amvEBSiTY or California publications COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA BY G. W. HENDRY WITH APPENDIX ON COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA VARIETIES OF BEANS By M. E. JAFFA and F. W. ALBRO AND ON INSECT AND OTHER ENEMIES OF BEANS By E. R. DEONG BULLETIN No. 294 April, 1918 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY 1918 Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF HEADS OF DIVISIONS Thomas Forsyth Hunt, Director. Edward J. Wickson, Horticulture (Emeritus). Herbert J. Webber, Director Citrus Experiment Station; Plant Breeding. Hubert E. Van Norman, Vice-Director; Dairy Management. William A. Setchell, Botany. Myer E. Jaffa, Nutrition. Charles W. Woodworth, Entomology. Ralph E. Smith, Plant Pathology. J. Eliot Coit, Citriculture. John W. Gilmore, Agronomy. Charles F. Shaw, Soil Technology. John W. Gregg, Landscape Gardening and Floriculture. Frederic T. Bioletti, Viticulture and Enology. Warren T. Clarke, Agricultural Extension. John S. Burd, Agricultural Chemistry. Charles B. Lipman, Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology. Clarence M. Haring, Veterinary Science and Bacteriology. Ernest B. Babcock, Genetics. Gordon H. True, Animal Husbandry. James T. Barrett, Plant Pathology. Fritz W. Woll, Animal Nutrition. Walter Mulford, Forestry. W. P. Kelley, Agricultural Chemistry. H. J. Quayle, Entomology. J. B. Davidson, Agricultural Engineering. Elwood Mead, Rural Institutions. H. S. Reed, Plant Physiology. W. L. Howard, Pomology. IFrank Adams, Irrigation Investigations. C. L. Roadhouse, Dairy Industry. O. J. Kern, Agricultural Education. John E. Dougherty, Poultry Husbandry. S. S. Rogers, Olericulture. R. S. Vaile, Orchard Management. J. G. Moodey, Assistant to the Director. Mrs. D. L. Bunnell, Librarian. t In co-operation with office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Lady Washington Garbanzo (coast grown) oti Bayo (one year old) m Red Mexican Bayo Cranberry Garbanzo (interior grown) Oil Pmfc »AI Spotted Red Mexican CALIFORNIA FIELD BEANS (ACTUAL SIZE) Red Kidney P hotographs by W. C. Matthews BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA By G. W. HENDEY CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 288 Varieties 288 Commercial importance of va- rieties (table) 289 The Lima 289 Distribution of varieties (table) 290 The Pink 295 The Small White 298 The Blue Pod 299 The Lady Washington 300 The Blackeye 302 The Cranberry 304 The Bayo 305 The Garbanzo 308 The Eed Mexican 309 The Red Kidney 311 The White Tepary 312 The Horse Bean 314 The Henderson Bush 316 The French White 317 The Spotted Eed Mexican 318 Where to plant the different va- rieties 319 Description of varieties (table).... 320 Habit of growth 320 Dimensions of leaves 320 Dimensions of pods 320 Dimensions of seeds 320 Seed per pod 320 Color of flower 320 Weight per bushel 320 Yield of varieties by districts (table) 321 Adaptations 322 Soil requirements 322 Climatic requirements 323 Alkali tolerance 323 Preparation of the soil 324 Unirrigated lands 324 Fall plowing 325 Winter working 325 Spring working 326 PAGE Subirrigated lands 328 Planting 326 Time of planting 326 Early vs. late planting at Davis 327 Early vs. late planting at Berke- ley 327 Effect of planting date on blossoming and life periods (table) 328 Methods of planting 329 Depth of planting 329 Eate of planting 329 Filling blanks and thinning .... 331 Choice of seed 331 Cultivation 331 Irrigation 332 Time of irrigation 332 Methods of irrigation 332 Harvesting 332 Time of harvesting 332 Method of harvesting 333 Curing 333 Threshing 334 The floor method 334 The stationary machine method 335 The combined harvester method 335 Preparation for market 335 Cleaning and polishing 335 Shrinkage 336 Picking 336 Sacking 333 Commercial grading 336 Double cropping of bean land 337 Cost of growing beans 338 Utilization of bean straw 340 Composition of varieties of beans 341 Composition of seeds 341 Composition of straws 342 Composition of pods 342 Analyses (table) 343 Insect and other enemies of beans 344 288 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION INTRODUCTION In 1917 California produced on 558,000 acres, 8,035,000 bushels of dry beans, constituting 44 per cent of the entire crop of the United States, and exceeding by 4.78 per cent the combined output of the five next important states, Michigan, New York, Colorado, New Mex- ico, and Arizona. Statistics for the production of these states and in California follow i 1 Table 1. — Bean Production by States in 1917 Production 1917 1916 1915 State Bushels Bushels Bushels California 8,035,000 5,576,000 3,838,000 Michigan 3,514,000 3,102,000 4,250,000 New York 1,575,000 1,140,000 1,495 000 Colorado 1 ; 467,000 424,000 340,000 New Mexico 958,000 425,000 338 000 Arizona 152,000 48,000 Total 15,701,000 10,715,000 10,321 000 California's 558,000 acres in 1917 were distributed approximately as follows : Acres Southern California 314,000 San Joaquin Valley 45,000 Stockton Delta 30,000 Sacramento Valley 130,000 Central Coast 30 000 Miscellaneous 9,000 Total 558,000 VARIETIES Fifteen varieties of beans are staples on the California markets at the present time, many of which are unknown in the eastern bean districts. Some were introduced by the Spanish missionaries, some came through our early trade with the west coast of South America, and some came directly from the Indian tribes of Mexico. One is known to be of Oriental origin. These varieties not only differ from each other botanically, there being four genera and six distinct species represented, but they exhibit well-defined climatic preferences. Some thrive best in the warm in- terior districts, others in the cooler coast districts; some are sensitive > Monthly Crop Report, U. S. Dept. Agr., Dec, 1917, vol. :;, no. 12. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 289 to the slightest frost, while others make their best growth during the winter months. Some germinate best in warm moist soils, some in cool moist soils, while others have the property of germinating in compara- tively dry soils. Some ripen in 100 days while others under the same conditions require 160 days. The occurrence and duration of the blossoming period is equally variable and is a varietal characteristic (table 8). Some are incapable of setting pods during hot weather while others are similarly affected bv cool weather. Some exhibit a wide adaptability while others are narrowly circumscribed in their range for profitable production. Table 2. — Commercial Importance of Varieties Production Production Production Production 1914 in 1915 in 1916 in 1917 in Variety 90-lb. bags 1 90-lb. bags 1 90-lb. bags 1 100-lb. bags Lima 1,490,000 1,765,000 1,800,000 1,224,000 Pink 525,000 625,000 725,000 1,200,000 Small White and Blue Pod 340,000 650,000 566,000 900,000 Lady Washington 145,000 174,000 335,000 610,000 Blackeye 175,000 242,000 183,000 300,000 Cranberry 182,000 175,000 200,000 150,000 Bayo 66,000 92,000 125,000 125,000 Garbanzo 40,000 50,000 90,000 Red Mexican 25,000 40,000 75,000 135,000 Red Kidney 25,000 25,000 20,000 20,000 Tepary 1,000 5,000 25,000 100,000 Horse 50,000 55,000 45,000 75,000 French White 100 500 1,000 12,000 Spotted Red Mexican 300 500 700 500 Henderson Bush 116,000 1 Estimates compiled from various wholesale dealers, and warehouse reports. Av. wholesale Dec. price per cental, 1912-1916 $5.40 4.10 5.50 4.95 3.85 4.65 4.60 3.70 4.60 5.90 2.50 2.75 4.90 3.00 THE LIMA BEAN (Phaseolus Lunatus) Synonyms. — Common Lima, Butter, Frijolito de Cuba (Spanish). Agricultural History. — The Lima is a native of South America, Avhere it is found growing as a wild perennial in the Amazon basin of Brazil. It was brought under cultivation in prehistoric times and well-preserved specimens have been dis- covered by Wittmack 2 in the excavations of prehistoric dwellings at Ancon, Peru. Numerous introductions have been made into the United States from time to time, one of the first of which we have a record having been made by Captain John Harris, U. S. N., in 1824. He secured seed in Lima, the capitol of Peru, and grew it on his farm in Chester, New York, in 1825. Subsequently it came into general cultivation as a garden vegetable in the eastern states. It arrived in California at 2 Wittmack, Sitz. Bot. Vereins Branden, Dec. 19, 1879. 290 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o uuoix8j\[ pay pa^oag to Ob 0 O OS IO LO OS eg co t— i 10 co lo o th lo o 10 00 eg eg ozurcqjB*) : i ft O £ X.uaquBJ0 ! IO O Eh CO oiBg : : eg 1— 1 3 Eh 02 ; ; LO < CO w a 03 CD H-3 PI pi o O o3 >> 03 ,4 O 02 PI 03 M eg x x eg o o 00 CD Pi P O Q w -3 .a S O 03 c3 tH co O PJ O O 02 » PI Pi q g ^ o c3 Q 03 H 03 5 LO LO o "50 p o =1 to 03 r ^ r-o -M toV •^ ^ O" 1 S S ° « ^ S ^^ ^5 -t-i 03 ^ 02 02 8 =<2 X X «3 to *^h H-i CO 3 CD o a ^ H-J >» CO 1 '^ CO 3 ° o3 Q pi cd o r— 1 Fh P H o o3 O CD to to CD 03 Q S M o • l-H to Pi O 03 02 BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 291 o o o o © o saijeuKA nY ° ° ° 2 ° 2 ©©©©©©©© ©©©©©©©© i — i i — li— I rH rH t-i r— It— I pa^odg ^HAY ipu^d : X rH usng uosaapuajj H H d IM O » BUIiq poj en ia w Oi © © © £ a»RA\Il««»S ^ © io lo © to ■ 00 00 QO Cvl LO CXI to lo © © 09 LO rH (M T— 1 X X © CO i—l tH tH rH A-iudaj, a.vd^ot'ia: X x X rH © H H IM co © CvJ 0 LO (M (M IO IO H LO X CO M ^aupix P a H C o Q r>> ' H a o o «w c3 #2 r-d r*» a a> c8 i— i O — c8 r> P Pj o O o • fH O PI m o m rr-i o c3 rH rH 3 PI r; ci o crj O H Ph c3 p P yA W o o Ph •rH o P crj -a H r© a pa Hi Si © e o v. O PI Pi o O CD r-c > a o q, cj S p] O crj Hi 02 r>» PI . Pi >~i O H Q k § K § ft Q pj -q qjo Pl m crj O O M r> h^ O P P o O H O o o p OQ W M P o p o rH P-H ^ '£ 3 32 X 292 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION LIMA RED KIDNEY m I BLACKEYE GARBANZO V V Tu-J WHITE TEPART SMALL WHITE HORSE BEAN Pig. 1. — Range of cultivation for the loading varieties in 1917. The Mack areas represent range, not acreage. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 293 a much earlier date than has been generally recognized. H. McNally Company, of San Francisco, advertised Lima seed in the Alia in 1855. This is the first record we have of the Lima in California. As early as 1859 an unsigned article appeared in the California Culturists urging its culture as a garden vegetable, and it was used for this purpose for at least twenty years before its possibilities as a field crop became recognized. In 1872 Mr. Robert McAlister planted Limas on his ranch in the Carpinteria Valley, and they yielded abundantly without the use of poles. Mr. Henry Fish, a neighbor, then succeeded in interesting Dexter M. Ferry in the production of Lima beans for seed in that valley, and in 1875 Ferry sent the first selected seed to California to be grown under contract; and it is thought that the present strain has been developed from this stock. It suc- cess as a seed crop soon led to its used as a field crop, and in 1877 it made its first appearance on the California market as a commercial dry bean in competition with the Bayo, Pink, Small White, and other older field varieties. The present commercial Lima known as the Lewis, originated from the product of a single plant selection made by Dozier Lewis in about 1888. Range in California. — The Lima is the most extensively grown, yet the most circumscribed in its range of any of the California bean .varieties. (Table 3, fig. 1.) Restricted portions of five small counties on the coast of southern California produce virtually the entire crop. The northern limit of profitable production is sharply defined and is in the vicinity of Tajignas on the coast of Santa Barbara County. North of Tajiguas it is entirely replaced, largely by the Small White and Blue Pod varieties. From Tajiguas south it is extensively grown in a narrow belt skirting the coast and within the fog belt through Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, and San Diego Counties to Ensenada, Mexico. On the higher lands of this district, somewhat removed from the ameliorating influence of the sea, it is replaced by the Blackeye, Tepary. Lady Washington, Henderson Bush, and Pink varieties. The centers of greatest production are at Carpinteria in Santa Barbara County, at Ventura, Oxnard, and Santa Paula in Ventura County, at Sawtelle, Inglewood, Redondo, and Downey in Los Angeles County, and at Santa Margarita, and Oceanside in San Diego County. The Irvine Ranch alone, in Orange County, planted 18,500 acres of Limas in 1917. Adaptations. — The Lima is one of the most exacting in its require- ments of all varieties, and grows to perfection in California only in the warm, humid climate of the southern coast region ; although tried again and again it has not succeeded in making a good impression in other parts of the state. In the coast districts north of Point Conception. all efforts to cultivate it have been abandoned because of its late maturity. In the Lompoc Valley plantings made in May have not ripened and s California Culturist, Dec, 15, 1859, vol. 1, no. 11, pp. 475-476, 294 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION dried sufficiently to thresh until the middle of December, 235 days from planting, and a planting made May 1, 1917, at Berkeley remained green until killed by frost in December, 230 days from planting (table 8). A planting made June 4, 1917 on the coast of Del Norte County in the extreme northern part of the state was frosted before the pods filled. These and numerous other instances point to the conclusion that the Lima requires more heat units to ripen than are Fig. 2.— Bean pods. Left, Blaekeye. Upper row, left to right: Horse Bean, Lima, Bayo, Red Kidney, French White, Cranberry. Lower row, left to right: Lady Washington, Spotted Red Mexican, Red Mexican, Pink, Blue Pod. Small White, Tepary, Garbanzo. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 295 provided in the coastal regions of central and northern California. All efforts to cultivate it as a field crop in the interior valleys of the state have been equally unsuccessful, but its failure here cannot be attributed to a lack of heat. The vines have grown with vigor and luxuriance, and blossoms have been produced in profusion, but the dry heat has allowed only a scant setting of pods. Of the numerous varieties tested at the University Farm at Davis, only the bush varie- ties have approached anything like a profitable yield, and similar observations have been made in the Turlock district, and in the Imperial Valley. (Table 5.) There are, however, limited areas where the climatic conditions approach those of the Lima belt of southern California, and where the Lima may be grown with moderate success. At Clarksburg, Yolo County, in 1917 a yield of 1577 pounds per acre was obtained, but the quality of the product did not compare favorably with that grown in the more genial climate of southern California. It has also been grown with indifferent success on Grizzly Island and in other parts of the Stockton delta. Utilization. — Dry Lima beans grown in Southern California are a staple on the markets in all parts of the United States and Canada. They are also used in both the dry and green state for canning. THE PINK BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Rosa (Mexican), Bavo Medio (Chilean), Rancaguino (Chilean), Yura mon (Mexican Indian). Agricultural History. — The Pink bean is a native of South America and has been cultivated in the department of Rancagua, Chile, and known as the Ranca- giiino frijol, as far back as we have records of that country. It has also been a favorite bean in the states of central Mexico where it is known as the frijol rosa, and where it has been cultivated since the time of the conquest. It is known as the Yura mon (White Man bean) by the Indians in northern Mexico, a circum- stance suggesting its introduction in that country by the Spanish conquerors. It is at present the most extensively cultivated field bean in the southwestern part of the United States, and in California its production is exceeded only by that of the Lima. (Table 2.) In total quantity it constitutes about 6.6 per cent of the entire bean production of the United States. The exact date of its appearance in California is uncertain, but it was first quoted as a commercial product on the California market in The Alta in 1866. It has never been listed by eastern seedsmen, nor has it been grown in the eastern bean districts. A small seeded strain called the Small Pink is occasionally grown in California. Range in California. — The Pink Bean has the widest distribution of any of our varieties, although second to the Lima in point of total production. (Table 3, fig. 1.) It is prominent in all of our bean 296 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION districts and stands first in both the Sacramento Valley and the Stock- ton delta. Extensive plantings are also made in the bean districts of the San Joaquin Valley, the central coast counties and in southern California. On lands bordering the coast and under the immediate influence of the ocean it has not been as prolific or as extensively cultivated as some other varieties, but on the higher lands and in the smaller valleys from San Francisco to Oxnard, including the Half Moon Bay, Watsonville, Salinas, San Luis Obispo, Lompoc, Santa Maria, and the Oxnard districts, it has been the favorite and most generally cultivated variety. From Oxnard south, the Lima pre- dominates on the coast, but on the higher lands the Pink is largely replaced by the Blackeye and to some extent by the Tepary and Henderson Bush. Scattered plantings in smaller acreages are also reported from the Mattole Valley in Humboldt County, from the Owens Valley in Inyo County, the Imperial Valley, from Blythe in eastern Riverside County, the delta of the Kaweah River and the Tulare Lake district in Kings and Tulare Counties. Adaptations. — The Pink is at its best on good bottom land, but with irrigation and late planting is capable of yielding moderately on the drier uplands, under conditions too difficult for such varieties as the Large Lima, Small White, Blue Pod, Bayo or Cranberry, although it cannot compete with either the Blackeye or Tepary under conditions of extreme heat and drouth. This general relationship is confirmed by experiments at Davis, Turlock, Fresno, and the Imperial Valley. In the coast districts of northern and central California it vields well, but is often surpassed by other varieties. It is one of the most reliable, and is at the same time the most extensively cultivated variety in the island districts of the lower Sacramento River, and in the Stockton delta. Here it is rarely damaged by hot weather, and ripens on moist subirrigated soils where many other varieties grow later in the season. Utilization. — The southwest generally is the principal market for California-grown Pink beans. The Mexican population of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, southern California and Mexico, prefer them to the white varieties. A small portion of the crop always goes to the southern states, especially Virginia, Louisiana, and Maryland; and it is being received more favorably each year in the middle western markets, especially at Chicago, Cleveland, Kansas City, St. Louis, St. Joseph, Omaha, and Salt Lake City. Its acceptance on the east- BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 297 crn markets is of comparatively recent date, New York and Baltimore having taken small lots in 1916. Since the war it has been used by the eastern canning trade as a substitute for the Red Kidney, in the preparation of Chile con carne. \ t; » -**■■ - 6 ft .15. -I >#$^M --•- tk*£- ■ ~i .** ■' * K$l£ v*/---'* *"-m»\ JtmJA*J&u^z>^ Fig. 3. — (1) Bean land should be plowed deep in the fall. (2) It should remain rough until moist enough to pulverize. (3) It should be reduced with a heavy roller. (4) The crust should be broken as often as formed during the winter. (5) The chisel is an efficient implement for winter working. (6) The cyclone destroys Aveeds and maintains a shallow mulch. (7) The cyclone should be used frequently from the close of the rainy season until planting time. (8) The knife cultivator should be used for the later cultivations. (Photos by the Ventura Implement Co.) 298 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION THE SMALL WHITE BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Frijol Coscorron Chico (Chile), California White Tree. It is similar to Navy and Marrow Pea varieties of the eastern states, and the Blue Pod of California. Agricultural History. — The Small White is an old and deservedly esteemed Variety in the eastern United States, where it has been so long in cultivation with- out any distinct records to guide us to its origin that very little of its early history is known. Carlos Manriquez Eivera, director of the agricultural experi- ment station at Santiago, Chile, has identified California-grown Small White beans as being identical with the variety Coscorron Chico, which is considered a native of Chile. All other available evidence points to South America as the original source of the seed, but as it is practically unknown in Mexico, it probably did not come to the United States through that country. Wickson^ reports that it was brought to California from New York as far back as 1852, but the first record which we have of it as a California-grown product is in a market quotation appearing in the San Francisco Herald for September 16, 1855, in which it is reported that 27 sacks of California White beans sold for 8 cents per pound. The first mention of beans of any kind in a California news- paper, probably occurred in the Alta on November 1, 1849, in which in a statement of the current wholesale prices prepared by Woodworth and Norris, American bean in contradistinction to Chile (imported beans), are quoted at from $10 to $12 per barrel. These American beans were doubtless imported from the eastern United States and were in all probability Small White beans, for the name Ameri- can beans disappeared from the market quotations during the following years and the name ' ' Small White ' ' appeared in its stead. Range in California. — The cultivation of the Small White bean is virtually limited to the coastal districts of central and southern Cali- fornia. (Table 3, fig. 1.) It is grown in every agricultural district on the west side of the coast range from San Francisco to San Diego, but is most abundantly produced in the Pajaro and Salinas valleys, where it equals about the total production of all other varieties. Formerly it was the leading variety in the Lompoc, Santa Maria, San Luis Obispo, and Arroyo Grande districts, but it has now been largely superseded in these places by its near relative, the Blue Pod. In like manner it is yielding ground each year to the Blue Pod in all other parts of its territory. It occupied about 65 per cent of the total bean acreage in the Salinas Valley in 1917, but is here limited to a small strip of the valley iioor extending about eight miles north and ten miles south of the town of Salinas. In all, there were approximately thirteen thousand acres in Monterey County in 1917. Small plantings were also reported in 1917 from the Mattole and Eel valleys in Hum- 4 Wickson, E. J., California Vegetables, p. 199, Pacific Rural Press, S. F., 1910. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 299 boldt County, from near Tomales, Fallon, and Novato in Marin County, from Nevada, Placer, and El Dorado counties, and from the Owens Valley in Inyo County. Adaptations. — The Small White succeeds best in the cool humid climate of the coast region from San Francisco to Santa Barbara and outyielded all other (Phaseolus) varieties at Berkeley in 1917. (Table 5.) It is also well adapted to the coast districts north of San Fran- cisco, but because of its later maturity is less reliable here than the Lady Washington. It succeeds moderately well in the cooler portions of the Stockton delta, but not so well as the Pink and the Lady Wash- ington. It is sensitive to hot weather and all attempts to grow it at Davis, Turlock, Oakdale, Fresno, El Centro, and in fact in all hot situations, have resulted in failure. The seed not only germinates more readily in cooler soils than that of most other (Phaseolus) varie- ties, but the seedling plants are more thrifty and vigorous during cool weather. California-grown Small White beans seek the markets in all parts of the United States, but the principal destinations are New York, Boston, and the New England states. It is used more extensively in canning than any other California variety, and the army and navy prefer it to other kinds, a fact which accounts for its being called the Navy bean. THE BLUE-POD BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Agricultural History. — In 1902, Pasqual Scolari, a Swiss farmer in the Lompoc Valley noticed that a certain plant in his field of Small White beans matured somewhat earlier in the season than its neighbors, and yielded an unusually large number of peculiarly tinted, purplish pods. He saved the seed from this solitary plant and grew it in his garden the following season, and found that all of the resulting plants resembled his original selection in earliness, pod color, and pro- ductiveness. By 1904 he had grown sufficient seed to plant about fifteen acres, from which he harvested nearly 400 sacks of beans. Eealizing the superiority of his seed to that of the ordinary Small White and wishing to profit by it exclusively, he requested the Southern Pacific Milling Company, to whom he disposed of his crop, not to sell his seed locally. Accordingly his crops for 1904, 1905, and 1906 were shipped to Portland, Maine. In 1907 Mr. Scolari left the valley, and Mr. A. C. Whittemore, agent for the Southern Pacific Milling Company, sold the Scolari crop to several of his customers for seed. It was at once favorably received and has continued to gain in public estimation until it has all but replaced the Small White variety in Santa Barbara County, and is rapidly extending its range northward. Occasional plants bearing blue pods and identical with the Blue-Pod variety, have always been, and still are, present in any field of Small White beans, but it remained for Pasqual Scolari to recognize the merits of the strain and propagate it. 300 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Range in California. — The Blue Pod is grown only in the coast districts of central and southern California. (Table 3, fig. 1.) The focus of production is in the Lompoc Valley, where it occupies fully 90 per cent of the total bean acreage, and gives way to the Pink only on the uplands. From Cambria on the coast of San Luis Obispo County, to Santa Barbara, including the Arroyo Grande, Santa Maria, Lompoc, and Los Alamos districts, there was an aggregate of over 45,000 acres planted to this variety in 1917. This constituted about 75 per cent of the total bean acreage for that territory. In the Mon- terey bay region there were about 1000 acres tributary to Watsonville, Santa Cruz and Soquel in 1917, and small plantings were also made southward in Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange and San Diego counties. Adaptations. — The Blue Pod is most like the Small White in its requirements. It prefers the cool humid coast climate and cannot be successfully grown in the hot interior districts. It differs from the Small White in that it blossoms slightly earlier in the season, produces a more open vine which cures more rapidly, and matures somewhat earlier in the fall. Its early maturity has been most marked in the later plantings, which ripened fully two weeks earlier than the Small White, when planted on July 2 at Berkeley. Early Maturity and rapid curing are properties of vital importance in the coast districts both north and south of San Francisco. Utilization. — At present there is no distinction made between the Small White and Blue-Pod varieties, either on the California or East- ern markets. THE LADY WASHINGTON BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Large White, Coscorron Medio (Chile). Agricultural History. — The Lady Washington is in all probability a native of Chile and has been introduced from there into the United States upon several occasions. California-grown specimens of this variety have been identified by the Agronomy section of the Department of Industry and Public Works of Chile, as identical with the "Coscorron Medio" variety which is regarded as a native of that country. It was first introduced into the eastern United States, where it became a popular field variety, but is now little known there. It came to Califor- nia with the tide of immigration in the fifties and appeared for the first time in the market reports in 1856. It did not become established at this time, however, and only an occasional lot reached the market until 1891, when it began to appear regularly. It is now a staple variety and is generally known to the trade as the Large White. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 301 Range in California. — The principal centers of production for the Lady Washington, are Sutter and Colusa counties in the Sacramento Valley, Sacramento and San Joaquin counties tributary to the bay of San Francisco, and San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and San Diego counties in southern California. (Table 3, fig. 1.) The most extensive plantings in 1917 were made in the Sutter Basin, including the area lying between the Feather and Sacramento rivers, from their junction on the south to Butte Slough on the north. There were in all about 16,000 acres of Lady Washington beans in this district in 1917. There were also about 2000 acres in the Mattole Valley of Humboldt County in 1917, this being the first large bean acreage ever grown on the coast north of San Francisco. It is also cultivated in all of the bean districts from San Francisco to San Diego; San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, and San Diego counties usually contributing about 2000 acres each. There were about 1000 acres in the Livingston district of Merced County in 1917, and small plantings were reported from Montague and Granada on the Shasta River in Siskiyou County. Adaptations. — The Lady Washington is less exacting than the Small White or the Lima, and may be grown under more adverse climatic conditions. It requires considerable humidity, but unlike the Small White tolerates moderately well the heat of the interior valleys. It is most productive on the lower Sacramento River and in the Stockton delta, but has been satisfactory on the bottom lands throughout the Sacramento Valley, and in the San Joaquin Valley as far south as Livingston. It does fairly well in the interior upland situations when irrigated and planted late (after June 10) but can not compete with the Blackeye or Tepary as a dry-land crop. It has proved unsatisfactory planted early without irrigation at Davis, Fresno, and El Centro, and in these hot climates is less productive than the Red Mexican and Pink varieties. As a coast bean it has much to recommend it, for it not only yields well but ripens earlier than the Small White, a quality especially desirable north of San Francisco. In the coast districts from San Francisco to Lompoc, it is slightly less productive than the Small White, but from Santa Bar- bara southward it stands the warmer climate somewhat better than the Small White. Utilization. — The Lady Washington is shipped principally to the markets of the middle western, northern, and eastern states. St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Chicago, and New York have been the largest users, although the Gulf and south Atlantic states have taken it in limited quantities. It cannot be used for canning purposes because of its rapid disintegration in cooking. 302 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION THE BLACKEYE BEAN (Vigna sinensis) Synonyms. — Blackeye cowpea, Blackeye pea, Early Blackeye cowpea (Austra- lia), White Cowpea (Australia), Blanco de Ojo (Mexico), Ornbligc- prieto (Mex- ico). Agricultural History. — The Blackeye, like other varieties of cowpeas, has come to us from the Orient, where it is found grooving wild as an escape from cultiva- tion, and where it has been used since ancient times as a human food. It was introduced into the eastern United States as far back as 1835,5 an d since that time has come into general cultivation throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It appeared in California at a comparatively recent date, the earliest occurrence of the name in our market reports being in the Alta in 1880, but during recent years it has gained rapidly in public estimation and has come to occupy an important place in the agriculture of the state. It is as yet little known in South America. Range in California. — The Blackeye is grown throughout the interior agricultural regions of California, occupying for the most part, lands which are too hot, and too dry, for the successful cultiva- tion of other varieties. (Table 3, fig. 1.) It is sensitive to cool weather and cannot be grown in the coast regions of central and north- ern California; but from Oxnard to San Diego it occupies the major portion of the higher bean land, which is too dry for Limas. From Oxnard north on similar lands it is replaced by the Pink, for climatic reasons. The most extensive plantings in 1917 occurred in the terri- tory from Modesto to Livingston, where it is estimated that there were approximately 12,000 acres. Extensive plantings were also made near Riverside, Arlington, Corona, Perris, Hemet, San Jacinto, and Blythe in Riverside County; near Ventura, Moorpark, and Fillmore, in Ven- tura County; near La Habra, Fullerton, Anaheim, Orange, Santa Ana, and San Juan Capistrano in Orange County ; in the San Fer- nando Valley in Los Angeles County; near Salida, Modesto, Ceres, Keys, Turlock, Empire, Hughson, and Denair in Stanislaus County; near Manteca and Ripon in San Joaquin County, and near Colusa in Colusa County. Smaller acreages were also grown throughout the Sacramento Valley and at various places in southern California as well as in the Santa Clara, San Benito, Antelope, and Imperial valleys. Adaptations. — The Blackeye thrives best where continuously hot weather enables it to carry on a perfect and rapid growth. The blos- soms are not so sensitive to dry haat as those of the common bean varieties, and the hottest, driest weather of the interior is but slight B Piper, C. V., Bulletin 229, p. 46, Bureau Plant industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1 1KJ7. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 303 impediment to the setting of pods. It lias repeatedly demonstrated its tolerance for hot climates by averaging 786 pounds of seed per acre at Davis in six trials without irrigation ; and has frequently yielded three times this amount under similar circumstances. Moreover, it has given equally good returns in upland situations throughout the interior districts both in central and southern California. In its ability to yield under droughty conditions in experiments at Davis, Turlock, Oakdale, Swingle, Paso Robles, Fresno, Riverside, and El Centro, it has been equalled only by the Tepary. Three experimental plantings at Kearney Park, Fresno County, in 1917, averaged 1801 pounds of seed per acre. It matures in from 90 to 110 days in hot climates (table 8) and is therefore especially useful as a catch crop or as a late summer crop following grain hay. With irrigation in the interior districts, planted as late as July 10 it will mature before the autumn rains. The Blackeye is the variety most sensitive to cool weather, and reacts unfavorably to the coastal climate of central and northern California. In such situations it fails to mature, produces sickly dwarfed plants, and drops its flowers and flower buds without setting pods. A planting made at Berkeley May 1, 1917, was killed by frost December 15, 230 days from planting and during the period had failed to ripen a single pod. (Table 8.) Similar results were obtained on the coast at Santa Cruz, Ignacio, and Smith River. At Smith River in Del Norte County a planting made May 25 was green and had set no pods when killed by frost November 5. On the coast of southern California, however, it does much better, but even here it grows more satisfactorily in the warmer situations at some distance from the sea. It yields well in the Stockton delta but here also shows a preference for the warmer portions of the region. At high elevations in the mountains the climate is too cool for it. It is seldom attempted on the better river bottom lands, chiefly because other more valuable varieties are equally prolific in such situations, and because on moist soils it matures late in the season, and produces excessively long runners which interfere seriously with harvesting. Utilization. — The primary markets for California Blackeye beans have been in the southern states, especially at El Paso and Norfolk. Kansas City and New York have also taken large shipments in the past ; although those going to New York have been largely reshipped to Cuba, Porto Rico, and South America. Those going to the southern markets come into competition with the home-grown product, and occasionally with shipments from southern Europe, but California 304 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Blackeyes are reported as being of superior quality. It is used as a human food both in the dry and green state and supplies the demand for a cheap bean. Small quantities have also been used for the adulter- ation of coffee. It has been utilized to a limited extent as a summer orchard green-manure crop, and as a companion crop with corn to provide forage, but for these latter uses, other cowpea varieties, such as the Whipporwill, Miller, Brabham and Brown Crowder, which make a much heavier vine growth, are generally more satisfactorj^. A curious error which has grown current through mere thoughtless iteration is that the Blackeye is employed in the manufacture of explosives. THE CBANBEKRY BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Speckled Cranberry, Red Cranberry, London Horticultural Pole, Housewives' Delight, Scipio Pole, Wrens' Egg, Moro (Mexico), Araucano (Chile). Agricultural History. — The Cranberry is similar to the Araucano bean of Chile, and all available evidence points to the conclusion that it was first intro- duced from there into the eastern United States. It has been listed by eastern seedsmen since I860 6 and is one of the five most popular garden pole beans in the United States at the present time. We are indebted to California, however, for our knowledge of it as a field crop. Although grown here for many years as a garden vegetable it was not until 1907 that it reached our terminal markets in quantity, and became one of our staple dry bean varieties. In 1917 there were about 150,000 sacks marketed in California. Comparisons in the field at Davis during the past season have proved it to be identical with the garden snap bean variously known in the eastern states as London Horticultural Pole, Cranberry Pole, Housewives ' Delight, Scipio Pole and Wrens' Egg. Range in California. — The production of the Cranberry bean in California has been limited to the bottom lands of the Sacramento River, from Sacramento to Antioch, and has focused in the Pierson reclamation district near Courtland. (Table 3, fig. 1.) The largest acreages in 1917 were on Ryer, Grand, Brannan, Twitchell, and Sher- man Islands; but small acreages were planted on the Feather River south of Yuba City, near Salinas in Monterey County, in Lake County, and on the. Klamath River in Siskiyou County. It is also grown for the eastern seed trade in the vicinity of Arroyo Grande in San Luis Obispo County. Adaptations. — The Cranberry is well adapted to the rich bottom lands of the lower Sacramento River and to the coast districts of central and southern California, but is sensitive to extreme heat and « Tracy, W. W., Bulletin 109, p. 119, Bureau Plant Industry, U. S. Dept, Agr. BEAN CULTTTRE IN CALIFORNIA 305 has proved a complete failure in interior upland situations. Tests at Davis, Fresno, and El Centro confirm the opinion generally enter- tained that it cannot be grown in upland situations. It has a small delicate root system and matures late in the season (table 8), which are further reasons for growing it on finely prepared soils well sup- plied with moisture. Moreover, the seed coat is thick, preventing the rapid absorption of moisture which makes germination uncertain in dry soils. Utilization. — California Cranberry beans are marketed almost entirely in the eastern states. The largest shipments have gone to Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Boston, and New York, for distribution to the eastern mining districts. In large measure it owes it recent popularity to the fact that it has replaced a similar variety, formerly imported from Austria, especially for the eastern mining trade. THE BAYO BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Bayou, Bayo grande, Chile, Miners' bean. Agricultural History. — The word bayo is a Spanish descriptive adjective and refers to the bay or chestnut color of the bean. Bayou is an English noun mean- ing a body of stagnant "water, and has been incorrectly applied as a name to this variety. The Bayo is a native of Chile and was brought to California in the cargoes of the first trading vessels. It was first quoted in this state as a market product under the name Chile in The Alia for July 19, 1850, and as early as 1853 was known as the Chile Bayo, probably to distinguish it from the Cali- fornia-grown Bayo. Since 1853 it has been a staple. During the gold rush in the early fifties, it was imported from Chile in large quantities and has retained its popularity to the present day in the mining camps throughout the Pacific Coast region, including Alaska. A small seeded strain known as the Bayo Chico, was formerly imported from Chile and cultivated in California. The Imported or Manchurian Bayo is a speckled bean coming from the Orient but is not grown in California. Range in California. — The Bayo is produced in largest quantities on the Sacramento River, from Antioch on the south, to Marysville on the north, but extends as far northward as Redding in Shasta County and westward in scattered plantings on the bottom lands 'of the Feather, Yuba, Bear, American, Cosumnes. and Mokelumne rivers and their tributaries. (Table 3, fig. 1.) It has been the favorite variety in the mining districts of Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, and Amador counties, but the total production there has been small. Sporadic plantings are also made on the Klamath River in Siskiyou County and at other places in northern California. Formerly it was grown extensively in the Lompoc Valley, as much as 7000 sacks having 306 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION been produced there in 1913, but it has now been superseded there by other varieties. It is also well known and generally cultivated in parts of northern Sonora, in Mexico, and in Arizona and New Mexico. Adaptations. — The Bayo has been cultivated most successfully in the island districts of the lower Sacramento River, in the Stockton 8 Fig. 4. — (1) A two-row, sprocket drop, hoe furrow opener, planter. (2) A four-row, sprocket drop, press wheel planter. (3) Six two-row plate planters, planting 75 acres in 10 hours. (4) Side hill planter. (5) Drop-side wagon for hauling beans. (6) Net for unloading wagon. (7) A modern bean cutter equipped with adjustable knives, rollers, and auxiliary wheels. (8) A small portable threshing machine (Photos Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 by Ventura Imple- ment Co.) BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 307 delta, and on the coast of southern California, but its late maturity limits its usefulness in the central and northern California Coast districts. It has been tested on the drier uplands at various places in the Sacramento, San Joaquin, and Imperial Valleys, as well as in the interior of southern California, but has always failed in these Fig. 5. — A two-row, pivot axle cultivator. It may be adjusted to different width rows, and is equipped with shields and deep working shovels for the first cultivation. (Photo by International Harvester Co.) 308 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION places ; first, because of the sensitiveness of its blossoms to hot weather, and second, because of its ready susceptibility to red spider attacks. Utilization. — The principal markets for the California Bayo have been in the mining districts of the Pacific Coast, although large ship- ments are made to Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico to supply the Mexican trade. Recently markets have been established in the mining districts of the east and middle west. THE GABBANZO BEAN (Cicer arietinum) Synonyms.— Chick pea, Gram, Coffee bean, Idaho pea, Egyptian pea, Gipsy pea, Madras gram. Agricultural History. — The Garbanzo is considered to be indigenous to western Asia, but has been cultivated since ancient times in Egypt, Greece, and Italy, and in comparatively recent times in India. Next to the cereals, it forms the largest part of the food of the peoples of India, northern Africa, and Spain, and is an important field crop in all South and Central American countries, as well as in the southwestern United States. It is a characteristic food of Latin peoples and has been carried by them to all parts of the world. It was introduced into California by the Spanish missionaries, whose records show that 8450 pounds were produced at the various missions in 1831. It has been cultivated to the present time and is now a staple crop in California. Range in California. — The largest acreage of Garbanzo beans is usually reported from reclamation district No. 70, south of the town of Meridian, lying in Sutter County, between the Sacramento River and the Marysville Buttes. There are usually about 2000 acres in this locality. Smaller acreages may be expected near Marysville and from Sacramento to Antioch, especially in the "Pocket" district near Free- port, and on Brannan, Ryer, and Sherman islands; but the recent expansion of the vegetable seed farms on the heavier soils in these latter districts has resulted in a considerable reduction of the Gar- banzo acreage. (Table 3, fig. 1.) Adaptations. — In its ability to thrive under various climatic con- ditions the Garbanzo has evinced considerable adaptability, but has shown a preference for coast conditions. At Berkeley in 1917 it out- yielded all other varieties except the Horse bean. (Table 5.) It has also yielded well in upland situations, in the interior districts of both northern and southern California, and is little affected by hot weather at blossoming time. Moreover, the seed reared in the drier districts are larger and of superior quality to those produced on the coast (frontispiece). It is hardy and is reported to have withstood tem- peratures of 13° F. without injury. It is customarily planted in February and March, but on well-drained land may be planted during BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 309 October or November. Plantings made after July 1 at both Berkeley and Davis have failed to mature in time to harvest. (Table 8.) Practically the entire Garbanzo crop of California was a failure in 1917, apparently due to the seasonal conditions. In many cases there was a failure to obtain a stand and in others the plants died in the seedling 1 stage, showing a discoloration on the root. A well- aerated, well-drained soil is absolutely essential for the germination of Garbanzo seed. Plantings made at Berkeley May 17, 1917, in a wet soil, after irrigation, failed to produce a single plant, while the same seed gave a perfect stand when planted after the soil had dried somewhat. Plantings at Davis April 13, 1917, in a cold, wet soil gave a poor stand and nearly all plants died before setting pods, while the same seed gave a perfect stand nearby when planted May 30 and again on July 5. The diseased plants from these and from several other places in the Sacramento Valley were found to be infected with a root rot (Rhizoctonia) , the unusual destructiveness of which during the past season is to be attributed to the cold late spring which reduced the vigor and resistance of the young plants. Utilization. — California Garbanzos are shipped to all parts of the United States wherever there is a Latin population. They go prin- cipally into the southwest and to the Gulf states, whence many are shipped into Mexico, Cuba, and to South and Central America. New York takes a great many, part of which are consumed in the Italian districts, the remainder being shipped to southern Europe. The leaves while green are viscid with a secretion containing oxalic, acetic, and malic acids. In India this is collected by placing cloths over the growing plants at night and is utilized in the preparation of vinegar and beverages of various kinds. This acid secretion has been reported as poisonous to stock when the plants are fed green. THE BED MEXICAN BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Mexican Red, California Red, Red Spanish, Red, Mexican, Rojo (Mexican) , Salinas Red. Agricultural History. — The Red Mexican was one of the first bean varieties to be cultivated in California, and came to us from the Indian tribes of northern Mexico, where it is known as the Rojo bean. It was first quoted on the California market as the California Red in 1855, and later was known simply as the Red until about 1900, when the name Red Mexican was appropriately applied to it. It is unknown in Chile where so many of our varieties are common. In California its production has never equalled that of the Pink, although it is increasing in popularity and, wherever grown, its reputation as a dry-land crop has been fully sustained. 310 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Range in California. — Excepting southern California, the Red Mexican is grown in the same general territory as the Pink. (Table 3, fig. 1.). In the Sacramento Valley and in the Stockton delta its production is comparatively limited, but in the San Joaquin Valley, particularly in the northern portion, it now occupies a larger acreage than the Pink. About 40 per cent of the total bean acreage in San Joaquin County, exclusive of the delta region, was in Red Mexican beans in 1916, and in the Turlock and Modesto districts it occupied approximately 20 per cent of the total bean acreage. In the coast sections of San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Monterey and San Luis Obispo counties the plantings are numerous but small, and in southern Cali- fornia it is rarely grown. The principal areas of origin are tributary to Stockton, Turlock, Modesto, Livingston, and Marysville. Smaller acreages are reported from Humboldt, Lake, Shasta, and San Benito counties. Adaptations. — In field requirements, as in appearance, it is most like the Pink, it being impossible to distinguish between these two varieties in the field until the seeds start to color. It thrives best on the rich river bottom lands or in proximity to the coast, but is capable of yielding moderately in situations too hot for the more sensitive varieties, such as the Lima, Small White, Cranberry, and Bayo. It cannot be recommended as a safe crop for the difficult climate of Davis, Fresno, or El Centro, but even in these places it surpasses the Pink, and with irrigation and late planting has occasionally yielded well. It is, however, less dependent upon irrigation than the Pink. Generally speaking, it is the most satisfactory of our varieties for hot localities, excepting the Tepary, the Blackeye, and possibly the Hen- derson Bush, and has been responsible for a considerable extension of what was generally regarded as Pink bean land. In variety tests on the coast of northern and central California it has been one of the highest yielding varieties and has in nearly every case exceeded the Pink in yield. (Table 5.) In these districts it has a further advan- tage over the Pink, in that it is less subject to mildew damage. It is gaining in public estimation in California, largely at the expense of the Pink. Utilization. — The Havana market takes the Red Mexican in prefer- ence to all other varieties, and many shipments are made there directly from California. Large shipments are also made to the southwest and to Mexico, also to South America via the port of New Orleans. It is very little known on the eastern markets and appeared there in quantity for the first time in 1916. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 311 THE RED KIDNEY BEAN (Phascolus vulgaris) Synonym. — Red Turkey. Agricultural History. — The Bed Kidney has been a standard field bean in the eastern states since 1857, Avhere it is second in importance to the Navy bean. Its total production in 1917 constituted about 6.8 per cent of the total bean crop of the United States. There are no records to show at what time it was introduced into California, but its extensive use as a field crop is of comparatively recent date, for it does not appear in our market quotations until the early nineties. Range in California. — The Red Kidney is grown most extensively on the Sacramento River bottom lands, tributary to Marysville, but extends northward to Anderson, in Shasta County. In the Sutter Basin south of Marysville it occupied approximately 2y 2 per cent of the total bean acreage in 1917, or about 1000 acres. From Sacra- mento to Rio Vista, and in the Stockton delta, there is a small produc- tion, but it has not been grown much in the San Joaquin Valley excepting for a small local production on the lower Merced River bottoms, and near Denair in Stanislaus County. Small scattered plantings have been reported from Ukiah in Mendocino County, Upper Lake, Tule Lake, and Big Valley in Lake County; Placer County, San Benito County, Half Moon Bay, San Mateo County, Pajaro Valley, Santa Cruz County, Salinas Valley, Monterey County, Gilroy, Santa Clara County, Round and Owens valleys, Inyo County, and on the coast of Ventura and Santa Barbara counties. (Table 3, fl g . i.) Adaptations. — The Red Kidney is adapted to the coast sections of northern, central and southern California, and to the mountain valleys in eastern and northern California. With late planting it thrives on the bottom lands of the Sacramento River, but in the hotter and more- arid climates of the uplands it cannot compete with the Red Mexican or Pink. Although not a high-yielding variety it offers several advan- tages not possessed in the same degree by any of the other varieties under discussion. It is the earliest maturing variety in the coast sections, and only the Tepary, Blackeye and Garbanzo are earlier in the interior. (Table 8.) Because of this characteristic it lends itself to the short seasons of northern and eastern California, and is valuable on overflow lands which must be planted late in the summer. On moist lands, it does not prolong its growth as many varieties do, and because of its bushlike habit, the pods are held free of the ground and there is little loss through staining and discoloration on such lands. Its small erect plants permit of its being planted in narrow rows and 312 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION hand cultivated, a fact which has been recognized by our Oriental farmers in increasing yields. When mature it sheds its leaves before the pods are ripe, resulting in a more rapid curing and being of special advantage during rainy seasons and in foggy districts. Utilization. — The Red Kidney is extensively grown in the eastern bean districts, and the California products find a ready market there, but is especially liked in Boston. It is in demand in Cuba and Porto Rico, and a considerable portion of the California crop reaches those markets through the port of New Orleans. In the past it has been a popular canning variety, but the recent advance in price has resulted in the partial substitution of other colored beans for this purpose. THE WHITE TEPAKY BEAN (Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius) Synonyms. — Frijol trigo (Chile), Garbancillo bolando (Mexico). Agricultural History. — The White Tepary is of Mexican origin, the name ' ' Tepary ' ; having been given it by the Tarahumara Indians of Chihuahua. Many forms resembling it have been found growing wild in Arizona and Mexico, and have been described by botanists as far back as 1849. Numerous varieties had also been domesticated by the Indians before the advent of white men and are thought to have been a heritage from an ancient Aztec civilization. Forbes and Freeman 7 collected seventy-one varieties of beans among the Indian tribes of Arizona and Mexico in 1910, forty-seven of which were distinct varieties of teparies. In 1912 Freeman 7 first called attention to its possibilities as a drouth- resistant crop for the arid southwest, and the progress which it has made in public estimation since that time is remarkable. Prior to 1914 it was unknown on the California market, although it had been grown experimentally in the state a year or two previously. Range in California. — The White Tepary is grown throughout the central valley of California, from Anderson to Bakersfield, and in the arable portions of southern California. (Table 3, fig. 1.) It cannot be grown successfully in the coast districts of central or northern California, nor at mountain elevations. The most extensive plantings in 1917 were in the Turlock and Modesto districts of Stanislaus County, and in San Joaquin, Merced, Los Angeles, Riverside, Glenn, and Butte counties. Smaller plantings were made in the Santa Clara, Upper Salinas, San Benito, Antelope, Imperial, and Palo Verde val- leys, also near Blythe on the Colorado River, near Ontario in San Bernardino County, and near Thermal in central Riverside County. Adaptations. — The White Tepary is the most drouth-resistant bean grown in California and in suitable for planting in dry hot dis- 7 Freeman, G. F., Bui. 68, Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1912. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 313 triets, and for dry soils and seasons. Several varieties of Teparies have been tested at Davis for a number of years and have surpassed all other varieties including the Blackeye in yield. (Table 5.) In fourteen trials, the Yellow Tepary without irrigation averaged 1203 pounds per acre, against 540 for the White Tepary in three trials. These are profitable yields but might be greatly increased by irriga- tion. Equally favorable returns have been obtained at Turlock, Riverside, El Centro, and Fresno. At the last mentioned place in 1917 four separate plantings of White Teparies without irrigation, but on subirrigated land, yielded 4212, 3516, 3252 and 2305 pounds per acre, respectively. The Tepary grows indifferently in the cool coast climate of central and northern California, also at high elevations ; but does better than the Blackeye in such situations. At Berkeley in 1917 a planting on May 1 was too green to thresh in December, 160 days from planting, while at Davis it matures in from 90 to 110 days, and if moisture is available may be planted as late as July 20 and yet mature. (Table 8.) By careful management, it is possible to take two crops in a season from the same land. The seed germinates quickly in soils of low moisture content, but rots quickly in cold moist soils. The pods shatter freely when ripe and special precautions should be taken against this at harvest time Fig. 6. — Pink beans, curing in the cock, preparatory to threshing. 314 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Iii a field of White Teparies individual plants show a range of two weeks in time of ripening, vary greatly in habit of growth, size and shape of seed, and other characteristics. Several of these forms are now being propagated as pure lines at the University Farm at Davis. Utilization.— The Tepary has not been recognized as a commercial product until the last three or four years, and there has been much difficulty in securing its acceptance on any of the markets of the east or west. Consumers have objected to its flavor and odor when cooked. One carload which went to Washington, D. C, could not be sold, and the dissatisfied dealer attempted to resell it at a loss. Similar experi- ences have been reported from other parts of the country. It has been unfavorably received in San Francisco, and cannot be sold even to the cheaper restaurant trade. Special methods of cooking designed to eliminate the strong flavor are now being proposed, and it is hoped that a staple market may in this way be established. See California Circular, "Cooking the Tepary Bean," September, 1917. THE HOESE BEAN (Vicia faba) Synonyms. — Fava, Portuguese bean, Broad bean, Windsor bean, English bean, Bean of History, Haba comun {Spanish). Agricultural History. — The Horse Bean has been known and used as an article of food as long as our records of the pa^t serve us. It is mentioned in the Scrip- turess (Sam. XVII, 28, 1023 B.C., and Ezek. IV, 9, 595 B.C.) and we find mention of it throughout the literature of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Further evidence of the antiquity of its cultivation is shown by the mention made of it in the twelfth chapter of the eighteenth book of Pliny, and by the fact that it was found by Virchow in the excavations at Troy.9 It was probably introduced into Spain and England by the Romans and came to America with the colonists. It arrived in Califorian via South America with the Spanish missionaries, and we have records of its cultivation in Alameda County by the Portuguese in 1887, and by General Eli Murray in the Valley of the Palms, San Diego County, in 1889, but it does not appear in our market quotations until 1894. Range in California. — The Horse Bean is cultivated most exten- sively in the San Francisco bay region, and in the central California coast district. (Table 3, fig. 1.) The principal centers for its production are at Morro, Oceano, Cayucas, Cambria, Pescadero, Wat- sonville, and Half Moon Bay. It is also grown sporadically in the Sacramento Valle3 r , principally near Marysville, Central House, Ger- mantown, West Sacramento, reclamation district No. 744, and in the s Wilson, John, "Our Farm Crops," vol. 1, p. 197, Blackie & Son, 1859. 9 Wittmack, Sitz. bericht Vereins, Brandenburg, 1879 (De Candolle). BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 315 Glide district tributary to Clarksburg. Small plantings for home use are made throughout California. Adaptations. — There are numerous varieties of Horse Beans, prob- ably over 100 occurring in different parts of the world. In England there are at least nine varieties in common use. The different kinds require different climatic conditions, are cultivated under different circumstances, and for different uses. In California only one variety, the Windsor, is well known. This is essentially a cool climate crop, is robust and vigorous, and grows to perfection in the coastal sections of central and northern California. It is not injured, even when in blossom, by ordinary freezing weather, and thrives as a winter or early spring crop. It is extremely sensitive to hot weather and may not be grown as a summer crop in the interior districts. It is usually planted from February to March, but has yielded best when planted from October to January. Plantings at Davis in May and June have even failed to germinate. In the cooler coast districts it may be planted later, and frequently is planted from March to May in order to reduce weevil infestation, but if planted after June 1 it is subject to rain damage at harvest time. Plantings at Berkeley July 2 matured late in December, but others planted May 1 ripened about Septem- ber 30. (Table 8.) It has been successfully employed as a winter crop in a double cropping system with summer beans, occupying the land from Novem- ber to June, but it has only been possible to use it in this way on well-drained irrigated lands. Utilization. — From 30 to 40 per cent of the California Horse-bean crop is used as a stock feed within the state, the remainder is shipped to New York and other large eastern cities where it is used as an esculent principally by the poorer class Italian and Jewish peoples. As a stock food it is generally fed with hay, in the finishing of cattle. A small part of the crop is ground and used in the manufacture of prepared poultry foods, and occasionally the ripe seed is roasted and eaten like peanuts, or ground and mixed with coffee. The soft imma- ture seed is palatable and is marketed as a winter vegetable. The entire plant may be cut green and siloed, or cured and fed as hay. The straw, however, is coarse and has little feeding value. It has been employed both as a green manure and as an orchard cover crop, but because of the large amount of seed required (table 9) is an expensive crop for such use. It has fallen into comparative disrepute in California of late be- cause of the stringency of the Federal Food and Drugs Act, which classes weevil-infested Horse Beans as adulterated food, and prohibits 316 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION their shipment in interstate commerce for use as human food. The numerous confiscations in transit under this regulation have occa- sioned losses to the shippers, kept the price down, and retarded the expansion of the acreage. THE HENDERSON BUSH LIMA (Phaseolus lunatus) Synonyms. — Sieva, Civet, Carolina Lima, Small Seeded Lima, Tiny Lima. Agricultural History. — The Henderson Bush was the first of the bush lima varieties, and was developed from a single plant found in the vicinity of Lynch- burg, Virginia, about 1883. In 1885 it passed into the possession of T. W. Wood and Sons who sold the entire stock in 1887 to Peter Henderson and Company. 10 Shortly after this it was sent to California to be grown for seed but has now come to occupy an important place as a field corp in the state. Range in California. — The Henderson Bush is more tolerant of heat than the Large Lima and is grown on the higher lands at some distance from the coast in southern California. The principal areas of origin are : The San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles County, where Fig. 7. — Near view of a cock, showing a good set of Pink bean pods. io Tracy, W. W., U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Plant Industry, Bui. 109, p. 43. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 317 there were about 10,000 acres in 1917, Carpinteria Valley, Perris, Beaumont, Santa Paula, Anaheim, Santa Ana, and Fullerton. There were also scattered plantings throughout the small coast valleys of San Diego County. (Table 3, fig. 1.) Adaptations. — The Henderson Bush yields best in the coast climate of southern California, but gives satisfactory returns in the more difficult interior climates. It is not so tolerant of extreme heat as the Blackeye or Tepary, but compares favorably with the Red Mexican and Pink, and has produced fair crops in the Sacramento and Imperial valleys, and in the interior of southern California. It is less affected by cool weather than the Large Lima and ripens much earlier than the latter in the coast districts of central California. Utilization. — The Henderson Bush has been chiefly a canning variety but has been marketed as a dry bean in all parts of the United States. It is also popular as a garden vegetable in the eastern states where it is used as a green shelled bean. THE FEENCH WHITE BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Agricultural History. — The French White bean was introduced into California in 1902 by Mr. Peter Delpy, of Vista, San Diego County, who obtained the seed from Mr. Clement Eabante, Department of Ariege, Canton of Lavelanet in south- ern France. Samples have been submitted to Vilmorin Andrieux and Co. of Paris and it is thought by them to be identical with the French variety, "Four to Four." Range in California. — The production of the French White has been confined thus far to the coast of Orange and San Diego counties, and has centered about Vista, Encinitas, and Cerento in San Diego County, but the total planting in 1917 did not exceed 1000 acres. Adaptations. — The French White has not been tested sufficiently under different conditions to determine its range of usefulness. It succeeds well in western San Diego County and in a small planting at Berkeley in 1917 did moderately well. It resembles very closely the Lady Washington but the vines are slightly larger, more vigorous, and upright. The leaves are smoother and slightly smaller; it blos- soms somewhat longer, ripens earlier, and the pods are more fleshy and practically stringless. Utilization, — It has not been grown long enough or in sufficient quantity to have an established market, but as yet no trade distinction has been made between it and the Lady Washington. 318 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION THE SPOTTED BED MEXICAN BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris) Synonyms. — Pinto, Calico, Frijol Manchado (Mexico). Agricultural History. — The Spotted Eed Mexican or Pinto, bean, not the same variety as the Colorado Pinto, was first grown in California by Mr. Arthur Cana- van of Stockton, who obtained the seed from Mexican travelers in 1905. Several years later Mr. J. M. Dial obtained seed from Mr. Canavan and planted it on the Stanislaus Eiver bottoms, where it has been grown in a small way to the present time. Its striking appearance has attracted much atention and experimental plantings have been made by farmers throughout California. That it is in some way related to the Eed Mexican is indicated by its tendency to revert, always producing some typical Eed Mexican seed. Adaptations. — The plants are slightly larger and more vigorous than the Red Mexican, but in its requirements and yielding capacity under different conditions it resembles the Red Mexican more nearly than any other 'variety. Utilization. — The production has been insignificant compared to other varieties, amounting to only 50,000 pounds or one carload in 1917. The chief difficulty in the way of its production has been its low and uncertain market value. Pig. 8. — Bunching attachment for bean cutter. Invented by D. McCarthy, Turlock, California. P.KAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 319 WHERE TO PLANT THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES Dry, Warm, Un irrigated Districts, Early Planting Blackeye Tepary Garbanzo Dry, Warm, Irrigated Districts, Late Planting Red Mexican Pink Lady Washington Henderson Bush Coast Districts North of San Francisco Red Kidney Red Mexican Blue Pod Lady Washington Pink Garbanzo Coast Districts, San Francisco to Santa Barbara Blue Pod Red Mexican Red Kidney Small White Pink Horse Bean Lady Washington Garbanzo Coast Districts, Santa Barbara to San Diego. Lima Henderson Bush Lady Washington Pink Bayo Cranberry Pink Lady Washington Tepary Blackeye French White Pink Bayo Lower Sacramento River Red Kidnev Lady Washington Garbanzo Stockton Delta Bayo Red Mexican San Joaquin Valley Red Mexican Pink Red Mexican Blackeye Garbanzo Red Mexican Horse Bean Blackeye Blackeye Lady Washington Imperial Valley Tepary Blackeye Garbanzo Slightly Alkali Soils Horse Bean (fall planting) Blackeye Lima Garbanzo (fall planting) Tepary Fall, Winter or Early Spring Planting Horse Bean Garbanzo Late Planting on Overflow Lands Red Kidney Tepary High Mountain Elevations Red Kidney Horse Bean Lady Washington Bayo Garbanzo 320 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION 2 p o-fe ^r§ &C.= Q0 © CO IO >o OOOO^OOIOOO cm' o* cm oi tH to" .5 . 5 • co ^ CO©cO-HCMas©CSr- I CO CD CO IO PO >ococDcocoH-^COo6H4CDCO°cdHH CO* CO oiocx>iooocoooooiC- CX) CO Eh o o I— I Ph HH °rA° <5 CO O GO PI ■!« p) g pq g -1 HH GO cm CM IO o ^ Si* ■^ o o efl CO PI PI O; j1 ™ a » ® pq CO CD •d -^ p -d CD i-G CD fe GO IO H* OS co GO CM O CO 00 co t— t— CO OO tJH LO rH CO IO IO CXI GOCicioOCQO"*OiC7iQOGO CD CD •P— I T-i X X o CO CM CXI CO CD • r-i X t^ t^ O o cs ?o CO CO © o o IO LO o CXI CM CO CM I— 1 CM i— 1 rH a> ep ^ ' »h *'ri CD ""d CD ■p ft-p P+; h+j .rH .rH .rH .rH >>h • rH ^H rO fllrS Ph^ r^rP ^ rH ^ ht? rH & O O ^ O ^ IO IO CO GO GO CM O Hr3 03 O CD O O fe rH rH 5 CO CM CD H-H X O CO GO CO CO o X 03 ■ rH r*l rH • rH Ph. © O CO CM ^ O: -3 O: O: O: O: « -3 "3 "3 S "3 o "3 ts xj >3 o p •a •1 n> a> «> -» -s ^ ** p p P P e*- ej- g£ e£ 5' o" g o 3333 (D (^ tD ft 1 1 >< 1 - - - p C* > M &§■ to p a: C o 13 Co o o o 4=4, CD 3 m. 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H-» ^1 tO t— ' CO rf*. to o o as to to ^ h-» tO r— ' O OS O GO 00 QO Mm "HtOM (—4 tO tO i— ' OS 4^ 4^ ^ OS Wtfi-OlOSOO 00 Orf^COi— 'OOOOO W H H tO I— > 4- 1 p— ' CO 00 tO 00 CO OS Oil— 'rf^-l— 'CO^ltO^I tOrf^tOrf^CnOOi^cs — —4 tO tO I— ' tO H rfxCOCOOrf^OiCOCO ooo^ococococo [OS^ONCSKIH ' h- 1 OI tO >£>• 1— ' ffiOQOW^ rf^ O O 00 O O C"l O C7I >-• rf^ ex ^ to hF^ on on to Ci i— » os o to on ^4 to i— 1 to O^OOOOl o o o to o to to y-^ tO ^q r-> ^q OS to ^1 o 00000000 to 00 00 ^q ©OS CO CO to -a o o to (4- o on to to 0OO0O5 O i—4 ~q CO o 4^ 1— 1 r\ p p 3 ■< to rf^ CO co c; on „ ► to o o c^ L S O I— ' O OT h-4 /^ ■ 01 OS S 1-4 CS 00 o ^co 00 as h-> 00 1-4 ^2^ ^2 Berkeley ci 1 — ' as co 4-4 as to 1— 4 • -] to as o =co Riverside to 00 as 5ft-. swo • -n to to on o^S Clarksburg Co as -q P 5 !3 C\OS m to on 4-4 4-4 OS 4^. 00 to o OS 00 O 00 - ^ Cruz — <© Smith t» •"! River o^co Middle ? g River ros §^C- akdale o o on ' -3 co to o to : : ; w i— 1 : ! hi : : : CO to : : oc : : : : to as : : : : : : : : *— ' : : : : : : to tO 1—4 1— ' OS 00 o ;=£ Kearney 7 1 (-. Park 5=0 Kearney J" ^ Park —q §fJ2 Spreckels 4-4 g g 5 ^ Swingle 4+*- o • os CO r M Ol C- 1 o w > o w o to I— I K w CO c72 EC 1— 1 Q On to O S 4-4 to o on 4f* os to 1— ' CO o on rf- co o o 3Hp Paso os Robles 4—4 4-4 on CO O on c?S Paso Robles 4-4 as to -^ co : ^ 00 to to i : on 00 cs o o o OS s O OS o o g*J2 Turlock • -3 to CO to to to to OS to to 1_W — f— — u^j I— __. tOrf^COCOOO^^ w on rf^ 00 o 4- 4 00 on tOCOp-iCotOtOtOtOtO oOoocr. ontotoooo 000000000 000000000 I- 1 tO ^1 CO to h-M ^sg r2 Auburn -3 to to to M o on 00 tr 000 O Ov o en A good yield under favorable conditions 322 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION ADAPTATIONS OF BEANS Soil Requirements. — Any productive soil, properly handled, and favorably situated climatically, will produce beans. Adobes, loams, sands, and peats have all yielded satisfactory crops, but some are clearly more suitable than others. Beans are rarely attempted on the heaviest soils, owing to the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining a sufficiently fine tilth, and sandy soils when unirrigated, are equally objectionable, because of the difficulty of maintaining an adequate supply of moisture throughout the growing season. With some varietal differences, to which allusion is made later, beans are in- juriously affected by both alkali and acid soils. The principal physical properties of an ideal bean soil are : a certain amount of tenacity and firmness to give it the requisite water-holding capacity ; a good depth so as to admit freely of the downward passage of the roots, and free- dom from any surplus of water beyond that which such soils naturally contain. In general, beans thrive best on what are generally recog- nized as our best truck soils. Fig. 9. — Flooring Lima beans in southern California. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 323 Climatic Requirements. — With some notable exceptions previously mentioned, atmospheric heat and aridity are limiting factors in the production of beans, changes in climate often separating profitable from unprofitable bean land abruptly and independently of the nature of soil. The bean districts of the Sacramento River, the Salinas Val- ley, and the coast of central and southern California all afford excellent examples of such abrupt .changes. At Sacramento, repre- sentative of the Sacramento River district, the mean relative humidi- ties 11 at 5 a.m. for May, June, July and August are respectively 82, 78, 76, and 77; at San Luis Obispo, representative of the central coast district, they are correspondingly 82, 84, 87, and 88; and at San Diego, representative of the southern coast district, they are corre- spondingly 82, 84, 87, and 85 ; while at Fresno, Red Bluff, and Yuma, Arizona, representative of districts where common beans cannot be grown easily, the corresponding humidities are 74, 59, 50, and 54; 79, 59, 49, and 49 ; 55, 55, 61, and 65. Temperature is also a factor in the determination of distribution and variety adaptation. ALKALI TOLERANCE OF BEANS Most beans are more sensitive to alkali than wheat or barley, and should not be attempted when these crops have failed. Upon this point there is a general coincidence of opinion, referable in part to many futile and costly attempts to grow them on such lands, and in part to more carefully controlled laboratory and field experiments. In every important bean district of California, however, soils are to be found in which only low concentrations of alkali are present, and on which beans may be grown with varying degrees of success. On such lands the question of which variety will succeed best is extremely important, and may, in itself, outbalance all other considerations in the choice of a variety. Although no experiments of a decisive nature have as yet been performed to determine accurately this relationship, a recent preliminary greenhouse experiment at Berkeley points to the conclusion that there is a decided difference in the abilitv of our common bean varieties to grow on alkali soils, and that under the con- ditions of this experiment at least, it is possible to separate them into three fairly well-defined groups, based upon their alkali tolerance as follows : upata f r om Bulletin L of U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau. 324 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Group 1. — Most tolerant : Blackeye Horse Bean Group 2. — Moderately tolerant : Lima Group 3. — Least tolerant : Cranberry Red Kidney Blue Pod Lady Washington Small White Pink Garbanzo Tepary Red Mexican Bayo It is a significant fact that all of the varieties in groups 1 and 2 represent different botanical species than those in group 3. The varieties in group 1 not only grew in concentrations of alkali where other varieties failed to grow, but survived for longer periods, and were more thrifty in the lower concentrations. The varieties in group 2 lived longer in alkali solutions and were less affected by them than those in group 3. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL Unirrigated Lands. — Lands which receive neither sub nor surface irrigation are dependent upon the storage of winter rainfall for the growth of the crop during the summer, and the system of manage- ment applicable to such lands is based upon the principles of dry farming. % <4 5 «* Fig. 10. — Machine threshing Lima beans. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 325 Fall Flowing. — The first objects of such a system are to secure the greatest penetration of the winter rainfall and to reduce to a minimum the losses through evaporation and surface run off. This is best accomplished by plowing the land as deeply as possible, twelve to fourteen inches, immediately after harvest in the fall (fig. 3). Heavy soils treated in this manner will turn up in large lumps but under careful management may be reduced to a good tilth during the winter. Deep fall plowing, especially on soils which have not previously been worked deep, or in soils underlain by consolidated subsoils,, may advantageously be supplemented by sub-soiling to a depth of sixteen to eighteen inches. This is especially recommended as a measure to increase moisture penetration in the more arid districts. Winter Working. — During the winter the land should be worked in such manner that by spring it will be fine and well settled to the bottom of the furrow, yet protected by a shallow surface mulch. To this end it is desirable that at no time during the winter should the surface of the ground become hard and crusted. To effectively accom- plish these results considerable winter working is required, the exact procedure varying somewhat to suit individual soil peculiarities. Soil which has turned up rough should be pulverized and firmed when sufficiently moist to crumble. Heavy soils are best reduced with a spike-tooth roller or cross-kill (fig. 3), while light soils respond as well to a corrugated roller or disk. When this preliminary work has been done, the time of performing subsequent winter work will depend £ig. 11. — Combined beau harvester, designed to eliminate cocking and haulinj 326 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION upon the occurrence of rain. Each heavy rain that is followed by drying weather will result in the formation of a crust. This should be broken frequent!}' and always before it has become too hard and too thick to disintegrate easily and finely. These workings should not exceed four inches in depth and are most effectively done with an implement whose working depth may be adjusted, such as the chisel or spring tooth harrow (fig. 3). Knife cultivators, or weed cutters should not be used for this purpose, especially if the soil is heavy and moist, because by their shearing action they form a hard tempered strata which interferes with the preparation of a good seed bed. Spring Working. — From the close of the rainy season until plant- ing time there are but two objects to attain, first to hold as near the surface as possible without loss, the moisture which has been stored by the foregoing practices, and second the destruction of weeds of every description. Two implements are indispensable for this work, these are the cyclone (Ventura weed cutter) and the corrugated roller (fig. 3). One or both of these implements should be used at about ten-day intervals up to planting time. The cyclone to destroy weeds and maintain a fine shallow mulch and the corrugated roller to firm the soil and hold the moisture near the surface. Spring plowing is unnecessary on land handled in this way, but where the winter and early spring work is neglected, it must be resorted to in order to turn under weeds and prepare a seed bed. Spring plowing on dry farmed land should not exceed six inches in depth, and should be followed without delay by disking, cross-disking, harrowing and rolling, in order to prevent excessive moisture loss. Sub-irrigated Lands. — Sub-irrigated lands are not dependent upon rainfall for their moisture supply, and much of the winter and spring working necessary on dry lands may be dispensed with. Deep fall plowing, however, is desirable and this should be supplemented by enough winter and early spring working to keep down weed growth and make spring plowing unnecessary. PLANTING Time of Planting. — Horse Beans and Garbanzos may be planted at any time during the fall, winter, or spring, but in the interior districts succeed best when planted in the fall or early spring. The other varieties may not be planted until the soil has become perma- nently warm and all danger of frost is over. Excepting the Blackeye and Tepary, plantings after June 1 have outyielded earlier plantings in all of the hot interior districts. At Davis in 1917 the following comparisons of ear]y and late plantings were made: BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 327 Table 6. — Early vs. Late Planting at Davis, California* Planted May 1, Planted July 2, average yield average yield Variety per acre per acre Lady Washington 197 pounds 486 pounds Pink 374 " 682 " Eed Kidney 74 , " 438 " Eed Mexican 188 " 1114 " * Experiment in cooperation with S. H. Beckett, Division of Experimental Irrigation, University of California. Late planting is dependent upon sub- or surface irrigation to supply moisture for germination and growth. In the experiment just quoted the land was irrigated before planting, and the figures repre- sent average yields from several plots of each variety, each plot receiving water at different rates, but all varieties being treated similarly. Blackeye and Tepary beans are not injured by hot weather and yield as well when planted in April or May as when planted later. Consequently they are especially adapted to unirrigated lands where it would be difficult to maintain moisture for late planting. In the Imperial Valle3 x beans have yielded best when planted either March 15 or August 15. In the coast districts of northern, central, and southern California, it is customary to plant beans as early in the spring as the season and soil will permit. Here there is no hot weather to avoid by late planting, and early planting obviates the necessity of irrigation. Relative yields for early and late planting at Berkeley, in 1917, are shown in the following table. Table 7. — Early vs. Late Planting at Berkeley, California Planted May 1, Planted June 15, average yield average yield Variety per acre per acre Lady Washington 1680 pounds 582 pounds Pink 1512 " 509 " Bed Kidney 1153 " 545 " Eed Mexican 1601 " 582 " On overflow lands, and in localities subject to spring frosts, late planting becomes a necessity, and in extreme cases may prevent the growing of beans altogether. In a variety test at Davis planted July 5, 1917, the Tepary, Blackeye, Eed Mexican, Pink, Lady Wash- ington, and Red Kidney varieties, all matured prior to November 1 ; while the Bayo, Lima, Cranberry, Small White, Blue Pod, and Gar- banzo varieties all failed to mature. The same varieties were planted at Berkeley July 2, 1917, but only the Red Kidney, Red Mexican, Pink, Lady Washington, and Blue Pod varieties matured prior to November 1. (Table 8.) 328 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION In energal, most varieties may be planted as late as June 15 on the coast, or as late as July 1 in the interior, but the Blackeye and Tepary may safely be planted as late as July 10 in the interior. Table 8. — Effect of Planting Date on Blossoming Period and Life Period of Beans at Davis and Berkeley Variety Lima Lima Lima Pink Pink Pink Small white Small White Small White Lady Washington.... Lady Washington.... Lady Washington.... Blackeye Blackeye Blackeye Cranberry Cranberry Cranberry Bayo Bayo Bayo Garbanzo Garbanzo Garbanzo Red Mexican Red Mexican Red Mexican Red Kidney Red Kidney Red Kidney Tepary Tepary Tepary Horse bean Horse bean Horse bean * Killed by frost in December t Did not ripen. t Failed to germinate. Di avis, California, 1917 A Berkeley, California, 1917 A. f Date planted No. of days to first blossom Duration of blossom- ing period Duration of life period Date planted No. of days to first blossom Duration of blossom- ing period Dura- tion of life period 4/13 62 1384- 200 + 5/ 1 73 152 * 5/30 51 * * 5/17 85 128 * 7/ 5 50 * * 7/ 2 131 35 * 4/13 120 21 165 5/ 1 61 31 127 5/30 83 27 134 5/17 56 53 118 7/ 5 54 34 107 7/ 2 48 22 110 4/13 88 67 176 5/ 1 64 48 138 5/30 73 57 138 5/17 58 53 141 7/ 5 62 55 137 7/ 2 54 61 163 4/13 54 94 167 5/ 1 57 54 132 5/30 53 76 133 5/17 51 56 118 7/ 5 60 45 112 7/ 2 53 59 128 4/13 82 35 139 5/ 1 110 * * 5/30 58 20 92 5/17 100 * * 7/ 5 56 38 102 7/ 2 95 * * 4/13 124 29 181 5/ 1 74 25 147 5/30 81 47 138 5/17 64 38 130 7/ 5 67 40 138 7/ 2 57 18 128 4/13 94 56 175 5/ 1 68 48 142 5/30 82 36 133 5/17 61 25 125 7/ 5 59 48 112 7/ 2 54 24 142 4/13 50 58 114 5/ 1 57 80 152 5/30 51 62 138 5/17 7/ 5 112 t 7/ 2 70 71 f 4/13 120 21 165 5/ 1 60 32 127 5/30 88 27 136 5/17 58 51 118 7/ 5 59 29 107 7/ 2 48 22 110 4/13 54 34 155 5/ 1 50 24 127 5/30 65 35 118 5/17 49 27 116 7/ 5 50 59 117 7/ 2 51 19 109 4/13 91 44 148 5/ 1 80 57 157 5/30 51 35 96 5/17 78 35 135 7/ 5 42 35 92 7/ 2 77 74 * 4/13 X t X 5/ 1 43 52 152 5/30 X + + X 5/17 36 56 138 7/ 5 X X t 7/ 2 44 82 t BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 329 Methods of Planting. — The essentials of a good planter are: that it should drop accurately the variety or varieties to be planted, it should be provided with furrow openers that will deposit and cover the seed at the desired depth in the soil or soils to be planted, and it should be equipped with a dropping mechanism which neither crushes nor breaks the seed coat. Large beans, like the Lima or Horse Bean, are best handled by sprocket or cup droppers, while the smaller beans may be handled by plate droppers. In any case the machine should always be tested by running it in gear for a few rods over a hard piece of ground before sending it into the field. Runner, disk, and hoe furrow openers are available ; the runner is most popular in the northern districts, the hoe in the southern, and the disk gives most satisfaction on the newly reclaimed tule lands or on grain stubble. Disk planters have the greatest penetration and run more smoothly than the others on trashy soils, but it is more difficult to make straight rows with them and they depreciate more rapidly than other planters. Lister planters which place the seed in the bottoms of shallow trenches should be used on soils deficient in surface moisture. Home- made listers may easily be attached to ordinary planters. When planting in dry soils it is always helpful to roll the land thoroughly, immediately after planting, using preferably a corrugated roller. Grain drills, although less satisfactory, may be used for bean planting. An eleven-row, seven-inch drill, with all tubes excepting the second, sixth and tenth stopped, will plant beans in 28-inch rows, but is very difficult to regulate. Side-hill planters (fig. 4) constructed with wide wheel bases, and special non-skidding wheels, are now being made and successfully used in southern California. Depth of Planting. — Correct planting depth is initially a question of soil moisture distribution. The planter should be set to place the seed from an inch to an inch and a half deep in the moist soil below the surface mulch ; but in accomplishing this it is undesirable that the total depth including the mulch be more than 2% inches in heavy soils, more than 4 inches in light soils, nor more than 6 inches in peat soils. If the character of the soil changes in different parts of the same field it may be necessary to adjust the planter accordingly. Blackeyes, Teparies, and Garbanzos require the least moisture for germination; the Horse Bean and Cranberry most. Rate of Planting. — The number of pounds of seed required to plant an acre is exactly determined by the number of seed in a pound, and the spacing employed. The following calculations are based on average lots of seed of eleven varieties, planted at sixteen different rates, and check closely with amounts used in the field. 330 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION < < EH Ph o Eh A w (-1 w Ph* w w 02 5h O En £> O <1 OS M 03 a 03 DO Q) !-< CD 00 • o Ph •d £ T) cu C* o> irH OQ tc TJ Ol r- CU ••"• COrH u . 03 CO ftj£ 03 03 S a;2 03 as 03 03 P. 03 .a ■< co CO o 5 S «'" 03 2 CO <-• 03 -d ,;"£ • a) S S M COCCI- 'S rills coco £ cu d 5 co 02 rH ft= r -d «■£ • ^ ^co a:2 rH CQrH 03 CO lo oq OQ O oq CO* in i>" rH c3 a 03 d -i: as .3 -< 00 CM CO o COCO £ «"" ail coo »- rH CO* oq od CM "Set ■ .C0-*ftS rH 03 a 03 CU o rH CM CO o Ph- ^.9 t!j CO " 03 g £cm ail COrH c3~ coco g"-' 1-s y coco g— a>""" COrH 03 g aS 03 o3 o 5 >H .T3 -* CO O o o DO 03 OS rH CO t>* CXI © CXI in © CM rH 03 CD H rH OQ iq OS cq CO O b-. CO t^ id as ©' ©* rH OQ* rH id I— 1 co rH co" rH CO OQ* in OQ CO 00 CO OS in O O in CD od co' id i-i co" rH od rH CO OQ OQ co" OQ m OS *"""! T-H CO OQ CO O ^ t^ tH o i— i t>* rH rH OQ rH OQ LO* OQ rH CO oq" CO CO CO* CO id o CO in co co fr- OS Ci 1-\ o i- 1 , CO* I— 1 fr-' OQ rH CO oq' CO CO CD Tin CD* m co' o 1-^ oo m r-i t-H CO CO OQ r-\ LO as OS rH OS CO* ©' 1—1 r-i OQ* 1— 1 rH o OQ od 00 00* OS CO OQ OQ oo" o CM CD rH OQ CO OQ OQ* CO CD* CO rH* OQ CO Ol r— I CJ rH id oq o" OQ CO oq" oo OS CO CO od OQ co id CO OQ CO* iq CD OQ in OQ CD rH* rH O - t^ OQ rH OQ oo OO co CO rH 00 rH O] CD OQ CO OQ 7-\ oo 00 oo OS ZO iq rH OQ oo oq CO CO* OQ rH OQ CO* OQ id CO CD* CO OQ* rH t>* Os' rH OO oq os oo OQ r— X o rH OQ id CD CO OQ co oo rH Ir- CD OO o \n oq LO CD OQ OQ CO* OQ AS 0Q rH id co rH* OQ CD OQ* OO cq 00* rH O IO OO OQ CO LO OO CO OO OQ rH OQ LO CO LO OQ CD IO CD rH CO I— 1 CO OQ b- C\l rH OQ od rH rH* CO* o" OQ o OQ rH OQ rH rH 00 CO oo OQ CO OQ* OO OS OQ CO 00 rH 00 CO OQ fr- ee OQ CO* IO OQ • O rH OS OQ LO CD rH O CO LO OQ* OQ LO CO OS CD* OS OS* CO IO OQ Os o CO rH OQ CO oo OQ LO 0O OS fr-" OQ LO* 0O 00 rH OQ fr- OS CD* OQ CO rH f© »o CD CO* 00 00 o O t- OS t- cq rH* CO rH OS CO CO CD CO OO oo iq Os' rH CO CO fr- co o CO IO OQ OQ rH OQ OS* OS rH cd CO CO o OQ as. >d fr- ee fr-" CO >o cq »d oo OQ OQ o a N ^ a nH M 03 M o C3 cp en •iH C3 CU c3 g O Ph 6 K m J w BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 331 The most desirable spacing- iu any instance is such that the plants when mature will just meet comfortably in all directions without interlocking and crowding, and is determined by the variety and the conditions under which it is grown. Commonly beans are dropped about 6 inches apart in rows 28 inches apart, but large vigorous varieties, such as the Lima, Cranberry, Blackeye, Horse Bean, and Garbanzo, require more space and should be planted in rows 32 to 36 inches apart, and the seed spaced 8 to 12 inches apart in the row. The Garbanzo may even require 12 to 18 inches in the row on good soils in the coast districts. The Tepary, Bayo, Red Mexican, Pink, Lady Washington, and Small White should be planted 6 to 10 inches apart in rows 26 to 30 inches apart ; while the Red Kidney and Hen- derson Bush should be planted 4 to 6 inches apart in rows 24 to 28 inches apart. These spacings may be increased on rich moist soils and decreased in drier soils; moreover, late plantings require less space than early ones. Filling Blanks and Thinning. — About two weeks after planting all blank spaces should be replanted, using either a hand planter, hoe, or dibble. At the same time the plants may be thinned where they are coming up too thick] y. Choice of Seed. — Precision in planting may be attained only by the use of well-cleaned, well-graded seed of uniform size. If there is any doubt concerning the viability of the seed a germination test should be made, and the rate of planting increased sufficiently to compensate for any deficiencies. CULTIVATION From the time the plants appear above the surface of the ground, until the vines meet and interfere with the passage of implements, the field should be cultivated and hand-hoed as often as is necessary to control weeds and conserve moisture. The first working should be deep and close, using a shovel type cultivator equipped with shields (fig. 5). This will encourage deep rooting and leave the heavier soils in better tilth than if knives were used. Where possible, how- ever, knives or sweeps (fig. 3) should be substituted for shovels for the later cultivations, because they are more effective in the destruction of weeds, yet by virtue of their shallower draft destroy fewer bean roots. When the plants are from three to six inches in height, the field should be carefully hand-hoed for the purpose of destroying weeds in the rows inaccessible to the horse-drawn cultivators. This should be 332 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION repeated if necessary, but the total amount required may be reduced to a minimum by planting perfectly straight rows which will admit of close horse-hoeing. IRRIGATION Time of Irrigation. — Early planted beans are rarely irrigated, but plantings after June 1, excepting on naturally moist soils, are de- pendent upon irrigation prior to planting to suppty moisture for the germination of the seed. This may be accomplished by the use of furrows, basins, or free flooding, the choice of method depending upon the topography of the land and the texture of the soil. Subsequent to planting water should be applied frequently enough to keep the soil moist and the plants in a thrifty vigorous condition, rather than at any particular stage of plant development. One 3-inch irrigation before, and two after planting have had this effect on a soil of medium texture at the University Farm, Davis, California. Method of Irrigation. — Because water in contact with beans during hot weather is fatal to most varieties, flooding in basins, as practiced in sugar-beet culture cannot be employed, and the land must be level enough to control the water in furrows. To irrigate to the best advan- tage broad shallow trenches should be prepared between the rows and small streams of water run through them until the soil has been well moistened about the roots of the plants. On soils of medium texture, one or two applications of three acre-inches each during the growth of the crop should give this result. Each irrigation, excepting perhaps the last one, should be followed by a thorough cultivation, and if necessary a hand-hoeing, to prevent the crusting and baking of the soil about the roots. HARVESTING Time of Harvesting. — Bean pods ripen progressively upward from the base of the plant, the entire ripening period usually extending over several weeks. This gives considerable latitude in the time of harvesting operations, but in most instances the primary object is to complete the work before the occurrence of fall rains. For most varie- ties it is inadvisable to wait for all of the pods to ripen, since this would usually result in the shattering of the oldest ones and extend harvest too late into the season. Generally, cutting should start when the majority of the pods have turned color, yet before the oldest ones have commenced to split. Easily shattered varieties must be BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 333 cut greener than those which are more retentive of their seed. Black- eyes and Teparies shatter most, and should be harvested when from 80 to 90 per cent of the pods have turned color; even then the oldest pods will have split somewhat. The Red Kidne}^ and Bayo drop their seed freely if allowed to remain standing until the pods are fully dry, but it is not necessary to cut them until nearly all of the pods have turned color. The Horse Bean, Red Mexican, Pink, Lima, Lady Washington, and Small White varieties are more retentive of their seed and do not require as careful attention as the above named varieties ; while the Garbanzo and Cranberrv shatter least of all and may be permitted to ripen almost completely in the field. In the interior districts where shattering losses are greatest, the vines should be cut in a somewhat greener condition, and the work performed during the early morning hours, or at night. Methods of Harvesting. — Small plantings of an acre or two in extent may be cut or pulled by hand, but larger acreages are most economically harvested with some form of bean cutter. The essential feature of a good bean cutter (fig. 4) is a pair of sharp knives, about 3% feet in length, mounted on a sled from which they should stand inward and slope backward at a 60-degree angle. The sled straddles two rows, and the knives are set to run about two inches beneath the surface of the soil, cutting the roots where they are soft, and leaving two rows of beans in one windrow. To do efficient work and reduce hand-lifting after cutting, the knives should be sharpened frequently when in use. Rolling cutters and spreaders attached to the sleds designed to facilitate the passage of the implement through tanlged matted vines have recently come into use and have beerf reported upon favorably. Horse beans are too tall and woody to be handled with ordinary cutters, but may conveniently be cut with either a self -raked reaper, or with a mowing machine. When the latter implement is employed it should be equipped with a windrower in order to obviate the hand work of forking the beans out of the path of the team on the succeed- ing round. This method also has much to recommend it for the harvesting of Blackeye beans in districts where difficulty has been experienced in cutting tangled masses of vines by ordinary methods without incurring heavy shattering losses. Curing. — When cut slightly green, the vines should be left in the windrows until dry enough to cock safely, but if very green it may be necessary to turn the windrows once or twice before cocking to hasten curing and prevent heating. The side-delivery rake may be used for 334 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION turning but is objectionable in heavy soils because it mixes small clods with the beans which are not separated in threshing. In the interior districts beans cure more rapidly and may be cocked as cut, light crops having been handled with self -bunching cutters (fig. 8), or hay rakes. It is customary, however, to make the cocks by hand, placing three windrows into one row of cocks. Larger cocks may be made with such varieties as the Red Kidney, Henderson Bush, Lady Washington, and Horse Bean, because they shed their leaves before ripe, and cure more rapidly; but the more leafy varieties, especially in the humid districts, should be placed in smaller cocks. Moreover, small cocks hasten the curing process and should be employed in all the late districts where time is the important element in harvesting. An average sized cock is from four to five feet in diameter at the base and two feet in height, but in windy situations broader lower ones are more desirable. Beans cannot be machine-threshed until the stems have become dry and brittle, the pods dry, and the seed hard. This will usually occur in from two to four weeks after cocking, an unnecessary delay after this time often resulting in considerable shattering in the cock, and in handling to the machine. If carefully manipulated, and thoroughly dried before threshing, beans may be exposed to an inch or more of rain in the field without serious damage, but if rained on while in the windrow or cock, the vines should be turned as soon as they begin to dry on top in order to separate the damp pods from contact with the soil and prevent discoloration. THRESHING The Floor Method. — The floor method of threshing (fig. 9) is still in vogue in some places, and has some minor advantages over the more modern methods. A threshing floor is prepared by wetting and rolling a level piece of adobe soil until it is smooth and hard ; or a large heavy canvas may be used. A deep layer of cured vines is then placed on the floor or canvas and unshod horses, attached to disks or rollers are driven over them until the seed is threshed free of the pods. The vines are then forked off and the process repeated until several tons of beans have accumulated. The beans are then cleaned in fan- ning mills and sacked. By this process beans may be threshed somewhat earlier than by machinery, and a higher grade product is obtained. Sacramento and San Francisco warehouses report the aver- age shrinkage in recleaning floored beans at 3 per cent, and that for BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 335 machine threshed Leans at from 5 to 7 per cent. Bean buyers esti- mate shrinkage and scale their prices accordingly. The Stationary Machine Method. — Machines ranging in threshing capacity from 100 to 2500 sacks per day are available (figs. 4 and 10). The essentials of a good machine are that it be equipped with two or more cylinders, and with concaves and screens capable of separating without waste the varieties to be threshed. Grain threshers are unsatisfactory for the purpose, but may be used by reducing the speed of the cylinder from 1100 r.p.m. to 450 r.p.m., or to 300 r.p.m. for the Blackeye, Tepary, and Henderson Bush varieties, yet maintaining the screens at constant speed. Such machines should be further altered by removing all but one row of concave teeth and one-half of the cylinder teeth and by sharpening the remaining teeth to pre- vent wrapping. Even with these changes the work is generally unsatisfactory. The Comb Intel Harvester Method. — The combined harvester method is new in California but is gaining favor rapidly (fig. 11). By it the beans are left in the windrows until thoroughly cured, when they are pieked up by a movable threshing machine driven by its own power or drawn by a tractor. It results in the elimination of cocking and hauling, and is efficient and economical when employed under con- ditions to which it is adapted. PREPARATION FOR MARKET Cleaning and Polishing. — Beans are always recleaned after thresh- ing, in order to insure a ready acceptance on the market. This is done in especially equipped establishments at central shipping points, and is principally a function of commission men and dealers. The process consists of running them through a series of machines ; the first is a screen separator which removes clods, stones, broken beans, bits of stems and pods, and other foreign matter. The second is a Jessup adobe machine consisting of three revolving cylinders which separate by friction, clods the same size as the beans, which were not removed by the separator. The process is completed by the Bur- dick polishers, which consist of hollow revolving cylinders partly filled with moist or dry sawdust. Before sacking fine dust particles are removed by an aspirator. An average contract price for cleaning and polishing, including a double run is $1.35 per ton. The polish which can be imparted to beans is chiefly dependent upon the conditions under which they are grown and harvested, but under average conditions beans may be roughly classified as follows as regards polishing. 336 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Susceptible of high polish : Lima Cranberry Small White Red Mexican Ba.yo Blue Pod French White Susceptible of medium polish : Lady Washington Pink Spotted Red Mexican Red Kidney Henderson Bush Susceptible of dull polish : Tepary Horse Bean Garbanzo Blackeye Shrinkage. — The loss in weight incident to cleaning is termed shrinkage, and varies from 1 to 10 per cent, with 5% per cent as a general average. Although principally dependent upon the dirt pres- ent and the conditions under which the beans were grown and threshed it is also influenced by the variety. The following varietal relationship was established by testing several lots of beans origin- ating in different parts of the state : Split most in threshing : Blackeye Tepary Henderson Bush Split moderately in threshing : Red Kidney Lady Washington Small White Horse Bean Bayo Blue Pod Split least in threshing : Cranberry Pink Garbanzo Spotted Red Mexican Red Mexican Picking. — Discolored beans cannot be separated by machinery and must be removed by hand at an average cost of two cents per pound, the process being termed "hand picking" (fig. 12). It is limited almost entirely to the white varieties and in normal years the total amount hand picked in California does not exceed 2 per cent of the crop. Sacking. — Formerly beans were shipped in 80-pound sacks, but there has been a gradual change and in 1916, 75 per cent of the crop was handled in 100-pound sacks, excepting the Horse Bean, which is shipped in 110-pound grain sacks. Commercial Grading. — Arbitrary grades are established each year by the Grain Inspection Department of the Grain Trade Association of San Francisco. These are based upon samples collected in different parts of the state and are representative of the crop for that season. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 337 Iii addition to this Garbanzos, Small White, and Lady Washing- tons are separated into grades based upon size. The Garbanzo into five, and the others into two each. DOUBLE CROPPING OF BEAN LAND Well-drained, irrigated land may be so managed that it will yield two crops each twelve months ; but to do this successfully, the planting and harvesting operations must be executed rapidly so as to shorten Fig. 12.— Hand picking beans. (Photo by U. S. Dept. Agr.) 338 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION the interim between crops; and early maturing varieties should be employed. When the regular bean crop is harvested in the fall, the land should be irrigated and planted to barley, Horse Beans, or field peas. These crops may be harvested during the early summer, and the land again irrigated and planted to beans. A twelve-month calendar for such a system would appear approx- imately as follows : May 25 to June 25 plant beans Sept. 15 to Oct. 25 harvest beans Sept. 20 to Nov. 1 irrigate and prepare seed bed Sept. 25 to Nov. 5 plant winter crop May 15 to June 15 .harvest winter crop May 20 to June 20 irrigate and prepare seed bed May 25 to June 25 plant beans COST OF GROWING BEANS The cost of growing and marketing an acre of beans is an uncer- tain figure which depends upon the general business organization of the enterprise, the character of the equipment employed and the soil to be worked. It also fluctuates from year to year with labor values, season and pests. In the following table itemized statements of cost for three systems of culture practiced in California are given, the figures represent general averages only and cannot be applied without modification to any specific project. tJ^ffi yfe v:u vrix? ■ •„ , %*%\ : / "7\\!// i'ig. 13.— A large warehouse, illustrating the California method of storing beans. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 339 Total cost of production per acre $55.23 4 Gross value of 12 cwt. beans @ $8 per cwt 96.00 Net returns per acre $40.77 Table 10. — Average Cost of Growing and Marketing Beans, Comparing Three Systems of Management Practiced in California Dry farming 1 Items of expense cost per acre Deep fall plowing (tractor) $3.00 Pulverizing with cross kill (heavy land) (tractor) 50 Two chiselings or harrowings (winter) 2.00 Disking or shallow plowing (spring) Three workings with cyclone (spring) 2.40 Harrowing and rolling (spring) .50 Preparation of land for irrigation (spring) Water and labor of first application Plowing and preparation of seed bed Seed 2.00 Planting (two-row planter) .50 Rolling after planting (corrugated roller) .... .50 Filling blanks by hand .30 Hand hoeing .60 Cultivating three times (two-row cultivators) 2.25 Second irrigation (labor) Hoeing and cultivation after irrigation Fighting pests 1.00 Cutting 75 Turning and shocking .85 Hauling vines .40 Thrashing 1200 lbs. @ 40c per cwt 4.80 Sacks and twine (12-sack crop) 2.25 Hauling to warehouse (5 miles) .60 Recleaning, weighing and storage 1.40 Insurance in warehouse 3% on 8c value 2.88 Interest @ 8% on land, equipment and im- provements (includes taxes) 25.00 Depreciation on equipment, stock, implements and buildings .40 Incidental expenses, selling, etc 35 Sub- irrigation 2 cost per acre $3.00 Surface irrigation 3 cost per acre .50 1.50 1.30 $2.00 6.00 3.75 2.00 2.00 .50 .50 .20 .20 .75 1.50 2.25 2.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .75 .75 .85 .85 .40 .40 4.80 4.80 2.25 2 21 .60 .60 1.40 1.40 2.88 2.88 25.00 .40 .35 $52.68 96.00 $43.32 25.00 .40 .35 $30.88 96.00 $35.12 *Dry farmed bean lands constitute over 60 per cent of the state's bean acreage and include most of the Small White and Blue Pod territory of the central coast counties, the Lima territory of southern California, and a considerable portion of Blackeye and Tepary territory of the interior districts. . 2 Sub-irrigaed bean lands are of two kinds, including firstly the reclamation districts of the Sacramento River and the Stockton delta, and secondly the high water table lands result- ing from irrigation, such as occur in Fresno and Merced counties and other parts of the a ^Surface irrigated bean lands are relatively limited in extent but occur in all parts of the state and are increasing in extent and importance. 4 The value of the straw and cull beans might properly be credited to the bean account but has bpen omitted in this instance because of the uncertain market for these by-products. 5 The net returns here given are based upon a conservative yield of 1200 pounds per acre, and a fixed price of 8 cents per pound, while either of these figures, might with propriety, be increased or diminished by 50 per cent to suit individual cases. 340 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION UTILIZATION OF BEAN STRAW Bean straw from certain varieties is recognized as a good feed for cattle and sheep, especially when chopped and mixed with silage or alfalfa, and fed with concentrates. Bean straw consists of the stems and pods of the plants, all the leaves being lost in curing and thresh- ing, and since the different varieties vary greatly both in the texture and composition of these parts, the straws which they yield are of unequal feeding value. (Table 11.) Texture of Straw and Pods. — Based upon texture, bean straws and pods may be classified as follows : Straw coarse and harsh Horse Bean Blackeye Red Kidney Bayo Straw medium : Lima Large White Red Mexican Pink Cranberry Straw fine : Small White Garbanzo Tepary Pods coarse : Red Kidney Bayo Cranberry Horse Bean Pods medium : Small White Blackeye Lima Pods fine : Tepary Garbanzo Red Mexican Pink Large White BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 341 APPENDIX COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA BEAN VARIETIES By M. E. JAFFA and F. W. ALBRO The data here reported are the results of cooperative work between the Divisions of Nutrition and Agronomy. Sixteen samples of beans were examined and in connection therewith the corresponding straw and pods. Table 11 shows the analyses of the seeds, straws, and pods of the principal California varieties. Composition of Seed. — The average protein percentage of the beans examined is 20.84. The samples which depart materially from the average are the French White, showing 26.34 per cent, the Spotted Red Mexican, with 22.23 per cent, and the Bayo with 22.58. It may be said in general that with the exception of the three varieties just mentioned the protein content is low as compared with analyses of beans reported by different authorities. In Henry's "Feeds and Feedings'' we find 26 per cent protein quoted for the Horse Bean and 27.02 for the Tepary. It is well known that the aver- age protein content of California wheat is lower than that raised in localities -of the middle west and northwest, and this is true even for the same varieties. The ash for the sixteen varieties analyzed averages 4.11 per cent. No one variety departs materially from this figure which corresponds well with that obtained elsewhere. It will be noted upon examination of the table that one variety, the Garbanzo, 6.25 per cent, stands out very prominently with refer- ence to fat. The average for sixteen varieties is 2.26 per cent. The Pink, with 3.65 per cent, and Garbanzo, with 6.25 per cent, being the only varieties differing materially from this average. The maximum percentage 7.10 per cent of crude fiber is shown for the Horse Bean, while the minimum is observed in the case of the Garbanzo or Chick pea, yielding 2.34 per cent, the average for the sixteen varieties being 4.25 per cent. This agrees very closely with figures obtained on similar varieties noted in various publications. Carbohydrates, excluding crude fiber, constitutes the main in- gredient of the bean seed, the average for the varieties tested being 58.62 per cent. The maximum 63.82 per cent is yielded by the Black- eye variety, while the minimum 53.99 per cent is credited to the French White. 342 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Composition of Straws. — Cereal straws show low percentages of protein, the highest, 3.9 per cent, being recorded for rice. The mini- mum for bean straw, on the other hand, is 3.5 per cent. The maximum protein content for bean straw, 9.86 per cent, is credited to the Tepary. The Spotted Red Mexican, 7.18 per cent, ranks second. Seven varie- ties out of the fifteen yield upwards of 6 per cent of protein, while the average for the fifteen is 5.68 per cent. This is a very favorable showing for bean straws as compared with similar cereal by-products. The fat yield with the exception of the Garbanzo corresponds to similar determinations with the cereal straws. It is of interest to observe that while the bean straws are richer in protein than those of the cereals, they also rank higher than the latter in crude fiber, while the figures for water and fat do not differ materially. It there- fore follows that the nitrogen-free extract of the bean straw is lower than that of the cereal by-products. Composition of Pods. — The percentages indicated for the protein are low, with the exception of the varieties French White and Blue Pod showing 7.38 and 5.96 per cent, respectively. The average protein content for thirteen varieties, excluding the above, is 3.91 per cent, while the average for the fifteen varieties is represented by the figure 4.29. The bean pods all rank high in crude fiber. The minimum figure for this ingredient is noted in the case of the Cranberry, accounting for its usefulness as a garden stringless snap variety. It also ranks low in protein and, therefore, correspondingly high in carbohydrates. 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CD h3 &0 cs © © o "— ! o o © © o © © © © © © © o ►-J ~1 © 00 00 -q -.1 © © X ~1 GO © os 00 os 00 -q © ^1 CO © -J 10 © 44. oo -5 to 00 © 00 Ol -] © CO CO b 00 to to 44. -51 CO to 4* © © Ol CO co to oo © I- 1 to ha o 3 — to -J *4. -q 4^ 44. CO 4^. to CO CO 4» 4^ © co 44. 44. #1 •3 o co to 00 co CO CO -1 H M H oo © l-l © © © © o -q © © oo © oo © 4>- © © © 00 l-l CO to © CO 44- CO 5' >2 h-i M l-l t-» M M M M h- 1 H» M l-l M M © £. 44. 4* 4- 4* 4- *> *> Ol *» 4^ © 44- 44- 44. *~i os (-> to -1 4*. 00 CO 00 ^1 4^ © 10 J- CO © H 1 -q co ^^ p co co oo 44. to © Ol OO Oi -1 CO 00 © © © © M © H ft co © Oi en © 44. -1 to © 4- -1 to Ol H^ © GO © to h^ 344 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION INSECT AND OTHER ENEMIES OF BEANS By E. R. deONG Bean Weevil (Acanthocelides obtectus). — The weevils attacking beans are grayish black insects about one-eighth of an inch long, with head bent at right angles to the body, and the tip of the abdomen projecting beyond the wing covers. The young of these are tiny gray larvae or grubs, one or more of which may be found in a single bean. Infestation of the bean may begin either in the field or when the crop is stored, for the weevils frequently live over in waste beans of the previous crop. In the field the egg is laid on the newly formed bean pod ; the larva hatching from this egg burrows through the pod and into the young bean. The wound formed is inconspicuous and should not be confused with the work of larger insects which some- times consume the greater part of the contents of the pod. The larvae which attack the beans in the field mature after the crop is stored, emerging as adult beetles to begin ovipositing on the surface of the beans or in the old burrows. This generation of grubs burrows into the dry bean as readily as did those of the first generation into the green bean. Breeding continues throughout the winter, unless checked by low temperatures, there being a possibility of five to eight generations a year. Hence, beans which are slightly infested when stored in the fall may be utterly destroyed by planting time the following spring. The food value of the crop may be entirely destroj^ed, particularly when several larvae develop in a single bean, and its value for seed may be seriously impaired, the latter injury being in direct propor- tion to the number of weevils present. Seed which has been attacked by two or more larvae may germinate and make a good growth, but such plants may set very little seed. Control. — The crop should be harvested as early as possible when there is danger of infestation in the field and stored in a room free from weevils. Fumigate the beans with carbon disulphide at the first sign of infestation, using ten pounds per thousand cubic feet in a room that is only approximately air tight. If a specially built fumi- gating room is available, the amount of carbon disulfide may be reduced to three pounds per thousand cubic feet, or sodium cyanide may be substituted for the former chemical, it being used at the rate of one ounce per hundred cubic feet. The latter material should be given preference in fumigating seed beans as there is less danger of injuring their perminating qualities when it is used. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 345 Horsc-Bean Weevil (Bruchus rufimanus). — This insect feeds only on the Horse Bean, the attack in the field and the injury inflicted being similar to that of the species feeding on small beans. There is this difference, however, in their life history : The Horse-Bean weevil has but one brood a year which is reared in the green bean. The egg is deposited on the pod, the larva hatching from this egg burrows into the developing bean seed, pupates there and emerges as a mature beetle which lies dormant until spring. Control. — The same measures are applicable for this species as for the one working on small beans with this additional measure, that if the beans are held over one year in a tight box or sack, from which the weevil cannot escape, the insects will all die and the seed can be used the following season without danger of further infestation. Red Spider (Tetranychus tel-arms). — A very minute plant mite, varying in color from green to deep red, which is found in the leaves of beans and many other plants. This mite is a serious pest of all our summer-grown beans, excepting the Garbanzo and Blackeye. The eggs, which are microscopic in size, are laid directly on the under side of the leaf or in the web which it spins. The entire life of the spider covers from four to seven weeks in hot weather and since each female lays from fifty to one hundred eggs, the possibilities for increase are enormous. This mite passes the winter in a dormant condition in the ground near the plants upon which it feeds, or on the root-talks of over- wintering plants, such as wild morning glory (Ccmvolvidus arvensis), or it may continue to feed and perpetuate itself on the leaves of other low-growing plants in sheltered places. AVith the coming of warm weather the mite becomes active and begins to increase, but not to any marked extent until the hot weather of July and August. At this time the females are particularly active in crawling from plant to plant and even over the ground in search of new food plants. Wind also aids in their dispersion, and when feeding on trees, they may be carried a distance of several hundred feet by a strong breeze, starting a colony on any suitable host plant. The leaves of attacked plants turn pale, dry up, and if the invasion is severe the plant may be killed, and eventually serious damage may be done to the entire crop. Control. — A careful application of sulphur on the under side of the leaf, when the attack is first noticed, or by way of precaution, at the beginning of the blooming season is the cheapest and most satis- factory form of control. Very fine dusting sulphur may be applied at the rate of twenty to forty pounds per acre, with a blower, either 346 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION by means of a hand outfit or a power dusting machine. The important point is to distribute the chemical evenly over the under side of every leaf, for sulphur is effective over only a small fraction of an inch. One application will last two or three weeks and if done carefully and thoroughly should hold the spider in check so that a crop can be matured. If desired the sulphur may be applied as a wet spray by first mixing the sulphur into flour paste, using the latter at the rate of four gallons of paste to one hundred gallons of spray; Professor Gray's method of using glue water (one ounce of glue dissolved in one gallon of water) for mixing the sulphur will also be found very satisfactory. Ten pounds of sulphur for a 200-gallon tank of spray is the common formula for liquid applications. Bean Thrips (Ileliotrips fasciatus). — The adult insect is about 1/25 of an inch in length, grayish black in color crossed with white bands. It is easily distinguished from the red spider by the elongated body and the presence of wings ; and the leaves upon which they feed are spotted with black excrement and there is no web. The larvae are almost transparent but with deep red markings along the sides of the body, both stages of the insect are usually found in the under side of the leaf or on the green pods. Winter is passed in the adult stage, egg-laying beginning early in the spring on some one of the numerous host plants. The eggs are inserted in the leaves or stem of the plant. Pupation takes place in the dry leaves on the ground or beneath clods. It develops more slowly than the red spider but there is a possibility of three or four broods a year in California. Leaves infested with thrips turn pale and drop and if the attack is severe entire defoliation may follow. The bean pod takes on a silvery white appearance, impairing its value as a green vegetable. Control. — This insect is seldom injurious enough to warrant an effort towards control. If the plants are kept in a thrifty condition with plenty of available moisture, they can usually withstand the attack, but if necessary to spray, tobacco decoctions may be used, such as nicotine sulphate combined with soap. Nicotine sulphate, 40% 5 ounces Fish oil or laundry soap 2 pounds Water 50 gallons Dissolve enough soap in water to form suds; pour into the spray tank and add the nicotine sulphate. Apply the spray to the under sides of the leaves by means of an angle nozzle. BEAN CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 347 Bean Aphis (Aphis r unite is). — This aphid attacks all species of beans, but since the insects are most abundant in the spring, the Horse Bean, which is commonly maturing at this time, usually suffers more than the other varieties, while the Garbanzo is practically immune from attack. When necessary to spray the same formula as recommended for the bean thrips may be used. Flea Beetles and Diabrotica. — Bean foliage is sometimes infested by tiny black or brownish jumping insects, known as flea beetles, which eat irregular holes in the leaves. Another insect frequently invading bean fields in great swarms is the Diabrotica, a green, black- spotted beetle, 4/16 to 5/16 of an inch long, which strips the foliage and even feeds on the stems. It is very difficult to poison it but a careful application of arsenicals will kill part of the beetles and check the attack of the others, thus giving an opportunity for the plant to recover. Lead arsenate is commonly used at the rate of eight pounds to one hundred gallons of spray, the application being made both to the upper and lower sides of the leaf. The standard or Pyro type of lead arsenate should be used in the interior valleys when there is no danger of damp or showery weather, but under the latter circum- stances the neutral or Ortho-lead arsenate should always be used, as it is much less apt to burn the foliage. In the coast regions subject to fogs the neutral is the only form that can be used with any degree of safety. Another spray used as a protection against beetles but which acts only as a repellant is the Bordeaux mixture : Copper sulphate 4 pounds Quicklime 4 pounds Water 50 gallons Dissolve the copper sulphate in a wooden vessel, slake the lime in a separate container and pour the solutions together into the tank of water; do not mix the concentrated solutions. Lead arsenate may be added to the Bordeaux if desired. If grasshoppers begin to migrate into the bean field a poisoned bran bait should be scattered along the edge of the field from which they are entering. The arsenical spray on the foliage should not be trusted to check the inroads of large numbers of grasshoppers for, on account of the slow action of arsenic, much damage will result before the outbreak is checked. Wireworms sometimes cause a loss to beans planted on land infested with this larva. Control of this insect is very difficult, but by late planting and using an excess of seed a stand can often be secured even when wireworms are very abundant. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION REPORTS 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viticulture] Report for 1896. 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03. 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. 1914. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station. 1915. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station. 1916. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station. 1917. Report of the College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experiment Station. No. 230. 241. 242. 246. 248. 250. 251. 252. 253. 255. 257. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 270. No. 113. 114. 115. 121. 124. 126. 127. 128. 129. 131. 133. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 142. 143. 144. 147. 148. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 15 7. ir>8. BULLETINS No. 271. 272. 273. Enological Investigations^ Vine Pruning in California, Part 1. Humus in California Soils. Vine Pruning in California, Part XI. The Economic Value of Pacific Const 274. Kelps. The Loquat. 275. Utilization of the Nitrogen and Organic Matter in Septic and Imhoff Tank 276. Sludges. 277. Deterioration of Lumber. 278. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the 279. Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 280. The Citricola Scale. New Dosage Tables. 282. Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans regia." 283. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba 284. Compared with Those of California. 285. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 286. The Calibration of the Leakage Meter. 288. Cottonv Rot of Lemons in California. A Spotting of Citrus Fruits Due to the 290. Action of Oil Liberated from the Rind. Experiments with Stocks for Citrus. 291. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. A Comparison of Annual Cropping:. Bi- ennial Cropping, and Green Manures on the Yield of Wheat. CIRCULARS No. 160. 161. 162. Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. Increasing the Duty of Water. Grafting Vinifera Vineyards. Some Things the Prospective Settler Should Know. 164. Alfalfa Silage for Fattening Steers. 165. Spraying for the Grape Leaf Hopper. House Fumigation. 166. Insecticide Formulas. 167. The Control of Citrus Insects. 168. Spraying for Control of Walnut Aphis. County Farm Adviser. 169. Official Tests of Dairy Cows. 170. Melilotus Indica. Wood Decay in Orchard Trees. 172. The Silo in California Agriculture. 174. The Generation of Hydrocyanic Acid 175. Gas in Fumigation by Portable Ma- chines. 176. The Practical Application of Improved Methods of Fermentation in Califor- 177. nia Wineries during 1913 and 1914. 181. Practical and Inexpensive Poultry Ap- pliances. 182. Control of Grasshoppers in Imperial Valley. 183. Oidium or Powderv Mildew of the Vine. 184. Tomato Growing in California. 185. "Lungworms." Round Worms in Poultry. 186. Feeding: and Management of Hogs. 187. Some Observations on the Bulk Hand- 188. ling of Grain in California. 190. Announcement of the California State 191. Dairv Cow Competition, 1916-18. ' 192. Irrigation Practice in Growing Small 193. Fruite in California. 196. Bovine Tuberculosis. 197. How to Operate an Incubator. Control of the Pear Scab. 198. Home and Farm Canning. Feeding Dairy Calves in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- yard Experimental Drain. The Common Honey Bee as an Agent in Prune Pollination. The Cultivation of Belladonna in Cali- fornia. The Pomegranate. Sudan Grass. Grain Sorghums. Irrigation of Rice in California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in the Sacramento Valley. Trials with California Silage Crops for Dairy Cows. The Olive Insects of California. Irrigation of Alfalfa in Imperial Valley. The Milch Goat in California. Commercial Fertilizers. Potash from Tule and the Fertilizer Value of Certain Marsh Plants. The June Drop of Washington Navel Oranges. The Common Honey Bee as an Agent in Prune Pollination. (2nd report. ^ Lettuce Growing in California. Potatoes in California. White Diarrhoea and Coccidiosis of Chicks. Small Fruit Culture in California. Fundamentals of Sugar Beets under California Conditions. The County Farm Bureau. Feeding Stuffs of Minor Importance. Spraying for the Control of Wild Morn- ing-Glory within the Fog Belt. The 1918 Grain Crop. Fertilizing California Soils for the 1918 Crop. Wheat Culture. Farm Drainage Methods. Progress Report on the Marketing and Distribution of Milk. Hog Cholera Prevention and the Serum Treatment. Grain Sorghums. Control of the California Ground Squirrel. Extending the Area of Irrigated Wheat in California for 1918. Infectious Abortion in Cows. A Flock of Sheep on the Farm. Beekeeping for the Fruit-Grower and Small Rancher, or Amateur. Poultry on the Farm. Utilizing the Sorghums. Lambing Sheds. Agriculture Clubs in California. Pruning the Seedless Grapes. Cotton in the San Joaquin Valley. A Study of Farm Labor in California. Dairy Calves for Veal. Suggestions for Increasing Egg Pro- duction in a Time of High-Feed Prices. Syrup from Sweet Sorghum.