PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY BY P. S. MICHIE AND F. S. HARLOW Late Professor of Ph ilosofhy 1st L ieut. 1st A rtillery U. S. A. U. S. M. A. THIRD EDITION REVISED THIRD THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED COPYRIGHT, 1893, BY P. S. MICHIE AND F. S. HARLOW. * : s ** PRESS OF BRAUNWORTH & CO. BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS BROOKLYN. N. Y. PREFACE. THIS volume, both in respect to matter and arrangement, is designed especially for the use of the cadets of the U. S. Military Academy, as a supplement to the course in General Astronomy at present taught them from the text-book of Professor 0. A. Young. It is therefore limited to that branch of Practical Astronomy which relates to Field Work, and more particularly to those subjects which are not discussed at sufficient length for practical work in Professor Young's volume. It is believed, however, that it will find a use- ful application in the hands of officers of the Army, who may be called upon to conduct such explorations and surveys for military purposes as the War Department may from time to time direct. The more usual methods of determining Time, Latitude, and Longitude, on Land, are explained, and the requisite reduction formulas are deduced and explained. In addition, there is given a short explanation of the principles relating to the Construction of Ephemerides, to the Figure of the Earth, the determination of Azimuths, and the projection of Solar Eclipses. The instruments described are those used by the cadets in the Field and Permanent Observatories of the Military Academy dur- ing the summer encampment. The principal sources of information from which the matter in this volume has been derived are the published Reports of the United States Lake, Coast, and Northern Boundary Surveys; the publications of the Hydrographic Office, U. S. Navy, and the works of Brlinnow and Chauvenet. U. S. MILITARY ACADEMY, WEST POINT, N. Y., October, 1892. lit CONTENTS. EPHEMERIS. PAOE American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac , 1 Ephemeris of the Sun. Deduction of Formulas for Computation of the Sun's Tables. 2 Table of Epochs 5 Table of Longitude of Perigee 5 Table of Equations of the Center 5 Perturbations in Longitude ; Aberration 6 Ephemeris of the Sun 6 Earth's Radius Vector 6 Sun's Horizontal Parallax 7 Sim's Apparent Semi-diameter , 7 Equation of the Equinoxes in Longitude 7 Equation of Time 9 Ephemeris of the Moon. Elements of the Lunar Orbit 10 Ephemeris of the Moon 12 Ephemeris of a Planet. 13 INTERPOLATION. 15 THE TRANSIT. Description of the Transit Instrument 17 The Reticle 19 The Eye-piece and Setting Circles , 20 Adjustments of the Transit. 1. To Place the Wires in the Principal Focus of the Objective 21 2. To Level the Axis 21 3. To Place the Wires at Right Angles to the Rotation Axis 23 v VI CONTENTS. PAGE 4. To Place the Middle Wire ID the Line of Collimation 23 5. To Place the Line of Collimation in the Meridian 23 INSTRUMENTAL CONSTANTS. 1. The Value of One Division of the R. A. Micrometer Head 24 2. The Equatorial Intervals. . '. -** 27 3. The Reduction to the Middle Wire. . . 1 28 4. The Value of One Division of the Level 29 5. Inequality of the Pivots 30 EQUATION OF THE TRANSIT IN THE MERIDIAN. 1. The Effect of an Error in Azimuth on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire 35 2. The Effect of an Inclination of the Axis on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire 34 3. The Effect of an Error in Collimatiou on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire 34 Determination of Instrumental Errors. 1. To Determine the Level Error 37 2. To Determine the Collimation Error 37 3. To Determine the Azimuth Error 39 REFRACTION TABLES 40 TIME. Relation between Sidereal and Mean Solar Intervals 43 Relation between Sidereal and Mean Solar Time 44 Example Solved 46 To FIND THE TIME BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. /. Time by Meridian Transits. 1st Method. To Find the Error of a Sidereal Time-piece by the Meridian Transit of a Star (Form 1, Appendix) 47 fr To Find the Same by the Meridian Transit of the Sun 48 2d Method. To Find the Error of a Mean Solar Time-piece by a Merid- ian Transit of the Sun (Form 2) 49 * To Find the Same by a Meridian Transit of a Star 50 THE SEXTANT. Description of the Sextant 50 How to Measure an Angle with the Sextant 54 Adjustments of the Sextant. 1. To Make the Index-glass Perpendicular to the Frame 56 2. To Make the Horizon-glass Perpendicular to the Frame 56 CONTENTS. 3. To Make the Axis of the Telescope Parallel to the Frame 56 4. To Make the Mirrors Parallel, when the Reading is Zero 57 Errors of the Sextant. Index Error . , 57 Eccentricity 58 The Astronomical Triangle , 58 II. Time by Single Altitudes. 1st Method. To Find the Error of a Sidereal Time-piece by a Single Alti- tude of a Star (Form 3) 59 f- The Correction to be Applied to the Mean of the Altitudes. . 60 To Ascertain what Stars are Suitable for this Method 63 2d Method. To Find the Error of a Mean Solar Time-piece by a Single Altitude of the Sun's Limb (Form 4) 64 III. Time by Equal Altitudes. 1st Method. To Find the Error of a Sidereal Time-piece by Equal Alti- tudes of a Star (Form 5) 66 3d Method. To Find the Error of a Mean Solar Time-piece by Equal Alti- tudes of the Sun's Limb (Form 6) 67 J* Correction for Refraction 68 fr Equation of Equal Altitudes 69 Time of Sunrise or Sunset 70 Duration of Twilight 70 LATITUDE. Form and Dimensions of the Earth 72 The Eccentricity of the Meridian 74 The Equatorial and Polar Radii 74 The Radius of Curvature of the Meridian at the Observer's Station 75 The Length of a Degree of Latitude 75 The Length of a Degree Perpendicular to the Meridian 75 The Length of a Degree of Longitude 76 The Length of the Earth's Radius at any Point 76 The Reduction of Latitude 77 Latitude Problems. 1st Method. By Circumpolars 78 2d Method. By Meridian Altitudes or Zenith Distances 78 3d Method. By Circum-meridian Altitudes 79 Formula for Reduction to the Meridian 79 Method of Making and Reducing Observations 80 Hour Angle and Correction for Clock Rate 81 By Circum-meridian Altitudes of the Sun's Limb (Form 7). . 83 By Circum-meridian Altitudes of a Star (Form 8) 84 i Till CONTENTS. PAGE Notes on this Method. 1. Ephemeris Star Preferable to Sun 84 2. Advantage of Combining the Results from Two Stars 84 3. Advantage of Selecting Stars Distant from Zenith 84 4. Reduction of Mean Solar to Sidereal Intervals 86 5. To Determine the Reduction to the Meridian 87 THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. Description of the Zenith Telescope 90 The Attached Level and Declination Micrometer 91 4th Method. By Opposite and Nearly Equal Meridian Zenith Distances. Captain Talcott's Method (Form 9) 96 Conditions for Selecting a Pair of Stars 97 Preliminary Computations 97 Adjustment of Zenith Telescope 98 Observations 99 Reduction of Observations 99 1. Reduction from Mean Declination to Apparent Declination of the Date 99 2. The Micrometer and Level Corrections 100 3. The Refraction Correction 102 4. The Correction for Observations off the Meridian 103 % To Determine the Reduction for an Instrument in the Meridian. . . 105 * To Determine the Probable Error of the Final Result 106 5th Method. By Polaris off the Meridian (Form 10) 109 6th Method. By Equal Altitudes of Two Stars (Form 11) 114 LONGITUDE. 1st Method. By Portable Chronometers 118 2d Method. By the Electric Telegraph (Form 12) 121 Reduction of the Time Observations (Form 12a) 125 % Personal Equation 127 4* Application of Weights and Probable Error of Result 128 3d Method. By Lunar Culminations 132 Observations and Reductions 135 Equation of Transit Instrument Applicable to this Method... 137 4th Method. By Lunar Distances 140 1. Correction for Moon's Augmented Semi-diameter 141 2. Correction for Refraction ,...., 142 3. Correction for Earth's Oblateness 142 Explanation of this Method 142 Observations , 148 r To Find Augmentation of Moon's Semi-diameter 149 % To Deduce the Law of Refractive Distortion 150 * To Deduce the Parallax for the Point R. 151 J- To Determine the Correction for Earth's Oblateness 151 CONTENTS. ix OTHER METHODS OP DETERMINING LONGITUDE. PAGE 1. By Signals 153 2. By Eclipses and Occultatious 153 3. By Jupiter's Satellites 153 a. From their Eclipses 153 b. From their Occupations 153 _* c. From their Transits over Jupiter's Disc 154 d. From the Transit of their Shadows 154 Application to Explorations and Surveys . 154 TIME OP OPPOSITION OR CONJUNCTION. 156 TIME OF MERIDIAN PASSAGE. . 157 AZIMUTH. Definitions 158 The Astronomical Theodolite or Altazimuth , 159 Classification of Azimuths 160 Selection of Stars 160 Measurement of Angles with Altazimuth 1 62 Observations and Preliminary Computations 164 REDUCTION OP OBSERVATIONS. 165 * 1. Diurnal Aberration in Azimuth 166 2. To Reduce an Azimuth observed shortly before or after the Time of Elongation, to its Value at Elongation 167 DECLINATION OP THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. 168 SUN-DIALS. 168 Values of Equation of Time to be added to Sun-Dial Time 173 SOLAR ECLIPSE. Solar Ecliptic Limits 174 PROJECTION OP A SOLAR ECLIPSE. 1. To find the Radius of the Shadow on any Plane Perpendicular to the Axis of the Shadow 176 2. To find the Distance of the Observer at a given time from the Axis of the Shadow 178 3. To find the Time of Beginning or Ending of the Eclipse at the Place of Observation 180 4. The Position Angle of the Point of Contact 182 5. The necessary Equations for Computation arranged in order for the Solution of the Problem 182 TABLES. 185 FORMS. 203 PRACTICAL ASTBONOMY. EPHEMERIS. Ephemeris. The numerical values of the coordinates of the principal celestial bodies, together with the elements of position of the circles of reference, are recorded for given equidistant instants of time in an Astronomical Ephemeris. The "American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac" is pub- lished by the United States Government, generally three years in advance of the year of its title, and comprises three parts, viz. : Part I. Ephemeris for the Meridian of Greenwich, which gives the heliocentric and geocentric positions of the major planets, the ephemeris of the sun, and other fundamental astronomical data for equidistant intervals of mean Greenwich time. Part II. Ephemeris for the Meridian of Washington, which gives the ephemerides of certain fixed stars, sun, moon, and major planets, for transit over the meridian of Washington, and also the mean places of the fixed stars, with the data for their reduction. Part III. Phenomena, which contains prediction of phenomena to be observed, with data for their computation. 'EPHEMERIS OF THE SUN. To construct the ephemeris of the sun it is necessary to com- pute its tables: these are 1. The table of Epochs. 2. The table of Longitudes of Perigee. 3. The table of Equations of the Center, and its corrections. 4. The table of the Equations of the Equinoxes in Longitude. 2 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. In Mechanics* it was shown that the Earth's undisturbed orbit is an ellipse, having one of its foci at the sun's center, and that the earth's angular velocity is its radius vector, + e cos 6' its constant double sectoral area, li |V (1 #*)', (615) and its periodic time, //y"" 2 TT r = 2 n\/-, = *-? (616) In these expressions 0' is the angle made by the earth's radius vector with any assumed right line drawn through the sun's center, 6 that included between the radius vector and the line of apsides estimated from perihelion, and n is the mean motion of the earth in its orbit. From (551), (615) and (616), we have -f e cos dt ~ dt ~ a* (1 - e 2 ) 2 / V //? (1 + e cos BY _ (1 -f e cos By (!-) (1 - *') and therefore n d t = (1 - e 2 )* (1 + e cos 6y* d 0'. (2) Since e varies but little from 0.01678 (see Art. 185, Young f), we may omit all terms containing the third and higher powers of e in the development of the second member of the preceding equation. * Micliie's ^Mechanics, 4th Edition. ,f Young's General Astronomy. SPHEMERI8. 3 Then after substituting 2 for cos 2 9, we have n dt = d d' - 2 e cos Bd 9 -f |e a cos 2 Bd (2 0) + etc. (3) Integrating we have n t + = d' - 2e sin 6 + f e 2 sin 2 8 + etc. (4) The earth's orbit is, however, not entirely undisturbed. Due to the perturbating action of other bodies of the solar system the earth is never exactly in the place which it would occupy in an undis- turbed orbit. Moreover the line of apsides has a direct motion, i.e., in the direction in which longitudes are measured, of about 11".7 per annum, and the vernal equinox an irregular retrograde motion whose mean value is about 50".2 per annum. Therefore (Fig. 1), let the line from which 0' is estimated be that drawn through the sun and the position of the mean vernal equinox V at some fixed instant, called the epoch. Then when 6 is zero, 0' will be the longitude of perihelion, estimated from this point. Let this be denoted by l p , and the time of perihelion pas- sage by t p \ then from (4) we have, nt 9 +C=l p . (5) 4 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Subtracting from (4) we have n (t - g = d' - l p - 2 e sin + f e a sin 2 0, (6) which since v-i p =e 17) reduces to n (* - y = (0' - l p ) - 2 esin (0' - l p ) + ie'sin2 (P - l p ). (8) Transposing l p , we have 71 (Z - g +l p = l m =e'-Ze*m (0' - l p ) + f e'sin 2 (0' - *,), (9) in which / w is the longitude of the mea/n place of the earth at the time I, referred to the same origin. Let L be the longitude of the earth's mean place at the epoch, also referred to the same origin, and T any interval of time before or after this epoch. Then will l m = L+nT, (10) and we have L + nT = &' -2esm (6' - l p ) + f e 2 sin 2 (0' - l p ). (11) To find the values of the four unknown quantities, L, n, e, and l p , take four observations of R. A. and declination at different times, and having reduced the declination to its geocentric value by cor- recting for refraction and parallax, find the corresponding longi- tudes (Art. 180, Young). Each longitude is necessarily referred to the true equinox of its own date. Eeduce each to the mean equinox of the epoch by cor- recting for aberration, nutation, precession, and perturbations, add 180, and the results will be the longitudes of the true place of the earth referred to a common point the mean equinox of the epoch. They will therefore be the values of 0' corresponding to the values of T in the following equations, the solution of which will give L, n, e, and l p . L n 7 = #-2esin - L + n T, = 6J - 2 e sin (0/ - l p ) , . . L + nT,= 0,' - 2 esin (0/ - ' * BPIIEMERIS. 5 The value of n derived from these equations is evidently the earth's mean motion from a fixed point. Its mean motion from the moving mean vernal equinox (or mean motion in longitude) is evidently given by 360 " 360 - 50."2" These observations repeated at different times will determine the changes that take place in w, e, and l p \ from the last two the variations in the eccentricity and the rate of motion of perihelion can be found. Having in this manner found the elements of the earth's place and motion, the corresponding mean longitude of the sun at any instant can be obtained by adding to that of the earth 180. L + n' T-\- 180 will then give for any instant the mean longi- tude of the sun's mean place. The difference between the longi- tudes of the sun's true and mean places at any instant is the Equation of the Center for that instant. From the preceding elements let it be required to construct the Tables of the Sun. 1. The Table of Epochs. Take mean midnight, December 31 January 1, 1890, as the epoch. To the mean longitude of the sun's mean place at that epoch, add the product of the sun's mean motion n', by the number of mean solar days after the epoch, subtracting 360 when this sum is greater than 360. These longitudes with their corresponding times being tabulated, form the table of epochs, from which the mean longitude of the mean place of the sun can be found by inspection for any day, hour, minute or second. 2. The Table of Longitudes of Perigee. The longitude of peri- helion increased by 180 is the corresponding longitude of perigee. Hence the former being found, and its rate of change determined, the addition of 180 to each longitude of perihelion will give the longitude of perigee, and these values being tabulated form the table of longitudes of perigee. 3. The Table of Equations of the Center. The difference be- tween the true and mean anomalies at any instant, given by the first of Eqs. (650), Mechanics, 8 n t 2 e sin n t -f f e* sin 2 n t -j- etc., (13) 6 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. is called the Equation of the Center, and is known when n and are known ; t being the time since perihelion passage. Assuming e to be constant and causing n t to vary from to 360, the resulting values of the second member of the equation will form a table of the equations of the center. The errors in these values arise from the small variations in the values of e ; these errors can be found by substituting in the second member of the above equation the actual values of e at the time, and the differences being talulated will give a table by which the equations of the center may be corrected from time to time. 4. Equation of the Equinoxes in Longitude. Due to physical causes, the pole of the equator completes a revolution about the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years. The plane of the equator conforming to this motion of the pole, its intersection with the plane of the ecliptic, called the line of the equinoxes, turns with a retrograde motion of about 50".2 per annum about the sun as a fixed point. This motion is not however, perfectly uniform. The true pole describes once in- 19 years around the moving mean place above re- ferred to, a small ellipse, whose transverse axis directed toward the pole of the ecliptic is 18".5 in angular measure, and whose conju- gate axis is 13".74. The 'corresponding irregularity in the motion of the line of the equinoxes causes a slight oscillation of the true on either side of the moving mean equinox. Both are on the eclip- tic; and their distance apart at any time is called the Equation of the Equinoxes in Longitude, its projection on the equator the Equation of the Equinoxes in Right Ascension, and the intersection of the declination circle which projects the mean equinox with the equator, the Reduced Place of the Mean Equinox. The maximum value of the Equation of the Equinoxes in Longitude is i off 74. ^4^- + sin 23 28' = 17".25. To illustrate, P, in Fig. 2, is the pole of the equator, VE the ecliptic, VM the equator, F the true, V the mean, and V" the re- duced place of the mean vernal equinox. VV is the equation of the equinoxes in longitude, and VV" in Right Ascension. The equation of the equinoxes in longitude is a function of the BPHEMERIS. 7 " longitude of the moon's node, the longitude of the sun, and the obliquity of the ecliptic. Separate tables are constructed for this FIG. 2. correction, in which the arguments for entering them are the obliquity and longitude of the moon's node, and the obliquity and the longitude of the sun; the sum of the two corrections is the value of the equation of the equinoxes in longitude at the corresponding times. The Perturbations in Longitude of the earth arising from the attractions of the planets (especially Venus and Jupiter), are the same for the sun; these are computed by the methods indicated in Physical Astronomy, (see Art. 174, Mechanics,) and then tabulated. The Sun's Aberration is taken to be constant, amounting to 20".25 and is included in the table of epochs. Ephemeris of the Sun. The above tables having been computed, we proceed as follows : 1. From the table of epochs take out the mean longitude of the sun's mean place corresponding to the exact instant considered. 2. From the table of longitudes of perigee take the mean longi- tude of perigee; the difference between this and the mean longi- tude of the sun's mean place is the mean anomaly. 3. With the mean anomaly as an argument find the correspond- ing value of the equation of the center from its table, and add it 8 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. with its proper sign to the mean longitude of the sun's mean place; the result will be the mean longitude of the sun's true place; hence the Sun's true longitude = Mean longitude of sun's mean place Equation of center Perturbations in longitude Corrections to pass from the mean equinox o-f date to true equinox of date. These latter corrections are due to Nutation and constitute the Equation of the Equinoxes in Longitude. 4. Having the true longitude of the sun and the obliquity of the ecliptic, the corresponding Right Ascension and Declination of the sun can be computed for the same instant by the method explained in Art. 180, Astronomy. 5. Earth's Radius Vector. Substituting the values of e and n t, in the second of Eqs. (650), Mechanics, will give the values of the distance of the sun from the earth in terms of the mean distance a: thus (g2 1 e cos n t + - (1 cos 2 n t) 303 V -- (cos 3 nt cos nt)-\- etc.] . (14) - ^ 6. The Sun's Horizontal Parallax. From astronomical observa- tions the value of a (and hence of r) is found in terms of the earth's equatorial radius, p e . (Young, Chapters XIII and XVI.) The sun's equatorial horizontal parallax, P, at any time is then given by GO being the number of seconds in a radian = 206264".8, and r being expressed as just stated. At any place where the earth's radius in terms of the equatorial radius is p, we shall have for the horizontal parallax = p P. 7. The Sun's Apparent Semi-Diameter. Knowing P, measure- ments of the sun's angular semi-diameter will give its linear semi- diameter s' in terms of p e . Its angular semi-diameter s for any day is then given by s = Ps' (16) EPUEME111S. 9 9. Equation of Time. If, at the instant when the true sun's mean place coincides with the mean equinox, an imaginary point should leave the reduced place of the mean equinox and travel with uniform motion on the celestial equator, returning to its starting- point at the instant the true sun's mean place next again coincides with the mean equinox, such a point is called a Mean Sun. Time measured by the hour angles of this point is called Mean Solar Time. The angle included between the declination circles passing through the centre of the true sun and this point at any instant is called the Equation of Time for that instant; its value, at any in- stant, added algebraically to mean or apparent solar time will give the other. As the apparent time can be found by direct observa- tion the equation of time is usually employed as a correction to pass from apparent to mean solar time. Thus in Fig. 2, PM is the me- ridian, 8 the true sun, S' its mean place, S" the mean sun, VS'" the true K. A. of the true sun, V"S" the mean R. A. of the mean sun VS' = sun's mean longitude, angle NFS'" or arc MS 9 " apparent solar time, MS" mean solar time, and S"S r " the Equation of Time = VS'"-(VS" + VV"). Hence we have for the Equation of Time, e = True sun's true Right Ascension (sun's mean longitude-)- equation of equinoxes in R. A.). (17) The mean sun (S") moving in the equator and used in connec- tion with time, must not be confused with the mean sun (S') before referred to, moving in the ecliptic. 10. Referring to the American Ephemeris, we see that Page I of each month contains the Sun's Apparent R. A., Declination, Semi-diameter, Sidereal time of semi-diameter passing the me- ridian, at Greenwich apparent noon, together with the values for their respective hourly changes; the latter being computed from the values of their differential co-efficients. From these we can find the corresponding data for any other meridian. Page II con- tains similar data for the epoch of Greenwich mean moon, and in addition the sidereal time or R. A. of the mean sun. Page III con- tains the sun's true longitude and latitude, the logarithm of the earth's radius vector and the mean time of sidereal noon. The 10 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. obliquity, precession, and sun's mean horizontal parallax for the year, are found on page 278 of the Ephemeris. All these consti- tute an Ephemeris of the Sun. From the hourly changes the elements for any meridian can be readily computed. THE EPHEMERIS OP THE MOON. The Ephemeris of the Moon consists of tables giving the Moon's Right Ascension and Declination for every hour of Greenwich mean time, witi the changes for each minute; the Apparent Semi-diameter, Horizontal Parallax, Time of upper transit on the Greenwich Meridian, and Moon's Age. In order to compute these, it is first necessary to find the True Longitude of the Moon, its True Latitude, the Longitude of the Moon's Node, the Inclination of the Moon's Orbit to the Ecliptic, and the Longitude of Perigee. 1. The Elements of the Lunar Orbit. Let DC be the intersection of the celestial sphere by the plane of the lunar orbit; VB the FIG. 3. ecliptic, and VA the . equinoctial ; V the mean vernal equinox, N the ascending node, P the Perigee, all relating to some assumed epoch. Also let M l , M 2 , M 3 , M t , be the geocentric places of the moon's center at the four times, t l , 1 3 , 1 3 , t t . These places are EPHEMERIS. 11 obtained as in case of the sun by observed Right Ascensions and Declinations, corrected for refraction, semi-diameter, parallax, and perturbations, then converted into the corresponding latitudes and longitudes, and finally referred to the mean equinox of the epoch, by correcting for aberration, nutation, and precession. Referring to the figure, assume the following notation: v = V N, the longitude of the node; t = CN By the inclination of the orbit; l i= = V0 iy the longitude of J/,; Z 2 = F0 2 , the longitude of M^ Aj= M l 1 , the latitude of M^\ A 2 = M^ 0, , the latitude of Jf a ; v, = VEN+ NE M lf the orbit longitude of J/",; p = V EN -\- NE P, the orbit longitude of perigee; = PE M^ v 1 p, the true anomaly of Jf,; e eccentricity of orbit; m = mean motion of moon in its orbit; t l = time since epoch for M l ; L = mean orbit longitude at epoch. To find v and i, we have from the right-angled spherical tri- angles M l N 0, and Jf, N 2 2 , sin (j v) cot i tan A a / sin ( 2 v) = cot i tan A 2 f ' ' and by division, sin (?, - v) tanl, Adding unity to both members, reducing, then subtracting each member from unity, again reducing, and finally dividing one result by the other, we obtain sin (Z, - r) + sin (7, - v) = tan A, + tan A, sin (Z 2 r) sin (/, v) tan A a tan A/ ' ' 01 by reduction formulas, page 4 (Book of Formulas), 12 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. from which v can be found; i is found from either of equations (18), when v is known. To find L, m, e, and p, we proceed as in the determination of the table of epochs in the case of the sun, using a similar equation, thus : L -\- m T { == v l 2e sin (v l p), } + *?; = *; I ^1$; (32) m T t = v^ 2 e sin (# 4 p), in which .. tan (L v) v = v + tan ' - i. t; (23) cos * v f and similar values for v z , v 3 , and v 4 . To find the ecliptic longitude of perigee V 0, represented by p l , we have from the right-angled triangle N P 0, tan N = tan ( p v) . cos t, (24) from which p l = v -j- tan' 1 (tan (p v) . cos i). (25) Similarly the mean ecliptic longitude of the moon, L l , at the epoch is L^ = v+ tan" 1 (tan (L v) . cos t). (26) To find the sidereal period, s, we have - (27) v 7 in which s is the length of the sidereal period in mean solar days. 2. The Ephemeris of the Moon. The motion of the moon is much more irregular and complicated than the apparent motion of the sun, owing mainly to the disturbing action of this latter body. But this and other perturbations have been computed and tabulated, and from these tables, including those of the node and inclination, the places of the moon in her orbit are found in the same way as those of the sun in the ecliptic. The mean orbit longitude of the moon and of her perigee are first found and corrected ; their dift'er ence gives her mean anomaly, opposite to which in the appropriate table is found the equation of the center, and this being applied EPHEMERIS. 