UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 
 
 BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE 
 IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix Plan.). Flea Beetles (Haltica sps.). 
 
 Grape Leaf Hopper (Typhloeyba comes Say). Grape Leaf-folder (Desrnia funeralis Hubn.). 
 
 Imported Grape Root Worm (Adoxus vitis Leaf Chafers. 
 
 Fourcroy). Wire Worms. 
 
 Hawk Moth Larvte. Erinose. 
 
 Grasshoppers. Nematode Root Gall) Heterodera radicola 
 
 Cut Worms and Army Worms. (Greef) Mull.). 
 
 By H. J. QUAYLE. 
 
 BULLETIN No. 192 
 
 (Berkeley, Cal., October, 1907.) 
 
 SACRAMENTO: 
 w. w. shannon, : : : : superintendent state printing. 
 
 1907. 
 
BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER. Ph.D., LL.D., President of the University. 
 
 EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. 
 
 E. J. WICKSON, M.A.. Director and Horticulturist. 
 
 E. W. HILGARD. Ph.D.. LL.D., Chemist. 
 
 W. A. SETCHELL. Ph.D., Botanist. 
 
 ELWOOD MEAD. M.S., C.E., Irrigation Engineer. 
 
 C W. WOODWORTH, M.S., Entomologist. 
 
 R. H. LOUGHRIDGE, Ph.D., Agricultural Geologist and Soil Physicist. (Soils, 
 
 Alkali.) 
 M. E. JAFFA, M.S., Nutrition Expert, in charge of the Poultry Station. 
 Gr. W. SHAW. M.A., Ph.D., Agricultural Technologist, in charge of Cereal Stations. 
 GEORGE E. COLBY, M.S., Chemist. (Fruits, Waters, Insecticides.) 
 RALPH E. SMITH, B.S., Plant Pathologist and Superintendent of Southern California 
 
 Pathological Laboratory and Experiment Station. 
 A. R. WARD, B.S.A., D.V.M., Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. 
 
 E. W. MAJOR, B.Agr., Animal Industry and Manager of University Farm. 
 
 F. T. BIOLETTI, M.S., Viticulturist. (Grapes, Wine and Zymology.) 
 H. M. HALL, M.S., Assistant Botanist. 
 
 H. J. QUAYLE, A.B., Assistant Entomologist. 
 
 W. T. CLARKE, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist and Superintendent of University 
 
 Extension in Agriculture. 
 JOHN S. BURD, B.S., Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control. 
 C. M. HARING, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. 
 
 J. W. MILLS, Assistant Horticulturist, \ CUrus Experiment station, Riverside. 
 
 T. F. HUNT, B.S., " ) 
 
 E. B. BABCOCK, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. 
 
 E. H. SMITH, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. 
 
 H. J. RAMSEY M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, ) Southern California Pathologi- 
 
 C. O. SMITH, M.S., " " " f cal Laboratory. Whittier. 
 
 R. E. MANSELL, Assistant in Horticulture, in charge of Central Station Grounds. 
 
 GEO. W. LYONS, B.S., Assistant in Soil Laboratory. 
 
 RALPH BENTON, B.S., Assistant in Entomology. 
 
 A. J. GAUMNITZ, M.S., Assistant in Cereal Investigations. 
 
 HANS C. HOLM, B.S., Assistant in Zymology. 
 
 P. L. McCREARI, B.S., Laboratory Assistant in Fertilizer Control. 
 
 C. WI^STERGAARD, B.S., Assistant in Farm Mechanics. 
 
 M. E. STOVER, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. 
 RACHAEL COR-R, M.A., Assistant in Cereal Laboratory. 
 
 D. R. HOAGLAND, A.B., Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. 
 D. L. BUNNELL, Clerk to the Director. 
 
 JOHN TUOHY, Patron, >_ Tulare Substation, Tulare. 
 
 J. T. BEARSS, Foreman, ) 
 
 J. W. ROPER, Patron, ) 
 
 E C MILLER, In charge, f 
 
 University Forestry Station, Chico. 
 University Forestry Station, Santa Monica. 
 
 ROY JONES, Patron, I 
 
 N. D. INGHAM, Foreman, f 
 VINCENT J. HUNTLEY, Foreman of California Poultry Experiment Station, 
 
 The Station publications (Reports and Bulletins), so long as avail- 
 able, will be sent to any citizen of the State on application. 
 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 By H. J. QUAYLE. 
 
 California, with its extensive areas of vineyards and lack of extremes 
 in climate, offers suitable conditions for the development of a con- 
 siderable number of insect pests of the vine. Here also the large 
 plantings of the European, or vinifera, vines have given the phylloxera 
 an opportunity to do greater damage than elsewhere in the United 
 States. 
 
 Of the two hundred and seventy-five insects we have recently listed 
 as attacking the vine throughout the world, only a very few (a dozen 
 or two) are really of any economic importance ; all the others being, 
 generally, but casual visitants. Two or three of these of economic 
 importance attack the roots, while the remainder feed upon the parts 
 of the plant above ground. 
 
 The roots are sapped of their juices, rendered knotty, and caused to 
 decay by the phylloxera, Strips or rings of the bark are eaten out by 
 the root worm, and the fibrous roots are devoured by wire worms. 
 The juices of the leaves are sucked out by the vine hoppers, irregular 
 holes eaten away by flea beetles and leaf chafers, or chain-like strips 
 by the root beetles; the edges rolled by the leaf-roller, or the foliage 
 devoured completely by hawk moth larvae, grasshoppers, cut worms and 
 army worms. The young buds are destroyed by the flea beetle and by 
 cut worms ; and the shoots, petioles, pedicels, and berries have chain-like 
 furrows gouged out by the root beetle. 
 
 With the possible exception of the root beetle, all the insects attacking 
 the vines in this State are native American insects. The present 
 bulletin is intended to give simply a popular account of the more 
 important of these. More or less extended studies have been carried on 
 during the past year on the vine hopper and root beetle, and these 
 will be treated of in separate bulletins and only summary accounts 
 given here. 
 
 PHYLLOXERA.* 
 
 (Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon.) 
 
 Historical — The phylloxera is a native of the United States east of 
 the Rocky Mountains, where it is found living upon the wild vines. It 
 is a minute insect, related to the scale insects and plant lice. 
 
 The insect was probably introduced into California upon vines, cut- 
 tings or roots, imported from France, though it was possibly introduced 
 
 * Revised from Bulletin No. 131, by F. T. Bioletti. 
 
100 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 from several sources and at several points. It was first noticed in the 
 southern part of Sonoma County, in the valley surrounding the old 
 town of Sonoma, about 1874. By 1880 vines killed by the insect had 
 boon found in Napa, Solano, and Placer counties, and hundreds of 
 acres had been pulled up in Sonoma Valley. Since then the insect has 
 spread to all the important grape-growing regions of California north 
 of Tehachapi*, and probably not less than fifty thousand acres have 
 been destroyed. 
 
 The Insect. — The phylloxera occurs normally in four forms, which 
 have been called by Victor Mayet: 
 
 1. The gall insect, or form of multiplication; 
 
 2. The root insect, or form of devastation; 
 
 3. The winged insect, or form of colonization ; 
 •i. The sexual insect, or form of regeneration. 
 
 The gall insect lives upon the leaves, and is the commonest form on 
 the wild vines in the native habitat of the insect. It rarely or never 
 
 occurs in California. In Europe 
 it is found often upon American 
 and rarely upon European varie- 
 ties. It causes little swellings or 
 galls upon the leaves and 
 younger parts of the vine, which, 
 though sometimes very numer- 
 ous, do little permanent injury. 
 I The chief danger from the gall 
 form is that it multiplies with 
 astonishing rapidity and mi- 
 grates from the leaves to the soil. 
 Here it attacks the roots and 
 gives rise to the root form, which 
 is the "form of devastation," 
 the one which finally destroys 
 all the vines it attacks which are 
 ■ - non-resis1 ant. ' ' Every insect of the root form which reaches maturity 
 Lays about twenty-five or thirty eggs, each of which is capable of 
 developing into a new egg-layer needing no fertilization. As there are 
 from five to seven such generations during the year the increase in 
 numbers is extremely rapid. 
 
 Sometimes during the summer, usually in July or August, some of 
 the eggs Laid by the root insects may develop into insects of slightly 
 differenl form, called nymphs. They are somewhat larger than the 
 
 •The phylloxera is said to have been found once in Southern California, but as 
 uprooted and destroyed the insect was probably extirpated. 
 
 PIG. 1. Under side of grape leaf showing galls 
 caused by Phylloxera. This form seldom, if 
 occurs in California. 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 101 
 
 normal root form and show slight protuberances on the sides, which 
 finally develop into wings. These are the winged or colonizing insects, 
 which emerge from the soil, and, though possessing very weak powers 
 of flight, are capable of sailing a short distance, and if a wind is 
 blowing may be taken many rods, or even miles. Those which reach 
 a vine crawl to the under side of a leaf and deposit from three to six 
 eggs. These eggs are of two sizes, the smaller of which produce males 
 and the larger females. The females arising from these eggs, after 
 
 i 
 
 fertilization, migrate to 
 the rough bark of the 
 two-year-old wood, where 
 each deposits a single 
 egg, called the winter 
 egg, which remains upon 
 the vine until the fol- 
 lowing spring. The in- 
 sect which hatches from 
 this egg in the spring 
 goes either to the young 
 leaves and becomes a 
 gall-maker, or descends 
 to the roots and gives 
 rise to a new generation 
 of egg-laying root-feed- 
 ers. 
 
 The normal and com- 
 plete life cycle of the 
 phylloxera appears then 
 to be as follows : Male 
 and female insects (one 
 generation in autumn) ; 
 gall insects (one to five 
 generations while the 
 vines are in leaf) ; root 
 insects (an unknown number of generations throughout the year) ; 
 nymphs, which become winged insects (one generation in midsummer). 
 The gall stage may be omitted, as it generally is in California, and the 
 insects which hatch from the fertilized eggs laid by the female go 
 directly to the root and produce offspring, which are indistinguishable 
 from the root form produced in the normal cycle. For how many 
 generations the root form can exist and reproduce without invigoration 
 supposed to come from the production of the sexual form is not known, 
 but certainly for four years and probably more. The gall form on 
 
 /&^y 
 
 FIG. 2 Root'Form of Phylloxera, a, healthy root; 6, root 
 on which the lice are working, representing the knots and 
 swellings caused by their punctures; c, root deserted by 
 lice and beginning to decay; d, d, d, show how the lice 
 appear on the larger roots ; e, the nymph ; g, winged female. 
 After Riley. 
 
102 I'NlWKSirv OV CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 American vines may probably be prevented by spraying the vines in 
 winter to kill the winter eggs; but this treatment has no effect on the 
 root forms, which in California hibernate abundantly in the soil. 
 
 All forms of the phylloxera are extremely minute, the root form 
 being' about one twenty-fifth of an inch long when it reaches the adult 
 __ -laying stage, and little more than half this length when young and 
 active. It is just large enough to be seen by the unaided eye in a 
 good light when its presence is knowm, and, by the help of a glass 
 magnifying five diameters, its legs and antennae are plainly visible. 
 Its color is light greenish-yellow in summer, and somewhat darker in 
 winter; so that when numerous the attacked roots appear as though 
 dusted in spots with powdered mustard or cinnamon. The newly 
 hatched insect is fairly active, and at first moves about from place 
 to place on the roots, but finally, when it reaches the egg-laying stage, 
 inserts its sucking-tube into the root and remains fixed. 
 
