success ; a slight change in the quality of the sumac, something different in the "ageing" or "mastering" of the logwood, some slight modifica- tion in the temperature and pressure of the "stills" in which the liquors are made, and other causes not more conspicuous, have frequently fn my experience put works almost to a stand still. And when I have been called in for advice, it has been evident that chemistry could only give conjectures as to what was wrong. These failures in producing satisfactory colors would not be apparent to an unpractised eye ; the defects would only consist in those hues and reflections of shade being wanting which were most esteemed and usually produced; Though it is exceedingly difficult in most cases to trace the actual cause of inferior results, there have been in my practice very evident occasions in which a most trivial and apparently unimportant cause has produced very embarrassing effects ; the closest atten- tion on the part of a foreman or manager is most essential in order that these things majr be avoided, or if they occur that their cause may be discovered. Black on Cotton by Printing. The oldest black applied topi- cally on cotton goods, was that called "chemical black," made from gall liquor and nitrate of iron. I have a receipt for chemical black dated 1804, with a patch annexed ; the color has considerably faded, but not so much as a logwood black would have done. The receipt runs as follows: BLACK. 87 Chemical Black, 1804. 28 Ibs. gall- nuts, 16 galls, tar acid (pyroligneous acid), boil for six hours and strain the clear liquor, make up to 16 galls, and thicken with 26 Ibs. of good flour, add 14 gills aquafortis killed with iron nails (nitrate of iron), "then boil it well and get it out, or else it will go thin, cool it and it is fit for work." Other receipts are very similar, but generally pure water is used to make the gall liquor, sometimes vinegar is prescribed ; the nitrate of iron is usually added after the gall liquor has been boiled with the thickening, and that is undoubtedly the preferable way. This black withstands a good deal of rough treatment in the way of dunging, dipping, and dyeing after- wards, and was much used in styles that had to be dipped and dyed after printing, as indigo blues, madder reds, weld yellows, etc. All the modern steam blacks on cotton may be reduced to logwood liquor, thickening matter and a salt of iron ; other wood extracts and drugs may fulfil useful purposes with regard to the shade of black, contiguous colors, facility of printing, washing off', etc. ; but the only essentials are the three materials mentioned. Steam Black for Calico. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 6, 1^ Ibs. starch ; boil, and while hot add 5 oz. green copperas, stir well and when nearly cold add 2 oz. olive or gallipolli oil, lU oz. nitrate of iron, well saturated with iron, or neutralized by addition of one-third its weight of acetate of lead. Another Black. 3 gallons logwood liquor at 12, 1 gallon red liquor " 16, 1 " iron liquor " 28, 1 " acetic acid " 8, 7| Ibs. flour, 3 Ibs. British gum ; boil for half an hour. The following black contains a large quantity of fatty matter, this is -added for the purpose of enabling it to temporarily re- sist the penetration of chemical agents which would injure or destroy it, but which are necessary to the development of some other colors printed along with it ; for example, it is used in conjunction with fast blue to be raised in soda; it is used on' 88 BLACK. Turkey reds which have to pass through strong solution of chloride of lime to produce a white, etc. The black is for a time waterproof. The prussiate may be left out at discretion, but it is used for giving a blue black. Soda Black or Spermaceti Black. 2J gallons logwood liquor at 12, 1 gallon red liquor at 16, 1 " acetic acid at 8, 8 oz. yellow prussiate, 4 Ibs. starch if for blocking ; 6 Ibs. if for machine, boil well and add a warm mixture of 1 Ibs. spermaceti, 10 oz. gallipolli oil, 10 oz. turpentine, and when cold add 1 quart nitrate of iron. Black colors for delaines are similar to those for wool ; log- wood and nitrate of iron being the chief ingredients, with sul- phate of indigo for a blue material, and red woods for browning the shade. Eeceipts for black on delaine frequently assume an extreme degree of complexity, and at other times are nothing but logwood and nitrate of iron. Out of a great number of receipts, I give two as illustrations. Black for Delaines. 3 gallons logwood liquor at 12, 3 Ibs. starch ; boil well, and when cooled to 90 F. add 1 quart nitrate of iron at 84. Another. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 8, 1 pint wood acid at 7, 1| pints of bark liquor at 10, 2| oz. extract of indigo, J oz. bichromate of potash, 2 Ibs. flour, 8 oz. British gum ; boil, and when nearly cool add 4 oz. sal ammoniac, J pint of muriate of iron at 80, J pint of nitrate of iron at 80. For madder black, see MADDER. Recapitulation. Blacks may be divided into the following classes : 1. Compound Blacks, produced by mixture of separate BLEACHING. 89 elementary colors, or the extreme condensation of one or two colors. This includes the ancient Gobelin black, the old En- glish "mathered blacks," and the blacks of all kinds dyed on a blue basis. They are generally very fast and permanent colors, but for no other reason than that the separate colors from which they are produced are each the fastest and best of their kind. Indigo, madder, and weld give respectively the fastest blues, reds, and yellows, their combination gives, consequently, the fastest black ; so madder and indigo without weld give an extremely permanent brownish-black; and all goods dyed black with an indigo ground and gall and logwood top are fast in proportion to the depth of that blue ground. Prussian blue is sometimes used as a basis for black, and peach- wood and Brazil wood for the red part; these are true com- pound blacks, but as the elements have no great stability, so the compound color itself is not a permanent one. 2. Astringent Blades, derived from gall-nuts, sumac, chestnrft wood, and similar bodies. These blacks owe their color to the formation of a dark colored compound produced by the combination of tannic or some similar acid with oxide of iron. They are very stable, resisting extremely well ordinary wear and exposure ; but on account of the low covering power of this tannate of iron, and the consequent necessity of the accu- mulation of large masses of it upon fibrous material in order to produce a good black, it is rarely used except in combination with logwood. 3. Logwood Blacks. The black pigment, produced by com- bination of the coloring matter of logwood and oxide of iron, has great depth and lustre. It fades, however, very rapidly upon exposure to light and air, going brown and rusty, and if there be not some more permanent black in combination with it, or a fast blue basis, cloth dyed with such a black is speedily injured. The comparative cheapness of logwood continually incites the black dyers to use too much of it in proportion to galls and sumac. 4. Chromate Blacks. Neutral chromate of potash gives a deep black precipitate with logwood liquor, and several methods have been devised of forming the black compound on cloth ; but it does not appear that this combination of coloring matter and oxide of chromium possesses any greater stability or powers of resisting atmospheric influences than the corresponding iron compounds. Bleaching. The word "bleach" is derived from a French word, which means "to whiten," and the rough meaning of bleaching is therefore whitening, in the sense of taking away the substances which color the material being bleached. The 90 BLEACHING. old method of bleaching consisted in washing with water, soap, and soda, and exposure to the air; it was a very slow process. Towards the end of the last century, a French chemist, Ber- thollet, discovered that the gas called chlorine, then itself but recently discovered, was capable of destroying vegetable color- ing matter without injuring vegetable fibre, and in a short time it was practically applied. The present process of bleaching calico consists in, first, removing from it all greasy matters, dust, etc., which it has acquired in transit or manufacture, and then submitting it to the bleaching action of chlorine combined with lime. Cotton being so nearly white in itself requires but little chlorine to bleach it. The most important steps in the bleaching process are those which are undertaken to remove the greasy substances and mechanically adhering dirt not actu- ally belonging to cotton in its natural state. Bleaching for Madder Dyeing. The method now generally used for the best bleaching for madder and garancine dyeing consists of the following operations: 1. Singeing, followed by "rot steep" or "wetting out steep." 2. Liming boiling with milk of lime and water from twelve to sixteen hours. 3. Washing out the lime and passing in muriatic acid sours, or weak vitriol. 4. Bowking in soda ash and prepared resin, ten to sixteen hours. 5. Washing out of the bowk. 6. Passing through solution of chloride of lime. 7. Passing through weak sours chiefly muriatic acid. 8. Washing, squeezing, and drying. The singeing is not a part of the bleaching properly con- sidered, it is merely to remove the loosely adhering filaments and so improve the cloth in appearance and for printing. The "rot steep" (so called because the flour or size with which the goods were impregnated were formerly allowed to enter into fermentation and putrefaction) is intended to thoroughly wet the cloth ; this takes some time on account of its throwing off water in places owing to greasy matters in it; if the cloth be not thoroughly moistened there is risk of irregu- larity in the after processes, and attention must be paid to this point. The liming takes place in large kiers or kettles capable of holding from 500 to 1500 pieces of cloth ; the lime is very carefully slacked some days previous to being used,and brought to a smooth milk of lime, being sieved so that no small lumps of quicklime should get into the kier ; it is equally distributed BLEACHING. 91 upon the cloth as it enters the kiers, the cloth is pressed over- head in the liquor, and the boiling commenced and continued for a period of from twelve to sixteen hours. At the end of that time the lime liquor is run off' and clear water run in to cool the pieces, which are then taken out and washed. The liming is usually performed at a low pressure; but a patent process where a pressure of 40 Ibs. or more is used seems to answer very well and to save time. The apparent utility of liming consists in its acting upon the greasy matters, forming a kind of insoluble soap with them which is easily taken out by the subsequent processes. The souring after liming removes all excess of lime and breaks up the insoluble lime soap referred to in the previous paragraph, still leaves the grease upon the cloth, but in such an altered state as to be easily dissolved in the bowking which follows. Muriatic acid sours are sometimes used in this sour- ing; but it is my opinion that common vitriol sours may be safely used, for any sulphate of lime which might remain in the cloth would be converted into carbonate by the soda ash. The bowking or boiling with alkali and soap has for its ob- ject the removal of the greasy matters; it dissolves them, and all the dirt held by them now comes out of the cloth leaving the cotton nearly pure. The kind of alkali used is soda ash, the soap is made from resin and called prepared resin. The boiling in this case need not last so long as the liming, but de- pends in great measure upon the size of the kier and the number of pieces. The last process of passing through clear solution of bleach- ing powder is to destroy the slight tinge of color of a buff or cream shade still adhering to the cotton ; the bleaching powder solution is very weak, so that probably a piece of calico of the ordinary size does not take up more than the soluble matter from a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder. The goods are allowed to rest some time with the chloride of lime in them, and then passed through sours for the final operation. The acid has the effect of setting the chlorine free from the bleaching powder and completing the destruction of the color; at the same time it removes the lime and acts upon any traces of iron that may be on the cloth. I think there is no doubt that muriatic acid makes the best sour for the last souring, both because it obviates the danger of the sparingly soluble sulphate of lime being fixed in the fibre and giving bad whites in dyeing, and also because it leaves the goods softer and more effectually removes any iron rust that may be on the cloth. Bleaching for dyeing self colors need not be pushed to the 92 BLEACHING. extent of madder work, and where the colors to be dyed are dark shades, such as blue, black, or brown, it is not necessary to have the cloth white ; all that is required is to cleanse it well from foreign matters which would tend to make the dye uneven or irregular. On the other hand, goods sent into the market as white goods must be of a pure color, and there is no necessity for that searching treatment to which madder goods are subjected ; the shortest and least expensive means of making them white are adopted ; if, however, the goods are not " well bottomed," they will not remain white long when brought into domestic use. The proportions and strengths of the substances used in bleaching are not of much value, since circumstances must in- fluence them very considerably ; however, as a kind of guide, I may give the proportions used in one or two cases coming under my observation. For 14,000 yards of nine-eighth print- ing cloth 66 reed, there was used 250 Ibs. of quicklime in the liming; the same quantity required 110 Ibs. muriatic acid for the first souring. The bowking was done with 140 Ibs. of soda ash at 48 per cent, alkali and 80 Ibs. prepared resin (see EESIN). The last souring was vitriol sours at 3; the quantity of bleaching powder used was not ascertained, but the solution stood at 1 Tw. A French process communicated by a friend gives only 150 Ibs. of lime to 66,000 yards of calico weighing about 13,000 Ibs., the liming lasted eighteen hours ; 400 to 500 Ibs. muriatic acid was used in the souring, and the bowking was continued for the long space of thirty-six hours; On the continent, caustic soda is frequently used in bowking, perhaps generally ; it requires much care to prevent damage to the fibre : sometimes the sours are used warm. Linen is not so easily bleached as cotton, and it appears to suffer considerably by boiling with lime, and by contact with chloride of lime ; it is mainly bleached by continual boilings with alkali and a few sourings, with a chloride of lime treat- ment; or, as lime appears injurious, the chloride of potash or soda is frequently used instead. 1 Bleaching of Woollen. Woollen goods are bleached by treat- ing with very mild alkaline liquors, which remove the fatty matters; putrefied urine and soap, with crystals of soda, being the only substance usually employed. Sulphurous acid, or vapors of burning sulphur, are used to finish wool, giving it whiteness and lustre. The following is one of the processes given by Persoz, as followed in France for bleaching woollen for printing. It is for 40 pieces, each 50 yards long : BLEACHING POWDER. 93 1. Passed three times through a solution of 25 Ibs. carbonate of soda and 7 Ibs. of soap, at a temperature of 100 F : freshen up with f Ib. of soap every four pieces. 2. Wash twice in warm water. 3. Passed three times through a solution of 25 Ibs. crystals of soda, at a temperature of 120: freshen up with f Ib. crystals for every four pieces. 4. Sulphured in a room for twelve hours, using 25 Ibs. sulphur for the 40 pieces. 5. Passed three times through crystals of soda as in No. 3. 6. Sulphured again as in No. 4. 7. Crystals of soda again as in No. 3. 8. Washed twice through warm water. 9. Sulphured a third time as in No. 4. 10. Washed twice in warm and then in cold water. 11. Blued with extract of indigo according to taste. According as the goods are meant for dark or blotch styles, or for fancy styles, so the process may be shortened or must be adhered to. Bleaching of Delaines. This is carried on upon precisely the same principle as bleaching wool, but does not require so many operations ; two passages through soap and soda crystals, washing in warm water and repeating the soaping, then sul- phuring by Thorn's patent for twenty minutes twice over, is usually sufficient for all styles. Bleaching of Silk. Nothing but soap and sulphur are used in silk bleaching, excepting a slight amount of soda crystals, which helps to save soap. Alkalies destroy or injure the fibre of silk very much, and must be either avoided or applied with extreme care. Bran is sometimes used along with soap in order to neutralize any excess of alkali which it might con- tain and the process terminated by passing in an extremely diluted sour, so weak as scarcely to be acid to the taste. Sul- phuring is not necessary when the silk is to be printed or dyed dark colors, and in any case must be cautiously and sparingly applied. Bleaching Powder,or Chloride of Lime, Chemic ; some- times also Oxygen, Hypochlorite of Lime. Ordinary bleaching powder is made by slacking lime to a fine powder, and expos- ing it to chlorine gas in properly constructed chambers ; it ab- sorbs the chlorine in large quantity, and gives it up again when treated with acids which seize the lime. Good chloride of lime is dry and dusty, very white, and does not smell very strong : in a dry place it keeps good for a considerable period ; in a damp place it absorbs moisture, becomes pasty, gives off chlorine gas, and loses strength : it is not entirely soluble in 94 BLEACHING POWDER. water, always leaving a sediment. The clear solution, when in quantity, has a greenish color; it is slowly injured by air, heat, and light, and should consequently be kept in a cool, shady place, and covered up. Testing of Bleaching Powder. The precise quality and value of a sample of bleaching powder cannot be ascertained with- out chemical testing; and as it is a substance liable to great variations, it is very desirable to have some means of ascer- taining its value. The processes given in chemical works are quite satisfactory, but require several apparatuses only found in a laboratory. I give here a process suited to a color-shop, which will enable a practical man to tell whether the bleaching powder is below a certain standard or not. The materials re- quired are fresh crystals of tin, spirits of salts, and a weak so- lution of extract of indigo, with jugs to mix them in. Weigh two ounces of fresh crystals of tin, and mix them with half a pint of water and a glassful of spirits of salts, and stir till dis- solved. Weigh out two ounces of the sample of bleaching powder and mix it with a half pint of water, crushing all the lumps; when properly mixed pour it slowly into the tin solution, stirring very well until it is all added; blow off the gas from the liquor, and if it now smells very strong of chemic, and bleaches some of the extract of indigo liquor dropped in, it is a sign that the sample is not, at least, very bad ; but if it does not smell of chemic, and does not bleach the blue extract, it is a sign that it is weak. Two ounces of a first-rate bleaching powder will stand mixing with two ounces and a quarter of crystals of tin and still smell strong of chemic, and bleach extract of indigo liquor. Testing of Bleaching Liquors in the course of use. It is fre- quently required to know how much strong liquor should be added to a partly spent solution of chemic to bring it up to proper strength again. The method in use in Lancashire con- sists in ascertaining how much of a certain solution of sul- phate of indigo a given quantity of the liquor can bleach ; and as the quantity of the original stock which can bleach it is known, a tolerably correct idea of how much strong liquor is to be added is arrived at. Mr. Crum devised a simple practical method, depending upon the color which chloride of lime communicates to a mixture of muriate of iron and acetic acid. Twelve white glass phials of equal size are obtained, and a mixture of equal measures of muriate of iron at 40 and acetic acid at 8 being prepared, an equal measure of it is put into each phial; if the phial be four and a half inches high, the mixture should stand only half an inch, that is one- ninth of the height. There are now prepared twelve strengths BLEACHING LIQUOR BLOOD. 95 of bleaching liquor, beginning with the full strength used in bleaching, and going down, by regular weakening with water, to the weakest strength the liquor is likely to be brought to in use, and the bottles are filled up with these liquors, corked, numbered, and preserved as standards for comparison. The color of the liquor in the bottles is proportioned to the strength of the bleaching liquor, and by taking a similar phial, putting in the same amount of aceto-muriate of iron, and filling up with a sample of bleaching liquor of unknown strength, a shade of color will be produced which must be like one of the twelve standards ; the strength of the liquor examined will then be the same as that with which the bottle was made up. (See CHLORINE.) Bleaching Liquor. This fluid is essentially the same as a solution of bleaching powder, though made somewhat differ- ently. Instead of passing chlorine gas over dry slacked lime, it is made to traverse cisterns filled with a mixture of lime and water. It has precisely the same properties as the solid pow- der, although some persons seern to think it preferable. Its value cannot be correctly ascertained by the hydrometer, be- cause common salt is frequently mixed with it to make it stand high on the glass. Block Printing. The difference between block printing and cylinder printing resides in the fact, that while the block not only deposits the color upon the cloth, but to a greater or lesser extent forces it in, the cloth in cylinder printing has to absorb the color mainly by capillary attraction, since the wrap- ping on the bowl does not generally suffice to press the cloth completely into the engraving of the roller. The same colors will not answer indifferently for block and roller. Block colors can usually be worked much thinner than machine colors, and it is possible to apply colors by block that it is very difficult to work in a machine, such as contain insoluble matters like pipe clay, sulphate of lead, etc. For dark shades upon woollen cloth the block has an undoubted advantage over the cylinder, because not only does wool demand much more coloring matter than cotton to produce a similar shade, but it does not draw it up so quickly; its fibres are not wetted so soon as those of cotton, and consequently it does not take up the color from the engraving in sufficient quantity. Dark blues, chocolates, greens, etc., on the finest class of French woollen cloth, require blocking twice or three times to apply sufficient color to give rich dark shades. Blood. The blood of oxen has been used for a long time in dyeing Turkey reds. It seems as if it was expected that some of the red color of the blood would be absorbed by the 96 BLUE COLORS. cloth, enhancing its shade; but there is not the slightest ground for such a belief. If blood be really of any use in the dye, it will be probably owing to the presence of the serum and fibrine, substances coagulable under certain conditions, and possessing characters somewhat resembling albumen. In the old hanging stoves of the calico printing, the bangers fre- quently tore their fingers with the hooks, and blood would get on the pieces and would dye up in madder of a dull brownish- red color, showing that blood acted as a mordant. In the old receipts for Turkey red about as much ox blood as madder is directed to be used, and in some cases the weight of blood would be double the weight of madder ; there can be no doubt that this quantity of blood would have an influence of some kind, although it is not exactly known in what it consists. A species of albumen called blood albumen is prepared from blood, and answers most of the purposes of the egg albumen. Blue Colors. Under this head I bring together the various processes in use for producing blue colors upon silk, wool, and cotton ; where the explanations of the chemical actions do not seem sufficient, reference must be made to the drugs used, where their properties are more fully described. Blues upon Silk by Dyeing. The earliest dyed blues on silk were from the indigo vat, these are probably never produced now ; they fell at once into disuse upon the discoverv of the method of fixing Prussian blue upon silk, which was the next blue in chronological order. Saxony blue or sulphate of indigo blue was early in use for light shades; within these two or three years artificial blue colors prepared from aniline or similar bodies have been largely used. For dark Prussian blues the silk is mordanted in a per-salt of iron and a salt of tin. In England, nitrate of iron is gene- rally used as the iron mordant. In France, a species of per- sulphate of iron made by dissolving green copperas in nitric acid is used, it is known under the name of "Eaymond's solu- tion." In England, the tin salt employed is usually the com- mon crystals of tin, but it is found useful to have the tin pre- sent as sulphate in order to allow of the tin combining easily with the silk ; for this purpose sulphuric acid or sulphate of soda must be used in combination with the tin. A method yielding excellent results consists in taking the quantity of crystals of tin to be used, and pouring upon them their own weight of strong vitriol and stirring up and then dissolving the pasty mass in water ; this may be considered as a solution of sulphate of tin in muriatic acid. The nitrate of iron may be mixed with this or may be added separately to the dyeing vessel. The silk is worked in the mixture of tin and iron in BLUE COLORS. 97 the cold, and then passed through clear water to remove all loose mordant. The color is raised in another vat which con- tains yellow prussiate of potash and made sharply acid by addition of either vitriol or spirits of salts, the silk is worked here until it has taken all the color it can, then rinsed in water and put through the same process again, even three or four times for the fullest shades. A final passage in alum and a little vitriol is thought to brighten the shade. It is necessary to wash the silk rather roughly, or else a quantity of loose uncombined Prussian blue will be dried up in the fibres, which will make the silk feel harsh and cause it to be dusty, besides injuring the color. Washing between the mordant and prus- siate is recommended for obtaining regularity of shade and keeping the lustre and softness of the silk in its best condition. Some dyers, however, do not think this necessary, and merely drain the goods between the different processes. When a large quantity of tin is employed, the blue acquires a reddish shade, if the tin is deficient it has a greenish shade. Some blues are produced from red prussiate of potash, these require the pro- tonitrate of iron for mordant. Light sky blues are obtained by refined extract of indigo, with a little alum and sulphuric acid. Aniline Blues. The new blue coloring matters which yield magnificent shades are produced by working the silk, without any mordant, in the coloring matter. Most of the blues at present in use require raising in warm vitriol sours to take off a reddish hue which exists on them after dyeing; in some cases the vitriol may be added to the dye, and the operation com- pleted at once. The best Prussian blues cannot compete with the azuline blue in softness and brilliancy ; they are tolerably stable, and leave nothing to desire but a reduction in price. Bilberries, elderberries, mulberries, whinberries, and privet- berries have been used to give blue shades on silk, and are still employed on a small scale. Blues upon Silk by Printing. The blues obtained by print- ing on silk are derived from sulphate of indigo chiefly, dark blues from prussiate, some shades of blue are produced by logwdbd and copper salts. Logwood and Extract Blue for Silk. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 16 Tvr., 1 gallon red liquor at 16, 10 Ibs. ground gum; stir till all dissolved, and add 10 oz. tartaric acid, 10 oz. nitrate of copper, 1 gallon extract of indigo. 98 BLUE COLORS. This produces a violet blue on account of the red liquor and logwood modifying the extract. Extract Blue. 1 gallon water, hot, 3 1 Ibs., more or less, according to strength, extract of indigo, f Ib. alum. 1 Ib. tartaric acid, 6 Ibs. gum, or less, according to thickness required. Prussiate Blue. 3 Ibs. yellow prussiate potash, 1 gallon warm water, dissolve, and add 1 Ibs., tartaric acid; cool, and thicken the clear liquor with 7 Ibs. gum in powder, and add 2$ Ibs. bichloride of tin at 80.. The steam blues given for woollens and delaines will be found applicable to silk, but will stand bringing down with gum water. Blue Colors by Dyeing upon Wool. Wool is dyed blue : (1) by the indigo vat; (2) by sulphate of indigo ; (8) by prussiate ; (4) by logwood ; (5) by the new blue colors azuline, cyanine, etc. The first method, which gives the fast and permanent but rather dull blues used in the army and navy, presents no other difficulties than occur in setting the indigo vats, for which refer- ence must be made to INDIGO. The yarn or cloth properly cleansed and wetted out is dipped in the vat, left in for not more than a hour, and then lifted and aired, to be dipped again if deeper shades are required. The wool takes up a considera- ble quantity of indigo, which being a very expensive material, has induced many parties to try and save by only half dyeing with indigo and then finishing or topping with logwood. This species of adulteration is detected by putting a drop of strong acid upon the cloth : if all indigo, no change takes place ; if logwood is present, a violet, purplish, or reddish color is imme- diately produced. Indigo blues are also topped with archil, which gives them an agreeable bloom, but which fades directly in air and light, and is immediately washed off by soap. The sulphate of indigo blues are of very simple application; the extract is mixed or dissolved in the water, to which is added some alum and some acid, sometimes tartaric acid or cream of tartar, and sometimes sulphuric acid; occasionally, also, oxalic acid is used. Only light shades of blue can be thus dyed, and they have a greenish shade when compared with Prussian or azuline blue. Logwood is frequently com- bined with this kind of blue, and yields dull grayish blues. BLUE COLORS. 99 The prussiate blues upon wool are very good colors, and when properly done possess a fair amount of stability ; there are several methods of producing them, all of which will be included under one or other of the following processes. The ordinary method consisted in working the wool in nitrate of iron, and then in yellow prussiate of potash, acidified with sulphuric acid ; the shades thus produced are remarkably im- proved by adding a salt of tin to the iron ; in fact, no really good and dark blues can be obtained without a considerable portion of tin being fixed upon the wool. The salt of tin and nitrate of irt>n are mixed, and the cloth worked in for half an hour or more, and then taken to the prussiate bath, which is worked hot ; if the shade is not deep enough the process is repeated. Very fine royal blues are obtained from first work- ing in a mixture of muriate of iron and muriate of tin, and then in red prussiate of potash liquor; repeating the processes until the required depth of shade is obtained. Dumas recom- mends in all cases a little red prussiate to be used with the yellow, added towards the end ; it strikes a blue with iron which has been deoxydized by the wool, and thus takes off the greenish shade of blues dyed with yellow prussiates only. Another process of obtaining blue consists in doing without iron salts altogether, and resembles almost exactly the prussiate steam blue for woollen and delaine, and depends upon the decomposition of the prussiate itself under the combined influ- ence of acids, heat, and air. For a piece of thin woollen cloth, seventy yards long, the following materials are employed ac- cording to M. Dumas: 12 oz. yellow prussiate of potash, 12 oz. sulphuric acid, 17 oz. alum. The whole dissolve hot in a sufficient quantity of water to turn the piece through in an apparatus like a "jigger," from twelve to twenty gallons; the piece is worked in at a tempera- ture of 100 F. for the first hour, at 140 for the second hour, and raised to the boil during the third hour; about half way in the last hour the piece is lifted in order to add -about half an ounce of crystals of tin, and then entered again. The piece is then washed, and afterwards turned for an hour through a cold mixture of alum, sulphuric acid, and crystals of tin. This is evidently a costly process, but it is difficult otherwise to obtain regular, even, light shades of blue. I found that by first pre- paring the wool with stannate of soda, very good blues could be obtained by this process, with much less time than given in the above directions. 100 BLUE COLORS. Logwood blues are so loose and deceptive as to have been at various times prohibited by law ; they can be made to imitate indigo tolerably well, and are sometimes sold as indigo blues. I believe a law passed in the twenty-third of George III., im- posing a fine of 20 per piece for dyeing blue from logwood and copper salts is still unrepealed ; but of course, not enforced. The process of obtaining this blue consists in aluming with tartar and alum, and then dyeing in logwood to which sulphate of copper is added ; or mordanting in alum, tartar and sulphate of copper, adding logwood and dyeing, finally raising with sulphate of copper. A good many blues on woollen. consist of this logwood blue dyed on a light indigo blue ground. Aniline Blues. Aniline blues are extremely simple to work; the coloring matter is properly diffused in water with addition of acid, and the goods worked in until the color is exhausted ; afterwards they are passed in warm dilute sulphuric acid to improve the shade. Blue Colors by Printing on Wool. Sulphate of indigo is the chief coloring matter employed for printing blues, alum and acids being used in combination ; when it is desired to have the blue of a reddish hue, ammoniacal cochineal is added. For deep royal blues, prussiate of potash in combination with acids and tin salts is employed; for these. blues, the cloth should be previously prepared with some preparation of tin. (See PRE- PARATION.) Deep Blue for all Wool. 2 quarts water, 6 oz. starch ; boil, and while warm incorporate 12 oz. pasty extract of indigo, 5 oz. alum, 2 oz. tartaric acid, 3 oz. oxalic acid. Since the quality of extract or sulphate of indigo is extremely variable, it is evident that receipts in which it is a chief or im- portant ingredient must be of a rather vague character, and merely approximative in the quantities given. Ordinary Dark Blue. 1 gallon gum water, 6 oz. extract of indigo, 8 oz. alum, 3 oz. oxalic acid, \ pint cochineal liquor. Any further receipts for this kind of blue would only differ from these two in the thickening or the quantities of material BLUE COLORS. 101 used, which are partly influenced by the shade to be produced and partly by caprice. The red part, however, may be increased to a considerably higher proportion than given in the receipt above with advantage for certain shades of color. Dark Royal Blue All Wool, Slock. 