13 with its proper sign to the mean orbit longitude gives the true orbit longitude, after reduction to true equinox of date. The Right Ascension and Declination of the Moon can now be computed for any instant of time, thus : subtract the longitude of the node from the orbit longitude of the moon, and we have the moon's angular distance from her node, represented in the figure by N M l . This, with the inclination i, will give us the moon's latitude and the angular distance N X ; the latter added to the longitude of the node will give the moon's longitude FO,. The latitude, longitude, and obliquity of the ecliptic suffice to compute the right ascension and declination. The radius vector, equatorial horizontal parallax, apparent diameter, etc., are computed as in the case of the sun. THE EPHEMEBIS OF A PLACET. From the tables of a planet its true orbit longitude as seen from the sun is found, as in the case of the moon as seen from the earth. The heliocentric longitude and latitude, and the radius vector are found from the heliocentric orbit longitude, heliocentric longitude of the node, and inclination, in the same way as the geocentric elements of the moon are found from similar data in the lunar orbit. To pass from heliocentric to geocentric coordinates, let P, Fig. 4, be the planet's center, E that of the earth, S that of the sun, and FIG. 4. the projection of P on the plane of the ecliptic. S V and E V are drawn to the vernal equinox; then let 14 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. r = E S, be the earth's radius vector; /' = S P, be the planet's radius vector; X = V S 0, be the heliocentric longitude of planet; A' = VE 0, be the geocentric longitude of planet; Q P S 0, be the heliocentric latitude of planet; 8' = P E 0, be the geocentric latitude of planet; S = S E, be the commutation ; = S E, be the heliocentric parallax; E = 8 E 0, be the elongation; L = V E S, be the longitude of the sun; r"= E P, be the distance of planet from the earth. To find the geocentric longitude, S0 = r' cos 0, (28) VST= FJ0tf = 360 - L, (29) S - i 8 o _ (360 - L) - A = L - 180 - A, (30) from which S is known. In the plane triangle E S, we have 0). (31) ^=180, (32) ) = 90-f, (33) hence tani(^-0)^cot^ r r ; C c o S J-;, (34) and placing we have tan } (E - 0) = cot \ 8 ^ = cot i -S tan (^ - 45) (36) INTERPOLATION: 15 therefore E and are known : and we have A' = E - (360 -L)=E+L- 360. (37) To find the geocentric latitude, we have P = ^ tail 0' = S tan (38) tanfl' _ ff _ jdnj? tan '~' E0~~~ sin~# ; whence at n sin ^ tatr-itatff-jg-g. (40) To find r", we have E0 = r" cos 0', S0 = r' cos 0. In the triangle E S 0, we have r" cos 0' : r' cos 6 :: sin $ : sin E, whence , cosfl sin/Sf ~ r ~ With these data we can readily find the right ascension, decli- nation, horizontal parallax, and apparent diameter as in the case of the sun and moon. INTERPOLATION. Interpolation. Whenever the differences of the quantities re- corded in the Ephemeris tables are directly proportional to the dif- ferences of the corresponding times, simple interpolation will enable us to find the numerical value of the quantity in question. When this is not the case, the value is determined by the " method of in- terpolation by differences." Bessel's form of this formula, usually employed, is 16 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. n n ~ n n ~ (n-\ T ' -i): n (n i i) (- -2) n ^4 + etc. 2.3, ,4 (42) In this formula, F n is the value^pf the function to be deter- mined; F, the ephemeris value from which we set out; d l9 d^ } d 3 , etc., are the terms of the successive orders of differences, deter- mined as explained below; n is the fractional value of the time interval, in terms of the constant interval taken as unity corre- sponding to which the values of the function F are computed and recorded in the tables. To use this formula, draw a horizontal line below the value of F from which we set out, and one above the next consecutive value taken from the ephemeris. These lines are to enclose the values of the odd differences d iy d 3 ,d 6 , etc. The values of the even differences d^ , d t , d 6 , etc., being each the mean of two numbers, one above and one below in their respective col- umns, are then inserted in their proper places. The following ex- ample is given to illustrate the application of Bessel's formula. Find the distance of the moon's center from Regulus at 9 P.M. West Point mean time March 24th, 1891. The longitude of West Point is 4.93 hrs. west of Greenwich; hence the Greenwich time corresponding to 9 P.M. West Point mean time is 13.93 hrs. Referring to pages 54 and 55 American Ephemeris we take out the following data, namely : A March 24. F *, d> ^3 *, 6 h 27 01' 24" 1 28' 9" 9 h 28 29' 33" + 11" 1 28' 20" + 1" 12 h 29 57' 53" + 12" 9" j 13' .93 30 54' 47".31 1 28' 32" (+ 11".5) -1" -1" 15 h 31 26' 25" + 11" 1 28' 43" -1" 18" 32 55' 8" + 10" 1 28' 53" 21 h 34 24' 1" THE TRANSIT. 17 Whence, substituting in the formula, we have ^=29 57' 53" + 0.643 (1 28' 32") -}- 0.643 ( ^i 1 ) (11".5) + (0.643) ( - 0.357) (0.143) (- 1"). = 29 57' 53" + 56' 55".616 - 1".32 + 0".01, = 30 54' 47".31 the required distance. Instruments. The principal instruments used in field astronom- ical work are the Transit, Sextant, Zenith Telescope, and Altazi- muth or Astronomical Theodolite. A short description of each instrument will be given in connection with the first problem in- volving its use. But since much relating to the transit is appli- cable also to the zenith telescope and altazimuth, that instrument will be explained first. THE TKANSIT. The Transit is an instrument usually mounted in the meridian, and employed in connection with a chronometer for observing the meridian passage of a celestial body. Since the E. A. of a body is equal to the sidereal time at the instant of its meridian passage, or is equal to the chronometer time plus its error (a = T -{- E), it is seen that by noting T, E will be given when a is known, and con- versely a will be given when E is known. The very accurate determination of E is the chief use of the transit in field work. The instrument consists essentially of a telescope mounted upon and at right angles to an axis of such shape as to prevent easy flexure. The ends of this axis called the pivots, are v iisually of hard bell metal or polished steel, and should be portions of the same right cylinder with a circular base. They rest upon Y's, which in turn are supported by the metal frame or stand. At one end of the axis there is a screw by which its Y may be slightly raised or lowered in order that the axis may be made horizontal. At the other end of the axis is another screw by which its Y may be moved backward or forward, in order that the telescope may be placed in the meridian. The telescope is provided with an achro- matic object glass, at the principal focus of which is a wire frame carrying an odd number of parallel vertical wires as symmetrically disposed as possible with reference to the middle; also two horizon- tal wires near to each other, between which the image of the point 18 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. FIG. 5. THE TRANSIT. THE TRANSIT. 19 observed should always be placed. This system of wires is viewed by a positive or Ramsden's eye-piece, which can be moved bodily in a horizontal direction to a position directly opposite any wire, thus practically enlarging the field of direct view. The wires are rendered visible in the daytime by the diffuse light of day, but at night artificial illumination is required. This is effected by passing light from a small lamp along the length of the perforated axis, FIG. 6. whence it is thrown toward the eye by a small reflector placed at the junction of the axis and the telescope tube, thus producing the effect of " a bright field and dark wires." The right line passing through the optical center of the object glass intersecting and at right angles to the axis of rotation of the instrument, is called the "line of collimation." The wire frame should be so placed that this line will pass mid- way between the two horizontal wires, and intersect the middle vertical wire; which latter should also be at right angles to the axis of rotation of the instrument. These conditions being fulfilled, it is manifest that if the axis be placed in a true east and west line, and be made exactly level, the line joining any point of the middle wire and the optical center of the objective will, as the instrument is turned on its pivots, trace on the celestial sphere the true meridian; and the sidereal time when any body appears on the middle wire, will, if correctly estimated, be the value of T required in the equation, t* > *4 # 6 > ^ .' t, > be tne accurate instants of passing the cor- responding wires; let i, , ?\ , i z , 0, ?' fi , * 6 , i, , be the equatorial inter- vals from the middle wire. Then the time of passing the mean wire is (46) The time of passing the middle wire is either t l + i l sec d, t z -f i 9 sec d, t z -f i 3 sec d, t t ,t f - ^ sec tf, t 6 i 6 sec tf, or t^ * 7 sec d (note the minus sign in the last three). Hence the* most probable time of passing the middle wire is ft 2t t Si = -+secd. (47) INSTRUMENTAL CONSTANTS, 29 The difference between this and the time of passing the mean wire is evidently the second term, or ^ sec 6 = (*! + * + *)"(*+* + *'' sec tf. (48) i The equatorial value of this reduction (the desired constant) will then be and for any given star the actual reduction will be this value mul- tiplied by sec d. The adopted value of A i should rest upon many determinations. Its sign is evidently changed by reversing the axis of the instrument. Hence, to find the time of a star's passage over the middle wire, we have the rule : To the mean of the times add A i sec d, noting the signs of both factors. The Equatorial Intervals are also used for finding the time of passage over the middle wire when actual observation on some of the wires has been prevented by clouds or other cause. Thus suppose observations have-only been made on the second, third, and seventh wires. The most probable time of passing the middle wire is (*. + f. sec (?) + (*. + i* sec t and i referring only to the wires used. 4. Value of One Division of the Level. In practical astronomy the level is used not merely for testing and regulating the horizon- tality of a given line, but also for measuring either in arc or time those small residual inclinations to the horizontal which no process of mechanical adjustment can either eliminate or maintain at a constant value. Hence we must determine the value of one division of the strid- ing level of the transit; i.e., the increment or decrement of incli- nation which will throw the bubble one division of the gradu nfcion. The best method of determining this quantity in case of a de- tached level is by use of tne " Level-trier," which consists simply of a metal bar resting at one end on two firm supports, and at the 30 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. i other on a vertical screw. Then if d be the distance from the screw to the middle of the line joining the two fixed supports, and h the distance between two threads of the screw (obtained by counting the number of threads to the inch), the inclination of the bar to the horizon would be changed by -T- v-^?ar/> due to one revolution of the d sin J_ screw. The level is then placed on the bar and the number n of divisions passed over by the bubble due to one turn (or division) of the screw is noted. The value of one division of the level in angle is then = : 777 . The mean of several observations, using both ndsm 1" ends of the bubble, should be adopted. The value in time is - j -. r-. . If no level-trier is available, the level should be 15 n d sin I" placed on the body of the telescope connected with a vertical circle reading to seconds : as for example the meridian circle of a fixed observatory. Move the instrument slowly by the tangent screw and note the number of level divisions corresponding to a change of 1" in the reading of the circle, taking the means as before. By either method the level may be tested throughout its entire length. We have seen that the inclination of a line in level divisions^ is (w -f- w') (e -f #') i -f r> j L - L f j ! - ; hence if D denote the constant just found, the inclination of the line in arc will be p _ - g e _ - ~~ "- ~~ the west end being higher if (w -f- w') > (e -j- e'), or when this ex- pression is positive. 5. Inequality of the Pivots. The construction of the pivots being one of the most delicate operations in the manufacture of the whole instrument, their equality must never be assumed. In transit observations it is manifestly the axis of rotation (the Axis of the pivots) which should be made horizontal, or whose in- clination should be measured. If the- pivots are unequal they may be regarded as portions of the same right cone; in which case it is evident that the striding level applied to the upper element might indicate horizontality when the axis was really inclined, and vice INSTRUMENTAL CONSTANTS. 31 versa. We must therefore correct our level indications by the effect of this " Inequality of Pivots." To determinate this, let w x y z in Figure 8 represent the cone of FIG. 8. the pivots, u v being the axis. Let the inclination of the upper element iv z be measured with the level, giving s= (w+ w') - (e + e') 4 D. Lift the axis from the Y y s and turn it end for end. In this position w' x y z' will represent the cone of the pivots. Measure as before the inclination of w' z', and denote it by B' Then by inspection of the figure it is seen that B f B is the angle Tlf T) between the two positions of the upper element, - - is the tit angle between the upper and lower elements of the cone, and T}/ 7? p is consequently the angle between the upper element and the axis u v* * B and B are manifestly the inclinations, in the two positions, which the upper element would have if the pivots were equal, minus twice the effect of the inequality: this effect being the angle subtended by the difference of the radii, r r ' . Of course if the pivots are unequal, the inclination obtained by applying the level Y's to the pivots is not strictly that of the upper element; but if the angles of the transit and level Y's are equal (as is usually the case), it will evidently be, as before, the inclination which the upper element would have if the pivots were equal, minus twice the effect of the inequality: the effect in this case being (Fig. Sa, which represents a cross-section of the pivots and level T) the angle subtended by - . Hence the algebraic differ^ siii "5" a ence, B' ~ B, will be four times the effect of the inequality, as before. FIG. 8a. 32 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. T)t T> This quantity, p, is therefore the desired constant, and as the figure indicates, it is a correction to be added algebraically to the level determination of the unreversed instrument, or to be subtracted from that of the reversed instrument. Its value should rest upon many determinations. The inclination of the axis of a transit will hereafter be denoted by b, which is therefore either B -j- p, or B' p, according as the instrument is direct or reversed. | The cross-sections of the pivots should be perfect circles. Any departure from this form may be discovered and corrected as follows : With instrument direct, determine the value of B with the telescope placed successively at every 10 of altitude. Call the mean B . Then B B is the correction for irregularity of pivots for the reading corresponding to B with instrument direct. Do the same with instrument reversed. Then B ' B will be the correction T) r n for irregularity with instrument reversed. ?- - will be the cor- rection for inequality. Both corrections must be applied to obtain the true value of b. EQUATION OF THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT IN THE MERIDIAN. The transit, having been adjusted and the instrumental con- stants determined, is ready for use. Hitherto it has been assumed that an adjustment was perfect: that the middle wire had been placed exactly in the line of collimation, that the axis of rota- tion had been made exactly level, and that the line of collimation would trace with mathematical accuracy the true meridian. Mani- festly, however, this theoretical accuracy cannot be attained by mechanical means. It will therefore be proper, having performed each adjustment as accurately as possible, not to regard the out- standing small errors as zero, but to introduce them into a given problem as additional unknown quantities having an ascertainable effect on the result, and then to make independent determinations TRANSIT INSTRUMENT IN THE MERIDIAN. S3 of their value, or leave these values to be revealed by the observa- tions themselves. Any departure from perfect adjustment is positive when its effect is to make stars south of the zenith cross the middle wire earlier than they otherwise would. 1. To Ascertain the Effect of an Error in Azimuth on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire. Let a denote the horizontal angular deviation of the axis of rotation from a true east and west line, positive when the west pivot is south of the east pivot. (This should never exceed 15", and will usually be even less.) The line of col- limation will then, as the instrument is moved in altitude, describe a great circle of the celestial sphere intersecting the meridian in the zenith, and making with it the angle a (HZ A in Figure 9). H FIG. 9. Then from the Z P S triangle we have (S being the position of a star when on the middle wire), sin P : sin a : : sin z : cos S, or sin a sin z sm P - =r- - cos o If the star were exactly on the meridian, z would be equal to cf> d. Being less than 15" therefrom, the change required in z to give d is entirely negligible. Again P and a are exceed- ingly small angles. Hence we may write with great precision, ex- pressing a and P in time, cos o (50) 34 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. That is, if the instrument have an azimuth error in time, of a seconds, a star when passing the middle wire is distant from the true meridian a 5 - seconds of time, and the recorded time cos 6 of transit must be corrected accordingly. 2. To Ascertain the Effect of an Inclination of the Axis on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire. Let b denote the angular deviation of the axis of rotation from the horizontal, positive when the west pivot is higher than the east. The line of collimation will then, as the instrument is moved in altitude, describe a great circle of the celestial sphere intersecting the meridian at the north and south points of the horizon, and making with it the angle b (ZHS, in Figure 10). FIG. 10. Then from the triangle P IIS (8 being the position of a star when on the middle wire) sin P : sin b : : cos z : cos <5. Or, as before, expressing b in time, p=J CO^-^)_ cos d This is interpreted as in the preceding case. 3. To Ascertain the Effect of an Error in Collimation on the Time of Passage of the Middle Wire. Let c denote the angular distance of the middle wire from the line of collimation, positive when the wire is west of its proper position. The line of sight will then, as the instrument is moved in altitude-, describe a small circle of the celestial sphere, east of the meridian and parallel to it. Through S, the place of the star, Fig. 11, pass the arc of a great circle, 8 M 3 TRANSIT INSTRUMENT IN THE MERIDIAN. 35 perpendicular to the meridian. This arc will be the measure of c. Then in the right-angled triangle P S M we have . D sin c sin P = cos Or, as before, expressing c in time, P = ~~^ = c sec 5. (52) ^ } cos Hence when all these errors, #, b, and c, exist together, called re- spectively the azimuth, level, and collimation error, we have for the Equation of the Transit Instrument in the Meridian, (53) In this equation a is the apparent R. A. of the star for the date, T is the clock time of transit over the middle wire, obtained from the time of transit over the mean wire by applying the " Reduction FIG. 11. to Middle Wire/' E is the chronometer error, positive when slow, negative when fast, the latitude, d the star's apparent declination for the date, and a, b, and c are expressed in time. When great precision is desired, for example in longitude work, the equation must be modified by the introduction of a small cor- rection for Diurnal Aberration, additive to a. The value of the correction is O s .021 cos sec d. Hence the complete form of the above equation is a = T+JS + a S (^0 mileS per SeC nd > where 20926062 is the number of feet in the earth's equatorial radius (Clarke). According to Newcomb and Michelson, V = 186330 miles per second. DETERMINATION OF INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS. 3? Hence R = _ 20926062 x 2 n _ 5280 X 24 X 3600 x. 186330 X tan 1" " This angular displacement in a great circle perpendicular to the meridian corresponds to 9 .021 if the star be on the equator, or to 0?021 sec d if the star's declination be #, since,, as we have seen before, equal angular distances from the meridian correspond to hour angles varying with sec ft. If the observer be not on the equator, but at latitude : 1. Hence, for an observer in any latitude, with a star at any dec- lination, R = O s .021 cos sec d. DETERMINATION OF INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS. 1. To Determine the Level Error b. This is found from the formula already deduced, viz. : D +p (55) or :;.; . V = B'-f = ^ + ^-^ + ^D- f , (56) according as the instrument is direct or reversed. D and p must be expressed in time, by dividing their values in arc by 15, thus giving b in time. 2. To Determine the Collimation Error c. Turn the instrument to the horizon, select some well-defined distant point whose image is near the middle wire, measure the distance between them with the micrometer, making the distance positive when the middle wire is west of the image of the point. Reverse the axis, and meas- ure the new distance, with same rule as to sign. Subtract the second from the first, and one half the difference gives the colli- mation error in micrometer divisions for instrument direct. 38 PRACTICAL ASTKONOMY. This multiplied by the value of one division in time, gives c in time. The rule will be evident from an inspection of Fig. 12 (which is a horizontal projection), where w is the west, and e the east end of the axis, T E the hori- zontal line of collimation, P the image of the e point in the field of view, a the direct and b the reversed position of the middle wire. E a >_^_ is equal to E b, and c is positive. b Instead of a terrestrial point we may use the FIQ. 12. intersection of the cross hairs in the focus of a surveyor's transit adjusted to stellar focus, the two instruments facing each other. The intersection referred to will then be optically at an infinite distance, and its image will be found at the principal focus of our transit. It is sometimes necessary to determine c by independent stellar observations, in which case the following method is always employed : Point the telescope to a circumpolar star and note the times of its passage over as many wires as possible on one side of the middle wire. Eeverse the axis. As the star moves out of the field of view, it will cross the same wires in reverse order, the times of passage being noted as before. By means of the Equatorial Intervals reduce each time to the middle wire, and let T and T' denote the mean of those before and after reversal, respectively. T and T f are therefore the times of passage of the same star over two different positions of the middle wire one as much to the east as the other was to the west of the true line of collimation. From their difference therefore we have double the collimation error, thus: For instrument direct, sin T_I_ w _L - , - a 1 4- E 4- a -- 5 * 4- ^ -- cos(0-tf) c O s .021 cos 5 - ^ -- --- j -- -T cos o cos o cos o cos o For instrument reversed, , . v , >n(0-tf) , ,,,008(0-0) c 0".021*) Ct ^^ -/ + Hi ~T~ u - jc - ~i " ~~ ?i _n "F~ COS O COS O COSO COk C DETERMINATION OF INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS. 39 allowance being made for a change in level error due to a possible inequality of pivots, and c changing its sign by reversal of the in- strument. By subtraction and solution we have c = i (r - T) cos tf + i (V - b) cos (0 - tf). (57) If the pivots are equal and the instrument be undisturbed in level, the last term disappears and we have c = %(T' - T) cos d. (58) A slow-moving star must be used in order to give time for care- ful reversal. There are various other methods of finding both b and c, based principally upon observation of the wires and their images as seen by reflection from mercury. 3. To Determine the Azimuth Error, a. Observe in the usual manner the time of transit, T, of a star of known declination. Then, b and c having been measured, let the corresponding correc- tions, b - -r - and c f sec d, be added to T, giving t. This is cos o called correcting the time for level and collimation. The equation of the instrument as applied to this star will now read sin (0 d} a=^t + E + a - -~^ L . (m) cos d Similarly for another star, a >=t> + E +a S (- S 'l (n) cos 6' v ' From which a (sin cos tan d f sin 0.-f cos tan #) = (' a) (t f t). (a > -a)- ((' - t ) ' cos (tan $ - tan , may be determined by the use of four stars as explained on page 36. It may also be determined by Eq. (57) or (58), if T and T' be computed for the mean instead of the middle wire. This use of the mean for the middle wire is frequent in field work, and possesses the advantage that all consideration of the "Reduction to. the Middle Wire" may be then avoided. REFRACTION TABLES. 41 REFRACTION TABLES. A ray of light passing from a celestial body to a point on the earth's surface, may be supposed to pass through successive spherical strata of the atmosphere, the densities of which continually increase toward the center. Under these circumstances, as has been previ- Dusly shown, the ray will be bent toward the normal, resulting in an apparent displacement of the body toward the zenith. It has also been previously shown that the actual amount of such displacement increases with the zenith distance, and with the density of the air, which latter depends on its pressure and tempera- ture. In order to facilitate the calculation of this displacement or refraction in any particular case, tables have been constructed con- containing certain functions of the zenith distance, temperature, and pressure, from which, with observed data as arguments, the re- fraction may be computed. Such tables are called Refraction Tables. Those of Bessel are the best and most usually employed. In these tables the adopted value of the refraction function is given by r = a j3 y x tan z, in which r is the refraction; A, A, and a are quantities varying slowly with the zenith distance; /3 is a factor depending on the pressure, and y upon the temperature of the air; z is the apparent zenith distance ; ft therefore depends upon the reading of the ba- rometer, and y upon the reading of the thermometer. But since the actual height indicated by a barometer depends not only upon the pressure of the air, but upon the temperature of the mercury, /3 is really composed of two factors B and T, the first of which de- pends upon the actual reading of the barometer, and T involves the correction due to the temperature of the mercury. Nearly all the collections of astronomical tables contain " Tables of Refraction," from which may be found the various quantities in the equation The first portion of the table consists of three columns giving the values of A, A, and log a, with the apparent zenith distance z as the argument. 2 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. The second part contains B, with the height of the barometer as the argument. The third part gives the value of T with the reading of the attached thermometer as the argument, and the fourth part gives y with the reading of the external thermometer as the argument; z is the observed zenith distance. A substitution of these quantities gives the refraction, which must then be added to z to give the true zenith distance. The attached thermometer gives the temperature of the mercury of the barometer. The external thermometer should be screened from the direct and reflected heat of the sun, but be so fully ex- posed as to give accurately the temperature of the external air. A similar table is sometimes given for passing from true to ap- parent zenith distances. The mode of using is exactly the same, subtracting the resulting refraction from the true zenith distance to obtain z. It is of use in "setting" instruments for observation. A " Table of Mean Refractions " is also given in nearly every collection, and contains the refractions for a temperature of 50 F., and 30 in. height of barometer, with apparent zenith distances or altitudes, as the argument, which may be used when a very precise result is not required. The above relates only to refraction in altitude. But a change in a star's place due to refraction will in the general case cause a change in its observed R. A. and Dec. In order to ascertain these two coordinates as affected by refraction at a given sidereal time T, we first compute the body's hour angle from P = T R. A., and then its true zenith distance (z) and parallactic angle (^) from the astronomical triangle, knowing P, (p, and tf. Then if r denote the refraction in altitude, found as just explained, the refraction in declination will be A $ r cos if?, and the refraction in R. A., r sin ib A a = X. cos # TIME. The perfect uniformity with which the earth rotates on its axis makes its motion a standard regulator for all time-pieces. No clock or chronometer can run with perfect uniformity, an^ therefore the time indicated by them must ever be in error. To find these errors at any instant is the object of the time problems in Practical As- tronomy. TIME. 43 Time is measured by the hour angle of some point or celestial body. If the point be the true Vernal Equinox its hour angle is true sidereal time. If the point be the mean Equinox, it is mean sidereal time; but since the greatest difference between true and mean sidereal time can never exceed 1.15 seconds in 19 years, astronomical clocks are run on true sidereal time. To pass from true to mean sidereal time, apply the correction known as the Equation of Equinoxes in Eight Ascension. If the point be the Mean Sun its hour angle is mean solar time; all solar time pieces are run on mean solar time. If the point be the center of the True Sun, its hour angle is true or apparent solar time; to pass from true to mean solar time apply the correction known as the Equation of Time. Before proceeding to the time problems, it is necessary to deter- mine the relation existing between sidereal and mean solar intervals, and especially the relation existing between the sidereal and mean solar time at any instant. Relation between Sidereal and Mean Solar Intervals. The in- terval of time between two consecutive returns of the sun to the mean vernal equinox, called the mean tropical year, is according to Bessel 365.2422 mean solar days. Since, while the earth is rotating on its axis from west to east, the mean sun is moving uniformly in the same direction, the interval between two consecutive passages of the meridian over the mean sun will be 1 + times the interval between two passages . over the mean vernal equinox: for in one mean solar day the mean sun must advance of the whole circuit from equinox to equinox, and each mean solar, day must correspond to 1 -}-.- . parallactic angle = angle at the body. 90 = side from zenith to pole. 90 # = d = side from pole to body = polar distance. 90 a = z side from zenith to body zenith distance. In which = latitude of place. d = declination of body. a altitude of body. TO FIND THE TIME BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 59 II. TIME BY SINGLE ALTITUDES. 