GDFir OF Walter W. Bradley HANDBOOK OF COMPOSITION A COMPENDIUM OF RULES REGARDING GOOD ENGLISH, GRAMMAR, SEIJTENCE STRUCTURE, PARAGRAPHING, MANUSCRIPT ARRANGEMENT, PUNCTUATION, SPELLING, ESSAY WRITING, AND LETTER WRITING BY EDWIN C. WOOLLEY, Ph.D. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN o>Ko D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright,' igoT/^^^^^. By D. C. Heath & Ca ib6 897 I WILL not be negligent to put you always In remem- brance of these things, though ye know them. Yea, I think it meet to stir you up by putting you in remembrance. — II Peter i. 12, 13. PREFACE This manual is designed for two uses. It may "be used, first, by students of composition for reference, at the direc- tion of tiie instructor, in case of errors in themes. Second, it may be used for independent reference by persons who have writing of any kind to do and who want occasional information on matters of good usage, grammar, spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, manuscript-arrangement, or let- ter-writing. The aim of the book is not scientific, but practical. The purpose is to make clear the rules in regard to which many people make mistakes. No material has been put into the book for the sake of formal completeness. Many state- ments that would be essential to a treatise designed to exhaust the subjects here discussed (a treatise, for instance, on grammar, or composition-structure, or punctuation) have been omitted because they concern matters about which the persons who may use the book do not need to be told. In the knowledge and the observance of the rules fixed by good usage and suggested by common sense for the expression of thoughts in English and the representation of them on paper, there are many widely prevalent deficien- cies, some natural enough, some very odd, but all shared by many people. The purpose of this manual is simply to help correct some of these deficiencies. Some of the rules in this book, making no mention of exceptions, modifications, or allowable alternatives, may perhaps be charged with being dogmatic. They are dog- matic — purposely so. Suppose a youth, astray and con- fused in a maze of city streets, asks the way to a certain place. If one enumerates to him the several possible routes, with comments and admonitions and cautions about each, he will probably continue astray and confused. If one sends him peremptorily on one route, not mentioning per- missible deviations or equally good alternative ways, the iv PREFACE V chance is much greater that he will reach his destination. Likewise, the erring composer of anarchic discourse can best be set right by concise and simple directions. This is one reason for the stringency of some of the rules. There is another reason ; let me use another parable in explaining it. A student of piano-playing is held rigidly, during the early period of his study, to certain rules of finger move- ment. Those rules are sometimes varied or ignored by musicians. But the student, in order to progress in the art, must for a certain time treat the rules as stringent and invariable ; the variations and exceptions are studied only at a later stage of his progress. So, in acquiring skill in the art of composition, it is necessary for most students to observe rigidly and invariably rules to which masters of the art make exceptions. I believe that Rules 63, 69, 78, 98, 99, 112, and 115) for example, should be so treated by most apprentices in composition. A word about the literary obligations I have incurred. So far as concerns my indebtedness to that great common fund of grammatical and rhetorical doctrine on which he who will may draw, it may truly be said of me, as it has been said of Homer, ** What he thought he might require He went and took." To individual authors I may owe debts of which I am not aware ; for when a man has accumulated a store of thoughts, some from individual writers, some from many writers in common, and some, perhaps, from his own psychic pro- cesses, he inevitably forgets the source of many elements of the mass. I know, however, that my thanks are due to Professors Adams Sherman Hill, William Dwight Whitney, Alphonso G. Newcomer, John Duncan Quackenbos, Fred Newton Scott, and Joseph Villiers Denney, for a num- ber of ideas suggested by my acquaintance with their works. I gratefully acknowledge here my obligation to Professor Frank Gaylord Hubbard, of the University of Wisconsin, and to Miss Rose M. Kavana, of the Medill High School in Chicago, who gave me much acute and valuable criticism Vi PREFACE during the preparation of the manuscript ; and to several gentlemen (unknown to me) who, at the instance of the publishers, suggested some much-needed emendations before the book went to press, and also during its passage through the press. Though the book is probably not what Captain Costigan would call a "meritorious performance," it is in many respects nearer that character than it would be but for the generous aid of these known and unknown counselors. E. C. W. Madison, Wisconsin, October 15, 1901. TABLE OF CONTENTS- PAGE I THE COMPOSITION OF DISCOURSE . . 1 Introductory; The Standard of Good Usage 1 Diction 3 Improprieties 3 Barbarisms . 4 Contractions . 4 Misuses of pronouns 5 Rhetorical ornament 6 Triteness . 6 Affectation 9 Mixed figures of speech . 11 The Structure of Sentences 12 Some fundamental errors 12 Grammatical agreement 14 Matters of case 16 Adjectives and adverbs 19 Matters of voice . 20 Matters of tense . 20 Reference 23 Dangling modifiers 26 Unity . 29 Order of members . 32 Incorrect omissions 37 Coordination . 41 Subordination 47 Parallelism . 49 Logical agreement 53 Negation 64 Redundance . 55 Repetition of words 56 Euphony 58 Variety . 59 1 For detailed synopsis of the numbered rules and of the exercises, see pages x-xx. vii Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE The Structure of Larger Units of Dis- course 59 Unity 59 Organization 62 Coherence 65 IL PUTTING DISCOURSE ON PAPER . . 67 Spelling 67 Legibility 73 Arrangement of Manuscript. ... 77 Pages 77 Paragraphs 78 Mechanical marks of a paragraph . . 78 Division of a composition into paragraphs 78 Verse 85 Extended quotations 87 Tabulated lists 87 Alterations in Manuscript . . . .88 Punctuation 90 The period 90 The comma 90 The semicolon 95 The colon . . . . . . .98 The question mark 98 The dash 98 Parenthesis marks 100 Brackets 101 Quotation marks 101 The apostrophe 106 The hyphen 107 Miscellaneous rules 107 Syllabication 110 Abbreviations ....... 112 The Representation of Numbers . . .113 Capitals . 116 Italics 118 in. ANALYTICAL OUTLINES .... 121 The form of the titles 121 Numbering and arrangement of the titles. . 12) TABLE OF CONTENTS ix PAGB The terms Introduction, Conclusion, and Body 122 Over-minute subdivision 122 Certain illogical practices 123 IV. LETTER-WRITING 126 Ordinary letters (written in the first person) . 126 Formal notes in the third person . . . 135 Sundry mechanical directions .... 137 The envelope 141 V. A GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 143 Appendix A. — Exercises for breaking certain bad habits in writing and speaking . . . .173 Exercises chiefly in grammar . . . .173 Exercises chiefly in sentence-structure . . 180 Exercises chiefly in spelling . . . . 187 Exercises chiefly in punctuation . . . 191 Appendix B. — A grammatical vocabulary, explaining grammatical and other technical terms used in this book 196 Appendix C. — A list of words that are often mispro- nounced 219 INDEX .. e o o .... 227 DETAILED SY:N"0PSIS OF THE NUMBERED RULES Kumbers enclosed in parentheses refer to rules I. THE COMPOSITION" OF DISCOURSE PAOB Good Introductory : The Standard of Good Usage .... 1 Usage The true standard ; good usage defined (1) 1 False standards \ Colloquial usage (3 a) The usage of recent fiction (3 d) Limited usage (3 6) Usage in isolated instances (3 e) Newspaper usage (3 c) Means of learning good usage (3) 3 Inclusion of words in a dictionary not decisive (3, note) Diction Diction 3 Errors regarding parts of speech (improprieties) .... 3 The general rule (4) Adjectives used as nouns (4/) Nouns used as verbs (4 a) Adjectives used as adverbs (4gr) Nouns used as adverbs (4 6) Down (4 It) Plenty (4 c) Per cent. (4 i) Them (4 d) Near by ( 4J) Verbs used as nouns (4 e) Unauthorized formations and contractions (barbarisms) . . 4 Current (5) Extemporized (6) The contractions don't, isn't, etc. (7) 4 Misuses of pronouns 5 Indefinite you (8) Intensives Indefinite they (9) Misuse in general (12) Indefinite it (10) '• Yourself and guests " (13) Indefinite that and those (11) Ehetorical ornament 6 Triteness Hackneyed phrases (14) Advice on literary ornament (14, note) Hackneyed quotations, allusions, and proverbs (16) Newspaper mannerisms Nicknaming states and cities (10 a) Current newspaper rhetoric (16 b) Straining for novelty (16 c) Genuine and sham humor (16, note) Affectation High-fiown language (17) Advice regarding plain English (17, note) Poetic diction (18) The historical present (19) Initials and blanks for names and dates (20) Advantage of using names in narration (30, note) " We " and " the writer " for J (31) The editorial we (31) Mixed figures of speech Incongruity with what precedes (33) Figures not carried out (33) Z SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES xi PAGE The Structure of Sentences 12 Structure Some fundamental errors 12 ^^ Subordinate elements mistaken for sentences (34) Sentences Elements without construction (35) Uncompleted constructions (26) Sentence used as subject or predicate complement (27) ^hen or where clause used as predicate complement (28) Grammatical agreement ••14 Subject and verb General rule (29) Subject obscured by intervening words (29 a) Number of the subject not affected by with^ etc. (29 6) Subjects joined by or or nor (29 c) Verb attracted by predicate substantive (30) Each^ every t etc. (31) Method of correction (38) Matters of case * , \Q Subject of a finite verb General rule (33) Who not affected by he says, etc. (33 a) Who and whoever not affected by preceding words (33 6) Predicate substantive with a finite verb (34) Subject and predicate complement of an infinitive (35) Object of a verb or a preposition (36) Appositives (37) A -substantive after than or as (38) Than whom (38, note) The possessive case Nouns not designating persons (39) Possessive case in an objective sense (40) Possessive case with gerunds (41) Adjectives and adverbs 19 Expressions analogous to It looks beautiful (42) Expressions analogous to Hold it steady (43) Matters of voice • ... 20 Awkward use of the passive voice (44) Vague use of the passive voice (45) Matters of tense ,,20 Shall and will Expectation (46) Interrogative sentences (48) Determination (47) Indirect quotations (49) Shall and should in contingent statements (50) Past tense Undated (51) Misused for the past-perfect (52) Perfect tense Perfect infinitive misused for present (53) Perfect conditional misused for present (53) Anachronous participles (54) Reference ..,,23 Uncertain or ludicrous reference (55) Method of correction (56) Weak reference of this and thai (57) Remote reference (58) Reference to a word not prominent (59) Reference to a word not expressed (60) Antecedent in parentheses (61) Dangling modifiers • . . 26 Participles General rule (62) Participle introducing a sentence or clause (63) Method of correction (64) Participle preceded by thus (65) Xll SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES Gerund phrases General rule (66) Gerund phrase introducing a sentence or clause (67) Method of correction (68) Elliptical clauses General rule (69) Method of correction (70) Elliptical clauses in titles (71) Unity 29 General rule (73) Unrelated thoughts (73) Unity secured by recasting (73, note) Stringy compound sentences (74) Straggling sentences (75) Unity secured in a long sentence by good organization (75, note) Change of the point of view in a sentence (76) Order of parts 32 Position of modifiers General rule (77) Position of the adverbs 07ily, almost, etc. (78) Misplaced clauses (79) Position of relative clauses (80) Squinting modifiers (81) Parenthetic position of modifiers (83) Position of therefore, however ^ etc. (83) Separation of coordinate modifiers (84) Split infinitives (85) Smooth order Of individual sentences (86) Of consecutive sentences (87) Forcible order Strong close (88) Ending a sentence vfiih. a preposition (88, note) Climactic order (89) Incorrect omissions 37 Use of words in a double capacity Auxiharies (90 a) To be used as both principal and auxiliary verb (90 &) Principal verbs (90 c) Other modifiers (90 e] Than and as clauses (90 d) Nouns (90/) To (in an to, in regard to, etc.) (90 g) Omission of articles and possessives (91) Omission of prepositions (92) Uncompleted comparisons (93) Coordination 41 Ungrammatical coordination (General rule (94) "And which" (95) Method of correction (96) Illogical coordination (97) Advice regarding excessive coordination (97, note) So, then, and also used for connecting verbs (98) The so habit (99) Consecutive huVs and/or'« (100) Method of correction (101) Clearness of coordination General rule (103) Repetition of prepositions (103) Repetition of the infinitive-sign (104) Repetition of subordinating conjunctions (105) Subordination 47 Overlapping clauses and phrases (106) Contrasted with coordinate dependence (107) SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES xiu Misuse of when clauses page General rule (108) Structure Subordination of a statement of principal importance (109) ^f Upside-down subordination (110) SpnfPTippa Parallelism 49 General rule (111) Correlatives (118) Improper use of parallelism Misleading parallelism (113) Junction of incongruous substantives (114) Dissimilar elements in the form of a series (116) Method of correction (116) Logical agreement of members 63 General rule (117) Illogical comparisons Other or else in a than or as clause When necessary (118) When incorrect (119) The of phrase limiting a superlative (120) Negation 54 Double negative (131) Incorrect negation with hardly y only^ etc. (133) Eedundance 55 Tautology (133) Pleonasm (134) Wordiness (135) Repetition of words 56 Kepetition with change of meaning (136) Awkward repetition (137) Method of correction (138) Awkward avoidance of repetition (139) Straining for synonyms (139, note) Careless repetition of the conjunction that (130) Euphony 58 Concurrence of like sounds (131) The absolute construction Absolute pronouns (133 a) Latinistic phrases (133 6) Variety (133) 59 The Structure of Larger Units of Discourse .... 59 Structure Unity of a whole composition 59 <5f General rule (134) Larger A short essay on a large subject (135) Units Shifting the tense in narration (136) Shifting the point of view in narration (137) Shifting the tense in description (138) Shifting the subject by varying nouns and pronouns (139) Organization 62 General principle: classification and arrangement of material (140) Parts misplaced (141) Unity and completeness of each part (143) Coherence 65 At the beginning of a composition (143) Between parts Distinct introduction of a new part The principle (144) Means of marking the beginning of a new part Transition sentences and paragraphs (144 a) Connective phrases (144 6) Placing key-words at the beginning (144 c) Introduction of a statement of consequence (145) Introduction of an abatement (146) Introduction of a contrasting part (147) Introduction of a contradictory statement (148) XIV SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES II. PUTTING DISCOURSE ON PAPER Spelling PAG« . 6T Doubling final consonants General rule (149). Application to verbs (150) Dropping final e General rule (151). Application to verbs (153) Courageous, noticeable, and analogous derivatives (163) Final y changed to i Nouns (154). Verbs (155) Final ie changed to y (156) Plurals ending in 8 and en (157) Present third singulars ending in 8 and e8 (158) Receivey believe, etc. (159) Principal and principle (160) 6>/tand 6> (161) A list of words that are often misspelled (163) Incorrect uniting of separate words (163) Incorrect division of single words (164) Legibility Crowding Space between lines (165). Space between words (166) Extra space after periods, semicolons, etc. (167) Crowding marks of punctuation (168) Crowding at the bottom of a page (169) Gaps between letters (170). Oblique position of and (171) Dots and cross-strokes Neglect (172). Placing at random (173) Ornamental cross-strokes (174) Shape of quotation marks and apostrophes (175) Shape of Roman numbers (176). Conspicuous ornament (177) Arrangement of Manuscript The manuscript as whole (178) Unruled pai)er. Black ink Only one side of paper to be used Manuscript not to be rolled Pages Page-numbers (179) Title Position (180). Space below (180) Margin At the top (181). At the left side (182) Paragraphs Mechanical marks Indention Of ordinary paragraphs (18.3) Of numbered paragrai>lis (184) Irregiihir indention (185) Indention in the midst of a paragraph (186) Incorrect spacing-out of a Hue (187) Dlvisionof a composition into paragraphs .... Paragraphing as an aid to ck'antcss The fundamental i)rincii»lo (188) Separation of distinct ])arts General rule (189) Paragraphs of introduction and conclusion (190) Paragraphs of transition (191) Direct quotations 73 7T 78 78 SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERP:D rules XV PAGE General rule (193). Dialogue (193) Arrange- Special mechanical directions ment of Indention after a quotation (194) MaTui Indention after he said (195) mauu- Groupingof related parts script The principle (196) The practical rule : improper paragraphing of minute parts (197) Paragraphing in accordance with change of topic The principle (198) Paragraphing where there is no change of topic (199) Paragraph unity The principle 300) The practical rule (301) Paragraphing for emphasis (303) Paragraphing for ease in reading Too infrequent paragraphing The principle (303) Practical rules Entire neglect of paragraphing (304) Paragraphs too long (305) Too frequent jiaragraphing The principle (306) Practical rules Short compositions not paragraphed (307) General caution (308) Writing verse 85 Left-over parts of lines (309) Grouping of words into lines (310) Setting quoted verse apart on the page (311) Extended quotations of prose; set apart (313) .... 87 Tabulated lists 87 Indention (313) Tabulated matter to be set apart on the page (314) Altbrations in Manuscript 88 Altera- Insertion (315). Erasure (316). Transposition (317) tions in Changes in paragraphing Manu- New paragraph (318) script Canceling a paragraph division (319) Punctuation 90 Punctua- The period 90 tion Close of a sentence (330 a), Abbreviations (2306) The comma . . . . • 90 Direct address (331 a) Parenthetic members (331 d5) Appositives (331 h) Geographical names (331 e) Absolute phrases (331 c) Coordinate clauses i331/) Dependent clauses preceding principal clauses (331 g) Distinct pauses (331 h) To prevent mistaken junction (331 i) Between adjectives (333) Before the conjunction in a series (333) Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses (334) With interiections (335) Before direct quotations (336) Unnecessary use In general (337) Before a series (338) Before a that or how clause (339) The " comma fault " (330) The semicolon 56 Between clauses of a compound sentence XVI SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES PAGB "When no connectives are used (331 a) "With the adverbs then, there/ore, etc. (231 b) With and, but, etc., in certain cases (231 c) In a simple or complex sentence Between involved members that are coordinate (231 d) Used instead of a comma, to prevent obscurity (231 e) Incorrect use in place of a comma (232) The colon (233) . 98 The question mark 98 After a direct, not an indirect question (234) Use and misuse with parentheses (235) The dash 98 Interruptions (236 «). With a comma (236 6) With parenthetic matter (236 c) Before a summarizing: word (236 d) Before an expression having the etfect of an afterthought (236 e) Before a sentence-member set apart on the page (236/) Indiscriminate use in place of commas, periods, etc. (237) Parenthesis marks 100 Relative position of other marks (238) Misuse of commas in addition to parenthesis marks (239) Misuse of parenthesis marks with matter not parenthetic General rule (240) Incorrect use for emphasis (240 a) Incorrect use with a word discussed (240 6) Incorrect use with a literary title (240c> Incorrect use with letters and symbols (240 d) Incorrect use for canceling (240 e) Brackets (241) 101 Quotation marks 101 Use with quotations Direct, not indirect quotations (242) Incorrect omission (243) Incorrect use in the midst of a quotation (244) Relative position of a question or exclamation mark The question or exclamation mark first ( 245 a) The quotation mark first (245 b) No comma or period in addition (245 c) Quotations within quotations (246) Quotations of several paragraphs (247) Use with technical terms (248) Omission in the case of familiar technical terms (248, note> Use for apology with slang and nicknames General rule (249) Errors Good English mistaken for slang (249 a') Inappropriate apology in a humorous context (249 6) Nicknames that are virtually proper names (249 c) Sundry misuses With the title at the head of a composition (260 a) With proper names (250 6) With proverbial i)hrases (250 c) With words coined extempore (250 ei) • For emphasis (250 e') For labeling humor (250/) Without any reason (250 g) The apostrophe lOfi Possessive case General rule (251) Nouns ending in />• (252) Misuse with the adjectives its, yours, etc. (253) Use and misuse with contractions (254) Use and misuse in forming plurals (255) SYNOPSIS OF NUMBERED RULES XVU The hyphen 107 With compound words Words that should not be hyphened (356) To-day, to-morrow, etc. (357) In word-breaking ; correct position of the hyphen (258) Miscellaneous rules of punctuation 107 Punctuation with such as (359) Punctuation with namely, me., e.g., that is, and i.e. (360) Quotations with said he interpolated Said he excluded (361 a) Marks after the words preceding said he (361 b) Marks after said he When to use a period (361 c) When to use a semicolon (361 d) Comma in all other cases (361 e) Capitalizing Said he not capitalized (361/) When to capitalize the part following said he (361 fif) Marks not to be placed at the beginning of a line (363) Punctua- tion Syllabication lie Division in accordance with pronunciation (363 a) Prefixes (363 b). Suffixes (363 c) Doubled consonants (363 ^I- ^^V ^^^ ^*^ III, IV. Raise and rise Y-VII. Set&wAsit YIII. Lay, lie, raise, rise^ set, and sit IX. Done and seen X. Wrote, rose, rode, drove XI. Ru7i misused for ran XII. Began, sang, sprang, rang, dranJc, ran XIII. Broke, froze, tore XIV. Know, throw, blow XV. Went for gone XYI.XYII. "Had ought »» XVIII. " You was " XIX. Agreement of verbs with subjects XX. Concord of ^ac^, every, etc. XXI. XXII. Who or ichom XXIII. Pronouns after t}ia7i and as XXIV. General exercise in deter- mining case-forms XXV. Adjectives misused for adverbs XXVI. Misuse of ^i^e XXVII. Shall &u^ will Exercise chiefly in Sentence Structure 180 XXYIII. Reference of pronouns XXIX. Dangling participles XXX. Dangling gerund phrases XXXI. Dangling elliptical clauses XXXII. Order of sentence-mem- bers XXXIII. YosiiXonoi only , almost, e/cer XXXIY. Split infinitives XXXY. Correlatives XXXYI. False coordination XXXVII. Practice in securing varietv of subordination XXXVill. The «o habit XXXIX. Parallelism XL. Organization of long sentences by means of parallelism XL I. False parallelism XLII. Logical agreement XLIII. Double negative XLIV. Incorrect negation with hardly, only, etc. Exercises chiefly in Spbllino 187 Spelling XLY, XLYI. Doubling final con- sonants XLYII. Dropping final e. Deriva- tives other than verb-forms XLYI II. Dropping final e before ing XLIX. Courageous, noticeable^ and analogous derivatives SYNOPSIS OF THE EXERCISES XXI L. Change of y to * as in city, cities LI. Change of y to i as in rely, relies LI I. Change of ie to y as in lie, lying LIU. Plurals ending in « and ea LIV. Present third singulars end- ing in 8 and es LV. " Finaly " and analogous mis- spellings LVI. "Accidently," "occasionly," and analogous misspellings LVI I. The endings ^e and e^ LVIII. The adjective ending/w? LIX. The adjective ending ous LX. The adverb prefix al LXI. Receive^ believe, etc. LXII. Disappear and point LXIII. Professor ^professions %\x.. LXIV. Precede, proceed, eta. LXV. Business LXVI. Lose and loose LXVII. Lead and led LXVIII. To, too, two LXIX. Accept SiX\^ except LXX. Affect and effect LXXI, LXXII. Principal and principle LXXI 1 1. Admse, advice, devise, device Spelling Exercises chiefly in Punctuation 191 Punctua- LXXIV. The "comma fault" and the confounding of subordi- nate elements with sentences LXXV. Restrictive and non-re- strictive clauses LXX VI. Misuse of commas before 80, then, etc. LXXVII. General exercise in punctuation LXXVIII. Capitalizing words of race or language LXXIX. General exercise in spell- ing, punctuating, capitalizing, italicizing, and paragraphing tion HANDBOOK OF COMPOSITION I. THE COMPOSITION OF DISCOURSE The Standard of Good Usage 1. English discourse employing words generally ap- proved by good usage, and employing them in the senses and in the grammatical functions and combinations gen- erally approved by good usage, is called good English. English discourse employing words not generally approved by good usage, or employing words in senses and in gram- matical functions and combinations not generally approved by good usage, is called bad English, By good usage is Good meant the usage generally observed in the writings of the defined best English authors and in the speech of well-educated people. 2. Regarding questions of good or bad English, there Mistaken are several common errors : standards; (a) The supposition that an expression current in Colloquial common conversation is thereby proved to be good ^^^S® English. If currency in common conversation were a valid test, such expressions as " ain't," " I says," " them fellows," "he laid down," "you hadn't ought," and "has went " would be good English. (b) The supposition that the usage of a number of Limited well-educated persons with whom one is acquainted ^^^se proves whether or not an expression is good English. It should be remembered that (as the foregoing defini- tion of good usage implies) the true standard is the 1 THE STANDARD OF GOOD USAGE Newspa- per usage The usage of recent fiction usage in which the majority of well-educated people, including the writers of undisputed literary merit, agree ; not the usage of a relatively small number of well-educated persons. Some well-educated people say " he don't " and "proven"; but these expressions are none the less bad English, for the majority of well-educated people, includ- ing the writers of good literature, reject them. (c) The supposition that an expression current in the newspapers is thereby proved to be good English. Our newspapers are almost universally characterized by provincial and vulgar diction. (There are a few honor- able exceptions.) An expression like " Rev. Clifford has proven himself a hustler" is no more justified by the wide currency of similar expressions in the newspapers than " has went " is justified by wide currency in conver- sation. General newspaper usage has nothing whatever to do with good English usage. (Cf. Rule 16 and the note to Rule 129.) (d) The supposition that the employment of an expression by recent writers of popular fiction proves that the expression is good English. A writer does not, merely by being popular, take rank among the best English authors ; such rank can be taken only upon the general judgment of scholars and critics, as well as of the reading public, and only after that judgment has endured a sufficient length of time to become established. The student will do well to rely for indications of what is good usage, not on recent writers, about whose literary rank he may make mistakes, but on authors of whose high rank he is sure, — such authors as Addison, Irving, Burke, Macaulay, De Quincey, Mill, Matthew Arnold, Ruskin, Emerson, Holmes, Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, Hawthorne, Poe, Stevenson. But, in consulting even such authors as these, he should beware of another com- mon error regarding good usage; viz.^ — DICTION 3 (e) The supposition that a single instance of the use Isolated of a word by one of the best English authors proves the word to be good English. A word must be shown to be in* general use among such authors, in order to be proved good English. The word "vim" can be found in the works of Stevenson, but it is nevertheless bad English. 3. From the foregoing considerations it follows that Means of in order to know by direct evidence what is good and goodusage what is bad English, one must have a wide acquaintance with English literature and a wide — in fact, an inter- national — acquaintance with people of the best education. Lacking such acquaintance, one must look to trustworthy books on grammar, rhetoric, composition, and other subjects involving discussion of good usage, and to good dictionaries. Note. — Regarding the use of a dictionary for determin- ing questions of good or bad English, a mistaken idea is often held, — viz., the supposition that the inckision of a word in a dictionary proves the word to be good English. In consulting a dictionary for the standing of a word, one ought to observe, not merely whether the word is in the dictionary, but whether, being there, it is marked Obso^ lete, Slang, Low, Vulgar, Local, or Colloquial. If it is so marked, it is either bad English or English not in good liter- ary standing. Diction Improprieties and Barbarisms 4. Avoid the vulgarism of using a word to fulfill the office of a part of speech to which it does not belong. (Such misuse of a word is called an impropriety.) Ke- member that — (a) Suicide, suspicion, wire, and clerk are nouns, not verbs. (t») Days, nights, mornings, evenings, afternoons, times, hiidplaces, are nouns, not adverbs, (c) Plenty is a noun, noi an adjective or an adverb (see the Glossary). Error regarding parts of speech DICTION Unauthor- ized for- mations Analogy not decisive Extempo- rized for- mations (d) Them is a pronoun, not an adjective; to say "them boys" is like saying "him boy." (e) Combine^ invite, steal, and try are verbs, not nouns. (/) Canine, equine, feline, human, military, vocal, and drunk are adjectives, not nouns, (g) Heal, some, this, that (see these four wortis in the Glossary), any, good, and considerable are adjectives, not adverbs ; and in modern prose friendly and cowardly are adjectives, not adverbs, (h) Down is an adverb, not a verb (see the Glossary), (i) Per cent, is an adverb phrase, not a noun (see the Glossary), (j) Near by is an adverb phrase, not an adjective (see the Glossary). 5. The use of current words coined without authority from words in good standing is a violation of good usage. Such unauthorized formations are called barbarisms. Among them are "enthuse" (see the Glossary), " burglar- ize," "jell" (for the verb to jelly), "electrocute," "elec- trocution," "tasty" (for tasteful), "homey" (for home- like), "newsy," " musicianly," "complected" (see the Glossary), "preventative" (for preventive) , "illy" (for ill), "overly (see the Glossary), "cablegram" (say tele- gram, cable telegram, or cable message) ; and the contrac- tions "photo," "auto," "phone," "gent," "pants," " most" (for almost), and " way " (for away). Note. — The standing of a word depends, not on the nature of its formation, but solely on its acceptance or non- acceptance by good usage (see Rules 1 and 2). " Base- ballist" and "cheesery" are bad English, though they are formed after the analogy of pianist and creainery, which are good English. 6. Except as a humorous device, do not use words of your own coining, without ascertaining from a dictionary whether they are authorized. (See the note to Rule 3.) Inappro- priate in formal composi- tion Contractions 7. The contractions donH, isn't, liavenH, etc., are not appropriate in formal composition. They are proper in conversation and in composition of a colloquial style. MISUSES OF PRONOUNS 6 Misuses of Pronouns 8. In formal composition, avoid using you indefinitely ; Indefinite use, rather, the passive voice or the pronoun one, 2^^^ Crude ; You should not use they indefinitely. Right : They should not be used indefinitely ; [or] One should not use they indefinitely. 9. Avoid using they indefinitely ; use the passive voice, Indefinite or recast the sentence otherwise. ^^^^ Crude : They make bricks in Fostoria. Right : Bricks are made in Fostoria. Crude : They had a collision on the electric road. Right : There was a collision ; [or] A collision occurred. Crude : They don't have red-birds in Wisconsin, do they? Right : There are no red-birds in Wisconsin, are there ? [or] Red-birds are not found in Wisconsin, are they ? 10. Except in impersonal expressions, such as it rains, Indefinite it seems, it is cold, do not use it without antecedent; re- *^ cast the sentence. Crude : In the notice on the bulletin board it says the drill is held at four. Right : The notice on the bulletin board says the drill is held at four. Crude : In Garland's Among the Corn Bows it gives a description of life among the farmers. Right : Garland's Among the Corn Bows gives a de- scription, etc.; [or] In Garland's Among the Corn Bows there is a description, etc. Crude : Does it say " Fair Oaks " on that car ? Right : Is that car marked '* Fair Oaks " ? 11. The use of a demonstrative adjective (especially Indefinite that or those) that seems to anticipate a relative clause l^^l^^^ but is not completed by such a clause is a colloquialism not proper in formal composition. DICTION Misuse of intensives "Your- self and guests " Wrong : I observed that the building was one of those rambling old mansions. Eight : I observed that the building was a rambling old mansion ; [or] ... one of those rambling old mansions that one often sees in New England towns. 12. Do not use the intensive pronouns myself, himself, yourself etc., unless emphasis is necessary; use the simple personal pronouns /, he, you, etc. Wrong : My wife and myself will go. Right : My wife and I will go. Wrong : This is for you and myself. Right : This is for you and me. 13. Especially avoid expressions like "yourself and guests," "myself and brother." Say "you and your guests," " my brother and I." Rhetorical Ornament Triteness 14. Avoid such trite rhetorical expressions as the fol- lowing : favor with a selection render a vocal solo rendition discourse sweet music repast do justice to a dinner sought his downy couch wended their way enjoyable in a pleasing manner untiring efforts all in all some one has said specimen of humanity had the privilege replete with interest those present in evidence last but not least abreast of the times was the recipient of everything went along nicely the student body doomed to disappointment was an impressive sight made a pretty picture completed the scene nestled among the hills or among the trees like sentinels guarding all nature see'ined all nature clothed in a robe each and every on this particular day RHETORICAL ORNAMENT long-felt want it seems (in narrative) fair maidens along lines {e.g.^ along agricultural lines) along the line of along these lines as luck would have it the proud possessor in touch with social function waited in breathless suspense order out of chaos those with whom we come in contact imbued with Note. — Literary ornament is good when it is attractive Literary and appropriate. But the writer who uses such expressions ornament as those in the foregoing list or those mentioned in Rule 15 uses ornament that is displeasing ; and the writer who drags such expressions into a matter-of-fact context, where any ornament is incongruous, commits a double offense against good taste. 15. Avoid hackneyed quotations, literary allusions, Hackneyed and proverbs, such as the following : ti^onl%llu- ,, ^, , . , . , sions, and Method m his madness proverbs Monarch of all I survey Sadder but wiser Cupid has been busy Variety is the spice of life The best laid plans of mice and men, etc. All work and no play, etc. Never put off till to-morrow, etc. Make hay while the sun shines All is not gold, etc. When ignorance is bliss, etc. Music hath charms, etc. 16. Obvious effort to decorate one's style with strik- News- ing phraseology is a hackneyed newspaper mannerism ^^nne,.. (of Rule 2 c). This effort appears particularly in the isms; following objectionable practices : (a) The tediously habitual designation of States and cities by their nicknames {e.g., " the Buckeye State," " the Sunflower State," "the Gopher State," "the Cream City," etc.). This practice becomes especially objection- 8 DICTION able when the nickname is obtruded, as it often is, at a place where no name at all is needed ; e.g.^ Vulgar; He arrived in Boston yesterday. Many citi- zens of the Huh were gathered to meet him. Right : He arrived in Boston yesterday. Many citizens were gathered to meet him. (h) The regular employment of miscellaneous current verbal ornaments, such as "fatal affray," "fistic en- counter," "struggling mass of humanity," "scantily attired," "knights of the pen" (for reporters), "the officiating clergyman," "tied the knot," "pachyderm" {ioT elephant), "equines" (for horses), "canines" (for dogs), " felines " (for cats), etc. (c) Obtrusive straining for novelty of phrase. Vulgar : The football warriors of the Badger State will play the Windy City's squad of pigskin-chasers this afternoon. Right : The Wisconsin football team will play the Chicago team this afternoon. Vulgar: The guests spent the evening in doing the '' light fantastic " act. Right : The guests spent the evening in dancing. Note. — The jocular purpose with which the above-men- tioned mannerisms are often practiced furnishes no justifi- cation of them. Hackneyed and tawdry English, whatever its purpose, is still hackneyed and tawdry. In condemning the jocular use of these forms of expression, good taste does not condemn humorous writing ; it condemns the crude and obvious counterfeiting of humor. A comic account of a football game or of an evening party is commendable if the humor is genuine and entertaining ; but in saying " squad of pigskin-chasers" for football team, "did the light fan- tastic act" for danced, "the Hub" for Boston, or "Inde- fatigable knights of the pen dogged his steps as far as his hostelry " for Beporters folloioed him to his hotels — in such language there is only a dull pretense of humor. RHETORICAL ORNAMENT Afectation 17. Do not use high-flown language for plain things. High- flown Bad : To keep the horse healthy you must be careful of language his environment. Right : To keep the horse healthy you must be careful of his stable. Note. — Showy language, like showy dress, is in bad Plain taste. The essence of artistic language, as of everything English artistic, is not abundant ornament but appropriateness. Straining for high-sounding expressions to replace plain English makes a style weak and crude. Call a leg a leg, not a limb ; call a book a book, not an effort ; call a letter a letter, not a kind favor ; call socks socks, not hose ; call a house a house, not a residence ; say " I went to bed," not *' I retired '* ; *' I got up," not '' I arose." 18. In prose avoid the use of words suited only to Poetic poetry, such as dwelt, oft, oftentimes, ofttimes, mom, amid, ^mid, ^ midst, o'er, ^neath, His, 'twas. diction present 19. The present tense, when it is used in relating Thehis- past events, is called the historical present. The his- ^^^s^^t torical present, like other intense and unusual figures of speech, is proper only in an abundantly emotional style, in which highly figurative language seems spontaneous. In a plain, straightforward narrative, containing little that is imaginative, the introduction of the historical present is incongruous ; it produces the ejffect either of a bald artifice or of a crude aftectation. Bad : He shouted to attract her attention, but she went on toward the danger not hearing his warning. Lash' ing his horse and riding swiftly toward her, he shouted again. This time she hears. She stands still and awaits him. He lifts her to his saddle and rides frantically toward the hut. [Throughout this passage the past tense should be used.] 10 DICTION "The writer " and " we * for/ 20. The custom of designating persons and places in a story by initials and dashes, and of representing dates in a similar manner, is obsolete ; it suggests aftectation. Naturalness and distinctness are gained by using com- plete names and dates. Objectionable : I was sitting by the fire with my friend B — • at his home in S— , one evening in 18 — . Preferable : I was sitting by the fire with my friend Bowman at his home in Surrey, one evening in 1893. Note. — In narrative composition, definiteness, clearness, and smoothness are gained by calling the characters by name as soon as they are introduced. Awkward : Two sisters were dining at our house. One of them chanced to remark that the other one could not endure strawberries. Now there was a dish of strawberries on the sideboard. The sister about whom the remark had been made could see this dish, but the other sister could not. The one who could see it made desperate efforts with her eyebrows and her feet to stop the other one, who, however, continued to expatiate on her sister's odd aversion. When the dessert was served, the chagrin of the sister who had made the unfortunate disclosure was amusing to see. Improved : Two sisters, Fanny and Mary Davis, were dining at our house. Fanny chanced to remark that Mary could not endure strawberries. Now, there was on the sideboard a dish of strawberries, which Mary (the strawberry-hater) could see, but which Fanny could not see. Mary made desperate efforts to stop her sister, who, however, continued to expa- tiate on Mary's odd aversion. When the dessert was served, the chagrin of the indiscreet Fanny was amusing to see, 21. In mentioning yourself do not use the pretentious and inept expressions "we" and "the writer"; use plain, straightforward 7, m?/, and me. The use of we in an editorial which purports to be the utterance of a board of editors is entirely proper. The use of we for RHETORICAL ORNAMENT 11 designating an individual speaker or writer is an afFecta- The edi- torial we tion. Bad : We have selected for our text the second verse of the Epistle of Jude. Right : I have selected for my text, etc. Bad : When quite a child we adopted the Graham system for dyspepsia. . . . We partook of [see the Glossary] but one meal in twenty-four hours. . . . Thus we passed most of our early years. Right: When a mere child I adopted the Graham system of treatment for dyspepsia. ... I took but one meal in twenty-four hours. . . • Thus I passed most of my early years. Mixed Figures of Speech 22. Do not use a simile or metaphor which is incon- Incon- gruous with the expression preceding. w^ith^ T)reced Incongruous metaphor : The officers must enforce dis- cipline among the raw material. Right : The officers must enforce discipline among the new men. Incongruous metaphor : We got some oil for the wheel at a farmhouse, and thus our hotbox was nipped in the bud. Right : At a farmhouse we got some oil for the wheel and thus prevented a hotbox. Incongruous metaphor : He must conduct his business on an honest foundation. Right : He must conduct his business in an honest manner ; [or] He must build his business on an honest foundation. Bad : The probe of the Fond du Lac grand jury has netted five corrupt officials. Right : The probe of the Fond du Lac grand jury has revealed five corrupt officials ; [or] The drag net of the Fond du Lac grand jury has caught five coriTipt officials. 12 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Figures not carried out Bad : With his fortune blown to the four winds, all his ambition was crushed. Right : All his ambition was, like his fortune, blown to the four winds ; [or] In the ruin of his fortune his ambition was crushed. 23. When a simile or metaphor has been used, the expression following it should carry out the figure — should not (1) embody an incongruous figure or (2) be incongruously literal. Bad : The freshman algebra course is a rocky and difficult road to travel. But whether we like it or not we are required to wade through it. [The figure embodied in "rocky road" is not carried out by the figure embodied in "wade through."] Right : The freshman course in algebra is a rocky and difficult road to travel. But whether we like it or not, we are required to travel it. Bad : It made a deep impression on my mind which I shall never forget. [The figure embodied in " impres- sion" is not carried out by the literal expression "forget."] Right : It made a deep impression on my mind, which wiU never be effaced. Subordi- nate ele- ments mistaken for sen- tences Structure of Sentences Some Fundamental Errors 24. Subordinate sentence-elements should not be capi- talized and punctuated like independent sentences. (See Exercise LXXIV.) A. Wrong; It offers a course for those who wish to study painting. At the same time affording oppor- tunity for literary study. Right : It offers a course to those who wish to study painting, at the same time affording opportunity for literary study. B. Wrong: Among her suitors were two she favored most. One a college student, the other a capitalist. SOME FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS 13 Right : Among her suitors were two she favored most ; one a college student, the other a capitalist. C. Wrong : The care of oil lamps requires every day some untidy and disagreeable labor. While electric lights give the housekeeper no trouble. Right: The care of oil lamps requires every day some untidy and disagreeable labor, while electric lights give the housekeeper no trouble. 25. Do not use a word, phrase, or clause without Elements proper grammatical construction. svntax^ Bad : The resonator responds in a manner analogous to that ichich one tuning fork responds to another. Right : The resonator responds in a manner analogous to that in which one tuning fork responds to another. Bad : That's all I want, is a chance to test it thoroughly. ['* Is " has no subject.] Right ; That's all I want — a chance to test it thoroughly [see Rule 236 e]; [or] All I want is a chance to test it thoroughly. Wrong : There were some people whom I could not tell whether they were English or American. [" Whom " has no construction.] Right : There were some people about whom I could not tell whether they were English or American. 26. Do not begin a grammatical construction and Sentences leave it unfinished. tlnce-lle- Bad : The fact that I had never before studied at home, ^^^^0^1®^* I was at a loss what to do with vacant periods. [The pieted noun "fact" with its appositive modifier "that . . • home " is left without any construction.] Right : The fact that I had never before studied at home made me feel at a loss as to what to do with vacant periods. Bad : The story tells how a young German, who, hav- ing settled in Dakota, returns to Wisconsin and there marries an old schoolmate. [The clause beginning "how a young German " is left unfinished ; "Ger- man" (modified by the clause "who . . . school- mate") has no construction.] 14 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Sentence as subject or predi- cate com- plement When or where clause for predicate noun Right: The story tells how a young German, having settled in Dakota, returns to Wisconsin and marries an old schoolmate. Wrong : Any man who could accomplish that task, the whole world would think he was a hero. ["Man," with its modifier "who . . . task," is left without any construction. ] Right: Any man who could accomplish that task the whole world would regard as a hero. 27. The use of a sentence (except a quoted sentence) as the subject of is or was is a. crudity. Crude : I was detained by business is the reason I am late. Right : I was detained by business ; that is the reason I am late. A similar fault is the use of a sentence (except a quoted sentence) as a predicate substantive after is or was. This fault may be corrected by changing the sentence to a substantive clause. Crude : The difference between them is De Quincey is humorous and Macaulay is grave. Right : The difference between them is that De Quincey is humorous and Macaulay is grave. 28. Do not use a when or where clause in place of a predicate noun ; use a noun with modifiers. Bad : Intoxication is when the brain is affected by the action of certain drugs. Right: Intoxication is a state of the brain, caused by the action of certain drugs. Agree- ment of subject and verb Interven- ing words Grammatical Agreement ^ 29. A verb should agree in number with its subject. (a) Be careful not to make a verb agree with a word intervening between it and the subject, instead of with the subject. (See Exercise XIX.) 1 For definitions of grammatical terms see Appendix B. GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT 16 Wrong : A new order of ideas and principles have been instituted. Right : A new order of ideas and principles has been instituted. (b) Words joined to a subject by ivitJi, together with, Number of including, as well as, or no less than, do not aflfect the the subject number of the subject. fected by toith etc Wrong : The captain, as well as the mate and the pilot, ' were frightened. Right : The captain, as well as the mate and the pilot, was frightened. (c) Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor Subjects require a singular verb. jomed by ^ o or or nor Wrong : Neither he nor she are here. Right : Neither he nor she is here. Wrong : One or the other of those fellows have stolen it. Right : One or the other of those fellows has stolen it. 30. A verb agrees with its subject, not with its predi- Incorrect cate noun. t^f^T^''* with a Wrong: The main part of this machine are the large Predicate rollers. """"^ Right : The main part of this machine is the large rollers. Wrong: Oak, brass, and steel is the material of the structure. Right: Oak, brass, and steel are the material of the structure. 31. Each, every, either, neither, some one^ somebody, Each, any one, anybody, every one, everybody, no one, nobody, ^^^n/» etc. one, and a person accord with singular, not plural, verbs and pronouns. (See Exercise XX.) Wrong: Every one opened their window. Right : Every one opened his window. Wrong : Each of the suspected men were held. Right : Each of the suspected men was held. 16 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Method of correction 32. In correcting violations of Rule 31, recasting is often advisable. Wrong : Everybody there objected and declared they thought it barbarous. Right : All the people there objected and declared they thought it barbarous. Matters of Case Nomina- 33. The subject of a verb (except of an infinitive ; see foT^ublect -^^^^ ^^) should be in the nominative case. Who not (p) This rule holds of the pronoun who when an ex- affected by pression like he says intervenes between the pronoun and /16 SCfUS X «y i. etc. ' its verb. (See Exercise XXI.) Wrong : The man whom I thought was my friend de- ceived me. Right : The man who I thought was my friend deceived me. ["Who" is the subject of *'was"; **I thought " is a mere parenthesis.] Wrong : Whom did they say won ? Right ; Who did they say won ? Who or whoever not af- fected by preceding words (b) The pronoun ivho or whoever, when it is the sub- ject of a finite verb, should not be attracted into the objective case by a verb or a preposition preceding the clause introduced by the who or whoever. (See Exercise XXII.) Wrong: Send whomever will do the work. Right : Send whoever will do the work. [" Whoever " is the subject of "will do," not the object of "send." The object of "send" is the implied antecedent of *' whoever."] Wrong : The question of whom should be leader arose. Right : The question of who should be leader arose. [" Who " is the subject of "should be," not the object of "of." The object of "of" is the substantive clause *' who should be leader."] MATTERS OF CASE 17 comple- ment of an in- finitive 34. A predicate substantive completing a finite verb Predicate should be in the nominative case. (See Exercise XXIV.) ^.j^g ^i^^ Eight : It is I. — The beneficiaries are she, they, and ^°^*® ^®^^ we. — Is it we that you accuse ? 35. The subject of an infinitive and the predicate sub- Subject stantive completing an infinitive should be in the objective cate^^^ ^' case. (See Exercises XXI, XXII, and XXIY.) Right : The gazette reported him to be dead. [" Him '' is the subject of the infinitive " to be."] Right: She imagined the burglar to be me. ["Me'' is the predicate substantive completing ''to be."] Right : The man whom I thought to be my friend de- ceived me. ["Whom" is the subject of "to be." Cf. the first two examples under Rule 33 a.] 36. The object of a verb or of a preposition should be Object of in the objective case. (See Exercise XXIV.) prepoTi- Right : Whom do you mean ? — It is for her, him, and ^^on me. — He helped my mother and me. — All are going, including him, her, and us two. — Does that rule apply to us older members ? 37. An appositive should be in the same case as the Apposi- noun with which it is in apposition. Right: All are going, — he, she, and we two. — He spoke to some of us, — namely, her and me. — We all met, — she, the officer, they you mentioned, and I. 38. Tlian and as are not prepositions ; they are con- junctions, always used to introduce subordinate clauses. When a single substantive follows than or as, that sub- stantive is not the object of a preposition ; it is a member of a clause of which the remainder is. omitted because easily supplied from the preceding clause. The case of such a substantive depends on its construction in the clause when the clause is completed. (See Exercise XXIII.) Right : He is happier than I. [" Than I" = " than I am."3 18 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Right : I can do it as well as they. ["As they " = " as they can do it."] Right: I should help him more willingly than her. ["Than her" = " than I should help her."] Than Note. — The expression than whom is ungrammatical, whom but well established as an idiom.* "... when Beelzebub perceived, — than whom, Satan except, none higher sat, — with grave Aspect he rose. ..." — Paradise Lost, Book II. Possessive 39. As a rule, do not use the possessive case of nouns ^^® • not designating persons. not desig- j^^^ . q^^ university's rules. persons Right : The rules of our university. Bad : Australia's resources. Right : The resources of Australia. Permis- sible ex- ceptions Possessive case in objective sense Possessive with gerunds Note. — To this rule good usage justifies certain excep- tions. Eor example, the use of the possessive of day, hour^ week, month, year, century^ and other nouns designating periods of time is freely allowed ; as day''s journey, a yearns vacation. But an inexperienced writer should observe the rule carefully, not making exceptions other than those that he knows are frequently made by recognized masters of English prose. 