 X at ure of Injury. — The amount of nutriment taken from the vine 
 by such minute insects, even when present in the immense numbers in 
 which they sometimes occur, is not sufficient to account for the dis- 
 astrous effect upon the plant. The death of the vine is due to the 
 decay which sets in wherever the phylloxera inserts its sucking-tube, 
 for a swelling is produced, composed of soft tissue, which soon decays. 
 When this swelling occurs at the end of a young rootlet, growth in 
 length is stopped; when it occurs on larger roots, a kind of "cancer" 
 or decay spot is finally formed, which soon extends around the root, 
 and all below T the point of attack dies. 
 
 During the first year or two after a vine is attacked there is little 
 apparent damage. In fact, the effect of the phylloxera is equivalent 
 to root pruning, and in some cases results in an unusually large crop 
 of grapes. The year after this crop, however, the vine having endured 
 the double strain of heavy bearing and root injury, is unable to 
 recuperate, and generally dies. In rich moist soil the death of the 
 vine is not so sudden, and two or even more crops may mature after 
 symptoms of the disease are evident. 
 
 Methods of Dispersal. — The ways in which new vines and vineyards 
 
 become infested may be classed as natural and artificial. The natural 
 
 a may be inferred from what has been said of the life history of 
 
 the insect. From a vine first attacked the root form spreads through 
 
 the soil to neighboring vines slowly, but continuously, thus forming 
 
 the so-called "oil-spots." A typical oil-spot of several years' standing 
 
 /.ill show several dead vines in the center, then a ring of vines with 
 
 short growth and no grapes, next another ring where the growth 
 
 A <>\' normal vigor, bul where the crop may be equal to or larger 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 103 
 
 than that of the healthy vines. Such a spot enlarges its area year after 
 year at a gradually accelerating rate as the front of the invading army 
 becomes longer. The rate of advance will vary with the soil and climate, 
 but will probably never exceed forty or fifty feet annually. If this 
 were its only method of spreading, the insect could be controlled or even 
 exterminated with comparative ease. Unfortunately, it is able to 
 spread much more rapidly by means of the winged form; and the 
 rapidity of its extension over the south of France was due principally 
 to this agency. In California, though the winged form has been found, 
 it seems to be rare, especially in the central valleys, which probably 
 accounts for the comparative slowness with which new districts have 
 become infested. The artificial methods of dispersal here are probably 
 more effectual in spreading the insect than the natural. The insects 
 are taken from one part of the vineyard to another on pieces of the 
 roots of infested vines adhering to the plows or other implements used 
 in cultivation; while they are introduced into new localities on rooted 
 vines or cuttings brought from infested districts. 
 
 METHODS OP COMBATING THE PHYLLOXERA. 
 
 The methods to be used in resisting this foe of the vineyardist may 
 be divided into groups corresponding to different stages of infestation 
 and to varying local conditions. There are three cases to be distin- 
 guished, viz : 1. When the district is uninf ested ; 2. "When a few small 
 infested spots are known in the district ; 3. When the district is badly 
 infested ; i. e., shows many and widely distributed infested spots, even 
 though none of the spots are large. 
 
 1. In the first case, all efforts should be directed to keeping out the 
 pest, and the only effectual means is a rigidly enforced embargo on all 
 material capable of introducing it. Although the phylloxera, so far as 
 known, feeds on nothing but the vine, there is always danger of eggs 
 or insects being contained in the earth attached to any kind of root. 
 This measure, consistently carried out, has kept the province of Algiers 
 free from infestation, though the neighboring province of Constantine 
 has been a prey to the pest for many years. 
 
 2. In the second case, where the insect has already obtained a foot- 
 hold, the first step to take is to determine as nearly as possible the 
 exact extent of the infested area. If it is found to be confined to a 
 small, isolated vineyard, an effort should be made to completely eradi- 
 cate the pest. This can be done only by destroying the vineyard, by 
 subjecting it to what is called the "death treatment." This is best 
 done (after grubbing up the vines and burning them on the ground) 
 by making an embankment around the whole vineyard and then 
 running water on to it until it is converted into a lake. The water 
 
104 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 should be kept continuously at a depth of at least six inches until all 
 the insects are destroyed. The best time to do this is in May or June, 
 as at that time four weeks of continuous flooding is sufficient to kill 
 both insects and roots. It is important that every root should be killed 
 in order that, if any insect survives the flooding, it will die for lack of 
 food. Where flooding is impracticable, the vines should be grubbed 
 out and burned in the same way, and the ground kept clean of all 
 growth for at least one year. This is in order that any suckers which 
 may come up from the roots may be destroyed immediately. If crops, 
 or even weeds, are allowed to grow, some of these suckers may escape 
 observation and keep the insects alive to spread the pest the next 
 year. If the affected spot is not too large it is well to disinfect the soil 
 with bisulfid of carbon. This is applied by pouring one ounce each 
 into holes placed two feet apart all over the land to be treated. These 
 holes should be about one foot deep and can be made with a small 
 crowbar or dibble. After pouring in the liquid, the hole should be 
 closed by pressing the earth into it with the foot. 
 
 If. however, the pest has obtained a foothold in several vineyards of 
 the district, or in a large vineyard, it is practically hopeless to attempt 
 to eradicate it. In this case all we can reasonably hope to do is to delay 
 the spread of the pest as much as possible, and in the meantime to place 
 all new vineyards on a permanently phylloxera-resistant basis. Every 
 infested spot in the district should be diligently sought out and treated. 
 The treatment consists in digging up and burning every vine in each 
 spot which shows symptoms of attack, together with at least three rows 
 of apparently healthy vines surrounding them. Disinfection of the 
 soil of these spots by flooding or with bisulfid of carbon is then advisable 
 wherever practicable, but in any case these spots should be strictly 
 isolated in all farming operations. In cultivating the healthy parts 
 of the vineyard, to pass through the infested spots with plows or hoes 
 is a most effective method of accelerating the spread of the insect. 
 
 The search for infested spots is most easily and thoroughly done in 
 July, or August, as at that time the shortness of growth in the " oil- 
 spots" is most readily detected and the insects are easily found, as they 
 are in large numbers on the surface roots and generally also on the 
 trunk of the vine just below the surface of the soil. The search for and 
 destruction of infested spots should be repeated every year: and if 
 commenced in the early stages of infestation and prosecuted with 
 sufficient thoroughness in every vineyard throughout a district, will 
 effectually prolong the life of the bulk of the vines for many years. 
 As soon as the actual presence of the phylloxera in a district is known 
 and all hope of permanently eradicating it is abandoned, the embargo 
 should be modified to the extent of admitting vine cuttings. These 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 105 
 
 should be introduced, however, under strict quarantine regulations, 
 including disinfection by responsible and properly instructed persons. 
 Rooted vines, or cuttings with pieces of old wood attached, should still 
 be kept out, as they can not be disinfected with any certainty. 
 
 3. However conscientiously and completely these measures are en- 
 forced, a time will arrive sooner or later when the cost of inspection and 
 eradication will be greater than any benefit to be derived from them. 
 We are then face to face with the third set of conditions; we must 
 accept the phylloxera as a permanent inhabitant of the district, and 
 simply consider the best method of growing our vines in spite of its 
 presence. By this time all embargo or quarantine regulations are 
 useless and should be repealed. 
 
 Of the many thousands of methods proposed and tested for maintain- 
 ing a vineyard in spite of the phylloxera, but very few have been of the 
 slightest practical value, and only four are at present used to any 
 important extent. These methods are: 
 
 1. Injection of carbon bisulfid; 
 
 2. Flooding or submersion; 
 
 3. Planting in sand; 
 
 4. Planting resistant vines. 
 
 The first two methods aim at destroying the insect; the last two at 
 rendering the vines immune to their attack. As neither of the insecti- 
 cidal methods can be applied with sufficient thoroughness to completely 
 eradicate the pest without also killing the vines, the treatments have to 
 be repeated every year in order to destroy the offspring of the few 
 insects, which escaped the treatment of the previous year. For this 
 reason these methods are being abandoned everywhere, especially in all 
 new plantings, in favor of the others, which after the vineyard is prop- 
 erly started, involve no further expense; and as planting in sand is of 
 very limited and local applicability, it may be said that at present the 
 only method that need concern grape-growers in California very seri- 
 ously is the use of resistant vines. 
 
 Bisulfid of Carbon Method. 
 
 Bisulfid of carbon is a liquid which volatilizes very rapidly at ordi- 
 nary temperatures and gives off a poisonous and highly inflammable 
 vapor. This vapor is heavier than air and therefore gradually replaces 
 and saturates the air in the interstices of the soil when the liquid is 
 injected. It is used at the rate of from one hundred and twenty-five 
 pounds to two hundred and fifty pounds per acre, and may be applied 
 at any time except during blossoming and ripening of the fruit. Two 
 treatments, one directly after the vintage and the other a week or so 
 before blossoming, give the best results. The liquid is applied by pour- 
 ing from one-fourth to three-fourths of an ounce into holes made from 
 
106 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 IS to '24 inches apart all over the vineyard, care being taken not to 
 put any nearer than one foot from a vine. The holes are made from 
 12 to 15 inches deep, and are closed immediately after pouring in the 
 liquid by pressing the soil with the foot. The holes may be made with 
 an iron roil or dibble; but, where the method is employed on a large 
 s< ale. special injectors are used, which much facilitate the work. Th<- 
 injections are best made when the soil is fairly firm, and when it is 
 neither very wet nor very dry. This method succeeds only in rich. 
 deep, loose soils, and can not be used successfully in soil containing 
 much clay, or on dry, rocky hillsides or when the soil is saturated 
 with moisture. It is most effective in sandy soils, where the nature 
 <>t the soil is itself unfavorable to the insect. It is least success- 
 ful in warmer locations, Avhere the insect is most prolific and most 
 harmful, and is used chiefly in the cooler locations where the 
 phylloxera does least damage. Vines which are much weakened by the 
 attacks of the insects can not be successfully treated, and all treated 
 vines require fertilization and most thorough cultivation. The annual 
 cost for material alone would be from $15 to $25 per acre, at the present 
 market price of carbon bisulfid. 
 
 Submersion Method. 
 
 Submersion is a cheaper and more effective method of controlling 
 the phylloxera, but is necessarily applicable to but few locations, and 
 even where most successful is gradually giving way to the more satis- 
 factory use of resistant vines. Its chief use is to preserve vineyards 
 which are already in bearing, and it may be of use temporarily in some 
 locations in California. In submersion the vineyard must be continu- 
 ously covered with at least six inches of water, as the object is to drown 
 the insects, that is, to kill them by depriving them of air. If the sur- 
 face becomes exposed even for a brief period, air will be absorbed and 
 the insects given a new lease of life. In very porous soils submersion 
 is impracticable on account of the large amount of water required, and 
 ineffective for the reason that the rapid passage of the water carries 
 sufficient air into the soil to keep the insects alive. Submersion is 
 most effective in destroying the insects when they are in their most 
 active condition, that is, in summer. At this time, unfortunately, the 
 vine is also most sensitive to injury. The most favorable time, then. 
 for submersion is ae soon as the vines have ceased active growth and 
 before the phylloxera have entered their hibernating or dormant con- 
 dition. This in most parts of California will be some time in Novem- 
 ber. At this period the flooding need last but a week or ten days; a 
 month Later, two or three weeks: while during the remainder of the 
 vinter little good results unless the submersion is prolonged for thirty- 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 107 
 
 five or forty days, and indeed in some soils of the extreme south of 
 France two months has been found necessary. As the insect is most 
 susceptible in midsummer, it was at one time thought that a copious 
 irrigation at that time sufficient to destroy most of the insects without 
 injuring the vines could be effected. At present a flooding in July for 
 not exceeding forty-eight hours is practiced in a few places, but only to 
 supplement winter flooding, or the injection of bisulfid. The insecti- 
 cidal value of the short submersion which the vines will withstand at 
 this time seems to be very slight. Its main value seems to be in 
 prompting a vigorous growth of new rootlets to replace those that have 
 been injured. 
 