1. To Find the Error of a Sidereal Time-piece by a Single Altitude of a Star. (See Form 3.) The solution of this problem consists in finding the value of the hour angle Z P S in the astronomical tri- angle (see Fig. 10), having given the three sides of the triangle, viz.: Z P, the complement of the latitude, P S the polar distance of the star, and Z 8 its zenith distance. The latitude is sup- posed to be known, the polar distance d is taken from the Ephemeris for the date, and the altitude a, the complement of the zenith distance, is measured by the sextant and artificial horizon. The measured altitude having been corrected for errors of the sex- tant and refraction, the above da.ta substituted in the formula sin i P = cos m sin (m a] cos sin d ' (62) will give the value of P, the star's hour angle, which divided by 15 will give the hour angle in time. (The negative sign is to be used if the star be east of the meridian.) This plus the star's R. A. for the date will give the sidereal time, which by comparison with the chronometer time noted at the Instant of taking the altitude, will give the chronometer error. As heretofore stated, reliance is not to be placed upon a single measurement by so defective an instrument as the sextant. A set of observations, from 5 to 10, is therefore made by recording the times corresponding to successive changes of 10' in the star's double altitude. These altitudes will thus be equidistant and in- volve no measurement of seconds of arc. 60 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. In the computations it is usual to assume that the mean of the times corresponds to the mean of the altitudes, as shown on Form 3, which implies that the star's motion in altitude is uniform. This in general is not true. We must therefore, to be as accurate as possible, either apply a correction to the mean of the times to obtain the time when the star was at the mean of the altitudes, or a correction to the mean of the altitudes to give the altitude at the mean of the times. Whether corrected or not, the means are used as a single observation. Also, since the refraction raries ununi- formly with the altitude, the refraction correspondii \g to the mean of the altitudes requires, in strictness, a slight correction; although of much less importance than the first. These corrections may as a rule be omitted. Their deduction is given in the following para- graph. *% To determine the correction to be applied to the mean of the altitudes or the mean of the times, the following deduction is ap- pended essentially as given by Chauvenet. To find the change in altitude of a star in a given interval of time, having regard to second differences, let Then a + A a =f(P + A P). Expanding by Taylor's Theorem, From the astronomical triangle, sin a cos d sin -|- sin d cos cos P. cos a d a = sin d cos sin P d P. da sin d cos sin P , dP = --- 55TF- =-cos0sm^ A being the azimuth. -cos0cosJ-. (64) TO FIND THE TIME BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 61 Also from the astronomical triangle in a similar manner, d A cos ft sin A dP sin P ' (65) being the parallactic angle. Whence , cos sin A cos ^4 cos ft (A P) a , A a = cos sin J[ AP -| : 73 ~ . (66) sin _t /v Expressing A a and A P in seconds of arc and time respec- tively, we have, after reduction, A a cos sin A (15 A P) cos sin A cos ^ cos ft (15AP) a . , sinTP 2 which gives the variation in altitude due to a lapse of A P seconds of time. The last term may be written 2 sin 1 Values of m are given in tables under the head of Eeduction to the Meridian. Placing also, for brevity, . 7 cos A cos g = cos sm -4, * = ^-^ , we have, A a = a more convenient expression of the same relation. Now_ let H, H', H", etc., denote the altitudes (corrected for sextant errors), T, T', T", etc., the corresponding times, a a the mean of the altitudes, t the mean of the times, and a f the altitude corresponding to t , since this cannot be a . It is now required to determine the relation between a/ and a Q in order that the whole 62 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. set of observations may be resolved into one a single altitude taken at the mean of the times. The change H a r required the time T t . The change H' a ' required the time T' t , etc.- Therefore from the relation A a = 15 ^ A P -f g k m we have, denoting the different m's by w, , w 2 , etc., 0iy H' -a=-l$T' -t etc. etc. If there were n observations, the mean gives. , m, 4- m + m. 4- etc. ,__, a. -a. ' = gk- l -^~ -=gkm,. (69) Or ' = a o~9k m . (70) The last term is therefore the desired correction to the mean of the altitudes in order that it may correspond to the mean of the times. It will however be more convenient to find such a correction as applied to the mean of the times will cause it to correspond to the mean of the altitudes. Let t Q ' denote the time corresponding to the mean of the alti- tudes. The change a a f required the time t ' t . Hence from the preceding, we have, since t ' t is very small, 7 cos A cos ^ . , .... Expressing k = -- : ^ L in known quantities, sin gin feog^Binrf ring _ ^ p cos a v ' TO FIND THE TIME BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 68 t> = tt + TV r co t P - **r*'* /~g\ L 2 r 215 cos cos tf sin tj E being the chronometer error at time of meridian passage, a the star's apparent R. A., T e and T w the chronometer times of observa- tion, r e and r w the east and west refractions, and t one half the elapsed time between the observations. The above equation evi- dently applies even when the times have been noted by a mean solar chronometer, provided a be replaced by the computed mean time of meridian passage. Use an Ephemeris star and make the first set of observations as prescribed under " Time by Single Altitudes." Then with the same sextant use the same altitudes in the second set, of course in the reverse order. TO FIND THE TIME BY ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 67 From the preceding Equation it is seen that the actual altitudes are not required. Therefore unless the correction for refraction is to be applied, no record need be made of the sextant readings or errors. Also, under the same condition, the method is independent of errors in the assumed latitude or the star's declination. As before, the observations should be made as near the prime vertical as is consistent with avoiding irregular refraction. By selecting a star whose declination is but a little less than 0, it will be on the prime vertical near the zenith, and we can probably avoid the correction for refraction since the elapsed time will be small. The sextant and chronometer also will be but little liable to changes. If the eastern observations have been prevented by clouds or other cause, we may still take the .western observations, and the eastern at the next prime vertical transit of the star; thus giving the chronometer error at time of star's lower meridian passage. 2. To Find the Error of a Mean Solar Time-piece by Equal Alti- tudes of the Sun's Limb. (See Form 6.) The general principles involved and the methods of observation are the same as in the pre- ceding problem. But since the sun changes in declination between the times of the E. and ^V. observations, equal altitudes do not cor- respond to equal hour angles. For example, when the sun is mov- ing north, the morning will be less than the afternoon hour angle at the same altitude. Manifestly therefore the afternoon hour angle requires to be diminished by the change due to the change of decli- nation, and the middle chronometer time by half this amount, which is accomplished in practice by adding the correction with its sign changed. This correction is called the " Equation of Equal Alti- tudes." The middle chronometer time thus corrected gives the chro- nometer time of apparent noon. 12 h the Equation of time at Apparent Noon gives the mean time of apparent noon, and the dif- ference is the chronometer error on mean time at apparent noon. Hence in full 2 15 cos cos # sm t (A K tan + B K tan tf) . (80) 68 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. The last term in the bracket is the Equation of Equal Altitudes. For its deduction, see note at end of problem. . A and B are taken from tables. K is the sun's hourly increase, in declination at apparent noon, taken from the Ephemeris by inter- polation ; d is the sun's declination at same time. If a sidereal chronometer had been used, the above equation would evidently still apply, substituting for 12' 1 e the sun's R. A. at apparent noon, and omitting 6' 1 in the parenthesis. For the application of this method to midnight, and effect of errors in data, see Note. *J* Correction for Refraction. To deduce the correction for re- fraction employed in the two preceding problems, resume the dif- ferential equation of the last note, . - da (numerically), cos cos tf smP J ' which gives the change in hour angle (in arc) for a change in alti- tude of da. If the west refraction be less than the east, the sun will, in fall- ing, reach the altitude a too soon, and the west hour angle must be increased. Hence in this case the correction must be positive and additive, and in any case the correction with its proper sign in time will be obtained from the expression (r e r M ,) cos a 15 cos cos d sin t ' since r e r w is the change in altitude da, and t, or one half the elapsed time, is practically P. For the middle chronometer time, we therefore have Cor. for Ref. = 1 (' ~ 'J * * 15 cos cos 6 sm t The equation reduced as in the preceding note, gives d P = Te ~ TW (82) 30 cos

== -dx' 9 (101) 74 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. since x f is a decreasing function of the latitude. Differentiating the first of Eqs. (100), we have (1 - e 2 sin 2 0) f Equating (101) and (102), we have (102) (103) (1 - e a sin 2 0) 1 ' and for any other latitude 0, , *,, = (I-'*)** ' (104 ) (l-'sin f 0,) f Let d = 1, then dividing (103) by (104), we have ds = (l- g 8in'0,) = l-ja'Bin'0, d s t (1 - e sin 2 0)1 1 - I m which, after solving with reference to e 2 , reduces to , _ 2 _ ds ds, _ nofi . ~3 ^5sm 2 0-f^ / sin 2 0/ from which the value of the eccentricity of the meridian can be found when the measured lengths ds and ds, of any two portions of the meridian line, eaqh 1 in latitude, and the latitudes and y of their middle points are known ; for the earth, this has been found to be about 0.0816967. To find the equatorial and polar radii, we have from Eq. (103) after making d

)l, (107) and from the property of the ellipse, 5 = a VT^e*. (108) LATITUDE. 75 To find the radius of curvature R at any point of the meridian. After substituting the values of dx 9 dy, and d'y, taken from Eqs. (100), in the general formula for radius of curvature, we have R = a - i-ZL ?! ,; (110) ' and hence the length of one degree of latitude at any latitude is, 2 TT R2 TT a 1 e* 360 "360 _ fi 1 1 \ To find the length of a degree on a section perpendicular to the meridian at any latitude we proceed as follows: The radius p of the earth at the observer's place, is the minor axis, and the equa- torial radius a is the major axis of the elliptical section, cut out of the earth by a plane perpendicular to the meridian plane, passed through the center and the observer's place. Squaring and adding Eqs. (100) and extracting the square root, we have the radius of the earth at the observer's place; or p = a - = a ,. 1 e sin 1 e sm" * The square of the eccentricity of the section is fl _ p e* (1 - g ) sin 2 0, a a 1 - e 2 sin 2 which being substituted for e 2 in Eq. (Ill) after making = 90, gives 2 TT ./ 1 - e 2 sin 2 = SCO a V 1^7-2 -.'! 76 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. To find the length of a degree of longitude at any latitude 0, we know, Eqs. (100), that the radius of the parallel is x' \ therefore we have 2 it , 2 TT cos a = ^ x =m a vr^e^>' The value of the radius of the earth, at any latitude 0, is de- rived from Eq. (112) or, _ 1 - 2 e 2 sin 2 + e 4 sin 2 P : 1 - e 2 sin 2 which, for logarithmic reduction, when a is made unity may be placed under the form log p = 9.9992747 -f 0.0007271 cos 2 - 0.0000018 cos 4 0. (115) From the figure and Eqs. (100), we have , , , a cos x' = p cos 0' = a . -, (116) V 1 e j sin 2 0* v y . . ,, a (1 e a ) sin = p sm 0' = -^==L==. y 1 e 2 sm' Multiplying these equations by cos and sin respectively, adding and reducing we have cos (0 - 0') = - i/l - e 2 sin 8 0, (118) and from (116), a cos Whence by combination we have cos 0.' cos (0 0') = - a - cos 0; (120) LATITUDE. 77 and solving with reference to p we have s?/ cos -0r : which is capable of logarithmic computation. To find the reduction of latitude 0'. Since is the angle made by the normal with the axis of x we have (Jy tan0=-^, (122) and irona the figure we have tan 0' = (123) iC Differentiating the equation of the meridian section we have Whence tan 0' = -5 tan = (1 - e a ) tan 0. (125) Developing into a series, we have - 0' = ^p sin 2 - (^^^sin 40 + etc. (126) But since e 0.0816967 this reduces to 0' = 690".65 sin 2 1".16 sin 4 very nearly. (127) Latitude Problems. The general problem of latitude consists in finding the side Z P in the ZP S triangle, any other three parts being given. Differentiating (73'), regarding first a and and next P and as variable, and reducing by (75) we obtain &; = sec A d a, and d = tan A cos d P, 78 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Whence observations for latitude should as a rule be made upon a body at or near the time of its culmination. The following are the methods usually employed. 1. By Circumpolars. This depends on the fact that the altitude of the pole is equal to the astronomical latitude of the place. Let a and a' be the altitudes of a circumpolar star at upper and lower culmination respectively, corrected for refraction and instrumental errors; d and d' the corresponding polar distances, and the lati- tude; then we have (j) = a-d, = a'+d', = J (a + a') -f| (d r - d). The change from d to d' is ordinarily so small in the interval (12 hours) between the observations as to be negligible; it is due solely to precession and nutation. This method is free from dec- lination errors, but subject to changes and errors in the refraction. It is therefore an independent method, and is the one used in fixed observatories where the observations can be made with great accu- racy even during daylight by the transit circle. With the sextant the method is applicable only in high latitudes during the winter so that both culminations occur during the night time. A star with a small polar distance is to be preferred, to avoid irregular re- fraction at the lower culmination. The sextant, however, is not well adapted to this method, since the least count of its vernier is usually 10", and at culmination only a single altitude can be measured, even if the instant of cul- mination be accurately noted by a chronometer. But if Polaris be the star chosen, a series of observations may be made during the five minutes immediately preceding and following culmination, and at no time during these ten minutes will the star's altitude differ from its meridian altitude by more than I'M. Errors within this limit would not be detected by even the best sextant observations, and the mean of the measured altitudes will therefore be the me- ridian altitude with the usual precision. Even if a be regarded as too small when found in this manner, a' will be too large by practically the same amount, and (a -j- a') will be correct. 2. By Meridian Altitudes or Zenith Distances. This method de- pends on the fact that the astronomical latitude of a place is equal LATITUDE. 79 to the declination of its zenith. If the star culminate between the pole and the zenith, then 0=0-3,, where Z^ is the meridian zenith distance of the star. If between the zenith and equator, then We have therefore only to measure z l , take d from the Ephemeris., and substitute in one of these equations. This method is a very exact one when the observations are made with an instrument, such as the transit circle, accurately adjusted to the meridian, and whose least count is small. It is subject to errors of both declination and refraction; although the latter as well as any constant errors in the measured altitudes may be nearly eliminated, as is seen from the preceding equations, by combining the result with that from another star which culminates at about the same time at a nearly equal altitude on the opposite side of the zenith. For reasons stated above, the sextant is not well adapted to thi8 method except at sea, where the highest accuracy is not requisite. 3. By Circum-meridian Altitudes. If the altitude of a celestial body be measured within a few minutes of culmination, we may by noting the corresponding time very readily compute the difference between the measured altitude and the altitude which the body will have when it reaches the meridian. This difference is called the " Keduction to the Meridian," and by addition to the observed will give the meridian altitude. If several altitudes be measured and each be reduced to the meridian, we may evidently, by taking the mean of the results, obviate the inaccuracies incident to the use of the sextant in the last problem. These are called " Circum-meridian Altitudes," and their reduc* tion to the meridian is rendered very simple by the special formula cos cos d 2 sin 2 ^ P cos a t sin 1" P ' ~ /cos cos 6\\ 2 sin 4 1 - I tan a. : ^T. -- h \ cos a t ) ' sm 1" the deduction of which will be given hereafter. SO PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. In this formula a is the true altitude, d the declination, and P the hour angle, all relating to the instant of observation ; a / is the desired meridian altitude, and the second and third terms of the second member constitute the first two terms of the Reduction to 77 __ .... -- , . 2 sin 2 -I- P .2 sin* IP the Meridian. Values of , : -~ and : -= are given in sin 1" sin 1" tables with P as the argument. For small values of P the series will converge rapidly, provided a f is not too large. Having the meridian altitude, the latitude follows as in the last method. From (128) it is seen that for computing a t we require (neg- lecting all consideration of P for the present) not only d, but both a t and ; but as will appear later, approximate values will suffice. If an approximate value of be known, that of a, follows from a t = d + 90 - 0. (129) If not, one may be found as follows : In this method, double altitudes are taken in as quick succession as possible from a few minutes before until a few minutes after meridian passage. The greatest altitude measured will therefore, when corrected for refraction, semi-diameter, and parallax, be very near the meridian altitude, and its substitution in (129) will give a value of sufficiently accurate for the purpose. In order to fix upon a proper' value of d to be used in (128) it is to be noted that if a star be the body observed, its declination is practically constant and may be taken at once from the Ephemeris for the date. In case of the sun, however, whose declination is constantly varying, d must represent the declination at the moment of making the observation. But when several observations are taken in succession, the labor of computing a value of d for each may be avoided, as will be evident from an explanation of the manner of making the observations and reductions. The observations ar'e made as just explained on a limb of the sun, viz. : Several double altitudes are taken as near together as possible, as many before, as after meridian passage, and the corre- sponding chronometer times noted. (Note the difference between this, and sextant observations for time.) Now if we suppose each observation to have been reduced to ihe meridian, after correcting for refraction, parallax and semi- diameter, we would have several equations of the form a t = a -f- A m B n, LATITUDE. 81 2 sin 2 \P _ 2 sin 4 4 P in which m and ^ are the tabular values of . 7,7, and r 77, sm 1" sin 1" md ^4 and B the remaining factors of the corresponding terms in Equation (128). Any one of the equations will give for the lati- tude, = 3 + 90 - (a + A m -Bri). (130) In this equation, & is the declination at the time of observation. For, since the reduction to the meridian has been made with this value of 6 in obtaining A and B, a ~f- A m B n is manifestly the meridian altitude of a body whose declination is constantly d. In fact, the reduction to the meridian by the formula given, can be computed only on the hypothesis of a constant declination. We are thus dealing with a fictitious sun, whose declination on the me- ridian differs from that of the true sun. But since declination and meridian altitude always preserve a constant difference (the colati- tude), we see that Equation (130) will give the correct value of 0, due to perfect balance in the errors of tf and (a -\- A m B n). The mean of all the equations due to the several observations will be = <* + 90 - K + A m - S n ). (131) In this equation 6\ is the mean of the sun's declinations at the times of making the observations; and it is obvious that if this mean be employed for the single computation of A and B , the error committed will be entirely negligible. We thus avoid a separate computation of these quantities for each observation. The result will moreover be perfectly rigorous in practice if we use for <5 the declination corresponding to the mean of the times; since in the 30 minutes covered by the observations the departure of the sun's declination from a uniform increase or decrease is negligible. We thus avoid the labor of computing more than a single value of tf. We have still to determine the value of P from the chronometer time of each observation, and in this determination it must be borne in mind that P (in arc) is the angular distance of the true sun from the meridian at the instant of observation. 82 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. There are two reasons why this distance (in time) cannot be given directly by a mean time chronometer. First, the chronom- eter will usually be gaining or losing, i.e., it will have a " rate" Secondly, a mean time chronometer, even when running without rate, indicates the angular motion of the mean sun, which may be quite different from that of .the true^siin, as shown by the continual change in the Equation of Time. We therefore proceed as follows: From Page I, Monthly Calen dar of the Ephemeris (knowing the longitude), take out the Equa- tion of Time. Add this algebraically to 12 hours, apply the error of the chronometer, and the result will be the chronometer time of apparent noon. The difference between this and the chro- nometer time of each observation, gives the several values of P in time, each subject to the two corrections mentioned. To find the correction for rate, let r represent the number of seconds gained or lost in 24 hours (a losing rate being positive for the same reason that an error slow is positive). Then if P' be the corrected hour angle, we will have P' : P :: 86400 : 86400 - r. [86400 = 60 X 60 X 24]. Or 86400 86400 - r Or 2j3in 9 J-P'_ 2 sin 2 j P / 86400 \* _ 2 sin a j P sin 1" sin 1" \86400 r) '~~ " sin 1"~ /- Hence we will also have cos cos d 2 sin 2 i P A i L j * , \ 7 Am (corrected tor rate) = k Hence if we compute A by the formula __ -, cos cos Ic sin LATITUDE. 83 we may employ the actual chronometer intervals and pay no fur- ther attention to the question of rate. From k = ( ] , values of k are tabulated with the rate \oo40U TI as the argument. The second correction depends, as just stated, on the difference between the motions of the true and mean sun, while the former is passing from the point of observation to the meridian. In other words it depends on the change in the Equation of Timn in the same interval, or, which is the same thing, upon the rate ff an ac- curate mean solar chronometer on apparent time. If therefore we let e represent the change in the Equ.ition of Time for 24 hours (positive when the Equation of Timo ic increas- ing algebraically), it is evident that r e will be the rat} of the given chronometer on apparent time, and that the correction for this total rate may be computed as just explained for r, or taken from the same table, using r e as the argument instead of r alone. The operation of reducing the observations is then, in )rief, as follows. By Circum- Meridian Altitudes of the Sun's Limb. Fo^m 7. Correct the mean of the double altitudes for eccentricity and in- dex error. Correct the resulting mean single altitude for refraction, semi-diameter, and parallax in altitude. Denote the result by a . From the Equation of Time (Page I, Monthly Calendar), longi- tude and chronometer error, find the chronometer time of apparent noon. Take the difference between this and each chronometer time of observation, denote the difference by P, and their mean by P n . With each value of P, take from tables the corresponding values of m and n. Denote their respective means by m and' n . From Page II, Monthly Calendar, take the sun's declination corresponding to the local apparent time P , and denote it by tf fl . If can be assumed with considerable accuracy, determine the corresponding a t by , = # + 90 0. If not, take the greatest measured altitude, correct it for refrac- tion, etc., call it a, , and deduce from the above equation. From the rate of the chronometer and change in Equation o^ Time, (both for 24 hours,) take k from the table. 84 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. With these values of Jc 9 , a t , and # , compute cos cos tf ^ = - - Jc, and B = A* tan dL. cos a t The latitude then follows from = tance = z = 90 a\ and if x denote the Reduction to the Meri- dian = S' 8", we shall have The several terms of Equation (128) after a therefore represent x; and it is required to deduce this value of x arranged, as is seen, in a series according to the ascending powers of sin 2 | P, The equation heretofore deduced, viz. : ' cos z = sin sin # -\- cos cos d 2 cos cos $ sin 2 P, gives by reduction (since sin sin 6 -f cos 0cos d = cos (0 tf) = cos z t ), cos z t cos z 2 cos cos d sin 2 \ P = 0. ( ) Putting for convenience 2 cos cos # = m, and sin 2 P = y, we have cos z t cos z my = 0. We also have + ^, (c) cos 2 = cos x cos 3, sin x sin z,. Hence from (b f ) cos 2, cos x cos 2, -j- sin # sin 2 / m y 0. (d) Now let 88 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. be the undetermined development desired. From the relation ex- pressed by (d), we are to determine such constant values of A, B, and C, as will make the series, when convergent, true for all values of y. Therefore let the values of cos x and sin x derived from (e) be substituted in (d). The resulting equation will, from the con- dition imposed on (e), be an identical-'equation. To find cos x and sin x for this substitution, we have from cal- culus, x* cos x = 1 + etc., 4 - 1~ x 3 sin x = x -f- etc., and from (e), cos x = 1 - i (AY + 2 A B if -f etc.), sin x = A y -f B y* -f Cy* \ A 3 y 3 etc. Substituting in (d), . cos z t cos z t -f \ A 1 cos 2, ?/ 2 -f ^4 5 cos 2, y 3 -f sin z, -f- sin z t B y 1 -\- sin 2, (7?/ 3 ^- sin z t A 3 y 3 m y 0. Collecting the terms, \ cos z . sm z.A ) . ( A A 9 cos z. ) a . \ . . n ( * f\ ! y + ! , T> - > v + K + sm 2. (7 hir.r* - m \ y r ( + B sins, ^ / ' . ' . 3 \ ^ ( ~ |- sin 2 / ^4 ; From the principles of identical equations sin z t A m = 0. A = - m 1 m cos z. . . 1m cot 2 / - ^-5 ' + B sm 2; . 0. B - ^-5 ' sin 2 2 2 sm a z cot 2 z. . 1 m 3 . 1 . sm^.C'^O. (7= - . ' - ^-^ * .. . 2 sm 2 z t 6 sin 2 2, ' 6 sm THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 89 Therefore cos cos d n . 1 /cos cos # \ 3 . 1 3 = - 2sm a -P - - tan a, 2 sm 4 -P cos a / 2 V cos a I 2 cos Reducing the terms of the series from radians to seconds of arc, we have for the value of a t , , cos cos d 2 sin 2 4- P /cos cos tf\ 2 ^ 2 sin 4 4 P a a -f - _i- -- - - tan a. . ,*, cos a, sm 1" \ cos a t ) sm 1" , 2 /cos cos XT / "I O f \ ./o = a Jr A (135) in which a is the star's apparent R. A. for the instant, and E is the error of the chronometer. The plus sign is used for western and the minus for eastern elongations. The azimuth is given by sin A = ^-7, (136) COS0 and the zenith distance by sin0 . N cos Z = . (lo 7 ) Set the instrument in accordance with these coordinates 20 or 30 minutes before the time of elongation, and as soon as the star enters the field, shift the telescope if necessary so that it will pass nearly through the center. The observations are now conducted in exactly the same man- ner as for the R. A. micrometer, with the addition that each end of the level bubble is read in connection with each transit. Then, as before, each observation is compared with the one made nearest the time of elongation, T , the interval of time being computed from either sin i = sin /cos d, (137J) or i = /cos #, i according to the declination of the star. After which we have in arc (neglecting for the present differences of refraction and level), 15* 94 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. M being the number of micrometer revolutions or divisions be- tween the two positions of the star, and R' the value of one revolu- tion or division. But if the reading of the level is different at the two observa- tions, manifestly Mmust be corrected accordingly. For instance, if the level shows that between the two observa- tions the telescope had moved with the strr in its diurnal path, then evidently the micrometer will indicate only a part of the angular distance between the two positions of the star, and the level correction must be added to the micrometer interval. Con- versely, if the telescope has moved against the motion of the star. This level correction is found as follows : if d is the value of one division of the level in terms of a revolution of the micrometer, and L the number of divisions which the level has shifted, then Ld will be the value (in micrometer revolutions) of the correction to be applied to M. The method of finding d has already been explained. Hence the value of R' becomes, ML# Since, however, refraction affects the two positions of the star un- equally, it is seen that M L d is only the difference of apparent zenith distances (i.e., the instrumental difference), while 15 i being derived directly from the time interval, is the difference of true zenith distances. If therefore 15 i be corrected by the difference of refraction, the numerator will denote the difference of apparent zenith distance in arc, and the denominator this same difference in micrometer revolutions. Denote by A r the difference of refraction in seconds for 1' of zenith distance at z ; then for 15 i" it may be taken as -^ 15 i A /*, which is the desired correction. The above formula , therefore be- comes, denoting the true value of a revolution by R, R'Ar . K S7T~> V us ) MLd 60 A r is taken from refraction tables. THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 95 i The adopted value of R should be a mean of the results from all the observations. Having now found R, the value in arc of one division of the level is evidently D = Rd, (139) since d is the value in micrometer revolutions. Both constants are therefore determined. One of the most convenient and accurate modes of employing formula (138) in practice, is as follows : Suppose the star to be approaching eastern elongation, and the micrometer readings to increase as the zenith distance decreases. Let Z , M , and L be the zenith distance, micrometer, and level readings at elongation (all unknown), and Z', M', and L' the corresponding quantities at the time of any one of the recorded transits. Then remembering that in (138), 15 i is the true difference of zenith distance = Z f Z^ , M M M f , L = L L', and reserving the correc-. tion for refraction to be applied finally, we have Z'-Z Q = (M -M') + (.