1 gallon water, 13 oz. alum, 16 oz. oxalic acid, dissolve and thicken to style with, say 7 Ibs. gum, when cold add Ib. bichloride of tin, 2 Ibs. red prussiate of potash, 13 oz. per-nitrate of iron at 80. There are many modifications of this receipt, but as the steam blues given below for delaine may be all applied upon wool, it is not necessary to detail them here. Steam Blues for Delaine, applicable also to Wool. Dark Blotch Blue. 4 Ibs. starch, more or less according to requirements, 3J gallons water, l gallon red prussiate liquor at 30, 3 pints tragacanth gum water; mix, boil, and while hot add 1^ gallon prussiate of tin (tin pulp), 4 Ibs. tartaric acid, 6 oz. oxalic acid, and when cold add the clear liquor from 8 Ibs. prussiate of potash, 8 Ibs. tartaric acid, 2J gallons hot water. Another. 1 gallon water, 2 Ibs. starch ; boil well, and add while hot 10J oz. muriate of ammonia, 2 Ibs. 10 oz. yellow prussiate of potash, 1 Ib. 5 oz. red prussiate of potash ; when cold add 3 Ibs. tartaric acid, 1 gallon prussiate of tin pulp. Another Dark Blue. Precisely the same as the last, except the addition of 5J oz. of oxalic acid after the tartaric. 102 BLUE COLORS. Dark Royal Blue Delaines. 5 Ibs. starch, 2 gallons water, 2 gallons chloro-prussiate liquor at 30, 1 quart tragacanth gum water ; boil, and add 6 quarts prussiate of tin, 2J Ibs. tartaric acid, 6 oz. oxalic acid ; when cold, add 8 Ibs. yellow prussiate of potash, 10 Ibs. tartaric acid. Light Blue Block Delaine. 3 quarts water, \ Ib. starch, f Ibs. tragacanth gum water ; boil, and when cold add 1 quart red prussiate, liquor at 30, 2 oz. tartaric acid, 3 oz. bichloride of tin at 100, 1 Ib. prussiate of tin pulp. It is hardly necessary to say that these are all steam colors, and require raising either in bichrome or chemic before wash- ing off. Blue, Colors by Dyeing upon Cotton. The chief blue upon cotton by dyeing is from indigo fixed by the vat; the skill in dyeing these colors rests principally in the preparation of the solution of indigo, which each dyer has to make for himself. The production of the indigo styles forms, therefore, a separate subject which will be treated under INDIGO. Prussiate colors upon cotton goods are obtained by nearly the same process as upon silks; for dark shades the cloth should be prepared by steeping in stannate of soda at 14 Tw., wringing out and passing in vitriol sours at 4 Tw. ; this gives a good basis of tin and shortens the time of dyeing consider- ably. Next the cloth is worked in nitrate of iron of a strength proportioned to the shade required, about thirty minutes will suffice to fix iron enough for a medium shade ; the goods are rinsed and the color raised in yellow prussiate, sharpened with vitriol or spirits of salts ; if the shade is not deep enough, the process must be repeated (but not the preparation), and crystals or muriate of tin may be mixed with the nitrate of iron bath. For sky blues no tin is required ; but for deep blues it is necessary either in the preparation or mixed with the nitrate of iron. It is generally considered that the blues are brighter and softer when they are finished off in weak clear alum water than when simply washed off in common water. BLUE COLORS. 103 Napier gives the following as a logwood blue upon cotton, the materials being for 10 Ibs. cotton. A light but fast blue is first dyed in the vat from indigo, the goods are put in a decoction of 2 Ibs. sumac for several hours, and then worked for fifteen minutes through water containing one pint red liquor and one pint iron liquor; wash from this in two tubs full of hot water, then work twenty minutes in a decoction of 2 Ibs. logwood, lift and raise with half pint red liquor, work ten minutes longer, wash and dry. Since part of the blue color here is derived from indigo which is quite fast and another part from sumac which is tolerably fast, this blue will be of moderate stability, but of a heavy dull shade compared with Prussian blue. Girardin gives a process used in France for obtaining a blue on cotton as follows : For 100 Ibs. cotton take 5 gallons log- wood liquor at 4, 2 ounces of bichromate of potash, and 5 ounces of muriatic acid ; the cotton is entered cold and gradually brought to the boil. It is not clear whether this is actually to dye cotton or merely the finishing of a dye began with acetate of copper and logwood liquor. Blue Colors upon Calico by Printing. Excluding those blues which are derived from indigo, and which will be found under INDIGO ; the only common blues are derived from the prussiates and the receipts given for delaines will answer perfectly well for calicoes. In order to obtain good blues the cloth must be well prepared with tin in some form or other (see PREPARATION and STANNATE); for light blues this is not so essential. I give here a few receipts for blues on calico not applicable to delaines. Steam Blue for Calico. 3 gallons water, 4 Ibs. starch ; boil, and add 1 Ib. muriate of ammonia, 6 Ibs. crystals bisulphate of potash, 4 Ibs. tartaric acid, 4 Ibs. yellow prussiate potash, 8 oz. oxalic acid, 1 gallon prussiate of tin. (See TIN.) This blue reduced with gum water of suitable thickness yields the light shades required. Whenever sulphuric acid or bisul- phate of potash are used in blues, considerable care is required to prevent corrosion or burning of the cloth ; the mixing must be scrupulously attended to, for if any of this acid be left free it is sure to injure or rot the cloth. For the cheaper styles of work sulphuric acid may be used with economy instead of tar- 104 BLUE COLORS. taric acid, but the mixing of the colors must be carefully watched. Another Blue for Calico. 1 gallon water, l Ib. starch ; boil, and add 3 Ibs. tartaric acid, 10 oz. oxalic acid, 3| Ibs. yellow prussiate ; and when cold Ib. oil of vitriol. 1 pint prussiate of tin pulp. Spirit Blue for washing off simply. 1 gallon water, 1 Ibs. starch ; boil, and cool to 110 F., 1 qrt. Prussian blue pulp (see BLUE PRUSSIAN), | pint oxymuriate of tin. Common Blue, Standard. 2 gallons water, 4 Ibs. yellow prussiate of potash, 12 oz. alurn, 24 oz. oil of vitriol at 169. Common Steam Blue. 2 quarts gum water, 1 quart blue standard, Extract of indigo to sighten. All receipts for blue will resemble one or other of the receipts given in this article; the processes may be much varied in detail, but the usual method of mixing the color for machine consists in boiling the water and starch, and, while quite hot, stirring in the powdered prussiate and sal-ammoniac ; then, when the color has somewhat cooled, stirring in the ground tartaric acid (or the bisulphate); and when almost cold, the oxalic acid is added ; and last of all the prussiate of tin pulp is well incorpo- rated. There is always formation of bitartrate of potash in the best steam blues, which is disseminated through the mass in small crystals ; but if the color is pretty hot when the tartaric acid and prussiate of potash are mixed together, the crystals are apt to be of some considerable size unless the color is well stirred until nearly cold ; this is objectionable for many reasons, and should be obviated by so managing the mixtures that the stirring is continued until the color is cold ; the crystals are then so small that they are not observable. The prussiate of BLUE. 105 tin pulp being added last, and cooling down the color will usually prevent large crystals forming ; but if once formed they are difficult to strain out, and the color should be warmed up to about 120 F., and cooled quickly, with constant stirring. See POTASH PRUSSIATE, etc., for explanation of the chemical changes involved in the production of these colors. Blue Azuline. (See AZULINE.) Blue Azure, smaltz, zaffre. (See AZURE.) Blue Chemic. Name frequently given to sulphate of indigo or extract of indigo. (See INDIGO SULPHATE.) Blue, China. A style of blue obtained from INDIGO, which see. Blue, Chinese. A variety of Prussian blue is sold under this name which is soluble in oxalic acid, and which has been largely used in finishing printed calicoes. (See BLUE PRUS- SIAN.) Blue, Cyanine. The same as QUINOLEINE BLUE, which see. Blue, Dip. The name of dip blue is given to the variety of styles produced by dipping cotton goods into indigo properly dissolved by means ^of lime and copperas. (See INDIGO.) Blue, Distilled.- This curious name is given to a purified solution of sulphate of indigo, obtained as follows : Crude sul- phate of indigo is dissolved in water nearly boiling, and a quantity of old but clean white flannel or other woollen articles worked in it until saturated with color, then washed well in cold and afterwards in warm water until the color begins to "bleed," that is, until the washing water begins to remove the blue and become tinged with it; the woollen rags or flannel are then washed sufficiently ; they are then treated with hot water containing a feeble proportion of carbonate of soda, about half a pound of crystals to 10 gallons of water ; this removes the blue color very rapidly from the woollen rags, leaving them of a dull brown color. The blue thus dissolved is considered as being purified on the one hand from hurtful substances soluble in water, which are removed by washing the wool, and from a reddish coloring matter which is retained by the wool and its shade improved. A little acid being added to the extracted blue enables it to dye up a good clear blue upon silk or woollen. (See INDIGO SULPHATE.) Blue, Fast. The conventional name for one of the loosest colors obtained from INDIGO, which see. Blue, Finishing. The use of blue in finishing is to coun- teract the cream color which most bleached goods possess ; this cream color may be considered as a very pale orange and com- pounded of red and yellow ; the addition of blue with a strong 106 BLUE. reflecting white surface beneath neutralizes the shade and pro- duces what passes for white. But this point is practically impossible to hit, and all blued goods have always an excess of blue. Each market has its own peculiar prejudice as to shade, and so in accordance various finishing blues have to be used. This apparently trivial matter is frequently a source of the greatest perplexity to the bleacher and finisher, so that a great number of blues for finishing are in the market. These consist chiefly of indigo in paste, being simply indigo very finely ground; sulphate of indigo in a more or less imperfect state, various kinds of Prussian blue in solution or suspension, and also preparations of smalts and ultramarine. Blue, Opaline, A new product of chemical art has been so called from its yielding a shade of color like the blue opal. Its color upon delaine is of nearly the same shade as China blue upon calico, but infinitely more lustrous and beautiful. The process of obtaining this coloring matter is kept secret, but there is no doubt that it is obtained from aniline or some similar body. Blue, Parisian, or Bleu de Paris. Name given to a blue compound produced by the action of bichloride of tin upon aniline at a high temperature and under pressure. The process was published in 1861 by Messrs. Persoz, de Luynes, and Salvetat. Blue, Paste. This name is usually intended for sulphate of indigo, it may sometimes mean Prussian blue in a pasty state, the context will show which blue is intended. Blue, Pencil. A particular kind of blue obtained from indigo, and so called because formerly applied by means of a modification of an artist's pencil. (See INDIGO.) Blue, Prussian. This color, which was one of the earliest contributions of chemistry to the list of artificial coloring mat- ters, was obtained by accident in the capital of Prussia in 1710.; but it was nearly one hundred years afterwards before any good process was discovered for fixing it upon textile fabrics ; and it is hardly twenty years since the present means of fixing it as a Bteam color was discovered and put into practice. Ac- cepting prussiate of potash as the correct name for the salt so known, then Prussian blue is a prussiate of iron, and the readiest way of producing it is to mix together a solution of iron and prussiate of potash, when it forAis as an insoluble pulp which can be drained, washed, and dried. There is more than one kind of Prussian blue, and there are several methods of preparing it. I give receipts of some methods used on print and dye works when Prussian blue is required to be made either for finishing or color mixing. BLUE. 107 Prussian Blue for Finishing. 6 Ibs. green copperas, 1 J gallons water, dissolve ; 6 Ibs. yellow prussiate of potash, 1J gallons water; dissolve separately and mix with agitation, add to the whole 1 Ib. oil of vitriol, 24 Ibs. spirits of salts, stir up well and let stand some hours; the sediment will have a very pale blue color, to bring it up to full shade it must be oxidized, which is most conveniently accomplished by clear solution of bleaching powder of chernic. Take a rather weak solution of chemic and add it gradually to the liquor, stirring all the time until it begins to smell deci- dedly of chlorine ; it is then time to stop, putting in the chemic. The blue which is now of an intense dark color is left to settle ; the clear drawn off and fresh water poured upon the blue to wash it ; this repeated several times until all the acid is removed, leaves the blue fit for use. If warmed with a small quantity of oxalic acid it partially dissolves and forms a clearer color. Prussian Blue for Spirit Colors. 4 Ibs. prussiate of potash, 1 gal. water; dissolve, and separately dissolve 8 Ibs. green copperas in 1 gal. water; mix the two solutions, and add 1 quart nitric acid. Leave some hours, then wash three times by decantation, and drain on a filter to a paste. The nitric acid here acts the same part that the bleaching powder did in the previous re- ceipt. Prussian blues are made immediately by mixing per- nitrate of iron and yellow prussiate, but the product does not answer so well because it does not dissolve in oxalic acid or tin salts so easily as that prepared by one of the above methods. The reason of the methods of dyeing blue with pernitrate of iron and yellow prussiate will be now intelligible ; the cloth takes iron from the nitrate, and then when brought to the prussiate it acts upon it, producing the blue ; but this would not take place unless the prussiate was acid, because then the iron and it would never come into actual contact. The insolu- ble blue powder being formed in the pores of the cloth is fast, but if the cloth has been worked in the blue ready formed, the color would only have been on the surface and easily washed off. Red prussiate of potash and green coppferas give at once a 108 BLUE BRAN. fine dark blue; red prussiate and per-nitrate of iron give a dark olive color, which becomes a splendid blue upon addition of muriate of tin. The mere exposure of prussiate of potash mixed with an acid to heat and air produces a kind of Prussian blue without addition of any iron, and it is from this reaction that our finest blues are obtained. The chemical changes which take place are not clearly understood; but it is known that prussic acid is evolved, and probably some of the iron which naturally exists in prussiate of potash forms the basis for the blue. Blue, Quinoline, or Cyanine. This was an artificial blue color, discovered by Greville Williams, made from a refuse product obtained in the manufacture of quinine ; its production was the result of exquisite chemical knowledge, it yielded very fine colors on silk ; but they were so susceptible to the action of strong light as to be entirely useless. I have seen a magnificent blue velvet become a plain drab color in less than four hours' exposure in a window. Blue, Royal. That shade of Prussian blue which has a reddish or purplish reflection; the existence of tin seems absolutely necessary for the production of this shade. (See BLUE COLOES.) Blue, Saxony. Old name for sulphate of indigo. (See INDIGO.) Blue, Soluble. Also a name for sulphate of indigo, but lately also applied to a modified Prussian blue. Dry Prussian blue treated for forty-eight hours with strong mineral acids and then washed, is said to lose iron and dissolve easily upon addition of a minute quantity of oxalic acid. Bluestone. Common name for sulphate of copper, called also blue vitriol and blue copperas. (See COPPER SULPHATE.) Blue, Ultramarine. (See ULTKAMARINE and PIGMENT COLORS.) Borax. This substance is a salt composed of boracic acid and soda, and because boracic acid is a very feeble acid, the soda retains some of its alkaline properties in this salt. Bo- rax can be used as a weak alkali; it is milder than crystals of soda, it has cleansing or detergent properties, it dissolves resin, shellac, anotta, and some other coloring matters ; it is but little used at present in printing or dyeing. Bowking or Bucking. One of the operations in BLEACH- ING, which see. Bran. Bran has some detergent powers, and is frequently recommended to clean fabrics of very delicate colors. It is now sparingly used to clear some styles of goods, as logwood blacks, garancine pinks, etc.; it was formerly very much used BRAUNA WOOD BRAZIL WOOD. 109 in calico printing and dyeing. Before soap was applied to clearing the whites of printed goods, boiling in bran and ex- posure to air were the only means used. Bran added to a dye has the effect of causing lighter and clearer shades to be pro- duced. Growses' pink was produced by mixing madder with a large excess of scalded bran and dyeing mordanted cloth in the mixture; it is long since abandoned in favor of better methods, but is an illustration of the effects of bran upon dyeing matters. Brauna Wood. This wood is mentioned in a patent dated April 25th, 1857 ; it is said to grow in the Brazils, and its coloring matter to have great affinity for cotton, with or without mordants, producing shades of brown, drab, slate, fawn, and black. Brazil Wood, or Brasil Wood. This is one of the class of red woods whose coloring matter is largely soluble in water. It is from the same kind of tree and nearly identical with peach wood, Lima wood, and sapan wood. The richest variety is from Pernambuco, and is sometimes called Fernambuc wood. The real Brazil wood is said to be one-half less rich than the Fernambuc variety, while peach, sapan, and Lima woods are still more inferior. They all, however, contain the same kind of coloring matter, and present the same kind of chemical reactions. Brazil wood when freshly rasped communicates a bright red color to water in a few minutes ; by this test it can be distinguished from logwood, which does not sensibly color the water, while inferior qualities of red wood give a reddish brown color. Santal wood and barwood do not, under similar circumstances, color water. Decoction of Brazil wood gives a bright red with alum and crystals of tin, which dis- tinguish it from logwood, which give purplish precipitates. Brazil wood is usually kept some weeks after rasping in a moist state before being made into liquor. Though this does not appear so necessary for Brazil wood as for logwood, it is very generally thought to be beneficial. It is considered that a decoction of Brazil wood improves greatly by age, both with regard to the depth and purity of the colors it gives, so that it is frequently kept several months in vats; a fermentation appears to go on, and tarry and other matters are deposited, the absence of which improve the shade. Several methods of improving Brazil wood liquors have also been given, but they seem rather impracticable. One method consists in adding skimmed milk to the liquor, and raising to the boil; the caseine of the milk coagulates, and carries with it some sub- stances injurious to the color. Another consists in sprinkling HO BRONZE COLORS. the wood, before extracting, with water containing a small quantity of glue or bone size, and leaving it for a few days. Applications. Brazil wood is used in dyeing for common qualities of reds and crimsons, and as a constituent in other shades where a red element is required. In calico printing it is also used for the cheaper kinds of reds and crimsons, and as a component of many of the more complex shades, as brown and chocolate. The pure coloring matter of Brazil wood is called Bresiline. As fixed upon textile fabrics it is one of the loose fugitive colors, and only acquires a moderate degree of permanency when combined with relatively large amounts of astringent matter. Braziletto or Brasiletto. An inferior kind of Brazil wood, said to come from Jamaica, and sometimes called Jamaica red wood. British Gum. (See GUM SUBSTITUTES.) Bromine. The name of one of the elementary bodies. Excepting mercury, it is the only one existing in a liquid state at natural temperatures ; it is comparatively rare, and has received no application as yet. Bronze Colors. A bronze color is a kind of brown, usually with a greenish reflection, or, perhaps, rather with some kind of a shade which reminds the observer of a metallic reflection. There are many shades of bronze. I select a few examples of methods for producing what are called bronze shades. Manganese Bronze. This color was at one time very popular, but is now scarcely ever required. It can be produced of various shades, from a brown so dark as to appear black, down to a light nut shade, according to the strength of the liquor used. The bronze liquor was generally muriate of manganese, but sometimes also sulphate of acetate; this was simply thickened according to the style, printed and aged for a short time, preferably in a hot stove, then raised in a hot solution of caustic soda, and winced in clear water until the shade was developed. For dark grounds the pieces were finally winced in weak solution of bleaching powder, to raise the full shade of color. The bulk of manganese bronzes or browns are self colors, and produced by padding the cloth in bronze liquor at about 28, slightly thickened with gum, drying, and raising or fixing in a hot and strong solution of caustic soda, the caustic standing as high as 30 for the darkest shades. The oxidation is finished by a passage in weak chloride of lime. Designs can be produced upon these grounds by printing a discharge of BROOM BROWN COLORS. Ill crystals of tin. (See DISCHARGE.) The color is due to the deposition of oxide of manganese upon the cloth, which is oxidized by exposure to the air, and by the chloride of lime into the peroxide of manganese. (See MANGANESE.) Bronze upon Wool. 100 Ibs. of wool, 10 Ibs. fustic, 20 Ibs. alum, 5 Ibs. tartar ; boiled for three hours in this mixture with sufficient water, then boiled with 20 Ibs. of madder, and afterwards dipped in the blue vat until the required shade is obtained. (Dumas.) The bronze in this case is a mixed color produced from yellow, red, and blue, in which the yellow predominates, or it is a green browned by orange. Another cheaper bronze on wool is given as follows: 60 Ibs. fustic, 40 Ibs. quercitron bark, 5 Ibs. logwood, are boiled together for an hour ; then is added 24 Ibs. alum, 4 Ibs. madder, and the cloth entered and boiled for four hours. The cloth lifted, 2 Ibs. green copperas added, and the cloth worked in again hot. A greenish bronze is also obtained by boiling the wool for an hour in a mixture of 2| Ibs. bichro- mate potash and 1^ Ibs. tartar, then dyeing in a mixture of 20 Ibs. fustic, 3 Ibs. logwood, 3 Ibs. santal wood, 6 Ibs. madder, 2 Ibs. turmeric, and \\ Ibs. alum. A bronze brown upon silk may be obtained by working for half an hour in fustic and archil and raising in copperas. See further BROWN COLORS, of which bronze is actually one. Broom. A kind of broom, called "Dyer's broom" (genista tinctorid)^ is locally used to obtain inferior yellow colors upon woollen, by means of an alum and tartar mordant. Brown Colors. Brown is produced by the reflection of mixed rays of red, blue, and yellow in unequal proportions ; when reflected in equal or chromatic proportions they produce so-called blacks or whites, and when the reflection is imperfect the class of gray colors result. It is the predominance of the orange over the blue which characterizes brown ; and there are an infinite number of shades of it. Instead of attempting to collect under this head the methods and processes employed for all kinds of brown colors, it will be found more advantageous to confine the remarks to general principles, with a few processes 112 BROWN COLORS. of a characteristic nature to illustrate them ; and to refer to the body of the book for most special shades of brown. The popular names of the brown colors assist this arrangement and permit them to be described under distinctive heads, such as BRONZE, FAWN, CHOCOLATE, NUT, WOOD, &c. If we consider chestnut brown as the middle type of a brown color, the gradations of the shade darker and lighter may be considered as due in the first case to the increase of the blue element, and in the latter to the increase of yellow or red parts. Thus, if blue be added to chestnut brown it becomes a chocolate; if mixed yellow and red be added it becomes nut color; if an excessive amount of blue is added the brown passes into black, or an extremely dark chocolate; and, on the other hand, if a large quantity of orange is added it passes to fawn and buff. As the greatest number of brown shades are produced directly by combining yellow, red, and blue woods or dyes, this hint should be a sufficient guide as to how the shades may be modified at will. The only diffi- culty consists in the want of a distinct comprehension as to what colors certain ingredients contribute to a mixture; about indigo, weld, and madder, with alum mordant, there is no diffi- culty, because it is known they are distintly, blue, yellow, and red. But logwood does not yield a pure elementary color ; with alum it gives a color which is a mixture of blue and red, the blue predominating; with iron it gives a blue so dark and absorbent as to appear black or gray it may be considered as a blue part in brown colors. Anotta gives a color which is a mixture of red and yellow, and only requires blue to produce light browns. Sumac and gall-nuts are blue and darkening in their action. Catechu and other substances give a brown without any combination. These simple natural browns will be treated under the head of their coloring matter. Brown on Silk by Dyeing. The largest class of browns on silk are obtainable by first dyeing an orange or yellow ground with anotta, and then superadding a blue or black pigment, as in the following illustrations : Red Brown. Dye the silk first in anotta, and then work it in a mixture of logwood and nitromuriate of tin or plum spirits. (See SPIRITS.) Here the lilac of the plum spirits, composed of blue and red, adding itself to the yellowish-orange of the anotta gives a light shade of brown. Dark Brown. Dye a deep orange in anotta, work in copperas liquor, wash and work in fustic, logwood,, and archil, or peach- wood may be substituted for archil; finish in alum water. Quantities. 10 Ibs. silk dyed with anotta, 1 Ib. green cop- peras, 20 minutes ; 6 Ibs. fustic, 1 Ib. logwood, 1 quart archil, BROWN COLORS. 113 or 1 lb. peachwood, 30 minutes; one pint of alum liquor, 15 minutes. There is no limit to the depth and quality of shade to be obtained by varying the quantity of woods ; the archil con- tributes greatly to the fulness and richness of the color, but may, nevertheless, be replaced by the red woods. The pro- duction of brown from the above materials may be explained by the basis containing yellow and red ; a further amount of red and yellow is added by the fustic and archil or peachwood, the logwood adds the blue, the alum forming a basis for the woods. The copperas darkens the whole by its forming the black-blue color with logwood. Other Browns. Anotta, though yielding the brightest browns, is not necessary as a basis ; for a variety of browns are obtained by first aluming the silk and then working it in a decoction of logwood for the blue part, peachwood or brasil wood for the red part, and fustic for the yellow part. Deep Chocolate Brown. Quantities. 10 Ibs. silk, steep 60 minutes in alum at 1 lb. to the gallon; wash, 6 Ibs. peachwood, 2 Ibs. logwood, 8 oz. fustic, 30 minutes; 1 quart alum solution, 15 minutes. Brown on Silk by Printing. The same general principles apply as in silk dyeing, and nearly the same materials are employed, as will be seen by the receipts following: Chestnut Brown on Silk. 1 lb. logwood liquor at 3, 1 pint berry liquor at 6, 8 quarts Brazil or sapan wood liquor at 3, 1 lb. starch, or 2 Ibs. gum if for block, 8 oz. alum, 4 oz. nitrate of copper at 80, 8 oz. oxymuriate of tin at 80. Exactly the same ingredients, but in different relative quan- tities, may be used for obtaining a dark chocolate or a light nut brown. For chocolates the logwood or blue part must be in greater quantity; for the nut shades the berries or yellow part must be increased. Another Chestnut Brown on Silk. 1 gallon berry liquor at 11, 3 quarts brasil wood or peachwood liquor at 7, 3 pints logwood liquor at 7, li Ibs. alum. 10 oz. sulphate of copper, thickened with 8 Ibs. gum, more or less, to pattern. 114 BROWN COLORS. In a few receipts the red part consists of ammoniacal cochineal, but it is questionable whether this expensive liquor is any better than a decoction of one of the red woods in such a color. In all the cases where copper salts are used with woods the addition of muriate of ammonia will be found beneficial. Brown on Wool by Dyeing. The following is an example of a fast and durable, but expensive brown : Chestnut Brown. The wool is first dyed yellow in a decoc- tion of weld and fustic, or else in quercitron bark and fustic ; alumed and dyed in madder, then dipped in an indigo vat until the right shade is obtained. Quantities. 100 Ibs. of wool, 50 Ibs. yellow woods, 60 minutes at boil; 25 Ibs. alum and 5 Ibs. tartar, boil for three hours; three days, 60 Ibs. madder; two hours, indigo vat at discretion. In this illustration the fastest known yellow, red, and blue elements are combined, and the product is a fast color. This example serves very well to show the effects of the mixture of the elementary colors, the disappearance of each particular shade, and the blending of the whole in a complex hue. For cheaper woollen cloths cheaper dyeing materials are used; for example, instead of dipping in indigo, the blue part is given by sumac, logwood, and copperas, or by sumac and copperas without logwood. The fast but expensive red from madder is substituted by similar color from santal wood or brasil wood, and the yellow obtained from fustic. There are many methods of combining the elementary colors on wool to obtain brown, a few examples of which will suffice. Brown on Wool, No. 1. Mordant in bichromate of potash and alum for half an hour, wash and work in a decoction of fustic, madder, cudbear, logwood, and cream of tartar. The quantities of those woods must depend upon the shade desired. Brown on Wool, No. 2. Work the wool in a decoction of fustic, madder, peachwood, and logwood, and raise in copperas. Brown on WboZ, No. 3. The wool is boiled in a mixed decoc- tion of galls, santal wood, madder, brasil wood, and fustic; then raised in a mixture of logwood and green copperas. Quantities. These quantities are only suggestive, and admit of great latitude. For 100 Ibs. wool, first receipt, 3 Ibs. bichro- mate, 3 Ibs. alum, 3 Ibs. tartar, 20 Ibs. fustic, 10 Ibs. madder, 5 Ibs. peachwood, 3 Ibs. logwood. No. 2 Brown 100 Ibs. wool, 20 Ibs. fustic, 20 Ibs. madder 10 Ibs. peachwood, 2| Ibs. logwood, l Ibs. copperas. No. 3 Brown 100 Ibs. wool, 6 Ibs. gall nuts, 12 Ibs. santal wood, 6 Ibs. madder, 4 Ibs. brasil wood, 5 Ibs. fustic, three hours; 3 Ibs. logwood, 2 Ibs. green copperas, 45 minutes. BROWN COLORS. 115 Brown on Wool by Printing. The following receipts for brown will serve to show the method of obtaining this color on wool by printing : Chestnut Brown all Wool. 4 pints bark liquor at 18, 4 pints cochineal liquor at 4J, 2 Ibs. gum, 8 oz. oxalic acid, 6 oz. alum, $ pint bichloride of tin, at 100, 3 oz. extract of indigo. Archil enters largely into all the dark or chocolate shades of brown for wool, and may be used, but with less advantage, for the more yellow shades, as in the following receipt : Wood Brown all Wool, Block. 7 quarts bark liquor at 18, 3 quarts archil liquor at 10, 7 quarts cochineal liquor at 6, 3 Ibs. starch ; boil, and add 9 oz. alum, 6 oz. oxalic acid, | pint bichloride of tin at 100, 3 oz. extract of indigo. Or, as again, in the following receipt for a similar shade o color, obtained by rather different means : 1 gallon berry liquor at 18, 1 gallon archil at 18, 2 Ibs. starch : boil and add 1 Ib. alum, \ Ib. tartaric acid, \ Ib. green copperas. Brown on Calico by Dyeing. The following methods will serve to illustrate the compound brown on calico : Spirit Brown. Dye first a yellow from bark, by mordanting with sumac and tin (see YELLOW) then pass into peachwood or brasil wood mixed with logwood for half an hour, lift, and add alum water to raise the colors. The peachwood here gives the red, and the logwood the blue or purple constituent. The shades may be modified to wish, by altering the quantities of the materials. Quantities. 10 Ibs. cotton dyed yellow, 2 Ibs. peachwood, 1 Ib. logwood, 3 oz. alum ; time, half an hour. 116 BROWN COLORS. Brown with a Chrome Yellow Basis. The cloth or yarn is dyed chrome yellow. (See CHROME COLORS.) The remaining process is exactly the same as the above. Brown with Anotta Basis. Dye in anotta liquor (anotta dis- solves in pearlash), wash out, and work in decoction of fustic and sumac; lift, and add green copperas liquor, and work in again; wash, and work for twenty minutes in a mixture of red wood, fustic, and logwood; lift, and again raise with alum. This produces a fawn, or yellowish- brown, on account of an excess of yellow. The anotta color may be considered as yellow with a little red, and then fustic being again twice used, the yellow accumulates and gives a tone to the brown. The sumac darkens the color. Quantities. 10 Ibs. of cotton dyed with anotta, 2 Ibs. fustic, and 1 Ib. sumac, twenty minutes ; 3 oz. copperas, twenty minutes; J Ib. logwood, J Ib. each of fustic and peachwood, twenty minutes; 1 oz. alum, ten minutes. The great majority of brown colors upon cotton are obtained from catechu, which is a distinct brown coloring matter itself. In calico printing many shades of brown and chocolate are ob- tained from madder and garancine with mixed mordants. For in- formation upon those colors the articles CATECHU, GARANCINE, and MADDER may be consulted. Brown Colors on Calico by Printing. Catechu cannot be used to advantage in steam browns, and the mixture of elementary colors is necessary. Steam brown on calico is very seldom required; it differs from chocolate by containing more red and yellow and less blue. Frequently the color is obtained by mixing steam orange and steam lilac together, the blue part of the latter turning the orange to brown. I give a couple of receipts as sufficiently indicating the nature of the mixture used for brown. Steam Brown for Calico. 3 quarts bark liquor at 12, 2 quarts sapan liquor at 10, 3 quarts berry liquor at 12, 2 quarts logwood liquor at 12, 12 Ibs. British gum ; boil, and add 12 oz. alum, 8 oz. sal ammoniac, 8 oz. sulphate of copper, i pint nitrate of copper at 80, 3 quarts of lilac standard. (See below.) BROWNING. 117 Lilac Standard for Brown. 1 gallon logwood liquor at 6, heat to 180, and dissolve in it 4 Ibs. gum Senegal, 8 oz. red prussiate of potash, 12 oz. alum, 1 oz. oxalic acid, 2 oz. binoxalate of potash. Wood Brown on Calico. 1 gallon berry liquor at 3, 2 quarts peach wood liquor at 8, pint logwood liquor at 8, 1| Ibs. crystals nitrate of copper, 1J Ibs. alum; thicken with gum water, according to shade required. Browns on Delaine l>y Printing. These are nearly the same as upon wool. I give one or two examples: Dark Brown for Delaines. 5 pints berry liquor at 8, 12 oz. alum, 1 pint of archil at 8, J pint sapan liquor at 8, pint logwood liquor at 11, 1 Ib. starch ; boil and add 2 oz. oxalic acid. Wood Brown for Delaines. 