 Planting in Sand Method. 
 
 Though no thoroughly satisfactory explanation has been given, the fact 
 is established that in certain very sandy soils vines are uninjured by 
 phylloxera. All sandy soils are unfavorable to the increase of the 
 insect, and vines planted in them die more slowly than in others; but 
 for complete immunity the soil must contain at least sixty per cent of 
 siliceous sand. The looser and more fine-grained the sand, the more 
 resistance it offers to the insect. Sands containing notable quantities 
 of clay, all those in fact which have a tendency to form lumps or 
 " cake," offer less resistance. 
 
 Resistant Vines. 
 
 The most satisfactory method of combating phylloxera is the use of 
 resistant vines, because it is applicable to all conditions and is the most 
 economical in the end. A resistant vine is one which is capable of 
 keeping alive and growing even when phylloxera are living upon its 
 roots. Its resistance depends on two facts: 1st, that the insects do not 
 increase so rapidly on its roots; and, 2d, that the swellings of diseased 
 tissue caused by the punctures of the insects do not extend deeper than 
 the bark of the rootlets and are sloughed off every year, leaving the 
 roots as healthy as before. The wild vines of the Mississippi valley 
 states have evolved in company with the phylloxera, and it is naturally 
 among these that we find the most resistant forms. No vine is per- 
 fectly immune in the sense that phylloxera will not attack it at all; 
 but on the most resistant the damage is so slight as to be impercep- 
 tible. The European vine ( Vitis vinifera L.) is the most susceptible of 
 all, and all the grapes cultivated in California, with a few unimportant 
 exceptions, belong to this species. Between these two extremes we find 
 all degrees of resistance, which is expressed by a series of numbers 
 ranging from 20, indicating the highest possible resistance, to 0, indi- 
 cating the utmost susceptibility. The following table shows the resist- 
 
108 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA FXPFRl.MENT STATION. 
 
 ance (according to Viala and Ravaz and other authorities) of some of 
 the best known species and varieties: 
 
 Comparative Resistance to Phylloxera. 
 
 Species — Wild Vines. 
 
 Cultivated Varieties and Hybrids. 
 
 Viris rotundifolia 19 
 
 Viris vulpina (Riparia ) 18 
 
 Viris rupestris 18 
 
 Vitis Beriandieri 17 
 
 Viris aestivalis 16 
 
 Viris labrusca 5 
 
 Viris californica 4 
 
 Viris vinifera 
 
 Gloire de Montpellier (Riparia) .... 18 
 
 Riparia X Rupestris 3309 IS 
 
 Rupestris Martin 18 
 
 Rupestris St. George 16 
 
 Riparia X Solonis 1616 16 
 
 Solonis 14 
 
 Lenoir : 12 
 
 Isabella 5 
 
 The degree of resistance necessary for the production of good crops 
 varies with the character of the soil. The resistance expressed by the 
 numbers 16 to 20 is sufficient for all soils. A resistance of 14 or 15 is 
 sufficient in sandy and moist, rich soils, where the vine can readily 
 replace the rootlets as fast as they are destroyed. Fairly successful 
 vineyards have been established with vines having a resistance of 
 less than 14, but as the vines become old the lack of resistance is 
 generally shown by a weakening of the vine and a falling off of the 
 crop. Many vineyards in the south of France grafted on Lenoir w T hich 
 formerly bore well, have now to be treated with injections of bisulfid of 
 carbon. For the above reason it is advisable to reject all vines with a 
 resistance of 13 or under, especially as vines with greater resistance 
 can now T be obtained for practically all conditions. 
 
 Resistant vines are of two kinds: (a) Those which are grown for the 
 grapes they produce, and (b) Those which are useful only as stocks on 
 which to graft the non-resistant varieties. The former are called 
 "Direct producers" and the latter "Resistant stocks." 
 
 (a) Direct Producers. — When the phylloxera commenced to destroy 
 the vineyards of Europe, the natural attempt was made to replace them 
 with the varieties of vines which had proved successful in the United 
 States, where the insect was endemic. These varieties, however, all 
 proved unsatisfactory. Some, like the Concord and Catawba, were 
 insufficiently resistant, and although they could be grown where the 
 ere cold of winter impeded the prolificness of the phylloxera, they 
 quickly succumbed in the milder grape-growing sections of Europe.* 
 Most of them were poor bearers compared with the prolific European 
 vines, are! finally the character of their fruit differed so widely from 
 
 * In California these and other Labrusca varieties and hybrids resist very little 
 \<,x\-^-v th:irj Vinifera vines. 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 109 
 
 what Europeans were accustomed to, that there was little sale for the 
 fruit, and the wine could compete with only the very poorest quality of 
 Vinifera wines, and brought a very inferior price. A few of the varieties 
 introduced during that first period are still grown to a limited extent in 
 France, chiefly the Othello and the Lenoir. They are being gradually 
 abandoned, however, as their crops are unsatisfactory, and in many 
 localities can be maintained only by the aid of injections of bisulfid. 
 For some years the search for a suitable producer was almost abandoned 
 by practical men, the use of resistant stocks having been so fully 
 successful. Lately, however, renewed efforts have been made and 
 several new direct producers are being advocated and planted to some 
 extent. The merit of these new varieties, however, is chiefly their 
 resistance to Peronospora and black rot. Phylloxera resistance is con- 
 sidered of much less importance by their most ardent advocates, and 
 indeed the advice is generally given to graft some of the best of these 
 direct producers upon phylloxera-resistant stock. 
 
 (b) Resistant Stocks. — Though high resistance to phylloxera is essen- 
 tial in a grafting stock, there are other characteristics equally necessary. 
 The Rotundifolia (Scuppernong), which has the highest resistance of 
 any vine, is useless as a stock on account of the impossibility of grafting 
 it with any Vinifera variety. This is due to a lack of affinity, which 
 means a lack of similarity in structure and composition between the 
 tissues of the stock and those of the scion. This lack, in extreme cases, 
 results in an imperfect and temporary union, but when not excessive, 
 only in a slight decrease of vigor. The affinity is not perfect between 
 Vinifera varieties and any resistant stock, but in the case of Riparia 
 and Rupestris is generally sufficient to insure permanence to the union, 
 and the slight decrease of vigor consequent often results in an increase 
 of fruitfulness. It is for this reason that certain varieties when grafted 
 on resistant stocks, especially on Riparia, often bear larger crops than 
 when grown on their own roots. Not all varieties of Vinifera have the 
 same affinity for the same stock. For this reason it is desirable to be 
 cautious about making new or untried grafting combinations on a large 
 scale. Some varieties, such as Carignan, Petite Sirah, Clairette, and 
 Cabernet Sauvignon, do excellently on all stocks; while others, such as 
 Mondeuse and Gamay, do not make a very good union with any of the 
 thoroughly resistant stocks. The Petit Bouschet and Cinsaut make 
 very poor unions with any variety of Riparia, but do fairly well on 
 Rupestris St. George. The Pinot Noir makes a vigorous growth upon 
 Rupestris St. George, but bears much more prolifically upon Riparia 
 Gloire; while the Mataro does not bear on Rupestris St. George and 
 makes poor unions with Riparia Gloire.* 
 
 * Reconstitution du Vignoble, par. P. Gervais. 1900. 
 
110 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 > lection. A very serious defect of many resistant stocks is a slender 
 habit of growth. This is true of most of the vines found growing w r ild, 
 and cuttings from such vines make poor grafting stock for the stout 
 Vinifera varieties, which will produce a trunk four inches in diameter 
 while the stock is growing only two inches. This is particularly true 
 of the wild Riparias. For this reason great care has been exercised in 
 selecting the stronger-growing vines, and at present we have selected 
 Riparia varieties which almost equal Vinifera in the stoutness of their 
 trunks. The best of these are the Riparia Gloire de Montpellier and 
 Riparia Grande Glabre — the first of which has given the best result- in 
 California. 
 
 Adaptation. — The European vine is remarkable among cultivated 
 plants for the wide range of soils in which it will succeed. We find 
 vineyards producing satisfactory crops on the lightest sands and on the 
 heaviest clays, on the dry hilltops and in the low, moist plains. This 
 is not the case w T ith resistant stocks. Some, such as the Rupestris vari- 
 eties, are suited to the driest soils; others, like the Riparia varieties, 
 grow well only in rich, moist soils. The question of adaptation, then, 
 of resistant stocks to various soils is of the greatest importance if we 
 are to obtain the best results. 
 
 After rejecting all unselected and unnamed varieties, such as tin- 
 ordinary Rupestris and Riparia, which have caused so much disap- 
 pointment and loss on account of their poor growth, and all insuffi- 
 ciently resistant varieties, such as Lenoir, which have succeeded only 
 in the richest soils, our choice of a resistant for a particular soil, climate, 
 and scion must depend on its qualifications as regards affinity and 
 1 1 Captation. 
 
 After testing thousands of varieties and hybrids originated in Europe 
 and America, a few have been selected as the best for practical pur- 
 poses. In France a fairly good resistant stock has been found for 
 nearly every soil. In California little systematic work has been done 
 in this respect, and we still have the intricate problems of adaptation 
 to solve for most localities. We can, however, profit to some extent by 
 the experience of Europe, and some of the best varieties have been 
 partially tested here and give great promise. 
 
 Disinfection of Cuttings. 
 
 The most effective method of treating cuttings suspected of being 
 infested with phylloxera is to expose them to the fumes of bisulfid of 
 carbon. The treatment with liquid insecticides is not nearly so reliable. 
 ag Professor Hilgard pointed out many years ago, on account of the 
 difficulty of wetting the buds of many varieties, owing to their protect- 
 ive covering of woolly hairs. 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. Ill 
 
 The method of using the bisulfid is as follows: Place the cuttings in a 
 barrel, vat, or box made tight by means of a thick coat of paint, or of 
 paper pasted on the inside. On top of the cuttings place a saucer or 
 other shallow dish, and into this pour the bisulfid of carbon. An ordi- 
 nary saucer will hold enough for a box three feet cube or a two-hun- 
 dred-gallon vat. For larger receptacles it is better to use two or more 
 saucers. Deeper vessels will not do, as the saturation is not sufficiently 
 rapid. After pouring the bisulfid into the saucer, cover the box with 
 an oiled canvas sheet or other tight-fitting cover, and allow to stand 
 for from forty-five to ninety minutes. At the end of this time there 
 should be a little of the bisulfid left. If it has all evaporated this is 
 proof that insufficient was used. No flame lights should be used, as 
 the liquid burns easily and the fumes form an explosive mixture with 
 the air. Care should be taken not to spill any of the liquid on the cut- 
 tings, as it may kill them. It is advisable to cut off about half an inch 
 of the lower end of the treated cuttings before planting, as the vapor 
 injures the open pith. Besides disinfecting the cuttings in this way, all 
 the packing material in which they come should be burned or, if valu- 
 able, dipped in boiling water. Practically, it is impossible to disinfect 
 rooted cuttings satisfactorily on account of the difficulty of killing all 
 the phylloxera without seriously injuring the vine roots. 
 
 THE VINE HOPPER. 
 
 (TypJdocyba comes Say.) 
 