- L')Rd. Similarly for another transit, Z" -Z Q = (M - M") R + (L - L") R d. Subtracting and solving, (M" - M') + (L" - L')d' Then Z Z having been computed for each transit by these differences may be taken by pairs for substitution in (140), in any manner desired. For example, if forty transits have been re- corded, it is usual to pair the first difference with the twenty-first, the second with the twenty-second, etc., when if the successive micrometer readings have been equidistant, the divisors will be equal, save for the slight level correction. We thus obtain twenty determinations of R, the mean of which should be corrected for /? A T refraction as shown in (138), viz. : by subtracting . uO 96 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. The preceding method of finding these two constants of the zenith telescope is regarded as the best; but provision is made in the construction of the instrument for turning the box containing the wire frame thicugh an angle of 90. When this is done, the declination micrometer becomes virtually a K. A. micrometer, and the value of a revolution may be found as described for that mi- crometer, and then the box revolved back to its proper place and clamped. In this case however the result must be in arc. The level constant must be found as just described. 4. Latitude by Opposite and nearly equal Meridian Zenith Dis- tances. Talcott's Method. See Form 9. This method depends upon the principle that the astronomical latitude of a place is equal to the declination of the zenith. Let z n and z g represent the observed meridian zenith distances of two stars, the first north' and the second south of the zenith ; r n and r s the corresponding refractions; and d n and d s their ap- parent decimations. Then, denoting the latitude, =*. + *. + r. , (141) =d n -z n - r n . (142) * From which Since refraction is a direct function of the zenith distance, this equation shows that any constant error in the adopted refraction will be nearly or wholly eliminated if we select two stars which culminate at very nearly the same zenith distance, and provided also that the time between their meridian transits is so short that the refractive power of the atmosphere cannot be changed appre- ciably in the mean time. Again, since absolute zenith distances are not required, but only their difference, if the stars are so nearly equal in altitude that a telescope directed at one, will, upon being turned around a vertical axis 180 in azimuth, present the other in its field of view, then manifestly the difference of their zenith distances may be measured directly by the declination micrometer, and the use of a graduated circle (with its errors of graduation, eccentricity, etc.) be entirely THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 07 dispensed with, except for the purpose of a rough finder. The in- strument used in this connection is called a " Zenith Telescope" Its construction, and application to the end in view, are best learned from an examination of the instrument itself. Again, since errors in the declinations will affect the resulting latitude directly, we should be very careful to employ only the ap- parent declinations for the date. The following conditions should therefore be fulfilled in select- ing the stars of a pair : 1st. They should culminate not more than 20, or at most 25, from the zenith. 2d. They should not differ in zenith distance by more than 15', and for very accurate work, by not more than 10'. The field of view of the telescope is about 30'. The limit assigned prevents observations too near the edge of the field, and lessens the effect of an error in the adopted value of a turn of the micrometer head. This limit also requires a very approximate knowledge of the lati- tude, which may be found with the sextant, or by measuring the meridian zenith distance of a star by the zenith telescope itself. 3d. They should differ in R. A. by not less than one minute of time, to allow for reading the level and micrometer, and by not more than fifteen or twenty minutes, to avoid changes in either the instrument or the atmosphere. Since the Ephemeris stars, whose apparent declinations are given with great accuracy for every ten days, are comparatively few in number, it becomes necessary, in order to fulfil the above con- ditions, to resort to the more extended star catalogues. But since in these works only the stars' mean places are given, and those for the epoch of the catalogue (which fact involves re- duction to apparent places for the date), and moreover since these mean places have often been inexactly determined, it becomes de- sirable to rest our determination of latitude on the observation of more than one pair. For example, on the " Wheeler Survey," west of the 100th meridian, the latitude of a primary station was re- quired to be determined by not less than 35 separate and distinct pairs of stars, these observations being distributed over five nights. Preliminary Computations. We should therefore form a list of all stars not less than 7th magnitude which culminate not more than 25 from the zenith and within the limits of time over which 98 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. we propose to extend our observations, arrange them in the ordei of their R. A., and from this list select our pairs in accordance with the above conditions, taking care that the time between the pairs is sufficient to permit the reading of the level and micrometer, and setting the instrument for the next pair; say at least two minutes. A "Programme" must then be prepared for use at the instru- ment, containing the stars arranged in pairs, with the designation and magnitude of each for recognition when more than one star is in the field; their R. A., to know when to make ready for the observation; their declinations, from which are computed their approximate zenith distances; a statement whether the star is to be found north or south of the zenith, and finally the " setting " of the instrument for the pair, which is always the mean of the two zenith distances. The declinations here used, being simply for the purpose of so pointing the instrument that the star shall appear in the field, may be mean decimations for the beginning of the year, which are found with facility as hereafter indicated. Similarly for the R. A. For this Programme, see Form 9. Adjustment of Instrument. The Instrument must next be pre- pared for use. The column is made vertical by the levelling screws, and the adjustment tested by noting whether the striding level placed on the horizontal axis will preserve its reading during a revolution of the instrument 3GO in azimuth. The horizontality of the latter axis is secured by its own adjusting screws, and tested by the level in the usual way. The focus and vertically 'of the wires are adjusted as explained for the transit. The collimation error should, as far as is mechanically possible, be reduced to zero. This may be accomplished approximately by the ordinary reversals upon a terrestrial point distant not less than 5 or 6 miles (to reduce the parallax caused by the distance of the telescope from the vertical column); or very perfectly by two collimating tele- scopes, as explained for the transit. The instrument is adjusted to the meridian as explained for the transit. When this is perfected, one of the movable stops on the horizontal circle is moved up against one side of the clamp which controls the motion in azimuth, and there fixed by its own clamp-screw. The telescope is then turned 180 around the vertical column and again adjusted to the meridian by THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 99 a circum-polar star; the other stop is then placed against the other side of the clamp, and fixed. The instrument can now be turned exactly 180 in azimuth, bringing up against the stops when in the meridian. Observations. The circle being set to the mean of the zenith distances of the two stars of a pair, the bubble of the attached level is brought as nearly as possible to the middle of its tube, and when the first star of the pair arrives on the middle transit wire (the in- strument being in the meridian) it is bisected by the declination mi- crometer wire, the sidereal time noted, and the micrometer and level read. The telescope is then turned 180 in azimuth, the clamp bringing up against its stop. The same observations and records are now made for the second star. The instrument is then reset for the next pair, and so on. The time record is not necessary unless it be found that the instrument has departed from the meridian, or unless observation on the middle wire has been prevented by clouds, and it becomes desirable to observe on a side wire rather than lose the star. In these cases the hour angle is necessary to* obtain the "reduction to the meridian."' The observations are recorded on Form 9 a. In the column of remarks should be noted any failure to observe on middle wire, weather, and any circumstance which might affect the reliability of the observations. Reduction of Observations. By referring to Eq. (143) the gen- eral nature of the reduction will be evident. The principal term in the value of is d n -\- d s , which, as before stated, must be found for the date. Since z s z n has been measured entirely by the mi- crometer and level, this term involves two corrections to 3 n -f- $ 8 ; r s f"n involves another, and the very exceptional case of observa- tion on a side wire involves another. 1st. The reduction from mean declination of the epoch of the catalogue to apparent declination of the date. Let us take the case of the B. A. C. (British Association Catalogue). The star's mean place is first brought up to the beginning of the current year by the formula 100 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. In which d" = mean north polar distance as given in catalogue, p r = annual precession in N. P. distance, s' = secular variation in same, /*' = annual proper motion in N. P. distance (all given in catalogue for each star), y = number of years from epoch of cata- logue to beginning of current year, and d"' = the mean N. P. dis- tance at the latter instant.- To this, jkhe corrections for precession, proper motion, nutation, and aberration, since the beginning of the year, are applied by the formula d = d'" + r^' + Ac' + Bd' + Ca' - LV, in which t = fractional part of year already elapsed at date, given on pp. 285-292, Ephemeris; A, B, C, D, are the Besselian Star Numbers, given on pp. 281-284 Ephemeris for each day; ', V , c' , d', are star constants, whose logarithms are given in the catalogue; and d = star's apparent N. P. distance at date. Then 6 = 90 d. The quantities a', V, c', d', are not strictly constant; indeed many of their values have changed perceptibly since 1850, the epoch of B. A. C. If it be desired to obviate this slight error, it may be done by recomputing them by formulas derived from Physical Astronomy, or, in part, by using a later catalogue. In this connection a work prepared under the " Wheeler Survey," entitled " Catalogue of Mean Declinations of 2018 Stars, Jan. 1, 1875," will be found most convenient, embracing stars between 10 and 70 N. Dec., and therefore applicable to the whole area of the IT. S. exclusive of Alaska. With this catalogue, the reductions are made directly in decli- nation, not N. P. distance, and by the formulas, d=d' + Tn' + Aa' + BV + Cc' + Dd', in which everything relates to declination. Exactly analogous formulas hold for reduction in R. A. J\ I Ok 2d. The micrometer and level corrections to - ? , viz. THE ZENITH TELESCOPfi. 101 Let us suppose that, with the telescope set at a given inclina- tion, the micrometer readings are greater as the body viewed is nearer the zenith; and in the first instance, that the inclination as shown by the attached level is not changed when the instrument is turned 180 in azimuth. Then - ? - will be given wholly by the micrometer, and be . , m, m n m n m s n either " R, or - R, m which m s and m n are the mi- * /i crometer readings on the south and north stars respectively, and R the value in arc of a division of the micrometer head. Since the readings increase as the zenith distance decreases, it is manifest that ~^~ s R is the one of the two expressions which will repre- sent with its proper sign. But as a rule the upright column will not be truly vertical, and. therefore the inclination of the optical axis of the telescope will change slightly due to the necessary revolution between the obser- vations of the stars of a pair, the fact being indicated by a different reading of the level. In this case, the difference of micrometer read- ings will not be strictly the difference of zenith distance as before, but will be that difference the amount the telescope has moved. The micrometer readings therefore require correction before they can give -* Since it is immaterial which star of the pair is observed first, let us suppose it to be the southern, and let l n and l a be the readings of the ends of the bubble. Then JL - ? will be the 6 reading of the level, it being graduated from the center toward each end. Now if, on turning to the north, the level shows that the angle of elevation of the telescope has increased, the microme- ter reading on the northern star will be too small, by just the amount corresponding to the motion of the telescope in altitude; arid this whether the star be higher or lower than the southern star. Consequently m n must be increased to compensate. If l' n and 1' 8 be the reading of the present north and south ends of the 102 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. V V bubble, then the bubble reading will be - - 8 j the change of level, in level divisions, will be z + , and in arc (l + PJ-ft + rj D Since, upon turning to the north, the angle of elevation of the. tele- scope was supposed to increase, this quantity is positive; and being the angular change of elevation, it is the correction to be applied to m n . If the telescope diminished its elevation on being turned to the north, it would be necessary to diminish m n by the same amount. But in this case the above correction is obviously negative, and the result will be obtained by still adding it algebraically. The correction to--- will be half the above amount; hence in ft all cases we have the rule. Subtract the sum of the south readings from the sum of the north. One-fourth the difference multiplied by the value of one division of the level, will be the level correction. The true difference of observed zenith distances of the two stars, is therefore a , T T 3d. The correction for refraction, or - ?L -. Since the stars /o are at so small and so nearly equal zenith distances, differences of actual refractions will be practically equal to differences of mean refractions (Bar. 30 in., F. 50), which latter may therefore be substi- dr tuted for r 8 r n . If -r denote the change in mean refraction for a difference of 1' in zenith distance, then for z s z n (expressed in seconds) it will be s n -j . Hence we may write r s r n _ z 8 z n dr 60 dz' THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 103 To determine -,-, we have for the equation of mean refraction Young, p. 64), r = a tan z. Differentiating, dr . , a sin 1' -T- (for 1') = - ~ r -, a being taken from refraction tables, and z representing the mean of the zenith distances of the pair. The following table of values dr :)f -y- is given, in which we may interpolate at pleasure. z dr dz 0.0168" 5 0.0169" 10 0.0173" 15 0.0180" 20 0.0190" 25 0.0205" The principal term in -^ - is - n - R. Hence we may write r s r n _ t ni n m s dr 2 ~* 60 K ~dz' and the correction for refraction will have the same sign as the micrometer correction. Hence the rule : Multiply the micrometer correction in minutes by the tabular value of -j- , and add the result algebraically to the other corrections. 4th. The correction to the zenith distance when the observation has not been made in the meridian; i.e., when not made on the middle vertical wire. This will be an exceptional correction, but one which must oc- casionally be made. 104 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. If a plane be passed through the middle horizontal wire and the optical centre of the objective, it will cut from the celestial sphere a great circle; and the zenith distance of a star anywhere on this circle will, as measured by this fixed position of the instrument, be the inclination of the plane to the vertical. Therefore, if the zenith distance' of a star between the zenith and equinoctial be measured by an instrument which moves only in the meridian, it tvill have its greatest value when on the me- ridian. For a star which crosses any other part of the meridian, the ordinary rule as to relative magnitude applies. But whatever the position of the star, the numerical value of this " reduction to the meridian," due to an observation on a side wire, is different from that heretofore discussed, where the instru- ment was in the vertical plane of the star; being in this case (15 P)* sin 1" sin 2 tf; P being the hour angle. For the deduc- tion of this expression, see J following. For a star below the equi- noctial or below the pole sin 2 $ would be negative; hence from the rule as to relative magnitudes above given, it is seen that if in using the zenith telescope, a star south of the zenith be observed on a side wire, the above correction must be added algebraically to the ob- served to obtain the meridian zenith distance; and north of the zenith it must be subtracted algebraically. By inspecting the term ~^^ - , we see that in any case one half this reduction, or i (15 P)* sin 1" sin 2 d = [6.1347] P 2 sin 2 #, is to be added to the deduced latitude, or to the sum of the other corrections in order to obtain the latitude. The hour angle P in seconds of time is known from P = t -{- E oc, t being the chro- nometer time of observation, E the error, and a the star's R. A. We therefore have the following complete formula for the latitude .-. , - . 3- -J- (144) ~ m * R d + [6.1347] P' sin 2 tf s + [6.1347] P' 2 sin 2 # THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 105 For the reduction see Form 9 b. The results of all the pairs may be discussed by Least Squares. This method, although extremely simple in theory, involves considerable labor. It has however been employed almost exclus- ively on the Coast and other important Government surveys, with results which compare favorably with those obtained by the first- class instruments of a fixed observatory. J To Determine the Reduction to the Meridian for an Instru- ment in the Meridian. Let S Fig. 21 be the place of the star when on a side wire. Then CSS" will be the projection of the great circle cut from the celestial sphere by the plane of the middle horizontal wire and the optical center of the objective, Z S" will be the recorded zenith distance c diurnal path, preserving always the FlG 21 same distance from the equator. Then Z 8' will be the true meridian zenith distance = z t , and ES' = ' -}- A tan 2 d' = 0. 2 tan #' sin tf' , . -4 = ., r^r, = 2 -^ cos 2 d' = sin 2 6^'. 1 -f- tan o cos o B + B tan 2 d' - 2 ^ tan 2 tf' = 0. B = 2 sin 2 we have a; = i (15 P) 2 sin 1" sin 2 d'. /O \ 4 J In computing this term, # may be substituted for 6^. t%t To Determine the Probable Error of the Final Result. From equation (143) it is seen that the probable error of a lati- tude deduced from a single pair of stars will be composed of two THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 107 parts: 1st, the probable error of the half sum of the declinations derived from the catalogue used; 2d, the probable error of the half difference of the measured zenith distances, which may be called the error of observation. Consider first a single pair of stars observed once. Let R^ de- note the probable error of the deduced latitude, 11' that of the half sum of the declinations, and R" that of observation, all unknown as yet. Then, Johnson,* Art. 89, -\-R"*, (a) and for this pair observed n times, i.e.) on n nights, n If now we employ m different pairs, 7?" 2 (b) + ~HT' (c) in which n' denotes, as before, the total number of observations. It may be observed fit this point, that as shown by (c), if a skilled observer be provided with a catalogue not of the first order of ex- cellence, (R' large, R" small), it is better to employ many pairs, rather than repeat observations on a few pairs; thus augmenting both m and n, instead of n alone. To determine R", form the differences between the mean of all the latitudes resulting from the first pair and the separate latitudes from that pair. The residuals denoted by v' 9 v", v"', etc., will manifestly be free from any effect of error in the half sum of the declinations employed. Do the same with the results from each of the other pairs, giving v/, v/' v a ', v 3 " etc., Then, Johnson, Art. 138, = 0.6745 |--. (d) n m ^ ' * Johnson's " Theory of Errors and Method of Least Squares," 1890. 108 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. The value of R" should not exceed about 0".8, and cannot be expected to fall below 0".3. On the Coast Survey, its value has usually been slightly less than 0".5. To determine R', we have from (b) in which it must be remembered that R 4 is the probable error of the latitude as deduced from a single pair of stars observed n times. Select several (m f ) pairs, which are observed on an equal number of nights in order that the results from each pair may be of equal weight. Then, as before, form the differences between the mean of the n results for each pair and the mean of these m' means. Then the mean value of R t will be, Johnson, Art. 72, R t = 0.6745 1/ m f_f r (/) Substituting this value of R t together with that of n in (e), we have R', and the probable error of the final result is given by (c), as before seen. If R' be determined from a great number of stars taken from a single catalogue, it may be considered as constant for that cata- logue. With the one employed on the Lake Survey, R' usually fell between 0".53 and 0".60. If it be desired to combine the mean results from each pair ac- cording to their weights in order to obtain the weighted mean latitude, we have from (6), (since the weight of an observation is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of the probable error,) n p denoting the weight of the mean result from a pair observed n times. The weighted mean latitude will be, Johnson, Art. 66, 212T THE ZENITH TELESCOPE. 109 with a probable error, Johnson, Art. 72, R = 0.6745 The errors which give rise to R' are those pertaining to the catalogue or catalogues used. Those giving rise to R" are due to various causes, viz. : imper- fect bisection of one or both stars due to personal bias or unsteadi- ness of the stars, anomalous refraction, errors in determining the value of a division of the micrometer and level, changes in temper- ature affecting the instrument between the two observations of a pair, etc. If any of the residuals (v) are unusually large, they should be examined by Peirce's Criterion bofore rejection. Finally it must be remembered that in this, as in all other methods here given, the final result (supposed free from error) is the astronomical latitude, and will differ from the geodetic or geo- graphical latitude by any abnormal deflection of the plumb-line which may exist at the station. 5. Latitude by Polaris off the Meridian. See Form 10. This method depends upon the fact that the astronomical latitude of a place is equal to the altitude of the elevated pole. This latter is obtained by measuring the altitude of Polaris at a given instant, and from the data thus obtained, together with the star's polar distance, passing to the altitude of the pole. To explain this transformation : Let P = star's hour angle, measured from the upper meridian. a = altitude of star at instant P, corrected for refraction. d = polar distance of star at instant P. = latitude of place. Then from the Z P S triangle we have sin a = sin cos d + cos sin d cos P. (145) This equation which applies to any star may be solved directly; but with a circum-polar star it is much simpler to take advantage of its small polar distance, and obtain a development of in terms 110 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. of the ascending powers of d, in which we may neglect those terms which can be shown to be unimportant. Now if we let x the difference in altitude between Polaris at the time of observation and the pole, we shall have = (a x), sin = sin (a x), cos = cos (a x), and from (145), 1 = cos x (cos d + sin d cot a cos P) , , sin x (cos d cot a sin d cos P). Moreover, it is evident that if we can obtain the development of x in terms of the ascending powers of d, we will have the develop- ment of in the same terms, from = a x. This is the end to be attained. Therefore let x = A d + B d* + Cd* + etc., (147) be the undetermined development desired, in which A, B, C, etc., are to have such constant values, that the series, when it is con- vergent, shall give the true value of x, whatever may be the value of d. It is manifest, then, that if this assumed value of x be substi- tuted in (146), the resulting equation must be satisfied by every value of d which renders (147) convergent; that is, the resulting equation must be identical; otherwise (147) could not be true. With a view, therefore, to this substitution, let it be noted that by the Calculus we have x 1 x* = l--+ - etc., (m) - + - etc., (n) and hence from (147), cos x = i - - -AB1WO 305" 360" FIG. 22. Any mistake as to the value of P will manifestly produce ite greatest effect when the star is moving wholly in altitude. Hence if the chronometer error be not well determined, the times of elongation are the least advantageous for observation. Since cos (360 P) = cos P, we may measure P from the up- per meridian to 180 in either direction. 6. Latitude by Equal Altitudes of Two Stars. See Form 11. By this method the latitude is found from the declinations and hour angles of two stars; the hour angles being subject to the condition that they shall correspond to equal altitudes of the stars. Let 6 and 6' = the correct sidereal times of the observations. a and a' = the apparent right ascensions of the stars. 6 and d' = the apparent declinations of the stars. P and P' = the apparent hour angles of the stars. a = the common altitude. = the required latitude. P and P' are given from P=0-a. P' = 6' -a'. From the Z P S triangle we have sin a = sin sin d -f cos cos tf cos P. sin a = sin sin 6' -j- cos cos $' cos P'. Subtracting the first from the second and dividing by cos 0, tan (sin d' sin 6) = cos d cos P cos 6' cos P'. (153) The value of tan might be derived at once from this equa- tion, since it is the only unknown quantity entering it. The form LATITUDE ST EQUAL ALTITUDES. 115 is, however, unsuited to logarithmic computation. In order to ob- tain a more convenient form, observe that the second member may be written / cos 6 cos P cos d' cos P'\ /cos d cos P cos d' cos P' I o o I I V o f> Adtiing to the first parenthesis / cos d cos P' cos ' cos V 2 2 and subtracting the same from the second, we have, after factoring, tan (sin tf ' sin 6) = J (cos d cos 6') (cos P -f cos P') + | (cos d + cos ') (cos P cos P'). Solving with reference to tan 0, and reducing by Formulas 16, 17, and 18, Page 4, Book of Formulas, tan = tan \ (6' + 3) cos J (P' + P) cos J (P' - P) + cot J (d' - d) sin i (P' + P) sin (P' - P). The solution may be made even more simple by the use of two auxiliary quantities, m and M, such that m cos M= cos J (P' P) tan | (/ sin ^4 d = cos - -j d P' cos d P 9 cos^i cos^4 cos ^4 cos A from which it is seen that any error in the time or in the assumed chronometer correction will have least effect on the resulting latitude when the two stars reach the common altitude at about equal dis- tances north and south of the prime-vertical, the nearer to the meridian the better. When several observations with the sextant are taken in succes- sion on each star, it is better to reduce separately the pair corre- sponding to each altitude. LONGITUDE. The difference of Astronomical Longitude between two places is the spherical angle at the celestial pole included between their re- spective meridians. By the principles of Spherical Geometry, the measure of this angle is the arc of the equinoctial intercepted by its sides; or it is the same portion of 360 that this arc is of the whole great circle. But since the rotation of the earth upon its axis is perfectly uniform, the time occupied by a star on the equinoctial in passing LONGITUDE. 