1 gallon peachwood liquor at 9, 1 gallon berry liquor at 18, 2 quarts archil (strong), 2 Ibs. starch ; boil, and add 1J Ibs. alum, 4 oz. sal ammoniac, 2 oz. acetate of copper. The absence of logwood or sulphate of indigo in the latter receipt would cause a yellowish or buff brown ; when the blue part predominates, as before stated, the brown passes into choco- late. For delaines, sulphate of indigo may be used as the blue part, but not exclusively, since only the wool takes blue from this coloring matter. (See CHOCOLATE, CATECHU, etc.) Browning. Neutral colors of the gray and dove species upon cotton goods are darkened by passing them through a weak solution of green copperas alone, or mixed with a small 118 BUCCINUM LAP1LLUS BUFF COLOR. portion of logwood liquor or decoction of galls. This process is the one sometimes called "browning," but in Lancashire the more usual term is " saddening," and colors so modified are known as "saddened" colors. All the wood colors are turned darker by copperas ; and even red colors, from garancine and madder, are turned to a chocolate shade. Bnccinum Lapi.ll.us. A species of shellfish or whelk, obtainable on the English coast, which contains a viscid white matter that acquires a purple color when applied on calico. It passes through several shades before it is wholly changed into purple; becoming, first, pale yellowish-green; secondly, an emerald green; thirdly, a dark bluish-green; fourthly, a blue beginning to purple; and, finally, a purple. In strong sun- shine these changes take place in less than five minutes; in the dark the color does not get beyond the second or emerald green stage. This peculiar and interesting liquid is mentioned by the most ancient writers, as Aristotle and Pliny ; and there seems to be no doubt that the coloring matter was formerly employed for dyeing. There is also strong reason for suppos- ing that the famous Tyrian purple of the ancients was derived from this or some similar shellfish. Bubuline. A supposed constituent of cow dung, to which some chemists desired to attribute its useful actions in dyeing and printing. (See Cow DUNG.) Buckthorn, Dyers'. A plant called "nerprun" in French seems the same as the dyers' buckthorn. Some attempts were made recently to obtain green dyes from it by M. Michel, who was led to the experiment from ascertaining that the Chinese extracted a green color from the same species of plant (Rhamnus utilis and R, chloroforus.) The results so far prove that there exists a colorless substance in the French indigenous buckthorns, which upon exposure to light becomes green ; but it has not yet been extensively used, probably because the color is neither pretty, durable, nor cheap. (See ARTICHOKE, CHINESE GREEN.) Buff Color. A color so named because resembling the shade of leather prepared from the buffalo skin, called buff or buffalo leather. The continental colorists, probably more familiar with the dressed skin of the chamois than of the buffalo, gave the name "chamois" to this color. It is yellow mixed with a little red, or, according to Chevreul's nomencla- ture, yellow with some orange of a low tone. The chief buff color, or the one distinctively so called, is from iron, and prepared as follows: BUFF COLOR. 119 Buff Liquor, Ordinary. 4 gallons water, 20 Ibs. sulphate of iron (green copperas), 5 Ibs. brown sugar of lead, 2| Ibs. white sugar of lead. Another Buff Liquor. 10 gallons water, 48 Ibs. green copperas, 20 Ibs. brown sugar of lead. Both these are proto-acetates of iron with undecomposed sul- phate. The following liquor contains an excess of lead, found to work well with chromed styles, or where a somewhat yel- lower or softer buff was required. Lead Buff Liqnor. 10 gallons water, 25 Ibs. acetate of lead, 20 Ibs. green copperas, J gallon acetic acid. In all cases the sulphate of lead is allowed to precipitate, and the clear field only used. It is thickened either with gum, flour, or starch. Old receipts give nitrate of potash along with the other ingredients, and direct the liquor to be kept for six months before using. Modern French receipts give the nitro- sulphate of iron as a buff liquor ; but for printing on calico there can be no question of the superiority of simple acetate of iron. The addition of white arsenic and salts of copper, found in some receipts, seems more likely to injure than assist the color. , The buff color being printed, is aged for a night, and then fixed or raised in an alkaline bath, consisting of well slacked lime with a small quantity of soda ash. The pieces are en- tered carefully, and, when evenly wetted, are winced in the lime for ten or twenty minutes, then winced in cleaj* water until the shade is raised, which may take half an hour or more ; washed, dried, and finished. The lime and soda take the acetic acid or sulphuric acid from the oxide of iron which is then retained by the fibres ; but it is in the state of protoxide, and has a greenish color. By wincing in water the iron absorbs oxygen and becomes peroxide, which is the coloring body. To obtain regular and even shades requires a good deal of care and attention. The cloth must be well bottomed in the 120 BUTTERNUT TREE. bleaching; the gum used for thickening must be one that washes off well and easily ; and in the raising it is highly im- portant that the pieces be kept moving any stopping in the process is injurious. Steam Buff for Calico. 3 gallons madder liquor, 1 gallon bark liquor at 10, 2 gallons red liquor at 14, 7 Ibs. starch ; boil, and add 2 oz. crystals of tin. Steam Buff for Wool 1 quart bark liquor 4, 1 pint archil at 40, 6 oz. alum, 1 oz. tartaric acid, 1 gallon gum water. Steam Buff or Chamois on Delaine. 5 quarts catechu liquor, at | Ib. to the gallon, 8 oz. alum dissolved in 1 quart hot water, 3 oz. acetate of copper, 10 oz. nitrate of copper, 6 quarts thick gum water. The above buff is a simple color; but those most in use are compounded of red and yellow. Anotta gives a species of buff' on calico. On silk and woollen the yellow part from Persian berries, and the red part from cochineal, yield all shades re- quired. (See NANKEEN, RED, and YELLOW.) Buffaloes' Milk. According to the accounts of the mis- sionaries in India, at the end of the last century, buffaloes' milk was rather largely used by the natives in dyeing fast madder colors. It was applied at the same time as the astringent matters, and appeared to partly answer the same purpose that oil does in Turkey-red dyeing. Butternut Tree. The common name for a tree growing in the New England States a species of walnut tree (Juglans oblonga Alba), so called because the fruit it yields is very oily. The bark is stated to be capable of communicating a lasting black color to fibrous matters prepared with 'iron mordants; with alumina mordants it gives a tobacco brown color. The rinds of the nut have also the same dyeing powers as the bark of the tree. (See WALNUT.) CACTIN CALCINED FARINA. 121 c. Cactin. Vogel extracted a carmine red coloring matter from the blossoms of the cactus speciosus ; the leaves yielded also a quantity of a scarlet red substance, soluble in water. It would be interesting to know whether these colored matters were similar in their composition to the colors from cochineal for this plant is one of the species of shrubs upon which the cochineal feeds. Wittstein examined the sap of the branches, and the ripe fruit of another species of cactus (c. opuntid), but was of opinion that the coloring matter of the cochineal did not exist in the tree, and that what was extractable by solvents was something different, and quite useless in the arts. Cactus Cochenillifer. The botanical name of the tree or shrub upon which the cochineal insect is nourished ; is a native of America, and there are several species of it, pro- ducing fruits of various colors, as yellow, red, violet, etc. It is observed that the crimson- colored fruit contains a mucilagi- nous juice, which strongly colors the urine of those who eat it. It seems probable, that if the cochineal insect is merely an ex- tractor of the coloring matter of the plant, that the fruit, etc., might be more directly and economically applied as a dyeing substance, than as food for insects. Calcined Alum, Alumen Ustum. In some old receipts alum is directed to be dried in an earthen pot, and made red hot before being applied in dyeing. Although good modern alum cannot be improved or changed beneficially by such a process, it is quite possible that inferior and impure alum would be better for a moderate calcination. The heat would have a tendency to render the iron in an impure alum insoluble in water by expelling a portion of the acid with which it was combined : if the alum was also of a very acid nature, some of the excess of acid would also, be removed and its quality im- proved. Calcined Copperas, When sulphate of iron, or green cop- peras, is raised to a low, red heat, in an earthenware or iron basin, it loses water and some acid, and gains a little oxygen. Provided the heat be not forced too high, there is no doubt that copperas thus treated is improved for several of its appli- cations in dyeing and color mixing ; but the goodness and va- riety of the iron mordants, at present obtainable in trade, ob- viate the necessity of such treatments to obtain suitable solu- tions in iron. Calcined Farina, A kind of thickening matter largely used in calico printing, and made by exposing the starch or 9 122 CALCIUM CAPUCINE COLOR. farina of potatoes to a roasting heat ; it is one of the GUM SUB- STITUTES, which see. Calcium. This is the name of the metal which exists in lime, chalk, etc., and from which a good many chemical names are derived ; thus, in strict chemical nomenclature, lime is the oxide of calcium, chalk is the carbonate of calcium, muriate of lime is the chloride of calcium, and so on. Camwood. This is one of the red woods obtained from the Gaboon, in Africa, and from Sierra Leone, where it is called by the natives Kambe, whence, by abbreviation, Kara or Cam,, It has the same properties as brasil wood, but dyers are not agreed as to their relative value. Some say it is inferior both in richness and durability to Brazil wood, whilst the contrary is also maintained. It appears to yield more scarlet shades than peachwood, having some portion of yellow in its compo- sition, and may generally be employed in all cases where peachwood, sapan wood, or brasil wood are prescribed. It is evident from the contradictory nature of the statements made with regard to this wood, that it is either very variable in quality or that the methods of its application are not generally understood. Caoutchouc or India Rubber. Attempts have at various times been made to use a solution of India rubber as a vehicle for pigment colors, but, so far as is known, without success. In a few cases solution of India rubber has been applied to fabrics by block, as a means of fixing flock and metallic de- signs, but it is unsuitable to mix with pigments. It is solu- ble in coal, naphtha, turpentine, oils, and bisulphide of carbon. Capucine Color. The color called capucine is a deep toned reddish orange. In Chevreul's nomenclature, it is called 3 red orange of 11 or 12 tone; it has some resemblance to a deep chrome orange on cotton. Upon wool and silk it is ob- tained by a proper mixture or combination of red and yellow, having the red in excess, as the following receipt for dyeing 50 Ibs. of wool. Yellow Part. 3% Ibs. fustic, 8 Ibs. oxymuriate of tin, 1 Ib. cream of tartar. Red Part. -2 Ibs. oxymuriate of tin, f Ib. cochineal. The yellow is first dyed, and then the cochineal aad tin added. In printing it suffices to mix at once a little made scarlet color with orange, as for example : CAEBAZOTIC ACID CARMINE. 123 Cupucinefor Wool and Shawls. 4 quarts orange for wool, 4 pints scarlet for wool. Carbazotic Acid, The same as PICBIC ACID, which see. Carbonate. In chemical language a carbonate is a com- pound of carbonic acid with a base. The carbonates are all in soluble in water, except those of potash, soda, and ammonia. The soluble ones have all an alkaline reaction, and can neu- tralize acids. All carbonates are known by giving oflf the car- bonic acid as a gas when a strong acid is poured over them ; thus, when muriatic acid is poured on chalk, which is a car- bonate, a strong effervescence or bubbling takes place, owing to the carbonic acid gas forcing its way out of the liquor, being set free by the muriatic acid taking the lime or calcium which previously held the gas in a solid state. Carbonic Acid. This acid is a gas under ordinary circum- stances, it is one of the weakest acids in chemistry, never com- pletely neutralizing the alkalies. It exists in small quantities in the air, is the cause of exposed lime water being covered with a skin of solid matter, but has no direct influence in printing or dyeing. Carmelite Color. The color so called is a yellowish orange mixed with brown, darker than the colors called wood colors. In Chevreul's nomenclature 3 orange, 15 tone. The following receipt is given by Dumas: Carmelite. 1 quart sapan wood liquor at 6, 1 pint berry liquor at 6, 1 pint logwood liquor at 6, 10 oz. starch ; boil, and add 12 oz. oxyrnuriate of tin. In woollen dyeing and in cotton dyeing carmelite is obtained by saddening orange or using logwood to brown it. Carmelite shades are also obtained upon calico by printing or padding in a mixture of equal parts of bronze liquor and buff liquor, and raising in lime. Carmine. This name is understood in England as indi- cating a red pigment used by artists, prepared from madder or cochineal by secret processes. French writers, and from them English, however, speak of carmine of "indigo" meaning a re- fined sulphate of indigo ; also " purple carmine" or "carmin de pourpre," meaning murexide, using this term generally for some preparation yielding fine colors without regard to what 124 CARRAGHEEN MOSS CATECHU. kind of color. This term frequently occurs in specifications of patents and translations from French. Carragheen Moss, Iceland Moss, Irish Moss. This sub- stance has been frequently proposed as a suitable thickening agent for colors, and was probably the first gum substitute tried in this country. Towards the end of the last century it was put into use, but has never made any progress; the muci- laginous jelly it yields is deficient in nearly every quality of a good thickening ; it is watery, has no solidity, and is glairy. It is a little employed in block printing on silk and in finishing. Cartamus, Carthamus (?) An empirical mixture of cochi- neal, tin salts, and safflower, was patented under this name, January 22d, 1853, for dyeing tissues or stuffs of silk and cotton. Carthamine. The name of a pure coloring matter ex- tracted from safflower, so called from the botanical name of the plant Carthamus tinctorius. Caseine. The name is given in chemistry to the pure curd of milk, obtained by acting upon milk with weak acids and purifying the curdy precipitate from fatty matters attached to it. It is the same substance which is extensively used in this country under the name of LACTAKINE, which see. Catechu, Terra japonica, Cochou, Cashew Catechu is the dried up juice of certain trees, from which it is obtained either by natural exudation or through cuts made for the purpose. It is a resinous looking body, dark on the exterior of the lumps, but light colored within. Its quality varies very much, not only from differences in its origin and method of collection and drying, but also because it is susceptible of alteration by age, and especially by moisture. Soft and uniformly dark colored, catechu is reckoned inferior ; it should be brittle enough to break upon the stroke of a hammer, and the interior should not be pitchy colored or soft, but rather of a buff or a cream color, somewhat fibrous, and capable of being scraped into powder with a knife, without adhering to it. Though these are the external characters of a good quality of catechu, there are good samples which vary in appearance from this ; the color may be darker, and the consistency of the mass less brittle, so that a knife does not scrape it. That depends upon several circumstances of the carriage and storing of this drug, and must be decided upon according to the judgment and knowledge of the examiner. The chemical characteristics of a good catechu are, unfortunately, not very well defined. It ought to be all soluble in hot water, and then have a brown, not blackish color: it ought not to be all soluble in "cold water, for that is an indication of heating and partial decomposition CATECHU. 125 of the catechu; and the hot water solution should, upon cool- ing, deposit a portion of the catechu in a fine granular state. The only actual and reliable test for the quality of catechu is to make some color from it, or to dye up .samples from it, in comparison with a known quality. This substance was formerly supposed to be of mineral origin, and went under the name of Japan earth. It was long known in medicine before it became cheap enough to be applied in dyeing and printing. Its first successful applications in calico printing were about 1830; it was used in combination with madder colors, and as its application was kept secret for a while by the one or two houses who used it, much skill and ingenuity were wasted by others in endeavoring to discover the new mordant, which it was thought had been used to obtain this brown shade from madder. Its applications in madder and garancine styles have been of the greatest service to the trade; it has allowed a scope of design and variety of coloring which has done much to extend the use of printed goods. In dyeing, it is largely used to give various shades of brown, and the lighter colors which spring from it. Catechu is one of the astringent or tannic substances, but not of the same kind as gall-nuts. Its acid is called japonic acid, and possesses different properties and characteristics from the tannic acid. The method of application of catechu in calico printing shows it to be very different from most other coloring matters. For the purpose of obtaining browns in printing, it is mixed with sal ammoniac and nitrate of copper; sometimes the acetate being used instead. From this it would appear that copper is its proper mordant; but the copper is not so much an actual mordant as it is an agent for effecting a chemical change in the catechu. The copper salts by themselves are oxidizers of coloring matters, and when mixed with sal ammoniac, their oxidizing powers are greatly strengthened, in a proportion, indeed, far beyond the amount of oxygen which is present in the whole of the copper salt used. It acts as a medium for obtaining oxygen from the air, and transferring it to the cate- chu, which of itself absorbs oxygen in a very slow manner. The effect of this oxidizing upon catechu is to change its properties, to give it a great hold and affinity for the fibre of the cloth, and to render it insoluble and unacted upon by water. Some of the copper remains combined with the color ; but the greater part is removable without injuring the fastness or shade of the catechu brown a fact which seems to point out that catechu can fix itself without a mordant. Such is really the case, but the length of age necessary is excessive and irnprac- 126 CATECHU. ticable. Even with copper salts, when it is desired to get dark shades, several days' ageing is required. Lighter shades take less time. Iron and alumina mordants do not give agreeable colors with catechu in printing; but several shades can be obtained by dyeing a mixture of such mordants and catechu in madder and garancine, the resulting color being a mixture of the catechu shade itself and that which has been produced by the mordant and dying material used. Muriate of iron and catechu give shades of drab, stone, and gray, when dyed up in garancine. Acetate of alumina, red liquor, and catechu give shades of red brown, varying, for the different amounts of fed liquor, in a certain quantity of color. Mixtures of catechu with salts of manganese, and other mineral matters, are in use. In dyeing with catechu alum mordants are mostly employed; iron and tin salts can be used to obtain various shades copper being but little used in these cases. The bichromate of potash has a powerful oxidizing action upon catechu. It cannot be applied mixed with it, because it combines with the catechu, rendering it insoluble and curdy ; but a solution of bichrome can be used to pass catechu colors in. It fixes them and makes them darker. Soda and potash are also used to raise catechu colors in dyeing ; their action seems to be an oxidizing one enabling the catechu to absorb oxygen with so much the greater rapidity from the air, and become fixed upon the cloth. The affinity of catechu, in its altered or oxidized state, for the fibre of cotton, is very great. It is one of the most difficult of all colors to discharge from the cloth. It is valuable in calico printing, because it is fast enough to stand the dunging and dye beck, and all the subsequent clearing operations. It suffers, of course, in passing through all the various operations, but still sufficient is left to form good colors. It is usual to ' add a little bichrome to the dunging to help the catechu ; but this is rather dangerous for the other colors, and should not be used except the circumstances have compelled the goods to go to the dye with a deficient age. If time enough can be given to catechu colors, the addition of bichrome to the dunging is not necessary ; but in case of heavy browns, which have only had two or three days' age, it may be used with advantage. These shades of drab, etc., in which the proportion of catechu to a gallon of water is only small, require no longer age than the other colors they go with, and no chrome in the dung. Bleaching powder solution should be very sparingly and cautiously applied to catechu styles it soon takes the " top " or bloom of the color. CATECHU. 127 The use of large quantities of nitrate of copper in colors is very disadvantageous in printing, and it is much to be desired that some milder oxidizing agent could be discovered for cate- chu. It compels the use of composition doctors, and even acts upon them. A resist brown, containing lime juice or citric acid, is very difficult to work on account of its corrosive action upon the doctor, and consequent scratching of the roller. Without any acid, the regular brown will resist light covers, but not heavier ones ; and I believe the difficulties in the way of printing such an acid mixture have caused the abandonment of this style almost altogether. I have tried many chemical mixtures instead of copper, but none of them gave any results worth following up. The applications of catechu are still limited, and its chemical properties but little known. It offers a good field for the exertions of those who have leisure and knowledge of coloring matters, for it is doubtless capable of many more valuable applications than it has yet received. Catechu Colors. The following receipts and remarks will sufficiently illustrate the various methods adopted for using this coloring matter : Catechu Colors on Woollen. I am not aware that catechu is employed in woollen dyeing in any other way than as an assistant in some kinds of black dyeing; the browns which it, yields are not so desirable as those which can be obtained from a mixture of coloring matters and mordants. For ob- taining dark shades of drab, of a red or brownish tinge, it is largely used in woollen printing, in combination with other coloring matters, to modify the shade. Tea- Drab Color all Wool 1 gallon catechu liquor at 24, 2 quarts sapan wood at 11, 4 oz. extract of indigo, 1 pint cochineal crimson, 6 oz. alum, 6 oz. oxalic acid, 4 Ibs. gum if for block ; 8 Ibs. if for machine. Drab all Wool, 1 gallon catechu liquor at 24, 3 oz. extract of indigo, \ pint cochineal crimson, 2 Ibs. gum, more or less at discretion, 8 oz. oxalic acid. A great variety of shades are obtained by varying the strength 128 CATECHU. of the catechu and 'the quantities of the red and blue parts. The cochineal crimson is amrnoniacal cochineal with alum. Wood Ground for Delaine. 1 gallon of water, 2 oz. catechu ; dissolve, strain, and add 2 quarts substitute gum water, 1J oz. green copperas, l| oz. acetate of copper crystals. Catechu Fawn, on Cotton. Work the goods to be dyed in catechu liquor containing a little sulphate or nitrate of copper ; wring from this, and work in a weak solution of bichromate of potash. The fixing by bichromate is not necessary ; modified shades can be obtained by passing the goods which have been worked in catechu into caustic soda or into lime water, or into water in which green copperas has been dissolved. By using other dyewoods after the catechu a vast variety of shades may be obtained. (See DRAB, STONE, etc.) Catechu Faivn or Brown. 1 gallon water, 2| Ibs. catechu, 1 pint acetic acid ; dissolve hot, and a4d 3 Ibs. gum Senegal, 10 oz. nitrate of copper. This color was for raising in lime or soda, in conjunction with fast blue (indigo); it required at least three days' ageing, and was found to age best in a cool, moist place. Catechu Brown for Garancine. 6 Ibs. catechu, 1 gallon water, 1 Ib. sal ammoniac; boil, strain, and add 2 gallons gum water, 2 pints nitrate of copper at 80, 1J pints acetate of copper (p. 45). By adding red liquor to this color the resulting brown is modified towards the red side. This color must be aged for not less than three days ; dyed in garancine as usual. Catechu Brown for Madder. 4 Ibs. catechu, 2 quarts ordinary vinegar, 2 quarts acetic acid at 8, 1 Ib. sal ammoniac, 1 quart acetate of copper. CATECHU. 129 The clear liquor from the above only was used, and served as a standard or stock liquor. To make a dark brown take as follows : Dark Brown for Madder. 1 gallon catechu liquor above, 4 oz. sal ammoniac, ^ pint acetate of copper, 17 oz. starch ; boil and strain. This color must be aged as long as possible before dunging; by mixture with red liquor red browns are obtained. Catechu Brown. 9 gallons water, 15 Ibs. powdered catechu ; boil and dissolve, take the clear liquor only, and add 11 Ibs. flour, 1 Ib. gum tragacanth; mix, and boil well ; when cold, add 3 gallons caustic soda at 6. After printing, steam; then pass, for a minute or two only, in chrome liquor, neutralized with carbonate of soda, and heated up to 170 F. The following receipt is only inserted to show the possible modifications of this color : Catechu Brown for Madder (French}. 1J gallon water, 1 pint acetic acid at 8, 2f Ibs. catechu ; boil, dissolve, and add 3J Ibs. sal ammoniac, 1 pint acetate of lime liquor (see below), 7 Ibs. gum Senegal; when cold, add 10 oz. nitrate of copper at 90. Acetate of Lime Liquor. 2| Ibs. lime, slacked, 3 quarts acetic acid ; use the clear. The acetate of lime would undoubtedly resolve itself by contact with the nitrate of copper into nitrate of lime and acetate of copper, as far as the quantities would permit ; the nitrate of lime being a deliquescent salt, would tend to keep the color soft, and so help its ageing. (See further, DKAB, FAWN, MADDER COLORS, etc.) 130 CHAMOIS COLOR CHICA. Chamois Color. This color is as nearly as possible the same as buff. It is a mixture of yellow and red of a low tone. In the systematic nomenclature of Chevreul, it is 2 orange, from 2 to 6 tones. (See COLORS.) The word chamois is very little used among British colorists as yet. Analogous colors are STRAW, SALMON, FLESH, NANKEEN, etc., which see. Charcoal. The charcoal or carbon obtained from the im- perfect combustion of vegetable substances constitutes the basis of all printing inks, but up to the present time it has not been used in calico printing for a black. For a shade of gray obtain- able from a species of charcoal see LAMP BLACK. Yery finely ground charcoal has been successfully employed as a sighten- ing in block printing. Chayaver or Ghay root. An East Indian product, belong- ing to the same natural order of plants as madder, and capable of dyeing good and permanent reds. It is said to be the only coloring matter used by the natives of Malabar, and the Coro- mandel coast, in producing the well-known durable red colors of those localities. The accounts and descriptions of it which I have been enabled to consult are not clear or satisfactory, but it appears to be similar to the MUNJEET, employed to some extent in Lancashire. Chemie. Name commonly given to bleaching powder or bleaching liquor in Lancashire. Chernic blue is the vulgar name for sulphate or extract of indigo. Chestnut Bark and Wood. As stated under BLACK, the bark and wood of the chestnut tree are successfully employed in France as cheap and effective substitutes for gall-nuts and sumac. I am not informed as to their being generally used in this country. The right to use it in Great Britain was secured by a patent dated Nov. 8, 1825, in which it was proposed to form a solid extract from it by decoction. This extract received the uncouth name of "Damajavag." Chestnut Colors. These are browns, and treated of under that head. Marron is the French word equivalent, which, under the English form "Maroon," expresses the same meaning. In Chevreul's nomenclature chestnut is 4 orange, of 16, 17, or 18 tone, which is equivalent to saying it is black lightened down by a mixture of rather yellowish orange. Chica, Crajura or Carajura. A pigment used by the In- dians, in Central America, for ornamenting their persons, applied by means of the fat of the cayman or alligator. It has also been used in painting to a limited extent, but not, that I can ascertain, in dyeing or printing. It is extracted, by macera- tion and heat, from the leaves of the bignonia chica, a plant growing in equinoctial America. A sample, which I examined CHICORY CHINA BLUE CHINESE GREEN. 131 some years ago, to ascertain its value as a dyestuff, is in frag- ments and powder of a bright red raddle appearance. The lumps are softer than starch, and acquire a metallic appearance when rubbed by the thumb nail or any polished body. It is scarcely soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It does not dye cotton mordanted with iron or alumina, nor communicate any- thing beyond a faint color to wool or silk. This inertness I found was owing to the coloring matter being in combination with some earthy base, for, upon treating the chica with acid, or with muriate of tin, I found I could dye up very deep colors upon wool ; and by treating it with acid, and washing the free acid away, I succeeded in dyeing up full and deep colors upon mordanted calico. The colors it yields with the alumina and tin mordants are very similar to those yielded by lac dye; they are not nearly so bright as cochineal, but they appear more permanent, resisting washing and exposure somewhat better. I have no doubt that, if the product was imported at a reason- able price, it would find a permanent place in the dyeing arts. Chicory. According to a statement in the specification of a patent dated Nov. 21, 1844, the leaves of the chicory plant are,, being treated as the leaves of the woad plant are usually treated, capable of dyeing blue and other colors. China Blue, Crockeryware Blue, Bleu de Faience. One of the colors obtained by a peculiar method of fixing indigo upon calico. (See INDIGO.) Chinese Green, Chinese Green Indigo. This is a coloring matter introduced into Europe about 1857 from China. It is in thin scaly pieces, of an olive green color, scarcely soluble in water or alcohol, but brought into solution, or a fine state of suspension, by means of alkalies. It is applied to dyeing silk, as follows : 80 grains of the color (lo kao) is steeped three days in 500 grains of alurn liquor at 7 ground up with it, and mixed with a pint of the same alum solution, the mixture stirred frequently; the liquor becomes dark green, almost black; it is made up to a quart by water, the sediment is kept for a fresh treatment ; the quart of liquor is mixed with five gallons water, preferably a hard spring water, and 1 Ib. of silk, pre- viously bleached and wetted out, is entered and worked in it for thirty minutes; to obtain dark shades, four or five such treatments are necessary. It would appear that the presence of lime in the water facilitates the fixing of the color, and lime is considered as being its appropriate mordant. The color so produced is an agreeable green, whose most esteemed property is that of keeping all its lustre, and nearly the same shade, by gas or candlelight as in daylight. It is tolerably stable for a fancy color. The Chinese dye common cotton cloths from a 132 CHLORATE OF POTASH CHLORIDES. similar green coloring matter, and obtain a deep, but somewhat dull, grass green. It appears that the green dye sent to Europe, and which sells at an enormous price, is obtained by extract- ing the excess of color from pieces originally dyed by a process that very much resembles indigo dipping. It is evident, there- fore, that the green color used in Europe is a kind of lake, and that the Chinese retain themselves the original materials for dyeing a cheap green. M. Michel has shown that certain plants, indigenous to France, contain a colorable matter, which, upon exposure to air and light, give a green similar to the Chinese green (see BUCKTHORN), and has endeavored to apply them practically as dyeing materials ; but it does not appear that these natural self-colored greens have as pleasing an effect as the greens compounded by blue and yellow. Chinese green is interesting, as being the first known green not compounded of blue and yellow. The chemists and color- ists who examined the samples of green-dyed cloth, obtained by the agents of the French Government, were surprised at not being able to split the color into its supposed elements, and were forced to conclude that it was a natural simple green; further inquiry showed their surmises to be correct. Since that period (1851) many attempts have been made to extract and apply the green color of grass and leaves, but up to this time, with no particular success. Chlorate of Potash. This salt is used in calico printing as an oxidizing agent, or, perhaps, as a chloridizing material, for it is difficult to see how it can directly yield oxygen in any of the forms in which it is applied. It is found in receipts for sapan wood reds, for chocolates, for greens and olives, and as a prepare for hastening the ageing of madder and garancine mordants. Its purity is ascertained by testiug it with nitrate of silver and chloride of barium, with neither of which should it yield any precipitate. If the crystals are large and clear, they may be depended upon as pure. Chlorides. The class of bodies called chlorides are so called because they contain the element chlorine, in combina- tion with some metal or basic substance. They can, for the most part, be produced directly from chlorine gas and the metal, but are more usually prepared from hydrochloric acid and the metal. Thus, hydrochloric acid, which is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine, when put into contact with zinc dis- solves it with effervescence and escape of a gas. The gas is hydrogen, and the chemical action consists in the metal zinc taking the place of the gas hydrogen, and the result is chloride of zinc. The term muriate, frequently used in this book, and in general use in trade, is equivalent to chloride. Thus muriate CHLORINE. 