 The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the most 
 widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape insects 
 occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious numbers, however, chiefly 
 in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. It is also present in the 
 coast counties, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do much injury. 
 Another larger species (Tettigonia: atropunctata) occurs in these local- 
 ities and sometimes does considerable injury in the early part of the 
 season. 
 
 The principal injury occasioned by this insect is due to the extraction 
 of the plant juices. These are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or 
 proboscis, which is inserted into the plant tissues. The first evidence 
 of injury is a pale spot around the point of puncture. As these spots 
 become more numerous the leaf assumes a variegated appearance, due 
 to these pale spots, which indicates a lack of chlorophyll or green mat- 
 ter. As the injury increases the leaf becomes pale yellow in color, and 
 later dries up and falls to the ground. The leaves first attacked, and 
 those which suffer most throughout the season, are about the crown of 
 
112 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 the vino. In the vines thus infested, all the leaves within a radius of 
 a foot or two from the center of the vine have dried up and many have 
 fallen off by the end of June or July, thus exposing the fruit. This 
 early loss of foliage prevents the berries from maturing properly. The 
 sugar content of the grape is much reduced, and in table varieties the 
 characteristic coloring, which is important, is not attained. In addition, 
 the fruit is badly soiled by the excrement of the hoppers — which serves 
 to hold dust and dirt or offers suitable conditions for the growth of 
 fungi — and often this covers the leaves so thoroughly as to interfere 
 with respiration. The loss of leaves, or any interference with their 
 normal functions, also prevents the proper ripening of the canes for the 
 next year's wood, and thus the vine may require a year or more to 
 recover from severe cases of hopper injury. 
 
 This insect is not more than a tenth of an inch long and of a pale 
 yellow color, prettily marked with irregular red markings. 
 They are usually found on the under side of the leaves, 
 and if these are turned over carefully the insects may be 
 seen. They are very readily disturbed, and often emerge 
 from a vine in swarms, so that they are not likely to be 
 mistaken for any other insect pest of the vineyard. 
 
 Life History. — The life history of this insect as it has 
 fig. 3. The been worked out in this State during the past year is, 
 
 grape leaf- ° r J 
 
 hopper. briefly, as follows: 
 
 Hoppers which have reached full growth on the vine during 
 the fall or late summer remain in the vineyard or vicinity during 
 the winter season. During the colder days they are more or 
 less dormant and will be found hiding under the leaves, or other 
 rubbish in the vineyard, or sheltered in the vegetation along the 
 bordering fences or roadsides. 
 
 During the warmer days of winter they become fairly active and will 
 be found feeding on whatever vegetation happens to be growing among 
 the vines or in the vicinity. 
 
 As soon as the vines come into leaf in the spring, they leave their 
 more varied food-plants of winter and attack the vine exclusively. 
 After feeding upon the grape foliage for about a month, egg-laying 
 begins. This in the Lodi section during the past season was about May 
 first. The eggs are laid just beneath the epidermis, on the lower side 
 of the leaf, rarely on the upper surface. They may be distributed any- 
 where over the surface and are most difficult to see unless one is famil- 
 iar with their appearance. We have counted more than seven hundred 
 of these egge in a single leaf. One hopper will lay, on an average, 
 nty-five to one hundred eggs, during a period of from one to two 
 months. The eggs from these over-wintering hoppers require about 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 113 
 
 twenty days to hatch. Then the young or nymph appears and begins 
 at once to feed upon the leaves. It is a very small creature, white in 
 color, with conspicuous red eyes. After feeding for a few days it 
 molts or sheds its skin. Altogether it molts five times, requiring a 
 period of from seventeen to twenty days before the last molt, when the 
 full-fledged winged hopper is produced. 
 
 After feeding for a couple of weeks as an adult hopper, pairing begins 
 and a week later another set of eggs is deposited. These require but 
 from eight to twelve days to hatch, a shorter period than the first lot 
 required, probably on account of the higher temperature later in the 
 summer. Thus the life cycles are repeated. Nymphs arising from the 
 eggs laid by the over-wintering hoppers began appearing about the 
 middle of May, and those from the following brood about the middle 
 of July, making two broods during the season. 
 
 CONTROL MEASURES. 
 
 Farm Practices. — Since the over-wintering hoppers are sheltered 
 in large numbers by the leaves which are blown together in bunches 
 in the vineyard, and other rubbish along the borders, clean culti- 
 vation will help to reduce their numbers. The hoppers depend 
 for food upon what they can obtain in the vineyard or vicinity, and if 
 the weeds and other vegetation are kept down many will starve or be 
 obliged to go elsewhere for food. When the vineyard is plowed in early 
 spring before the vines come into foliage, the hoppers will all leave the 
 vineyard and feed upon the nearest available vegetation, which is 
 usually about the borders. If these borders and roadsides could be 
 kept free and a general movement for clean culture inaugurated in a 
 neighborhood, it might do much to prevent the hoppers from becoming 
 excessive, but because of the possibility, of extensive migrations in the 
 spring the work of any individual grower might be of little avail, 
 though such migrations did not occur at Lodi the present season and 
 individual work would undoubtedly have been useful. 
 
 The Hopper Cage. — So far as the work has progressed this year the 
 most satisfactory method of control is in the use of a hopper cage to be 
 used in the early spring when the young shoots of the vine are about 
 four or five inches long. This is to be supplemented, if necessary, by 
 spraying for the first brood of nymphs early in June. 
 
 The hopper cage (Fig. 4) consists of a frame work of laths over which 
 is tacked a double layer of mosquito wire netting or a single 20-mesh 
 wire screen. The bottom consists of a shallow pan or tray made by 
 turning up about an inch of the edges of a sheet of light galvanized iron. 
 One entire side of the cage is left open, and there is a V-shaped opening 
 in the tray at the bottom which allows the cage to be pushed over the 
 2— Bul. 192 
 
114 
 
 UNIVERSITY QF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 vine. The base of the V-shaped opening in the bottom is padded with 
 leather and the vine is bumped and the hoppers jarred off, at the same 
 time that the cage is being swung into position. The sides of the cage 
 and the tray at the bottom are smeared with crude oil, and the hoppers 
 as they are jarred off are caught in the oil. 
 
 If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the open 
 side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape. If, how- 
 ever, the day is calm and warm and the hoppers are particularly active 
 
 FIG. 4. The hopper cage. 
 
 a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side as the cage is pushed 
 onto the vine, and it will prevent any from escaping. 
 
 The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to the 
 ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as follows: 
 Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening and a little 
 wider. Double this once on itself and between the two layers sew in 
 pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing transversely. These are then 
 firmly tacked on the sides of the opening as shown in the figure. This 
 will allow the cage to be pushed in on the vine and the flexibility of 
 the tubing will bring the canvas immediately into position again. 
 This, with the curtain in front, shuts off all possibility of escape. 
 
 This device- can be used to advantage only when the vines are headed 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 115 
 
 some little distance from the ground so that the bottom of the cage can 
 be pushed under them. While it is generally conceded that this is the 
 proper way to prune most vines, there are still some vineyards in the 
 State where the vines have been headed immediately at the ground, and 
 some others have been given this form by frost. For such vines, if the 
 cage is to be used at all, it must be used with no bottom, or, at least, a 
 less complete one than the cage described. 
 
 This cage should be used in the early spring when the shoots are not 
 more than four or five inches long. At this time all the hoppers will 
 be found on the vines and they have not yet laid any eggs. The cage 
 need not be much larger than the diameter of the vines after pruning. 
 The size of the cage and the opening at the bottom should be made 
 according to the size of the vines to be treated. 
 
 This cage can be used at comparatively little expense — there being 
 practically no cost for materials — as the chief outlay is the time of the 
 men employed in handling it. Such a cage can be manipulated by a 
 couple of men, and for small vines, four or five years old or under, it 
 may be handled by only one. Four or five acres can be covered in a 
 day and the oil used can be bought for a trifle. 
 
 If this cage is conscientiously used it will catch from 85 to 95 per 
 cent of the hoppers, and this, at a time before any eggs have been laid, 
 ought to control the situation for the season. No migrations were 
 observed during the past season until about the middle of July, and if 
 the vines have not already been injured, they will not suffer much loss 
 from an attack at this time or later. 
 
 Spraying. — If for any reason the above method has not been used, or 
 satisfactorily done, the next most successful method is to spray for the 
 first brood of nymphs or young. The time for doing this during the 
 past season at Lodi was about the first of June, but the date will vary 
 with the season and location. The sprays which were found to be 
 satisfactory were the whale-oil soap solution and the resin spray. The 
 materials used in these sprays were one pound of soap or resin to fifteen 
 gallons of water. About one- fourth of a pound of ordinary lye should 
 be used to each pound of resin to make it dissolve thoroughly. 
 
 An "upper shot" spray should be used, and the best type of nozzle 
 for this is an eddy chamber Vermorel, where the liquid is turned at 
 right angles in the chamber. This style does away with anything to 
 catch among the canes, and such a nozzle may be poked anywhere 
 through the vine without being caught. 
 
 Thoroughness is most important here, since the spray will kill no 
 more than it hits. The under side of every leaf must be wet with the 
 solution. If this is done by the first of June when the growth is small, 
 it is not an exceedingly difficult task. This spraying is expected to kill 
 
116 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 the nymphs only. It will, of course, kill a few adults, but the number 
 of these will be very small. In addition to the adults which escape, 
 there are eggs at this time which the spray will not prevent from 
 hatching. While this means of control will kill a very satisfactory 
 percentage of the nymphs, many adults will escape, and the eggs will 
 he left to hatch later. 
 
 The advantage of the cage method is that it is more thorough and 
 effective. The hoppers are attacked at a critical time; i. p.. when all 
 adults are in the vineyard; and as they have not commenced to breed 
 or to lay eggs the work is effective in greatly diminishing the nun; 
 of succeeding generations. 
 
 THE IMPORTED GRAPE-ROOT WORM. 
 
 (Adoxus vitis Fourcroy.) 
 
 This pest of the vine has been reported from different parts of the 
 State for a number of years, but until a year or two ago it was unknown 
 
 as a root feeder. In 
 
 our literature it has 
 
 commonly gone by the 
 
 name of flea beetle, 
 
 I \ and probably most 
 
 J \ growers know it 1 >y 
 
 / ^ \ that name. It is not. 
 
 however, a flea beetle 
 
 J?Mf m *^ at a U> since it neither 
 
 | jumps as indicated by 
 I the name, nor is its 
 life history similar to 
 that of a flea beetle. 
 It was called by 
 i Matthew Cooke, in his 
 
 book entitled " Inju- 
 rious Insects of the 
 Orchard and Vine- 
 yard," the " Imported 
 
 Grape Flea Beetle." 
 FIG. 5. Adult of the grape-root worm. 
 
 Since, however, it is 
 
 >ot beetle rather than a flea beetle and is probably an imported 
 
 , n r| in its life history is almost identical with the grape-root 
 
 worm of the Eastern States, we propose giving it the common name of 
 
 [mported Grape-Root Worm. 
 
 ■ 
 
 (•) 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 117 
 
 This insect has done considerable damage in this State within the 
 past two or three years, and promises to be a serious enemy of the vine- 
 yardists unless held in check. The grape-root worm of the Eastern 
 States, identical in all important respects with this one, is one of the 
 most serious pests the grape-grower in that region has to fight. 
 
 The insect injures both the roots and the growing parts of the vine 
 above ground. It is a small beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long, and 
 either black or brown in color. There is no mistaking its identity from 
 
 
 
 
 
 *~\"\T^y^ \ J s '^1^^\ 
 
 
 
 'v\1&$\\' **-■ - : yj 
 
 
 i t v 
 
 
 
 
 W*ti 
 
 r "*^f 
 
 
 FIG. 6. Leaf eaten by root beetle. 
 
 the way it eats out chain-like strips from the leaf, or gouges out similar 
 strips on the shoots and other growing parts. 
 