117 from one meridian to another, is the same portion of the time re- quired for a complete circuit that the angle between the meridians is of 360, or, that the intercepted arc is of the whole great circle. Moreover, all stars whatever their position occupy equal times in passing from one meridian to another due to the fact that all points on a given meridian have a constant angular velocity. The same facts apply also to the case of a body which, like the mean sun, has a proper motion, provided that motion be uniform and in the plane of, or parallel to, the equinoctial. Hence it is that Longitude is usually expressed in time; and in stating the difference of longitude between two places in time, it is immaterial whether we employ sidereal or mean solar time : for the number of mean solar time units required for the mean sun to pass from one meridian to another, is exactly equal to the number of sidereal time units required for a star to pass between the meridians. The astronomical problem of longitude consists, therefore, in determining the difference of local times, either sidereal or mean solar, which exist on two meridians at the same absolute instant. Since there is no natural origin of longitudes or circle of refer- ence as there is in case of latitude, one may be chosen arbitrarily, and which is then called the " first " or " prime meridian." Differ- ent nations have made different selections: but the one most com- monly used throughout the world is the upper meridian of Green- wich, England, although in the United States frequent reference is made to the meridian of Washington. , The astronomical may differ slightly from the geodetic or geo- graphical longitude, for reasons given under the head of latitude. In the following pages, only the former is referred to; it is usually found from the difference of time existing on the two meridians at the instant of occurrence of some event, either celes- tial or terrestrial. Up to about the year 1500 A.D., the only method available was the observation of Lunar Eclipses. But with the publication of Ephemerides and the introduction of improved astronomical instruments, other and better methods have superseded this one, of which the two most accurate and most generally used are the " Method by Portable Chronometers," and the " Method by Electric Telegraph." Longitude may also be found from " Lunar Culminations " and " Lunar Distances," in cases when other modes are not available. 118 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. 1. By Portable Chronometers. Let A and B denote the two sta- tions the difference of whose longitude is required. Let the chron- ometer error (E) be accurately determined for the chronometer time T, at one of the stations, say A ; also its daily rate (r). Transport the chronometer to B, and let its error (E') on local time be there accurately determined for the chronometer time T'. Let i denote the interval in chronometer days between Tand T'. Then, if r has remained constant during the journey, the true local time at A corresponding to the chronometer time T' will be, T' + E +ir. The true time at B at the same instant is, T' 4- E'. Their difference = difference of Longitude is \=E+ir-E'. (158) Thus the difference of Longitude is expressed as the difference between the simultaneous errors of the same chronometer upon the local times of the two meridians, and the absolute indications of the chronometer do not enter except in so far as they may be re- quired in determining i. The rule as to signs of E and r, heretofore given, must be ob- served. If the result be positive, the second station is west of the first ; if negative, east. This method is used almost exclusively at sea, except in voyages of several weeks, the chronometer error on Greenwich time, and its rate, being well determined at a port whose longitude is known. Time observations are then made with a sextant whenever desired during the voyage, and the longitude found as above. The same plan may evidently be followed in expeditions on land, although ex- treme accuracy cannot be obtained since a chronometer's " travel- ing rate " is seldom exactly the same as when at rest. In the above discussion, the rate was found only at the initial station. If the rate be determined again upon reaching the final station, and be found to have changed to r', then it will be better to r -f r' . employ in the above equation - instead of r. To redetermine ^ : the longitude of any intermediate station in accordance with this r' r additional data, we have x = -. = daily change in rate; and LONGITUDE. 119 the accumulated error at any station, reached n days after leaving A, would be E -f f r -f x ~ J w, the quantity in parenthesis being the rate at the middle instant. The above method is slightly inaccurate, since we have assumed that the chronometer rate as determined at one of the extreme stations (or both, if we apply the correction just explained), is its rate while en route. This is not as a rule strictly correct. Therefore, when the difference of longitude between two places is required to be found with great precision, " Chronometric Expe- ditions " between the points are organized and conducted in such a manner as to determine this traveling rate. As before, let E = chron. error on local time at A at chron. time T. (( fff __ t( a (( (t rpt tf tr _ (( (( (( se t< (( ' ft TjiFH - (( (( ft A <( That is, the error on local time is determined at the first station for the time of departure, then at the second station for the time of ar- rival; again at the second station for the time of departure, and finally at the first station for the time of arrival. Then the entire change of error is E'" E. But of this E" E' accumulated while the chronometer was at rest at the second station. The entire time consumed was T'"T. But of this T" T' was not spent in traveling. Therefore, the traveling rate, if it be assumed to be constant, will be ' _ - _ rp\ _ / m// _ rp r/\- This, then, is the rate to be employed in Eq. (158) instead of the stationary rate there used. If the rate has not been constant, but, as is often the case, uni- formly increasing or decreasing, the above value of r is the average rate for the whole traveling time of the two trips, whereas for use in Eq. (158), we require the average rate during the trip from A to B. This latter average will give a perfectly correct resiiifc provided the rate change uniformly. If the rate has been increasing, then r 120 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. in Eq. (159) will be too large numerically, by some quantity as x. Hence Eq. (158) becomes K = E+i(r-x)-E', (160) in which r is found by (159). In order to eliminate x, let the chronometer be transported from B to A, and return; i.e., take B instead of A as the initial point of a second journey. This is best accomplished by utilizing the return trip of the journey A B A, as the first trip of the journey B A B. Then the new average rate r' having been found as before, it will, if the trips and the interval of rest have been practically equal to those of the first journey, exceed the value required, by the same quantity, x, due to the uniformity, in the rate's change. Hence for this journey Eq. (158) becomes, A = E'" - [i (r' - x) + J0"]- ( 161 ) In the mean of (160) and (161), x disappears, giving, x= ^+^ + i^l_^_^ (162) Hence, if our time observations are accurate, and the traveling rate constant, the difference of longitude between A and B may be determined by transporting the chronometer from A to B, and re- turn. Or, if the rate be uniformly increasing or decreasing, the difference of longitude will be found by transporting the chro- nometer from A to B, and return, then back tc B\ thus making three trips for the complete determination. In a complete " Chronometric Expedition," however, many chronometers, sometimes 60 or 70, are used, to guard against acci- dental errors ; and they are transported to and fro many times. As an example, in one determination of the longitude of Cambridge, Mass., with reference to Greenwich, 44 chronometers were employed and during the progress of the whole expedition, more than 400 exchanges of chronometers were made. They are rated by comparison with the standard observatory clocks at each station, which are in turn regulated by very elabo- rately reduced observations on, as near as possible, the same stars. LONGITUDE. 121 Conducted as above described, " Chronometric Expeditions' 5 give exceedingly accurate results, especially if corrections be made for changes in temperature during the journeys. 2. Longitude by the Electric Telegraph. See Form 12. This method consists, in. outline, in comparing the times which exist simultaneously on two meridians, by means of telegraphic signals. These signals are simply momentary " breaks" 'in the electric cir- cuit connecting the stations, the instants of sending and receiving which are registered upon a chronograph at each station. Each chronograph is in circuit with a chronometer which, by breaking the circuit at regular intervals, gives a time scale upon the chrono- graph sheet, from which the instants of sending and receiving are read off with great precision. Suppose a signal to be made at the eastern station (A) at the time T by the clock at A, which signal is registered at the western station (B) at the time T' by the clock at B. Then if E and E ' are the respective clock errors, each on its own local time; and if the signals were recorded instantly at B 9 then the difference of longitude would be (T + E) (T' -f E '). But it has been found in practice that there is always a loss of time in transmitting electric signals. Therefore in the above expression (T f -\- E') does not correspond to the instant of sending the signal, but to a somewhat later instant. It is therefore too large, the entire expression is too small, and must be corrected by just the loss of time referred to. This is usually termed the " Retardation of Sig- nals;" and if it be denoted by x, the true difference of longitude will be (T+E)-(T' + E f ) + x = X'+x = X. But x is un- known, and must therefore be eliminated. In order to do this, let a signal be sent from the western station at the time T" which is recorded at the eastern at the time T'". Then if E n and E'" are the new clock errors, the true difference of longitude will be (T 9 " + E'") - (T" + E"} -x = X"-x = l. By addition, x disappears, and if A denote the longitude, we will have 122 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Or, in full, assuming that the errors do not change in the interval between signals, (E- (163) T 9 T', T", and T" 9 are given by the chronograph sheets; E and E f must be determined with extreme accuracy, since incor- rect values will affect the resulting longitude directly. Having established telegraphic communications between the two observatories (field or permanent), usually by a simple loop in an existing line, preliminaries as to number of signals, time of sending them, intervals, calls, precedence in sending, etc., are settled. At about nightfall messages are exchanged as to the suita- bility of the night for observations at the two stations. If suitable at both) each observer makes a series of star observations with the transit to find his chronometer error. The electric apparatus for this purpose, consisting of two or three galvanic cells, a break-cir- cuit key, chronograph, and break-circuit chronometer, is arranged as shown in Fig. 23, the chronometer being placed in a separate FIG. 23. circuit with a single cell, connected with the principal circuit by a relay, to avoid the effects of too strong a current on its mechanism. The chronometer breaks the circuit J, releasing the armature of the chronometer relay, which therefore breaks circuit B at b. This re- leases the armature of the chronograph magnet to which is attached a pen, thus registering on the chronograph the beats of the chro- nometer. Circuit B may also be broken with the observing key, thus recording the transits of stars also on the chronograph. At least ten well-determined Ephemeris stars should be used three equatorial r.nd two circumpolar for each position of the transit. LONGITUDE. 123 Then as the time agreed upon for the exchange of signals ap- proaches, the local circuit should be connected as shown in Fig. 24, K (7, chronometer relay; Jf, chronograph magnet; K, observing key; FIG. 24. 5, sounder; L, L, main line; K', break-circuit key; D, relay; G, galvanometer; R, rheostat. by a relay to the main line, which is worked by its own permanent batteries,, and in which there is also a break-circuit key. The con- nections are the same at both stations. By this arrangement it is seen that each chronograph will receive the time-record of its own chronometer; and also the record of any signals sent over the main line in either direction. Neither chronograph receives the record of the other's chro- nometer. Then at the time agreed upon, warning is sent by the station having precedence, and the signals follow according to any prearranged system. Notice being given of their completion, the second station signals in the same manner. As an example of a system, let the break-circuit key in the main line be pressed for 2 or 3 seconds once in about ten seconds, but at irregular intervals : this being continued for five minutes will give 31 arbitrary signals from each station. Each chronometer sheet when marked with the date, one or more references to actual chronometer time, and the error of chronometer, as soon as found, will, in connection with the sheet from the other station, afford the obvious means of finding all the quantities in Eq. (163) from which the longitude is computed. The sheets may be compared by telegraph, if desired. The work of a single night is then completed by transit observa- tions upon at least ten more stars under the same conditions as 124 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. before, the entire series of twenty being so reduced as to give the chronometer error at the middle of the interval occupied in ex- changing signals. The mode of making this reduction will be explained hereafter. The preceding is called the method by " Arbitrary Signals/' and is the one now usually employed. Sometimes however the method by "Chronometer Signals" is used, which will be readily under- stood by reference to Fig. 25, the connections being the same at both stations. FIG. 25. In this case it is seen that each chronometer, although in local circuit, graduates each chronograph, upon which we therefore have a direct comparison of the two time-pieces. This method is subject to the inconvenience and possible inac- curacies in reading which may occur due to a close but not perfect coincidence in beats, unless special precautions are taken. The arrangement of the galvanometer and rheostat, as shown in both figures (taken from the Coast Survey Keport for 1880), in- sures the equality of the currents passing through the relays at the two stations, which point should be ascertained by exchange of telegraphic messages; therefore after the relays are properly ad- justed they will be demagnetized by the signals with equal rapidity, and constant errors in this respect be avoided. The final adopted value of the longitude should depend upon the results of at least five or six nights; outstanding errors in the electrical apparatus being nearly eliminated by an exchange between the two stations when the work is half completed. " Longitude by the Electric Telegraph " had its origin in the LONGITUDE. 125 IT. S. Coast Survey, and has since been employed considerably in Europe. As at first employed it consisted virtually in telegraphing to a western, the instant of a fixed star's culmination at an eastern station ; and afterwards, telegraphing to the eastern, at the instant of the same star's culmination at the western station. In connection with Talcott's Method for Latitude, it has been used extensively in important Government Surveys, taking prece- dence, whenever available, over all other methods. Reduction of the Time Observations. See Form 12a. These observations, as just stated, are in two groups ; one before, and one after the exchange of signals or comparison of chronometers. From them is is be obtained the chronometer error at the epoch of ex- change or comparison, which is assumed to be the middle of the interval consumed in the exchange; this latter being about 12 minutes. Let us resume the equation of the Transit Instrument approxi- mately in the meridian, a= T+ E+aA + lB+ C (c - .021 cos 0), (164) and let T denote the epoch, or the known chronometer time to which the observations are to be reduced. Let us suppose also, that of the three instrumental errors, a, b, and c, only b has been determined, this being found directly by reading the level for every star. The rate of the chronometer, r, is supposed to be known approximately, and it is to be borne in mind that E is the error at the time T. Then in the above equation E, a, and c are un- known. Now if we denote the error at the epoch by E Q , we shall have E = E -(T Q ~T)r. (165) And if E' denote an assumed approximate value of E , and e be the unknown error committed by this assumption, we shall have, E = E\+e-(T - T) r, (166) From which, Eq. (164) becomes e + Aa + Cc + T - .021 cos +E\ - ( T - T) r + El - a = 0, 126 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. in which everything is known save e (the correction to be applied to the assumed chronometer error at the epoch), a, and c. Aa is called the correction .for azimuth. Cc " " " " collimation. .021 cos 0(7 " " "J " diurnal aberration. (T T)r " " " " rate. Bl " " " " level. Collecting the known terms, transposing them to the 2d mem- ber, and denoting the sum by n, we have e + Aa -\- Cc = n. (167) Each one of the twenty stars furnishes an Equation of Condition of this form, from which, by the principles of Least Squares, we form the three " Normal Equations/' 2 (C) e + 2 (A C) a + 2 (0*) c = 2 (On), from a solution of which we find a, c, and the correction, e, to be applied to the assumed chronometer error at the epoch. If either c or a be known, say c, by methods given under " The Transit Instrument," then the correction for collimation for each star, C c, should be transferred to the 2d member and included in n. We then have only the two " Normal Equations/' 2 (A) c + 2 (A*) a = 2 (A ri), from which to find 6 and a. It is to be remembered that the middle ten stars have been ob- served with the instrument reversed, and that such reversal changes the sign of c, and therefore of the term C c. Hence in forming the t( Equations of Condition" for those stars, care should be taken to introduce this change by reversing the sign of C. The sign of c as LONGITUDE. 127 found from the " Normal Equations " will then belong to the col- limation error c of the unreversed instrument. Also, since reversing the instrument almost invariably changes 0, it is better to write a' for a in the corresponding " Equations of Condition/' and treat a' as another unknown quantity. We will thus have four " Normal Equations " instead of three, and derive from them two values of the azimuth error, one for each position of the instrument. Sometimes, and perhaps with even greater accuracy, the solution is modified as follows: Independent determination of a and c are made, as explained heretofore, by the use of three stars. Adopting these, each star gives a value of the chronometer error as per Form 1. The mean result compared with the similar mean of preceding and following nights, gives the rate. The principle of Least Squares is then applied (correcting also for rate) in the man- ner just detailed, to obtain the corrections to be applied to these values of a, c, and the mean chronometer error. With these cor- rected values of a and c, new values of the chronometer errors are found by direct solution (Form 1), the mean of which is adopted. ! Personal Equation. From (163) it is seen that although errors in E and E' affect the deduced longitude directly, the effect will disappear if they are equally in error. Practical observers acquire as a rule certain fixed habits of ob- servation whereby the transits of stars are recorded habitually slightly too early or too late, thus affecting the deduced clock error correspondingly. The difference between the result obtained by any observer and the true value is called his Absolute Personal Equation, and that between the results of two different observers their Relative Per- sonal Equation. In Longitude work this latter should always be determined and applied to one of the clock errors, thus giving values of E and E ' as though determined by a single observer, and causing them if in error at all, to be as nearly equally so as possible. To determine this Relative Personal Equation, the two observers should, both before and after the longitude work, meet arid compare as follows : one notes the transits of a star over half the wires of the instrument, and the other the transits over the remaining half. Each time of transit is then reduced to the middle wire by the 128 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Equatorial Intervals, and the difference between their respective means will be a value of their relative personal equation. The adopted value should depend upon twenty or thirty stars, and the work be distributed over three or four nights. Personal equation is not a constant quantity, and should be re- determined from time to time. On j;he Coast Survey it is largely eliminated by causing the observers to change places upon comple- tion of half the observations for difference of longitude between the stations. Application of Weights and Probable Error of Final Result. The probable error of an observed star transit may be divided fdr practical purposes into two parts: the first, due to errors (apart from personal equation) in estimating the exact instants of the star's passage over the wires, unsteadiness of star, etc., is called the observational error; the second, called the culmination error, is due to abnormal atmospheric displacement of star, in exact determina- tion of instrumental errors, anomalies and irregularities in the clock rate, etc. Evidently the first is the only part of the probable error which may be diminished by increasing the number of wires. It may be determined for each observer as follows : Having made several (m) determinations of the Equatorial In- tervals as before explained, let each be compared with its known value, giving for the probable error of a single determination (Johnson, Art. 72), . /?< = 0.6745 . . (a) Since these intervals depend upon observed transits over two wires, we have for the probable error of an observed transit of an equato- rial star over a single wire (Johnson, Art. 87), For any other star this will manifestly be R" sec 8, LONGITUDE. 129 and for N wires the probable error of the mean will be n n For the smaller instruments of the Coast Survey R" = 8 .08 about. To determine the culmination error, R', for an equatorial star, let R denote the combined effect of both errors; then R may be found by comparing several (m) determinations of a star's R. A. (all reduced to the same equinox) with their mean, using the same formula as before. Multiplying the value thus found by cos tf, we have the probable error for an equatorial star. The mean result from many stars should be the adopted value of R. For the smaller instruments of the Coast Survey R = 8 .06 about. Substituting in (c), making N = 15, R' = 5 .056o For any other star this will evidently be R' sec 8. Hence for the probable error of the transit of an equatorial star over N 9 or the full number of wires, and for any less number of wires, R , = n 130 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Since the weights of observations are proportional to reciprocals of squares of probable errors, we have for the weight of an observation on n wires (that 011 the full number being taken as unity), 0.0032. +1 0.003 + n n Again, from what precedes it is seen that the total probable error (R) of the transit of an equatorial star will become R sec d for any other. Hence different stars will have weights inversely as sec a d. In practice, however, slightly diif erent relations have been found to answer better. For the instruments above referred to, the formula , _ JL.6 _ P "1.6 -|- tan 2 d has been adopted. The report of the Chief of Engineers for 1873 gives -L.O /7 \ P = 1 + 0.3 see' f Therefore if each Equation of Condition in the Reduction of the Time Observations be multiplied by the corresponding value of Vp (Johnson, Art. 126), it will be weighted for missel wires. In the same way, if multiplied by Vp' it will be weighted for declination. It is, however, unusual to weight for declination when The normal equations having been formed from the weighted equations of condition in the usual manner, their solution will give the chronometer error and its weight, p e . (Johnson, Arts. 132,133.) The probable error of a single observation is then found by the formula, (Johnson Art. 138), --, (i) m q* LONGITUDE. 131 where the residuals, v, are formed from the m weighted equations of condition, and q is the number of normal equations. The probable error of the chronometer correction as determined by a single night's work will then be Similarly we obtain p e ' for the weight of the chronometer correction at the other station, and the weight to be assigned to the resulting longitude, from the relation between weights and probable errors, will be The weighted mean longitude as the result of m' nights' work will then be with a probable error Circumstances must, however, decide as to the relative weights to be assigned to the results of different nights. If the observations have been conducted on a uniform system, it will perhaps be better to give them all equal weight. 3. Longitude by Lunar Culminations. The moon has a rapid motion in Eight Ascension. If, therefore, we can find the local times existing on two meridians, when the moon had a certain R. A., their difference of longitude becomes known from this differ- ence of times. Determine the local sidereal time of transit or E. A. of the moon's bright limb, and denote it by v From pp. 385-392, Ephemeris, take out the E. A. of the center at the nearest Washington culmination. This the Sidereal Time 132 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. of semi-diameter crossing the meridian, according as the east or west limb is bright, taken from same page, will give the R. A. of the bright limb, at its culmination at Washington. Denote this by <* w . Now if an approximate longitude be not known, which will seldom be the case, one may be established as follows : Let v = moon's change in R. A. for. one hour of longitude, taken from same page of Ephemeris. Then upon the supposition that this is uni- form, we will have t; : 1 : : ), inaccuracies of the Ephemeris being nearly eliminated in the differ- ence (7rsin(0' 6) with sufficient accuracy, and the computation of a l can now be made. One of the greatest inaccuracies to be apprehended is a failure to determine a very exact value of E for the instant of transit. This quantity may be eliminated, or very nearly so, as follows : If two or more fundamental stars, those whose places have been established with the highest degree of accuracy, be selected so that the mean of the times of their transits shall be very closely the time of transit of the moon's limb, then the mean of their equations will be, corresponding to a mean star, Cc'} a . (171) Subtracting from Eq. (170), since E and E s denote errors at almost the same instant, we have (172) in which E has disappeared. If E and E s differ, their difference will be simply the change of error in, for example, ten minutes, which can be accurately allowed for by the chronometer's well-established rate. Moreover, if the stars be selected so that their declinations differ but slightly from LONGITUDE. 137 that of the moon, it is evident that the last terms of Eqs. (170) and (171) will be nearly the same, and that their difference in Eq. (172) will be a minimum. See expressions for A, B, and C, in connection with Form 1. By this method, therefore, the E. A. of the moon's limb, a t , is, from Eq. (172), made to depend very largely upon the R. A. of fundamental stars; instrumental and clock errors being reduced to a minimum of effect. The stars should be selected from the Ephemeris in accordance with the above conditions, and observed in connection with the moon. >J* To deduce Equation (170). In the Equation of the Transit instrument, the quantities ^"w* * - sec 6 (embraced in T), and (Aa + Bb -j- Cc') denote respect- n ively the times required for a star whose declination is d to pass from the mean to the middle wire and from the middle wire to the meridian. In the case of the moon these intervals (or hour-angles) require modification, both on account of parallax and proper motion. The Ephemeris values of R. A. and Declination are given for an observer at the earth's center; but on account of our proximity to the moon, an observer on the surface always sees that body dis- placed in a vertical circle, which results in a displacement or paral- lax both in declination and (unless the body be on the meridian) R. A. Hence it is that when the moon's limb appears tangent to a side wire as at M' , Fig. 26, it is in reality at M. Therefore the FIG. 26. apparent hour-angle Z P M' requires a correction to reduce it to the true hour-angle Z P M ? and the result is to be further modified 138 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. due to the moon's own motion in R. A. The following is based on the method given by Chauvenet. To deduce the relation between the true and apparent hour- angles, let them be represented respectively by P and P', the cor- responding zenith distances by z and z', and the declinations by d and 6', Z being the geocentric zenith. Then sin P : sin A : : sin z : cos #, sin P' N : sin A : : sin z f : cos 6' 9 sin P sin z cos d sin P' ' " sin z' ' cos 6" . . sin 2 cos 6' sin P = sin P > -nro sm 2' cos d Or, since P and P' are very small when the limb is on a side wire, we have, expressing them both in seconds, p =p ,smz_ cos sin z' cos P is the time which the limb with an hour-angle P f would require to reach the meridian if the moon had no proper motion. The actual interval is greater than P on account of the moon's contin- ual motion eastward or increase in R. A., resulting in a retardation of its apparent diurnal motion. To determine this, the Ephemeris gives at intervals of one hour the moon's motion in seconds of R. A. in one mean solar minute = da. One m. s. minute = GO X 1.002738 ^ 60.1643 sidereal seconds. Hence in one sidereal second the moon moves ou. - seconds eastward, and therefore its apparent diurnal motion west- Ok ward .is only 1 -- in the same interval. In other words, bO. this is the apparent rate of the moon in diurnal motion at the in- LONGITUDE, 139 stant considered. Denote it by R. Then the time required to traverse the true hour angle P (or the apparent, P'), will be p, sin z cos &' 1 sin z' cos d R' When the limb is on the mean of the wires, the apparent hour %r angle, P', from the middle wire becomes - - sec d f (since d', not &, is Ws the declination of the point as observed), and when on the middle wire P' becomes- [a sin (0 d') -f b cos (0 6') -f c'\ sec 6'. Hence to pass from the mean of the wires to the meridian re- quires ., 4 " '" > -"'"'* ^ sec d' + (a sin (0 - tf') + cos (0 - whence cos (7*'-|- 77') = cos (2 ra-d'). Substituting in the preceding equation, reducing the first member by formulas 4, page 4, 11, page 2, and 13, page 1, and the second member by formulas 9 and 10, page 2, we have cos m cos (m d') __ cos 2 J (]i t -\- H 4 ] sin 2 d t cos A' cos H f cos / cos Whence, 1/7 , 7-7-x cos/i y cos Ff. sin 2 1 ^ y = cos 2 i (7^ + ZT.) --- ^ -- ^ cos m cos (m ^'). cos h cos ^T' / This 'may be placed in a more convenient form by assuming cos Ji t cos H t cos m cos (m d') _ . 