133 of manganese and chloride are the same. So also muriate and chloride of iron, etc. The chlorides have few general properties as' a class, each one owes its character more to the base than to the chlorine. All the chlorides are soluble in water, except those of lead, mercury, and silver; and all the soluble ones are sufficiently characterized by giving a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, which is not dissolved by pure nitric acid. The individual chlorides or muriates are described under the head of their metallic base. Chlorine. This is the element spoken of in the above article. It is a gas of a yellowish-green color, and has a most suffocating and irritating effect when inspired. It is produced when bleaching powder and vitriol are mixed together, and is the real bleaching agent in all cases where chloride of lime or bleaching powder is employed in conjunction with an acid. "When chlorine gas was first proposed as a bleaching agent, by the celebrated Berthollet, it was used much in the same way as sulphur is now in bleaching woollen goods ; afterwards a solu- tion of this gas 4n water was employed, but the final improve- ment was Tennant's patent, of combining the gas with lime, to form chloride of lime. In more recent times it has been pro- posed to return to the older methods, but it is difficult to see where the advantage lies. Theory of Chlorine Bleaching. Chlorine is supposed to destroy colors, by combining with the hydrogen of them to form hydrochloric or muriatic acid. But as dry colors are not destroyed by dry chlorine, some theorists consider that water acts an essential part, and that the oxygen of the water is the real bleaching material, it being set free by the chlorine remov- ing its hydrogen. Either hypothesis presumes that a coloring iriatter is such on account of a nicely -balanced arrangement of the atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen composing it, and if this arrangement be disturbed by the removal of a portion of the hydrogen a new arrangement ensues. There is nothing which would enable us to predicate of this new arrangement that it must produce a colorless body; but in the vast majority of cases this is evidently the fact. But it is an accidental fact; and it would be incorrect to assume this as an essential pro- perty of chlorine. There are some substances at least to which chlorine communicates a color, such as colorless solution of aniline, which it turns purple, or white silk or woollen, which it turns yellow. Chlorine acts upon cotton in a very energetic manner when warm and concentrated, and it acts injuriously even in the cold and dilute if contact be prolonged. Care must be taken, ]34: CHLOROPHYLL CHOCOLATE COLORS. therefore, in all chlorine treatments to get the chlorine well out of the cloth as soon as it has performed its part. Chlorophyll, This is the name given to the green color- ing matter of leaves, grass, etc. Until the introduction of the Chinese green color, no idea was entertained of applying this coloring principle to dyeing; but since that time several attempts have been made to extract it in a state fit to dye with, but as far as my information extends, with but little practical effect. By treating common grass with boiling water, so as to remove all soluble principles, and then digesting it in carbonate of soda, at 4 Tw., the green coloring matter will be dissolved in a tolerable state of purity. The chlorophyll being of a resinous or waxy nature, is not sensibly acted upon by water only, but yields to alkaline solutions; this property enables us to separate the various soluble matters in grass from it. By neutralizing the alkaline solution with muriatic acid the color- ing matter is then thrown down in an insoluble flocculent precipitate. This precipitate being washed a little, dissolved in an alkaline solution, thickened and mixed with salt of tin, yields green colors upon wool and silk by printing. Upon tin mordanted cloth the shades can be obtained by dyeing. It is not probable that chlorophyll will ever be an important dye- ing material, on account both of its instability, its cost, and the comparative dulness of the shades it yields. Chocolate Colors. A chocolate is a dark brown, in which the blue part overbalances the red and yellow. There are many shades of chocolate, such as red chocolate, black choco- late, purple chocolate, green chocolate, etc. In M. Chevreul's nomenclature the color of chocolate in cakes is defined as 5 orange 18| tone ; but puce and grenat, which are French equiv- alents for some of our shades of chocolate, are classed very differently, ^wce being 4 blue violet 13 tone, and grenat 3 violet red 16 tone. I give some receipts for chocolate colors, with observations how to proceed in modifying the shade. Chocolate Colors by Dyeing. There is -little to add on this head to the information given under browns. The general rule is to increase the blue or violet part of the brown, to pro- duce the chocolate shade. As an illustration, let us take a catechu brown upon cotton, dyed by immersion in catechu, and fixed in bichromate of potash. To convert this into a choco- late, work the cotton in logwood, and raise in alum. This adds blue to the neutral or rather yellowish-brown, and con- verts it into a chocolate, the shade and depth of which depend upon the proportions of materials used, and may be varied at will. In the cases of brown dyeing where the red, yellow, and blue CHOCOLATE COLORS. 135 parts are distinctly defined, it is entirely a question of quantity of blue as to what shade of chocolate is produced. For example, several kinds of browns are obtained by first dyeing a yellow with a tin mordant and bark, and then dyeing again in a mixture of some red wood (like peachwood) and logwood. If now, the peachwood be left out altogether, and alum and logwood alone used, the resulting color will be a chocolate instead of a brown, because the logwood dyes a blue with little red in it, which, mixing with the yellow already formed, gives the chocolate shade. Chocolate Colors by Printing. The colors for silk, wool, and delaine are very similar, so that what answers for one will fre- quently answer for the other. Chocolate for Silk. 1 gallon sapan wood liquor at 20, 1 quart logwood liquor at 20, 10 oz. alum, 2 oz. sal ammoniac, 8 oz. acetate of copper, 5 Ibs. gum. In this color we only have the red and blue elementaty colors, but the blue is of a very dark nature, and the mixture will produce a bluish or purplish chocolate ; the want of a yellow makes it heavy and dark. Chocolate for Silk. 1 gallon peachwood or sapan wood liquor at 5, 1 quart berry liquor at 11, 1 gallon logwood liquor at 5, 2 Ibs. starch, 4 Ibs. gum substitute ; boil, and while warm add 1^ Ibs. alum ; when cold, 10 oz. sulphate of copper. In this color the three elementary colors are present, and the quality of the chocolate may be varied at will by increasing the strength or quantity of the red, yellow, or blue part. The alum is the real mordant; the sulphate of copper is useful in developing the colors. As with other copper salts, its action is supposed to be of an oxidizing nature. 136 CHOCOLATE COLORS. Dark Chocolate for Silk. 1 gallon sapan or peachwood at 20, 5 quarts berry liquor at 17, 7 pints of logwood liquor at 20, 15 Ibs. gum in powder, 2 Ibs. alum, 8 oz. sal ammoniac, 14 oz. acetate of copper. Archil Chocolate for Wool 1 gallon archil liquor at 17, 1 gallon gum water, 2 oz. sulphate of indigo. Dark Archil Chocolate for Wool 5 quarts blue archil at 17, 10 oz. alum, 1J oz. sal ammoniac, 1^ oz. oxalic acid, agitate until the effervescence has subsided, then thicken with 14 oz. starch, and 14 oz. calcined farina, and add 5 oz. sulphate of indigo. In order to make this chocolate darker it may be mixed with a small quantity of black color for wool. (See BLACK.) To obtain a redder chocolate cochineal liquor is the best addition, and the ammoniacal cochineal is to be preferred. Red Chocolate on Wool from Archil and Cochineal 1 gallon archil liquor at 17, 7 oz. prepared ammoniacal cochineal, 4 oz. alum, 1 oz. oxalic acid, 4 oz. sal ammoniac; stir until the effervescence has subsided, strain, and thicken with 1 Ib. starch, and then add 3 oz. sulphate of indigo. The colors from archil have a peculiar softness and lustre upon wool, which causes it to be largely used ; but, as this coloring matter ha& no affinity for cotton, it cannot be employed upon cotton goods, and only sparingly upon delaines, where, in fact, it is useful for the woollen part of the fabric only. Chocolates may be also obtained upon wool by the process given below for delaine. CHOCOLATE COLOKS. 137 Dark Chocolate for Delaine. 1 gaUon sapan wood liquor at 11, 1 pint bark liquor at 14, 1 J pint logwood liquor at 14, 6 Ibs. gum, 1 Ib. alum, 1 Ib. muriate of copper crystals, 5 oz. sal ammoniac. Dissolve the last three ingredients in one gallon warm gum water, and mix all together. Another Dark Chocolate for Delaines. 2J gallons sapan liquor at 8, 3 quarts red liquor at 16, 3 quarts nitrate of alumina, 1 gallon logwood liquor at 10, 3 pints bark liquor at 18, 7 J Ibs. starch, boil ; and when nearly cool add 4 oz. red prussiate of potash, 8 oz. yellow prussiate of potash, 8 oz. chlorate of potash. The blue part in this chocolate is partly composed of Prussian blue. This color can be made darker by addition of a small quantity of black color, of the following or similar composi- tion : Black for Darkening Chocolate. If gallon logwood liquor at 12, 1 quart iron liquor at 24, 1 quart red liquor at 16, 2 Ibs. starch. Another Chocola.te for Delaines. 1 gallon sapan wood liquor at 30, 1 gallon red liquor at 24, J pint vinegar, 3 Ibs starch, 4 Ibs. gum substitute ; boil, and add | Ib. alum, dissolved in If pint logwood liquor at 30, and 1 pint bark liquor at 30, then add 1 Ib. chlorate of potash, dissolved in 3 quarts of tragacanth gum water, and 8 oz. muriate of ammonia, 3 oz. sulphate of copper. 10 138 CHOCOLATE COLORS. This is a French receipt. The liquors being very concentrated, it would yield a good chocolate for small objects. As a blotch it is too strong, and this would be found upon washing off, on account of the large amount of color which would come out. It might be worked with rollers engraved for calico. In the above and following receipts, the oxidizing powers of chlorate of potash are employed, and the quantity of copper salts greatly reduced. This is an advantage in some respects, as for example, in the printing it cleans better, because the doctor is not so liable to corrosion ; but in steaming the color is liable to evolve chlorine, and attack pale colors from woods, but it is not to be feared in conjunction with masses of blue, green, or olive. Gum Chocolate for Delaines. 1 gallon sapan wood liquor at 20, 1 gallon nitrate of alumina, 1 quart bark liquor at 30, 3 pints logwood liquor at 30, 14 Ibs. gum in powder. 10 oz. chlorate of potash, dissolved in 8 quarts of boiling water ; and, lastly, 3 oz. sulphate of copper. The nitrate of alumina for the above chocolate is obtained as follows : 2 gallons hot water, 10 Ibs. alum, 13 Ibs. nitrate of lead. The nitrate of alumina supplies alumina as a mordant, and at the same time nitric acid as an oxidizing agent. I conclude the chocolate receipts on delaine by one on which a portion of the blue is, as in a previous case, composed of Prussian blue, derived from an impure solution of red prussiate of potash, called chloro-prussiate liquor. Chocolate for Delaine. 1 gallon sapan wood liquor at 16, 3 Ibs. starch ; beat up, and add 3 quarts red liquor at 16, 2 quarts logwood liquor at 12 ; boil, and add^ 3 oz..tartaric acid, 6 oz. sal ammoniac, 5 pints chloro-prussiate liquor at 30, J pint oil. CHOCOLATE COLORS. 139 The chocolate colors for calico have a great resemblance to those for delaines, but are less concentrated, on account of the lesser capacity of pure cotton for absorbing coloring matters. One or two examples will suffice as specimens, although the modifications are numberless. Paste Brown Chocolate for Calico. 9 quarts sapan wood liquor at 8, 9 quarts water, 6 quarts logwood liquor at 12, 3 quarts red liquor at 16, 12 oz. muriate of ammonia, 12 oz. sulphate of copper, 12 oz. alum, 13J Ibs. flour, 3J Ibs. British gum. The liquors are thickened, and the salts stirred in as usual. Spirit Chocolate for Calico. 3 quarts sapan wood liquor at 8, 2 quarts logwood liquor at 10, 1 quart bark liquor at 14, 2 Ibs. starch; boil, cool to 110, and add 1 pint oxymuriate of tin, | pint nitrate of copper, 1 pint oil. To be aged three days in a cool place, and washed off. Red Chocolate for Calico. 3 gallons sapan wood liquor at 9, 3 quarts nitrate of alumina (see below), 1J gallon logwood liquor at 12, 6 oz. yellow prussiate, 6 oz. red prussiate, 6 oz. chlorate of potash, 9 Ibs. starch. To be boiled well. Nitrate of Alumina for Red Chocolate. 1 gallon boiling water, 3 Ibs. nitrate of lead, 3 Ibs. alum ; dissolve, and add 3 oz. crystals soda. Use the clear only. 140 CHROMATES, Another Chocolate for Calico. 5 quarts sapan wood at 8, 3 pints red liquor at 16, 3 pints nitrate of alumina. 4 pints logwood liquor at 18, If pint bark liquor at 18, 4 Ibs. starch ; boil, and, when cool, add 2 oz. red prussiate of potash, 4 oz. yellow prussiate of potash, 4 oz. chlorate of potash. For the chocolate colors produced in madder and garancine styles see GARANCINE and MAPPER respectively. Chromates. The chromates are a class of salts formed by the union of chromic acid with a metal or base. They are all colored, without exception ; but the dyer has only been able to avail himself of two of them as coloring matters, viz., the red and yellow chromates of lead. The only commercial chromates are those of potash and soda, and there are two of each. The bichromate, or red chro- mate of potash, is a salt containing two atoms of chromic acid to one of potash ; the yellow chromate of potash contains but one atom of chromic acid to one of potash, and is, consequently, less rich in chromic acid. There is a corresponding bichro- mate and chromate of soda, but they are not commercial arti- cles. The salt sold as chromate of soda is of variable composi- tion, and cannot be correctly represented by any chemical name or formula. Bichromate of Potash, Bichrome, Red Chrome, etc. This is the chief and only trustworthy chromate for the use of the dyer and printer. If it be in clean, well defined crystals, and of a uni- form color, without admixture of white or yellow crystals, it may be considered as pure. It does not lose weight by drying, being an anhydrous salt. A gallon of cold water will dissolve about one pound of bichromate ; in hot water it is much more soluble, but the excess over one pound crystallizes out on cooling. Yellow Chromate of Potash. This salt is rarely met with in trade ; it can be prepared by adding caustic potash to solution of red chromate until it becomes slightly alkaline; the red chromate loses its characteristic color, and becomes of an in- tense yellow. In practical receipts it is sometimes directed to neutralize bichromate with soda crystals ; this is practically making neutral or yellow chromate. The yellow chromate is much more soluble in water than the bichromate, and is often used in printing or padding on that account. CHROMATES. 141 Chromale of Soda or Chrome Salts. The samples of yellow chrome salts that I have had occasion to test or examine have varied so much in quality and actual value, and are so easily adulterated, that I would advise having nothing to do with them unless their quality can be satisfactorily ascertained. If they contain a proportionate quantity of chromic acid, they can be applied to all the purposes of bichromate of potash with equal results. Chromate and Dichromate of Lead. These substances are trade pigments, but not applied in printing or dyeing, They form the yellow and orange chrome colors on cotton ; but as they are produced by a dyeing process in the fibres of the cloth they are considered under CHROME COLORS. The yellow chromate of lead is sometimes employed in printing as a sightening for chrome mordants. It is prepared by mixing nitrate of lead and bichromate of potash, both in solution, washing the precipitate and draining to a pulp. Applications of the Chromates. Bichromate of potash is ap- plied in printing and dyeing in a great variety of ways, the whole of which may be classified in three divisions. (1) Oases where the chromic acid acts as a coloring matter : these are all in- cluded in the article on CHROME COLORS. (2) Cases in which the chromic acid acts as an oxidizing agent. (3) Cases in which the application depends upon the oxide of chromium / the third class of cases are included in the article on CHROMIUM COLORS. It only remains, therefore, to indicate here the cases in which the oxidizing powers of bichromate are brought into play. The raising or development of the stearn blue, green, and olive colors, depends upon the oxidating effect of bichromate of potash ; so also the fixing of catechu colors, and those few cases in which bichromate of potash is used in color mixing. The chromate discharge upon indigo blue is another illustra- tion of its oxidizing powers, in this case exerted, not to develop, but to destroy a color. (See DISCHARGE.) Whether the use of bichromate in woollen dyeing belongs to the second or third class of applications is a point upon which there appears to be no satisfactory information. Some experimenters incline to believe that the salt, as a whole, is taken up by the wool, and that when worked in the dye-wood it is deoxidized by the or- ganic matters, reduced to the state of green oxide of chromium, in which condition it acts as a mordant. It seems proved that nearly the same colors are obtained whether the chromed wool enter the dye in its yellow state, or whether it be brought to the green state by deoxidizing agents, but that the color is more quickly dyed when it is in the yellow state. Other ex- perimenters think its principal action is in oxidizing the wool. 142 CHROME COLORS. In. cases where the wool has been sulphured before dyeing, I should attribute part of the useful action to the oxidation of the sulphurous acid retained in the wool. In steam blues, and catechu colors, raised by means of bi- chromate of potash, a small quantity of chromium remains attached to the cloth or color ; this has been looked upon as constituting an essential part of the color ; but, as it is very evident, that other oxidizing agents can procure the same effect, and it is at least probable, that in the very act of oxidation, some oxide of chromium falls on the fibre and is retained, it is more reasonable to look upon the presence of chromium as accidental rather than as essential to the color. Chrome Colors. As before mentioned, the only colored chromates which adapt themselves to the wants of the dyer and printer are those of lead, and the chrome colors are conse- quently limited to the orange and yellow shades yielded by the lead basis. The chromate of lead, which contains single atoms of the acid and base, is yellow ; it is produced by simply mixing solution of bichromate and any salt of lead. The orange-colored chromate of lead is produced by acting upon the yellow with dilute alkalies, such as lime water or weak caustic soda. The alkali abstracts one-half of the chromic acid from the yellow chromate of lead, leaving a compound which contains two atoms of lead to one of chromic acid, and which has a deep orange color. If the alkali is strong, or its action long continued, it abstracts the whole of the chromic acid from the lead, leaving it colorless, and ends by dissolving up the lead and all. Hence, in turning the chrome yellow into orange, much caution has to be exercised not to pass the right point. In dyeing chrome colors the cloth is first mordanted in a salt of lead, and then passed into bichromate. The insoluble chromate of lead is formed by double decomposition in the fibre, where it is retained. This is the yellow salt. It is con- verted into the orange by alkalies. The following practical process will illustrate the various methods of proceeding to obtain the yellow and orange shades : Chrome Yellow and Orange by Printing. The mordant is very simple, either acetate of lead or nitrate of lead, or a mix- ture of the two salts. Dark Paste Orange. 2 Ibs. brown sugar of lead, 1 gallon water; dissolve, thicken with IJlb. flour; sighten with precipitated chromate of lead pulp. The amount of sugar of lead may be increased to as high as 8 Ibs. to a gal- CHROME COLORS. 143 Ion of water when dark shades are wanted, or when the design includes small objects. Pale Paste Orange. 1 gallon water, f Ib. nitrate of lead, l|lb. of flour. There is apparently some advantage in employing nitrate of lead for the paler shades, but the acetate could be equally as well used. After printing, the goods are aged to soften them, and then passed in warm dilute sulphuric acid or sulphate of soda. This fixes the lead upon the" cloth as sul- phate. The cloth is washed to remove any loosely adhering lead salts, and then entered into the bichromate. From two ounces to half a pound of bichromate are added to a beck of warm water for each piece of calico, and the goods run in for about ten minutes, when they will have acquired a full yellow, and, if to remain yellow, must be taken out then. To convert them into orange, the readiest method is to lift the pieces when they have acquired a full yellow, and add half a pint of caustic soda, at 30 Tw., for every five pounds of bi- chromate employed ; stir up well, and run the pieces again for ten minutes. If the full orange shade is not developed, a little more soda may be cautiously added, taking care to stop the pieces, and turn them into clear water, upon the slightest ap- pearance of their losing color. Another process consists in taking the pieces at the yellow and wincing them in water, and then raising the orange by means of boiling lirne water, or very weak caustic liquor. Or, again, instead of passing the pieces in bichromate, they may be passed into neutral chro- mate, made by adding crystals of soda, or caustic soda, to bi- chromate. The method given first leaves nothing to desire if carried out with care and intelligence. Sulphate of lead, though an insoluble salt, when printed upon calico and dipped in lime, forms an intimate combination with the fibre, and may serve very well as a mordant for chrome orange. One method of applying it consists in melting brown acetate of lead, and adding to it strong sulphuric acid; a great portion of the acetic acid is expelled, and the lead wholly or partially converted into sulphate. This, slightly thickened, printed, dipped in lime, and raised in chrome as above, gives very good oranges. This method of obtaining the chrome orange is subject to irregularities, and is not to be recom- mended. The yellow from chrome is scarcely ever produced in print- 14:4 CHROME COLORS. ing. The orange is very often worked in combination with iron buff. When orange alone is produced sulphuric acid is the best fixing agent, but if accompanied by buff^ sulphate of soda must be used, and, if necessary, some carbonate of soda added to it. Chrome Colors by Dyeing on Calico. The colors produced by the chromates of lead upon calico by dyeing receive various names, according to their depth. A very light shade, obtained by using from 2 Ibs. to 3 Ibs. of acetate of lead for 100 Ibs. of cotton, and raising in 2 Ibs. bichromate, may be called straw color. The process consists in working the goods for twenty minutes through the acetate of lead liquor; drain, and work through the chrome ten minutes, and finish in the lead. The shades are sometimes modified by using anotta along with the chrome. Lemon Yellow. 10 Ibs. sugar of lead, 4 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 100 Ibs. cotton. Work as in the previous case. By increasing the weight of drugs, or by repeating the dips, any desired depth of yellow can be obtained. Nitrate of lead may be used instead of the acetate. Plombate of Soda Yellow. In this method advantage is taken of the power which alkalies possess of dissolving hydrated oxide of lead in the following manner: For 100 Ibs. of cotton, 5 Ibs. bichromate and 10 Ibs. of acetate of lead are taken. The acetate of lead is dissolved in water, and strong caustic soda is gradually added; it produces a bulky white precipitate at first, but continued addition of the soda dissolves this precipitate. In order not to have an excess present, it is well to leave a lit- tle of the precipitate undissolved. The goods are worked in the clear liquor, and then passed into the chrornate as before. Chrome Orange. The orange is obtained by working the yellow in boiling lime-water, or weak caustic, as in calico printing. Subacetate of Lead Orange. A subacetate of lead is prepared by boiling 20 Ibs. brown sugar of lead and 10 Ibs. litharge in a sufficient quantity of rain water, working the goods in this solution, which yields up its lead more easily than common acetate, and fixing in lime-water. As it is necessary to have a considerable quantity of lead on the cotton for deep orange, this process must be repeated two or three times, then worked in the chrome 10 Ibs., and the orange color raised by boiling 1 i in e- water. Sulphate of Lead Orange. By working the cotton in acetate of lead, wringing, and passing in sulphuric acid sours, at 4 Tw., then washing, and. passing in warm bichrorne and boiling CHROMIUM COLORS. 145 lime-water, a full deep orange can be obtained without any repetitions, and with great certainty and regularity. Plombate of Lime Orange. Similar to the plombate of soda yellow, only that lime-water is employed, instead of soda, in excess, to dissolve the oxide of lead precipitated in the first instance. It requires three or four repetitions to obtain the darkest shade of orange. The chromate of lead colors have a moderate degree of sta- bility ; they are weakened by soap and friction, and also by washing soda. Like all colors containing lead, they are black- ened by sulphuretted hydrogen, so that they are entirely un- fitted for hangings for dwelling-houses, where sulphurous emanations are always more or less present. Chrome yellow forms the yellow basis of some green styles in which indigo is the blue, and of some shades brown and chocolate. (See BROWN and GREEN.) Chromium. Chromium is the name of the metallic basis of the chromates ; it combines with oxygen in two proportions, the one compound being called oxide of chromium, or green oxide of chromium, and the other chromic acid. The pure metal chromium is almost unknown, and the oxide is always obtained from the chromic acid compounds or chromates by one of the methods given below. A class of colors is obtained from the oxide of chromium, which may be distinguished as CHROMIUM COLORS. A pigment green, which is an oxide of chromium, prepared by a peculiar process, has been used in calico printing, fixed by means of albumen or lactarine. This preparation, known asGuignets' green, is obtained by making an intimate mixture of about three parts of boracic acid with one part of bichromate, and calcining it, at a low temperature, in a re- verberatory furnace; the chromic acid loses oxygen, and becomes changed into green oxide of chromium. There are many ways of preparing the green oxide different from this, but that which is produced by this particular method has a beauty of color en- tirely peculiar to itself. It is sold in the pasty state, at a price about equivalent to 10s. per Ib. of the dry oxide ; this high price has considerably limited its applications in printing. Chromium Colors. The chromium colors are those which have oxide of chromium as a basis. The first process is to make some salt of chromium, which is- printed, and then raised or fixed in lime or soda, precisely the same as an iron buff. Sulphate of Chromium Standard. \ gallon of boiling water, 4 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 2 Ibs. sulphuric acid, 1 Ib. brown sugar ; 14:6 CHROMIUM COLORS. dissolve the bichromate in the water, add the acid with care, and then the sugar, by small portions. A violent action follows each addition of sugar, accompanied by escape of gas and swelling of the liquid ; in order to prevent loss, it is necessary, therefore, to have large vessels, and to add the sugar with care. Muriate of Chrome Standard. 2 quarts boiling water, 2 Ibs. bichromate potash, 4 Ibs. muriatic acid, 14: oz. sugar; proceed as in the making of sulphate of chromium, observing the same precautions. The sulphate of chromium is the more frequently employed of these two solutions: when properly prepared, it is a viscous dark green fluid; sometimes, owing to a deficiency of acid, or the heat not being high enough, it sets into a jelly, or is full of curdy lumps. Such a color will be very unsafe ; it should be made quite fluid either by heating it, or if that is not sufficient by adding more acid. It should stand about 90 Tw. It is difficult to thicken properly, having a great tendency to coagu- late starch and bad gums. Three quarts of the standard to one quart of thick tragacanth gum water will usually work well; sometimes the liquid has a sufficient amount of thickness to work without thickening. When raised in lime and soda it .produces a grayish-green, of a shade similar to green tea leaves, hence sometimes called tea color ; it has also been called Victoria green. Arseniate of Chromium Standard. 9 gallons of hot water, 9 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 11 Ibs. white arsenic ; " boil this mixture for fifteen minutes ; an action takes place, and a precipitate forms, which is collected upon a filler and drained to a pulp; the pulp is scraped into a mug and mixed with 3 quarts of nitric acid, and kept at a boiling heat until the pulp is dissolved, or nearly so ; when cold, mixed with 3 quarts of acetic acid at 8. The clear liquor should stand at from 80 to 90 Tw., and may be thickened with tragacanth gum water. A much simpler receipt is as follows : 1 gallon of water, 5 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 7 Ibs. white arsenic, 10 Ibs. muriatic acid ; CINNAMON COLOR. 147 heat until the bichromate is entirely deoxidized : if the acid is not sufficient, a little more must be added ; but, in order to avoid an excess of acid, it is well to boil the liquor down to 90 or 100 Tw., by which the free acid is mostly expelled. In both these processes the white arsenic, or arsenious acid, takes oxygen from the chromic acid, and becomes arsenic acid, which combines with the oxide of chromium produced to form arseniate of chromium, which is kept in solution or dissolved by excess of acid. Eaised in lime, these liquors produce the same grayish- green shades as the sulphate and chloride of chromium.. 'By passing the chromium green shades through weak solu- tion of blue copperas, a somewhat livelier tint is obtained. Modifications of the Chromium Shades. By mixing other mineral colors, or vegetable extracts, with the chromium standards, a variety of shades, all of a dull character, may be produced. Thus, buff liquor, bronze liquor, etc., may be mixed with them. A shade of color of a soft gray or drab may be produced as follows : Green Dove Color. 1 gallon of red liquor at 8, 1 Ib. of ground madder; steep 24 hours, and strain 2 quarts of the above, 3 pints of sulphate of chromium ; thicken with soluble gum substitute. Raised in lime or weak soda, it gives a pleasant greenish dove color. Oxide of chromium appears to be of no use as a mordant ; it has but a very slight affinity for coloring matters, and the shades it gives are dull and dry. Chrome Alum is a double sulphate of chromium and potash, and may be used for the same purposes as sulphate of chro- mium. It is employed on the continent, but is not, as far as I am aware, an article of commerce in this country. Chrysammic Acid. A golden yellow colored substance, obtained by the action of nitric acid upon aloes. It gives highly colored salts, and hopes were entertained of making it applicable to dyeing, but so far it has not been practically applied. Cinnamon Color, Cannelk. The color of Cinnamon, as exposed for sale in this country, may be defined as a yellowish brown, of a rather low tone. Chevreul defines it as a yellowish orange of a deep tone, or orange darkened with black ; he gives* it two formulas, 3 orange 14 tone, and 2 orange T 5 5 black of 9 to 12 tone. In dyeing, it may be considered as a yellow brown, and its production depends upon the excess of the yellow in the composite color. 148 . CITRIC ACID. Madder and bark cinnamon shades are produced by mor- danting calico in red liquor, dyeing in bark first, and then in madder, until the desired shade is obtained. The bark and madder may be mixed in the dye-beck, but the shade is more under control when they are used separately, because the mad- der is a stronger dye stuff than the bark, and the brownish-red of the madder can displace or drive out more or less of the bark yellow. For producing rather darker shades of cinnamon, small quantities of iron liquor may be mixed with the red ; but, if the proportions amount to more than one part of iron liquor to ten parts red liquor, the color becomes nearer a chocolate than cinnamon. For common calico shades, the processes for brown may be followed, increasing the red wood and decreasing the logwood ; the yellow part being preserved of the same intensity. Calico mordanted in copper and raised in prussiate of potash, as in dyeing Prussian blues, gives a cinnamon shade. Upon "woollen, cinnamon shades are obtained by aluming as usual, and then dyeing in a mixture of madder and some yellow dye stuff, which may be either weld, bark, or fustic. In low class work the cheaper red woods may be used instead of mad- der, but in that case, a little iron will have to be employed to sadden down the shade. The class of cinnamon colors obtained by printing are illus- trated by the following receipts: Cinnamon for Wool or Delaine. Block. 2 gallons of bark liquor at 18, 2| Ibs. of ground cochineal ; keep hot for some time, then pass through a straining cloth, and thicken with 7 Ibs. gum Senegal, and add 6 oz. sulphate of indigo, 18 oz. crystals of tin. This color contains a large quantity of red and yellow to a small quantity of blue, and consequently yields an orange- colored brown, tending to the yellow side. Cinnamon colors upon calico can be obtained by modifying the receipts given under brown. Citric Acid. This acid is obtained from the juice of lemons, limes, and similar fruit. When pure, it is in colorless crystals, of a strong, pleasant acid taste; dissolving easily in hot or cold water. The pure acid is not much used either in dyeing or printing, on account of its high price ; but in some places it is employed as a resist on madder work, and for throwing down CITRIC ACID. 149 the coloring matter of safflower after it has been dissolved by alkali, but for either of these purposes ordinary lime juice of good quality will answer nearly if not quite as well. Citric acid is occasionally adulterated by admixture with tartaric acid, which, besides being a fraud, is liable to cause much injury to the printer. It is possible to discover five per cent, of tartaric acid, and any greater quantity in citric acid, by means of caustic potash in the following manner; dissolve a couple of ounces of the acid to be tested in as little water as possible, from three to four ounces at the most, then take one half of the solution in a glass tumbler, and add strong caustic potash (soda will not do) drop by drop until the acid is neutralized, then mix with it the other half of the dissolved acid, and stir well up together. If a heavy white crystalline powder falls to the bottom of the glass, it indicates tartaric acid ; if the quantity of tartaric acid is small, it will not appear directly, and the glass should be left for about six hours in a cool place, when, if the liquor is quite clear, or only a little gelatinous substance in it, the citric acid may be considered as being free from tartaric. Citric acid, whether in pure crystals or in lime juice, is the best resistant for iron and alumina mordants. Its power does not rest simply in its acidity, although that is very great, being able to neutralize or dissolve nearly as much of an oxide as an equal weight of oil of vitriol, but partly in a power, like that ot tartaric acid, of masking the usual properties of metals, and putting them beyond the action of the agents usually influenc- ing them. That it is not simply the acid is evident from the fact that when the acid is quite neutralized with either potash or soda, the citrate of potash or soda is, for the quantity, of citric acid present in any given bulk, nearly as good as before for resisting, though it cannot act as a discharge. When an iron mordant is printed over a citric acid resist, citrate of iron is formed, which, unlike the majority of the salts of iron, does not oxidize on the cloth, even when exposed for a very long time to the air, and which can be removed from it by simply washing in water; the usual fixing agents having no action upon the salt. When citrate of potash is employed, its first action is mechanical, to receive the superimposed mordant, and then to effect a decomposition by which citrate of iron is formed, and so kept from fixing itself upon the fibre of the cloth. That citric acid has the power of changing the bearings of metals to other bodies, is capable of being proved easily : if caustic potash be added to a weak solution of copperas, it precipitates all the iron as oxide ; but if a sufficient quantity of citric acid be mixed with copperas, and then potash added in any quantity, there will be no precipitate formed, owing to some agency of 150 CITRIC ACID. the citric acid ; the same or a similar agency keeping the iron or alumina of the mordant from precipitating upon the cloth, whenever it meets the citric acid. The combinations which citric acid makes with the alkalies and metals are not employed in dyeing or printing, except the citrate of soda, mentioned above, which is used to resist catechu brown, and in one or two other cases. Lime Juice, or Lemon Juice. The acidity of this juice is owing to citric acid, and its value depends upon the quantity of this acid which is present in it. Lime juice is very varia- ble as to quality, depending upon the method of extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the honesty of the shipper. The best kind in English market, for the use of printers, is a dark treacly-looking fluid, marking from 48 to 54 Twaddle, and containing from 30 to 36 per cent, of pure citric acid. There are many inferior qualities which, though standing nearly as high on the hydrometer, contain not more than two-thirds or one-half of that quantity of real acid. The sellers in this country charge the acid so much per gallon per degree, as in- dicated by an arbitrarily graduated instrument, supposed to show the percentage of pure citric acid in the lime juice, but which gives unreliable results. At certain times all lime juice is bad, containing a great deal of sediment and some peculiar substance which prevents it giving good whites as a resist for madder and garancine work. This is understood to be owing to a bad harvest of limes; the quantity of fruit being much less than usual, the manufacturers abroad appear to press it more completely to make up the quantity, besides using damaged fruit and substances, whose only resemblance to limes or lemons consists in their giving some kind of juice; but the citric acid the real, active element of lime juice is not there in the proper quantity, or is injured by a mass of other matters. It may be generally observed that as lime juice becomes dearer, its quality deteriorates ; as it becomes cheaper, it gets clearer, less sediment in the cask, and sharper and more agreeable to the taste. The strength of lime juice cannot be well ascer- tained by Twaddle; the real test is to ascertain how much alkali it will neutralize, and that no cheap acid has been added to make it apparently strong. I have found lime juice adul- terated with potashes, which raises the density without (for a certain quantity) materially injuring its resisting power; for citrate of potash itself is known to resist tolerably well, and especially when mixed with free citric acid. The adulteration can be detected by mixing very strong solution of tartaric acid with the suspected lime juice; if potash be present there will be formed in a short time a crystalline deposit of bitartarte of potash at the bottom and on the sides of the vessel. It must CITRON. 