40. Do not use the possessive case of a noun to in- dicate the object of an action ; use an o/ phrase. Wrong : Lincoln's assassination. Right : The assassination of Lincoln. Wrong : Mankind's benefactor. Right : The 'benefactor of mankind. 41. Put the substantive modifying a gerund in the possessive case. Wrong : We left without any one knowing. Right : We left without any one's knowing. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 19 Adjectives and Adverbs 42. In such expressions as He looks sad, He looks Adverb or sadly, It sounds dear, It sounds dearly, He stands ^^jectfve firm. He staiids firmly, the word following the verb should be an adjective if it designates a characteristic or condition of the subject; if it modifies the verb, it should be an adverb. Right: He appears good [i.e., appears to be a good Right : He appears well in public [i.e., makes his ap- pearance in a creditable manner]. Right : The music sounds loud [i.e., has the charac- teristic of loud music'] . Right : The bugle sounded loudly through the ranks [i.e., sounded in a loud manner]. Right : It stands immovable. It smells sweet. It tastes sour. Your hand feels cold. It burns bright. She looks dainty. That statement sounds queer. Note. — In such expressions as I am well and I am ill, well and ill are adjectives (see these words in a diction- ary). An expression like "I am nicely," *'I am poorly," is an ungrammatical vulgarism. 43. In such expressions as He holds it steady^ He Adverb or holds it steadily, He filled it fall, He filled it fully, aTjectrve the modifier should be an adjective if it designates the condition of the object — the condition produced by the action of the verb ; if it designates the manner of action of the verb, it should be an adverb. Right : He kept it safe [i.e., through his keeping, it was safe]. Right : He kept it safely [i.e., he performed in a safe manner the act of keeping]. Right: He wrapped it tight [" tight " designates the condition of the object]. Right : He wrapped it tightly [" tightly " designates the mode of wrapping]. 20 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Right : Sweep it clean. Hold it motionless. Shoot him dead. Nail it solid. Bury it deep. Raise it high. Matters of Voice 44. Do not use the passive voice when such use makes a statement clumsy and wordy. Bad : Your letter was received and carefully read by me. Right : I received and carefully read your letter. (See Rule 336.) 45. Do not, by using the passive voice, leave the agent of the verb vaguely indicated, when the agent should be clearly indicated. Bad : That was a crisis in my life, which will never be forgotten. Right : That was a crisis in my life, which I shall never forget. Matters of Tense 46. To represent simple expectation on the part of the speaker, use shall (or its inflectional form should) and will (or its inflectional form would) according to the following formula : I shall (should) we shall (should) thou wilt (wouldst) you will (would) he will (would) they will (would) Wrong : I don't believe I will be able to go. Right : I don't believe I shall be able to go. Right : I don't believe he will be able to go. Wrong : I feared I would fail. Right : I feared I should fail. Right : I feared you would fail. (See Exercise XXVII.) 47. To represent determination, desire, willingness, or promise on the part of the speaker, use shall (or should) and will (or would) according to the following fornmla : MATTERS OF TENSE 21 I will (would) thou shalt (shouldst) he shall (should) we will (would) you shall (should) they shall (should) Right : I will help you ; I promise it. You shall not stir ; I forbid it. They shall be hanged at sunrise j we, the court, decree it. (See Exercise XXVII.) 48. In a question containing shall or sJwuldj will or in ques- would, — (a) When the subject is in the first person, the auxiliary should always be shall or should, except in repeating a question addressed to the speaker (e.^., " Will I help you ? Why, certainly"). (b) When the subject is in the second or third person, use the auxiliary that will be used in the answer. Right form for a question as to expectation : Shall you be recognized, do you think ? [The answer, acc®rd- ing to Rule 46, would be either " I shall be'* or "I shall not be" ; therefore shall should be used in the question.] Right form for a question as to intention : Will you do the deed ? [The answer, according to Rule 47, would be either "I will" or " I will not;" therefore will should be used in the question.] (See Exercise XXVII.) 49. In an indirect quotation use the auxiliary that Jy^^^^^^^*^ would properly be used if the quotation were direct. tions Right : He said he thought he should ride. [The direct quotation would be, " I think I shall ride " ; therefore should (an inflectional form of shall) should be used in the indirect quotation.] 50. In subordinate clauses making contingent state- ments, shall and should are correctly used for all persons. Right : If they should find it, I should rejoice. Right : A man who should do that would be hated. 22 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES The un- 51. Obscurity, or an effect of incompleteness, arises twise ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ P^^^ tense unaccompanied by a time modifier, when there is in the context no- in- dication of the time of the action. Obscure and incomplete : In accounting for the origin of Lake Wingra, geologists say that a small stream ran through the territory where the lake now lies. Clear [The necessary time modifier of "ran" is sup- plied] : In accounting for the origin of Lake Wingra, geologists say that at some remote period a small stream ran through the territory where the lake now lies. Obscure and incomplete : The filament of an incandes- cent lamp is usually made of carbon. Filaments were also made of platinum ; but this metal, because of its very high price, is at present not used at all in electric lamps. Clear [The necessary time modifier of *'were" is sup- plied]: The filament of an incandescent lamp is usu- ally made of carbon. Formerly, filaments were made of platinum also ; but this metal, etc. Past mis- 52. When the course of a narrative is suspended for used for ^j^^ introduction of a preceding event, the past-perfect perfect tense should be used. Obscure : Mitchell hired a jockey named Brunt to ride Shackles in the approaching race. Brunt was in- jured in a jump-race and gave up racing for a time. But Mitchell persuaded him to begin again. [The reader supposes that the events stated in the itali- cized sentence followed the employment of Brunt by Mitchell ; whereas the writer intends to say that those events preceded the employment. The use of the past tense in the italicized sentence is thus en- tirely misleading.] Clear : Mitchell hired a jockey named Brunt to ride Shackles in the approaching race. Brunt had been injured in a ]ump-race and had given up racing for a time. But Mitchell persuaded him to begin again. REFERENCE 23 53. Guard against the incorrect attraction of infini- Misuse of tives and conditional verb-phrases into the perfect tense, fnfinltives An infinitive should be in the present tense unless it and per- represents action prior to that of the governing verb. ditional' Wrong : It was not necessary for you to have gone. ^^ Right : It was not necessary for you to go. Wrong : I intended to have answered. Right : I intended to answer. A conditional verb-phrase in a dependent clause should be in the present tense unless it represents action prior to that of the governing verb. Wrong : I should not have said it if I had thought it would have shocked her. Right : I should not have said it if I had thought it would shock her. 54. Do not use a present participle to represent an Anachro- action not synchronous with that of the srovernine: verb, nous par- •^ & & ticiples Wrong : On Thursday he left for Pittsburg, arriving there on Sunday. Right : He left for Pittsburg on Thursday and arrived there on Sunday. Wrong: Starting for London, he arrived there two weeks later. Right : He started for London and arrived there two weeks later. Wrong: It is old, being founded in 1809. Right : It is old, having been founded in 1809. Beference 55. Do not use a pronoun, or a pronominal expres- sion, the reference of which is uncertain or not immedi- ately evident. The possibility of even momentary doubt, or of momentary ludicrous reference to a wrong word, as well as real obscurity of reference, should be avoided. (See Exercise XXVIII.) 24 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Uncertain : Geraint followed the knight to a town, where he entered a castle. Uncertain: He told his father he would soon get a letter. Not immediately evident : The ghost of his old partner appeared to Scrooge. He told him he must reform. Ludicrous : Whistling for Rover, my cousin put a pail in his mouth and we started. Method of 56. Violations of Rule 55 may sometimes be corrected correction -^-^j repeating the antecedent or using an equivalent noun ; thus : Right : Whistling for Rover, my cousin put a pail in the dog's mouth, and we started. But usually recasting is advisable ; thus : Right : Geraint followed the knight to a town and there saw him enter a castle. Right: He said to his father, "You will [or I shall] soon get a letter." Right : The ghost of his partner appeared to Scrooge and admonished him to reform. 57. The pronouns this and tJiat are peculiarly liable to be used with what may be called weak reference. In case of such use, the fault may often be corrected by changing the pronoun to a demonstrative adjective and inserting a noun after it. Thus : Weak reference : He asked where Cary was. I could not answer that. Right : He asked where Cary was. I could not answer that question. Weak reference : We do oppose the bill ; if we did not, we should not publish this. Right : We do oppose the bill ; if we did not, we should not publish this article. 58. Do not use a pronoun to refer to a noun that has not been used for a considerable space ; repeat the noun. REFERENCE 25 59. Do not use a pronoun referring to a noun sub- Reference ordinate in thought or syntax; repeat the noun or nofpro^- recast the sentence. inent Bad : Mrs. Bloodgood will appear at Powers' s theater in Fitch's play, The Girl with the Green Eyes, This piece was written by him especially for Mrs. Blood- good. Right : Mrs. Bloodgood will appear at Powers's theater in Fitch's play, The Girl with the Green Eyes, This piece was written by Mr. Fitch especially for Mrs. Bloodgood. Bad : In Miss Howerth's story of her life she relates this incident. Right : Miss Howerth in the story of her life relates this incident. 60. Do not use a pronoun, or a pronominal expres- Reference sion, seeming to refer to a word or phrase that has not ^^f g^^^^ been expressed. (See Exercise XXVIII.) pressed Bad : The cadet must keep his hands out of his pockets ; that would be very unsoldierly. Right: The cadet must keep his hands out of his pockets ; to put them there would be very unsoldierly. Bad : Marx is a violinist, the study of which instrument he began when a boy. Right : Marx is a violinist. He began the study of the violm when he was a boy. Bad : A stove is a structure of iron used for holding fire. They are employed for both heating and cooking. Right ; A stove is a structure of iron used for holding tire. Stoves are employed for both heating and cooking. Bad : Mink-skins are valuable, because these animals are now scarce. Right : Mink-skins are valuable, because minks are now scarce. 61. Do not use a pronoun followed by its antecedent Antece- in parentheses ; use the antecedent alone or else recast parent the sentence. theses 26 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Dangling participles Participle introduc- ing a sen- tence or clause Method of correction Awkward : If Davis treated Dixon discourteously, there is no objection to his (Dixon's) decision. Right : If Davis treated Dixon discourteously, there is no objection to Dixon's decision ; [or] Dixon is not to be blamed for his decision if he was treated dis- courteously by Davis. Dangling modifiers 62. A participle should not be used unless the sub- stantive it logically modifies appears in the same sentence and is naturally and immediately connected with the participle. (See Exercise XXIX.) Wrong: Every morning I take a run followed by a shower bath. Right : Every morning I take a run and immediately afterward a shower bath. Wrong : He was deaf, caused by an early attack of scarlet fever. Right : He was deaf, as the result of an early attack of scarlet fever. 63. A participle should not introduce a sentence or clause, unless it logically modifies the subject of the sen- tence or clause. (See Exercise XXIX.) Wrong : Having come of age, I took my son into part- nership with me. Wrong : There we landed, and having eaten our lunch the steamboat departed. 64. Violations of the foregoing rule may be corrected either (a) by changing the participial phrase to a clause, or (6) by making the noun logically modified by the par- ticiple the subject of the sentence or clause. Thus : Right : (a) When my son came of age, I took him into partnership ; [or] (h) Having come of age, my son entered into partnership with me. Right : (a) There we landed, and after we had eaten our lunch the steamboat departed ; [or] {h) There we landed, and having eaten our lunch we saw the steamboat depart. DANGLING MODIFIERS 27 65. A participle preceded by thus should not be used Participle except to modify the subject of the preceding verb. bv^?Ail?^ Wrong : He was careful to avoid having a notice sent to his parents that he had failed, thus causing sorrow at both ends of the line. ["Causing," intended to modify "notice," appears instead to modify ''he" and to express the result of " was careful to avoid," etc.] Right : He was careful that his parents should not re- ceive a notice that he had failed, which would have caused sorrow both to them and to himself. Wrong : He has to stand still until the rod man comes up, thus giving him no chance to move about and keep warm. Right : He has to stand still until the rod man comes up, and thus he has no chance to move about and keep warm. 66. A gerund phrase (e,g., in speaking, after going) Dangling should not be used unless the substantive to which it f^^as^ logically relates is present in the same sentence and is naturally and immediately connected with the gerund phrase. (See the examples under Rule 67.) (See Ex- ercise XXX.) Note. — This rule and Rule 67 do not apply when the gerund designates general action, not the action of any spe- cial agent. Thus : Right : In swimming, the head should not be lifted too high. 67. A gerund phrase should not introduce a sentence Gerund or clause unless it logically modifies the subject of the P^^rase m- ^ *^ •' troducmg sentence or clause. (See Exercise XXX.) sentence Wrong : In talking to Smith the other day, he told me about the race. Wrong : After pointing out my errors I was dismissed. Wrong: After flunking three times, the professor re- proved me. Wrong : After singing hymn 523, Mr. Barnes will lead in prayer. 28 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Method of 68. Violations of the foregoing rule may be corrected correction ^^^j^g^, ^^^ ]3y changing the gerund phrase to a clause, or (b) by making the noun to which the gerund phrase logically relates the subject of the sentence or clause. Thus : Right : (a) As I was talking to Smith the other day, he told me about the race ; [or] (b) In talking to Smith the other day I learned about the race. Right: (a) When he had pointed out my errors, I was dismissed ; [or] (6) After pointing out my errors he dismissed me. Right: (a) When I had flunked three times, the pro- fessor reproved me ; [or] (6) After flunking three times, I was reproved by the professor. Right : (a) After we have sung hymn 523, Mr. Barnes will lead in prayer ; [or] (5) After singing hymn 523, we shall be led in prayer by Mr. Barnes. Dangling 69. An elliptical clause (a clause from which the clauses subject and predicate are omitted ; e.g., while going for while I was going, ivhen a boy for when he was a boy) should not be used unless the omitted subject is the sub- ject of the governing clause. (See Exercise XXXI.) Wrong : When six years old, my grandfather died. Wrong: You must not cut the cake until thoroughly cooked. Method of 70. A violation of the foregoing rule may be corrected correction -^y supplying the subject and predicate of the elliptical clause. Thus : Right : When I was six years old, my grandfather died. Right : You should not cut the cake until it is thoroughly cooked. Elliptical 71. Rule 69 forbids such titles as An Accident WInle tifler^ ^^ Hunting, Things Learned While Canvassing, Write rather An Accident in a Bear Hunt, Things Learned by a Canvasser, UNITY 29 Unity 72. A sentence should be so composed that the reader General feels it to be a unit. principle State- ments un- connected in thought 73. Two or more statements conspicuously lacking connection with each other should not be embodied in one sentence. Bad : Ferguson's features resemble George Washing- ton's, and he was taken into custody. Right : Ferguson was taken into custody. His features, by the way, resemble Washington's. Bad: Mr. Booth's parents were early settlers in this county. . . . After leaving West Pointy Mr. Booths toho loas formerly well known by our readers^ went to the Philippines. Right : Mr. Booth was formerly well known by our readers. His parents were early settlers in this county. . . . After leaving West Point, Mr. Booth went to the Philippines. Note. — Sometimes a sentence consisting of two state- ments lacking connection with each other may be corrected by adding words and rearranging so that a connection between the statements is established. Bad : The operation of an incubator is simple, but no machine will work well unless it is watched. Right [unity secured] : An incubator is simple in opera- tion, but, like any other machine, it will not work well unless it is watched. 74. Long compound sentences consisting of many Stringy statements strung together with ancTs and hufs are peculiarly crude. Bad : The court often gathered to watch Van Dyck at work, but before the picture was finished the Revolu- tion broke out and every one was too much excited to watch its progress, but it went on just the same and was soon finished, and it remains to this day a brilliant proof of the painter's skill. compound sentences 30 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Right : The court often gathered to watch Van Dyck at work. Soon the revolution broke out. The picture was forgotten by the courtiers in their excitement, but the painter continued to work at it and soon finished it. It remains to this day a brilliant proof of Van Dyck's skill. Strag- 75. Long, straggling sentences, written without gram- tences^^^' ^^^^^^^ P^^^ ^^^ incapable of making a single definite impression on a reader's mind, are a palpable violation of unity. Bad : I arrived in Grand Rapids at ten p.m. after ten hours of travel and was met at the train by my brother who greeted me in a very pleasing manner after which we made our way to his home and were met at the door by his wife who had supper ready so we did it justice first then talked about home affairs and the great times we used to have and planned for a great fishing excursion for the next day. Right: I arrived in Grand Rapids at ten p.m., after ten hours of travel. My brother met me at the train with due cordiality and took me to his home. At the door his wife met us with the good news that supper was ready. After supper we had a long talk about home affairs and the good times we had had. Then we formed a plan for a fishing trip on the next day. Unity se- Note. — A sentence may, however, be long without violat- cured by jnpr the principle of unity. Compare the two following sen- good or- ^ . ganiza- fences . *^^" 1. Tennyson's poem Lady Clara Vere de Vere is the speech of a young country fellow to a young lady ol high birth who is beautiful but a heartless coquette, having attempted to ensnare the young man and then cast him off merely to amuse herself, as she has done with a number of other young fellows, one of whom, as the young man who is speaking reminds her, com- mitted suicide from grief at her cruelty, which makes the young man who is speaking despise the lady, for he tells her that he cares neither for her beauty nor for her high birth, since she has no goodness of heart. UNITY 31 and he solemnly tells her she ought to cease amusing herself by her coquetry and to ''pray Heaven for a human heart." 2. Tennyson's poem Lady Clara Vers de Vere is the speech of a manly young country fellow to a beautiful but heartless young lady of high birth, who has at- tempted to amuse herself by breaking his heart, — a speech expressing disdain for charms beneath which there is no goodness of heart, and contempt for hered- itary rank of which the possessor lacks true virtue and honor ; reminding the lady of the suicide of another country lad, whom she had enticed by feigned affection and then cruelly repudiated ; and solemnly adjuring her to cease her unworthy and injurious diversion, to turn her leisure to some good end, and to "pray Heaven for a human heart." The first sentence is long and straggling ; it is a glaring violation of unity. The second is nearly as long as the first but it is not straggling ; it is composed upon a definite and clearly apparent grammatical plan ; it does not violate the principle of unity. In the grammatical organization that gives the second sentence unity in spite of its unusual length, parallelism is an important factor (see Rule 111). Observe that the sentence consists of a single main subject and pred- icate, and depending on that subject and predicate a number of parallel members, — that is, members grammatically alike and introduced alike ; and that two of these members have parallelism within themselves, — that is, consist of a single word or phrase as a basis and of a series of parallel mem- bers in a common relation to that basis. This parallelism in the second sentence may be made clear by the following diagram : 'i ^^^v.^oo,-v,« ( «• disdain 1. expressmg ] ^^ contempt Tennyson's poem . speech 2. reminding 3. adjuring her a. to cease b. to turn c. to pray (See Exercise XL.) 76. Avoid abrupt change m the point of view withm Change of ^ ^ ^ point of a sentence. view 32 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Bad : We passed over the road quickly and soon the camp was reached. [At the beginning of the sen- tence, the point of view is that of the travelers ; after '' and" the point of view is that of the camp.] Right: We passed over the road quickly and soon reached the camp. [The point of view of the trav- elers is kept throughout.] Bad : In order to clean the chain, it should be removed and soaked in kerosene. [At the beginning, the point of view is that of the person who does the cleaning ; after the comma the point of view is that of the object to be cleaned.] Right : In order to clean the chain, remove it and soak it in kerosene [the point of view of the person who cleans the chain is kept throughout] ; [or] In order that the chain may be thoroughly cleansed, it should be removed and soaked in kerosene [the point of view of the chain is kept throughout]. Order of Members Position of 77. Every modifier should be so placed that the reader modifiers : connects it immediately with the member it modifies, and General not with some other member. The possibility of even ^ momentary doubt or of ludicrous misinterpretation, as well as real obscurity regarding the application of a modifier, should be avoided. (See Exercise XXXII.) Bad : The storm broke just as we reached the shore with great violence. Right : Just as we reached the shore, the stonn broke with great violence. Bad : The ball is thrown home by a player stationed in the middle of the square called the pitcher. Right : The ball is thrown home by a player called the pitcher, who is stationed in the middle of the square. Position of 78. Be especially careful to place the adverbs only, the ad- merely, just, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, quite, only, aU nearly^ next to the words they modify, not elsewhere. (See Exercise XXXIII.) most, etc. ORDER OF MEMBERS 33 A. Wrong : It is the handsomest vase I almost ever saw. Right : It is almost the handsomest vase I ever saw. B. Wrong : Do you ever expect to go again ? Right ; Do you expect ever to go again ? C. Wrong : I never remember having met him. [Here **ever" is misplaced and made to modify the wrong word, for nexier = not ever."] Right : I do not remember ever having met him. 2>. Wrong : I only want three. Right : I want only three. E. Wrong : It is the prettiest I nearly ever saw. Right : It is nearly the prettiest I ever saw. 79. A modifying clause should not be so placed that Misplaced a verb following it may, in reading, be erroneously joined clauses with the verb of the clause, instead of with the verb pre- ceding the clause. Ill arranged : I walked out into the night as the moon rose and wandered through the grounds. Clear : As the moon rose, I walked out into the night and wandered through the grounds. Ill arranged : He sprang to the platform on which the dead man lay and shouted. Clear : Springing to the platform on which the dead man lay, he shouted. Bad : A terrible wind and thunder storm visited the Fourth Regiment camp Thursday night, shortly after taps were sounded, playing havoc on all sides. Right : On Thursday night, shortly after taps was sounded, a violent wind and thunder storm visited the Fourth Regiment camp, playing havoc on all sides. 80. As a rule, arrange a sentence containing a relative Position clause so that the clause immediately follows its ante- ^^^^ cedent. clauses Awkward : I had many pleasant experiences while I was there, some of which I shall always remember. Better : While I was there, I had many pleasant experi- ences, some of which I shall always remember. 34 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Squinting modifiers Paren- thetic position of modifiers Awkward : The correspondence began just one month later which led to the surrender. Better : Just one month later began the correspondence which led to the surrender. Note. — It may happen that a sentence containing a rela- tive clause cannot be arranged according to the foregoing rule. In such a case it is often necessary, for clearness, to use two separate sentences or two coordinate clauses. Bad : The police are looking to-day for the persons last in company with Clara Belinfant, the daughter of Abraham Belinfant, a rich New York merchant, who has been missing since July 18. Right: The police are looking to-day for the persons last seen in company with Clara Belinfant, the daughter of Abraham Belinfant, a rich New York merchant. The girl has been missing since July 18. 81. Do not place between two members of a sentence a modifier applicable to either member. Do not trust to punctuation to show the application of the modifier ; recast the sentence. Defective : He declared that if they did not release Blount, the English envoy, within two hours, in spite of all protest he would shell the town. Right : He declared that if within two hours they did not release Blount, the English envoy, he would, in spite of all protest, shell the town ; [or, if *' within two hours " is intended to modify " shell the town"] He declared that if they did not release Blount, the English envoy, he would shell the town within two hours, in spite of all protest. Defective : The coroner's jury which has been investi- gating the death of the girl to-day brought in a ver- dict of suicide. Right : The coroner's jury which has been investigating the death of the girl brought in to-day a verdict of suicide. 82. A modifier of one of the clauses of a sentence may often with advantage be inserted within the clause it modifies rather than placed before or after. Thus ; ORDER OF MEMBERS 35 Clear and forcible : If, after all that has been said, you still hesitate, I despair of persuading you. 83. It is often advantageous to place liowever, there- Paren- fore, nevertheless, moreover, and the like, within the sentences they introduce rather than at the beginning. Inferior : His master was always very kind to him. However, his master's wife was altogether too parsi- monious. Better: His master was always very kind to him. His master's wife, however, was altogether too parsimoni- ous. 84. Two phrases or clauses modifying the same sen- Separa- tence element should not be placed one before and the other after that element ; they should be put together. Awkward : When he has once made up his mind, you may be sure he will never draw back when he has got fully started. Right : When he has once made up his mind and got fully started, you may be sure he will never draw back. 85. Do not put an adverb or a phrase between an in- Split finitive and its sign to, (See Exercise XXXIV.) infinitives Inelegant : I went there in order to personally inspect it. Right : I went there in order to inspect it personally. Inelegant : It is impossible to in any way remove them. Right : It is impossible in any way to remove them. 86. Arrange the members of a sentence so that the Smooth sentence reads smoothly, when this arrangement does not ^^^®^ impair clearness. Awkward : He, instead of acting as my guide, followed me. Right : Instead of acting as my guide he followed me. Awkward : Fishing was not good, and they, becoming impatient, decided to quit. 86 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Right : Fishing was not good, and becoming impatient they decided to quit. Note. — This principle is violated by interposing a num- ber of words between a preposition and its object, so that an awkward pause occurs after the preposition. Awkward : He submitted to, though he did not fully approve of, the rules. Better: He submitted to the rules, though he did not fully approve of them. See also the first Bight example under Rule 90 e. Such a construction may be used, for the sake of brevity, in statutes, contracts, and the like, in which smoothness of style is of little consequence. "The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting, the territory . . . belonging to the United States." — The Federal Constitution. Except in such a context, the harshness of the construction more than offsets the gain in compactness. 87. Arrange the members of a sentence so as to form close connection with the preceding sentence. Inferior: He wished to examine the planet Mars, then in the western part of the sky. He began to turn the telescope in order to do this. Better: He wished to examine the planet Mars, then in the western part of the sky. In order to do this, he began to turn the telescope. 88. For force, close sentences strongly; put unim- portant phrases elsewhere than at the end. Inferior: Then he would return to work, whistling merry tune all the while. Better: Then he would return to work, all the while whistling a merry tune. Inferior: He said nothing, but kept looking at my neck for some reason or other. Better : He said nothing, but for some reason or other kept looking at my neck. INCORRECT OMISSIONS 37 Note. — The foregoing rule does not concern a matter of A sen- correct or incorrect practice, but merely a matter of greater tence or less rhetorical effectiveness. The common belief that a ^^^^ ^ sentence ending with a preposition is on that account incor- preposi- rect is a mistake; such sentences abound in good litera- tion ture ; e.g., "I will not say that the meaning of Shakespeare's names . . . may be entirely lost sight of.'' — Arnold. *'M. Planche's advantage is . . . that there is a force of cultivated opinion for him to appeal to." — Arnold. Moreover, such sentences, as Professor Hill remarks, *'do not contravene the principle which forbids a writer to throw stress on unimportant words ; for ... the stress is thrown, not on the last word, but on the next to the last." 89. A series of assertions or modifiers noticeably vary- Climactie ing in strength should be placed in climactic order, unless ^^ ®^ the writer intends to make an anticlimax for the sake of humor. Weak : I think that the characters are well drawn, the diction is stately and beautiful, and the plot is very interesting. Improved : I think that the plot is very interesting, the characters are well drawn, and the diction is stately and beautiful. Weak : He proved himself to be mercilessly cruel at times, unforgiving, and discourteous. Improved : He proved himself to be unforgiving, dis- courteous, and at times mercilessly cruel. Incorrect Omissions 90. A word or a combination of words may often be Words correctly used in a double capacity if it is perfectly fitted ^^u^je^ ^ for both the otfices it serves. For example, in the capacity sentence, " I can do it as well as you," " can do it " serves as the predicate of both " I " and "you," and does so cor- rectly, since it agrees grammatically with both pronouns. But there are various ways of using words in a double 38 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Auxilia- ries and copulas in a double capacity Be as both principal and auxil- iary Principal verbs in a double capacity Than or as clause in a double capacity capacity that are incorrect; these are indicated in the following rules : (a) Do not supply an auxiliary verb or a copula from one part of a sentence to another if the same form is not grammatically proper in both parts; write the proper form with each part. Wrong : The fire was built and the potatoes baked. Right ; The fire was built and the potatoes were baked. Wrong : He was a patriot, but all the rest traitors. Right : He was a patriot, but all the rest were traitors. Note. — The supplying of an auxiliary from one clause to another is likely to produce an awkward sentence in most cases, even when there is no violation of the foregoing prin- ciple. As a rule, repeat an auxiliary rather than supply it. Awkward : She was taken by surprise and a pistol thrust into her face. Better : She was taken by surprise, and a pistol was thrust into her face. [ See Rule 221 /.] (h) Do not make a single form of the verb he serve both as a principal and as an auxiliary verb. Wrong : At first the drill was interesting and liked by most of the men. Right : At first the drill was interesting and was liked by most of the men. (c) Do not supply a principal verb from one part of a sentence to another if the same form is not grammatically proper in both parts ; write the proper form for each part. Wrong : He did what many others have and are doing. Right: He did what many others have done and are doing. Wrong: We ate such a dinner as only laborers can. Right : We ate such a dinner as only laborers can eat {d) Two expressions of comparison, the one an adjec- tive preceded by as, the other an adjective in the com- parative degree, should not both be completed by a single INCORRECT OMISSIONS .39 as clause or a single than clause, unless that clause im- mediately follows the expression of comparison that stands first in the sentence. Wrong: Fostoria is as large, if not larger, than Dela- ware. Right : Fostoria is as large as Delaware, if not larger. Wrong : He is bigger and fully as strong as Buck. Right ; He is bigger than Buck and fully as strong. (e) Aside from cases covered by Rule d, above, two Other sentence-elements should never be limited by a single P^^^ifiers modifying phrase or clause unless that modifier is idio- double maticaUy adapted to both. capacity Wrong : He had no love or confidence in his employer. Right : He had no love for, or confidence in, his em- ployer. [The foregoing is correct, but awkward ; the following is better :] He had no love for his employer and no confidence in him. Wrong : I shall always remember the town because of the good times and the many friends I made there. Right : I shall always remember the town because of the good times I had and the many friends I made there. Wrong : He acquired a knowledge and keen interest in chess. Right : He acquired a knowledge of chess and a keen interest in it. (/) Two incomplete members of a sentence, the one requiring to complete it a singular noun, the other re- quiring a plural noun, should not both be completed by one noun, unless that noun immediately follows the in- complete member that stands first in the sentence. Wrong : One of the greatest, if not the greatest, generals of America. Right : One of the greatest generals of America, if not the greatest. (g) The expressions as to, in regard to, in respect to are equivalent to single prepositions ; for example, in the 40 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES To (in as to, in re- gard to, etc.) used in a double capacity Omission of articles and pos- sessives Omission of prepo- sitions sentence " A dispute arose in regard to the presidency,** "in regard to" is equivalent to about or concerning. Such expressions are therefore called preposition-phrases (a term not to be confused with the term prepositional phrases) . These preposition -phrases often have clauses for objects ; e.g., in the sentence " A dispute arose as to who was president," the object of the preposition-phrase "as to" is the clause "who was president." When as to, in regard to, or in respect to thus governs a clause, the to should not be made to govern a substantive within the clause. Wrong : A dispute arose as to whom the honor should belong. Right: A dispute arose as to who should receive the honor. [See Rule 33 5.] 91. As a rule, repeat an article or a possessive adjec- tive before each noun in a series, unless all the nouns des- ignate the same thing. Wrong : Near by are a grocery, drug store, barber shop, and smithy. Right: Near by are a grocery store, a drug store, a bar- ber shop, and a smithy. Wrong : She watched her grandmother, aunt, and mother sewing. Right : She watched her grandmother, her aunt, and her mother sewing. Wrong: I asked what were the names of her puppies and kitten. Right : I asked what were the names of her puppies and her kitten. 92. As a rule, a noun should not be used without a preposition, to indicate adverbially the time of an occur- rence. Bad : The preceding summer I went to England. Right : In the preceding summer I went to England. COORDINATION 41 Bad : I was born the third of May, 1881. Right : I was born on the third of May, 1881. Bad : The race will occur Saturday. Right : The race will occur on Saturday. Note. — Exception to this rule may be made in the case Permis- of such expressions as last year, last month, last night, last ^i^^®. ®^" Saturday, next year, next day, next Tuesday, some day, one ^^^ ^^^^ day, any day, that day, this day, this afternoon ; but do not make an exception for an expression (like those in the Bad examples above) which you do not know to be a well-estab- lished idiom. 93. Do not make comparisons leaving the standard of Uncom- comparison not indicated or only vaguely implied; let compari- the standard be definitely stated or implied. sons Incomplete : Manufacturers have come to see the greater economy of the electric motor. Right : Manufacturers have come to see the greater economy of the electric motor as compared to steam power. Godrdination 94. A dependent sentence-member should not be joined Misuse of by and or hut to the member on which it depends. ?ne^^on-^*^ Wrong : He put up signs to keep people off the grass J^^ctions and thereby improving the appearance of the campus. Right : He put up signs to keep people off the grass, thereby improving the appearance of the campus. 95. Do not join a relative clause to its principal clause ** And by and or hut. which" *' construc- Bad : He came home with an increase in weight, but *^^^ which hard work soon reduced. Bad : On the way we met a Mr. Osborn from the neigh- borhood of Denver and who had the typical western breeziness. 96. Violations of the foregoing rule may be corrected Method of by (a) omitting the conjunction, (6) changing the rela- correction 42 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES tive clause to a principal clause, or (c) inserting a rela< tive clause before the conjunction. Thus : Right : (a) He came home with an increase in weight, which, however, hard work soon reduced ; [or] (6) He came home with an increase in weight, but hard work soon reduced it. Right : (a) On the way we met a Mr. Osborn from the neighborhood of Denver, who had the typical western breeziness; [or] (c) On the way we met a Mr. Os- born, who came from the neighborhood of Denver, and who had the typical western breeziness. Illogical 97. An assertion should not be joined by and, but, or tion " ^^ *^ ^ preceding assertion with which it is not logically coordinate. Subordinate thoughts should be put into subordinate grammatical forms. (See Exercise XXXVI.) Bad : The sheets of tin are laid in rows, and care is taken that all the sheets fit snugly. [The statement after *' and" is logically subordinate to the statement preceding, but is made grammatically coordinate.] Right : The sheets of tin are laid in rows, with care that all the sheets fit snugly. Bad : This is done by a chemical which has the property of absorbing oxygen and giving it off again ; or in other words, it is a carrier of oxygen. ["It is a carrier of oxygen" is made grammatically parallel to '*This is done by a chemical ; " whereas the assertion that the chemical is a carrier of oxygen is logically subordinate to the assertion that the work is done by a chemical.] Right : This is done by a chemical which has the prop- erty of absorbing oxygen and giving it off again — or, in other words, by a carrier of oxygen. Juvenile : It was a fine frosty morning and two seniors were walking toward college. Right : On a fine frosty morning two seniors, etc. Juvenile : She sat on the ground dressed in a pretty frock, and her dog was in her lap. Right : She sat on the ground dressed in a pretty frock. holding her dog in her lap. COORDINATION 43 Juvenile : Their books were rolls of paper and only one side was written on. Right ; Their books were rolls of paper, only one side of which was written on. Juvenile : He made an interesting speech and it lasted an hour. Right : He made an interesting speech an hour long. Note. — The lack of force and grace by which the style Excessive of an inexperienced writer is apt to be characterized is due coordina- largely to indiscriminate coordination. This fault in writ- ^^^ ing is like want of perspective in drawing. In a picture drawn by an unskillful person all the objects usually appear to be at the same distance from the observer ; in one drawn by an artist the objects appear at various distances. In somewhat the same way, a style which uniformly connects statements by coordinating conjunctions differs from one which employs a variety of subordinating devices. (See Ex- ercise XXXVII.) 98. The adverbs so, then, and also should not be used So, then, to join coordinate verbs in a sentence ; for this purpose uged^to^ a conjunction {and or hut) must be used in addition to join verbs the adverb. Wrong : He was only one among many so was not observed. Right : He was only one among many and so was not observed. Wrong : I paddled the boat for a while, then fell into a reverie. Right : I paddled the boat for a while and then fell into a reverie. 99. The use of the adverb so for the purpose of com- The so pounding sentences {e.g., "The clerk was incompetent, so ^^^^* the governor removed him from office ") is a form of ex- pression rarely found in good literature. If so is used as a connective, the sentence it introduces should be set off from the preceding one by a period or a semicolon. (See Rule 231 h.) Even this correct use of so, hcwever, sug- 44 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Two but's or /or 's Method of correction Clearness of coordi- nation gests immaturity if it occurs frequently. It is advisable, in nearly all cases where one has used so as a connective, to subordinate the preceding statement and to omit the so, (See Exercise XXXVIII.) Incorrect and crude : His wife thought he would be thirsty so she brought a pitcher of water. Correct but undesirable : His wife thought he would be thirsty ; so she brought a pitcher of water. Preferable : His wife, thinking he would be thirsty, brought a pitcher of water. Incorrect and crude : The people were opposed to him for some unknown reason, so he had to accomplish his purpose through secret agents. Correct but undesirable : The people were opposed to hira for some unknown reason. So he had to accom- plish his purpose through secret agents. Preferable : Since the people were, for some unknown reason, opposed to him, he was compelled to accom- plish his purpose through secret agents. 100. Two consecutive statements should not both be introduced by but or for. Bad : lago became fond of Desdemona but she paid no attention to him but seemed to favor Cassio. Bad : He suddenly paused, for it seemed wonderful that he could speak so easily, for usually he was bashful. 101. Violations of the foregoing rule may usually be corrected by omitting the first but or for. Thus : Right : lago became fond of Desdemona. She paid no attention to him but seemed to favor Cassio. Right : He suddenly paused ; it seemed wonderful that he could speak so easily, for usually he was bashful. 102. In the case of several coordinate sentence mem- bers that are somewhat long or complex, care should be taken to make the relation between the members imme- diately apparent to the reader, so that, in beginning any COORDINATION 45 member after the first, he shall instantly coordinate it General with the right member preceding. To this end, the P^i^^^P^® members should be introduced in a similar, often an identical, manner. Obscure coordination : Then I learned how he had run away from his father, a gypsy vagabond who pro- fessed to be a horse-trader and was in reality a thief, dressed in some clothes that he found on a scarecrow in a cornfield, learned the way to my home through the map in an old railway time-table, and come all the way on foot. [This sentence is well constructed ; its defect is that the relation between the coordinate members is not shown by similar beginnings.] Clear coordination : Then I learned how he had run away from his father, a gypsy vagabond who pro- fessed to be a horse-trader and was in reality a thief ; how he had dressed in some clothes that he found on a scarecrow in a cornfield ; how he had learned the way to my home through the map in an old railway time-table, and had come all the way on foot. The foregoing principle has many different applications. The following are worthy of special mention : 103. A preposition governing several objects should Repetition be repeated with each object after the first, when the of prepo- • o ^ 1 • 111 • 1 • sitions construction of those objects would otherwise not be im- mediately clear. A. Not immediately clear : The place is often visited by tourists who are fond of rugged scenery, and es- pecially amateur photographers. Right : The place is often visited by tourists who are fond of rugged scenery, and especially by amateur photographers. B. Not immediately clear : With the refusal of Mr. Gog- gins to accept the oflSce left vacant by the resignation of Mr. Barnes and the presence of Governor Davidson in the city, the friends of Mr. Roemer were kept busy yesterday. 46 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Clear : With the refusal of Mr. Goggins to accept the ofiSce left vacant by the resignation of Mr. Barnes, and with the presence of Governor Davidson in the city, the friends of Mr. Roemer were kept busy yes- terday. Note — When the objects stand close together, repeti- tion is usually unnecessary ; e.g.^ — Right : He had lived in Cuba, Panama, and Barbadoes, Right : It was exposed to the wind, the rain, and the scorching sun. But when the objects are separated by intervening modifi- ers, as in sentences A and B, clearness usually requires that the preposition be repeated. Repetition 104. An infinitive-sign (to) introducing several coor- infinUive- ^^iii^'^G infinitives, should be repeated with each infinitive sign after the first, when the construction of those infinitives would otherwise not be immediately clear. A. Not immediately clear : Here nature has done her best to enchant those that can see and feel, and 'make them her lifelong worshipers. Right : Here nature has done her best to enchant those that can see and feel, and to make them her lifelong worshipers. Note. — When the infinitives stand close together, repe- tition of the to is usually not necessary ; e.g. , — Right : Has he learned to dance, converse, and make himself agreeable ? But when the infinitives are separated by intervening ad- juncts, as in sentence A above, repetition of the to is usu- ally necessary to clearness. Repetition 105. A subordinating conjunction introducing several dinaUnff" coordinate assertions should be repeated with each asser- conjunc- tion after the first, when the coordination of those asser- ^^°® tions would otherwise not be immediately clear. SUBORDINATION 47 Obscure coordination : When they saw the excellent structure which, though handicapped by the strike and the difficulty of getting materials, he had yet completed in less than the required time, and con- sidered how valuable such a man would be to them, they gave him a permanent position. Clear coordination : When they saw the excellent structure which, though handicapped by the strike and the difficulty of getting materials, he had yet completed in less than the required time, and when they considered how valuable such a man would be to them, they gave him a permanent position. Note. — When the coordinate assertions are very short, repetition of the conjunction is usually not necessary ; e.^.,— Right : He seems to be pretty well, though he takes no exercise and neglects his diet. It is only when the assertions are complex that repetition of the conjunction is necessary. Subordination 106. Do not put a series of similar clauses or a series Overlap- of similar phrases in an overlapping construction, — i.e., pmgde- with the second depending on the first, the third on the second, the fourth on the third, etc. Recast the sentence. A. Awkward : I never knew a man who was so ready to help a friend who had got into difficulties which pressed him hard. Right : I never knew a man so ready to help a friend who found himself hard pressed by difficulties. B, Awkward : I was so uncomfortable that I rolled up my sleeves so far that my arms got sunburned, so that I could hardly sleep that night. Right: Feeling very uncomfortable, I rolled up my sleeves so far that my arms got badly sunburned. The pain thus caused kept me awake most of that night 48 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES C Awkward : There stood the big handsome motor car of the founder of the infamous combination of the manufacturers of that necessary of life, oatmeal. Right : There stood the big handsome motor car belong- ing to Saunders — the man who formed the infamous combination to control the manufacture of that vital necessary, oatmeal. 107. Note, on the other hand, that a series of similar clauses or phrases all depending on the same sentence- element gives rise to no awkwardness. (Cf. Rule 75, note.) Right : I rise to nominate a man who has ever been stanch in his loyalty, who has long been a trusted counselor in the policies of our party, who has demonstrated his fitness for this office by the efficiency of his administration in others, whose honor has never been assailed save by calumnious envy, whose fame is destined to echo down the coming ages, who . . . etc. Right : His face has come down to us marked with all the blemishes put on it by time, by war, by sleepless nights, by anxiety, perhaps by remorse. 108. A lohen clause is properly used only to fix the time of an event stated in the principal clause. Hence : 109. A statement of primary importance in a narra- tive should not be embodied in a when clause ; it should be embodied in an independent clause or sentence. Bad : The thoughts of the engineer turned toward the home he was approaching when suddenly he saw the glare of fire on the track ahead. Right: The thoughts of the engineer turned toward the home he was approaching. Suddenly he saw the glare of fire on the track ahead. Bad ; Having finished their work, they began to talk about former good times when one of the fellows suggested that they haze Nicholson. PARALLELISM 49 Right : Having finished their work, they began to talk about former good times. Presently one of the fellows suggested that they haze Nicholson. 110. To put a logically principal statement in a sub- Upside- ordinate clause and the logically subordinate statement ordination in the principal clause is especially objectionable, unless there is some good reason for such inversion. Bad : I was walking down State Street yesterday when I came upon a crowd of people gathered about a horse that had fallen down. Right : As I was walking down State Street yesterday, I came upon a crowd of people, etc. Parallelism 111. As a rule, two or more sentence-elements that Parallel have the same logical office should be made grammatically forms for parallel; i.e., if one is an infinitive, the other should be; elemems^ if one is a^ relative clause, the other should be ; if one is an appositive, the other should be ; and so on. (See Exer- cise XXXIX.) A Bad: The crowd began to wave handkerchiefs and shouting good-byes. ['*To wave" and "shouting," both objects of "began," are awkwardly dissimilar in form.] Right : (a) The crowd began to wave handkerchiefs and to shout good-byes ; [or] (6) The crowd began waving handkerchiefs and shouting good-byes. [The two objects of "began" are made parallel; in (a) they are both infinitives, in (6) they are both gerunds.] B, Bad : I met many people there whom I had seen before but did not know their names. [" Whom I had seen before " and " did not know their names," both qualifiers (logically) of "people," are awkwardly dissimilar in form.] Right : I met many people there whom I had seen before but whose names I did not know. [ The two quali- fiers of " people " are made parallel ; both are relative clauses.] 