2 cos A' cos #' cos 2 Whence sin J ^ y = cos J (^ y -J- H t ) cos J^". We now have the distance between the centers as it would have been without refraction, if measured from the point 7. This is represented by the line S M. (Fig. 29.) The transference of the observer "to the center will, since this motion lies wholly in the plane P MR, have the effect of appar- ently diminishing the declination of the moon, causing it to appear at M' ', while the position of S will not be sensibly changed. LONGITUDE. 147 It will be shown in Note 4 that the correction to be added to d, (S M) to give d (8 M r ) is 7t 6* sin0 /sinD _ sin fl\ _ . /sinZ) _ sin #\ 4/1 e* sin 2 ^ \sind, tan^J \sm^, tandj* e being the eccentricity of the meridian = 0.0816967. Hence we have finally, denoting the geocentric distance between centers by d, . /sin D smd\ d. + n% I-T 7 rj ' ' \sm d, tan d,/ This operation of finding d from the observed quantities is called " Clearing the Distance." It is now necessary to find the Greenwich mean time when the moon and sun were separated by the distance d. For this purpose enter the Ephemeris at the pages before referred to, and find there- in two distances between which d falls. Take out the nearer of these and the Greenwich hours at the head of the same column. Then if A denote the difference between the two distances, and A ' the difference between the nearer one and d, both in seconds, we shall have, using only first differences, for the correction, t, to be applied to the tabular time taken out, A:3 h :: A':* h .-.* h = - A'. 3 h Or log t h = log -- h log A '. Or in seconds, log t s log = -- j- log A '. The logarithms of - are given in the columns headed " P. L. of Diff." (Proportional Logarithm of Difference.) Hence we have simply to add the common logarithm of A ' in seconds to the proportional logarithm of the table to obtain the common logarithm of the correction in seconds of time. 148 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY To take account of second differences, take half the difference between the preceding and following proportional logarithms. With this and t as arguments enter table 1, Appendix to Ephem- eris, and take out the corresponding seconds, which are to be added to the time before found when the proportional logarithms are decreasing, and subtracted when they are increasing. Denote the final result by T g , and the difference of longitude by A. Then \=T g -T. (173) The mode given above for clearing the distance is quite exact, but somewhat laborious. There are, however, several approximative solutions, readily understood from the foregoing, which may be employed where an accurate result is not required, and which may be found in any work on Navigation. The method by " Lunar Distances " is of great use in long voy- ages at sea or in expeditions by land, where no meridian instru- ments are available, and when the rate of the chronometers can no longer be relied upon. It is important to note that if Tin Eq. (173), denote the chro- nometer time of observation, instead of the true local time, T g T will be the error of the chronometer on Greenwich time. In this way chronometers may be " checked." If, however, T denote the true local time, obtained by applying the error on local time to the chronometer time, then the same equation gives the longitude. Observations. It is necessary that A", //", and d" should cor- respond to the same instant T. Hence observe the following order in making observations. Take an altitude of the sun's limb, then an altitude of the moon's limb, then the distance, carefully noting the time, then an altitude of the moon's limb, then an altitude of the sun's limb. A mean of the respective altitudes of the two limbs will give very nearly the altitudes at the instant of measuring the distance. For greater accuracy, several measurements of the distance may be made, and the mean adopted. Also, when possible, at least two stars should be used on opposite sides, of the moon, for the purpose of eliminating instrumental errors. The accuracy of the result will depend upon the observer's skill with the sextant, and mode of reduction followed. LONGITUDE. 149 f 1. To Find Augmentation of Moon's Semi-diameter. In de- termining the augmentation of the moon's semi-diameter due to its altitude, the ellipticity of the earth is practically insensible. There- fore (Young, p. 62), denoting the altitude of the center (h" -\- s) by h' 9 the parallax in altitude by p, and the augmented semi-diameter by s', ?' = * COS ll' cos , . , / cos li' cos (li r Augmentation = G = s' s = s \ - /7 , v \ cosh' By page 4, Book of Formulas, cos h' cos (h' + p) = 2 sin J (h' + h' +p) sin 2 s G = -- Tyy r Sm (ll' + | ) SHI \ ffl. cos ' Expanding the sine and cosine of the sums, writing \ p for sin 9, and unity for cos J p, we have cos 7^ cos 7^' sin li p = TT cos^' (Young, p. 61). According to the Tables of the Moon, the relation between n and s is constant, such that - 3.6697 s. Hence ^ = 3.6697 s cos //. Designating this numeral by k' _ k' s* (sin h' + \ V s cos 2 1 &'ssin h' By division, G = k's> sin A' + $ &" 5 s + J- ^' 2 s" sin* /*' + etc. 150 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Multiplying by sin 1" to reduce G to seconds, G = Jc s 2 sin h' + k* s s + \ k' s 3 sin 2 h' + etc., (174) in which log k 5.2502 .10. { 2. To Deduce the Law of Refractive Distortion. In Fig. 28, let A' denote the altitude of the center, and h" that of any point of the limb, as /. Then the difference of mean refraction for c and / will be (Young, p. 64), coU"), (1) in which a is the constant 60".6. Denoting the angle acfloyq, and the semi-diameter by s, h" = h' + s cos q. (2) From Trigonometry, ,, _ 1 tan h' tan (s cos q) tan h' -j- tan (s cos q) * Substituting in (1), and writing s cos q tan 1" for tan (s cos q), we have, & _ ( s cos # * an 1 \ tan 3 h' tan 9 -f- ^ cos <7 tan 1" tan A' / The last term in the denominator is insignificant compared with tan 8 h' ; hence F = a cosec 2 h' s cos q tan 1", (3) which by (1) and (2) will be the difference between that ordinate of the ellipse and the circle which passes through/. Hence the line e/will be, Kefractive Distortion = a cosec 1 h' s tan 1" cos* q. LONGITUDE. 151 If q 0, we have a b = contraction of vertical semi-diameter = As = a cosec 2 Ji' s tan 1". Hence finally, Refractive Distortion = A s cos 2 q. (175) | 3. To Deduce the Parallax for the Point -R. By making x = o in Equation (95), and reducing by (108), (99) and (100), we have for the distance R C (Fig. 17 or 29), a e* sin Vl e* sin 2 0* Denoting the distance R by y, the triangle ROC gives ae 2 sin0 . , "^ =r 7~. ri- : # :: sm (0 - ) : cos VI e sm' a a 1 sin cos 0' ~ sin (0 - 0') yT- e'sin" 0* Developing sin (0 0'), cancelling and applying (125), Vl - e> sin 2 Comparing with second part of (112) it is seen that the denom- inator is sensibly the value of p expressed in terms of a as unity. Hence The angles at the moon subtended bv the two lines a and will be proportional to those lines. Therefore n, = 5. (176) ^* 4. To Determine the Difference between d t and d y due to a Transference of the Observer from R to C. 152 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. By the previous note we have (Fig. 29), Vl - e 2 sin 3 The perpendicular distance, C N^ from the center to the line R M, is, with an error entirely negligible, a e* sin cos d ' Vl e 2 sin 3 0* As before, the angle at the moon subtended by this line will be a e* sin cos # n _ 7t e* sin cos d Vl e* sin y a V I e' 2 sin 2 which is therefore the angular apparent displacement of the moon, represented by the arc M M' (Fig. 29). Denote it by m. Then, in the triangles P M' 8 and MM' 8, cos ,as cos d, cos m cos d sin D ~ sin tf cos d -- '- -- --- - - - sin m sin d cos 6 sin d Eeducing, replacing cos m by unity, cos d, cos d = sin /sin D sin tf cos d\ Vcostf cos d J FIG. 30. From Fig. 30, it is seen that when d t and d are nearly equal, as in the present case, we may replace cos d' cos d by sin (d d 4 ) sin d t . Therefore Or . . . / sin D sin 6 cos d\ sin (a a.) = sin m -- ^. -j ---- > : ^ ). \cos d sm d, cos tf sin ,/ = _^sm_^ = /sin/) _ rin* y Vl e* sin 2 xsin rf, tan rf,/ OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING LONGITUDES. 153 OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING LONGITUDE. 1st. If two stations are so near each other that a signal made at either, or at an intermediate point, can be observed at both, the time may be noted simultaneously by the chronometers at the two stations, and the difference of longitude thus deduced. An appli- cation of the same system, by means of a connected chain of signal stations, will give the difference of longitude between two remote stations. The signals are usually flashes of light either reflected sunlight or the electric light, passed through a suitable lens. 3d. By noting the time of beginning or ending of a lunar or solar eclipse, or by occupations of stars by the moon. For these methods, see various Treatises on Astronomy. 3d. By Jupiter's Satellites. a. Prom their eclipses. The Washington mean-times of the disappearance of each 'satellite in the shadow of the planet, and reappearance of the same, are accu- rately given in the Ephemeris, pp.452-473, accompanied by diagrams of configuration for convenience of reference. A full explanation of the diagrams is given on p. 449. An observer who has noted one of these events, has only to take the diiference between his own local time of observation and that given in the Ephemeris, to obtain his longitude. This method is defective, since a satellite has a sen- sible diameter and does not disappear or reappear instantaneously. The more powerful the telescope employed, the longer will it con- tinue to show the satellite after the first perceptible loss of light. These facts give rise to discrepancies between the results of differ- ent observers, and even between those of the same observer with different instruments. Both the disappearance and reappearance should therefore be noted by the same person with the same instru- ment, and a mean of the results adopted. The first satellite is to be preferred, as its eclipses occur more frequently and more sud- denly, although both disappearance and reappearance cannot be observed. b. From their occultations by the body of the planet. The times of disappearance and reappearance to the nearest minute only, are given on same pages of the Ephemeris. Since the times are only approximate, they simply serve to enable two observers on different 154 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. meridians to direct their attention to the phenomenon at the proper moment. A comparison of their times will then give their relative longitude. c. From their transits over Jupiter's disc. d. From the transits of their shadows over Jupiter's disc. The approximate times of ingress and egress, to be used as in case &, are given on same pages of the Ephemeris, for cases c and d. Application to Explorations and Surveys. On explorations, and reconnoissances for more exact surveys, the observer will usually be provided only with a chronometer, sextant, and artificial horizon, with probably the usual meteorological instruments. The chronometer should be carefully rated and have its error on the local time of some comparison meridian (e.g., that of Washing- ton) accurately determined for some given instant, so that, by ap- plying the rate, its error on the same local time may be found whenever desired. The sextant should have its eccentricity determined before starting, since this error often exceeds any ordinary index error, and cannot be eliminated by adjustment. The observer should be able to recognize by name several of the principal Ephemeris stars. To determine the coordinates of his station when they are entirely unknown, he should first find the chronometer error on his own local time, using preferably the method by " equal altitudes of a star," since, as has been seen, he will then be independent of any knowledge of the star's declination, his own time, latitude, longitude, or instrumental errors. Observations for latitude may be made at any convenient time by " circum-meridian altitudes " of a south and north star, or of a south star only, combined with " Polaris off the meridian/' the reductions being made by aid of the chronometer error just re- ferred to. The method by " circumpolars " may also be used as a verifi- cation when applicable, the reduction being very simple. The longitude is known as soon as the chronometer error on local time is known, by comparing this with its known error on the local time of the comparison meridian. - However large the rate of a chronometer, it should be nearly constant; but after some time spent in traveling, with possible exposure to extremes of tempera- ture, its indications of the comparison meridian time are rendered OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING LONGITUDES. 155 somewhat uncertain by the accumulation of unknown errors, thus introducing the same uncertainties into our longitudes. In such cases the method by " lunar distances " will afford an approximate reestablishment of the chronometer error on the comparison merid- ian time, or a correction to an assumed approximate longitude. If it be impracticable to find the local time by equal altitudes as recommended, on account of clouds or the length of time involved, it may be found by " single altitudes " of an east and a west star (or of a single star when necessary, either east or west), an approxi- mate value of the latitude required in the computation being found from the best obtainable value of the meridian altitude of the star observed for latitude. With the error thus found the latitude is found as before, which, if it differs materially from the assumed approximate value, must be used in a recomputation of the time. From this the longitude follows as before. If the latitude be known or approximately so, as at a fixed sta- tion or when tracing a parallel of latitude, time and longitude will be most expeditiously determined by "single altitudes." In certain classes of work it is necessary to obtain approximate coordinates by day, in which case of course the sun must be used in accordance with the same general principles as far as applicable. In all sextant work, except in methods by equal altitudes, its adjustments and errors must be carefully attended to. In extensivejsurveys and geodetic work, where very precise results are required, the methods employed are " Time by Meridian Tran- sits " with the reduction by Least Squares, Longitude by the Elec- tric Telegraph, and Latitude by the Zenith Telescope. The ob- serving-instruments should be mounted on small masonry piers or wooden posts set about four feet in the earth and isolated from the surrounding surface by a narrow circular trench one or two feet deep. The exact location of an astronomical station is preserved, if de- sired (as when the station is one extremity of a base-line), by a cross on a copper bolt set in a block of stone embedded two or three feet below the surface, the exact location of which is recorded by suitable references to surrounding permanent objects. Often it is required to determine the coordinates of a point where it is impracticable to locate an astronomical station, as for example alight-house or a central and prominent building of a city. 156 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. In such a case, having made the requisite observations at a suitable station in the vicinity, and having computed by (111) and (114) the length in feet of one second in latitude and longitude, measure the true bearing and distance of the point from the station, from which the coordinates of the former with respect to the latter are readily computed. In locating points at intervals on a line which coincides with a parallel of latitude, sextant observations for latitude which can be quickly reduced will give, as just explained, the approximate dis- tance of the observer from the desired parallel, to the immediate vicinity of which he is thus enabled to proceed. At this point a complete series of observations for latitude is made with the zenith telescope, and the resulting distance to the parallel carefully laid off due north or south. In this manner points about twenty miles apart were located on the 49th parallel between the U. S. and the British Possessions. TIME OF CONJUNCTION OR OPPOSITION. Two celestial bodies are said to be in conjunction when either their longitudes or their right ascensions are equal; and in opposition when they differ by 180. In the Ephemeris the conjunctions and op- positions of the moon or planets with respect to the sun refer to their longitudes. Conjunctions of the moon and planets or of the planets with each other refer to their right ascensions. In other cases, when used without qualification, the terms usually refer to longitudes. The longitudes of the principal bodies of the solar system (or the data from which they may be computed) are given in the Ephemeris for (usually) each Greenwich mean moon. To find the time of conjunction, determine by inspection of the tables the two dates between which the longitudes of the bodies become equal, and denote the earlier date by T. Take from the tables four consecutive longitudes for each body two next preceding and two next follow- ing the time of conjunction. Form for each the first and second differences, which give, from (42), 2 jj n j j- u, j \ - _ u/ 2 V^v and 7i a w , , TIME OF MERIDIAN PASSAGE. 157 in which L n is the unknown common longitude at conjunction, and n in the second member is the required fractional portion of the interval between the consecutive epochs of the tables. Subtracting and collecting the terms (c) from which n is found by solution; the corresponding portion of the constant tabular interval is then added to T, thus giving the Greenwich time of conjunction. The time on any meridian to the west of Greenwich is found by subtracting the longitude. The value of n should be carried to three places of decimals to obtain the time to the nearest minute. The method of finding the time of opposition is obvious from the above, noting that (c) becomes _ d ; + t=4 n = 180 + L' - L. (d) Except when the moon is involved, the use of first differences will usually be found sufficient. The times of conjunction and opposition in right ascension are found iii accordance with the same principles. TIME OF MERIDIAN PASSAGE. To determine the local mean solar time of a given body coming to the meridian, it is to be noted that this time (P) is simply the hour angle of the mean sun at that instant, and that this hour angle is, by the general formula, P = sidereal time K. A. of the mean sun. Now the sidereal time at the instant is equal to the R. A. of the body on meridian, and this is equal to its R. A. at the preceding Greenwich mean moon () plus its increase of R. A. since that epoch, which is equal to m (P + A), A being the longitude from Greenwich, and m the body's hourly increase in R. A. Or, sidereal time = a -f- m (P -f- A). Similarly we have, denoting the hourly increase of mean sun's R. A. by s, R. A. of mean sun = a a + s (P + ^)- 158 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Therefore by the preceding formula, P = [> + m (P + A)] - [a.+ s (P + A)]. Since m and s denote seconds of change per hour, A and P in the second member are expressed in hours, and m (P -f A) and s (P -f- A) as also a and . ix s in seconds; therefore P in the first member is expressed in seconds. To express it in hours, we have [a + m (P + A)] - [ a . -f 8 (P + A)] 3600 Solving, we have 3600 (m s) In this equation a and a s are given directly in the Ephemeris, A is supposed to be known, and s is constant and equal to 9.8565 seconds; m is obtained from the column adjacent to the one giving yalue of a, and should be taken so that its value will denote the change at the middle instant between the Greenwich mean moon and the instant under discussion, viz., % (P + A), as near as can be determined. For the moon, whose motion in R. A. is varied, and for an in- ferior planet, a second approximation may be necessary. If the planet have a retrograde motion, m becomes negative. If the body be a star, m becomes zero. If the sidereal time of culmination be required, the above formula holds, substituting for the mean sun the vernal equinox, whose R. A. and hourly motion in R. A. are zero. Hence, a + Xm 3600 m For a star, P' = a. AZIMUTHS. Definitions. In surveys and geodetic operations it often becomes necessary to determine the "azimuth" of lines of the survey; i.e., the angle between the vertical plane of the line and the plane of the true meridian through one of its extremities; or, in other words, the true bearing of the line. AZIMUTHS. 169 For reasons given under the head of Latitude, the geodetic may differ slightly from the astronomical azimuth of a line. Only the latter will be referred to here, and it is manifestly the angle at the astronomical zenith included between two vertical circles, one coin- ciding with the astronomical meridian, and the plane of the other containing the line in question. Outline. In outline, the method consists ins measuring with the " Altazimuth " or " Astronomical Theodolite " the horizontal angle which is included between the line and some celestial body whose R. A. and Declination are well known. Then having ascertained by computation the true azimuth of the body at the instant of its bisection by the vertical wire, the sum of the two will be the true azimuth of the line. As will be shown later, the celestial bodies best adapted for the determination of azimuths are circumpolar stars. For this reason azimuths in surveys and geodetic work are usually reckoned from the North Point through the East to 360. Instruments. The " Astronomical Theodolite " is provided with both horizontal and vertical circles. In geodetic work the latter is used largely as a mere finder, but the former is often of great size usually from one to two feet in diameter, and very accurately graduated throughout. For reading the circle, it is provided with several reading-micro- scopes fitted with microm- eters, in lieu of verniers; and in order that any angle may be measured with dif- ferent parts of the circle, the latter is susceptible of motion around the vertical axis of the instrument. Eccentricity and errors of graduation are thus in a measure eliminated. FIO. 31. To mark the direction of the line at night a bull's-eye lantern in a small box firmly mounted on a post is ordinarily used ; the 160 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. light being thrown through an aperture of such size as to present about the same appearance as the star observed. To avoid refocus- ing for the star, the lantern should be distant not less than a mile. If it is impracticable to place the lantern exactly on the line whose azimuth is required it may be placed at any convenient point, its azimuth determined at night, and the angle between it and the line measured by day; the aperture being then covered symmetrically by a target of any approved pattern. For convenience in the following discussion the target will be supposed to be on the line. Classification of Azimuths. Azimuths of the line with refer- ence to the star are taken in " sets," the number of measurements of the angle in each set being dependent upon whether the final result is to be a primary or secondary azimuth. Primary azimuths are employed in determining the direction of certain lines con- nected with the fundamental or primary triangulation of a survey, and each set consists of from 4 to G measurements of the angle in each position of the instrument. The final result is required to depend upon several sets, with stars in different positions (generally not less than five-, and often many more). The error of the chro- nometer (required in the reductions), together with its rate, are de- termined by very careful time observations with a transit. Secondary azimuths are employed in determining the direction of certain lines connected with the secondary or tertiary triangles of a survey. The number of measurements in a set is about one half or one third that in a set for a primary azimuth; the number of sets is also reduced, and the time observations are usually made with a sextant. The sun is used in connection with secondary azimuths only. Selection of Stars. The true azimuth of the star at the instant of measuring the horizontal angle between it and the line is ob- tained by a solution of the Astronomical Triangle. In order to make such a selection of stars that errors in the assumed data shall have a minimum effect on the star's computed azimuth, we have (178) . ^ cos tan d sin cos P Errors in the assumed values of P, 0, or d will produce errors in the computed azimuth, those in 6 being for obvious reasons usually insignificant and least likely to occur. AZIMUTHS. 161 Taking the reciprocal of (178), differentiating and reducing the first term of the resulting second member by cos a cos tp = sin cos d cos sin d cos P 9 the second by / sin a = sin sin d + cos cos # cos -P> and the third by sin J : sin P : : cos $ : cos , we have cos d cos ib 7 . . . , , sin */> , - d A = -d P 4- tan a sm ^4 d r d d. COS # COS # From this equation it is seen that if we select a close circumpolar star, any error (d P) in the clock correction or in the star's R. A., or any error (d 0) in the assumed latitude, will produce but slight effect on the computed azimuth, since cos d and sin A will each be very small. If in addition the star be at elongation (fi = 90), the first mentioned error will produce no effect, while sin A, although at a maximum for the star, will still be very small. (In latitude of West Point the azimuth of Polaris does not exceed 1 40'.) At elongation the effect of errors (d d) in d will be a maximum, although insignificant if d be taken from the Ephemeris. But if the star be observed at both east and west elongations, the effect of d d and d will disappear in the mean result, since the computed azimuth (reckoned from the north through the east to 360), if erroneous, will be as much too large in one case as too small in the other. Circumpolar stars at their elongations (both) are most favorably situated, therefore, for the determination of azimuths; and since experience gives a decided preference to stars in these positions, other cases will not be considered, except to remark that the As- tronomical Triangle then ceases to be right angled. The stars a (Polaris), d, and A, Ursae Minoris, and 51 Cephei, are those almost exclusively used (although the latter two cannot be used with small instruments). Their places are given in a 162 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. special table of the Ephemeris, pp. 302-13, for every day in the year, and they are so distributed around the pole that one or more will usually be available for observation at some convenient hour. Of these four, A Ursae Minoris is both the smallest and nearest to the pole. For the large instruments it therefore presents a finer and steadier object than any of the* others. For the small instru- ments suitable stars may be selected from the Ephemeris. Measurements of Angles with Altazimuth. In order to under- stand the measurement of the difference of azimuth of two points at unequal altitudes, let us suppose that the horizontal circle of the " Altazimuth " has its graduations increasing to the right (or like those of a watch-face), and that absolute azimuths are reckoned from the north point through the east to 360, the origin of the graduation being at the point 0, Figure 32. The angle N L will then be the absolute azimuth of the origin FIG. 32. of graduations = 0, and if the instrument be in adjustment and A s and AI denote the absolute azimuths of the star and line respec- tively, we shall have * in which R and R ' denote angles L S and L L' respectively, and may be considered as the readings of the instrument when pointed upon the star and over the line. These equations will be somewhat modified if the instru- ment be not in perfect adjustment. . This will usually be the case. Let us suppose that the end of the telescope axis to the observer's left is elevated so that the axis has an inclination of u seconds of arc. Then if the telescope be horizontal and pointing ii? the direction AZIMUTHS. 