151 be observed that some potash is naturally present in lime juice, and care must be made to distinguish between what may be allowed and what is evidently a falsification. Citric acid is made from lime juice by adding ground chalk to the acid mixed in water, washing the citrate of lime from the impuri- ties which are dissolved in the water, and afterwards decom- posing it with sulphuric acid ; if the citric acid is not white enough animal black is used to decolorize it. It is possible for the calico printer thus to purify his lime juice, and to bring it into citric acid if he thinks proper. Analysis. Citric acid or lime juice may be tested in just the same manner as acetic acid and other acids. (See ACIDIMETRY.) I have found citric acid to contain as much as ten per cent, of tartaric ; this was in a sample of brown acid sent as of the first crystallization without doubt it was purposely adulterated. I have never found the finished white crystals adulterated. Lime juice is only valuable on account of the citric acid which it contains, and which varies considerably. A good quality of lime juice, marking from 46 to 50 Tw., will neu- tralize from 70 to 76 grains of pure crystallized carbonate of soda. For commercial purposes each grain of carbonate neu- tralized may represent a half grain of crystallized citric acid (equal to 0.38 grain of dry acid), and the value of the lime juice be calculated in proportion. Upon evaporation and cal- cination at a red heat the citrate of soda will be converted into carbonate, and being tested by the alkalimeter should indicate the same amount of alkali as was at first added; sometimes it will be found to indicate more, which arises from potash present in the lime juice ; to correct this a quantity of the lime juice should be evaporated and incinerated separately. I have had occasion to test samples of lime juice not containing more than 18 per cent, of citric acid although marking full strength on the hydrometer ; they were overloaded with vegetable extrac- tive matter. Citron, or Lemon Color. The lemon yellow or citron color may be considered as pure yellow with a little red or orange in its composition ; in Chevreul's nomenclature 4 yellow orange 6 tone. The chrome yellows upon cotton, and picric acid yel- lows upon wool and silk, may be called lemon yellows. Weld and alum give very pure lemon yellows. The following receipt is for a lemon yellow upon wool or delaine 1 gallon berry liquor at 3 Ibs. gum, 8 oz. alurn, 1J oz. oxalic acid, 8 oz. oxyrnuriate of tin. 152 CLEANSING. By mixing with a small quantity of red or scarlet the shade can be modified, as in the following receipt for machine: 1 gallon berry liquor at 7, 1 Ib. starch ; boil, and when cooled add 8 oz. oxalic acid, 10 oz. bichloride of tin, at 100, i pint cochineal scarlet. Cleansing. In the process of calico printing, after the thickened mordants have been applied to the cloth, and ex- posed a sufficient length of time, the goods are ready for dye- ing, in so far as the mordant has become fixed, and not remov- able by water. But there has been in all cases a great deal of mordant applied, which either never comes into actual contact with the cloth, or is more than it can absorb and retain. This removable by water, and, if the pieces were to be placed in the dye vessel, would dissolve, and seriously interfere with the dye- ing. If the pieces were washed in water simply before dyeing, the object would be partially attained, that is, the loose mor- dant would be removed; but another difficulty would occur, the excess of mordant liberated at one point would be absorbed by the cloth at another where the design required a white or colorless part; or, in case of different mordants being on the same piece of cloth, they would intermix and spoil one another; the red would turn the purple into chocolate, and the blacks would give a purplish color to the reds. It was necessary for the calico printers to find some fluid in which the pieces could be washed from the excess of mordant, and the now useless thickening matter, which at the same time should prevent the loose mordant from being at liberty to fix itself upon any part of the fabric. Such a fluid was first found in a mixture of hot water and cow dung; but now various manufactured substances are successfully used for that purpose. Although cow dung left nothing to desire as far the cleansing was concerned, the supply was not regular in certain localities it was scarce and the animals have had to be kept near to the print works, actually for the sake of their dung. In other places the supply fails in the summer months, when the cows are grazing, and their dung is spread over the pastures ; add to this the unpleasantness of working in such a material, and it will be easily understood why substitutes have been called for, and are now very exten- sively adopted. The term "dunging" was naturally enough applied to this process, because nothing but the excrement of cows was form- erly used for the purpose ; but now that it seems probable that the use of cow dung will be given up the continuance of the CLEANSING. 153 name is neither desirable nor exact. The process is frequently called "cleansing," which is an appropriate name, since the real use of the process is to clean the cloth from loose matters which would interfere with the dyeing. This name is sufficiently dis- tinct from "clearing," by which is understood processes subse- quent to the dyeing. M. Persoz proposes to change the name of dunging into "fixing of mordants;" this, besides being a somewhat clumsy expression, is expressive of a theory which may not be true, since the fixing of the mordants takes place before dunging, if not wholly, at least in great part. I shall adopt the word "cleansing," as sufficiently characteristic, and on the whole preferable to the term dunging, which is in many cases obviously incorrect at this day. The analysis of cow dung does not point out any particular principle in it which can be said to be the active agent ia cleansing. Its power has been at various times attributed to each of several substances it contains: its albumen, and its peculiar animal matters, were supposed at one time to be the active elements; again, the mineral matters it contained were said to be the real principles which were useful in it, and so on in turn every single element has been at some time or by some person considered the essential matter in it. That cow dung does not possess any principle peculiar to itself, which enables it to be used for cleansing, is plainly evident from, the fact of the successful employment of substitutes which have no resemblance to it in any way. But that it possesses some principles that fit it for such a duty is evident; but it does not seern necessary to fix upon any single one as the essential one, but rather to view the action exercised as one resulting from the combined influence of two or more of its constituents. My observations and experiments have led me to conclude that cow dung owes its efficacy to two things, namely, the finely ground up or chewed organic matter, the remains of the hay, grass, or other food of the animal, and to a species of greenish olive coloring matter which is present. The effect of a passage in dung appears to me in great part to be mechanical, and to be an illustration of the power of surface in attracting chemical matters. The undigested fibrous parts in the dung fix upon themselves the excess of mordant as soon as it leaves the piece, and so prevent it spreading either on the whiter or the neigh- boring colors. There is no difficulty in considering that this would be a sufficient explanation if it were allowed that the insoluble parts of the cow dung could exercise this affinity for the mordant which is set at liberty by the liquor. When it is considered that the chemical composition of the fibrous matter of cow dung, and its physical constitution also, resemble very 11 154 CLEANSING. closely that of cotton fibre, it is not difficult to imagine it as having at least as great an affinity for the mordant which is loosened as the surrounding cotton fibres themselves; but, because it is in a finer state of division, and in contact with the actual particles of mordant, it has an advantage over the cotton fibres which are at some distance, and could only receive the excess of mordant through the medium of the bath ; conse- quently, the superfluous mordant is retained by the insoluble floating particles of the cow dung. This action of the cow dung I consider all that is essential to'it; it has other actions upon the mordant and cloth, but they are either of no importance in their result or only of secondary importance. The coloring matter referred to seems to act a useful part, but it is not clear what it is. The mordants take it up and retain it through the washings ; but in the dyeing it is driven out by the stronger coloring matter of the madder or garancine. If a fent, mordanted for black and purple, be dipped in hot caustic soda, at one or two degrees of Twaddle, it will come out with the mordants of a light buff shade ; in this state they do not dye well in madder the colors produced are poor, and it takes a longer time and higher temperature to dye them. If the fent be taken from the caustic soda to a regular passage in dung, it soon changes its color, coming to nearly the same shade as if it had been at once passed into dung; in this state it dyes up well and quickly. The change of color may be at- tributed to the absorption of coloring matter from the cow dung; and the better colors produced upon dyeing, and the shorter time required, must be attributed to some action of the cow dung not necessarily to the coloring matter, but the weight of probability is in favor of it. Some actual chemical change in the mordant is possible; if any, it must be in the way of deoxidation. I have found a decoction of cow dung to act powerfully as a deoxidizing agent. It may not, perhaps, be accepted as a fact that the presence of coloring matter of the cow dung would have any useful action in dyeing, but I am convinced it has, and especially in madder colors. Experience proves that, in the case of the best dung substitutes, or cleansing compounds, a final wince in cow dung before dyeing is advantageous. It is better for the mordanting oxide that it should go into the beck in a partly saturated state than in a state of the highest activity. In a majority of cases the colors will be more solid, brighter, and faster when the combination between the mordant and the coloring matter is slow and gradual than when, on the contrary, it is rapid and completely effected in a short time. In the case of madder, this might be explained upon the assumption of a CLEANSING. 155 variable displacing power of the true and false coloring princi- ples present in it. It may be supposed that the dun coloring principle cannot displace the coloring matter of the cow dung, but that the alizarine can do so, and does so by degrees in the course of the dyeing; and it may be supposed that, by this means, a pure color is produced, which suffers less in the clearing operations than if the mordant was partly filled with the easily removable secondary coloring matters of the madder. In other coloring matters it may be considered that they cannot combine so rapidly with the mordant, because it is partly com- bined already ; but this combination is a weak one, and gives way to the power of a stronger agent, and, being formed slowly, seems to be more stable; just as in painting, a thick layer of paint, equal to the whole quantity required, might be applied at once, but it would not be so good as if applied in two or three separate coats. The dung substitutes at present in use are chiefly the arsenite and arseniate of soda, the silicate of soda, mixtures of the two, phosphate of lime, and various compounds containing other substances in addition to those named, but whose utility is of a very questionable nature. As mentioned just now, caustic soda would act as a dung substitute for black and purple mor- dants, but not for red mordants, because the alumina forming a soluble combination with the alkali would be entirely re- moved. The silicate, arsenite, and arseniate of soda may be looked upon as caustic soda, the more energetic properties of which are modified by the arsenical and silicious acids. The alkalinity is modified, not destroyed. The same may be said of the carbonates, bi-carbonates, and phosphates of the alkalies, which have been sparingly used as dung substitutes. The chemical action of these substitutes differs from that of cow dung; for, while I do not look upon cow dung as possessing any notable fixing powers, it is certain that the arsenites and silicates do enjoy such a power. They actually neutralize the acid remaining in the mordant, and precipitate the oxide upon the cloth in greater quantity than dung, and under different circumstances. At the strength at which the substitutes are employed in the cleansing apparatus, very little of this precipi- tation of oxide upon the cloth actually takes place; the action of the substitute is confined to rendering the loosened mordant insoluble at the moment it quits the cloth, and so preventing its combining with other parts of the fabric. But, if the strength be increased, the precipitation upon the cloth takes place, and darker colors are produced of course at the expense of the dyeing material, and frequently also at the expense of goodness of shade. It is not well that the cleansing liquor 156 CLEANSING. should be also a fixing liquor ; in ordinary cases of calico dye- ing the two processes should be distinct. Dunging or cleansing is one of the most important parts in dyeing for calico printing; it deserves the utmost attention of the superintendent, for upon it depends, in a remarkable manner, the success of the dyeing. The heat of the cleansing liquor and its strength must vary with the styles, and be skil- fully adapted to them. The rule is to use such a temperature and strength as will cleanse effectually, and not to go beyond that strength and temperature. The nature of the thickening must be attended to; if it is a gum thickening, and one which is easily soluble in water, the temperature may be kept low, but the strength must be rather greater than for paste thickenings; if a mixture of paste and gum thickenings, the heat must be higher and the strength medium ; if all paste, the heat must be high and the strength of the liquor entirely in proportion to the kind of printing being the strongest for blotch and heavy covered patterns, and weaker in proportion as the pattern is lighter. As a general rule the heat should be kept at the lowest point, this may be as low as 100 F. for light plate pat- terns without black ; for black and acids for madder work a temperature of from 140 to 160 is the best; for garancines the temperature must be high, but need not exceed 180 F. in the first cleansing. For light reds and purples, especially for the former, a low temperature is necessary to success. In styles which contain much acid, as also in those which have a large quantity of red in them containing crystals of tin, the addition of chalk to the cleansing dolly is very useful, and in fact necessary. The cleansing is usually divided into two parts; the open passage of the pieces by means of rollers through the " dolly," and the fly wincing afterwards. About two minutes is all the time necessary in the first liquor; that is sufficient to fix the loose mordant, and to loosen, but not to remove, the thickening. The second cleansing requires a longer time and a rougher motion of the pieces, in order to remove all the thickening matter from the cloth ; it may take from fifteen to twenty minutes, or even longer, if the nature of the thickening- is opposed to easy solution. There must be no stinting of time; the cloth must be well cleansed, or there will be nothing but confusion in the dyeing. The pasty thickenings sometimes get into a state very difficult to deal with ; they swell out but do not dissolve from the fibre, adhering to it like a jelly ; rapid motion is necessary to detach them, or some mechanical appli- ance. The clear substitute liquors do not act so effectively in this case as cow dung, its insoluble matter acting mechanically upon the cloth, scours it by attrition ; probably if some light CLEAEING. 157 substances like sawdust were added to the substitutes their energy would be increased. It is not usual to wash the pieces between the cleansings, except by simply passing them through clear water ; it is very necessary that they should receive a perfect washing after the last cleansing about fifteen minutes in a dashwheel, or three to six passages through a washing machine, depending upon the style and nature of the thickening. I have tried the effect of a brush revolving against the open piece in the first cleansing to help in detaching the paste thick- ening ; it acted very well, and if applied near the end of the dolly cannot do any harm. This or some similar mechanical appliance may be beneficially used when the thickening does not come off' well ; but under ordinary circumstances it is not necessary, the motion of the pieces in the beck, and a good washing with plenty of water, will generally suffice to remove all adventitious matter, and leave the cloth clean for dyeing. (See Cow DUNG, DUNG SUBSTITUTES, and PHOSPHATES.) Clearing. By this term calico printers understand the operations of obtaining the undyed parts of their work of a pure clear white. In all kinds of dyeing upon mordanted cloth, where a portion of the fabric is left unmordanted, or from which the mordant has been removed previous to dyeing for the purpose of leaving some parts white, the process of clearing is necessary in order to give those whites their highest degree of purity. Thus in madder dyeing, in logwood dyeing, or in garancine dyeing, though 'the coloring matters employed are said to have no affinity for calico, unless this is mordanted, yet it is always found that the unmordanted parts are stained and discolored to a degree which would much injure the appearance of the print if finished in that state. It is necessary, therefore, to treat the cloth in such a manner as to bleach these parts, at the same time having due regard to the integrity of the colored parts. The oldest method of clearing was a modification of the old method of bleaching, namely, exposure of the printed goods to the action of the air and moisture upon grass; this was done at night to avoid the injurious influence of strong daylight or sunshine. Although this is spoken of as an obso- lete method, it is yet practised where there is convenience for it. Bran is sparingly used for 'clearing some qualities of dyed goods, as logwood blacks and garancine reds ; the bran is scalded, mixed with water, and the goods passed through at about 140 F. Cow dung has been used in cleaning garancines, but its em- ployment for this purpose is not to be recommended. Chloride of lime or bleaching powder is the most generally 158 coccus POLONICUS. used clearing agent; it is applied in several ways. For clear- ing madders, the goods are run through a very dilate hot solu- tion of the bleaching powder, until the dyer or clearer con- siders the whites sufficiently clear; for garancines, the same process may be adopted, but experience has shown that the higher, temperature employed in garancine dyeing tinges the whites more deeply than madder, while the less stability of the colors produced render it dangerous to let the pieces run long enough to clear the whites. In consequence, two other methods of clearing garancines are adopted : the first consists in padding the piece to be cleared in solution of bleaching powder, standing at l or 2 Tw.: the padding is done by an engraved roller, and so arranged that only a small quantity of the bleaching liquor is transferred to the piece, the piece is then passed over the steam chest or drums and either washed off or finished without washing. The other and better method consists in padding the pieces in a bleaching solution not quite so strong as the last, and then passing them through a steam box in which they remain two or three minutes exposed to low pressure steam, and from this pass through three or four boxes of water to wash them. The only delicate point in clear- ing is to hit such a strength of clearing liquor as shall effectually clear the whites without acting too much upon the colors. In dark work there is a considerable margin, because the heavy colors do not show a little punishment by excess of clearing, but in light colors the point is not easy to hit; and, in fact, it is preferable to clear them in the beck, where they can be watched. It appears from my experiments that nearly all dyed colors can better withstand the action of strong clearing solution for a short time than of weak clearing solution for a longer time, and that, in consequence, it is better to clear quickly with strong liquors than slowly with weak liquors. In madder and garancine styles, where the dyeing material is in very fine pow- der, the clearing will- not be satisfactory unless preceded by a very good washing to expel the mechanically enclosed parti- cles of spent dyewood. (For the use of soap in clearing, see SOAP and MADDER.) COCCUS PolpnicilS, Polish Berries or European Cochineal This is a small insect very similar to Kermes, used in Southern Russia, Turkey, and Armenia, as a red dye stuff. It seems to belong to the same kind of insect as cochineal, and before the introduction of the rich American cochineal into Europe, it was one of the chief dyeing materials for producing crimson colors upon silk and wool. It is now only employed locally in remote districts of the tract of country where it flourishes. COCHINEAL. 159 Cocoa Nut Tree. It is stated that the whole of the cocoa- nut tree, but more especially the husk which encloses the nut, and the foot stalks of the leaves, may be used as a dyeing ma- terial. From the claims made in a patent, bearing date March 29, 1825, it would appear to have astringent properties, but I am not aware that it has ever been practically applied. Cochineal. This important dyeing material consists of an insect, feeding on a species of cactus called Nopal by the Mexi- cans. It was formerly considered to be a berry, and even years after travellers had brought home true accounts of the real nature and origin of cochineal, European observers of some eminence persisted in the belief of its vegetable nature, not being able to detect the usual external marks of an insedt. It is, however, an insect having six legs, no wings, and a very small head ; the legs are disproportionately small when com- pared with the body of the insect ; they, in fact, appear only to be used by the insect in its earliest state, for after it has set- tled upon the branch of a nopal it employs them no more, and they are not developed like the rest of the body ; this refers to the female insect, the male insects having better defined limbs, but there is only one male to about two hundred females. The females remain fixed to the branch like berries, feeding upon the sap until they are brushed off and killed. The method of killing the insect practised by the extensive cultivators consists in putting a basket full of them into a hot stove; the smaller cultivators kill them by immersing the baskets in hot water. Cochineal insects killed by the latter process are said to be mostly burst open and acquire a reddish or foxy appearance, and to be somewhat inferior, while those killed by the stoving process are gray and most esteemed. There are two kinds of cochineal, known commercially as silver and black. The silver cochineal is said to be the im- pregnated female just before laying eggs, while the black cochineal is the female after laying and hatching the eggs. The black cochineal appears to be the most valuable, but the bulk of that imported is the silver, the black only being what has been kept for breeding purposes. Formerly there was a kind of cochineal called " English black cochineal," which was the Mexican silver grain, dyed by immersion in decoction of cochineal. The value of cochineal can be very closely ascertained by the simple inspection of a practised observer ; being one of the most expensive dye drugs, there are considerable inducements to fraud, and some kinds of cochineal are actually known in the market as " doctored cochineal." The usual adulteration consists in adding some powdery matter to the cochineal, to 160 COCHINEAL. increase its weight. French chalk, white lead, and ground talc are said to be chiefly used, and as much as ten per cent, of this mineral matter may be added without the appearance of the cochineal attracting the attention of an inexpert observer. A fine metallic powder is also used to weight cochineal, and it is said that as much as 30 per cent, of weight can be thus added to it. These adulterations are easily detected upon analysis, for by calcining the mixture at a red heat, the true matter of the cochineal is burned away, leaving the added mineral adul- teration, the quantity and nature of which can be then ascer- tained. Practical methods of testing cochineal consist in dyeing up silk and woollen in comparison with a known good quality, also in ascertaining how much chlorine is required to bleach the decoction from a known weight of the insects, and lastly by comparing the intensity of a colored solution obtained by treating a certain weight of cochineal with strong ammonia. The dyeing test is the only really trustworthy test, and when applied with due care gives very exact results. Cochineal is a very rich coloring substance, yielding about half its weight of real coloring matter. This coloring matter is very soluble, and easily extracted from the insect by boiling it in water. The extract contains, besides pure color, a quan- tity of animal matter, and it is liable to putrefy in the concen- trated state when kept in warm places. It acquires a very disagreeable smell, but even then does not appear to be much injured in its powers of dyeing or yielding colors in printing, though it would not be safe to allow this putrefaction to con- tinue to any considerable degree. The extract of cochineal may be boiled down to a syrupy consistence, but for general purposes it is not used stronger than about 9 Tw., and is re- duced from that for most shades. The pure coloring matter of cochineal has received the name of carmine ; it is red, solu- ble in alcohol and water, and besides being itself of a magnifi- cent color, readily yields all those shades which the cochineal itself does to mordanted cloth. The colors which are derived from cochineal are red, and its modifications of pink, scarlet, and crimson. The alumina mor- dants give the crimson colors ; they are very fine, deep, and solid shades, but have not any great brilliancy to distinguish them. The scarlet is obtained by means of a tin mordant, and no color can compare with a good cochineal scarlet for bril- liancy, fastness, and fire. The pink is obtained from a modifi- cation of the cochineal color, obtained by boiling the insect with ammonia and water instead of water alone. Alumina is the proper mordant for it. It is a difficult color to obtain in its best state, and as a pink has not so much beauty as safflower COCHINEAL COLORS. 161 pink, but is much more stable. Other shades besides these can be obtained from cochineal, but they are seldom worked, being expensive and capable of close imitation by cheaper col- oring matters. The greatest affinity of cochineal is for wool ; with it it yields its deepest, brightest and fastest colors. It is applicable on silk and cotton, but the same depth of shade cannot be obtained. The greatest consumption of cochineal is in dyeing woollen cloth scarlet, but large quantities are also used in calico and delaine printing, for obtaining reds of the scarlet nature, and also pinks and crimsons. Cochineal Colors. Scarlet on Wool. The principal color for which cochineal is employed in dyeing is that of scarlet upon wool. The process consists in first mordanting the woollen cloth in solution of tin, and then dyeing in the cochineal, with a further addition of tin solution. The dyers generally prepare their own solution of tin; and most dyers consider that their own method has some advantages over that of others, and guard their processes as secret. There can be no doubt that very much depends upon the tin solution ; but, at the same time, it is certain that almost any tin solution may be made to yield good colors. The explanation of many differences among dyers upon this matter would be found to consist in points of practical detail : for example, one solution of tin yields the metal quickly at a low temperature; another yields it but slowly or not at all at a low temperature, but well enough at the boil. It is easy to see that in the case of such differences of composition, differences of subsequent treatment are essen- tial. The solution in use is generally a mixture of per and protochloride of tin, prepared by dissolving the metal in nitric acid mixed with common salt or muriate of ammonia. It appears from practical authorities that the solution is best when made slowly, and when the solution of the tin is not accom- panied by evolution of gas, or with but little evolution; such a state of affairs indicates the formation of ammonia in the solution, and seems to point to the production of some double salt of tin. The proportions used in one case are 10 Ibs. nitric acid (aqua fortis), 5 Ibs. water,' 10 to 20 oz. common salt, 20 oz. feathered tin. The tin is added bit by bit, waiting for one portion to dissolve before another is added, until the whole is dissolved. Whatever the composition of the tin solution may be, and a variety of receipts will be found under the article TIN, the woollen cloth, well wetted, is boiled with it. In the above tin solution there 162 COCHINEAL COLORS. will be rather more than an ounce of the metal in each pound of the liquid; and for a quantity of woollen cloth weighing 100 Ibs., and intended to be dyed a full scarlet, about 20 Ibs. of the composition are taken and divided into two portions of 13 and 7 Ibs. respectively. The cloth is boiled in water, to which the larger portion has been added, along with 8 Ibs. of crude tartar ; a little cochineal, about 6 oz., is also added to tint the cloth and serves to indicate the progress of the mordanting. The whole is kept at the boil for about two hours, and 'then winced in clean water; it is next entered into the dyeing ves- sel, either copper or tin, or part tin and part copper, with from five to six pounds of finely ground cochineal, and the remainder of the tin solution; the whole kept at the boil for about half an hour, or until the cochineal is spent and the dye liquor nearly colorless. In some cases tartar is used in the dyeing as well as in the mordanting, its effect being to give a more fiery or orange scarlet. Bancroft appears to have been the first to draw attention to the fact that scarlet differed from crimson by the addition of a yel- low part derived from some source; but where cochineal alone is used as the coloring matter it is evident that the yellow could only be derived from the change of its red coloring matter. This change was considered at that time as being accomplished by means of the tartar used in mordanting and dyeing, and the more yellow or fiery the scarlet was desired the more tartar was employed. I consider that it was the nitrous acid or hyponitric acid contained in the tin solution which produced this effect ; but however produced, it was evident that red color was destroyed, and Bancroft had the idea of economizing cochi- neal by first dyeing a yellow basis upon the woollen cloth. He made many experiments with quercitron bark, but the results do not appear to have pleased the dyers, the shades being defi- cient in brilliancy, since quercitron yellow does not withstand very well the strongly acid solutions used in dyeing scarlet. At this day the yellow colors derived from fustic and turmeric are employed to economize cochineal in obtaining the yellower kind of scarlets, but the best scarlets are still obtained from cochineal alone as coloring matter, and these alone resist wear and exposure, and are not stained by liquids or dirt as the compound scarlets are. The quality of the water has a great influence in scarlet dyeing ; it should be as pure as can be possibly obtained : all earthy matters contained in it either tend to dull the color or to bring it towards the rose or crimson shade, which is fatal to a bright scarlet. Additions are frequently made to the water with a view of correcting impurities. Sometimes bran, flour, COCHINEAL COLORS. 163 or starch are added ; and in France it is customary to boil some coarse wool in the solution of tin and tartar before entering the cloth to be dyed; this is supposed to attract the dreaded impurities and so remove them from the dye-bath. To obtain the very finest shade of scarlet requires great experience and a multitude of precautions, which can only be learned by assi- duous attention to practical operations. One ounce of cochineal is generally reckoned as sufficient for one pound of wool : inferior colors are obtained by diminishing the quantity. The cochineal crimson on wool is obtained by mordanting in alum, tin, and tartar, and dyeing in cochineal, mixed with ammoniacal cochineal. It is not much in request. Crimson vpon Kilk. This color is obtained by working the silk in a warm, weak bichloride of tin for a sufficient length of time, then dyeing in cochineal and water. Cochineal Pink on Silk. This color is obtained by the use of the prepared or ammoniacal solution of cochineal (the process of which is given further on) upon a tin mordant. By simply diminishing the quantity of cochineal used in dyeing crimson a pink can be obtained, but not of a good shade. The cochineal pink is not so much in vogue as that from safflower. A scarlet is obtained upon silk by first giving it a yellow or orange ground with anotta, and then passing it through the process for crimson. The cochineal dyed styles upon calico or cotton goods are quite unimportant. If calico, printed with the usual mordants for madder, be dyed in cochineal, it will be found that the dark red takes a violet-hued crimson, the light reds dye up bluish- pinks, the light iron mordants dye up shades of violet gray, and the strong iron mordants dye up a grayish-black. There is a style of work occasionally produced from cochineal by printing a red liquor mordant, dunging or fixing as usual, and dyeing in cochineal, or a mixture of cochineal and gall-nuts. On account of some peculiar action which spent cochineal liquor has upon alumina mordants, injuring the colors as if it were acid, it is found desirable to divide the dyeing into two portions, so as not to have the liquor too concentrated. Cochineal Colors in Printing. For the application of cochineal in printing, the coloring matter may be applied in three states : The first being the insect, ground as fine as possible, and simply mixed up with the thickening and salts employed. This method may probably insure the extraction of the largest amount of coloring matter, but it is evidently unfitted for any kind of good printing. The second, and most usual condition, is a solution of cochineal, or cochineal liquor, made by boiling 1 64 COCHINEAL . COLOES. the insect with water until exhausted as much as possible of coloring matter, and then concentrating the solutions to a strength of 10 or 12 of the hydrometer. The third state of cochineal is where the solution of coloring matter is made by means of ammonia, and the preparation is frequently spoken of as ammoniacal cochineal, and cochineal in cake or paste. The following are some of the methods followed in obtaining this preparation, which is, without doubt, the best form in which cochineal can be employed for crimson and pink colors upon woollen and delaine: Ammoniacal Cochineal. Persoz gives as follows for the dry preparation: 10 Ibs. ground cochineal 80 Ibs. ammonia, 4 Ibs. gelatinous alumina. The cochineal is placed in a stoppered bottle or carboy, and mixed well with the ammonia; the whole is left closely corked for a month, then mixed with the alumina, prepared, I presume, by precipitating alum with crystals of soda, put into a tinned copper and kept hot until the ammonia is dissipated ; when the paste has acquired a sufficient consistence it is spread upon a cloth, and the drying completed in a stove. A pasty ammo- niacal cochineal is prepared by digesting equal weights of ground cochineal and ammonia for a week, and dissipating the ammonia by evaporation. In England the compound is mostly prepared by putting the unground cochineal into a close tin or tinned copper boiler, mixing with the ammonia, and keeping at the boiling point for eight or ten hours; straining and keeping the liquor hot in an open vessel until the ammonia is dissipated. If steam, at eight or ten pounds pressure, can be used in the operation it appears advantageous. Dumas gives directions as follows: 15 Ibs. of ground cochi- neal are mixed with 17J Ibs. of ammonia in a close vessel, and left to digest cold for six or eight days, then heated gently for about eleven hours, with constant stirring, until the smell of ammonia has disappeared: this leaves about 27 or 28 Ibs. For dark colors this answers, he says, very well, but for light and delicate shades, a dry cochineal lake is prepared by mixing the gelatinous alumina obtained from 1J Ib. of alum wiih the paste produced as above, and washing the lake several times upon a filter, then drying until the product weighs only 16 or 17 Ibs. I am of opinion that the method of simply keeping the ammonia and cochineal together in a heated state for some hours, gives the best and most economical preparation. It is COCHINEAL COLORS. 165 true that the whole of the coloring matter is not exhausted, but the residuum may be extracted and used for darker and scarlet shades. It will be observed that the ammonia is driven away before the solution is used in color mixing, therefore any action it has had upon the cochineal must have taken place during the steeping, and remained permanent ; in fact, the investigations of chemists seem to prove that the ammonia, or some of its elements, have entered into intimate combination with the coloring matter of the cochineal, and then modified its properties. The following receipts for printing, in which cochineal, is the only or predominating coloring matter, are selected as characteristic specimens from a vast number in the author's possession : Deep Scarlet on Silk or Wool. S\ gallons cochineal liquor, containing 1 i Ib. cochineal per gallon, 36 oz. starch ; boil, and add J pint mixed berry and fustic liquor at 15, t 1 Ib. binoxalate of potash, 3 oz. crystals of tin, 12 oz. bichloride of tin at 100. The berry and fustic liquor in this receipt, giving a portion of yellow, make the shade more lively, turning it towards a flame color ; the binoxalate or, as it is sometimes called, the superoxalate of potash is useful as a foil upon which the excess of acid in the tin solution may spend itself, liberating oxalic acid, the presence of which is favorable in cochineal colors. Crimson or Mallows red. Silk and Cha Us. 1 Ib. ammoniacal cochineal, dry, 2 quarts water, boiled and strained, 1 Ib. gum, in powder, 1 oz. alum, 1 oz. acetate of lead, oz. Tartaric acid, 2 oz. oxymiariate of tin. This color is for block; if required for machine the thicken- ing must be altered. I have not tried this receipt, but I think the amount of alum is decidedly too small. 166 COCHINEAL COLORS. Blotch Red for Delaine. 6 gallons cochineal liquor, at 6, 1 gallon berry liquor, at 10, 10 Ibs. starch ; boil and add 2J Ibs. oxalic acid, 2 Ibs. crystals of tin. A strong red for objects may be made exactly as above, but the cochineal liquor must be stronger, and may go as high as 12 with advantage, especially upon the poorer qualities of delaine. Another Red for Delaines. In this receipt the cochineal liquor is prepared in a peculiar manner, caustic potash being used with a view to extract the coloring matter. It has yielded good colors in my hands, but I do not think there is much advantage in using potash for extracting the coloring matter. 30 Ibs. cochineal, 25 gallons water, 1 gallon caustic potash, at 9, leave in contact twelve hours ; boil, strain, and treat the residue twice over with water and potash, then boil the whole down to fifteen gallons. The liquor stands at about 8, and is some- what pulpy or gelatinous. 1 gallon of above liquor, \\ Ib. starch, 6 oz. crystals of tin; when cold, add, 6 oz. oxalic acid, J pint, of orange color. (See ORANGE.) The above receipts are sufficiently illustrative of the scarlet red shades from cochineal. To obtain the crimson and pink shades the ammoniacal cochineal is employed, and it will be noticed that, while tin is the mordant for the scarlet reds alu- mina is the mordant for the crimson and pink shades. The fact that tin mordants gave a shade more inclining to the orange, and alum mordants one inclining to the purple, has been long known, but the modification of the hue by the action of ammo- nia is of comparatively recent discovery. Although alum and the ammoniacal cochineal usually go together, yet some receipts will be found in which tin salts are used in conjunction with this preparation of cochineal; the result is then a dark red, which holds a position intermediate between the scarlet and the crimson. For this shade of red, seldom used in the designs of this country, no yellow part is admissible, it is consequently COCHINEAL COLOES. 167 a somewhat dull though a rich and solid color. The following receipt illustrates one of these colors: Amaranth Red for Delaine. 7J Ibs. of dry arnmoniacal cochineal, 2 gallons hot water, 1 pint acetic acid, Ib. alum, 9 Ibs. gum ; dissolve, and add 1 pint white muriatipjicid, . . - 2 oz. bichloride of tin, at 100. There is a free amount of acid employed in this color, partly for the purpose of neutralizing any ammonia left in the cochi- neal, partly to dissolve the alumina used in preparing the cochineal, and partly to facilitate the fixing of the color on the wool. The quantity of acid which can be advantageously used, depends upon the alkalinity of the ammoniacal cochineal. If the color be not distinctly acid the wool does not take the color ; if it be excessively acid the cotton does not take color ; and, in either case, "threadiness" ensues. If the utmost amount of acid be employed that can be safely used, the effect is to produce a simple red ; but, as the object is usually to obtain a crimson on the purplish side, the color is worked as neutral as possible, and generally with a faint excess of ammonia Crimson for Delaine. 10 Ibs. cochineal, 20 Ibs. strong ammonia ; steeped for 24 hours, then boiled and strained, 1 Ib. cream of tartar, the whole kept hot until the smell of ammonia is only faint; thickened with powdered gum Senegal, and while warm a half pound of alum per gallon of color is dissolved in. Just before the color is going to be worked, it is considered advisable to add a small quantity of ammonia to it, until it acquires the purplish shade which indicates a slight excess. If, however, any considerable excess of ammonia is present, tartaric acid or cream of tartar must be added. Pink colors are obtained by reducing crimson or amaranth with gum water ; or by direct preparation from a weaker solu- tion of ammoniacal cochineal. There are peculiar difficulties in obtaining the best crimsons and pinks on wool and delaine, which are only to be mastered by a very close attention to the colors. It is considered by some printers that the contact of copper is prejudicial to this class of colors, and they are particular to avoid copper vessels, 168 COLOKS. and have the color worked out of wooden boxes. It is true ammonia acts upon copper, but it is doubtful if copper is inju- rious to the color, and certainly the finished color should not contain any such excess of ammonia as would be likely to act rapidly upon metallic copper. African Cochineal. A substance so called is imported in small quantities from Algeria ; it yields red colors with alumina mordants, but possesses scarcely any other of the properties of the cochineal insect. It is not employed in Europe. Colors, Under this head I bring together several items of a general character, bearing upon all colors as such. Nature of Color. At first sight we conclude that colors are properties of bodies of the same nature as weight, size, hard- ness, etc. ; but a consideration of even ordinary phenomena would lead to doubt upon this point. We find colors of natu- ral objects varying at different times, and even showing different shades according as we look at them from one or another point of view. In soap bubbles, and thin films of tar upon water, we perceive the most beautiful colors, although certain that there is no coloring matter in them. In common spectacles and telescopes we find that the glasses have a tendency to give a colored fringe, like a rainbow, to objects seen through them ; fine spray of water, as in a waterfall, gives a rainbow exactly like the great natural rainbow, with all its gorgeous colors; and in numerous other cases we find that color must be traced directly to some particular action of light. Sir Isaac Newton caused a ray of sunlight to pass through a three-corned glass prism in such a way that the ray was twice bent from its direct path before it emerged into the air again. Instead of corning out as it entered the glass, this great philoso- pher found the light entirely changed; the one united ray of natural light was broken up into several rays of colored light, which diverged from the prism like a vertical fan, in the following order : Higher or more refrangible rays. Violet. Indigo. Blue. Green. Yellow. Orange. Eed. Lower and less refrangible rays. COLORS. 169 From this experiment, and others, Newton came to the conclu- sion that the pure light of heaven was not a simple body but actually a compound of the seven colors given above, and that ordinary eyes were not conscious of this fact, because the colors were so balanced in the mixture that their individuality was lost in producing the general effect. Many experiments might be cited to prove the reasonableness of this opinion, but they do not properly come within the scope of this work, and must be sought for in the elementary treatises on natural philosophy. In the meantime the reader may accept this as a fact, and then the theory of colors will be comprehensible. A body is said to be white when it receives the white rays of light and reflects them with moderate strength, and unaltered as to quality, to the eye of the observer. Thus, a sheet of white paper or white calico possesses moderate reflecting power, and sends off the light which falls from it without decomposing it, and produces the effect of whiteness, or distinct vision, with absence of color. A body is said to be black when it absorbs and quenches all the rays of white light falling upon it. There is no substance, at least we do not know any substance, which has this perfect blackness; for the consequence of a perfect absorption of light would be the invisibility of the object, and its form could only be perceived by its intercepting the reflected rays from conti- guous bodies. In a dim light there are, however, many sub- stances so black as to be quite invisible against a dark ground. Black and white, not being produced by the decomposition or splitting up of light, are, therefore, commonly said not to be colors ; however, for the printer and dyer, they are the most important colors, and have as much right to the name as red or blue. Colors proper may be conceived to be actually due to light, upon the following suppositions: First, that it is possible to separate a portion of the seven colored rays from the rest; secondly, that it is possible to so prepare a surface that one portion of the rays shall be quenched or destroyed, and the others left to reflect or shine out ; and thirdly, that the unde- stroyed rays will shine or reflect with their own color or colors. Suppose a surface of wood, calico, or silk, so prepared that all the colored rays, except the red, are absorbed or quenched by it, it will then appear to the eye just as if no light but red light illuminated it, that is, it will be red; again, suppose the surface to be of such a nature as to absorb all the colored rays except blue, then the color of the surface will be blue. The surface may be of such a nature that it will absorb five of the 12 170 COLORS. colored rays and reflect two, then the color of the body will be that produced by the mixture of the rays so reflected ; in like manner four rays may be reflected and three absorbed, or even six rays reflected and only one absorbed, thus producing all the mixed and compound shades. If this theory be correct, all the operations of dyeing and printing are merely directed to deposit such substances on the fibre as shall possess the properties of decomposing the light falling on the fibre, or, rather, of intercepting it, and causing one portion to be quenched and another to be reflected. The natural coloring matters, such as indigo, cochineal, anot- ta, etc., are themselves capable of so decomposing light, and when deposited upon cloth, even in very thin layers, produce the effect of coloring the cloth, so called; in fact, intercepting, more or less, the proper reflection of the cloth, and substituting their own. This theoretical view, which seems something superfluous with the ordinary vegetable dyeing matters (which are themselves erroneously looked upon as not only colored but coloring substances), may be more acceptable as explaining the production of strong and well-defined shades from sub- stances in themselves nearly, or altogether colorless. Such cases are Prussian blue from iron and yellow prussiate ; chrome orange from chrome yellow by means of lime water; the scar- let iodide of mercury from bichloride of mercury and iodide of potassium; and numerous .other cases familiar to chemists and colorists. It is true, that a change of color, or production of color, is accompanied by a change of chemical composition in the majority of cases knjwn; but, there are well-known instances of change of color without change of composition, and of the same chemical body having several different colors. Upon metals, bone, glass, and other surfaces, the mere ruling or impressing of very fine lines close together gives the surface the property of reflecting colored light; and this is actually a regular and well-understood method of obtaining colored effects, as in Barton's buttons, Nobert's bands, and De La Hue's prismatic films. Names of Colors. One of the greatest difficulties which a writer upon colors experiences resides in the fact, that there is no generally accepted and well-defined language in which he can express or indicate the shades of color he may be treating of. A practised eye can distinguish say ten thousand shades of color; but it is a question whether there are fifty names of colors which would convey the same idea of shade to any ten colorists in the world; the consequent hindrance to the com- munication of knowledge can be easily conceived. The natural and sensible plan of comparing a color to some common sub- COLORS. 171 stance, flower, plant, animal, or mineral, of similar shade, has been of great service, and, with a few exceptions, constitutes our nomenclature up to this date. Of the seven prismatic colors of Newton, the violet, indigo, and orange are named from the vegetable world ; the other four names require some ety- mological research to find their originals, if even they can be found; for, being simple colors, their names must be of great antiquity. Of the other more common colors, pink, lilac, peach, mallow, chestnut, cherry, etc., are from fruits and flowers; flesh, fawn, salmon, luff, chamois, etc., are from animals; stone, amber, emerald, aventurwe, etc., are from minerals. These, the least exceptionable names of colors, are far from being satisfactory ; they acquire a conventional meaning in certain countries and districts which is not the same in others. Who, for example, can dogmatically define the color of a cherry ? Who is to know thaty?es/i color does not mean the color of muscle but the color of skin, and what is the color of skin throughout the world ? Salmon color does not mean the color of the fish as caught, but of its flesh, and generally in the cooked state. Again, what is stone color? But, beside these, there are a number of names of colors so unfit, or so absurd, as to show but little taste or little invention on the part of their originators and adopters. Capucin, or Capuchin, and Carmelite, are from the dresses worn by the religious orders so called; but in Protes- tant countries this indicates very little since the orders are not in existence. Puce color has been boldly adopted by some English writers as flea cohr, and there cannot be much doubt that this unpleasant insect is the cause and origin of the name. But for a specimen of the resources to which colorists have been put for names, take that of fsabelle, which is a kind of buff orange. Clair Eugenie Isabelle was daughter of Philip II. of Spain, and wife to the Archduke Albert. She was pre- sent when her husband was besieging Ostend, and made a vow, most piously intended, not to change her linen until the town was taken. The siege was protracted for upwards of three years. The consequences to the Archduchess's linen may be easily imagined ; but the ladies of her court applied to art to effect for them what natural causes had done for their mistress; and the color so produced was thenceforward known as Isa- belle. If we take any single color, such as blue, we become imme- diately cognizant of our defective nomenclature; for we find in French and English books a vast number of names which can have no meaning without the eye has actually seen the color. For example, there is Chinese blue, Prussian blue, French blue, Haytian blue, China blue, and Saxony blue ; again 172 COLORS. there is king's blue, queen's blue, prince's blue, and royal blue; towards the sky we have celestial blue, cerulean blue, sky blue, azure blue ; and in the opposite direction, blue cTenfer, which name is not yet translated into English. There is also torquoise blue, ultramarine blue, and opal blue, from the mine- ral kingdom ; we find also bluebottle blue, pigeon blue, dam- son blue, chemic blue, cassimer blue, and a number of others, omitting all those which are characterized by the name of the dyestuff from which they are derived. In the midst of this confusion of names any system which promises to bring some degree of order or regularity in the naming of colors deserves respectful attention. Such a system, moreover, coming stamped with the name of so eminent an authority as M. E. Chevreul, and the result of many years of patient investigation on his part, needs no apology for the space to devote to a very brief but sufficient abstract of his ponderous memoir in the 33d volume of the "Memoiresde 1' Academic." ChevreuVs System of Naming Colors. M. Chevreul has only six fundamental names of colors, which are the three elemen- tary colors, Bed, Yellow, and Blue ; and the three secondary colors, Orange, Green, and Violet. He arranges them in a circle, like the spokes of a carriage wheel. Commencing with red, and going to the right, the next spoke is orange, then yel- low ; after yellow comes green, which passes into blue, and then violet, which is upon the left hand of the red. There is thus produced a wheel of six spokes, at equal distances from one another, in the following order: Eed, Green, Orange, Blue, Yellow, -Violet. It may be observed that in such a wheel or circle, the secondary colors are placed between the primaries which compose them; and that the colors which are lineable on each side of the cen- tre are complementaries. Another spoke is placed between each of the six already in position, and a circle of twelve colors produced, which are as follows : Chromatic Circle of Twelve Colors. Red, Green, Red -orange, Blue-green, Orange, Blue, Yellow-orange, Blue violet, Yellow, Violet, Yellow-green, Red-violet. COLORS. 173 These colors gradually blend one into another ; but even an ordinary eye can perceive that between the red and the* red- orange there is room for four or five shades of color; and so also between each of the other couples. These are then placed in, and the circle or wheel may now be considered as filled up without interstice; and the colors present a gradual passing or shading into one another; the red becoming yellower until it is an orange, and this still yellower until it is a pure yellow. This yellow nfeets the blue until the middle point of green is reached, when it passes into pure blue, which in its turn passes through violet until it meets the red. A circle of seventy- two colors was thus constructed by M. Chevreul, assisted by persons skilled in discerning between slight differences of shade. This constitutes his complete chromatic circle, and the colors are named as follows: Complete Chromatic Circle of Seventy-two Colors. Red, six shades, catted Red, 1 red, 2 red, 3 red, 4 red, 5 red. Red-orange, six shades, called Red orange, 1 red-orange, 2 red-orange, 3 red-orange, 4 red-orange, 5 red-orange. Orange, six shades, called Orange, 1 orange, 2 orange, 3 orange, 4 orange, 5 orange. Yellow-orange, six shades, called Yellow-orange, 1 yellow- orange, 2 yellow-orange, 3 yellow-orange, 4 yellow-orange, 5 yellow-orange. Yellow, six shades, called Yellow, 1 yellow, 2 yellow, 3 yel- low, 4 yellow, 5 yellow. Yellow-green, six shades, called Yellow-green, 1 yellow- green, 2 yellow-green, 3 yellow-green, 4 yellow-green, 5 yellow- green. Green, six shades, called Green, 1 green, 2 green, 3 green, 4 green, 5 green. Blue-green, six shades, called Blue green, 1 blue-green, 2 blue-green, 3 blue-green, 4 blue-green, 5 blue green. Blue, six shades, called Blue, 1 blue, 2 blue, 3 blue, 4 blue, 5 blue. Blue-violet, six shades, called Blue-violet, 1 blue-violet, 2 blue-violet, 3 blue-violet, 4 blue-violet, 5 blue- violet. Violet, six shades, called Violet, 1 violet, 2 violet, 3 violet, 4 violet, 5 violet. Red-violet, six shades, called Red-violet, 1 red-violet, 2 red- violet, 3 red-violet, 4 red-violet, 5 red-violet. This chromatic circle is not imaginary, but actually exists, composed of dyed wools, while a good many copies, executed in chromo-lithography, are published more or less correct. Light and Deep Shades. So far as the seventy-two shades or 174 COLORS. hues of color go the circle is complete, but it is necessary to indicate the tone or depth of a color, or, in other words, the lightness or darkness of it. To define this M. Chevreul con- structed a circle, in which each of the seventy-two shades was dyed of twenty different degrees of depth, from the lightest which could be discerned from pure white to the most intense depth, approaching to brown black. These he calls tones ; and the lowest or lighest tones are near the centre of the circle, and the higher or darker tones near the outside or 'circumference. This circle, then, has seventy-two colors, each of twenty tones, or tints, as I prefer to call them, making a total of 1440 shades. To express which tint of a color is meant the number is writ- ten after, as, for example, 3 blue-violet 13 tint. As the num- ber of shades and tints above are by no means so numerous as the colors of all natural or artificial substances, it will fre- quently happen that the color of a substance does not coincide exactly with any of the 1440 shades, but falls between two of them, and not equally distant from each ; this relation is ex- pressed by fractions. Darkened or Broken Shades, The 1440 shades, defined above, are so many modifications of six colors, mixed two and two, of different depths. When these colors are mixed with gray or black they are modified, being darkened or 'broken. Be- tween the lightest gray and the deepest black Chevreul counts twenty equal tints, as of each of the shades in the circle. He conceives that each of the 1440 colors may yield nine distinct shades by mixing with black, and these are called the broken shades. The first broken shade of any of the 72 colors con- tains T V of black to y 9 ^ color, and the last T 9 of black to j\ color; the first yields colors only a little darker than the nor- mals, the latter yields shades hardly distinguishable from black. Multiplying the 1440 by 9, we have 12,960 broken shades, to which adding the 1440 pure shades we have a total of 14,400 colors all named and defined, besides twenty shades of gray. The blackening of a color is represented, in M. Chevreul's nomenclature, by a fraction following the name and preceding the tint, as, for example, slate color is 1 blue T 9 , 10 tint, which reads, number one blue, darkened with nine tenths black, the mixture being of the tenth tint. It does not appear that M. Chevreul has constructed, or that there exists anywhere a complete series of these 14,400 shades. In the plates to his memoir there are circles printed in color, which represent the 72 pure shades of a medium tint, and these broken down by mixture with black in nine different circles, making in all 720 shades; the twenty different tints of each shade are not represented in the plates; probably the pre- COLORS. 175 sent state of chromo-lithography does not permit of it being done with sufficient exactness. The learned author of this sys- tem has projected the idea of a chromatic hemisphere, to be made of pieces of porcelain tinted by firing to serve as an un- alterable standard of color; it is to be feared that the realiza- tion of this idea is very far distant, and as all dyed colors change by age the circles of M. Chevreul, constructed with so much labor and skill, will perish, and his labors remain a splendid but nearly useless monument of ingenuity. In order to illustrate the applicability of this system to actual colors, I give a list of several colors and colored bodies which are pretty well defined in common language with the names of the colors in Chevreul's system Amber in mass=2 orange 12 tone or tint. Amber in a thin slice=2 yellow-orange 11 tone. Amaranth = red- violet 12 tone. Amethyst=5 blue- violet from 3 to 16 tone. Apricot= orange 6 tone. Aventurine=l orange 14 tone. Blood, ox=l red 13 and 14 tones. Blue, indigo on wool = 3 blue 14 tone. Blue, pigeon = 3 violet 10 tone. Blue, royal = 3 blue 12 and 13 tones. B utter = yellow-orange 2 to 3 tones. Brick color =3 red orange T 5 12 tone. Bronze=3 yellow 20 tone. Brown =any one of the 72 colors when at 18, 19, and 20 tones are browns. Coffee roasted = 3 orange 18 and 19 {ones. Cinnamon = 3 orange 14 tone, and 2 orange T 6 ^ 9 to 12 tones. Capucin=3 red-orange, 10, 11, and 12 tones. Carmelite = 3 orange 15 tone. Carrot = orange 7 tone. Cherry = red 9 arid 10 tones. Chamois = 2 orange 2 to 6 tones. Chestnut (the fruit)=2 orange 16, 17, and 18 tones. Chocolate in cake=5 orange 18 tone. Cigar color =2 orange ^ 11 tone. Citron =4 yellow orange 6 tone. Crimson = 3 red-violet 10 tone. Emerald = 2 green 11 tone. Gold lace=4 yellow-orange 9 tone. Gray, silver=3 orange y 9 ^. Gray, blue=5 blue T 9 10 tone. Gray, brown = normal gray 12 to 15 tones. Gray, flesh=l red-orange t \. 176 COLORS. Gray, iron = 3 blue & 10 tone. Gray, lavender =2 blue- violet fa 6 tone. Gray, pearl=2 blue-violet T 7 2 and 3 tones. Gray, tan = 5 yellow-orange T 9 10 tone. Green, cabbage=3 yellow-green 6 tone. Green, turf=l yellow-green T 4 10 tone. Green, myrtle=3 yellow-green 12 tone. Green, apple=4 yellow-green 8 tone. Green, grass=5 yellow-green 9 tone. Isabelle = l yellow-orange. Lavender flowers=3 blue- violet 7, 8, and 9 tones. Leather=l orange T 4 a d dyed in the decoction In merino dyeing young fustic is extensively used for shades of golden yellow. The wool is not subjected to a previous mordanting but entered at once into the dyeing bath, which is made up with tartar, oxymuriate of tin, and the decoction of young fustic. 12 Ibs of wool require about 15 Ibs. of youn* fustic to dye a full and deep shade. Yellw Colors upon Silk ly Printing. Persian berries yield the coloring matter which is generally used in silk printing- bark liquor may also be employed, and decoction of turmeric. Yellow for Silk. 1 gallon berry liquor at 11, 8 oz. alurn, 8 oz. crystals of tin, 3 Ibs. gum. Another Yellow for Silk. li Ib. turmeric, 1J Ib. Persian berries; Boil these in water and reduce to two quarts, and add 2 oz. crystals of tin, 4oz. alum, 1 Ib. gum. Another Yellow for Silk. 3 pints turmeric liquor, 1 pint berry liquor at 5, 4 oz. alum, 8 oz. oxymuriate of tin, 1| Ib. gum. Yellows on Silk by Dyeing. For pure and bright yellows of a golden shade, weld seems the most suitable coloring matter. The silk is mordanted by working in a solution of aluni for about an hour, and then worked in decoction of weld, and raised by adding solution of alum. By substituting bark or fustic, or mixtures of the two, and by raising in tin spirits instead of alum, modified shades can be readily obtained. Picric acid gives very bright lemon yellow colors upon silk without mordant. 466 ZINC. Z. Zinc. The metal zinc is but little employed in dyeing or printing operations. It is not, like iron, actively injurious to colors or mordants, but it is rapidly corroded under the influ- ence of acids or alkalies, vessels made of it wearing out in a short time. Zinc combines with oxygen to form a white oxide, which is of a brilliant lustre ; it has been used as a pigment color in calico printing, being fixed by albumen. The oxide of zinc, made by burning, is the most suitable for this purpose ; that which is produced by precipitation being defective in soft- ness and lustre, probably owing to a different molecular arrangement. Oxide of zinc is soluble in ammonia, and nearly all the acids, yielding colorless salts, unless the acid be colored. The only zinc salts used in dyeing or printing are the sulphate, chloride, and acetate. Sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, can be prepared by dissolv- ing zinc scraps in weak oil of vitriol. As zinc mostly contains a small quantity of iron, it should be removed from the solution. This is done by adding a quantity of a mixture of chemic (chloride of lime) and water to the liquor when it is saturated with the metal; this mixture oxidizes the iron, and throws it down at the same time as an ochry powder. Pure sulphate of zinc gives only a white precipitate with yellow prussiate, and when mixed with strong ammonia gives a precipitate at first, which dissolves when sufficient ammonia is added. It is especially when sulphate of zinc is to be used for adding to red liquor mordants, or for mixing with the dung in cleansing or fixing alkaline pinks, that it should be free from iron. Sul- phate of zinc serves as a resist in several styles, and is a consti- tuent in what is termed " mild paste." A new use of sulphate of zinc has been proposed by Balard and Sacc, by which, if it turns out successful, this salt may be employed instead of tar- taric acid for discharge upon dyed grounds. They have found that if sulphate of zinc be mixed in certain proportions with solution of bleaching powder, it increases its power in about the same way as if acid was added ; and they have found that if dyed cloth (Turkey red for example) be printed with sulphate of zinc, and passed into bleaching powder, it discharges the color wherever the zinc salt was printed. The applications of this discovery have yet to be made upon the large scale, and it remains to be seen whether it will prove economical or practicable. Chloride of Zinc (Muriate of Zinc). This salt is easily ob- tained by dissolving metallic zinc in spirits of salts. It is not ZINC. 467 much used either in dyeing or printing. It is employed to fix the alumina of the alkaline pink mordant, and is added to some colors to keep them moist or soft, the muriate of zinc having a great tendency to attract moisture from the air. Nitrate of Zinc has been employed for the same purpose as the muriate of zinc, and especially in the case of red liquor pinks. It is made by dissolving the metal in weak aquafortis. Acetate of Zinc. This salt is very little used. It may be made by dissolving the oxide of zinc in acetic acid, or from the sulphate of zinc, by means of acetate of lead. It gives a beautiful orange yellow on silk and cotton with murexide. Zinc yields no colors except the white from the oxide ; it does not form colored compounds, and it has hardly any affinity for either vegetable or animal fibre. APPENDIX, DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING AS SHOWN IN THE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, PARIS, 1867. Extracts from the Reports of the International Jury* and from other Sources. IT is well known that silk, by the process of dyeing, can have its weight increased 10 to 40 per cent., and yet- give products of a good quality. The competition and the dearness of silk have been so great of late years, that, often, the weight of silk is increased 150 to 200 per cent, by dyeing, especially for blacks. Such silk is rough to the touch, without lustre, easily cut, and will not last. Heated to about 230 Fah., it will fall to pieces. By this process of over adulteration, silk increases much in volume, and the fibres, viewed under the microscope, are swollen. The swelling is also sensibly in proportion with the increase of weight. With mordants of tannin, tin, and oily substances, nearly all the new coal-tar colors have been fixed on vegetable fibres. Mr. Reimann, of Berlin, dyes cotton yarn with aniline colors, and without mordant, by effecting the operation in closed ves- sels, heated up to about 300 F. The shades, on leaving the apparatus, are said to be fast, but not bright. They are raised by another dyeing operation conducted in the open air. Such a process requires costly apparatus, does not allow an easy dyeing to a given shade, and, granting that the dyed ground is fast, it does not appear that the raising given after- wards will be faster than by the ordinary process. Neverthe- * Rapports du Jury International, publies sous la direction de M. Michel Chevalier, Membre de la Commission Imperiale. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1868. 470 APPENDIX. less, the application of dyeing under pressure in closed vessels, is a curious one, and might be used to advantage in other cases. Since Messrs. Tessid du Motay and Mardchal have succeeded in producing cheaply alkaline permanganates, these salts begin to be used for bleaching goods. By the decomposition of the permanganate, its oxygen destroys or modifies the substances foreign to the cloth, which are washed out. At the same time, oxide of manganese is precipitated upon the cloth, and is re- moved by washing in a dilute sulphurous acid solution. The solution of permanganate of soda is also to be employed in a dilute state. Feathers may be bleached by the process of Messrs. Viol and Duflot, as follows: Steep the feathers for from three to four hours in a tepid and diluted bath of bichromate of potassa with nitric acid, then pass through another bath holding a very weak solution of sulphurous acid, and rinse. Dyeing aniline black on wool has not been entirely success- ful, notwithstanding the chlorine process of Mr. Lightfoot. Some recent experiments, however, permit us to hope that ani- line black will be employed for wool as well as for cotton. Casein (curd of milk), as a mordant, is better dissolved in crystallizable acetic acid, or in a milk of lime. In the latter case, the colors are said to be faster than when using casein dissolved in ammonia water, or even albumen. But printing should be effected rapidly, because the paste loses its fluidity very rapidly, especially with ultramarine. By means of a metallic engraving in relief, which distributes drops of colored and melted resin on silk goods, Mr. Petitdidier imitates embroideries. Light tissues, like tulle or bobbinets, are also covered with drops of gelatin, or gum, which fall from rows of pins, variously arranged, according to the processes of Messrs. C. Depouilly, Meyer, and Agnelet brothers. By printing, in a peculiar way, silk warps previous to weav- ing, various combinations of figures and designs may be effected on the loom, without the expense of the cartoons of the Jacquard loom. The various aniline blacks, prepared whether by the bichro- mate of potassa, or by the chlorate, are soluble in a mixture of APPENDIX. 471 alcohol and sulphuric acid. This solution, thrown into a laree quantity of water, dyes animal fibres a fast gray For dyeing black on cotton, Messrs. Paraf and Javal, pass the cloth through a bath containing a mixture of sulphate of ani- line and bichromate of potassa. The color appears on the fabric immediately after it leaves the bath, the temperature of which must be kept a little below the freezing point, not above. Another method consists in mordanting the cotton cloth with chromate of lead, and then passing it through an acidu- lated bath of oxalate of aniline. In this case, the reaction taking place only on the cloth, the temperature has not to be so strictly low as in the former method. Mr. Dumas frees the indigo from its red and brown coloring substances by aniline. Indigo thus purified gives very good results when used in printing on cotton. One of our cotemporaries speaks of chloroform as being a solvent of indigo. Not having tried the process, we can but believe that the chloroform may be a solvent of the impurities of indigo, rather than of indigo itself. From the same source we find for dyeing animal fibres a silver gray color : Boil 10 pounds of wool in a bath containing 4 ozs. of sulphuric acid, and 4 ozs. of glauber salts (sulphate of soda). Then dye to the shade by means of iodine violet and some carmine of indigo. There are many recipes for the preparation of the printing paste for aniline black ; they can be summed up into a com- position of tartrate of aniline, sulphide of copper, chlorate of potassa, and sal-ammoniac, the whole thickened with a mix- ture of starch and torrefied starch, with enough water to make the volume of the aniline about one-tenth of the whole. Aniline black succeeds very well when printed wither under chrome orange. In this case the lead mordant is basic. Mr. Horace Koechlin has succeeded in printing aniline greens on silk and wool by adding alkaline sulphites to the color. For cotton goods, besides the sulphite, some tannin is neces- sary. The following are the values in coloring power of several madder extracts: That of Professor Eochleder, of Prague, is dry and equal to 140 times its weight of madder; that of Messrs. Pernod and Picard, of Avignon, is in paste and equal to 16 to 20 times its 472 APPENDIX. weight of madder; that of Mr. Schutzenberger, manufactured by Mr. C. Meissonnier, is also in paste and equal to 30 times its weight of madder. These extracts are free from resin, and therefore, can be thoroughly mixed with water, but they require a nice adjust- ment in the proportion of mordants. The steaming process lasts two or three times as long as with ordinary steam colors. The shades are also to be raised by drawing the printed goods through soap baths. No mixture of acids, oxidizing agents, or ageing is necessary. The principal mordants still used are those of alumina and iron. On the other hand, some persons assert that it is possible to print with these extracts, on tissues which have not been mor- danted. INDEX. Absorbent, 39 Accidental colors, 177 Acer rubrum, 50 Acetates, Article upon, 39 how employed in mordanting, 222 Acetate of alumina, 41 of lead, 47 of lime liquor for catechu brown, 129 of mercury, 345 of rosaniline, 24 of soda, Application of, in shaded styles, 403 Acetometer, 50 Aceto-nitrate of bismuth, 77 Acid, Acetic, 49 Aloetic, 60 Apocrenic, 68 Arsenious, 69 Carbazotic, 123 Carbolic, 9 Carbonic, 123 Chrysammic, 147 Citric, 148 Euxanthic, 212 Gallic. 232 Hydrochloric, 272 Isopurpuric, 301 Manganic, 343 Muriatic, 272 Nitric, 359 Nitro-cuminic, 361 Nitro-picric, 374 Oxalic, 371 Pectic, 324 Permanganic, 343 Picric, 374 Purpuric, 355 Purreic, 212 Rosolic, 398 Sulphuric, 15, 418, 443 Tannic, 423 Tartaric, 424 Uric, 442 Generalities upon, 50 vapors from steam colors, 415 31 Acids and acid vapors used to make gum substitutes, 264 as mordants, 11 Choice of, in safflower dyeing, 400 found in natural waters, 446 their actions upon fibrous matters, 215 Use of, in acting upon lac lake, 303 Various, as resisting agents, 394 what their action is in making ga- rancine, 233 ; Acidimetry, 51 ' Acorn cups of quercus aegilops, 443 Adrianople red, 52 i Adulteration of cochineal, 159 ! Aerugo, 52 ! Affinitv of oils for cotton illustrated, 348 of tin for cotton fibre, 433 African cochineal (Faille de mil) 168 Agaric, 52 ! Ageing, 52, 53 liquor, Receipt for, 54 Air, Action of, upon colors when dye- ing, 55 Moisture in, ascertained by the hygrometer, 275 Albumen, 11, 55 water. 13 Alcohol, 56 proportions as a solvent, 14 Aldehyd, green, 31 Alder bark, 57 Algaroba, 57 Alizarine, artificial, 328 Commercial, 57 quantity in madder, 336 Alkali, Action of, upon chrome colors, 142 Properties of an, 58, 59 Alkalies, Action of, upon cotton, wool, and silk, 217 Alkalies, Existence of, in water, 446 Alkalimetry, or testing of alkalies, 58 Alkaline garancine dyes up inferior colors, 237 471 INDEX. Alkaline- permanganates, 470 pink mordant difficult to use, 319 solutions of iron as mordants, 301 Alkanet root, 60 Alloxan used to dye woollen, 357 and alloxantine, 57 Alloy, 60 Aloes, tO Alpigny d', his theory of dyeing con- sidered, 203 Alterant, 60 Alum, 60 Action of, upon fibrous substances, 224 ammonia or potash equal for red liquors, 42 Burnt, 63 Chrome, 147 Patent, see alumina sulphate, 62 Use of, in red liquor making, 42 Alumina, 13, 61 acetate, 41 arsenite of, 11, 12 mordants by means of hyposul- phites, 276 Alumina nitrate, uses of, 62 oxalate, 62 sulphate, 62 Aluminate of potash, 59 of soda mordant, 19 Amalgams, definition of, 345 Amaranth red on delaine from cochi- neal, 167 from murexide, 387 Amber colors, Process of obtaining 63 Ameline, 63 Ammonia alum, see alum, 60 Action of, upon extract of indigo, 257 Action, upon wool and silk, 219 carbonate in urine, derived from urea, 442 liquor, 63 Ammonia muriate or sal ammoniac, 401 Use of, in extracting color of cochineal, 164 Ammoniacal cochineal, Preparation of, 164 Ammoniuret of copper, 185 Amorphous phosphorus, 374 Amylaceous matters, 64 Analysis of soap, 409 Analysis of water, 453 Anehusine, 64 Anderson's experiments on morinda citrifolia, 354 Aniline, 9 black, 35 Aniline blacks, 471 brown, 35 colors, 64, 97, 100, 230 grays, 38 green, 31 Methods of fixing, 65 olive, 33 orange and yellow, 31 purple, 26, 29 red, 24 rosaniline blues, 27 violet, 26, 29 yellow, 31 Animal fibres dyed gray, 471 dyeing of, 18 tissues, Effects of, upon mineral colors, 181 Animalization, 10, 65 Anotta, 66 as basis for brown color, 112 Antimony, 21 Apocrenic acid in water, 449 Appendix, 469 Applications of mordants, in various ways, 362 Apricot color, 68 Aquafortis, 68 see nitric acid, 359 Aqua regia, 68 Arabic gum, 261 Arabine, 68 Archil, 68 Archil chocolate colors on wool, 136 Areca nuts, 69 Argols, 69 see cream of tartar, 424 Arsenates, or arseniates, 69 Arsenate of potash as a resist, 395 Arseniate of chromium, standard for green, 146 of iron as a mordant, 301 Arsenic, or arsenious acid, 69 used in making stannate of soda, 437 Arsenite and arsenate of soda as dung substitutes, 155 Arsenite of alumina, 11, 12 of alumina, mordant, 20 of copper green, how applied to calico, 185 of rosaniline, 24 Arsenites, 70 Artichoke, Green dye from, 70 Artificial gums, or gum substitutes, 363 Ash pearl, 373 pink, see alkaline pink mordant, 59 soda, 410 Astringent blacks, 89 INDEX. 475 Astringents, their affinity for fibrous matters, 225 Astringents, Uses of in dyeing, 70 Atoms, 71 Authorities on coal tar colors, 10 Avignon madder, said to require chalk in dyeing, 334 Awlroot, 71 Azaleine, 24, 71 Azote, 71 Azotileine, 31 Azuline, 29, 71 Azure, 72 style, Resist for, 285 Azurine, 29 Bablah, 72 Balard and Sacc, proposed new dis- charge, 466 Bancroft, introducer of quercitron bark, 392 Bandanna style, 72 Barasat verte, or green indigo, 72 Barbary berries, 73 gum, 78 Barilla, 73 Bark, 73 alder, 57 chestnut, 132 its action, in garancine dyeing, 243 and madder used for cinnamon shades, 148 yellow and indigo blue combined, 255 of the black oak, quercitron bark, 392 of cork tree as a dyeing material, 186 of mahogany tree used in dyeing, 341 of mangrove tree used in dyeing, 343 (of oak used in dyeing, 361 of pomegranate, 379 Quercitron, used in the scarlet dye, 162 Barwood spirits, 438 Methods of using, etc., 73 Baryta, 74 sulphate used to adulterate starch, 413 Base, Definition of, 74 Bases which have been found in water, 446 Basic acetate of lead, 47 Basic salt, definition of, 75 Bassora, 75 Bearberry, 75 Beaume's hydrometer, 75 Berries, Persian and Turkey, 75 Berries used in conjunction -with garan- cine, 242 Betula alnus, see alder bark, 57 Bicarbonate of soda, 411 Bichloride of mercury, 21, 345 Bichloride of tin, Preparation of, 435 Bichromate of potash, 140 for discharging indigo blue, 192 Bichrome, 76 Bilberries, 97 Bile or gall, 76 Binitronaphthalic acid, 30 Binoxalate of soda, useful in certain colors, 191 Biphosphate of lime mordant, 19 Birch bark, 77 Bismuth as a mordant, 77 Bisulphate of soda, used to prepare extract of indigo, 297 Bisulphate of potash, 381 used in blues for cotton, 103 Bitartrate of potash, or cream of tar- tar, 424 Bixine, 77 see anotta, 66 Bixa orellana, 77 ! Blacks, So aniline, 471 ' Black and white due to light, 1 09 acetate of lime, 42 cochineal; its nature and origin, 159 color from garancine, mordant for, 240 colors, Methods of dyeing. 78 for printing on silk, 78 Difficulties in dyeing, 78 discharge for Turkey red, 1 97 for darkening chocolate, 137 from logwood detected by acids, 319 liquor, or iron liquor, 46 Blackening of madder by acids, owing to chlorogenine, 235 Bleaching, 89 by chlorine, Theory of, 133 feathers, 470 liquor, 95 powder, 93 powder, Use of, in clearing prints, 157 Sulphide of calcium used in, 417 Use of resin in, 396 with permanganates, 470 Bleu de Lyon, 28 de nuit, 27 de Paris, 28, 106 lumiere, 27 and violet de Mulhouse, 27 476 INDEX. Block printing, 95 tin vessels used in dyeing, 434 Blood albumen, see albumen, 55 Stains from, in dyeing, 96 Uses of, in dyeing, 96 Blue archil, 68 Chinese, 131 colors by means of indigo, see in- digo, 280 colors from Gardenia ar.uleata, 244 colors, Methods of producing, 96 colors obtained from red prussiate, 387 colors, Various names of, 105 discharge for Turkey red, 196 for finishing, see azure, 72 from aniline colors, 97, 100 Prepare for, upon delaines, 384 printing, 20 Prussian, Discharge for, 196 stone, 108 stone, see sulphate of copper, 184 ultramarine, 108, 441 vat for wool, prepared from indigo, 280 violet, 28 vitriol, see sulphate of copper, 184 Blues, 26 upon wool, Testing of, 98 Bluish-purple, 30 Bolley's sulphate of indigo, 297 Bone size liable to mildew on fustians, etc., 246 Borax, 108 Bottger process, 23 Bowking in bleaching, 90 Bowling or washing indigo dipped goods, 284 Bran, 108 used in clearing dyed prints, 157 used in setting indigo vats, 281 Brauna wood, 109 Brazil or brasil wood, 109 wood pink on silk, 376 Braziletto, 110 Bresiline, see Brazil wood, 109 British gum, 110 or roasted starch, Properties of, 264 Broken or darkened shades of color, 174 Bromine, 110 Bronze colors, 110 Brook's process, 22 Broom, 111 Brown colors, Methods of producing, 111 colors for dyeing ongarancine, 241 . colors from catechu, 128 colors from catechu and madder, 339 Brown catechu for garancine and madder dyeing, 129 gray upon woollen, 252 maroon, 34 oil of vitriol, 418 sugar of lead, 47 Browning or saddening of colors, 117 Browns, 34 Brunette style, or dark garancine colors, 239 Bryum stellare, 354 Bubuline in cow dung, 118 Buccinum lapillus, Purple color from, 118 Buckthorn, dyers', Green colors from, 118 Buffaloes' milk, 120 Buff liquors, 118 and orange style, 141 colors, Methods of producing, 118 from anotta, see anotta, 66 Bulard, experiments of, 13 process, 15 Burnt alum, 63 Butternut tree, 120 Cactin, from cactus speciosus, 121 Cactus cochenillifer, or cochineal plant, 121 Calcined alum, 121 copper, 121 farina, 121 as a thickener, 264 Properties of, as a thickener, 265 Calcium, 122 sulphide of, 417 Calico printing with coal tar colors, 17 Camata and eamatina, see Valonia nuts, 443 Campeachy, see logwood, 317 Camwood, Colors yielded by, 122 Cannelle, or cinnamon colors, 147 Caoutchouc, 122 Capucine colors, 122 Carajura, or crajura, see chica, 130 Garbazotic acid, 123 see picric acid, 375 Carbolic acid, 9 Carbonate, Definition of a, 123 of ammonia, 442 of potash, 381 of soda, 238 Carbonic acid, 123 present in air, 55 Carmelite color, 123 Carmine, pure coloring matter of cochi- neal, 160 Various meanings of, 123 INDEX. 477 Carmine of indigo, see acetate of indigo, 45 Carragheen moss, 124 Cartamus or carthamus, 124 Carthamus or safflower, 399 Carthamine, coloring matter of saf- flower, 124 Caseine, or curd of milk, 11, 124 how best dissolved, 470 Catechu, Properties of, and methods of using, 124 brown colors for garancine dye- ing, 241 colors in madder and garancine dyeing, 128 colors, Resist for, 395 drab for madder and garancine, 199 Caustic potash, preparation and proper- ties, 379 Centigrade, or Celsius's thermometer, 427 Cerise, 26 brown, 35 Chalk, Use of, in red liquor making, 42 see carbonate of lime, 315 and other substances used in mad- der dyeing, 334 Chamois color, 130 or buff on delaine, 120 Charbon sulfurique, first name for garancine, 233 Charcoal, 130- used for sightening, 130 Chayaver, or chay root, 130 Cheese used as a vehicle for pigment colors, 305 Chemic, 130 blue, 105 chloride of lime, 93 Chemical black, 87 theory of dyeing, 205 Cherry red, 26 Chestnut bark and wood, 130 brown on silk and wool, 113 colors, 130 gray upon woollen, 253 wood used in the black dye, 79 Chevreul's examination of bablah, 72 system of naming colors, 173 theory of dyeing, 210 Chica, 130 Chicory, 131 China blue, 105, 131, 288 color from indigo, 288 Receipts for, 290 Chinjese blue, 105 green, 131 Chinoline, blue and violet, 30 colors, 18 Chintz colors, pasted or reserved, 395 Chlorate of potash, 182 used in steam reds, 393 used in ageing liquor, 54 Chlorides, General properties of, 132 Chloride of lime, Use of, in preparing delaines and woollens, 384 of lime, how employed in clearing prints, 158 of lime, bleaching powder, 93 of potassium, 21 of sodium, 411 of tin, or tin crystals, 434 Chlorine gas, 133 Action of, upon vegetable and ani- mal fibres, 216 bleaching, Theory of, 133 colors some bodies, 133 Chloroform to dissolve indigo, 471 Chlorogenine causes the dark color of garancine, 235 Chlorophyll, 134 Chloro-prussiate of potash, 386 Chloroxynaphthalic acid, 26 black, 35 Chloroxynaphthalate of ammonia, 31 Chocolate colors, 134 colors of a deep shade cannot be dyed witn madder, 238 colors, how produced from brown, 112 and dark greens, Prepare for, 384 Garnncine red liquor, suitable for 43 Chondrus crispus, 354 Chromate blacks, 78 of lead yielding amber color, 63 Chromates, 141 of lead, Properties of, 309 Chrome alum, 147 colors, 142 colors in dip blue styles, 285 orange, nitrate of alumina for cut- ting, 62 salts, 141 yellow and indigo blue combined for green, 254 yellow as basis for brown colors, 116 Chromium, Acetate of, easily decom- posed, 39 Oxide of, a pigment green, 254 Various colors from, 145 Chrysammic acid, 147 Chrysaniline yellow, 30 Chrystoluidine, 30 Cinnamon colors, 147 Citric acid, 148 Value of, as a resist, 395 Citron color, 151 478 INDEX. Clarke's process of purifying water by lime, 451 Cleansing or dunging, 152 Effects of upon gum thicken- ings, 269 Clearing effected by organic matters in water, 450 of dyed prints, 157 Uses of bran in, 157 Coagulation of albumen by heat, etc., 56 of colors prevented by acetic acid, 56 of red liquor by heat, 44 Coal-tar colors, 23 dissolution of, 13 dyeing with, 17 Cobalt acte as a mordant, 359 Coccus polonicus, or Polish berries, 158 Cochineal and extract of indigo for gray colors, 253 Article upon, 159 colors on wool, 161 Effects of mordants upon, 160 European, 158 liquor, dissolving effects upon mor- dants, 163 pink on silk, 163 scarlet, crimson, and pink, 160 substitutes from lac dye, 303 Cocoa nut tree as a dyeing matter, 159 Coez, prepared lakes for calico printers, 305 Colors adjective, see adjective colors, 52 coal-tar, 23 complementary, 179 Drying of, must be carefully per- formed, 202 derived from madder, 330 have not equal stability upon all fabrics, 181 how influenced by the nature of the thickening, 430 physical nature of, 168 influence of upon one another, 177 yielded by garancine and garan- ceux, as compared with madder, 238 Coloring matter of cow dung, Supposed utility of, 153 Common salt, chloride of sodium, 411 Complementary colors, 179 Compound blacks, 88 Contrasts of color, Laws of, 179 Copaiba pubiflora, or purple wood, 391 Copper acetate, 45 acetate used in red liquor making, 43 ammoniuret of, 185 Copper Article upon, 182, 183 Influence of, upon cochineal colors, 167 Prussiate of, used as a color, 148 salts, Uses of, in iron liquor, 46 salts and sal ammoniac, Uses of, 401 salts, very injurious to madder dyeing, 185 salts, Use of, in catechu colors, 126 soaps used as colors, 185 soap used as a resist in indigo styles, 395 sulphate used as a prepare for indigo dipping, 285 Copperas, see sulphate of iron, 299 calcined, 121 green, blue, and white, 186 Coppering of steam colors, 422 Coralline, 24 Cork tree bark, 186 Corrosive sublimate, see bichloride of mercury, 21, 345 Cotton, Comparison of Egyptian, In- dian, and American, as to capa- city for receiving colors, 186 and wool in delaine fabrics, how treated, 191 dyeing with coal-tar colors, 18 how affected by acids and other agents, 217 Cow dung, 187 upon what its efficiency rests, 153 ' used in clearing, 157 Cream of tartar, or bitartrate of potash, 187, 424 Crenic acid, an organic substance in water, 449 Crimson colors from red woods, 187 on delaine from cochineal, 166 on wool from cochineal, 165 standard for dahlia, etc., 189 upon silk from cochineal, 163 Crocetine, a yellow coloring principle, 188 Crocine, a yellow coloring matter, 188 Crum's applications of the gluten of flour, 247 method of testing bleaching liquor, 94 theory of dyeing, 206 Cruvelli lustres, 320 Crystals of soda, 188 see carbonate of soda, 410 of tin, or chloride of tin, 434 Crystallization from warm solutions, 457 Cudbear, similar to archil, 188 used to dye ruby colors on silk, 399 INDEX. 479 Curcuma longa, Root of, see turmeric 440 Curcumine, coloring principle of tur- meric, 188 Curd of milk, 11 Cutting or reducing of madder pinks, 337 Cyanine, 30 blue, 105 Cyanogen, 188 Dahlia, 28 Dahlia colors, Receipts for, 189 D'Alpigny, theory of dyeing, 203 Damajavag from chestnut wood, 130 Damp steam for steaming, 416 Dark brown, 34 indigo blue, 29 Dangville and Gauthier process, 12 Dead cotton does not receive colors, 186 Decomposition of salts by fibrous mat- ters, 220 Deep scarlet on wool by printing, 164 Delaines, Bleaching of, 93 Delaine or muslin de laine, 191 dyed crimson, 190 Greens upon, require care to pre- vent threadiness, 259 Deliquescent bodies absorb moisture, 191 Delph color same as China blue, 191 Dextrine, a gum substitute, 192, 267 Diastase, 192 Dichromate of lead, 141 Dip blue, 105, 192 by means of dissolved indigo, 285 Dipping of China blue colors, 288 Discharges, 12, 13 Discharge whites and colors, Receipts for, 192 Dissolution of coal-tar colors, 13 Distilled blue, used in dying green on silk, 260 see blue, 105 Divi-divi, an astringent substance, 192 Drab colors by dyeing and printing, Receipts for, 199 Drab colors from catechu and iron for garancine dyeing, 242 Drab on wool from catechu, etc., 127 colors are generally shades of gray, 249 Drying oil, attempts to obtain one for printing with, 362 Drying oils distinguished from rancid oils, 362 Drying of printed and dyed goods, 202 Dry steam in steaming prints, 416 Dumas, his theory of dyeing, 210 Dumas process, 471 Dung, its use in clearing mordanted goods, 153 of various animals used in dyeing, 203 substitutes, 153 Dunging, 203 see cleansing, 152 Durand process, 12 Dye stains due to sulphurous acid, 421 Dyeing, of garancine colors, General remarks upon, 239 General and theoretical remarks upon, 203 Importance of the operation of dunging in, 154 mixed fabrics, 23 Uses of tartar in, 424, 425 with coal-tar colors, 17 Dyers' buckthorn, Green color from, 118 spirits, 210 or tin solutions, 436 weed, name for weld, 210 Dyes, Injurious action of magnesia upon, 341 East India gum used by calico printers, 262 Ebony wood used in compound shades, 211 Efflorescence, or spontaneous drying of salts, 211 Ecjg, White of, see albumen, 55 Elder berries, 97 Embroideries imitated, 470 Emeraldine, 33 new green coloring matter, 211 Emulsion, formed by different kinds of oil, 364 Epsom salts, 341 or sulphate of magnesia, 211 Equivalent weights, Applications of, to practice, 211 Erica or heath, used in dying, 212 Erythro-benziue, 25 Erythrozym, a fermenting principle in madder, 328 Ethylmauvaniline, blue and violet, 29 Ethyl violets, 28 European cochineal, coccus polonicus, 158 Euxanthic acid, a yellow coloring mat- ter, 212 Exposure on grass to clear the whites of dyed prints, 157 Extract blue upon silk, 97 of indigo, 296 Extraction of madder not yet accom- plished, 324 480 INDEX. Fading of colors through the action of light, 312 Fahrenheit's thermometer, 426 Farina when calcined gives a substitute for gum, 264 or potato flour, used in finishing, 212 Fast colors, how defined and tested, 180 blue, 105 blue, a color so called from indigo, 295 Fat oils distinguished from essential oils, 362 Fatty compounds of copper as colors, 185 Fawn color, how obtained by dyeing, 212 from catechu, 128 Feathers, "bleaching of, 470 Felting of animal fibres, what owing to, 461. Fenugreek, formerly used in dyeing, 213. Fermentation of gum water from artifi- cial gums, 269 Fernambuc wood, one of the red woods, 213 Ferric acid. 301 Ferridcyanide of potassium, 385 Ferrocyanide of potassium, 385 Ferro and ferridcyanide of potassium, 213 Ferruginous water, Tests for, 448 Fibres, animal, 18 do not all equally attract mordants, 352 of cotton, Various properties of, 186 vegetable, 18 Fibrous matters dissolved in cupreous solutions, 225 substances, General observations upon, 213 matters said to be injured by oxalic acid, 371 Filtering of water, 453 Fineness to which madder is ground, 321 Finishing blue, 105 Fish albumen, see albumen, 55 Fixing of colors and mordants by am- monia, 63 of mordants, Objection to the term, 153 agent for alkaline pink mordant, 59 Flavine, a preparation of quercitron bark, 226 Flesh colors, how obtained, 227 Flour, Properties and uses of, in calico printing, 228 potato, 212 Flowers of madder, Nature of, 323 or refined madder, 230 Foreign gums used for thickening mor- dants and colors, 262 Freezing of brown oil of vitriol, 419 French purple, or solid purple, 391 red liquors, Receipts for, 42 Froth in gum colors, Cause and pre- vention of, 267 Fuchsine, 24 one of the aniline colors, 220 Fulling or thickening of woollen fa- brics, 461 Fuming oil of vitriol, 418 Fustic, General properties of, 230 much used in woollen dyeing for greens, 258 Fustic lake for brown colors, 307 used in dyeing cochineal scarlet, 162 yellow combined with indigo blue for green, 254 Gall nuts, 231 tannic acid obtained from, 423 Gallic acid, 232 Gallipoli oil, 232 an inferior kind of olive oil, 363 Galls, Gray color from, for calico, 252 Black dye on silk from, 78 Garanceux or garancine made from spent madder, 236 Garancine, its peculiar advantages as a dye stuff, 239 for dyeing purples, see alizarine, 57 Manufacture and properties of, 233 Red liquor for, 42 work, how the whites are cleared, 158 Gardenia, a genus of plants yielding coloring matters, 244 Gardenia grandiflora yields a yellow coloring matter, 188 Garnet-red, 25 Gas blue or pencil blue applied in an atmosphere of gas, 293 Gelatine, 11 tannate of. 11 Geneva black, Method of dyeing, 82 Remarks upon, 82 German vat for indigo blue dyeing, 281 Gilding of thread and cloth by mechan- ical means, 247 Glauber's salts, see sulphate of soda, 245 Glucose applied to the application of indigo by printing, 294 Glucose possesses powerful reducing properties, 245 INDEX. 481 Glue applied to the fixation of pigment colors, 245 Gluten, 11 in flour, 229 Properties and attempted applica- tions of, 246 Glycerine, 12 Properties of, 247 Gobelin blacks, 81 Gold or amber color, Methods of apply ing, to textile fabrics, 247 Receipt for, 63 Golden rod, a yellow coloring matter 249 Grained or engrained colors, origin o' the term, 302 Grape sugar used in deoxydizing in- digo, 293 Gray acetate of lime, 48 argols, 69 colors upon various fabrics, 249 from aniline blacks, 471 on animal fibres, 471 Gray ness in greens corrected by cochi- neal, 259 Grays, 35, 38 Green, Chinese, 131 color from grass, see chlorophyll, 134 color upon woollen from flavine, 227 colors upon various fabrics, 255, 260 copperas, see sulphate of iron, 299 dove color from madder and chro- mium, 147 dyeing, 18 indigo, 72 from artichokes and thistles, 70 pigment color from chromium, 145 sulphate of indigo, 256 vitriol, see sulphate of iron, 299 Green and bluish colors produced in madder liquors, 236 Greens, 31 aniline, 471 Greriat, 25 Grinding of indigo must be very com- plete, 279 Orisons' green sulphate of indigo, 257 Grit or sand in flour, How to detect and estimate, 228 Grit or sand in gum water, 269 Ground chalk used in madder dyeing, 315 Growse's or London pink, see bran, 108 Grumel's patent for dyeing black, 83 Guignet's green, 145 Gum, Barbary, 73 Bassora, see Bassora, 75 chocolate for delaine, 113 Gum Inferior kinds of, see Barbary gum, 73 Properties and uses 'of, in calico printing, 261 substitutes, method of manufac- ture and properties, 264 thickenings, 13 thus, used in bleaching, 271, 398 Use of, in albumen thickening, 55 water, 13 Gums as thickeners, 432 Gypsum as a thickener, 430 Hachrout, a dye-stuff similar to mad- der, 271 Half discharge for indigo blue, 194 Hanging or stoving, see ageing, 54 Hardness of water, Estimation of, 454 Hard water caused by lime, 446 Harmaline, 30 coloring matter, so called, 271 Hartshorn, a name for ammonia, 272 Spirits of, see ammonia, 63 Hat black, 79 Hausmann upon the supposed necessity of chalk in madder dyeing, 333 Havana brown, 34 Heat glass, see thermometer, 426 Heath used as a dyeing material, 212 Hellebore, Three-leaved, contains yel- low coloring matter, !272 Helleborus trifolius, 272 Hellot, his theory of the cause of dye- ing, 205 Hernatine, coloring principle of log- wood, 272 Hematosine, coloring principle of blood, 272 Hematoxyline, coloring principle of log- wood, 272 Hemlock spruce used for dyeing, 272 Henna, as a dyeing material, 307 Hesse process, 13 Hiccory for producing yellow and green colors, 272 Hindoos used acetate of alumina, 41 Hofmann's violets, 28 Hot vat for dyeing blue on woollen, 281 Hydrate, a chemical term for watery substances, 272 Hydrochlorate of rosaniline, 24 Hydrochloric acid, Various properties of, 272 Hydrometer, Beaum6's, 75 not a proper test for gum water, 268 or Twaddle, Real uses of, 274 Hygrometer for ascertaining dryness or dampness of air, 275 482 INDEX. Hypochlorite of lime, a name for bleach- ing powder, 276 Hyposulphites used as mordants, 276 Ice as a preservative of lactarine, 305 Iceland moss, 124 Imitation of embroideries, 470 Imperial ruby, 25 Improvers for iron liquor, 47 Incrusting water bad for dyeing, 454 India rubber, 124 Indian yellow, Nature of, 212 Indigo acetate, 45 Article upon, 277 blue and chrome yellow combined, 254 blue on wool, Testing of, 98 blue, Discharges for, 192 Discharge of, by means of red prussiate and alkali, 386 dissolved by chloroform, 471 freed by aniline, 471 Green, see barasat verte, 72 Indisine, 26 Inferior indigo gives good results in the vat, 284 Injury to silk by dyeing, 469 Insolubility a necessary condition in a mordant, 351 Introduction, 9 Iodide of ethyl green, 32 Iodine, 297 violets, 28 Irish moss, 124 Iron acetate or iron liquor, 46 as a constituent in water, 448 buff, Discharge for, 198 buff liquor and colors, 118 existing in alum, Tests for, 61 liquor, Manufacture of, 46 liquor, Testing of, 47 mordants, Action of caustic soda upon, 154 mould removed by acids, 298 Per acetate of, easily decomposed, 39 To free zinc salts from, 466 vessels, how prepared and cleaned for dyeing in, 298 Isatis tinctoria, 301 Isopurpurate of potassa, 25 Isopurpuric acid, 301 Ivory black, 302 Jamaica wood, 302 Jaune d'or, 30 Javal and Gratrix process, 21 Kaolin, 13 Kiippelin's paste, 37 Kermes, an ancient red coloring mat- ter, 302 Knoppern, a tannin substance, 303 Koechlin, Camille, experiments upon madder, 326 Koechlin, Daniel, upon use of alkalies in madder dyeing, 334 Koechlin, H., aniline greens, 471 Koechlin, M. D., red liquors, 42 Koechlin's discharge upon Turkey red, 195 Kopp's process for printing, 20 Lac-dye or lac-lake, 303 Lactarine, 11 used for pigment colors, 304 Lakes, Generalities upon, 305 Lant, see urine, 442 Lavender colors, how produced, 307 Lawsonia inermis, or Henna, 307 Laws of contrasts of colors, 179 Lead acetate, see acetate of lead, 47 Acetate of, use in red liquor mak- ing, 42 and its compounds, 308 chromate, 141 mordant, 19 nitrate, used for chrome orange, 143 salts, 11 Sugar of, see acetate of lead, 47 sub-acetate for chrome orange, 144 sulphate used in resists for indigo dipping, 286 Lead used to adulterate cochineal, 160 Leiocome a gum substitute, 310 Lemon juice, 150, 310 Lemon yellow on calico, 144 on wool, 151 Leucaniline brown, 34 Libi-davi or divi-davi, 310 Lichens as yielding dyeing matters, 310 Light, decomposition of, by the prism, 168 How colors are produced by, 169 Various actions of, upon colors, 311 Lightfoot's patent for use of glue in fixing colors, 246 Lightfoot's chlorine process, 470 Lightfoot's process, 35, 36 Lignine, basis of vegetable fibrous mat- ters, 213 Ligustrum Vulgare, Berries of the, used in dyeing, 385 Lilac, Chocolate and wood colors, pre- pared for, 384 Lilac colors from madder, 329 colors from logwood, cochineal, etc., 313 INDEX. 483 Lilac- dark, for dahlia and compound shades, 190 from alkanet, 60 standard for brown colors, 117 Lima wood, 314 Lime acetate, see acetate of lime, 47 Acetate of, used in red liquor mak- ing, 42 Action of, upon cotton and other fibres, 219 Article upon, 314 and copperas vat for indigo dyeing on wool, 280 ; on cotton, 281 Application of, in purifying water. 451 Chloride of, bleaching powder, 93 juice, 150 juice as a resist for mordants, 394 Milk of, used to neutralize garan- cine, 58 Plombate of, for chrome orange, 145 salts, Action of, in dyeing, 447 in water, Characters of, 446 water used to raise chrome orange, 143 Liming in bleaching, 89 Linseed oil, to prevent frothing of gum colors, 267 Uses of, actual and possible, 364 Liquor ammonia, 63 Litmus, 317 Litre, the French measure of liquids, 317 Littlewood and Wilson process, 22 Lloyd and Dale process, 22 Logwood, Article upon, 317 A gray color from, 251 blacks, 78 blue upon silk, 97 blue upon wool, 98 lake with copper and bichromate, 306 prohibited for blue dyeing, 100 Use of, in purple colors, 389 Lucas paste, 37 Lucern root, 15 Lustres, or Cruvelli lustres, 320 Luteoline, 320, 460 coloring matter of weld, 320, 460 Madder, Article upon, 320 and bark usedfor cinnamon shades, 148 Catechu browns for, 129 colors, Action of soap upon, 406 colors, Discharges for, 194 dyeing, Bleach for, 90 Madder extracts, values of, 471 Method of converting into garan- cine, 233 Red liquors for, 43 some roots of a similar nature, 329 Treatment of, by various acids, 234 used in setting indigo vats, 282 whether improved by age or not, 321 Magenta, 24, 340 crystals, printing with, 20 dyeing with, 18, 19 see aniline, 64 Magnesia and its salts, 341 as a constituent of water, 448 Mahogany color, 342 Maize color, 342 Mallow, mallows, or mauve color, 342 Mallows red or crimson upon silk and chalis, 165 Manchester black, 85 yellow, 30 Manganese, Acetate of, 49 and its compounds, 342 bronze, 110 bronze colors, Discharge for, 198 Manganic acid, 343 Mangrove tree bark used in dyeing, 343 Manjit or mungeet, 354 Maple, Scarlet flowering of American, 50 Maroons, 34 Maroon colors, see chestnut, 130 Mason's hygrometer, 275 Mastering or ageing of logwood, 318 Mathered blacks, 78, 89 Mauvaniline, 29 Mauve, 26 color, 64 Perkins' patent, 344 Mauveine gray, 38 Mazarine blue, 344 Mechanical theory of dyeing, 204 Mercer's discharge upon indigo blue, 194 method of treating calico with caustic, 216 Mercer and Greenwood's patents for treating oils, 366 Mercerized cloth, patent, Concerning, 344 Mercurial salts employed in the prepara- tion of murexide red, 356 Mercury and its salts, 344 bichloride of, 21 Merino, Black for, 84 484 INDEX. Metals in leaves applied to cloth, mus- lin, etc., 247 Metallic colors, 346 produced by means of hyposul- phites, 276 Methods for dyeing and printing, 17 Methylaniline violet, 29 Methylated spirits, 56, 346 Methylrosaniline violets, 28 Michel ; his attempts to obtain a natu- ral green, 131 Mild paste, 51 Mildew preventible by carbolic acid, 246 Milk, Buffaloes', used in dyeing, 120 curd of, 11 of lime, 315 Miller's process, 22 Mineral colors upon animal fabrics, 182 thickening matters, 430 Mixed brown, 35 fabrics ; methods of dyeing single and double colors, 346 fabrics, dyeing, 23 green, 31 Moisture in air essential in ageing, 53 increases the brightness of colors, 202 Monteith's process of discharging on Turkey Red, 194 Mordants, 10 Mordant, Active and inactive, see shaded styles, 404 Albumen acting as, see animaliza- tion, 65 Alum and tin, with cochineal, 161 Article upon, 350 Colors yielded to, by cochineal 160 employed for madder purples, 331 for coal-tar colors, 469 Injurious action of sugar upon, 416 made with hyposulphite of soda, 276 Oil acting as a, 366 Oxide of lead as, 310 Precautions in dyeing of, 204 Preparation and thickening of, for garancine colors, 240 Spinel, 411 ' Tin salts considered as, 438 Wool considered as, 461 Morinda citrifolia, a substance similar to madder, 354 Morine, 354 Moss, Iceland, Irish, or Carragheen, 124 Mosses yielding coloring matters, 354 Mourning gray on delaine, Receipt for 251 on wool, Receipt for, 253 Mousseline delaine, 191 Mulberries, 97 Munjeet similar to madder, 329 does not lose much weight by being made into garancine, 234 Mureine grays, 38 Murexide or Roman purple, 354 Muriate of alumina used as a mordant, 276 of ammonia, 401 of chrome standard, 146 of copper, Uses of, 184 of iron liquor, 300 of manganese or bronze liquor, 343 of tin, 434 Muriatic acid, 272 Action of, upon cotton, wool, and silk, 216 Muriatic acid may be used to make garancine, 236 Muslin or mousseline de laine, 191 Myrabolans, 358 Names of colors, 170 Nankeen colors from iron, anotta, etc., 358 colors from cork tree bark, 186 Naphthaline, 9, 358 Naphthylamine yellow, 30 Navy blue, Resist for, 286 Neb-nab, 72 Nenuphar, or white water lily, 358 Neutral paste, 51 Neutralization of garancine, a most important point, 238 Nicaragua wood, 358 Nicholson's process, 15 Nickel, 358 Night blue, 27 green, 31 Nitrate of alumina for chocolate, 139 of copper, Uses of, 184 of iron, Making and properties of, 300 of rosaniline, 24 of soda, 411 Nitric acid, Action of, upon cotton, wool, and silk, 215 can be used to make garancine, 236 Strength and properties of, 359 Nitric oxide and nitrous acid, 360 Nitro-cuminic acid, 361 Nitro-picric acid, see picric acid, 374 Nitrogen in air, see air, 55 Nitrogenous matters, Definition of, 361 INDEX. 485 Nitrous acid in tin solution for cochineal scarlet, 161 Nitrous gases in vitriol injurious, 419 Nona, 361 Nopal, the cochineal tree, 159 Nordhausen vitriol used for extract of indigo, 418 Nuts, Areca, 69 gall, 231 valonia, 442 Nymphoea alba, or white water lily, 358 Objects, Color of, defined by Chevreul's system, 173 Odor of bad soap or oils adheres to cloth, 407 Oils and fatty matters, Article upon, 361 as mordants, 11 Oil, Use of, in spinning wool, 443 Oil of vitriol, see sulphuric acid, 418, 443 Old fustic, 230 Olive brown, 34 colors, 369 green, 33 oil, called Gallipoli oil, 363 Opaline Hue, 106 Oranges, 30 Orange, antimony, 67 color in garancine styles, 49 colors, 370 colors from chrome, 142 mordant for garancine dyeing, 242 paste for indigo dipping, 287 Orelline, see anotta, 66 Organic matters in water, 444 Orleans, see anotta, 66 Orpiment, or red arsenic, 371 used in making pencil blue color, 291 Oxalic acid and oxalate of potash, 371 Ox-gall, 76 Oxidation during ageing but slight, 53 Oxides of copper as mordants and colors, 183 of iron, Properties of, 298 of lead as mordants for colors, 309 of tin, 434 Oxidizing action of copper salts, 183 agents necessary for red woods, 393 Oxygen, 372 . Quantity of, in air, 55 Oxymuriate of tin, mordant, 19, 436 for cutting pinks, 337 Ozone, Properties of, 372 Paille de mil, 168 Palm oil, Properties and uses of, 366 Paluds madder requires no chalk in dyeing, 334 Panama bark, 15 Paraf process, 12 Paraf's paste, 37 Paris blue, 106 Paris violet, 29 Parisian blue, 106 Parme, 30 Paste blue, 106 brown chocolate for delaine, 137 for printing aniline black, 471 neutral, 51 Pastel or woad, 373 Pastes, 36, 37 Pastes or reserves, 394 Pastiness and thickening of solutions of gum, 2G7 Patent for garanceux proved invalid, 233 alum, 62 Pattison's lactarine, 304 Payen's gum substitute, 2G4 Peachwood, 373 the manner in which it influences garancine colors, 243 Pearl ash, 373 Pearl gray colors, Receipts for, 249 Pectic acid in madder, 324 Peels of walnuts used in woollen dyeing, 443 Peganum harmala, Seeds of, contain a coloring matter, 271 Pencil blue, 106 color from indigo, 292 Penetrating powers of thickeners, 431 Peonine, 24 Perkins' violet, 26 Perkins and Gray's patent for fixing aniline by lead mordants, 310 Permanganates, alkaline, 470 Permanganic acid, 343 discharge by, 12 Pernoud and Picard's madder extract, 472 Persalts of iron, 299 Persian berries, 75 Persoz ; his theory of dyeing, 206 Petitdidier's imitation of embroideries, 470 Phenicienne, 34 Phenylamine blue, 30 Phoenicine, 25 Phosphate of lime as a mordant, 316 Phosphates, Properties of, 374 of soda, Application of, to precipi- tate mordants, 404 Phosphine, 30 Phosphorus, 373 Phosphuretted hydrogen used to pre- cipitate metals, 248 486 INDEX. Photographic impressions upon calico, 812 Picrates, 30 Picric acid, 30 article upon, 374 as the yellow part in greens, 257 Pigment colors, Albumen used to fix, 66 fixed by silicate of soda, 405 principles of their application, 375 Pincoff's commercial alizarine, 57 Pink colors from cochineal, 163 colors from madder, 337 colors from safflower, 400 colors, Receipts for, 376 crystals, double chloride of tin and ammonia, 188 from cochineal upon silk, 163 mordant, Alkaline, 69 Oxymuriate of tin for, 438 Red liquors proper for, 45 salts, muriate of tin and ammonia, 378 standard for dahlia and other co- lors, 189 Pipeclay as a thickener, 430 Uses of, in calico printing, 378 Plaster of Paris or sulphate of lime, 316 Plombate of soda yellow on calico, 144 Plum color and plum spirits, 379 spirits, 438 Polish berries, 150 Polychroite, coloring matter of saf- flower, 401 Polygonum tinctorium, 379 Pomegranate bark, 379 Ponceau d'aniline, 25 Poppy reds by means of snfflower, 400 Pores in fibrous matters, Speculations upon, 204 Potash and its compounds, 379 Action of, upon cotton, wool, and silk, 217, 219 alum, see alum, 60 aluminate of, 59 Bitartrate of, 424 caustic used to extract cochineal color, 166 chlorate of, 132 chlorate, Use of, in ageing liquor, 54 chromate, and bichromate of, 1 40 Citrate of, acts as a resist, 150 sulphate, Supposed advantage of, in madder dyeing, 335 used to adulterate lime juice, 151 Potato flour, 212 Precipitated blue from indigo fixed by alkalies, 295 Precipitation, 16 i Preparation of cotton for Prussian blue, 103 for indigo dipping, 282 of lac for dyeing, 304 Prepared rosin for bleachers, 396 Preparing for steam colors, Article up- on, 381 salts, 436 Pressure, dyeing under, 469 Primula, 28 Printed pieces, Methods of discharging or bleaching, 192 Printing paste for aniline black, 471 with coal-tar colors, 17, 20 without Jacquard loom, 470 Privet berries, 97 used as dye stuffs, 385 Process of BSttger, 23 of Brook, 22 of Dangville and Gauthier, 12 of Durand, 12 of Hesse, 13 of Javal and Gratrix, 21 of Kopp, 20 of Littlewood and Wilson, 22 of Lloyd and Dale, 22 of Miller, 22 of Nicholson, 15 of Paraf, 12 of Rangod-Pechiney and Bulard, ] 5 of Schultz, 12 Prof. Javal process for black, 471 Proteine for pigment colors, 385 Protosalts of iron, 298 Prussian blue, combined with fustic to produce green, 255 Discharge for, 198 Various receipts for, 107 blues, Dyeing of, upon silk, 96 ?russiate of potash, 385 Puce color, or flea color, 388 Puce-colored oxide of lead, 310 fuchsine, 34 Pulp of tin, see prussiate of tin, 387 Purification, 16 of water for dyeing purposes, 450 Purple colors from garancine, Mordants for, 239 colors from madder, 330 colors, Receipts for general, 388 Dark, for dahlia, etc., 190 m used in madder styles, 331 eart wood, 391 mallows, supposed to be used in dyeing, 342 Pale, standard for dahlia and other shades, 189 Purples, "26 / Purpuric acid, a constituent ormurexide red, 355 gu he INDEX. 487 Purpurine, a principle contained in madder, 329 Purreic acid, a yellow coloring matter, Putrefaction of cochineal extracts, 160 Pyrophosphate of iron as a mordant, 301 Pyroxilized cotton, 391 Pyroxilizing of cotton by nitric acid, 216 Quercitron bark, 392 how it influences garancine colors, 243 Quercus regilops, 443 , Quillaya saponica, 15 Quinoiine blue, 108 Radix saponica, 15 Raising of colors, see alterant, 60 Rancid and drying oils, 362 Rangod-Pdchiuey process, 15 Raymond's solution, 96 Realgar, 392 Reaumur's thermometer, 427 Red, Adrianople, 52 aniline colors, printing, 18 archil, 68 argols, 69 arsenic, 69 chocolate on wool, 136 chocolate on calico, 139 chrome, 140 colors, Receipts for, 392 colors from chica, 131 colors from garancine, Mordants for, 239 colors from lac dye, 303 color from madder, 338 colors of Malabar and Coromandel from chayaver, 130 from barwood, 73 from cochineal for delaine, 166 from murexide, Process of, 356 lead, 309 liquor, see acetate of alumina, 41 mordant, see acetate of alumina, 41 prussiate of potash, 386 saunders wood, see santal wood, 402 spirits, 438 tartar, see cream of tartar, 424 woods, 394 Reds, 24 steam, Oxalate of ammonia used in, 60 Refined indigo nearly pure indigo, 279 Regina purple, 29 Reimann's process for aniline colors, 469 Reseda luteola, or weld plant, 460 Resin, 396 Resins as mordants, 11 Resmate of soda, see rosin soap, 396 Resinous gums distinguished from other gums, 261 Resists or reserves, Article upon, 394 Resist or catechu brown for madder dyeing, 340 for China blue, 291 for indigo styles, 285 red, Red liquor for, 42 red for garancine colors, 239 Resistant, Citric acid as a, 149 Retention of mordants; how explained, 353 Rice flour starch, 414 Richardson's patent for dyeing black, 82 Rhamnine, see berries, 75 j Rhus cotinus or young fustic, 230 I Rochledor's madder extracts, 471 Rock or roach alum, see alum, 60 Roman alum, see alum, 60 purple dyed with alloxan. 57 Root, Awl, 71 Rosaniline, acetate of, 24 arsenite of, 24 dyeing with salts of, 1 8 green, 33 hydrochlorate of, 24 nitrate of 24 or Magenta, 398 Roseiue, 24 Rosin and rosin soap, 396 Rosolane, 30 Rosolic acid, 26, 398 Rosotoluidine blue, 30 Rothine, 34 Rotting or tendering of cloth by rust spots, 299 Rot steep in bleaching, 90 Roussin's artificial alizarine, 328 Royal blue, 108 on wool, 101 on delaines, 102 Rubian, an important principle in mad- der, 329 Rubine, 24 Ru-bis imperial, 25 Ruby colors, 399 soluble, 25 Sacc and Schlumberger upon uric acid colors, 355 Saddening or browning of colors, 117 Safflower, Article upon, 399 and Prussian blue for lavender colors, 308 Safranine, 31 Saffron yellow, 401 Sago flour, 414 Sal ammoniac, 401 Use of in catechu colors, 128 488 INDEX. Salmon color, 402 Saltpetre an hygroscopic agent, 381 Salt of Saturn, see acetate of lead, 47 Common, used in red liquor mak ing, 43 Salts, Action of, upon fibrous substances, 220 Chemical, tried as additions in madder dyeing, 335 Sand, Use of, in filtering water, 450 Santal or sandal wood, 402 Santa Martha wood, 402 Sapan wood, 402 extract in red colors, 393 lake or pulp, 306 pink, 376 Saunders or santal wood, 402 Saw wort, a yellow coloring matter, 402 Saxony blue, 108, 296 Scarlet from cochineal, Use of yellow coloring matters in, 162 on wool from cochineal, 161 Schlumberger upon iron liquor, 47 Schlumberger's estimate of coloring matter in madder, 326 Schisckkar and Calvert's patent for producing metallic colors, 346 Schultz process, 12 Schunck, Dr., his researches upon mad- der, 327 Sedimentary matter in lime juice, 150 Senegal gum used by calico printers, 262 Shaded styles by precipitation, 403 Sightening, Berries used for, 76 Ground charcoal used for, 130 Silk as a fibre, 405 Bleaching of, 93 dyeing with coal-tar colors, 17, 18 'how affected by acids and other agents, 214 report on, 469 weighted by tannic matter of gall nuts, 231 Silica, 13 or silicate of soda, 404 Silicate of soda as a dung substitute, 1 55 Silver or white cochineal, its origin, 159 gray for wool, Receipt for, 253 gray on animal fibres, 471 Single and double dyeing on mixed fabrics, 346 Size or glue, its influence in garancine dyeing, 245 General properties of, 246 Sky blues upon silk, 97 Skyeing by means of indigo, 284 Slate color, Standard for making, 250 Slimes, an inferior kind of starch, 414 Soap, Article upon, 406 from linseed and other oils, 364 Soap- mordant, 12 of copper used as a resist, 395 Soft, used as a resist for indigo dipping, 285 test for hardness of water, 454 Soaping of madder colors, 336 Soaps of copper as colors, 336 Soapwort as a solvent, 15 Soda, Acetate of, 49 Action of, upon fibrous matters, 217 and its compounds, 409 arsenite, arsenate, and silicate, as dung substitutes, 155 bicarbonate, 411 binoxalate, 191 bisulphite, 297 black, 88 carbonate, used to neutralize acid in garancine, 238 caustic to Mercerize cloth, 344 chromate, 141 crystals, Use of, in making red liquors, 43 resinate, 396 silicate of, 405 stannate of, 11 sulphate, 245, 411 sulphite, 56 Soft soap, Preparation and properties of, 408 Solferino, 24 Solidago canadensis, or American gold- en rod, 249 Solidifying of calcined farina gum water, 265 Soluble blue, 108 blues, 27 ruby, 25 gum substitute prepared by means of acids, 265 Solution. Raymond's, 96 of tin of spirit colors, 438 Solvent for fibrous matters, ammoni- uret of copper, 185 powers of water, 457 Solvents, 14 Action of, upon madder, 322 Sooranjee, a species of madder, 354 Sorgho red, 411 Sorghum saccharatum, 411 Souring in bleaching, 91 Importance of, in preparing from stannate, 383 Souring used to clear madder colors, Specific gravity, numbers converted nto degrees of Twaddle, 275 Spent madder contains coloring matter, 325 INDEX. Spent indigo vats, Extraction of indigo from 285 Sperm oil, 363 Spermaceti, 366 black, 88 Spinel mordant, 411 Spirit brown, 115 chocolate for calico, 139 colors, 412, 438 yellow on cotton, 463 Spirits of hartshorn, a name for ammo- nia, 272 of salts, 272 of tin, Receipts for various, 438 of turpentine, 440 of wine, 56 Methylated, 56 Spring gr.een, 31 Spruce, hemlock, 272 Standards, Use of, in color mixing 250 Stannate of soda, 11, 436 Preparing cloth with, 383 Stannates, 412 Stannum, 434 Starch, Article upon, 412 and flour as thickeners, 433 Starching process, 23 Steam black, 87 Steam colors, Article upon, 414 coppering of, 412 Oxalic acid used in, 372 Preparation of cloth for, 382 Use of acetic acid in, 50 Use of bichromate for raising, 141 Sulphate of alumina, see aluinit 489 sul- Steaming colors, Observations upon, 415 of madder and acid in garancine making, 238 Steam water, Possible impurities in, 444 Stick-lac, 303 Stil de grain, 76 Stoving, see ageing, 52 Strong vat for indigo blue dyeing on cotton, 283 Styles of work derived from indigo dip- ping, etc., 285 Subacetate of lead for chrome orange, 144 Substantive colors, Definition of, 416 Substitutes for cow dung in dyeing, 303 for soap, 408 for tartaric acid, 425 Sugar, Article upon, 41 6 existing in some gum substitutes. 270 grape, 293 of lead, see acetate of lead, 47 32 phate, 62 distilled, 105 of baryta, see baryta, 74 of chromium standard, 145 of copper, 184 of indigo, 296 of indigo, Purification of, see blue of iron, 299 of mauveine, 26 of lead as mordant for chrome orange, 143 of manganese as a resist in indio-o dyeing, 341 of soda, 245, 411 of tin, 435 Sulphide of antimony, Uses of, 67 of calcium, 417 Sulphindylic acid, see acetate of indigo, Sulphites, 421 Sulphite of soda used to preserve albu- men, 56 of lime as anti-chlore, 67 Sulpho-muriate of tin spirits, 438 Sulphur or brimstone, 417 Sulphuretted hydrogen gas in steam- ing, 421 Sulphuric acid, 15 Action of, upon cotton, wool and silk, 214 action of, upon oils, 3G6 Article upon, 418, 443 to Mercerize cloth, 344 Sulphuring of woollen goods, 420 Sulphurous acid, 420 Sumac, Article upon, 422 how it influences garancine colors in dyeing, 244 Surat cotton as capable of being dyed and printed, 187 Talc, or French chalk, used to adulte- rate cochineal, 159 Tallow, 363 Tannate of gelatine, Supposed produc- tion of, in dyeing, 11, 244 of tin, as a mordant, 19 Tanner's bark, 423 Tannic acid from gall nuts, 423 quantity present in gall nuts, 232 used in fixing aniline colors, 65 Tannin, 11 for cotton goods, 471 mordant, 19 process, 20, 21, 22 Tarry matters, Utility of, in iron liquors, 46 Tartar, how employed in mordanting, 224 490 INDEX. Tartaric acid, Article npon, 424 Detection of, in citric acid, 149 Tea colors, 426 from chromium salts, 146 Tea drab color from catechu, etc., on wool, 127, 426 Temperature to be used in garancine dyeing, 243 Terra japonica, or catechu, 124 Tessie du Motay and Marechal's pro- cess, 470 Tests for quality of water, 453 Testing of alkalies, 58 Testing of indigo uncertain and diffi- cult, 278 Theories of dyeing Hellot, d'Alpigny, and others, 203 Theory of garancine making in an im- perfect state, 233 Thermometers, Article upon, 426 Thickening properties of natural gums, 263 Thickenings, Article upon, 13, 428 how affected in cleansing and dung- ing, 156 Thistle, Green dye from, 70 Thompson's discharge upon indigo blue, 192 green from indigo and yellow woods, 257 Threadiness an effect perceived in mixed fabrics, 191 Three-leaved hellebore, 272 Tin, Acetate of, 49 and salts of, used in preparing, 383 and compounds, Article upon, 433 chloride as alterant, 60 easily decomposed, 40 Granulated, used in deoxydizing indigo, 293 Muriate of, as a resisting agent, 394 powder, discharge by, 13 pulp or prussiate of tin, 387 rapidly absorbed by fibrous sub- stances, 224 soap, Supposed utility of, 338 solution for dyeing scarlet on wool, 161 Tinctorial power of garancine, garan- ceux, and madder, 238 Tobacco color, 440 Toluidine, 30 green, 33 Tragacanth gum, Preparation of, for thickening, 262 Tungsten, Attempted applications of, used in making stannate of soda, 441 Turbans dyed with kermes, 302 Turkey berries, 75 gum variable in quality, 262 red color, 338 red, Imitation from barwood, 74 red, White and colored discharges for, 195, 196 Turmeric, Root of, curcuma longa, 440 used for green on woollen, 257 used in cotton dyeing, 347, used in the scarlet dye on wool, 162 Turpentine, Uses of, in color mixing, 440 Twaddle's hydrometer, Real value of, in testing, 274 Tyrian purple, see buccinum lapillus, 118 Ultramarine blue, 108, 441 Uniform, French, blue, 402 Union velvets, Dyeing of black, 79 Uranium, 442 Urea, substance contained in urine, 442 Uric acid, source of murexide purple, 442 Uric acid colors, 355 Urine, Uses of, in dyeing and scouring, 442 Usebe green, 31 Valonia nuts used in dyeing, 443 Values of madder extracts, 471 Vanadium, 443 Varnishes applied to fix pigment colors, 375 Vegetable fibres, Coal tar colors fixed on, 469 dyeing of, 18 Velveteens, Dyeing of, black, 86 Venice sumac or young fustic, 230 Verdigris, see'acetate of copper, 45 Vermilion, 345, 443 Verte-Barasat, 72 Vert lumiere, 31 printemps, 31 Victoria green from chromium salts, 146 orange, 30 Vinegar, see acetic acid, 49 Viol and Duflot's process for bleaching feathers, 470 Violaniline, 29 Violet imperial, 27 printing, 20 Violets. 26 insoluble in water, 18 Viridine, 32 Viscometer, instrument for testing thickness of gum water, 268 INDEX. 491 Vitriol, old name for sulphates, 443 Volatile alkali, see ammonia, 63 Walnut peels, 443 Ward's patent for printing and fixing indigo, 294 Washing between and after dunging, 156 of garancine, 233 Water, Article upon, 444 great influence of its qualities in scarlet dyeing, 162 Wax, 366 Weight of silk increased by dyeing, 469 Weighting, Baryta used for, 74 Weld or wold, 460 Wet and dry bulb hygrometer, 275 Wheaten starch, 413 Whinberries, 97 White acetate of lime, 48 arsenic, 69 discharges on indigo blue, 192, 193 from oxide of zinc, 467 indigo or deoxydized indigo, 279 mineral, see Baryta, 74 of egg, see albumen, 55 resist for chromed styles in indigo dipping, 287 sugar of lead, 47 tartar, see cream of tartar, 424 water lily, 358 Wittstein's examination of cochineal plant, see cactin, 121 Woad, 460 Woaded cloth, 83 Wongshy, a new coloring matter, 4GO Wood acid, see acetic acid, 49 brown for calico, 117 brown on wool, 115 color on delaine from catechu, etc., 128 spirit, 14 Woodcroft's patent for applying indigo, 293 Woods, Definition of, 460 used in conjunction with garancine, 243 Wool and cotton, Mixed lake different colors in printing, 191 AVool and cotton Dyeing of, in mixed fabrics, 346 Article upon, 460 dyeing with coal-tar colors, 17, 18 how affected by acids and other agents, 214 Methods of dyeing black, 81 improved for colors by treating with chlorine, 217 Woollen dyeing, Action of tartar in, 424 dyeing, Use of bichromate in, 141 dyer's spirits, 438 goods, bleaching of, 92 Wrought and cast iron vessels in dye- ing, 298 Yellow added to red to make scarlet, 162 chrome, 142 color from flavine, 226 colors from the chromates, 144 colors, Various receipts for, 402 coralline, 30 discharge for Turkey red, ] 97 fuchsine, 30 grays upon woollen, 252 Indian composition of, 212 prussiate of potash, 385 spirits, 438 wood or fustic, 230 colors combined with indigo to produce green, 254 color from murexide and acetate of zinc, 358 Yellows, 30 Yolk of egg makes oils emulsive, 364 Young fustic or fustet, 230 fustic used in yellow dye, 465 Zinaline, 31 Zinc and its compounds, 466 chloride used to Mercerize cloth, 344 nitrate, Uses of, in red liquor making, 43 powder, discharge by, 12 sulphate used as a resist for indigo, 287 used to adulterate muriate of tin, 434 CATALOGUE PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHEE, 3STo- 4OQ 'W.A.IL.IXrTJT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ^ Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, free of postage, at the publication price. 3= MY NEW A.VD ENLARGED CATALOGUE, 95 pages 8vo., with full descriptions of Books, will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will favor me with his address. A RMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON. THE PRACTICAL - DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By WILLIAM JOHNSON, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Editor of "The Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel plates and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4to. . $10 00 A BLOT. A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR COACH PAINTERS. Translated from the French of M. ARLOT, Coach Painter ; late Master Painter for eleven years with M. Ehrler, Coach Manufac- turer, Paris. With important American additions . . $1 25 A RROWSMITH. PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION : A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Prepara- tory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on Wails; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Seve- ral Purposes of the Trade ; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c. By JAMES AEROWSMITH. 12mo., cloth $1 25 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. DAIRD. THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANA- GER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE : A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning ; giving the Dimen- sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- tions, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo. - " . . . $1 50 DAKER. LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES : Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulas and Ta- bles. By B. Baker. 12mo $2 00 pAKEWELL. A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY PRACTICAL AND D THEORETICAL : By F. C. BAKEWELL, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Se- cond Edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated by nume- rous engravings. 12mo. Cloth .... DEANS. A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE LO- *f CATION OF RAILROADS : By E. W. BEANS, C. E. 12mo. Y w V $2 00 -pLENKARN. PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXE- - CUTED IN ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, AND IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWER- ING: To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements and Reports. By JOHN BLENKARN. Illustrated by fifteen large folding plates. 8vo $9 00 -pLINN. A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN, SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS : Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper- plate "Workers ; Practical Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the "Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- cumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compositions, etc. etc. By LEROT J. BLINN, Master Me- chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 60 HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 3 gOOTH.-MARBLE WORKER'S MANUAL : Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in gene- ral, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of Marble ; Mosaics ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated from the French by M. L. BOOTH. With an Appendix con- cerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 nOOTH AND MORFIT. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY, PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by CAMPBELL MOBFIT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00 DOWDITCH. ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFI- D CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS : By Rev. W. R. BOWDITCH. Illustrated with wood engrav- ings. 8vo $6 50 nOX. PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS : ** A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc. By TIIOMAS Box. 12mo $2 50 BtJCKMASTER. THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS : By J. C. BtJCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School of Mines ; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the Royal College of Preceptors ; and late Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . 1 50 BULLOCZ.-THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER : A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to to $20,000 for Homes for the People; together with Warm- ing, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Garden- ing] By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechani- cian, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol. gvo p5 ' HENRY CARET BATRD'S CATALOGUE. DULLOCK. THE BUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND D BUILDING : For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- ists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK, author of " The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 250 engravings. In one volume 8vo. . . . $3 50 DURGH. PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MA- RINE ENGINES: Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Lovr Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text. $21 00 nURGH. PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF D MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MA- RINE PURPOSES. By N. P. BUEQH, Engineer. 12mo. .' . . . $2 00 DURGH. THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : By N. P. BURGH, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," "Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated. 12mo . . . $2 00 TDYRN. THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA FAYETTK BYRN, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $1 25 DYRJsr. THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification ; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and nreparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- ous and other compounds, etc. etc. ; all of which is so simpli- fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage in the art of distilling. By M. LA FATETTE BYRN, M. D. With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. "| YENE. POCKET BOOK FOE EAILEOAD AND CIVIL ENGI< Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- tings ; Embankments ; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVE* BTKNE. Illustrated, 18mo., full bound $1 75 TDYENE. THE HANDBOOK FOE THE ABTISAN. MECHANIC, ' AND ENGINEEE : By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. 8vo. $5 00 TDYENE. THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PEACTICAL ME- a CHANICS: For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- ings, 12mo $3 63 J3YENE. THE PEACTICAL METAL-WOEKEE'S ASSISTANT: Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry ; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering ; Melting and Mixing ; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals ; Soldering ; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- ring Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from the Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A New, Revised, and improved Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B , William Clay, Wm. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- dred and Ninety-two Engravings ; Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 DYRNE. THE PEACTICAL MODEL CALCTJLATOB: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE. 1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 pEMROSE. MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING : With Practical II- lustcations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected de- signs. By WILLIAM BEMROSE, Jr. With an Introduction by LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., cloth $300 HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. pAIRD. PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRO- DUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE AMERICAN FARMER : By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper , 10 'DAIRD. THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM. By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. (1870) .' ['." ." . 5 DAIRD. SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE REVENUE-REFORM. Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By HBNRY CAREY BAIRD. (1871.) Paper .... 5 DAIRD. STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. SPANGLER BAIRD. Oblong folio . ,..,... . $5 00 DAUERMAN. TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON. ** Illustrated. 12mo --,;.;. $250 DICKNELL'.S VILLAGE BUILDER. ^ 65 large plates. 4to. . . '> .= '*'- V . " $10 00 TDISHOP. A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES: From 1608 to 1866 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial Period to the Present Time ; By J. LEANDER BISHOP, M. D., ED- WARD YOUN, and EDWIN T. FREEDLEY. Three vols. 8vo., $10 00 pOX. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS : For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By THOMAS Box, au- thor of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, con- taining 114 figures. 12mo. . ,.,-. *, . . . . $4 25 QABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong $5 00 AN. A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING : As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade ; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT CHAPMAN. 24mo $1 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. PKACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND MILLER, Comprising the Elementary Principles of Mechanics, Me- chanism, and Motive Power, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors, Mill-dams, Saw Mills, Grist Mills, the Oat Meal Mill, the Barley Mill, Wool Carding, and Cloth Fulling and Dress- ing, Wind Mills, Steam Power, &c. By DAVID CRAIK, Mill- wright. Illustrated hy numerous wood engravings, and five folding plates. 1 vol. 8vo. . . . . $5 00 riAMPIN. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- U GINEERING: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ana- lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. To which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- tion ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engra\ings. $G 00 flAMPIN. THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, U IVORY, SHELL, ETC. : With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN , with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 pAPRON DE DOLE.-DUSSAUCE.-BLTIES AND CARMINES OF ^ INDIGO. A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial Product derived from Indigo. By FELICIEN CAPRON DE DOLE Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. DCS- SAUCE. 12mo. HEXRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. pA.REY. THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 25 HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing, and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. Paper $1 on MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's " Principles of Social Science." By KATE MCKEAN. 1 vol. 12mo $2 26 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review of the Decade 1857 '67," " Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 8vo., cloth . . . . . * ..;. $4 60 MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- tistical Society. 8vo., paper 26 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE V 8vo. . / . $2 50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth $10 00 REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857 '67. 8vo., paper 60 RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo, paper . . ; > ... . 50 THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- sion. 8vo., paper . . . . . ' 26 THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 60 THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo. , cloth $ 1 5 V.Q..I. ALV/liU Ji. ^Byf wT M D f ^ PEACTICE F P ^OGRAPHY. By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth . rTYTTmMTQfi'W T I m?TrtTTrri M ** . * * * v. a. OVO., ClOtn JHOMSON.-FREIGHT CHAEGES CALCTTLATOB By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent W,,h Oeometm, Ov.], and Eooentrb Ch.ck,, an JURNER'S Containi (THE) COMPANION: ng Instruction in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric mng; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- nts ; and Directiong for using the Eccentric Cutter Drill Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instruct is for working them. A new edition in 1 vol. 12mo $1 50 By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6 To which is added a COMPARISON OP THE RESISTING PROPERTIES >F IRON AND STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. $1 00 TTOGDES. THE AECHTTECT'S AND BUILDER'S POCZE1 COM- ' PANION AND PEICE BOOK. By F. W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- book form. ....... $ 9 00 In book form, 18mo., muslin .... 1 50 WASN. THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR, FOR ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORK- ERS, &c. By REUBEN HENRY WARN, Practical Tin Plate Worker. Illus- trated by 32 plates and 37 wood engravings. 8vo. . . $3 CO WTATSON. A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. By EGBERT P. WATSON, Late of the " Scientific American," Au- thor of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engi- neers," In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . $1 50 Si HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. nCT * V THE MODERN PEACTICE OF AMERICAN MA- CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS : Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, with the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy of Mnnufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of the "Scientific American." Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo. . . '. " . . $2 50 ATSON. THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEE ART OF WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER: With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By JOHX WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 8vo. "' . . V . . . ". ' *'.''" . . $10 00 TTfTEATHERLY. TREATISE ON .THE ART OF BOILING ST7- "" GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, GUM GOODS, And other processes for Confectionery,