50 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES C Bad: I delight in a good novel — one which portrays strong characters and in reading the book you are thrilled. [The two qualifiers of '* one " are awkwardly dissimilar; the first ("which portrays strong char- acters") is a relative clause, the second ("in reading the book you are thrilled") a sentence.] Right: I delight in a good novel — one which portrays strong characters and which thrills the reader. [The two qualifiers are made parallel ; both are relative clauses.] D. Bad : Two courses are open to us : first, to have the missionary society transfer to us a missionary now in the field ; second, one of our own members has volunteered to go, and we may send him. [The two logical appositives to "two courses" are awkwardly dissimilar; the first ("to have . . . field") is a grammatical appositive, the second ("one of our own members , . . him") a sentence.] Right : Two courses are open to us : first, to have the missionary society transfer to us a missionary now in the field ; second, to send one of our own members, who has volunteered to go. [The two logical apposi- tives are made parallel ; both are grammatical apposi- tives to "courses."] [Or] Two courses are open to us. First, we may have the missionary society trans- fer to us a missionary now in the field ; second, we may send one of our members, who has volunteered to go. [The two logical appositives are made parallel ; both are sentences.] E. Bad : I have lived in many states, some for only a short time, while in others 1 have lived a year or more. [The two qualifiers of the main clause are awkwardly dissimilar ; the first ("some .^or only a short time") is an incomplete modifier of "lived," the second ("while . . . more") a complete subordinate clause.] Right : I have lived in many states, — in some for only a short time, in others for a year or more. [The two qualifiers of the main clause are made parallel ; both are prepositional phrases modifying "lived."] F. Bad : I was asked to contribute to the church, Christian Association, and to the athletic fund. [The three PARALLELISM 51 modifiers of "contribute " are awkwardly dissimilar in form; the first is- a complete phrase, the second a noun with both the preposition and the article lack- ing, the third a complete phrase.] Right : I was asked to contribute to the church, to the Christian Association, and to the athletic fund. [The three modifiers of ''contribute" are made parallel in form ; each is a complete phrase. ] [Or] I was asked to contribute to the church, the Christian Association, and the athletic fund. ["To" is made to govern three objects parallel in form, — each consisting of "the" and a noun.] 112. Correlative conjunctions should be followed by Correla- coordinate sentence-elements ; if a predicate follows the *^^®® first, a predicate should follow the second ; if a modifier the first, a modifier the second ; and so on. (See Exer- cise XXXV.) Wrong : They would neither speak to him nor would they look at him. ["Neither" is followed by "speak," a part of a compound verb; "nor" by " would they look," a subject and complete predicate.] Right : They would neither speak to him nor look at him. ["Neither" and "nor "are each followed by an infinitive completing " would."] Wrong : He is not only discourteous to the students but also to the teacher. [" Not only " is followed by an adjective, "but also" by a phrase modifying the adjective.] Right : He is discourteous not only to the students but also to the teacher. [The correlatives are each fol- lowed by a phrase limiting " discourteous."] 113. Do not make a sentence- element similar in form Incorreci to a preceding element with which it is not coordinate. ^m^^^^^" Misleading : He is a blunt, manly fellow, who admires a soldier and despises an effeminate fop, who struts about affectedly and dresses daintily. Right : He is a blunt, manly fellow, who admires a sol- dier and despises an effeminate, affected, daintily dressed fop. 52 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 114. Do not join by and and put in the same gram- matical construction, two substantives or substantive clauses widely differing in logical function. Bad : The story tells of the bravery and promotion of a private. [" Bravery " designates a quality, ** promo- tion" designates an experience.] Right : The story tells of a private's bravery and of his promotion. Bad: He tells in vivid language how dangerous to a vessel is the breaking loose of a cannon on wheels, and how a ship's gunner captured an escaped cannon. [The substantive clause "how dangerous to a vessel is the breaking loose of a cannon " designates a general truth; the substantive clause "how a ship's gunner cap- tured an escaped cannon " designates a specific event.] Right: He tells In vivid language how a cannon on wheels broke from its fastenings on a ship (explaining the perils that attend such an accident), and how it was captured by a gunner. 115. The formula a, &, and c, should not be used for sentence-elements not coordinate. (See Exercise XLI.) Bad : He was tall, slim, and wore a black coat. [Here a and h are adjectives, and c is a verb.] Bad : We denounce the act as cruel, barbarous, and sincerely regret that it occurred. [Here a and b are adjectives and c is a verb.] Method of correction 116. Violations of the foregoing rule may be corrected (1) by inserting and between a and 6, or (2) by con- forming c to a and b. Thus : Right: (1) He was tall and slim, and wore a black coat ; [or] (2) He was tall, slim, and attired in a black coat. Right : (1) We denounce the act as cruel and barbar- ous, and sincerely regret that it occurred ; [or] (2) We denounce the act as cruel, barbarous, and wor- thy of condemnation by all right-thinking sophomores. LOGICAL AGREEMENT 63 Logical Agreement 117. Every sentence-element should be in logical accord with the rest of the sentence. (In connection with this rule, see Kule 28 and Exercise XLII. See Subject, Cause, and Reason in the Glossary.) A, Bad : Of these names sixteen were chosen to be mem- bers. [" Sixteen (names) " does not agree logically with ''were chosen to be members."] Right : Of the persons named sixteen were chosen to be members. B. Bad : The life of a hod-carrier is sometimes happier than a prince. [" The life " does not agree logically with "is happier than a prince."] Right : The life of a hod-carrier is sometimes happier than that of a prince. C Illogical : He hated to submit to the rules, — viz.^ church attendance and not smoking. [Church attendance and abstinence from tobacco are not rules.] Right : He hated to submit to the rules, — namely those requiring attendance at church and abstinence from smoking. D. Illogical : A fireman seldom rises above an engineer. Right : A fireman seldom rises above the position of engineer. 118. When a thing is compared to other members of Other or its own class, in a statement completed by a than or an fhanovas as clause, the standard of comparison in the than or the clause : as clause should be restricted by other or else, or by an equivalent word. Illogical : Lead is heavier than any metal. Right : Lead is heavier than any other metal. Illogical : Shakespeare is greater than any English poet. Right : Shakespeare is greater than any other Enghsh poet. 119. When a thing is compared to the members of a When class to which it does not belong, in a statement com- ^^^^^^^ When correct 54 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES The of phrase limiting a superla- tive pleted by a than or an as clause, the standard of com- parison in the than or as clause should not be restricted by othei* or else or any equivalent word. Illogical : That little word home means more to me than any other word of twice its length. Right : That little word home means more to me than any word of twice its length. 120. In the of phrase limiting an adjective or an ad- verb in the superlative degree, — (a) The object of 0/ should be a plural noun or a col- lective noun, not a noun designating an individual person or thing. Illogical : He is the tallest of any man in the regiment. Right : He is the tallest of all the men in the regiment ; [or] He is the tallest man of the regiment. (Right: He is taller than any other man in the regi- ment. ) (5) The object of of should designate a class to which the subject of comparison belongs, not a class to which it does not belong. Illogical : Blackbirds make the best pie of all birds. [A pie cannot be the best of birds.] Right : Blackbirds make the best pie of all game pies. (Right : Blackbirds make better pie than any other birds.) (c) The object of 0/ should not be restricted by other or else or any equivalent word. Illogical : Shakespeare is the greatest of all other English poets. Right : Shakespeare is the greatest of all English poets. Double negative J^egation 121. Double negative (i.e., the use, in a sentence, of two or more negative words not coordinate, — as *' I could not find it nowhere ") is forbidden by modem usage. (See Exercise XLIII.) REDUNDANCE 65 122. Hardly, scarcely, only, and hut used in the Incorrect sense of only are often incorrectly joined with a negative, ^^f^*^^® (See Exercise XLIV.) hardly, et€. Wrong : It was so misty that we couldn't hardly see. Right : It was so misty that we could hardly see. Wrong : For a minute I couldn't scarcely tell where I was. Right : Eor a minute I could scarcely tell where I was. Wrong : They are not allowed to go only on Saturdays. Right : They are allowed to go only on Saturdays. Wrong : There isn't but one store. Right : There is but one store. Redundance 123. Avoid tautology, — i,e., the useless repetition of Tautol- an idea, in part or entire. ^^ Bad : If I had abundant wealth and plenty of re- sources . . . Right : If I had abundant wealth . . . Bad : Will you please repeat that again ? Right : Will you please repeat that ? Bad : The autobiography of my life. Right : My autobiography. 124. Avoid pleonasm, — i.e., the use of words which Pleonasm do not involve repetition of thought, but which are struc- turally unnecessary. Bad : There were two hundred students went. Right : Two hundred students went. Bad : It has no relation as to time or place. Right : It has no relation to time or place. Bad : They went through with the formalities. Right : They went through the formalities. 125. Avoid burdening a statement with too many Wordi- words. ^®^^ Wordy : Yesterday I had occasion to be a witness of a very interesting incident. Right : Yesterday I saw an interesting incident. 56 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Wordy: At midnight the physician made a statement saying that the governor was better. Right : At midnight the physician stated that the gov- ernor was better. Wordy : By a little inquiry on my part, I found that he was a Nihilist. Right : By a little inquiry I found that he was a Nihilist. See also the Bad examples under Rules 16 and 129, note. Repetition of Words 126. Do not use a word in two senses in the same sentence or within a short space. Bad : Since several years passed since the death of his wife . . . Right : Several years having passed since the death of his wife ... Bad : I couldn't get up courage to get up and in- vestigate. Right : I couldn't summon courage to get up and in- vestigate. 127. Avoid awkward and needless repetition of a word or phrase. Bad : MacArthur was to speak on that day ; hence we selected that day for our trip. Bad : He said that the orders said that uniforms must be worn in future. 128. Violations of the foregoing rule are usually best corrected by recasting, not by merely substituting syn- onyms for the repeated words. Thus : Right : That was the day on which MacArthur was to speak ; we therefore selected it for our trip. Right : He said that the orders required the wearing of uniforms in future. 129. Prefer repetition, however;, to labored and awk- ward avoidance of it. REPETITION OF WORDS 57 Awkward : If it has this effect on a healthy skin, it will have a worse result on an inflamed cuticle. Preferable : If it has this effect on a healthy skin, it will have a worse effect on an inflamed skin. Note. — A constant straining for conspicuous synonyms Str.'xining to use in referring to something previously mentioned is a ^^^ ^J^' characteristic mannerism of newspaper writers (cf. Rules ^"^"^^ 2 c and 16). Avoid this practice ; repeat the noun, or else choose an inconspicuous synonym. Bad : At the faculty meeting yesterday the question of football was again discussed. Those of that learned aggregation who opposed the gridiron game succumbed at the final vote. [See Rule 125.] Improved : At the faculty meeting yesterday the ques- tion of football was again discussed. The opponents of the game were defeated at the final vote. Bad : The extreme warm weather during the past several weeks has not exactly been conducive of producing record-breaking scores at the Y. M. Q. A. bowling alleys. In fact it has almost been too warm for even the most ardent lovers of the tenpin game, and enthusiasm has for some time been at a rather low ebb. [See Rule 125.] Right: The extremely warm weather of the past several weeks has discouraged the production of high scores at the Y. M. C. A. bowling alleys. It has been almost too warm for even the most enthusiastic bowlers, and the general interest in the game has been slight. Bad: President Roosevelt is willing to mediate in the telegraphers' strike if the key men and their employers request him to act as arbiter in the big tie-up. [See Rule 125.] Right: President Roosevelt is willing to mediate in the telegraphers' strike if the telegraphers and their employers request his services. 130. When the conjunction that is separated by in- repetition terveninff words from the subject and predicate which it ^^ ^^® 1 . IT . n 1 conjunc- mtroduces, guard against the careless repetition of that, tion that 58 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Wrong : It is pleasant to reflect that after all this work has been done and all these difficulties have been con- quered, that we shall get a good rest. Right ; It is pleasant to reflect that after all this work has been done and all these difficulties have been con- quered, we shall get a good rest. Concur- rence of like sounds Absolute phrases : Absolute pronoun Euphony 131. For euphony, avoid a succession of like sounds. Avoid rhyme in prose. Not euphonious : The chilling blasts blowing with cutting force. Bad : My first year was the best of my college career. Bad : Then came the time for the heart-breaking leave- taking. Bad : The fountains were kept playing night and day to keep up the display. 132. Absolute phrases are often a useful aid to proper subordination and to smoothness of style. But there are two kinds of absolute phrases which, being conspicuously awkward, are best avoided ; viz., (a) Absolute phrases in which the substantive is a pro- noun. Clumsy : He gave up the task, it being too difficult. Better : He gave up the task as too difficult. Clumsy : I being unacquainted with the road, my party got lost. Better: Since I was unacquainted with the road, my party got lost. Note. — Such an absolute phrase is particularly objection- able when the pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence. In such cases wordiness is added to awkwardness, since the pronoun is pleonastic (see Rule 124). Bad : I made a trip to Catalina Island in 1902, I being then in my tenth year. Better : I made a trip to Catalina Island in 1902, being then in my tenth year. UNITY OF A COMPOSITION 59 Bad : The furnace could not be repaired immediately, it being red-hot. Better : Being red-hot, the furnace could not be repaired immediately. (b) Absolute phrases in which the substantive is mod- Latinistic ified by a perfect participle, especially a passive perfect ^ ^^^ses participle. Such phrases are clumsy, unidiomatic, and suggestive of elementary Latin exercises. Clumsy : His horse having been fed, Macy continued his journey. Better : When his horse had been fed, Macy continued his journey. Variety 133. Do not make many sentences in a composition Forms of or a passage monotonously alike in construction. This expression principle is often violated (a) by beginning many sen- frequent tences near each other with after, with this or these, or with the7^e is or there are ; (b) by using with noticeable frequency a compound sentence with two members of about equal length joined by and or but ; (c) by using participial or absolute phrases with noticeable frequency ; and (d) by the habitual use of so as a connective (cf. Kule 99). Structure of Larger Units of Discourse Unity of a Composition 134. A composition should treat a single subject and The gen- should treat it throughout according to a self-consistent ^^^} P^"^' method. The following composition is an example of the viola- tion of unity by failure to hold to one subject : Our Trip up Spruce Creek While I was in Port Orange, Mr. Doty, the proprietor of the hotel there, took some oi his guests five miles up 60 STRUCTURE OF LARGER UNITS Spruce Creek on a launch. It was the third of Febru- ary. As the boat steamed up the creek, we stood on the deck, some of us taking pictures and others shooting at alligators with revolvers. The alligators are of all sizes. Sometimes you will see one seven or eight feet long, lying on the bank in the sunshine. As the boat goes past, he slides into the water and swims away with only his head above the water. When we have gone a little farther, we see another alligator about four feet long, with ten or twelve little ones crawling over her back. When the launch has gone about five miles, it stops at the wharf of an orange grove. Here the passengers are allowed to take all the oranges they want. After they have walked about the grove for a while, they have a picnic dinner, and then start back. The writer of the foregoing composition keeps to his subject — a trip which be took up Spruce Creek on February 3 — for only three sentences. After the third sentence he shifts to a different subject — the Spruce Creek trips in general — and throughout the rest of the composition forgets all about "our trip." Unity may be given to this composition (a) by making it entirely a narrative, dealing with the trip of February 3 ; or (b) by making it, throughout, a general discussion of the Spruce Creek picnics provided by Mr. Doty. Too big 135. Avery small essay on a very large subject — a subject g^^j^ ^^ Character; Patriotism, Selfishness, Advertising, The Waste of Energy — usually violates the principle of unity. It usually consists of a number of brief scraps of discussion, each dealing with a different division of the subject. The divisions of so large a subject are them- selves large ; the essay therefore reads like a fragmentary and disconnected treatment of a number of distinct sub- jects, not like a connected treatment of a single subject. When a short essay is to be written on a big subject, it is best to choose some single, well-defined phase of the the tense in narra- UNITY OF A COMPOSITION 61 subject. For example, choose The Difference between Char- acter and Keputation, rather than Character ; The Work of Patriotic Women during the Spanish- American War, rather than Patriotism; Selfishness in the Conduct of Students toward their Parents, rather than Selfishness ; Advertising as a Necessary Measure of Self-Defense, rather than Advertising ; The Value of a Daily Sched- ule, rather than The Waste of Energy ; How Students' Adversities aid them toward Success, rather than Success, 136. In reproducing a story (e.^., the story of Mao- Shifting heth) or in composing a story, do not shift carelessly be- tween the present and the past tenses. Decide at the tive beginning which tense to use, and use it consistently. (Cf. Rule 19.) 137. In a story the opening events of which are told Shifting as having been seen or participated in by the narrator, of yfe^^in the introduction of events or speeches or thoughts which narrative the narrator, according to his own account, could not have seen or heard or known, is a flagrant violation of unity. Thus, the italicized part of the following extract vi- olates unity : I strolled down to the boat-house at six o'clock yester- day evening. As I got there a row-boat was approach- ing the wharf containing a man and a girl who I judged must have arrived from the country very recently. They had started for Picnic Point at two o^clock. On the way the young man had had great difficulty at the un- familiar work of rowing. Often his oars would slip and send a shower of water into the girVs lap, at which he would say, '' Oh, I am so sorry /'* and she would reply, '' Oh, thaVs all right. "... As they neared the wharf, he was anxiously wondering whether he could land without accident. Jimmy, the keeper of the boat-house, stood ready to assist at the disem- barkation. . . . 62 STRUCTURE OF LARGER UNITS A story in which unity is thus violated may be cor- rected (a) by omitting all events, speeches, and thoughts of which the narrator could not, according to his own account, have been aware at the time they took place {e.g., omitting the italicized passage in the story quoted) ; (&) by introducing all such events, speeches, and thoughts as having been learned by the narrator after they took place {e.g., making the oarsman in the above-quoted story tell the narrator, in a subsequent conversation, what is improperly related in the italicized passage) ; or (c) by omitting all reference to the narrator — telling every- thing impersonally {e.g., omitting from the above-quoted story all preceding the italicized part and continuing without any reference to the narrator). Shifting 138. If a description is introduced by narrative, with in Ve^scrip- *^® object of picturing a thing as it appeared on a certain tion occasion in the past, the past tense should be used throughout the composition ; carelessly shifting to the present tense changes the point of view and violates unity. Shifting 139. Do not change the point of view of a composi- of*^^ew^of* tion or of a passage by shifting carelessly from / to one, one person from we to the observer, from you to a person, etc. another^^ Keep consistently to one point of view unless there is good reason for changing. Organization of a Composition The gen- 140. In order that a composition be effective, it must cinle^^^'^* ^^^ merely contain good thoughts or interesting state- ments ; it must be a well-organized whole. It can not be a well-organized whole if the writer puts down thoughts or statements at haphazard, just as they occur to him. To get good organization, a writer must proceed by a definite plan ; that is, he must, before he begins to write, ciple ORGANIZATION OF A COMPOSITION 63 or at least before he puts the composition into its final form, decide on a few topics, and on each topic write a passage (see Kule 142), constituting a unit of the whole composition. Unless this plan of organization is followed, the composition is likely to be a mere collection of pieces — not a well-made whole. The pieces may be individu- ally good, but the composition is poor. As in warfare a band of men, though strong and brave individually, is collectively weak if it is not well organized ; so a speech, a report, an editorial, an essay, any composition, though its parts may be forcible or clever, is weak as a whole if it is not well organized. For example, an essay on Denver consists of a short paragraph on each of the following topics : 1. Location. 2. History. 3. Local pride. 4. Water supply (derived from mountain snow), 6. Capitol and United States mint. 6. Museums. 7. Principal businesses. 8. Dwelling houses (none built of wood). 9. Schools. 10. Wealth of citizens. 11. The city as a health resort. 12. Churches. 13. Strange spectacle of men skating in winter in their shirtsleeves. This production, however interesting its material, is as far from being a good composition as two wheels, a dia- mond frame, a chain, and a pair of handle bars, all piled in a heap, are from being a good bicycle. It is a series of haphazard remarks not organized into a whole. There is no reason for most of the parts' standing where they are — no reason, e.g., for discussing public buildings after the water supply, or skaters' costumes after churches. The material of this essay may be organized into a whole 64 STRUCTUKE OF LARGER UNITS by the method shown in the following outline. The numbers within the brackets refer to parts of the pre- ceding outline. I. History. [2] 11. Location and climate. [Put 1 and 13 here — 13 as an illustration of the statements about the climate.] III. Especially striking peculiarities of the city. 1. Evidences of its being a health resort. [11] 2. Absence of wooden buildings. [8] 3. Public buildings. [5] 4. Water supply. [4] 5. Most striking of all, — local pride. [3] IV. Conditions of the people's life. 1. Economic : Principal occupations. General wealth. [7 and 10] 2. Educational and moral : Schools, museums, churches. [9, 6, and 12] 141. Material belonging to one part of an essay should not be placed carelessly in another part. In the following paragraph, the italicized sentence is evidently misplaced : The physical training department of our college is very good and is constantly improving. A good gym- nasium for the women is greatly needed, to replace the present unsatisfactory make-shift. As I am more ac- quainted with the work of the girls, I shall confine myself to the physical training provided for them. The italicized sentence does not belong in this intro- ductory part, but in a subsequent part, — viz.^ that which discusses the equipment for the girls' exercise. 142. In an expository essay each of the passages con- stituting the major units (see the third sentence of Rule 140) should be somewhat like a distinct composition; just as a military company is a complete organization within itself, as well as a unit in a regiment. In other "words, each main division of the essay should be a well- COHERENCE 65 organized, well-introduced, well-concluded whole, which would seem rounded and complete if it stood by itself. Coherence 143. The opening sentences of a formal composition Coherent should be self-explanatory ; they should be clear to the beginning reader without reference to the title of the composition. Bad : t Lamps They are contrivances for furnishing artificial light. . . . ^^g^^= • Lamps Lamps are contrivances for furnishing artificial light. . . . ^ * My Work during the Past Term Latin and German were more diificult than any other studies. . . . ig • ^iy Work during the Past Term In my work during the past term, I had more difficulty with Latin and German than with any other studies. 144. The beginning of a new division, either of a Distinct whole composition or of a paragraph, should be clearly t^on^of^a" marked, so that the reader will not begin reading the new part new division supposing that the preceding division still continues. For marking the beginning of a new part, the following are useful means : (a) A transitional sentence or group of sentences, such Transi- asthefoUowing: *"- So much for [the subject of the preceding division], paragraph It remains to mention [the subject of the new division]. (6) Connective words, phrases, and other expressions, Connec- such as again; in the second place; another cause o/[the *^J^ words subject under which the several divisions fall] ; equally im- phrases poii^ant with the preceding consideration is . . . ; etc. 66 STRUCTURE OF LARGER UNITS (c) Placing near the beginning of the first sentence of the new division the word or words that indicate the sub- ject of the new division. For example, after discussing the abuses of college athletics, to begin a new division with the words " The remedy ..." makes the change of topic immediately evident. After discussing a states- man's foreign policy, to begin a new division with the words "His internal administration . . ." makes the change of topic immediately evident. 145. When a sentence or a passage states a con- sequence of what precedes, this relation, unless it is immediately obvious, should be indicated by some con- nective word, phrase, or other expression, such as there' fore, hence, for this reason j the result is , . ., etc. 146. When a passage makes an abatement from a preceding assertion, this relation should usually be indicated by some connective, such as to be sure; I admit; there is, to be sure, an exception . . . ; etc. 147. When a passage makes a statement contrasting with what precedes, this relation should usually be in- dicated by some connective, such as but, yet, on the other hand, nevertheless, houjever, etc. 148. Lack of connective words or sentences between a statement and a contradiction of it is especially apt to cause incoherence. Incoherent : Some people think clerking is an easy job and that a clerk ought never to be tired. Clerks stay closely housed day after day, working from six in the morning to ten at night. . . . Coherent [the necessary connective is supplied] : Some people think the occupation of a clerk is easy and that a clerk ought never to be tired. This is not the case. In the first place, clerks stay closely housed day after dav. etc. II. PUTTING DISCOURSE ON PAPER Spelling 149. A monosyllable or a word accented on the last Doubling syllable, if it ends in one consonant preceded by one sonants: vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix begin- Qg^g^al ning with a vowel is added. Thus : hid, hidden ; quiz, rule quizzes, (See Exercises XLV, XLVI.) 150. From the foregoing rule it follows that a verb of Before one syllable or a verb accented on the last syllable, if it g^^ ^^ ends in one consonant preceded by one vowel, doubles the final consonant when ed or ing is added. Thus : drop, dropped, dropping. (See Exercises XLV, XLVI.) 151. Words ending in silent e usually drop the e before Dropping a suffix beginning with a vowel. Thus: love, lovahle ; ^^ ^* stone, stony. (See Exercises XLVII, XLVIII.) ^^^^^^al 152. From the foregoing rule it follows that a verb Before ending in silent e drops the e when ing is added. Thus ; *^^ shine, shining, (See Exercise XLVIII.) 153. An exception to Rule 151 : Words ending in ce Deriva- or ge do not drop the e when ous or ahle is added, ^o^ds^^n"^ Thus : notice, noticeahle ; outrage, outrageous. (See ce and ge Exercise XLIX.) Note. — C and g in words of French, Latin, and Greek derivation usually have the soft sound before 6, i, and y, as cede, genial^ civile giant^ cyanide^ gymnasium ; elsewhere they have the hard sound, as calendar^ Gallic, code, gorgouy acute, gusto. (Get, geese, gew-gaw, geld, giddy, gift, gig, giggle, gild, begin, gird, girdle, girl, and give are not of the above-mentioned derivation.) Notice how the principle 67 68 SPELLING applies to accent, accident, flaccid, occiput, accept, accurate^ desiccate, except, excuse. On account of this principle, the e must be retained in such words as noticeable and cour- ageous, in order to keep the soft sound of c and g, 154. A noun ending in y preceded by a consonant forms the plural in ies ; as library, libraries, A noun ending in y preceded by a vowel forms the plural in ys ; as valley, valleys. ( See Exercise L.) 155. A verb ending in y preceded by a consonant forms its present third singular in ies and its past in ied. Thus : rely, relies, relied ; marry, marries, married. (See Exercise LL) 156. Verbs ending in ie change ie to y before ing. Thus : lie, lying. ( See Exercise LII.) 157. Nouns ending in a consonant add es, to form the plural, when the plural has an extra syllable ; when the plural has no extra syllable, they add only s. Thus : lass, lasses ; lad, lads. ( See Exercise LIU.) 158. Verbs ending in a consonant add es to make the present third singular form when that form has an extra syllable ; when it has no extra syllable, they add only s. Thus : miss, misses ; proclaim, proclaims. ( See Exercise LIV.) 159. In case of doubt whether to use the digraph ei or the digraph ie in words like receive and believe, the question may be determined by reference to the word Celia. If c precedes the digraph, e follows the c, as in Celia. Thus : receive, conceive, perceive, deceive. If I precedes the digraph, i follows the I, as in Celia. Thus : believe, relieve. (See Exercise LXI.) 160. In case of doubt whether to use principal or principle, remember that the word which contains a (prin- cipal) is the adjective, and the other word the noun. (See Exercises LXXI, LXXII.) SPELLING 69 Note. — Principal meaning a school officer is an adjective modifying a noun (officer) understood. Principal meaning a sum of money is an adjective modifying a noun (sum) un- derstood. 161. In modem prose (the rule does not hold in poetry) the spellings and oJi of the common interjec- tion are employed as follows : is used when the inter- jection serves as the poetic or archaic sign of direct address ; as " I am come, Caesar," " ye spirits of our fathers," " God, we pray thee," " I fear for thee, my country." When the interjection is used in any other way than as the sign of direct address, — that is, in the great majority of cases, — it is spelled oh ; e.g., " Oh no, it is no trouble," '' Oh ! you ought not to do that," " My child ! oh, my child ! " "I will do it — and oh, by the way, where's the key ? " Note. — should always be capitalized, and, when used in the manner stated above, should not be followed by any mark of punctuation. Oh is not capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence, and may be followed by an excla- mation point, a comma, or no mark at all. 162. The misspelling of the following words should A list of be avoided with particular care : Accommodate. Across. Notice that in across, amount, apart, and arouse, the consonant following a is not doubled. Advice (noun), advise (verb). See Exercise LXXIII. All right. Two words. There is no such word as " alright." Altar ('* the altar of the church "). Alter is a verb. Amount. See the note after Across. Angel ("the angel Gabriel"). Angle means corner- Associate angel with angelic. Apart. See the note after Across. Apparatus. Arouse. See the note after Across. Arrange. Arrive, arrival. Ascend, ascent. Cf. descend, descent. 70 SPELLING Athletic, athletics, athlete Awkward. Balance. Believe. See Eule 159, and Exercise LXI. Benefit, beneficial. Boundary. Burglar. Business. See Exercise LXV. Choose, chose, chosen. Coming. See Rules 151, 152 ; and see Exercise XLVIIL Commit, commission, committee. Comparative. Consent. Deceased ("his deceased uncle"). Diseased means afflicted icith disease. Definite. Cf. infinite. Descend, descent. Cf. ascend, ascent. Describe, description. Desert ("a barren desert "). Dessert means last course of a meal. Device (noun), devise (verb). See Exercise LXXIII. Different, difference. Cf . excellent, excellence ; independent, independence. Dining room. See Rules 151, 152 ; and see Exercise XLVIII. Disappear. | g^^ ^^^^^.^^ j^^jj^ Disappomt. j Discipline. Cf. fascinate. Eighths (*' three eighths" etc.). Cf. hundredths, thou- sandths. Embarrass, embarrassment. Etc. Abbreviation for et cetera. Excellent, excellence. Cf. different, difference ; indepen- dent, independence. Existence. Cf. experience, sentence, reference, preference, deference, conference, inference. Experience. See Existence. Fascinate. Cf. discipline. Finally. See Exercise LV. Formerly, Not to be confused with formally Forty. But four, fourteen. Grammar. SPELLING 71 Grievous. Cf. mischievous. Guard. Height. There is no such word as ''heighth." Highth is obsolete. Humorous. See Exercise LIX. Hundredths. Cf. eigliths, thousandths. Impromptu. Incident. Not '' incidence." Independent, independence. Cf. different, difference, ex- cellent, excellence. Infinite. Cf. definite. Invitation. Itself. Cf. oneself. See Rule 164. Laboratory. Laid. Not "layed." Later ("sooner or later"). Latter ("the former, the latter"). Led. See Exercise LXVII. Lightning. Lose. See Exercise LXVI. Macaulay. Mathematics. Meant. Messenger. Mischievous. Cf. grievous. Month. Murmur. Mystery, mysterious. Necessary, necessity. Niagara. Occasion, occasional, occasionally. See Exercise LVI. Occur, occurred, occurring, occurrence. See Rules 149, 150 ; and see Exercises XLV, XLVI. Officer. Cf . prisoner. Omit, omission. Oneself. Cf. itself. See Rule 164. Operate, operation. Opportunity. Origin, original. Parallel. Partner. Possess, possession. 72 SPELLING Precede, proceed, recede, concede, succeed, supersede. See Exercise LXIV. Preference See Existence. Preparation. Principal ) ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ Exercises LXXI, LXXIL Principle. ) Prisoner. Cf. officer. Privilege Proceed. See Precede. Profession, » g^^ ^^^^^.^^ lXIII. Professor. ) Prove Pursue. Quiet. Rapid. Receive. See Rule 159 and Exercise LXL Recognize. Recommend, recommendation. Reference. See Existence. Repetition. Safety. Sentence. See Existence. Separate, separation. Similar. Sophomore. Specimen. Speech. But speak. Stretch. Studying. Surprise. Symmetry, symmetrical. Their. Therefore. Not " therefor," which =/6>r t^. Thorough. Thousandths. Cf. eighths, hundredths. Together. Too. See Exercise LXVIII Trulv. Until. Vengeance. Village. Villain. LEGIBILITY 73 Weak {z= feeble-). Week ( = seven days). Woman. Writer, writing. See Rules 151, 162 ; and see Exercises XLVII, XLVIIL Yacht. 163. The members of eacji of the following italicized Incorrect expressions should be written as separate words : all right all ready (adjective) near by some time (noun) some day every time a while (noun) (on the) other hand per cent. (See Rule 4 i) in order in spite any one every one some one no one words 164. Each of the following expressions should be written as a single undivided word : myself yourself himself herself itself oneself anybody everybody somebody nobody anything something sometimes somewhat whoever whatever whichever whenever wherever altogether although inasmuch moreover notwithstanding nevertheless nowadays farewell outside already {adverb) inside Legibility 165. Let a liberal space intervene between consecutive lines in a manuscript. Do not let the loops of /'s, g'^s, fs, q^s, y^s, and z[s in any line descend below the general level of the loops of Vs, fs, h^s, ¥s, and Vs, in the line below. (Compare Plates I and II.) 166. Do not crowd consecutive words close together. (Compare Plates I and II.) 74 LEGIBILITY ^ (Mco Tj<^ cot-coo orH ^j;;:!;';;^;:; LEGIBILITY 75 1'1^ riTl ^ ^"^ i 4 ^ "• 1 d ^ i ^ >^ 7? r H ., I J a J .i 1 (NCOrtliO COt>-C0C> 76 LEGIBILITY 167. Between a period, a question mark, an exclama- tion mark, a semicolon, a colon, a word immediately be- fore a direct quotation, the last word of a direct quota- tion, — between any of these and a word following on the same line, leave double the usual space between words. (See Plate II, lines 1, 2, 3, and 9 ; and compare the cor- responding places in Plate I.) 168. Do not crowd marks of punctuation close to one another or to the words next them. (See Plate I, lines 1, 2, and 9, and compare the corresponding places in Plate II.) 169. Do not crowd the writing at the bottom of a page ; take a new page. 170. Do not leave gaps between consecutive letters in a word. Especially avoid leaving a wide interval be- tween an initial capital and the rest of the word. 171. Do not write and on an oblique line. 172. Do not neglect dotting fs and fs and crossing fs and x\s. 173. Place the cross of a ^ across the stem of the t, not elsewhere. Place the dot of an i or a j immediately above the i or the j, not elsewhere. 174. Making the crosses of fs conspicuous for their length, peculiar shape, or peculiar direction is a hindrance to legibility and an annoyance to the reader. Cross a t with a straight horizontal stroke not more than a quarter of an inch long. 175. Form quotation marks and apostrophes, not as in this illustration : a^^^s ^....^ ^ ^^hi^Vs tU >»? but as in this : -7Z7 u '/hLu^ 'iLt ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT 77 [te Roman numbers, not in thi ri, m. :y. ytti. rx 176. Write Roman numbers, not in this manner : Shape of Roman numbers but in this : .^^ ...^ ,_ --— . 177. In forming a letter do not decorate with flour- Conspicu- ishes not necessary for identifying it, or with conspicuous ^^j^t^^^' shading. Avoid especially such forms as the following : Prefer plain forms like the following : Z3, C. ^. i . F, 14, hi, h. er . r. Arrangement of Manuscript Tlie Manuscript as a Whole 178. The paper for the manuscript of a literary com- Writing position should be unruled, unless special circumstances, ^^ ®"^ ^ such as the regulations of a class, require the contrary. The writing should be done either with a typewriter or side of with black ink. Only one side of each sheet of paper P^P^r to should be written on. A manuscript should never be rolled ; it should go to its destination either flat, or folded ^^^ p°f, as simply as possible. missible Pages 179. The pages of a manuscript should be numbered Page at the top, in Arabic, not Roman numbers. 180. The title should be written at least two inches Position from the top of the page. Between the title and the first *^* ® line of the composition, at least an inch should intervene. 181. The first line of each page should stand at least Margin at an inch from the top of the page. *^® *^P 182. There should be a blank margin of at least two Margin at inches at the left side of each page. *^® ^®^* 78 ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT Indention : Of or- dinary para- graphs Of num- bered para- graphs Irregular indention Incorrect indention Incorrect spacing out The funda- mental principle Paragraphs Mechanical Marks of a Paragraph 183. In manuscript the first line of every paragraph should be indented at least an inch. (See Plate II, line 1.) 184. No exception to the foregoing rule should be made when paragraphs are numbered. Wrong : I. What power has Congress to punish crimes ? II. State in what cases the Supreme Court has origi- nal jurisdiction. III. How are presidential electors chosen ? Would it be constitutional for a State legislature to choose them? Right : I. What power has Congress to punish crimes ? II. State in what cases the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. III. How are presidential electors chosen ? Would it be constitutional for a State legislature to choose them ? 185. The first lines of all paragraphs should begin at the same distance from the margin ; do not indent the beginning of one paragraph an inch, that of another two inches, that of another half an inch, etc. 186. No line except the first line of a paragi*aph should be indented in the slightest. 187. After the end of a sentence do not leave the remainder of the line blank unless the sentence ends a para- graph ; begin the next sentence on the same line, if there is room. This rule is violated in Plate I. line 4. Division of a Composition into Paragraphs Paragraphing as an Aid to Clearness 188. Paragraphing, if properly employed, gives the reader as much assistance in understanding a whole com- position as punctuation gives him in understanding a sen- PARAGRAPHS 79 tence. Parts of a composition that are distinct in topic may by paragraphing be made distinct to the eye also, — an effect that decidedly promotes clearness. For instance, suppose an essay on Queen Elizabeth discusses three topics : (1) Elizabeth's personal character, (2) her char- acter as a ruler, and (3) her popularity with her subjects. To embody the three passages corresponding to these three topics in separate paragraphs makes evident at once the beginning and the end of each passage, and thus enables the reader to grasp without effort the struc- ture of the essay. On this consideration are based the following rules (189-193) : 189. A passage entirely distinct in topic from what Applica- precedes and follows should (except when Eule 207 ap- /J^'para- plies) be written as a separate paragraph. graphing rr,, T • . of distinct Thus, suppose an essay on gasolme engmes presents — parts (m) An explanation of the operation of gasoline engines. (n) An estimate of gasoline engines as compared witih other kinds of engines. Parts m and n should be embodied in separate para- graphs. Suppose a story tells — (m) The hero's visit to the bank and his transactions there, (w) What was happening meanwhile at the hero's factory. Parts m and n should be embodied in separate para- graphs. 190. A passage that serves as an introduction or a Para- conclusion to a composition consistiner of several para- ^^^P^s of 11111 11 1 -n ' mtroduc- graphs should be paragraphed separately, even if it con- tion and sists of only one or two sentences. conclusion Correct paragraphing: The large body of recent State legislation compelling railway companies to reduce passenger fares, though 80 ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT it probably sprang from good intentions, is likely to have three unfortunate consequences. [ The main body of the essay consists of three para^ graphs, each discussing one of the three unfortunate consequences.'] One can not foretell, of course, how many years will elapse before these three results of the recent railway legislation will work themselves out; it may be five years, or it may be a dozen. But that they will sooner or later work themselves out seems, in the light of history, practically certain. Para- 191- ^ passage that serves merely to make a transi- graphs of tion from one group of paragraphs to a following group transition i 1 1 i ^ ^ . i should be paragraphed separately. Correct paragraphing : \_The achievements of Macaulay as a man of letters are discussed for three or four paragraphs.] Macaulay's political achievements, though less dis- tinguished than his literary achievements, are worthy of a somewhat detailed notice. \_Two or three paragraphs follow^ dealing with Macaulay'' s political career.] Para- 192. In narratives, as a rule, any direct quotation, to- graphing gether with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, quotations should be paragraphed separately. (See Exercise LXXIX. ) Right : There were no takers. Not a man believed him capa- ble of the feat. Thornton had been hurried into the wager, heavy with doubt ; and now that he looked at the sled itself, the concrete fact, with the regular team of ten dogs curled up in the snow before it, the more impossible the task appeared. Mathewson waxed jubilant. " Three to one," he proclaimed. " Til lay you another thousand at that figure, Thornton. What d'ye say ? " Thornton's doubt was strong in his face, but his fight- ing spirit was aroused — the fighting spirit that soars above odds, fails to recognize the impossible, and is deaf to all save the clamor for battle. He called Hans and Pete to him. Their sacks were . . . PARAGRAPHS 81 133. Rule 192 should be especially observed in the Dialogue report of a con versation ; each speech, regardless of length, should be paragraphed separately. (See Exercise LXXIX.) Wrong : " When did you arrive ? " I asked. ** An hour ago," he answered. "Didn't you get my letter?" "No." "Strange," he said. Right : " When did you arrive ? " I asked. " An hour ago," he answered. " Didn't you get my letter?" "No." " Strange," he said. 194. Observe that in order to paragraph an isolated Indention quotation separately (as is done in the example under Rule quotation 192), the line following the quotation must be indented. 195. A quotation may be detached by paragraphing indention from the introductory expression (e.^., he said) if this ^^•^*^? ^ expression precedes it. sentence Right : Mr. Peggotty looked round upon us and nodding his head with a lively expression animating his face, said in a whisper, "She's been thinking of the old 'un." But a quotation should not be so detached from the introductory expression if the quotation does not close the sentence. Wrong : Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, I called out to him, "Come on. Who's afraid?" and started into the house. Wrong : Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, I called out to him, " Come on. Who's afraid ? " and started into the house. 82 ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT Right : Thinking I could stand it if my friend could, I called out to him, " Come on. Who's afraid ? " and started into the house. (ii) Group- ing of re- lated parts Improper para- graphing of minute parts 196. When several consecutive short passages present slightly different topics, yet collectively form a larger division, distinct from other divisions of the composition, it is disadvantageous to write the short passages apart from each other, for this gives the reader no visible indi- cation of the distinctness and unity of the larger division. The distinctness and unity of the whole division should be made apparent, rather than the individuality of its parts. Hence the following rule : 197. Several consecutive short passages composing a larger unit of a composition should not be written each in a separate paragraph, but should be combined into one paragraph. Thus in an essay on a steel factory, describing — (a) The process of sheet-rolling, (6) The process of rail-rolling, (c) The process of casting, part h should not be written as follows : Steel ingots six feet long and six inches square were heated to a white heat in a large oven. When sufficiently hot, an- ingot was removed and taken on an endless chain to the first set of rollers. These rollers were eighteen inches in diameter. When the ingot had been passed through them, it was a bar of steel ten feet long and five inches thick. Then the bar of steel was put on another endless chain and taken to a second pair of rollers. This process was continued, the bar being passed suc- cessively through five or six pairs of rollers. It came from the last pair a red-hot rail of standard size. PARAGRAPHS 83 It was next bent slightly so that the base was convex. This was to allow for unequal contraction in cooling. The rail was now left to cool. When cold, it was taken to the cold rollers and rolled perfectly straight. The foregoing passage should be written as a single para- graph ; and so should part a and part c of the same essay. 198. The beginning of a new paragraph naturally leads (iii) Para- the reader to think that the discussion of a new topic is |5f^j.e^°^ beginning. Therefore, to begin a new paragraph where there is the discussion of a new topic does not begin misleads the of topic^^ reader. Hence the following rule : 199. A sentence that does not introduce a new topic but continues the topic of the preceding sentence should not be made to begin a new paragraph. The paragraphing in the following passage, for example, is illogical and objectionable : The beauty of Fra Angelico's character has been the admiration of all who ever studied the life of that devout and gentle artist. He might have lived in ease and comfort, for his art would have made him rich ; instead, he chose the cloister life. Fra Angelico was gentle and kindly to all. He was never seen to display anger and if he admon- ished his friends, it was with mildness. . . . In this passage, the discussion of the gentleness of Fra Angelico begins in the sentence "Fra Angelico was gentle," etc. ; the sentence "He was never," etc., contin- ues the discussion of this topic — does not introduce a new topic. Hence, there should be no paragraph divi- sion where one now stands; the sentence " He was never," etc., should follow without a break. 200. A paragraph, by its visible detachment from (i^) Unity what precedes and follows, suggests the unity of the pas- paragraph 84 ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT sage it embodies. A passage not having unity should therefore not be put into one paragraph and thus pre- sented under the guise of unity. Hence the following rule : 201. See that every paragraph has one central topic, under which all the statements in the paragraph logically fall. Note. — The presence, in a paragraph of an expository essay, of several passages not belonging, or seeming not to belong, to a single topic, usually points to bad organization of the essay (see Rules 140, 141), or to bad organization of the passage embodied in the paragraph (see Rule 142). Sentences made con- spicuous by detach- ment Paragraphing for Emphasis 202. A sentence or a short passage which the writer wishes to make especially emphatic may be paragraphed separately. Thus, in the following passage the italicized part does not require to be paragraphed as being distinct from the preceding part; but it may properly be set apart for emphasis. Indefinite narrative should not be entirely avoided ; it is useful, and for some purposes is preferable to con- crete narrative. Parts of a story that are not of dra- matic interest, speeches that are of no interest or importance, — these may properly be conveyed by in- definite rather than by concrete narrative. But remem- ber this : Actions occurring at important points of a story should he related by concrete^ not indefinite narrative. Unbroken text fa- tiguing Neglect of para- graphing Paragraphing for Ease in Reading 203. Reading an extended composition or passage in the text of which there are no breaks to rest the eye, is fatiguing. Hence the following rules (204 and 205) : 204. A composition more than 300 words long should not be written without paragraphing. WRITING VERSE 85 205. A passage more than 300 words long, even if Para- it constitutes a single unit of the composition, should foo^ong usually not be written as a single paragraph, but should be divided into two or three paragraphs of convenient length {i.e., not longer than 200 words). Thus, an essay on Lincoln, presenting — 1. A narrative of his life (350 words) 2. An estimate of his greatness (100 words) should not be written as two paragraphs corresponding to the two main divisions of the material, but should be paragraphed in some such way as the following : t Events of life up to 1860 (200 words) ^ Career as president (150 words) ^ Estimate of his greatness (100 words) 206. On the other hand, it should be remembered Over- that reading a passage not more than about 200 words p^^il^^^^ long is not fatiguing to the ordinary reader, and that graphing over-frequent paragraphing annoys as much as lack of any paragraphing fatigues. Hence the following rules (207 and 208) : 207. A composition no longer than 150 words should usually be written without any paragraph divisions. 208. Do not paragraph with needless frequency and without good reason. Writivg Verse 209. If an entire line of poetry can not be written on Left-over parts Lines one line of the page, the part left over should be placed f.^^^^ ^^ as shown below : Right : Lombard and Venetian merchants with deep-laden argosies ; Ministers from twenty nations ; more than royal pomp and ease. 86 ARRANGEMENT OF MANUSCRIPT Wrong : Lombard and Venetian merchants with deep-laden argosies ; Ministers from twenty nations ; more than royal pomp and ease. Grouping 210. A quotation of poetry should be grouped into interlines ^^^^^® exactly as the original is grouped. Bad: Once to every man and nation Comes the moment to decide In the strife of truth with falsehood for the Good or evil side. Right : Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide In the strife of truth with falsehood for the good or evil side. Verse set 211. A quotation of verse occurring in a prose compo- the pa^e sition should begin on a new line. The prose following such a quotation should also begin on a new line, indented if it begins a new paragraph, flush with the left-hand margin if it continues the paragraph containing the quotation. Wrong : While Tennyson admits that sorrow may be for our ultimate advantage and that, as his gi-eat memorial says, " Men may rise on stepping stones Of their dead selves to higher things,'' yet he finds it impossible to get any present consolation from the thought. Right : While Tennyson admits that sorrow may be for our ul- timate advantage and that, as his great memorial says, " Men may rise on stepping stones Of their dead selves to higher things," yet he finds it impossible to get any present consolation from the thought. See also the first Bight example under Rule 246 ; and see p. V. TABULATED LISTS 87 Extended Quotations of Prose 212. A passage of prose quoted from a written com- Extended position or a formal speech, if it is three or four sentences i^^l^^ long or longer, should be set apart from the matter pre- apart on ceding and following it, in the same way as a quotation * ® ^^^^ of verse (see Rule 211). Right : The part of the letter of instructions providing for an examination of candidates I quote verbatim. This part is as follows : '*and that, furthermore, all candidates be examined as to their knowledge of constitutional law ; that this examination be conducted in writing ; and that the following questions, among others, be asked : *' 1. What power has Congress to punish crimes ? *'2. State in what cases the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. "8. How are presidential electors chosen ? Would it be constitutional for a state legislature to choose them ? " These instructions, it will be perceived, leave the committee no discretion in regard to waiving the examination. For other examples see Rules 137, 141, 199, 202. Tabulated Lists 213. In a list of items set down in tabular form, the Indention first line of each item should extend farther to the left than the remaining lines of the item. Wrong : The principal powers of the President are — • (a) The power to conduct foreign affairs. (b) The power to command the army and navy in time of war. (c) The power to veto bills. (d) The power to appoint officers (subject to the approval of the Senate). 88 ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT Right : The principal powers of the President are — (a) The power to conduct foreign affairs. (6) The power to command the army and navy in time of war. (c) The power to veto bills. (d) The power to appoint officers (subject to the approval of the Senate). 214. A list of items in tabular form should be set apart from the matter preceding and following it, in the same manner as a quotation of verse (see Eule 211). Bad: Under this subject there are three important headings : (a) Position of pronouns (6) Use of connectives (c) Position of phrases ; all of which are to be carefully studied. Right : Under this subject there are three important headings: (a) Position of pronouns (6) Use of connectives (c) Position of phrases all of which are to be carefully studied. Note. — Another way of correcting the errors above shown is to write the passage without tabulating the items ; thus : Right : Under this subject there are three important headings : (a) Position of pronouns ; (b) Use of connectives ; and (c) Position of subordinate expres- sions ; all of which are to be carefully studied. For other illustrations of the rule see Rules 140, 189, 197- Alterations In Manuscript 215. Words to be inserted should be written above the line, and their proper position should be indicated by the sign a (not " v") placed below the line. Words so inserted should not be enclosed in parentheses or brackets ALTERATIONS IN MANUSCRIPT 89 unless these marks would be required were the words written on the line. ;N^ote. — Obscurity results from writing an insertion in the manner shown in the Bad example below : ■"^^ • as an agreeable means Although tennis is at present very popular j^ it probably of exercising the muscles, will never rank with football as a game for supremacy between colleges. xvlgnr . g^ g^jj agreeable means of exercising the muscles, Although tennis is at present very popular a it probably will never rank with football as a game for supremacy between colleges. rvlgnt , gg g^jj agreeable means Although tennis is at present very popular a it probably - of exercising the muscles, it probably A will never rank with football as a game for supremacy between colleges. 216. Erasures should be made by drawing a line Erasure through the words to be canceled. Parentheses or brackets should not be used for this purpose. 217. "Words written in one place which are to be Trans- transposed to another, should be canceled (see Rule 216) P^^^*^*^^ and inserted in the proper place by the method shown in Rule 215. No other method of transposition should be used. 218. When it is desired that a word standing in the Indicating midst of a paragraph should begin a new paragraph, the paragraph sign ^ should be placed immediately before that word. The change should not be indicated otherwise. 219. A paragraph division should be canceled by Cancel- writing **No ^" in the margin. The change should pafjfgraph not be indicated otherwise. division 90 PUNCTUATION Close of a sentence Abbrevia- tions Direct address Apposi- tives Absolute phrases Paren- thetic members Punctuation The Period (.) 220. Use the period — (a) After a complete declarative or imperative sentence. (&) After an abbreviated word or a single or double initial letter representing a word ; as etc.^ viz.j Mrs.j i.e., e.g., LL.D., pp. The Comraa (,)^ 221. Use the comma — (a) To set off a substantive used in direct address. Right : You see, John, how I stand. (&) To set off appositives. Right : Next he went to Vienna, the capital of Austria. Note. — Exception to this rule should be made (1) in the case of an appositive that is a regular part of a pro-per name (e.g., William the Conquoror) ; and (2) in the case of ap- positives like the italicized expressions in the following sentences ; Right : The word beautiful is an adjective. Right: The expression ^'' Where am I atf'^'' is a pro- vincialism. (c) To set off absolute phrases. Right: Everything being readij, the guard blew his horn. (d) To set off any word or phrase which has a paren- thetic function but for which parenthesis marks or double dashes are not suitable. Right: He was satisfied, I suppose, with his situation. His refusal of my offer, however, I don't understand. Note. — For setting off a parenthetic expression, prefer commas to parenthesis marks where commas will make the sentence clear ; but notice that the use of commas for this purpose may cause obscurity in some cases — particularly when the parenthetic expression is a complete sentence. 1 See Exercise LXXVII. a con- junction THE COMMA 91 Obscure : By all appearances, of course this is a secret, he is likely to win. Clear : By all appearances (of course, this is a secret) he is likely to win ; [or] By all appearances — of course, this is a secret — he is likely to win [see Rule 236 c]. (e) To set off a geographical name explaining a pre- Geo- ceding name. ' Se'l''"^ Right: Paris, Illinois, is a smaller city than Paris, France. (/) To separate coordinate clauses connected by one of Coordi- the simple conjunctions. (Cf. Rule 231 b.) "f^^^g^g Right : The train moved swiftly, but Turner arrived too joined by late. Right : When they at last met, and when everything was explained, they were friends again. Note. — The observance of the foregoing rule is especially Comma important in the case of clauses connected by the coordinat- before /or ing conjunction fo7\ Unless a comma is placed between such clauses, the for is liable to be mistaken momentarily for a preposition. Misleading : It is a decided benefit for students who take exercise are not easily susceptible to sickness. Clear: It is a decided benefit, for students who take exercise are not easily susceptible to sickness. (g) To set off a dependent clause preceding its principal Dependent clause. When the dependent clause follows the princi- ^ *^^®® pal clause, a comma is usually unnecessary (but see Rules h and i, below). Right : When darkness comes, the candles are lit. Right : The candles are lit when darkness comes. Right : If I can, I will remove it. Right : I will remove it if I can. For other examples see the text of Rules 23, 48 a, 62, 145. (h) To indicate every distinct pause within a sentence, Distinct except the pauses for which other marks of punctuation P^^^®^ are appropriate. See, for example, the text of Rules 2, 6, 39, 46, 51, 57, 80, 88, 91, 128, 131. 92 PUNCTUATION To prevent mistaken junction Consecu- tive adjectives Series of the form a, b, and c Restric- tive and non-re- strictive modifiers (i) To indicate separation between any sentence-ele- ments that might, in reading, be improperly joined or misunderstood, were there no comma. Misleading : Ever since Betty has loved the flag. Clear : Ever since, Betty has loved the flag. Misleading : On the path leading to the cellar steps were heard. Clear: On the path leading to the cellar, steps were heard. 222. Two adjectives modifying the same noun should be separated by commas if they are coordinate in thought ; but if the first adjective is felt to be superposed on the second, they should not be separated by a comma. Right : A faithful, sincere friend. [The adjectives are coordinate in thought ; both modify " friend."] Right : A big gray cat. [The adjectives are not coordi- nate in thought ; " gray " modifies " cat," but " big " modifies '*gray cat."] 223. In a series of the form a, 6, and c, a comma should precede the conjunction. The practice of omitting the comma before the conjunction is illogical and is not favored by the best modern usage. Objectionable : There were blue, green and red flags. [The punctuation here couples "green" and ''red" and makes them appear to be set apart, as a pair, from "blue" ; whereas the intention is to make all three adjectives equally distinct.] Right : There were blue, green, and red flags. For other examples, see the text of Rules 3, 15, 31, 47, 122, 144 6, 145, 165, 174, 230. 224. Often a phrase or clause, though grammatically a modifier of a preceding substantive, is felt to be not an adjunct to that substantive, but rather a statement added to the main assertion of the sentence. Such phrases and clauses are called non-restrictive. They should always be set off by commas. THE COMMA 93 A. Non-restrictive phrase correctly punctuated : Our national Capitol, situated in Washington^ is a mag- nificent building. B. Non-restrictive relative clause correctly punctuated : Washington Irving, whose personality was genial and charming, became very popular in England. When a phrase or clause modifying a preceding substan- tive is felt to be essentially a modifier restricting that sub- stantive, it is called a restrictive phrase or clause. Such phrases and clauses should not be set off by commas. C. Restrictive phrase — commas correctly omitted : The house situated on the northeast corner of the square is the one you are seeking. Z>. Restrictive relative clause — commas correctly omitted : Every man who holds such an opinion is by tendency a criminal. Note. — To determine whether a given phrase or clause is restrictive or non-restrictive, the following test may be used : If the main assertion of the sentence has the same meaning when the phrase or clause is omitted as it has when the phrase or clause is present in the sentence, the phrase or clause is non-restrictive ; if the omission of the phrase or clause changes the sense of the main assertion, the phrase or clause is restrictive. Thus, the sentence "Our national Capitol is a magnificent building'' has the same purport as sentence A^ above ; the sentence "Washington Irving became very popular in England" has the same purport as sentence J5, above. But " The house is the one you are seeking" has not the same purport as sentence C, above ; nor has " Every man is by tendency a criminal" the same purport as sen- tence Z), above. (See Exercise LXXV.) 225. After an interjection a comma is often preferable with in- to an exclamation point. terjectlons Right : Oh, come ; you'd better. Right : But alas, this was not the case. 226. Expressions like he said preceding direct quota- Before tions in narrative, and such expressions preceding short quotations 94 PUNCTUATION Unneces- sary commas Misuse before a series Misuse before a substan- tive clause direct quotations in general, should be followed by a comma. For illustrations see the Right examples under Eules 195 and 242. (Cf. Rule 233.) 227. Guard against the use of commas where they are not necessary. As a rule, do not put a comma where no pause is made in reading. Bad : In the park, is a beautiful fountain. Right : In the park is a beautiful fountain. Bad : An incubator, is the most useful thing, a poultry man can have. Right : An incubator is the most useful thing a poultry man can have. For other sentences in which commas are properly dis- pensed with, see the text of Rules 33 «, 44, 54, 66, 62, 65, 148. 228. Do not put a comma, or any other mark of punctuation, before the first member of a series of sen- tence-elements, unless it would be required there, were there one element instead of a series. Wrong : During my senior year I studied, Latin, Greek, and chemistry. Right : During my senior year I studied Latin, Greek, and chemistry. Wrong: It is valuable, (1) to the student, (2) to the statesman, and (3) to the merchant. Right: It is valuable (1) to the student, (2) to the statesman, and (3) to the merchant. For other examples, see the text of Rules 42, 43, 96, 116, 133, 137. 229. Put no comma before a substantive clause in- troduced by that or how when the governing verb (such as said, thought^ supposed) immediately or very closely precedes the clause. Wrong ! The boatswain said, that the wheel was dam- aged. Right : The boatswain said that the wheel was dam- THE SEMICOLON 95 Wrong : I always supposed, that the foreman was to blame. Right : I always supposed that the foreman was to blame. Wrong : They told us, how they had escaped. Right : They told us how they had escaped. 230. Clauses of a compound sentence that are not The joined by conjunctions naay be separated by commas faiSt**^* when the clauses are short, have no commas within themselves, and are closely parallel in substance and form ; e.g., — Permissible: The colonel grunted, the majors snorted, the captains swore. Permissible : He befriended the stranger, he relieved the poor, he helped the fallen to rise. AiSide from cases of this kind, however, the use of a comma at the end of a grammatically complete assertion that is not joined to a following assertion by a conjunc- tion is an inexcusable fault in writing. (See Exercise LXXVI.) Bad : Neagle was assigned to act as the judge's body- guard, such a precaution was necessary in those days. Right : Neagle was assigned to act as the judge's body- guard. Such a precaution was necessary in those days. Bad : Our men had won so many games that they were over-confident, this was the cause of the recent defeat. Right : Our men had won so many games that they were over-confident ; this was the cause of the recent defeat. [See Rule 231 a.] TJie Semicolon (;)* 231. Use the semicolon — Between (a) Between clauses of a compound sentence that are ^^^^^^^ ^^ not joined by a conjunction. pound Right : He did not go to Canada ; he went to Mexico, 1 See Exercise LXXVII. 96 PUNCTUATION Caution Before so, therefore, etc. Conjunc- tive ad- verbs dis- tinguished from simple conjunc- tions Before and, but, etc., ill cer- tain cases For other examples see the text of Rules 10, 20, 38, 42, 84, 88, 93, 138. Note. — As a means of combining sentences into com- pound sentences, the semicolon may easily be abused. A series of sentences should not be grouped together in this way unless the compound sentence so formed has a distinct and readily -felt unity. (6) Between clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by one of the conjunctive adverbs so, therefore, hence, however, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, also, thus, then, still, and otherwise. (See Exercise LXXVI.) Wrong : I saw no reason for moving, therefore I stayed still. Right : I saw no reason for moving ; therefore I stayed still. Wrong: He went below and lit the fuse, then he re- turned to the deck. Right : He went below and lit the fuse ; then he re- turned to the deck. Note. — Good usage makes a clear distinction, as regards punctuation, between conjunctive adverbs and simple co- ordinating conjunctions (e.g., aJid, but, or, for). A comma is ordinarily used (see Rule 221 /) between clauses of a compound sentence that are connected by a simple conjunc- tion ; but a comma should emphatically not be used between clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb. Compare the two following sentences : Right: The president bowed, and Hughes began to speak. Right : The president bowed ; then Hughes began to speak. (c) Between clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a simple conjunction, when those clauses are somewhat long, or when a more decided pause than a comma would furnish is desirable. See, for example, the second sentence of the foregoing note, and also the text of the notes under Rules 14 and 88. THE SEMICOLON 97 (d) To separate two or more coordinate members of a simple or complex sentence when those members, or some of them, have commas within themselves. Right : He said that he had lent his neighbor an ax ; that on the next day, needing the ax, he had gone to get it ; and that his neighbor had denied borrowing it. [The three objects of "said" are separated not by commas, as ordinarily three objects of a verb should be, but by semicolons, because one of the objects has commas within itself.] For other examples see the text of Rules 134, 135, and 137. (e) To separate any two members of a simple or com- plex sentence "when, for any reason, a comma would not make the relation between them immediately clear. Misleading : If I were a millionaire, I would have horses, and motors, and yachts, and the whole world should minister to my pleasure. Clear : If I were a millionaire, I would have horses, and motors, and yachts ; and the whole world should minister to my pleasure. See also the sixth sentence in the text of Rule 140 and the first in the text of Rule 142. Between involved sentence- members 232. Do not use a semicolon between two members improper of a simple or complex sentence except in accordance ^.^^ ^^ with Rule 231dor231e; use a comma if any punctua- a comma tion is required at such a place. Wrong : If you get no thanks from a person you have favored ; you have no respect for him. Right: If you get no thanks from a person you have favored, you have no respect for him. Wrong : He was black-eyed ; dark complexioned ; and altogether very handsome. Right: He was black-eyed, dark-complexioned, and altogether very handsome. 98 PUNCTUATION A sign of intro- duction Hie Colon ({) 233. The colon should be used after a word, phrase, or sentence constituting an introduction to something that follows, such as a list or an extended quotation. (See Exercise LXXVII.) Right : There are three causes : poverty, injustice, and indolence. Right : Burke said in 1765 : [A long quotation follows.] Right : The case was this : I wouldn't and he couldn't. Right : He did it in the following way : First, he cut an ash bough, which he bent into a hoop. Then . . . Direct, not indirect questions In paren- theses Inter- ruptions TJie Question Mark (?) 234. Use the question mark after a direct question, but not after an indirect question. Bad : He asked what caused the accident ? Right : He asked what caused the accident. Right : He asked, " What caused the accident ? " 235. The question mark within parentheses is prop- erly used only in serious compositions, such as historical works. Its use as a notice of humor or irony is a puer- mty. (Cf. Rules 250 e and 292.) Right : This event occurred in 411 b.c.(?) Bad: After his polite (?) remarks, we have nothing more to say. Right : After his polite remarks, we have nothing niorp to say. The Dash (—)' 236. Use the dash — (a) When a sentence is abruptly broken off before its completion. Right : If the scythe is rusty — by the way, did you get that scythe at Pumphrey's ? 1 See Exercise LXXVII. THE DASH (6) After a comma, to increase the separation slightly. Right : Only one thing was wanting, — a boat. For other examples see the text of Rules 2 d, 123, 124, 267, 304, 340. (c) As a substitute for parenthesis marks. Right: I dressed — you may not believe this, but it is true — in ten minutes. (d) Before a word summarizing the preceding part of ,a sentence. Right : If you go to bed early, get up early, never loiter, or trifle, always employ periods of enforced idleness in serious thought or instructive reading, — if you do all this, you will be derided by the Omicron Pi Chi fraternity. For other examples see the text of Rule 167 and the note to Rule 16. (e) Before a repetition or modification having the effect of an afterthought. Right : Oh yes, he was polite — polite as a Chesterfield — obsequious in fact. See also the text of Rule 23. Before an expres- sion hav- ing the effect of an after- thought (/) After the word immediately preceding a sentence- element that is set apart on the page from the first part of the sentence. For illustration, see the text of Rules 4, 221, 231, 236, 240, 248, and 250, and the Bight examples under Rule 213. Note. — If another mark of punctuation precedes the sen- tence-member set apart, the dash may be dispensed with. See the text of Rule 14 and the Bight examples under Rules 211 and 212. 237. Do not use dashes indiscriminately, where com- mas, periods, or other marks of punctuation belong. When a sentence- member is set apart on the page 100 PUNCTUATION Parenthesis Marks ( ) 238. When a sentence contains matter set off by paren- thesis marks, a comma, a period, or other mark of punctua- tion belonging to the part before such matter, should be placed after the second parenthesis mark, not elsewhere. Wrong : I will ask him by telephone, (assuming lie has a telephone) and I think he will agree (though I may be mistaken.) Wrong : I will ask him by telephone (assuming he has a telephone, ) and I think he will agree, (though I may be mistaken). Right : I will ask him by telephone (assuming he has a telephone), and I think he will agree (though I may be mistaken). For other examples see the text of Rules 16 a, 16 6, 90 ^. 239. A comma should not be used with parenthesis marks unless it would be required were there no paren- thetic matter. Wrong: The sheriff gave him (as his oath required), the most effective help. [The sentence " The sheriff gave him the most effective help" requires no comma after ''him."] Right : The sheriff gave him (as his oath required) the most effective help. For other examples see the text of Rules 27, Q^^ and 69. 240. Do not use parenthesis marks to enclose matter that is not parenthetical. Do not use them — (a) To emphasize a word ; italicize (see Rule 284). Bad : " The man (who) they thought was dead surprised them " is correct. Right : " The man who they thought was dead surprised them " is correct. (6) To enclose a word about which something is said as a word. Such words should be italicized (see Rule 284). Wrong : (Party) is often incorrectly used for (person). Right : Party is often incorrectly used for person. QUOTATION MARKS 101 (c) To indicate the title of a book ; italicize (see Rule Misuse c)0 4\ with liter. ^^'*)' ary titles Wrong : Garland's story (Among the Corn Rows) is pathetic. Right : Garland's story Among the Corn Bows is pa- thetic. (d) To enclose a letter, number, or symbol, unless it Misuse is used parenthetically. ^^^ Bad : A (v) shaped plate of steel. Right : A v-shaped plate of steel. Bad : It is marked with the figure (2) Right : It is marked with the figure 2. (e) To cancel a word or passage (see Rule 216). Brackets [ ] 241. Square brackets, [ ], are used to enclose a word Words in- or words interpolated in a quotation by the person quot- fn^a quo- ing. Words enclosed in parenthesis marks, ( ), occur- tation ring in a quotation, are understood to belong to the quotation ; words enclosed in brackets, [ ], are under- stood to be interpolated by the writer quoting. Right : '' I would gladly," writes Landor,'* see our lan- guage enriched ... At present [in the eighteenth century] we recur to the Latin and reject the Saxon Quotation Marks (" ") 242. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quota- For direct, tion, but not to enclose an indirect quotation. Wrong: He said ** that he was grieved." Right : He said that he was grieved. Right : He said, '' I am grieved." 243. Do not fail to put quotation marks at the be- Omission ginning and the end of every quotation. (See Exercise LXXIX.) 102 PUNCTUATION 244. Do not punctuate sentences of a single speech as if they were separate speeches. (See Exercise LXXIX.) Bad : She said, '' Is this the truth ? '' " Then I must tell my husband." " He ought to know." Eight : She said, " Is this the truth ? Then I must tell my husband. He ought to know." 245. When a quotation mark and a question or ex- clamation mark both follow the same word, — (a) The question or exclamation mark should stand first if it applies to the quotation and not to the sentence containing the quotation. Wrong : He said, " Are you hurt " ? Right : He said, '* Are you hurt ? " (&) The quotation mark should stand first if the other mark applies, not to the quotation, but to the sentence containing the quotation. Wrong : Did the letter say, " Come to-night at ten ? " Right : Did the letter say, " Come to-night at ten " ? (c) In either case no comma or period should be used in addition to the quotation mark and the question or exclamation mark. Wrong : He cried " Fire ! ", and began to run. Right : He cried " Fire 1 " and began to run. Wrong : Did he say " I object." ? Right; Did he say, " I object" ? (See Exercise LXXIX.) 246. A quotation within a quotation is marked by single quotation marks ; one within that by double marks. Wrong ; I repeated those lines of Tennyson, " Thou Shalt hear the " Never, never," whispered by the phantom years, And a song from out the distance in the ringing of thine ears," until I knew them by heart. QUOTATION MARKS 103 Right : I repeated those lines of Tennyson, "Thou shalt hear the * Never, never,' whispered by the phantom years, And a song from out the distance in the ringing of thine ears," until I knew them by heart. Wrong: '*Then," continued Brightman, "the captain shouted, "Cast off !" Right: "Then," continued Brightman, "the captain shouted, 'Cast off I'" 247. When a quotation consists of several paragraphs Quota- (see Rule 212), quotation marks should be placed at the f^^^^( beginning of each paragraph, and at the end of the para- quotation ; not elsewhere, except in accordance with Rule ^^^^ ^ 261 a. For illustration, see the example under Rule 212. 248. Quotation marks may sometimes be used to mark With un- a technical term presumably unfamiliar to the reader. teSnical (See, for example, the text of Rule 256 and the Bight terms example under Element in the Glossary.) But — Note. — No such marking is needed for technical or quasi- Familiar technical terms that are perfectly familiar to the reader, technical None is ordinarily needed, for instance, for wire-puller^ boss, off-year, touch-down, kick-off, haze, corner the market. 249. Quotation marks may sometimes be used to Indi- cate apology for slang or nicknames. But note : (a) No such apology is needed for hard hit, hrdce up, rough it, to duck, to oust, to loaf, to cut a figure, the whys and ivherefores, the forties, willy nilly, day dreams, proxy, bugbear, humbug, hoax, tomfoolery, bamboozle, whoop, ninny, milksop, skinflint, parson, and other good English expressions vulgarly supposed to be slang. (6) In a humorous or colloquial context such apology for slang or for nicknames is artistically inconsistent with the style, and obstructs the legitimate purpose of the style. terms 104 PUNCTUATION Inartistic: When radicalism "threw up its hat" for "Rob" Rowland, "rough-house," and reform, con- servatism " took to the tall timbers." " Rob," though "cock of the walk" in the capital, has been " sassed " by his home paper, which attributes his influence to hypnotism and " hot air." Improved in effectiveness : When radicalism threw up its hat for Rob Rowland, rough-house, and reform, conservatism took to the tall timbers. Rob, though cock of the walk in the capital, has been sassed by his home paper, which attributes his influence to hypnotism and hot air. (c) The nicknames of persons in real life or in fiction who are known by nicknam(js altogether, or as commonly as by their proper names, should not be enclosed in quo- tation marks. Wrong: "Tom" Johnson, "Bathhouse John," "Teddy" Roosevelt, "Jim" Corbett, "Prexy" Harper, and the Honorable " Hinkey Dink" were present. Right : Tom Johnson, Bathhouse John, Teddy Roose- velt, Jim Corbett, Prexy Harper, and the Honorable Hinkey Dink were present. Wrong: Two women, the "Duchess" and " Mother" Shipton, and two men, Mr. Oakhurst and " Uncle Billy," were ordered to leave town. Right : Two women, the Duchess and Mother Shipton, and two men, Mr. Oakhurst and Uncle Billy, were ordered to leave town. Wrong: As I was " bucking" for " Perky's" " quiz," I was interrupted by " Fatty" Holmesand " Smudge" Williams, who refused to "clear out." [See Rule 6, above. ] Right : As I was bucking for Perky 's quiz, I was inter- rupted by Fatty Holmes and Smudge Williams, who refused to clear out. 250. Do not use quotation marks — (a) To enclose the title at the head of a composition, unless the title is a quotation. QUOTATION MARKS 105 (b) To enclose proper names, including names of With > ^. ^ ^ proper animals. names Wrong : I expect to go to '' Ober-Ammergau. " Right : I expect to go to Ober-Ammergau. Wrong : *' Thomas " and " Rover" were good friends. Right : Thomas and Rover were good friends. (c) To enclose proverbial expressions that do not con- with stitute grammatically and logically complete statements. Proverbs Wrong: It was '* nipped in the bud." Right : It was nipped in the bud. Wrong: He seemed to be " as mad as a March hare." Right : He seemed to be .as mad as a March hare. (c?) To enclose words coined extem^pore. Wrong: The manning and "womaning" of the enter- With prise will be difficult. words Right : The manning and womaning of the enterprise ^^l^^Q^e will be difficult. Wrong : It is not bronchitis or peritonitis or any of the ''itises." Right : It is not bronchitis or peritonitis or any of the itises. (e) To serve the undignified and inartistic purpose For of labeling your own humor or irony. (Cf. Eules 235 jfu^^"^ and 292.) Bad : Such is the ardor of this *' pious " Hotspur. Right : Such is the ardor of this pious Hotspur. Bad : Senator Piatt's speech on the bill was a sort of *' funeral oration." Right : Senator Piatt's speech on the bill was a sort of funeral oration. (f) For no reason at all. Use with- Bad : If the Creator in his ** power and munificence " j^^gon^ is good to me, I shall gain "distinguished success." Right : If the Creator in his power and munificence is good to me, I shall gain distinguished success. 106 PUNCTUATION Possessive case Nouns ending in s Misuse witli its, etc. With con- tractions In forming plurals The Apostrophe (') 251. In the possessive singular of regularly inflected nouns an apostrophe should (with the exception stated in Eule 252) precede the s ; in the possessive plural of such nouns an apostrophe should follow the s. Right : Right : The boy's cap. The boys' caps. 252. Do not form the possessive singular of a noun ending in s by putting an apostrophe before the s ; put an apostrophe after the s, or add 's. Wrong: Dicken's novels. • Burn's poems. Right : Dickens' novels, or Dickens's novels Burns' poems, or Burns's poems. Right : Charles's horse. Mr. Jones's house. 253. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, 254. In a contracted word an apostrophe should stand in the place of the omitted letter or letters, not elsewhere. Wrong: Hav'nt, do'nt, does'nt, ca'nt, is'nt. Right: Haven't, don't, doesn't, can't, isn't. 255. The plural of letters of the alphabet and of numerical symbols is formed by adding 's to the letter or symbol. The plural of a w^ord considered as a ivord may also be formed in the same way. But the regular plural of a noun should never be formed by adding 's. Right : His Ws were like F's and his 2's like Z's. Right : In your letter there are too many /'« and also too many ancfs. Wrong : The Powers's, the Jones's, the Waters's and the Rogers's sold piano's and folio's. Right : The Powerses, the Joneses, the Waterses, and the Rogerses sold pianos and folios. MISCELLANEOUS RULES 107 The Hyphen (-) 256. No simple rule can be given for determining Compound whether a compound word should be hyphened or written words "solid." One must simply learn, from observation and from dictionaries, what is the correct practice in individual cases. Note that the following words should not be hyphened : together, without, nevertheless, moreover, inasmuch, instead, childhood, farewell, wardrobe, chip- munk, nickname, surname, midnight, railroad, mis- print, pronoun, semicolon, withstand, outstretch, rewrite, and the other words enumerated in Rule 164. 257. Always hyphen to-day, to-night, to-morrow, To-day, good-bye, to-morrow 258. In dividing a word at the end of a line (see Rules At the 263-266, below), place a hyphen after the first element of ^f f if^^^^ the word, and there only ; never put a hyphen at the begin- ning of a line. Miscellaneous Rules 259. When such as is used to introduce an example Punctua- or several examples, it should be preceded by a comma ti^n with (see Rule 221 /i), a comma and dash (see Rule 2366), or a semicolon (see Rule 231 e), and should be followed by no mark of punctuation, unless a parenthetical ex- pression is inserted between the such as and the words that it introduces. Right : I read many historical novels, such as Bomola, Bienzi^ and Quo Vadis. See also the text of Rules 18, 144 b, 145, 146, 233. 260. In introducing an example or an explanation Punctua- with one of the expressions namely, viz., e.g., that is, ^^amelv^ and i.e,, apply the following rules : viz., etc (a) The expression should always be followed by a comma. 108 PUNCTUATION Wrong : I selected it for two reasons namely : because it was well made, and because it was inexpensive. Right : I selected it for two reasons : namely, because it was well made, and because it was inexpensive. See also the text of Rules 16 a, 106, and 136, and the note to Rule 3. (6) When the expression introduces a sentence or a principal clause, the expression should be preceded by a period era semicolon (see Rules 230, 231 a). Right : There is a vital difference between them ; i.e,, the Greek is an artist, and the Roman is a statesman. See also the text of Rules 111, 90 ^. (c) When the expression introduces a merely apposi- tive member, or several such, the expression should be preceded by a semicolon (see Rule 231 e), by a comma and a dash (see Rule 236 6), or by a colon (see Rule 233). Right : They arrested the man who was really respon- sible, — namely, the cashier. Right : There are three parties : namely, Tories, Whigs, and Radicals. See also the text of Rules 2 d, 106, 123, 124, 269. Note. — When the expression and the words it introduces are enclosed in parentheses, the foregoing Rules b and c do not apply. See the text of Rules 99, 121, 136. 261. When an expression like said he is interpolated within a quotation or placed after it, the following rules apply : (a) The expression should not be included within the quotation marks at the beginning and the end of the quotation. Wrong : " If that is true, he said, I am lost." Right : ''If that is true," he said, "I am lost." (b) The quoted words preceding the expression should be followed by a question or exclamation mark if they MISCELLANEOUS RULES 109 form a complete interrogatory or exclamatory sentence ; otherwise by a comma ; never by a period or semicolon. Wrong : *' Will you help," he asked ? Right : "• Will you help ? " he asked. Wrong: "I will help." he answered. Right ; ** I will help," he answered. Wrong : *'I will help you ;" he said, " you deserve it.'* Right : '' I will help you, " he said ; " you deserve it." (c) If the quoted words preceding the expression form Marks a complete sentence, a period should follow the expres- /^g ; sion, even if a question or exclamation mark follows the period words preceding. Wrong: *' Won't you come?" she said, "we need you." Right: *' Won't you come? " she said. "We need you." (d) If the quoted words preceding tbe expression Semi- would be followed, but for the expression, by a semi- ^^ ^^ colon, a semicolon should follow the expression. Right : " He didn't go to Canada," the teller informed me ; " he went to Mexico." (e) In every case in which a period or a semicolon is Comma not required (according to Rules c and cZ, above) after the expression, a comma should follow the expression. Right : "lam," growled the assassin, "your doomsman." (/) The expression should not be capitalized. Said he not cap- Right : "Go to the treasuiy," said the king, "and italized help yourself." (g) The part of the quotation following the expression Capitaliz- fihould not be capitalized unless it is a new sentence. foflowing^ Wrong: "Hammer on the window," advised the ^^^^^^ policeman, " Until he gets up." Right : "Hammer on the window," advised the police- man, "until he gets up." See also the Bight examples under Rules c7, e, and/. CSee Exercise LXXIX.) 110 SYLLABICATION Marks of punctua- tion at the beginning of lines Rules for syllabi- cation : Follow pronun- ciation Prefixes 262. Never put a period, a comma, a semicolon, a colon, an exclamation point, or a question mark at the beginning of a line ; put it instead at the end of the preceding line. Syllabication 263. In dividing a word at the end of a line, make the separation between syllables, not elsewhere. There is no uniform principle for determining just what are the several syllables of any given word ; one must rely largely on learning, by observation and by reference to dictionaries, what is the correct syllabication in individual cases. Nevertheless, a good many errors may be avoided by observing the following simple rules : (a) Do not set apart from each other combinations of letters the separate pronunciation of which is impossible or unnatural. A. Wrong : Exc-ursion ; go-ndola ; illustr-ate ; instr-uction ; pun-ctuation. Right : Ex-cursion ; gon-dola ; illus-trate ; in-struc-tion ; punc-tuation. B. Wrong : Prostr-ate ; pri-nciple ; abs-urd ; fini-shing ; sugge-stion. Right : Pros-trate; prin-ciple; ab-surd; finish-ing; sugges- tion. C. Wrong : Nat-ion ; conclus-ion ; invent-ion ; introd-uct- ion ; abbr-eviat-ion. Right : Na-tion; conclu-sion ; inven-tion ; intro-duc-tion ; abbre-via-tion. D. Wrong : Diffic-ult ; tob-acco ; exc-ept; univ-ersity ; dislo-dgment. Right : Diffi-cult ; to-bacco ; ex-cept ; uni-versity; dis- lodg-ment. (5) As a rule, divide between a prefix and the letter following it. Wrong: Bet-ween; pref-ix ; antec-edent; conf-ine; del- ight. Right : Be-tween; pre-fixj ante-cedent; con-fine; de-light, SYLLABICATION 111 (c) As a rule, divide between a suffix and the letter Suflixes preceding it. Divide, e.g., before -ing, -ly, -ment, -ed, (when it is pronounced as a separate syllable, as in deUght-ed)y -ish, -able, -er, -est. Right : Lov-ing ; love-ly ; judg-ment ; invit-ed ; Jew-ish ; punish-able ; strong-er ; strong-est. (d) As a rule, when a consonant is doubled, divide Doubled between the two letters. This rule often takes preced- ence of Kule c above. conso- nants Eight : rub-ber ; ab-breviation ; oc-casion ; ad-dition , af-finity ; Rus-sian ; expres-sion ; omis-sion ; com- mit-tee ; ex-cel-lent ; stop-ping ; drop-ping ; ship- ping; equip-ping. (e) Never divide in the midst of ih pronounced as in The di- tlie or thin; sh as in push; ph as in phonograph; ng as f^^etc ^^ in sing; gn as in sign; tch as in fetch; and gh pro- not to be nounced as in rough, or silent. Never divide cJc except *^^^^^®*^ in accordance with Eule/, below. Wrong : cat-holic ; ras-hness ; disc-harge ; diap-hragm ; gin-gham. Right : cath-olic ; rash-ness ; dis-charge ; dia-phragm ; ging-ham. Wrong : consig-nment ; wat-ching ; doug-hty. Right: consign-ment ; watch-ing; dough-ty. The divisions post-humous (see page 225), dis-habille (see page 225), Lap-ham, nightin-gale, distin-guish, sin-gle, sig-nature, and Leg-horn, form no exceptions to the foregoing rule, for in them th, sh, etc., are pronounced each as two distinct sounds. (/) In dividing words like edible, possible, bridle, ^^'^^^ ^^ tinfle, beagle, crackle, twinkle, staple, entitle, do not set apart 112 ABBREVIATIONS set le apart by itself; always place with it the preceding consonant. (But see Rule 266.) Right : edi-ble ; possi-ble ; bri-dle ; tri-fle ; bea-gle ; crac-kle ; etc. Note. — To Rules 6, c, and d^ above, there are exceptions. For a statement of these, and for a comprehensive treatment of syllabication, the reader is referred to the Introduction of Webster's International Dictionary. Mono- 264. Never divide a monosyllable, syllables Bad: Tho-ugh, stre-ngth. A syllable of one letter 265. Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the word. Wrong: Man-y, a-gainst, a-long, ston-y. 266. Dividing words at the end of lines should be avoided as much as possible. And such awkward divi- Awkward and too frequent , ^ n . division sions as the folio wmg should never be made : Bad : eve-ry, ev-en, on-ly, eight-een. Generally objection- able Abbreviations 267. Abbreviations are in bad taste in literary com- positions of any kind, including letters. A few abbrevia- tions, — such as i.e., e.g., q.v., viz., etc., A.D., B.C., a.m., p.m., — are excepted from the rule, being com- monly used in good literature. Use no abbreviations except those which you know are employed, not by the newspapers or the writers of commonplace business letters, but by recognized masters of English prose. Bad : Last summer I worked for the Chandler Mfg. Co. in Casey, 111. Casey is on the C. and E. I. R.R. Right : Last summer I worked for the Chandler Manu- facturing Company in Casey, Illinois. Casey is on the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad. THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 113 268. Observe that many abbreviations that are proper Abbreyia- when combined with other expressions are improper when standing alone. Thus : Right : I came at ten p.m. Vulgar : I came this p.m. Right : He lives in room No. 12. Bad : Let me know the No. of your room. Right : My dear Dr. Hart. Vulgar : My dear Dr. Obsei-ve also that many abbreviations (such as vol., ch,y j9., Co., ed.) that are permissible in footnotes, paren- thetic citations, and similar places, are not permissible in formally constructed sentences. 269. Abbreviation of titles is, in general, inelegant Abbrevia- and objectionable. Spell out Professor, President, ^?^,^ ^^ Captain, General, Colonel, Bevere^id, etc. Some ab- breviations are, however, always proper; viz., (1) Mr.j Mrs., Messrs., and Dr., when prefixed to names; (2) Esq., and the initial abbreviations D.D., Ph,D.y etc., when suffixed to names. (See Rule 268.) The Representation of Numbers 270. Do not spell out (1) cardinal numbers designat- Dates, ing dates, (2) cardinal numbers designating the pages or folios, etc^ divisions (i.e., parts, chapters, paragraphs, sections, rules, numbers etc.) of a book or a document, or (3) the street numbers of houses. Wrong: On October thirteen, eighteen hundred and eighty-one, I was born at three hundred and sixty -two Adams Street. See page nine hundred and sixteen of our family Bible. Right: On October 13, 1881, I was born at 362 Adams Street. See page 916 of our family Bible. Note. — Ordinal numbers designating days of a month may be either spelled out or represented by figures. 114 THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS Right : The thirteenth of May fell on Friday. Right: The 13th of May fell on Friday. Ordinal numbers designating pages or divisions of a book oi document are governed by Rule 272. 271. In designating a sum of money in connected dis' course, apply the following rules : ' (a) Do not use the sign $ for sums less than one dollar. Wrong: It costs |0. 20. Right : It costs twenty cents. (b) Do not write .00. Wrong : He subscribed $342.00 to the fund. Right : He subscribed $342 to the fund. (c) For a sum amounting to a number of dollars and a number of cents, always use the sign $ and figures. Right: It costs $3.18. (d) If several sums are mentioned within a short space, use figures for all, putting the sign $ before all numbers representing dollars. Right: My room costs $3 a week and my board $4.60 ; my contribution to the church is 30 cents ; my inciden- tal expenses range from $9.36 to $12.60 a month. (e) In case of an isolated mention of a sum in cents, spell out the number. Right : The price is ninety cents. (/) In case of an isolated mention of a sum in dollars without a fraction, spell out a number expressed in one or two words, such as ^/iree, sixteen^ two hundred, six thousand, one million; for other numbers, such as 102, 350, 1130, 1,500,000, use the sign $ and figures. Right : He contributed twenty thousand dollars. Right : It sold for eighteen hundred dollars. Right : His fortune amounts to $72,600. THE REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS 115 272. In representing, in connected discourse, numbers Numbers other than those treated in Kules 270 and 271, apply treated the following rules : in Rules • • 270 271 (a) In case several numbers are mentioned in a short ' space, use figures for all. See for example the text of numbers* Bules 203-208, where numbers occur frequently and —figures representation of them by words would inconvenience the reader. (b) If the numbers to be represented are not frequent, Numbers spell out numbers that may be expressed in one or two quent^' words, such as eighteen , ninety-seven, two hundred, eighteen hundred, twenty thousand, one million, Jifty million; use figures for those that require three or more words, such as 108, 233, 1,250, 18,231, 1,500,230. Wrong: The college is 25 miles from Columbus and has 900 students. Right : The college is twenty-five miles from Columbus and has nine hundred students. Wrong : In this city there are four hundred and thirty- four saloons to three hundred and eighty-five thousand, one hundred and ninety-two people. Right: In this city there are 434 saloons to 385,192 people. Wrong : He lives on 72d street. Right : He lives on Seventy-second Street. [See Rules 277 and 308.] 273. From Rule 272 b it follows that a number rep- Ages, and resenting a person's age or one designating an hour of ^^"^^ ^^ the day should nearly always (see Rule 272 a) be spelled out. Right : At twelve o'clock all the children below eight years of age are sent home. 274. A sum of money or a number that is spelled out thetic" should not be repeated in parenthesized figures, except in repetition legal or commercial letters and instruments. When such numbers 116 CAPITALS repetition is made, (a) a parenthesized sum should stand at the end of the expression that it repeats, not elsewhere ; and (b) a parenthesized number should stand immediately after the number that it repeats, not elsewhere. Wrong : I enclose ($ 10) ten dollars, [a] Wrong : I enclose ten ($ 10) dollars. [6] Right : I enclose ten dollars (^ 10) . [a] Right : I enclose ten (10) dollars. [&] Capitals 275. Capitalize proper nouns in general, including the names of the days of the week and the names of the months. But note : (a) The words spring^ summer, midsummer, autumn, fall, ivinter, and midwinter should not be capitalized. (h) North, south, east, west, and their compounds (north-west, etc.) and derivatives (northern, etc.) should not be capitalized except when they designate divisions of the country. Right : As we sailed north we saw a ship going west. Right : The West is prosperous. — The people of the South are migrating westward. — The Northern dele- gates clashed with the Southern. (See Exercise LXXVIII.) 276. Titles of persons should be capitalized when they are used in connection with proper names. When used otherwise than in connection with proper names, titles of governmental officers of high rank should be capitalized ; other titles should not. (See Exercise LXXIX.) Right : There go Professor Cox and Colonel Henry. — A certain professor became a colonel in the volunteer army. — The President and the Postmaster-General sent for the postmaster of our town and the secretary of our society. CAPITALS 117 277. Capitalize cluh^ company, society, college, high Common- school, railroad, county, river, lake, park, street, or any efe^ents other common noun, when it is made a component part of of proper a proper name ; not otherwise. (See Exercise LXXIX.) Wrong : I went to that College one year. Eight : I went to that college one year. Wrong : Do you mean Hamilton college ? Eight ; Do you mean Hamilton College ? 278. Capitalize nouns and adjectives of language or Words of race, such as German, Latin, Indian, etc. (See Exer- [angu^e else LXXVIII.) 279. Capitalize the important words of literary titles. Words in literary Eight : I read The Light that Failed and A Tale of titles Two Cities. 280. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. This At the rule applies in general to quoted sentences ; but not to a of a quoted sentence from which words are omitted at the sentence beginning, nor to a quoted sentence-element incorporated tation in an original sentence. (See Exercise LXXIX.) Wrong: The conductor cried, "hands off!" Eight : The conductor cried, " Hands off I " Wrong : It seemed to be " Without form and void." Eight : It seemed to be " without form and void." See also Eule 38, note, and the last sentence in the note to Eule 88. 281. Capitalize the first word of every line of poetry. See the Bight examples under Rules 209-211. 282. Do not capitalize a clause following a semicolon. Wrong : Send him to the library ; His father wants to speak to him. Eight: Send him to the library; his father wants to speak to him. 118 ITALICS Use with- 283. Do not capitalize words which there is no reason out reason ^^^ capitalizing, such as locomotive, forest, organ, rhetoric, mathematics, history, ivhoojmig cough, landlady, bulldog, electricity, citizen, flour mill, pro- fession, gold mine, teachers^ convention. Italics Represen- 284. To italicize a word in a manuscript, draw one taMon in straight line below it. Italics 285. Italicize titles of literary, musical, and artistic Zi\oo\s^ works, and of periodicals. Do not italicize the etc. author's name. Right : Walter Scott's The Talisman, Rider Haggard's King Solomon^s Mines, Talfourd's Ion, and the Atlantic Monthly furnished his principal amusement. Note. — It is permissible to enclose titles in quotation marks instead of italicizing them ; but the simpler and better approved practice is to italicize. Titles 286. If the title of a single literary, musical, or wlth^^ie^ artistic work begins with the, this word should not be Single omitted in writing the title, and it should be capital- works ized and italicized. Wrong: Do you like Kipling's Man Who Was and Chaminade's Silver Bing 9 Right : Do you like Kipling's The Man Who Was and Chaminade's The Silver Bing ? Wrong: I felt depressed after reading the House of Mirth. Right : I felt depressed after reading The House of Mirth. Periodi- 287. In writing the name of a newspaper or other cals periodical, however, a the limiting the noun of the title should not be capitalized or italicized even if it is part of ITALICS 119 the title ; and the name of a city modifying adj ac- tively the noun of the title should not be italicized. Right : She found there some copies of the Pall Mall Gazette^ the Evening Telegraphy the Century Maga- zine^ the New York Evening Fost, and the Madison (Wisconsin) Democrat. 288. Italicize names of ships. Names of ships Right : I cut the Hispaniola from her anchor. 289. When a word is spoken of as a word, — not Italics used to represent the thing or idea that it ordinarily ^^^ds represents, and not quoted, — it should be italicized, discussed When a word is spoken of as a quoted word, it should usually be inclosed in quotation marks and not italicized. Right : The misuse of grand, awful, and nice is a com- mon fault. Right: In the expression '* we, the people," "people '* is in apposition with " we." Note. — With words discussed, it is permissible to use quotation marks instead of italics, even when the words are not quoted ; and it is sometimes necessary and advisable to do so. In this book, for example, quotation marks are used with incorrect expressions discussed, because this practice helps, in some cases, to distinguish the wrong phraseology from the right. But the better practice in general is to italicize. 290. Italicize unnaturalized foreign words introduced with into an English context. foreign ° words Right : He is a bona fide purchaser. 291. Avoid the habit of frequently italicizing words For em- for emphasis ; do not emphasize a word in this way P^^^is unless there is some especially good reason, — as, for 120 ITALICS Improper use for marking humor instance, the fact that obscurity would result from lack of emphasis. Bad: The curse of this age is commercialism coupled with hypocrisy. Right : The curse of this age is commercialism coupled with hypocrisy. For examples of necessary emphasis by italics, see Rules 2.e and 289. 292. Do not italicize for the purpose of calling atten- tion to your humor or irony ; this practice is undignified and inartistic. (Cf. Rules 235 and 250 e.) Bad : The villain in the play was charming. Right : The villain in the play was charming. m. ANALYTICAL OUTLINES Form of Titles 293. In an analytical outline, make all the titles, as Nouns, far as possible, in the form of nouns, with or without ^^* verbs modifiers. E.g., write "Kapidity of Movement" rather than " Moves Rapidly." Numbering and Arrangement of Titles 294. Number and indent the titles of an outline ac- cording to the following method : The Government of Switzerland I. Introduction : Value to Americans of a knowl- Specimen edge of Swiss institutions. outline II. The legislative department. 1. General plan. 2. The National Council. a. Apportionment. &. Elections. 8. The Council of States. 4. Powers of the legislature. III. The executive department. 1. General plan. 2. Organization in detail. 3. Executive powers. — Comparison of Swiss and American executives. IV. The judicial department : the constitutional court. 