163 L S, it will, when moved in altitude, sweep to the right of the star, and the whole instrument must be moved to the left to bring the line of collimation on the star. The reading of the instrument will thus be diminished to r, and we shall have the proper reading, R r -\- a correction. The amount of this correction is readily seen, from the small right-angled spherical triangle involved (of which the required distance is the base), to be I cot z. In the same way it is seen from the principles explained under " Equatorial Intervals," etc., that if the middle wire be to the left of the line of collimation by c seconds of arc, r must receive the correction c cosec z. Hence when both these errors exist together, we shall have, z' denoting the zenith distance of the target, A 8 = -f- r -f- 1 cot z + c cosec z, A l -f r' + V cot z 9 -f c cosec z', (180) since c remains unchanged, while b is subject to changes. Subtracting, AI A a = (r' + V cot z') (r -{- I cot z) 4- c (cosec z' cosec z). Since by reversing the instrument the sign of c is changed, but not altered numerically, we may, if an equal number of readings in the two positions be taken, drop the last term as being eliminated in the mean result. With this understanding, the equation will be A l - A 8 = (r' + V cot z') -(r+b cot z). (181) which gives the azimuth of the line with reference to the star, free from all instrumental errors, b is positive when the left end is higher, and its value, heretofore explained, is obtained by direct and reversed readings of both ends of the bubble, and is - (w -f w') (e + e') \,d being the value of one division in seconds of arc. For stars at, or very near, elongation, it is evident that cot z may be replaced by tan 0, without material error; c is positive when middle wire is to the left of its proper position. For very precise work the above result requires a small correc- tion for diurnal aberration, the effect of which is to displace (appar- 164 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. ently) a star toward the east point. For stars at elongation, this correction is 0".311 cos A e . (See Note 1.) In using the reading-microscopes, care should be taken to correct for " error of runs." When a microscope is in perfect adjustment, a whole number of turns of the micrometer screw carries the wire exactly over the space between two Consecutive graduations of the circle. Due to changes of temperature, etc., the distance between the micrometer and circle may change, thus altering the size of the image of a " space." The excess of a circle division over a whole number of turns is called the " Error of Runs." This error is de- termined by trial, and a proportional part applied to all readings of minutes and seconds made with the microscope. Observations and Preliminary Computations. The observations and the preliminary computations are as follows: The error and rate of the chronometer, error of runs of the micrometers, collima- tion error and latitude are supposed to have been obtained with considerable accuracy. The apparent R. A. and declination for the time of elongation of the star to be used must be taken from the Ephemeris, or, if "not given there, reduced from the mean places given in the catalogue employed, as explained under Zenith Telescope. Then for the star's hour-angle at elongation, cos P e = - -~. belli O OL azimuth " sin A e = -.. COS " " " zenith distance at " cos z e = . -r. sm d " " sidereal time " " T = a P e . " chronometer " " " T c = T E, a being the R. A., and E the chronometer error. The instrument is then placed accurately over the station and levelled, so that everything will be in readiness to begin observations at about 20 m before the time of elongation as above computed. In the actual measurement of the angle several different methods have been followed. First, five or six pointings are made on the target, and for each pointing, the circle and all the microscopes are read; also if the angle of elevation of the target differ sensibly from zero (as would not usually be the case with the base-line of a survey) readings of the level, both direct and reversed, are made. If the AZIMUTHS. 165 target be on the same level as the instrument, cot z' will be zero, and the level correction will disappear. Then five or six pointings are made on the star, and in addition to the above readings the chronometer time of each bisection is noted. The instrument is then reversed to eliminate error of collimation, and the above operations repeated, beginning with the star. In the second method alternate readings are made on the mark and star, star and mark, until five or six measurements of the angle have been made, the chronometer being read at each bisection of the star; the circle, microscopes and level as before. The instrument is then reversed, and the same operations repeated in the reverse order. The middle of the time occupied by the whole set should correspond very nearly to the time of elongation. Similar observations are then made, on the same or following nights, on other stars, combining both eastern and western elongations, and using different parts of the horizontal circle for the measurement. Reduction of Observations. Since the observations on the star have been made at different times, and since these correspond to different though nearly equal azimuths, the first step in the reduc- tion is to ascertain what each reading on the star would have been had the observation been made exactly at elongation. For this- purpose find the difference between the chronometer time of each observation and the chronometer time of elongation as computed, applying the rate if perceptible. Let the sidereal interval between these two epochs be denoted by r seconds. Then the elongation reading of the star would have been actual reading the expression 112.5 r 2 sin 1" tan A e , which denote by C. (See Note 2.) [The quantity 112.5 r 2 sin 1" is almost exactly equal to the tabulated values of " m " in the " Reduction to the Meridian," and may if desired be taken directly from those tables.] With a circle graduated as assumed, this correction would manifestly be negative for a western, and positive for an eastern, elongation. Hence Eq. (181) becomes, A l - A e = (r' + b' cot *') - (r + b cot z C). (182) Each pair of observations (on the line and star) with the telescope 166 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. "direct " gives a value of A l A e . If n d be the number of such pairs, the mean will be ~, to which if A e (positive for eastern, negative for western, elongations) be added as heretofore (cos 6 \ sin A e -- 37 I, we shall have the true bearing of the cos 0; line for instrument " direct" Similarly, for instrument " reversed," we shall have ^( A, - A e ) from which by adding ^4 e we obtain the true bearing of the line for instrument reversed. The mean of the two is the true hearing of the line as given by the star employed. [For the greatest precision, this must be corrected by adding the diurnal aberration, 0".311 cos A e .] The adopted value of the azimuth of the line should rest upon (since the star is a close circumpolar), the last factor becomes *?JJ? = tan A e . Hence O= 112.5 r* sin 1" tan A* DECLINATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. The Declination of the Magnetic Needle may be found in ac- cordance with the same principles, regarding the magnetic meridian pointed out by the needle, as the line whose azimuth is to be found. Or, note the reading of the needle when the instrument carrying it is pointed accurately along a line whose true bearing or azimuth is known. Or, take the magnetic bearing of some known celestial body, and note the time T. Then P = T - a. This value of P in Eq. (178) gives the true azimuth, and the difference between this and the magnetic bearing gives the declination of the needle. Or, if the time be not known, measure the altitude of the body and solve the Z P S triangle for A, knowing 0, #, and a. Then having noted the magnetic bearing of the body at the instant of measuring the altitude, the difference is the decimation of the needle. One of the most accurate methods of laying out the true merid- ian is by means of a Transit Instrument adjusted to the meridian, and whose instrumental errors a and c have been carefully deter- mined by star observations. SUN-DIALS. A sun-dial is a contrivance for indicating apparent solar time by means of the shadow of a wire or straight-edge cast on a properly graduated surface. The wire or straight-edge, called the style or gnomon, must be parallel to the earth's axis; i.e., it must be inclined to the horizontal by an angle equal to the latitude, and be in the SUN-DIALS. 169 meridian. The graduated surface, called the dial-face, is usually a plane, and made either of metal or smoothed stone. It may have any position with reference to the style (consistent with receiving its shadow throughout the day), although it is usually either hori- zontal or placed in the prime vertical. The two varieties are shown in Fig* a, the first being by far the more common. FIG. a. The principle of the horizontal dial will be readily understood from an inspection of Fig. b. Let PP 9 be the axis of the celestial sphere, ^the zenith, A Q B the equinoctial, and A H B perpendicular to OZihe plane of the dial face, the style extending from in the direction of P. Then if a plane be passed through the style and the position of the sun, S, at any instant, it will cut from the celestial sphere the sun's hour-circle, and from the dial-face the line G IX, which is therefore the shadow of the style on the dial-face. The direction of this line is thus seen to be independent of the sun's declination (season of the year), and dependent only on his hour angle. If , therefore, we mark on the dial-face the various positions of this line correspond- ing to assumed hour angles which differ from each other by, for 170 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. example, 3 45' or 15 minutes, instants of apparent solar time will be indicated by the arrival of the style's shadow at the correspond- ing line. This construction may be made as follows, noting that FIG. 6. the 12-o'clock line is the intersection of the dial-face with the vertical plane through the style. Suppose, for example, it were required to construct the 9-o'clock line. In the spherical triangle P H' IX right-angled at H' we have P H' = , and the angle at P = Z P S = 45, to determine the side H' IX '= x, given by the formula tan x = sin tan 45. Then with O as a center lay off an angle from CH' equal to the computed value of x, and draw the line O IX. Generally, tan x = sin tan P 9 P denoting the hour angle assumed. Values of x corresponding to intermediate values of P may be laid off with a pair of dividers. The dial-face may have any convenient form, circular, rectan- gular, or elliptical. The last is the best form (shown in Fig. ), since the axis can be so proportioned that the spaces along the edge SUN-DIALS. 171 will be nearly equal, thus greatly facilitating any subdivision. For the latitude of West Point, C IF should be about 2 times C A (Fig. a}. If the plate be 18 or 20 inches long the subdivisions can be readily carried to minutes. Usually the style is a triangular-shaped piece of metal of a suf- ficient thickness to avoid deformation by accident say i or J inch. In this case one edge will cast the shadow in the A.M., and the other in the P.M. Hence the graduations on either side of the 12-o'clock line must be constructed using as a center the point where the shadow-casting edge pierces the plane of the dial-face. The plane of the style must be accurately perpendicular to the dial-face. Having been graduated, the sun-dial is mounted on a firm pedestal, accurately levelled by a spirit-level, and turned till the plane of the style is in the meridian. For an approximation we may use a pocket compass, the declination of the needle being known within moderate limits. By day the orientation may be effected by means of a watch whose error is known. Compute the watch time of apparent noon = 12-o'clock error -f equation of time, and turn the dial slowly, keeping the shadow of style on the 12-o'clock mark until the time computed. The levelling must be carefully attended to. If the watch error be not known, it may be .found by means of a sextant. If no means of determining time are at hand, the dial may still be oriented by a determination of the meridian plane, either by day or night. At night advantage may be taken of the fact that Polaris and C Ursae Majoris (the middle star in the tail of the Great Bear or handle of the Dipper) cross the meridian at almost exactly the same instant. Therefore if two plumb-lines be sus- pended from firm supports as nearly in the meridian as may be, one touching the style and the other a few feet to the south arranged for lateral shifting, we may by sliding the latter cover both stars by both lines at the moment of meridian passage. These lines then define the meridian plane, into which the style is easily turned. The polar distance of C being between 34 and 35, it is evident that for latitudes above about 40 the star must be observed at lower culmination, and for lower latitudes at the upper. By day the meridian plane may be determined as follows: Sus- pend a plumb-line over the south end of a perfectly level table or 172 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. other suitable surface. With the point A as a center describe an arc, CD. The shadow of a knot or bead at B will describe during the day a curve G E F G D. Mark the points C and D where it crosses the arc before and after noon. A line from A bisecting the chord G D will then be in the meridian,, and its extremities may be projected to the earth by pluntfe-lines and the points marked. Stretch a fine cord from_one point to the other, and note the instant FIG. c. when the shadow of the south plumb-line exactly coincides with that of the cord. This is evidently apparent noon; and if the dial be so turned that the shadow of the style falls on the 12 -o'clock line at the same instant, it will be duly oriented. Evidently this method supposes the sun's declination to be con- stant; its change may, however, for this purpose be neglected, except for a month at about the time of the equinoxes. The meridian line may also be determined with a theodolite, as described in works on Surveying. The dial-face may if desired be graduated after orientation by noting where the shadow of the style falls at 1 hour, 2 hours, etc., from the time of apparent noon. The indications of all sun-dials must be corrected by the Equa- tion of Time in order to give local mean time. This correction is practically constant for the corresponding days of all years, and its value at suitable intervals may either be engraved on the dial-plate, or taken from the annexed table. Refraction, varying witji the sun's altitude, is evidently a source. SOLAR ECLIPSE. 173 of error, although too small to require consideration in the present connection. The indications of a sun-dial with the solid style (Fig. a) will be one minute too great in the forenoon and one minute too small in the afternoon, since the shadow line will in each case be formed by the limb of the sun toward the meridian, and the sun requires about one minute to advance through an arc equal to its semi- diameter. A dial constructed for a given latitude may be used without appreciable error in any latitude not differing therefrom by more than one third of a degree say 25 miles. Vertical dials are usually placed on the south fronts of buildings. Their construction is readily understood from what precedes, the graduations being computed by the formula tan x = cos tan P. EQUATION OF TIME TO BE ADDED TO SUN-DIAL TIME. Day. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. 1 + 4 4-14 + 12 + 4 _3m -2 8 7 14 11 2 -4 -1 16 10 14 9 -4 24 12 13 6 -2 -3 + 2 Day. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 + 3- -f 6 Qm -10 -IQm -10" 8 5 5 -2 -12 -16 - 7 16 6 4 -5 -14 -15 - 4 24 6 2 -8 -15 -13 SOLAR ECLIPSE. ;> A solar eclipse /can only occur at conjunction that is, at new moon, and then only when the moon is near enough to the plane of the ecliptic to throw its shadow or penumbra upon the earth. The following discussion, abbreviated from that found in Chauvenet's Practical Astronomy, Vol. I, will suffice to give the student such a 174 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. knowledge of the theory of eclipses as to enable him to project a solar eclipse, with the aid of the eclipse data found in the Ephemeris. Solar Ecliptic Limits. Let N S Fig. 34 be the Ecliptic, N M s s 1 P FIG. 34. the intersection of the plane of the moon's orbit with the celestial sphere, JV^the moon's node, 8 and M the sun's and moon's center at conjunction, and 8' and M' the same points at the instant of nearest angular distance of the moon from the sun. Assume the following notation, viz. : /? = 8 M 9 the moon's latitude at conjunction. i = 8 N M 9 the inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic. ,\ = the quotient of the moon's mean hourly motion in longitude at conjunction, divided by that of the sun. A = S' M f , the least true distance. y =SMS'. Considering JV M S as a plane triangle, and drawing the perpen- dicular M' P from M' to 8 N, we have $8' = /? tan ;/. SP = hp tan y. 8' P = ft (A, - 1) tan y. M' P = ft - \ ft tan y tan i. 4* = P [ (1 - l) a tan 8 y + (1 - A tan i tan ;/) a ]. Differentiating the last equation and placing r = 0, we find A will be a minimum for A tan t - I) 8 + A 8 tan a This value gives -i)' SOLAR ECLIPSE. ' 175 or J a = p cos 2 1'', (186) when tan i f is placed equal to . _ tan i. The least apparent distance of the sun's and moon's center as viewed from the surface of the earth may be less than A by the difference of the horizontal parallaxes of the two bodies. Call this distance A' 9 then A' =A (n - P). Now when A' is less than the sum of the apparent semi-diameters of the sun and moon there will be an eclipse ; hence the condition is (denoting the semi-diameters of the moon and sun respectively by s' and s), or /3 cos i' < TT - P + s + s'. (187) To ascertain the probability of an eclipse, it is generally suffi- cient to substitute the mean values of the quantities in the above inequality. The extreme values, determined by observation are . -( 5 20' 06" * | 4 57' 22" ( 61' 32" ( 52' 50" p j 9". ( 8".70 8".85 l j 16.19 " ( 10.89 1.00472 5 8' 44" j 16' 18" | 15' 45" 16' 1" i value of sec i' y 57' 11" ,, j 16' 46" \ 14' 24" 15' 35" found from those 13. 5 of i and A, is and hence, (188) (it - P + s -f- 5') sec i' = ft <(TT - P + s + s') (1 + 0.00472). The fractional part of the second member of the inequality varies between 20" and 30"; taking its mean 25", we have for all but exceptional cases, /?<7r-P + s4-s' + 25". (189) 176 PRACTICAL Substituting in this last form the greatest values of TT, $, and s', and the least value of P; and then the least values of TT, s t and s'y and the greatest value of P, we have ft < l c 34' 27".3, and ft < 1 22' 50", respectively. If, therefore, the moon's latitude at conjunction be greater than 1 34' 27".3 a solar eclipse is impossible; if less than 1 22' 50" it is certain; if between these values it is doubtful. To ascertain whether there will be one or not in the latter case, substitute the actual values of P, TT, s and s' for the date, and if the inequality subsists there will be an eclipse, otherwise not. . PROJECTION OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE. 1. To find the Radius of the Shadow, on any Plane perpendicular to the Axis of the Shadow. In Fig. 35 let S and M be the centers of the sun and moon; V the vertex of the umbral or penumbral cone; F Et\^ fundamental plane through the earth's center perpendicular to the axis of the shadow ; and C D the parallel plane through the observer's position. It is required to find the value of C D at the beginning or ending of an eclipse. Take the earth's mean distance from the sun to be unity, and let ES = r, EM = r', MS = r- r'. Place H^L = ^, and let k be the ratio of the earth's equatorial radius to the moon's radius = 0.27227. Then P being the sun's mean horizontal parallax, we have Earth's radius = sin P . Moon's radius = k sin P = 0.27227 sin P# Sun's radius = sin s. SOLAR 177 5 being the apparent semi-diameter of the sun at mean distance From the figure we have sn sin s k sin P. E F FIG. 35. (190) in which the upper sign corresponds to the penumbral and the lower to the umbral cone. The numerator of the second member is constant, and since s = 959".758, P Q = 8".85, we have log [sin s -j- k sin P ] = 7.6688033 for exterior contact, log [sin s ~k sin P ] = 7.6666913 for interior contact. If the equatorial radius of the earth be taken as unity, we have k ' sin/ 178 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. Whence the distance c of the vertex of the cone from the fun- damental plane is If I and L be radius of the shadow on the fundamental and on the observer's plane respectively, andTc be their distance apart, we have I = c tan/ =2 tan / k sec/. (192) L = (c - C) tan / = I - C tan/. (193) 2. To find the distance of the Observer at a given time from the Axis of the Shadow in terms of his Co-ordinates and those of the Moon's Center, referred to the Earth's Center as an Origin. Let 0, Figure 36, be the earth's center, and X Y the funda- mental plane. Take Z Y to be the plane of the declination circle FIG. 36. passing through the point Z in which the axis of the moon's shadow pierces the celestial sphere ; X Z being perpendicular to the other two coordinate planes. Let M and-# be the centers of the moon and sun, M' , S', their geocentric places on the celestial sphere, M t their projections on the fundamental plane, and (7, the projection of the observer's place on the same plane. Let P be the north SOLAR ECLIPSE. 179 pole. The axis Z, being always parallel to the axis of the shadow, will pierce the celestial sphere in the same point, as 8 M. Assume the following notation : a, #, r = the R. A., Dec., and distance from the earth's center, respectively, of the moon's center. a', #', r' = the corresponding coordinates of the sun's center. a, d, the R. A. and Dec. of the point Z. x, y, z = the coordinates of the moon's center. , 77, C = the coordinates of the observer's position. 0, 0' = the latitude and reduced latitude respectively. A = the longitude of the observer's station west from Greenwich. p the earth's radius at the observer's station in terms of the earth's equatorial radius taken as unity. jjL t = the Greenwich hour angle of the point Z. IJL = the sidereal time at which the point Z has the R. A. a. A the required distance of the place of observation from the axis of the shadow at the time yw. From the conditions, we have R. A. of Z = a, R. A. of M'- a, R. A. of X = 90 + a, and therefore ZP M ' = a - a, and P M' = 90 - tf. Through M t and G t draw M t N and C 4 N parallel to the axis of Xand Irrespectively; then M t C, N = P Z M' = P, the position angle of the point of contact, and we have (194) 180 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. From the spherical triangles M' P X, M f P Y, and M f P Z, we have x r cos M f X r cos d sin (a a) } y r cos M' Y = r [sin d cos d cos d sin d cos (a #)] > (1 95) z = r cos M' Z r [sin $ sin d -j- cos d cos 6? cos (a a)]. J Similarly the coordinates of the place of observation are g p cos 0' sin (// a) 1 TI p [sin 0' cos d cos (LOG) C = p [sin 0' sin d -J-- cos 0' cos d cos (/* )]. ) The hour angle (/* ft) of the point Z for the meridian of the observer can be found from in which ju, is the hour angle of the point Z for the Greenwich meridian and A is the longitude of the observer's meridian. The distance of the observer from the axis of the moon's shadow A, C t M t can be found from the above formulas, since, A* = (x - )' + (y - ?/)\ (197) 3. To Find the Time of Beginning or Ending of the Eclipse at the Place of Observation. For the assumed Greenwich mean time of computation take from the Besselian table of elements given in the Ephemeris for each eclipse the values of sin d, cos d, and ja r The values of p cos 0' p sin 0' are found on page 505, computed from the formulas, , . Ct COS pcos0 = == = F cos ' 2J (198) , sin V\. e 2 sin 2 sin - " ~~ SOLAR ECLIPSE. 181 The variations of and // in one minute of mean time are ob- tained by differentiating the first two of Eqs. (196), and give ' = [7.63992] p cos 0' cos (/i, - A) ] rf [7.63992] p cos 0' sin d sin (^ A) \ (199) = [7.63992] sin rf. The variations of x and y for one minute of mean time are represented by x', and y', and their logarithms are given in the lower table of the Ephemeris elements for the eclipse. Now, if the time chosen for computation be exactly the instant of beginning or ending of the eclipse, then A = L\ but as this is scarcely possible a correction r in minutes must be made to the assumed Ephemeris time T. We may then write, L sin P = x - Z + (x' - ') r, (200) L cos P = #-//+ (/ - ?/') r. (201) Assume the auxiliary quantities m, M, n, N, given by the equa- tions, m sin M = x & (202) n cos N y' ?f. From these we have L sin (P - N) = m sin (M - N), (203) L cos (P .N) = m cos (Jf JV) -f ^ r. Hence putting ^ = P N, we have sin ^ - mSm( 5~^ } , (204) 182 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. the lower sign of the second term in the second member of the last equation corresponding to the time of beginning and the upper to the time of ending of the eclipse.* 4. The Position Angle of the Point of Contact. The angle re- quired is P N -f i/> for the end and P N fi 180 for the beginning b'f .the eclipse. 5. We now have all the equations/ and the Ephemeris gives us the Besselian table of elements from which the circumstances of an eclipse can be computed at any place. These equations are here arranged in the order in which they would be used, and the student is referred to the type problem worked out in the Ephemeris as a guide. 1. Constants for the given place, p sin 0' ) Found from table page 505, Ephemeris, know- p cos 0' f ing the observer's latitude. 2. Coordinates of observer, referred to center of earth. = p cos 0' sin (/* a). ?/ = p sin 0' cos d p cos 0' sin d cos (/<* #), C = p sin 0' sin d -j- p cos 0' cos d cos (yu a). 3. Variations of observer's coordinates in one minute of mean time, ' = [7.63992] pcos 0' cos (//, - A). 7?' = [7.63992] sin d. 4. The values of m^ M, n and N, given by m sin M = x Z, m cos M = y 77, n cos N= y' ?/. See page 506, Ephemeris. SOLAR ECLIP8E. 183 5. The radius L of the shadow or penumbra on a plane passing through the observer, parallel to the fundamental plane, and at a distance C from it. 6. The value of the angle ^, m sin ( M N) sm ( = 7. The value of the time r in minutes m cos ( Jf N) L r = 8. The position angle P, from or P = N - ^ ISO , TABLES.