 Life History. — The adult beetle appears in May, having emerged from 
 the ground where it has been since the previous year, and where it has 
 passed through the larval and pupal stages. It begins at once to feed 
 upon the leaves, eating out narrow slits about one-twentieth of an 
 inch wide and from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch long. It 
 attacks the shoots, petioles, pedicels, and to a less extent the berry 
 itself in the same way. 
 
 After feeding for a couple of weeks, egg-laying begins. The eggs are 
 deposited on the inner bark, or in crevices, usually beneath two or 
 three layers of the old bark. Thev are laid in clusters of from four or 
 
IIS UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 five to twenty-five or thirty. Hatching occurs in from eight to twelve 
 
 days, when the young larva appears and crawls, or possibly drops, to 
 
 the ground and makes its way to the roots. 
 
 After having burrowed its way through the ground to the roots it 
 
 begins feeding, probably mostly on the smaller roots at first, later 
 
 attacking the larger ones and eat- 
 ing out strips of the bark. This 
 feeding continues until winter, 
 when the larva becomes dormant, 
 finally changing to the pupa in the 
 following spring. Pupation took 
 place this year during the last of 
 April, and continued well into June. 
 The first beetles emerged about the 
 first of May. 
 
 The most serious injury to the 
 vine is due to the work of the larvae 
 
 FIG. 7. Imported grape-root worm. ,-, , n „ , , • 
 
 on the roots, the small roots being 
 eaten off entirely, thus preventing the plant foods, taken up directly 
 by the root hairs, from reaching the growing parts of the vine. The 
 larger roots are injured by having strips of the bark eaten off, in bad 
 cases of injury scarcely any of the bark being left. Vines thus affected 
 show a stunted condition, the canes failing to attain a normal growth. 
 and in severe cases the vines may be killed outright. 
 
 Control Measures. — Since the insect comes to the surface and feeds 
 upon the leaves and other growing parts of the vine an opportunity is 
 offered for fighting it in this stage. The beetles are very readily jarred 
 from the vine and may be captured if something is placed under the 
 vines in which they can be caught. 
 
 The hopper cage, described on page 114, checked the development of 
 the beetles in a vineyard near Lodi during the past season This 
 means has the advantage of capturing the hoppers also, which are more 
 than likely to be present, at the same time. The fact that the beetles 
 keep emerging from the ground for a month or so may make more than 
 one Operation necessary. Fortunately, however, the beetles are usually 
 confined to a limited area of the vineyard, so that it is not necessary to 
 go over a Large area. When the beetles alone are to be caught, simply 
 the tray on the bottom of the cage can be used. Handles may be 
 iched directly to the tray for convenience in manipulating. 
 
 These beetles may also be fairly well controlled by an arsenical 
 
 They are rather resistant to poisons and a strong dose must be 
 
 aged. We obtained fairly satisfactory results by using lead arsenate 
 
 in the ratio of five pounds to fifty gallons of water. Paris green may 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 119 
 
 be used and the ratio of at least one pound to one hundred gallons of 
 water is required. This spraying should be done as soon as the first 
 beetles make their appearance in the spring. 
 
 Since the pupae are within four to eight inches of the surface much 
 good can be done by thoroughly stirring the ground within a radius of 
 two or three feet about the vine for a depth of six inches or more. If 
 this can be done at the proper time when they are in the pupal stage 
 it will no doubt destroy many. 
 
 It has been suggested and some experiments seem to prove that if 
 the land is left uncultivated about the base of the vine, the beetles will 
 be unable to break through the crust at the surface. We have not had 
 opportunity to demonstrate this point. If successful it must depend 
 largely upon a type of soil that will form a hard, impenetrable layer at 
 the surface. 
 
 HAWK MOTH LARVAE. 
 
 These larva? are occasionally met with over large areas every year in 
 California, and in certain restricted areas they sometimes become 
 exceedingly abundant and may completely defoliate a vineyard. The 
 worst case that has come to our notice this year was on a vineyard 
 belonging to the California Wine Association near Reedlev. 
 
 FIG. 8. Showing one vine in a 75-acre vineyard defoliated by Hawk Moth larvae. 
 
120 
 
 IMYERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Here seventy-five acres of vines were completely stripped of their 
 foliage and scarcely an entire leaf was left on the area. As man] 
 one hundred and fifty full-grown larvae were counted on a single vine. 
 
 In this case the owners were not aware of 
 the extent of the danger until the worms 
 had become nearly full grown, and most of 
 the damage done. At this time, however 
 a gang of about two hundred men 
 to work picking them off the vines, and 
 worms were carried away by the cartloads 
 and burned. The species concerned here 
 was the Achemon Sphinx {Philamjn 
 achemon Drury), which i> tin- most com- 
 mon species attacking the grapevine in 
 the State. 
 
 These caterpillar- may b<- found on the 
 vines late in May, and during the la 
 part of June. The larvae are green in color, 
 like the leaf, and are therefore not readily 
 distinguishable when they are small. They 
 soon increase in size, however, and their 
 work on the leaves becomes noticeable. 
 While small, these larv;e may be distin- 
 guished by a large horn on the posterior 
 end of the body, but this is lost during a molt before they are quite 
 full grown. 
 
 FIG. 9. Hawk Moth larva. 
 (Philantpeies achemon Drury.) 
 
 Life History. — These insects hibernate in the pupa or chrysalis stag* 
 and while in the ground may be distinguished as large cylindrical 
 objects of a dark brown color (Fig. 10). About the middle of May or 
 thereabouts they emerge from these chrysalids in the ground as large 
 and handsome moths (Fig. 11). These are the common moths that 
 poise over flowers at dusk. They are particularly attracted by 
 petunias, and it has been suggested that they might he captured in 
 large numbers about these flowers. 
 
 The eggs are laid on the vine, and the larvae, upon hatching, begin 
 immediately to feed upon the grape foliage. Since they arc voracious 
 feeders and grow to a very large size, three inches long or more, they 
 consume an enormous quantity of leaves. This year most of the larvae 
 - mature by the twentieth of June. When mature they repair to 
 the ground, where they pupate. In the vineyard already mentioned. 
 there appeared a second brood of caterpillars during the middle of 
 July. None of these reached their full growth, dying from some 
 unknown cause while they were but an inch and a half long. Thev 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 121 
 
 had all disappeared when we visited the vineyard on August the first, 
 and according to the owners they simply dried up. It was probably 
 due to a fungous 
 disease which often 
 destroys these cat- 
 erpillars in great 
 numbers. We also 
 found these cater- 
 pillars in the vine- 
 yards about Lodi in 
 June and August, 
 indicating that 
 there are two 
 broods in a season. 
 
 Control Measures. 
 Where there are 
 but occasional 
 specimens of thi's 
 insect found in the 
 vineyard, the 
 cheapest and most 
 practical way is to 
 pick them off by 
 
 hand. W here there FIG 10 Chrysalids of a Hawk Moth (Philampeles achemon Drury). 
 
 are immense num- 
 bers of them, as in the case mentioned at Reedley, hand picking 
 becomes a laborious task. In the latter case a thorough spraying with 
 
 a strong arsenical 
 spray applied just 
 at the time they 
 are hatching, will 
 check them before 
 they can do a great 
 deal of harm. 
 
 If the adult 
 moths are particu- 
 larly attracted by 
 the petunias, as 
 seems to be the 
 case, a means of 
 capturing them in 
 this stage may be 
 found in poisoning the flowers thoroughly with some soluble poison or 
 by catching them in traps. The effectiveness of these methods will 
 
 FIG. 11. Hawk moth (Philampeles achemon Drury). 
 
L22 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 depend upon whether many of the eggs are deposited before they fly 
 about much. While numbers of moths may be caught in this way. 
 it is doubtful if it will ever prove of very great practical value. 
 
 GRASSHOPPERS. 
 
 These insects do a great deal of injury to vines every year in some 
 parts of the State. This year they have been abundant everywhere 
 and considerable damage has resulted. In a vineyard twelve miles 
 east of Fresno forty or fifty acres of vines were completely defoliated. 
 These insects are generally most troublesome in new vineyard sections 
 or localities surrounded by large areas of uncultivated land. 
 
 FIG, 12. Vineyard defoliated by grasshoppers. 
 
 ZAfi History. — The eggs of the grasshoppers are laid in the ground 
 in the late summer or fall, and a decided preference is shown for uncul- 
 tivated land. These eggs are laid in capsules containing a large num- 
 ber, and are protected by a frothy or gummy substance which prevents 
 them iron, being affected by unusual weather conditions. The eggs 
 remain in the ground during the winter and hatch the following spring. 
 The young grasshopper is similar in appearance to the adult, except 
 that the winge are Lacking, but these are gradually acquired with molt- 
 ing. There is usually but a single generation, though in some parts of 
 I here are probably two. 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 123 
 
 FIG. 13. Valley grasshopper (CEdaleonotus enigma). 
 
 Control Measures. — Grass- 
 hoppers may be controlled 
 by poisoned bait, by spray- 
 ing heavily a few rows along 
 the border of a field, by the 
 hopper dozer, by burning 
 waste feeding areas, and by 
 the introduction of turkeys. 
 Various combinations of two 
 or more of these measures 
 may be used to fit particular 
 cases. Of the methods used 
 
 to protect vineyards, poisoned bait is probably the most common. This 
 consists of bran and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with 
 
 arsenic and distributed in 
 handfuls about the vine. The 
 proportions are as follows: 
 forty pounds of bran, two gal- 
 lons of cheap molasses, and 
 five pounds of arsenic. Cheap 
 glycerine may be used to pre- 
 vent the mixture from drying. 
 If the grasshoppers are enter- 
 ing in well-defined swarms 
 and caught on the first few 
 rows they may be killed by 
 heavily poisoning a few rows on the side at which they are entering. 
 Some growers find turkeys to be the most successful destroyers, and if 
 the hoppers are not too abundant, this method is probably as good as 
 any particularly at a time when the hoppers are still small. 
 
 
 
 JfSS^ 
 
 { '" 
 
 FIG. 14. Differential grasshopper (Melanoplus 
 differ entialis). Young. 
 
 FIG. 15. Differential grasshopper (Menanoplus differ entialis). Adult. 
 
124 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Those who have been most successful with turkeys go about using 
 them in a systematic way. They turn in a band of them early in the 
 morning and let them feed for a couple of hours, then drive them into 
 a cool barn where they remain through the heat of the day. In the 
 evening they are again turned into the vineyard for two or three hours 
 and again confined in an inclosure, so that they obtain a straight grass- 
 hopper diet supplemented by gravel, to which they have access while 
 not in the vineyard. 
 
 When vineyards adjoin, or are near, large uncultivated tracts, where 
 the grasshoppers hatch out in large numbers, it is best to look beyond 
 the vineyard in planning the control. This may mean more or less 
 organized effort in burning off or plowing such uncultivated lands. 
 For a full account of this and other methods of grasshopper control 
 the reader is referred to Bulletins Nos. 142 and 170 of this Station. 
 
 CUT WORMS AND ARMY WORMS. 
 
 These are the larvae of Noctuid moths, which often become abundant 
 
 over limited areas and do much damage to vines. 
 
 Cut worms and Army worms are terms applied to the same insects in 
 
 California. In ordinary years they 
 are not present in sufficient numbers 
 to cause much concern, and in such 
 years they are known simply as cut 
 worms. When all conditions are 
 favorable, however, certain species 
 develop in enormous numbers and 
 having exhausted the food supply 
 where they ; breed, they begin to 
 migrate or march,, commonly in a 
 definite direction, as an army in 
 search of new food. When they thus 
 appear in such large numbers and 
 take on the migrating habit they are 
 called army worms. 
 
 Some of the caterpillars have the 
 habit of climbing up vines and 
 trees and eating off the buds in 
 the early spring. These are called 
 
 climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the 
 ind and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are more 
 
 commonly found in the grass hinds, but very frequently attack culti- 
 
 Y\ ( ,. 16. Army worm (Heliophila "///- 
 pun species I hal wrae abundanl 
 
 Lodi thifi y i 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 125 
 
 vated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the previous year. 
 It is the two former— the climbing cut worms and army worms -that 
 chiefly concern growers of vines. 
 
 The climbing cut worms appear in the early spring and eat off the 
 expanding buds. They also feed upon the young leaves as they appear, 
 but an early attack on the swelling buds is when the most serious 
 damage is done, because the removal of the principal bud destroys the 
 fruit and the later buds usually produce sterile shoots. The two 
 commonest species concerned here are Paragrotis messoria Harris and 
 Peridroma margaritosa sauci Hubn. 
 
 The life history of all the species of this group is much the same, 
 
 FIG 17. Moths of cut worms. 
 
 and they may be discussed together. The majority spend the winter 
 as a partly grown larva. In the spring they again become active and 
 begin to feed after being more or less dormant during the winter. If 
 they are the climbing species they may be found attacking the buds or 
 young leaves of the vine.' When they become full-grown larvae they go 
 to the ground, where they change to pupae. After two or three weeks 
 in this stage the adult moth appears. These are usually dark colored 
 (Fig. 17), and because they fly about at night are seldom seen. 
 
 The eggs are laid mostly on the stems of grasses near the ground. 
 The larvae hatching from these feed at or near the ground, and since 
 they work mostly at night are not readily seen in their concealed situa- 
 tions during the day. There being plenty of vegetation at this season 
 also they do not interfere seriously with the crop. By fall they become 
 
126 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 partly grown and spend the winter in a more or less dormant condi- 
 tion. There are generally two broods of the worms in California and 
 in some eases probably three. Any one of several species, however, may 
 increase to immense numbers, and they are then called army worms. 
 
 They appear in large numbers as army worms, generally wuth the 
 second brood in midsummer. During the past year in the vicinity of 
 Lodi there was a distinct outbreak of army worms appearing simulta- 
 neously in a dozen or more different places. In nearly every case these 
 came from grain fields in which they bred, and because of the large 
 numbers and scarcity of food were forced to migrate, and as a result. 
 a number of vineyards were threatened wuth defoliation. These grain 
 fields or breeding places become pretty well dried up by August, and 
 furnish very little succulent growth for the voracious army worm. 
 
 The worms appeared this year during the first w 7 eek in August. They 
 had been feeding for a week or two in the grain fields, since some were 
 nearly full grown, but had not been observed to migrate until the date 
 mentioned. In one of these grain fields a contagious bacterial disease 
 killed them off by the thousands, and very effectively checked their 
 progress. Portions of a number of young vineyards were defoliated 
 before their presence was realized. The species concerned here was the 
 true army worm of the Eastern States, which bears the scientific name 
 of Heliophila unipuncta. In bearing vineyards, besides eating off the 
 leaves, these worms have the pernicious habit of cutting off the stems 
 of the clusters of fruit, which drop to the ground and dry up. In a 
 portion of a bearing vineyard near Lodi, w T here these pests were present, 
 this unripe fruit was picked up, while still fresh, by the basketfuls and 
 made into jelly. 
 
 These caterpillars are mostly dull-colored worms from one to two 
 inches long, with longitudinal strips of black, gray and yellow or red- 
 dish brown. There is considerable variation in color in the same 
 species, some being much darker in color. Generally the midsummer 
 brood from which the army worms arise are darker colored than the 
 -pring brood. The one present in Lodi and vicinity this year (see Fig. 
 16) had a broad black velvety stripe on the dorsal side. Below this 
 was a stripe of whitish yellow about one half the width of the former,. 
 with its center made up of broken wavy lines. Below T this was another 
 narrow stripe of black with the spiracles on the lower edge; back and a 
 little above each spiracle was a conspicuous white spot that on first 
 sight would be taken for the spiracles themselves. Below this is another 
 -tripe of light brown, and on the ventral surface a general color of 
 cinnamon brown. 
 
 Control Measures. — The cut worm, although belonging to the same 
 group as the army worm, on account of the difference in habits must 
 be controlled in a different way. Since it is those species which acquire 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 127 
 
 the climbing habit that attack vines, they require a different manner 
 of treatment from those which feed upon plants at or near the surface. 
 Because they actually devour the buds of the vine, the application of 
 a poison spray ought to be effective. However, since the surface on 
 which there may be poison in the case of buds is so small, one worm 
 may destroy most of the buds on an ordinary-sized vine before the dose 
 eaten will prove fatal. Probably one of the best ways of fighting these 
 is to place poisoned bait around the base of the vine. (For the ingre- 
 dients see under Grasshoppers, page 123.) This will be eaten by the 
 worms in preference to climbing up the vines and destroying the buds. 
 They may also be captured by means of traps. Because of their habit 
 of feeding at night and remaining concealed during the day, pieces of 
 boards may be placed on the ground around the vine and these may be 
 turned over during the day and the worms killed. 
 
 In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and success- 
 ful means of fighting them- is to keep them out of the vineyards 
 entirely. This can be successfully done if they are discovered in time, 
 or if already in one portion they can be kept from spreading over the 
 rest of the vineyard. They travel in immense numbers in a definite 
 direction, coming generally from an adjoining or nearby grain field. If 
 a furrow is plowed along the side of the vineyard to be protected it will 
 effectively stop their progress. This furrow should be plowed as deep 
 as possible, with the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It 
 can be further trimmed with a spade, preferably cutting under slightly, 
 making a smooth surface, over which few, if any, of the worms will 
 make their way. Above this shoulder fine pulverized earth should 
 slope as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in 
 climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will be 
 pretty sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an attempt 
 to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should be dug on 
 the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty feet. The worms 
 in failing to scale the vertical side of the furrow will crawl along in the 
 bottom and fall into these holes. Here they may be killed by pouring 
 in a little crude oil, or by pouring in a little distillate and dropping in 
 a match, thus burning them, or the holes filled in and others dug. They 
 may also be killed in the furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or 
 by pouring a strip of crude oil along the furrow. 
 
 It is most essential in fighting army worms that prompt and vigorous 
 efforts be undertaken immediately, since a day's delay may mean con- 
 siderable loss and more difficulty in handling the situation. Once they 
 are in the vineyard the vines infested should be heavily sprayed with 
 lead arsenate at the rate of five pounds to fifty gallons of water, or 
 with paris green in the proportion of one pound to seventy-five or one 
 hundred gallons of water. In addition to this the furrow should be 
 
L28 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 plowed, as already described, beyond the infested portion to check their 
 further spread. If these measures are undertaken promptly, what 
 might be a serious loss can be averted. 
 
 FLEA BEETLES. 
 
 (Haltica sps.) 
 
 These beetles have generally been confused with the root beetle 
 already discussed in this bulletin. In. these beetles the thighs of the 
 hind legs are enlarged, thus enabling the insect to jump much in the 
 same way as the flea; hence the name. They have frequently been 
 reported as doing damage in the State, but during the past season we 
 have not learned of any important injury done by them. Two or three 
 specimens were taken near-Lodi, and while no particular effort was 
 made to collect them, this was all we obtained during the season. 
 Certainly there were no large numbers of these beetles in the sections 
 where our work was carried on this past year. Several growers reported 
 that the flea beetle was doing considerable damage, but upon inv 
 gation these were found to be the root beetle. They are said to be 
 particularly abundant in the Sonoma Valley, but we did not have the 
 opportunity of visiting the valley during the present season. There 
 are about a dozen species of the genus Haltica occurring in this State. 
 probably the commonest occurring on the vine being the species bimar- 
 ginata. This species is not confined to the grape alone, and during the 
 past year it was exceedingly abundant in many places over the State 
 on the alder. The grape flea beetle of the Eastern States (Haltica 
 chalybia) is not known to occur here. 
 
 The flea beetle on the grape is commonly of a bluish color, about one- 
 fifth of an inch in length, and is capable of jumping, while the root 
 beetle is either black or brown in color and has no power to jump. The 
 injuries of these two beetles are also readily distinguishable. The flea 
 beetle eats out irregular holes, which may differ much in size and shape, 
 while the root beetle eats out narrow strips of very uniform size and 
 shape. They also present entirely different life histories. 
 
 Life History. — The flea beetle passes the winter among leaves or in 
 other situations affording some protection to the adult beetle, and 
 In the early spring and feeds upon the buds of the vine. These 
 may be entirely eaten away or the centers gouged out, thus destroying 
 the bud-. After feeding for some time they begin depositing their 
 __- gi tierally in the cracks in the bark or at the base of the buds. 
 Th< larvae, after hatching out, attack the leaves and eat out holes, as 
 already indicated. They continue to feed as larva? for three or four 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 129 
 
 weeks, when they drop to the ground, make a little cell just beneath 
 the surface, and change to pupae. The beetles emerge a week or two 
 later and these feed upon the leaves. There are probably two genera- 
 tions of the insect each year. Those we obtained were taken as adult 
 beetles in June, which were from eggs laid in the early spring, but 
 whether these remain until winter and hibernate, or again lay eggs, 
 was not determined. t 
 
 Control Measures. — Since this insect feeds upon the foliage both as 
 larva and adult, it may be controlled by means of a poison spray, either 
 paris green or lead arsenate. The beetles are also easily jarred from the 
 vines and the method described for capturing the root beetle can be 
 used here. 
 
 THE GRAPE-LEAF FOLDER. 
 
 (Desmia funeralis Huber.) 
 
 This insect occurs in considerable numbers in some sections of the 
 State every year, but the total injury is not usually very great. During 
 the past season the worst attack that came to our notice was in a vine- 
 yard near Reedley, where seventy-five or one hundred acres of vines 
 had a large number of their leaves rolled. On some vines nearly every 
 leaf was found to be rolled and harboring the larvae of this insect. 
 Occasional specimens were also found near Lodi, but they were not 
 numerous enough to do any important injury. 
 
 They may be easily detected in a vineyard by the characteristic 
 rolling of the leaves. One edge is rolled up rather tightly to about half 
 way across the leaf, making a tube less than the diameter of a lead 
 pencil, in which the larva lives. The leaf is always rolled on the under 
 side. The insects feed by eating off the free edge of the leaf in the interior 
 of the roll, so that they are always protected by the outer layers of the 
 rolled portion. The insect hibernates as a chrysalis, appearing and 
 laying eggs upon the vine in the spring. The larvae of the first brood 
 appear about the first of June. By the twentieth of June at Reedley 
 this year the larvae had all changed to pupae. The larva is a greenish- 
 white caterpillar, about an inch long when full grown. They wriggle 
 out of their nests very vigorously when disturbed and drop to the 
 ground. *Larvae were taken at Lodi in June and August, indicating 
 that there are at least two broods in a season. 
 
 * The head and prothoracic shield are light brown in color. On the mesothoracic 
 segment are two pale-brown spots or rings, and beyond these laterally are two larger 
 and darker crescent-shaped spots. There is also a pale spot on the same segment more' 
 ventrally and a little forward. On the preceding segment are two large irregular pale- 
 brown spots and one small round spot, also of pale brown. On the penultimate 
 segment there are two dark crescent-shaped spots situated dorsally. 
 
 3— Bul. 192 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 131 
 
 This insect occurs, apparently, throughout the United States. It is 
 very common in the Eastern and Middle Western States, but there is 
 
 FIG. 19. Larva of grape leaf-roller. 
 
 a striking difference in habits between the insect there and what is 
 considered the same species here. In the East, the leaf is simply folded 
 
 FIG. 20. Moth of grape leaf-roller, enlarged. 
 
 over on the upper surface and the edges sewed down by strands of silk. 
 There the larva feeds by eating off the upper surface of the leaf, thus 
 skeletonizing it. Here the leaf is very distinctly rolled and instead of 
 
132 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 eating off the upper surface it feeds on the free edge. According to its 
 habits in this State, leaf-roller would be a more appropriate name than 
 leaf-folder. Specimens of the moth sent to the Bureau of Entomology 
 at Washington, D. C, were identified by Dr. Dyar as Desmia funeralis 
 Huber — the same species that occurs in the Eastern States. 
 
 The moth is nearly an inch across the expanded wings, and is black 
 with white markings. There are two white spots on each wing, those 
 on the posterior wings being larger, and in some specimens fusing into 
 a single large spot. There are also two white bands across the abdomen, 
 one about the center and one near the tip. The wings are also bordered 
 with a fringe of white, and the tarsi and apical half of the antennae 
 are white. 
 
 Control Measure. — The only control measure which is likely to 
 prove effective is to spray with an arsenical before the rolling of the 
 leaf is commenced, so that they may be obliged to eat the poison, even 
 though they are within the rolled portion. If they are not too abundant, 
 hand picking or simply crushing the folded portion of the leaves will 
 be the most practical. 
 
 LEAF CHAFERS. 
 
 Under this head come the rose chafer, and other allied species, which 
 often attack the leaves of the grapevine. The true rose chafer, which 
 often does much injury to vines in the Eastern States, as far as we are 
 aware, does not occur in California. 
 
 A species which was very abundant in the neighborhood of Florin 
 during the past season was Serica mixta Lee. This insect was not 
 restricted in its feeding, however, to the vine, but attacked a great 
 variety of plants. Hoplia sackonii has also been taken in large num- 
 bers on vines at Fresno. 
 
 The life history of the rose chafer has been carefully studied, and the 
 life history of these allied species may be much the same. The younger 
 >s of these insects are passed in the ground, where the larva? feed 
 upon the roots of plants, preferably grasses. They are full grown by 
 fall and in the spring ascend toward the surface, where they change to 
 pupae. Two or three weeks later they emerge from the ground as adult 
 beetles and attack the grape and other plants. A sandy soil is especially 
 adapted for their underground habits. After feeding as adult beeths 
 f >r two or three weeks they deposit their eggs in the ground and from 
 these the next generation of larvae emerge and feed upon the roots until 
 fall 
 
 Control Men, lire — These insects are rather difficult to control, but a 
 liberal dose of poison will check them if they are not present in great 
 
Bulletin 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 133 
 
 swarms, as they sometimes occur. The jarring method as described for 
 the root beetle will also prove valuable. 
 
 Since these insects feed in the larval state upon the roots of grasses 
 growing along the roadsides or fences or irrigation ditches, much can be 
 done to prevent an outbreak by keeping nuch places free from vegetation. 
 
 WIRE WORMS. 
 
 These are long cylindrical worms with a dark 
 brown leathery covering resembling somewhat a 
 piece of rusty wire. They live for a year or 
 more in the ground, feeding upon the roots of 
 plants. They feed upon a variety of plants and 
 are not restricted to grape roots alone. We 
 have taken as many as fourteen of these worms 
 from around the roots of a vine from 
 a foot and a foot and a half from the 
 surface. During the growing season of 
 the vine when the vineyard is free 
 from vegetation these wire worms must 
 feed to a considerable extent upon the 
 roots of the vine. The adult is the well- 
 known click or snapping beetle, the one 
 most commonly met with being about 
 one-half an inch long, slender, and of 
 a dark brown or black color. We have 
 seen immense swarms of these click 
 beetles in a vineyard near Hanford, 
 and when they occur in such large 
 numbers they probably do considerable injury 
 to the vine as root feeders. 
 
 When young vines are planted in soil which 
 has previously been in hay or pasture the wire 
 worms may attack the bark just below the sur- 
 face and kill the vine by girdling it. Rupestris 
 St. George seems particularly susceptible to this 
 form of attack. The vines may be saved if the 
 wire worms congregated around the collar of the 
 vine one or two inches below the surface are 
 collected by hand in time. 
 
 Treatment. — We know of no generally satisfac- 
 tory remedy for these insects. Turning up the 
 soil is recommended for the same insect in the 
 
 FIG. 21. A 
 wire worm. 
 
 FIG. 22. Young vine gir- 
 dled by wire worms. 
 
134 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Eastj especially in the fall or winter, but such an operation is likely to 
 prove of little value in our climate here. Besides, most of those found 
 around the vines were below the reach of any plow. Clean culture in 
 the vineyard will do as much as anything, since ordinarily they feed 
 upon the roots of grasses and other plants at a comparatively short 
 distance from the surface. 
 
 ERINOSE.* 
 
 Erinose is a disease of the vine characterized by swellings on the 
 upper surface of the leaves, and corresponding depressions on the 
 
 lower surface. These swell- 
 i'l ings, when numerous, cause 
 
 !■ considerable deformation of 
 
 the leaves, but not the change 
 of color to yellow or brown 
 which is characteristic of 
 most fungous diseases. Even 
 very badly affected leaves 
 retain almost their normal 
 green color on the upper sur- 
 face until late in the season. 
 The depressions on the 
 under side are coated with a 
 thick felt-like covering, 
 which, at first pure white, 
 gradually turns rusty and 
 finally becomes dark brown. 
 Generally, the swellings and 
 corresponding depressions 
 are isolated and few in num- 
 ber on the affected leaves, but in severe cases they are numerous enough 
 to become confluent and the whole lower surface is then completely 
 hidden by the felt-like covering. Occasionally, indeed, the felt-like 
 material extends to the upper surface in narrow strips bordering the 
 veins, and may even be found on the petioles and flower clusters. 
 
 Most of the specimens received at the laboratory are sent under the 
 impression that they are attacked by a fungus, and, in fact, the coating 
 has a strong superficial resemblance to some fungous growths. A micro- 
 acopic examination shows, however, that it consists of a mass of hyper- 
 trophic! hai r~ or abnormal outgrowths of the epidermal cells of the 
 Leaf. They are larger, more abundant, and more persistent than the 
 
 l;« . Lsed from Bulletin No. L36, by F. T. Bioletti and E. H. Twight. 
 
 FIG. 23. Vine leaf affected with Erinose— upper surface. 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 135 
 
 normal leaf-hairs of the leaf, and differ also in being often branched 
 and usually unicellular. This abnormal growth, in common with 
 similar growths found on other plants, is called an erineum, from a 
 Greek word meaning woolly. This is the derivation of the word erinose, 
 which means woolly disease — a very appropriate name. The erinea of 
 leaves were formerly supposed to be of fungous origin, but are now 
 known to be due to the attacks of minute mites. The feeding of these 
 mites exert a stimulating effect upon the epidermal cells of the leaf, 
 which causes them to grow out into the abnormal hair-like processes 
 already described. The mite causing erinose of the vine is known as 
 Eriophyes vitis, and is related to the mites causing a similar disease of 
 the walnut and the leaf blister of the pear, both of which are very 
 common in California. 
 
 The Eriophyes vitis is not a true insect, but a mite or acarid belong- 
 ing to the class of Arachnida to which belong also spiders, scorpions, 
 ticks, and our common red spider so destructive to fruit trees. These 
 mites are extremely minute, and only a practiced eye can perceive them 
 among the tangled mass of erineum on the leaf, by the aid of an ordinary 
 hand magnifier, and then only with great difficulty. 
 
 Amount of Injury. — Erinose was formerly considered to be a very 
 serious disease of the vine, owing to the fact that its effects were con- 
 fused with those of the powdery mildew. It is only in very exceptional 
 cases that it is, alone, capable of doing serious injury to the vine or its 
 crop. When accompanying oidium or drought it may, however, per- 
 ceptibly increase the damage due to these causes. When very abundant 
 it may seriously interfere with the growth of young vines, but accord- 
 ing to Mayet, never damages old vines, except by interfering slightly 
 with the ripening of the canes, or at most causing an almost impercep- 
 tible diminution of crop. All varieties of vines are not equally attacked. 
 According to Ravaz, certain American species such as Berlandieri, 
 Mustang, Cinerea, Cordifolia, and Scuppernong are immune. All vari- 
 eties of Vinifera are susceptible, but not equally. Of varieties culti- 
 vated in California, Sauvignon, Sirah, Marsanne, and Gamay Teinturier 
 are said by Ravaz to be little subject to attack; while Aramon, Cinsaut, 
 and Frontignan (Small Muscatel) are very susceptible. The worst 
 cases so far observed in California have been on Flame Tokay and 
 Mission, but it has been found also on other varieties, among them 
 Zinfandel and Muscat. 
 
 Distribution in California. — The first specimens of erinose received 
 by the Experiment Station were sent from Windsor, Sonoma County, 
 in 1896. The next year affected leaves were received from Healdsburg 
 and Dry Creek, in the same county. All these cases were upon Mission 
 vines. Since then specimens of the disease have been received from 
 nearly every grape-growing county of the State. 
 
136 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Methods of Treatment. — Since sulfuring the vines for the treatment of 
 oidium has become general in France, there has been little trouble with 
 erinose. The mite seems as sensitive to the fumes of sulfur as the red 
 spider, and several sulfurings during the late spring and early summer 
 are recommended for the control of the mite. The only vineyards which 
 have been found badly affected in California are those in which little or no 
 sulfuring has been done, or those where the growth of foliage has been 
 so luxuriant as to prevent the evaporation of the sulfur by the sun. 
 In the latter cases the vines are so strong that they practically 
 receive no harm from the disease. Tests made on Tokay vines indicate 
 that the erinose can be easily and readily controlled at any stage in 
 California by sulfuring. In severe cases a winter treatment of the vine 
 stumps is practiced in France. This treatment consists in pouring 
 about one quart of boiling water over the stump. For very large 
 stumps a somewhat greater amount of water is used, and for smaller 
 vines a proportionate amount. This method is said to be very efficacious, 
 and with the portable boiler constructed for the purpose two men can 
 treat from fifteen hundred to two thousand vines per day. Cuttings 
 taken from affected vines for the purpose of rooting or grafting may be 
 thoroughly disinfected by placing them in hot water (122° F.) for ten 
 minutes. If this is done carefully all the mites and their eggs will be 
 destroyed without injury to the cuttings. 
 
 NEMATODE ROOT GALL. 
 
 (Heterodera radicola (Greef) Mull.) 
 
 Nematodes are not insects, nor are they very closely related to 
 insects. They belong to the class of animals known as Vermes or true 
 worms. The common earthworm is the best known example of the 
 class, although it occupies a position in the group higher than that of 
 the nematodes. There are a good many species of nematodes — some 
 living in the ground, a good many are parasites on animals, and a few 
 live parasitically on plants. Often in moist soil, rich in humus, such as 
 vegetable gardens, there may be large numbers of very minute whitish 
 transparent worms. These are nematodes, however, that do no notice- 
 able injury to plants, and it is only the parasitic species, of which the 
 subject of this account is an example, that are of any concern to growers 
 of crops. 
 
 The specie- of nematode worm that attacks the grapevine in this 
 State -according to Dr. Ernst Bessey of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture, who is; at present engaged in an investigation of this group— is 
 Heterodera radicola (Greef) Mull. This species is widely distributed 
 
BULLETIN 192. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 
 
 137 
 
 over the world, and attacks a large variety of plants. In the Argentine 
 Republic it is said to be the most destructive disease of the vine occur- 
 ring in that country.* In the United States, outside of greenhouses, 
 nematodes are chiefly injurious in the Southern States and in California. 
 
 This parasitic species is an exceedingly small wormlike creature 
 about one seventy-fifth of an inch long, and of a transparent whitish 
 color. It has a sharp slender organ on the head that enables it to make 
 its way into the more tender portions of the roots, where it embeds itself 
 in the tissues. Here it develops, and lays the eggs from which succeed- 
 ing generations arise. These may scatter through the soil and attack 
 other portions of the root. By means of 
 this sharp lancelike organ they are able to 
 draw nourishment from the roots. It is not M Jf% 
 so much this direct drain on the roots, how- 
 ever, that causes the damage as it is in the 
 decay of the hypertrophied tissue due to the 
 irritation caused by the work of the worms. 
 They make conditions favorable for the 
 attack of wood-rot fungi, which hasten the 
 decay. The roots of vines infested with 
 this worm show numerous swellings, some- 
 what like that due to phylloxera. The 
 nodosities or swellings caused by phyllox- 
 era, however, are most conspicuous and are 
 larger on the smaller roots, while those of 
 nematodes are largest on the larger roots. 
 The swellings are also of firmer consistency 
 than those of phylloxera. 
 
 The general effect on the vine is not very different from that of the 
 phylloxera. The distribution of the affected vines will, however, gener- 
 ally distinguish the two. Vineyards infested with phylloxera show the 
 characteristic oil-spots, the interior vines being worst affected and grad- 
 ually diminishing in injury toward the periphery of the affected spot. 
 The amount of injury is said to vary with the soil conditions, but the 
 authorities apparently are not agreed, some claiming less injury in 
 light, sandy soil and others the reverse. Moisture is, no doubt, the 
 most important factor in favoring their development. In California 
 this pest seems to be most common on vines in the Fresno section, and, 
 in general, this is a section of sandy soil. 
 
 Control. — No satisfactory remedy has yet been found for controlling 
 parasitic nematodes. In greenhouses the usual procedure is to sterilize 
 the soil, but this, obviously, is not applicable to a vineyard. However, 
 
 FIG. 24. N. Swellings on the roots 
 of vine caused by the Nematode 
 root gall. M, M. Eggs of the 
 Nematodes found in these galls. 
 
 *Boletin del Ministerio de Agricultura, Buenos Ayres, Mayo de 1906. 
 
13S UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 if the soil is known to be infested, disinfection is sometimes practiced 
 before planting out young vines. This is done by an application of 
 carbon bisulfid to the soil. Trap plants have also been used, these being 
 annuals that are pulled up before the nematodes escape. In time it 
 may be found that resistant stock is the solution of the problem. In 
 the bulletin already referred to it is stated that the Isabella is slightly 
 resistant, while Vitis riparia has shown no nodules after the first year. 
 This fact is interesting as a suggestion that both phylloxera and 
 nematodes may be controlled by the same resistant. 
 
Bulletin 192. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE VINE. 139 
 
 KEY FOR DETERMINING THE INSECT INJURIES TO THE VINE 
 DESCRIBED IN THIS BULLETIN. 
 
 Injury to the Leaves. 
 
 No part of the leaf eaten away, but having pale spots, or being 
 entirely pale yellow, or dried up, those about the crown of the vine, 
 particularly the lower ones, worst affected. Vine hopper, page 111. 
 
 Leaves with irregular holes eaten out. Flea beetles, page 128; Grass- 
 hoppers, page 122; or Leaf chafers, page 132. 
 
 Leaves with regular chain-like slits eaten away. Root beetles, page 116. 
 
 Leaves rolled up from one side. Leaf rollers, page 129. 
 
 Leaves entirely devoured. Army worms, page 124; Grasshoppers , 
 page 122; Hawk moth larvse, page 119. 
 
 Leaves with swellings on upper surface, and grayish white to dark, 
 brown felt covering on corresponding depressions on under side. Erinose, 
 page 134. 
 
 Injury to Petioles and Pedicels. 
 
 Narrow strips of uniform size eaten away. Root beetle, page 116. 
 
 Injury to the Berry. 
 
 Narrow strips about one fourth of an inch long gouged out. Root 
 beetle, page 116. 
 
 Clusters cut off and dropped to ground. Army worm, page 124. 
 
 Injury to the Roots. 
 
 Long strips of the bark eaten away. Root beetle, page 116. 
 
 The smaller rootlets only eaten off'. Wire worm, page 133. 
 
 Nodosities or swellings, largest on smaller roots, often at extreme tip, 
 decay of hypertrophied tissue. Phylloxera, page 99. 
 
 Nodosities or swellings largest on larger roots, two or three times the 
 diameter of those caused by phylloxera, and of firmer consistency, 
 none at extreme tip. Nematodes, page 136. 
 
 Injury to the Whole Vine. 
 
 These are the same as under root injury, since injury to the roots 
 affects the vine as a whole. 
 
 Vines whose canes are checked in growth or completely stunted, and 
 if leaves have chain-like strips eaten out. Root worm, page 116. 
 
140 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 Vines in circular spots in vineyard showing stunted growth, those 
 in center of spot worst affected and gradually diminishing outward. 
 Phylloxera, page 99. 
 
 Vines with symptoms similar to phylloxera, but not in well-defined 
 circular spots, nor with interior ones worst affected. Nematodes, page 136. 
 
 HOW TO SEND SPECIMENS. 
 
 Insect specimens should be inclosed in a wooden, tin or strong paste- 
 board box. No provision need be made for air. Accompany specimens 
 with samples of their work. If roots or leaves, wrap in moist news- 
 paper and inclose in tight box to prevent drying. If phylloxera is 
 suspected, place pieces of roots in a firm box that is absolutely tight; 
 or otherwise thoroughly seal, to prevent any possibility of escape in the 
 mails. 
 
STATION PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 REPORTS. 
 
 1896. Report of the Viticultural Work during the seasons 1887-93, with data 
 
 regarding the Vintages of 1894-95. 
 
 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to 
 
 Viticultural Report for 1896. 
 
 1898. Partial Report of Work of Agricultural Experiment Station for the years 
 
 1895-96 and 1896-97. 
 1900. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1897-98. 
 
 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 
 
 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-1903. 
 
 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-1904- 
 
 TECHNICAL BULLETINS— ENTOMOLOGICAL SERIES. 
 
 Vol. 1, No. 1 — Wing Veins of Insects. 
 
 No. 2 — Catalogue of the Ephydridse. 
 
 BULLETINS. 
 
 Reprint. Endurance of Drought in Soils of the Arid Region. 
 
 No. 128. Nature, Value and Utilization of Alkali Lands, and Tolerance of Alkali. 
 (Revised and Reprint, 1905.) 
 
 133. Tolerance of Alkali by Various Cultures. 
 
 140. Lands of the Colorado Delta in Salton Basin, and Supplement. 
 
 141. Deciduous Fruits at Paso Robles. 
 
 142. Grasshoppers in California. 
 
 147. Culture Work of the Substations. 
 
 148. Resistant Vines and their Hybrids. 
 
 149. California Sugar Industry. 
 
 150. The Value of Oak Leaves for Forage. 
 
 151. Arsenical Insecticides. 
 
 152. Fumigation Dosage. 
 
 153. Spraying with Distillates. 
 
 154. Sulfur Sprays for Red Spider. 
 156. Fowl Cholera. 
 
 158. California Olive Oil ; its Manufacture. 
 
 159. Contribution to the Study of Fermentation. 
 
 160. The Hop Aphis. 
 
 161. Tuberculosis in Fowls. (Reprint.) 
 
 162. Commercial Fertilizers. (Dec. 1, 1904.) 
 
 163. Pear Scab. 
 
 164. Poultry Feeding and Proprietary Foods. (Reprint.) 
 
 165. Asparagus and Asparagus Rust in California. 
 
 166. Spraying for Scale Insects. 
 
 167. Manufacture of Dry Wines in Hot Countries. 
 
 168. Observations on Some Vine Diseases in Sonoma County. 
 
 169. Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for Alkali. 
 
 170. Studies in Grasshopper Control. 
 
 171. Commercial Fertilizers. (June 30, 1905.) 
 
 172. Further Experience in Asparagus Rust Control. 
 
 173. Commercial Fertilizers. (December, 1905.) 
 
 174. A New Wine-Cooling Machine. 
 
 175. Tomato Diseases in California. 
 
 176. Sugar Beets in the San Joaquin Valley. 
 
 177. A New Method of Making Dry Red Wine. 
 
 178. Mosquito Control. 
 
 179. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1906.) 
 
 180. Resistant Vineyards. 
 
 181. The Selection of Seed-Wheat. 
 
 182. Analysis of Paris Green and Lead Arsenate. Proposed Insecticide Law. 
 
 183. The California Tussock-moth. 
 
 184. Report of the Plant Pathologist to July 1, 1906. 
 
 185. Report of Progress in Cereal Investigations. 
 
 186. The Oidium of the Vine. 
 
 187. Commercial Fertilizers. (January, 1907.) 
 
 188. Lining of Ditches and Reservoirs to Prevent Seepage and Losses. 
 
 189. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1907.) 
 
 190. The Brown Rot of the Lemon. 
 
 191. California Peach Blight. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 CIRCULARS. 
 
 No. 1. 
 2 
 
 3.' 
 4. 
 5. 
 7. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 22. 
 
 Texas Fever. 
 
 Blackleg. 
 
 Hog Cholera. 
 
 Anthrax. 
 
 Contagious Abortion in Cows. 
 
 Remedies for Insects. 
 
 Asparagus Rust. 
 
 Reading Course in Economic 
 
 Entomology. ( Revision. ) 
 Fumigation Practice. 
 Silk Culture. 
 
 The Culture of the Sugar Beet. 
 Recent Problems in Agriculture. 
 
 What a University Farm is For. 
 Notes on Seed-Wheat. 
 Why Agriculture Should Be 
 
 Taught in the Public Schools. 
 Caterpillars on Oaks. 
 Disinfection of Stables. 
 Reading Course in Irrigation. 
 The Advancement of Agricultural 
 
 Education. 
 Defecation of Must for White 
 
 Wine. 
 
 No. 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 
 30. 
 31. 
 
 32. 
 33. 
 
 Pure Yeast in Wineries. 
 
 Olive Pickling. 
 
 Suggestions Regarding Exam- 
 ination of Lands. 
 
 Selection and Preparation of 
 Vine Cuttings. 
 
 Marly Subsoils and the Chlo- 
 rosis or Yellowing of Citrus 
 Trees. 
 
 A Preliminary Progress Report 
 of Cereal Investigations, 1905- 
 1907. 
 
 Preliminary Announcement con- 
 cerning Instruction in Practi- 
 cal Agriculture upon the 
 University Farm, Davisville, 
 Cal. 
 
 White Fly in California. 
 
 The Agricultural College and Its 
 Relationship to the Scheme of 
 National Education. 
 
 White Fly Eradication. 
 
 Packing Prunes in Cans. Cane 
 Sugar vs. Beet Sugar. 
 
 Copies may be had on application to Director of Experiment Station, Berkeley, CaL