121 122 ANALYTICAL OUTLINES Irregular 295. Place coordinate titles at the same distance from alignment ^^^ left-hand margin. The Terms ^^Introduction/' '^Conclusion,'' and ^^Body.'' Misuse of 296. Do not entitle the first division Introduction fSn and ' nor the last Conclusion unless their material is distinct Conclu- from the body. 8 ion Wrong outline for an account of a sleigh-ride : I. Introduction : the start. II. The journey out. III. Conclusion : the return. Right : I. Introduction : winter in Dakota. II. The start. III. The journey out. IV. The return. V. Conclusion : comparison of sleighing and other sports. Body or 297. Do not use the title Body or Discussion; not^to^be ^ place the titles belonging to the body, or discussion, of an used essay flush with the left-hand margin, as in the outline on page 121. Over-minute Subdivision Qver- 298. Do not indicate minute and unimportant divir minute- sions. ness Bad : 1. Situation of building. a. In Ames County. b. On a hill. c. Facing east. Right : 1. Situation of building. CERTAIN ILLOGICAL PRACTICES 123 Certain Illogical Practices 299. Do not write as a subtitle what is logically a part of the governing title ; join it to the governing title or else omit it. Bad : T -f^ J- £ ^x, 'J. Part of a I. Founding of the city. title writ- 1. By Dionysius Jones. ten like a II. Its principal industry. subtitle 1. Piano manufacturing. Right ; I. Founding of the city. II. Principal industry, piano manufacturing. Bad: I. Ancestors. 1. Scotch. II. Birthplace. 1. Farm in Indiana. Right : I. Scotch ancestors. II. Birthplace : description of the Indiana farm. See also titles I and IV in the outline on page 121. 300. Do not write as the first subtitle what is logi- Second or cally the second or third ; write it as a memorandum title writ^ after the governing title, or else insert the subtitles that ten like should logically precede it. Bad: I. Situation. 1. Advantages. Right : I. Situation : its advantages. Also right : I. Situation. 1. Geographical location. 2. Advantages. 124 ANALYTICAL OUTLINES Bad: II. Right : II. Attempts to destroy it. 1. Why they failed. Coordi- nate title written like a subtitle Attempts to destroy it. 1. The first attempt. 2. The attempt of 1901. 8. Reason for the failure of all attempts. See also title III, 3, of the outline on page 121. 301. Do not write as a subtitle what is logically co- ordinate with the preceding title. Bad [The rule is violated in titles II, 1, and II, 1, a] ; I. The departure. II, The arrival in the city. 1. Journey to the store. a. Purchases. IIL Return home. Right : I. Departure. IL Arrival in the city. III. Journey to the store. IV. Purchases. V. Return. Also right ; L Departure. n. Experiences in the city. 1. Arrival. 2. Journey to the store. 3. Purchases. III. Return. Subtitle written like a co- ordinate title 302. Do not place a subtitle coordinate with its gov- erning title. Bad [The rule is violated in title II] : I. Disadvantages of football. 1. Physical harm. 2. Distraction from studies. IL Encouragement of gambling. CERTAIN ILLOGICAL PRACTICES 125 Right : II. Disadvantages of football. 1. Physical harm. 2. Distraction from studies. 3. Encouragement of gambling, 303. Do not write the title of the composition like Main title the title of a division. Hke^sub- Bad: title I. Shipbuilding in Maine. 1. Introduction. 2. Principal seats. 3. Methods. etc. Right : Shipbuilding in Maine I. Introduction. II. Principal seats. III. Methods, etc. IV. LETTER WRITING Letters in the First Person Address before date The ad- dress : Insuffi- cient address Street direction before city House numbers Numbers of streets The Heading 304. The first member of a con-ect letter written in the first person is the heading, — i.e., a statement of the address of the writer and the date of writing. The ad. dress should precede the date. Wrong : June 4, 1904, Groveport, Ohio. Right : Groveport, Ohio, June 4, 1904, 305. The address in the heading should be such as would be sufficient for a postal direction. Insufficient : Chicago, Illinois. Right : 212 State Street, Chicago, Illinois. 306. If the address contains a street direction, this should precede the name of the city. Wrong: Columbus, Ohio. 28 High Street. Right : 28 High Street, Columbus, Ohio. 307. A house number should be written in Arabic figures and should be preceded by no word or sign. Wrong I Fifteen H Street. Wrong: #15 H Street. Right: 16 H Street. 308. Street numbers less than one hundred should be spelled out. (See Rule 272 6.) Right: 286 Forty-second Street. [See Rule 277.] 126 THE HEADING 127 309. In writing a street direction do not omit Street. Omission of Street Wrong : 17 Main. Right : 17 Main Street. 310. The date should consist of the name (not the The date: number) of the month, the number of the day of the Complete- month, and the complete number of the year. Inelegant: 3/21/'06. Right : March 21, 1906. 311. All the numbers in the date should be written Figures, in Arabic figures, not represented by words. (See Rule ^^* words 270. But cf. Rule 338.) Wrong : March the twenty-first, nineteen hundred and six. Right: March 21, 1906. 312. The number of the day should not be followed St,nd, etc^ by stj nd, rd, d, or tJi, ^^q^ Undesirable : March 21st, 1906. Right: March 21, 1906. 313. Do not use any abbreviations in the heading. Abbrevia- It is permissible to waive this rule in business letters, but it ^^^l ^^^^ is more dignified and decorous to observe it invariably. Undesirable : Norton, Mass., Jan. 3, 1906. Right : Norton, Massachusetts, January 3, 1906. 314. The entire heading, if short, may be written on Grouping one line. If two lines are necessary, the date should be ^ladLg written alone on a separate line. If three are necessary, into lines the street direction should stand on the first line, the name of the city and state on the second, and the date on the third. 128 LETTERS IN THE FIRST PERSON Right : Wrong : Right: Right : Fayette, Ohio, May 21, 190a 21 North Street, Lima, Ohio, June 1, 1904. 21 North Street, Lima, Ohio, June 1, 1904. 5051 Madison Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, August 27, 1901. Position of the heading 315. The heading should be written at the beginning of the letter at the right side of the page. (See the letters on page 135.) Separa- tion or 316. Do not write a part of the heading (see Rule 304) at the beginning of the letter and a part at the of ^em-^ close ; and do not repeat the heading or a part of it at hers the close when it has been written at the beginning. Bad: Dear John, Asheville, N. C, May 1, 1907. Yours sincerely, Robert Graves, 20 Charlotte St. Bad: Asheville, N. C, May 1, 1907. Dear John, « ^ « Yours sincerely, Robert Graves. 20 Charlotte St. , Asheville, N. C. THE SALUTATION 129 Eight: 20 Charlotte Street, Asheville, North Carolina, May 1, 1907. Dear John, « « « Yours sincerely, Robert Graves. The Salutation 317. The following are proper salutations for business Business , ^^ letters letters : My dear Sir : My dear Madam : Gentlemen : Ladies : Note. — Dear Sir and Dear Madam may be used where familiarity of address is proper ; they are less ceremonious than My dear Sir and My dear Madam. In letters purport- ing to come from more than one person (e.g., a letter signed *' D. C. Heath and Company ") the my is, of course, neces- sarily omitted in any case. 318. Never use the abbreviation Messrs. as a saluta- Misuse of tion. (See Messrs. in the glossary.) Messrs. Bad: D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. Messrs. — Right : # Messrs. D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, Massachusetts. Gentlemen : 319. The following are proper salutations for letters Letters of of friendship : friendship My dear Sir : My dear Madam : My dear Mr. Smith, My dear Miss Jones, My dear John, My dear Susan, Note. — The foregoing salutations with My omitted may be used where familiarity of address is proper ; salutations without My are less ceremonious than those with My, 130 LETTERS IN THE FIRST PERSON Vulgar saluta- tions A name for a salu- tation Abbrevia- tions not to be used Punctua- tion Position of the salutation 320. The salutations "Dear Friend," "My dear Friend," and " Friend John " are not in reputable use avoid them. 321. Never use a name alone as a salutation. Bad: Melmore, O., Sept. 3, '07. Mr. Percy Clapp: — Please inform me . . . Right: Melmore, Ohio, September 3, 1907. My dear Mr. Clapp, Will you please inform me . . . 322. In the salutation never use any abbreviation, except Mr., Mrs., and Dr. (See Rule 269.) Bad : My dear Prof. Walker. Right : My dear Professor Walker. Bad : Dear Capt. Ayer. Right : Dear Captain Ayer. 323. The salutation should be followed by a colon if the letter is formal ; by a comma if the letter is more or less informal. See the two letters on page 135. 324. The salutation should be written flush with the left-hand margin. The body of the letter should begin on the line below, near the middle of the line. See the examples on page 135. Business letters Letters of friendship Tlie Complimentary Close 325. The following are proper complimentary closes for business letters : Yours truly, Yours veiy truly, Yours respectfully, 326. The following are proper complimentary closes for letters of friendship : Yours very truly, Yours sincerely, THE INSIDE ADDKESS 131 327. Do not use any abbreviation, such as "yrs"or Vulgar " resp'y ^' in the complimentary close ; nor write " respec- ^^^^^^ tively" for respectfully ; nor write "and oblige" in the place of the complimentary close. 328. The complimentary close should be written on a Position separate line, should stand near the middle of the line, tuation^^' should begin with a capital, and should be followed by a comma. See the examples on page 135. 329. All expressions introducing the complimentary Position close, such as "lam," "believe me," "good-bye," should w^word^ occupy their regular positions in the body of the letter. Eight : Accept my congratulations upon your new appoint- ment ; and believe me Yours sincerely, Henry Cobb. The Inside Address 330. The inside address — a statement of the name Essential and address of the person written to — is an essential piete^ietter part of a complete letter, though it may be omitted from informal letters. 331. The street direction may be omitted from the Omission inside address. of street direction Right : permis- The Tiffany Company, sible New York City. Gentlemen : 332. Do not write a name alone above the salutation. Name .^^ ' without Wrong : address Mr. Harvey Myers. My dear Sir : Right : Mr. Harvey Myers, Seattle, Washington. My dear Sir : 132 LETTERS IN THE FIRST PERSON Abbrevia- tions not to be used Permis- sible ex- ceptions Use of the title Esq. Position : Com- mercial letters Other letters 333. In the inside address do not omit Mr. or what- ever other title is proper ; and use no abbreviations ex- cept Mr., Esq., Messrs., Mrs., Dr., and suffixed initial titles, like Ph.D. (See Rule 269.) Lacking in courtesy and propriety : West and Burchell, Chicago. Right : Gentlemen : Messrs. West and Burchell, Chicago, Illinois. Gentlemen : Lacking in courtesy and propriety : Century Pub. Co., N. Y; City. Gentlemen : Right : The Century Publishing Company, New York City. Gentlemen : Note 1. — By way of exception, the long names United States of America and District of Columbia may be abbrevi- ated respectively to JJ. S.A. and D.C, It is permissible in business letters to abbreviate the names of States also ; but the better practice is to spell out those names. Abbreviation of the short names Maine, Ohio, and Iowa is objectionable in any letter. Note 2. — The title Esq. is a proper substitute for Mr. When Esq. follows a name, no title should precede the name. Wrong : Mr. Ralph Williams Esq. Right : Ralph Williams, Esq. 334. In commercial letters the insiile address should stand above the salutation ; in letters of friendship, and in business letters not dealing with mercantile transac- tions, it should stand, not above the salutation, but at the bottom of the letter at the left side of the page. See the letters on page 135. LITERARY STYLE 133 Literary Style 335. The following faults, characteristic of ill-educated Certain writers and of writers without good taste, are to be isms: especially avoided in letters : (a) The omission of pronouns, articles, and prepositions. Ellipsis Bad : Received your letter of the 6th ult. While very doubtful of the result, will try to carry out your instructions. Right : I have received your letter of August 6. [See Rule 336, below.] Though I am very doubtful about the result, I will try to carry out your instructions. Bad : We enclose check for three dollars. Right : We enclose a check for three dollars. Bad : Direct letter care Thomas Cook. Right : Direct the letter in care of Thomas Cook. Bad : Mr. H. P. Thurston, editor Jenksville Patriot. Right : Mr. H. P. Thurston, editor of the Jenksville Patriot. Note. — The omission of I is proper in diaries and in letters written in the style of a diary, — i. e. , intended to present mere ^asty memoranda jotted down without any attempt at completeness of form. Thus, Tennyson writes to his wife : *' Slept at Spedding's where I found they expected me. Started this morning 11 a.m. Hay fever atrocious with irritation of railway, nearly drove me crazed, but could not complain, the other only occupant having a curiously split shoe for his better ease ..." In such let- ters, clipped expressions harmonize with the context. In a let- ter, however, that is intended to be complete and regular in form, the omission of /and of other grammatically essential words is incongruous and in bad taste. (See Rule 337, below.) (6) Writing " yours," " your favor," or " your esteemed *' Yours, * favor" for your letter. (See Rule 17, note.) favor^' (c) The use of the formula "yours of the 1 7th re- ceived," or "yours of the 17th at hand." Write a "Yours r6C6iV6Q grammatically complete expression, such as " I have your letter of June 17." 134" LETTERS IN THE FIRST PERSON '* In reply would say" " I would, will, or can say" " Same " * Please ' " Please find enclosed" " ($10) ten dol- lars" Name of city abbre- viated Participial close "and oblige " The use of/ Not to be avoided by mere ellipsis (d) The use of the formula "in reply would say" or "will say." Write a grammatically complete expression, such as "In reply allow me to say." (e) The use of the formula " I would say," " I will say," or "I can say." Write "Allow me to say" or "I desire to say," or else omit any such introduction. (/) The use of the expression " same " or " the same." Use it or they. (See Same in the Glossary.) Vulgar : Yours of the 3rd at hand, and in reply would say we are at present out of lamps desired but will send same as soon as possible. Right : In reply to your letter of March 3, we beg leave to state that we have not at present the lamps you desire. We will send them as soon as possible. (g) The use of the expression " please " alone. Kather write "Will you please." (h) The use of the formula " Please find enclosed.'' Write " I enclose." (?:) The use of the formula "($10) ten dollars" or ten (110) dollars." (See Rule 274.) (j) The abbreviation of the name of a city ; e.g., of Cincinnati to " Cin.," of Pliiladelpliia to " Phil.," or of New York City to " NT. Y. City." {k) Monotonously closing all letters with a sentence introduced by a participle, as " Hoping to hear soon . . ." " Thanking you again . . . " ; or monotonously closing all letters of request with "and oblige." 336. The rule often taught, that it is improper to begin the body of a letter with /, is nonsense ; beginning with / is always permissible and often desirable. 337. The monotonously frequent use of / in letters is a common fault which it is well to guard against. But one should not, in order to avoid this fault, commit the worse fault of simply omitting I ; as " Have not heard from you for a long time. Should think you ought to have FORMAL NOTES IN THE TPIIRD PERSON 135 written before this." The noticeably frequent use of I is nothing worse than an awkwardness ; the ellipsis of /is a vulgarism. (See Rule 335 a, above.) As between the two, the awkwardness is preferable. To avoid the repeti- tion of /, practice variety of sentence structure, not ellipsis. A Correctly Written Business Letter 17 Lumber Exchange, Specimen Minneapolis, Minnesota, letters Mr. Henry Coleman, ^'^""^'•y 2, 1907. Chicago, Illinois. My dear Sir : I have your letter of December 29. Allow me to say in reply that the house is still for sale. Yours truly, Frank Shaw. A Correctly Written Letter of Friendship Murray Hill Hotel, New York City, September 20, 1907. My dear Mr. Crawford, The composition you inquire about is L. Pabst's Aria con Variazioni in D flat major. I forget who publishes it ; but you can get it by sending to Schirmer's New York house. Yours sincerely, Edith Morris. Mr. George Crawford, 1301 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts. Formal Notes in the Third Person 338. Formal notes written in the third person should have no heading, no salutation, no complimentary close, no inside address, and no signature. They should be Solely in written consistently and solely in the third person ; the pe^/s^n writer should not refer to himself as I or to the addressee 136 FORMAL NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON No ab- as you. Except Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr., no abbrevi- tions ' ations whatever should be used ; and numbers occurring in dates should — unlike those in ordinary letters — be Numbers spelled out. For information about other matters, the spelled out following examples will suffice : Right : Mrs. Burton requests the pleasure of Miss Irwin's company at dinner on Friday, May the second, at seven o'clock. 935 Webster Street, April the twenty-third. Right : Miss Irwin accepts with pleasure Mrs. Burton's invitation to dinner on May the second. 1720 Princeton Avenue, April the twenty -fourth. Bad: 500 Anderson Street, Hennesy, Mich., Jan. 10, '07. Mr. Matthews regrets that he will not be able to accept your invitation for Jan. 15. Severe illness will make it impossible for me to come. Yours truly, Hiram Matthews. Right : Mr. Matthews regrets that, on account of illness, he is unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. Eliot's invitation for January the fifteenth. 500 Anderson Street, January the tenth. Misuse Note. — The future tense in the first sentence of the fore- of future ffoinff Bad letter illustrates a common error in letters of coiioc regret or acceptance. Wrong : Mr. Smith will be 'pleased to accept . . . [The being pleased to accept is present, nou future.] Right : Mr. Smith accepts ; [or] Mr. Smith is pleased to accept. SUNDRY MECHANICAL DIRECTIONS 137 Wrong : . . regrets that he will be unable to accept . . . [The inability to accept is present, not future.] Right : . . . regrets that he is unable to accept . . . Sundry Mechanical Directions 339. The ink used in letter writing should be of no ink other color than black. 340. Letter-paper consisting of sheets so folded that Writ each sheet is like a little book of four pages, is suitable ^^^^ for all letters, — commercial, professional, or social ; and for the letters of private individuals, as distinguished Four from those of public officials and those of business firms, it is, on the whole, preferable to writing-paper in flat sheets. The use of the latter kind is best confined to business or professional correspondence. Writing-paper that is ruled, or limp and flimsy in texture, or conspicu- ous because of unusual color, should be used for no letters whatever — except in case of emergency. 341. The writing should not be crowded close to the fop of any page, but should begin an inch or two below. For the sake of neat and attractive appearance, it is best to keep a blank margin at least half an inch wide at the left side of every page. Rules 165-177 and 183-187 should be observed in letters as well as in other manu- scripts. 342. When flat sheets of paper are used, it is usually best that only one side of each sheet be written on. If both sides are written on, the reader is slightly incon- venienced in holding and turning the sheets as he reads. 343. When four-page sheets are used, all four pages may be written on. The letter should be so written that a person reading the first page has at his left the Flat sheets Margin at top Flat sheets 138 SUNDRY MECHANICAL DIRECTIONS fold, and at his right the coinciding edges opposite the fold. If the substance of the letter occupies less than two pages of the sheet, the first and third pages may be written on and the second be left blank. If the sub- stance of the letter occupies more than two pages, it is best, both on the ground of good usage and on that of the reader's convenience, that the pages be written on in their natural order, — viz., 1, 2, 3, 4; not in the order 1, 3, 2, 4 or 1, 4, 2, 3. On the same grounds, it is best that the lines of writing on all the pages be at right angles to the fold, not parallel with the fold. 344. A letter written on a four-page sheet should be enclosed in an envelope of the same material and of such shape and size that the letter will fit into it when folded with one horizontal crease through the center. The letter should be so folded that the upper and the lower halves of page 1 face each other ; or, in other words, so that the horizontal crease will appear as a groove on pages 1 and 3, and as a ridge on pages 2 and 4. The letter should be so placed in the envelope that the hori- zontal crease is at the bottom of the envelope, and the two coinciding halves of the vertical crease originally dividing the sheet are at the left hand of a person looking at the sealed side of the envelope. 345. A letter written on flat sheets of paper of note size (approximately 6x8 inches) may be enclosed — (a) In an envelope into which it will fit when folded with one crease running through the center. In this case, the two halves of page 1 should be made to face each other ; or, in other words, the crease should appear, to a person reading page 1, as a groove, not as a ridge. Place the letter in the envelope with the crease at the bottom, and with the half containing the heading next to the face, not the sealed side, of the envelope. SUNDRY MECHANICAL DIRECTIONS 139 (6) In an envelope of commercial size (approximately Coramer- 3^ X 6|- inches). In this case, fold the letter into three ^^^/opg' sections, — a central section and two flaps. Correct fold- ing may be accomplished by the following process : As the letter lies right side up on the table, raise the lower part and fold it upward over the middle part, making a horizontal crease about one third of the distance from the „, . . 1 1 ' ^ . 1 /• 1 1 vVritmg bottom to the top ; next, raise the upper part and lold parallel it downward, making a horizontal crease about one fourth ^^^^ ^^^^ of the distance from the top to the bottom. The creases should appear, to a person reading page 1, as grooves, not ridges. The letter so folded should be placed in the envelope with the two flaps next to the sealed side, not ^ . . next to the face, of the envelope ; with the smaller flap parallel on top of the larger one; and with the outward edge of Ij^os the smaller flap pointing downward. The foregoing direc- tions apply to letters in which the lines of writing run parallel to the short sides of the paper. Letters in which the lines run parallel to the long sides should be folded into the same shape ; but the part containing the saluta- * tion should form the smaller flap. Such a letter should be placed in the envelope with the flaps next to the sealed side, with the smaller flap on top of the larger one, and with the outward edge of the smaller flap pointing upward. 346. A letter written on flat sheets of paper of full Flat sheet commercial size (approximately 8x11 inches) may be c^i^nier. enclosed — cial size : (a) In an envelope of commercial size (approximately 3^ X 6|- inches). In this case, correct folding may be ac- Commer complished by the following process : As the letter lies ye^opg" face up on the table, raise the lower part and fold it up- ward over the upper part with a horizontal crease run- ning slightly below the center. Keeping the upper part lying next the table, and keeping the horizontal crease 140 SUNDRY MECHANICAL DIRECTIONS toward you, raise the right-hand part and fold it toward the left, making a vertical crease about one third of the distance from right to left. Finally, raise the left-hand part and fold it toward the right, making a vertical crease about one fourth of the distance from left to right. When page 1 is read, the horizontal crease and the two vertical creases that divide the upper half of the page should appear as grooves, and the two vertical creases that divide the lower half should appear as ridges. The letter, as folded, consists of a central section and two flaps. Place it in the envelope with the two flaps next to the sealed side, not next to the face, of the envelope; with the smaller flap on top of the larger one ; and with the out- ward edge of the smaller flap pointing upward. (b) In an envelope of official size (approximately 10x4 inches). In this case, it should be folded and enclosed according to the method shown in Rule 345 b. (c) In an approximately square envelope, into which it will fit when folded with one horizontal and one vertical crease, both running through the center. In this case, make the horizontal fold first, laying the upper and the lower halves of .page 1 face to face — or, in other words, making a crease that will appear as a groove in page 1 ; then fold with a vertical crease that will appear as a groove in the upper half of page 1, and as a ridge in the lower half. Place the letter in the envelope with the vertical crease at the bottom and the two coinciding halves of the horizontal crease at the right hand, with respect to a person looking at the sealed side of the envelope. 347. The foregoing rules in regard to the manner of folding letters and inserting them in envelopes are merely detailed applications of the simple rule of courtesy : Fold and enclose the letter in such a way that the receiver THE ENVELOPE 141 will be able, with the least possible effort, to get it right side up in his hand, ready to read. A few experiments will show that if any of the directions in Kules 344-346, above, are disregarded in the folding and enclosing of a letter, the addressee, on taking the letter from the en- velope and unfolding it in tlie natural way, will find it with the first page turned from him or with the writing upside down. The Envelope 348. In writing the address on an envelope, apply The super- Rules 307, 308, 309, 333, and 335 a. scription: Bad: Thos. Howe, c/o Capt. Wm. Fisk, Addres- Wabasha, see's title Minn. Right : Bad: Mr. Thomas Howe In care of Captain William Fisk Wabasha Minnesota Rev. Chas. Went worth, #463 9th St., Bridgeport, Ct. Right : Bad: The Reverend Charles Wentworth, 463 Ninth Street, Bridgeport, Connecticut. Editor Centerville Ledger, #65 North Liberty, Centerville, O. 142 THE ENVELOPE Right : For the Editor of the Centerville Ledger 65 North Liberty Street Centerville Ohio The post- age stamp 349. It is permissible to write the address on an en- velope without any marks of punctuation at the ends of lines. If such punctuation is employed, a period- should be placed at the end of the last line and a comma at the end of each preceding line. Right : Professor Henry D. Lennington 1436 Putnam Avenue Woonsocket Rhode Island Colonel Charles Kent, The Southwick Hotel, Kansas City, Missouri. 350. The postage stamp should be attached in the upper right-hand corner. It should be right side up, and its edges should be parallel to the edges of the envelope. A postage stamp upside down or affixed in a haphazard fashion raises against the sender of the letter a suspicion of slovenhness. Right Y A GLOSSAEY OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS A.D. Means m the year of the Lord. Should not, therefore, be ap- pended to the name of a century. Should not be appended to a date self-evidently modern. When used, should precede the date and should not be preceded by a preposition. Wrong : The sixth century a.d. Right : The sixth century after Christ. Right: Arminius died A.D. 21. About. See At about. Accept. See Except. Affect. Means to influence; as " Trade would be seriously affected by a war." Is never used as a noun — always as a verb. Often confused with effect. Effect (verb) means to bring to pass, as "He effected a reconciliation." Effect (noun) means re- suit; as '' The drug had a fatal effect." (See Exercise LXX.) After. Inaccurate : After having written. Right: After writing. Aggravate. Means to make worse ; as "The shock aggravated hig misery. ' ' Should not be used for vex or annoy. All the. The use of "all the farther," "all the higher," "all the faster," or a similar expression is a crudity. Crude : That was all the farther we went that day. Right : That was all the distance we went that day ; [or] Thai was as far as we went that day. Alternative. Means choice between two things^ or one of two thingi between which choice is possible ; as "The alternative is difficult,' "One alternative was to jump from the window; the other waj to be burned to death." Should not be applied to one of mor( than two things. Wrong : There is still a third alternative. Right : Still a third course may be adopted. And. Often incorrectly used instead of to. Wrong : He said he was going up and clean out the attiCv Right : Ke said he was going up to clean out the attic. 143 144 A GLOSSARY And etc. Never put and before etc. Wrong: Pillows, flags, posters, and etc. Right : Pillows, flags, posters, etc. Anent. The use of this synonym of about or concerning suggests affectation. Any place, every place, no place, some place. Vulgarisms for any* where, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, (See Rule 4.) Appreciate. Means to estimate justly or to value highly ; as ** I ap- preciate the service." Should not be modified by greatly or very much. As (1). The frequent use of as as a causal conjunction is a mark of ill-educated writers. Where as occurs in this sense there should usually be no conjunction. Bad : Excuse my short letter as I am buried in work just now. Right : Excuse my short letter ; I am buried in work just now. Bad : There were no settlers left as they had all been massacred. Right : There were no settlers left ; they had all beeu massacred. As (2). In negative statements and in questions implying a negative answer, good usage requires the correlatives so , . , as rather than the correlatives as , . , as. Poor : The modern nations are not as artistic as the ancient nations were. Right : The modern nations are not so artistic as the ancient nations were. At about. Prefer about. Inferior : He came at about three o'clock. Right ; He came about three o'clock. Aught. Means anything. The name of the symbol is naught, not aught. Avail. Of no avail is properly used only with some form of be; elsewhere use to no avail. Wrong : He tried, but of no avail. Right : He tried, but to no avail. Right : His attempt was of no avail. Awful. Means inspiring with awe ; as **The awful presence of the king." Should not be used loosely. Say not *' an awful mistake," but *'a serious or disastrous mistake"; not ** an awful blunder," but '* a ludicrous blunder" ; not *' awful man- ners," but ** uncivil or ill-bred manners"; not ''awful treat- ment," but ''discourteous or cruel treatment." Choose an adjective that expresses your meaning definitely. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 145 Badly. Should not be used for a great deal or very much. Wrong : I want badly to see you. Right ; I want very much to see you. Balance. Bad English when used in the sense of remainder. (Cf. Bank on, Take stock in, Endorse.) Bad : One was an Italian; the balance were Greeks. Right : One was an Italian ; the rest were Greeks. Bank on, take stock in. Objectionable slang in the sense of rely on, trust in, receive as trustworthy, confidently expect. (Cf. Balance and Endorse.) Barn. Means a farm building used for stonng grain or hay. Should not be used for stable. Beg. When used in asking permission to do a thing, beg should govern a noun, — permission, leave, or some synonym of these words. Incorrect: I beg to state. — I beg to differ. — I beg to be absent. Right : I beg leave to state. — I beg leave to differ. —I beg permission to be absent. Borrow. Not to be confused with lend. Vulgar : He refused to borrow me his knife. Right : He refused to lend me his knife. Right : I wanted to borrow his knife from him. Bring forth. Means give birth to. Should not usually be used for bring forward, offer, etc. Bunch. A vulgarism for group or party. But that, or but what. Incorrect after doubt. Wrong : I had no doubt but what he would bite. Right : I had no doubt that he would bite. Calculate. A vulgarism for think, suppose, expect, or intend. Can. Denotes power or ability. Should not be used to denote peiv mission. Wrong : Can students hand in their theses in manuscript? Right : May students [or are students allowed to, or per- mitted to] hand in their theses in manuscript? Can't seem. See Seem. 146 A GLOSSARY Cause. Complete such an expression as the cause was with a predi- cate noun or a noun clause. (8ee Rule 117 and Exercise XLII.) Wrong : The cause of his failure was on account of his im- prudence. Right : The cause of his failure was his imprudence ; [or] . . . was that he was imprudent. • Characteristic. Means a distinguishing quality; as " His cfiief char- acteristic is absent-mindedness." Should not be used without intelligent regard to its meaning. Bad : One characteristic of my daily life is climbing College Hill. Right : One incident of my daily life is climbing College Hill. Charge. Should be combined, when it means accuse, not with o/, but with vnth. Wrong : They charged him of many crimes. Right: They charged him with many crimes. Claim. Means to demand as due; as " I claim the reward." In- elegant for assert or maintain. Climax. Means series of things each of which is in some respect stronger than the preceding ; as " Then began a climax of mis- fortunes." Properly applied to the whole series, not to the cul- minating member. Wrong : Our joy reached its climax when Father came. Right: Our joy reached its culmination [or height, or acme] when Father came. Coincidence. Means the occurrence of two events at the same time or in remarkable connection ivith each other ; as " My forgetting my ticket and Bob's appearance just then with a ticket he didn't need, made a lucky coincidence." Should not be used to des- ignate a single event. Company. A vulgarism for companion, guest, escort, or the plurals of these words. Complected. A vulgarism. (See Rule 5.) Vulgar : A light-complected girl. Right : A light-complexioned girl. Conclude. Incorrect in the sense of arrive at a determination. Cor- rect in the sense of arrive at an opinion or belief. Right: I concluded that the current was weak. Wrong: I concluded to strengthen the current. Right : I finally decided to strengthen the current. Contemplate. Should not be combined with a preposition. Wrong : He contemplated on [or over] a trip to Alaska. Right : He contemplated a trip to Alaska. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 147 Contemptible. Means worthy of being despised ; as " He is a contempts ible sneak." Not to be confused with contemptuous^ which means shoioing scorn ; as " He made a contemptuous answer." Contemptuous. See Contemptible. Continual. Not synonymous with continuous^ according to modern usage. Continual means occurring in close succession, frequently repeated ; as " Continual hindrances discouraged us," " He coughs continually." Continuous means without cessation, con- tinuing uninterrupted; as "Continuous opposition discouraged us," '* He slept continuously for ten hours." . Continuous. See Continual. Could of. See Of. Couldn't seem. See Seem. Crowd. Not to be used for party or company. Cunning. Means artful, ingenious, or giving evidence of art or inge- nuity ; as "a cunning intriguer," "cunning workmanship." Should not be used for pretty or amusing. Cute. Slang. Use pretty, vivacious, lively, amusing, dainty, piquant^ engaging, or some other word in reputable use and of definite meaning. Data, phenomena, strata. Plural, not singular forms. The singular forms are datum (rarely used), phenomenon, and stratum. Date. Inelegant for engagement or appointment. Deal (1). Should be combined with with, not with on or of, when the intended meaning is discuss. Wrong: He deals on three subjects. Wrong; He deals of three subjects. Right: He deals with three subjects. Deal (2). A vulgarism for transaction, agreement, or arrangement. Demand. Means to claim or call for peremptorily. The object of this verb should be the thing claimed, never the person from whom the thing is claimed. Wrong: Japan demanded Russia to leave Manchuria. Right: Japan demanded that Russia leave Manchuria. [The object of "demanded" is the substantive clause ** that • . . Manchuria."] Depot. Inelegant as applied to a building for the accommodation of passengers. Say " station." Different. Should not be completed by a than clause, but always by 2^ from phrase. 148 A GLOSSARY Wrong : The method is different than the one that formerly pre vailed. Right : The method is different from the one that formerly pre* vailed. Diner, sleeper, smoker. Not in good use as meaning dining car, sleep- ing car, and smoking car. Disinterested. Means without self-interest, unselfish; as "the judge's disinterested performance of his duty," Not to be confounded with uninterested. Do away with. Hackneyed and inelegant. Saj' "abolish," "discon- tinue," or " eliminate." Done away with. See Do away with. -Don't. A contraction of do not. Therefore ungrammatical when used with a subject in the third person singular. (See Rule 29.) Wrong: He don't know. Right : He doesn't know. Right: I don't know, we don't know, you don't know, and they don't know. Dove. Should not be used as the past tense of dive. Say " dived." Down. A vulgarism when used as a verb. Say " subdue," "defeat," " obtain the advantage over," " get the best of." (See Rule 4.) -Due to. Should not be used unless the due modifies some noun. Wrong : The forces were divided, due to a misunderstanding. Right : The forces were divided through [or because of] a mis- understanding. Each other. Often misused for one another. Do not say "each other" unless each member of a group is represented as in a certain relation to every other member. Absurd : Improvements in apparatus are rapidly following each other. Right: Improvements in apparatus are rapidly following one another. Right : The two brothers hated each other. Right : They all agreed to stand by each other. [Each mem- ber of the party agreed to stand by every other member.] Eating house, eating place. Vulgarisms for restaurant, dining room. Effect. See Affect. Either, neither. Correctly used to designate one of two persons or things, not one of three or more. Wrong: I asked Leahy, Mahoney, and McGinty, but neither of them was willing. Right: I asked Leahy, Mahoney, and McGinty, but none of them was willing ; [or] ... no one of them was willing. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 149 Elegant. Means excelling in the power to discriminate properly and- select properly^ or giving evidence of such excellence; as ''an elegant gentleman," ''elegant ornamentation." Should not be used loosely. Say not "an elegant view," but a "beautiful view" ; not "an elegant game of football," but " an excellent or a masterly game " ; not " an elegant march," but " a spirited or rousing march" ; not "an elegant pie," but "a delicious pie." Choose an adjective that expresses your meaning definitely. Element. Means a component part ; as "The elements of training are exercise, diet, and regularity." Should not be used without in- telligent regard to its meaning. Bad : Next, the logs are " driven " down stream. Great danger besets the lumbermen in this elemex^t. Right: Next, the logs are "driven" down stream. Great danger besets the lumbermen in this process. Else. Inelegant: Somebody's else book. Right : Somebody else's book. Endorse or indorse. Bad English when used in the sense of approve. (Cf. the other commercial expressions "bank on," "take stock in," "balance," discussed in this Glossary.) Bad : This statement is endorsed by eminent scientists. Right : This statement is corroborated by eminent scientists. Enough. A result complement limiting enough should have the form of an infinitive, not of a clause introduced by that or so that. Wrong : It was near enough that I could touch it. Right : It was near enough for me to touch it. Wrong: There is humor enough so that the story isn't dull. Right : There is humor enough to keep the story from being dull. Enthuse. A vulgarism. The word is unknown to good usage. (See Rule 5.) Vulgar : He doesn't enthuse me. Right: He doesn't rouse any enthusiasm in me. Vulgar : She never enthuses. Right : She never becomes enthusiastic. Etc. The use of etc. is incongruous in a context intended to be artistic. Use a definite term in place of etc, or else simply omit etc. Wrong : She was more beautiful, witty, virtuous, etc., than any other lady. Right: She was more beautiful, witty, virtuous, and loyal than any other lady. Right : She was more beautiful, witty, and virtuous than any other lady. In any context, avoid the vague use of etc, ; use it only to dispense with useless repetition or to represent terms that are entirely obvious. 150 A GLOSSAKY Every place. See Any place. Every so often. A puerility for at regular periods or intervals. Except (verb) means to exclude; as "He alone was excepted from the amnesty." Except (preposition) means with the exception (i.e., exclusion) of; as " All's lost except honor." Except is not to be confused with accept^ which means to receive, (See Exercise LXIX.) Expect. Should not be used for suppose. Factor. Means a force or agent cooperating ivith other forces or agents to produce a certain result; as "The factors of success are industry and perseverance." Should not be used without intelligent regard to its meaning. Bad: Being ducked in the lake is au inevitable factor in the freshman's experience. Right: Being ducked in the lake is an inevitable part of the freshman's experience. Falls, ways, woods. Plurals not singulars. Wrong : Go a little ways down stream till you come to a falls. Beside it is a woods. Right: Go a little way down stream till you come to a fall. Beside it is a wood. Feature. May be used figuratively to mean noticeable quality or char- acteristic; as "The chief feature of the scenery is its rugged- ness," " A feature of his style is its vivacity." Crude and incorrect when used to designate an event. Bad : The principal feature of the day was a boat race. Right : The principal occurrence of the day was a boat race. Fine. A word of rather indefinite meaning. Avoid the habitual loose use of it; prefer a more definite word. Say not '*a fine expla- nation," but "a lucid, or clear explanation" ; not "fine tools for general use," but "tools well suited or adapted to general use"; not "a fine spring of water," but "a refreshing or delicious spring" ; not "a fine toast-master," but "a witty or felicitous toast-master." Choose a word of definite meaning. First-rate. May be used as an adjective but never as an adverb. Right: It is a first-rate building. Wrong: He phiys tennis first-rate. Right: He plays tennis very well; [or] He plays a first-rate game of tennis. Firstly. A word unknown to good usage. Wrong: Firstly . . . Secondly . . . Thirdly . • . Right: First . . . Secondly . . . Thirdly . . . Fix (1). Slang ioT plight ^ situation, or condition. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 151 Fix (2). The verb fix means attach. Should not be used for repair^ arrange^ or prepare. The expression "fix up" used in one of these senses is particularly objectionable. Former, latter. Properly used to designate one of two persons or things, not one of three or more. (Cf. Either, neither.) For designating one of three or more, say "first," "first-named," "first-mentioned," or "last," "last-named," "last-mentioned." Frighten, scare. Vulgarisms when used intransitively. Wrong : Does the horse frighten easily ? Right : Is the horse frightened easily ? Gentleman, lady. Terms properly used to designate persons of refined speech and manners, as distinguished from ill-bred or uncultivated people ; the use of them to designate mere sex is a vulgarism. Vulgar: Saleslady, business gentleman, lady stenographer. — There are lady cab-drivers in Paris. — There are more ladies than gentlemen who play the piano. — Cornell admits ladies, but Williams admits only gentlemen. — ^ Ladies' cloak room. Right : Saleswoman,business man, woman stenographer. — There are woman cab-drivers in Paris. — There are more women than men who play the piano. — Cornell admits women, but Williams admits only men. — Women's cloak room. The use of man and icoman need never be shunned ; even where lady or gentleman may be used correctly, man or woman is equally polite, and is often preferable. Right: Is your wife a Massachusetts woman? — You are the only w^man I know who drives a motor. — Are you the man I met last spring in Denver ? Gentleman friend, lady friend. These terms, not in themselves objection- able, have, through the use that has been made of them, become ambiguous and vulgar. Prefer man friend (plural : man friends) or gentleman of one'^s acquaintance., woman friend (plural: wo- man frie7ids) or lady of one'' s acquaintance.'^ Get. A provincialism when used with an infinitive, as in the following sentence : Wrong: I didn't get to go to the lecture. Right: I wasn't able to go to the lecture; [or] I didn't get a chance to go to the lecture. Get up. An inelegant expression loosely used for organize^ institute., compose., prepare^ arrange., prints bind^ dress., decorate^ or orna- ment. Choose the verb that clearly expresses what you mean. Going on. Tautological and vulgar : How old is he ? Sixteen, going on seventeen. Right: How old is he? Sixteen. 1 See Quackenbos's Practical Rhetoric, Chapter XXI. 152 A GLOSSARY Got. Get means to secure ; got should therefore not be used unless the Intended meaning is secured^ nor has got unless the intended meaning is has secured. Wrong : Have you got a knife with you? Right: Have you a knife with you? Got up, gotten up. See Get up. Gotten. Obsolescent. Say " got." Undesirable : He has gotten his reward at last. Right : He has got his reward at last. Grand. Means on a large scale, imposing; as ''a grand mountain range." Should not be used loosely. Say not ''a grand day," but "a beautiful or brilliant day"; not "grand ice-boating," but "excellent or exhilarating ice-boating"; not "grand white snow," but "beautiful white snow" ; not "a grand time," but "an entertaining or delightful time." Choose an adjective that expresses your meaning definitely. Grip. Should not be used to mean portmanteau or hag^ or to mean cable-car. Grip-sack. A provincialism for traveling bag or portmanteau. Guess. Should not be used to express supposition, expectation, or inten- tion. Say "think," "suppose," "expect," "mean," or "intend." Had better, had best, had rather. Entirely grammatical and fully ap- proved by good usage. Would better, iGould best, and icould rather are not preferable. Had better is preferable to xoould bet- ter; had best and would best, had rather and would rather 2^i:q equally good. Correct but undesirable : You would better not stay long. Right : YoQ had better not stay long. Right : They had best attempt no violence. Right ; I had rather go than stay. Had have or had of. Often incorrectly used for had. Bad: If he had have [or had of] tried, he would have succeeded. Right: If he had tried, he would have succeeded. Have (1). A vulgarism when used as in the following Wrong sentences : Wrong: Ira Fote had a sheep die last week. ' Right: One of Ira Fote's sheep died last week. Wrong : AVhen they saw the dead mother, each man had a ten- der feeling spring up in his heart. Right : When they saw the dead mother, each felt a tender feeling spring up in his heart. Have (2). A juvenile word for study. Juvenile : Did you have German last year? Right : Did you study German last year ? OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 153 Have got. See Got. Heap, heaps. Vulgarisms for very much, a great deal, a great many. Hear to it. A vulgarism. Say *' consent to it," or ** allow it." Help (1). A vulgarism for a servant, servants, or employees. Help (2). Should not be followed by but when used in the sense of avoid; should be followed by a gerund. Wrong : I can't help but regret. Right: I can't help regretting. Hired girl. A vulgarism for maid or servant. Home. Should not be used as an adverb meaning at home; properly used as an adverb expressing motion. Wrong : He is home. Right : He is at home. Right : He went home. Honorable. See Reverend. Hopes. Often misused for hope. Do not use the plural to designate one hope Wrong : I wrote in hopes of acceptance. Right : I wrote in the hope of acceptance. Wrong: In the hopes of seeing her, he remained behind. Right : In the hope, etc. Hung. Improper when used in reference to an execution. Say "hanged." Wrong : He was found guilty and hung. Right: He was found guilty and hanged. Right : We hung the flag on the balcony. Hustle. A vulgarism when used intransitively to mean hasten, hurry, or be energetic or industrious. Correctly used with a direct object. Wrong : People were hustling about in confusion. Right: People were hurrying about in confusion. Right : The police hustled the loiterers from the hall. Le. Means that is; denotes, therefore, that what follows is equivalent to what precedes. Should not be used when what follows is not equivalent to what precedes, or when that is will not fit grammati- cally into the place of i.e. Right: The act is treated as a capital crime, — i.e., a crime pun- ishable by death. ["A crime punishable by death" is equivalent to "a capital crime"; and that is may be grammatically substituted for ''i.e."] Wrong: I like to read the Bible, i.e., some of the stories in the Old Testament. [*' Some of the stories in the Old Testament " is not equivalent to ** the Bible."] Wrong: I like some parts of the Bible, i.e., the stories in the Old Testament. [That is can not be grammatically sub- stituted for ** i.e."] 154 A GLOSSARY Right: I like some parts of the Bihle, — namely, [or viz.,] the stories in the Old Testament. Right: He had committed lese-majesty, — i.e., had given an affront to the Emperor. ["Had . . . Emperor" is equiva- lent to " had . . . majesty " and that is may properly be substituted for "i.e."] If. Not to be used in prose as a synonym of whether. Wrong: I don't know if I can. Right : I don't know whether I can. Ilk. An archaic adjective meaning same. In the expression of that ilk, as correctly used, ilk is an adjective modifying estate under- stood; "Sir George Urquhart of that ilk" means Sir George Urquhart of that same {estate), — i.e., Sir George Urquhart of Urquhart. The use of ilk as a noun meaning kind is a blunder. Wrong: I'm not of her ilk, I'm glad to say. Right: I'm not of her sort, I'm glad to say. In. Generally incorrect when used to express motion. Say *' into." Wrong: He went in the bank. Right : He went into the bank. In back of. In front of is correct ; "in back of " is a vulgarism. Say "behind." In our midst. See Midst. Individual. Should not be used indiscriminately for person. Properly used to mean individual person. Right : He made a general address to the class, and also gave special advice to the individuals in the class. Wrong : He is a tall, gaunt individual. Right: He is a tall, gaunt fellow [or person, or man]. Indorse. See Endorse. Indulge. Means (a) to treat with forhearance ; as " Will you indulge me for a moment?" ; or (5) to put no restraint upon oneself; as "He indulges in [i.e., puts no restraint upon himself in regard to] gambling." Indulge in is often misused ior practice or engage in. Bad: Practice in surveying is indulged in in the autumn. Right: Practice in surveying is engaged in [or taken] in the autumn. Inferior. See Superior. Inside. Does not require 0/ following. Say simply " inside." Right : They were trapped inside the walls. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 155 Inside of. A vulgarism for within^ in time expressions. Bad : It will disappear inside of a week. Right : It will disappear within a week. Kind, sort. Crude and incorrect: I don't like those kind [or those sort] of photographs. Right : I don't like that kind [or that sort] of photographs. Kind of, sort of (1). Should never be used to modify verbs or adjec- tives. Say "somewhat," "somehow," *'for some reason," " rather," or '' after a fashion." Bad: People who kind of chill you . . . Right : People who somehow chill you . . . Bad : The man who does nothing but study, gets sort of dull. Right : The man who does nothing but study, gets rather dulL Bad : I kind of felt my way at first. Right: I felt my way, after a fashion, at first. Kind of, sort of (2). Should not be followed by a or an. Inelegant : What kind of a house is it ? Right : What kind of house is it ? Inelegant : It is a sort of a castle. Right: It is a sort of castle. Lady, lady friend. See Gentleman and Gentleman friend. Latter. See Former. Lay. Often confounded with lie. Remember that lay is the causative of lie ; i.e., to lay means to cause to lie. Remember the princi- pal parts of each verb : I lie I lay I have lain. I lay I laid I have laid. (See Exercises I, II.) Leave go of. A puerility. Say *' leave hold of" or '*let go." Childish : He left go of the rope. Right : He left hold of the rope ; [or] He let go the rope. Less. A vulgarism for fewer. Wrong: Less men were hurt this year than last. Right : Fewer men were hurt this year than last. Liable. Means (a) easily susceptible; as "It is liable to injury;" or (6) likely; as "It is liable to be misunderstood." But NOTE : Liable is not properly used in the sense of likely except in designating an injurious or undesirable event which may befall a person or thing. Wrong : We are liable to have a clear day to-morrow. Right : We are likely, etc. 156 A GLOSSARY Like. A vulgarism when used to introduce a subject with a verb. Say *'as" or "as if." Like is correct when followed by a substan- tive without a verb. Vulgar : He acted like the rest did. Right : He acted as the rest did. Right : He acted like the rest. Vulgar : I felt like I had done something generous. Right : I felt as if I had done something generous. Right : I felt like a philanthropist. (See Exercise XXVI.) Liked. Should not be compounded with would or should. Bad : He would liked to have gone. Right : He would have liked to go. [See Rule 53.] Line. The following uses of line are characteristic of ill-educated writers and speakers : (a) The loose use of line in the sense of kind or business, or in other senses for which there are precise words. Bad : What line of work are you now doing ? Right : What kind of work are you now doing ? Bad: I am now engaged in the hardware line. Right : I am now engaged in the hardware business. (6) The use of line shown in the following Bad examples ; Bad : I like anything in the card line. Right : I like any game of cards. Bad : Was there anything in the refreshment line ? Right : Were there any refreshments ? Bad : He said a few things in the advice line. Right : He gave me a little advice ; [or] He said a few things by way of advice. Bad : I'm not very good in the walking line. Right : I'm not very good at walking. (c) The use of "along the line of" or "in the line of" for in connection with, in regard to, about, on the subject of, in the nature of, by way of, in, of Bad : He was also famous along the line of literature. Right: He was also famous in literature. Bad : The dean said some things along the line of athletics. Right : The dean said some things about athletics. Bad : We are planning something in the line of a surprise. Right : We are planning something by way of surprise. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 157 (d) The use of '* along this or that line" or "in this or that line," for in or on or in regard to this or that subject, in this or that respect, of this or that sort. Bad : Let me tell you something along that line. Right: Let me tell you something in connection with that subject. Bad : If he is so weak in physics and chemistry, he needs some tutoring along those lines. Right: If he is so weak in physics and chemistry, he needs some tutoring in those subjects. Bad : I need some tacks. Have you anything along that line ? Right: I need some tacks. Have you' anything of that sort? Lines. A provincialism for reins. Loan. Inelegant when used as a verb. Inelegant : He loaned me a book. Right: He lent me a book. Right : The loan was a great assistance. Locate. A vulgarism for settle. Correct when used transitively. Bad : He located in Ohio. Right: He settled in Ohio. Right: He located his factory in Lima. Lose out, win out. Slang, not proper except in connection with sports. Lovely. Means lovable or inspiring love; as " a lovely character." Should not be used loosely. Say not " a lovely time," but *' a pleasant or delightful* time " ; not "a lovely drive," but "an interesting or pleasant drive" ; not "a lovely costume," but "a handsome, or dainty, or rich, or striking, or elegant costume." Choose the adjective that expresses your meaning definitely. Mad. Means insane. Should not be used to mean angry. May of. See Of. Mean. Means lowly or base. Should not be used to mean cruel, vicious, unkind, or ill-tempered. Messrs. ^ The plural of Mr. Like Mr., Messrs. should never be used without a name or names following it. (See Rule .318.) Vulgar : Messrs., will you come in ? [To say this is like saying, '' Mister, will you come in ? " or " Mrs., I have come."] Right : Gentlemen, will you come in ? Right : Messrs. Zangwill and Barrie met the Messrs. McCarthy. Midst. The expressions onr midst, your midst, and their midst pre- ceded by a preposition have been so much censured by critics and have gathered so many ludicrous associations, that, whether or not they are justifiable, they are best avoided. Instead of 158 A GLOSSARY **in our midst," say *'in the midst of ns " or "among us.'* Instead of *'from ounnidst," say "from the midst of us" or "from among us." Or else, substitute for midst some nou» such as neighboi'hood, community^ fellowship^ etc. Might of. See Of. Miss. Like Mr.^ Mrs.^ and 3Iessrs., Miss^ when used as a title, must always be followed by a name. (Cf. Messrs.) Vulgar : My dear Miss : Right : My dear Madam : [or] My dear Miss Smith, Most. A puerility for almost. (See Rule 5.) Mrs. The combination of Mrs. with a husband's title is a vulgarism. Mrs. may be followed only (1) by the woman's surname, (2) by her husband's Christian name (or initials) and surname, or (8) if the woman is a widow, by her own Christian name and surname ; the husband's title ^ if stated at all, should be put in another part of the sentence. Right: Mrs. Bough ton. [1] Right: Mrs. John C. Boughton. [2] Right (for a widow) : Mrs. Mary Dole. [3] Vulgar : Mrs. Professor Yates, Mrs. Dr. Fairbanks, Mrs. Presi- dent Hughes, Mrs. Bishop Ross, Mrs. Rev. Fisher, Mrs. Captain Johnson. Right: Mrs. Richard E. Yates; Mrs. Fairbanks, wife of Dr. Fairbanks; Mrs. Louisa Hughes, widow of President Hughes; Mrs. Jeremiah Ross; Mrs. Noah Fisher, Mrs. C. V. Johnson. ^ Mushroom. See ToadstooL Must of. See Of. MutuaL Incorrect, according to modern usage, in the sense of shared ill common; for this meaning the proper adjective is common. Mutual, properly used, means reciprocal, interchanged. Wrong: As we conversed, we found that we had several mutual friends in Portland. [The title of Dickens's novel Onr Mutual Friend is a quotation from some ill-educated per- sons in the story ; it therefore furnishes no good argument for the correctness of the expression ** mutual friend."] Right: As we conversed, we found that we had several common friends in Portland. Wrong : The two men had a mutual interest in sculpture. Right : . . . a common interest in sculpture. Right: They practiced mutual forebearance and aid [i.e., each one helped and bore with the other]. — Their faces showed a mutual hatred [i.e., showed that each hated the other]. — Mutual friendship [i.e., friendship interchanged between two persons]. — Common friendship [i.e., friendship shared by two persons for a third]. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 159 Near by. Bad English when used as an adjective. (See Eule 4.) Wrong : A near-by house. Right: A neighboring, or adjacent, house; [or] A house that stood near by. Nearly. Often misused for near. Wrong : He came nearly getting hurt. Right ; He came near getting hurt. Neither. See Either. Nice. Means keen and precise in discrimination^ or delicately or pre- cisely made; as ''a nice judge of values," " a nice discrimina- tion." Should not be used loosely. Say not *' a nice fellow," but '' an agreeable, or admirable, or conscientious, or honorable fellow" ; not *' a nice time," but ** a pleasant time " ; not *' He is nice to us," but *' He is kind or courteous to us." Choose the adjective that expresses your meaning definitely. No good. A vulgarism when used adjectively. Say "worthless," "of no value." No place. See Any place. No-use. Incorrect when used adjectively. Say *' of no use," '' of no value," or " unsuccessful." Notorious. Means of had repute; as "a notorious gambler." Not to be used ioT famous or celebrated. Not to exceed. Should not be used except in giving or quoting orders or directions. Often misused for not more than. Right : They were authorized to spend any sum, not to exceed $500,000. [See Rule 271 /.] Wrong : The trains are composed of not to exceed twenty cars. Right : The trains are composed of not more than twenty cars. Nowhere near. A vulgarism for 7iot nearly. Observance. Means the act of paying respect or obedience. Not to be confused with observation, which means the act of inspecting, looking at. Right : The observance of Good Friday. Right : From his observation of the sky, he judged that a stornj was approaching. Observation. See Observance. Of. Could of may of might of must of should of and would of are illiterate vulgarisms for could have, may have, might have% must have, should have, and would have. Of three years old. See Old. 160 A GLOSSARY Off of. Incorrect for off. Wrong : Keep off of the grass. I Right ; Keep off the grass. Old. Illogical: A child of three years old. Right; A child of three years ; [or] A child three years old. On the side. A vulgarism for incidental^ collateral^ occasional^ or the corresponding adverbs. One. Should never be preceded immediately by a. Crude : Not a one was hurt. Right : Not one of them was hurt. Ones. Avoid the crude expression ** the ones." Say *' those." Crude : The ones who are ready may come. Right: Those who are ready may come. Or. Should not be correlated with neither ; use nor. Wrong: Neither the long Arctic night or any other cause • , • Right: Neither the long Arctic night nor any other cause . . • Other times. Sometimes is an adverb; other times is not. Say "at other times." (See Rules 4 h and 92.) Ought. The combination of ought with had is a conspicuous vulgarism (See Exercises XVI and XVII.) Wrong: You hadn't ought to have entered. Right: You ought not to have entered. Wrong: We ought to send, had we not? Right: We ought to send, ought we not? Out loud. A puerility for aloud. Outside (1). Does not require o/ following. Say simply "outside,** Right : Outside the barn the cattle were shivering. Outside (2). Outside o/ should not be used for aside from. Wrong: Outside of this mistake, it is very good. Right : Aside from this mistake, it is very good. Over with. Crude. Say* 'over." Crude : The regatta is over with. Right : The regatta is over. Overly. A vulgarism. Say *' over." (See Rule 5.) Vulgar: I 'm not overly anxious. Right : I 'm not over-anxious. Pair, set. Singular, not plural, forms. Wrong : Two pair of gloves and three set of chisels. Right : Two pairs of gloves and three sets of chisels. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 161 Partake of. Means to take a part {of something^ in common with others^ to share with others; as ''Good and evil alike partake of the air and the sunshine," " The whole delegation partook of his hos- pitality." The use of partake o/as if it were synonymous with eat is a blunder and usually an affectation. For illustration see the second Bad example under Rule 21. Party. Means a person or group of persons taking part {in some transaction), A vulgarism when used to mean simply ^ersow. Right : The parties to the marriage were both young. Vulgar: The party who wrote that article must have been a scholar. Peek. A colloquialism for peep^ look slyly ; not proper in a formal context. Per. Use per with Latin words, such as annum, diem, cent,; not, as a rule, with English words. Inelegant : Three dollars per day ; one suicide per week ; seven robberies per month; ^3200 per year; two deaths per thousand ; thirteen cents per gallon. Right: Three dollars a day [or per diem] ; one suicide a week; seven robberies a month ; $3200 a year [or per annum] ; two deaths for every thousand ; thirteen cents a gallon. Per cent. An adverb -phrase, not a noun. The noun is percentage, (See Rule 4.) Wrong : A large per cent, were Chinese. Right : Twenty per cent, were Chinese. [See Rules 220 6 and 290]. Right : A large percentage were Chinese. Phase. Means appearance or aspect; as " That phase of the question I haven't considered." Should not be used without intelligent regard to its meaning. Bad : I began to indulge in all the different phases of college pleasure. Right : I began to indulge in all the different kinds of college pleasure. Phenomena. See Data, Piano. Should not be used to mean instruction in piano-playing. Crude : She is taking piano. Right : She is taking piano lessons. Piece. A provincialism when used in the sense of distance or short distance. Plan. Should not be combined with on. Say simply "plan." Wrong : We planned on taking a walk. Eight : We planned taking a walk ; [or] We planned to take a walk. 162 A GLOSSARY Plenty (1). A vulgarism when used as an adjective. Say »* plentifuL (See Rule 4.) Wrong : Wheat is plenty. Right: Wheat is plentiful. Right : There is plenty of wheat. Plenty (2). Incorrect when used as an adverb. (See Rule 4.) Wrong: It is plenty good enough. Right; It is quite good enough. Portray. Means to make a picture of. Should not be used in the sense of narrate or explain. Postal. Inelegant for postal card. Posted. Incorrect for informed. Wrong : Keep me posted. Right: Keep me informed. Wrong : He is well posted about politics. Right : He is well informed about politics. Prefer. The thing above which something is said to be preferred should be made the object of the preposition fo, never put into a than clause. Wrong : I should prefer to go there than anywhere else. Right : I should prefer going there to going anywhere else. Propose. Means to offer. Should not be used for to purpose or to intend Wrong: I did not propose to divulge the secret. Right : I did not purpose [or intend] to divulge the secret. proposition. Means a thing proposed or the act of proposing ; as *'He made a proposition to sell." Should not be used without intelli- gent regard to its meaning. Avoid especially the use of propO" sition for work or task. Vulgar: To sink that shaft was a hard proposition. Right : To sink that shaft was a hard piece of work. Bad: The library-buffet car is the most comfortable proposition on wheels. Right : The library-buffet car is the most comfortable vehicle on wheels. Proven. Not in good use. Say "proved." Providing. A vulgarism for provided. Right: I will lend it, provided he agrees to take good care of it Put in. A vulgarism for spend or occupy. Wrong : I put in three hours in trying to memorize It. Right: I spent three hours, etc. Put in an appearance. A vulgarism for appear. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 163 Quality. Means characteristic or trait ; as "The qualities of birch bark are lightness of color, thinness, and smoothness." Should not be used without intelligent regard to its meaning. Bad: The social qualities of college life are more in evidence in the winter. [See Rule 14.] Eight : The social activities of college life are more apparent in the winter. Bad : He gives three qualities of a business man : Have some- thing to say, say it, and stop talking. Bight : He gives three maxims for a business man : Have some- thing to say, say it, and stop talkiug. Quite. Means («) wholly ; as *' The stream is now quite dried up " ; or (6) greatly^ very ; as " We could see it quite distinctly." A pro- vincialism when used in the sense of slightly^ not very. Wrong: The room is quite large, but not large enough for any one to be comfortable in. Right : The room is moderately large, but not large enough for any one to be comfortable in. Quite a few. Incorrect for a good many or a considerable number. Quite a little. Incorrect for a considerable amount or a good deal. Raise (1). A vulgarism when applied to human beings, in the sense of rear^ bring up. Raise (2). Often confounded with rise. Remember that raise is the causative of rise^ i.e., to raise means to cause to rise. Therefore raise must always have an object. Remember the principal parts of each verb : I rise I rose I have risen. I raise I raised I have raised. (See Exercises III, IV.) Raise (3). A vulgarism when used as a noun. (See Rule 4.) Bad : He secured a raise of salary. Right : He secured an increase of salary ; [or] His salary was raised. Rarely ever. A vulgarism. Say **rarely" or ''hardly ever." Cf. Sel- dom ever. Bad : He rarely ever smiles. Right: He rarely smiles. Right : He hardly ever smiles. Real. A puerility for very, (See Rule 4.) Childish : It is real handsome. Right: It is very handsome. 164 A GLOSSARY Reason. Dp not complete such an expression as the reason is with (a) a because clause, (6) a because of phrase, (c) a due to phrase, of (d) an on account of phrase ; complete it with a that clause. (See Rule 117, and Exercise XLII.) Illogical : The reason he was offended was because they were arrogant. Illogical : The reason he was offended was because of their arro- gance. Illogical : The reason he was offended was due to their arro- gance. Illogical : The reason he was offended was on account of their arrogance. Right : The reason he was offended was that they were arrogant. Remember. The name of the thing remembered should not be preceded by of Wrong : I remember of meeting him. Right ; I remember meeting him. Reverend, Honorable. Should be preceded by the^ and should never be followed immediately by a surname. (See Rules 269 and 276.) Vulgar : Rev. Carter. Vulgar : The Reverend Carter. Right : The Reverend Mr. Carter. Right : The Reverend Amos Carter. Right : The Reverend Dr. Temple. Rig. A provincialism for carriage^ ^uggy, or wagon. Right away, right off. Not in good use. Say ''immediately,'* •*at once," or " directly." Right off. See Right away. Run. Improper in the sense of manage or operate. . Said. See Say. Same (1). No longer in good use as a pronoun. Vulgar : We will repair the engine and ship same [or the same) to you next week. Right : We will repair the engine and ship it to you next week. Inelegant : The principal of the bonds was paid and the same canceled. [See Rule 90 a.] Right : The principal of the bonds was paid and the bonds were canceled. Same (2), The same as should not be used for in the same way as or just as. Wrong : The draft \s treated the same as a check is treated. Right : The draft is treated just as a check is treated. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 165 Say. Should not be used to mean give orders^ with an infinitive as object. Crude : The guard said to go back. Right : The guard ordered us [or told us] to go back. Scare. See Frighten. School. Should not be used for college. Search. The phrase " in search for " is incorrect ; say " in search of." Right : The lion goes in search of sheep. Seem. " Can't seem " is a vulgarism. Say "seem unable," or '' do not seem able." Seldom ever. A vulgarism. Say "seldom" or " hardly ever." Cf Rarely ever. Seldom or ever. A vulgarism. Say *' seldom if ever." Selection. Means a thing selected ; as " He played a selection from Wagner." Should not be used where there is no idea of selecting. Bad: Our class prophet then read an amusing selection, in which he satirized his classmates. Right : Our class prophet then read an amusing composition [or skit, or squib, or piece], in which, etc. Set (1). Often confounded with sit. Remember that set is the causa- tive of sit ; i,e. , to set means to cause to sit. Remember the principal parts of each verb : I sit I sat I have sat. I set I set I have set. The use of set without an object, as expressing mere rest, is a vul- garism ; say "sit," "stand," "lie," "rest," or " is set." (See Exercises V-VIII.) Wrong : The pole sets firmly in the socket. Right : The pole is set [or sits] firmly in the socket. Wrong : The vase sets on the mantel. Right ; The vase stands [or rests] on the mantel. Wrong : The boat sets lightly on the water. Right : The boat lies [or rests] lightly on the water. Set (2). Set for sets (plural). See Pair. Shape. A vulgarism when used to mean manner or condition. Wrong : They executed the maneuvers in good shape. Right : They executed the maneuvers in an expert manner. Wrong : He is in good shape for the debate. Right : He is in good condition [or thoroughly prepared] for the debate. Should of. See Of. Show (1). A vulgarism tov play^ opera, concert. 166 A GLOSSARY Show (2), A vulgarism for chance or promise. Vulgar : The freshman team had an excellent show of winning. Right : The freshman team had an excellent chance of winning. Show up. A vulgarism when used intransitively in the sense of ap* pear, attend, come, or be present^ and when used transitively Id the sense of show or expose. Sight. *' A sight'' is a vulgarism for much, many, a great deal. Size. Never use size as an adjective ; say " sized," or '* of size." Wrong : The different size dies are sorted. Right : The different sized dies are sorted. "Wrong : Any size chain will do. Right : A chain of any size will do. Size up. A vulgarism for estimate, judge, pass upon. Sleeper. See Diner. Smoker. See Diner. Snap. See Vim. So (1). Should not be used for so that. Wrong : They strapped it so it would hold. Right ; They strapped it so that it would hold. So (2), A puerility when used alone to modify an adjective. Weak : During the first semester I was so lonely. Right : During the first semester I was very lonely. Some. A vulgarism when used as an adverb. (See Rule 4.) Wrong : He is some better to-day. Right : He is somewhat [or a little] better to-day. Some place. See Any place. Sort, See Kind. Sort of. See Kind of. Specie. Means gold or silver money. Species^ meaning kind, has the same form in the singular and the plural. Right : The first species is more valuable than the other two species are. Start. Often crudely used for begin. Bad : Thinking she was dead, he started to cry. Right : Thinking she was dead, lie began to cry. Started out. A crude expression for set out, sel off, made an excursion or trip, loent on a walk or journey or jaunt. The verb start is not objectionable as applied to the beginning of a journey, but the combination of this verb with out should be avoided. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 167 Stop. Means to cease or to cease from motion, A vulgarism when used in the sense of stay. Bad : Are you stopping with friends ? Right : Are you staying with friends ? Strata. See Data. Subject, topic. A subject or a topic is a thing spoken about or thought about ; the thing said or thought should not be called a subject or topic. (See Rule 117 and Exercise XLII.) Wrong: The topic of the first paragraph tells of the French war. Right : The topic of the first paragraph is the French war. Wrong : The book is composed of many interesting subjects. Right: The book deals with many interesting subjects; [or] The book is composed of passages on many interesting subjects. Such (1). When such is completed by a relative clause, the relative pro- noun of the clause should not be who^ which, or that; it should be as (see as in a dictionary). Wrong : I will act under such rules that may be fixed. Right : I will act under such rules as may be fixed. Wrong : All such persons present who consent will rise. Right : All such persons present as consent will rise. Such (2). When such is completed by a result clause, this clause should be introduced, not by so that, but by that alone. Wrong : There was such a mist so that we couldn't see. Right : There was such a mist that we couldn't see. Such (3). Inaccurate when used with the value of an adverb. Inaccurate : Such a good weapon had never before been seen. Right : So good a weapon had never before been seen. Sundown. A provincialism for sunset. Sunup. A provincialism for sunrise. Superior, inferior. Should never be limited by a than clause, but always by a to phrase. Wrong : It was superior from every point of view than the lathe previously used. Right : It was superior from every point of view to the lathe previously used. Swell. A vulgarism when used as an adjective. (See Rule 4.) Take. Should not be used for study. Juvenile : I took Spanish and chemistry. Right : I studied Spanish and chemistry. Take in. A vulgarism for attend or go to. 168 A GLOSSARY Take it. Should not be used in introducing an example. Bad : Take it in Wisconsin, the old-fashioned method of logging is becoming extinct. Right : In Wisconsin, for example, the old-fashioned method of logging is becoming extinct. Take stock in. See Bank on. Team. Means a couple or group of animals or persons ; as *' a team of horses," ." a team of athletes." A provincialism when applied to one animal or to a vehicle. Wrong : Will you ride in my team ? Right : Will you ride in my buggy [or carriage, or wagon] ? Than, till, until. Often improperly used for xohen^ as in the following Wrong sentences. (See Rule 117.) Wrong: Scarcely had he mounted the wagon than the horse started. Right: Scarcely had he mounted the wagon when the horse started. Wrong : We had hardly got there and put things in order till Jenks came. Right : We had hardly got there and put things in order when Jenks came. That. Should not be used as an adverb. (Cf . This, and see Rule 4.) Wrong : He went only that far. Right : He went only so far. Wrong: If it is that bad, we must retreat. Right: If it is so bad [or so bad as that], we must retreat. Wrong: He didn't want that much, did he? Right : He didn't want so much as that, did he? That there. See This here. These here. See This here. This. Should not be used as an adverb. (Cf. That, and see Rule 4.) Wrong: This much is certain. Right : Thus much is certain. Wrong : Having come this far . . . Right: Having come thus far [or as far as this] . . • Wrong: The water hasn't ever before been this high. Right: The water hasn't ever before been so high as this. This here, these here, that there, those there. Gross vulgarisms. Say "this," "these," "that," or "those." Those there. See This here. Through. Inelegant when used as in the following sentence: Wrong: He is through writing. Right: He has finished writing; [or] He has done writing. Note. — Never say **zs finished" or "is done" in the sense above shown. OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 169 Till for when. See Than. Toadstool. A synonym of mushroom. The common restriction of mushroom to edible fungi and of toadstool to poisonous ones is a misuse of the words. Wrong: Is it a mushroom or a toadstool? Right : Is it an edible mushroom or a poisonous mushroom ? [or] Is it an edible or a poisonous toadstool ? Too, very. Neither of these words should immediately precede a past participle ; say *' too much," " very much." Wrong : He is too exhausted to speak. Right : He is too much exhausted to speak. Wrong: He felt very insulted. Right : He felt very much insulted. Topic. See Subject. Transpire. Means ^o become known; as "In spite of their efforts at concealment, the secret transpired." It is both affected and in- correct to use the word in the sense of occur. Treat. Should be followed, when used to mean discuss or speak of, by of, not by on or with. Wrong: The author treats on two subjects. Right : The author treats of two subjects. Trend. Means direction ; as "The rivers of this land have a southern trend." Should not be used without regard to its proper meaning. Bad : The egg business is only incidental to the general trend of the store. Right : The egg business is only incidental to the general busi- ness of the store. Try and. Should not be used for try to. Inelegant : I shall try and get a good position. Right : I shall try to get a good position. Ugly. Means repulsive to the eye. A provincialism when used to mean vicious, malicious, or ill-tempered. Bad : The horse has an ugly temper. Right : The horse has a vicious temper. Bad : The conductor acted very ugly. Right: The conductor acted very discourteously [or uncivilly]. Underhanded. Prefer underhand. Right : He used underhand methods. Until for when. See Than. Up. Should not be appended to the verbs cripple, divide, end, finish, limber, open, polish, rest, scratch, settle, write. Wrong: He opened up the box and divided the money up among the men. Right : He opened the box and divided the money among the men. 170 A GLOSSARY Up to date. A vulgarism when used as an adjective ; correctly used as an adverbial modifier. Vulgar : His house is strictly up to date. Right : His house is thoroughly modern. Right; He brought the history up to date. Very with past participles. See Too. Vim, snap. Not in good literary use. Say "vigor," "energy," or "spirit," Violin. Should not be used to mean instruction in violin playing. Crude: He has just begun violin. Right: He has just begun to take violin lessons. Vocal, voice. Should not be used to mean instruction in vocal music. (See Rule 4.) Crude: Are you keeping on with your vocal? Right : Are you keeping on with your singing lessons [or vocal practice] ? Crude : She is taking voice. Right : She is taking singing lessons. Voice. See Vocal. Wait on. A vulgarism for wait for, AVrong: If I'm not there, don't wait on me. Right : If I'm not there, don't wait for me. Want (1). Should not be limited by a clause as in the following sentence : Wrong : I want you should be happy. Right : I want you to be happy. Want (2). " Want in," " want out," " want through," etc., are vulgarisms. Vulgar : Do you want in ? Right : Do you want to come in ? Way (1). A puerility for away. (See Rule 5.) Wrong : Way up the hill I saw a deer. Right : Away up the hill I saw a deer. Way (2). Should not be used adverbially without a preposition gov- erning it. Wrong : When he acts that way . • . Right : When he acts in that way . . • Wrong : How could a sane man act the way Reals did ? Right : How could a sane man act in the way in which Beals acted ? [or, better] . . . act as Beals did ? Ways for way. See Falls. Well. This word when used merely to mark a transition (e..^., *'You know MacDonald, of course. Well, last night as he stepped into his motor. . .") is a colloquialism, not proper in a formal context. When. Often improperly used for that in sentences like the following (see Rule 117) : Wrong : It was on a rainy day in April when I first saw Chicago. Right : It was on a rainy day in April that I first saw Chicago. [** That I first saw Chicago " is a substantive clause in ap- position to " it."] OF MISCELLANEOUS FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 171 Where (1). Often misused for that as in the following sentence: Wrong : I see in this morning's paper where Cronin has been caught. Right : I see in this morning's paper that Cronin has been caught. Where (2). Do not use *' where to " in the sense of whither ; omit the to. Wrong : Where are you going to ? Right: Where are you going? Which. Should not be used as a relative pronoun in referring to a person. Wrong : The people which do that are rascals. Right : The people that do that are rascals. While. Means (a) during the time in which, (b) though, or (c) whereas; as (a) *'I played while he sang ; " (&) ** While this may be true, it does not content me ;" (c) ''Yours is in good condition, while mine is quite worn out." Should not be used loosely with- out regard to its meaning. Wrong: On^ne side was a grove, while on the other was a river. Right : On one side was a grove, on the other a river. Who. Should not, as a rule, be used in referring to animals ; use which. Whose. The possessive case of who^ not of which. Objectionable when it refers to inanimate things. Say " of which," unless the use of this expression makes the sentence extremely awkward-^ which is rarely the case. Crude: Soon we came to a swamp, on whose bank stood a hunter's cabin. Right : Soon we came to a swamp, on the bank of which stood a hunter's cabin. Win out. See Lose out. Wire. Rather vulgar in the sense of telegraph or telegram, (See Rule 4.) Woods for wood. See Falls. Would better, would best, would rather. Correct, but often used under a misapprehension. See Had better. Would have. Often incorrectly used in if clauses instead of had. Wrong: If he would have stood by us, we might have won. Right : If he had stood by us, we might have won. Would of. See Of. Write up. A vulgarism. Say "report," "relate," "describe," or simply " write." You was. A vulgarism. Fow, though it may designate one person, is grammatically plural, and its verb must always be plural. Say " you were." (See Exercise XVIII.) APPENDIX A Exercises for Breaking Certain Bad Habits in Writing and Speaking Exercises chiefly in Grammar I. See Lay in the Glossary. Write three sentences con- Lay and taining present indicative forms of the verb lie (in the lie sense of recline)^ three containing the present participle, three containing past tense forms, and three cojitaining per- fect tense forms. Write three sentences containing present indicative forms of the verb lay^ three containing the pres- ent participle, three containing past tense forms, and three containing perfect tense forms. II. See Lay in the Glossary. Write the follovsring sen- Lay and tences, filling each blank w^ith some form of the verb lie or ^^e some form of the verb lay : 1. The logs are ing where they fell. 2. Yesterday I it on the grass. 3. I will down and rest. 4. They still and said noth- ing. 5. Inmates are not allowed to in bed after six o'clock. 6. They let the torpedo on the railroad. 7. I have all his things in readiness. 8. The scythe in the rain so long that it got rusty. 9. ing quietly in the grass, he watched. 10. Have they their wet hats on the parlor table ? 11. Coming from Flor- ida, I was surprised to find the snow still ing on the ground. III. See Baise in the Glossary. Write three sentences Raise and containing present indicative forms of the verb me, three rise containing the present participle, three containing past tense forms. Write three sentences containing present indicative forms of the verb raise^ three containing the present parti- ciple, three containing past tense forms, and three contain- ing perfect tense forms. IV. See Baise in the Glossary. Write the following sen- Baise and tences, filling each blank with some form of the verb raise ^se or some form of the verb rise : 1. Don't be embarrassed ; up and speak. 2. A man suddenly up and interrupted. 3. I will up and deny it publicly. 173 174 APPENDIX A Set and sit Set and sit Set 4. Slowly the load yielded to the upward force ; and little by little it until it reached the desired point. 6. It was too late ; the balloon had already ten feet. 6. Has the river at all during the night ? V. See Set in the Glossary. Write three sentences con- taining present indicative forms of the verb set^ three con- taining the present participle, three containing past tense forms, and three containing perfect tense forms. Write three sentences containing present indicative forms of the verb sit, three containing the present participle, three con- taining past tense forms, and three containing perfect tense forms. VI. See Set in the Glossary. Write the following sen- tences, filling each blank with some form of the verb set or some form of the verb sit: 1. The ink-well doesn't level, 2. I enjoy in the dark. 3. How long we had there I do not know. 4. He brought the little girl in his arms and — Lay, lie, raise, rise, set, and sit Done and seen her in a chair by the fire. VII. Comment on the use of set in each of the following sentences, correcting all errors : 1. Around the table set four chairs. 2. She left the umbrella setting against the chair. 3. You have set a hard task. 4. He saw the pie setting on the doorstep. 5. With the spirit level, he made the table set exactly horizontal. 6. Did you notice the order in which the cups were set ? 7. Ready ; get set ; go. 8. The bluffs appear to set back some distance from the shore. VIII. See Lay, Baise, and Set in the Glossary. Write a short story about a balloon ascension, using the words lie^ lying, lay, lain, laying, laid, rise, rising, rose, risen, raise, raising, raised, sit, sitting, sat, set, and setting. IX. Remember the principal parts of do and see. I do I see I did I saw I have done I have seen Write five sentences each containing past tense forms of the verbs do and see, and five sentences each containing done and seen properly used. Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with did or saw: 1. I the damage that the fire 2. There we a magician, who some tricks. 3. I my duty and I it. 4. He the work with his own hands ; I - do harm, and so she - him do it. 5. She - - that it would . all she could to stop it. APPENDIX A 175 X. Remember the principal parts of write^ rise, ride, and Write, drive : ^}'^' '*^^«» drive I write I wrote I have written I rise I rose I have risen I ride I rode I have ridden I drive I drove I have driven Write sentences containing perfect tense forms and past- perfect tense forms of write, rise, ride, and drive. XI. Remember the principal parts of the verb run : Hun mis- used for I run I ran I have run ran Write five sentences containing the verb run in the past tense, and five containing the form run, properly used. XII. Notice the relation between the past tense and the Began, perfect tense of the following verbs :. sang, 1 began I have begun rang drank, ran, swam 1 sang I have sung I sprang I have sprung I rang I have rung I drank I have drunk I ran I have run I swam I have swum Write sentences containing perfect tense forms and past- perfect tense forms of the foregoing verbs. XIII. Notice the relation between the past tense and the Broke, perfect tense of the following verbs : froze, tore I broke I have broken I froze I have frozen I tore I have torn Write sentences containing perfect active, past-perfect active, and passive forms of the foregoing verbs. XIV. Remember the principal parts of know, throw, and Know, blow : throw, 1 know I knew I have known blow I throw I threw I have thrown I blow I blew I have blown Write sentences containing past tense forms and perfect tense forms of the foregoing verbs. XV. Remember the principal parts of the verb go : Went for gone I go I went I have gone Write ten sentences using perfect tense forms of this verb. XVI. See Ought in the Glossary. The following sen- "Had tences are grossly incorrect. Correct and rewrite them, ought" 176 APPENDIX A 1. He hadn't ought to refuse. 2. I'd ought to accept, hadn't I ? 3. Don't you think she'd ought to have gone ? 4. No man had ought to endure that, had he ? 5. If that house was empty, then he had ought to have gone to the next. 6. We really ought to help him — don't you think we had ? " Had XVII. See Ought in the Glossary. Write ten sentences ought" using ow^/i^ correctly, five of them stating present duties, and five, past duties. "You was" Agree- ment of verb and subject Concord of each, every, etc. XVIII. See You was in the Glossary. Write the fol- lowing sentences, filling in the blanks with were : 1. Where you, Harry. 2. I thought you lyhig down. 3. You n't to blame, my boy. 4. you pres- ent, Father ? 5. When — r you born, young man ? XIX. Study Rule 29. Write the following sentences, filling the blanks in each sentence with one of the words bracketed after the sentence. In parentheses after each sentence, state the reason why the word chosen to fill the blank ought to be used. 1. The formal statement of the teachings and rules set forth in the constitution. [is, are] 2. The distinction between economic and social causes often arbitrary, [seems, seem] 3. In my opinion his attentions to the postmaster's daughter, after she had shown him she did not like him, very pre- sumptuous, [was, were] 4. The strain of all the diffi- culties and vexations and anxieties more than he could bear, [was, were] 5. Only a few papers of this edition, which is printed at two p.m., to the news- dealers, [goes, go] 6. In spite of all obstacles, the con- struction of the three hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds completed, [was, were] 7. His manipu- lation of the keys, stops, and pedals miraculous to a novice, [look, looks] 8. One of the arguments he made to the delegates to me especially convincing, [seem, seems] 9. The exact meaning of such words as inspiration^ prophecy^ and orthodox at first the laymen, [puzzle, puzzles] 10. His diligent study of explosives, especially of such as might be used to destroy battleships, at last rewarded, [were, was] 11. The manner in which he uses mixed metaphors, split infinitives, and dangling participles lack of training, [show, shows] 12. His use of the various machines, especially of the lathes, the presses, and the forges, him a born mechanic, [prove, proves] XX. Study Rules 31, 32. Copy the following sentences, filling each of the blanks with a pronoun or with one of the APPENDIX A 177 words is, are, was, were, has, and have: 1. Each of the conspirators went quietly to own home and not one of them suspected by neighbors or by the police. 2. Every one there declared in favor of the measure. 3. It makes no difference whether it was Tracy or Reid ; neither of those men '■■ worthy to raise eyes to my daughter. 4. A person never feels sure that themes will be charitably read by either of those professors ; either one of them likely to be severe. 6. No one had any idea what fate would be ; every student from the best to the poorest in anxious sus- pense. 6. either of the boys at home ? 7. everv one here received money? 8. each of promises? 9. • tools ? you fully determined to abide by neither of my assistants yet brought - 10. Everybody put on holiday clothes. 11. If any- body makes a motion to resist, arrest at once. XXI. Study Rules 33-36, particularly Rule 33 a. Write Nomina- the following sentences, filling each blank with who or whom, tive or State in parentheses after each sentence the construction of objective the word inserted. 1. They sent invitations to all ^^^® ^^ they thought would accept. 2. This money comes from '^"'^ Boyle, you know is very liberal. 3. He refused to pardon Mackey, he had every reason to believe the police had caught red-handed. 4. The bookkeeper, , I cannot doubt, committed these errors, must be discharged. 6. The vacancy was filled by Clayson, the manager said ought to be promoted. 6. The vacancy was filled by Clayson the manager thought worthy of promotion. 7. An instance is furnished by Saint Paul, , the New Testament tells us, was at first an opponent of Christianity. 8. The throne was held by a king historians believe to have been insane. 9. The throne was held by a king historians say was insane. 10. did he say the architect was ? 11. did he say the board chose as architect? 12. 13. — consider to be the fastest runner ? 15. is the fastest runner ? XXII. Study Rules 33-36, particularly Rule 33 b. Nomina- Write the following sentences, filling the blank in each with tive or one of the words bracketed after the sentence. State in objective parentheses after each sentence the construction of the in- case of serted word. 1. He stopped he met. [whoever, ^^^ ^^ whomever] 2. It will greatly assist lives in the ^'^^^^^^ country, [whoever, whomever] 3. brings me the do you believe this impostor to be ? do you think will preside ? 14. do you — do you think 178 APPENDIX A Elliptical than and as clauses General exercise in the use of cup I will make my son-in-law. [whoever, whomever] 4. For loves his country I have a message, [who- ever, whomever] 5. Even food and shelter are withheld from the pope has excommunicated, [whoever, whomever] 6. Every door is shut against the count [whoever, whomever] should steer, [who, the speaker about has said is objectionable to him 7. A discussion followed as to whom] 8. There was no doubt as to meant, [who, whom] 9. They were anxious the victim would be. [who, whom] XXIII. Study Eules 33-38, particularly Eule 38. Write the following sentences, filling each blank with one of the words bracketed after the blank. State in parentheses after each sentence the construction of the inserted words. 1. She is not so clever as [he, him]. 2. She hated both of [we fellows, us fellows], but [I, mej more than [he, him]. 3. Are they better qualified than [we, us] to judge ? 4. No one could regret it more than [I, me]. 6. She is so deceitful that I would trust a convict sooner than [she, her]. 6. O king, no man is so wise as [thee, thou], 7. Her hasty action injured herself more than [I, me]. 8. The faculty suffered more than • [we, us] who were ex- pelled. 9. The conspirators plotted shrewdly, but the de- tective was shrewder than [they, them], 10. For a brief time no one was so famous as [I, me]. 11. My lord, thy power wanes ; the king favors thy rival more than — [thou, thee]. 12. Though the queen prqtested, the statesman, stronger than [her, she], prevailed. 13. Sir, we are less worthy than [they, them] ; we ask that they be promoted rather than [we, us] ; honor them rather than [we, us], XXIV. Study Rules 33-38. Write the following sen- tences, filling each blank with one of the words or groups of words bracketed after the blank. State in parentheses after each sentence the construction of the inserted word or words. 1. She prepared a lunch for my brother and ' [I, me] to take with us. 2. All [us, we] fellows met to consider the question of [who, whom] should be sent. [What is the subject of '' should be sent " ? What is the object of the preposition "of"? See Substantive Clause in the Granmiatical Vocabulary.] 3. It is a question of veracity between [he, him] and [I, me.] 4. She did not refer to • is unjust to expect • [we, us] girls at all. 5. It [she and I ; her and me] to do all the work. 6. Henceforth all is over between you and APPENDIX A 179 [I, me]. 7. That was [I, me] . • [who, whom] "you heard last night. 8. It is not [us, we] who are to blame ; it is [they, them]. 9. I am at a loss [who, whom] to depend on. 10. Was this my old comrade ? I could not believe that this ragged beggar was [he, him]. 11. First he spoke of Jezebel and Athaliah ; [them, they] he said were types of deprav- ity. Then he considered Jael and Miriam ; [them, they] he apostrophized as patriots. 12. To you English- men as well as to [we Americans ; us Americans] his name is dear. 13. Hetherington and I thought it was necessary that the messengers chosen should be [us, we] rather than [them, they] who were secret trai- tors. 14. The cause so dear to you and [me, I] has failed. 15. All the responsibility rests on Jane and [I, me]. 10. He wanted [my father and I ; my father and me] to invest in a corporation managed by [he and his father ; him and his father]. 17. [him, he] and all his associates I repudiate. 18. A large estate was left to [she and her sister ; her and her sister]. 19. You ought not to be burdened with [he and his family ; him and his family]. 20. Do I know Ray- croft ? Why, I used to visit [he and his wife ; him and his wife] every Sunday. 21. The landlord was in- exorable with the poor widow ; he drove [she and her children ; her and her children] into the street. 22. Let [he that is without sin ; him that is with- out sin] cast the first stone. 23. [they that are neg- ligent ; them that are negligent] he admonishes ; [they that are faithful ; them that are faithful] are com« mended. XXV. Study Rule 4. Write the following sentences, fill- ing the blanks with adverbs : 1. Do it as as you can. 2. He managed it very . 3. She stitched much than I. 4. You'd better treat me than you treated him. 6. The house was furnished as as one could wish. XXVI. See Like in the Glossary. Complete the follow- ing sentences: 1. I wish I could run like . 2. If you find him engaged at his gymnastics, like . 3. She sat for a long time deep in thought, like . Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with as, as if^ or like : 4. Don't act a baby. 5. all his predecessors, he was despotic. 6. We never quarrel now we did when we were boys. 7. He was hanged, just a common spy. 8. He was hanged, just Adjec- tives mis* used for adverbs Misuse of like 180 APPENDIX A he had been a common spy. 9. He votes his father did. 10. She sings she had a cold. Shall and XXVII. Study Rules 46-50. Write the following sen- will tences, filling each blank in sentences 1-10 with shall or loill^ and each blank in sentences 11-20 with should or would. State in parentheses after each sentence why the auxiliaries you have inserted are correct. 1. I think I find the study easy. 2. I am the carpenter you engaged. my men begin work to-day ? 3. " you see Niagara on your way east?" *'No; I don't think I ." 4. " Oh Mr. Meyer, the singer I engaged has disappointed me. you sing for me to-night ? " "Yes, I sing for you." 5. "Hello, Meyer. you be busy to-night?" *' Yes ; I sing at Mrs. West's to-night." 6. I • probably fail in the examination. 7. I am very anxious. If no one assists me, I starve. But sell my library ? No ! I never do that. 8. "If you eat this rabbit, • you be kept awake all night ? ' by Jove, I eat it anyway." 9. Probably ; but If I miss another class, I be required to take an extra examination. 10. I probably get a cool reception there, but I go, whatever happens. 11. I not have sup- posed the price would be so high. 12. I have been surprised if he had failed. 13. Perceiving that I soon need a light, I determined that I - buy a lantern. • be censured if I did it. 14. I fully understood that ' 15. you have supposed that the city would grow so fast ? 16. We feared we get caught in the rain. 17. Since the car was so late, I knew 1 miss my class. 18. It was so warm that we thought we not need our overcoats. 19. you have known him if he had not introduced himself ? 20. Yes, even if he had not spoken, I think I have known him. Exercises chiefly in Sentence- Structure Reference XXVIII. Study Rules 55-61. Rewrite the following sen. of pro- tences, correcting faulty reference : 1. On coming home nouns from school, my brother found that Rover had fallen into the cistern. He was almost ready to sink. When he got him out, the water was running from him in streams and he was so exhausted that he could not stand. When he saw his condition, he feared he would die. 2. The nurse left some medicine, but Molly secretly resolved not to take it. When she made her next visit, she told her she thought she had greatly improved. 3. The directors offered to reward her liberally, but she begged them to give it to her father. APPENDIX A 181 4. Portia and her maid dressed like lawyers and went to court. She found that Antonio had forfeited the bond. 5. The essay on planets is short and witty. After stating a few thoughts regarding them, he makes a digression. 6. But truth will always come out. In this case it occurred in the following way. 7. When the next man came to bat and knocked the ball to shortstop, he threw it over the first baseman's head. 8. She next removes the furniture from the parlor and sweeps it. 9. She prepares the vegetables for dinner and has it ready when her husband returns. 10. Some parts of the story I found interesting, but this was offset by so much dry, uninteresting reading. The descrip- tions he gives of the different characters are interesting. 11. The cadets at West Point are appointed by the members of Congress. On graduating, he receives a commission in the army. 12. He attached the hose to the tank and flushed it about once a month. 13. The sugar beet is an easy vegeta- ble to grow ; in a good season, a farmer gets fifteen tons of them from each acre. 14. The dam is not water-tight, but allows it to seep through. XXIX. Study Rules 62-65, particularly Rules 63, 64. Complete the following sentences: 1. Arriving there late . . 2. Stepping upon the platform . 3. Check- ing his horse as he neared the two straying children . 4. Having thus accidentally disclosed her identity to the policeman . 6. Having heard that you are a skillful portrait painter . XXX. Study Rules 66-68. Complete the following sen- Dangling tences: 1. Without denying your statement . gerund 2. Upon questioning his sister as to the truth of the report phrases . 3. In removing the chimney of his lamp that evening . 4. Upon examining the letters that I found in the injured man's pocket . 5. After setting the vase in this very insecure position, naturally . XXXI. Study Rules 69, 70. Complete the following sen- tences : 1. When a mere boy (he was certainly no more than ten years old at the time), . 2. Although a very instructive book, . 3. While moving about in disguise among his subjects, . 4. If in doubt as to what college you had better attend, . 5. When en- gaged in this work, if any friends came to see him, . 6. While thoroughly in sympathy with the plans you have told me about, . XXXII. Study Rules 77, 79, 80, 81. Rewrite the follow- Sentence* \ng sentences, improving the arrangement ; make no changes order Dangling elliptical clauses 182 APPENDIX A except in the order of the members : 1. The top is a cylinder on the surface of which a number of strips one sixteenth of an inch thick and one inch above the surface, called knives, are placed. 2. These pulleys are connected with another set of pulleys of ten inch diameter at the lower part of the machine by belts. 3. He sometimes tried to discuss subjects that interested him with the Autocrat. 4. I judged that the fellow was a monk who had fled from the monastery by his gown and his air of trepidation. 5. He finally succeeded in drawing the spoon hook up close to the boat, on which he found a turtle. 6. Every one felt sure that Beiler had no chance of winning soon after he began to speak. 7. He tore up the tender letter which his mother had written him in a fit of peevish vexation. 8. Lamb playfully pretends to prove that the art of roasting pigs originated in China by an old manuscript. 9. The author here makes a digression proving that devil-fish actually exist and that they have been known to devour men, to make the story more real. 10. In a village on the AVisconsin River just above the point where it joins the Mississippi on a cold February afternoon I first saw the light of day. 11. There are two ways of chisel- ing at present in use among machinists that are equally effective. 12. The light causes a chemical action on the plate in the camera which is imperceptible to the eye. 13. The yacht is drawn up out of the water after every race on a small railway. 14. There was a pilot house just in front of the engine room which looked like a watchman's box. 15. He was taken out to the transport which wjis anchored off the coast in a row boat. 16. Keeping his op- ponent covered with his six-shooter, he collected all the money that was lying on the table in his hat. 17. How can a man write a theme when he has the problem of finding the equation of the common tangent to a hyperbola and an ellipse on his mind ? 18. lie adds the amounts of all checks received during the day on an adding machine. 19. I was able to save the motor car that had broken away from de- struction by a happy accident. 20. Sometimes you will see an alligator lying in the sunshine on the bank eight feet long. 21. Members will please inform the steward of their intention to dine at the club upon their arrival to insure good service. 22. We demand the suppression of the traffic in liquors to be used for beverages by every lawful means. Position of XXXIII. Study Rule 78. Rewrite the following sen- only, al- tences, putting the misplaced adverbs in the proper positions : most, and i. The manufacture of sugar is only profitable in a large ever factory. 2. I only saw him once after that. 3. Tlie office is only open in the forenoon. 4. I only need a few dollars. APPENDIX A 183 5. He only succeeded in stopping the horse after it had coUided with an electric car and demolished the buggy. 6. He had almost got to the top when tlie rope broke. 7. I never expect to see the like again. 8. Do you ever remem- ber to have seen the accused before ? XXXIV. Study Eule 85. Rewrite the following sen- tences, correcting the split infinitives : 1. A considerable period is required to properly heat the eggs. 2. The acid is allowed to slowly percolate. 3. The glare of the fire seemed to completely light the city. 4. He reefed his canvas in order to better weather the storm. 5. Because of the confusion he was able to easily make his escape. 6. She was seen to slowly and steadily sink into the quicksand. 7. Are you willing to in any way assist us? 8. It is ad- visable to always keep the tank fall. XXXV. Study Eule 112. Rewrite the following sen- tences, placing the correlative conjunctions in each before coordinate members : 1. It may either be read for pleasure or systematic study. 2. The bees had not only stung my brother, but my friend and me also. 3. I intend to assist him, both for the sake of his mother and himself. 4. Neither the fear of the king nor any one else retarded him. 5. I will neither give you money nor favor. 6. The crew was discouraged both on account of the prevalence of sickness and the bad weather. 7. Either he has not been here at all, or only for a few minutes. 8. They are neither per- mitted to read the newspapers, nor even old magazines. 9. He not only spoke all the principal languages of Europe, but of Asia also. 10. He could not be persuaded either by promises of money or promotion. 11. The trustees invite full investigation not only relative to the charges made but any other matters concerning the college. 12. The new truck can be used either for carrying a load up or down s^ .'rs. XXXVI. Study Rule 97. The coordination in the fol- lowing sentences is conspicuously illogical. Recast the sentences, making the grammatical relations correspond to the logical relations. 1. Mrs. Dane's Defense is a play in four acts and was written by Henry Arthur Jones. 2. The collapse was due to the undermining of the stratum and the vibrations caused by the cars had dislodged the walls. 3. The essay tells about chimney sweeps, and the author writes in his usual delightful style. 4. Alfalfa thrives in a high soil, which becomes too dry to nourish other plants, but alfalfa sends its roots down sometimes thirty feet for water. 6. A board fence surrounds the plant to keep stragglers from Split in- finitives Correla- tion 184 APPENDIX A Practice in securing variety of subordi- nation The so habit Parallel- ism wandering about the dangerous machinery, and besides many secret processes are used which the company does not wish to become known to outsiders. 6. He showed me some marbles which looked as if they had once been white but now they seemed to have been dropped into an ink bottle. 7. It undergoes here a process similar to the preceding one but the quantity of lime added is in this case smaller. XXXVII. Study the note under Rule 97. Recast the following sentences, using as many varieties of subordina- tion as possible : 1. The name of this bar is the whiffle tree and to it the traces are attached. 2. He ate his breakfast and then he went to his office. 3. It had a fine outlook and so we thought it would be a good camping ground. 4. It had not been watered for a week and it looked dry and wilted. 6. An electric bell is a form of motor and a motor is a machine for transforming electrical energy into power. 6. In the box is a battery and the poles of the battery are connected to binding posts. 7. The tube widens out at the end and is called the speaking trumpet. 8. The second tube is shorter than the first and is called the receiver. 9. I didn't want the paper at all, but I wanted to please the edi- tor and I subscribed. 10. He is quicker and more capable than his rivals and he is sure to get the best of them. 11. The foundry is a low brick building and projecting above the roof is a huge chimney. 12. Presently she met a lady and asked her the way to the Hall. 13. The material was brought to the nearest station by rail and it was drawTi to the mine by horses. 14. In the corner was a bureau and a mirror hung over it. XXXVIII. Study Rule 99. Recast the following sen- tences using as many varieties of subordination as possible : 1. She wished to make a good appearance so she borrowed a necklace. 2. He feared she would be corrupted by the court, so he kept her close at home. 3. This is a difficult piece of work so great care is necessary. 4. The cups did not match, so she sent them back. 5. He needed some little shoes as a model for his picture so his mother found for liim the shoes that he himself had first worn. 6. I felt very tired and jaded so I could not listen very attentively. 7. The stalks of the wheat must be bent back so a large reel like a paddle-wheel is provided. 8. He wished to show deference to the strong religious principles of his host so he attended mass on Sunday. XXXIX. Study Rule 111. Rewrite the following sen- tences, making parallel in form the members that perform similar functions: 1. Cheering was heard on the Box- APPENDIX A 185 burgh, Alabama, and on the Virginia. 2. Many remarks were heard from the crowd, some people asserting that the horse's leg was out of joint, others that it was broken, and there were othei-s who urged that the horse be shot at once. 3. He had created Belgium, saved Spain, and had rescued Turkey, 4. We were bent on seeing the exhibit and at the same time learn something of the metropolis. 5. The team- ster got us out of this plight by driving a few miles eastward to a small camp, secured a piece of iron, and with some difficulty fashioned a pin that served our purpose. 6. Some of us were acquainted with chemistry, dravdng, and with one of the modern languages. 7. Some of the men were allowed to take special work, such as to enter the track team, baseball, basketball team, or take crew work. 8. The chief ingredients are barley and hops, which are boiled to- gether and the resulting liquid fermented and carbonated. 9. A pattern is made, and liquid iron run into the mould. 10. He could have opened the door by running a knife along the crack and slide the catch up. 11. She telegraphed him to come home at once or serious consequences would ensue. XL. Study Rule 111 and the note under Rule 75. Make a diagram, like the one printed in that note, showing the parallelism of the following sentence : Tennyson's The Lady of Shalott is a narrative poem re- lating how a mysterious lady, living on an island in a river 'within view of the castle of Camelot, was enjoined, under penalty of a mortal curse, to weave incessantly at a loom and never to look toward Camelot ; how she continued for a while to observe the mystic decree, never even looking from the window, but observing the scenes near her island by the reflection of them in a mirror ; how, weary with the task and the restraint, she one day saw in her mirror the image of a splendid knight riding by the river, hastened, forgetting the prohibition, to the window, gazed on the knight, and in so doing saw the castle of Camelot ; and how, this act of dis- obedience bringing the curse upon her, she soon sickened and died. For practice in the use of parallelisms, write a one- sentence summary of each of the following poems and stories : Tennyson's Locksley Hall, Ulysses, The Talking Oak, A Dream of Fair Women, Lady Clare, The Captain ; Browning's Love Among the Buins, De Gustihus, Up at a Villa — Down in the City, Herve Riel, The Laboratory, A Portrait; Bret Harte's The Outcasts of Poker Flat, The Organ iza* tion of long sen- tences by means of parallel- 186 APPENDIX A LucTc of Boaring Camp; Hawthorne's David Swan, A HiU from the Town Pump, The Wedding Knell. Note. — Be careful not to make any of the sentences of this exercise compound sentences; remember: a single main subject and predicate as the basis of each sentence. Also, try to use as many kinds of parallelism as possible. For the parallel mem- bers of one sentence use participial phrases ; for those of another, use how clauses ; for those of another, use of phrases ; for those of another, use direct objects; and so on. False par- XLI. Study Rules 115, 116. Kewrite the following sen- allelism tences, correcting the false parallelism: 1. The barley is thus steeped, washed, and at the same time absorbs oxygen. 2. The Gulf Stream is 50 miles wide, 2000 feet deep, and flows 90 miles a day. [See, regarding the figures in the preceding sentence. Rule 272 a.] 3. He had curly black hair, dark blue eyes, and wore glasses. 4. Coal burns brightly, slowly, and throws out much heat. 5. The incu- bator must be thoroughly cleaned, ventilated, and the inside apparatus put into good order. 6. On the west side are the offices of the president, treasurer, auditor, and the draught- ing room. 7. He said that the Russian peasants were dull, unprogressive, and that farm machinery is almost unknown to them. 8. Every man must have a military suit, a gun, and must report promptly at four. 9. Hazlitt tells of his experience on the way to the fight, at the fight, and of his return home. 10. The new elephant is six years old, five feet high, and it may be stated incidentally that his railroad fare was $130. 11. The first few pages contain a brief account of the last commencement, new appointments, and the president's annual report is reprinted entire. Logical XLII. Study Rules 117 and 28 ; and see Subject, Cause, agreement and Beason in the Glossary. The following sentences are illogical. State briefly in what respect each one is illogical, and rewrite each one, correcting its defects. 1. I jumped off the car in the opposite direction from which it was going. 2. The efforts of the militia were as futile as the police had been. 3. The subject of the first paragraph tells liow the mail coaches carried the news of English victories. 4. The topic of the fifth paragraph is whore the author told a mother of the death of her son. 5. Discord means that sounds are lacking in harmony. 6. P'xclusiveness is when a person likes to remain aloof. 7. The outward appearance of an ordinary telephone consists of a box-like structure. 8. Aerial means to be moving in the air or flying. 9. The fact that caused this chemical change was due to the hot weather. 10. The topic of the essay deals with the value of a technical education. 11. The cause of the current is APPENDIX A 187 attributed to the continuous winds. 12. The only use to which the farm is now put is for pasturing sheep. 13. His aim in taking a college course is simply for general culture. 14. The reason I dislike the study is on account of the numerous statistics that must be learned. 15. Draughting as practiced nowadays is far different from the old method. 16. The material of drawing pencils is much finer than the ordinary commercial pencils. ''7. He was soon promoted to vice president of the company. 18. The style of architec- ture employed in this church resembles very closely an old cathedral. 19. The sugar beet is rapidly taking the place of cane sugar, and in the past few years has grown to be an extensive business. 20. The greatest fault I have against drill is the trouble of changing clothes. 21. The story tells of the breaking loose of a cannon on board a ship and a description of the weather at the time of the accident. 22. Why I should have an aversion to Saturday classes any more than any other day is due to habit. XLIII. Study Rule 121. The following sentences are incorrect. Correct and rewrite them. 1. I can't find it nowhere. 2. They didn't find no treasure. 3. There isn't no one here who knows. 4. I didn't see no fire ; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. XLIV. Study Rule 122. The following sentences are incorrect. Correct and rewrite them. 1. It will not take but a minute. 2. I didn't see but two men there. 3. I can't hardly believe it. 4. I did not feel hardly strong enough. 6. She couldn't stay only a week. 6. He said angrily that he wouldn't give only forty cencs. 7. You wouldn't scarcely believe the real story. 8. I hadn't scarcely passed by when the stone fell. Exercises chiefly in Spelling XLV. Study Rules 149, 150. Write the infinitive, the present participle, and the past participle of each of the following verbs {e.g.^ stop, stopping, stopped): rob, crib, stab, bed, shed, bud, beg, flog, sprig, rig, hem, ram, hum, plan, skin, shnn, pin, rip, drop, stop, grip, tip, equip, dip, whip, slip, scar, mar, debar, occur, demur, prefer, refer, confer, bat, pet, rot, flit, quit, regret, omit, com^nit, permit, admits repel, propel, compel, expel, impel. XLVI. Study Rules 149, 150. Write the infinitive and the present participle of each of the following verbs {e.g., sit, sitting) : bid, rid, shed, dig, run, begin, spin, swim, win, sit, set, bet, get, let, cut, hit, put, shut, split. Double negative Incorrect negation with hardly, etc. Doubling final con- sonants Doubling final con- sonants 188 APPENDIX A Dropping final e Dropping final e Final e re- tained Change of y to i: Plurals Change of y to i' Verbs Change of ie to y Plurals in 8 and es Present third sing- ulars in s and es Adverbs in lly XLVII. Study Rule 151. Write the following words, to- gether with the adjectives ending in able derived from them (e.g., love, lovable) : love, excise, believe, name, tame, sale, deplore, appease, use, forgive, live, shake. XLVIII. Study Rules 151, 152. Write the infinite and the present participle of each of the following verbs (e.g.^ place, placing) : place, grace, shade, recede, abide, oblige, bulge, strike, bake, take, come, home, shine, dine, arrange, slope, scrape, pore, scare, please, seize, lose, write, bite, procras- tinate, grate, hate, have, strive, rove^ rave, XLIX. Study *Rule 16H. Write each of the following words together with its derivative ending in ous {e.g., courage, courageous) : courage, advantage, outrage, um- brage. Write each of the following words together with its derivative ending in able (e.g., notice, noticeable) : notice, peace, manage, change. L. Study Rule 154. Write the singular and the plural of each of the following nouns {e.g., lady, ladies) : lady, body, buggy, lily, folly, dummy, ninny, company, harmony, copy, berry, library, century, country, courtesy, city, party, frivolity, valley, monkey, chimney, money, pulley, volley, kidney, trolley, donkey, galley. LT. Study Rule 155. Write the first and third persons, present indicative, and the first person past, of each of the following verbs {e.g., I cry, he cries, I cried) : c?-?/, Jly, fry, tiy, apply, supply, defy, deny, satisfy, classify, hurry, marry, carry, tarry, bury. LII. Study Rule 156. Write the infinitive and the pres- ent participle of each of the following verbs {e.g., lie, lying) : lie, die, tie, vie. LIU. Study Rule 157. Write the singular and the plural of each of the following nouns {e.g., bead, beads) : bead, road, leak, freak, wheel, pail, beam, seam, screen, steep, leap, paradox, hiss, hcAr, fair, repair, pass, glass, beet, boat, hoot, flash, crash, cow, row, crow, dish, box. LIV. Study Rule 158. Write the indicative present first and third persons singular of the following verbs (e g., refer, refers) : refer, deem, claim, gleam, disdai7i, feel, squeal, pass, rush, differ, assign, toss, gash, miss, fix, eat, txcist. LV. Write each of the following words, together with its derivative in ly {e.g., final, finally) : final, visual, actual, continual, principal, practical, casual, general, oral, orig- inal, occasional, special, partial. APPENDIX A 189 LVI. Write each of the following words together with its " Acci- derivative in ally {e.g., accident^ accidentally) : accident, dentally," incident, heroic, poetic, dramatic, prosaic, occasion. etc. The end- ings le and el LVII. Write the following words, observing that in the great majority the ending is le, only a few ending in el. Observe that in most of the words ending in el, the final syllable is preceded by v, m, or n. Able, amble, addle, axle, apple, Bible, babble, bramble, buckle, battle, bubble, bridle, baffle, cable, cradle,, coddle, crackle, candle, castle, dandle, dazzle, daxodle, double, dimidle, eagle, feeble, fable, fondle, fickle, gable, giggle, goggle, gamble, handle, huddle, ingle, icicle, juggle, jangle, jingle, ladle, marble, muddle, maple, middle, noble, nibble, ogle, paddle, poodle, people, quibble, riddle, rabble, rifle, ripple, stable, sable, sample, staple, subtle, saddle, sprinkle, sickle, table, tackle, title, topple, trestle, twinkle, wrinkle, wrestle, whistle, mantle (a garment). Bevel, drivel, gavel, gravel, hovel, level, navel, novel, ravel, revel, dishevel, shrivel, snivel, travel. Camel, enamel, trammel. Flannel, funnel, panel, tunnel. Babel, label, libel. Angel, vessel, chisel, nickel, mantel (a chimney-piece) . LVIII. Write the following adjectives, observing that in all, the ending is not ftill, but ful : useful, beautiful, careful, merciful, joyful, awful, skillful, hopeful, vengeful, mournful, cheerful, wonderful, delightful, LIX. Write the following words, observing that in all, the ending is not us, but ous : humorous, courageous, plente- ous, mischievous, simultaneous, miscellaneous, pretentious, luminous, ridiculous, grievous, glorious, bounteous, out- rageous, hideous, heinous, troublous, garrulous, bibulous. LX. Write the following words, observing that in all, the prefix is not all, but al : already, altogether, almost, also, LXI. Study Kule 159. Copy the following : Celia Celia. Celia CeZia Cefia Celia LXII. Write the following words, observing that in each, the prefix is not diss, but dis : dis-appear, dis-appoint", dis- grace, dis-close, dis-gorge, dis-honor, dis-band, dis-locate, dis-dain, dis-turb. LXIII. Write following words, observing that in each, Professor^ the prefix is not prof but pro : pro-fessor, pro-fession, pro- etc. receive helieve deceive relieve receipt belief deceit relief conceive conceit perceive The adjec- tive end- ing ful The adjec- tive end- ing ous The ad- verb pre- fix al Receive, believe, etc. Disappear and dis- appoint 190 APPENDIX A Precede^ proceed^ etc. Business Lose and loose Lead and led Too, to, and two fessional, pro-vide^ pro-found^ pro-voke., pro-tect^ pro-hation^ pro-nounce, pro-ceed, pro-gress. LXIV. Write the following words, observing the varia- tions in the spelling of the last syllable : supersede precede proceed {but procedure) recede exceed concede succeed intercede S:V. Write the following pairs of words happy happi-ness rosy rosi-uess fluffy flufla-ness crazy crazi-ness dizzy dizzi-ness lonely loneli-ness busy busi-ness LXVI. Lose is a verb ; loose is an adjective. Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with lose or loose : 1. The screw is — . 2. Don't it. 3. If it gets , you will it. 4. His coat is er than yours, but mine is the est of all. 6. By ing change, the •jointed traveler sneered, there's no dant^er of ing him. his 6. Turn him • LXVII. The principal parts of lead are lead, led, led. Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with lead or led: 1. He met me and me in. 2. They will us astray, as our friends were astray. 3. It was this act that to his success. 4. I was to think that this would to misfortune. 5. If she had asked me to , I should have . LXVIII. Too is an adverb; it means excessively (as ** He is too weak ") or also. To is a preposition. 7 wo is a number (=2). Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with too, to, or two: 1. It is weak • withstand winters. 2. He thought the men were harsh, and I thought so . 3. say that, is was — say a thing with meanmcjs. miles from home and was hungry wish dispute your statements. 6. 4. He . 6. I uncharitable ; it would be cruel Accept and except take one would be take - LXIX. See Except in the Glossary. Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with accept or except: 1. I would the offer, for my religious scruples. 2. He is the best pianist in Europe ; I do not even APPENDIX A 191 Liszt. 3. Most of the rebels were offered pardon and ed it ; but the leaders were ^ed from the offer. 4. He burned all the household goods, not ing even the heirlooms. 5. Why did you Charles from your -ed anyway. invitation ? He wouldn't have LXX. See Affect in the Glossary. Write the following Affect and sentences, filling the blanks with affect or effect: 1. That effect statement is true, but it does not the case. 2. The failure of the bank did not his equanimity. 3. The admonition of the dean had a good , 4. The generals ed a junction, but this action had no on the enemy. 5. His brooding ed his health. 6. The ut- most efforts of his physician could not a cure. LXXI. Study Rule 160 including the note. Write the Principal following sentences, filling the blanks with principal or andprm- principle : 1. The street runs north. 2. The ^^^^^ of the school was a man of strong s. 3. The involved is what I his s to use more than the interest ; kept intact. 5. His occupation was to master the -ly object to. 4. It was against the he -s of geometry. LXXII. Study Rule 160 including the note. Write ten sentences using principal correctly and ten using principle correctly. LXXIII. Regarding advice^ advise^ device^ devise, remem- ber the following formula : Nouns advice device Verbs advise devise -ed me, and I thought it was not enough. 8. The - Principal and prin- ciple Advice, advise f device, devise Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with advice or advise: 1. I you to buy. 2. He was ed not to take the lawyer's . 3. A message from his er brought important es. 4. He -able to foUow his Write the following sentences, filling the blanks with device or devise: 6. It is an ingenious , but can't we a better one ? 6. Many es were em- ployed. 7. He a machine ; but merely ing -es and desires of our hearts. Exercises chiefly in Punctuation LXXIV. Study Rules 24 and 230. Write the following sentences and groups of sentences correctly punctuated and 192 APPENDIX A The ** comma fault," and the confound- ing of clauses and sen- tences capitalized : 1. Well I must go now goodby I'll see you later. 2. She knew nothing of the world her one duty being the care of her father's house while her sister knew nothing of household affairs and cared nothing for the quiet pleasures of the fireside the opera the ballroom and the promenade absorbing all her interest. 3. As soon as we had finished our lunch we jumped down into the pit this was the entrance to the cave we had come to explore stoop- ing a little in order not to strike our heads on the low roof we entered the cave the boys leading the way with their candles. 4. If one says ''a black and white dog" one means one dog the coal of which is partly black and partly white while if one says ''a black and a white dog" one means two dogs. 5. I suppose I must go if I don't he'll be anxious. 6. A million dollars would yield an income quite sufficient for my needs and a little to spare thus disposing of the great problem of earning a living allowing me also to devote myself to the good of other people. 7. The postman then approached he would surely stop I thought. 8. Since this is the case I intend either to continue my course in engineering or else at the end of this year to drop this course and begin the study of law making a specialty in the latter case of economics and history. 9. It was delightful to have no classes to attend nothing to do but rest and read also to meet my old friends who had come back as I had to spend the vacation at home. 10. This belt runs very slowly and on it the press-man puts the papers they are then carried to the distributing room. 11. At three o'clock the second edi- tion is printed none of this edition is sold in the city. 12. The first papers of the third editionego to the news- dealers these take from fifty to two thousand copies each next the newsboys get their ten or twenty copies each. 13. Should the I'ailroad cut a man's land the man generally has the company agree to build a pass under the track or a roadway over it thus giving the owner easy access to the two fields separated by the track. 14. If that were my good fortune I should surely go next summer to England the country in which my father was born and which I have always longed to visit also to Switzerland for I am certain I should excel in mountain climbing. 15. After they have decided upon the route they send out two parties of surveyors the first party takes surface measurements and drives stakes with the measurements written on them this party also keeps a careful record of all the measure- ments marked on the stakes. 16. Grout is next thrown in and tamped and leveled this forms the body of the sidewalk. APPENDIX A 193 LXXV. Study Kule 224. Write the following sentences, Restric- designating after each one whether the relative clause is tive and restrictive or non-restrictive, and omitting or inserting T^on-re- commas accordingly : 1. He committed a serious error in strictive correcting which he had much trouble. 2. He inquired of ^^^^^®^ the man who had charge of the gate. 3. The old gentleman across the aisle who had been getting more and more ner- vous now stood up. 4. In my grandfather's day the coach attained a speed of fifteen miles an hour which was the highest speed it ever attained. 6. Some sparks fell among the straw which covered the floor. 6. The days that I spent there were happy ones. 7. Tom Briggs whom I used to know when I was a boy is now a famous engineer. 8. Don't give up the advantages that you have gained. 0. The man who won the race is a junior. 10. The Brooklyn bridge which spans the East River has lately been repaired. 11. Here they found a number of brass cannon which they destroyed. 12. The book which we are reading has more in it than the Ethiopian's book. 13. The Bible which is a col- lection of books written at different times contains a wide range of literature. 14. Philip spoke of the historical back- ground of the chapter which the man was reading. 15. The Nicene creed is a statement that was drawn up by the Council of Nicsea. 16. The locomotive that was used in 1840 looks ridiculously old-fashioned to-day. 17. There is no scientific theory which is not open to revision. 18. Not much is expected of those who have recently been initiated. LXXVI. Study Rule 231 &. Write the following sentences, Sentences properly punctuated : 1. These screws control the reticule p^ clauses hence they are called reticule screws. 2. I objected to the V^^^'^T , plan however since he was bent on it I yielded. 3. A hot ^^^^/[e%. fire is necessary therefore a strong draft must be provided, y^^g q^' 4. The wood had been injured by warping moreover the metal parts were badly rusted. 5. Sickness delayed their moving therefore we did not get the house so soon as we had planned. 6. What you say is true nevertheless the thing is impossible. 7. The meerschaum becomes finally saturated with nicotine then there is less danger of its breaking. 8. All the cracks were filled with tow thus the craft was made seaworthy. LXXVII. Study Rules 221-237. Write the following sen- tences, punctuating them correctly. After each mark of punctuation, write within brackets the number of the rule in accordance with which the mark is used. 1. On the south side for about fifty feet in it is divided into two stories. General exercise in punctu- ation 194 APPENDIX A 2. It will never rank high as an intercollegiate game for the students lind greater enjoyment in a contest between teams. 3. Pirst of all let me say do not come here unless you have plenty of money for expenses are high. 4. I advise you however to investigate for yourself. 6. Ruling-pens like any other sharp instrument become dull with use. 6. When the instruments are laid away especially if they are not to be used for some time the compasses should be left open for otherwise they will lose their spring. 7. The better the health of the men is the more they can accomplish. 8. The benefit does not lie only in the development of individual students but it lies also in the good done to the college as a whole. 9. The report will spread to remote villages and people in the backwoods will be induced to seek thecollege. 10. The yard is bordered on the west side by a row of pine trees and other trees and shrubs are planted about the lawn. 11. Along the east side are a number of plum trees and sev- eral flower beds dot the lawn near by. 12. This statement was made to Mr. A. E. Storey chairman of the committee. 13. If our laws are not what they should be it is time they were amended. 14. While we were eating a child the son of one of the natives approached. 15. Some were armed with bolos but an order was given that no one should fire. 16. After the ship is in the upper gate of the lock is closed. 17. Bishop of Beauvais thy victim died in Are. 18. I slept very late slept in fact until noon. 19. The back of the table its square corners its size its heaviness these are features I did not perceive. 20. At the seance the following incident occurred a gauze robed figure gliding as it seemed from be- hind a screen said she was the spirit of my sister and fell on my neck. 21. This phenomenon has received a recognized name among alienists namely aphasia. 22. The great dif- ference in fact between the two kinds of thinking is this that empirical thinking is reproductive but reasoning is produc- tive. 23. It shone by its own light a strange thing to see. 24. We think that the premises of both controversialists were unsound that on these premises Addison reasoned well and Steele ill and that consequently Addison brought out a false conclusion while Steele blundered upon the truth. 25. It was due to the great satirist who alone knew how to use ridicule without abusing it who without inflicting a wound effected a great social reform who reconciled wit and virtue after a long and disastrous separation daring which wit had been led astray by profligacy and virtue by fanaticism. 26. The pamphlet contains seventy-two pages and much information concerning the work of the past year is furnished within this space much more than was given to APPENDIX A 195 the public in the smaller publications of 1901 1902 and 1903. 27. The state's attorney who has been indefatigable in the effort to obtain evidence against Magill the detective on the case and the special grand jurymen are all puzzled, LX XVIII. Study Rule 278. Write the following sen- Capitals tences, filling the blanks with English^ French^ German^ Latin, Greek, Dutch, Indian, or Spanish: 1. In the battle the captain met a corporal. 2. Some and books entertained him, while he drank . wine and smoked a pipe. 3. The ships were destroyed by the • -, assisted by their - allies. Study Rule 275. Write a composition about a calendar, using the names of all the days of the week, all the months, and the four seasons. LXXIX. Write the following passage, correctly punctu- ating, capitalizing, and paragraphing it : The principal peculiarity of professor collins was absent-mindedness this often led him to mislay or lose articles necessary to his business such as books lecture notes etc one day as he and another professor were walking down a street in the village in which the college was situated professor collins suddenly stopped looked perplexed and said why my notes for to-day's lecture have disappeared oh that's all right said his friend smiling give an impromptu lecture the subject is too com- plicated for that answered professor collins truly this is serious if I don't find those notes soon I must disappoint my class of forty law students what is that in your hand asked his friend a package I intended to mail at that last post-box was the answer it contains some copies of the law review my notes were in a separate envelope of about the same size wait for me a minute said the other professor with a know- ing look he went to the post-box which they had passed a minute before and took from the top of it a large envelope this he brought to professor collins saying don't lose these necessary things again professor collins delighted at being relieved from the anxiety which he had l3een suffering seized the package and said gratefully as Longfellow puts it thanks thanks to thee my worthy friend oh never fear I'll not lose them again at least not to-day. General exercise in spelling, punctuat- ing, capi- talizing, italicizing, and para- graphing APPENDIX B A Grammatical Vocabulary explaining Grammatical and Other Technical Terms used in this Book Absolute. A substantive with a modifier (usually a participle) at- tached to a predication but having no syntactic relation to any noun or verb in the predication is called an absolute substantive. An absolute substantive and its modifier are together called an absolute phrase. The italicized part of the following sentence is an absolute phrase : '•'•The ivi7id being favorable^ they embarked." For other examples see Rules 132 a and 132 b. Active voice. See Voice. Adjective. A word used to modify or limit the meaning of a substan- tive ; e.g.^ blacky human, old, beautiful, metallic, dry. Adjective clause. A clause used to modify a substantive in the manner of an adjective; e.g., ''The vhin that fell yesterday wiia a bless- ing" (the italicized clause modifies the noun "rain"); "The house where he used to live is vacant" (the italicized clause modifies the noun " house ") ; " There was once a city 07i the out- skirts of which lay a pestilential morass ^^ (the italicized clause modifies the noun "city"). Adjective clauses are often called relative clauses. Adjunct. Modifiers and predicate substantives or predicate adjectives have the general name of adjuncts. A modifier is said to be an adjunct of the sentence-member it modifies ; a predicate sub- stantive or adjective is said to be an adjunct of the verb it com- pletes. Adverb. A word used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; e.g., slowly, politely, accurately, very, too, then, up, down, out. Adverbial clause. A clause used to modify an adjective, an adverb, or a verb ; e.g., " He is greater than his father was " (the italicized clause modifies the adjective "greater"); "He walked faster than I did " (the italicized clause modifies the adverb "faster"); " I will come if my salary is paid when it is due" (the clause "if. . .paid" modifies the verb "will come"; the clause **when. . .due" modifies the verb "is paid"). 196 APPENDIX B 197 Adverbial substantive. A substantive used to limit adverbially an adjective, an adverb, or a verb; e.g.^ "It is worth ten cents''^ (*'ten cents" limits the adjective "worth"); "He walked two miles farther " (" two miles " limits the adverb " farther"); " He walked two miles (" two miles " limits " walked" adverb- ially). Antecedent. The word, as used in this book, means the substantive to which any pronoun refers. In the sentence "He who runs, may read," "he" is the antecedent of " who." In the sentence " He picked up a stone and threw it," " stone " is the antecedent of "it." Anticlimax. See Climax. Appositive. A substantive attached to another substantive and denot- ing the same person or thing by a different name is called an ap- positive, or is said to be in apposition with the substantive modified. In the sentence "Edward the king is enjoying his. favorite sport, — yachting," "king" is in apposition with "Ed- ward," and "yachting" is in apposition with "sport." Article. The word the is called the definite article ; the word a ox an is- called the indefinite article. Auxiliary. The verbs 6e, have^ do., shall, will, may, can, must, and ought, with their inflectional forms (e.g., was, am, did, should^ might, could, etc.) when they assist in forming the voices, modes, and tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliaries. The italicized words following are auxiliaries : " Have you gone? " " I didnot see," " He /ias not been heard," "I should be grieved if it was broken." Cardinal number. The words one, tioo, three, and the corresponding words for other numbers are cardinal numbers ; the words first., second, third, etc., are ordinal numbers. Case. The different forms that a substantive takes when it stands in different syntactic relations are called cases. The form or pair of forms (singular and plural) that a substantive takes when it is the subject of a finite verb is called the nominative case ; the form or pair of forms that it takes when it modifies another sub- stantive by indicating a possessor is called the possessive case; the form or pair of forms that it takes when it is the object of a verb or a preposition is called the objective case. The three cases of typical nouns and of the principal pronouns that are inflected are shown in the tables of declension under Substan- tive. It will be observed that in the nouns the nominative and objective cases are identical, but that in the pronouns they are (with the exception of the nominative and objective singular of it) distinct. 198 APPENDIX B Causal conjunction. A conjunction that introduces a statement of cause or reason; e.g.^ for (coordinating); because and since (subordinating). Clause. A group of words composed of a subject and a predicate and combined witli another group of words likewise composed. In the sentence (a) " When I awake, I am still with thee," the two groups of words separated by the comma are clauses. A clause that plays the part of a constituent element (a subject, a predi- cate substantive, a modifier, etc.) in the clause with which it is combined is a dependent or subordinate clause (see Substan- tive clause, Adjective clause and Adverbial clause). A clause that does not form a constituent part of another, but makes an independent assertion, is a principal clause. The italicized groups of words in the following sentences are principal clauses: (h) " If the rope breaks, he is lost.'''' (c) " The hell sounded, and every one ro.se." A principal clause on which a subordinate clause depends is called a governing clause; e.^^., the principal clause in sentence 6, above. Clauses that play the same part in a sentence, whether they are alike principal or alike dependent, are called coordinate clauses. See, e.g.^ the two principal clauses in sentence c, above ; and the two dependent clauses in the fol- lowing sentence -.{d) " I'hough lam tired, and though my shoes pinch, I am going on." Climax. A series of assertions or coordinate sentence-elements so ar- ranged that each one is stronger or more impressive than the preceding one. See, e.g., the sentences marked Improved under •Rule 89. A series of assertions or sentence-elements decreasing in strength or impressiveness is an anticlimax. See, e.g., the sentences marked Weak under Rule 89. Common noun. A noun used to designate any member of a class ; e.g.^ man, ruler, country, city, street, building. A noun used to dis- tinguish an individual member of a class from other members is a proper noun ; e.g.., John, Anderson, Ccesar, Germany, Boston, Broadway, Acropolis. A proper name is an appellation of any kind (including proper nouns) used to distinguish an individual person or thing ; e.g., Henry the Second (or Hem'y II.), Bevolu- tionary War, First National Bank. Democratic Party, Second Presbyterian Church, Domesday Book, Forty-first Street, Ohio liiver, Niagara Falls, Edgar County, Calegonian Literary So- ciety, Sumner High School, Columbia College, Morningside Park. Comparative. See Comparison. Comparison. When an adjective or an adverb is in the inflectional form that simply designates a quality or manner without indi- cating the degree in which that quality or manner is present, it APPENDIX B 199 is said to be in the positive degree ; this form is, with a few ex- ceptions, the shortest form the word can have, — e.g.^ sweet,, strong^ fast, hard. An adjective or an adverb is said to be in the comparative degree (1) when it is in the form which indi- cates that the quality or manner is present in a greater measure relatively to some standard (i.e., with a few exceptions, the form ending in er ; as sweeter, stronger, faster, harder) y or (2) when its positive form is combined with more {e.g., more sweet, more strong ^ more rapidly, more laboriously). An ad- jective or an adverb is in the superlative degree (1) when it is in the inflectional form ending in st {e.g., sweetest, strongest, mosty best), or (2) when its positive form is combined with 7nost {e.g., most sweet, most rapidly). The formation of the three degrees of an adjective or an adverb is called comparison. Complex sentence. A sentence that contains a dependent clause* See, e.g., sentences a, b, and d under Clause. Compound sentence. Two or more principal clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions ; or two or more principal clauses not connected by conjunctions, but written with such punctuation and capitalization, or spoken with such slight pauses between them, as will indicate that they are combined. See, e.g., sen- tence c under Clause, and the following sentences: (a) "I came, I saw, I conquered." {b) "Must I obey you? must I crouch before you ? " Conditional. See Mode. Conjunction. A word used to connect one word with another or one group with another; e.g., and, if for. Conjunctions may be distinguished from prepositions {q.v.) by the following fact : Any conjunction can be used to connect one predication with another {e.g., "/ opened the door when he rapped ^^), — an office which a preposition cannot perform. ; one of the two- elements connected by a preposition must always be a sub- stantive {e.g., '''■ He fell into the cold, water ''^). — Coordinating conjunctions are tiiose which, when they join two predications, make those, predications of equal rank, — neither dependent on the other; e.g., " / called and they came.^^ The principal coordinating conjunctions are the simple conjunctions, and, but, or, nor, neither, and/o?*; the correlative conjunctions, both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor ; and the conjunctive ad- verbs, so, also, therefore, hence, however, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, thus, then, still, and yet. — Subordinating conjunctions are those which, when they join two predications make one of those predications subordinate to the other; e.g., " They came when I called.^'' The principal subordinating conjunctions are if, though, whether, lest, unless, than, aSy that, because, since, when, ichile, after, whereas, provided. 200 APPENDIX B Conjunctive adverbs. Words that are used sometimes as adverbs and sometimes as conjunctives. See Conjunction. Consonant. See Vowel. Construction. The grammatical office performed by any word in a given sentence is called the construction of that word. For ex- ample, in the sentence "He walks fast,'' the construction of "he" is that of subject of "walks"; the construction of "walks" is that of predicate of " he " ; the construction of "fast " is that of adverbial modifier of " walks." Coordinate. Sentence-elements that are in the same construction within a sentence are coordinate. In the sentence " He and she talked long and earnestly and at last agreed," "he" and " she," "talked" and " agreed," " long" and " earnestly " are coordinate. Coordinate clause. See Clause. Coordinating conjunction. See Conjunction. Copula. The verb to 6e, or any of its forms. Correlative conjunctions. Conjunctions that are used in pairs; e.g.^ both . . . and^ either . , . or, neither . . , nor, whether . . . or. Declension. See Inflection. Demonstrative adjectives. The words this and these, that and those, when they are used as adjectives; e.g., "this man." "those men." Demonstrative pronouns. The words this and these, that and those when thev are used as substantives; e.^.,"That is not true," " What is*' this ? " Dependent clause. See Clause. Direct address. Discourse in the second person (see Person) ; e.g., "Sir, I salute you." The expression a substantive used in direct address means a substantive that indicates to whom the discourse is addressed ; e.g., " Sir" in the foregoing example. Direct question. See Direct quotation. Direct quotation (often called direct discourse). Quotation of dis- course exactly as it was spoken or written ; e.g., He said " / loill help.^^ Statement of the substance of quoted discourse without the use of the exact words is indirect quotation (or indirect dis- course) ; e.g.. He said that he loouJd help. A question in- directly quoted is called an indirect question ; e.g., He asked whether Iicould help. A question directly quoted, or not quoted but directly asked, is a direct question ; e.g., Will you help? APPENDIX B 201 Factitive adjective. An adjective, when it denotes a quality or state produced by the action of a verb, is called a factitive adjective; e.g., "It will make you strong.''^ Figure of speech. Certain devices of expression that may be used for making discourse interesting, effective, or beautiful are called figures of speech ; others are not included under this term. Which of them are included cannot be stated briefly, for the application of the term is arbitrary, being based simply on cus- tom and not on any common peculiarity of the devices included. Of the devices mentioned in this book, the following are figures of speech : simile, metaphor, climax, irony (see these words in this vocabulary), and the use of the historical present (tech- nically called vision). Finite. See Mode. Future tense. See Tense. Future-perfect tense. See Tense. Gerund. A verb-form ending in ing is called a gerund when it is used as a noun. When such a form is used as an adjective, it is called a participle. In the sentence, '' Coming close, he whis- pered," *' coming" is used as an adjective modifying "he" and is therefore a participle. In the sentence " His coming was ex- pected," "coming" is used as a noun, the subject of "was expected," and is therefore a gerund. A gerund may fulfill the principal offices of a noun. It may be the subject of a verb {e.g., "Fishing is tiresome") ; the object of a verb (e.g., " I hate fishing") ; the object of a preposition (e.g., "I have an aversion to fishing"); a predicate noun (e.^., "What I most detest is fishing") ; an appositive (e.g., "That detestable amuse- ment, fishing, I cannot endure"); or an absolute noun (e.g.^ " Fishing being my aversion, let us not fish"). Gerund phrase. See Phrase. Govern. The relation between a verb and its object may be stated either by saying that the substantive is the object of the verb, or by saying that the verb governs the substantive. Likewise the rela- tion between a preposition and its object may be stated by saying that the preposition governs the substantive. A clause, whether principal or subordinate, on which another clause depends, is said to govern the latter clause. In the sentence " She wept when she saw the injury that had been done," the clause "she wept" governs the clause " when she saw the injury," and the latter clause governs the clause " that had been done." Grammar. The science that deals with (1) the classification of words with reference to the functions they perform in discourse (see 202 APPENDIX B Parts of speech) ; (2) the inflection of words (see Inflection) ; and (3) the relations that words bear to one another in discourse (see Syntax). Grammar is distinguished from rhetoric by the following fact : The statements comprising the science of gram^ mar tell us how words may be inflected, used singly, and combined. The statements comprising the science of rhetoric tell us how words should be used and combined in order to make discourse clear and effective. Indefinite pronoun. The words each^ either^ neither^ some, any, many, few, all, both, one, none, aught, naught, somebody, something, somewhat, anybody, anything, everybody, everything, nobody, and nothing, when they are used as substantives, are called in- definite pronouns. Indicative. The set of inflectional forms and of combinations with aux- iliary verbs that a speaker uses when he conceives the action of a verb as a fact, is not the same as the set he uses when he conceives the action as doubtful. Compare, for example, the sentences " He is a coward" and "If he be a coward, he should be dis- missed." The former set is called the indicative mode of a verb; the latter the subjunctive mode. The indicative and subjunctive forms of a typical verb are shown on pages 213 ff. Indirect question. See Direct quotation. Indirect quotation. See Direct quotation. Infinitive. That inflectional form of a verb which may be combined with to (as in the sentences " To err is human," " I wish to go," ''He refused to move," "It is impossible to see") is called an infinitive when it is used in one of the following ways : (1) in combination with to, as illustrated above ; (2) in combination with an auxiliary verb {e.g., " I will go," " I can see ") ; (3) as the predicate of a substantive, the whole predication being the object of another verb {e.g., "It made me gasp," "I saw him smile"); (4) in one of the constructions of a substantive (^.^., "Do you dare go in?" in which "go" is the object of "dare"). The word to, when it is combined with an infinitive is not a preposition ; it is merely a sort of prefix, serving no grammatical purpose except to show that the verb-form following is an infinitive. For this reason it is called the sign of the infinitive or the infinitive-sign. The infinitive-sign is not a necessary part of the infinitive. In the sentences " I cannot see," " I dare go," " Will you come ? " "I heard the clock strike," " You had better speak," the words "see," "go," "come," "strike," and " speak" are infinitives, though the infinitive-sign does not accom- pany them. In mentioning an infinitive, the infinitive-sign may with equal correctness be put before the infinitive or be omitted ; thus we may say either " The verbs to stand and to sit are intransi- APPENDIX B 203 tive," or "The verbs stand and siY are intransitive." — The use of infinitives in various substantive constructions is an important matter for the student to understand. An infinitive may be used (1) as the subject of a verb {e.g.^ " To read history is in- structive") ; (2) as the object of a verb (e.^., "I like to read history") ; (3) as a predicate noun {e.g.^ *'An instructive occu- pation is to read history"); (4) as an appositive {e.g.^ "It is instructive to read history"); (5) as an absolute noun {e.g.^ "To read history being so instructive, let us read it ") ; (6) as an adverbial noun {e.g., " History is instructive to read"). Infinitive-sign. See Infinitive. Inflection. Change in the form of a word to show variation of meaning (as with inflections of number, comparison, and tense), or to show the relation of a word to another word (as with the inflec- tions of case and person). The inflection of substantives is called. declension, that of adjectives and adverbs comparison (g.v.)? ^^^^ that of verbs conjugation. The various forms that a word re- ceives in inflection are its inflectional forms ; e.g., love, lovest, loveth, loved, lovedst, and loving are the inflectional forms of the verb to love; man, man''s, men, men''s, are the inflectional forms of the noun man; see also the tables under Substantive and opposite Verb. Intensive. The pronouns myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself our- selves, yourselves, yourself themselves, and oneself when they are used in apposition, are called intensives {e.g., "I myself will do it," "He saw the bishop himself"). When they are used as the object of -a verb and designate the same person or thing as the subject of that verb, they are called reflexives {e.g., " I hurt myself," " They benefit themselves "). Interjection. A word that expresses emotion and that has no syntactic relations with other words; e.g., oh, alas, ha, ah, hello, hurrah^ huzza. Interrogative pronoun. The words who, what, which, and whether (archaic), when they are used as substantives and in an interrog- ative sense {e.g., "Who are you?" "What do you want?" "Which do you choose?" "Whether of the twain is justi- fied?"), are called interrogative pronouns. What and which, when they are used as adjectives and in an interrogative sense {e.g., " What song did you sing?" "Which book do you choose ?"), are called interrogative adjectives. Intransitive. See Transitive. Irony. The suggestion of a thought or fact by an expression which, if taken literally, would convey the opposite of what is meant. " You are very kind," spoken in a certain tone to a bully who 204 APPENDIX B has been abusing the speaker, is irony. In the expression ' ' ar- senic, corrosive sublimate, prussic acid, and other mild and harmless drugs " the italicized words are ironical. — Sarcasm, as applied to discourse, is contemptuous, taunting, or intentionally irritating discourse. Sarcasm may or may not be ironical, and irony may or may not be sarcastic. Limit. The object of a verb is said to limit the verb ; the object of a preposition is said to limit the preposition ; and any modifier is said to limit the element it modifies. Metaphor. The denoting of a person or thing or the stating of a thought or fact by the use of an expression which, if taken literally, would designate not what is meant but something resembling it, is called metaphor, or is said to be metaphorical ; e.g.^ (a) " These words cut me to the heart." A single word or expression used meta- phorically is said to be a metaphor; e.g., the word cut in ex- ample a and the italicized words in the following sentences are metaphors: (&) "He poured out a flood of eloquence." (c) " That is a knotty problem." — An explicit statement that a per- son or thing or fact is like another is a simile ; e.g., (d)" The en- emy are fleeing like frightened rabbits." — Metaphor and simile both show resemblance, — metaphor by suggestion or implication, simile by explicit statement (usually by the use of like, as, seem, or some other such word). For this reason any metaphor may be changed to a simile, and vice versa. The metaphors in a, by and c, above, may be changed to similes thus : (a) " On hearing these words, I felt as if I had been cut to the heart." (b) " Elo- quence seemed to pour like a flood from his lips." (c) "It is as difficult to deal with that problem as it is to saw a knotty log." And the simile in example d may be changed to a metaphor thus: ((?) " The enemy are fleeing — the frightened rabbits 1 " Mode. A mode of a verb is that set of inflectional forms and verb- phrases which a speaker uses to represent the action of the verb in a certain mode (i.e., manner). The set which he uses to rep- resent the action as a fact is the indicative mode; that which he uses to represent the action as doubtful, the subjunctive mode ; that which he uses to represent the action as conditioned on something, the conditional mode ; that which he uses to represent the action as permitted or possible, the potential mode ; tliat which he uses to represent the action as obligatory, the obligative mode; that which he uses in giving a command, the imperative mode ; that which he uses when he employs the verb as a sub- stantive, the infinitive mode (the forms constituting this mode are called some infinitives and others gerunds) ; that which he uses when he employs the verb as an adjective, the participial mode (the forms constituting this mode are called participles). The indic- ative, subjunctive, conditional, potential, obligative, and impera* APPENDIX B 205 tive modes are called finite modes ; the others, non-finite modes. (See also Indicative, Infinitive, Gerund, and Participle.) The different modes of a typical verb are shown on pages 213 ff.i Modifier. See Modify. Modify. A word which, by being combined in discourse with another word or expression, is made to mean something different from what it would mean if it stood alone, is said to be modified by that other word or expression. Thus, the meaning of the sen- tence ''I dislike oranges" is changed if we insert sour, so that the sentence reads "I dislike sour oranges" ; it is changed be- cause " sour oranges " means something different from ^'oranges" ; *'sour" is therefore said to modify (i.e., change) ''oranges." Likewise " many men " and " few men " mean something differ- ent from " men " ; "many " and "few" modify ''men." "Call softly" means something different from "call"; "softly" modifies "call." "I hate women who use slang" means some- thing different from " I hate women " ; *' who use slang " modi- fies "women." A word or expression which thus changes the meaning of another word is called a modifier. — The modifiers of substantives are adjectives (including participles), adjective phrases, adjective clauses, appositives, and substantives in the possessive case. The modifiers of adjectives, verbs, and adverbs are adverbs, adverb-phrases, adverbial clauses, and adverbial sub- stantives. Vocatives and absolute phrases may be considered modifiers of predications. Monosyllabic. See Monosyllable. Monosyllable. A word of one syllable {e.g.^ word^ one, stop^ strength) is said to be a monosyllable, or to be monosyllabic. Nominative. See Case. Noun. See Substantive. Number. When a substantive is in an inflectional form which shows that one person or thing is designated (^e.g.^ hoy, boy'*s), it is said to be in the singular number ; when in an inflectional form which shows that more than one person or thing are designated (e.g., hoys^ hoys'') it is said to be in the plural number. The forms constituting the singular and plural numbers of typical nouns and of the principal inflected pronouns are shown in the ta- 1 The classification of certain verb-phrases as the conditional mode, the potential mode, and the obligative mode has been adopted here and in the paradigm on pp. 213 ff., upon considerations which seem to me to out- weigh the objections that may properly be made on philological grounds. These considerations are stated in Whitney's Essentials of English Gram- mar, pp. 120 ff., particularly 126; and MacEwan's The Essentials of t)\^ English Sentence^ p. 53. 206 APPENDIX B bles under Substantive. When a verb is in an inflectional form properly used with a singular subject (e g.^ am, ivas, takes, goest)y the verb is said to be in the singular number ; when in a form properly used with a plural subject (e.g., are, were, take, go), it is said to be in the plural number. (See pages 213 ff.) Object. A substantive used in connection with a verb and designating the person or thing upon whom or which the action of the verb is represented as taking effect is called the object of the verb. In the following sentences the italicized words are the objects of the respective verbs: "I built a house,'''* "I wrote a letter,^'' *' Whom do you wish ? " A substantive that designates the person or thing directly affected by the action of a verb (as the objects in the foregoing examples do) is called a direct object ; one that designates the person or thing indirectly affected is called an indirect object ; e.g., the italicized words in the sentences follow- ing: "I built my wife a house," "I wrote him a letter." — Regarding the object of a preposition, see Preposition. Objective. See Case. Part of speech. A part of speech is a body of words all of which per- form the same function in discourse. The parts of speech generally recognized by grammarians, as the classes into which all words in the English language are divided, are eight in number ; viz.., nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, cou' junctions, and interjections. Participle. The word participle as ordinarily used means a verb-form like moving or moved, when that form is used with the value of an adjective, as in "We are moving today, "The piano has been moved." For further information, see Gerund, Mode, and Verb. Passive. See Voice. Past tense. See Tense. Past-perfect. See Tense. Perfect. See Tense. Person. The words I (with its inflectional forms, — me. we, etc. ; see the tables under Substantive), myself, ourselves, and the relative loho, when its antecedent is one of the foregoing words, are called pronouns of the first person. The words thou (with its inflec- tional forms, — thee, you, etc.; see Substa.ntiye), thyself, yottr- self, yourselves, and the relative who, when its antecedent is one of the foregoing words, are called pronouns of the second person. The relative who, when used otherwise than as above mentioned, all other pronouns than those above mentioned, and all nouns, are APPENDIX B 207 said to belong to the third person. — A verb-form or verb-phrase that may correctly be used with a subject in the first person is said to belong to the first person of the verb (e.^., am, are hound) ; one that may correctly be used with a subject in the second per- son is said to belong to the second person of the verb {e.g. , art^ hast gone) ; one that may correctly be used with a subject in the third person is said to belong to the third person of the verb (e.^., IS, does, has gone). (See pages 213 ff.) — Discourse is said to be in the first person when the speaker designates himself by pronouns of the first person (e.g., the Twenty-third Psalm) ; in the second person when the speaker addresses some person or thing, using pronouns of the second person (e.g., the Lord's Prayer); in the third person when neither pronouns of the first person nor pronouns of the second person are used (e.g., the first two letters on page 136). Personal pronouns. The words /, thou, he, she, and it, together with their inflectional forms (see the tables under Substantive) are called personal pronouns. Phrase. The term phrase is often used to mean any short group of words ; as "the slang phrase 'That's hard fines.' " But as the term is used in grammar, a phrase is a group of words not con- stituting or containing a predication. A verb-phrase is a combina- tion of a principal verb and one or more au^^iliaries that is analogous to a single inflectional form (e.g., has gone, shall have done). A preposition-phrase is a combination of words analogous to a single preposition (e.g., in regard to, as for). An adjective- phrase is a phrase used to modify a substantive (e.g., " A machine of great value "). An adverb-phrase is a phrase vised analogously to an adverb (e.g., " He fell into the icater^''). Any phrase con- sisting of a preposition and its object is a prepositional phrase (a term not to be confused with preposition-phrase) ; e.g., the ad- jective and adverb phrases above quoted are prepositional phrases. A participial phrase is a phrase consisting of a participle and its adjuncts (e.g., ''^Looking to the north, I saw the lake"). A gerund-phrase is a prepositional phrase in which the preposi- tion governs a gerund (e.g., in talking, instead of shooting). Concerning absolute phrases, see Absolute. Plural. See Number. Possessive adjective. The words my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, and whose are called pos- sessive adjectives, or possessives, as well as inflectional forms ol the personal pronouns. Possessive case. See Case. Predicate. See Subject. 208 APPENDIX B Predicate adjective. See Predicate substantive. Predicate complement. See Predicate substantive. Predicate substantive. A substantive designating what a verb asserts a person or thing to be, is a predicate substantive (e.g.^ " He is a carpe?i^er," " These are strawberries''^). An adjective desig- nating a quality which a verb asserts belongs to a person or thing is a predicate adjective (e.g.^ "He is skillful,''^ "These berries are sweet ''^). A predicate substantive, or a predicate adjective, or a phrase or clause used as the one or the other, is said to be the predicate complement of the verb it completes. Predication. Any group of words consisting of a single subject and predicate, whether a simple sentence or a clause. Preposition. A word used to show the relation of a substantive to another word ; e.g.., in, o?i, into, toward, from, for, against, of between, with, without, within, before, behind, under, over, above, among, at, by, around, about, through, throughout, beyond, across, along, beside. A preposition always requires to complete its meaning a substantive, with which it combines into what is felt to be a unit of expression ; e.g., "in the water," "into the house," "among the leaves," "behind the house." This fact distinguishes prepositions from adverbs, which do not require a substantive to complete them; e.g., "Go out," "Come in," "Please walk before." (I7i, before, on, for, but, across, and many other English words belong each one to several parts of speech ; there is a preposition across and an adverb aci'oss, a preposition for and a conjunction for, etc.) For the distinction between prepositions and conjunctions, see Conjunction. The substantive combined with a preposition in the manner illustrated above is called the object of the preposition. Preposition-phrase. See Phrase. Prepositional phrase. See Phrase. Present. See Tense. Principal clause. See Clause. Principal parts. The principal parts of any verb are (1) the present infinitive, (2) the past first singular, and (3) the past participle (see Verb); e.g., flee, fled, fled; choose, chose, chosen; love, loved, loved; set, set, set. Principal verb. A verb not used as an auxiliary, including the aux- iliaries themselves when they are used independently (e.^., "1 have a boat," " He did wonders "). Pronoun. See Substantive. APPENDIX B 209 Proper name. See Common noun. Proper noun. See Common noun. Relative adjectives. See Relative pronoun. Relative clause. See Adjective clause. Relative pronoun. The words that, who, what, which, ivhoever, whatever, and whichever, when they are used as substantives and in such a way that the clauses in which they stand are made adjective clauses (q.v.), are called relative pronouns. The words what, which, whatever, and whichever, when they are used as adjec- tives and in such a way that the clauses in which they stand are made adjective clauses, are called relative adjectives. " Rhetoric. See Grammar. Sentence. The word sentence means (1) a group of words composed of a subject (with or without adjuncts) and a predicate (with or without adjuncts) and not grammatically dependent on any words outside itself (e.g., *'I will go," '' I, being the person best acquainted with the situation, will go as soon as the carriage which I ordered has come"); or (2) two or more such groups joined by coordinating conjunctions or presented in such a way as to show that they are to be taken as a unit. A sentence of type 2 is called a compound sentence. Sentences of type 1 are divided into two classes, — simple sentences and complex sentences. All sentences are therefore usually said to fall into three classes, simple, complex, and compound. These are described in this vocabulary under their several names. Sentence-element. A subject, a predicate, a predicate substantive or adjective, an absolute phrase, a modifier, a clause, or any other unit of sentence-structure. Any sentence-element other than a principal clause falls under the term subordinate sentence- element, as used in this book. Sign of the infinitive. See Infinitive. Simile. See Metaphor. Simple conjunction. See Conjunction. Simple sentence. A sentence composed of only one subject and predl- cate and not containing a dependent clause ; e.g., *' He seized the hammer," "Taking off his coat and rolling up his sleeves, he seized the heavy sledge-hammer in his strong hands, swung it high above his head, and brought it down with irresistible force, shattering to pieces the priceless cabinet, the heirloom handed down through five generations.'* Singular. See Number. 210 APPENDIX B Subject. A substantive combined in discourse with a verb (except a gerund or a participle) and representing the person or tiling regarding which the verb asserts something is called the subject of the verb ; and the verb, in turu, is called the predicate of the substantive, or is said to be predicated of the substantive. Thus, in the expression "He goes," "he" is the subject of "goes," and "goes " is the predicate of " he." The words sub- ject and predicate are often (in this book and elsewhere) used to designate respectively a subject and a predicate, as above de- fined, together with any adjuncts they may have. Thus in the sentence " The ploughman homeward plods his weary way," the phrase " the ploughman " may be said to be the subject and the phrase "homeward plods his weary way" the predicate; or the noun " ploughman " alone may be said to be the subject and the verb " plods "^ the predicate. Subjunctive. See Mode and also Indicative. Subordinate clause. See Clause. Subordinate sentence-element. See Sentence-element. Substantive. A substantive is a word by which, as by a name, some person or thing is called; e.g.^ maji, house, happiness, beauty, song, speech^ Jupiter, Charlemagne, lie, she. A few substantives are called pronouns ; these are as follows : /, thou, he, she, it, and their compounds ending in self or selves; this, that; loho, xohat, which, ivhether, and their compounds ending in ever, or soever; each, either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, both, aught, naught, such, other, one, none, and a few others. The pronouns are divided into five classes : personal, demonstrative, interroga- tive, relative, and indefinite pronouns (see these headings in the Vocabulary). All substantives other than pronouns are called nouns. — The declension of typical nouns and of the principal pro- nouns that are inflected is shown in the following tables : Declension of Nouns Nom, Poss, Obj. Singular boy boy's boy Plural boys boys* boys Nom, Poss. Ohj. man man's man men men's men Declension of Pronouns Singular Plural Nom, I we Poss, my, mine our, ours Obh me us APPENDIX B Singular Plural Kom. Poss, Ohj, thou thy, thine thee ye, you your, yours you Nora, Poss. Ohj. he his him they their, theirs them Nom. Poss. Ohj. she her, hers her they their, theirs them Nom. Poss. Ohj. it its it they their, theirs them Nom. Poss. Ohj. who whose whom who whose whom 211 A substantive may be used syntactically in the following ways (which are explained in this Vocabulary under the appropriate headings) : (1) as a subject, (2) as a predicate substantive, (3) as an appositive, (4) as a possessive substantive, (5) as the object of a verb, (6) as the object of a preposition, (7) as an adverbial substantive, and (8) as an absolute substantive. Substantive clause. A clause may be used as the subject of a verb (e.g., ** That he is a scholar is certain "); as the object of a verb (e.g., "I know that he is a scholar) ; as the object of a preposi- tion (e.gr., "There is no doubt as to ivhether he is a scholar''"'); as a predicate substantive (e.g., '* The truth is that he is a scholar'*''); as an appositive (e.g., "This is certain, — that he is a scholar''''); as an adverbial substantive {^e.g., "I am sure that he is a scholar) ; and as an absolute substantive (e.g. *' Granted that he is a scholar, he may yet be mistaken"). A clause used in one of these ways is a substantive clause. Superlative. See Comparison. Syntactic. See Syntax. Syntax. The relations that words, when they are combined in discourse, bear to one another (e.g., the relation of *'he" to "goes" in the sentence "He goes," or of "carpenter" to "Nelson," in the sentence " Nelson, the carpenter, is here ") are called syntactic relations, or collectively syntax. Syntactic relations comprise (1) the relations a single word may bear to another word or to a group of words (e.g., the relation of a subject to a verb, of an adjective to a substantive, of a noun to an adjective-phrase, of a vocative substantive to a sentence) ; and (2) the relations a predication may bear to another predication (viz., the relation between a principal and a dependent clause and the relation between coordinate clauses). 212 APPENDIX B Tense. The several sets of forms and combinations that a verb has when it represents action as occurring at different points of time are called its tenses. Of these sets there are six, called respec- tively the present tense, the past tense, the future tense, the perfect tense, the past-perfect tense, and the future-perfect tense. The tenses of a typical verb are shown on pages 218 ff. Transitive. A verb representing an action that necessarily affects some person or thing in such a way that the name of that person or thing may be made the direct object of the verb, is called a tran- sitive verb; e.g.^ love, hate, have, carry, build. A verb represent- ing an action of such a kind that a direct object cannot logically be used with the verb is called an intransitive verb; e.g., stand, arise, be, come, whimper, bark, quarrel. Many verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively; e.g., "The fire burns brightly" ("burns" is intransitive); "He burns the paper" (" burns" is transitive) ; " The corn has grown " (" has grown " is intransitive); "He has grown a beard" ("has grown" is transitive). Verb. A word used to assert an action, a condition, or the undergoing of an action; e.g.<, stand, strike, choose, be, become, remain, suffer, undergo. The various inflections and combinations (see Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and Number) of a typical verb are shown in the table on pages 213-218. The words /, thou, he, we, you, they, and if are inserted merely to show the way in which the forms they precede are used ; they should not be regarded as necessary parts of those forms, for they are not parts at all. Words inclosed in parentheses are variants of the words they follow. Vocative substantive. A substantive used in direct address. See Direct address. Voice. A verb is said to be in the active voice when it asserts that the person or thing represented by the subject is, does, or under- goes something ; e.g., "He strikes," "He heard," "I see." A verb is said to be in the passive voice when it asserts that some- thing is done to the person or thing represented by the subject ; e.g., "He is struck," "He was heard," "I am seen." With one exception all the passive forms of any verb are composed of the several forms of the auxiliary to be, and the past participle of the principal verb ; the one exception is the past participle itself. See the table opposite. Vowel. The letters a, e, i, o, and u are vowels. The letters b, c, lent (not "-yulent**) xylophone 21 lophone zoology 20 61 ogy (not "zoo-") aversion a ver shun (not "-zhun") Words in designate* des ignate (not "dez-*') which cer- tain con- excursion* ex cur shun (not "-zhun") sonants flaccid flak'sid (See Rule 153, note.) are often mispro- has (in expressions like haz (not "hass") nounced He has to go) have (in expressions like hav (not "haf") / have to go) oleo-margarine The g is hard, as in get. (See Rule 153, note.) partner Pronounced as spelled; not "pard ner." Words, from which certain sounds are often in- correctly omitted Words to which an additional sound is often in- correctly added 224 APP] ENDIX C Correct pronunciation Persia Per sha (not "-zha") Persian Per shan (not "-zhan") turgid tur jid (See Rulo 153, note.) used (when followed by to) uzd (not "ust") version ver shun (not "-zhun") with The th is pronounced as in thus. auxiliary aux il i ary February Feb ru ary Messrs.* mesh yerz or mes'yerz ("Messerz" is wholly un< authorized.) piano-forte piano-for'te pumpkin pump kin almond* a mond athlete ath'lete athletic ath let'ic buoy bwoi or boi casualty caz'ualty (not "-al'i ty ") cerement ser ment column kol um (not "-yum") conduit kon'dit or kun'dit daguerreotype da ger'o type elm One syllable. falcon* faw con grievous grev'ous mischievous mis'chcv ous often of en poignant* poi'nant salmon sa mon ad infinitum ad in fi ni'tum WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED 225 charivari debut dishabille* dishe/el dramatis personce finis foyer {e.g., the foyer of a theater) gaol irrelevant larynx posthumous rendezvous sarsaparilla sough* viz. nounced in various ways vaudeville Correct pronunciation sha re'va re' (not " shiveree") Words A—\y, often ^^ ^^ mispro dis'a bll' di shev'el dram 'a tis per so'ne fi'nis fwa'ya' jal Pronounced as spelled; not "irrevelant." lar'inx or la'rinx (not " lar nix ") post'humous or pos'tumous ren de voo or ron de voo sar sa pa ril la (not " sass- parilla") suf A sort of arbitrary sign for the Latin word videlicet (pronounced vi del'i set). In reading viz. aloud, say either "videlicet" or "namely" (the English equivalent of videlicet) j do not say "vizz." vodVn INDEX Numbers refer to pages Explanations of grammatical and other technical terms are in general not cited below, since they can easily be found in the alphabetical vocabulary on pp. 196 ff. Comments on the spelling, writing " solid" or not "solid," hyphening, and pronunci- ation of particular words, are in general not cited under the words ; such comments can easily be found through the citations under Spelling, Solid, Hyphen, and Pronuncia- tion. A.D., 143. Abatement, coherence of an, 66. Abbreviations, objectionable, 112 ; permissible in some connections, 113; of titles, 113; in letters, 129 ff. ; of names of cities, 134; punc- tuation with, 90. " About, at," 144. " Abreast of the times," 6. Absolute construction, not eupho- nious, 58 ; over-frequent use of, 59 ; punctuation with, 90. Absolute phrase, mistaken for sen- tence, 12, 191-192. Accept and except, 150, 190. Accordingly, punctuation with, 96, 193. Addison, 2. Address, in the heading of a letter, 126; inside of letters, 131 ; on envelope, 141. Addressee's title in letters, 132, 141. Adjectives, used for other parts of speech, 3-4 ; and adverbs, 19 ; punctuation with series of, 92. Adverbs, used for other parts of speech, 3-4; and adjectives, 19. Affect and effect, 143, 191. Affectation, i>-ll. After, over-frequent use of, 59 ; '* after having;, " 143. Afterthought, nriarked by dash, 99. Age, number designating, 115. Aggravate f 143. Agreement, grammatical, 14 ff., 176. " Ain't," 1. " All in all," 6. ** All is not gold," 7. " All nature," 6. ** All the higher," etc., 143. ** All work and no play," 7. Allusions, hackneyed, 7. Almost, position of, 32, 182. ** Along the line of," etc., 7, 156. ''Alright," 69. Also, misuse of, 43; punctuation with, 96. Alterations in Ms., 89. Alternative, 143. Amid, 9. Anachronous participles, 23. Analogy, standing of words not de- termined by, 4. Analytical outlines, 121 ff. And, illogical, 41, 42; too frequent, 43; oblique, 76; comma before, in a series, 92. " And etc.," 144. ♦' And oblige," 131, 134. " And which," 41. Anent, 144. Antecedent, reference to, 23 if., 180; parenthesized, 25. Anticlimax, 37. Any, misuse of, 4. A7iy one, concord of, 15, 176. Any place, for anywhere, 144 Anybody f concord of, 15, 176 227 228 INDEX Apostrophe, use of, 106 ; shape of, 76. Appositives, case of, 17 ; punctuation with, 90. Appreciate, 144. Arise, for get up, 9. Arnold, 2, 37. Arrangement of Ms .: Ms. as a whole, 77 ; pages, 77 ; paragraphs, 78 ff . ; writing verse, 85 ; extended quota- tions, 87; tables, 87. Articles, omission of, 40. As clause in double capacity, 38. ** As luck would have it," 7. As, misuses of, 144 ; case of a sub- stantive following, 17, 178. As to, misuse of, 40. As well as, subject not made plural by, 15. *' At about," 144. Aught, 144. *' Auto," 4. *' Autobiography of my life," 55. Auxiliaries, double use of, 38. Avail, 144. Avoidance of repetition, 56. Awful, 144. Awkwardness, caused by colloca- tion, 35 ; by separating preposition Jrom object, 36 ; by repetition, 56 ; by avoidance of repetition, 56; by use of absolute construction, 58; by parenthesizing antecedent, 25; by double use of auxiliaries, 38; by use of passive voice, 20; by change of point of view, 31; by overlapping dependence, 47; by lack of balance, 49; by improper parallelism, 52. ** Badger State," 7-8. Badly, 145. Balance, 145. Bank on, 145. Barbarisms, 4. Barn, 145. '' Baseballist," 4. Be, double use of, 38. Beg, 145. Began and begun, 175. Besides, punctuation with, 96. ** Best laid plans, the," 7. Blanks used for names or dates, 10. " Blowed," 175. Borrow and lend, 145. Brackets, 101. *' Breathless suspense," 7. Bring forth, 145. Broke and broken, 175. " Buckeye State," 7-8. Bunch, 145. " Burglarize," 4. Burke, 2. Burns, possessive of, 106. But, illogical, 41-42; too frequent, 43 ; repeated, 44. But that, but what, 145. "Cablegram," 4. Calculate, 145. Can, for may, 145. Canceling in Ms., 89. Canine, 4, 8. " Can't hardly," 55, 187. ''Can't seem," 165. Capitals, 116 ff., 195. Case, matters of, 16 ff., 177 ff. Cause, illogical use of, 146, 186. Celia, mnemonic word, 68, 189. Change of point of view, in sentence, 31 ; in composition, 61, 62. Characteristic, 146. ** Charge of," 146. "Cheesery," 4. Clai7n, 147. Clauses. Dependent : mistaken for sentences, 12, 191-192; used as ob- ject of preposition , 16 ; overlapping, 47; introduced by when or where, used as predicate complement, 14; introduced by when, misuse of, 48; introduced by thanov as, elliptical, 17, 178, used in double capacity, 38, other or else in, 53; dangling elliptical, 28; modifying, mis- placed, 33; relative, position of, 33, "and which," 41, restrictive and non-restrictive, 92, 193; sub- stantive, incongruous junction of, 52 ; coordinate, with common de- pendence, 48, clearness of cooral- nation among, 46. Principal: illogical use of, 42; excessive use of, 43; consecutive, introduced alike by httt or for, 44; introduced by so, 43, 184. Punctuation be- tween coiirdinate, when joined by conjunctions, 95, when not so joined, 91 ; between principal and INDEX 229 dependent, 91; with relative, 92; before substantive, introduced by that or hoWf 94. Clearness of sentences : reference, 23 ff., 180; relation of participles, gerunds, and elliptical clauses, 26 ff., 181: order of parts, 32 ff., 181; coordination, 44 ; parallelism, 49 ff. Of whole compositions: gained in narration by use of names, 10 ; co- herence, 65 ff. Of paragraphing, 78 ff. Of punctuation, 90 ff. Clerk, used as verb, 3. Climax, in arrangement of sentences, 37 ; misuse of the word, 146. Close of a sentence, forcible, 36; with, a preposition, 37. Coherence, between sentences, 36; of compositions, 65. Coincidence, 146. Colon, 98. Combine, used as noun, 4. Comic writing, 8. Comma, 90 ff. ** Comma fault," the, 95. Common noun, elements of proper names, capitalized, 117; improper capitalizing of, 118. Company, misuse of, 146. Comparative degree, than clause after a word in the, 17, 53. Comparisons, uncompleted, 41 ; with than or as clause used in double capacity, 38; illogical, 53. " Complected," 4, 146. ** Completed the scene," 6. Compound sentence, stringy, 29. Conclude, misuse of, 146. Conclusion, of sentences, forcible, 36 ; with prepositions, 37 ; of letters, 134. Concrete narration, 84. Concurrence of like sounds not eu- phonious, 58. Conjunctions, repetition of subordi- nating, for clearness, 46; simple, distinguished from conjunctive ad- verbs, 96, 199. Conjunctive adverbs, distinguished from simple conjunctions, 96; punctuation with, 96. Connection, smooth, between sen- , tences, 36 ; between parts of a com- position, 65, 66; of letters in a word, 76. Connective phrases, between parts of a composition, 65, 66. Consequence, coherent introduction of a statement of, 66. Considerable, misuse of, 4. Constitution, quotation from, 36. '* Contact, those with whom we come in," 7. ** Contemplate on or of," 146. Contemptible and contemptuous, 147 Continual and continuous, 147. Contractions, inappropriate in formal context, 4; apostrophe with, 106. Contradictory statement, coherent introduction of, &i. Contrasting part, coherent introduc- tion of, (jQ. Coordination, ungrammatical, 41; "and which," 41; illogical, 42; ex- cessive, 42 ; clearness of, 44. Correlatives, 51. ''Could of," 159. "Couldn't seem," 165. Counterfeit humor, 8. Cowardly, used as adverb, 4. " Cream City, the," 7. Cross-strokes of Vs and x's, 76. Crowd, ioT party, 147. Crowding in Ms., 73 ff. Cunning, misuse of, 147. Cupid, 7. "Cute," 147. Dangling participles, 26; gerund phrases, 27 ; elliptical clauses, 28. Dash, use of, 98 ff. ; use of, in place of names or dates, 10. Data, 147. Date, 147. Dates, in letters, correct method of writing, 127, 136 ; representation of numbers in, 113;- represented by dashes, 10. Days, used as adverb, 3. Deal (noun), misuse of, 147. " Deal on," " deal of " for deal with, 147. " Dear friend " in letters, 130. Demand, 147. Demonstrative adjectives, reference of, 24 ; indefinite use of, 5. Dependent clauses ; see Clauses, Depot, 147. De Quincey, 2. 230 INDEX Determination, future of, 20, 180. Dialogue, paragraphing of, 81, 195; punctration of, 101, 102, 108, 195. Dickens, 2; possessive case of tlie name, 106; Our Mutual Frie?id, 158. Diction, 1 ff. Dictionaries, use of, 3, 4. " Different than," 147. DineVy for dining-car, 148. Direct quotation, paragraphing of, 80 ff., 195; punctuation of, 93,98, 101, 102, 108, 195. " Discourse sweet music," 6. Disinterested, 148. Dissimilar elements in series form, 52, 186; incongruous junction of, 51. Division, of a word at the end of a line, 107, 110; of words that should be w^ritten *' solid," 73. Divisions of a composition, organiza- tion of, 62 ; coherence between, 65 ; paragraphing of, 78 ff. **I)o away with," 148. " Do justice to a dinner," 6. Done, misused as in " I am done," 168 ; misused for didy 174. *' Done away with," 148. Don't, inappropriate use of, 4; un- grammatical use of, 148; position of apostrophe in, 106. *' Doomed to disappointment," 6. Dots of i's 2a\d.fs, 76. Double capacity, use in, of auxili- aries, 38; of to he, 38; of principal verbs, 38 ; of than or as clauses, 38; of other modifiers, 39; of nouns, 39 ; of to in as to, etc., 39. Double negative, 54, 187. *' Dove " for dived, 148. Down used as verb, 4, 148. Drank and drunk, 175. Drove and driven, 175. Drunk, used as noun, 4. Due to, 148. Dwell, dwelt, 9. Each, every, etc., concord of, 15, 176. *' Each and every," 6. Each other, 148. *' Eating house," 148. Editorial, composition of an, 63; edi- torial wCf 10, 11. Efect and affect, 148, 191. Effort for book, 9. E (/., punctuation with, 107. Either, concord of, 15; correct use of, 148. " Electrocute," " electrocution," 4. Elegant, 149. Element, 149. Eliot, George, 2. Ellipsis in letter-writing, 133. Elliptical clauses, introduced by than or as, 17, 178 ; dangling, 28, 181. Else, possessive case with, 149. Emerson, 2. Endorse, 149. Enjoyable, 6. ''Enough that," "enough so that," 149. " Enthuse," 4, 149. Envelopes, kinds of, 138 ff. ; enclos- ing of letters in, 138 If. ; addresses on, 141, 142. Equine, 4, 8. Erasure in Ms., 89. Etc., inappropriate or vague use of, 149; "and etc.," 150. Euphony, 58. Evenings, used as adverb, 3. Ever, position of, 32, 182. Every, concord of, 15, 17(). Every place, for anywhere, 150. " Every so often," i50. " Everything went along nicely," 6. Except and accept, 150, 190. Excessive coordination, 43, 183, 184. Exclamation point, comma used in- stead of, 93; relative positions of quotation marks and, 102. Exercises, in grammar, 173 ff . ; in sentence-structure, 180 If. ; in spelling, 187 ff. ; in punctuating, 191 ff. ; in capitalizing, 195. Expect, misuse of, 150. Expectation, future of, 20, 180. Extemporized words, 4. Extended quotations, position of, in Ms., 87. Factitive adjective or adverb, 19. Factor, 150. "Fair maiden," 7. Falls, used as singular, 150. •• Fatal affray," 8. rNBEX 231 Favor, for letter, 9, 133 ; ** esteemed," 133. *• Favor with a selection," 6. Feature, 150. Feline, 4, 8. Fiction, usage of recent, 2. Fine, 150. First rate, 150. '* Firstly," 150. " Fistic encounter," 8. i^^a;, 150, 151. Folding of letters, 138 ff. Folios, to be written in Arabic, 77; to be represented by figures, 113. For, introducing consecutive sen- tences, 44; comma before the conjunction, 91. Forcible order in sentences, 36. Formal notes in third person, 135. Former and latter, 150. ** Friend John," 130. Friendly, used as adverb, 4. Frighten, used as intransitive, 151. V i^roze and /rozen, 175. Function, hackneyed use of, 7. Future tense, use of shall and will in forming, 20 ; misused for present in letters of acceptance or regret, 136. Gaps between letters in Ms., 76. " Gent," 4. Gentleman, 151; gentleman friend, 151. Geographical names, punctuation with, 91. Gerund, possessive case with, 18. Gerund phrase, dangling, 27, 181. Get, as in '* get to go," 151; see also Got, Get up, for prepare, etc., 151; arise used for, 9. Go to bed, retire used for, 9. Going on (e.g., " five, going on six"), 151. Good, used as adverb, 4. Good usage, defined, 1 ; explained, 1 ff. ; errors regarding, 1 fF. " Gopher State, the," 7, 8. Got, have got, 152. Gotten, got preferable to, 152. ** Gotten up," 152. Grammar, defined, 201 ; distinguished from rhetoric, 202; rules of, see individual grammatical terms; ex- ercises in, 173 ff. ; principal terms of, explained, 196 ff. Grammatical agreement, 14 ff., 176, 177. Grand, 152. Grip, 152. *' Gripsack," 152. Guess, 152. Hackneyed expressions, 6 ff. Had better, had best, 152. " Had have " or "had of," 152. "Had ought," 160, 176. Had rather, 152. Hardly, position of, 32; incorrectly used with negative, 55, 187. ** Has went," 175. Have, misuses of, 152. Have got, 152. Hawthorne, 2. Heaps, a heap, 153. "Hear to it," 153. Help, used for servants, etc., 153. "Help but," 153. Hence, punctuation with, 96. High-flown language, 9. Hill, A. S., quoted, 37. "Hired girl," 153. Historical present, 9. Holmes, O. W., 2. Home, misuse of, 153, "Homey," 4. Honorable, the, 164. Hopes, for hope^ 153. Hose, 9. Hours of the day, to be spelled out 115. House numbers, 113, 126. How clauses not to be set off by commas, 94. Hovjever, position of, 35; punctuation with, 90, 96. "Hub, the," 7, 8. Human, used as noun, 4. Humor, real and counterfeit, 8. Hung for hanged, 153. Hustle, 2, 153. Hyphen, 107 ; see also Syllabication. I, the dotting of, 76. /, properly used in beginning a let- ter, 134; too frequent use of, in letters, 134 ; omission of, in letters, 134. 232 INDEX •*I would say,*' "will say," or "can say," 134. i.e., correct use of, 153; punctuation with, 107. If, for ivhether, 154. " Ignorance is bliss," 7. Ilk, 154. Illogical comparisons, 53, 64. Illogical coordination, 42, 183, "Illy," 4. Implied reference of pronouns, 25. "Impressive sight," 6. Improprieties, 3, 4. In, for into, 154. " In a pleasing manner," 6. "In back of," 154. " In evidence," 6. " In our midst," 157. In regard to, misuse of, 39-40. " In reply would say," 134. " In search for," 165. "In touch with," 7. Includmgf subject not made plural by, 15.' Incongruous substantives, junction of 52. Indefinite it, 5; they, 5; you, 5; that and those, 5. Indefinite narrative, 84. Indention, in paragrapjiing, 78; in writing verse, 85, 86 ; in tabulating, 87. Indirect discourse, quotation marks not to be used with, 101. Indirect questions, question mark not to be used with, 98. Individual, 154. Indorse, 149. Indulge, 154. "Inferior than," 167. Infinitive, case of subject or predi- cate complement of, 17; perfect, misused lor present, 23; split, 35, 183; sign of, repeated for clear- ness, 46. Initials used for names in narration, 10. Ink, 77, 137. Insertion in Ms., 89. " Inside of," 154. Intensives, 5. Interjections, commas with, 93. Interrogation point, after direct, not indirect question, 98; misuse of parenthesized, 98; relative post tions of quotation marks and, 102. Intervening words, obscuring gram- matical subject, 14, 176. Introduction, distinct, of the divisions of a composition, 65; paragraphs of, 79 ; misuse of the term in ana- lytical outlines, 122. Invite, used as noun, 4. Irony, 203 ; improper labeling of, 98, 105, 120. Irving, 2. It, used indefinitely, 5. Italics, 118£f. " It seems," 7. Its, no apostrophe with, 106. j, the dotting of, 76. "Jell," 4. Jocularity in newspaper style, 8. Junction, of incongruous substantives or clauses, 52 ; clearness of, secured by repetition, 44 if. ; mistaken, prevented by commas, 92. Just, position of, 32. Key-words, coherence secured by conspicuous placing of, 66. " Kind, these or those," 155. Ki7id of, 155. " Knights of the pen," 8. "Knowed," 175. Labeling humor or irony, 98, 105, 120. Lady, lady friend, 151. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, 30. Lady of Shalott, The, 185. Larger units of discourse, structure of: unity, 59 ff . ; organization, 62 if. ; coherence, 65, 66. " Last but not least," 6. Latinistic phrases, 59. Latter, 151. Lay and lie, 155, 173. " Leave go of," 155. Legibility, 73 IT. Less, for feicer, 155. Letter-writing, 126 ff. Liable, 155. Lie and lay, 155, 173. " Light fantastic," 8. Like, 156, 179. "Liked, would," 156. Limb, 9. INDEX 233 Line, lines^ figurative use of, 7, 156. Lines, for reinSy 156. Literary ornament, 7. Loan, 157. Locate, 157. Logical agreement, 53, 186. " Long-felt want," 7. "Lose out," 157. Lovely, 157. Macaulay, 2, 71. Mad, 157. *' Made a pretty picture," 6. ** Make hay," etc., 7. Manuscript, writing materials for, 77; legibility in, 73 ff . ; arrange- ment of pages in, 77 ; paragraphing in, 78 ff.: alterations in, 88, 89; not to be rolled, 77. Margin in Ms., 77; in letters, 137. "May of," 159. Mean (adjective), 157. Merely, position of, 32. Messrs., 129, 159. Metaphors, mixed, 11, 12. " Method in his madness," 7. *Midf 'midst, 9. ** Midst, in our," 157. *' Might of," 159. Military, used as noun, 4. Mill, J. S., 2. Milton, quoted, 18. Misplaced modifiers, 82 ff., 181,182; parts of a composition, 64. Miss (title), 158. Misspelling ; see Spelling. Mixed figures of speech, 11, 12. Modifiers, position of, 32 ff., 181, 182. ** Monarch of all," etc., 7. Money, sums of, method of repre- senting, 114. Monosyllables, not to be broken, 112. Monotony, of sentence-structure, 59; from frequent use of I, 134. Moreover, position of, 35; punctua- tion with, 96. Morn, 9. Mornings, used as adverb, 3. Most for almostf 4, 158. Mrs., 158. Mushroom, 169. ** Music hath charms," 7. *' Musicianly," 4. " Must of," 159. Mutual, 159. Myself, for 1,6; " -and family ,"6. Names, in narration, represented by initials or dashes, 10; a means to clearness and smoothness, 10. Narration, unity of tense in, 61; unity of point of view in, 61, 62; use of names in, 10; concrete and indefinite, 84. Naught and aught, 144. Near by, 4, 159. Nearly, position of, 32; misused for near, 159. 'Neath, 9. Negation, double, 54, 187; incorrect, with hardly, etc., 55, 187. Neither, correct use of, 159 ; concord of, 15, 176; not to be correlated with or, 160. " Nestled among the hills," 6. Never, position of, 32; misused for not ever, 33. " Never put off," etc., 7. Nevertheless, position of, 35 ; punctu- ation with, 96. Newspapers, characteristic style of, 2; mannerisms of, 7, 8, 57. " Newsy," 4. Nice, 159. Nicely for well, 19. Nicknames, of states and cities, 7, 8; quotation marks with, 103, 104. Nights, used as adverb, 3. No good, 159. No less than, subject not made plural by, 15. No one, concord of, 15, 176. No place, for nowhere, 144. No usCf 159. Nobody, concord of, 15, 176. Nominative case, 16. Not to exceed, 159. Notorious, 159. Nouns, for other parts of speech, 3. Novelty of phrase, straining for, 7,8. ** Nowhere near," 159. Number, agreement in, of verbs and pronouns 14 ff., 176. Numbers, method of representing, 113 ff. 234 INDEX and oh, 69. Object of a verb or a preposition, in objective case, 17. Objective case, 17. Observance and observation^ 159. O'er, 9. Of for ^lave, 159. ** Of ttiree years old," 160. "Off of," 160. ** Officiating clergyman," 8. Oft, ofttimes, oftentimes, 9. " Old, of three years," 160. Omission, of articles and posses- sives, 40; of prepositions, 40; of part of a statement of comparison, 41. On the side, 160. *' On this particular day," 6. One, preferable to you, 5; concord of, 15, 176; not to be preceded by a, 160. ** Ones, the," 160. Only, position of, 32, 182; use of a negative with, 55, 187. Or, subject not made plural by, 15 ; misused for nor, 160. Order of parts in a sentence, 32 ff., 181, 182. " Order out of chaos," 7. Organization of sentences, 30, 31, 185 ; of whole compositions, 62 ff . Ornament, literary, 7; in hand- writing, 77. Other or else in than or as clauses, 53. Other times, 160. Ought, misuse of had with, 160, 176. Our Mutual Friend, the title, 158. Ourselves, for we, 6. " Out loud," 160. Outlines for compositions, value of, 62, 63; method of making, 121 ff. " Outside of," 160. Overlapping subordination, 47. *' Over with," 160. ''Overly," 160. Pachyderm, 8. Pages, manuscript, arrangement of, 77; numbering of, 77; in letters, arrangement of, 137, order in which to use, 137. Pair, used as plural, 160. ** Pants," 4. Paradise Lost, quoted, 18. Paragraphs, 78 ff. Parallelism in sentence-structure, 49 ff., 184 ; misuse of, 51, 52, 186 ; util- ized in organizing long sentences, 30, 31, 185. Parenthesis marks, 100; antecedent of a pronoun enclosed in, 25 ; fig- ures enclosed in, 115. Parenthetic matter, set off by com- mas, fK); by parenthesis marks, 100 ; by dashes, 99. Parenthetic position of therefore^ however f etc., 35; of modifiers in general, 34. Partake of, 161. Participial conclusions in letters, 134. Participial phrases, mistaken for sentences, 12, 191, 192. Participle, anachronous, 23; dan- gling, 26, 27, 181 ; preceded immedi- ately by too or very, 169. Parts of a composition, organization of, 64 ; order of, 62, 63 ; misplacing of, 64; coherence between, 65, 6(i. Parts of speech, errors regarding (improprieties), 3, 4. Party, 161. Passive voice, 20, 31-32. Past-perfect tense, past misused for, 22. Past tense, indefinite use of, 22 ; mis- used for past-perfect, 22. "Peek," 161. Per (Latin preposition), 161, Per cent., 4, 73, 161. Perfect conditional forms, misused for present, 23. Perfect infinitives, misused for pres- ent, 23. Period, use of, 90, 95. Person, a, concord of, 15, 176. Phase, 161. Phenomena, 161. " Phone," 4. "Photo," 4. Piano, misuse of, 161. Piece for distance, 1(51. " Pigskin-chasers," 8. Place ; see Any place. Every place ^ No place. Some place. Places, used as adverb, 3. Plain English, remark or- 9. "Plan on," 161. INDEX 236 please f will you please preferable to, 134. *' Please find enclosed," 134. ** Pleasing manner, in a," 6. Plenty, 4, 162. Pleonasm, 55, 58. Poe, 2. Poetic diction, 9. Poetry correct method of putting, on paper, 85, S6. Point of view, in sentences, 31; in whole compositions, 61, 62. Poorly y for ill, 19. Portray, 162. Position of members in a sentence, 32 ff., 181. Possessive adjectives, no apostrophe with, 106. Possessive case, misuse of, 18; with gerunds, 18; apostrophe with, 106. Postage stamp, affixing of, 142. Postal, 162. Posted, 162. Predicate adjective and adverb, rule concerning, 19. Predicate substantive, with finite verb, case of, 17, 178; with infini- tive, case of, 17, 178 ; sentence used as, 14; when or where clause used as, 14 ; verb attracted from correct number by, 15. "Prefer than," 162. Preposition, case of object of, 17; awkward pause after, 36 ; ending a sentence, 37 ; repetition of, 45 ; in- correct omission of: time modifi- ers, 40; size, 166; way, 170; no use, 159. Present, the historical, 9 ; participle, used anachronously, 23. Pretentiousness of style, produced by high-flown language, 9; by poetic diction, 9; by the use of the his- torical present, 9 ; by using we and the writer for /, 10. ** Pretty picture, made a," 6. *' Preventative," 4. Principal verbs, use of, in double capacity, 38. ** Privilege, had the," 6. Pronouns, misuses of, 5-6; reference of, 23ff., 180. Pronunciation, correct, of certain words often mispronounced, 219 £f. Proper names, capitals with, 116, 117, 195. Propose, fov purpose, 162. Proposition, 162. " Proud possessor, the,** 7. ''Proven," 2,162. Proverbs, hackneyed, 7. Providing, for provided, 162. Punctuation, 90 ff., 191 ff. Put in, for spend, 162. " Put in an appearance," 162. Quality, 163. Question mark, 98. Questions, shall and will in, 20, 21, 180; punctuation of, 98, 102, 195. Quite, 163 ; position of, 32. '' Quite a few," 163. " Quite a little," 163. Quotation marks, shape of, 76 ; uses of, 101 ff., 108-109, 195. Quotations, hackneyed, 7; extended, position of, on page, 87 ; paragraph- ing of, 80 ff., 195; punctuation of, 101 ff., 108-109, 195. Raise, for rear, 163 j for increase (noun), 163; confounded with me, 163, 173. Ran and run, 175. Rang and rung, 175. "Rarely ever," 163. Real, used as adverb, 4, 163. Reason, illogical use of, 164, 186. " Recipient, the, of," 6. Redundance: tautology, 55; pleo- nasm, 55; wordiness, 55, 57. Reference of pronouns and pro- nominal expressions, 23 ff., 180. Relative clause, position of, 33-34, 181-182; *' and which," 41 ; restrict- ive and non-restrictive, 92, 193. ** Remember of," 164. Remote reference of pronouns, 24. ''Render a selection," etc., 6. Rendition, 6. Repast, 6. Repetition, of words, with change of meaning, 56; awkward, 56; awk- ward avoidance of, 56 ; of the con- junction that, 57; of prepositions, subordinating conjunctions, and the infinitive-sign, for clearness. 44 ff. 236 INDEX Replete, 6. Residence, 9. Restrictive and non-restrictive modi- fiers, 92, 193. Retire, 9. Reverend (title), 164. Rlietoric, defined, 201; distinguished from grammar, 201. Rhetorical ornament, triteness in, 6 ff . ; affectation in, 9 ff . ; mixed figures of speech, 11, 12. Big, 164. " Right away," " right off," 164. Rise and raise, 163, 173. Rode and ridden, 175. Roman numbers, not used for page numbers, 77 ; shape of, 77. Rose and risen, 175. Run, for ran, 175; for operate, 164. Ruskin, 2. ** Sadder, but wiser," 7. Said, as in " he said to come," 165. Same, used as a pronoun, 134, 164; as an adverb, 164. Sane/ and sung, 175. Sarcasm, distinguished from irony, 204. Say, as in ** He says to go on," 165. *' Scantily attired," 8. Scarcely, position of, 32; negatives incorrectly used with, 55, 187 ; than, till, and until incorrectly used with, 168. Scare, used as intransitive, 151. School, for college, 165. Search, *' in search for," 165, See and saw, 174, "Seem, can't, or couldn't," 165. Seen, for saw, 174. ** Seldom ever," ''seldom or ever," 165. Selection, misuse of, 165. Semicolon, 95 ff., 191 ff. Sentences, defined, 209; classified, 209; subordinate elements mis- taken for, 12, 191-192; grammati- cally incomplete, 13; used as sub- ject or predicate complement, 14; fundamental grammatical rules 're- garding, 14 ff. ; unity of, 29 ff. ; stringy, 29; straggling, 30; change of point of view in, 31 ; arrangje- ment of members of, 32 £f . ; coor- dination and subordination in, 41 if.; parallelism in, 49 ff.; logi- cal agreement among members of, 53-54 ; redundance of words in, 55 ; repetition of words in, 56-57; eu- phony of, 58 ; variety in structure of, 59; transitional, 65. Sentinel, hackneyed figure of speech, 6. Series, dissimilar elements in the form of, 52; punctuation of: comma before the conjunction, 92. Set and sit, 165, 174. Set, used as plural, 160. Shall and will, 20-21, 180. Shape, misuse of, 165. Shifting of tense, in narration, 61, in description , 62 ; of point of view, in sentences, 31, in whole composi- tions, 61, 62. ''Should of," 159. Show, misuses of, 165, 166. " Show up," 166. Showy language, 9; synonyms, 57. " Sight, a," 166. Simile, incongruous, 11-12. Sit and set, 165, 174. Size, used as adjective, 166. " Size up," 166. Sleeper, for sleeping car, 148. Smoker, for smoking car, 148. Smoothness, in narration, 10 ; in sen- tence-order, 35-36. Snap, 16(). So for very, 166; preferred to as, after a negative, 144; incorrectly used to connect verbs, 43; exces- sive use of, for compounding sen* tences, 43; punctuation with, when used to compound sentences, 9(), 193. So habit, the, 43, 184. " Social function," 7. " Solid," words that should be writ, ten, 73, 107 ; words incorrectly writ, ten, 73. Some, used as adverb, 4, 166. Some one, concord of, 15, 176. " Some one has said," 6. Some place, for somewhere, 166. Somebody, concord of, 15, 176. " Sort, these or those," 166. Sort of, im. " Sought his downy couch," 6. INDEX 237 Space in Ms., between lines, 73; be- tween words, 73; between sen- tences, 74; margins, 77. Spacing-out, at end of paragrapii, 78. Specie^ for species, 166. Species, correct use of, 166. ''Specimen of humanity," 6. Spelling, rules regarding, and exer- cises in : doubling final consonants, 67, 187; dropping final e, 67, 188; retaining final e, 67, 188; change of final y to i, 68, 188; of final ie to ?/, 68, 188 ; plurals in s and es, 68, 188 ; present third singulars in s and es, 68, 188 ; receive, believe, etc. , 68, 189 ; principal and principle, 68, 191 ; and o/i, 69; adverbs in //?/, 188; ly written for ally, 189 ; the endings el and le, 189; the adjective ending ftd, 189; the adjective ending o?/s. 189; the adverb prefix al, 189 disappear and disappoint, 189 professor, 189; precede, proceed, recede, concede, succeed, and super- sede, 190; business, 190; lose and loose, 190; lead and led, 190; to, too, and two, 190; accept and except, 190; q^ec^ and effect, 191; advise, advice, devise and device, 192; a list of words often misspelled, 69; general exercise, 195. Split infinitives, 35, 183. Sprang and sprung, 175. Squinting modifiers, 34. iS^ari for begin, 166. *S«aH ow^ 166. Steal, used as noun, 4. Stevenson, 2, 3. iS^2^Z, punctuation with, 96. Stop, for s^ay, 167. Straggling sentences, 30. Strata, 167. Stringy sentences, 29. Strong close of a sentence, 36. " Struggling mass of humanity," 8. " Student body, the," 6. Subject, illogical use of, 167. Subject, of a verb, case of, 16, 177- 178 ; of a composition, 60. Subordinate clause ; see Clauses. Subordinate sentence-elements, mis- taken for sentences, 12, 191-192. Subordinating conjunctions, repeti- tion of, for clearness, 46. Subordination, value of, in composi- tion, 43; exercise in securing vari- ety of, 184; overlapping, 47; im- proper, by means of whoi clauses, 48-49. Substantive clause ; see Clauses. Substantives, used for other parts of speech, 3; other parts of speech misused for, 3-4. Such, for so, 167; " such who," 167; "such so that," 167. Such as, punctuation with, 107. Suicide, used as a verb, 3. Summer^ s day, 9. Sums of money, method of represent- ing, 114. "Sundown," 167. " Sunflower State," 7. "Sunup," 167. " Superior than," 167. Superlative, the of phrase limiting a, 54. Superscriptions of letters, 141-142. Suspicioii, used as verb, 3. Swam and sioum, 175. Swell, used as adjective, 167. Syllabication, 110 ff. Synonyms, used for clear reference, 24; objectionable use of, 57. t, cross-stroke of, 76. Tabulations, indention in, 87; to be set apart on the page, 88. Take, for study, 167. Take in, for attend, 167. Take it, introducing an illustration, 168. Take stock in, 168. Taste in literary style, 7 ff. " Tasty," 4. Tautology, 55. Tawdry English, 8. Team, 167. Tennyson, 30, 86, 103, 185. Tense, shifting of, in narration and description, 61, 62 ; see also Present, Past tense, Future tense, Perfect. Thackeray, 2. Than, misuse of, with superior and inferior, 167 ; with prefer and pref- erable, 162; with hardly and scarcely, 168 ; case of a substantive following, 17, 178; clause intro- duced by, used in double capacity, 238 INDEX 38; other or else in, 53; than whom, 18. That, used as adverb, 168 ; indefinite use of, 5; weak reference of, 24; conjunction, careless repetition of, 57; clauses introduced by, not to be preceded by comma, 94. That is, punctuation witli, 107-108. ** That there," 168. Them, used as adjective, 4. Then, used to connect verbs, 43; punctuation with, 96, 193. Therefore, position of, 35; punctua- tion with, 96, 193. ** These here," 168. ** These kind," " These sort," 155. They, indefinite use of, 5. This, used as adverb, 168; weak ref- erence of, 24. "This here," 168. Those, indefinite use of, 5. *' Those kind," " those sort," 155. *' Those present," 6. " Those there," 168. ** Those with whom we come in con- tact," 7. Through, misuse of, 168. "Throwed," 175. Thus, participles preceded by, 27; punctuation with, 96, 193. " Tie the knot," 8. Till, for when, after hardly or scarcely, 169. Times, used as adverb, 3. *Tis, in prose, 9. Titles, of persons, not to be abbre- viated, in general, 113, which are properly abbreviated, 113, when capitalized, 116; of compositions, elliptical clauses in, 28, composi- tion to begin coherently, regardless of, 65, position of, on the page, 77, not to be quoted, 104; of literary and artistic works in general, prin- cipal words in, to be capitalized, 117, to be italicized, 118, initial the in, when included, when excluded, 118. To, in as to, in regard to, etc., used in double capacity, 39-40. Toadstool, 169. Together with, subject not made plural by, 15. Too, preceding a participle, 169. Topic, illogical use of, 169, 186. Tore and torn, 175. Transitional sentences, 65; para- graphs, 80. Transitive verbs misused as intransi- tive ; see Hustle, Locate, Set, Lay, Raise, Frighten, Scare. Transpire, 169. Transposition in Ms., 89. " Treat on," '' treat with," for treat of, 169. Trend, 169. Trite expressions, 6. *' Try and," 169» ' Twos, 9. Ugly, 169. Unauthorized words, 4. Uncompleted comparisons, 41. Undated past tense, 22. Underhanded, 169. Ungrammatical coordination, 41. Uniting of expressions properly writ- ten as separate words, 73. Unity, of sentences, 29 ff. ; of whole compositions, 69 ff. ; of para- graphs, 83. Until, for when, 169. " Untiring efforts," 6. Up, combined with certain verbs, 169. Up to date, 170. Upside-down subordination, 49. Usage, good, 1 ff. Variety of subordination, value of. 43, exercise in securing, 184; of sentence-structure, 59. *' Variety, the spice of life," 4. Verbs, misused as nouns, 4; other parts of speech misused as, 3, 4; .agreement of, with subjects, 14 Verse, arrangement of, on the page, 84, 86. Very, preceding participles, 170. •• Vim," 3, 170. Violin, misuse of, 170. Viz., punctuation with, 107-108; pro- nunciation of, 225. Vocal, used as noun, 4, 170. Vocatives, punctuation with, 90. Voice, misuse of, 170. Wait on, for wait for, 170. " Waited in breathless suspense," 7. INDEX 239 " Want I should go," and similar ex- pressions, 170. *' Want in" and similar expressions, 170. Way, for aioay, 170; used adverbi- ally without a preposition, 170. Ways, used as singular, 170. We, for /, 10; the editorial, 10-11. Weak reference of this and that, 24. Well, colloquial, 170. *' Wended his way," 6. Went and gone, 175. When, misuse of, 170; clause intro- duced by, used as predicate com- plement, 14, used to embody a statement of primary importance, 48, 49. Where, for that, 171; clause intro- duced by, used as predicate com- plement, 14. "Where to," 171. Which, applied to persons, 171. While, misuse of, 171. Who, applied to animals, 171; used for lohom, 17, 177, 178; whom used for, 16, 177, 178. Whole compositions, unity of, 59 ff. ; organization of, 62 ff.; coherence of, 65 ff. Whose, 171. Will and shall, 20-21, 180. " Win out," 171. "Windy City, the," 7-8. Wire, misuse of, 3, 171. With, subject not made plural by, 15. Woods, used as singular, 171. Word-breaking ; see Syllabication. Wordiness, 55, 57. Words, used in double capacity, 37 ff.; repetition of, 44 ff., 56-67; pronunciation of, 219 ff.; see also Diction, Would better, would best, 171. Would have, for had, 171. " Would liked," 156. " Would of," 171. Would rather, 171. " Write up," 171. Writer, the, for /, 10. Writing materials, 77, 137, Wrote and ivritteii, 175. X, crossing of, 76. You, used indefinitely, 5. "You was," 171, 176. "Yours," ''yours received," in let ters, 133. Yourself, yourselves, for you, 6. " Yourself and family," 6. YC