to 0) 00 UJ _l m < Factor depending upon Factor depending upon the external the barometer. thermometer. Eng. ln. Log B. F. Log r- F. Log y. 27.5 0.03191 " o 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 28.8 28.9 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 29.8 29.9 30.0 80.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8 30.9 31.0 0.03033 2Q 0.02876 0.02720 0.02564 :} 0.02409 fJL 0.02254 & } 0-. 02099 JJ 0.01946 J* 0.01793 JjJ 0.01640 * ?; J? 0.01488 H 0.01336 a 0.01185 0.01035 2 0.00885 L 0.00735 0.00586 0.00438 0.00290 0.00142 +0.00005 o.ooisi . y 0.00297 !*S 0.00443 0.00588 0.00733 0.00876 0.01020 2 0.01163 0.01306 0.01448 -X 0.01589 Jr 0.01731 *i 0.01871 J5 -fO.02012 J| + 0.06276 0.06181 0.06083 0.05985 0.05887 0.05790 0.05093 0.05596 0.05500 0.05403 0.05307 0.05211 0.05115 0.05020 0.04924 0.04829 0.04734 0.04640 0.04545 0.04451 0.04357 0.04263 0.04169 0.04076 0.03982 0.03889 0.03796 0.03704 0.03611 0.03519 0.03427 0.03335 0.03243 0.03152 0.03060 + 35 86 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 \ 68 69 +0.01185 0.01098 0.01011 0.00924 0.00837 0.00750 0.00004 0.00578 0.00492 0.00406 0.00320 0.00234 0.00149 +0.00004 0.00021 0.00106 0.00191 0.00275 0.00360 0.00444 0.00528 0.00612 0.00696 0.00780 0.00863 0.00946 0.01029 0.01112 0.01195 0.01278 0.01360 0.01443 0.01525 0.01607 0.01689 " 15 0.02969 70 0.01770 Factor depending nps jg 0.02878 71 0.01852 the attached ther- j^ 0.02787 72 0.01933 mometer. -10 0.02697 73 0.02015 0.02606 74 0.02096 F. Log T. 2Q 0.02516 75 0.02177 o 21 0.02426 76 0.02257 80 20 10 10 +20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 +100 4-0.00243 0.00203 * 0.00164 *3 0.00125 0.00086 *J 0.00047 ^ +000008 0.00031 X 0.00070 0.00109 0.00148 0.00186 0.00225 J gt 0.00264 0.02336 0.02247 0.02157 0.02068 0.01979 0.01890 0.01801 0.01713 0.01624 0.01536 0.01448 0.01360 0.01273 +0.01185 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 + 90 0.02338 0.02419 0.02499 0.02579 0.02659 0.02738 0.03819 0.02898 0.02978 0.03057 0.03136 0.03216 0.03294 0.03373 Log^=logB-hlogT. 194 Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log.B. Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log.B. [Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log.B. /w. 7/. h. m. h. m. 9.4059 9.4059 40 9.4065 9.4048 1 20 9.4081 9.4015 2 .4059 .4059 42 .40(55 .4047 22 .4083 .4013 4 .4059 .4059 44 .4066 .4046 24 .4084 .4010 6 .4060 .4059 46 .4067 .4045 26 .4085 .4008 8 .4060 .4059 48 .4067 .4043 28 .4086 .4006 10 .4060 .4059 50 .4068 '.4042 30 .4087 .4003 12 .4060 .40.18 52 .4069 .4041 32 .4089 .4001 14 .4060 .'4058 54 ; .4069 .4039 34 .4090 .3998 16 .4060 .4058 56 .4070 .4038 36 .4091 .3995 18 .4061 .4057 58 .4071 .4036 38 .4093 .3993 20 .4061 .4057 1 .4072 .4034 40 .4094 .3990 22 .4061 .4056 2 .4073 .4033 42 .4095 .3987 24 .4061 .4055 4 .4074 .4031 44 .4097 .3984 26 .4062 .4055 6 .4074 .4029 46 .4098 .8981 28 .4062 .4054 8 .4075 .4027 48 .4100 .8978 30 .4062 .4053 10 .4076 .4025 50 .4101 .8975 82 .4063 .4052 12 .4077 .4023 52 .4103 .3972 34 .4063 .4051 14 .4078 .4021 64 .4104 .3969 36 .4064 .4050 16 .4079 .4019 56 .4106 .3965 88 9.4064 9.4049 1 18 9.4080 9.4017 1 58 9.4107 0.3962 Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log,B. Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log. B. Klapsec Time. Log. A. Log. B. h. m. h. m. A. m* 2 9.4100 9.3959 4 9.4260 9.8635 6 9.4515 9.8010 c i .4111 .3955 2 .4203 .8627 2 .4521 .2996 4 .4113 .3952 4 .4*66 .8620 4 .4526 .2982 e .4114 .8948 6 .4270 .8613 6 .4581 .2968 8 .4116 .3944 8 .4273 .3604 8 .4636 .2954 10 .4118 .8941 10 .4277 .8596 10 .4542 .2940 12 .4120 .8937 12 .4280 .8588 12 .4547 .2925 14 .4121 .8933 14 .4284 .8580 14 .4552 .2911 16 .4123 .3929 16 .4288 .8573 16 .4558 .2896 18 .4125 .3925 18 .4291 .8564 18 .4563 .2881 80 .4127 .8921 20 .4295 .3555 20 .4569 .2866 22 .4129 .8917 22 .4299 .3547 22 .4574 .2850 24 .4131 .3913 24 .4302 .8538 24 .4580 2835 26 .4133 .8909 26 .4306 .8530 26 .4585 .2819 28 .4135 .3905 28 .4310 .8521 28 .4591 .2804 80 .4137 .3900 30 .4314 .3512 80 .4597 .2788 82 .4139 .3896 32 .4317 .8503 82 .4602 .2772 84 .4141 .8892 84 .4821 .8494 84 .4608 .2756 86 .4144 .3887 86 .4325 .8485 86 .4614 .2789 88 .4146 .3882 38 .4329 .3476 88 .4620 .2723 40 .4148 .3878 40 .4333 .8467 40 .4625 .2706 42 .4150 .3873 42 .4337 .8457 42 .4631 .2689 44 .4152 .3868 44 .4341 .3448 44 .4637 .2673 46 .4155 .3863 40 .4345 .3438 46 .4648 .2655 48 .4157 .3859 48 .4349 .3429 48 .4649 .2688 50 .4159 .3854 50 .4353 .8419 50 .4655 .2620 52 .4162 .3849 52 .4357 .3409 52 .4661 .2602 54 .4164 .3843 54 .4381 .3399 54 .4667 .2584 56 .4167 .3838 56 .4366 .3389 56 .4673 .2566 2 58 .4169 .8833 4 58 .4370 .3379 6 58 .4679 .2548 8 .4172 .3828 5 .4374 .3369 7 .4685 .2530 2 .4174 .3822 2 .4378 .8358 2 .4691 .2511 4 .4177 .3817 4 .4383 .8348 4 .4697 .2492 6 .4179 .3811 6 .4387 .8337 6 .4704 .2473 8 .4182 .8806 8 .4391 .3327 8 .4710 .2454 10 .4184 .3800 10 .4396 .8316 10 .4716 .2434 12 .4187 .3794 12 .4400 .8305 12 .4723 .2415 14 .4190 .3789 14 .4405 .3294 14 .4729 .2395 16 .4193 .8783 16 .4409 .3283 16 .4735 .2375 18 .4195 .8777 18 .4414 .3272 18 .4742 .2355 20 .4198 .3771 20 .4418 .8261 20 .4748 .2334 22 .4201 .3765 22 .4123 .8249 22 .4755 .2318 24 .4204 .3759 24 .4427 .3238 24 .4761 .2292 26 .4207 .8752 26 .4432 .3226 26 .4768 .2271 28 .4209 .3746 28 .4437 .8214 28 .4774 .2250 80 .4212 .3740 30 .4441 .3203 80 .4781 .2228 82 .4215 .3733 32 .4446 .3191 82 .4788 .2206 34 .4218 .8727 34 .4451 .3178 84 .4794 .2184 36 .4221 .3720 36 .4456 .8166 86 .4801 .2162 88 .4224 .3713 88 .4460 .8154 88 .4808 .2140 40 .4227 .3707 40 .4465 .8142 40 .4815 .2117 42 .4231 .3700 42 .4470 .3129 42 .4821 .2094 44 .4234 .3693 44 .4475 .8116 44 .4828 .2070 46 .4237 .3686 46 .4480 .3103 46 .4835 .2047 48 .4240 .8679 48 .4485 .3091 48 .4842 .2023 50 .4243 .3672 50 .4490 .3078 50 .4849 .1999 52 .4246 .3665 52 .4494 .3064 52 .4856 .1974 54 .4250 .3657 54 .4500 .3051 54 .4863 .1950 56 .4253 .8650 56 .4505 .3038 56 .4870 .1925 8 58 J.4256 9.3643 5 58 9.4510 9.3024 7 58 9.4877 9.1900 195 < * oq I 5. I > SO ! r 190 -o r- < S 1 LJ Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log. B. Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log. B. Ei.vpeedL Time. T -g- A - Log. B. A in. h. m. A. m. 8 9.4884 9.1874 14 09.6841 9.0971 16 9.7895 -9.4884 2 .4892 .1848 2 .6856 .1057 2 .7915 .4937 4 .4899 .1822 4 .6872 .1141 4 .7935 .4990 6 .4906 .1796 6 .6887 .1224 6 .7955 ,.5042 8 .4913 .1769 8 .6903 .1306 8 .7975 .5094 10 .4921 .1742 10 .6919 .1387 10 .7996 .5146 12 .4928 .1715 12 .6934 .1468 12 .8016 .5197 14 .4935 .1687 14 .6950 .1547 14 .8037 .5248 16 .4943 .1659 16 .6966 .1625 16 .8058 .5300 18 .4950 .1630 18 .6982 .1703 18 .8078 .5351 20 .4958 .1602 20 ^6998 .1779 20 .8099 .5401 22 .4965 .1573 22 .7014 .1855 22 .8120 .5452 24 .4973 .1543 24 .7030 .1930 24 .8141 5502 26 .4980 .1513 26 .7047 .2004 23 .8162 .5553 28 .4988 .1483 28 .7063 .2078 28 .8184 .5603 30 .4996 .1453 30 .7079 .2150 30 .8205 .5653 32 .5003 .1422 32 .7096 .2222 32 .8227 .5702 34 .5011 .1390 34 .7112 .2293 34 .8248 .5752 36 .5019 .1359 36 .7129 .2364 36 .8270 .5801 38 .5027 .1327 38 .7146 .2434 38 .8292 .5850 40 .5035 .1294 40 .7162 .2503 40 .8314 .5900 42 .5042 .1261 42 .7179 .2571 42 .8336 .5948 44 .5050 .1228 44 .7196 .2639 44 .8358 .5997 46 .5058 .1194 46 .7213 .2706 46 .8380 .6046 48 .5066 .1159 48 .7230 .2773 48 .8402 .G094 50 .5074 .1125 50 .7247 .2839 50 .8425 .6143 52 .5082 .1089 52 .7264 .2905 52 .8447 .6191 54 .5091 .1054 54 .7281 .2970 54 .8470 .6239 56 .5099 .1017 56 .7299 .3034 56 .8493 .6287 8 58 .5107 .0981 14 68 ' .7316 .3098 16 58 .8516 .6335 9 .5115 .0943 15 .7333 .3162 17 .8539 .6383 2 .5123 .0996 2 .7351 .3225 2 .8562 .6481 4 .5132 .0867 4 .7369 .3287 4 .8585 .6478 6 .5140 .0828 6 .7386 .3350 6 .8608 .6526 8 .5148 .0789 8 .7404 .3411 8 .8632 .6573 10 .5157 .0749 10 .7422 .3472 10 .8655 .6621 12 .5165 .0708 12 .7440 .3533 12 .8679 .6668 14 .5174 .0667 14 .7458 .3593 14 .8703 .6715 16 .5182 .0625 16 .7476 .3653 16 .8727 .6762 18 .5191 .0583 18 .7494 .3713 18 .8751 .6809 20 .5199 .0540 20 .7512 .3772 20 .8775 .6856 22 .5208 .0496 22 .7531 .3831 22 .8799 . 6903 24 .5217 .0452 24 .7549 .3889 24 -8824 .6949 26 .5225 .0406 26 .7568 .3947 26 .8848 .6996 28 .5234 .0360 28 .7586 .4005 28 .8873 .7043 30 .5243 .0314 30 .7605 .4062 30 .8898 .7089 32 .5252 .0266 32 .7924 .4119 32 .8923 .7136 84 .5261 .0218 34 .7642 .4175 34 .8948 .7182 36 .5269 .0169 36 .7661 4232 36 .8973 .7228 38 .5278 .0119 38 .7680 ]4288 38 .8999 .7275 40 .5287 .0069 40 .7699 .4343 40 .9024 .7321 42 .5296 .0017 42 .7718 .4399 42 .9050 .7367 44 .5305 8.9965 44 .7738 .4454 44 .9075 .7413 46 .5315 .9911 46 .7757 .4509 46 .9101 .7459 48 .5324 .9857 48 .7776 .4563 48 .9127 .7505 50 .5333 .9802 50 .7796 .4617 50 .9154 .7553 52 .5342 .9745 52 .7815 .4671 52 .9180 .751'S 54 .5351 .9688 54 .7835 .4725 54 .9206 .7644 56 .5361 .9630 56 .7855 .4778 56 .9233 .7690 ' 9 5b 9.5370 8.9570 15 58 9.7875 -9.4831 17 58 9 . 9260 9.7736 1 Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log. B. Elapsed Time. Log. A. Leg. B. Elapsed Time. Log. A. Log. B. h. m. h. m. h. m. 18 9.9287 9.7782 20 0.1249 0.0625 22 0.4523 0.4373 21 .9314 .7827 2 .1290 .0676 2 .4601 .4455 4! .9341 .7873 4 .1330 .0727 4 .4680 .4540 6 .9368 .7919 6 .1371 .0779 6 .4761 .4625 8 .9396 .7235 8 .1412 .08CO 8 .4842 .4711 10 .9424 .8011 10 .1454 .0882 10 .4926 .4799 12 .9451 .8057 12 .1496 .0935 12 .5010 .48*0 14 .9479 .8103 14 .1538 .0987 14 .5C97 .4980 16 .9508 .8149 16 .1581 .1040 16 .5184 .5072 18 .9536 .8195 18 .1623 .1093 18 .5274 .5165 20 .9564 .8241 20 .1667 .1146 20 .5365 .5261 22| .9393 .8287 22 .1711 .1200 oo .5458 .5358 24 .9622 .8333 24 .1755 .1253 24 .5553 5457 26 .9651 .8379 26 .1799 .1308 26 .5649 .5557 28 .9680 .8425 28 .1844 .1862 28 .5748 .5660 80 .9709 .8471 30 .1889 .1417 30 .5848 .5764 82 .9739 .8517 32 .1935 .1472 82 .5951 .5871 34 .9769 .8563 34 .1981 .1527 84 .6056 .5979 86 .9798 .8609 36 .2028 .1582 36 .6164 .601)0 88 .9829 .8655 38 .2075 .1638 88 .6273 .6204 40 .9859 .8701 40 .2122 .1695 40 .6380 .6319 42 .9889 .8748 42 .2170 .1751 42 .6501 .64C8 44 .9920 .8794 44 .2218 .1808 44 .6619 .6559 46 .9951 .8840 46 .2267 .1863 48 .6740 .6684 48 9.9982 .8887 48 .2316 .1924 48 .6865 .6811 60 0.0013 .8933 50 .2366 .1982 50 .6993 .6942 52 .0044 .8980 52 .2416 .2040 52 .7124 .7076 64 .0076 .9026 54 .2467 .2099 54 .7259 .7214 56 .0108 .9073 56 .2518 .2159 56 .7398 .7355 18 58 .0140 .9120 20 53 .2570 .2219 22 58 .7541 .7501 19 .0172 .9167 21 .2623 .2279 23 .7689 .7652 2 .0204 .9213 2 .2676 .2339 2 .7842 .7807 4 .0237 .9260 4 .2729 .2401 4 .8000 .7967 6 .0270 .9307 6 .2783 .2462 6 .8163 .8133 8 .0303 .9355 8 .2838 :2524 8 .8333 .8305 10 .0336 .9402 10 .2893 .2587 10 .8508 .8483 12 .0370 .9449 12 .2949 .2650 12 .8691 .8667 14 .0403 .9497 14 .3005 .2714 14 .8882 .886Q 16 .0437 .9544 16 .3063 .2778 16 .9080 .9060 18 .0472 .9592 18 .3120 .2843 18 .9288 .9270 20 .0506 .9640 20 .3179 .2909 20 .9506 .9489 22 .0541 .9687 22 .3238 .2975 22 .9734 .9719 24 .0576 .9735 24 .3298 .3041 24 0.9975 0.9961 26 .0611 .9784 26 .3359 .3109 26 1.0228 -1.0216 28 .0646 .9832 28 .3420 .3177 28 .0497 4)487 80 .0682 .9880 30 .3482 .3245 30 .0783 .0774 82 .0718 .9929 32 .3545 .3315 32 .1089 .1081 84 .0754 9.9977 34 .3609 .3385 34 .1416 .1409 36 .0790 0.0026 36 .3674 .8456 36 .1770 .1764 88 .0827 .0075 38 .3739 .3527 38 .2154 .2149 40 .0864 .0124 40 .3805 .3599 40 ,2573 .2569 42 .0901 .0173 42 .3873 .3673 42 .3037 .3033 44 .0939 .0223 44 .3941 .3747 44 .3554 .3553 46 .0976 .0272 46 .4010 .8822 46 .4140 .4138 48 .1015 ,0322 48 .4080 .8897 48 .4815 .4814 50 .1053 .0372 50 .4151 .3974 50 .5613 .5612 52 .1092 .0422 52 .4223 .4052 52 .6588 .6587 54 .1131 .0473 54 .4297 .4130 64 .7844 .7843 56 .1170 .0523 56 .4371 .4210 56 1.9610 1.9610 19 58 0.1209 0.0574 21 58 0.4446 -0.4291 23 58 2.2627 2.2627 197 M CD o r * m I 5 s 2. 3 b > CO p lm 2- 3 m 5 m O m 7 m g 8 ii // n // II n // / / // 0.00 1.96 7.85 17.67 31.42 49.09 70.68 96.20 125.65 1 0.00 2.03 7.98 17.87 31.68 49.41 71.07 96.66 126.17 2 0.00 2.10 8.12 18.07 31.94 49.74 71.47 97.12 126.70 3 0.00 2.16 8.25 18.27 32.20 50.07 71.86 97.58 127.22 4 0.01 2.23 8.39 18.47 32.47 50.40 72.26 98.04 127.75 5 0.01 2.31 8.52 18. G~ 32.74 50.73 72.66 98.50 128.28 0.02 2.38 8.66 18.87 83.01 51.07 73.06 98.97 128.81 7 0.02 2.45 8.80 19.07 33.27 51.40 73.46 99.43 129.34 8 0.03 2.52 8.94 19.28 33.54 51.74 73.86 99.90 129.87 1) 0.04 2.60 9.08 19.48 33.81 52.07 74.26 100.37 130.40 10 0.05 2.67 9.22 ' .19.69 * 34.09 52.41 74.66 100.84 130.94 11 0.06 2.75 9.36 19.90 ; 34.36 52.75 75.06 101.31 131.47 12 0.08 2.83 9.50 20.11 34.64 53.09 75.47 101.78 182.01 13 0.09 2.91 9.64 20.32 34.91 53.43 75.88 102.25 132.55 14 0.11 2.99 9.79 20.53 35.19 53.77 76.29 102.72 133.09 15 0.12 3.07 9.94 20.74 35.46 54.11 76.69 103.20 133.63 10 0.14 8.15 10.09 20.95 35.74 54.46 77.10 103.67 134.17 17 0.16 3.23 10.24 21.16 36.02 54.80 77.51 104.15 134.71 18 0.18 3.32 10.39 21.38 36.30 55.15 77,93 104.63 135.25 11) 0.20 3.40 10.54 21.60 36.58 55.50 78.84 105.10 135.80 20 0.22 3.49 10.69 21.82 36.87 55.84 78.75 105.58 136.34 21 0.24 3.58 10.84 22.03 37.15 56.19 79.16 106.06 186.88 22 0.26 3.67 11.00 22.25 37.44 56.55 79.58 106.55 137.43 23 0.28 3.76 11.15 22.47 37.72 56.90 80.00 107.03 137.98 24 0.31 8.85 11.81 22.70 38.01 57.25 80.42 107.51 138.53 25 0.34 3.94 11.47 22.92 38.30 57.60 80.84 107.99 139.08 20 0.87 4.03 11.63 23.14 38.59 57.96 81.26 108.48 139.63 27 0.40 4.12 11.79 23.37 38.88 58.32 81.68 108.97 140.18 28 0.43 4.22 11.95 28.60 39.17 58.68 82.10 109.46 140.74 20 0.46 4.32 12.11 23.82 39.46 59.03 82.52 109.95 141.29 30 0.49 4.42 12.27 24.05 89.76 59.40 82.95 110.44 141.85 31 0,52 4.52 12.43 24.28 40.05 59.75 83.38 110.93 142.40 32 0.56 4.62 12.60 24.51 40.35 60.11 83.81 111.43 142.96 33 0.59 4.72 12.76 24.74 40.65 60.47 84.23 111.92 143.52 34 0.63 4.82 12.93 24.98 40.95 60.84 84.66 112.41 144.98 35 0.67 4.92 13.10 25.21 41.25 61.20 85.09 112.90 144.64 30 0.71 5.03 13.27 25.45 41.55 61.57 85.52 113.40 145.20 87 0.75 6.13 13.44 26.68 41.85 61.94 85.95 11390 145.76 38 0.79 5.24 13.62 25.92 42.15 62.81 86.39 114.40 146.33 3U 0.83 5.84 13.79 26.16 42.45 62.68 86.82 114.90 146.89 40 0.87 5.45 13.96 26.40 42.76 63.05 87.26 115.40 147.46 41 0.91 6.56 14.13 26.64 43.06 63.42 87.70 115.90 148.03 42 0.96 6.67 14.31 26.88 43.37 63.79 88.14 116.40 148.60 4,'J 1.01 5.78 14.49 27.12 43.68 64.16 88.57 116.90 149.17 44 1.06 5.90 14.67 27.87 43.99 64.54 89.01 117.41 149.74 45 .10 6.01 14.85 27.61 44.30 64.91 89.45 117.92 150.31 40 .15 6.13 15.03 27.86 44.61 65.29 89.89 118.43 150.88 47 .20 6.24 15.21 28.10 44.92 65.67 90.33 118.94 151.45 48 .26 6.36 15.39 28.35 45.24 66.05 90.78 119.45 152.03 49 .31 6.48 15.57 23.60 45.55 66.43 91.23 119.96 152.61 50 .36 6.60 15.76 28.85 45.87 66.81 91.68 120.47 153.19 51 .42 6.72 15.95 29.10 46.18 67.19 92.12 120.98 153.77 52 .48 6.84 16.14 29.36 46.50 67.58 92.57 121.49 154.35 53 .53 6.96 16.32 29.61 46.82 67.96 93.02 122.01 154.93 54 .59 7.09 16.51 29.86 47.14 68.35 93.47 122.53 155.51 55 .65 7.21 16.70 80.12 47.46 68.73 93.92 123.05 156.09 50 .71 7.34 16.89 30.38 47.79 69.12 94.88 128.57 156.67 57 .77 7.46 17.08 80.64 48.11 69.61 94.83 124.09 157.25 58 .88 7.60 17.28 30.90 48.43 69.90 95.29 124.61 157.84 59 .89 7.72 17.47 31.16 48.76 70.29 96.74 125.18 158.48 p 8 10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 15- 16- a // // ii n ii a a 159.02 190.32 237.54 282.68 331.74 384.74 441.63 502.46 159.61 196.97 238.26 283.47 332.59 385.65 442.62 503.50 2 160.20 197.63 238.98 284.26 333.44 886.56 443.60 504.55 3 160.80 198.28 239.70 285.04 334.29 387.48 444.58 505.60 4 161.39 198.94 240.42 285.83 335.15 388.40 445.56 506.65 5 161.98 199.60 241.14 286.62 336.00 389.32 446.55 507.70 6 162.58 200.26 241.87 287.41 336.86 390.24 447.54 508.76 7 163.17 200.92 242.60 288.20 337.72 391.16 448.53 509.81 8 163.77 201.59 243.33 289.00 338.58 392.09 449.51 510.86 9 164.37 202.25 244.06 289.79 339.44 393.01 450.50 511.92 10 164.97 202.92 244.79 290.58 340.30 393.94 451.50 512.98 11 165.57 203.58 245.52 291.38 341.16 394.86 452.49 514.03 12 166.17 204.25 246.25 292.18 342.02 395.79 453.48 515.09 13 166.77 204.92 246.98 292.98 342.88 396.72 454.48 516.15 14 167.37 205.59 247.72 293.78 343.75 397.65 455.47 517.21 15 167.97 206.26 248.45 294.58 344.62 398.58 456.47 518.27 16 168.58 206.93 249.19 295.38 345.49 399.52 457.47 519.34 17 169.19 207.60 249.93 296.18 346.36 400.45 458.47 520.40 18 169.80 208.27 250.67 296.99 347.23 401.38 459.47 521.47 19 170.41 208.94 251.41 297.79 348.10 402.32 460.47 522.53 20 171.02 209.62 252.15 298.60 348.97 403.26 461.47 523.60 21 171.63 210.30 252.89 299.40 349.84 404.20 462.48 524.67 22 172.24 210.98 253.63 300.21 350.71 405.14 463.48 525.74 23 172.85 211.66 254.37 301.02 351.58 406.08 464.48 526.81 24 173.47 212.34 255.12 301.83 352.46 407.02 465.49 527.89 25 174.08 213.02 255.87 302.64 353.34 407.96 466.50. 528.96 174.70 213.70 256.62 303.46 354.22 408.90 467.51 530.03 27* 175.32 214.38 257.37 304.27 355.10 409.84 468.52 531.11 28 175.94 215.07 258.12 305.09 855.98 410.79 469.53 532.18 29. 176.56 215.75 258.87 305.90 356.86 411.73 470.54 533.26 30 177.18 216.44 259.62 306.72 357.74 412.68 471.55 534.33 31 177.80 217.12 260.37 307.54 358.62 413.63 472.57 535.41 32 178.43 217.81 261.12 308.36 359.51 414.59 473.58 536.50 33 179.05 218.50 261.88 309.18 360.39 415.54 474.60 537.58 34 179.68 219.19 262.64 310.00 361.28 416.49 475.62 538.67 35 180.30 219.88 263.39 310.82 362.17 417.44 476.64 539.75 36 180.93 220.58 264.15 311.65 363.07 418.40 477.65 540.83 37 181.56 221,27 264.91 312.47 363.96 419.35 478.67 541.91 38 182.19 221.97 265.68 313.30 364.85 420.31 479.70 543.00 39 182.82 222.66 266.44 314.12 365.75 421.27 480.72 544.09 40 183.46 223.36 267/20 314.95 366.64 422.23 481.74 545.18 41 184.09 224.06 267.96 315.78 367.53 423.19 482.77 546.27 42 184.72 224.76 268.73 316.61 368.42 424.15 483.79 547.36 43 185.35 225.46 269.49 317.44 369.31 425.11 484.82 548.45 44 185.99 226.16 270.26 318.27 370.21 426.07 485.85 549.55 45 186.63 226.86 271.02 319.10 371.11 427.04 486.88 550.64 46 187.27 227.57 271.79 319.94 372.01 428.01 487.91 551.73 47 187.91 228.27 272.56 320.78 372.91 428.97 488.94 552.83 48 188.55 228.98 273.34 321.62 373.82 429.93 489.97 553.93 49 189.19 229.68 274.11 322.45 374.72 430.90 491.01 555.03 50 189.83 230.39 274.88 323.29 375.62 431.87 492.05 556.13 51 190.47 231.10 275.65 324.13 376.52 432.84 493.08 557.24 52 191.12 231.81 276.43 324.97 377.43 433.82 494.12 558.34 53 191.76 232.52 277.20 325.81 378.34 434.79 495.15 559.44 54 192.41 233.24 277.98 326.66 379.26 435.76 496.19 560.55 55 193.06 233.95 278.76 327.50 380.17 436.73 497.23 561.65 56 193.71 234.67 279.55 328.35 381.08 437.71 498.28 562.76 57 194.36 235.38 280.33 329.19 381.99 438.69 499.82 563.87 68 195.01 236.10 281.12 330.04 382.90 439.67 500.37 564.98 59 195.66 236.82 281.90 830.89 383.82 440,66 501.41 666.08 199 3D CD a o CD CD T a jo' p 17- 18'" 19- 20'" 21- 22"' 2' in v 24'" 25'" t n n n n // // '.'it 1 1 ,, 567.2 635.9 708.4 784.9 865.3 949.6 1037.8 1129.9 1225.9 1 568.3 637.0 709.7 786.2 800.6 951.0 1089.3 1131.4 1227.5 2 569.4 638.2 710.9 787.5 868.0 1)52.4 1040.8 1133.0 1229.2 8 570.5 639.4 712.1 788.8 869.4 958.8 1042.3 1184.6 1280.8 4 571.6 640.6 713.4 790.1 870.8 955.3 1043.8 1136.2 1232.5 5 572.8 641.7 714.6 791.4 872.1 956.7 1045.3 1137,8 1234.1 6 573.9 642.9 715.9 792.7 873.5 958.2 1046.8 1189.3 1285.7 7 575.0 644.1 717.1 794.0 874.9 959.6 1048.3 1140.9 1287.3 8 576.1 645.3 718.4 795.4 876.3 961.1 1049.8 1142.5 1289.0 9 577.2 646.5 719.6 796.7 877.6 962.5 1051.3 1144.0 1240.6 10 578.4 647.7 720i9- 798.0, f 879.0 963.9 1052.8 1145.6 1242.8 11 579.5 648.9 722.1 799.3: bbO.4 965.4 1054.3 1147.2 1243.9 12 580.6 650.0 723.4 800.7 881.8 966.9 1055.9 1148.8 1245.6 13 581.7 651.2 724.6 802.0 888.2 968.3 1057.4 1150.4 1247.2 14 582.9 652.4 725.9 803.3 4.6 969.8 1058.9 1152.0 1248.9 15 584.0 653.6 727.2 804.6 886.0 971.2 1060.4 1153.6 1250.5 16 585 1 654.8 728.4 806.0 887.4 972.7 1062.0 1155.2 1252.2 17 586.2 656.0 729.7 807.3 bb8.8 974.1 1063.5 1156.8 1253.8 18 587.4 657.2 730.9 808.6 890.2 975.5 1065.0 1158.3 1255.5 19 588.5 658.4 732.2 809.9 bUl.S 977.0 1066.5 1159.9 1257.1 20 589.6 659.6 733.5 811.3 893.0 978.5 1068.1 1161.5 1258.8 21 590.8 660.8 734.7 812.6 894.4 979.9 1069.6 1163.1 1260.5 22 591.9 662.0 736.0 813.9 895.8 981.4 1071.1 1164.7 1262.2 23 593.0 663.2 787.3 815.2 897.2 982.9 1072.6 1166.3 1263.8 24 594.2 664.4 738.5 816.6 898.6 984.4 1074.2 1167.9 1265.5 25 595:8 665.6 739.8 817.9 900.0 985.8 1075.7 1169.5 1267.1 26 596.5 666.8 741.1 819.2 901.4 987.3 1077.2 1171.1 1268.8 27 597.6 668.0 742.8 820.5 9U2.b 988.8 1078.7 1172.7 1270.5 28 598.7 669.2 743.6 821.9 904.2 990.3 1080.3 1174.3 1272.1 29 599.9 670.4 744.9 823.2 905.6 991.8 1081.8 1175.9 1273.7 80 601.0 671.6 746.2 824.6 907.0 993.2 1083,3 1177.5 1275.4 31 602.2 672.8 747.4 825.9 908.4 994.7 1084.8 1179.1 1277.1 82 603.3 674.1 748.7 827.8 909.8 996.2 1086.4 1180.7 1278.8 33 604.5 675.3 750.0 828.6 911.2 997.6 1087.9 1182.3 1280.4 34 605.6 676.5 751.3 829.9 912.6 999.1 1089.5 1183.9 1282.1 35 606.8 677.7 752.6 831.2 914.0 1000.6 1091.0 1185.5 1283.8 36 607.9 678.9 753.8 832.6 915.5 1002.1 1092.6 1187.1 1285.5 37 609.1 680.1 755.1 833.9 9i6.9 1003.5 1094.1 1188.7 1287.1 38 610.2 681.3 756.4 835.3 918.3 1005.0 1095.7 1190.3 1288.8 39 611.4 682.6 757.7 836.6 yi.7 1006.5 1097.2 1191.9 1290.5 40 612.5 683.8 759.0 838.0 921.1 1008.0 1098.8 1193.5 1292.2 41 613.7 685.0 760.2 839.3 i^~.o 1009.4 1100.3 1195.1 1293.8 42 614.8 686.2 761.5 840.7 928. U 1010.9 1101.9 1196.7 1295.5 43 616.0 687.4 762.8 842.0 925.3 1012.4 1103.4 1198.3 1297.2 44 617.2 688.7 764.1 843.4 9iU.b 1018.9 1105.0 1199.9 1298.9 45 618.3 689.9 765.4 844.7 928.2 1015.4 1106.5 1201.5 1300.5 46 619.5 691.1 766.7 846.1 929.6 1016.9 1108.1 1203.1 1302.2 47 620.6 692.4 768.0 847.5 931.0 1018.4 1109.6 1204.7 1303.9 48 621.8 693.6 769.3 848.9 932.4 1019.9 1111.2 1206.4 1305.6 49 623.0 694.8 770.6 850.2 933.8 1021-4 1112.7 1208.0 1307.3 50 624.1 696.0 771.9 851.6 935.2 1022.8 1114.3 1209.6 1309.0 51 625.3 697.3 773.1 852.9 936.6 1024.3 1115.8 1211.2 1310.7 52 626.5 698.5 774.5 854.8 938.1 1025.8 1117.4 1212.9 1312.4 53 627.6 699.7 775.7 855.7 939.5 1027.8 1118.9 1214.5 1314.1 54 628.8 701.0 777.1 857.1 940.9 1028.8 1120.5 1216.1 1315.7 55 630.0 702.2 778.4 858.4 942.8 1080.8 1122.0 1217.7 1317.4 56 681.2 703.5 779.7 859.8 943.8 1031.8 1123.6 1219.4 1319.1 57 632.8 704.7 781.0 861.1 945.2 1033.3 1125.1 1221.0 1320.8 58 633.5 705.9 782.8 862.5 946.6 1034.8 1126.7 1222.6 1822.5 59 684.7 707.1 788.6 868.9 948.1 1036.8 1128.3 1224.2 1824.2 J* 2J' n 21" 2V 2,)" H^ For rate. 5 / / // ii // P n P n Bate. Loff k 1325.9 1429.7 1537.5 1649.0 & */ 1 1327.6 1431.4 15o9.3 1G.!0.9 m s n m s- it 8 2 1329.8 1433.2 1541.1 1652.8 0.00 2<> 1.49 30 9.999 6985 8 1331.0 1434.9 1542.9 1054.7 1 0.00 10 1.54 29 7085 i 1332.7 1436.7 1544.8 1G5G.6 2 0.00 20 1.60 28 7186 80 00 30 1.65 27 7286 5 1334.4 1438.5 1546.6 1658.5 V 4 U . \J\J 0.00 40 1 70 26 7387 6 7 1336.1 1337. 8 1440.3 1442.1 1548.4 1550.2 1600.4 1602.3 Tt V 5 oioi 50 K76 25 7487 8 1339.5 1443.9 1552.1 1664.2 6 0.01 21 1.82 24 7588 k 9 1341.2 1445.6 1553.9 1066.1 7 0.02 10 1.87 23 7088 : 8 0.04 20 1.93 22 7769 10 1342.9 1447.4 1555.8 1668.0 9 0.06 30 1.99 21 7889 11 1344.6 1449.2 1557.6 1669.9 10 0.09 40 2.00 20 7990 12 1346.3 1451.0 1559.5 1671.9 11 0.14 50 2.12 1368.7 1370.4 1372.1 1373.9 1375.6 1474.1 1475.9 1477.7 1479.5 1481.3 1583.5 1585.3 1587.2 1589.1 1590.9 1696.7 1698.6 1700.5 1702.5 1704.4 14 10 20 80 40 50 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 $4 10 20 30 40 50 3.10 3.18 3.27 3.36 3.45 3.55 6 5 4 3 2 1 9397 9497 95 1387.7 1493.9 1604.0 1717.9 16 0.61 26 4.20 6 0603 37 1389.4 1495.7 1605.9 1719.8 10 0.64 10 4.37 7 0704 38 1391.2 1497.5 1607.7 1721.7 20 0.67 20 4.48 8 0804 39 1392.9 1499.3 1609.6 1723.6 30 0.69 30 4.00 9 0905 40 0.72 404.72 40 1394.7 1501.1 1611.5 1725.6 50 0.75 50 4.83 10 1005 41 1396.4 1502.9 1613.3 1727.5 11 1106 42 1398.2 1504.7 1615.2 1729.5 17 0.78 37 04.90 12 1206 43 1399.9 150(5.5 1617.1 1731.5 10 0.81 105.08 13 1307 44 1401.7 1508.4 1019.0 1733.4 20 0.84 20 5 . 20 14 1407 30 0.88 305.33 45 1403.4 1510.2 1620.8 1735.3 40 0.91 405.46 15 1508 4(> 1405.2 1512.0 1622.7 1737.2 50 0.95 505.60 16 1608 47 48 49 1406.9 1408.7 1410.4 1513.8 1515.6 1517.4 1624.6 1626.5 1628.3 1739.2 1741.2 1743.1 18 10 20 0.98 1.02 1.06 28 10 20 5.73 5.87 6.01 17 18 19 - 1709 1809 1910 50 51 52 1412.2 1413.9 1415.7 1519.2 1521.0 1522.9 1630.2 1(332.1 1634-0 1745.1 1747.0 1749.0 30 40 50 1.09 1.13 1.18 30J6.15 40.0.30 506.44 20 21 22 OQ 2010 2111 2211 CO-JO 53 54 1417.4 1419.2 1524.7 1526.5 1635.9 1637.7 1750.9 1752.8 19 10 1.22 1.26 29 10 6.59 6.75 ISO 24 OK dl,& 2412 OK1Q 55 5<> 57 58 1420.9 1422.7 1424.4 1426.2 1528.3 1530.2 1532.0 1533.8 1639.6 1641.5 1643.3 1645.2 1754.8 1756.8 1758.7 1700.7 20 30 40 50 1.80 1.3.) 1.40 1.44 20 30 40 60 6.90 7.06 7.22 7.88 0U 26 27 28 29 jCilxO 2613 2714 2814 2915 59 1427.9 1535.6 1647.1 1702.6 20 1.49 30 7.5- r > : _>_;.{() 0.000 3015 201 33 CD a c o 6' 3 CD 202 0) -0 C 0) s- flj Q. a -: o 00 E 0) CO 0) I O O c a) bO Appar- ent Alti- tude. Horizontal Semi-Diameter. i n 14 30 / // 15 / // 15 30 / // 16 / // 16 30 ; // 17 // n n // ii n 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.17 2 0.58. 0.62 0.66 0.71 0.76 0.81 4 1.05 1 1.12 7-1.20 1.28 1.37 1.46 6 1.51 1.62 '1-74 1.86 1.98 2.10 8 1.98 2.12 2.27 2.42 2.58 2.75 10 2.44 2.62 2.80 2.99 3.18 3.39 12 2.90 3.11 3.33 3.56 3.78 4.02 14 3.36 3.61 3.86 4.11 4.37 4.66 16 3.82 4.10 4.38 4.67 4.97 5.28 18 4.28 4.58 4.89 5.22 5.56 5.90 20 4.72 5.06 5.41 5.76 6.14 6.52 22 5.16 5.53 5.91 6.30 6.71 7.13 24 5.60 5.99 6.41 6.83 7.27 7.72 26 6.03 6.45 6.90 7.35 7.83 8.31 28 6.45 6.91 7.38 7.87 8.37 8.89 80 6.86 7.35 7.85 8.87 8.91 9.46 32 7.27 7.78 8.32 8.87 9.44 10.02 34 7.67 8.21 8.77 9.35 9.95 10.57 36 8.06 8.62 9.22 9.83 10.46 11.11 38 8.43 9.03 9.65 10.29 10.95 11.63 40 8.80 9.42 10.07 10.74 11.43 12.14 42 9.16 9.80 10.48 11.17 11.89 12.63 44 9.51 10.17 10.88 11.60 12.34 13.11 46 9.84 10.54 11.26 12.01 12.78 13.57 48 10.16 10.88 11.63 12.40 13.20 14.02 50 10.48 11.22 11.99 12.78 13.60 14.45 52 10.78 11.54 12.33 13.15 13.99 14.86 54 11.07 11.84 12.65 13.50 14.36 15.25 56 11.34 12.14 12.97 13.83 14.72 15.63 58 11.60 12.42 13.27 14.15 15.05 15.99 60 11 84 12.68 13.55 14.44 15.87 16.82 62 12.07 12.93 13.81 14.73 15.67 16.64 64 12.29 13.16 14.06 14.99 15.95 16.94 66 12.49 13.37 14.29 15.24 16.21 17.22 68 12.68 13.58 14.50 15.46 16.45 17.47 70 12.85 13.76 14.70 15.67 16.67 17.71 72 13.00 13.92 14.88 15.86 16.88 17.92 74 13.14 14.07 15.04 16.03 17.06 18.12 76 13.27 14.21 15.18 16.18 17.22 18.29 78 13 38 14.32 15.30 16.31 17.36 18.43 80 13.47 14.42 15.40 16.42 17.47 18.58 82 13.54 14.50 15.49 16.51 17.57 18.66 84 13.60 14.56 15.56 16.59 17.65 18.74 86 13.64 14.61 15.60 16.64 17.70 18.80 88 18.67 14.63 15.63 16.67 17.73 18.83 90 13.67 14.63 15.64 16.68 17.74 18.85 FORMS. FORMS. FOKM No. 1. 205 ERROR OF SIDEREAL TIME-PIECE BY MERIDIAN TRANSIT OF bTAR. Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. Latitude, 41 23' 22". 11. Chronometer No , by Date: Observer. Recorder. Transit. Illumination. Name of Star. ( Direct. E. W. E. W. E. W. E. W. Level. -^ ( Reversed. E. W. E. W. E. W. E. W. h m s h m s h m s h m s . fl. | n. | in. 1 -1 IV - V. o H [VII. Sum. Mean. Red. to Mid. Wire. Cliron. Time of Transit over Mid. ) Wire = T. ) Level Error = 6. Level Correction = 6. t Collimation Error = c. Collimation Correction = Cc. Azimuth Error = a. Azimuth Correction = Aa. Chron. Time of Transit. App. R. A. of Star = a. Error of Chrou. = E. 206 FORMS. FORM No. 2. ERROR OF MEAN-SOLAR TIME-PIECE BY MERIDIAN TRANSIT OF SUN. Date. Latitude 41 23' 82". 11. Observer. Transit No By Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. Longitude 4.93 A . Recorder. Mean-Solar Chron. No By Chronometer Time of Transit of West Limb. Wire I 44 II 44 III " IV 44 V 44 VI 44 VII Chronometer Time of Transit of East Limb. 4t I 44 II 44 III 44 IV 44 V 44 VI 44 VII SUM. _. Chron. Time of Transit of Center over Mean of Wires Mean. Reduction to Middle Wire. Level Error Level Correction. Col. 44 Col. 44 Azimuth 4t Azimuth " _. Chronom. Time of App. Noon. Apparent ' 4 44 44 " 12 h 0.0 m 0.0 s ... Eq. of Time. Mean Time of Apparent Noon. Error of Chronometer on Mean Solar Time at App. Noon. FORMS. 207 FOKM Nc. 3. ERROR OP SIDEREAL TIME-PIECE BY SINGLE ALTITUDE OF STAR. NAME. Date. Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. Observer. Recorder. Sextant No By Sidereal Chronom. No Bv ' " T rjT~ a Observed Double Altitude. Chronom. Time. Mean Sum IndexError. t Mean = 1 Eccentricity. Barometer Corrected Double Altitude Att. Thermom " Altitude=a 8 . Ext. " *Ref raction = r. Refraction True Altitude =a ., Latitude =. ..41..23'..22".ll.. a. c. log cos < N. Polar Dist. =cZ. " " sin d cos m sin (m - a) " siniP iP P P in Time Apparent R. A. of Star Sidereal Time = R. A. -j- P Mean of Chron. Times = Error of Chronometer * The correction to be added to this value of r, if desired (see Note 3, Text), is 2 sin* a 2 S "n sinl^~ ' A denotin the different corrected altitudes, a their mean, and n the number of observations. The values of . n f ~ - are taken from Tables (first converting a A into its equivalent in time), as explained under " Latitude by Circura- Meridian Altitudes." t The correction to be added algebraically to this value of t if desired (see Note 3, Text) is, after computing Pin arc, ^fcot P - gULJ! ;>os ^ sin rf "| 2 ifinlj.(^- ^ ^being 15L cos a cot a J n sin 1" the different chronometer times. The last factor is taken from Tables as before. 208 FORMS. FORM No. 4. ERROR OF MEAN-SOLAR TIME-PIECE BY SINGLE ALTITUDE OF SUN'S.. ..LIMB. Date. Observer. Sextant No . By. Station, WEST POINT, N. Y, Recorder. sM. S. Chronorn. No By . .*. Observed Double Altitude. Chronom. Time. h m s Mean Index Error. Sum tMean = t n Eccentricity. Barometer Att. Thermom. Corrected Double Altitude o........ Ext " Altitude = Refraction *Refraction = r. Semi-diameter. Apparent Altitude = a'. Parallax in Altitude. True Altitude = a. Latitude = <. N. Polar Dist. = d. a 4- + d Longitude = 4.931 hours. Assumed Error of Chronom. = Resulting Greenwich Time of Obs.: . Log. Eq. Hor. Parallax 1 P. " cos a'. ..41..23'..22".ll.. Parallax in Altitude. Dec. at Greenwich. Mean Moon. Hourly Change X Greenwich Time Sun's Declination. a. c. log cos (/> " " sin d log. cos m " sin (m a) " sin2 i P P Pin Time Apparent Time Equation of Time. Mean Time. Mean of Chron. Times = f Error of Chronometer. * See foot-note to Form 3. t " " " " " " NOTE. For correction of Semi-diameter due to difference of refraction between limb and center, see " Longitude by Lunar Distances." FORMS. FOEM No. 5. 209 ERROR OF SIDEREAL TIME-PIECE BY EQUAL ALTITUDES OF A STAR. Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. Observer Sextant No By Name of Star. , Latitude, 41 23' 22".ll = . Recorder Sid. Chronom. No By App. Declination = 8 Observations East. Observed Double Altitudes. o I tff Date Chronometer Times. h m s I. II. III. Barom. Att. Thermom. Ext. 1st Refraction Mean = 2a. Sum (Correct this for index error, if correction 1st Mean, for refraction be taken into account.) Observations West. Observed Double Altitudes. o I If Date Chronometer Times. h m s I. H. III. Mean = 2a. Barom. Att. Thermom. Ext. 2d Refraction .1st Difference (Same as above). Elapsed Time. l& Elapsed Time in arc = t. Middle Chronometer Time. Correction for Refraction. Chronom. Time of Transit. App. R. A. of Star. Error of Chronom. at Time of Transit. Sum 2d Mean Log Difference 1st " Log cos a a. c. log 30 a. c. log cos < ...o a. c. log cosS a. c. log sin t Log Correction Correc tion 210 FORMS. FORM No. 6. ERROR OF MEAN-SOLAR TIME-PIECE BY EQUAL ALTITUDES OF SUN'S LIMB. Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. = Latitude, 41 23' 22" 11. Longitude 4.931 A , west. Observer y Recorder . ' Sextant No By M.J& Chronom. No By Sun's App. Dec. at local App. Noon (or midnight) = & = Hourly change in & at same time, = k Observations East. Date Observed Double Altitudes. Chronometer Times. " h m s L Barom. IL Att. Thermom III. Ext. " 1st Refraction Mean = 2u Sum . (Correct this for index error, if correction 1st Mean , for refraction be taken into account). Observations West. Date Observed Double Altitudes. Chronometer Times. ' " fi m s I. Barom. II. Att. Thermom m. Ext. " 2d Refraction .... 1st " . Mean = 2a Sum Difference (Same as above). 2d Meai Log Difference 1st " Log cos a a. c. lag 30 Elapsed Time a. c. log cos < } Elapsed Time in arc = t. a. c. log cos 6 a. c. log sin t Middle Chronometer Time. Log Correction Correction for Refraction. Correction Equation of Equal Altitudes. T" "7 Chronom. Time of App. Noon. u k App. of Time at App. Noon. ....12^. ,.0 m .. .0 s . .. " tan Eq. of Time at App. Noon. " 1st Part Mean Time of App. Noon. .... 1st Part. Error of Chronometer at App. Noon Log B. " k. " tan 8. " 2d Part. 2d Part. 1st Part -f- 2d Part = Eq. of Equal Altitudes. FORMS. JFOBM No. 7. 211 LATITUDE BY CIRCUM-MERIDIAN ALTITUDES OF SUN'S.. ..LIMB. Date Station, WEST POINT, N. Y. Longitude 4.93 ft . Assumed Lat. = = . Observer Recorder Barom Att. Th Ext. Th. Sextant No By M. S. Chronometer, No By Error of Chronometer = E = Rate of Chronometer = r = , Observed Double Altitudes. 1 ft Chronometer Times. h m s App. Time of App. Noon 12 Eq. of Time at App. Noon Hour Angles. Wl. S. m. s. n. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Mean Time of App. Noon Chron. Error Chron. Time of App. No> Oi 5 ^^ &j O ^~ p H i ,* t rf 55 CQ HH * 2 3 I M P3 E- * 'S O 1-3 3 1 g ^ ^ I < , pi | W c c C Tl Q r fc g ; " S 1 - 5 a- 5 c j t ^ 3f Polaris. . t & :s is obtainei refraction. ni 4 t> I) 2 A H 3 *> M C ^ . ec ^; 1 5 E !|| c 1 -" 1 i DQ"5g S 2 ^ o j 1 E H*0 5 " .S ( { e 6 g a i o^ . j j it i] i * ,c C ) 03 - g II* i 1 1 i O s a ! % 216 FORMS. FORM No. 11. LATITUDE BY EQUAL ALTITUDES OF TWO STARS. Station, Wi Date POINT, N. Y. Observer Recorder. Sextant, No By Sid. Chronom. No By Error. Rate Name Chron. Time of True Time of App. Hour Angle r*' Hour Angle App. Dec ' - S 8' + 6 P'-P P' + P of the Star. Obser- vation. Obser- vation. R.A. in Time. in Arc. P&P' S&S' i! ^ 2 2 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2 i. 2. P'-P Log tan g . S'-6 Log cot Log cot J- Log tan M M P'-P Log cos ^~ 6'-fS Log tan -J- f + P M p f +p 2 Log cos F+P a Log m - Log tan t Mean FORMS. 217 (M O rt 2 "S I a ^ I ^ I. Sc ^ Ot I OQ S 218 FORMS. B O W Q hi H -f vc ^ OVERDUE. AU8 29 1932 DEC 6 1932 X" "SO 21-20-6,'82 YC 22099 387452 t^uc UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY