THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 *rhi:toric 
 
 composition 
 
 1 ItkxJKtiUiKE^- 1 
 

 {.JtuW^ 
 
RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 
 
THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC 
 
 AND COMPOSITION 
 
 BY 
 
 ASHLEY H. THORNDIKE, PH.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE CENTURY CO. 
 
 1910 
 
Copyright, 1905, by 
 The Century Co. 
 
 toUCATlOH LISBi 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANV 
 
 BROOKLYN, N. Y. 
 

 PREFACE 
 
 This book is intended to be a hand-book for the stu- 
 dent. It aims to provide information, directions, il- 
 lustrations, and exercises sufficient to guide him in the 
 practical work of writing themes. Consequently it is 
 addressed to the student and not to the teacher. Sug- 
 gestions and information desirable for the teacher, 
 which have been excluded from this book, have been 
 placed in a " Manual for Teachers," designed to ac- 
 company it. 
 
 The question of the order in which the different 
 parts of rhetoric are to be studied must be considered 
 by every teacher with respect to the needs of his 
 pupils. The present arrangement will, it is believed, 
 prove its adaptability to the needs of the great ma- 
 jority of classes ; but the chapters of the book are dis- 
 tinct by themselves, each devoted to a separate topic, 
 so that changes in their order may be readily made to 
 suit special conditions. 
 
 A course in composition to be worth much must 
 call for regular practice in writing by the student, 
 and writing under the guidance and personal criticism 
 of a competent teacher. This book is for use in such 
 a course of theme- writing. The text of the following 
 
 lVi5'7705e 
 
VI 
 
 Preface 
 
 chapters is intended to supplement the work of the 
 teacher by presenting the essential of rhetorical theory, 
 examples of good prose, and practical directions for 
 the student. 
 
 The exercises accompanying the text are in two 
 groups, headed I and II. Those under II are based 
 on the succeeding instead of on the preceding chapter. 
 They are inductive in character, calling upon the stu- 
 dent to observe, investigate, and think on questions 
 arising in the course of his practice. Similarly the ex- 
 ercises on correct usage precede instead of follow the 
 lists of improprieties and solecisms. Rhetoric is an 
 art, and cannot be taught solely by the inductive 
 method; but anything that will awaken the student's 
 interest in what is coming, that will keep him ahead 
 of the text, must surely approve itself to teachers. 
 
 The exercises under I provide themes, drill on the 
 text, criticism of themes by the class, and study and 
 analysis of selections from the best prose writers. 
 The exercises are numerous and vary in difficulty as 
 well as in purpose. It is hardly expected that any 
 one class will perform them all; it will doubtless often 
 be wise to omit many and center attention on a few. 
 It is hoped, however, that the exercises are of a char- 
 acter to suggest to the teacher many additions and 
 variations. 
 
 What merit the book possesses is in a large degree 
 the result of the work of those men who during the 
 past twenty years have through their text-books im- 
 proved so greatly the teaching of rhetoric. The indebt- 
 
Preface vii 
 
 edness to the books of Professors Scott and Denney, 
 Pearson, Genung, Hill, Clark, and Wendell will be 
 obvious to all. The indebtedness, too, extends to 
 nearly all the text-books of rhetoric in use to-day. 
 This book has been composed, not with the aim of 
 offering anything untried or revolutionary, but in an 
 effort to combine in a brief and practical manual some 
 of the excellences of preceding books in the light of 
 the author's own experience as a student and a teacher. 
 
Contents 
 
 PART I 
 
 PRELIMINARIES 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I The Art of Rhetoric 3 
 
 II Rules and Principles 15 
 
 III What to Write About 22 
 
 IV Subject and Title 31 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 V The Paragraph as a Unit 36 
 
 VI The Development of the Paragraph . 52 
 VII Themes of Two Paragraphs — Exposition 
 
 and Argument 69 
 
 VIII Themes of Two Paragraphs — Descrip- 
 tion AND Narrative ...... 84 
 
 LONGER THEMES 
 
 IX The Plan 105 
 
 X The Beginning and the End .... 118 
 XI The Development of the Theme . . 128 
 XII The Division of the Theme into Para- 
 graphs 141 
 
 XIII Summary of Part I 157 
 
 ix 
 
X Contents 
 
 PART II 
 SENTENCES 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XIV Different Forms of Sentences . . . 171 
 
 XV Unity in Sentences 187 
 
 XVI Coherence in Sentences 200 
 
 XVII Emphasis in Sentences 220 
 
 XVIII The Quality of Beauty in Sentences . 234 
 
 WORDS 
 
 XIX The Vocabulary 254 
 
 XX Figures of Speech. Suggestive Words . 264 
 
 XXI Words to Avoid . 278 
 
 GOOD USE 
 
 XXII Good Use 286 
 
 XXIII Idioms. Translation English . . . 293 
 
 XXIV Barbarisms. Improprieties .... 300 
 XXV Solecisms 309 
 
 Appendix A. Punctuation. Capitalization . 325 
 
 Appendix B. English Verse 333 
 
 Index . 349 
 
PART I 
 
 PRELIMINARIES, PARAGRAPHS 
 LONGER THEMES 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF 
 RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE ART OF RHETORIC 
 
 I. In any piece of writing, even a letter to a friend, a 
 number of questions are likely to occur that are not 
 easily answered. Usually the first is, " What shall I 
 write about ? " Many subjects come to mind, and the 
 writer finds himself questioning the suitability of each, 
 rejecting some, selecting others. Suppose that out of 
 a long list — my bicycle ride last Saturday, our foot- 
 ball team, my new studies, the recovery of my lost 
 dog, and many more — he decides to begin with the 
 first. Immediately there are other questions : " What 
 can I say about that ride ? What happened ? " In order 
 to determine the treatment of the subject, he finds it 
 necessary to put his mind actively to work on that 
 particular experience. After he has selected and ar- 
 ranged the events in his own mind and has begun to 
 write, he is soon wondering how the story will affect 
 his reader. " Will my friend be amused by my walk 
 home through the rain?" " Ani I making all this 
 clear and interesting to him?" 
 
 3 
 
Preli 
 
 minaries 
 
 2. Questions like these are all the time confronting 
 the writers of essays, novels, and histories as well as 
 the writers of letters. They must be encountered 
 whenever anything is written that is intended to be 
 read; and, whether in the case of this letter about 
 a bicycle ride or of a more important composition, a 
 little consideration shows that these various questions 
 can be grouped in three problems. There is the prob- 
 lem of the subject: what shall it be? how shall it be 
 treated? There is the problem of the writer: what 
 are his thoughts and feelings, and how shall he ex- 
 press them? There is the problem of the reader: how 
 shall the writer's thoughts and feelings on certain 
 subjects be made clear and interesting to the reader? 
 Or, if we combine these, we have the main problem of 
 composition, — how to express our thoughts and feel- 
 ings on any subject so that they will be clear and in- 
 teresting to some one else. The art of doing this is 
 Rhetoric. 
 
 3- If the student is to learn to write well, he should 
 begin by recognizing the problem of the writer. He 
 desires to express his ideas in written language, conse- 
 quently it is necessary to discover what his ideas are. 
 This will not be accomplished merely by holding a pen 
 over a pad of paper, or even by writing plainly in black 
 ink. Nor can the student discover what he thinks by 
 reading or by listening to other people ; to write well, 
 he must get into the habit of thinking and feeling for 
 himself. He should find out what information he has 
 on a subject and in what way it interests him; and 
 
The Art of Rhetoric 5 
 
 when his information and interest are slight, he should 
 try to increase them. Frequent practice in writing will 
 in turn aid one in thinking well. The best way for the 
 student to determine whether or not he is thinking 
 clearly on any subject is to put his thoughts into words, 
 and the best way to ascertain the importance of his feel- 
 ings is to write them out and see if they interest some 
 one else. The more he writes the greater will be his 
 command over ideas; but, on the other hand, he will 
 never write well until he puts his mind to work. 
 4. In every composition he must put his mind to work 
 on a particular subject. Whether he is writing that let- 
 ter about the bicycle ride, or a summary of Macaulay'is 
 Essay on Johnson, or an analysis of Burke's Speech on 
 Conciliation with America, or a Rhetoric for high- 
 school students, he must face the problem, how shall I 
 treat this subject? The four compositions just men- 
 tioned require different treatment in length, arrange- 
 ment, and language; so any subject requires a special 
 kind of treatment. Suppose, for example, that the 
 writer has plenty of ideas about his bicycle ride, that 
 he knows what road he took, how he lost his way, how 
 the collision occurred, and that he remembers how he 
 felt when he fell from the wheel, and again when it be- 
 gan to rain, and when he was toward the end of his five- 
 mile walk. Here are matters enough; but what shall 
 be rejected, what retained; how much of the letter shall 
 each occupy ; how shall they be arranged ; — in short, 
 how is the writer to give the best possible account of 
 this particular excursion ? Every writer, whether a be- 
 
6 Preliminaries 
 
 ginner or a master, must labor over the requirements 
 and opportunities of the subject. Edmund Burke 
 probably had more ideas than any other man of his 
 time, but he did not walk into the House of Commons 
 and begin a speech, trusting merely to his wealth of 
 ideas. Those who have studied his Speech on Con- 
 ciliation know how thoroughly he had studied and an- 
 alyzed his subject. So, in school exercises, the student 
 will constantly need to remember that he should try to 
 do justice not only to himself but also to his subject. 
 5- He must consider as well how to do justice to the 
 reader. We have seen that the style of any piece of 
 writing will depend in part on the writer and in part on 
 the subject. It ought, also, to be determined by the 
 reader. We are writing that some one may read, and 
 our success in writing well must always be judged by 
 our readers. Literature consists of writing that has 
 delighted and interested the best minds in every genera- 
 tion; and though we may not write literature, we can 
 try to inform or interest some one in this generation. 
 In practice the student will find it useful to keep some 
 particular readers in mind, to remember that he is not 
 writing exercises merely for the teacher, but for boys 
 in the school, for the class, or for his townspeople. 
 The letter about the bicycle ride is meant for a friend ; 
 it accomplishes its purpose if it pleases him. This book 
 is intended for boys and girls in high schools, and un- 
 less it is clear and interesting to them, it fails as a text- 
 book. Macaulay spared no pains in revising and re- 
 writing his essays in order to make them perfectly clear, 
 
The Art of Rhetoric 7 
 
 and, in consequence, the number of his readers has been 
 increasing for three quarters of a century. Though no 
 special class is addressed, the reader should still be kept 
 in mind. We may suppose ourselves to be addressing 
 a person of at least average intelligence, taste, and in- 
 formation, and we should consider not only how the 
 subject appears to us, but also how we can present our 
 views. so that he will understand and be interested in 
 them. 
 
 6. When a style is clear and interesting, it possesses 
 two essential qualities. A style has clearness when its 
 meaning is unmistakable, and it has force when it at- 
 tracts and holds the reader's attention. There are other 
 desirable qualities. A style may have rapidity or ease 
 or rhythm or humor or pathos ; a great style is not only 
 clear and interesting, it is also delightful. It has the 
 quality that we call charm or elegance or beauty. In 
 the selections from great writers of prose in this book, 
 there will be a chance to study this quality of beauty in 
 style. The student will have made important steps, 
 however, in the practical art of writing well when he 
 can express his ideas about a subject with clearness and 
 force. 
 
 7* We have been applying " style " to the expression 
 of ideas in written language. Evidently written lan- 
 guage differs from spoken. Listen for a moment to 
 two school-girls conversing, and then turn to a printed 
 page. 
 
 " Is n't this lesson long? '' 
 
 " Yes, it 's so hard to remember." 
 
8 Preli 
 
 minanes 
 
 '' Are n't you going to the class party ? " 
 " I don't know. What are you going to wear ? " 
 " Oh, dear! I have n't thought." 
 The conversation is full of abbreviations, the sentences 
 are brief and disconnected, on paper the matter is in- 
 significant. We need a knowledge of the persons 
 speaking, a sight of their faces, the sound of their 
 voices, to give such talk any interest. Turn now to a 
 printed page in a book. It is not so disconnected or so 
 full of abbreviations. The words are grouped into sen- 
 tences, the sentences into paragraphs, the paragraphs 
 into chapters with titles. Almost all printed compo- 
 sitions have the same divisions. All themes — so we 
 name short compositions — consist of a number of sen- 
 tences combined into one or more paragraphs. The art 
 of rhetoric teaches us how to express our thoughts in 
 these various groups of words — sentences, paragraphs, 
 and themes. We must learn the ways and means of 
 these units of composition. 
 
 8. What we have been discussing so far can be 
 summed up in a few definitions. Rhetoric is the art of 
 expressing our ideas to other people by means of writ- 
 ten language. The expression in written language is 
 called style, and the process of putting together words 
 to make style is called composition. Rhetoric teaches 
 us to do justice to the writer, the subject, and the 
 reader ; to express our thoughts and feelings on a sub- 
 ject so as to impress the average reader. If he under- 
 stands and is interested, the style is said to have clear- 
 ness and force. Every piece of writing may be called 
 a composition; short compositions are named themes. 
 
The Art of Rhetoric 9 
 
 The units of composition in which the student is in- 
 terested are words, sentences, paragraphs, and themes. 
 The purpose of Rhetoric is to teach him how to use 
 these with clearness and force. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 The Exercises at the end of each chapter are divided into two 
 sets numbered I and II. Those under I provide (i) sub- 
 jects and directions for themes, to be written either in the class- 
 room or at home; (2) for criticisms of themes by students 
 themselves as well as by the teacher ; (3) for drill on the matter 
 in the text-book; and (4) for critical study of the prose of the 
 best writers. Exercises under II are based on the succeeding in- 
 stead of the preceding chapters in the text. They call, therefore, 
 for original thinking and investigating on the part of the students. 
 The Exercises may be used in various ways. Some are 
 suitable for class-room work, some for home work. An exer- 
 cise may be assigned to a single member of the class or to 
 several. Then the results can be discussed and compared in 
 class. The Exercises under II are adapted for such special 
 assignments. 
 
 Directions for theme writing 
 
 1. A uniform size of paper should be prescribed for the class. 
 In general, ruled white paper, about eight by ten inches in 
 size, is preferable. A margin of an inch should be ruled off 
 at the left of the sheet. 
 
 2. The pupil should write on only one side of the paper. If 
 the theme occupies more than one sheet, each sheet should be 
 numbered in the upper right-hand corner. 
 
 3. The title of the theme should be written on the first ruled 
 line of the first page. The important words of the title should 
 begin with capitals. 
 
 4. The theme should be written plainly in black ink. There is 
 no excuse for slovenly handwriting. Neither is there any excuse 
 for careless spelling or grammar. 
 
lo Preliminaries 
 
 5, Each sheet should be folded lengthwise, the paper being 
 turned to the right in folding. On the outside, at the top of 
 the right side of the folded sheet, should be written: (i) the 
 name of the class; (2) the name of the writer; (3) the date; 
 (4) the title of the theme; as follows: 
 
 English I. Section 3. 
 
 John Jones. 
 
 September 30, 1904. 
 
 The Last Day of My Vacation. 
 
 Most of these directions apply to manuscript prepared for 
 printers as well as to themes for class. 
 
 1. In what senses have you heard " rhetoric " used 
 besides that given in the text? Compare your know- 
 ledge of its meaning with the definitions in an una- 
 bridged dictionary. 
 
 (Every student should make sure that he knows how 
 to use a dictionary. He should inquire in class in 
 regard to any signs or abbreviations the meaning of 
 which he cannot discover.) 
 
 2. Of the writers with whom you are familiar, which 
 has the clearest and most forcible style ? Find a short 
 passage by that writer or some other which seems to 
 you especially clear and forcible. 
 
 3' Of the following passages, which interests you the 
 most? Why? What in the subject-matter interests 
 you? What in the style? 
 
 I. My friend Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has 
 beautified the inside of his church with several texts of 
 his own choosing; he has likewise given a handsome 
 
The Art of Rhetoric 1 1 
 
 pulpit cloth, and railed in the communion-table at his own 
 expense. He has often told me that at his coming to his 
 estate he found his parishioners very irregular ; and that 
 in order to make them kneel and join in the responses, he 
 gave every one of them a hassock and a common-prayer 
 book ; and at the same time employed an itinerant singing- 
 master, who goes about the country for that purpose, to 
 instruct them rightly in the tunes of the Psalms; upon 
 which they now very much value themselves, and indeed 
 outdo most of the country churches that I have ever heard. 
 As Sir Roger is landlord to the whole congregation, he 
 keeps them in very good order, and will suffer nobody to 
 sleep in it besides himself; for if by chance he has been 
 surprised into a short nap at sermon, upon recovering out 
 of it he stands up and looks about him, and if he sees any- 
 body else nodding, either wakes them himself, or sends 
 his servant to them. Several other of the old knight's 
 particularities break out upon these occasions. Some- 
 times he will be lengthening out a verse in the singing 
 psalms, half a minute after the rest of the congregation 
 have done with it; sometimes when he is pleased with 
 the matter of his devotion, he pronounces Amen three 
 or four times to the same prayer; and sometimes stands 
 up when everybody else is upon their knees, to count the 
 congregation, or see if any of his tenants are missing. 
 Joseph Addison: The Spectator. 
 
 2. The Old Manse! We had almost forgotten it, but 
 will return thither through the orchard. This was set out 
 by the last clergyman in the decline of his life, when the 
 neighbors laughed at the hoary-headed man for planting 
 trees from which he could have no prospect of gathering 
 fruit. Even had that been the case, there was only so 
 much the better motive for planting them in the pure and 
 unselfish hope of benefiting his successors — an end so 
 seldom achieved by more ambitious efforts. But the old 
 minister, before reaching his patriarchal age of ninety, ate 
 the apples from the orchard during many years, and added 
 silver and gold to his annual stipend by disposing of the 
 
1 2 Preliminaries 
 
 superfluity. It is pleasant to think of him walking among 
 the trees in the quiet afternoons of early autumn and 
 picking up here and there an early windfall, while he ob- 
 serves how heavily the branches are weighed down, and 
 computes the number of empty flour barrels that will be 
 filled with their burden. He loved each tree, doubtless, as 
 if it had been his own child. An orchard has a relation 
 to mankind, and readily connects itself with matters of 
 the heart. The trees possess a domestic character; they 
 have lost the wild nature of their forest kindred, and have 
 grown humanized by receiving the care of man as well as 
 by contributing to his wants. There is so much individu- 
 ality of character, too, among apple trees that it gives 
 them an additional claim to be the objects of human in- 
 terest. One is harsh and crabbed in its manifestations ; 
 another gives us fruit as mild as charity. One is churlish 
 and illiberal, evidently grudging the few apples that it 
 bears ; another exhausts itself in free-hearted benevolence. 
 The variety of grotesque shapes into which apple trees 
 contort themselves has its effect on those who get ac- 
 quainted with them : they stretch out their crooked 
 branches and take such hold of the imagination that we 
 remember them as humorists and odd fellows. And what 
 is more melancholy than the old apple trees that linger 
 about the spot where once stood a homestead, but where 
 there is now only a ruined chimney rising out of the 
 grassy and weed-grown cellar? They offer their fruit to 
 every wayfarer, — apples that are bitter-sweet with the 
 moral of time's vicissitude. 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne: Mosses from an 
 Old Manse. 
 
 3. It is not strange that the success of the Spectator 
 should have been such as no similar work has ever ob- 
 tained. The number of copies daily distributed was at 
 first three thousand. It subsequently increased, and had 
 risen to near four thousand when the stamp tax was im- 
 posed. That tax was fatal to a crowd of journals. The 
 Spectator, however, stood its ground, doubled its price, 
 
The Art of Rhetoric 13 
 
 and, though its circulation fell off, still yielded a large 
 revenue both to the state and to the authors. For par- 
 ticular papers, the demand was immense; of some, it is 
 said, twenty thousand copies were required. But this was 
 not all. To have the Spectator served up every morning 
 with the bohea and rolls, was a luxury for the few. The 
 majority were content to wait till essays enough had ap- 
 peared to form a volume. Ten thousand copies of each 
 volume were immediately taken off, and new editions were 
 called for. It must be remembered, that the population 
 of England was then hardly a third of what it now is. 
 The number of Englishmen who were in the habit of 
 reading, was probably not a sixth of what it now is. A 
 shopkeeper or a farmer who found any pleasure in litera- 
 ture, was a rarity. Nay, there was doubtless more than 
 one knight of the shire whose country seat did not con- 
 tain ten books, receipt books and books on farriery in- 
 cluded. In these circumstances, the sale of the Spectator 
 must be considered as indicating a popularity quite as 
 great as that of the most successful works of Sir Walter 
 Scott and Mr. Dickens in our own time. 
 
 Thomas B. Macaulay: Essay on Addison. 
 
 4. Write a theme, not over 200 words in length, on 
 some subject especially interesting to you. 
 
 5. These themes (Exercise 4) should be read in class 
 and criticized by teacher and students in respect to their 
 intelligibility and interest. Let members of the class 
 suggest ways of improving each theme in these respects. 
 
 6. Rewrite the following conversation, retaining its 
 substance but not the form of the sentences, using no 
 direct quotation, changing to the third person, and put- 
 ting it all in one paragraph. 
 
 " My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, 
 " have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last? " 
 
1 4 Preliminaries 
 
 Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. 
 
 " But it is," returned she ; '' for Mrs. Long has just 
 been here, and she told me all about it." 
 
 Mr. Bennet made no answer. 
 
 " Do you not want to know who has taken it ? " cried 
 his wife impatiently. 
 
 '* You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hear- 
 ing it." 
 
 This was invitation enough. 
 
 " Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that 
 Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from 
 the north of England ; that he came down on Monday in 
 a chaise and four to see the place, and was so much de- 
 lighted with it, that he agreed with Mr. Morris immedi- 
 ately; that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, 
 and some of his servants are to be in the house by the end 
 of next week." 
 
 ''What is his name?" 
 
 " Bingley." 
 
 " Is he married or single ? " 
 
 " Oh ! single, my dear, to be sure ! A single man of 
 large fortune ; four or five thousand a year. What a fine 
 thing for our girls ! " 
 
 Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice. 
 
 II 
 
 7. Why are there so many short paragraphs in the 
 conversation quoted in Exercise 6? 
 
 8. From the answers to Exercises 2 and 3 and the 
 criticisms under Exercise 5, make a list of the different 
 means by which clearness and force seem to have been 
 secured. Can these means be grouped together in a 
 few classes ? Can you find a general rule or principle 
 which will include all the cases in each one of these 
 classes ? 
 
CHAPTER II 
 RULES AND PRINCIPLES 
 
 1. We are writing for men of intelligence and good 
 sense ; to a considerable extent we must do as they do. 
 If men of intelligence use certain words and construc- 
 tions and do not use certain others, we must follow the 
 general practice in order to be understood. Rhetoric 
 has its foundations, then, in good use. 
 
 2. Good use means simply the practice of reputable 
 writers of English to-day. In some particulars it is 
 uncertain and changing, but when the best writers are 
 agreed in regard to the meaning of a word, the con- 
 struction of a sentence, or the way to mark a paragraph, 
 good use in any of these matters can be formulated into 
 a rule that we must all follow. Such rules are usually 
 based on good sense as well as good use. Some have 
 been collected in grammar; with these every student of 
 Rhetoric should be familiar. Grammar, for example, 
 says that we must not use a singular verb with a plural 
 subject, because no good writers do and because it does 
 not make good sense to English readers. Many other 
 facts of good use have been collected and classified in 
 the dictionaries, with which every writer ought also to 
 be familiar. So the dictionary tells us that, although 
 
 15 
 
1 6 Preli 
 
 minanes 
 
 " suicide " is used as a verb by some recent writers, it 
 is not so used by the majority of reputable writers. In 
 many matters, then, good use can tell us just what to 
 do and what not to do. In grammar, punctuation, capi- 
 talization, in the use of words, in the arrangement of 
 words in sentences, in paragraphing, we shall find that 
 Rhetoric prescribes more or less definite rules. Later 
 in this book we shall examine these rules carefully and 
 study specifically many of their common violations ; and 
 meanwhile, in practice, we shall be obliged to remember 
 that the first care in good writing is to keep within the 
 limits of good use. 
 
 3. The main part of the work in composition is not, 
 however, a matter of good use. In order to write well, 
 it is not enough to do as other people do ; we are bound 
 to express our own ideas. Even if we can write gram- 
 matically and punctuate correctly and use only words 
 that are found in a good dictionary, we may still e far 
 from solving the problem with which we began — to ex- 
 press our thoughts and feelings so that they will be 
 clear and interesting to some one else. To do this re- 
 quires practice and guidance. 
 
 4- Three principles should be the writer's constant 
 guides. Men of ability have been writing English for 
 many years; and their styles have in general been 
 found exact, forcible, and pleasing as they have been 
 in accord with these principles. These principles are 
 at the basis of all the rules of structure for every unit 
 of composition, sentence, paragraph, or theme. They 
 guide, indeed, our thinking and many of our actions 
 
Rules and Principles 17 
 
 in life, and they at once commend themselves to our 
 good sense. We need, then, to understand thoroughly 
 the principles of Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. 
 5- The principle of Unity governs the selection of ma- 
 terial. To the question, what thoughts are you to ex- 
 press on a given subject? Unity answers, only those 
 thoughts which concern that one subject. To the ques- 
 tion, how are you going to make these thoughts clear 
 to the reader ? Unity again answers, by sticking to the 
 subject. In the composition of a sentence the principle 
 of Unity directs that there should be one main idea to 
 which all others are to be subordinated and connected ; 
 and so a paragraph should have its particular subject, 
 and contain sentences devoted to that subject, and no 
 others; so also a longer composition should contain 
 only such matters as are closely related to its subject. 
 Any piece of composition, a sentence, a paragraph, a 
 theme, a poem, a book, must center upon one subject, 
 — this is the principle of Unity. 
 
 6. The principle of Coherence governs the arrange- 
 ment of material. It requires that in planning and or- 
 ganizing the material for an essay, or in combining 
 words and phrases into a sentence, we arrange the dif- 
 ferent parts in a natural and logical order. Not only 
 must each division of a composition be a unit by itself, 
 it must lead the reader on easily and directly from what 
 precedes to what follows. In every composition, from 
 the sentence to the book, the ideas should be so ar- 
 ranged that their relations to one another are clear, — 
 that is the principle of Coherence. 
 
1 8 Preliminaries 
 
 7. The principle of Emphasis is concerned in part with 
 the arrangement, and still more with the proportion, of 
 material. It teaches us how to indicate to the reader 
 which of our ideas are the more important. Special 
 stress can be given to an idea either by discussing it 
 more fully than the others, or by placing it where it will 
 most readily catch the reader's eye, as at the beginning 
 or the end of a theme. So in the smaller units of com- 
 position, the paragraph and the sentence, Emphasis 
 suggests these or other means by which the reader's 
 valuation of our ideas can be made to correspond with 
 our own. In every composition the relative impor- 
 tance of the ideas should be indicated to the reader, 
 usually by the amount of space they occupy or by their 
 position, — this is the principle of Emphasis. 
 
 8. These three principles do not supply fixed rules for 
 every procedure. Each composition will be different 
 from all others and will employ different means to se- 
 cure its ends ; it cannot be constructed by rule. Every 
 composition, however, that follows these guiding prin- 
 ciples will be like a well-organized army. In place of 
 companies, battalions, regiments, and brigades, it will 
 be composed of sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, 
 and the smallest division as well as the largest will be 
 a unit under the direction of a single commander, its 
 subject, and all the divisions will unite and cooperate 
 in their proper order under the command of the main 
 subject. The different divisions will take their proper 
 places and will maintain their connections with the 
 neighboring divisions, in order that each may best pro- 
 
Rules and Principles 19 
 
 mote the work of the whole; and the most important 
 positions and the most difficult work will be assigned to 
 the strongest and best-equipped battalions. The mas- 
 tery of the art of Rhetoric, as of any art involving 
 structure or organization, must be accomplished under 
 the guidance of Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 1. Examine carefully the paragraph from Macaulay's 
 Essay on Addison. (Exercise 3, Chapter i.) Why 
 does the first word begin some distance to the right of 
 the margin ? Why does it begin with a capital ? Why 
 are periods placed at the ends of the sentences ? What 
 is the subject of the paragraph? Does it observe the 
 principle of Unity? Can you change the order of any 
 of the sentences without injuring the coherence of the 
 paragraph ? What else do you notice in the paragraph 
 that is dictated by good use ; what by the three princi- 
 ples of composition? 
 
 2. Write a short theme, without consulting the book, 
 on some matter in Chapter i or 2 that especially in- 
 terested you. (In class, 15 minutes.) 
 
 3' Write a theme of not over 150 words on some ex- 
 perience of yours during the past week. Try to make 
 the theme interesting to the class. These are to be 
 criticized for observance of good use and general in- 
 terest. 
 
2 o Preliminaries 
 
 4- Compare the results from Exercise 8, Chapter i, 
 with the text of Chapter 2. How many of the means 
 discovered for securing clearness and force can be clas- 
 sified under Good Use, under Unity, Coherence, Em- 
 phasis? How many are not included in this chapter? 
 
 5. Write short themes of 200 words, adopting one of 
 these outlines : 
 
 A Fudge Party. The hostess ; the guests ; what we talked 
 
 about; what we did. 
 Character of the Vicar of Wakefield. Select four or five 
 
 important traits ; take them up in order, placing the 
 
 most characteristic last. 
 My Favorite Magazine. What is it? Four reasons for 
 
 your preference ; place the most important last. 
 What Happened in the Recitation. Entrance of the class ; 
 
 subject of lesson; various mistakes of the recitation; 
 
 the approach of the end of the hour. 
 The University in " The Princess." Location ; appear- 
 ance of buildings and grounds ; students ; aims ; glimpse 
 
 of the princess. 
 A Foot-ball Eleven. The forwards ; the backs ; the duties 
 
 of several positions ; end with the most difficult. 
 
 6. Themes may be written from time to time in the 
 form of a letter, as in the following: 
 
 1. A statement of the studies you have had in the high 
 school, written to a college instructor. 
 
 2. A brief account of the opening day at school, such as 
 might be printed in the town paper. 
 
 3. A letter urging new students to join the debating so- 
 ciety, such as might be printed in a school paper. 
 
 4. A letter to the foot-ball captain of a neighboring 
 school, endeavoring to arrange a game. 
 
Rules and Principles 21 
 
 5. A letter asking for a position during the summer, 
 stating references and qualifications. Let these be read 
 in class, and let the class decide which is most likely to 
 obtain the position. 
 
 II 
 
 7. Hand in a list of five subjects on which you would 
 like to write short themes. These will be discussed in 
 class, and may later be used for themes. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT 
 
 1. The two preceding chapters have not considered a 
 question that often seems to the student the most im- 
 portant of all, — What is there to write about ? Where 
 is he to find material which will be of interest to read- 
 ers of average taste and intelligence, and which he can 
 make into themes under the guidance of good use and 
 the principles of composition? The material for all 
 kinds of writing, themes or books, must be drawn from 
 experience or reading. In either case a writer must 
 choose subjects that he has ideas about and is interested 
 in. Then he will have something to start with ; he will 
 not continue to ask, what shall I write about this ? but 
 rather, what do I think about this ? 
 
 2. Our experience includes games, studies, amuse- 
 ments, thoughts, conversations, adventures, and much 
 else. Whatever we are doing, the great world and all 
 its happenings, life and all its emotions, these furnish 
 the material for literature, and they furnish material 
 for the beginner. In the exercises in this book there are 
 many lists of topics, taken mostly from students' 
 themes; these may in themselves prove interesting, or 
 they may suggest similar topics ; but a student cannot 
 
 22 
 
What to Write About 23 
 
 begin too early to make an effort to discover in the 
 events, persons, and places of his own daily life interest- 
 ing material for his themes. Often merely the inquiry, 
 what interested me most to-day ? will provoke a subject 
 in reply. If something novel, entertaining, or amusing, 
 or something of general interest, has occurred, so much 
 the better; but commonplace matters may also afford 
 good subjects. Perhaps the only matter of interest that 
 occurs to the writer is the new street being constructed 
 in front of his house; a careful account of that will 
 surely supply useful practice. Or perhaps nothing ex- 
 cept his geometry lesson comes to his mind. Well, a 
 theme on " How I Study Geometry," might be profit- 
 able to the teacher, the writer, and other members of 
 the class. In fact, we are all a good deal interested in 
 what other people are doing and thinking, and that is 
 why we write and read so much. Whatever is interest- 
 ing to one person can by the power of good style usu- 
 ally be made interesting to many other persons. 
 3» There are a few bits of advice to be kept in mind 
 by the young writer in choosing subjects from experi- 
 ence. In the first place, he should not try to tell what 
 he imagined, but rather what he saw or did. Fanciful 
 pictures, reminiscences of imaginary lives, or attempts 
 at pathos or sentiment unrelated to one's experience, are 
 likely to result in feeble imitations of something read, 
 and really afford little play to the writer's own ideas. 
 There is scope enough for the imagination in combin- 
 ing various details of a scene so as to present a mental 
 picture to the reader, or in describing a real person so 
 
24 Preliminaries 
 
 as to suggest his appearance distinctly. Good fiction is 
 based on a wide experience with fact, and the writer 
 ambitious for excellence will do well in the beginning 
 to base his fancies on realities and, in the main, to stick 
 closely to fact. In the second place, he should write 
 about something that has happened recently, on the 
 very day of writing, if possible, or within a week or so. 
 Events of a year ago are likely to become vague in the 
 memory. There is no better practice than the effort to 
 observe and give expression to one's immediate sur- 
 roundings. In the third place, the student should re- 
 member that sensational or unusual events are not 
 always the most entertaining. The three selections in 
 Exercise 3, Chapter i, deal with the eccentric conduct 
 of an old gentleman at church, the circulation of a 
 periodical, and the fruit in an orchard. These are not 
 thrilling subjects, but they are treated interestingly. 
 The imagination is best trained not by dealing with 
 the strange and marvelous, but by finding interest in 
 common, every-day occurrences. 
 
 4. For many themes the student will do well to go to 
 his reading rather than to experience. There is surely 
 much to interest him there. He may try to rewrite in 
 his own words some incident, or to give his opinion of 
 a character from the novel he is reading. Or he may 
 give in a few sentences the gist of an article that enter- 
 tained him in the last magazine. Or he may take some 
 topic about which he has read a good deal, the new 
 flying-machine, the need of a park system in his city, 
 or elective courses in the high school. Some subjects 
 
What to Write About 25 
 
 will clearly be too large to be treated in short themes, 
 if not too large for his knowledge. Such, for example, 
 are, "Coeducation," "Peace," "Ideals," "Prohibi- 
 tion." In making use of his reading as of his experi- 
 ence, he should keep to subjects within his grasp, for it 
 is only on these that there is any possibility of his 
 saying something worthy the attention of some one 
 else. 
 
 5- If he keeps to subjects that he knows something 
 about, he need not fear that his compositions will there- 
 fore become commonplace. Originality does not de- 
 pend on the novelty or importance of the subject, but 
 on the way the subject is treated. In the " House of the 
 Seven Gables " there is an account of the Pyncheon 
 hens. The subject is not very remarkable, but the treat- 
 ment is original. The goal at which we should aim is 
 not so much the ability to write a thrilling report of a 
 railway accident or an oration on " Ambition," as the 
 ability to write about hens in an interesting way. 
 6. Moreover, if the student keeps to subjects that he 
 knows something about, he will soon find his know- 
 ledge increasing in definiteness and variety. Searching 
 a book for theme-subjects will increase his acquain- 
 tance with the book, and searching the incidents of the 
 day will increase his power of observation of people 
 and nature. He ought to find not only that his ability 
 to write clearly and directly is increasing, but also that 
 his thoughts move faster and his interest in the world 
 around him is growing keener. These results will be 
 accomplished more quickly if he will keep a note-book 
 
2 6 Preliminaries 
 
 and write in it subjects as they occur to him, together 
 with suggestions for their treatment; in this way he 
 will accumulate a store of material. To such a seeker 
 after matters to write about, a well-known couplet by 
 Robert Louis Stevenson proffers some cheerful wisdom 
 that may well be kept in mind. It would make a good 
 motto for the note-book. 
 
 The world is so full of a number of things, 
 I 'm sure we should all be as happy as kings. 
 
 7. The gist of this chapter can be put into three sen- 
 tences. In choosing subjects a writer may go to his 
 experience and reading. From experience he should 
 take those that are matters of recent and not too un- 
 usual fact ; from reading he should take topics concern- 
 ing which he has definite information. Let him keep a 
 cheerful lookout for subjects and write them down in a 
 note-book. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 I. Write a theme of 150 to 200 words on one of the 
 following topics. Some should be criticized in class 
 by teacher and students mainly in respect to their in- 
 terest and intelligibility and violations of good use. 
 
 1. What Interested Me Most To-day. 
 
 2. The Last Book I Read; Why I Liked It. 
 
 3. Our Cat. 
 
what to Write About 27 
 
 4. My Sunday-School Class. 
 
 5. What is a Bank Cheek? 
 
 6. A Grocery Store. 
 
 7. A Newspaper Cartoon. 
 
 8. A True Ghost Story, 
 
 2. Hand in one subject drawn from recent experience, 
 one from some book, one from a newspaper or maga- 
 zine. These should be criticized by the class with ref- 
 erence to their suitability for short themes. 
 3- The two following themes by students deal with 
 the same subject and similar material. Which is more 
 interesting ? Why ? Which has the more ideas ? Does 
 either violate any of the principles of composition? 
 How? Criticize any violations of good use in either. 
 Would you change words or sentences in either? Are 
 there any mistakes in grammar, spelling, or punctua- 
 tion? 
 
 MY ROOM 
 
 The distinctive feature of my room is the shelf, about 
 six inches broad, extending all around six feet from the 
 floor. It is of the same wood as the doors and is supported 
 by little brackets. This shelf separates the two kinds of 
 wall-paper and so limits the picture space, for I hang no 
 pictures on the upper part. My shelf holds all the articles 
 always found in a girl's room; countless photographs, 
 bric-a-brac not all beautiful, and trifles, usually mingled 
 helter-skelter. At present, however, the arrangement is 
 carefully planned, though this is known only to me. On 
 one shelf I have my favorite things ; photographs of my 
 best friends, my favorite books in the place of honor, and 
 a few ornaments, statuettes and vases. On the wall be- 
 neath is my dearly beloved Keats in a white frame, Theo- 
 dor Korner with his sad eyes, and an " Aurora." 
 
 Another wall I call my baby wall. The faces of some 
 
2 8 Preliminaries 
 
 of my little friends, framed and unframed, are on the 
 shelf and on the wall; along with a quaint Greenaway 
 girl ; a " Baby Stuart " ; and a Dutch baby, round-headed 
 and big-eyed. Here, too, is a Bodenhausen Madonna 
 and a plaster angel head. A little iron Brownie stands 
 cheek by jowl with a dainty Japanese lady from the Pan- 
 American who shakes her head and smiles sweetly. 
 
 The other things are not arranged in any order. There 
 are several wrought-iron candelabra with green candles, 
 a gilt clock, a monkey supporting a basket of cherries, 
 and an inlaid writing-case once my mother's. On the 
 walls are a few landscapes, a pen-and-ink girl in cap and 
 gown, and a few good photographs. 
 
 The best of my room no one but myself feels, and that 
 is its suggestiveness. Everything has its own associated 
 ideas. In one corner is a collection of party souvenirs, 
 dance programs, supper-cards, class and school ribbons, 
 a little mandolin from our first spread, all with a host of 
 memories. Every kodak picture has a tale of happiness. 
 Here is one of a merry camp on the Lake Shore; here, 
 one of an outing party in Canada. These candlesticks 
 were eighteenth birthday gifts from a beloved uncle. 
 This one was won at a Hallowe'en party. The monkey 
 was at my plate, filled with candied cherries, at a Wash- 
 ington's Birthday fancy-dress party. And the teapot! 
 What memories of impromptu lunches and cosy talks has 
 it not curled up in its fat little body. What suggestive- 
 ness in the bonbonniere ; in the teacups, gifts of friends ! 
 
 HOW I FURNISHED MY ROOM 
 
 When we moved into our new home, my sister and I 
 were given a front corner room to furnish as we liked. It 
 is a very large room containing a bay window in front and 
 two windows on the side. When we were about to fur- 
 nish our room the first question that puzzled us the most 
 was, what we should have for the predominating color, but 
 as we had a good many pieces of furniture and sofa cush- 
 ions of blue material, we decided to have it a blue room. 
 
What to Write About 29 
 
 So we got blue matting for the floor and laid rugs all 
 over it; two blue ones are of fur and an oriental rug. 
 My sister then made a dressing table and covered it with 
 blue and white silkoline and with some more of this made 
 a bedspread with a deep flounce. We made our own cur- 
 tains of white mulle with a row of insertion near the edge, 
 and trimmed the edge with a lace edging. 
 
 On one side of the room we put the brass bed, tea-table 
 and a bookcase on which are found books of all kinds. 
 On another side of the room is the chiffonier and the 
 tete. The top of the chiffonier is covered with photo- 
 graphs and bric-a-brac, while the tete is covered with pil- 
 lows, and sometimes when we are in a hurry and have 
 not time to hang up our things, this tete answers for a 
 clothes-rack. Now turning to the other side of the room 
 is my sister's dressing table on which is every useful article 
 from a nail-file to a jewelry-box and on the desk next to 
 the table are a candelabra, fancy inkstand, pens, ink, note- 
 paper and books. Hanging on the wall near the desk is 
 a ham which would take an expert to discover whether it 
 is eatable or not. This ham is a bonbon box and at one 
 time was filled with candy. In the front of the room is 
 the window-seat and my dressing table on which are 
 many pictures and other things necessary to complete a 
 lady's toilet. The walls of our room are covered with pic- 
 tures, photographs and advertisements, which character- 
 ize a girl's room. 
 
 Our room not only answers for a sleeping room, but 
 also a sitting room and study where we get most of our 
 lessons. We took a great deal of pride in fixing up 
 our room, and now it is one of the prettiest rooms in 
 the house. 
 
 4. In themes on the following subjects especial care 
 must be taken to make them of interest to a special class 
 of readers. Write on one of these or on a similar 
 subject. 
 
30 
 
 Preliminaries 
 
 A Day on the Farm ; — for a city boy. 
 
 A Game of Foot-ball ;— f or a girl. 
 
 How to Use a Kodak ; — for some one who has never used 
 
 one. 
 An Experiment in Physics; — for some one who has not 
 
 done it. 
 
 5. Tell the story of one of the following poems in 
 200 words. Use your own words ; give only the main 
 events ; do not begin at the same place that the poem 
 does. 
 
 Tennyson. Dora, The Lotos Eaters. 
 
 Longfellow. King Robert of Sicily. The Skeleton in 
 
 Armor. 
 Byron. The Prisoner of Chillon. 
 Browning. The Pied Piper of Hamelin. Herve Riel. 
 Coleridge. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. 
 
 II 
 
 6. Examine the titles of the editorials in a good news- 
 paper, the articles in a recent magazine. Report to the 
 class a list of five titles which particularly attracted you. 
 State three qualities which seem to you particularly de- 
 sirable in the title of a newspaper editorial. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 SUBJECT AND TITLE 
 
 1. After the student has found a subject, he must de- 
 termine how long his composition is to be. This is a 
 very practical question with all writers. The news- 
 paper reporter is given so much space to fill ; the story 
 for a magazine must be of a certain length; the editor 
 of a school paper is frequently asked by the printer to 
 fill up half a column; even Shakespeare was obliged to 
 write plays that could be acted in three hours. The 
 treatment of any subject will depend largely on the 
 length of the composition, and oftentimes a writer must 
 fit the subject itself to his space. 
 
 2. Let us suppose that a student is asked for a theme 
 of not over 200 words, and that he wishes to write 
 about athletics. In 200 words he evidently cannot 
 include all sorts of games and exercises in all the coun- 
 tries of the world. He must narrow the subject. A 
 moment's consideration convinces him that he wants 
 to write about foot-ball, or perhaps basket-ball. Still 
 the subject is too broad, for there is an immense 
 amount written every year in regard to foot-ball. He 
 may narrow his subject to, " Foot-ball in Our School," 
 and again to, " Our Prospects for a Good Eleven," 
 which is really the subject that interests him. Or 
 
 31 
 
3 2 Preliminaries 
 
 " Basket-ball " might be narrowed to, *' How Basket- 
 ball is Played," or to, " My First Game of Basket-ball/' 
 If the theme were to contain 400 words, somewhat 
 broader subjects would be needed. In any case, a sub- 
 ject can be narrowed or enlarged until it is adapted to 
 the required length of the theme. 
 3. After a writer has fitted his subject to his theme, 
 he must find a title. A title is the name or label by 
 which a composition is offered to the reader. Some- 
 times a subject first occurs to a writer in words that 
 will make a good title; but oftener, after he has deter- 
 mined on a subject, he will still have to search for an 
 appropriate name with which to introduce it. He 
 should consider both the character of his composition 
 and the tastes of his readers. A scientific article needs 
 an exact title, so that scholars may know just what it is 
 about ; a novel needs rather a title that will recommend 
 it to a large body of readers. The title of this chapter 
 is not very attractive, but it is intended to tell student 
 and teacher what the chapter is about. " Kidnapped," 
 the title of one of Stevenson's novels, gives a hint of 
 the plot and excites the interest of any one who likes 
 stories of adventure. If the theme on the prospects of 
 the eleven were to be an editorial in the school paper, 
 " Our Prospects in Foot-ball " would be a good title, 
 although " Our Eleven '' would perhaps be better, be- 
 cause briefer and hence more likely to catch the eye. 
 There is rarely any reason for a lengthy title, and some- 
 times exactness should be sacrificed for brevity. In 
 general, we may conclude that a title should be brief, 
 
Subject and Title 33 
 
 should give some idea of the subject-matter, and should 
 attract the attention of the readers for whom it is in- 
 tended. 
 
 4. Titles should be chosen for all themes of 400 
 words or more. In shorter themes, titles will certainly 
 do no harm, though they are less necessary. One 
 word of caution is important. The title is to be written 
 on the first line of the page, and is not to be connected 
 with the first sentence of the composition. The theme 
 entitled " Our Eleven*' should not begin, " It is a good 
 one," but, " Our eleven is a good one." The opening 
 sentence should begin on a new line and should be intel- 
 ligible without a glance at the title. 
 5- With these matters of subject and title, we have fin- 
 ished with the preliminaries of composition. We are 
 now ready to examine the problems of writer, subject, 
 and reader under various conditions, and to study the 
 application of the rules of good use and the principles 
 of Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis to the writing of 
 themes and their different divisions. We shall begin 
 with a very important unit of composition, the para- 
 graph. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 I 
 
 1. Take five of the subjects handed in under Exercise 
 
 2, Chapter 3; narrow these to subjects suited for 
 themes of 200 words; then find titles for them. 
 
34 
 
 Preliminaries 
 
 2. Reduce the following subjects to topics suitable for 
 themes of 400 words : 
 
 Electricity. 
 Spelling Reform. 
 Boycotting. 
 Ivanhoe. 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 Advertisements. 
 
 Politics. 
 
 Ideals. 
 
 Prohibition of the Liquor Traffic. 
 
 3. From each of the following form four subjects and 
 titles for short themes : 
 
 Newspapers. 
 Manual Training. 
 Recitations. 
 Bicycling. 
 
 Longfellow's Poems. 
 Hawthorne's Novels. 
 Some Things which I Enjoy. 
 
 4. Would " Material " be a better title than " What to 
 Write About " for Chapter 3 of this book? 
 
 5. Discuss the following titles, and decide how far 
 they are good : 
 
 Sesame and Lilies. 
 
 Treasure Island. 
 
 Mosses from an Old Manse. 
 
 The Vicar of Wakefield. 
 Writing in English. 
 
 Koch on Tuberculosis. 
 
 Lectures on how and what 
 to read, and on the edu- 
 cation of girls. 
 
 A story of pirates and a 
 search for treasure. 
 
 A collection of stories 
 written in an old manse 
 in Concord. 
 
 An elementary text-book in 
 English. 
 
 An editorial article of a 
 column on Dr. Koch's 
 theories in regard to tu- 
 bercle bacilli in men and 
 cattle. 
 
Subject and Title 
 
 35 
 
 Electricity for Everybody. 
 
 Through Jungle and Desert. 
 
 Twenty Thousand Leagues 
 
 under the Sea. 
 Gold Coins among the Gifts 
 
 of their Friends. 
 
 *' The book is calculated 
 to give any one hav- 
 ing no previous general 
 knowledge of electricity 
 a fair general knowledge 
 of the subject." 
 
 A book of travels in eastern 
 Africa. 
 
 A newspaper report of a 
 golden wedding. 
 
 6. Find titles for each of the first five chapters in 
 "Ivanhoe"; for each paragraph of Chapter 3 of this 
 book; for each of the selections in Exercise 3 of 
 Chapter i. 
 
 II 
 
 7. Examine the themes in Chapter 3, Exercise 3, in 
 regard to their paragraph structure. How are the 
 paragraphs indicated? Does each observe or violate 
 the three principles of composition ? Suggest some cor- 
 rections or improvements. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 1. A composition is made up of paragraphs, but these 
 are not merely divisions. Each paragraph is a unit by 
 itself, a group of sentences dealing with a single sub- 
 ject, a whole composition on a small scale. The ex- 
 ternal form of a paragraph may be seen by examining 
 any book. Each chapter in this book, for instance, is 
 divided into a number of paragraphs, ranging in length 
 from 50 to 300 words; and the beginning of each 
 paragraph is marked by the indention of the first word. 
 In manuscript the first word of each paragraph should 
 begin a full inch to the right of the margin. This in- 
 dention is to aid the reader's eye. 
 
 2. The importance of the principles of composition in 
 their application to the paragraph can best be seen by 
 writing themes of a single paragraph. The student 
 must remember, however, that all that can be said of 
 the paragraph by itself applies equally well to the para- 
 graph when it is a small part of the composition. The 
 paragraph by itself is not uncommon. The description 
 of a person or a scene, an anecdote, an expression of 
 opinion, a comment on some book, are matters that 
 can often be treated in paragraphs of 100 or 200 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 37 
 
 words. Such paragraphs are complete in themselves; 
 they are in every respect whole compositions. In such 
 short compositions the writer is obliged to solve the im- 
 portant problems of the choice and limitation of sub- 
 ject; the selection, arrangement, and proportion of 
 material. Moreover, all these problems must be solved 
 with the greatest economy of space. In writing single 
 paragraphs, then, we have one of the best practical 
 means of realizing the value of the three principles as 
 aids in actually expressing our ideas. 
 3. Writing single paragraphs gives especially good 
 training in the principle of Unity. A single topic is to 
 be stated, explained, illustrated, and enforced without 
 any digressions, and is to be as fully developed as 
 possible in lOO or 200 words. The writer must first 
 make sure that he has a topic on which he has enough 
 to say to fill a paragraph, and yet a topic narrow enough 
 for interesting treatment within such scanty limits. 
 Then he must take care that no irrelevant or unimpor- 
 tant sentences or clauses slip in, and that everything in 
 the paragraph bears directly on the topic. Perhaps the 
 best test of Unity is to see if the substance of the para- 
 graph can be put into a single sentence, and if every- 
 thing in the paragraph can be properly considered a de- 
 velopment of that sentence. 
 
 4- The principle of Coherence requires that the ideas 
 in a paragraph be presented in a natural and evident 
 sequence. When a chronological order is possible, it 
 should usually be followed; but when it is impossible, 
 some logical arrangement must be found. The logical 
 
3 8 Paragraphs 
 
 order is always from the simple to the complex, from 
 the near to the remote, and from the known to the 
 unknown. Thus, a comparison of an object with some- 
 thing well known might lead to a consideration of its 
 unknown qualities, and a simple definition should pre- 
 cede more elaborate and complete explanations of a 
 topic. Care must be taken to introduce the subject 
 simply and clearly with a sentence wholly intelligible 
 to the reader, then the paragraph may be built up step 
 by step to the conclusion. Note the logical progress of 
 ideas in the following paragraphs ; in the first the de- 
 tails have an order in time, but in the second and third 
 the details are not events and have no order in time, yet 
 their relation to one another is clear. 
 
 Without the scene was repeated. At the first instant 
 of realization in the Wigwam a man on the platform had 
 shouted to a man stationed on the roof, " Hallelujah ; Abe 
 Lincoln is nominated ! " A cannon boomed the news to 
 the multitude below, and twenty thousand throats took 
 up the cry. The city heard it, and one hundred guns on 
 the Tremont House, innumerable whistles on the river 
 and lake front, on locomotives and factories, and the 
 bells in all the steeples, broke forth. For twenty-four 
 hours the clamor never ceased. It spread to the prairies, 
 and before morning they were afire with pride and ex- 
 citement. 
 
 Ida M. Tarbell: Life of Lincoln. 
 
 The harbour of Constantinople, which may be consid- 
 ered as an arm of the Bosphorus, obtained, in a very re- 
 mote period, the denomination of the Golden Horn. The 
 curve which it describes might be compared to the horn 
 of a stag, or as it should seem, with more propriety, to 
 that of an ox. The epithet of golden was expressive of 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 39 
 
 the riches which every wind wafted from the most dis- 
 tant countries into the secure and capacious port of Con- 
 stantinople. The river Lycus, formed by the conflux of 
 two little streams, pours into the harbour a perpetual sup- 
 ply of fresh water, which serves to cleanse the bottom 
 and to invite the periodical shoals of fish to seek their 
 retreat in that convenient recess. As the vicissitudes of 
 tides are scarcely felt in those seas, the constant depth of 
 the harbour allows goods to be landed on the quays with- 
 out the assistance of boats ; and it has been observed that, 
 in many places, the largest vessels may rest their prows 
 against the houses while their sterns are floating in the 
 water. From the mouth of the Lycus to that of the har- 
 bour this arm of the Bosphorus is more than seven miles 
 in length. The entrance is about five hundred yards 
 broad, and a strong chain could be occasionally drawn 
 across it to guard the port and city from the attack of an 
 hostile navy. 
 
 Edward Gibbon : The Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire, 
 
 The essays are the work of a rhetorician, — the greatest, 
 perhaps, in English literature. One defect in that litera- 
 ture, as compared with Latin literatures, has been a lack 
 of rhetoric. The great masters of English prose, Milton 
 and Burke, appeal to the imagination ; their language is 
 sensuous and adorned, but they address themselves to the 
 intellect ; they charge their speech with thought ; they 
 are careless that they lay burdens upon their readers; 
 they are indifferent that they outstride the crowd. The 
 rhetorician — a Cicero, a Bossuet — tries to spare his read- 
 ers ; he wishes to be always thronged by the multitude. 
 So it is with Macaulay. He says nothing that everybody 
 cannot comprehend, and at once. He exerts all his pow- 
 ers to give the readers as little to do as possible ; he drains 
 his memory to find decorations to catch their eye and fix 
 their attention. He presents everything in brilliant im- 
 ages. He writes to the eye and the ear. He has in mind 
 the ordinary Briton ; he does not write for a sect nor for 
 
40 Paragraphs 
 
 a band of disciples. He is always the orator talking to 
 men who are going to vote at the end of his speech. He 
 never stops with a suggestion; he never pauses with a 
 hint; he is never tentative, never is rendered august by 
 the clouds of doubt. 
 
 H. D. Sedgwick, Jr. : The Vitality of Macaulay, 
 " The Atlantic Monthly," August, 1899. 
 
 5. All three paragraphs begin with simple statements 
 of their topics and proceed to enlarge them. In the 
 first the order of time coincides with that from the near 
 to the remote; the effect of Lincoln's nomination with- 
 out the Wigwam is first compared to that already de- 
 scribed within and then traced from the nearest point, 
 on the roof, to the crowd below, through the city, and 
 out over the state. In the second paragraph the details 
 follow the course of the harbor from the Lycus to the 
 Bosphorus; and similarly a description of a foot-ball 
 field, a " sky-scraper,'' or a view from a mountain 
 might follow the order of things in space, from right to 
 left, from top to bottom, or from north to south. In 
 the third paragraph the details follow a logical order of 
 thought with a coherence that may not be appreciated 
 until one tries to change the order of sentences. That 
 will furnish a good test for the structure of any para- 
 graph. A paragraph is coherent if the position of any 
 sentence cannot be changed to advantage. 
 
 6. The sequence of ideas must not only be natural and 
 distinct, it must also be made clear to the reader. He 
 must be shown the road which he is following, the 
 points at which he turns, and the progress he is making 
 toward the end. In long compositions these directions 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 41 
 
 are supplied by summaries, transitional paragraphs, 
 and connecting sentences; in a paragraph, by connect- 
 ing words and phrases. In the following paragraph 
 the connectives are italicized. 
 
 About this time I met with an odd volume of the Spec- 
 tator. I had never before seen any of them. I bought 
 it, read it over and over, and was much delighted with 
 it. I thought the writing excellent, and wished if possi- 
 ble to imitate it. With that view I took some of the 
 papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in each 
 sentence, laid them by a few days, and then, without 
 looking at the book, tried to complete the papers again 
 by expressing each hinted sentiment at length, and as 
 fully as it had been expressed before, in any suitable 
 words that should occur to me. Then I compared my 
 Spectator with the original, discovered some of my faults, 
 and corrected them. But I found I wanted a stock of 
 words, or a readiness in recollecting and using them, 
 which I thought I should have acquired before that time, 
 if I had gone on making verses ; since the continual search 
 for words of the same import, but of different length to 
 suit the measure, or of different sound for the rhyme, 
 would have laid me under a constant necessity of search- 
 ing for variety, and also have tended to fix that variety 
 in my mind, and make me master of it. Therefore I took 
 some of the tales in the Spectator, and turned them into 
 verse ; and after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten 
 the prose, turned them back again. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin : Autobiography. 
 
 " About this time " connects the whole paragraph 
 with the preceding one; "with that view," "then," 
 " but," and " therefore " connect sentences and mark 
 the progress of thought within the paragraph. In or- 
 der to indicate the numerous and complex relations be- 
 
42 Paragraphs 
 
 tween ideas, our language supplies a great many con- 
 nectives. Among those most commonly used in con- 
 necting sentences are: and, first, moreover, finally, in 
 conclusion, in the same way, in any case, hut, yet, 
 however, nevertheless, on the one hand, on the other 
 hand, and yet, on the contrary, then, hence, accordingly, 
 so, thus, therefore, consequently, now, indeed, in fact, 
 as a matter of fact, for example, in general, on tlw 
 whole, at all events. An examination of a few pages 
 of good English will show how serviceable these words 
 are. To make the sequence of our ideas clear, we must 
 never be at a loss for a connective. 
 7. The most overused of these connectives are and 
 and hut. They can often be omitted altogether, or 
 other connectives can be substituted in their stead. 
 They are properly used to join words, phrases, or 
 clauses that are closely connected in meaning; " and " 
 indicating close connection between coordinate expres- 
 sions, " but " indicating distinct opposition. They may 
 consequently be used only rarely at the beginning of a 
 paragraph, for two paragraphs are not often intimately 
 related either in coordination or opposition. At the 
 beginning of sentences they may be used, but only when 
 they are required by the relations of the ideas, as is 
 the case with the " but " in the seventh sentence of the 
 paragraph just quoted from Franklin. They often slip 
 in at the beginnings of sentences because, though inex- 
 act or unnecessary, they seem to make some sort of con- 
 nection ; thus, for example, every sentence in this para- 
 graph might begin with one or the other of these 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 43 
 
 conjunctions without making nonsense, though in each 
 case the connective would be useless. The student 
 should, in revising his themes, omit " and " or " but " 
 at the beginning of a sentence whenever possible. 
 
 8. A word may be added in regard to the purpose for 
 which connectives are used. They are to serve as di- 
 rections to the reader, and they must not mislead or 
 puzzle him. When he sees " however " he expects 
 something opposed to what he has just read ; " there- 
 fore " leads him to expect a conclusion drawn from pre- 
 ceding reasons; a " third " leads him to look back for 
 " second " and " first." Connectives are of nO' use un- 
 less the sentences are actually connected in thought, and 
 they are harmful unless they are used with discrimina- 
 tion and exactness. They need not be very numerous 
 or conspicuous, but they should be used whenever they 
 will be of real help to the reader. 
 
 9. Besides these connectives, sentences are often 
 joined by pronouns or nouns. The adjective pro- 
 nouns, **this," "these," "such," "other," "another," 
 "some," and "same," are very frequently used either 
 with or without nouns. In the second paragraph of 
 this chapter, the fifth, sixth, and seventh sentences be- 
 gin : " Such paragraphs " ; "In such short composi- 
 tions"; "Moreover, all these problems." The per- 
 sonal pronouns also frequently serve as connectives. 
 Thus in the paragraph just quoted from Franklin's 
 Autobiography, the pronouns " them " and " it " in the 
 second and third sentences refer back to " the Spec- 
 tator " in the first sentence. Moreover, the Coherence 
 
44 Paragraphs 
 
 of the paragraph is largely due to the fact that the 
 subject of every sentence is the pronoun "I." In the 
 paragraph quoted in this chapter from Mr. Sedgwick's 
 essay on Macaulay, each of the last seven sentences has 
 for its subject " he," referring back to " Macaulay." 
 Maintaining one subject through a succession of sen- 
 tences promotes both Unity and Coherence and also 
 avoids the main danger in using pronouns as connec- 
 tives — the danger of ambiguous antecedents. This 
 danger may also be avoided by repeating a word, usu- 
 ally a noun, instead of using a pronoun referring to it. 
 So " danger " was repeated in the preceding sentence ; 
 and so in the selection from Mr. Sedgwick's essay the 
 word " literature " is repeated in the second sentence 
 and the word " English " in the third, both of which 
 occur in the opening sentence. If carried to excess, 
 such repetition is monotonous, but it is the most unmis- 
 takable way of connecting two sentences. Pronouns 
 must be used carefully in order to avoid ambiguous 
 reference; nouns tie sentences firmly together. 
 10. The principle of Emphasis suggests that especial 
 attention be paid to the opening and the closing sen- 
 tences of a paragraph. Owing to the indention, these 
 are the sentences most likely to catch the reader's eye, 
 therefore they should contain important matter. The 
 opening sentence should introduce the subject. If the 
 paragraph is a part of a composition, some words must 
 be used to show its connection with the preceding para- 
 graph ; in an isolated paragraph the first sentence may 
 present the subject without preliminaries. The body 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 45 
 
 of the paragraph can be occupied with details necessary 
 to the development of the subject, and the last sentence 
 should give the conclusion. This conclusion should be 
 presented as effectively as possible because it has the 
 most favorable position for impressing the reader. 
 The opening and the closing sentences will thus contain 
 the gist of the paragraph. 
 
 II. The following are the first and last sentences of 
 each paragraph in this chapter; together they serve 
 as a summary of its contents. 
 
 1. A composition is made up of paragraphs, but 
 these are not merely divisions. . . . This indention is 
 to aid the reader's eye. 
 
 2. The importance of the principles of composition 
 in their application to the paragraph can best be seen 
 by writing themes of a single paragraph. ... In 
 writing single paragraphs, then, we have one of the 
 best practical means of realizing the value of the three 
 principles as aids in actually expressing our ideas. 
 
 3. Writing single paragraphs gives especially good 
 training in the principle of Unity. . . . Perhaps the 
 best test of Unity is to see if the substance of the para- 
 graph can be put into a single sentence, and if every- 
 thing in the paragraph can be properly considered a 
 development of that sentence. 
 
 4. The principle of Coherence requires that the 
 ideas in a paragraph be presented in a natural and evi- 
 dent sequence. . . . Note the logical progress of ideas 
 in the following paragraphs; in the first the details 
 have an order in time, but in the second and third the 
 
4-6 Paragraphs 
 
 details are not events and have no order in time, yet 
 their relation to one another is clear. 
 
 5. All three paragraphs begin with simple state- 
 ments of their topics and proceed to enlarge them. . . . 
 A paragraph is coherent if the position of any sentence 
 cannot be changed to advantage. 
 
 6. The sequence of ideas must not only be natural 
 and distinct, it must also be made clear to the reader. 
 . . . To make the sequence of our ideas clear, we must 
 never be at a loss for a connective. 
 
 7. The most overused of these connectives are and 
 and but. . . . The student should, in revising his 
 themes, omit " and " or " but " at the beginning of a 
 sentence whenever possible. 
 
 8. A word may be added in regard to the pur- 
 pose for which connectives are used. . . . They need 
 not be very numerous or conspicuous, but they should 
 be used whenever they will be of real help to the 
 reader. 
 
 9. Besides these connectives, sentences are often 
 joined by pronouns or nouns. . . . Pronouns must 
 be used carefully in order to avoid ambiguous refer- 
 ence ; nouns tie sentences firmly together. 
 
 10. The principle of Emphasis suggests that es- 
 pecial attention be paid to the opening and the closing 
 sentences of a paragraph. . . . The opening and the 
 closing sentences will thus contain the gist of the para- 
 graph. 
 
 12. In each case, it will be observed, the opening 
 sentence presents the subject of the paragraph, and 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 47 
 
 the closing sentence, the conclusion or predicate. By 
 combining the two and omitting connecting phrases, 
 we get in every case a sentence containing the sub- 
 stance of the paragraph. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Themes of one paragraph are now to be written 
 with especial attention to the principles of composition. 
 The following subjects are offered as suggestions ; you 
 may choose similar ones from youf own experience. 
 
 r. An Attempt to See the Sunrise. 
 
 2. A Sunday Walk. 
 
 3. Building a House. 
 
 4. My Friend ; — a character sketch. 
 
 5. How I Study. 
 
 6. The Pleasantest Hour at School. 
 
 7. My First Fight. 
 
 8. Shooting Rabbits. 
 
 9. Buying a Hat. 
 
 10. A Teacher (inprimary or grammar school) Whom 
 I Shall Remember. 
 
 2. Make a list of the connectives, conjunctions, ad- 
 verbs, pronouns, nouns, between sentences in the first 
 four paragraphs of this chapter. 
 
 3. Sum up the gist of each paragraph in the chapter 
 in a single sentence. 
 
 4. Supply the necessary connectives and combine the 
 
48 Paragraphs 
 
 sentences formed in Exercise 3 into a well-constructed 
 paragraph. 
 
 5. Criticize the following theme. How many para- 
 graphs should there be? Are there any violations of 
 Unity? Of Coherence? Are there any mistakes in 
 grammar, punctuation, or use of words? In the form 
 of the final quotation ? Is there any repetition of ideas ? 
 Can you suggest any changes or additions in the mat- 
 ter of the theme that would add to its interest ? 
 
 THE PRINCESS 
 
 One of the most pleasing of Tennyson's poems to me is 
 " the Princess." 
 
 The Princess wishes to found and build up a college, 
 where she and her teachers under her, might teach girls 
 everything that men are taught. 
 
 Only girls are to be brought here, and no men are to 
 be admitted to their halls. The aim of the Princess 
 in founding and building up this college is to work out 
 woman's freedom, and to " lift womans fallen divinity 
 upon an even pedestal with man." The character of the 
 Princess is on the whole good. She is " crammed with 
 erring pride," but seems to be kind to every one and 
 tender-hearted. 
 
 She realized her weakness and finally yields. Her 
 affections toward Psyche's child were kind and her good- 
 heartedness is shown when she opens up all the doors of 
 the college to the wounded. 
 
 In all parts of the poem, she seems to be a leader 
 among women, and well liked by them. 
 
 I think she is persistent in carrying out the plans which 
 she has laid, and is rather courageous in that respect. 
 
 At the conclusion of the poem Tennyson says, 
 " Woman's cause is man's ; they rise or sink together, 
 dwarf'd or godlike, bond or free." 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 49 
 
 6. The following paragraph is, perhaps, a fair exam- 
 ple of the conversation of an uneducated person. Note 
 its violations of Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. 
 
 This announcement, instead of embarrassing Mrs. 
 Miller, seemed to relieve her. *' I suffer from the liver," 
 she said. " I think it 's the climate ; it 's less bracing 
 than Schenectady, especially in the winter season. I 
 don't know whether you know we reside at Schenectady. 
 I was saying to Daisy that I certainly had n't found any 
 one like Dr. Davis, and I did n't believe I should. Oh, 
 at Schenectady he stands first; they think everything of 
 him. He has so much to do, and yet there was nothing 
 he would n't do for me. He said he never saw anything 
 like my dyspepsia, but he was bound to cure it. I 'm 
 sure there was nothing he wouldn't try. He was just 
 going to try something new when we came off. Mr. 
 Miller wanted Daisy to see Europe for herself. But I 
 wrote to Mr. Miller that it seems as if I could n't get on 
 without Dr. Davis. At Schenectady he stands at the 
 very top ; and there *s a great deal of sickness there, too. 
 It affects my sleep." 
 
 Henry James: Daisy Miller. 
 
 7. Class-room Exercise. {Twenty-five minutes.) 
 Write a paragraph on one of the following topics : 
 
 ^1, The Character of Goldsmith. Fix on four or five 
 traits before you begin to write. 
 
 2. One Advantage of Studying Science in the High 
 
 School. Explain and illustrate. 
 
 3. The Story of Tennyson's " Lady Clare." 
 
 4. My Favorite Newspaper. Give several reasons for 
 
 your preference. 
 
 5. My Favorite Sport. 
 
 6. What I Would Do with One Hundred Thousand 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 7. One of My Friends. Describe his or her appear- 
 
 ance ; size, clothes, manners, expression of face. 
 
50 Paragraphs 
 
 8. Rearrange the following sentences so that they 
 will form a coherent and emphatic paragraph. Begin 
 by determining the subject of the paragraph; second, 
 find the sentence that states this subject and may there- 
 fore best begin the paragraph ; then, arrange the other 
 sentences in a coherent and emphatic order. 
 
 1. The Spectator is a gentleman who, after passing a 
 studious youth at the University, has traveled on classic 
 ground, and has bestowed much attention on curious 
 points of antiquity. 
 
 2. He has, on his return, fixed his residence in Lon- 
 don, and has observed all the forms of life which are to 
 be found in that great city; has daily listened to the 
 wits of Will's, has smoked with the philosophers of the 
 Grecian, and has mingled with the parsons at Child's, 
 and with the politicians at the St. James's. 
 
 3. But an insurmountable bashfulness prevents him 
 from opening his mouth except in a small circle of inti- 
 mate friends. 
 
 4. The Spectator himself was conceived and drawn 
 by Addison; and it is not easy to doubt that the por- 
 trait was meant to be in some features a likeness of the 
 painter. 
 
 5. In the morning he often listens to the hum of the 
 Exchange; in the evening his face is constantly to be 
 seen in the pit of Drury Lane theatre. 
 
 9. Rearrange the following sentences so that they 
 will form a coherent and emphatic paragraph. The 
 subject is, — Jackson's Power as President. What sen- 
 tence best introduces this subject? What two sen- 
 tences are closely connected in thought? Which of 
 these comes first ? What sentence makes the most em- 
 phatic ending? 
 
The Paragraph as a Unit 5 i 
 
 1. It was an era when special training for adminis- 
 trative work began to be slighted, when education be- 
 yond the rudiments was considered unnecessary, except 
 in the three professions, when the practical man was 
 apotheosized, and the bookish man despised. 
 
 2. Jackson was a strong Executive, and placed in his 
 Cabinet men who would do his will, and who, from his 
 point of view, were good advisers, since they counseled 
 him to pursue the course he had marked out for himself. 
 
 3. The brilliant three, Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, 
 were unable to prevail against his power. 
 
 4. Jackson, uneducated and with little experience in 
 civil life, showed what power might be exercised by an 
 arbitrary, unreasonable man who had the people at his 
 back. 
 
 5. Comparing his Cabinet officers with those of the 
 Presidents preceding him, one realizes that another plan 
 of governing was set on foot, based on the theory that 
 any American citizen is fit for any position to which he is 
 called. 
 
 II 
 
 10. In themes assigned to you for criticism, how is 
 the topic developed into a paragraph? by means of 
 details, explanation, illustration, examples, compari- 
 sons, proofs? Would the paragraph be improved by 
 the additional use of any of these means ? 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PARAGRAPH 
 
 1. In the preceding chapter we have seen that the best 
 way to plan a paragraph is to sum up its substance in a 
 single sentence. We have also seen how this topic- 
 sentence may be developed in accord with the princi- 
 ples of composition. In this chapter we shall consider 
 a number of specific ways in which this development 
 may be managed. 
 
 2. First, let us make sure of what we mean by a topic- 
 sentence. In paragraph 3 of Chapter 5, we saw that 
 the first sentence of a paragraph frequently contains 
 the subject or topic; it is then the topic-sentence. 
 Thus in each of the three selections quoted on pages 38 
 and 39, the first sentence contains the topic of the para- 
 graph : " Without the scene was repeated." " The har- 
 bour of Constantinople, which may be considered as 
 an arm of the Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote 
 period, the denomination of the Golden Horn/' " The 
 essays are the work of a rhetorician — the greatest, per- 
 haps, in English literature." Thus in the present para- 
 graph the opening sentence contains the topic, " what 
 we mean by a topic-sentence." Sometimes, however, 
 
 52 
 
The Development 53 
 
 connecting words are necessary to indicate the relation 
 of a paragraph to the preceding. These may amount 
 even to a whole sentence and so thrust the topic-sen- 
 tence forward into second place. The last sentence of 
 a paragraph should often contain the conclusion, and 
 a part or even the whole of the topic may be reserved 
 for the last place. The topic of a paragraph, in fact, 
 may frequently not be stated at all, but only implied in 
 the paragraph itself. The paragraph has sufficient 
 Unity if its substance can be summed up in a single 
 sentence, whether expressed or implied. In well-made 
 paragraphs, however, the opening sentence usually pre- 
 sents the topic. 
 
 3' The following paragraphs furnish further iexam- 
 ples of topic-sentences and also illustrate what we are 
 concerned in discovering in this chapter, how a topic- 
 sentence is developed into a paragraph by various 
 methods according to the purpose of the writer. The 
 topic-sentences are printed in italics. 
 
 I. DEFINITION, REPETITION, AND EXPLANATION 
 
 The proposition is peace. Not peace through the me- 
 dium of war; not peace to be hunted through the laby- 
 rinth of intricate and endless negotiations; not peace to 
 rise out of universal discord fomented from principle in 
 all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juri- 
 dicial determination of perplexing questions, or the pre- 
 cise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex gov- 
 ernment. It is simple peace, sought in its natural course 
 and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the 
 principles of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific. 
 I propose, by removing the ground of difference, and by 
 
54 Preliminaries 
 
 restoring the former unsuspecting confidence of the colo- 
 nies in the mother country, to give permanent satisfac- 
 tion to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling 
 by discord,) to reconcile them to each other in the same 
 act and by the bond of the very same interest which rec- 
 onciles them to the British government. 
 
 Edmund Burke: Speech on Conciliation with 
 America. 
 
 4. In this paragraph the purpose of the v^riter is to 
 explain and enforce the topic stated in the first sen- 
 tence. After reading that, one is inclined to ask, 
 " what kind of peace ? how is it to be secured ? " The 
 second sentence proceeds to tell what kind of peace it 
 is not; the third defines peace briefly; the fourth, a 
 little more at length; and the last sentence explains 
 more definitely the kind of peace proposed. Not until 
 this last sentence, in fact, is the exact nature of this 
 peace determined. In each of these last three sentences 
 there is repetition of the same idea, but with a new 
 idea added each time. The paragraph follows the prin- 
 ciples perfectly and develops the topic-sentence by 
 means of definition, repetition, and explanation. 
 
 II. DETAILS AND PARTICULARS 
 
 Worms prepare the ground in an excellent manner for 
 the growth of fibrous-rooted plants and for seedlings of 
 all kinds. They periodically expose the mould to the 
 air, and sift it so that no stones larger than the particles 
 which they can swallow are left in it. They mingle the 
 whole intimately together, like a gardener who prepares 
 fine soil for his choicest plants. In this state it is well 
 fitted to retain moisture and to absorb all soluble sub- 
 
The Development 55 
 
 stances, as well as for the process of nitrification. The 
 bones of dead animals, the harder parts of insects, the 
 shells of land mollusks, leaves, twigs, etc., are before long 
 all buried beneath the accumulated castings of worms, and 
 are thus brought in a more or less decayed state within 
 reach of the roots of plants. Worms likewise drag an in- 
 finite number of dead leaves and other parts of plants into 
 their burrows, partly for the sake of plugging them up 
 and partly as food. 
 
 Charles Darwin : The Formation of Vegetable 
 Mould. 
 
 The tremendous sea itself, when I could find sufficient 
 pause to look at it, in the agitation of the blinding wind, 
 the flying stones and sand, and the awful noise, con- 
 founded me. As the high watery walls came rolling in, 
 and, at their highest, tumbled into surf, they looked as 
 if the least would engulf the town. As the receding wave 
 swept back with a hoarse roar, it seemed to scoop out 
 deep caves in the beach, as if its purpose were to under- 
 mine the earth. When some white-headed billows thun- 
 dered on, and dashed themselves to pieces before they 
 reached the land, every fragment of the late whole 
 seemed possessed by the full might of its wrath, rushing 
 to be gathered to the composition of another monster. 
 Undulating hills were changed to valleys, undulating 
 valleys (with a solitary storm-bird sometimes skimming 
 through them) were lifted up to hills; masses of water 
 shivered and shook the beach with a booming sound; 
 every shape tumultuously rolled on, as soon as made, to 
 change its shape and place, and beat another shape and 
 place away ; the ideal shore on the horizon, with its tow- 
 ers and buildings, rose and fell ; the clouds flew fast and 
 thick; I seemed to see a rending and upheaving of all 
 nature. 
 
 Charles Dickens: David Copperiield. 
 
 5» In these paragraphs the topic-sentences are ampli- 
 fied by means of details and particulars. We are told 
 
5 6 Paragraphs 
 
 of various particular ways by which the worms pre- 
 pare the ground for seeds, and of the details that united 
 to make the tremendous sea so confounding to the 
 spectator. The paragraph from Darwin ends with an 
 important detail which is the subject of his next para- 
 graph ; the paragraph from Dickens ends with a clause 
 that sums up the effect of the various details, and thus 
 supplements the general impression given in the open- 
 ing sentence. This form of development, the amplifi- 
 cation of a general statement by specific details, is very 
 common and is applicable, as in the two paragraphs 
 quoted, to widely different topics. 
 
 III. EXAMPLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Boys are always more or less inaccurate, and too many, 
 or rather the majority remain boys all their lives. 
 When, for instance, I hear speakers at public meetings 
 declaiming about " large and enlightened views," or 
 about " freedom of conscience " or about " the Gospel,'* 
 or any other popular subject of the day, I am far from 
 denying that some among them know what they are talk- 
 ing about, but it would be satisfactory, in a particular 
 case, to be sure of the fact ; for it seems to me that these 
 household words may stand in a man's mind for a some- 
 thing or other, very glorious indeed, but very misty, 
 pretty much like the idea of " civilization " which floats 
 before the mental vision of a Turk, — that is, if, when he 
 interrupts his smoking to utter the word, he condescends 
 to reflect whether it has any meaning at all. Again, a 
 critic in a periodical dashes off, perhaps, his praises of a 
 new work, as " talented, original, replete with intense 
 interest, irresistible in argument, and in the best sense 
 of the word, a very readable book ; " — can we really be- 
 lieve that he cares to attach any definite sense to the 
 words of which he is so lavish? nay, that, if he had a 
 
The Development 57 
 
 habit of attaching sense to them, he could ever bring him- 
 self to so prodigal and wholesale an expenditure of them? 
 Cardinal Newman: Lectures on 
 University Subjects. 
 
 6. In this paragraph a statement is reinforced by a 
 number of examples and illustrations. The topic-sen- 
 tence of the first paragraph under II might have been 
 amplified in a similar manner. Darwin might have 
 illustrated the way the worms prepare the ground by 
 an example of some worm he had studied, instead of by 
 giving a number of particular ways in which all worms 
 work. This method of illustration is used constantly 
 in this book; this chapter, for instance, seeks by this 
 method of examples and illustrations to explain how 
 to develop a paragraph. 
 
 IV. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 
 
 But that which chiefly distinguishes Addison from 
 Szvift, from Voltaire, from almost all the other great 
 masters of ridicule, is the grace, the nobleness, the moral 
 purity, which we find even in his merriment. Severity, 
 gradually hardening and darkening into misanthropy, 
 characterizes the work of Swift. The nature of Voltaire 
 was, indeed, not inhuman; but he venerated nothing. 
 Neither in the masterpieces of art nor in the purest ex- 
 amples of virtue, neither in the Great First Cause nor in 
 the awful enigma of the grave, could he see anything 
 but subjects for drollery. The more solemn and august 
 the theme, the more monkey-like was his grimacing and 
 chattering. The mirth of Swift is the mirth of Mephis- 
 topheles ; the mirth of Voltaire is the mirth of Puck. If, 
 as Soame Jenyns oddly imagined, a portion of the happi- 
 ness of Seraphim and just men made perfect be derived 
 from an exquisite perception of the ludicrous, their mirth 
 
5 8 Paragraphs 
 
 must surely be none other than the mirth of Addison ; a 
 mirth consistent with tender compassion for all that is 
 frail, and with profound reverence for all that is sublime. 
 Nothing great, nothing amiable, no moral duty, no doc- 
 trine of natural or revealed religion has ever been asso- 
 ciated by Addison with any degrading idea. His hu- 
 manity is without a parallel in literary history. The 
 highest proof of virtue is to possess boundless power with- 
 out abusing it. No kind of power is more formidable 
 than the power of making men ridiculous ; and that power 
 Addison possessed in boundless measure. How grossly 
 that power was abused by Swift and by Voltaire is well 
 known. But of Addison it may be confidently affirmed 
 that he has blackened no man's character, nay, that it 
 would be difficult, if not impossible, to find in all the 
 volumes which he has left us a single taunt which can 
 be called ungenerous or unkind. Yet he had detractors, 
 whose malignity might have seemed to justify as terrible 
 a revenge as that which men, not superior to him in 
 genius, wreaked on Bettesworth and on Franc de Pom- 
 pignan. He was a politician; he was the best writer of 
 his party ; he lived in times of fierce excitement, in times 
 when persons of high character and station stooped to 
 scurrility such as is now practised only by the basest 
 of mankind. Yet no provocation and no example could 
 induce him to return railing for railing. 
 
 Thomas B. Macaulay: Essay on Addison. 
 
 7. Here the method is by means of contrast and com- 
 parison. Some examples are introduced and there is 
 some reinforcement of ideas by repetition, but the 
 main topic, " the grace, the nobleness, the moral pur- 
 ity " of Addison's merriment, is developed by con- 
 trasting his humor with that of Swift and Voltaire. 
 A development by comparison might indicate like- 
 nesses instead of contrasts. 
 
The Development 59 
 
 V. PROOF 
 
 Still, we do not think that the blame of Burns's failure 
 lies chiefly with the world. The world, it seems to us, 
 treated him with more rather than less kindness than it 
 usually shows to such men. It has ever, we fear, shown 
 but small favor to its Teachers: hunger and nakedness, 
 perils and revilings, the prison, the cross, the poison- 
 chalice have, in most times and countries, been the 
 market-price it has offered for Wisdom, the welcome 
 with which it has greeted those who have come to en- 
 lighten and purify it. Homer and Socrates, and the 
 Christian Apostles, belong to old days ; but the world's 
 Martyrology was not completed with these. Roger 
 Bacon and Galileo languish in priestly dungeons ; Tasso 
 pines in the cell of a mad-house; Camoens dies begging 
 on the streets of Lisbon. So neglected, so * persecuted 
 they the Prophets,' not in Judea only, but in all places 
 where men have been. We reckon that every poet of 
 Burns's order is, or should be, a prophet and teacher to 
 his age; that he has no right to expect great kindness 
 from it, but rather is bound to do it great kindness ; that 
 Burns, in particular, experienced £ully the usual propor- 
 tion of the world's goodness; and that the blame of his 
 failure, as we have said, lies not chiefly with the world. 
 
 Carlyle: Essay on Burns. 
 
 8. In this paragraph the development is by means of 
 proofs presented in support of a proposition. The 
 structure of the paragraph is so clear that it can be indi- 
 cated in the form of a brief for an argument: 
 
 Proposition. We do not think that the blame of Burns's 
 failure lies chiefly with the world. (Topic sentence.) 
 Proof, i. For the world treated him with more kind- 
 ness than it usually shows such men. 
 
6o Paragraphs 
 
 A. For it has ever shown small favor 
 to teachers and prophets, 
 (a) For, note the cases of 
 Homer, Socrates, Bacon, Gali- 
 leo, Tasso. 
 2. For every poet of Burns's order should be 
 independent of the favor of the world. 
 Conclusion. Therefore, the blame of his failure lies 
 not chiefly with the world. 
 
 9. In many descriptive and narrative paragraphs the 
 method of development is different from any of these. 
 A number of details about an object or scene may fol- 
 low their arrangement in space, as in the selection from 
 Gibbon in Chapter 5, or a number of events may be 
 set forth in the order of their occurrence in time, as in 
 the following paragraph : 
 
 VI. NARRATIVE 
 
 My Lord Viscount was put to bed, and his wound 
 looked to by the surgeon, who seemed both kind and 
 skilful. When he had looked to my Lord, he bandaged 
 up Harry Esmond's hand (who from loss of blood, had 
 fainted too, in the house, and may have been some time 
 unconscious) ; and when the young man came to himself, 
 you may be sure he eagerly asked what news there was of 
 his dear patron ; on which the surgeon carried him to the 
 room where the Lord Castlewood lay; who had already 
 sent for a priest; and desired earnestly, they said, to 
 speak with his kinsman. He was lying on a bed, very 
 pale and ghastly, with that fixed, fatal look in his eyes, 
 which betokens death ; and faintly beckoning all the 
 other persons away from him with his hand, and crying 
 out " Only Harry Esmond," the hand fell powerless 
 down on the coverlet, as Harry came forward, and knelt 
 down and kissed it. 
 
 William M, Thackeray: Henry Esmond, 
 
The Development 6i 
 
 10. Here, although there is no topic-sentence, we can 
 state the contents of the paragraph briefly, Henry Es- 
 mond goes to the dying Lord Castlewood. Note also 
 that the last clause in the paragraph describes the event 
 to which the other clauses and sentences lead. This is 
 a common method in narrative paragraphs : the group- 
 ing of events, closely connected in time, about some 
 particular event, which may be said to be the topic of 
 the paragraph and is often reserved until the last 
 sentence. 
 
 11. In these selections we have examined only a few 
 of the many ways in which a topic-sentence may be 
 developed. The topic-sentence may present a cause, 
 and the rest of the sentences the effects of this cause ; 
 or the topic-sentence may present an effect, and the 
 developing sentences the causes. The development 
 may consist of modifications and limitations of the 
 topic, or of answers to criticisms of a proposition, or 
 of impressions received from the object named in the 
 opening sentence. It is impossible to analyze all the 
 methods of developing an idea into a composition of 
 even a few hundred words. Furthermore, most para- 
 graphs use more than one method of development. A 
 single paragraph might, indeed, employ all those that 
 have been enumerated in this chapter. It should be 
 observed that a writer's choice of methods of develop- 
 ment will depend primarily on his purpose. If his pur- 
 pose be to tell a story, the chronological grouping of 
 events is the most natural; if he wishes to present an 
 argument, the method of proofs. But in telling a story 
 
^ 
 
 6 2 Paragraphs 
 
 he is likely to have an occasion for details and par- 
 ticulars, and if his argument is to be convincing, he will 
 often need to preface his proofs with definition and 
 explanation. The writer may choose from a large 
 number of methods those that best suit his purpose. 
 12. He must remember, however, that a paragraph 
 should be the development of a single idea, such as 
 can be put into a single sentence. The sentence con- 
 taining this idea is called the topic-sentence and may 
 form a part of the paragraph. Usually it should be the 
 first sentence, and the remaining sentences may develop 
 this topic-sentence in various ways. Some of the most 
 common and serviceable methods of development are : 
 I. Definition, Repetition, Explanation. 11. Details 
 and Particulars. III. Examples, Illustrations. IV. 
 Comparisons and Contrasts. V. Proofs. VI. Chron- 
 ological Grouping of Events. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine six paragraphs in one of Macaulay's Es- 
 says. What methods of development are used in each? 
 From the reports on this exercise by various members 
 of the class, decide what seem to be Macaulay's favor- 
 ite methods. 
 
 2. Develop one topic-sentence from each of the fol- 
 lowing groups into a paragraph, according to the 
 method assigned. Or you may substitute a topic-sen- 
 
The Development 63 
 
 tence of your own devising, if approved by your 
 teacher. 
 
 I. BY DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION 
 
 The meaning of the word " success " is frequently mis- 
 understood. 
 
 Elective courses in the high school are beneficial. 
 
 " The triumph of Modern Art in Writing is manifested 
 in the structure of the paragraph." 
 
 II. BY DETAILS AND PARTICULARS 
 
 Greenfield is a thriving Indiana town. 
 
 It is advisable to plan your studying for the week. 
 
 How much a penny means to a small boy ! 
 
 III. BY EXAMPLE AND ILLUSTRATION 
 
 Some people appear to be much busier than they are. 
 
 It is surprising how much we can learn by careful atten- 
 tion during a recitation of the class. 
 
 The true character of a man is sometimes indicated by 
 his conduct in the street-car. 
 
 IV. BY COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 
 
 There are immigrants whom we do want and immi- 
 grants whom we do not want. 
 
 Greater advantage is derived from four years in college 
 than from four years in business. 
 
 V. BY PROOFS 
 
 Does Macbeth's hesitation arise from cowardice or from 
 generous feeling? 
 
 Shylock is surely one of Shakespeare's greatest char- 
 acters. 
 
 Foot-ball afifords good mental discipline. 
 
 The large appropriation for new ships for our navy has 
 received unwarranted criticism. 
 
64 Paragraphs 
 
 VI. BY NARRATIVE 
 The topic-sentence may be altered, placed at the beginning or 
 end, or omitted in the completed theme. 
 
 Yesterday I went fishing. 
 
 *' Childe Roland to the dark tower came." 
 
 The ball was sailing over the left fielder's head, and the 
 game was won. 
 
 One of my happiest recollections of childhood is of vis- 
 its to grandmother's. 
 
 3. Develop one of the following topics by any method 
 you choose. 
 
 The Observance of Sunday. 
 
 How I Spent a Rainy Day. 
 
 Differences between High School and Grammar School. 
 
 A Comparison of Milton's " L'AUegro " and " II Pen- 
 
 seroso." 
 What Shakespeare Means by " the Quality of Mercy." 
 A Chemical Experiment. 
 English Sparrows. 
 Villains in Novels. 
 
 4. Hand in a topic-sentence of your own choice, with 
 a statement of the methods you intend to use in its de- 
 velopment. 
 
 5- Criticize the themes read in the class, following 
 this outline: 
 
 1. The topic-sentence. 
 
 2. The methods of development. 
 
 3. Unity. 
 
 4. Coherence. 
 
 5. Emphasis. 
 
The Development 65 
 
 6. Analyze the following paragraphs according to the 
 outline given in Exercise 5 : 
 
 1. The young lady of 1837 has been to a fashionable 
 school ; she has learned accomplishments, deportment, and 
 dress. She is full of sentiment; there was an amazing 
 amount of sentiment in the air about that time ; she loves 
 to talk and read about gallant knights, crusaders, and 
 troubadours ; she gently touches the guitar ; her sentiment, 
 or her little affectation, has touched her with a graceful 
 melancholy, a becoming stoop, a sweet pensiveness. She 
 loves the aristocracy, even though her home is in that 
 part of London called Bloomsbury, whither the belted 
 earl cometh not, even though her papa goes into the city ; 
 she reads a good deal of poetry, especially those poems 
 which deal with the affections, of which there are many 
 at this time. On Sunday she goes to church religiously, 
 and pensively, followed by a footman carrying her prayer- 
 book and a long stick ; she can play on the guitar and the 
 piano a few easy pieces which she has learned. She knows 
 a few words of French, which she produces at frequent 
 intervals ; as to history, geography, science, the condition 
 of the people, her mind is an entire blank ; she knows no- 
 thing of these things. Her conversation is commonplace, 
 as her ideas are limited; she cannot reason on any sub- 
 ject whatever because of her ignorance, or, as she herself 
 would say, because she is a woman. 
 
 Sir Walter Besant. 
 
 2, The appearance of Rip, with his long grizzled beard, 
 his rusty fowling-piece, his uncouth dress, and an army 
 of women and children at his heels, soon attracted the at- 
 tention of the tavern-politicians. They crowded round 
 him, eyeing him from head to foot with great curiosity. 
 The orator bustled up to him, and, drawing him partly 
 aside, inquired " On which side he voted ? " Rip stared 
 in vacant stupidity. Another short but busy little fellow 
 pulled him by the arm, and, rising on tiptoe, inquired in 
 
66 Paragraphs 
 
 his ear, " Whether he was Federal or Democrat?" Rip 
 was equally at a loss to comprehend the question; when 
 a knowing, self-important old gentleman, in a sharp 
 cocked hat, made his way through the crowd, putting 
 them to right and left with his elbows as he passed, and 
 planting himself before Van Winkle, with one arm 
 akimbo, the other resting on his cane, his keen eyes and 
 sharp hat penetrating, as it were, into his very soul, de- 
 manded in an austere tone, '' What brought him to the 
 election with a gun on his shoulder, and a mob at his 
 heels ; and whether he meant to breed a riot in the vil- 
 lage?" 
 
 Washington Irving: Rip Van Winkle. 
 
 3. It may not be out of place to again allude to President 
 Lincoln and the Secretary of War, Mr. Stanton, who were 
 the great, conspicuous figures in the executive branch of 
 the government. There is no great difference of opinion 
 now, in the public mind, as to the characteristics of the 
 President. With Mr. Stanton the case is different. They 
 were the very opposites of each other in almost every par- 
 ticular, except that each possessed great ability. Mr. Lin- 
 coln gained influence over men by making them feel that 
 it was a pleasure to serve him. He preferred yielding 
 his own wish to gratify others, rather than to insist upon 
 having his own way. It distressed him to disappoint 
 others. In matters of public duty, however, he had what 
 he wished, but in the least offensive way. Mr. Stanton 
 never questioned his own authority to command, unless 
 resisted. He cared nothing for the feelings of others. In 
 fact, it seemed pleasanter to him to disappoint than to 
 gratify. He felt no hesitation in assuming the functions 
 of the executive, or in acting without advising with him. 
 If his act was not sustained, he would change it — if he saw 
 the matter would be followed up until he did so. 
 
 U. S. Grant: Personal Memoirs. 
 
 4. The Grand Master was a man advanced in age, as 
 was testified by his long grey beard, and the shaggy grey 
 
The Development 67 
 
 eyebrows, overhanging eyes, of which, however, years had 
 been unable to quench the fire. A formidable warrior, his 
 thin and severe features retained the soldier's fierceness of 
 expression ; an ascetic bigot, they were no less marked by 
 the emaciation of abstinence, and the spiritual pride of the 
 self-satisfied devotee. Yet with these severer traits of 
 physiognomy there was mixed somewhat striking and no- 
 ble, arising, doubtless, from the great part which his high 
 office called upon him to act among monarchs and princes, 
 and from the habitual exercise of supreme authority over 
 the valiant and high-born knights, who were united by 
 the rules of the Order. His stature was tall, and his gait, 
 undepressed by age and toil, was erect and stately. His 
 white mantle was shaped with severe regularity, according 
 to the rule of Saint Bernard himself, being composed of 
 what was then called Burrel cloth, exactly fitted to the 
 size of the wearer, and bearing on the left shoulder the 
 octangular cross peculiar to the Order, formed of red 
 cloth. No vair or ermine decked his garment; but in 
 respect of his age, the Grand Master, as permitted by the 
 rules, wore his doublet lined and trimmed with the softest 
 lambskin, dressed with the wool outwards, which was the 
 nearest approach he could regularly make to the use of 
 fur, then the greatest luxury of dress. In his hand he 
 bore that singular abacus, or staff of office, with which 
 Templars are usually represented, having at the upper 
 end a round plate, on which was engraved the cross of 
 the Order, inscribed within a circle or orle, as heralds term 
 it. His companion, who attended on this great personage, 
 had nearly the same dress in all respects, but his extreme 
 deference towards his superior showed that no other 
 equality subsisted between them. The Preceptor, for such 
 he was in rank, walked not in a line with the Grand Mas- 
 ter, but just so far behind that Beaumanoir could speak 
 to him without turning round his head. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott: Ivanhoe. 
 
68 Paragraphs 
 
 II 
 
 7. Class-room Exercise. (Ten minutes for each.) 
 Write a theme on, " What I have Learned about Para- 
 graphs " ; on, " What I Want to Learn." 
 
 8. Of the subjects for themes given in the exercises 
 of this chapter, which seem to you suited for descrip- 
 tion? which for narrative, for exposition, for argu- 
 ment? How would you define each of these kinds of 
 writing? 
 
 9. Develop one of the following topic-sentences into 
 a paragraph by means of Cause and Effect. 
 
 1. American superiority in manufactures over the 
 other nations of the world is probably established. 
 (Causes.) 
 
 2. Macbeth's crime was the result of moral defects as 
 well as of circumstances. (Causes.) 
 
 3. Foot-ball is a benefit both physically and morally. 
 (Effects.) 
 
 4. The surrender of Vicksburg gave new spirit to the 
 loyal men of the North. (Effects.) 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THEMES OF TWO PARAGRAPHS — EXPOSITION 
 AND ARGUMENT 
 
 1. We have been discussing compositions of a single 
 paragraph in length. Doubtless in some instances the 
 student has thought of additional matter which would 
 be of interest, but which he has refrained from putting 
 into his paragraph for fear of destroying its Unity. 
 Such matter might possibly have been made into an- 
 other paragraph, closely connected with the first, and 
 his theme have been expanded into two paragraphs. 
 Many topics, in fact, fall naturally into two divisions 
 and, even when treated briefly, should be given two 
 paragraphs. The selection from Addison in Chapter i, 
 Exercise 3, is an example; the first paragraph deals 
 with the improvements that Sir Roger introduced in 
 the church service, the second deals with his behavior 
 in church. After the study of the composition of a sin- 
 gle paragraph, the next step is naturally the study of 
 the combination of two or three paragraphs into a 
 theme. 
 
 2. In such themes we must apply what we have 
 learned about single paragraphs; we can use the 
 methods of development suggested in the last chapter, 
 
 69 
 
yo Paragraphs 
 
 and can constantly test our work by the three princi- 
 ples of composition. In addition, we must consider 
 more carefully than before some problems which we 
 have already encountered and which offer greater diffi- 
 culties as themes increase in length. Even in deciding 
 whether a theme is to be of one or two paragraphs, we 
 meet the problems of selection, what to put into the 
 theme, — of arrangement, how to divide and order it, — 
 and of proportion, what space to give to each division. 
 3. The solving of these problems, as of many others 
 in rhetoric, depends on the writer's purpose in present- 
 ing the subject to the reader. Does he seek to convince 
 his readers of some truth or to entertain them by a 
 story ; in either case his plan and structure should vary 
 to fit his purpose. Any composition may, to be sure, 
 have a complex purpose ; it may seek to entertain while 
 it convinces, or to present some truth while it amuses ; 
 but its main purpose will generally be one of four 
 kinds, and accordingly all prose writing is divided into 
 four classes. These have already been illustrated in 
 many of our themes and exercises. The theme on 
 " Oxygen " was an exposition, for the writer was try- 
 ing to explain its nature and properties ; the theme on 
 " Manual Training should be an elective course in 
 grammar schools " was an argument, for it sought to 
 convince the reader of the truth of this proposition. 
 The theme on " A Grocery Store " was a description, 
 for it sought to give the reader a mental picture; the 
 theme on '' A Day's Outing " was a narrative, for it 
 aimed to impress on the reader's mind a succession of 
 
Exposition and Argument 71 
 
 events. Any theme or book can usually be classed, 
 according to its chief purpose, under one of these four 
 forms of prose. In Exposition we are aiming chiefly at 
 making the reader understand our ideas ; in Argument, 
 at convincing or persuading him of their truth. In 
 Description we aim to give him a mental picture of 
 something as it impresses us ; in Narrative, to interest 
 him in a succession of actions or events. 
 4. These kinds of writing cannot be exactly separated. 
 Even a theme of two paragraphs may combine two or 
 more kinds. The four general divisions do, however, 
 represent four distinct aims with which the writer ad- 
 dresses the reader; and by thoroughly understanding 
 these aims we can prepare ourselves for overcoming 
 the difficulties peculiar to each. We shall now examine 
 under each kind of writing some of the difficulties of 
 proportion and, more particularly, of selection and ar- 
 rangement which arise in the composition of short 
 themes. 
 
 5- Exposition might just as well be called Explana- 
 tion. If a writer's main purpose is to explain, he is 
 writing an exposition, whether he is defining '' Force" 
 in a Physics examination or expounding in a text-book 
 the art of writing good English. Many of the selec- 
 tions given in this book are expositions, as the para- 
 graphs from Burke, Darwin, Macaulay, and Newman 
 in the last chapter ; so are a very large number of edi- 
 torials, magazine articles, sermons, lectures, essays, 
 most scientific works, and all text-books, dictionaries, 
 and encyclopedias. Nearly every piece of writing, in 
 
7 2 Paragraphs 
 
 fact, has some explaining to do; here, however, we 
 may consider for a moment pure exposition. 
 
 6. Now the first thing necessary in order to write a 
 good exposition is to keep in mind the aim — to make 
 the reader thoroughly understand the subject. In se- 
 lection we must reject everything which does not help 
 to realize this aim. If " The Mechanism of an Auto- 
 mobile " is the subject, we do not need to persuade the 
 reader that automobiles will soon take the place of 
 trolley-cars, or to picture to him an automobile race, or 
 to tell him of an experience on a journey in an auto- 
 mobile from New York to Albany. We must try 
 to explain to him the construction and use of the 
 various parts. In order to do this, very careful atten- 
 tion must be paid to arrangement. We shall need to 
 decide what are the important parts of the mechanism, 
 and then the order in which they can be most clearly 
 put before the reader. The proportion of the theme 
 will also depend on its main purpose; the parts that 
 need the most space will be those that are most im- 
 portant for a clear understanding of the machine. 
 
 7. In every expository theme the general method is 
 the same. Unity can be secured by the selection of ma- 
 terial that really explains; Coherence, by a clear and 
 logical division and arrangement; and Emphasis, by 
 giving greater space to the parts more important in 
 explanation. The student can also make use of the 
 methods of developing ideas that we studied in the last 
 chapter. He will need to define carefully all terms that 
 might puzzle the reader, to amplify by supplying de- 
 
Exposition and Argument 73 
 
 tails and particulars, and to illustrate by means of ex- 
 amples and comparisons. No exposition is likely to be 
 clear without a good deal of illustration. 
 8. Let us see how some of these means of explaining 
 well can be applied to themes of two paragraphs. The 
 following plans illustrate various methods of arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 I. CANNING PEACHES 
 
 First Paragraph. Preparations. 
 Second Paragraph. The Process. 
 
 2 A GOOD NOTE-BOOK 
 
 First Paragraph. Mechanical Requirements : size, mar- 
 gins, penmanship, headings, index. 
 
 Second Paragraph. Contents : what should be put in, 
 what left out, illustrated by a note-book on American 
 History. 
 
 3. SLANG 
 
 First 'Paragraph. Definition: since the term is used 
 vaguely, careful restriction and explanation of its mean- 
 ing are necessary. 
 
 Second Paragraph. Illustration : Examples that will il- 
 lustrate every point of the definition. 
 
 4. THE CHARACTER OF MACAULAY 
 
 First Paragraph. Various Noteworthy Traits: kind- 
 ness, good-humor, freedom from vanity, generosity, love 
 of reading. 
 
 Second Paragraph. The Most Prominent Trait: en- 
 thusiastic energy. 
 
 The first two plans would be developed largely by 
 means of specific details; in the third, definition and il- 
 
74 Paragraphs 
 
 lustration are separated; in the fourth, some of the 
 traits in the first paragraph should be illustrated by 
 examples, and the prominent trait to which the whole 
 of the second paragraph is given should be fully illus- 
 trated. In each case the matter might have been con- 
 densed into a single paragraph; but the division into 
 two is in the first three cases natural and logical, and 
 in the fourth case it gives emphasis to an important 
 part of the theme. In all four cases, it will be observed, 
 the division and the arrangement of the plan are in ac- 
 cord with the writer's purpose — to explain the subject. 
 
 9. Argument, in its typical form, deals with a ques- 
 tion. The writer has come to some conclusion in re- 
 gard to the question and endeavors to bring his readers 
 into agreement with him. His conclusion is the subject 
 of his theme and can be put into the form of a proposi- 
 tion, — this is so, or, that ought to be so ; as, for exam- 
 ple, " Imperialism is a menace to our institutions," or, 
 " More attention should be paid to the teaching of 
 rhetoric in our schools." Since the writer is trying to 
 convince his readers of the truth of a proposition, he 
 must make his ideas entirely clear to them; conse- 
 quently an argument almost always requires exposi- 
 tion. The writer should, indeed, ask himself at the 
 start if his proposition is perfectly clear. Can each 
 term of the proposition be exactly defined in a way that 
 will be accepted by the reader? In the two proposi- 
 tions just instanced, there would be considerable diffi- 
 culty in arriving at such definitions. " Imperialism " 
 is a vague term, having different meanings to different 
 
Exposition and Argument 75 
 
 people; in using such a term, the writer is likely to 
 spend his time in discussing its meaning instead of ad- 
 vancing proofs for his proposition. So, too, '' our 
 schools " and " the teaching of rhetoric " are vague, for 
 the v^riter probably has in mind a certain class of 
 schools and a particular kind of teaching. The attempt 
 to secure an impartial and clear proposition will usually 
 lead to a consideration of the origin of the question. It 
 may turn out, for instance, that the writer chose the 
 first proposition because he was interested in affairs in 
 the Philippines. " Our policy in the Philippines," then, 
 could be substituted for " Imperialism," and would 
 prove much easier to define in a way that every reader 
 would accept. The second proposition also may have 
 been suggested by certain definite facts which led the 
 writer to believe that more instruction should be given 
 in theme-writing in his own school. This last proposi- 
 tion is clear and debatable. In every argumentative 
 theme, then, the first steps are expository, — to put the 
 subject in the form of a proposition; to define the 
 terms of this proposition in a way acceptable to all 
 readers; and to make sure that it is what we really 
 want to argue about. 
 
 10. The problems of selection, arrangement, and pro- 
 portion in long arguments, such as lawyers' pleas and 
 treatises in support of scientific theories, need not re- 
 ceive our attention here. They require a full discus- 
 sion of the kinds and values of evidence and of the 
 various ways of arranging it. In short themes we are 
 usually presenting only a fragment of an argument, 
 one or two reasons for or against a proposition. Here, 
 
76 Paragraphs 
 
 however, as in longer compositions, care should be 
 taken to select only those reasons that are convincing 
 and to answer only those objections that are important. 
 In arranging our material, we must also be careful to 
 complete the discussion of each proof before going on 
 to the next ; and if we come to any conclusion, we must 
 state it distinctly either at the beginning or the end of 
 the theme. 
 
 II. The varieties of arrangement are considerable 
 even in short themes. The selection from Carlyle on 
 page 59 is a good example for the arrangement of a 
 single paragraph, and the following outlines illustrate 
 a few of the many ways of arranging argumentative 
 themes of two paragraphs : 
 
 1. Title: One need of our high school. 
 Proposition: More time should be spent on English 
 
 composition in this school. 
 First Par. Because practice in writing themes is of 
 
 practical value in life. 
 Second Par. Because it trains the mind in observing 
 
 and thinking. 
 
 2. Title: Where should i go to college? 
 Question: Is it more advantageous to attend college in 
 
 this city or away from home? 
 
 First Par. Practical and social advantages in remain- 
 ing at home. 
 
 Second Par. Educational advantages of the college 
 here compared with those elsewhere. 
 
 3. Title and Question: Should arbitration be com- 
 
 pulsory ? 
 
 First Par. Some objections answered. 
 
 Second Par, Some reasons why it should be compul- 
 sory. 
 
Exposition and Argument 77 
 
 Each theme should begin with some explanation of 
 the subject. In the first the conclusion can perhaps be 
 best stated at the beginning; in the second and third 
 it will come, as is more frequently the case, at the end. 
 The various paragraphs should be developed by means 
 of proofs combined with examples and details. 
 12. Many argumentative themes contain a greater 
 proportion of exposition, perhaps enough for an entire 
 paragraph, as in the following plan: 
 
 Title: Our neglect of athletics. 
 
 Proposition: Athletics in this school should be well 
 supported by the students. 
 
 First Par. Exposition : the present condition of ath- 
 letics ; lack of support by students in subscriptions ; 
 attendance and enthusiasm at games. 
 
 Second Par. Argument: reasons why students 
 should support athletics. 
 
 Here the exposition serves naturally as an introduc- 
 tion to the argument. The first paragraph can be de- 
 veloped by means of explanation, particulars, and ex- 
 amples; the second, by proofs and details. 
 13' In this chapter we have dealt with two of the four 
 forms of written prose. Exposition and Argument. 
 These are both directed mainly to the reader's intellect : 
 the first aims to make the writer's ideas clear ; the sec- 
 ond, to convince the reader of their truth. The writer 
 should keep these aims in mind and let them govern his 
 work of selection, arrangement, and proportion. We 
 have considered these problems in the case of themes 
 of two paragraphs. The writer can avail himself of 
 
J 8 Paragraphs 
 
 the guidance of the three Principles of Composition 
 and of the methods of developing topic-sentences; but, 
 with all this aid, he will have to exercise care in the 
 division of his subject and the arrangement of the parts 
 if his theme is to be either clear or convincing. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine the articles in a recent magazine. Under 
 which of the four kinds of writing would you classify 
 each ? 
 
 2. Of the books that you have read in the course in 
 English literature, which are expositions, which argu- 
 ments ? 
 
 3' In writing on one of the following subjects, decide 
 whether your theme shall be of one or two paragraphs ; 
 an exposition, argument, description, or narrative : 
 
 1. What Books I would Buy with Ten Dollars. 
 
 2. Benefits from the Study of Latin. 
 
 3. Foods that Contain Starch. 
 
 4. An Interesting Conversation ; — give the substance 
 
 of what the speakers said. 
 
 5. Some idea which you tried to express in conversa- 
 
 tion with some person, and failed ; — an explanation 
 for that person. 
 
 6. How I Earned a Dollar. 
 
 7. Sheridan's Ride. 
 
 8. A Deserted Farm-house. 
 
 9. Washington was even Greater as a Statesman than 
 
 as a General. 
 10. An Objection to Fraternities. 
 
Exposition and Argument 79 
 
 4. Write an exposition of two paragraphs on one of 
 the following subjects, planning the theme by para- 
 graphs before beginning to write : 
 
 1. Golf for Girls. 
 
 2. How to Take a Photograph. 
 
 3. Evils of Strikes. 
 
 4. Popular Songs. 
 
 5. The Game of Golf; — for some one who has never 
 
 seen it played. 
 
 6. The Duties of the Mayor of this City. 
 
 7. The Character of Malvolio in *' Twelfth Night." 
 
 8. Learning to Swim. 
 
 9. How Food is Digested. 
 10. The Electoral College. 
 
 5« Write an argument of two paragraphs on one of 
 the following subjects , first determining how it is to be 
 divided into paragraphs: 
 
 1. Are Examinations a Fair Test of Ability? 
 
 2. Courses in Manual Training should be Given in the 
 
 High School. 
 
 3. Some Excuses for Slang. 
 
 4. Reasons for Restricting Immigration. 
 
 5. Public Libraries should be Opened on Sunday. 
 
 6. Rebecca versus Rowena. 
 
 6. Write a theme of two paragraphs on one of the fol- 
 lowing topics, according to this general plan. i. De- 
 fine roughly. 2. Divide into two or more classes. 3. 
 Illustrate by examples. 4. Give final definition or es- 
 timate. 
 
 I. 
 
 Slang. 
 
 5. 
 
 Gossip. 
 
 2. 
 
 Class-spirit. 
 
 6. 
 
 Literature. 
 
 3- 
 
 Tact. 
 
 7. 
 
 Culture. 
 
 4. 
 
 Good-breeding. 
 
 8. 
 
 Success. 
 
8o Paragraphs 
 
 7. Rearrange the following sentences so that they will 
 form a coherent exposition o f one paragraph. The topic 
 is, Physical Training in the Old College and the New. 
 I. Sum up the paragraph in a single sentence. 2. Clas- 
 sify the sentences in three groups (or at least two) ; 
 the members of each group being closely connected in 
 thought. 3. Arrange the sentences of each group. 4. 
 The order in which the three groups combine to make 
 up the paragraph should now be apparent. 5. What is 
 the order of thought which the sentences follow ? Do 
 they make a perfectly coherent paragraph ? 
 
 1. It is fast becoming as much a man's duty to take 
 proper care of his body as it is to cultivate his reason. 
 
 2. Physical vigor has therefore acquired a practical 
 significance which it never had before. 
 
 3. Most colleges have been forced to provide the op- 
 portunity for some kind of physical training. 
 
 4. The old idea of education was that a youth could 
 obtain all the benefits of a college training from books. 
 
 5. A college simply represented study and books. 
 
 6. Education, crystallized along conventional lines, 
 was confined mainly to men entering the professions of 
 law, medicine, and divinity. 
 
 7. The value of a sound body was recognized in theory, 
 but in practice no systematic method of obtaining it 
 seemed to be thought necessary. 
 
 8. Now all this is changed. 
 
 9. The dominating note underlying courses of study 
 for undergraduate students is, before all else, the produc- 
 tion of enlightened citizens. 
 
 10. Many of the professions now require the higher 
 education as a foundation, and the majority of subjects 
 taught have been placed on college catalogues within a few 
 years. 
 
Exposition and Argument 8 i 
 
 II. The modern college is obliged to take into account 
 the demands of commerce, and the applications of science 
 to the well-being of man. 
 
 8. The following extract is given with an analysis 
 which may serve as an example for analysis of exposi- 
 tory selections by the class, and also as an example of 
 the way in which a theme may be carefully planned. 
 
 THE FOCUS OF ENGLISH PROSE 
 
 The focus of English prose is now to be sought in the 
 periodical press. Articles in newspapers are written by 
 men of the highest education, men of literary culture and 
 of good social tone; these writings are the most widely 
 read of all that is written, and they undoubtedly represent, 
 in the broadest sense of the word, the current standard of 
 English Prose. 
 
 I am not saying that they furnish the finest or most per- 
 fect specimens ; that is a different matter. They are writ- 
 ten off-hand ; they are printed, circulated, and have passed 
 into the region of old almanacs, long before the time when 
 the student of leisure would be thoughtfully reviewing 
 his composition. They are limited in aim to the present ; 
 they are limited in compass by the exigencies of the pub- 
 lication, insomuch that a subject cannot receive full devel- 
 opment and expansion in them ; there is so much interrup- 
 tion in the conditions of their production that the writer 
 has not opportunity to pursue his thought to that maturity 
 wherein the mind kindles and glows with creative heat. 
 Even should any particular subject happen to be so near 
 to the heart of the writer that something of this enthusi- 
 asm occurs to him, he is required by the very character 
 of his office to control feeling and to maintain almost ju- 
 dicial reserve in the manner of his diction. Hence it comes 
 to pass that the highest efforts of prose are out of the 
 journalist's reach, and when we say that the focus of prose 
 is now in the newspapers, we confine our view to that 
 
8 2 Paragraphs 
 
 average standard of prose which is naturally within the 
 function of journalism. 
 
 It is only after long incubation that the mind of an 
 author warms to his thought in such a manner as to bring 
 out the fullest and best expression of which his genius is 
 capable, and therefore it is only in the more deliberate and 
 matured productions that we can expect to find the high- 
 est specimens of English prose. But in the rapidly written 
 leader of the best daily papers, we certainly find these three 
 things, the standard pitch of elevation, the most perfect 
 exhibition of lucidity, and the modern art of grouping 
 discourse in paragraphs. 
 
 John Earle: English Prose. 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 First Paragraph. 
 
 First Sentence. Topic stated : " The focus of English prose is 
 now to be sought in the periodical press." 
 
 Second Sentence. Topic developed by means of Explanation, 
 Repetition. 
 
 Second Paragraph. 
 
 First Sentence. Topic stated: This does not furnish the finest 
 or most perfect specimens. 
 
 Second Sentence. A cause for the topic: For articles in the 
 papers are hastily written. 
 
 Third Sentence. Causes : For they are limited in aim and com- 
 pass to present needs, and their production is interrupted. 
 
 Fourth Sentence. Cause: For enthusiasm is subordinated to 
 judicial reserve. 
 
 Fifth Sentence. Topic restated with conclusion expressing the 
 converse: — but does furnish the average standard of prose. 
 
 Third Paragraph. 
 
 First Sentence. The negative side of the topic : The best prose 
 is found only in deliberate and matured productions. 
 
 Second Sentence. The positive side of the topic : In news- 
 papers we find the standard of elevation, lucidity, and skilful 
 paragraphing. 
 
Exposition and Argument 83 
 
 The Whole Selection can be summarized in a single sentence 
 which will indicate its structure: The periodical press furnishes 
 the focus of English prose (Par. i) ; not of the most perfect 
 specimens, but of the average standard of prose (Par, 2) ; not of 
 the deliberate expression of genius, but of lucidity and the art of 
 paragraphing (Par, 3). 
 
 II 
 
 9. Write a paragraph describing a picture in your 
 school or one that you are familiar with : e, g., the por- 
 trait of some distinguished man, Washington, Jackson, 
 Lincoln, Hawthorne, Emerson. These themes are to 
 be read and criticized by the class, and the best selected. 
 What qualities .distinguish the best ? What rules can 
 you suggest for the selection, arrangement, and propor- 
 tion of material in descriptions ? 
 
 10. Examine the illustrations (or a single illustra- 
 tion) accompanying a narrative article in a magazine. 
 Without reading the article, write a short theme of two 
 or three paragraphs relating the story suggested to 
 you by the pictures. The best of these themes are to 
 be selected and their merits analyzed, as in Exercise 9. 
 What rules can you suggest for the selection, arrange- 
 ment, and proportion of material in narratives? How 
 do these rules differ from those suggested for descrip- 
 tions ? 
 
 11. Some of the themes written in Exercises 9 and 10 
 should be revised or rewritten after studying Chapter 
 8. Or themes on similar subjects may then be written 
 and compared by the student with these earlier themes. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THEMES OF TWO PARAGRAPHS — DESCRIPTION 
 AND NARRATIVE 
 
 1. Description and Narrative may be classed together 
 as appealing to the feelings rather than to the intellect. 
 An exposition on " Base-ball " would explain how 
 the game is played, the implements used, the arrange- 
 ment of the field, and the duties of the players. A 
 reader would understand all this, but experience little 
 feeling. As soon as you begin, however, to write a de- 
 scription or a narrative about a base-ball game, you 
 appeal to the reader's feelings. If you describe the 
 scene at the beginning of the game, he sees the picture 
 in his imagination, hears the cheers, and feels the en- 
 thusiasm; if you narrate skilfully the progress of the 
 contest, he becomes almost as much interested as if he 
 were present. In both kinds of writing the words con- 
 vey to the reader a series of impressions or images ; but 
 Narrative represents a succession of actions, while 
 Description aims to suggest mental pictures in which 
 action is only incidental. 
 
 2. Description is found by itself less often than in 
 combination with the other forms of writing. It is 
 hardly possible to write a story without describing 
 
 84 
 
Description and Narrative 85 
 
 some person or scene, or to explain a general idea, such 
 as " base-ball '' or ** courage," without describing a par- 
 ticular example. In practice, however, in themes of 
 one or two paragraphs, it will be well to try pure de- 
 scription. For this very different material must be 
 selected from that required for Exposition or Argu- 
 ment, since the purpose is different. The details in the 
 description of a person or a landscape should be those 
 that will suggest pictures to the reader's mind, and 
 hence those that have caught the writer's eye and 
 stirred his imagination. The writer's purpose, how- 
 ever, may be to suggest either what every one can see in 
 an object or only what he himself sees and feels. Thus 
 a description might deal with the most obvious features 
 of a city, with its situation, plan, divisions, streets, 
 manufactories, and public buildings; or with the im- 
 pressions made on the writer as he passed through it on 
 a train. The first would be objective, the last subjec- 
 tive. Thus Gibbon's description of the harbor of Con- 
 stantinople in Chapter 5 presents such details as any one 
 might observe, and is objective; while Hawthorne's 
 description of the orchard (Chapter i Exercise 3) deals 
 with impressions that only he received, and is subjec- 
 tive. A writer must see for himself and describe for 
 himself, but the amount of personal feeling and fancy 
 that he puts into his impressions may vary greatly. In 
 any case he can give only a few of many details, and he 
 must select those that seem most characteristic, either 
 of the object as it appears to every one, or of the im- 
 pressions it makes on him. 
 
8 6 Paragraphs 
 
 3' In the selection of details, a writer must also keep 
 in mind the limitations of words in suggesting mental 
 pictures. Many things can be presented by means of a 
 photograph much better than by words, and there is no 
 use in trying to compete with the camera at its own 
 w^ork. In the picture of a person, for example, the 
 camera shows accurately the size, shape, and position 
 of the features, the curve of the nose, the length of the 
 eyebrows, the way the hair is arranged, and hundreds 
 of other details. A mere enumeration of such details 
 in words might be useful in identifying the person, but 
 would give no suggestion of the face. A page of such 
 details, and you remember three or four; a glance at 
 the photograph, and the face is before you. Words can 
 do some things, however, that a photograph cannot. 
 They can suggest colors, sounds, odors, and motions of 
 all sorts. Moreover, they can not only enumerate de- 
 tails that will identify a person, they can suggest many 
 thoughts and feelings about the face that a photograph 
 would fail to arouse. The color of the eyes and com- 
 plexion, the way of talking, the manner of scowling 
 or smiling, the air of thought fulness, the feeling of re- 
 spect or liking or distrust which the face creates — such 
 are details that can be well conveyed in words. Most 
 suggestive of all are details of motion and feeling. 
 4' We have, then, two general rules for the selection 
 of details; first, take those that are characteristic of the 
 object described or of our feeling toward it; second, 
 take, as far as possible, those that a photograph could 
 not give. A third rule may be added. In any descrip- 
 
Description and Narrative 87 
 
 tion introduce some things that are characteristic of the 
 whole. In a description of a face, for instance, we 
 should try to suggest not merely a number of details, 
 but the whole face. 
 
 5. How are the details to be arranged ? Some definite 
 order must be adopted if a theme is to be coherent, but 
 evidently one cannot usually make logical divisions as 
 in expositions, or often follow a chronological order 
 as in narratives. When there is any chance for a 
 chronological order, it had better be adopted, as in the 
 impressions of a city received while passing through it 
 on a train. In every case a point of view must be taken, 
 indicated, and maintained. You may view the city 
 from a train, or from a neighboring height, or as a resi- 
 dent who walks daily in the street, but when you have 
 taken a point of view you must not change it unless you 
 plainly indicate the change to the reader. The point of 
 view may at once suggest a plan. In some cases a 
 writer can follow the order of things in space, then 
 there should usually be some indication of the frame- 
 work on which the details are to be placed ; thus Victor 
 Hugo supplies a framework for his elaborate descrip- 
 tion of Waterloo by comparing the battle-field to a 
 capital A, and Stevenson gives a sort of mental map of 
 the Bay of Monterey by likening it to a fish-hook. In 
 other cases a writer may begin with the first vague im- 
 pression and go on with the more vivid details that fol- 
 low, as in the description of the interior of a factory. 
 In others, as a busy street scene, he may begin with a 
 number of details and end with the general impression 
 
8 8 Paragraphs 
 
 of the whole. One direction, which applies to other 
 kinds of writing, will apply here. Proceed from the 
 known to the unknown, from the near to the remote, 
 from the simple to the complex, from fact to fiction. 
 Thus, in a description partly objective and partly sub- 
 jective, a writer would naturally proceed from things 
 that every one could see to those that excite his personal 
 attention and feeling. 
 
 6. The arrangement must also be governed by re- 
 quirements of Emphasis in order that the various de- 
 tails may have a unity of effect. This may be aided by 
 a similarity in the suggestiveness of the different de- 
 tails, as in the paragraph from Carlyle's description of 
 Coleridge in Chapter 17, or by a final sentence sum- 
 ming up the impression made by the preceding details, 
 as in the paragraph from Dickens on page 55, but in 
 any case it requires the subordination of merely acces- 
 sory details and emphasis of the most characteristic. If 
 a description is to be well proportioned, the writer must 
 have clearly in view the chief impression that he wishes 
 to convey to the reader, and dwell on those details that 
 assist in producing the desired effect. 
 
 7. The meaning of these directions can be fully un- 
 derstood only by means of a careful examination of 
 many good descriptions, in recent magazines and 
 books as well as in the works of recognized masters, 
 like Stevenson, Ruskin, and Carlyle. The following 
 selection is from an article describing a cross street 
 in upper New York by the simple plan of tracing its 
 course from the East Side to the Hudson River. These 
 
Description and Narrative 89 
 
 two paragraphs describe the intersection of the cross 
 street with Fifth Avenue. 
 
 As each of these succeeding avenues is crossed with its 
 rush and roar of up-town and down-town traffic, the 
 neighborhood is said to be more " respectable," meaning 
 more expensive; more of the women on the sidewalks 
 wear hats and paint, and there are fewer children without 
 shoes ; private houses are becoming more frequent ; babies 
 less frequent ; there is more pretence and less spontaneity. 
 The fiats are now apartments; they have ornate hideous 
 entrances, which add only to the rent. ... So on until 
 here is Madison Avenue and a whole block of private 
 houses, varied only by an occasional stable, pleasant, clean- 
 looking little stables, preferable architecturally to the 
 houses in some cases. And here at last is Fifth Avenue ; 
 and it seems miles away from the tenements, sparkling, 
 gay, happy or pretending to be, with streams of carefully 
 dressed people flowing in both directions; New York's 
 wonderful women. New York's well-built, tight-collared 
 young men; shining carriages with good-looking horses 
 and well-kept harness, mixed with big, dirty trucks whose 
 drivers seem unconscious of the incongruity, but quite 
 well aware of their own superior bumping ability. Dodg- 
 ing in and out miraculously are a few bicycles. . . . And 
 now when the other side of the avenue is reached the rest 
 is an anti-climax. Here is the tradespeople's entrance to 
 the great impressive house on the corner, so near that 
 other entrance on the avenue, but so far that it will never 
 be reached by that white-aproned butcher boy's family — 
 in this generation at least. Beyond the conservatory is a 
 bit of back yard, a pathetic little New York yard, but very 
 green and cheerful, bounded at the rear by a high peremp- 
 tory wall which seems to keep the ambitious brown stone 
 next door from elbowing its way up toward the avenue. 
 
 These next houses, however, are quite fine and impres- 
 sive, too, and they are not so alike as they seem at first; 
 in fact, it is quite remarkable how much individuality 
 
90 Paragraphs 
 
 architects have learned of late years to put into the eigh- 
 teen or twenty feet they have to deal with. The monotony 
 is varied occasionally with an English basement house or 
 a tall wrought iron gateway, and a hood over the entrance. 
 Here is a white colonial doorway with sidelights. The 
 son of the house studied art, perhaps, and persuaded his 
 father to make this kind of improvement, though the old 
 gentleman was inclined to copy the rococo style of the 
 railroad president opposite. . . . Half-way down the 
 block, unless a wedding or a tea is taking place, the street 
 is as quiet as Wall Street on a Sunday. In the rear can 
 be seen the streams flowing up and down Fifth Avenue. 
 Scribner's Magazine^ Nov., 1900: The Cross Streets 
 of New York. Jesse Lynch Williams, 
 
 Note the careful selection of details; how character- 
 istic they are of the scene; how suggestive of a variety 
 of feelings, and how they unite to give an impression 
 of the contrast between the lively, well-to-do appear- 
 ance of the avenue and the quiet of the cross street. 
 8. In the following selection from " Lorna Doone," 
 particular attention is paid to the point of view. 
 
 GLEN DOONE 
 
 . . . And so at last we gained the top, and looked 
 forth the edge of the forest, where the ground was very 
 stony and like the crest of a quarry; and no more trees 
 between us and the brink of the cliff below, three hundred 
 yards below it might be, all strong slope and gliddery. 
 And now for the first time I was amazed at the appearance 
 of the Doones' stronghold, and understood its nature. 
 For when I had been even in the valley, and climbed the 
 cliffs to escape from it, about seven years agone, I was 
 no more than a stripling boy, noting little, as boys do, ex- 
 cept for their present purpose, and even that soon done 
 with. But now, what with the fame of the Doones, and 
 
Description and Narrative 91 
 
 my own recollections, and Uncle Ben's insistence, all my 
 attention was called forth, and the end was simple aston- 
 ishment. 
 
 The chine of highland, whereon we stood, curved to the 
 right and left of us, keeping about the same elevation, and 
 crowned with trees and brushwood. At about half a mile 
 in front of us, but looking as if we could throw a stone 
 to strike any man upon it, another crest just like our own 
 bowed around to meet it ; but failed by reason of two nar- 
 row clefts, of which we could only see the brink. One of 
 these clefts was the Doone-gate, with a portcullis of rock 
 above it, and the other was the chasm by which I had 
 once made entrance. Betwixt them, where the hills fell 
 back, as in a perfect oval, traversed by the winding water, 
 lay a bright green valley, rimmed with sheer black rock, 
 and seeming to have sunken bodily from the bleak rough 
 heights above. It looked as if no frost could enter, neither 
 winds go ruffling — only spring and hope and comfort 
 breathe to one another; even now the rays of sunshine 
 dwelt, and fell back on themselves, whenever the clouds 
 lifted; and the pale blue glimpse of the growing day 
 seemed to find young encouragement. 
 
 Richard D. Blackmore: Lorna Doone, 
 
 The first paragraph has some narrative details, but is 
 descriptive in purpose, determining the point of view 
 and the feeling of the observer. The second paragraph 
 begins with a description of size and form, taking de- 
 tails in their order in space, and ends with the general 
 impression produced by the sight of the valley. 
 
 9. In Narrative we are dealing with actions and try- 
 ing to make the reader feel about them as if they were 
 real. A narrative may relate not only what was done 
 and who did it, but also where it happened and why it 
 
92 Paragraphs 
 
 happened; so it may include Description and Exposi- 
 tion. It may deal with real or imaginary actions, with 
 fact or fiction. A newspaper item giving an account of 
 a murder, the novel " Huckleberry Finn," a history of 
 the Civil War in twenty volumes, the Book of Ruth, 
 are all narratives. With the various methods of con- 
 struction in long narratives we have no concern at 
 present, but some of the essential problems can be illus- 
 trated in themes of a paragraph or two. 
 10. In selecting material, the student must draw from 
 his reading and experience. Even in fiction he must 
 base what he imagines on what has really happened. 
 In the simplest narrative, such as a short theme on " A 
 Shopping Trip " or " A Day's Outing," there are a 
 great number of happenings to draw from. In a two- 
 paragraph theme on " A Shopping Trip," it would be 
 impossible to relate one tenth of the things done and 
 seen and heard. Such an enumeration would indeed 
 prove tiresome and ineffective. Every narrative must 
 be a simplification of experience, a selection of the most 
 important and interesting events. The principle of 
 Unity requires that these should all be connected with 
 the subject of the theme, and, as in the other kinds of 
 writing, the exact determination of the subject is some- 
 times half the work of selection. In the theme on " A 
 Shopping Trip," perhaps the writer wishes to tell of 
 her difficulties in finding a Christmas present for a 
 friend. Or, if the entire theme is not to deal with the 
 purchase of the present, that is the objective point, the 
 goal towards which the other events tend. So in a 
 
Description and Narrative 93 
 
 theme on " The Battle of Santiago," the objective point 
 would be the destruction of the Spanish fleet. In a 
 short narrative, then, it is necessary to determine ex- 
 actly what the subject is, to decide on an objective 
 point, and to select details that are important and in- 
 teresting and that lead directly to the objective point. 
 
 11. This objective point will aid in the work of pro- 
 portion and arrangement. The importance of particu- 
 lar events and the amount of space they are to receive 
 will be determined by their relation to their objective 
 point. Minor incidents of heroism in the battle of San- 
 tiago will receive no place in a theme of a few para- 
 graphs that must center on the destruction of the Span- 
 ish fleet. In arrangement a chronological order can 
 usually be followed, but there will be some difficulty 
 in deciding at what time to begin and end. Generally 
 a narrative should end at the objective point or shortly 
 after, and should begin early enough to make clear the 
 series of events leading to that point, and no earlier. 
 The theme on " The Battle of Santiago " might well 
 begin with the morning of that battle ; the one on " A 
 Shopping Trip," with the first attempt to buy the 
 present. In narrating the events from beginning to 
 end, a writer must make sure that he keeps on the road 
 and that he progresses rapidly. His road leads straight 
 ahead to the objective point; the various events can be 
 told in the order in which they occurred; since he is 
 dealing with actions, his theme should have action, 
 movement, and life. 
 
 12. Two or three means may be mentioned by which 
 
94 Paragraphs 
 
 stories acquire movement and life, which, though they 
 are especially applicable to fiction, may be used as well 
 in narratives of fact. A writer often finds it an aid in 
 concentrating his imagination on the events and per- 
 sons to tell a story in the person of one of the actors. 
 Thus, the narrative of a sortie in the Japanese-Russian 
 war might gain in reality for both writer and reader if 
 told by an imaginary participant, and the whole char- 
 acter of the story would be affected by the choice of 
 this narrator, whether Russian or Japanese, a soldier or 
 an officer. Again, the interest of a story is increased 
 if the reader can be kept in doubt concerning the out- 
 come of some events, or can be led to anticipate an 
 opposite outcome; so, as each new danger is encoun- 
 tered, the reader should be kept in suspense in regard 
 to the fate of the Japanese detachment, and even be led 
 to expect its destruction. This element of suspense is 
 found in all effective narratives, and suspense followed 
 by surprise in most lively ones. More important still 
 is the element of cHmax, the increasing of interest until 
 the very end; so the difficulties and dangers of the 
 Japanese might increase until the moment of their 
 final triumph. In the presentation of character as well 
 as in the narration of events, or indeed in any kind of 
 writing, the last impression is likely to be the strongest, 
 and the writer should so present his incidents as to ex- 
 cite and accumulate the reader's interest up to the mo- 
 ment of highest interest, the objective point. 
 13' The surest way for the student to learn how to 
 select and arrange his materials and to endow them 
 
Description and Narrative 95 
 
 with the diversity and animation of Hfe is to study the 
 best narratives of Hterature. The Old Testament is 
 full of short narratives which are wonderful exam- 
 ples of the rejection of unimportant details and the 
 effective simplification of experience. Models more 
 closely suited to themes can be found in Jane Austen, 
 Dickens, Thackeray, Hawthorne, and many more re- 
 cent authors. The student should not try to follow 
 them closely, but from chapters here and there he may 
 gain many hints in regard to his treatment of similar 
 topics. The opening chapters of " The Vicar of Wake- 
 field " might suggest a method for describing the life 
 of a family of his acquaintance; or Arthur's experience 
 at the theater in the fourth chapter of "Pendennis" 
 might suggest some ideas for a theme on " A Day at 
 the Circus." Recent works by John Fiske, Woodrow 
 Wilson, Senator Lodge, and President Roosevelt will 
 serve as guides in historical narrative. 
 14- Some of the problems can be studied in a theme 
 of two paragraphs on " A Day's Outing." Last sum- 
 mer you and a friend spent an enjoyable day in tramp- 
 ing. As you recall the events of the day, two or three 
 stand out from the rest — ^the meeting with the gipsies, 
 the swim in the river, and the excellent supper that fol- 
 lowed. These must receive a large portion of your 
 space, and in so short a theme the other events must 
 be strictly subordinate to them. As the swim and 
 supper came at the end of the day, they may well serve 
 as the objective points of the narrative. The plan 
 might be as follows: 
 
g6 Paragraphs 
 
 First Par, An early rising — breakfast — tramping over 
 the hills — through the woods — the main road again — a 
 gipsy camp. 
 
 Second Par. A scanty dinner at a farm-house — the heat 
 in the valley — difficulty in finding lodging for the night — 
 at last hospitably received — a swim in the river — supper. 
 
 In the first paragraph the details lead naturally in the 
 order of time up to the meeting with the gipsies. The 
 account of this makes a break in the narrative and af- 
 fords a place for paragraphing. The second paragraph 
 leads on to the objective point of the story — the swim 
 and supper. 
 
 15. In this theme there would be some description of 
 the gipsy camp and the swim and in any narrative 
 there is likely to be considerable description. On the 
 other hand, in themes largely descriptive, narrative is 
 very useful in supplying the essential quality of move- 
 ment. Sometimes a narrative paragraph supplies an 
 introduction for a description ; in other cases a thread 
 of narrative serves as an outline on which can be placed 
 many descriptive details. Narrative is also often found 
 in combination with exposition. The following outline 
 indicates one of the many ways in which the two forms 
 may be united in short themes: 
 
 THE EARLY LIFE OF LINCOLN 
 
 First Par. Narrative of the events. 
 Second Par. Exposition of the ways in which this life 
 prepared him for the presidency. 
 
 16. In this chapter we have dealt with the two re- 
 maining forms of prose, Description and Narrative. 
 
Description and Narrative 97 
 
 Both appeal largely to the imagination and the feel- 
 ings; the first aims to suggest mental pictures, the 
 second to represent events. In each the writer must 
 select from a vast number of details a few that are im- 
 portant, characteristic of the subject, and suited to the 
 aim of the particular form of prose. These should be 
 arranged in chronological order when possible ; and in 
 all cases they must be so arranged as to subordinate 
 minor details and to bring into prominence the most 
 important and suggestive. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 I 
 
 1. Select descriptive passages in the first chapters of 
 " The House of the Seven Gables," " Ivanhoe," " Silas 
 Marner." 
 
 2. In writing descriptions of one or two paragraphs 
 on one of the following topics, decide what is your 
 point of view; what general impression you wish to 
 convey; what details you will use. 
 
 1. Phoebe. (" The House of the Seven Gables.") 
 
 2. A Crowd of People. 
 
 3. A Visit to a Sugar-camp. 
 
 4. Description of a Picture. 
 
 5. A Dandelion. 
 
 6. An Interesting Advertisement. 
 
 7. Street Musicians. 
 
 8. Cedric's House. (" Ivanhoe.") 
 
 9. One of the Pictures in Goldsmith's " Deserted Vil- 
 
 lage." 
 
98 Paragraphs 
 
 3- Write a theme of one or two paragraphs, taking 
 pains to give details of color, sound, light, odor, mo- 
 tion, on some portion of the town in which you live — a 
 street corner, a park, an alleyway, a collection of stores, 
 a railway crossing. 
 
 4- Write a theme of two paragraphs, using this gen- 
 eral outline: i. General impressions. 2. More specific 
 impressions. 3. The most characteristic detail. 
 
 1. An Old Farm-house. 
 
 2. Our School Building. 
 
 3. The Picture of a Battle. 
 
 4. The Theater before the Curtain Rises. 
 
 5. A Shop Window. 
 
 6. The Most Interesting Person I Have Seen in a 
 
 Month. 
 
 7. The View from My Window. 
 
 8. The Circus Parade. 
 
 9. My First Impression of High School. 
 10. Our Back Yard. 
 
 II'. The Park on a Holiday. 
 
 5. On the following subjects, in themes of two para- 
 graphs, adopt this arrangement: i. Size, shape. 2. 
 Specific impressions in their order in space. 3. General 
 impression. (Compare the description of the Doone 
 valley on pages 90, 91.) 
 
 1. The City from a Height. 
 
 2. The Public Square. 
 
 3. A Public Building. 
 
 4. My Room. 
 
 5. A Street. 
 
 6. A Star-fish. 
 
Description and Narrative 99 
 
 7. A Dwelling-house; — for a person who wishes to 
 rent it. 
 
 8. An Old English Castle ; — as seen in " Ivanhoe." 
 
 9. An Attractive Magazine Cover. 
 
 6. Write a theme of two paragraphs on one of the fol- 
 lowing subjects, grouping a large number of details so 
 as to suggest the whole. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ^9 
 
 10 
 
 The Sitting-room ; — written for one away from home 
 
 so as to suggest the family traits. 
 The Happiest-looking Girl in the Class. 
 My Impressions of a Concert. 
 A Rainy Day. 
 My New Dress. 
 The First Battle of Bull Run. 
 The Ragman. 
 
 Lake Erie ; — for a person who lives near the ocean. 
 The Ocean ; — for a person who has never seen it. 
 An Orange ; — for a person who has never seen one. 
 
 7- Class-room Exercise. (Fifteen minutes.) Write 
 
 a report for a newspaper of some recent event that has 
 
 interested you. 
 
 8. Write a theme of one or two paragraphs on some 
 
 experience of your childhood which remains clear in 
 
 your mind. 
 
 9» Write a narrative of two paragraphs on one of the 
 
 following topics : 
 
 1. Perry's Victory ; — as related by one of the sailors. 
 
 2. Moses at the Fair. (" The Vicar of Wakefield.") 
 
 3. The Attack on the Castle of Front de Boeuf. 
 
 (" Ivanhoe.") 
 
 4. The Trial by Combat. ('' Ivanhoe.") 
 
loo Paragraphs 
 
 5. An Evening with Mr. and Mrs. Micawber. (" David 
 
 Copperfield.") 
 
 6. The Story of Evangeline ; — not over 300 words. 
 
 7. The Surrender at Appomattox ;— as witnessed by a 
 
 soldier in the Confederate army. 
 
 8. The Death of Uncas. (" The Last of the Mohi- 
 
 cans.") 
 
 9. At a Coffee-house with Mr. Spectator. 
 
 10. How I Amused Myself on an Idle Day. 
 
 11. The Day after Thanksgiving. 
 
 12. An Act of Courtesy. 
 
 13. A Fox Hunt. 
 
 14. A Try for Goal ; — an account that would be under- 
 
 stood by a person who does not know the game of 
 foot-ball. 
 
 10. Topics for Descriptive-Narrative Themes of 
 Tv^o Paragraphs. 
 
 I. The Half-mile Run. 2. An Approaching Train. 3. 
 The Widow Truby's Opinion of Sir Roger de Coverley. 
 4. Speaking My First Piece. 5. The Cotter's Saturday 
 Night ; — tell the story in your own words. 
 
 11. Topics for Expository-Descriptive Themes 
 OF Two Paragraphs. 
 
 I. A Character Sketch;— of some person you know. 
 2. Pine-trees. 3. Character of Leatherstocking. ("The 
 Last of the Mohicans.") 4. Metamorphosis of a Butter- 
 fly ; of a Frog. 5. An Interesting Character in History. 
 6. My Favorite Character in " David Copperfield." 7. 
 The Real Shylock. 8. Our Debating Society. 
 
 12. Bring into class a selection of not over three para- 
 graphs which seems to you an excellent description; 
 another which seems an excellent narrative. Make a 
 
Description and Narrative i o i 
 
 list of reasons for the excellence of each. The works of 
 Stevenson, Ruskin, Hawthorne, or current magazine 
 articles will furnish examples. 
 
 13* Analyze and criticize the selections chosen in Ex- 
 ercise 12 and themes written for the class according to 
 this general outline : 
 
 1. Selection. 
 
 2. Arrangement. 
 
 3. Proportion. 
 
 Develop this plan of criticism for a description; for a 
 narrative. 
 
 14. Rearrange the' following sentences so that they 
 will make a coherent and emphatic description. The 
 subject is, the view seen by the lime-burner. Note 
 that the sentences give us the point of view, the time 
 of day, and various details of the village, the mountains 
 and clouds. In rearranging, remember that the natu- 
 ral order is to proceed from the known to the unknown, 
 from what is near to what is remote, from what is clear 
 to what is indistinct, from matters of fact to matters of 
 the imagination. The reader has been told something 
 about the lime-burner and little Joe in preceding para- 
 graphs. 
 
 1. The early sunshine was already pouring its gold 
 upon the mountain-tops, and though the valleys were still 
 in shadow, they smiled cheerfully in the promise of the 
 bright day that was hastening onward. 
 
 2. Old Graylock was glorified with a golden cloud 
 upon his head. 
 
I02 Paragraphs 
 
 3. Earth was so mingled with sky that it was a day- 
 dream to look at it. 
 
 4. The lime-burner issued from the hut, followed by 
 little Joe, who kept fast hold of his father's hand. 
 
 5. The tavern was astir and the figure of the old, 
 smoke-dried stage-agent, cigar in mouth, was seen be- 
 neath the stoop. 
 
 6. Every dwelling was distinctly visible; the little 
 spires of the two churches pointed upwards, and caught a 
 fore-glimmering of brightness from the sun-gilt skies 
 upon their gilded weather-cocks. 
 
 7. Stepping from one to another of the clouds that 
 rested on the hills, and thence to the loftier brotherhood 
 that sailed in air, it seemed almost as if a mortal man 
 might thus ascend into the heavenly regions. 
 
 8. Scattered likewise over the breasts of the surround- 
 ing mountains, there were heaps of hoary mist, in fantas- 
 tic shapes, some of them far down into the valley, others 
 high up towards the summits, and still others, of the same 
 family of mist or cloud, hovering in the gold radiance of 
 the upper atmosphere. 
 
 9. The village, completely shut in by hills, which 
 swelled away gently about it, looked as if it had rested 
 peacefully in the hollow of the great hand of Providence. 
 
 15. After reading the following extract from Steven- 
 son, note down immediately in thirty words the impres- 
 sions that remain in your mind. A comparison of the 
 notes made by different members of the class will indi- 
 cate what impressions are most vividly conveyed by the 
 selection. After a more careful examination, analyze 
 the description according to the outline given in Exer- 
 cise 13, taking care to answer the following questions: 
 What is the plan? How is the matter divided into 
 paragraphs ? What words and phrases give images of 
 color? of sound? of motion? What figures give the 
 
Description and Narrative 103 
 
 most vivid mental pictures? From what poem is a 
 quotation taken? What suggestiveness has this quo- 
 tation? Is use made of suspense? of climax? 
 
 ACROSS THE LOZERE 
 
 The track that I had followed in the evening soon died 
 out, and I continued to follow over a bald turf ascent a 
 row of stone pillars, such as had conducted me across the 
 Goulet. It was already warm. I tied my jacket on the 
 pack, and walked in my knitted waistcoat. Modestine 
 herself was in high spirits, and broke of her own accord, 
 for the first time in my experience, into a jolting trot that 
 sent the oats swashing in the pocket of my coat. The 
 view, back upon the northern Gevaudan, extended with 
 every step; scarce a tree, scarce a house, appeared upon 
 the fields of wild hill that ran north, east, and west, all 
 blue and gold in the haze and sunlight of the morning. 
 A multitude of little birds kept sweeping and twittering 
 about my path ; they perched on the stone pillars, they 
 pecked and strutted on the turf, and I saw them circle 
 in volleys in the blue air, and show, from time to time, 
 translucent flickering wings between the sun and me. 
 
 Almost from the first moment of my march, a faint 
 large noise, like a distant surf, had filled my ears. Some- 
 times I was tempted to think it the voice of a neighboring 
 waterfall, and sometimes a subjective result of the utter 
 stillness of the hill. But as I continued to advance, the 
 noise increased and became like the hissing of an enor- 
 mous tea-urn, and at the same time breaths of cool air 
 began to reach me from the direction of the summit. At 
 length I understood. It was blowing stiffly from the 
 south upon the other slope of the Lozere, and every step 
 that I took I was drawing nearer to the wind. 
 
 Although it had been long desired, it was quite unex- 
 pectedly at last that my eyes rose above the summit. A 
 step that seemed in no way more decisive than many other 
 steps that had preceded it — and, " like stout Cortez when, 
 
I04 Paragraphs 
 
 with eagle eyes, he stared on the Pacific," I took posses- 
 sion, in my own name, of a new quarter of the world. 
 For behold, instead of the gross turf rampart I had been 
 mounting for so long, a view into the hazy air of heaven, 
 and a land of intricate blue hills below my feet. 
 
 R. L. Stevenson : Travels with a Donkey in the 
 Cevennes. 
 
 II 
 
 i6. In the description of Glen Doone, on pages 90, 91, 
 what words do you not understand ? What words are 
 used in an unusual way? What constructions are un- 
 usual? What reason for this quaintness of language? 
 
 17. Make a plan for a theme of four or five para- 
 graphs, — to be criticized in class. 
 
 18. Note the sentences of the first three selections in 
 Chapter 6. Which seem to you especially well con- 
 structed? Do they observe the principles of compo- 
 sition ? By what means ? 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 LONGER THEMES — THE PLAN 
 
 1. The study of themes of one or two paragraphs has 
 led us to the composition of longer themes. In the four 
 succeeding chapters we are to study the planning, de- 
 velopment, and paragraphing of themes of some length. 
 In considering these stages of construction, we must 
 not, however, forget that every step is to be determined 
 by the writer's purpose. What we have learned in re- 
 gard to the aims and methods of the four forms of 
 prose will, therefore, be as constantly applicable in long 
 themes as in short ones; and in every theme we shall 
 need to vary and adapt the processes of composition in 
 orded to suit the purpose of the theme, whether exposi- 
 tory, argumentative, descriptive, or narrative. Nev- 
 ertheless these varying purposes are really but develop- 
 ments of the main purpose of composition, — to express 
 our ideas with clearness and force ; and much that can 
 be said of planning, paragraphing, or any other pro- 
 cess, can be readily applied to all four kinds of writing. 
 
 2. A composition must have a plan. In the case of a 
 very short theme, the student may be skilful enough to 
 make the plan in his head ; but in all long themes, and 
 most short ones as well, he will find it helpful to write 
 
 105 
 
io6 Longer Themes 
 
 the plan out carefully as the first step of composition. 
 The work of selecting and arranging the material is 
 often half the job. Half the time, then, that one has 
 for any long exercise may frequently be well spent on 
 the plan. 
 
 3' A specific case will illustrate the steps that are 
 necessary in making even a brief and simple plan. We 
 will suppose that from the general topic, " Some 
 Things that I Enjoy," the student has taken " My En- 
 joyment in Reading" for the subject of a theme of 
 four or five hundred words. If he should jot down 
 the ideas that occur to him on this subject, they might 
 be as follows : 
 
 1. Reading is a great pleasure. 
 
 2. I forget about everything else and live in the story. 
 
 3. I never read many novels until within a year or two. 
 
 4. I don't read the newspapers now. 
 
 5. I like a story with lots of excitement in it. 
 
 6. I don't like love stories. 
 
 7. By an open fire on a winter's night is the best place 
 to read in. 
 
 8. Especially if you have some apples to eat. 
 
 9. When I read a good story, the people are as real 
 as in life. 
 
 10. I don't like ghost stories or fairy stories. 
 
 11. I often feel as if I were one of the persons in the 
 story. 
 
 12. "Treasure Island" is the last book which I 
 greatly enjoyed. 
 
 13. Books often give more enjoyment than games. 
 
 This list may serve to represent the disordered way in 
 which ideas come into our minds. By the time they are 
 
The Plan 107 
 
 noted down, the writer probably sees the need of having 
 his purpose clearly defined ; in this case, it is largely de- 
 scriptive, — to picture his own experiences in reading. 
 
 4. From these various details, what are to be selected ? 
 Every incident, idea, or illustration must be tested by 
 the principle of Unity. The student must ask, is this 
 in accord with my purpose? does this belong to the 
 subject ? Now, in describing his enjoyment of a book, 
 number one is of no importance and number four is en- 
 tirely irrelevant. Number three is not connected with 
 the subject unless he desires to give some history of his 
 growth in the enjoyment of novels, and numbers six 
 and ten are useless unless he wishes to tell what he does 
 not like as well as what he does. Number thirteen is a 
 vague general assertion, not closely connected with 
 " My Enjoyment in Reading." The seven remaining 
 numbers all seem closely connected with the subject. 
 In a similar way the principle of Unity can be used as 
 a practical test in planning every theme. Of the va- 
 rious details that gather in the mind, some will at once 
 appear closely connected with the subject; others 
 wholly irrelevant; and others, on the line. These last 
 must be carefully scrutinized in the light of the writer's 
 purpose. 
 
 5. The material is now selected for the theme; the 
 next thing is to arrange it. In the arrangement the 
 principle of Coherence must be the guide. The differ- 
 ent parts are to be so placed that their connection will 
 be clear. At a glance it can be seen that some of the 
 ideas are intimately connected with one another ; num- 
 
io8 Longer Themes 
 
 ber seven with number eight; numbers two, nine, and 
 eleven ; numbers five and twelve. The parts closely re- 
 lated in thought must be put together in the plan, which 
 will now look something like this : 
 
 A. (7, S.y I like to read by an open fire on a winter 
 night with some apples to eat. 
 
 B. (2, 9, II.) I forget about my surroundings and 
 live in the story. The people in the book are real. I feel 
 that I am one of them. 
 
 C. (5, 12.) I enjoy an exciting story, full of adven- 
 tures, like " Treasure Island." 
 
 Perhaps numbers six and ten, not important by them- 
 selves, might be brought in under C. At all events, the 
 details are now grouped together under three heads, a 
 great gain in Coherence. Frequently one can deter- 
 mine the main divisions at the start and then arrange 
 details under them. In a theme, for example, on 
 *' What Our School Needs," the divisions might be as 
 follows : 
 
 1. A Gymnasium. 
 
 2. More Books in the Library. 
 
 3. An Assembly Hall. 
 
 4. A Lunch-room. 
 
 In any case, the principle of Coherence requires that the 
 material be grouped under a few main headings. 
 6. The student can next consider the arrangement of 
 these main headings. Oftentimes an arrangement will 
 occur to him as soon as his ideas begin to gather about 
 a subject. If a chronological order is possible, it may 
 
The Plan 109 
 
 be adopted. In an account of a picnic, for example, one 
 might note at once a few main heads in their chrono- 
 logical order. 
 
 1. The Arrival of Our Party at the Grove. 
 
 2. How We Passed the Morning. 
 
 3. Luncheon. 
 
 4. The Ball Game in the Afternoon. 
 
 5. The Return Home. 
 
 The order of time can almost always be followed in 
 narratives, and often in descriptions and expositions. 
 In a description of an incoming train, for instance, a 
 writer would naturally begin with the impressions he 
 receives from the train in the distance and follow its 
 course as it comes nearer and nearer. A description of 
 a public square might treat it as seen, — (i) in early 
 morning, (2) at noon, (3) in the afternoon, (4) in the 
 evening. An exposition of a manufacturing process 
 would naturally follow the order of the occurrence of 
 the different operations. 
 
 7. When a theme does not deal with events or things 
 that have relations in time, some other order must be 
 sought. A number of arrangements may be recalled 
 that were suggested in our discussion of the different 
 kinds of writing. 
 
 1. The order of things in space: e. g., (a) from near to 
 
 distant; (b) from right to left; (c) from bottom 
 to top; (Description). 
 
 2. The order of impressions: e. g., (a) general to par- 
 
 ticular; (b) vague to distinct; (c) from impres- 
 sions of details to an impression of the whole; (d) 
 from fact to fancy; (Description). 
 
no Longer Themes 
 
 3. The order of proof: (i) question; (2) proofs; (3) 
 
 conclusion ; (Argument) . 
 
 4. The order of explanation: (i) the thing to be ex- 
 
 plained; (2) the different parts, in order of their 
 relation in space or the relation of cause and effect ; 
 (3) summary; (Exposition). 
 
 Sometimes the subject-matter will readily suggest 
 divisions in a logical order. Thus in this chapter the 
 main divisions are arranged as follows: (i) Unity, 
 (2) Coherence, (3) Emphasis. In some text-books 
 however. Emphasis is considered before Coherence. It 
 is not always easy to decide what order of the main di- 
 visions is most natural and logical for one's purpose. 
 Enough has perhaps been said to enable you to consider 
 for yourself the arrangement of the three divisions, on 
 page 108, for the theme on " My Enjoyment in Read- 
 ing." There are only six arrangements possible. 
 Which seems the most natural and logical, the best 
 adapted to the purpose of the theme? 
 
 8. So far we have seen that we are to select the ma- 
 terial for a theme in accordance with the principle of 
 Unity. Then we must group together ideas that are 
 closely connected and arrange the groups in an evident 
 order, chronological or logical, in accordance with the 
 principle of Coherence. We should not, however, com- 
 plete the arrangement without the aid of the principle 
 of Emphasis. 
 
 9. We have been arranging material as the subject 
 seemed to require, but have not particularly considered 
 the reader. In planning a theme to suit him, we shall 
 
The Plan 1 1 1 
 
 find aid in the principle of Emphasis, — that the most 
 important ideas should be given the greatest space and 
 the most important positions. In the theme on " My 
 "Enjoyment in Reading," we have already applied this 
 principle in ruling out several ideas of little or no im- 
 portance. The student may now consider the relative 
 importance of the three main divisions. A, B, and C, on 
 page 1 08. The account of the circumstances under 
 which he likes to read (A) is certainly of less impor- 
 tance than the sort of books he likes to read (C), or 
 than — what, in view of the purpose of the theme, seems 
 most important of all — the account of his feelings while 
 reading ( B ) . So in the outline of the theme on " What 
 Our School Needs," on page 108, the need of a new 
 gymnasium will probably seem more important to the 
 writer than the need of a lunch-room. If the gymna- 
 sium were treated in a single sentence and the lunch- 
 room given an entire paragraph, the reader would natu- 
 rally pay more attention to the lunch-room. We must 
 see to it that the reader's estimate of the relative value 
 of our ideas corresponds to ours. This can be accom- 
 plished in part by giving the plan good proportion. 
 10. The principle of Emphasis also suggests that the 
 most important idea be given the best position. We all 
 know people who, in telling a story, invariably give the 
 point away before they come to the end. If they ob- 
 served the principle of Emphasis, they would save the 
 point until the end. So a well-planned theme will lead 
 the reader step by step to the most important matter. 
 Considerable effort is often required to accomplish this, 
 
112 Longer Themes 
 
 for a writer is likely to have his most important idea 
 uppermost in his mind and to be eager to get it on 
 paper. It will make a better impression on the reader 
 if it is well prepared for. Whenever Coherence per- 
 mits, the material should increase in interest to the end, 
 thus making a climax. At all events, we must avoid 
 giving the reader a tumble from what is interesting 
 to what is much less so. The theme on " What Our 
 School Needs " should certainly end with the need that 
 seems the most important. The theme on " My Enjoy- 
 ment of Reading " might take this order. 
 
 I. (A) Circumstances. 
 II. (C) Kind of Books. 
 III. (B) My Feelings. 
 
 This is a good order because it is coherent — it passes 
 from the writer's surroundings to his book and then 
 to his feelings. It is also emphatic — it begins with what 
 are accessories to his enjoyment and ends with the es- 
 sential part of his enjoyment. 
 
 II. Let us see how the plan looks after going through 
 the tests of all the principles. Compare it, as a guide to 
 the writer in expressing^ his purpose, with the rudimen- 
 tary form on page io6. 
 
 I. (50-100 words.) I enjoy reading by an open fire 
 on a winter night with some 
 apples to eat. 
 II. (ioa-150 words.) I must have an interesting 
 
 novel — not a story of love, 
 ghosts, or fairies, but a story 
 of adventure like " Treasure 
 Island." 
 
The Plan 113 
 
 III. (250 words.) Then I forget all my surround- 
 ings and live with the people 
 of the book and believe my- 
 self one of them. 
 
 12. This plan is scanty, but is, perhaps, sufficient for 
 a theme of 400 words. A plan for a' longer theme 
 is more difficult, but encounters the same problems 
 of selection, arrangement, and proportion, and should 
 follow the same principles. These principles do not 
 dictate exactly how a plan shall be made ; they merely 
 furnish practical suggestions. A half-dozen good 
 plans might be made on the same subject; any plan 
 will vary according to the writer's purpose and the 
 character of the readers addressed; but no plan will 
 be the basis for a good composition unless it has Unity, 
 Coherence, and Emphasis. 
 
 i3« In order to illustrate a plan of a longer theme, this 
 chapter will end with a plan of its contents (beginning 
 with paragraph 2). 
 
 I. {Paragraph 2.) Before beginning to write, the 
 student should make a plan of his theme. 
 
 II. {Paragraphs j, 4.) In selecting his material 
 he should be guided by the principle of Unity. 
 
 From various ideas that present themselves he must 
 eliminate the irrelevant and retain only those that 
 belong to his subject. 
 
 III. {Paragraphs 5^ 6, 7.) In arranging the ma- 
 terial he should be directed by the principle of Coher- 
 ence. 
 
 8 
 
114 Longer Themes 
 
 1. Group closely connected ideas together so as to 
 
 form a few main divisions. 
 
 2. Arrange these divisions in a natural order : 
 
 (a) either chronological, 
 
 (b) or logical, following the order of space, 
 of proof, of impressions, or of explanation. 
 
 Between III and IV there is a transitional para- 
 graph, — No. 8. 
 
 IV. (Paragraphs p, lo. ) In determining the space 
 and position to be given to any division, he should be 
 directed by the principle of Emphasis. 
 
 1. Determine the relative value of the ideas and give 
 
 space to each in proportion to its importance. 
 
 2. When possible, let the order be a climax. 
 
 V. {Paragraphs ii, 12, Jj.) There may be sev- 
 eral good plans for the same subject, but they must all 
 face these problems, and all should be guided by the 
 principles of composition. 
 
 1. A complete plan of a theme of 500 words. 
 
 2. A complete plan of this chapter. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 I. In the completed plans on pages 11 2- 114, each 
 heading is in the form of a sentence. Of what advan- 
 tage is this? What advantage is there in the careful 
 numbering of the subdivisions? How does the ar- 
 rangement of subdivisions on pages 11 3- 114 carry out 
 
The Plan 1 1 5 
 
 the principle of Coherence ? Can you suggest any vari- 
 ations in either plan? 
 
 2. Make a plan, similar in form to the one on pages 
 113-114, of Chapter i of this book. Make a plan of 
 the chapter on Christmas Eve in Irving' s " Sketch 
 Book/' 
 
 3- Find the main divisions of a recent magazine ar- 
 ticle; of a column editorial. Make brief plans of each, 
 giving only the main headings. 
 
 4. Make plans, v^ith at least three main heads and 
 with subheads under each, for themes of 400-500 
 words on one of the following, or a similar subject. 
 Several plans on the same subject will be compared 
 and criticized in the class. After your plan has been 
 criticized and rewritten, you may write a theme based 
 on the plan. 
 
 1. A Roman House. 
 
 2. My First Business Experience. 
 
 3. A Deserted Farm. 
 
 4. The Mechanism of an Automobile. 
 
 5. My Favorite Hero in Fiction. 
 
 6. My Favorite Heroine in Fiction. 
 
 7. Report of a Sermon or Lecture. 
 
 8. Condition of America in 1775. (Burke.) 
 
 9. Some Good Points in the Character of Cassius. 
 
 10. The Marshmallow Roast. 
 
 11. Summer Sports in the Country. 
 
 12. How I Furnished My Room. 
 
 13. Advantages of Coeducation in College. 
 
 14. How I Read the Newspaper. 
 
 15. Books that I Read. 
 
 16. A blast-furnace. 
 
 5- Criticize the following plans. Suggest Improve- 
 ments either in their form or contents. 
 
1 1 6 Longer Themes 
 
 I. A HARD PULL 
 
 I Introduction. (a) The wonderful Niagara. 
 
 II The village. (a) The inhabitants. 
 
 Ill The trip from the city. 
 
 IV The danger. 
 
 V The rescue. (a) The bravery of the men. 
 
 VI The reward. 
 
 (For a theme of 600 words.) 
 
 2. A WESTERN TORNADO 
 
 I Introduction. (a) Typical June nights. 
 
 II One June night. (a) Inside. 
 
 {b) Outside. 
 Ill In the morning. (a) Peculiarities of different 
 
 buildings. 
 IV Conclusion. 
 
 {For a theme of 600 words.) 
 
 3. AN OLD OAK 
 
 I Location. 
 
 II Appearance. 
 
 III The watering-trough. 
 IV A shady retreat. 
 
 V The school-house. 
 
 VI The oak in the summer and in the winter. 
 VII A winter's morning. 
 VIII Reflections. 
 
 {For a theme of 500 words.) 
 
 4. LOOKING DOWN SHERIDAN ROAD 
 
 I Introduction. (a) Point of view. 
 
 II The road. (a) Appearance. 
 
 III Left-hand view. (a) Path. 
 
 {h) Lake. 
 
 IV Conclusion. {a) Effect of the scene. 
 
 {For a theme of yoo words.) 
 
The Plan 117 
 
 5. BACHELOR QUARTERS 
 
 1. Near B — , live three old bachelors, of Dutch descent. 
 
 (a) Their names. 
 
 (b) Appearance. 
 
 (c) Dress. 
 
 (d) Business, keeping bees 
 
 2. In front of their house is a garden ; 
 
 (a) with the family name written in foliage plants, 
 
 (b) and trumpet-vine on gate and path; 
 
 (c) here the bees sip nectar. 
 
 3. From the garden two paths lead, 
 
 (a) the one to the orchard, 
 
 (b) the other to the back yard : 
 i. the porch. 
 
 ii. the clothes-line. 
 
 4. Near by are the beehives, 
 
 (a) each one covered with brightly painted pictures. 
 
 (b) The inhospitality of the bees contrasted with the 
 
 hospitality of 'their masters. 
 
 (For a theme of 600 words.) 
 
 II 
 
 6. Bring into the class one example each of a good 
 beginning and a good end of a composition, taken from 
 a newspaper, magazine, or book. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 THE BEGINNING AND THE END 
 
 1. The parts of a composition that usually present the 
 most difficulty and require the most attention are the 
 beginning and the end. The principles of composition 
 are of assistance ; the principle of Unity suggests that 
 both the beginning and the end must be closely con- 
 nected with the subject; the principle of Coherence 
 suggests that the beginning be the first step in a natural 
 sequence of ideas, and the end the last step. The prin- 
 ciple of Emphasis is of still greater service because the 
 beginning and the end are the two places that most 
 readily catch the reader's eye, and are the places, 
 therefore, for the significant parts of the material. 
 
 2. Keeping these suggestions in mind, let us look 
 more closely at some of the ways in which we are likely 
 to prove false to our principles. One common fault is 
 beginning too far from the subject. In a theme about 
 a picnic, there is no need of beginning with last year's 
 picnic, or picnics in general, or remarks about the wea- 
 ther. Such introductions would all be violations of 
 Unity, for the subject is a particular picnic, and the 
 theme may as well begin, say, with the arrival at the 
 grove. On the other hand, it is not always safe to start 
 
 ii8 
 
The Beginning and the End 119 
 
 in the middle of a subject. In a theme on the manufa<:- 
 ture of steel wire, a brief explanation of the process by 
 which crude iron ore is changed into steel might be 
 necessary before an account of the drawing out of the 
 bars into wire. So a description of a school building 
 might begin with the outside as seen from some par- 
 ticular point, so that the reader can understand where 
 he is supposed to be standing, and later, when he reads 
 the account of the interior, can compare it with his first 
 view. A theme is like a series of steps which the reader 
 is to ascend, and the principle of Coherence requires 
 that the first step be one that he can take easily. It 
 should be adapted not to the writer's knowledge of the 
 subject, but to the reader's supposed lack of knowledge. 
 Finally, the beginning should not be insignificant or 
 uninteresting. It will be the first thing in the theme to 
 catch the reader's eye, and should be something that 
 will excite his interest in the subject. 
 3' The best beginning is often a definite statement of 
 what the writer is going to do. In a theme on " What 
 Our School Needs," the first sentence might well be 
 a statement of what those needs are. Such a beginning 
 tells the reader what the composition is to be about and 
 enables him to follow its plan easily. Sometimes a 
 theme should begin with a definition of the subject or 
 an explanation of its origin or of the writer's point of 
 view toward it. In any case, the opening sentences 
 should be easy for an average reader to understand and 
 should lead him directly into the subject. 
 4. Nowadays well-written compositions accord with 
 
I20 Longer Themes 
 
 these requirements. A long editorial in the New York 
 " Sun " on " The British Naval Manoeuvres " begins : 
 
 The programme for the annual manoeuvres of the 
 British Navy, which will begin probably some time next 
 week, is more than usually interesting and important in 
 the problems it offers for solution. 
 
 A magazine article by Mr. E. L. Godkin on " The Aus- 
 tralian Democracy " takes up the subject with equal 
 directness, beginning : 
 
 The only really democratic experiment, beside our own, 
 going on in the world to-day, is that of the English Aus- 
 tralian colonies. 
 
 An essay on " A New England Hill Town " begins 
 with one of the most noticeable characteristics of such 
 a community : 
 
 We are an old-fashioned folk in Sweet Auburn, — we 
 go to church. We think we ought to ; besides, we can't 
 help it. In Boston, they tell me, you expect your minister 
 to draw. Our country parson never thinks of drawing; 
 why should he? 
 
 Mrs. Gaskell's " Cranf ord " lets us into the main theme 
 of the story in the first sentence: 
 
 In the first place, Cranford is in possession of the 
 Amazons ; all the holders of houses, above a certain rent, 
 are women. 
 
 5. These examples, taken almost at random, can be 
 reinforced by many from the student's reading. In 
 books, introductions of considerable length are some- 
 
The Beginning and the End 121 
 
 times necessary, but indirect, roundabout, pompous in- 
 troductions are now no more justified by good use than 
 by the principles of composition. A writer should get 
 at his subject as soon as possible. 
 
 6. The end of a composition is sometimes no less trou- 
 blesome than the beginning. Even after he has planned 
 a theme carefully, the student may find it difficult to 
 write the last paragraph so that he can take proper 
 leave of his subject and his readers. Often a summary 
 of what he has written is the best ending. In this book, 
 the last paragraph of a chapter is usually a summary of 
 its contents. In some kinds of writing, as letters, de- 
 scriptions, stories, this form of ending is less suitable 
 than in expositions, but in no case is there any need of 
 writing on after one has said all one wants to. The end 
 of a theme should be the real conclusion of the subject. 
 Abruptness is to be avoided, but abruptness is better 
 than tediousness. Keep for the last of the feast the 
 best of your wine, the point of your story, the most 
 conclusive of your reasons, the most entertaining of 
 your incidents. Then you will have a good place at 
 which to stop. The important things are to stop when 
 you are through and to stop at an interesting place. 
 
 7. A study of articles in the best newspapers and 
 magazines will furnish many examples of good end- 
 ings. The article on " The Australian Democracy," 
 already referred to, ends with one of the most signifi- 
 cant of its statements : 
 
 The Australians are not tormented by a race question, 
 they have never had any civil strife, and they have not yet 
 
12 2 Longer Themes 
 
 come into contact with that greatest difficulty of large 
 democracies, the difficulty of communicating to the mass 
 common ideas and impulses. 
 
 The article on " A New England Hill Town " simi- 
 larly ends with what the writer probably regards as its 
 most important conclusion: 
 
 What has happened in Alabama and Tennessee is hap- 
 pening in New England. We are evolving a race of poor 
 whites. 
 
 The last paragraph of Macaulay's Essay on Addison 
 ends with a summary of Addison's abilities and ser- 
 vices : 
 
 Such a mark of national respect was due to the un- 
 sullied statesman, to the accomplished scholar, to the mas- 
 ter of pure English eloquence, to the consummate painter 
 of life and manners. It was due, above all, to the great 
 satirist, who alone knew how to use ridicule without abus- 
 ing it, who, without inflicting a wound, effected a great 
 social reform, and who reconciled wit and virtue, after a 
 long and disastrous separation, during which wit had 
 been led astray by profligacy, and virtue by fanaticism. 
 
 8. In ending or beginning themes the student should 
 follow the principles of composition and keep his reader 
 in mind. Long introductions or conclusions are out of 
 place in short themes. A writer may begin with a short 
 statement of what he proposes to do, or with something, 
 perfectly intelligible to the reader, that will lead di- 
 rectly to the subject. He may end with his most tell- 
 ing statement or with a brief summary. 
 
The Beginning and the End 123 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. The specimens of good beginnings and endings 
 handed in under Exercise 6, Chapter 9, are to be exam- 
 ined and criticized. How far can the excellences of 
 each be accounted for by the discussion in the text of 
 this chapter ? How far do they fall outside of the dis- 
 cussion in the text ? 
 
 2. Themes may be distributed and criticized by the 
 class according to the following outline. The first and 
 last paragraphs should be criticized, and also the first 
 and last sentences. 
 
 I. The Beginning. 
 
 A. Unity ; is it closely connected with the subject? 
 
 B. Coherence ; does it lead directly to the next 
 
 paragraph ? 
 
 C. Emphasis; is it interesting? 
 
 II. The End. 
 
 A. Unity ; is it closely connected with the subject? 
 
 B. Coherence ; does it follow directly from the 
 
 preceding part? 
 
 C. Emphasis; is it significant? would any other 
 
 part of the theme be more effective at the 
 end? 
 
 H the beginning or end is a summary, the following 
 outline may be used : 
 
 1. Is it clear? 
 
 2. Is it brief? 
 
 3. Does it fairly represent the theme? 
 
124 Longer Themes 
 
 3. Compare and criticize the first paragraphs of the 
 following novels : " Henry Esmond," '' Cranford," 
 "The Last of the Mohicans," "The House of the 
 Seven Gables," " Ivanhoe," " Pride and Prejudice." 
 
 Compare and criticize the first chapters of the same 
 novels. What qualities seem especially desirable in the 
 beginning of a novel? 
 
 4. The following are specimens of opening and clos- 
 ing sentences of compositions. Some are good and 
 some are bad ; criticize, following the outline in Exer- 
 cise 2. 
 
 1. A magazine article on '* The Trend of the Century " 
 begins : 
 
 Every century has its own characteristics. The two influences 
 which have made the nineteenth century what it is seem to me to 
 be the scientific spirit and the democratic spirit. 
 
 The opening paragraph goes on to state other character- 
 istics of the century and ends with an outline of the 
 writer's plan: 
 
 I want to trace, if I can, what has been the trend of this re- 
 markable century in the domains of thought, of society, of com- 
 merce, of industry, and of politics. Especially I want to do this 
 as it concerns life in the United States. 
 
 2. A theme of 700 words, relating the rescue of a boy 
 who was in danger of being swept over Niagara Falls, 
 begins : 
 
 Of the many people that come to view the wonderful Falls of 
 Niagara, there are very few who stop to think of its awful power 
 and the feeling of terror it must inspire in the people who have 
 lived near it all their lives and have seen so many of their friends 
 and acquaintances made the victims of its terrible strength. 
 
The Beginning and the End 125 
 
 3. A theme of 800 words, entitled " The Gold Mines," 
 begins : 
 
 My subject naturally suggests some favored place of earth in 
 whose dark subterranean vaults the glittering product of the ages 
 lies undisturbed. Such significance does not attach to the term as 
 I shall use it. 
 
 The theme ends : 
 
 The quiet grandeur of the whole place, the perfect harmony 
 of coloring, the fragrant air, the cool spring, the winding creek, 
 the stately hotel, the flowers and trees, impress upon one a scene 
 of rare beauty and perfection. 
 
 4. A theme of 600 words, on " An Old Oak," ends : 
 
 Thus it stands and battles with the storms. What a history 
 it would tell us if its branches could only speak! But in its 
 whispered messages may we not find many lessons to help us 
 through the stormy as well as the pleasant days of life? 
 
 5. A theme of 400 words, describing the dwelling of a 
 bachelor, ends: 
 
 With these few glimpses at this strange abode, having made 
 my sale, I went away, feeling that I had bearded the bachelor in 
 his den. 
 
 6. The opening and closing sentences of a theme on 
 ** The Circus Parade " are : 
 
 A large crowd had already gathered on Main street to see 
 the circus parade, but by pushing along and elbowing our way, 
 we found a good position at the edge of the walk. 
 
 Bringing up the rear are two men in a buggy, who throw out 
 handfuls of bills, which whirl and flutter in the air and finally fall 
 in white showers along the road. 
 
 7. A theme on " A Child's Playhouse " ends : 
 
 Like the chambered nautilus I have passed into a broader, 
 statelier dwelling. But I cannot seal the past ; and although the 
 dwelling may not be fit, I love to go back and take a peep at it. 
 
126 Longer Themes 
 
 8. The last two sentences of Burke's Speech on Concilia- 
 tion (before he moves the resolution) are: 
 
 Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American 
 empire. English privileges have made it all that it is; English 
 privileges alone virill make it all it can be. 
 
 5. Examine the opening paragraphs of Macaulay's 
 Essays on BoswelFs Johnson, Addison, and Milton. 
 Determine how far the introduction extends in each 
 case and where the essay proper begins. What pur- 
 pose did these introductions serve when they were writ- 
 ten ? What disadvantages do they have for the reader 
 of to-day? 
 
 6. Five text-books in rhetoric begin in the following 
 ways : 
 
 1. A definition of rhetoric. 
 
 2. Directions in regard to spacing and underscoring. 
 
 3. Good Use. " The foundations of rhetoric rest upon 
 
 grammar, for grammatical purity is a requisite of 
 good writing." 
 
 4. Sciences subsidiary to rhetoric. 
 
 5. Punctuation. 
 
 What advantages can you see in each beginning ? what 
 disadvantages ? 
 
 7. Would it have been better to begin this book with 
 a definition of rhetoric ? What reasons can you suggest 
 for the present beginning ? 
 
 II 
 
 8. Class-room Exercise. ( Twenty minutes. ) Write 
 a paragraph on, " Difficulties of Developing a Plan 
 into a Theme," 
 
The Beginning and the End 127 
 
 g. Write the opening paragraph of a theme of 1200 
 words, which is to tell the story of " Ivanhoe " to a 
 person who has never read the novel. 
 10. Write a paragraph or two, beginning a story of 
 your own invention. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME 
 
 I. We have seen how to collect material for a theme, 
 how to form it into a plan, and how to care for the be- 
 ginning and the end. We may now consider how to 
 develop the plan into a readable composition. All that 
 has been said, in the discussion of themes of two or 
 three paragraphs, of the different methods required by 
 the four kinds of prose applies as well to longer themes, 
 and all the methods of developing a topic into a para- 
 graph, discussed in Chapter 6, are of use in trans- 
 forming a bare outline into a composition. With his 
 plan at hand, the student should consider what is the 
 chief aim of his theme and of each main division, and 
 avail himself accordingly of his experience in writing 
 short expositions, arguments, descriptions, and narra- 
 tives, and he should make constant use of the methods 
 of definition and explanation, details and particulars, 
 examples and illustrations, comparisons and contrasts, 
 proofs, and the chronological grouping of events in the 
 amplification of his topics. In long themes, he should 
 especially remember the need in exposition of exact 
 and frequent illustration, the superiority in argument 
 of persuasion to assertion, the suggestiveness in de- 
 
 128 
 
The Development of the Theme 129 
 
 scription of details of motion or feeling, and in nar- 
 rative the value of suspense and climax in securing 
 animation. A long theme, too, whatever its general 
 character, usually requires the service of several kinds 
 of prose, argument standing in especial need of expo- 
 sition, and narrative of brief descriptive details. With- 
 out, however, reconsidering in detail the four forms 
 of prose or the development of paragraphs, we shall in 
 this chapter recall some things that have been already 
 considered and note what aid and suggestion the prin- 
 ciples of composition furnish for the general treatment 
 of the material outlined in the plan. 
 2. It is not enough that all the ideas selected for the 
 theme be closely connected with the subject; their con- 
 nection must be made perfectly clear to the reader. 
 There should be not only Unity in selection, but also 
 Unity in expression. In Hawthorne's sketch of " The 
 Old Manse " he tells the story of the American boy who 
 killed a helpless wounded British soldier after the Con- 
 cord fight. Now, what connection has that story with 
 his subject? You can see very little at first thought, 
 but if you will turn to " Mosses from an Old Manse," 
 you will see that Hawthorne has made the connection 
 perfectly clear to his readers. He is describing his life 
 in the Old Manse, and takes an imaginary visitor over 
 the house, through the orchard and neighboring battle- 
 ground. Then he describes the bridge and monument, 
 and then tells the story related to him by the poet Low- 
 ell, which, he says, has impressed him more than the 
 history of the battle. After he has briefly related the 
 
130 Longer Themes 
 
 story he dwells on the haunting effect such a dreadful, 
 unpremeditated crime must have had on the poor boy. 
 We see that the story is just the kind of one to appeal 
 to Hawthorne's imagination, which dwelt so often 
 upon the sudden conjunction of crime and innocence. 
 No part of the sketch, as it proves, has a more vital and 
 interesting relation to the subject — Hawthorne at the 
 Old Manse — than has this story. 
 
 3- With equal care any writer can make the relation 
 of each idea to his subject apparent. In the plan on 
 page 112, the ideas are all connected with one subject, 
 but in the theme the writer will have to show just how 
 an open fire affects his enjoyment of reading, and that 
 an exciting novel is a still more important factor. In 
 the same way his dislike of ghost and fairy stories may 
 possibly be made to indicate more clearly the kind of 
 stories he does enjoy, and thus be brought into connec- 
 tion with the subject. So, in descriptions, all details 
 must be brought into relation with the general impres- 
 sion the writer wishes to convey; in narratives, all 
 events must be directed to the objective point; in expo- 
 sitions, all divisions must be connected with the expla- 
 nation of the general process or idea. To secure Unity 
 of expression, it is necessary to make plain the relation 
 of each detail, not to things in general, but to the par- 
 ticular subject. 
 
 4' The best negative rule to observe in seeking this 
 Unity of expression is to avoid digressions, and the 
 best positive rule is to take and maintain one point of 
 view. If a plan is well made and strictly followed, 
 
The Development of the Theme 131 
 
 there are not likely to be many digressions, though the 
 temptation to wander from the subject and introduce 
 some new and pleasing ideas may often need resistance. 
 The point of view has already been mentioned (page 
 8y), but requires more attention. By it we mean the 
 position of the writer toward the subject ; if he is de- 
 scribing an object, it is the physical position from which 
 he sees that object; if he is discussing a general ques- 
 tion, it is his mental attitude toward that question — is 
 he giving his own opinions, or is he recording the opin- 
 ions of some one else? is he writing as the advocate 
 of a theory or as its critic? The treatment of any sub- 
 ject will hence be determined by the point of view. In 
 " The Old Manse " Hawthorne's point of view is that 
 of the dweller in the old house, who is showing a visitor 
 about the place. In " My Enjoyment in Reading " the 
 point of view is that of the writer, who is telling his 
 own experiences. 
 
 5- In a narrative the point of view is that of the per- 
 son through whose eyes the events and people of the 
 story are seen, or through whose feelings they are in- 
 terpreted. Sometimes one of the actors in the story is 
 supposed to be relating it ; thus " Kidnapped " is osten- 
 sibly written by David Balfour, the chief actor. Even 
 if the author is not writing in the name of any of his 
 characters, he must put himself in their places and see 
 things with their sympathies. In a novel the point of 
 view may shift : in one chapter events are interpreted 
 through the feelings of the heroine; in the next we 
 share the adventures of the hero; in another we see 
 
132 Longer Themes 
 
 through the eyes of the villain. In short narratives, 
 however, there is great gain in force if one point of 
 view can be maintained throughout. Thus the account 
 of a runaway accident could be told from the point of 
 view of a bystander, or of the person in the carriage, 
 or of the mounted policeman who stopped the horse. 
 The same events can be told with different effects if 
 different points of view are taken, and the selection and 
 maintenance of a point of view therefore affect the 
 whole character of a narrative. 
 
 6. When the point of view has once been taken, it 
 must not be changed without distinct notice to the 
 reader. A college graduate recently wrote a theme on 
 the interior of a theater as seen from the top gallery, 
 and described the faces of the people in the front rows 
 of the orchestra. One can imagine the difficulty of the 
 reader in following him. So, in a theme on " My En- 
 joyment in Reading," if personal experiences are mixed 
 with general observations, the reader will have difficulty 
 in disentangling them. Instead of devoting his atten- 
 tion to one subject, he will have to struggle with two or 
 three, — My Enjoyment in Reading; The Pleasures 
 People in General Take in Reading; What We Ought 
 to Read. In most themes the student will write 
 from the personal point of view, and his main care 
 will be to keep to that. One further caution, however, 
 must not be overlooked. In order to inform the reader 
 of the writer's point of view, there is rarely need of 
 such expressions as, " I think," " it seems to me," " I 
 believe," or " I hope to show." It is his business to tell 
 
The Development of the Theme 133 
 
 the reader what he thinks or beHeves without unneces- 
 sary bowing and scraping. 
 
 7. The principle of Coherence, Hke the principle of 
 Unity, is useful in developing the plan into a theme. 
 It requires that a writer stick to the plan announced, 
 and that he keep the plan before the reader. 
 
 8. Any indication of the plan to the reader must be 
 strictly followed. If a theme begins, " The chief needs 
 of my school are a lunch-room, an assembly hall, more 
 books in the library, and a gymnasium," it must treat 
 of these needs in that order. A writer may find reason 
 to change his plan while writing; if so, any statements 
 that he has made in regard to it must be altered to fit 
 his new purpose. The plan should never be purposely 
 hidden from the reader. In many cases, especially in 
 expositions and arguments, it should be stated dis- 
 tinctly, and the reader should receive plenty of indica- 
 tions of the direction in which the writer wishes him to 
 go. In long compositions, summaries and transition 
 paragraphs are useful in pointing out the road. In this 
 chapter, for example, the writer is desirous that the 
 reader see the connection between the ideas. The first 
 paragraph is consequently transitional, stating briefly 
 what is to be discussed in the chapter and its relations 
 to what has preceded. It tells the reader how far he 
 has gone and whither he is going. The seventh para- 
 graph is another guide-post, which points out that the 
 discussion of Unity is finished and that of Coherence is 
 to begin. The last paragraph of each chapter so far 
 has been a summary of its contents. 
 
134 Longer Themes 
 
 9' In themes of a few pages, transitional and sum- 
 marizing paragraphs are too cumbersome. The work 
 of guiding the reader on his way can be done by con- 
 necting sentences or phrases. In Chapter lo of this 
 book, the first five paragraphs discuss the beginning of 
 a theme ; the last three paragraphs, the end ; and these 
 two divisions are connected by the sentence on page 
 121, "The end of a composition is sometimes no less 
 troublesome than the beginning." In Chapter 4 the 
 transition from The Subject to The Title is accom- 
 plished in the sentence on page 32, " After a writer 
 has fitted his subject to his theme, he must find a title." 
 In the present chapter the transition from Unity to 
 Coherence has already been emphasized; so when, in 
 the next paragraph, a change is made from Coherence 
 to Emphasis, no further guide will be needed by the 
 reader than the opening words, " The principle of Em- 
 phasis." The connectives between the divisions of a 
 theme may be brief, but they should be sufficient to en- 
 able a reader to follow the succession of ideas easily 
 and directly. 
 
 10. The principle of Emphasis can be followed in 
 the general treatment of the subject by carrying out 
 the suggestions already made in regard to planning the 
 theme for proportion and position of parts. If the 
 most important idea is to come last and to occupy one 
 third of the total space, it will be necessary to pay an 
 extra amount of attention to the treatment of that di- 
 vision. The writer must obtain a considerable amount 
 of material, — incidents, illustrations, or proofs, as the 
 
The Development of the Theme 135 
 
 case may require, — and he must put a large share of at- 
 tention on its expression. The material of this para- 
 graph will be summed up in a few words in the closing 
 paragraph of the chapter, but here it is amplified in 
 order that it may have more weight with the reader. 
 Our first inclinations, indeed, often lead us to pass over 
 hastily the most important part of a subject because it 
 is familiar to us. To secure Emphasis, however, we 
 must concentrate our attention and effort on what we 
 wish most to impress upon the reader. 
 II. In narratives attention should be concentrated on 
 the objective point, the event to which the others lead. 
 Climax should be used when possible, the events in- 
 creasing in interest, and the moment of highest interest 
 coming at the end. In many narratives, however, it is 
 not the final but an intermediate event which is the most 
 important and the crisis of the story. In telling the 
 Bible story of the sacrifice of Isaac, writers might take 
 various points of view and enlarge the narrative in va- 
 rious ways, but they would all fail unless they made 
 impressive the moment when " Abraham stretched 
 forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son." The 
 most interesting incident or the critical moment of a 
 story may be made impressive by various means. The 
 importance of the ball game in a theme on a picnic 
 might be indicated by a detailed account; the critical 
 moment of an adventure might be emphasized by keep- 
 ing the reader in complete suspense as to the outcome 
 up to that moment. Elaboration may not be the best 
 means of securing Emphasis; the sentence just quoted 
 
136 Longer Themes 
 
 from the Bible is impressive from its simplicity. By 
 one means or other, by elaboration or by power of style, 
 by climax or suspense, or by all these, the writer should 
 seek to make the important event or moment of his nar- 
 rative the one that will be most vividly realized by the 
 reader. 
 
 12. In developing a plan into a composition, a writer 
 should seek Unity of Expression by indicating the con- 
 nection of each detail to the subject, by avoiding digres- 
 sions, and by keeping to one point of view. A point of 
 view may be the writer's mental attitude toward a sub- 
 ject, and in narratives he may assume the point of view 
 of one of the participants in the action. He should seek 
 Coherence by following faithfully a plan and by mak- 
 ing the various steps evident to the reader by means of 
 summarizing and transitional paragraphs, sentences, 
 and phrases ; and he should seek Emphasis by centering 
 his attention on the places where he most desires the 
 reader's attention to rest. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 1. Note all the connecting sentences in Chapter 5. 
 
 2. The following topics may suggest others for narra- 
 tives with special points of view. 
 
 I. The Prodigal Son ; — from the point of view of the 
 elder brother. 
 
The Development of the Theme 137 
 
 2. Our Straw Ride; — from the point of view of the 
 driver. 
 
 3. Washington Crossing the Delaware; — as related 
 by one of the soldiers. 
 
 4. A Fox Hunt ; — from the point of view of the fox. 
 
 3' Each of the following topics may be treated — first 
 in a fifteen-minute theme written in class, when the 
 point of view and the most important part should be in- 
 dicated ; then in a theme of six hundred words written 
 at home. 
 
 I. The Battle of Manila. 2. The Relief of Pekin. 3. 
 The Last Story that I Read. 4. A Country Village. 5. 
 The First Night in Camp. 6. The Battle of San Juan 
 Hill. 7. How I Would Teach History. 8. How to Make 
 a Garden. 9. The Naval Battle off Port Arthur. 10. The 
 Night of a Presidential Election. 
 
 4- Froude's account of the defeat of the Spanish Ar- 
 mada furnishes a good example of historical narrative. 
 One of the longest paragraphs tells of the attack of 
 Drake and Hawkins on the Armada. This is reproduced 
 here. Read it carefully and then answer the following 
 questions as fully as you can. ( i ) Why is this portion 
 of the narrative developed so elaborately? (2) Why 
 is it put into a single paragraph? (3) In the course 
 of the paragraph these matters are discussed: the op- 
 portunity offered Drake; criticisms of the Duke of Me- 
 dina Sidonia ; the superiority of the English ships over 
 the Spanish; the bravery of the Spaniards. How does 
 the treatment of these matters neglect or promote Unity 
 of Expression? (4) Note the sentences giving an ac- 
 
13B Longer Themes 
 
 count of the general course of the battle; those nar- 
 rating particular incidents ; those devoted to exposition. 
 Make an outline showing the way in which these ele- 
 ments are intermingled. Is the arrangement coherent ? 
 What portion of the paragraph deals with the English 
 attack? what with the Spanish defense? How is the 
 transition from the one to the other managed ? ( 5) In 
 an account of an English victory, why is so much space 
 given to describing the valor of the Spaniards? Is this 
 in accord with the principle of Emphasis? (6) Is any 
 use made of climax? 
 
 It was now or never for England. The scene of the 
 action which was to decide the future of Europe was be- 
 tween Calais and Dunkirk, a few miles off shore, and 
 within sight of Parma's Camp. There was no more 
 manoeuvring for the weather-gage, no more fighting at 
 long range. Drake dashed straight upon his prey as the 
 falcon stoops upon its quarry. A chance had fallen to 
 him which might never return; not for the vain distinc- 
 tion of carrying prizes into English ports, not for the ray 
 of honour which would fall on him if he could carry off 
 the sacred banner itself and hang it in the Abbey at West- 
 minster, but a chance so to handle the Armada that it 
 should never be seen again in English waters, and deal 
 such a blow on Philip that the Spanish Empire should 
 reel with it. The English ships had the same superiority 
 over the galleons which steamers have now over sailing 
 vessels. They had twice the speed; they could lie two 
 points nearer to the wind. Sweeping round them at ca- 
 ble's length, crowding them in one upon the other, yet 
 never once giving them a chance to grapple, they hurled 
 in their cataracts of round shot Short as was the pow- 
 der supply, there was no sparing it that morning. The 
 hours went on, and still the battle raged, if battle it could 
 be called where the blows were all dealt on one side and 
 
The Development of the Theme 139 
 
 the suffering was all on the other. Never on sea or land 
 did the Spaniards show themselves worthier of their great 
 name than on that day. But from the first they could do 
 nothing. It was said afterward in Spain that the Duke 
 showed the white feather, that he charged his pilot to keep 
 him out of harm's way, that he shut himself up in his 
 cabin, buried in woolpacks, and so on. The Duke had 
 faults enough, but poltroonery was not one of them. He, 
 who till he entered the English Channel had never been 
 in action on sea or land, found himself, as he said, in the 
 midst of the most furious engagement recorded in the his- 
 tory of the world. As to being out of harm's way, the 
 standard at his masthead drew the hottest of the fire upon 
 him. The San Martin's timbers were of oak and a foot 
 thick, but the shot, he said, went through them enough to 
 shatter a rock. Her deck was a slaughter-house ; half his 
 company were killed or wounded, and no more would 
 have been heard or seen of the San Martin or her com- 
 mander had not Oquendo and De Leyva pushed in to the 
 rescue and enabled him to creep away under their cover. 
 He himself saw nothing more of the action after this. The 
 smoke, he said, was so thick that he could make out no- 
 thing, even from his masthead. But all round it was but 
 a repetition of the same scene. The Spanish shot flew 
 high, as before, above the low English hulls, and they 
 were themselves helpless butts to the English guns. And 
 it is noticeable and supremely creditable to them that not 
 a single galleon struck her colours. One of them, after a 
 long duel with an Englishman, was on the point of sink- 
 ing. An English officer, admiring the courage which the 
 Spaniards had shown, ran out upon his bowsprit, told 
 them that they had done all which became men, and urged 
 them to surrender and save their lives. For answer they 
 cursed the English as cowards and chickens because they 
 refused to close. The officer was shot. His fall brought 
 a last broadside on them, which finished the work. They 
 went down, and the water closed over them. Rather death 
 to the soldiers of the Cross than surrender to a heretic. 
 James Anthony Froude: English Seamen in the 
 Sixteenth Century. 
 
140 Longer Themes 
 
 5' In a newspaper editorial or a magazine article 
 (those selected in Exercise 3, Chapter 9, may be used), 
 determine on what thought the writer wished to put the 
 greatest stress. How does he develop it ? 
 
 Determine what is the most important part of a short 
 story in a recent magazine. How is its importance in- 
 dicated ? 
 
 6. Criticize themes assigned to you according to the 
 following outline. 
 
 I. 
 
 The 
 
 Plan. 
 
 Unity. 
 Coherence^ 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 Emphasis. 
 The Beginning. 
 The End. 
 
 4. 
 
 The 
 
 Development. 
 
 Unity. 
 Coherence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Emphasis. 
 
 7. What is the point of view of " Locksley Hall," 
 " The Lotos Eaters," " The Princess," '' The Spectator 
 Papers," "Henry Esmond"? 
 
 8. Note some instances of suspense and of climax in 
 " Silas Marner," " The Princess," " Ivanhoe," " Henry 
 Esmond," a recent magazine story. 
 
 II 
 
 9. From your observation of paragraphing in this 
 book or elsewhere, what rules or suggestions can you 
 make for the division of a long exposition into para- 
 graphs ? In what ways, if any, should the paragraphing 
 of a narrative differ from that of an exposition ? How 
 should a conversation be divided into paragraphs ? 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 THE DIVISION OF THE THEME INTO PARAGRAPHS 
 
 1. We have already studied the paragraph as a unit ; 
 now we must understand clearly its functions as one of 
 the divisions of a theme. The relation between a para- 
 graph and a whole composition is this: a whole com- 
 position deals with one main idea, concerning which it 
 presents a number of subordinate ideas; a paragraph 
 treats of one of these subordinate ideas, which it ampli- 
 fies and illustrates. A paragraph is a group of sen- 
 tences dealing with a single subject; a whole composi- 
 tion is a group of paragraphs dealing with a larger 
 subject. 
 
 2. Just as space is left between words, and a larger 
 space between sentences, so a still larger break is 
 made between paragraphs. In writing, a new para- 
 graph is given a new line and is indented; that is, 
 the first word begins an inch to the right of the mar- 
 gin. A succession of pages without any indention of- 
 fers no indication to the eye of the divisions of thought. 
 A succession of pages with a great many indentions 
 produces a disconnected, spasmodic effect on the eye 
 and the mind. The only case in English in which very 
 short paragraphs are used is in conversation, where a 
 
 141 
 
142 Longer Themes 
 
 change in the speaker is indicated by a new paragraph. 
 The following passage would be unintelligible without 
 such division. 
 
 The colonel and Cross] ay lounged over the garden. 
 
 " And now," said the colonel, " we '11 see if we can't ar- 
 range a meeting between you and Miss Middleton. 
 You 're a lucky fellow, for she 's always thinking of you." 
 
 " I know I am always thinking of her," said Cross jay. 
 
 *' If ever you 're in a scrape, she 's the person you must 
 go to." 
 
 *' Yes, if I know where she is ! " 
 
 " Why, generally she '11 be at the Hall." 
 
 There was no reply: Crossjay's dreadful secret jumped 
 to his throat. He certainly was a weaker lock for being 
 full of breakfast. 
 
 " I want to see Mr. Whitford so much," he said. 
 
 " Something to tell him? " 
 
 " I don't know what to do : I don't understand it ! " 
 The secret wriggled to his mouth. He swallowed it down. 
 " Yes, I want to talk to Mr. Whitford." 
 
 George Meredith : The Egoist. 
 
 In general the length of paragraphs varies with their 
 subjects and purposes. Ordinarily fifty words make a 
 very short paragraph, five hundred a very long one ; in 
 themes, the average should be about one hundred and 
 fifty words. 
 
 3. A paragraph relieves the reader's attention ; it also 
 directs his attention to the divisions of the theme. An 
 indention on the page marks a change in the thought, 
 a passing from one subordinate idea to another. In 
 planning a theme it is usually possible to plan for the 
 paragraphs; this is, in fact, necessary to the comple- 
 tion of a good working plan. In a theme on " What 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 143 
 
 Our School Needs," a paragraph might be devoted to 
 each of the four needs ; or, if the need of a gymnasium 
 were to be treated more fully than the others, it might 
 be given two paragraphs. The question, then, would 
 be, how to divide the topic. Possibly the writer wishes 
 to speak of the need of a gymnasium ( i ) to promote 
 exercise and good health among the students and (2) 
 to encourage school athletics; if so, each of these ideas 
 may be developed into a paragraph. In the plan of the 
 theme on " My Enjoyment in Reading," on page 112, 
 perhaps the last division might occupy two paragraphs. 
 The plan in its final form, with rough estimates of the 
 length of the paragraphs, would then be as follows : 
 
 Subject. My Enjoyment in Reading. 
 
 Title. How I Read a Book. 
 
 Plan: 
 
 1. {Paragraph of 50 words,) I enjoy reading best 
 on a winter night when I can sit by the fire with a plate 
 of apples by my side. 
 
 2. {Paragraph of i§o zvords.) Then I must have an 
 exciting story, not of ghosts, or fairies, or love, but of 
 adventures and fights and hair-breadth escapes; just such 
 a book, in fact, as ** Treasure Island." 
 
 3. {Paragraph of 100 words.) Under these condi- 
 tions I become absorbed in the story and gradually forget 
 all my surroundings. 
 
 4. {Paragraph of 200 zvords.) Soon I am in the 
 hero's place, going through all his trials and escapes, and 
 sharing all his fear and joy. 
 
 4. In every case the theme should be divided into para- 
 graphs corresponding to the main divisions of thought. 
 A main division should be given at least one paragraph ; 
 if it is long it may be divided into subordinate sections, 
 
144 Longer Themes 
 
 to each of which a paragraph may be given. The 
 writer must always ask, how can I best separate my 
 theme into paragraphs which shall indicate to the 
 reader my plan ? 
 
 5. It will be noticed that our plan now consists of 
 four complete sentences which make up a short para- 
 graph. That stands as an outline for a short theme, 
 and each of the four sentences stands as an outline 
 for a paragraph. This is a good way to plan a theme, 
 and it indicates just the relation of a paragraph to a 
 whole composition. What a sentence is to a para- 
 graph, a paragraph is to a whole composition. 
 
 6. It will also be noticed in our plan that certain 
 words at the beginning of the last three sentences add 
 nothing to the thought, but serve as connectives. 
 These words, " Then," " Under these circumstances," 
 " Soon," knit the sentences into a paragraph. In a 
 similar way connectives will be needed to knit the para- 
 graphs into a theme. In Chapter 1 1 we saw the use- 
 fulness of connective sentences in indicating the plan to 
 the reader and marking the transition from one divi- 
 sion to another. Naturally these connective sentences 
 come at the beginnings of paragraphs; the first sen- 
 tences of the paragraphs of a theme consequently often 
 serve to mark plainly the divisions and progress of 
 ideas. In Macaulay's " Essay on Addison," the first 
 sentences of ten paragraphs describing Addison's Euro- 
 pean tour thus form a good outline of that part of 
 the essay, although there are few words used which 
 are merely connectives. 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 145 
 
 1. While Addison was in Paris, an event took place 
 which made that capital a disagreeable residence for an 
 Englishman and a Whig. 
 
 2. In December, I7(X), he embarked at Marseilles. 
 
 3. At Genoa, still ruled by her own doge, and by the 
 nobles whose names were inscribed on her Book of Gold, 
 Addison made a short stay. 
 
 4. On his way from Venice to Rome, he was drawn 
 some miles out of the beaten road by a wish to see the 
 smallest independent state in Europe. 
 
 5. At Rome Addison remained on his first visit only 
 long enough to catch a glimpse of St. Peter's and of the 
 Pantheon. 
 
 6. Naples was then destitute of what are now, per- 
 haps, its chief attractions. 
 
 7. From Naples, Addison returned to Rome by sea, 
 along the coast which his favourite Virgil had celebrated. 
 
 8. It was not till the latter end of October that he tore 
 himself away from the masterpieces of ancient and mod- 
 ern art which are collected in the city so long the mistress 
 of the world. 
 
 9. Addison gave some time to Florence, and especially 
 to the sculptures in the Museum, which he preferred even 
 to those of the Vatican. 
 
 10. It was in the midst of the eternal snow that he 
 composed his Epistle to his friend Montagu, now Lord 
 Halifax. 
 
 7- Macaulay's plan of treating Addison's tour chron- 
 ologically and devoting one paragraph to each stage is 
 thus made obvious to the most hasty reader. In a 
 similar way, the opening sentences of the paragraphs 
 of Chapter 4 of " The Vicar of Wakefield " are guide- 
 posts to point out to the reader the stages and direction 
 of his journey. The subject-matter of each paragraph 
 is clearly indicated at the start — the location of the 
 
146 Longer Themes 
 
 new home, the house itself, what the family did through 
 the day, what they did in the evening, what they did 
 on Sunday, an incident of the first Sunday — and the 
 last paragraph is given in full because it illustrates 
 admirably how to end a theme. 
 
 1. The place of our retreat was in a little neighbour- 
 hood, consisting of farmers, who tilled their own grounds, 
 and were equal strangers to opulence and poverty. 
 
 2. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a 
 sloping hill, sheltered with a beautiful underwood behind, 
 and a prattling river before ; on one side a meadow, on the 
 other a green. 
 
 3. The little republic to which I gave laws, was regu- 
 lated in the following manner : 
 
 4. As we rose with the sun, so we never pursued our 
 labours after it was gone down. . . . 
 
 5. When Sunday came, it was indeed a day of finery, 
 which all my sumptuary edicts could not restrain. 
 
 6. The first Sunday, in particular, their behaviour 
 served to mortify me. 
 
 7. This remonstrance had the proper effect : they went 
 with great composure, that very instant, to change their 
 dress ; and the next day I had the satisfaction of finding 
 my daughters, at their own request, employed in cutting 
 up their trains into Sunday waistcoats for Dick and Bill, 
 the two little ones ; and, what was still more satisfactory, 
 the gowns seemed improved by this curtailing. 
 
 8. Another selection will indicate the method of divid- 
 ing a narrative into paragraphs. 
 
 The first peep of morning, then, showed us this horrible 
 place, and I could see Alan knit his brow. 
 
 " This is no place for you and me," he said. " This is a 
 place they 're bound to watch," 
 
 And with that he ran harder than ever down to the 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 147 
 
 water-side, in a part where the river was split in two 
 among the rocks. It went through with a horrid thun- 
 dering that made my belly quake; and there hung over 
 the lynn a little mist of spray. Alan looked neither to 
 the right nor to the left, but jumped clean upon the middle 
 rock and fell there on his hands and knees to check him- 
 self, for that rock was small and he might have pitched 
 over on the far side. / had scarce time to measure the 
 distance or to understand the peril before I had followed 
 him, and he had caught and stopped me. 
 
 So there we stood, side by side on a small rock slippery 
 with spray, a far broader leap in front of us, and the river 
 dinning upon all sides. When I saw where I was there 
 came on me a deadly sickness of fear, and I put my hand 
 over my eyes. Alan took me and shook me ; I saw he was 
 speaking, but the roaring of the falls and the trouble of 
 my mind prevented me from hearing ; only I saw his face 
 was red with anger, and that he stamped upon the rock. 
 The same look showed me the water raging by and the 
 mist hanging in the air; and with that, I covered my eyes 
 again and shuddered. 
 
 The next minute Alan had set the brandy bottle to my 
 lips and forced me to drink about a gill, which sent the 
 blood into my head again. Then, putting his hands to his 
 mouth and his mouth to my ear, he shouted, "Hang or 
 drown!" and turning his back upon me, leaped over the 
 farther branch of the stream, and landed safe. 
 
 I was now alone upon the rock, which gave me the more 
 room; the brandy was singing in my ears; I had this 
 good example fresh before me, and just wit enough to see 
 that if I did not leap at once, I should never leap at all. I 
 bent low on my knees and flung myself forth, with that 
 kind of anger of despair which has sometimes stood me 
 in stead of courage. Sure enough, it was but my hands 
 that reached the full length; these slipped, caught again, 
 slipped again; and I was sliddering back into the lynn, 
 when Alan seized me, first by the hair, then by the collar, 
 and with a great strain dragged me into safety. 
 
 Never a word said he, but set off running again for his 
 
148 Longer Themes 
 
 life, and I must stagger to my feet and run after him. I 
 had been weary before, but now I was sick and bruised, 
 and partly drunken with the brandy ; I kept stumbling as 
 I ran, I had a stitch that came near to overmaster me; 
 and when at last Alan paused under a great rock that stood 
 there among a number of others, it was none too soon for 
 David Balfour. 
 
 Robert Louis Stevenson : Kidnapped. 
 
 9. In these paragraphs we have a succession of events 
 related in chronological order. At first thought there 
 seems little need of paragraph structure, and little pos- 
 sibility of following the principles of Unity and Em- 
 phasis. Yet note the paragraph divisions. The first 
 is transitional, the second a speech. The third includes 
 the events until Alan and David had both jumped upon 
 the rock; the fourth tells what happened on the rock; 
 the fifth, Alan's farewell and jump ; the sixth, David's 
 jump; the seventh, the continuation of their flight. 
 Thus each paragraph has a topic ; each has Unity, since 
 it deals with a closely connected series of events; and 
 Emphasis, since it stops at an important instant. The 
 closing sentences of these paragraphs, italicized in our 
 selection, give us the most important events and really 
 contain the topics of the paragraphs. Each paragraph 
 follows the usual method of development in purely nar- 
 rative paragraphs (see page 60), and presents a series 
 of events in chronological order, leading up to some 
 event of special importance. In a narrative theme the 
 division into paragraphs must correspond to the im- 
 portant divisions of the action. 
 
 10. In this chapter we have viewed the paragraph as 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 149 
 
 a part of a longer composition. It is marked by inden- 
 tion and should correspond to a division of the subject. 
 What a sentence is to a paragraph, a paragraph is to 
 a whole composition. In planning a theme, therefore, 
 we can put our outline in the form of a paragraph, each 
 sentence of which shall be developed into a paragraph 
 in the completed theme. The opening sentences of the 
 paragraphs of a theme can be utilized to indicate to the 
 reader the general plan, the connection of ideas, and 
 the correspondence of each paragraph to a division of 
 the subject. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What are the main divisions of this chapter ? How 
 many paragraphs are given to each ? What is the sub- 
 ject of each paragraph ? 
 
 2. Examine the first sentences of the paragraphs in 
 this chapter. Do any connect paragraphs ? Do any in- 
 dicate the subjects of paragraphs? 
 
 3- Write out a synopsis of Chapter 8, giving a com- 
 plete sentence to each paragraph, except the last. By 
 the addition of connectives, form these sentences into 
 a coherent paragraph. 
 
 4* Divide the following extract from " Gulliver's 
 Travels " into three paragraphs. In Swift's day much 
 less attention was paid to division into paragraphs 
 than at the present time. 
 
150 Longer Themes 
 
 When this Adventure was at an end, I came back out of 
 my House, having occasion for fresh Air. The Emperor 
 was already descended from the Tower, and advancing on 
 Horseback towards me, which had hked to have cost him 
 dear; for the Beast, though very well trained, yet wholly 
 unused to such a Sight, which appeared as if a Mountain 
 moved before him, reared up on his hinder Feet : But that 
 Prince, who is an excellent Horseman, kept his Seat, till 
 his Attendants ran in, and held the Bridle, while his Maj- 
 esty had time to dismount. When he alighted, he sur- 
 veyed me round with great Admiration, but kept without 
 the length of my Chain. He ordered his Cooks and But- 
 lers, who were already prepared to give me Victuals and 
 Drink, which they pushed forward in a sort of Vehicles 
 upon Wheels till I could reach them. I took these Vehi- 
 cles, and soon emptied them all; twenty of them were 
 filled with Meat, and ten with Liquor, each of the former 
 afforded me two or three good Mouthfuls, and I emptied 
 the Liquor of ten Vessels, which was contained in earthen 
 Vials, into one Vehicle, drinking it off at a Draught, and 
 so I did with the rest. The Empress, and young Princes 
 of the Blood of both Sexes, attended by many Ladies, sat 
 at some distance in their Chairs, but upon the Accident 
 that happened to the Emperor's Horse, they alighted, and 
 came near to his Person, which I am now going to de- 
 scribe. He is taller by almost a breadth of my Nail, than 
 any of his Court, which alone is enough to strike an Awe 
 into the Beholders. His Features are strong and mascu- 
 line, with an Austrian Lip and arched Nose, his Complex- 
 ion olive, his Countenance erect, his Body and Limbs well 
 proportioned, all his motions graceful, and his Deportment 
 majestick. He was then past his Prime, being twenty- 
 eight Years and three Quarters old, of which he had 
 reigned about seven, in great Felicity, and generally vic- 
 torious. For the better convenience of beholding him, I 
 lay on my Side, so that my Face was parallel to his, and 
 he stood but three Yards off: However, I have had him 
 since many times in my Hand, and therefore cannot be 
 deceived in the Description. His Dress was very plain 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 151 
 
 and simple, and the Fashion of it between the Asiatick 
 and the European: but he had on his Head a Hght Helmet 
 of Gold, adorned with Jewels, and a Plume on the Crest. 
 He held his Sword drawn in his Hand, to defend himself, 
 if I should happen to break loose; it was almost three 
 Inches long, the Hilt and Scabbard were Gold, enriched 
 with Diamonds. His Voice was shrill, but very clear and 
 articulate, and I could distinctly hear it when I stood up. 
 The Ladies and Courtiers were all most magnificently 
 clad, so that the Spot they stood upon seemed to resemble 
 a Petticoat spread on the Ground, embroidered with Fig- 
 ures of Gold and Silver. His Imperial Majesty spoke 
 often to me, and I returned Answers, but neither of us 
 could understand a Syllable. There were several of his 
 •Priests and Lawyers present (as I conjectured by their 
 Habits) who were commanded to address themselves to 
 me, and I spoke to them in as many Languages as I had 
 the least smattering of, which were High and Low Dutch, 
 Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and Lingua Franca; but 
 all to no purpose. After about two Hours the Court re- 
 tired, and I was left with a strong Guard, to prevent the 
 Impertinence, and probably the Malice of the Rabble, 
 who were very impatient to croud about me as near as 
 they durst, and some of them had the Impudence to shoot 
 their Arrows at me as I sate on the Ground by the Door 
 of my House, whereof one very narrowly missed my 
 left Eye. But the Colonel ordered six of the Ring-leaders 
 to be seized, and thought no punishment so proper as to 
 deliver them bound into my hands, which some of his 
 Soldiers accordingly did, pushing them forwards with 
 the But-Ends of their Pikes into my Reach ; I took them 
 all in my right Hand, put five of them into my Coat- 
 Pocket, and as to the sixth, I made a Countenance as if 
 I would eat him alive. The poor Man squalled terribly 
 and the Colonel and his Officers were in much pain, es- 
 pecially when they saw me take out my Penknife: But 
 I soon put them out of fear; for, looking mildly and 
 immediately cutting the Strings he was bound with, I 
 set him gently on the Ground, and away he ran ; I treated 
 
152 Longer Themes 
 
 the rest in the same manner, taking them one by one out 
 of my Pocket, and I observed both the Soldiers and Peo- 
 ple were highly obliged at this mark of my Clemency, 
 which was represented very much to my Advantage at 
 Court. 
 
 Jonathan Swift: Gulliver's Travels. 
 
 5. Divide the following selection into two or three 
 paragraphs, as seems best. It forms but one paragraph 
 in a long composition, " Sesame and Lilies," but you 
 are to consider it as a composition by itself, and para- 
 graph it accordingly. To what extent is the division 
 into paragraphs affected by the length of the compo- 
 sition in which they occur ? Find an illustration. 
 
 The good book of the hour, then — I do not speak of 
 the bad ones — is simply the useful or pleasant talk of 
 some persons whom you cannot otherwise converse with, 
 printed for you. Very useful often, telling you what you 
 need to know ; very pleasant often, as a sensible friend's 
 present talk would be. These bright accounts of travels ; 
 good-humored and witty discussions of question; lively 
 or pathetic story-telling in the form of novel ; firm fact- 
 telling, by the real agents concerned in the events of pass- 
 ing history; — all these books of the hour, multiplying 
 among uS as education becomes more general, are a pecu- 
 liar characteristic and possession of the present age ; we 
 ought to be entirely thankful for them, and entirely 
 ashamed of ourselves if we make no good use of them. 
 But we make the worst possible use if we allow them to 
 usurp the place of true books : for, strictly speaking, they 
 are not true books at all, but merely letters or newspapers 
 in good print. Our friend's letter may be delightful, or 
 necessary, to-day: whether worth keeping or not, is to 
 be considered. The newspaper may be entirely proper at 
 breakfast time, but assuredly it is not reading for all day. 
 So, though bound up in a volume, the long letter which 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 153 
 
 gives you so pleasant an account of the inns, and roads, 
 and weather last year at such a place, or which tells you 
 that amusing story, or gives you the real circumstances 
 of such and such events, however valuable for occasional 
 reference, may not be, in the real sense of the word, a 
 " book " at all, nor, in the real sense, to be " read/* A 
 book is essentially not a talked thing, but a written thing ; 
 and written, not with the view of mere communication, 
 but of permanence. The book of talk is printed only 
 because its author cannot speak to thousands of persons 
 at once; if he could, he would — the volume is mere 
 multiplication of his voice. You cannot talk to your friend 
 in India; if you could, you would; you write instead: 
 that is mere conveyance of voice. But a book is written, 
 not to multiply the voice merely, not to carry it merely, 
 but to preserve it. The author has something to say 
 which he perceives to be true and useful, or helpfully 
 beautiful. So far as he knows, no one has yet said it; 
 so far as he knows, no one else can say it. He is bound 
 to say it, clearly and melodiously, if he may; clearly, at all 
 events. In the sum of his life he finds this to be the 
 thing, or group of things, manifest to him; — this, the 
 piece of true knowledge, or sight, which his share of 
 sunshine and earth has permitted him to seize. He would 
 fain set it down forever; engrave it on rock, if he could; 
 saying, ** This is the best of me ; for the rest, I ate, and 
 drank, and slept, loved, and hated, like another; my life 
 was as the vapour, and is not ; but this I saw and knew ; 
 this, if anything of mine, is worth your memory." That 
 is his " writing " ; it is, in his small human way, and with 
 whatever degree of true inspiration is in him, his in- 
 scription, or scripture. That is a " Book." 
 
 John Ruskin : Sesame and Lilies. 
 
 6. Criticize the division of the following theme into 
 paragraphs. Reparagraph it, rearranging the order of 
 sentences or paragraphs if this will improve the co- 
 herence. 
 
154 Longer Themes 
 
 A RAMBLE 
 
 Leaving " Andy " tied to an old rail fence I crossed a 
 clearing and slowly ascended a hill. 
 
 A ride of five miles from town had brought me to the 
 woods that flanked the Maquoketa river. 
 
 Some fifteen hundred acres were covered with a 
 forest, as yet untouched, except in small areas, by the 
 woodman's axe. 
 
 The country was rough — that is, for a prairie coun- 
 try, and so I preferred to walk rather than attempt to 
 drive over the steep hills and a trail leading among nu- 
 merous stumps. 
 
 It was in the afternoon of one of the early October 
 days, and the frosts of September had vied with each 
 other to produce the loveliest tints among the leaves, 
 which now clothed the trees as for a gala day. 
 
 A great variety of trees, shrubs, and herbs showed that 
 the region was rich in botanical specimens, while here 
 and there were outcroppings of limestone. I picked up 
 several fragments of rock; one was Niagara limestone, 
 the others were Maquoketa limestone and rich in fossils 
 of one kind. It was easy to identify these as brachiopods 
 from their peculiar shape. 
 
 A short, angry bark caused me to look up, and there in 
 a scrub oak, almost concealed behind its dark red leaves, 
 was a fox squirrel, and at the foot of another tree near 
 by was a gray squirrel busily engaged in gathering 
 acorns. 
 
 I noticed a movement on a ledge of rocks, and there, 
 eyeing me inquisitively, crouched a raccoon. He had so 
 far forgotten his habits as to be seen during the day time. 
 Having satisfied his curiosity, he leisurely descended and 
 crawled into a hole at the base of the rocks. 
 
 A few feet farther on, half a dozen pines reared their 
 branches high into the air. Their roots sought every 
 crevice and fissure in the rocks for a foothold on the edge 
 of the cliff. Their dark green needles covered the rocks 
 and grass beneath, and the cones were scattered as figures 
 
The Division into Paragraphs 155 
 
 on this wCMDclland carpet. A few birds with strong beaks 
 were at work among the cones, extracting a Uving from 
 their hard husks. 
 
 The southern breeze Hghtly passed through the 
 branches and sighed softly or moaned plaintively with 
 the varying strength of the wind. 
 
 On the opposite slope of the hill the red and golden 
 leaves of the hard maple reflected a glow throughout the 
 branches, as if they had been immersed in liquid sunshine. 
 
 Straggling groups of sumach with their crimson ban- 
 ners surrounded the maples. Here and there the silvery 
 leaf of a birch glinted and glimmered with every gentle 
 breeze. 
 
 The oak leaves displayed every color from a dark vel- 
 vet to a deep red, yet all this color was strewn as care- 
 lessly on the mighty canvas of the side hill, as if a child, 
 weary with its play with paints, had thrown them petu- 
 lantly from him. Yet the tints as they reached the eye 
 were harmonious ; nor did one feel any incongruity. The 
 panorama placed before me was ever-shifting as the 
 sun sank lower and lower to the horizon. All was quiet 
 and beautiful. 
 
 7- Separate this conversation into paragraphs. 
 
 The young lady paused in front of his bench, near the 
 parapet of the garden, which overlooked the lake. The 
 little boy had now converted his alpenstock into a vault- 
 ing-pole, by the aid of which he was springing about in 
 the gravel, and kicking it up a little. *' Randolph," said 
 the young lady, "what are you doing?" "I'm going 
 up the Alps," replied Randolph. " This is the way ! " 
 And he gave another little jump, scattering the pebbles 
 about Winterbourne's ears. '' That 's the way they come 
 down," said Winterbourne. " He 's an American man ! " 
 cried Randolph in his little hard voice. The young lady 
 gave no heed to this announcement, but looked straight 
 at her brother. " Well, I guess you had better be quiet," 
 she simply observed. 
 
 Henry James : Daisy Miller. 
 
156 Longer Themes 
 
 8. Make a plan for a theme of 500 words on one of 
 the following subjects. The plan is to be a series of 
 sentences, each sentence standing for a paragraph in 
 the completed theme. These plans should be brought 
 into the class and criticized, and then developed into 
 themes. 
 
 Descriptions: From a Car Window. A Quiet Spot in 
 the Country. An Old Mansion. Milking Time. An 
 Indian Tepee. A Restaurant. A Summer Resort. A 
 Cotton Field. A Belle of the Time of Queen Anne. 
 A Cave among the Hills. 
 
 Narratives : A Yacht Race. A Burglar Story. A Day 
 in a Canvas Canoe. An Eclipse of the Moon. The Fish 
 I Did n't Catch. A Hallowe'en Party. A Day in Lon- 
 don. A Dinner with Dr. Johnson. A Misunderstand- 
 ing. A Visit to a Coal Mine. 
 
 Expositions: Some Common Superstitions. A New 
 England Town Meeting. Reading History. Keeping a 
 Cash Account. A Character Sketch of Oliver Gold- 
 smith. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 SUMMARY OF PART I 
 
 1. It may seem to the student who has gone thus far 
 in this book that, although the advice is good, there 
 is too much of it to keep in mind while writing. There 
 certainly is, until he has become very familiar with it. 
 The beginner need not bother much about all the 
 suggestions in the book while he is actually writ- 
 ing, but should have his mind intent on his subject 
 and his reader. He will have time enough to consider 
 and apply precepts before and after writing. Few peo- 
 ple can make the first draft of a composition the final 
 one; most people find that they must do a great deal 
 of planning and rewriting. 
 
 2. The most profitable course for the majority to fol- 
 low is: (i) Think over your subject carefully; decide 
 just what you want to put into your theme, and how 
 you want to arrange and proportion it. (2) Write the 
 theme as rapidly as you can, keeping in mind the reader 
 and the principles of composition. (3) Let the theme 
 stand for a while, overnight if possible, then look it 
 over carefully, read it aloud if you can find a listener, 
 and revise it in the light of all you have learned of 
 rhetorical rules and principles, and the qualities of style. 
 
 157 
 
158 Summary of Part I 
 
 Under the first and third divisions of this process, in the 
 work of prevision and revision, you v^ill have an op- 
 portunity to put into practice the suggestions derived 
 from this text-book and class criticism and your study 
 of prose masterpieces. Such a triple process may seem 
 unduly laborious ; but, if it is adopted, the student will 
 soon have the satisfaction of seeing that the conscious 
 application of rhetorical principles, which he makes in 
 prevision and revision, enables him to do his best work 
 when he is writing rapidly, unconscious for the moment 
 that such a thing as rhetoric exists. His habits of 
 composition will become well-principled. What at first 
 he do€S deliberately, he will soon do unconsciously. 
 
 3. The substance of Part I is not, however, very 
 difficult to remember. Let us see some of the questions 
 that a student should be able to answer. 
 
 4. In the first four chapters some preliminary mat- 
 ters are discussed. What is rhetoric ? How can it be 
 learned ? How can you do justice to the writer ? to the 
 subject? to the reader? What are the differences be- 
 tween spoken and written discourse? What is style? 
 What are the essential qualities of good style? What 
 is composition? What are the divisions of a composi- 
 tion ? What principles guide us in these various units 
 of composition? Define each of them. Which have 
 you had the most trouble in observing? in what unit 
 of composition ? What is meant by good use ? In what 
 respects does it guide us in composition? Where are 
 you to go for subjects? What restrictions are placed 
 on the choice of subjects? What is the difference be- 
 
Summary of Part I 159 
 
 tween a subject and a title? What is the most interest- 
 ing subject you have written on ? What is the best title 
 you have selected ? Are there any other questions that 
 ought to be answered on the first four chapters ? 
 
 5. The next four chapters treat of short themes, one 
 or two paragraphs in length. What is a paragraph? 
 How is it indicated in manuscript ? in print ? What are 
 the practical advantages in writing themes a paragraph 
 in length ? How long should a paragraph be ? What 
 relation does a paragraph have to a sentence? to a 
 long composition ? What is a topic-sentence ? In de- 
 veloping a topic-sentence into a paragraph, what are the 
 requirements of the principle of Unity? of Cohe- 
 rence? of Emphasis? What suggestions have you 
 found of most aid in making well-principled para- 
 graphs? Where can the topic of the paragraph best 
 be stated? By what different means can it be devel- 
 oped? Which of these do you use most frequently? 
 From your study of good prose, what have you learned 
 about paragraphs that is not found in the text-book? 
 Ought it to be there ? 
 
 6. In composing themes of even one or two para- 
 graphs, it is useful to understand something of the 
 nature, aim, and method of each of the four forms of 
 prose, and these are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. 
 What are the four forms of prose ? Give an example 
 of each. Which gives you the most difficulty? What 
 is the aim of each ? In selecting material for any one 
 of these four forms of prose, how are you governed 
 by its aim? In arranging the material, what differ- 
 
i6o Summary of Part I 
 
 ent methods for each form ? what special rules for each ? 
 In proportioning your material, are there any special 
 considerations to be kept in mind for each form? Note 
 all the special directions you can remember for the se- 
 lection, arrangement, and proportion of material in 
 each of the forms of prose. Are these four kinds of 
 prose always separated? Are two or more of them 
 ever combined in any one composition ? Did you ever 
 use three of them in one theme ? How can two or more 
 of the four aims be united in one theme ? Do any of 
 these aims contradict the main aim of all composition — 
 to produce a clear and forcible style? Do any of their 
 methods contradict the principles of composition? 
 Would the following statements apply to all four kinds 
 of prose ? In selection, we must choose what is char- 
 acteristic of the subject and suited to the purpose of the 
 theme, if we are to have Unity. In order to secure Co- 
 herence, the arrangement may be chronological or logi- 
 cal or such as will give prominence to significant details. 
 Emphasis is promoted by this last arrangement, and 
 by the proper proportion of the various parts. 
 7. The last four chapters discuss the different stages 
 of the work of writing a theme containing a number 
 of paragraphs, — ^the plan, the beginning, the end, the 
 development, the division into paragraphs. What are 
 the successive steps in planning a theme ? What prac- 
 tical methods are suggested for the selection of mate- 
 rial? for its arrangement? its proportion? What is 
 the use of so much care in making the plan ? Describe 
 in detail a good plan. What are the requisites for an 
 
Summary of Part I 1 6 1 
 
 effective beginning of a theme? an effective end? 
 What are digressions ? Why should they be avoided ? 
 Define the point of view. What is the difference be- 
 tween Unity of selection and Unity of expression? 
 Why should the progress from one part of the theme 
 to another be indicated to the reader? How can this 
 be done ? How can Emphasis of expression be secured ? 
 What is the purpose of the division of a theme into 
 paragraphs? How is a narrative divided into para- 
 graphs? a conversation? To what specific purposes 
 can the opening and the closing sentences of each para- 
 graph be put ? How are words, phrases, sentences, and 
 paragraphs used to mark connections, divisions, or 
 transitions between the parts of a composition? What 
 special considerations are to be noted in the compo- 
 sition of a long exposition? an argument? a descrip- 
 tion? a narrative? 
 
 8. There is one thing more to be remembered, in ad- 
 dition to the answers to these questions, — that the prin- 
 ciples of composition are merely guides to secure certain 
 results. In writing we want to express our thoughts 
 and interest our readers. For the vast majority of peo- 
 ple, a unified, coherent, and emphatic presentation of 
 ideas is the most effective; and in a majority of cases 
 the methods suggested in this book are the surest means 
 of attaining these fundamental principles. Methods, 
 however, are always determined by the effects sought. 
 Ha writer were giving the talk of an incoherent per- 
 son, as in the paragraph from " Daisy Miller " on page 
 49, he would not connect the sentences carefully or 
 
i62 Summary of Part I 
 
 arrange them in a logical order. If he were writing 
 to a child, he would take special pains not only to be 
 clear, but also to use short and familiar words. In 
 composing a play, a system of philosophy, or a rhap- 
 sody, while the principles would still be useful guides, 
 a writer would need different methods from those em- 
 phasized here. We are studying English Composition 
 from the point of view of one who wishes to say some- 
 thing clearly and forcibly to persons of average in- 
 telligence. To learn to do this, we should keep to the 
 principles with unswerving faith, listen to their reit- 
 eration with patience, and follow their guidance with 
 untiring attention. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 1. Class-room Exercise. (Fifteen minutes.) Wnte^ 
 a paragraph in answer to these questions. Which 
 kind of writing. Description, Narrative, Exposition, 
 Argument, gives you the greatest difficulty? Why? 
 
 2. Class-room Exercise. Write a theme of one or 
 two paragraphs on : ( i ) Unity in Whole Compositions, 
 (2) Coherence in Whole Compositions, or (3) Empha- 
 sis in Whole Compositions. These themes may be 
 compared with the matter in the text-book, (a) in 
 Chapters 9-12; (b) in the summaries at the ends of 
 the chapters; (c) in the general summary, Chapter 13. 
 
Summary of Part I 163 
 
 In criticizing these themes, especial attention should be 
 paid to: (i) What ideas are omitted? (2) Is the ar- 
 rangement good? (3) Is the theme emphatic? 
 3- Criticism of themes of over 500 words can now 
 be made according to the following outline. The kind 
 of criticism desired can be seen from the illustrative 
 questions which follow the main heads of the outline. 
 Many other similar questions should suggest them- 
 selves to you. 
 
 I. Material. Does it seem familiar to the writer? 
 Is it interesting ? Can you suggest any other mat- 
 ters that might properly have been included? 
 
 11. Subject and Title. Is the subject suited to the 
 length of the theme ? Is the title clear ? and brief ? 
 
 III. Plan. What are the main headings? Has the plan 
 
 Unity ? Coherence ? Proportion ? What changes 
 can you suggest in the arrangement or proportion 
 of parts? 
 
 IV. Beginning and End. Do they contain anything 
 
 unnecessary ? Is the beginning clear ? the end im- 
 portant ? 
 V. Development. Is there Unity of Expression? Is 
 one point of view maintained ? Do the connectives 
 indicate the plan clearly? Do any parts require 
 more extended or more emphatic development? 
 VI. The Division into Paragraphs. Can you suggest 
 any alterations in the division into paragraphs ? 
 
 4. Write a theme of one or two paragraphs on one 
 of the following subjects. Divide the subject into 
 parts ; take up each in the order of its interest or im- 
 portance, ending with the most important. 
 
 1. The Qualities of a Good Speaker. 
 
 2. The Character of the Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
164 Summary of Part I 
 
 3. The Absurdities of the Plot in the " Vicar of Wake- 
 
 field." 
 
 4. Is Shakespeare fair to Julius Caesar? 
 
 5. The Ups and Downs of Hats. 
 
 6. Nelson's Conception of Honor. (Southey's Life.) 
 
 7. The Different Places in which the Story of " David 
 
 Copperfield " is Laid. 
 
 8. Advantages of Learning a Trade. 
 
 9. Getting Along with People. 
 
 10. Kipling's " Barrack Room Ballads." 
 
 5. Additional Subjects for Themes of Two or 
 Three Paragraphs. 
 
 1. How to Repair a Bicycle Tire. 
 
 2. Analysis of a Flower. 
 
 3. The Real Shylock. 
 
 4. Our Debating Society. 
 
 5. How I Learned to Skate. 
 
 6. The Pyncheon Hens. 
 
 7. Difficulties of Writing a Theme. 
 
 8. The Passing of the Spare Chamber. 
 
 9. David Copperfield's School Life. 
 
 10. The Story of Silas Mamer. 
 
 11. The Most Amusing Scene in "Twelfth Night." 
 
 12. How did Sir Andrew Auguecheek Look? 
 
 13. How did Rosalind Look? 
 
 14. Addison's Description of Westminster Abbey com- 
 
 pared with Irving's. 
 
 15. The Fight between Sohrab and Rustum. 
 
 16. Will Honeycomb at a London Coffee-house. 
 
 17. A short account of the character and achievements 
 
 of some distinguished American, either of the past 
 or present: Alexander Hamilton, Washington 
 Irving, Andrew Jackson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
 Thomas B. Reed, John Fiske, Bret Harte, John 
 Burroughs, President Roosevelt. 
 
Summary of Part I 165 
 
 If these themes show especial excellence, they may be 
 made the basis for themes of greater length — 700-9CK) 
 words. 
 
 6. Subjects for Descriptions of 500-700 Words. 
 Plans should be made for these themes, with especial 
 attention to: (i) general impression; (2) detailed im- 
 pressions; (3) some especially characteristic details. 
 The following plan will serve for an example. 
 
 "The Corners." 
 
 1. A group of stores interrupts the succession of residences 
 and deep lawns on the avenue. Irregularity of appearance, wood, 
 brick, small, large; vacant lots; dirty street. 
 
 2. The traffic is greater here than elsewhere. Wagons with 
 produce from the country; handsome carriages on their way to 
 the park near by ; shoppers ; newsboys ; boys and girls just out of 
 school. 
 
 3. There are all kinds of small stores. Variety of color in 
 windows; provisions on sidewalk; pop-corn stands; groceries, 
 candy, soda-water. 
 
 4. Busiest of all is a little shop patronized by school-children. 
 The display in the unwashed windows ; the stream of patrons. 
 
 The details should unite to give a general impression of in- 
 congruity and bustle. 
 
 I. Some Portion of the City. 2. The Holiday Crowd, 
 3. In a Railway Station. 4. The Audience at a Lecture. 
 5. Field Day. 6. Recollections of a Visit to an Art 
 Museum. 7. A County Fair. 8. A Country Village. 9. 
 The Bathing Beach. 10. A Summer Resort. 
 
 7- Subjects for Narratives of 600-800 Words. 
 Plans should be made with especial attention to the 
 beginning, the end, the objective point, and to the 
 proportion of parts. 
 
1 66 Summary of Part I 
 
 1. A Cruise in a Canoe. 
 
 2. A Visit to a Department Store. 
 
 3. The Life of a Butterfly. 
 
 4. A Ride on an Elevated Railway. 
 
 5. A Visit to a Museum. 
 
 6. My Cranford Party. 
 
 7. A Trolley Car in Cranford. 
 
 8. A Trip to the Moon. 
 
 9. A Christmas Story. 
 
 10. A Day in London with Goldsmith. 
 
 11. The Conspiracy of Aaron Burr. 
 
 12. Story of Beowulf ; — from the point of view of Gren- 
 
 del's mother. 
 
 13. The Defense of Thermopylae; — told by one of the 
 
 Persians. 
 
 14. The Story of Enoch Arden ; — from Annie's point 
 
 of view. 
 
 15. An Imaginary Dinner with Boswell and Dr. Johnson. 
 
 8. Subjects for Expositions. 
 
 1. A Comparison of Two of Shakespeare's Heroines: 
 
 Rosalind and Viola. 
 
 2. Carlyle's Style in the Essay on Burns. Follow this 
 
 general outHne: i. Words (including figures of 
 speech and allusions); 2. Sentences; 3. Para- 
 graphs; 4. Qualities of Style, Ease, Rapidity, Hu- 
 mor, Pathos, etc. 
 
 3. Macaulay's Style in the Essay on Milton. 
 
 4. The Historical Truth of Cooper's " Last of the Mo- 
 
 hicans." 
 
 5. Goldsmith's Autobiography in the " Vicar of Wake- 
 
 field." 
 
 6. The Life of the Puritans as Seen in '* Miles Standish." 
 
 7. Dickens's Autobiography in " David Copperfield." 
 
 9* Subjects for Arguments. Follow this general 
 outline in making your plans, i. Origin of the ques- 
 
Summary of Part I 167 
 
 tion; the question defined and limited; the question 
 carefully stated. 2. Proofs. Each should be given at 
 least one paragraph, and the most important should 
 be put last. 3. Conclusion. 
 
 1. A four years' course in English should be given in 
 
 every high school. 
 
 2. In the course in English literature more attention 
 
 should be paid to English history. 
 
 3. Athletics in this school should be under the direct 
 
 supervision of the faculty. 
 
 4. The fifth act of the " Merchant of Venice '* is super- 
 
 fluous. 
 
 5. The annexation of Cuba would be advantageous to 
 
 this country. 
 
 6. The weird sisters add to the impressiveness of Mac- 
 
 beth. 
 
 7. The number of elective courses offered in this school 
 
 should be greatly increased. 
 
 I 
 
'^ 
 
PART II 
 
 SENTENCES, WORDS 
 GOOD USE 
 
■/^; 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF SENTENCES 
 
 1. Whenever we try to express our thoughts to 
 others, whether in writing or speaking, we combine 
 words into sentences. If we speak or write so as to 
 be readily understood by others, each sentence must 
 be composed in accordance with the laws of good use 
 comprised in grammar, and if we group sentences into 
 paragraphs and compositions, the form that each sen- 
 tence takes will depend in part on the relation of its 
 thought to the thoughts in the neighboring sentences. 
 At the same time, each sentence is by itself an im- 
 portant unit of composition, and is to be constructed 
 under the guidance of the principles of composition so 
 as to express our ideas clearly and forcibly. In all 
 our discussion of sentences, therefore, we must bear in 
 mind these three considerations: (i) a sentence must 
 be grammatical; (2) it should aid in expressing the 
 thought of the paragraph; (3) it should be a unit 
 of thought itself, expressing by its structure the re- 
 lations of its ideas. In the present chapter these three 
 considerations are to be applied to the different forms 
 of sentences. 
 
 2. Grammar supplies us with a definition of a sentence 
 
 171 
 
172 Sentences 
 
 and a division of sentences into three kinds. A sen- 
 tence consists of a number of words, which make com- 
 plete sense, and which therefore have a subject and a 
 predicate. Stray phrases and clauses like the follow- 
 ing are not sentences and are rarely found in good 
 style. 
 
 Detached and irresponsible words. Refusing to be 
 joined to their comrades. Although it is clear that nei- 
 ther a few disconnected words nor a phrase, nor even a 
 dependent clause like this, makes complete sense. 
 
 A sentence consisting of a single statement, one subject 
 and one predicate, is simple; one consisting of at least 
 two independent statements is compound; one consist- 
 ing of at least one dependent and one independent state- 
 ment is complex. All sentences are of one of these 
 three kinds, and many are both compound and complex. 
 3' This classification conforms to the relations of our 
 ideas. An idea may stand by itself in thought, and 
 therefore require expression in a simple sentence, as 
 the first in this paragraph. Or two or three inde- 
 pendent ideas may be closely related in thought, yet 
 no one of them subordinate to another; then they have 
 their proper expression in a compound sentence, like 
 the last two in the preceding paragraph. When, how- 
 ever, an idea is dependent on another, it requires ex- 
 pression as a subordinate clause of a complex sentence, 
 like the present one. The task of subordinating and 
 connecting our ideas so that they can be expressed in 
 complex and compound sentences is a fundamental 
 
DifFerent Forms 173 
 
 part of both correct thinking and correct writing. It 
 involves the recognition of some ideas as independent 
 and others as subordinate to them, and the discovery 
 of the exact relation of one to the other ; as, for exam- 
 ple, the relation expressed by a modifying clause of 
 time, cause, or purpose. In this task of organizing 
 thought into sentences, v^e shall in succeeding chapters 
 follow the guidance of the principles of composition. 
 We shall see that about the main idea stated in the 
 principal clause there may be grouped a number of 
 phrases and clauses closely connected with it, all the 
 various members uniting to give this idea complete 
 expression, and all bound together in an organic 
 whole. Here we may note that the classification of 
 sentences into simple, compound, and complex, calls 
 attention to the necessity of structure, and also to the 
 opportunity for variety in the sentences of a para- 
 graph. The different parts of a sentence must be 
 related to one another as the ideas are related in 
 thought, but these relations may be expressed with 
 infinite variety. 
 
 4» The parts of a sentence are related grammatically 
 as well as logically. Grammar, indeed, is the enumer- 
 ation of the decisions of good use in regard to the 
 composition of sentences. In a later chapter we shall 
 examine some of the most common " Solecisms," or 
 mistakes in grammar, but everything that the student 
 has learned in grammar is applicable to his sentences. 
 We have already noticed a most important gramma- 
 tical rule, that a sentence must have a subject and a 
 
174 Sentences 
 
 predicate. The subject, we learn from grammar, may 
 be a noun, the infinitive of a verb, or a clause, and may 
 be qualified by adjectives, a noun in apposition, or a 
 relative clause. The predicate must contain a verb, 
 with or without various complements and modifiers. 
 Phrases and clauses may have adjectival functions, 
 modifying nouns; or adverbial functions, modifying 
 verbs. By these and many other rules, grammar 
 prescribes the forms that our ideas shall take and 
 the connections that may exist between them in a 
 sentence. It also prescribes to a considerable extent 
 their order. It is usual for an adjective to precede its 
 noun, a relative clause to follow its antecedent, and 
 the subject to precede its verb. Sometimes, in a sen- 
 tence, — as, " The boy shot the bird," — only one ar- 
 rangement of words is possible. In the composition of 
 sentences, therefore, both in the use of the different 
 parts of speech and their combination into phrases and 
 clauses, and in the structure and connection of all the 
 parts, and to a large extent in the arrangement of 
 words, we must conform to good use as expressed in 
 grammar. 
 
 5. The composition of any sentence depends also on 
 the sentences that precede and follow it. We have seen 
 in composing paragraphs how necessary it is to have 
 each sentence closely connected with its neighbors, to 
 have one begin where the other left off. Frequently 
 we should place in the first part of a sentence some 
 words referring to the preceding sentence ; in deciding 
 what part of a sentence to place at the end, we need 
 
DifFerent Forms 175 
 
 to consider what is to come in the next sentence. The 
 order of words in a given sentence depends not only on 
 grammar, but also on the progress of thought in the 
 paragraph. 
 
 6. Sentences, again, may be said to be either short 
 or long. The average length of English sentences has 
 been calculated to be thirty words. Sentences with 
 less may be considered short; with more, long. Each 
 kind is useful. The first sentence in the quotation 
 from Burke, on page 53, is short : " The proposition 
 is peace." The last sentence of the quotation is long: 
 " I propose, by removing the ground of difference, and 
 by restoring the former unsuspecting confidence of the 
 colonies in the mother country, to give permanent sat- 
 isfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of 
 ruling by discord) to reconcile them to each other 
 in the same act and by the bond of the very same in- 
 terest which reconciles them to the British govern- 
 ment.'* Both are excellent sentences. A composition, 
 however, consisting entirely of sentences as short as 
 the first would give a choppy, jerky effect, very irritat- 
 ing to the reader; while a succession of sentences as 
 long as the last would be difficult for a reader, who 
 would be obliged to make a constant effort to retain 
 the matter in his mind from one period to the next. 
 A paragraph composed of sentences of the same length 
 — short, long, or medium — is always monotonous, and 
 to be avoided. Variety in sentence length must often 
 be sought quite consciously. A series of short sen- 
 tences may lead to a long one, as in the paragraph from 
 
176 Sentences 
 
 Burke, or two long sentences may be separated by 
 a short one, as in the second paragraph from Addison, 
 on page 11. Long and short sentences may both be 
 used ; both together are better than either separately. 
 
 7. In any particular instance, the choice between long 
 and short sentences must be determined in part by the 
 idea to be expressed, and in part by the effect sought. 
 Short sentences can express ideas tersely and emphat- 
 ically, so they are useful at the beginning of a para- 
 graph to introduce a subject, or at the end to sum up 
 a discussion. A composition should usually begin with 
 a short sentence. Long sentences enable a writer to 
 state a Ayhole thought with all its necessary modifica- 
 tions and subordinate details, and they are necessary for 
 the expression of anything beyond the most simple and 
 fragmentary thought. A long sentence, for example, 
 may serve in a paragraph for the complete explana- 
 tion of a thought, outlined in a preceding short sen- 
 tence, or for the enumeration of many brief details, or 
 for the comparison of different ideas. Short sentences 
 give a style the very desirable qualities of simplicity, 
 rapidity, directness. Long sentences are capable of 
 great varieties of structure and all the graces of dig- 
 nity and rhythm. Burke's first sentence presents the 
 thought with vigor and directness suitable to the open- 
 ing sentences of a paragraph ; his last sentence amplifies 
 and completes the same thought with impressive dig- 
 nity. 
 
 8. Long sentences are more difficult to write than 
 short. They offer more chances for grammatical mis- 
 
DiiFerent Forms 177 
 
 takes and for violations of the principles of compo- 
 sition. Beginners must, therefore, learn to write good 
 short sentences before they can hope to write good 
 long ones. For this reason they are sometimes en- 
 couraged to write only short sentences. Yet long sen- 
 tences are indispensable to an effective style, and to 
 avoid them is merely to shirk an elementary and neces- 
 sary task of composition. The student can hardly be- 
 gin too early the practice of writing sentences of some- 
 what more than the average length. Since he wishes 
 to express his ideas concisely and vigorously, he should 
 learn to write short sentences; since he wishes to ex- 
 press his thoughts comprehensively and connectedly, 
 he should not be afraid to try long sentences. 
 9' All sentences, again, are either loose or periodic. A 
 periodic sentence is one in which the sense is incom- 
 plete until the end. All others are loose. In a periodic 
 sentence, a. period cannot be placed anywhere before 
 the end ; in a loose sentence, a period might be placed 
 before the end, and yet the sense be complete. " Soon 
 after daylight. Nelson came upon deck." — is a periodic 
 sentence. " Nelson came upon deck soon after day- 
 light." — is a loose sentence. A loose sentence may, 
 however, be periodic to a considerable degree, as in 
 the following from Macaulay. 
 
 The perfect historian is he in whose work the character 
 and spirit of an age is exhibited. in miniature. 
 
 The sentence is loose, for the sense might be completed 
 and a period placed after " exhibited," but the sentence 
 
1 78 Sentences 
 
 is periodic to that point. So the following sentence 
 from Newman is periodic as far as ** hut " ; after that, 
 sense is complete at several places. 
 
 In the bosom of the woods which stretched for many 
 miles from the immediate environs of Sicca, and placed 
 on a gravel slope reaching down to a brook, which ran 
 in a bottom close by, was a small, rude hut^ of a kind pe- 
 culiar to Africa, and commonly ascribed to the wandering 
 tribes, who neither cared, nor had leisure, for a more 
 stable habitation. 
 
 10. The question of using loose or periodic sentences 
 really becomes a question of how much periodicity to 
 admit into sentences. When and to what extent should 
 the sense be suspended? Evidently a periodic sen- 
 tence has an advantage in holding the reader's atten- 
 tion to the end. A loose sentence offers one or more 
 places where sense is complete and hence gives an op- 
 portunity for the attention to wander. Long periodic 
 sentences are likely to be artificial and somewhat pom- 
 pous. Long loose sentences are likely to be vague, 
 disconnected, and rhetorically unprincipled, yet loose 
 sentences are natural to our language, and form the 
 bulk of our discourse. It requires no effort to make 
 a sentence loose; it often requires considerable pains 
 to make a sentence periodic. Before it is begun, the 
 writer must see where it will end. Practice in writing 
 periodic sentences is, therefore, helpful to skill in sen- 
 tence structure, and an appreciable degree of periodic- 
 ity is necessary for Emphasis. In practice, then, write 
 a good many periodic sentences. Test sentences to see 
 
Different Forms 179 
 
 if their force cannot be increased by suspending their 
 sense for a longer space. 
 
 11. Another classification of sentences — declarative, 
 imperative, interrogative, and exclamative — need not 
 detain us long. Most written sentences are declarative. 
 An imperative sentence is needed only when there is a 
 command ; and an exclamative sentence should be used 
 only when there is something worth exclaiming about. 
 Interrogative sentences are required more frequently, 
 and are used not only to ask questions but also to give 
 emphasis and a variety of expression to the thought. 
 Thus, in the selection from Hawthorne in Chapter i, 
 Exercise 3, one sentence is interrogative, though there 
 is no genuine question to ask. 
 
 What is more melancholy than the old apple trees that 
 linger about the spot where once stood a homestead, but 
 where there is now only a ruined chimney rising out of 
 the grassy and weed-grown cellar? 
 
 12. In choosing between the various kinds of sen- 
 tences, the student needs to consider the demands of 
 his subject and reader, and to remember that the struc- 
 ture of every sentence should express the relations of 
 its ideas, and at the same time be suited to its place 
 in the paragraph. There is probably more danger that 
 his sentences will be too simple, too short, and too 
 loose, than that they will be too complex, too long, 
 and too periodic ; but he should seek to understand the 
 value of each form and learn to use them all. But all 
 this care will be of no avail unless his sentences are 
 grammatically correct. 
 
i8o Sentences 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 While studying the composition of sentences, the 
 class should write short themes regularly. These 
 should not be over a paragraph or two in length, in 
 order that attention may be centered on the sentences. 
 I. Break up the following long sentences into short 
 ones; making omissions or adding connectives as may 
 be necessary. 
 
 I. It happened one day about noon, going towards my 
 boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a 
 man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to 
 be seen in the sand : I stood like one thunderstruck, or as 
 if I had seen an apparition ; I listened, I looked round me, 
 I could hear nothing, nor see any thing; I went up to a 
 rising ground to look farther; I went up the shore and 
 down the shore, but it was all one, I could see no other 
 impression but that one, I went to it again to see if there 
 were any more, and to observe if it might not be my 
 fancy ; but there was no room for that, for there was ex- 
 actly the very print of a foot, toes, heel, and every part of 
 a foot ; how it came thither, I knew not, nor could in the 
 least imagine. 2. But after innumerable fluttering 
 thoughts, like a man perfectly confused and out of myself, 
 I came home to my fortification, not feeling, as we say, 
 the ground I went on, but terrified to the last degree, 
 looking behind me at every two or three steps, mistaking 
 every bush and tree, and fancying every stump at a dis- 
 tance to be a man ; nor is it possible to describe how many 
 various shapes affrighted imagination represented things 
 to me in ; how many wild ideas were found every moment 
 
Different Forms i8i 
 
 in my fancy, and what strange, unaccountable whimsies 
 came into my thoughts by the way. 
 
 Daniel Defoe: Robinson Crusoe. 1719. 
 
 3. Amongst other discourse, and deploring the sad 
 condition of our Navy, as now governed by unexperi- 
 enced men since this Revolution, he mentioned what ex- 
 ceeding advantage we of this nation had by being the 
 first who built frigates, the first of which ever built was 
 that vessel which was afterwards called The Constant 
 Warwick, and was the work of Pett of Chatham, for a 
 trial of making a vessel that would sail swiftly; it was 
 built with low decks, the guns lying near the water, and 
 was so light and swift of sailing, that in a short time he 
 told us she had, ere the Dutch war was ended, taken as 
 much money from privateers as would have laden her ; 
 and that more such being built did in a year or two scour 
 the Channel from those of Dunkirk and others which had 
 exceedingly infested it. 
 
 4. He added that it would be the best and only infal- 
 lible expedient to be masters of the sea, and able to de- 
 stroy the greatest navy of any enemy, if instead of build- 
 ing huge great ships and second and third rates, they 
 would leave off building such high decks, which were for 
 nothing but to gratify gentlemen commanders, who must 
 have all their effeminate accommodations, and for pomp ; 
 that it would be the ruin of our fleets if such persons were 
 continued in command, they neither having experience 
 nor being capable of learning, because they would not 
 submit to the fatigue and inconvenience which those 
 who were bred seamen would undergo, in those so other- 
 wise useful swift frigates. 
 
 John Evelyn : The Diary, 1690. 
 
 2. Reconstruct each of the following paragraphs, 
 combining the short sentences into several longer ones. 
 Omit or add connectives as may be necessary. 
 
1 8 2 Sentences 
 
 Evidently that gate is never opened. The long grass 
 and the great hemlocks grow close against it. If it were 
 opened it is so rusty that great force would be required 
 to turn it on its hinges. This would be likely to pull down 
 the square stone-built pillars. And it would work to the 
 detriment of the two stone lionesses which grin with a 
 carnivorous affability. Beneath them is a coat of arms 
 surmounting the pillars. It would be easy enough, by 
 the aid of the nicks in the stone pillars, to climb over the 
 brick wall with its smooth stone coping. But by putting 
 one eye close to the rusty bars of the gate, we can see the 
 house well enough, and all but the very corners of the 
 grassy enclosure. 
 
 So I led the way into the kitchen garden. It was in the 
 first promise of a summer profuse in vegetables and 
 fruits. Perhaps it was not so much cared for as other 
 parts of the property. But it was more attended to than 
 most kitchen gardens belonging to farm-houses. There 
 were borders of flowers along each side of the gravel 
 walks. There was an old sheltering wall on the north 
 side covered with tolerably choice fruit-trees. There was 
 a slope down to the fish pond at the end, where there 
 were great strawberry beds. Raspberry bushes and rose 
 bushes grew wherever there was a space. It seemed a 
 chance which had been planted. Long rows of peas 
 stretched at right angles from the main walk. I saw 
 Phillis stooping down among them before she saw us. 
 As soon as she heard our cranching steps on the gravel, 
 she stood up. Shading her eyes from the sun, she recog- 
 nized us. She was quite still for a moment. Then she 
 came slowly towards us, blushing a little from evident 
 shyness. I had never seen Phillis shy before. 
 
 3» Reconstruct the following loose sentences, making 
 them more periodic. 
 
 I. There are ten or twelve shafts, but seldom are all run at the 
 same time, either on account of lack of grain, or, more often, be- 
 cause there is not enough water in the creek. 
 
Different Forms 183 
 
 2. Bags of flour stand on all sides in the mill-room. 
 
 3. A wide platform runs along the front side, on which, at all 
 times, are seen the bags of grain brought to be ground into flour. 
 
 4. The long-expected day arrived at last after weeks of wait- 
 ing. 
 
 5. Some people make a living by caring for household pets, 
 a majority of them women. 
 
 6. Her studio was a delightful spot; it hardly seemed to be- 
 long to the actual world but was rather the outward type of a 
 poet's imagination. 
 
 7. The result of the battle of Delium was far more important 
 than the fate of the comedy of " The Knights " to an Athenian, in 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 8. Even Fox had paid to the illustrious tribunal the compli- 
 ment of wearing a bag and sword, though generally so regardless 
 of his appearance — this the collectors of gossip did not fail to 
 remark. 
 
 9. There appeared the high-souled Windham, the ingenious, 
 the chivalrous, the finest gentleman of the age, his form devel- 
 oped by every manly exercise, his face beaming with intelligence 
 and spirit, his eyes reverentially fixed on Burke. 
 
 4. Amplify the following simple sentences by the ad- 
 dition of modifying phrases and clauses. 
 
 1. The opening sentence of a paragraph should usu- 
 ally be short. 
 
 2. Long sentences may express intricate thought. 
 
 3. A balanced sentence is often emphatic. 
 
 4. You should avoid exclamatory sentences. 
 
 5. Good style with bad sentences is impossible. 
 
 6. The commonest objects are vividly described by 
 Dickens. 
 
 7. Dickens preaches brotherly kindness for the poor. 
 
 8. " Nicholas Nickleby " established Dickens' power 
 as a master of dialogue. 
 
 9. At last the referee blew his whistle. 
 ID. We left the village. 
 
1 84 
 
 Sentences 
 
 5. Examine the sentences in the last three paragraphs 
 of this chapter. How many are periodic? How many 
 are very loose? 
 
 6. Analyze the sentences in a paragraph in one of 
 Macaulay's Essays. Specify whether each is simple, 
 complex, long, short, loose, periodic, balanced. How 
 does he vary the kinds ? What is the effect of the short 
 sentences ? of the long ? What other facts do you no- 
 tice about his sentences? Analyze paragraphs from 
 Hawthorne and Goldsmith in the same way. The fol- 
 lowing analysis of a paragraph from Lockhart's " Life 
 of Scott " will serve as an example. 
 
 I. Such a son and parent could hardly fail in any of 
 the other social relations. 2. No man was a firmer or 
 more indefatigable friend. 3. I know not he ever lost 
 one; and a few with whom, during the energetic middle 
 stage of life, from political differences or other accidental 
 circumstances, he lived less familiarly, had all gathered 
 round him, and renewed the full warmth of early affec- 
 tion in his later days. 4. There was enough to dignify 
 the connection in their eyes; but nothing to chill it on 
 either side. 5. The imagination that so completely mas- 
 tered him when he chose to give her the rein, was kept 
 under most determined control when any of the positive 
 obligations of active life came into question. 6. A high 
 and pure sense of duty presided over whatever he had to 
 do as a citizen and magistrate ; and as a landlord, he con- 
 sidered his estate as an extension of his hearth. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 1. Short, simple, periodic, states paragraph-topic, — Scott's 
 social relations. 
 
 2. Short, simple, periodic. 
 
Different Forms 185 
 
 3. Long, compound and complex, loose, amplifying the thought 
 of 2. 
 
 4. Short, compound, loose, balanced. . 
 
 5. Long, complex, periodic, parallel clauses introduced by 
 " when." 
 
 6. Long, compound, first part periodic to " citizen," second 
 part periodic throughout. 
 
 Sentences varied in length and structure; in general, periodic. 
 
 7. In the themes assigned to you for criticism — (i) 
 What sentences are too long? How would you divide 
 them? (2) What sentences are too short? How 
 would you combine them with others? (3) What sen- 
 tences are too loose ? How would you make them more 
 periodic? (4) What other alterations would you 
 make? 
 
 II 
 
 8. In the themes assigned to you for criticism, con- 
 sider the following questions in addition to those 
 asked in Exercise 7. ( i ) What sentences seem to you 
 to have Unity? (2) What seem to lack Unity ? Sug- 
 gest improvements. (3) What conclusions do you 
 draw in regard to Unity in sentences? 
 
 9. In what ways is Unity violated in the following 
 sentences? Suggest alterations. 
 
 I. One day Judge Pyncheon came over and insisted on seeing 
 Clifford; while Hepzibah was hunting for him, CHfford saw the 
 Judge; soon he came out, and told her to put her things on, he 
 had his on, and together they went to the railway station, boarded 
 a train, and took a short journey; but all the time Clifford talked 
 of a man in an arm chair with a blood-stain on his bosom. 
 
1 86 Sentences 
 
 2. The color of the house was a reddish brown, dingy with 
 years. A low veranda ran across the front. It was an afternoon 
 late in October. The air was warm and damp. The sky was 
 smothered up in gray, opaque clouds. 
 
 3. During three months spent at a Wisconsin farm, on the 
 almost daily drives through the country, my interest was aroused 
 by an old mill in a village consisting of about a dozen houses, a 
 few bams, and a store, which was perhaps the most important 
 feature to most persons. 
 
 4. It took a very few minutes to reach the woods. A path led 
 into it. We walked down there. Immense trees stood on every 
 side, and the underbrush was thick. 
 
 5. Johnson's works have lived and will live on account of his 
 charming personality, although music had no effect on him, being 
 unable to distinguish tunes, and when a dear friend of his married 
 an Italian musician, he could never forgive her. 
 
 6. Soon the chapel bell brought the happy chatter to a hush, 
 and the students gathered to their familiar service, after which 
 they broke up into little groups and gradually left the college 
 halls ; and the opening day at college was over. 
 
 % 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 UNITY IN SENTENCES 
 
 1. The principles of composition aid in giving sen- 
 tences real structure. They should be built firmly 
 together like so many houses, not thrown together like 
 so many piles of stones. To be a structure, a sentence 
 must have Unity. It must not be a fragment, or an 
 aimless collection of phrases, or a combination of ir- 
 relevant parts. It must combine all its parts into an 
 organic whole. 
 
 2. Each sentence should be able to stand by itself — 
 the expression of a complete unit of thought. It may 
 contain only one idea, expressed tersely. It may contain 
 a dozen ideas, but these must be so closely related to 
 one another that they are parts of a whole. In each 
 of the two following compound sentences several ideas 
 are expressed, but each sentence has Unity, for in the 
 first the two independent clauses unite to tell what 
 Wallingford did, and in the second the three clauses 
 unite to tell what Dickson did. 
 
 Wallingford leaped toward his friend with a cry of joy ; 
 they were in each other's arms like a pair of Frenchmen. 
 As for Dickson, he sank to the floor like a melted candle ; 
 his legs would not hold him up; he gathered strength 
 enough to crawl toward Wallingford and clutch him by 
 the knees. 
 
 187 
 
1 88 Sentences 
 
 Subordinate ideas may be added, qualifying and am- 
 plifying the main idea, but they should be so arranged 
 that they do not obscure the prominence of the main 
 idea. The following series of sentences shows how 
 subordinate ideas may be added to a sentence without 
 destroying Unity. 
 
 1. A sentence should have Unity. 
 
 2. A sentence, like a long composition or a paragraph, 
 should have unity. 
 
 3. A sentence, like a long composition or a paragraph, 
 should, both in thought and expression, have Unity. 
 
 4. No matter how many phrases and clauses it may 
 contain, a sentence, like a long composition or a para- 
 graph, should, both in thought and expression, in ideas 
 and in structure, possess that fundamental requisite of 
 all forms of art. Unity. 
 
 In these sentences the modifying details are placed be- 
 tween the subject and the predicate, thus making the 
 sentences periodic. Periodic sentences are more likely 
 to have Unity than loose, and short sentences than 
 long ; but a long loose sentence may have Unity as well 
 as another. 
 
 3« Unity helps the reader. He sees a paragraph 
 divided into sentences, separated from one another by 
 spaces and indicated by capitals and periods. He takes 
 in the thought of a sentence as a unit and almost at 
 a glance. It is important, therefore, for the writer 
 to separate his ideas, discover those that are most 
 closely related, subordinate some to others, connect 
 some, and thus rearrange his ideas into units of 
 thought. Each unit of thought, thus redetermined, 
 
Unity 189 
 
 may well be presented to the reader as a single sentence. 
 4» In order to trace this process of organizing thought 
 into sentences, let us turn to a group of four sentences 
 in the selection from Hawthorne in Chapter i, Exer- 
 cise 3. The ideas in these sentences might be separated 
 in this fashion: 
 
 1. It is pleasant to think of him. (The old minister.) 
 
 2. He walks among the trees. 
 
 3. The afternoon is quiet. 
 
 4. It is early autumn. 
 
 5. He picks up here and there an apple. 
 
 6. He observes the branches. 
 
 7. They are heavily laden. 
 
 8. He computes the number of empty flour barrels 
 that will be filled with their burden. 
 
 9. He loves each tree as if it had been his own child. 
 ID. An orchard has a relation to mankind. 
 
 11. It readily connects itself with matters of the heart. 
 
 12. The trees possess a domestic character. 
 
 13. They have lost the wild nature of their forest- 
 kindred. 
 
 14. They have grown humanized by receiving the 
 care of man. 
 
 15. They have also grown humanized by contributing 
 to man's wants. 
 
 5. Here are fifteen ideas in fifteen sentences. No 
 sentence contains any irrelevant matter, each expresses 
 one idea. Yet many of these sentences are so closely 
 connected in thought that to separate them is to destroy 
 rather than to promote Unity, and to make the thought 
 seem disconnected and childish. The first eight deal 
 with the picture of the old minister in the orchard; 
 and of these, the last seven may properly be connected 
 
190 Sentences 
 
 with the first as modifiers of " him " (the old minis- 
 ter). Then by means of a right subordination of parts 
 we shall have a complete idea expressed. Now, what 
 are the most important ideas of the seven subordi- 
 nated? — evidently those most directly connected with 
 the " him " of the main clause, the second, fifth, sixth, 
 and eighth. So the second and fifth become participial 
 phrases modifying " him "; and the sixth and eighth, 
 clauses introduced by " while," modifying the parti- 
 ciples. Five of our original sentences are now parts 
 of one sentence ; the other three may be connected with 
 them. The third and fourth become phrases modifying 
 the participle, "walking," of the second; and the 
 seventh is combined with the object of the verb, " ob- 
 serves," in the sixth. The following arrangement of 
 the result will indicate clearly the structure of the 
 sentence. 
 
 (i) It is pleasant to think of him 
 (2) walking among the trees 
 
 (3) in the quiet afternoons 
 
 (4) of early autumn 
 
 (5) and picking up here and there an early windfall, 
 (6) while he observes 
 
 (7) how heavily the branches are weighed 
 down, 
 (8) and computes the number of empty flour 
 barrels that will be filled with their burden. 
 
 6. The first eight sentences are thus combined into 
 one long loose sentence, which has Unity because eight 
 ideas are reorganized into one. The next sentence (9) 
 expresses an idea so strongly and completely that it may 
 
Unity 
 
 191 
 
 well stand by itself without further modifying. More- 
 over, it marks a thought distinct from what precedes — 
 it tells how the minister felt toward his trees. 
 
 (9) He loved each tree, doubtless, as if it had been his 
 own child. 
 
 The next two ideas are closely connected, dealing with 
 the same thought, and Hawthorne unites them with 
 an " and." 
 
 (10) An orchard has a relation to mankind, 
 
 (11) and readily connects itself with matters of the 
 heart. 
 
 The twelfth sentence introduces a new idea, and this 
 is repeated, explained, and amplified in the thirteenth, 
 fourteenth, and fifteenth. The last two (14, 15) are 
 so closely connected in thought that they can be com- 
 bined in one clause; and all four really form but one 
 complete idea. They are consequently united in a sin- 
 gle sentence. 
 
 (12) The trees possess a domestic character; 
 
 (13) they have lost the wild nature of their forest- 
 kindred, 
 
 (14) and have grown humanized by receiving the 
 care of man 
 
 (15) as well as by contributing to his wants. 
 
 7. The fifteen ideas with which we started have been 
 organized into four units of thought and expressed 
 in four sentences. Each sentence has a definite struc- 
 ture, and is an organic whole. 
 
192 Sentences 
 
 8. Whenever, after this fashion, the student tries to 
 organize his thought into sentences in accord with the 
 principle of Unity, he will find that by connecting 
 closely related ideas he increases the Coherence of his 
 theme, and by subordinating the less important he im- 
 proves the Emphasis. As soon as the sentences become 
 well constructed wholes, the structure of the paragraph 
 is improved, and the expression of the thought gains 
 greatly in clearness and force. A comparison of the 
 four sentences from Hawthorne with the fifteen of 
 our analysis shows also that, while both groups have 
 the same ideas and the same words, those from Haw- 
 thorne give us greater pleasure; they have more of the 
 quality of ease, charm, beauty. If a style is to at- 
 tract and delight us as well as to inform and interest 
 us, the sentences must have Unity. 
 
 9. So much for the manner in which Unity may be 
 preserved in various kinds of sentences, simple, com- 
 pound, or complex, long or short, loose or periodic ; we 
 may now note some ways in which Unity is most fre- 
 quently violated. There are two classes of violations 
 for which the student will need to keep a sharp look-out 
 in revising his sentences. 
 
 10. First, sentences that contain only a fragment of 
 an idea violate Unity. Such sentences, like the first 
 eight in the list o.f fifteen on page 189, may con- 
 tain relevant ideas, but they do not contain whole 
 ideas. Often, as in those eight, a series of state- 
 ments closely connected in thought should be grouped 
 together in a single sentence. No one of the state- 
 
Unity 
 
 193 
 
 merits is important enough or complete enough to 
 occupy a full period. Such fragments are often 
 introduced by " and " or " but," as in the following 
 examples. 
 
 About five minutes later, the rest of us started. But, 
 not finding the right track at once, we lost time in search- 
 ing for it. 
 
 We went over hills and through ravines. And every- 
 where there were flowers. 
 
 " And " and " but " are properly used to connect coor- 
 dinate clauses, closely connected in thought; but it is 
 always a question to be tested by Unity whether two 
 clauses should be separated into two sentences, or 
 should be united as main and subordinate clause, or as 
 two coordinate clauses. Rarely should a sentence 
 be introduced by one of these coordinating conjunc- 
 tions. Still more fragmentary are those which are 
 really not sentences at all but stray phrases or clauses. 
 In testing sentences, then, one should make sure that 
 there are no phrases or clauses masquerading as sen- 
 tences, and no sentences that might better be joined 
 together. 
 
 II. Second, long loose sentences offer many chances 
 for running off the subject. Beginners are likely to 
 string one idea after another, throwing in a few con- 
 nectives, " and," " but," and " as," and losing all no- 
 tion of constructing a sentence to express a unit of 
 thought. The lack of Unity is apparent in the follow- 
 ing examples, the first two from a newspaper, the other 
 two from students' themes. 
 13 
 
194 Sentences 
 
 At any rate it was on the sea-border, for the tall brick 
 house, in which the simple plot of the story unwinds, has 
 a garden, and beyond the garden the sea, and the inmates 
 are *' the Blyth girls," Phebe and Vesta, ancient maidens, 
 who live there alone, except for their servant-maid, " Di- 
 ploma Crotty, help, tyrant, governor-in-chief of the 
 kitchen," until they take in the fascinating young Dr. 
 Strong, who has come to take up the practice of the old 
 retiring physician. Dr. Stedman. 
 
 He is a true woman's hero, — and marches, or sails, into 
 the good graces of all the women and most of the men in 
 the story, — the latter being only numerous enough to 
 carry along the male parts, and, indeed, the customary life 
 of quiet New England villages is mostly carried on by 
 women, as may be seen by the tales of Miss Jewett and 
 Miss Wilkins, with the aid of a doctor, a deacon, a par- 
 son and a few minor personages, such as Ithuriel Butters 
 in the present case. 
 
 Gabriel and his father (Basil the blacksmith) were 
 taken on a separate boat then after Evangeline was taken 
 captive with the priest and after they got to land Evan- 
 geline and the priest wandered around the country look- 
 ing for her lover until one day they found where her 
 lover lived and he was not at home so the next morning 
 after they had met his father they went to look for her 
 lover and she found him in a hospital dying. 
 
 They were to be married when English officers came 
 over and ordered the people out of the place, they were 
 sent away on ships to another country and Evangeline and 
 Gabriel were separated, they were both sent to this coun- 
 try but were on different ships and could not find each 
 other when they arrived. 
 
 In each of these sentences the writer, v^hen he started, 
 had no idea where he was coming out. A number of 
 slightly connected ideas are jumbled in a hodge-podge. 
 In revision, a long involved sentence or one containing 
 
Unity 
 
 195 
 
 unrelated parts should be separated into several; and, 
 if necessary, the form of these should be recast. 
 12. The principle of Unity, we have seen, requires that 
 a sentence be an organic whole. Our ideas are to be so 
 organized that those closely related will be combined 
 into a well-built structure, expressing completely one 
 idea, while ideas that have importance and distinction 
 enough will stand alone. The reader, in taking in a 
 sentence at a glance, should receive a real, complete 
 unit of thought. Fragmentary, incomplete ideas must 
 not stand alone as sentences; on the other hand, in- 
 congruous, irrelevant, or slightly related ideas must 
 not be joined together in one sentence. If a writer 
 knows well what he wants to say, there will be no dif- 
 ficulty in making his sentences all units of thought, 
 and at the same time giving them great variety of 
 structure. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Correct the following sentences so that they will 
 conform to the principle of Unity. 
 
 1. And they sent Gabriel away, and he was not heard of for 
 many years; and after Evangeline's father had died Evangeline 
 and the priest wandered around until they found Gabriel in a 
 hospital dying with the fever, and when Evangeline died they 
 buried her beside her lover. 
 
 2. A shrill buoyant whistle aroused him, and he started up 
 only to sink back on the log when he heard voices, for he kept out 
 
196 
 
 Sentences 
 
 of the way of all the men except Joe Clark, who had shown him- 
 self a true friend ever since the day that Harold tried to ride a 
 half -broken broncho to show the men that he was not a baby, and 
 he had stuck on well, but finally a sideward plunge and a back- 
 ward jerk had left Harold a heap on the ground, 
 
 3. In front of the dining room is the library. All the rooms 
 have fireplaces, but the one in the library is the largest. Here 
 the long winter evenings are spent. Some of the books are old 
 and yellow with age. The walls of this room are hung with 
 many old relics. One could spend hours looking at them. 
 
 4. There was a little valley here. A brook flowed through the 
 middle. Part of this valley was cultivated. 
 
 5. Gilbert loved Rebecca and he went to visit her, but Rebecca 
 would rather throw herself out of the window than to be in his 
 power, and this makes him admire her all the more. 
 
 2. Each of the following groups of sentences is to be 
 reorganized into sentences in conformity with the prin- 
 ciple of Unity. 
 
 I. I. A gate at the right of the barn-yard opens on the road. 2. 
 This extends in an irregular course. 3. It narrows to a path of 
 gold. 4. At last it loses itself in the woods. 5. A zig-zag rail 
 fence extends along either side. 6. On both sides of the road 
 are strips of vegetation. 7. Rank weeds mingle with blooming 
 golden-rod and Spanish needle. 8. The fence corners are filled 
 with blackberry briars. 9. Far up the road are children. 10. 
 They move about gathering the ripe berries. 11. Their tin pails 
 reflect the sun with a dazzling glare. 12. On the right of the 
 road is a hill. 13. On this, just before the wood is reached, is a 
 little white church. 14. Back of it is the graveyard with its white 
 stones. 15. Some of these are mouldy. 16. Some lean to the 
 earth. 
 
 II. I. Mile after mile, knot after knot is covered. 2. The 
 regularity is monotonous. 3. Still the relative positions of the 
 racers are unchanged. 4. Now one can see the smoking chimneys 
 of Milwaukee. 5. The great elevators, the tall buildings loom up 
 in the distance. 6. The laborer's corn-cob pipe goes out. 7. The 
 
Unity 
 
 197 
 
 wealthy gentleman leaves his stateroom. 8. All crowd to the 
 rail. 9. The tug, sent out to tow in the Christopher Columbus, 
 is left far in her wake. 10. Both boats steer for the harbor en- 
 trance. II. The dwarf has the advantage in distance. 12. But 
 the engines of the giant respond to the occasion. 13. She pushes 
 her nose in among the long rows of wharves. 14. Her whistle 
 bellows forth a hoarse shout of triumph. 15. The siren of the 
 yacht answers shrilly. 16. This is in token of submission and 
 congratulation. 17. The race is over. 
 
 III. I. Colonel Waters was a quick daring man. 2. He dis- 
 covered a poor barber. 3. The barber had come over the river 
 with a small skiff the previous night. 4. These two were joined 
 by the Prior of Aramante. 5. He had gallantly offered his ser- 
 vices. 6. They crossed the water unperceived. 7. In half an 
 hour they returned with three large barges. 8. Meanwhile 
 eighteen guns were placed in battery on the convent height. 9. 
 And General John Murray was sent three miles up the stream to 
 the Barca de Avintas. 10. The 14th dragoons and two guns were 
 with him. 11. He had orders to seek for boats and pass there if 
 possible. 12. When Waters came back with the barges, some 
 English troops followed Murray in support. 13. Others ap- 
 proached the river close under the Serra rock. 14. It was then 
 ten o'clock. 15. The French were tranquil and unsuspicious. 
 16. The English were wondering and expectant. 17. And Sir 
 Arthur was told that one boat had already reached the point of 
 passage. 18. *' Well, let the men cross," was the reply. 
 
 IV. I. From the outset the government of the township was 
 vested in the Town-meeting. 2. This institution in its present 
 form is said to be peculiar to New England. 3. But, as we 
 shall see, it has close analogies with local self-governing bodies 
 in other ages and countries. 4. Once in each year a meeting is 
 held. 5. This is usually in the month of March. 6. Every adult 
 male residing within the limits of the township is expected to be 
 present. 7. And he is at liberty to address the meeting. 8. He 
 may vote on any question that may come up. 
 
 3. In the following theme almost every sentence con- 
 sists of two clauses connected by " and " or " but." 
 
198 
 
 Sentences 
 
 Rewrite, reorganizing the sentences, and subordinating 
 
 parts as may be demanded by the principle of Unity. 
 
 There are many objections to the work in the gymnasium, and 
 it is undoubtedly often inconvenient and tedious. The benefits, 
 however, are many and seem to outweigh the objections. If left 
 to their own devices, few of the students would take sufficient ex- 
 ercise, but in the gjonnasium they get systematic exercise every 
 other day. This improves their circulation, and a better circula- 
 tion keeps them from catching cold easily. The exercise also 
 keeps their muscles strong and pliable, and trains their bodies to 
 obey the dictates of the mind. The work is compulsory, and this 
 is an objection to it in the minds of many students. If it were 
 not compulsory, however, they would not get exercise regularly 
 and systematically, and the benefits of which I have spoken would 
 be lost. We need regular drill for our bodies as well as for our 
 minds. 
 
 4. Examine the selections quoted in the text of 
 Chapter 6. Does each sentence conform to the prin- 
 ciple of Unity ? How is Unity secured ? Three points 
 should be especially considered: (i) If the sentence is 
 long, does every part have an organic relation to the 
 main idea? (2) If the sentence is short, does it ex- 
 press an idea with completeness? (3) If the sentence 
 is compound, should any of the coordinate parts be 
 made subordinate ? 
 
 5- In the themes assigned to you for criticism, answer 
 the three questions given in Exercise 4 for each sen- 
 tence. Propose changes when the sentences seem 
 faulty. 
 
 II 
 
 6. In the following sentences do you see any mistakes 
 in grammar or in the order of words and phrases that 
 
Unity 199 
 
 interfere with the Coherence of the sentences? Re- 
 write the sentences, making the necessary corrections. 
 
 1. The next morning Clifford, Miss Hepzibah's brother, came 
 home after being in prison, before Phoebe got up. 
 
 2. The old walnut desk stands on a platform, elevated several 
 feet above the floor, somewhat like a throne — such a lonesome 
 place for the teacher to occupy. 
 
 3. He had on her hat covered with leaves and flowers dan- 
 gling around his neck. 
 
 4. I realize that it is growing late, and as Neapolitan cab- 
 drivers are proverbially slow, I call to the driver, "presto." It 
 being the only word meaning to hurry that I know, and I continue 
 my drive to the volcano. 
 
 5. It is surrounded by dense woods, whose beautiful green re- 
 freshes the eye and beautifies the scenery about it. 
 
 6. An old man kindly showed us the way to the house which 
 led down the principal street and to one running off from it. 
 
 7. Resting awhile under the trees, we went into the house. 
 
 8. Unluckily we found but two chestnuts here, but no doubt 
 more had fallen in the brush which we could not get. 
 
 9. Approaching the Blue Ridge mountains from the south- 
 western corner of North Carolina, a very steep incline is reached. 
 
 10. Free kindergartens would be a wise investment for this 
 city, since the expense would not exceed the sum now spent for 
 teaching a foreign language, there being plenty of children ready 
 and eager to attend, for the health of the child is not injured. 
 
 11. The child is benefited, being imbued with a desire for edu- 
 cation, given habits of order, and because he is filled with ideals 
 to which he may aspire. 
 
 12. I would first see a girl running across the hall to meet 
 some one of her dear friends, and some one else throw her arms 
 around the neck of another. 
 
 7. In themes assigned to you, select sentences that 
 seem to you incoherent. Suggest corrections. From 
 the examination of these sentences and those in Exer- 
 cise 6, what rules can you formulate for promoting 
 Coherence in sentences? 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 COHERENCE IN SENTENCE'S 
 
 1. The principle of Coherence guides us in the ar- 
 rangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sen- 
 tence. To a considerable extent this arrangement is 
 fixed, as we have observed in Chapter 14, by good use. 
 In some short sentences only one arrangement of words 
 is possible; in many sentences only slight alterations 
 in the order of words are permissible in conformity 
 with the rules of grammar. When the order is fixed 
 by good use, it is sure to be a natural, sensible, and 
 coherent order. To be coherent, we must be gram- 
 matical and natural. Any awkward or unusual con- 
 struction breaks the continuity of thought; any mis- 
 take in grammar obscures the exact relation of one 
 word to another. 
 
 2. The order of words depends also on the neigh- 
 boring sentences. You are not writing single sentences 
 that are to stand by themselves, but sentences that are 
 to be joined together to form a paragraph. The words 
 should be so arranged that they will not only be co- 
 herent within the sentence, but will also aid in making 
 the paragraph coherent. How much care is necessary 
 to secure this may be seen by turning again to the 
 
 200 
 
Coherence 201 
 
 paragraph from " The Old Manse " in Chapter i, Ex- 
 ercise 3. 
 3- The first sentence is : 
 
 The Old Manse ! We had almost forgotten it, but will 
 return thither through the orchard. 
 
 The second sentence might begin in either of these 
 two ways : 
 
 The last clergyman in the decHne of his life set this 
 out . . . 
 
 This was set out by the last clergyman in the decline 
 of his life ... 
 
 Either is coherent in itself, but the second is manifestly 
 better here, because the opening words, " This was set 
 out," connect themselves closely with the last words 
 of the preceding sentence, " the orchard." This sec- 
 ond sentence ends : ^ 
 
 . . . trees from which he could have no prospect of 
 gathering fruit. 
 
 Therefore in the third sentence, the clause, " Even had 
 that been the case/' properly comes first because it 
 refers to the last clause of the preceding sentence. 
 4. Toward the end of the paragraph, again, the words 
 that begin the sentences help to indicate the structure 
 of the paragraph. 
 
 7. An orchard has a relation to mankind . . . 
 
 8. The trees possess a domestic character . . . 
 
202 Sentences 
 
 9. There is so much individuahty of character, too, 
 among apple trees . . . 
 
 10. One is harsh and crabbed . . . 
 
 11. One is churhsh and ilHberal . . . 
 
 Four of these sentences begin with their subjects, and 
 they have practically the same subject — '' tree " or 
 '' trees." They have a uniformity of structure in 
 order to express a uniformity of thought. The ninth 
 offers just enough difference from this uniformity of 
 structure to keep it from being monotonous. A fur- 
 ther study of the sentences in this paragraph from 
 Hawthorne or, for that matter, in any well-written 
 paragraph, will illustrate various ways by which the 
 arrangement of words in the separate sentences pro- 
 motes the coherence of the thought of the paragraph. 
 We have already seen two important ways — first, by 
 beginning a sentence with a phrase or clause referring 
 to the last of the preceding sentence; and second, by 
 giving to sentences expressing similar ideas similar be- 
 ginnings and similar structures. 
 
 5' If you will look again at the selection from Haw- 
 thorne you will find many sentences in which the order 
 of words might be changed without violating grammar 
 or interfering with the connection between sentences. 
 These cases illustrate the Coherence of the sentences 
 by themselves. In the fourth sentence, for example, 
 there are three statements: the old minister — (i) 
 reached the age of ninety — (2) ate the apples for 
 many years — (3) added to his stipend by selling the 
 superfluity. The first, since it is less important than 
 
Coherence 203 
 
 the others in connection with the general subject, the 
 orchard, is made a subordinate clause, — " before reach- 
 ing his patriarchal age of ninety," — and is placed where 
 Coherence demands, next to the words with which it 
 is most closely connected in thought, " the old min- 
 ister." Try placing this clause at any other point, 
 after the second or third clause, and you will see that 
 the sentence becomes incoherent. 
 
 6. In the eighth sentence of this same paragraph from 
 Hawthorne there are several similar ideas : " the trees 
 possess a domestic character " — " they have lost the 
 wild nature of their forest-kindred " — " and have 
 grown humanized." So closely connected are these 
 ideas that they are combined in a single sentence, ac- 
 cording to the principle of Unity, as we saw in the 
 last chapter. These similar ideas are also given similar 
 expression, so that their relations to one another are 
 clearly indicated, as the principle of Coherence re- 
 quires. Further, the two ways in which the trees have 
 grown humanized are expressed by phrases similar 
 in form : " by receiving the care of man," " by con- 
 tributing to his wants." A further study, then, of this 
 selection reveals two important ways in which Cohe- 
 rence can be secured in the separate sentences — ways 
 very similar to those that, as we have just seen, pro- 
 mote Coherence between the sentences of a paragraph 
 — first, by placing ideas closely related in thought close 
 together in the sentence ; and second, by giving to sim- 
 ilar ideas similar constructions. 
 
 7. Another way of securing Coherence in sentences 
 
2 04 Sentences 
 
 is illustrated in the first paragraph of the selection from 
 Addison in Chapter i, Exercise 3, — by using con- 
 nectives with exactness. We may first note that sim- 
 ilar ideas are given similar form. The same subject is 
 kept in all the sentences, and it is followed in each case 
 by a verb in the perfect tense. Each sentence tells of 
 something Sir Roger has done to improve the church 
 service; and this similarity in thought is indicated by 
 similarity in construction. The subject " he," which 
 is repeated, also serves as a connective between sen- 
 tences. The exact use of connectives between phrases 
 and clauses is illustrated in the last sentence of the 
 paragraph. Let us look at it first with Addison's con- 
 nectives changed or omitted. Then we can see how 
 each of his connectives helps to make the exact rela- 
 tions of the words evident. 
 
 AN EXAMPLE OF INEXACT CONNECTIVES 
 (The numerals mark the change or omission of Addison's 
 words. The sentence should be read in its present form, and 
 then compared with Addison's.) 
 
 He has often told me, (i) how (2) coming to his es- 
 tate he found his parishioners very irregular; and (3) 
 (4) to make them kneel and join in the responses, he 
 gave every one of them a hassock and a common-prayer- 
 book; and (5) employed an itinerant singing-master, who 
 goes about the country (6), to instruct them rightly in 
 the tunes of the Psalms ; (7) upon which they (8) very 
 much value themselves and (9) outdo most of the country 
 churches that I have heard. 
 
 8. Let us now see the connectives that Addison ac- 
 tually used in the nine places indicated. 
 
Coherence 205 
 
 1. " that " instead of " how." This is more correct, 
 since " how " indicates manner, and is also more usual 
 after verbs of thinking, saying, telling, etc. 
 
 2. " at his coming " instead of merely " coming." 
 This is more definite, since it makes clear a relation of 
 time. Especial care must be taken with participial phrases 
 to make their exact relation to the sentence unmistakable. 
 
 3. " that " is added. This makes the clause parallel in 
 structure with the preceding, each now being introduced 
 by " that." 
 
 4. " in order to " instead of " to." The infinitive 
 phrase modifies the verb " gave " by denoting its purpose. 
 This relation is expressed more exactly by the introduc- 
 tory words " in order " than by the ambiguous '' to." 
 
 5. " at the same time " is added. This makes clear 
 the relation of time and establishes a closer connection 
 with the preceding clause introduced by " that at his com- 
 ing to his estate." 
 
 6. " for that purpose " is added. This connects the 
 preceding clause with the following infinitive by showing 
 their relation to each other. 
 
 7. " upon which." What is the antecedent of the 
 relative? Strict accuracy would require the substitution 
 of '' singing " for " tunes," although the sense is clear as 
 it is. 
 
 8. " now " is inserted. This makes clear the differ- 
 ence in time between the action of this clause and the 
 earlier one introduced by the phrase, " at his coming to 
 his estate." 
 
 9. ** indeed " is inserted. This separates the follow- 
 ing statement from the preceding and calls especial at- 
 tention to it. 
 
 9. One of Addison's connectives is a relative pro- 
 noun without a clearly determined antecedent — a viola- 
 tion of grammar, perhaps more common among good 
 writers in his day than in ours. The other eight all 
 mark an improvement in exactness. Two (i, 3) mark 
 
2o6 Sentences 
 
 parallel constructions; three (2, 5, 8) denote the time- 
 relations of various parts of the sentence; two (4, 6) 
 denote purpose; and one (9) gives emphasis to a state- 
 ment. Each connective makes clear some relation be- 
 tween words of the sentence. By means of an exact 
 use of connectives, Addison's sentence is made the 
 more coherent of the two. 
 
 10. The ways of securing Coherence that we have so 
 far observed may be further illustrated by an exam- 
 ination of the sentences of any writer of good prose. 
 They are the essential means of promoting Coherence 
 in sentences, and may now be restated in the form of 
 four rules, which the student will do well to understand 
 thoroughly and to remember. 
 
 Rule I. Grammatical Relations. The grammatical 
 relations between words or phrases must be made 
 unmistakable. 
 
 11. This rule appHes to all parts of speech, and es- 
 pecially to pronouns and their antecedents, and parti- 
 ciples and their nouns. The following sentences repre- 
 sent some of the most common failures to make the 
 relation of a pronoun and its antecedent clear. 
 
 1. Antecedent Omitted. I am sitting by an open fire, 
 dreaming as one is apt to do when the first cool days of 
 Fall have come, and when the myriad colors of the flames 
 consuming the different trees, make it attractive and 
 home more cheerful. 
 
 2. Disagreement in Number. One of the girls lost 
 their footing. 
 
 :1|Ia 
 
Coherence 207 
 
 3. Ambiguous Reference. We ate the grapes on our 
 ride home later in the afternoon, which was very pleasant. 
 
 4. Antecedent Implied. He was an army-officer and 
 had served in it for thirty years. 
 
 5. Confusion of " Its.'' I saw it deserted and did n't 
 wonder at it, for it is so high that it would be almost sui- 
 cide to climb it on a warm day. 
 
 6. Disagreement in Number. The room was in very 
 good order, although we were told that they were taken 
 care of by the students themselves. 
 
 7. Ambiguous Reference. Tightly she clasped the 
 child's hand as if she wanted never to let go of her again, 
 and she thought of the agonizing grief of her mother if 
 she should return without her child. 
 
 12. The following sentences illustrate failures to 
 make clear the relations between participles and their 
 subjects. When the participial phrase is at the begin- 
 ning of a sentence, the noun or pronoun to which the 
 participle is attached should be the subject of the sen- 
 tence. Recast each sentence so that the relation of 
 the participle will be unmistakable. 
 
 t. Not finding the right track at once, considerable 
 time was lost in looking for it. 
 
 2. Disregarding all protests, the next moment we 
 heard them moving cautiously up the rickety stairs. 
 
 3. Having reached the top, there sounded a scuffle. 
 
 4. After descending the stairs, the first door to the 
 right opens into the dining-room. 
 
 5. Glancing back at the house, a gray veil seems to 
 shut that too from our vision. 
 
 6. The most favorable time to take a drive is in the 
 later half of the afternoon, when, coming down the long 
 hill, the sun is left behind. 
 
 7. Far off and almost concealed by trees, we could see 
 a little white house. 
 
2o8 Sentences 
 
 8. The seats are of cane and not covered with plush, 
 making them much more comfortable. 
 
 Rule 2. Connectives. Connectives between words, 
 phrases, or clauses must be used with precision. 
 
 13. The three connectives which are used most care- 
 lessly are " and," " but," and " as." " And " ought not 
 to be used to connect all sorts of ideas, whether coor- 
 dinate or not; " but " ought not to be used unless there 
 is a real antithesis between two coordinate expressions ; 
 " as " ought not to be used where " since," " when," 
 or " because " would be more exact. The following 
 sentences are incoherent because of either insufficient 
 or inexact connectives. They may be improved by 
 adding connectives, or by using more precise ones, or 
 by recasting the sentence so as to do away with the 
 objectionable word. 
 
 1. The power has been made adequate, and the best 
 that grumblers could do has been to say the cars were run- 
 ning too fast. 
 
 2. She was fair, with black eyes, brown hair, and 
 seventeen years old. 
 
 3. Here it is that in the fall of the year these great 
 monarchs of the woods fight their battles, and (A) wan- 
 der off in companies of two or three to spend a season in 
 domestic quiet. 
 
 4. The boulevard could be seen winding about a small 
 pond, in which some geese were swimming, with the tall 
 green nut-trees spreading their branches over the walks. 
 
 5. We ^stopped here and put on our rubbers as it was 
 getting muddy. 
 
 (pi We had walked for over an hour but began to feel 
 
Coherence 209 
 
 tired, but we decided to keep on, as we knew they would 
 be waiting for us. 
 
 7. With coats off and sleeves rolled up, we grasped 
 and bent to the oars, and with one accord, first leaning 
 forward, then pulling backwards with such force that 
 each muscle stood out prominently and seemed as if it 
 would burst, we assisted in propelling the boats ; but the 
 rest of the party with hair standing and with eyes 
 stretched as if they would pop out, watched our every 
 movement as much as to say, " Our lives now depend 
 upon you." 
 
 Rule 3. Order of Words. Words or phrases closely 
 connected in thought should be placed together in 
 the sentence; words or phrases distinct in thought 
 should be kept apart. 
 
 14. In an uninflected language we are obliged to in- 
 dicate the relation of words largely by their position. 
 This rule is, therefore, of very great importance in- 
 securing Coherence. In the following sentences the 
 relation between certain words is obscure because they 
 are kept apart. Expressions inclosed in parentheses 
 are to be shifted to the places marked by carets. 
 
 1. He refused (a) to tell a lie (like a man). 
 
 2. (a) Those who do not die young (as a rule,) are 
 strong enough to live to a good old age. 
 
 3. Six men were on the line, waiting for the signal (a) 
 to start (from Mr. Jones). 
 
 4. In May, 1430, the Maid of Orleans was captured 
 and was burned at the stake, as a heretic, at Rouen, on 
 May the thirtieth, 143 1, by the English. 
 
 5. There (a) stands the old ruin, rudely constructed 
 of massive oak logs, (in the shade of the pines.) 
 
 14 
 
2IO Sentences 
 
 6. Three branches extend from the upper part of the 
 main trunk, resembHng the fore talons of a bird, while 
 numerous other limbs, crooked and gnarled, spread out 
 in every direction higher up. 
 
 7. (We,) two by two, each holding a tallow candle, 
 (a) passed from the hall into the dining-room. 
 
 8. To the terrified crowd, the boat (only) seemed (a) 
 to crawl along. 
 
 15. Expressions that go in pairs may be connected by 
 words called correspondents; such as — either, or; nei- 
 ther, nor ; both, and ; not only, but also. The first mem- 
 ber of the pair should be placed immediately after the 
 first correspondent, and the second member immedi- 
 ately after the second correspondent. Incoherence re- 
 sults from misplaced correspondents, as in the follow- 
 ing sentences. 
 
 9. He not only gave me (a) praise for what I had 
 done but also encouragement to keep on trying. 
 
 10. I could neither confide in ( a) him nor his brother. 
 
 Rule 4. Uniformity of Construction. Phrases or 
 clauses, similar in meaning, should be given the 
 same construction. 
 
 16. This rule calls attention to an important device 
 for making the relations of our ideas evident. When 
 we have two similar thoughts, we must not put one in 
 the active voice and the other in the passive; or one 
 in a phrase and the other in a clause ; or one in an in- 
 finitive clause and the other in a clause introduced by 
 
Coherence 211 
 
 " that. -' Uniformity of construction makes the sim- 
 ilarity of the ideas apparent to the reader. The fol- 
 lowing examples show how confusing changes in con- 
 struction may become. 
 
 1. She told him of the defence of De Bracy^s men and 
 of the other side, the attacking side. 
 
 2. They seem industrious and to be ambitious to suc- 
 ceed in life. 
 
 3. After looking everywhere for our companions, and 
 when we had failed to find a sign of them, we decided to 
 return to the village. 
 
 4. Every fellow who is in good health should try for 
 the team ; in the first place, for the sake of exercise and 
 fun ; in the second, because the school is small and needs 
 the help of every man if we are to beat the South High ; 
 and in the third place, it is a good way to show your loy- 
 alty. 
 
 5. I see the large room that had once been sunny, and 
 the scene of many gay times, but now offering no sign of 
 joy within its walls. 
 
 6. When we glance out of the west window and see 
 the pretty lawn beneath, with the trees and hedge beyond ; 
 and from the north window see the thrifty garden and 
 grape arbor ; considering again the taste displayed in fur- 
 nishing the room, we conclude that it is one of the most 
 delightful rooms that we have ever visited. 
 
 17- Most common of all unnecessary changes in con- 
 struction is the change of subject. The paragraph on 
 pages 39, 40 from Mr. Sedgwick's essay on Macaulay 
 illustrates the gain in Coherence from keeping the same 
 subject through not only one but several sentences. 
 The following sentences are incoherent because of un- 
 necessary changes of subjects. 
 
2 12 Sentences 
 
 7. Her scowl caused many people to think that she 
 was ill-tempered, but her being near-sighted was the cause 
 of it. 
 
 8. In rainy weather the farmers must travel through 
 mud and mire; when the season is very dry, the dust is 
 unendurable. 
 
 9. The people began to put two and two together, and 
 gradually a conclusion was reached. 
 
 ID. In the country the farmers have stacked their 
 corn, and only a few vegetables remain. 
 
 II. From the smaller end of the long bent pole hangs 
 the wooden bucket, and to the other end they have tied 
 old iron wheels for weights. 
 
 18. The purpose of all this discussion and illustra- 
 tion is to aid the student in expressing his ideas clearly, 
 simply, and directly. If he is careful to begin a sen- 
 tence where the preceding one left off, if he has his 
 thought clearly in mind, and if he develops it in a 
 straightforward manner with attention to grammar, 
 he is not likely to sin greatly against Coherence. In 
 order to rid his sentences, however, from all the faults 
 that make for incoherence, he will need to revise his 
 sentences systematically in accordance with the four 
 rules. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I 
 
 I. In each of the following sentences which of the 
 four rules for Coherence is violated? How can the 
 sentence be made coherent? 
 
Coherence 213 
 
 1. After riding east for about an hour the car gets to its 
 limit. 
 
 2. The mad waters with their amber hue were dashing madly 
 against the rocks below and foaming with wrath, and the sun- 
 beams were dancing merrily in the spray that washed against our 
 faces. 
 
 3. He is well educated, with good sense, and of an observant 
 mind. 
 
 4. The tireless water is dashing through the locks which have 
 not been closed for many years, like a miniature Niagara. 
 
 5. Ruth's own thoughts we could hardly guess ; a new world 
 seemed before her as she walked down the hill and over the 
 bridge, stopping to look over the rail at the minnows darting 
 about in the water below. 
 
 6. The short body filled a garment which descended only to 
 the waist when I saw it. 
 
 7. Tea is often served here to the strains of the music-box, if 
 the evening is warm, mingled with the splash of the waters as 
 they are churned by the wheel. 
 
 8. The first fish caught was by Edgar Smith, it was about 
 twelve inches long; all were anxious to be the next. 
 
 9. Slowly the scene faded as the train rushed on, leaving the 
 limits of the great city, but, ineffaceably stamped upon my mem- 
 ory, it remains as fresh and vivid as on that quiet morning. 
 
 10. One night during this sleet it rained a little, and being cold 
 enough to freeze as it fell, made the ice much more slippery than 
 it had been before. 
 
 11. Several cows were grazing in a place set apart for them, 
 which looked about two inches tall. 
 
 12. The Palmer got his horse and armor from a friend of 
 Isaac the Jew for the tournament. 
 
 13. They immediately put her in a guard-house, and while she 
 was there, they sent a woman to search her, but she hastily tore 
 the message up and ate every piece before they had a chance to 
 get it. She then got on her horse and started away, and the Brit- 
 ish will always remember Emily Geiger's ride. 
 
 14. Three small square windows with flowered calico curtains, 
 and a porch with its slope the wrong way, its posts of native tim- 
 
2 14 Sentences 
 
 ber with the bark still clinging to them, made me eager to see 
 the inside of this queerly constructed affair. 
 
 15. Following back the aisle, it leads into the dining-room. 
 
 16. One morning last winter, after a fierce struggle with a rag- 
 ing storm for three successive days, I well remember how glad it 
 seemed to me to be able to relax and breathe freely once more. 
 
 17. After winding around the mountains in an upward course, 
 moving at such a speed that the passengers can get off, pick 
 flowers and ferns, and get back on while the train is in motion, 
 they finally reach the top and are satisfied to find a beautiful 
 little village nestling in the bosom of the hills, like a little child 
 caught up in the embrace of its mother. 
 
 18. Athletics in college are desirable for three reasons; first, 
 " strong minds are in strong bodies " ; second, because youth is 
 the time for physical development; third, for, without athletics, 
 students do not get enough exercise. 
 
 19. They all marched in twos in perfect time with the music 
 and each carrying a hymnal and singing. 
 
 20. It is so still and solemn, hearing nothing but the patter of 
 the horses' hoofs and the rustle of the leaves, you wonder if there 
 is any quieter or stiller place and how dreary it must be in win- 
 ter, when the coachman stops suddenly, and you look up and see 
 a massive building built of stone, which is the castle. 
 
 2. The following sentences are to be rearranged in 
 accordance with the principle of Coherence. Here the 
 different parts are placed in this order, (i) Con- 
 nective word or phrase, connecting the sentence with 
 the preceding; (2) Subject; (3) Predicate. The va- 
 rious modifiers of the subject and verb are not ar- 
 ranged in any fixed order. The coordinate clauses in a 
 compound sentence are treated as separate sentences, 
 but are numbered lA, iB, iC, etc., in order to in- 
 dicate that they belong to one sentence. Supply punc- 
 tuation. 
 
Coherence 
 
 215 
 
 THE NIGHT BEFORE THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS 
 
 I. Connective. And now 
 Subject, the night . 
 
 Predicate, came on 
 2. Subj. the way . . . 
 
 Pred. was . . . 
 
 3A. Subj. the English . 
 Pred. spent . . . 
 
 3B. Subj. the Normans 
 Pred. (verb omitted) 
 
 4. Subj. two prelates 
 Pred. were . . . 
 
 5. Subj. one . . 
 Pred. was . . 
 
 6. Subj. the other . . . 
 Pred. was . . . Odo . 
 
 .the night of Friday the 
 thirteenth of October . . 
 
 the night which was to 
 usher in the ever memo- 
 rable morn of St. Calix- 
 tus 
 
 in which that night was 
 spent by the two ar- 
 mies . . . 
 
 very different . . . 
 
 according to our Norman 
 informants . . . 
 
 the night ... in drinking 
 and singing . . . 
 
 in prayer and confession 
 of their sins . . . 
 
 of all but the highest rank 
 in the Norman church . . 
 
 among the crowds of 
 clergy . . . 
 
 in William's host . . . 
 
 Geoffrey . . . 
 
 who, in his temporal char- 
 acter, was soon to have 
 so large a share of the 
 spoils of England . . . 
 
 Bishop of Coutances . . . 
 
 the famous . . . the Duke's 
 own half-brother . . . 
 
2l6 
 
 Sentences 
 
 {Suhj.) who . . . 
 (Pred.) was ... to add . . . soon . . 
 the temporal cares of the 
 
 Kentish earldom . . . 
 to his bishop's seat at Bay- 
 eux . . . 
 
 8. 
 
 Conn. 
 
 and . . . 
 
 
 Suhj. 
 
 one . . . 
 
 not yet their equal in eccle- 
 siastical rank . . . 
 
 Pred, 
 
 was . . . 
 
 C. but . . . 
 vS. who . . . 
 
 with them . . . 
 
 
 P. was . . . 
 
 to leave . . . unlike them . . 
 in English ecclesiastical 
 history . . . 
 an abiding name . . . 
 
 Suhj. 
 
 Remigius . . . 
 
 in after days the first 
 
 Bishop of Lincoln . . . 
 the Almoner of Fecamp . . . 
 
 Pred. 
 
 was . . . 
 
 the leader of the knights 
 whom his abbot had sent 
 under his orders . . . 
 
 9. 
 
 Suhj. the Norman host . 
 Pred. seems . . . 
 
 to have been wrought 
 
 up . . . 
 under the pious care of the 
 
 two bishops and of the 
 
 other clergy . . . 
 to a kind of paroxysm of 
 
 devotion . . . 
 
 3» Analyze the sentences in a paragraph from Ma- 
 caulay, noting carefully the means by which Coherence 
 is secured, and arranging these means under the four 
 rules given in this chapter. Analyze a paragraph from 
 Hawthorne in the same way; one from Burke; one 
 from Goldsmith. 
 
Coherence ^17 
 
 4- The structure of a sentence may often be most 
 clearly shown by means of a diagram, as in the case 
 of the two following sentences. 
 
 (i) What was demanded of her was that she should 
 consent to be almost as completely separated from her 
 family and friends as if she had gone to Calcutta, and 
 almost as close a prisoner as if she had been sent to jail 
 for a libel ; that with talents which had instructed and de- 
 lighted the highest living minds, she should now be em- 
 ployed only in mixing snuff and sticking pins ; that she 
 should be summoned by a waiting woman's bell to a 
 waiting woman's duties; that she should pass her whole 
 life under the restraints of a paltry etiquette, should some- 
 times fast till she was ready to swoon with hunger, should 
 sometimes stand till her knees gave way with fatigue ; that 
 she should not dare to speak or move without considering 
 how her mistress might like her words and gestures. (2) 
 Instead of those distinguished men and women, the flower 
 of all political parties, with whom she had been in the 
 habit of mixing on terms of equal friendship, she was to 
 have for her perpetual companion the chief keeper of the 
 robes, an old hag from Germany, of mean understand- 
 ing, of insolent manners, and of temper which, naturally 
 savage, had now been exasperated by disease. 
 
 Thomas B. Macaulay: Essay on Madame D'Arhlay. 
 
 The following diagram indicates the use of parallel 
 constructions in the first sentence. 
 
 (X) What was demanded of her . . . was . . , 
 (A) that she should consent to be 
 
 (a) almost as completely separated from her 
 family and friends 
 as if she had gone to Calcutta, 
 (J)) almost as close a prisoner 
 
 as if she had been sent to jail for a 
 libel; 
 
2 1 8 Sentences 
 
 (B) that with talents which had liv- 
 
 ing minds; she should be employed only 
 in mixing snuff 
 and sticking pins; 
 
 (C) that she should be summoned 
 
 by a waiting woman's bell 
 to a waiting woman's duties ; 
 
 (D) that she (c) should pass her whole life . . . pal- 
 
 try etiquette, 
 
 (d) should sometimes fast 
 
 till she was ready . . . hunger, 
 
 (e) should sometimes stand 
 
 till her knees . . . fatigue; 
 
 (E) that she should not dare to speak or move . . . 
 
 words and gestures. 
 
 The complement of the verb " was demanded " con- 
 sists of five parallel clauses, each beginning " that she 
 should,'' except clause B, where variety is gained by 
 placing " she should " later in the clause. Within sev- 
 eral of these five clauses there are other parallel con- 
 structions. The structure is, indeed, so clearly marked 
 that it can be represented by an algebraic equation, the 
 letters of the diagram being retained. 
 
 X=:A(a-f&)+B-fC + D(c + JH-^)+E. 
 
 Represent the antithetical structure of the second 
 sentence by a diagram. 
 
 5. In themes assigned to you, criticize the sentences 
 and suggest improvements, as suggested in the follow- 
 ing outline. 
 
 1. Length, (a) Long, (b) Short, (c) Variety. 
 
 2. Unity, (a) Involved, incongruous parts, (b) 
 Short, fragmentary, (c) Subordination of parts. 
 
 3. Coherence. Rules i, 2, 3, 4. , 
 
Coherence 219 
 
 II 
 
 6. In the sentences quoted from Macaulay in Exer- 
 cise 5, do the parallel and antithetical constructions 
 promote Emphasis? If so, how? In the second sen- 
 tence would Emphasis be injured by a different ar- 
 rangement of clauses and phrases? If so, why? 
 
 7. Read over again the paragraphs quoted in the text 
 of Chapter 6. What words or phrases are specially 
 impressed on your mind ? By what methods are these 
 made emphatic ? Can you group any of these methods 
 into classes ; as — Repetition, Antithesis, Climax, or any 
 others? Make a list of all the methods for emphasiz- 
 ing ideas in sentences that you can discover, and give 
 examples under each. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 EMPHASIS IN SENTENCES 
 
 1. The principle of Emphasis requires that the writer 
 indicate the relative importance of his ideas to the 
 reader. We have already taken an important step to- 
 ward this when we have organized our ideas, coordi- 
 nated some and subordinated others, grouped them into 
 organic units of thought, and presented each unit as 
 a single sentence. By bringing related ideas close to- 
 gether, and by giving similar ideas similar forms, we 
 advance still further toward making their relative value 
 evident to the reader. Thus the principles of Unity 
 and Coherence both aid in securing Emphasis. We 
 still have to consider, however, by what definite means 
 an idea of especial importance can be presented in the 
 whole or a part of a sentence so as to win the reader's 
 attention. 
 
 2. A sentence is emphatic when it is in some way dis- 
 tinguished from its neighbors. So, after a long sen- 
 tence, a short one catches the attention. So, too, in 
 a succession of declarative sentences an occasional in- 
 terrogation attracts notice to itself. Certain kinds of 
 sentences win attention because of their structure. A 
 periodic sentence does not permit the reader's attention 
 
 220 
 
Emphasis 221 
 
 to wander until he reaches its end. A balanced sen- 
 tence sets one idea over against another, and each re- 
 enforces the other, as in the following example: 
 
 Thus the successors of the old Cavaliers had turned 
 demagogues; the successors of the old Roundheads had 
 turned courtiers. 
 
 In both balanced and periodic sentences, however, 
 the emphasis is mainly due to the fact that their struc- 
 ture distinguishes them from their neighbors. If 
 either structure were used constantly, it would cease 
 to attract attention. As we have seen in our study of 
 paragraphs, the most generally effective means of dis- 
 tinguishing one sentence from its neighbors is to put 
 it first or last in the paragraph, at a place where it 
 catches the reader's eye. 
 
 3. In calling especial attention to some part of a sen- 
 tence, we are governed by the same considerations. 
 Capitals, italics, or heavy-faced type make words con- 
 spicuous, but if used often they annoy rather than at- 
 tract the reader. A balanced sentence brings certain 
 words into prominence through their opposition to 
 others. A change in the natural order of words, such 
 as an inversion that places the verb first and the noun 
 last, attracts attention to certain words because of their 
 position. Whenever, in fact, a word is in an unusual 
 position it is emphasized. Perhaps an even more useful 
 means of calling attention to important words is by 
 their repetition. All these means, however, lose their 
 effect unless used very sparingly. The surest and most 
 
2 2 2 Sentences 
 
 generally available means of emphasizing words is to 
 put them at the beginning or the end of a sentence. 
 These are the parts which the reader sees most clearly, 
 and the end is the part which remains longest in his 
 mind. Therefore, put important words at the begin- 
 ning or the end. 
 
 4. This cannot always be done. The grammatical 
 relations of words must always be preserved, and a 
 natural order is usually better than an artificial. With 
 a little ingenuity and care, however, we can make the 
 requirements of grammar and Coherence aids rather 
 than hindrances to Emphasis. In the following sen- 
 tence, for example, " domestic and political vexa- 
 tions " is the most important expression, but it occu- 
 pies an unemphatic place. 
 
 It is melancholy to think that both domestic and political 
 vexations should have clouded over the last months of 
 such a life. 
 
 Take the sentence as Macaulay wrote it, and the Em- 
 phasis is improved by a change in the voice of the 
 verb. 
 
 It Is melancholy to think that the last months of such a 
 life should have been overclouded both by domestic and 
 by political vexations. 
 
 By changing a construction, Emphasis for certain 
 words may often be secured without injuring gram- 
 mar or Coherence. 
 
 5. Bad Emphasis, however, in most sentences, is due 
 to the fact that unimportant words occupy the im- 
 
Emph 
 
 asis 223 
 
 portant positions. A sentence begins with " I think " 
 or " it seems to me " or " it was a pleasant evening 
 that"; or it ends with a trivial phrase. Note the im- 
 provement made in the following sentences by shift- 
 ing the insignificant parts out of the best positions. 
 Expressions to be omitted are inclosed in brackets; 
 those to be shifted, in parentheses; the places where 
 they are to reappear are marked with carets. 
 
 1. (In the judgment of our age) the least valuable of 
 Addison's contributions to the *' Spectator " are (a) his 
 critical papers. 
 
 2. Many strangers come ( a ) to view the battle-ground 
 (in the summer time). 
 
 3. (It seems to me) [that] Mathematics (a) furnishes 
 better mental training than Latin. 
 
 4. [It was] on a hot midsummer's day [that] we 
 started for the mountains. 
 
 5. Writers are (a) good judges of their own compo- 
 sitions (in very few cases). 
 
 In the first two sentences in the paragraph from Gib- 
 bon quoted in Chapter 5, one can see that he knew 
 very well what words he wished to emphasize, and ar- 
 ranged his sentences accordingly. Any change will 
 bring an unimportant word at the beginning or the 
 end. 
 
 The harbour of Constantinople, which may be consid- 
 ered as an arm of the Bosphorus, obtained, in a very re- 
 mote period, the denomination of the Golden Horn. 
 
 The curve which it describes might be compared to the 
 horn of a stag, or, as it should seem, with more propriety, 
 to that of an ox. 
 
2 24 Sentences 
 
 Similarly the student will have to exercise consider- 
 able care to prevent unimportant words from usurping 
 either of the two most important places. 
 6. Of the two positions, the more emphatic and the 
 more available is the end. A sentence naturally begins 
 with its subject or modifiers, with some reference to 
 the preceding sentence, or with a clause introducing 
 the main statement of the sentence. The beginning 
 need not be trivial, but it cannot always be a sig- 
 nificant word. The end of a sentence, on the contrary, 
 brings the thought to a conclusion, a goal, a culmi- 
 nation. A sentence may, therefore, often end very nat- 
 urally with its most significant word. And, as the 
 end of a sentence gives a chance for emphasis, so the 
 end of a clause gives a chance for a secondary goal in 
 the progress of thought, and a secondary emphasis. 
 In the following paragraph from Carlyle's description 
 of Coleridge, all the words just preceding the semico- 
 lons are important; all the words at the beginnings of 
 the sentences are important, though they serve as con- 
 nectives ; and the words and phrases at the ends of the 
 sentences are so important that, even when taken out 
 of their context, they give a kind of synopsis of the 
 paragraph. The vivid impression you receive of Cole- 
 ridge is due very largely to the words at the ends 
 of clauses and at the beginnings and ends of sentences. 
 
 The good man, he was now getting old, towards sixty 
 perhaps; and gave you the idea of a life that had been 
 full of sufferings ; a life heavy-laden, half-vanquished, still 
 swimming painfully in seas of manifold physical and other 
 
Emph 
 
 asis 225 
 
 bewilderment. Brow and head were round, and of mas- 
 sive weight, but the face was flabby and irresolute. The 
 deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as of 
 inspiration ; confused pain looking mildly from them as in 
 a kind of mild astonishment. The whole figure and air, 
 good and amiable otherwise, might be called flabby and 
 irresolute; expressive of weakness under possibility of 
 strength. He hung loosely on his limbs, with knees bent, 
 and stooping attitude ; in walking, he rather shuffled than 
 decisively stept ; and a lady once remarked he never could 
 fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best, 
 but continually shifted, in corkscrew fashion, and kept 
 trying both. A heavy-laden, high-aspiring, and surely 
 much-suffering man. His voice, naturally soft and good, 
 had contracted itself into a plaintive snuffle and singsong ; 
 he spoke as if preaching, — you would have said, preach- 
 ing earnestly and also hopelessly the weightiest things. I 
 still recollect his ''object" and "subject," terms of con- 
 tinual recurrence in the Kantian province; and how he 
 sang and shuffled them into " om-m-mject " and '' sum-m- 
 mject," with a kind of solemn shake or quaver, as he rolled 
 along. No talk, in his century or in any other, could be 
 more surprising. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle : Life of Sterling. 
 
 7. Another way of securing Emphasis is the use of 
 climax. In arranging a series of words or phrases, be- 
 gin with the least important and end with the most im- 
 portant. " I came, I saw, I conquered " is a case of 
 climax; reverse the order of parts, and the sentence is 
 intolerable. Nothing, in fact, is more fatal to Em- 
 phasis than anticlimax. 
 
 8. We may summarize what has been said of Em- 
 phasis by merely noting the various means of securing 
 it. Short sentences, when following long ones, an oc- 
 
 15 
 
2 26 Sentences 
 
 casional interrogation, periodic and balanced structure, 
 an unusual position for a word, the repetition of im- 
 portant words, — are all aids to Emphasis. Two posi- 
 tions in a sentence, however, always attract the eye 
 more than others — the beginning and the end. A 
 change in construction may enable a writer to put a 
 significant phrase in one of these places; at any rate, 
 he can keep insignificant words out of them. His sen- 
 tences will certainly not be wholly unemphatic if he 
 pays attention to climax and puts important words at 
 the end. 
 
 9. In concluding the discussion of the three principles 
 of composition in sentences, we may note again that the 
 purpose of all the rules and principles is to secure real 
 structure. The sentence should be an organic whole, 
 the parts of which are knit together grammatically and 
 logically, and are so arranged that the most important 
 most impress the reader. One valuable aid in securing 
 such structure is conciseness. Unnecessary words not 
 only destroy Unity and interrupt the Coherence of 
 thought, but also distract the reader's attention from 
 essential words. Conciseness is not opposed to com- 
 prehensiveness. Important ideas must be treated fully 
 and may be enforced even by repetition. In general, 
 however, the fewer words we take to express our ideas 
 clearly and comprehensively, the greater force they will 
 possess for the reader. Diff useness violates every prin- 
 ciple. Unity is injured by every word that does not 
 add something about the subject; Coherence by every 
 word that does not aid in making the relations of 
 
Emphasis 227 
 
 ideas evident ; and Emphasis by every v^ord that is in- 
 significant. We must take care to make every v^ord 
 count. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Point out the means by which Emphasis is secured 
 in each of the following sentences from Green's char- 
 acter sketch of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1. Her character, in fact, like her portraits, was utterly 
 without shade. 
 
 2. Her delight in the consciousness of her ingenuity 
 broke out in a thousand puckish freaks, — freaks in which 
 one can hardly see any purpose beyond the purpose of 
 sheer mystification. 
 
 3. Brave as they were, the men who swept the Span- 
 ish Main or glided between the icebergs of Baffin's Bay 
 never doubted that the palm of bravery lay with their 
 Queen. 
 
 4. Her levity carried her gaily over moments of de- 
 tection and embarrassment where better women would 
 have died of shame. 
 
 5. Nothing is more revolting in the Queen, but noth- 
 ing is more characteristic, than her shameless mendacity. 
 
 6. No nobler group of ministers ever gathered round 
 a council-board than those who gathered round the coun- 
 cil-board of Elizabeth. But she was the instrument of 
 none. 
 
 7. Of political wisdom indeed in its larger and more 
 generous sense Elizabeth had little or none ; but her po- 
 litical tact was unerring. 
 
 2. Examine the following selections and note the va- 
 rious means by which the sentences are made emphatic. 
 
2 2 8 Sentences 
 
 Seven years, my Lord, have now passed since I waited 
 in your outward rooms or was repulsed from your door ; 
 during which time I have been pushing on my work 
 through difficulties, of which it is useless to complain, and 
 have brought it, at last, to the verge of publication without 
 one act of assistance, one word of encouragement, or one 
 smile of favour. Such treatment I did not expect, for I 
 never had a Patron before. 
 
 The shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with 
 Love, and found him a native of the rocks. 
 
 Is not a Patron, my Lord, one who looks with uncon- 
 cern on a man struggling for life in the water, and when 
 he has reached ground, encumbers him with help? The 
 notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, 
 had it been early, had been kind ; but it has been delayed 
 till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it ; till I am solitary, 
 and cannot impart it; till I am known, and do not want 
 it. I hope it is no very cynical asperity not to confess ob- 
 ligations where no benefit has been received, or to be 
 unwilling that the Public should consider me as owing 
 that to a Patron, which Providence has enabled me to do 
 for myself. 
 
 Samuel Johnson : Letter to the Earl of Chesterfield. 
 
 His fame is great; and it will, we have no doubt, be 
 lasting; but it is fame of a peculiar kind, and indeed 
 marvellously resembles infamy. We remember no other 
 case in which the world has made so great a distinction 
 between a book and its author. In general, the book and 
 its author are considered as one. To admire the book is to 
 admire the author. The case of Boswell is an exception, 
 we think the only exception, to this rule. His work is uni- 
 versally allowed to be interesting, instructive, eminently 
 original: yet it has brought him nothing but contempt. 
 All the world reads it : all the world delights in it : yet we 
 do not remember ever to have read or ever to have heard 
 any expression of respect and admiration for the man to 
 whom we owe so much instruction and amusement. 
 
 Thomas B. Macaulay: Essay on Boswell' s Johnson, 
 
Emphasis 229 
 
 Nay, sometimes a strange enough hypothesis has been 
 started of him (Boswell) ; as if it were in virtue even of 
 these same bad quaHties that he did his good work ; as if 
 it were the very fact of his being among the worst men in 
 the world that had enabled him to write one of the best 
 books therein ! Falser hypothesis, we may venture to say, 
 never rose in human soul. Bad is by its nature negative, 
 land can do nothing; whatsoever enables us to do anything 
 is by its very nature good. Alas, that there should be 
 teachers in Israel, or even learners, to whom this world- 
 ancient fact is still problematical, or even deniable ! Bos- 
 well wrote a good Book because he had a heart and an eye 
 to discern Wisdom, and an utterance to render it forth ; 
 because of his free insight, his lively talent, — above all, of 
 his Love and childlike Open-mindedness. 
 Thomas Carlyle : Essay on BosweU's Life of Johnson. 
 
 3. After reading a page or tv^o in an essay of Ma- 
 caulay's, write down the words and phrases that you 
 remember best. By what means is each emphasized in 
 the sentence where it occurs ? Try the same method of 
 observation in your reading in Burke, or Hawthorne, 
 or in a recent novel or magazine article. 
 
 4. Rearrange the parts of the following sentences in 
 accordance with the principles of Coherence and Em- 
 phasis. First determine what words deserve especial 
 emphasis, and place these at the end of the sentence, 
 if possible. 
 
 I. Subject, no heretic , . . save a few Anabaptists . . . 
 
 whom the whole nation 
 loathed as blasphemers 
 of God . . . and dreaded 
 as enemies of social 
 order . . . 
 
23© 
 
 Predicate , 
 
 Sentences 
 
 was 
 
 2. Subject, the pedant 
 Pred. had struggled 
 
 " sent to the fire "... 
 through all her long 
 reign . . . 
 
 coarse . . . ungainly . . . 
 
 ill-dressed . . . 
 .up to eminence and com- 
 mand . . . 
 
 manfully . . . 
 
 through all these things . . . 
 
 3. Subj. there ... a certain 
 mysticism . . . 
 Pred. (there) lay . . . yet at the bottom of all 
 
 his (Burke's) thoughts 
 about communities and 
 governments . . . 
 in spite of the predomi- 
 nance . . . 
 
 of practical sagacity . . . 
 of the habits and spirit 
 of public business . . . 
 of vigorous actuality . . . 
 in Burke's character . . . 
 
 4. Subj. I 
 Pred. must 
 
 tell 
 
 . .you 
 that 
 (S) 
 (P) 
 
 . . . fairly 
 
 I . . . 
 
 have ... no idea of a 
 liberty . . unconnec- 
 ted with honesty and 
 justice . . . 
 
 so far as my principles 
 are concerned . . . 
 
 principles that I hope 
 will only depart with 
 my last breath . . . 
 
 m,^ 
 
Emphasis 231 
 
 5. Suhj. it . . . that sensibility of principle . . . 
 
 that chastity of honour . . . 
 
 which felt a stain like a wound . . . 
 
 and . . . 
 _ under which vice itself lost half its 
 
 evil, by losing all its grossness . . . 
 which ennobled whatever it 
 
 touched . . . 
 which inspired courage whilst it miti*» 
 
 gated ferocity . . . 
 Pred. is gone . . . 
 
 6. Subj. a mother and her little boy . . . 
 
 Pred. sat . . . talking about the Great Stone Face . . . 
 at the door of their cottage . . . 
 one afternoon . . . 
 
 7. Conn, then 
 
 Suhj. the Great Stone Face . . . 
 
 Pred. was . . . formed . . a work of Nature . . . 
 
 in her mood of majestic 
 
 playfulness . . . 
 on the perpendicular side 
 
 of a mountain . . . 
 by some immense 
 rocks . . . 
 {S) which . . . 
 (P) had been thrown 
 together . . . 
 in such a position 
 
 as . . . 
 to resemble the 
 features of the 
 human counte- 
 nance . . . 
 precisely . . . 
 when viewed at 
 a proper dis- 
 tance • . . 
 
232 Sentences 
 
 5. Rewrite the following sentences, improving their 
 emphasis. Words in italics are to be given special em- 
 phasis in the rewritten sentences. 
 
 1. He was always ready to do you a service, kind, and cheer- 
 ful. 
 
 2. Down at the edge of the water, casting a softening gloom 
 about them as they bend over the stream, are some willows. 
 
 3. Further on, vaguely outlined in the dusk, dark and mysteri- 
 ous entrances to other caves could be seen. 
 
 4. You see the front of the house first, which looks large and 
 comfortable, on nearing it. 
 
 5. There are children romping on the lawn in front of the 
 house, and many trees about it, and beautiful flower gardens. 
 
 6. On the point of climbing down, I peered through the cur- 
 tain; and there sleeping unconcernedly was my beloved sister in 
 the middle of the aisle. 
 
 7. Recent rains have formed deep gullies, and the prospect is 
 not pleasing to a nervous city girl. 
 
 8. It would seem almost absurd to say that in a country 
 whose existence has been so short as that of America, there could 
 be such a thing as a deserted village. 
 
 9. Nevertheless such places do exist, and to visit one is an 
 experience never to be forgotten, even should it not prove as in- 
 teresting to others as it did to me. 
 
 10. The one window in the house has but six panes, and as 
 one sees it he is impressed with the thought that it serves well its 
 purpose as a ventilator, for two of the panes of glass are broken. 
 
 6. Criticize themes assigned to you and suggest emen- 
 dations according to the following outline. 
 
 Sentences. Unity, (a) Too long, (b) Too short. 
 
 (c) Subordination of parts. 
 Coherence. Rules i, 2, 3, 4. 
 . * • Emphasis, (a) Climax, (b) The End. 
 
Emphasis 
 
 233 
 
 II 
 
 7. Note the repetition of words or phrases in Lin- 
 coln's Gettysburg Oration, Portia's speech on Mercy 
 ("Merchant of Venice," IV, i, IL 184-205), Mark 
 Antony's Funeral Oration ("Julius Caesar,'" III, 2). 
 Do the repetitions emphasize the words ? Do they add 
 to the force of the speeches? Do they add to the 
 beauty of the style? 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 THE QUALITY OF BEAUTY IN SENTENCES 
 
 1. Style possesses the quality of beauty when in ad- 
 dition to being clear and interesting it is attractive and 
 pleasing to the reader. Attention has been centered 
 in this book on the means by which the essential qual- 
 ities of clearness and force may be attained by the 
 beginner in the practical art of rhetoric, and only 
 occasional reference has been made to the harmony be- 
 tween thought and expression, and the ease in com- 
 position which belong to the finer art that seeks the 
 quality of beauty. This quality can be attained only 
 through the mastery of all the units of composition, 
 but it depends especially on the use of words and sen- 
 tences. In sentences we can mark more definitely than 
 in the longer units of composition some of the things 
 that most people dislike and some of the traits that 
 afford most people enjoyment. We must remember, 
 however, that the best way to appreciate and under- 
 stand the quality of beauty is not through rules or dis- 
 cussion, but by the study of the writers of prose who 
 have succeeded in retaining the admiration of their 
 readers. 
 
 2. The principles of composition must be adhered to 
 in any effort to make style attractive and delightful. 
 
 234 
 
The Quality of Beauty 235 
 
 Sentences that contain matters distinct in thought, or 
 that follow no logical arrangement, or present the least 
 important matters at the most important places, annoy 
 and distract every reader. Careful observance of the 
 principles not only secures sentences that are organic, 
 straightforward, well-proportioned expressions of 
 thought, but also trains a student to write with ease 
 and individuality. The same idea may be expressed in 
 a dozen different sentences, and yet each may be an or- 
 ganic whole in accord with the principle of Unity. In 
 developing a topic into a paragraph, no two persons 
 would compose their sentences alike, for each man 
 would put something of himself into them. Great 
 variety in length, periodicity, construction, and ar- 
 rangement is permitted by both grammatical rules and 
 the principles of composition. These must certainly be 
 observed if sentences are to please the reader, but these 
 alone will not insure the quality of beauty. 
 
 3- We cannot attempt, indeed, to solve the secrets of 
 creating the impression of beauty, but we may con- 
 sider four traits, some of which have already been 
 mentioned, that sentences almost always possess when 
 the style appears to readers of good taste — Variety, 
 Conciseness, Rhythm, and Suggestiveness. 
 
 4- Variety is an attribute of beauty in sentences just 
 as much as it is in a landscape or a picture. Nothing 
 offends more than sameness. A writer whose sentences 
 are all on one model wearies his readers and fails to 
 suit his expression to the varied demands of his sub- 
 ject. Thoughts and feelings are not all alike, and they 
 
236 Sentences 
 
 are not to be expressed in the same fashion. So, while 
 our sentences must be grammatical and perfectly intel- 
 ligible, their structure should be continually varied. We 
 should strive to have at our command as many con- 
 structions, as many methods of expression as possible. 
 5« There are two constructions in particular which 
 are greatly overused by many writers. The first is 
 the participial phrase. In any particular case it may 
 be the best possible construction, but it is an awkward 
 one to use repeatedly. The following sentences might 
 not be beautiful if the participles gave place to other 
 constructions, but they would certainly be less clumsy. 
 
 1. The little bell over the door tinkling loudly, Miss 
 Hepzibah, starting to her feet, fairly rushed into the shop. 
 
 2. The wind was blowing the snow into a hurricane, 
 and she, being thin, could not stand against its making 
 her fall down. 
 
 3. On many people now leaving the car, we went 
 from one side to the other, viewing the scenery. 
 
 The second overused construction is the sentence con- 
 sisting of two independent clauses connected by " and " 
 or " but." The construction is a useful one, but it does 
 not adapt itself to all ideas and it soon becomes monot- 
 onous. In revision the student should change the form 
 of as many of these sentences as he can, until he has 
 trained himself to use th^ construction with modera- 
 tion. In the same way he should learn to avoid the 
 very frequent use of any one form of sentence, or any 
 particular grammatical construction. 
 6. Conciseness has already been dwelt on as an es- 
 sential in well-constructed sentences. Beginners are 
 
The Quality of Beauty 237 
 
 likely to have the false notion that diffuseness is grace- 
 ful; on the contrary, the simplest expression is likely 
 to be both the clearest and the most beautiful. One 
 of^ the most objectionable forms of diffuseness is 
 the repetition of words or phrases. Sometimes such 
 repetition is necessary for clearness, especially in ex- 
 position; and sometimes it may be used for the sake 
 of emphasis. But the words repeated must be impor- 
 tant ones; the repetition of unimportant words is al- 
 ways annoying. Diffuseness is, in other cases, due to 
 unnecessary details, or to wordiness in phrasing. In 
 the following sentences the words inclosed in paren- 
 theses are of little or no value. The omissions and 
 changes that are desirable should be carefully noticed, 
 for they are typical of many cases. 
 
 r. Near the center of the roof is a stovepipe (which 
 serves the purpose of a chimney). 
 
 2. In a gulch (a half hundred feet deep, over Minne- 
 haha creek,) sixty feet below (where the laughing water 
 of) Minnehaha Falls (dashes over the shining rocks,) is 
 a little foot-bridge about the length and width of a com- 
 mon street car. 
 
 3. Diffuse. Along this narrow, shady promenade are 
 found rustic seats where the happy pairs, in the afternoon 
 strolls, love to sit and listen to the little brook as it dashes 
 over the stones and sniff the breezes scented by the pine 
 and balsam trees from the neighboring hills beyond, and 
 from the impending cliffs which shelter them from the 
 heat of the sun. 
 
 3. Corrected. Along this narrow shady promenade 
 beneath the overhanging cliffs are rustic seats where one 
 may sit and listen to the little brook and sniff the breezes 
 fragrant with pine and balsam. 
 
238 Sentences 
 
 Another source of diffuseness is in the use of con- 
 necting words. These should always be used with 
 precision, but they need not be conspicuous or cum- 
 bersome. Lincoln's wonderful description of our 
 democratic ideal, " government of the people, by the 
 people, and for the people," is a remarkable example of 
 the use of connectives, to promote conciseness. In the 
 choice of connectives, as in the choice of constructions, 
 and details, one gains in conciseness and beauty of 
 style by taking the simplest. 
 
 7. Rhythm is found in almost all great prose, espe- 
 cially in emotional and imaginative prose. It is not 
 the same as the rhythm of poetry, which is measured 
 rhythm or meter, although both depend on the suc- 
 cession of accented and unaccented syllables. In verse, 
 certain combinations of accented and unaccented syl- 
 lables are called feet, and a certain number of feet make 
 up a line. For example, blank verse, unrhymed iambic 
 pentameter, consists of lines of five feet; and each foot 
 is usually an iambus — that is, an unaccented syllable 
 followed by an accented. So, although there are some 
 variations, " Paradise Lost " and Shakespeare's plays 
 can be scanned according to this regular scheme ; as : 
 
 O, what/a rogue/and peas/ant slave/am I ! 
 
 Is it/not mon/strous that/this play/er here, 
 
 But in/a fic/tion, in/a dream/of pas/sion 
 
 Could force/his soul/so to/his own/conceit. . . . 
 
 Prose is not written with regular recurring meter, nor 
 is it divided into lines with the same number of ac- 
 cented syllables. Regular meter is out of place in 
 
The Quality of Beauty 239 
 
 prose; its rhythm is irregular, unmeasured, not amen- 
 able tp rule. But in all beautiful expression of strongly 
 felt emotion, rhythm is clearly discernible. So the 
 Lord's Prayer owes some of its noble beauty to its 
 solemn rhythm. If we try to indicate this as we in- 
 dicate meter, we find that the feet are not as regularly 
 of one kind as in verse, nor the lines of equal metrical 
 length; but still the rhythm seems mainly due, as in 
 iambic verse, to the alternation of accented and unac- 
 cented syllables. 
 
 Our fa/ther, who art/in heav/en, 
 
 Hallow/ed be/thy name, 
 
 Thy king/dom c6me,/thy will/be done 
 
 On earth/as it is/in heav/en. 
 
 Give us/this day /our dai/ly bread . . . 
 
 8. As is the case with the other attributes of beauty 
 in style, it is easier to tell how to destroy rhythm than 
 how to produce it. A long succession of monosyllabic 
 words is rarely rhythmical ; as — " These new tests may 
 be put to use in the course of time, but they have not 
 been yet." A number of unaccented syllables in succes- 
 sion also destroys rhythm. Any combination of words 
 that sounds unpleasantly interferes with rhythm; 
 such as the collocation of harsh consonant groups, of 
 adverbs in -ly, or words ending in -ing; or a succes- 
 sion of syllables difficult to pronounce. The student 
 should read his themes aloud and consider the way 
 they sound. By this practice he will correct faults in 
 euphony, and euphony is necessary for rhythm. By 
 forming the habit of reading aloud passages of the 
 
240 Sentences 
 
 best prose, he will learn to appreciate the quality ,of 
 rhythm in the sentences of others. 
 9. Suggestiveness is perhaps the most essential at- 
 tribute to beauty in style. Sentences not only express 
 definitely certain thoughts and feelings, they suggest 
 others. This suggestiveness arises largely from the 
 words used, but in no small part from the form of 
 the sentences. Write an account of the exciting finish 
 of a race ; and your clauses naturally become short, sev- 
 eral crowd into a sentence, there are few connectives, 
 there is no elaborate structure. The form of the sen- 
 tences suggests rapidity and excitement. Take, for 
 example, the description of the shipwreck in " David 
 Copperfield," and note how the movement of the sen- 
 tences suggests the nervous tension and breathless 
 action. Such sentences would not be suited to many 
 subjects ; to the description, for instance, of a sunrise. 
 They may be compared with a single sentence in which 
 Ruskin has described a sunrise in the Alps, and has 
 also insisted on the preeminence of Turner as a painter 
 of clouds. 
 
 And then wait yet for one hour, until the east again be- 
 comes purple, and the heaving mountains, rolling against 
 it in darkness, like waves of a wild sea, are drowned one 
 by one in the glory of its burning; watch the white gla- 
 ciers blaze in their winding paths about the mountains, 
 like mighty serpents with scales of fire ; watch the colum- 
 nar peaks of solitary snow, kindling downwards, chasm 
 by chasm, each in itself a new morning; their long ava- 
 lanches cast down in keen streams brighter than the light- 
 ning, sending each his tribute of driven snow, like altar- 
 
The Quality of Beauty 241 
 
 smoke, up to the heaven; the rose-light of their silent 
 domes flushing that heaven about them and above them, 
 piercing with purer light through its purple lines of 
 lifted cloud, casting a new glory on every wreath as it 
 passes by, until the whole heaven — one scarlet canopy — 
 is interwoven with a roof of waving flame, and tossing, 
 vault beyond vault, as with the drifted wings of many 
 companies of angels ; and then, when you can look no more 
 for gladness, and when you are bowed down with fear 
 and love of the Maker and Doer of this, tell me who has 
 best delivered His message unto men ! 
 
 John Ruskin : Modern Painters. 
 
 Turn now to the stories of Ruth (Book of Ruth, Chap- 
 ter 2) and the sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis, Chapter 22) 
 in the authorized version, and you will see how the 
 simplest constructions and the repetition of construc- 
 tions may suggest solemnity and sincerity of emotion. 
 Thus sentences may be formed in complete harmony 
 with the thought and feeling to be expressed. They 
 may not only express ideas to the intelligence of the 
 reader, but may also, by their construction, their 
 rhythm, and movement, awake in the reader a state of 
 feeling in harmony with that of the waiter. 
 10. A considerable range of suggestion may be at- 
 tained by any of us in our sentences. The different 
 effects of long and short sentences have already been 
 discussed on pages 175, 176. All sentences, in fact, are 
 bound to suggest something beyond the thought that 
 they directly express. Short, jerky, incomplete sen- 
 tences; artfully balanced sentences; long, loose, ram- 
 bling sentences — each impresses on the reader some 
 
 suggestion due to its form. Certain kinds of sugges- 
 16 
 
242 Sentences 
 
 tion can be consciously avoided. Artificiality, pre- 
 tentiousness, eccentricity, are not impressions derived 
 from the best prose. We are less likely to attain beauty 
 of style by trying to write artistically than by trying 
 to write simply. Humor, fun, excitement, sorrow, ad- 
 miration will find their own proper expressions if we 
 are content to express what we think and feel as sim- 
 ply and truly as possible. 
 
 II. The quality of beauty in sentences is not to be 
 sought as something apart by itself, but as something 
 that can come only after careful observance of the 
 rules of grammar and the principles of composition. 
 First, we should make sure that our sentences are well 
 constructed; then we may consider what things de- 
 tract from the reader's delight, and what qualities add 
 to his enjoyment. Conciseness, variety, rhythm, and 
 suggestiveness are among the attributes that go to 
 make up the power to please the reader esthetically. 
 The first two are in some degree within the reach of 
 every writer, the last two can at least be studied in the 
 prose of the great masters, and can be attempted as 
 we advance in the mastery of the principles. Even if 
 the power of creating beauty does not come to us, we 
 can learn to avoid whatever interferes with the en- 
 joyment of our sentences by people of good taste, and 
 we can learn to appreciate fully the quality of beauty in 
 the writings of others. 
 
The Quality of Beauty 243 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 V 
 
 I 
 
 I. The last five chapters have suppHed abundant di- 
 rections for the analysis of sentences. The following 
 outline may be used. 
 
 I. Kind of Sentence. 
 A. Long or short. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 B. 
 
 Loose or periodic. 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Simple, compound, or complex 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Other peculiarities of structure; 
 tive, balanced, etc. 
 
 interroga- 
 
 Unity 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 In the contents of the sentence. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 In the structure of the sentence. 
 
 
 Coherence. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Rule I, Grammatical Relations. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Rule 2, Connectives. 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Rule 3, Order of Parts. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Rule 4, Parallel ConstructionSo 
 
 
 Emphasis. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Various means; capitals, italics, 
 
 repetition, 
 
 
 inversion, peculiarities of structure. 
 
 B. 
 
 Climax. 
 
 
 C. 
 
 The beginning and the end. 
 
 
 Beauty. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Conciseness. 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Rhythm, including euphony. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Suggestiveness. 
 
 
 2. The following list of sentences includes some of 
 the most famous in our literature. They may be an- 
 alyzed according to the outline in Exercise i. 
 
244 Sentences 
 
 1. O eloquent, just, and mighty Death! whom none 
 could advise, thou hast persuaded ; what none hath dared, 
 thou hast done; and whom all the world hath flattered, 
 thou only hast cast out of the world and despised ; thou 
 hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness, all the 
 pride, cruelty, and ambition of man, and covered it all over 
 with these two narrow words, Hie jacet. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 2. Read not to contradict and confute ; nor to believe 
 and take for granted ; nor to find talk and discourse ; but 
 to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, 
 others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and 
 digested ; that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; 
 others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be 
 read wholly, and with diligence and attention. . . . Read- 
 ing maketh a full man ; conference a ready man ; and writ- 
 ing an exact man. Francis Bacon. 
 
 3. When all is done, human life is, at the greatest and 
 the best, but like a froward child, that must be played 
 with and humoured a little to keep it quiet till it falls asleep, 
 and then the care is over. 
 
 Sir William Temple. 
 
 4. A little generous prudence, a little forbearance of 
 one another, and some grain of charity might win all these 
 diligencies to join and unite into one general and brotherly 
 search after Truth ; could we but forego this prelatical tra- 
 dition of crowding free consciences and Christian liberties 
 into canons and precepts of men. John Milton. 
 
 5. Having thus taken my resolutions to march on 
 boldly in the cause of virtue and good sense, and to annoy 
 their adversaries in whatever degree or rank of men they 
 may be found, I shall be deaf for the future to all the re- 
 monstrances that shall be made to me on this account. . . . 
 In short, if I meet anything in city, court, or country, that 
 
The Quality of Beauty 245 
 
 shocks modesty or good manners, I shall use my utmost 
 
 endeavours to make an example of it. I must however in- 
 
 treat every particular person, who does me the honour to 
 
 be a reader of this paper, never to think himself, or any 
 
 one of his friends or enemies, aimed at in what is said: 
 
 for I promise him, never to draw a faulty character which 
 
 does not fit at least a thousand people; or to publish a 
 
 single paper, that is not written in the spirit of benevolence 
 
 and with a love to mankind. , . 
 
 Joseph Addison. 
 
 6. What he attempted, he performed ; he is never fee- 
 ble, and he did not wish to be energetic ; he is never rapid, 
 and he never stagnates. His sentences have neither stud- 
 ied amplitude, nor affected brevity: his periods, though 
 not diligently rounded, are voluble and easy. Whoever 
 wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, 
 and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and 
 
 nights to the volumes of Addison. ^ t 
 
 ^ Samuel Johnson. 
 
 7. It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the 
 
 Queen of France, then the Dauphiness, at Versailles ; arid 
 
 surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed 
 
 to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above 
 
 the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere 
 
 she just began to move in ; glittering like the morning star, 
 
 full of life, and splendour and joy. t- t> 
 
 ^ •' -^ Edmund Burke. 
 
 8. (Petrarch's Vision of Death.) The milder and 
 calmer Genius, the third, in proportion as I took courage 
 to contemplate him, regarded me with more and more 
 complacency. He held neither flower nor arrow as the 
 others did ; but throwing back the clusters of dark curls 
 that overshadowed his countenance, he presented to me his 
 hand, openly and benignly. I shrank on looking at him 
 so near, and yet I sighed to love him. He smiled, not with- 
 out an expression of pity, at perceiving my diffidence, my 
 
246 
 
 Sentences 
 
 timidity; for I remembered how soft was the hand of 
 Sleep, how warm and entrancing was Love's. By degrees 
 I became ashamed of my ingratitude ; and turning my face 
 away, I held out my arms, and I felt my neck within his. 
 Composure strewed and allayed all the throbbings of my 
 bosom ; the coolness of freshest morning breathed around ; 
 the heavens seemed to open above me ; while the beautiful 
 cheek of my deliverer rested on my head. 
 
 Walter Savage Landor. 
 
 9. Upwards of five-hundred-thousand two-legged 
 animals without feathers lie around us in horizontal po- 
 sitions ; their heads all in nightcaps, and full of the fool- 
 ishest dreams. Riot cries aloud, and staggers and swag- 
 gers in his rank dens of shame; and the Mother, with 
 streaming hair, kneels over her pallid dying infant, whose 
 cracked lips only her tears now moisten. — All these 
 heaped and huddled together, with nothing but a little 
 carpentry and masonry between them ; — crammed in, like 
 salted fish in their barrel; or weltering, shall I say, like 
 an Egyptian pitcher of tamed Vipers, each struggling to 
 get its head above the others : such work goes on under 
 
 that smoke-counterpane! ^ ^ 
 
 ^ Thomas Carlyle. 
 
 10. (The agent of a London company at Athens.) He 
 would look over the ^gean from the height he had as- 
 cended ; he would follow with his eye the chain of islands, 
 which, starting from the Sunian headland, seemed to offer 
 the fabled divinities of Attica, when they would visit their 
 Ionian cousins, a sort of viaduct thereto across the sea: 
 but that fancy would not occur to him, nor any admira- 
 tion of the dark violet billows with their white edges down 
 below ; nor of those graceful, fan-like jets of silver upon 
 the rocks, which slowly rise aloft like water spirits from 
 the deep, then shiver, and break, and spread, and shroud 
 themselves, and disappear in a soft mist of foam ; nor of 
 the gentle, incessant heaving and panting of the whole 
 liquid plain ; nor of the long waves, keeping steady time, 
 
The Quality of Beauty 247 
 
 like a line of soldiery as they resound upon the hollow 
 shore, — he would not deign to notice that restless living 
 element at all except to bless his stars that he was not 
 
 ^P°^ ^ ' John Henry Cardinal Newman. 
 
 II. At the usual evening hour the chapel bell began 
 to toll, and Thomas Newcome's hands outside the bed 
 feebly beat time. And just as the last bell struck, a pecu- 
 Har sweet smile shone over his face, and he lifted up his 
 head a little, and quickly said " Adsum ! " and fell back. 
 It was the word we used at school, when names were 
 called ; and lo, he, whose heart was as that of a little child, 
 had answered to his name, and stood in the presence of 
 
 The Master. William Makepeace Thackeray. 
 
 12. Is it not the chief disgrace of the world not to be 
 a unit, not to be reckoned one character, not to yield that 
 particular fruit, which each man was created to bear ; but 
 to be reckoned in the gross, in the hundred, or thousand, 
 of the party, the section, to which we belong; and our 
 opinion predicted geographically, as the north, or the 
 south? Not so, brothers and friends, — please God, ours 
 shall not be so. We will vi^alk on our own feet ; we will 
 work with our own hands ; we will speak our own minds. 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 13. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great 
 task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we 
 take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave 
 the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly re- 
 solve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this 
 nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and 
 that government of the people, by the people, and for the 
 people, shall not perish from the earth. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
248 
 
 Sentences 
 
 3. Rewrite the following passage; from each paren- 
 thesis choose one expression and reject the others. 
 Remember that the simplest constructions, consistent 
 with clearness, are most likely to give beauty of style. 
 
 I. So Richard Digby took an axe, (in order to hew, 
 that he might hew, for hewing, to hew) space enough (to 
 build, for) a tabernacle in the wilderness, (also, and, with) 
 some few other necessaries, (particularly, most noticeable 
 of all, especially) a sword and gun (to, in order to, that 
 he might) smite and slay (any one who intruded, any in- 
 truder) (upon, on, into) his hallowed seclusion, (then, 
 and, thereupon) plunged into the dreariest depths of the 
 forest. 2. (On its. On reaching its) verge, however, he 
 paused (for the space of a, for a, a) moment (to, in order 
 to, that he might) shake off the dust of his feet against the 
 village (in which, where) he had dwelt, and (for the pur- 
 pose of invoking, to invoke, in order to invoke) a curse 
 (on, upon, against) the meeting-house (which, for, since, 
 because) he regarded (it) as a temple of heathen idolatry. 
 3. (A curiosity excited him. He was curious. He felt a 
 curiosity) (besides, in addition, also, moreover) to see 
 whether the fire and brimstone would not rush down from 
 heaven at once, (considering the fact that, now that, since) 
 the one righteous man had provided for his own safety. 4. 
 But, (as, when he saw that, seeing that) the sunshine con- 
 tinued to fall peacefully (on, upon, over) the cottages and 
 fields, and (that) the husbandmen labored and children 
 played, and (as, when, that) there were many tokens of 
 present happiness, and nothing ominous of a speedy judg- 
 ment, he turned away (in no little disappointment, some- 
 what disappointed, a disappointed man). 5. (As he went 
 farther. Going farther. The farther he went,) however, 
 and (as he felt himself lonelier, growing more lonely, the 
 lonelier he felt himself), and (as the trees stood thicker, 
 seeing the trees stand thicker, the thicker the trees stood) 
 (on the sides of, along) his path, and (as the shadows 
 grew darker, the shadows darker, the darker the shadows) 
 
The Quality of Beauty 249 
 
 (overhead, above his head,) (the more, so much the 
 more, more and more) (did Richard Digby exult, Richard 
 Digby exulted). 6. (He talked to himself, Talking to 
 himself. As he talked to himself) (as he strode, striding, 
 he strode) onv^ard; (he read, reading) his Bible to him- 
 self (sitting, he sat, as he sat) beneath the trees; and, as 
 the gloom of the forest hid the blessed sky, (I was at the 
 point of adding, I had* almost added) that, at morning, 
 noon, and eventide, he prayed to himself. 7. (He found 
 this mode of life so congenial, So congenial was this mode 
 of life to his disposition, He was so congenially disposed 
 to this mode of life. Finding this mode of life so congenial 
 to his disposition) (that) he often laughed to himself, 
 (but, however, nevertheless) was displeased (when, as, 
 if) an echo tossed (him, to him, upon him) back the long 
 loud roar. 
 
 4- Select a passage from your reading in which the 
 sentences are noteworthy for their rhythm or sugges- 
 tiveness. Bring the passage to the class, where it will 
 be made the basis for discussion of style. 
 5. From each pair of sentences in the following list, 
 select the one that best expresses the thought. The 
 merits of the sentences as translations from foreign 
 languages should be disregarded, and they should be 
 judged solely as English sentences. Determine your 
 reasons for preferring the one to the other, and arrange 
 these reasons, as far as possible, in accordance with the 
 plan of analysis given in Exercise i. Consider par- 
 ticularly whether either sentence has positive faults; 
 whether one is better in some respects and the other in 
 other respects; whether your reasons for preferring 
 one relate to its Unity, Coherence, or Emphasis; 
 
250 
 
 Sentences 
 
 whether your preference depends on the choice of a 
 construction, on the choice of words, or any peculiar- 
 ity not yet commented on in the book. Can you com- 
 pose a sentence that will express the thought better 
 than either example? 
 
 FROM XENOPHON'S "ANABASIS" 
 
 A 
 
 1. Here Cyrus had a palace, 
 and an extensive park full of 
 wild beasts which he was ac- 
 customed to hunt on horseback 
 whenever he wished to give 
 himself and his horses exer- 
 cise. 
 
 2. Through the middle of 
 this park runs the river Mean- 
 der, but the head of it rises 
 in the palace ; it runs also 
 through the city of Celaenae. 
 
 3. Cyrus reviewed in the 
 plain, both his Greeks and Bar- 
 barian forces; ordering the 
 Greeks to dispose themselves 
 according to their custom, and 
 stand in order of battle, and 
 that each of the commanders 
 should draw up his own men. 
 
 4. Some wished that they 
 might be taken, as having acted 
 perfidiously ; while others pitied 
 their fate, if they should be 
 caught. 
 
 5. The Greeks, even such as 
 had been previously disinclined 
 to the expedition, when they 
 heard of the noble conduct of 
 Cyrus, accompanied him with 
 greater pleasure and alacrity. 
 
 B 
 
 1. Here the palace of Cyrus 
 stood, and an extensive park 
 full of wild beasts, which Cy- 
 rus hunted on horseback, 
 whenever he had a mind to ex- 
 ercise himself and his horses. 
 
 2. Through the middle of 
 this park flows the river Mean- 
 der; its springs issue from the 
 palace itself; and it runs also 
 through the city of Celaenae. 
 
 3. Cyrus reviewed his 
 troops, as well Greeks as Bar- 
 barians, in the plain. He or- 
 dered the Greeks to be mar- 
 shaled, and to take their places, 
 as they were accustomed to do 
 for battle, each captain arrang- 
 ing his own men. 
 
 4. Some wished that, hav- 
 ing acted perfidiously, they 
 might be taken ; others pitied 
 them, if they should fall into 
 his hands. 
 
 5. The Greeks, if any be- 
 fore showed a backwardness to 
 the enterprise, seeing this in- 
 stance of Cyrus's virtue, fol- 
 lowed him with greater pleas- 
 ure and cheerfulness. 
 
The Quality of Beauty 251 
 
 6. He also called Clearchus 
 to the council, as a man whom 
 both he and the rest consid- 
 ered to be of the greatest dig- 
 nity among the Greeks. 
 
 7. I have solicited your at- 
 tendance, my friends, in order 
 that, on consulting with you, I 
 may do, with regard to Oron- 
 tas here before you, whatever 
 may be thought just before 
 gods and men. 
 
 8. The enemy's numbers are 
 great, and they make their on- 
 set with a loud shout; but if 
 you are firm against this, I feel 
 ashamed to think what sort of 
 men, in other respects, you will 
 find those in the country to be. 
 
 FROM PLATO'S 
 A 
 
 1. Not much time will be 
 gained, O Athenians, in return 
 for the evil name which you 
 will get from the detractors of 
 the city, who will say that you 
 killed Socrates, a wise man. 
 
 2. But neither did I then 
 think that I ought, for the sake 
 of avoiding danger, to do any- 
 thing unworthy of a freeman, 
 nor do I now repent of having 
 so defended myself; but I 
 should much rather choose to 
 die, having so defended myself, 
 than to live in that way. 
 
 B 
 
 6. Clearchus he called in to 
 assist at the council, as that 
 officer appeared both to him- 
 self and to the rest, to be held 
 most in honor among the 
 Greeks. 
 
 7. Friends ! I have called 
 you hither to the end that I 
 may consider with you what is 
 most just both in the sight of 
 gods and men, and accordingly 
 proceed against this criminal 
 Orontas, 
 
 8. Their numbers are great, 
 and they come on with mighty 
 shouts, which if you can un- 
 derstand, for the rest, I am al- 
 most ashamed to think what 
 kind of men you will find our 
 country produces. 
 
 " APOLOGIA " 
 B 
 
 1. For the sake of no long 
 space of time, O Athenians, 
 you will incur the character 
 and reproach at the hands of 
 those who wish to defame the 
 city, of having put that wise 
 man, Socrates, to death. 
 
 2. I thought at the time that 
 I ought not to do anything 
 common or mean when in dan- 
 ger: nor do I now repent of 
 the manner of my defence, and 
 I would rather die having 
 spoken after my manner, than 
 speak in your manner and 
 live. 
 
252 
 
 Sentences 
 
 3. But this is not difficult, 
 O Athenians, to escape death, 
 but it is much more difficult 
 to avoid depravity, for it runs 
 swifter than death. 
 
 4. And now I depart hence 
 condemned by you to suffer 
 the penalty of death, and they 
 go their ways condemned by 
 the truth to suffer the penalty 
 of villainy and wrong; and I 
 must abide by my award — let 
 them abide by theirs. 
 
 5. For you have done this, 
 thinking you should be freed 
 from the necessity of giving an 
 account of your life. The very 
 contrary, however, as I affirm, 
 will happen to you. 
 
 6. If you think that by kill- 
 ing men you can prevent some 
 one from censuring your evil 
 lives, you are mistaken ; that is 
 not a way of escape which is 
 either possible or honourable; 
 the easiest and the noblest way 
 is not to be disabling others, 
 but to be improving yourselves. 
 
 7. And if it is a privation of 
 all sensation, as it were a sleep 
 in which the sleeper has no 
 dream, death would be a won- 
 derful gain. 
 
 B 
 
 3. The difficulty, my friends, 
 is not in avoiding death, but 
 in avoiding unrighteousness ; 
 for that runs faster than death. 
 
 4. And now I depart, con- 
 demned by you to death; but 
 they condemned by truth, as 
 guilty of iniquity and injus- 
 tice: and I abide by my sen- 
 tence and so do they. 
 
 5. Me you have killed be- 
 cause you wanted to escape the 
 accuser, and not to give an ac- 
 count of your lives. But that 
 will not be as you suppose : far 
 otherwise. 
 
 6. For if you think that by 
 putting men to death you will 
 restrain anyone from upbraid- 
 ing you because you do not live 
 well, you are much mistaken ; 
 for this method of escape is nei- 
 ther possible nor honourable, 
 but that other is most honour- 
 able and most easy, not to put 
 a check upon others, but for a 
 man to take heed to himself, 
 how he may be most perfect. 
 
 7. Now if you suppose that 
 there is no consciousness, but a 
 sleep like the sleep of him who 
 is undisturbed even by the 
 sight of dreams, death will be 
 an unspeakable gain. 
 
The Quality of Beauty 253^ 
 
 8. Now if death is like this, 
 I say that to die is gain; for 
 eternity is then only a single 
 night. 
 
 9. At what price, my judges, 
 would not anyone estimate the 
 opportunity of questioning him 
 who led that mighty army 
 against Troy, or Ulysses, or 
 Sisyphus, or ten thousand 
 others, whom one might men- 
 tion, both men and women? 
 with whom to converse and as- 
 sociate, and to question them, 
 would be an inconceivable hap- 
 piness. 
 
 10. Surely for that the 
 judges there do not condemn 
 to death ; for in other respects 
 those who live there are more 
 happy than those that are here, 
 and are henceforth immortal, 
 if at least what is said be true. 
 
 11. I see clearly that to die 
 and be released was better for 
 me; and therefore the oracle 
 gave no sign. For which rea- 
 son, also, I am not angry with 
 my condemners, or with my 
 accusers ; they have done me 
 no harm, although they did not 
 mean to do me any good ; and 
 for this reason I may gently 
 blame them. 
 
 B 
 
 8. If, therefore, death is a 
 thing of this kind, I say it is 
 a gain ; for thus all futurity ap- 
 pears to be nothing more than 
 one night. 
 
 9. What would not a man 
 give, O judges, to be able to 
 examine the leader of the great 
 Trojan expedition ; or Odys- 
 seus or Sisyphus, or number- 
 less other men and women too ! 
 What infinite delight would 
 there be in conversing with 
 them and asking them ques- 
 tions ! 
 
 10. In another world they 
 do not put a man to death for 
 asking questions ; assuredly 
 not. For besides being happier 
 in that world than this, they 
 will be immortal, if what is 
 said is true. 
 
 11. But this is clear to me, 
 that now to die, and be freed 
 from my cares, is better for 
 me. On this account the warn- 
 ing in no way turned me aside ; 
 and I bear no resentment to- 
 wards those who condemned 
 me, or against my accusers. 
 Although they did not con- 
 demn and accuse me with this 
 intention, but thinking to in- 
 jure me : in this they deserve to 
 be blamed. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 THE VOCABULARY 
 
 1. We have now come to the fourth element of style, 
 words. Some words which we see and hear frequently 
 are not used at all by reputable writers; others are 
 used incorrectly by many persons. In our choice and 
 use of words we must be governed primarily by good 
 use. Many examples of misuse will be considered in 
 the later chapters of this book. If the student is in 
 doubt in regard to a word, he should turn at once to 
 the lists in Chapters 24 and 25, or to a dictionary, and 
 find out whether the word is permissible and what is its 
 meaning. We shall consider in this and the two fol- 
 lowing chapters some questions about the use of words 
 which are not settled by the dictionaries. How can 
 the student become acquainted with a large number 
 of words? What are the particular values of different 
 kinds of words? What kinds of words are to be 
 avoided ? 
 
 2. All that the student has learned of composition, of 
 the arrangement of ideas in themes, paragraphs, and 
 sentences, will be useless unless he acquires an intimate 
 acquaintance with a good many words. Some of our 
 latest dictionaries contain over two hundred thousand 
 
 254 
 
The Vocabulary 255 
 
 words. These have been derived in large part from 
 Anglo-Saxon, in large part from Latin through 
 French, and in smaller parts from nearly all the lan- 
 guages of the earth. There are words enough for 
 what we want to say. No one person, in fact, ever uses 
 more than a small part of this immense total. Even 
 Shakespeare used only twenty-three thousand, and 
 probably many people ^manage to do a little writing and 
 reading and a good deal of talking without being sure 
 of more than a thousand. If, however, the student is 
 going to read much and think much, and if he is going 
 to write at all, he needs many more than a thousand 
 words. He needs to know the meaning and value of 
 as many as possible. How is he to set about this ? He 
 should begin by taking the right attitude. He should 
 realize that we live in a world of words as well as a 
 world of things, and that everything in this world of 
 men and women, fields and houses, thoughts and feel- 
 ings, facts and relations, has its word. Words are for 
 study, interest, acquaintance, and above all, for use. 
 3' There are several practical ways for increasing the 
 extent and familiarity of your acquaintance with words 
 and your ability to use them effectively. 
 4. First: Keep on the lookout for new words. If 
 you see or hear one which you understand but are not 
 in the habit of using, go out of your way to use it until 
 it becomes familiar. If you see or hear one which you 
 do not understand, look it up in the dictionary at once, 
 and afterward use it if possible. Never let a strange 
 or half -understood word get by you. 
 
256 . Words 
 
 5. Second : Read as much as possible in good English 
 authors, in history, science, travels, and biography, as 
 well as fiction. Read with your eyes open not only 
 for new words but also for old ones, and note the dif- 
 ferent meanings that a word attaches to itself. In the 
 same way, notice the words that you hear in sermons, 
 lectures, or conversation, in order that you may become 
 familiar with the different uses and effects of many 
 words. 
 
 6. Third: In talking and writing, discriminate care- 
 fully in your choice of words. Make sure you have 
 just the right word for what you want to say. When 
 you lack a word, hunt for it until you find it. The 
 study of synonyms, words similar but not identical in 
 meaning, will be an aid in this work of discrimination. 
 Think of all the words which come somewhere near 
 answering your purpose. Building, house, edifice, 
 mansion, residence, cottage, domicile, home — what 
 differences are there in meaning, and which word do 
 you want? Here again you will need to study a dic- 
 tionary and, if possible, a book of synonyms. 
 
 7- Fourth: Distinguish between general and specific 
 words. A slight study of synonyms will show that 
 some words have more general meanings than others. 
 "Building " is a general word, for there are cathedrals, 
 brick blocks, city halls, churches, houses, and many 
 other kinds of buildings. " House " is a less general 
 and more specific word than " building '' ; " cottage " 
 is still less general and more specific. " A vine-covered 
 cottage " is a still more specific term. General and 
 
The Vocabulary 257 
 
 specific words both have their advantages. If you 
 are dealing with general ideas, you need general words. 
 " Patriotism, love, education, expansion, duty, good, 
 brave " are general words which we use frequently. 
 If, however, you are dealing with specific ideas you 
 must use specific words. When some one speaks of a 
 deed of patriotism, a question of duty, a good sermon, 
 he gives us very little exact information about the deed, 
 the question, or sermon. The deed may have been 
 going to a caucus ; the question, whether to learn a les- 
 son or not; the sermon, brief and caustic. A few spe- 
 cific words supply us with precise ideas. A general 
 word presents a large class of individual ideas under 
 one term; a specific word presents one idea precisely 
 and definitely. Therefore, for precision in expression, 
 use as many specific words as possible. 
 
 8. When we say that specific words are more exact 
 and definite than general words, we mean that they 
 present more exact and definite images to the mind of 
 the reader. " Cottage " gives a more definite mental 
 picture than " building"; " crash " gives a more defi- 
 nite image than " sound." Usually, then, a specific 
 word is not only more exact in its meaning than a 
 general word, it is also more forcible in its impression. 
 If you wish to make your readers see and feel vividly 
 what you have seen and felt, you will use many spe- 
 cific words. 
 
 9. The purpose of these suggestions and of the exer- 
 cises that follow is to enlarge the student's knowledge 
 of words and their meanings, and to enable him to use 
 
 17 
 
258 Words 
 
 them with precision and vividness. For every object 
 or idea there should come to his mind a number of 
 words, his knowledge of which should be so thorough 
 that he can instantly choose the one that will express 
 his thought most clearly and forcibly. This is the 
 ideal which should guide his study of words. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In your reading during the week, note five words 
 that are new to you or used with meanings new to 
 you. Words in general use are to be selected, and not 
 technical words confined in their use to some trade, 
 game, or science. These lists are to be handed to the 
 teacher and will be made the basis of especial study and 
 discussion. 
 
 2. In the first two selections given in Chapter 6, from 
 Burke and Darwin, select all the words that seem to 
 you of Anglo-Saxon origin, and all of Latin origin. 
 What differences do you note in the uses of these two 
 classes of words? What differences in the ratio of the 
 two classes in the two authors? Find Anglo-Saxon 
 synonyms for as many of the Latin words as possible. 
 3- From your reading select a paragraph which con- 
 tains a large number of Anglo-Saxon words; one con- 
 taining a large number of words derived from the 
 Latin. What differences in effect do you notice that 
 seem due to this difference in the choice of words? 
 
The Vocabulary 259 
 
 4. In the two paragraphs from Burke and Darwin 
 examined under Exercise 2, note the general and the 
 specific words. What differences in the uses of these 
 two classes of words? In the usage of the two au- 
 thors? Substitute specific words for the general. 
 What difference in the effect produced ? 
 
 The two paragraphs in Exercise 3 may be treated 
 to a similar examination. 
 
 5. What is the exact meaning of each of the follow- 
 ing words ? What different meanings has each ? Use 
 a word in a sentence so as to illustrate its principal 
 meaning. These words have all been used on the pre- 
 ceding pages of this book, in the text or the selections 
 in the exercises. Their history, derivation, use, and 
 
 value may well be studied further. . Jm/VZ-^-v 
 
 1. akimbo. 20. foment. I K^iy^^^"^^ 
 
 2. ambiguous. 21. function. ^x/t/^''''^^^ 
 
 3. Anabaptists. 2.2. humanize. 
 
 4. analogy. 23. husbandman. 
 
 5. apotheosize. 24. incongruity. 
 
 6. apparition. 25. incubation. 
 
 7. ascetic. 26. indefatigable. 
 
 8. august. 27. isolated. 
 
 9. austere. 28. juridicial. 
 
 ID. chine. 29. knights of the shire. 
 
 11. cleft. 30. lucidity. 
 
 12. complacency. 31. malignity. 
 
 13. comprehensiveness. 32. martyrology. 
 
 14. consummate. ZZ- metamorphosis. 
 
 15. cranching. 34. Michaelmas. 
 
 16. detriment. 35. misanthropy. 
 
 17. environs. z^- nitrifaction. 
 
 18. exigency. ZT- opulence. 
 
 19. focus. 38. pensiveness. 
 
26o 
 
 Words 
 
 39. peremptory. 
 
 40. prelatical, 
 
 41. portcullis. 
 
 42. puckish. 
 
 43. rhapsody. 
 
 44. rococo. 
 
 45. rudiments. 
 
 46. scurrility. 
 
 47. sensuous. 
 
 48. seraphim. 
 
 49. spontaneity. 
 
 50. tentative. 
 
 51. translucent. 
 
 52. troubadour. 
 
 53. unpremeditated. 
 
 54. unsullied. 
 
 55. vicissitudes. 
 
 56. voluble. 
 
 57. weltering. 
 
 58. whimsy. 
 
 6. Hand in a list of four words of nearly the same 
 meaning as each of the following. Nouns: — ability, 
 audience, companion, character, disaster, name, person, 
 porch, series. Adjectives: — brave, foolish, new, ob- 
 vious, pleasant, rich, warm. Verbs: — advise, begin, 
 command, disgust, eat, forsake, happen, help, pardon, 
 reside, run. 
 
 These lists are for further comparison and discrim- 
 ination. 
 
 7.^ Take one of the groups of synonyms made in Ex- 
 ercise 6, and with the aid of a dictionary or book of 
 synonyms discriminate carefully between the five 
 words. Make a report, following this outline. 
 
 1. What general meaning, if any, is applicable to all 
 five? 
 
 2. Which is the most general of all the words ? Will 
 its meaning include all the others? 
 
 3. What is the special meaning of each, a meaning 
 that cannot be applied to any of the others ? 
 
 4. Write a sentence illustrating the meaning of each, 
 or one sentence illustrating the meanings of all five. 
 
 1 This exercise is based on §§ 62, 63, " Constructive Rhetoric," 
 E. E. Hale, Jr. 
 
The Vocabulary 261 
 
 Each word should be used in such a way that none of 
 the others can be substituted for it. 
 
 In this exercise all the meanings for each word are 
 not to be considered, but only the synonymous ones, 
 those which are similar for the five words. The fol- 
 lowing report may serve for an example. 
 
 Synonyms. Acquaintance, associate, companion, 
 comrade, friend. 
 
 1. All these words may denote persons known to one and on 
 some terms of intercourse with one. In this sense they are syno- 
 nyms. Companion may also be applied to things; and acquain- 
 tance may denote "all one's acquaintances" or "the state of 
 being acquainted " as well as a person. 
 
 2. Acquaintance is the most general word. Associates, com- 
 •rades, companions, and friends must all be acquaintances, though 
 they are something more than acquaintances. 
 
 3. Acquaintance means a person known to one but not very 
 well known or on terms of intimacy. 
 
 Associate is usually a person connected with one in some busi- 
 ness or other undertaking. 
 
 Comrade is a person associated with one in a friendly way. 
 
 Companion may imply a still greater degree of familiarity, 
 though it is often quite synonymous with comrade. It may mean 
 a habitual comrade, one who shares one's lot. 
 
 Friend denotes a person attached to one on terms of great in- 
 timacy. The intimacy is greater than in the case of the other 
 words, and is not limited by time or space. 
 
 4. For several years he was only an acquaintance, but later he 
 was my associate on the Board of Selectmen and my comrade in 
 the Civil War, then during our residence in Brunswick we were 
 constant companions, and now, though I have not seen him for 
 years, we are still close friends. 
 
 8. The following passages are taken from a short 
 composition on " Sir Walter Scott." Suggest another 
 
262 Words 
 
 word for each of those in italics. The words substi- 
 tuted may be synonyms, or more specific terms, or 
 words with meanings that seem to you more appropri- 
 ate than those given. 
 
 The grand sacrifice in the life of Sir Walter Scott . . . 
 his life of luxury and ease ... his whole-souled gen- 
 erosity ... his interesting and admirable character . . . 
 he had a strong memory for whatever pleased him . . . 
 he dashed off with wonderful rapidity the Waverley Nov- 
 els. . . . The humiliation of this failure was terrible to 
 Scott, who was very highstrung, but he met the trial with 
 strength and dignity . . . that course of untiring indus- 
 try. ... It was a tremendous exertion ... his invaluable 
 works ... a striking example of spirit and generosity. 
 
 9* Study the effect of specific words in these stanzas 
 from Tennyson's " The Day-Dream." What general 
 impressions do you receive from reading the stanzas? 
 How do the various specific words aid in producing this 
 effect ? Note particularly the verbs and the participles. 
 Substitute more general words for these ; what change 
 in the effect? 
 
 A touch, a kiss ! the charm was snapt. 
 
 There rose a noise of striking clocks, 
 And feet that ran, and doors that clapt, 
 
 And barking dogs, and crowing cocks ; 
 A fuller light illumined all, 
 
 A breeze thro' all the garden swept, 
 A sudden hubbub shook the hall, 
 
 And sixty feet the fountain leapt. 
 
 The hedge broke in, the banner blew. 
 The butler drank, the steward scrawl'd. 
 
 The fire shot up, the martin flew, 
 
 The parrot scream'd, the peacock squall'd. 
 
The Vocabulary 263 
 
 The maid and page renewed their strife, 
 The palace bang'd and buzz'd and clackt, 
 
 And all the long-pent stream of life 
 Dash'd downward in a cataract. 
 
 Examine the following verses from the same poem and 
 note the general words. Why are they used here 
 rather than more specific words? What effects are 
 gained ? Substitute specific words, and how are the ef- 
 fects changed? 
 
 You shake your head. A random string 
 
 Your finer female sense offends. 
 Well — were it not a pleasant thing 
 
 To fall asleep with all one's friends ; 
 To pass with all our social ties 
 
 To silence from the paths of men ; 
 And every hundred years to rise 
 
 And learn the world, and sleep again ; 
 To sleep thro' terms of mighty wars, 
 
 And wake on science grown to more, 
 On secrets of the brain, the stars, 
 
 As wild as aught of fairy lore ; 
 And all that else the years will show. 
 
 The Poet-forms of stronger hours. 
 The vast Republics that may grow. 
 
 The Federations and the Powers; 
 Titanic forces taking birth 
 
 In divers seasons, divers climes; 
 For we are Ancients of the earth. 
 
 And in the morning of the times. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH. SUGGESTIVE WORDS 
 
 1. The effect of a word on the reader is not limited by 
 its power to convey one meaning. A word may present 
 pictures to the mind or stir the senses or arouse various 
 feelings. It may please us by its sound in one place and 
 annoy us in another. It may be used literally, as the 
 " stonewall " in the pasture; or figuratively, as General 
 " Stonewall " Jackson. Words may be used ironically, 
 with a meaning just opposite to the literal one, as when 
 we call a child who has meddled with the jam, a 
 " pretty picture." The same word may arouse certain 
 associations in one person, and very different ones in 
 another; as the words "country," "government," 
 " ruler," to people of different nations. It may seem 
 pleasing or disagreeable, prosaic or poetical, common- 
 place or beautiful, in different places or to different 
 persons. At best, words cannot express to the reader 
 all the complexity of the thought and feeling of the 
 writer, but in the hands of the masters the impressions 
 they do produce are varied and multiplied and vivified 
 to an almost infinite degree. 
 
 2. Often an idea can be presented distinctly and viv- 
 
 264 
 
Figures of Speech 265 
 
 idly by means of tropes — words turned from their lit- 
 eral meaning and employed in a figurative sense. The 
 language is full of tropes. When we speak of a strik- 
 ing thought, a soft answer, or a sharp man, we are 
 using " striking," " soft," and " sharp " in tropical 
 senses. So we use many words daily in both their lit- 
 eral and figurative meanings; as a hot fire and a hot 
 temper, cold weather and a cold manner. Many of 
 these figures are so common that no one is conscious 
 of departing from plain, matter-of-fact speech in em- 
 ploying them. We are now more concerned with other 
 figures which we use frequently but with a conscious- 
 ness that we are not using plain language. 
 3» Three of these may be called figures of resem- 
 blance, simile, metaphor, personification. A. simile 
 likens one thing to another; a metaphor identifies one 
 with another ; personification is a kind of metaphor in 
 which inanimate objects are regarded as alive. When 
 you say of a young woman, " Her will is like iron," 
 you use a simile; when you say, " She is a butterfly," 
 you use a metaphor ; when you say, " The moon veils 
 her face in a cloud," you employ personification, mak- 
 ing a woman out of the moon. In each case you bring 
 some characteristic or action vividly before your 
 hearer. The words " like iron " in their tropical appli- 
 cation give a more vivid image than would the words 
 " resolute, strong " ; "a butterfly " is similarly more 
 vivid than " gay, frivolous " ; and " the moon veils her 
 face " than " a cloud passes over the moon." These 
 are simple examples of these figures. They may be 
 
2 66 Words 
 
 very ingenious, attractive, and suggestive , as in 
 Wordsworth's description of a daisy: 
 
 Yet like a star, with gHttering crest, 
 
 Self-poised in air thou seem'st to rest; — (Simile,) 
 
 A silver shield with boss of gold. 
 That spreads itself, some faery bold 
 
 In fight to cover ! (Metaphor.) 
 
 A nun demure of lowly port ; 
 
 Or sprightly maiden, of Love's court, 
 
 In thy simplicity the sport 
 
 Of all temptations; (Personification,) 
 
 4. Another class of figures is based on association 
 rather than resemblance. In synecdoche a part is put 
 for the whole or an individual for the class; as " sail " 
 for ship, or " some village Hampden " for some village 
 patriot. In metonymy something is designated by an 
 accompaniment, a cause, an effect, a sign ; as " the ket- 
 tle boils " for the water in the kettle, or " the bench " 
 for the judges on the bench, or " the sun scorches " 
 for the heat of the sun. In either figure vividness is 
 gained in the same way ; some part, quality, or circum- 
 stance associated with the object is singled out, and at- 
 tention is centered on that. 
 
 5- Some of the many other figures of speech noted 
 by rhetoricians have already been mentioned. Excla- 
 mation, hyperbole (exaggeration), apostrophe (ad- 
 dress to an absent person) are used only in cases of 
 strong emotion. Interrogation (an affirmation in the 
 form of a question), climax, irony (the words convey- 
 
Figures of Speech 267 
 
 ing a meaning opposite to their literal one), and 
 antithesis are more common methods of expression. 
 Antithesis — the setting over against each other of con- 
 trasted ideas by means of contrasted words — is in- 
 deed a method open to very v^ide application* A large 
 part of Macaulay's Essay on Bos well's Johnson is a 
 development of the antithesis that Bos well was a fool, 
 but his book wise. Similarly a paragraph may be an- 
 tithetical in structure, the first half contrasting with 
 the second ; or a sentence may form an antithesis with 
 another sentence. Antithesis within a sentence in- 
 volves specific contrast between words or phrases ; as — 
 " works not words," " forewarned, forearmed " ; or the 
 description of Goldsmith : 
 
 Who wrote like an angel, but talked like poor Poll. 
 
 6. This classification of figures would be greatly en- 
 larged if it were to include all varieties of ingenious, 
 emphatic, emotional, or imaginative uses of words. In 
 theme-writing the student needs to pay attention to 
 only a few — antithesis, metonymy, simile, personifica- 
 tion, metaphor. These figures, as we have seen, give 
 vividness to style, but a deliberate effort to be vivid 
 may result in failure. Some persons naturally find 
 words that create pictures, and so write vividly and 
 picturesquely ; others succeed in doing this only under 
 the stir of considerable emotion. Some of the best 
 prose is plain and unfigurative. In any case, excessive 
 use of figures is to be avoided, since it gives an effect 
 of over-ornamentation and showiness. In general. 
 
2 68 Words 
 
 figures should never be introduced merely for the sake 
 of ornamenting the style, but in order to make the 
 ideas clear and forcible. Trite well-worn figures, sim- 
 iles and metaphors that one has read and admired — 
 " life is like a river," " education is a ladder " — may 
 well be avoided. Care must also be taken not to con- 
 fuse figurative and literal expressions, and not to use a 
 figure that will not be readily understood by the reader. 
 The essential thing is to express the thought precisely 
 by words; if we can illuminate it by figures, so much 
 the better. It is also essential to remember that the 
 coherent order is always from the known to the un- 
 known, the simple to the complex, the fact to the fancy, 
 the literal to the figurative. 
 
 7. A metaphor is usually more vivid than a simile. 
 Call the daisy " a nun demure," and you surprise the 
 fancy with an identification; but if you describe the 
 flower as quiet and demure like a nun, you permit the 
 fancy to linger over a partial resemblance. Metaphors 
 thus require more of the imagination than similes, con- 
 sequently they cannot be used when the resemblance is 
 slight or partial, or when there is any danger that it 
 will not be quickly perceived by the reader. Similes 
 and metaphors should not be too obvious or matter-of- 
 fact if they are to be forcible ; and they should not be 
 too ingenious or far-fetched if they are to be illumina- 
 ting. Further, they need not be carried into details; 
 it is enough if they suggest some point of resemblance. 
 This is true even of elaborate figures, like the famous 
 one of Bacon : 
 
Figures of Speech 269 
 
 This same Truth is a naked and open dayHght, that doth 
 not show the masks and mummeries and triumphs of the 
 world half so stately and daintily as candle-lights. 
 
 Although the main metaphor is enforced by several 
 other metaphors and tropes, only a single aspect of 
 truth is illustrated. Finally, especial care must be 
 taken to avoid mixed figures. Dr. Johnson ridiculed 
 this mixed metaphor in Addison: 
 
 I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain 
 That longs to launch into a nobler strain. 
 
 The following are ridiculous because of mixed meta- 
 phors or of a mixture of literal and figurative lan- 
 guage. 
 
 As the saw is used in cutting the log into boards, so the 
 plow cuts mother earth into planks of sod. 
 
 Capricious October, blowing over the billowy grasses 
 with a little taint of frost in his breath, has left his tracks 
 on mound and gully, so that his roots are now well 
 quilted in the downy covering of his own leaves. 
 
 The key-note of the room is the natural history frieze. 
 
 This peculiar brownish color of the paint throws a halo 
 of picturesque beauty about the old-fashioned building. 
 
 This street is much built up, and the structures hold 
 close communion one with another. 
 
 8. So far we have been considering figures of speech 
 as adding to the power of words to convey ideas. Even 
 when a word is not a trope, it may have a value in 
 addition to its exact meaning. Almost every word 
 
270 Words 
 
 both identifies a certain idea and suggests other ideas. 
 The suggestion may be derived from the very sound of 
 the words ; as in Keats' lines : 
 
 Of candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd ; 
 With jellies soother than the creamy curd. 
 And lucent syrops, tinct with cinnamon; 
 Manna and dates, in argosy transferred 
 From Fez; and spiced dainties, every one, 
 From silken Samarcand to cedar'd Lebanon. 
 
 In addition to the articles and places identified, a cool 
 deliciousness is suggested by the combination of 
 sounds, a delectable taste far beyond that which we 
 receive from a mere enumeration of eatables. Words 
 also gain great suggestiveness from the association of 
 ideas. Some of the deliciousness of Keats' lines comes 
 from the suggestion of richness and rarity associated 
 with the proper names. America is the name of this 
 continent, but for most of us it carries suggestions of 
 home, patriotism, our flag, and our own city. For 
 a chance visitor to our shores it might, on the contrary, 
 suggest heat, mosquitoes, crowded trains, and Niagara 
 Falls. In order to express our ideas, then, we should 
 endeavor to choose words that will have the same sug- 
 gestions for our readers that they have for us. The 
 power of a word depends on what it suggests no less 
 than on what it names. An object or act is, indeed, 
 often most imaginatively described, not by an elaborate 
 figure, but by words which both in their usual mean- 
 ing and in their suggestion reproduce our ideas. So 
 Wordsworth, after many fancies about the daisy ex- 
 
Figures of Speech 271 
 
 pressed in similes and metaphors, returns at last to 
 plain speech: 
 
 Bright Flower! for by that name at last, 
 When all my reveries are past, 
 I call thee, and to that cleave fast, 
 Sweet silent creature! 
 
 These are plain common words. Many flowers are 
 sweet, all vegetables are silent, all things are, in one 
 meaning of the word, creatures; yet for the daisy what 
 words could be so true, so appropriate, so suggestive ? 
 Better than any of his metaphors, they suggest the 
 ideas Wordsworth wished to suggest. 
 9- Figures of speech are merely certain methods by 
 which words may be made to carry suggestions beyond 
 their ordinary sense. Some, like antithesis and climax, 
 relate to the arrangement of words so as to express 
 certain relations of ideas. Others, like simile and met- 
 aphor, employ words to suggest qualities, actions, or 
 ideas quite foreign to their usual senses. Figures are 
 liable to be used to excess, or to be confused, or to 
 be far-fetched; but when used with imagination they 
 arouse the attention, quicken the fancy, vivify, illumi- 
 nate, and beautify style. But whether we employ fig- 
 ures or not, nearly every word we use has the power to 
 suggest varied meanings, to create many pictures. By 
 this power both the chance for error and the possible 
 degree of success in conveying our thought and feeling 
 to another are greatly enhanced. The use of words be- 
 comes a difficult and varied problem, at which even the 
 
272 Words 
 
 masters, whose phrases seem so admirable, have only 
 partly succeeded. If we wish to appeal solely to the 
 intellect, we should use words that can denote ideas 
 exactly; but if we wish to appeal to the taste, feelings, 
 fancy, and imagination, we must select words with a 
 nice appreciation of their power to create many images 
 and suggestions. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of the different figures of speech to be 
 found in the sentences quoted in Chapter 18, Exer- 
 cise 2. 
 
 2. Select and name the various figures of speech to 
 be found in these selections. 
 
 . . . These are deep questions, where great names mili- 
 tate against each other; where reason is perplexed; and 
 an appeal to authorities only thickens the confusion : for 
 high and reverend authorities lift up their heads on both 
 sides; and there is no sure footing in the middle. This 
 point is the great 
 
 " Serbonian bog, 
 Betwixt Damiata and Mount Casius old, 
 Where armies whole have sunk." 
 
 I do not intend to be overwhelmed in that bog, though in 
 such respectable company. The question with me is, not 
 whether you have a right to render your people miserable, 
 but whether it is not your interest to make them happy. 
 It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do, but what hu- 
 manity, reason and justice tell me I ought to do. Is a 
 
Figures of Speech 273 
 
 politic act the worse for being a generous one ? Is no con- 
 cession proper but that which is made from your want of 
 right to keep what you grant ? Or does it lessen the grace 
 or dignity of relaxing in the exercise of an odious claim, 
 because you have your evidence-room full of titles and 
 your magazines stuffed with arms to enforce them? 
 What signify all those titles and all those arms ? Of what 
 avail are they, when the reason of the thing tells me that 
 the assertion of my title is the loss of my suit ; and that I 
 could do nothing but wound myself by the use of my own 
 weapons ? 
 
 Edmund Burke : Speech on Conciliation. 
 
 — I think there is one habit, — I said to our company a 
 day or two afterwards, — worse than that of punning. It 
 is the gradual substitution of cant or slang terms for 
 words which truly characterize their objects. I have 
 known several very genteel idiots whose whole vocabu- 
 lary had deliquesced into some half dozen expressions. 
 All things fell into one of two great categories, — fast or 
 slozv. Man's chief end was to be a hrick. When the 
 great calamities of life overtook their friends, these last 
 were spoken of as a good deal cut up. Nine tenths of hu- 
 man existence were summed up in the single word, hore. 
 These expressions come to be the algebraic symbols of 
 minds which have grown too weak or indolent to discrimi- 
 nate. They are the blank checks of intellectual bank- 
 ruptcy; — ^you may fill them up with what idea you like; 
 it makes no difference, for there are no funds in the 
 treasury upon which they are drawn. Colleges and good- 
 for-nothing smoking-clubs are the places where these con- 
 versational fungi spring up most luxuriantly. Don't 
 think I undervalue the proper use and application of a 
 cant word or phrase. It adds piquancy to conversation, 
 as a mushroom does to a sauce. But it is no better than 
 a toadstool, odious to the sense and poisonous to the in- 
 tellect, when it spawns itself all over the talk of men and 
 youths capable of talking, as it sometimes does. As we 
 hear slang phraseology, it is commonly the dish-water 
 18 
 
274 
 
 Words 
 
 from the washings of English dandyism, schoolboy or 
 full-grown, wrung out of a three-volume novel which had 
 sopped it up, or decanted from the pictured urn of Mr. 
 Verdant Green, and diluted to suit the provincial climate. 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes : The Autocrat of the 
 Breakfast Table. 
 
 3. Analyze the words in the following passages ^ — 
 general or specific; figures of speech; suggestiveness. 
 Which passage is the most effective ? Why ? 
 
 ** In large bodies the " In all the despotisrns 
 circulation of power must of the East it has been ob- 
 be less vigorous at the ex- served that the further any 
 tremities. Nature has said part of the empire is re- 
 it. The Turk cannot gov- moved from the capital the 
 ern Egypt and Arabia and more do its inhabitants en- 
 Kurdistan as he governs joy some sort of rights 
 Thrace; nor has he the and privileges; the more 
 same dominion in Crimea inefficacious is the power 
 and Algiers which he has of the monarch; and the 
 at Brusa and Smyrna, more feeble and easily de- 
 Despotism itself is obliged cayed is the organization 
 to truck and huckster, of the government." 
 The Sultan gets such Lord Brougham : Inquiry 
 obedience as he can." into the Colonial Policy 
 Burke : Speech on Concil- of the European Powers, 
 
 iation. 
 
 4- Make a list of all the cases of metonymy, antithe- 
 sis, simile, metaphor, personification, which you find in 
 a page of Stevenson; of Burke; of Carlyle; of Haw- 
 
 1 These passages are taken from the edition of the " Speech on 
 Conciliation," edited by D. V. Thompson (H. Holt & Co.), who 
 credits the note on the parallelism to Payne's edition of Burke's 
 Select Works, 
 
Figures of Speech 275 
 
 thorne; of Lowell; of Holmes. Note especially figures 
 used with a humorous effect. 
 
 5. Express the thought in each of the following se- 
 lections in plain, unfigurative, unsuggestive speech. 
 What is lost? 
 
 In fact, Doctor Blimber's establishment was a great 
 hothouse, in which there was a forcing apparatus inces- 
 santly at work. All the boys blew before their time. 
 Mental green peas were produced at Christmas, and intel- 
 lectual asparagus all the year round. Mathematical goose- 
 berries (very sour ones too) were common at untimely 
 seasons, and from mere sprouts of bushes, under Doctor 
 Blimber's cultivation. Every description of Greek and 
 Latin vegetable was got off the driest twigs of boys, un- 
 der the frostiest circumstances. Nature was of no con- 
 sequence at all. No matter what a young gentleman was 
 intended to bear, Doctor Blimber made him bear to pat- 
 tern, somehow or other. 
 
 This was all very pleasant and ingenious, but the system 
 of forcing was attended with its usual disadvantages. 
 There was not the right taste about the premature produc- 
 tions, and they did n't keep well. Moreover, one young 
 gentleman, with a swollen nose and an excessively large 
 head (the oldest of the ten who had "gone through" 
 everything) suddenly left off blowing one day, and re- 
 mained in the establishment a mere stalk. And people did 
 say that the Doctor had rather overdone it with young 
 Toots, and that when he began to have whiskers he left 
 off having brains. 
 
 Charles Dickens : Domhey and Son. 
 
 The breeze was from the west : it came over the hills, 
 sweet with scents of heath and rush ; the sky was of stain- 
 less blue ; the stream descending the ravine, swelled with 
 past spring rains, poured along plentiful and clear, catch- 
 ing golden gleams from the sun, and sapphire tints from 
 
276 Words 
 
 the firmament. As we advanced and left the track, we 
 trod a soft turf, mossy fine and emerald green, minutely 
 enamelled with a tiny white flower, and spangled with a 
 star-like yellow blossom : the hills, meantime, shut us quite 
 in; for the glen, towards its head, wound to their very 
 core. 
 
 Charlotte Bronte : Jane Eyre. 
 
 The great wheel of political revolution began to move 
 in America. Here its rotation was guarded, regular and 
 safe. Transferred to the other continent, from unfortu- 
 nate but natural causes, it received an irregular and vio- 
 lent impulse ; it whirled along with a fearful celerity ; till 
 at length, like the chariot wheels in the races of antiquity, 
 it took fire from the rapidity of its own motion, and blazed 
 onward, spreading conflagration and terror around. 
 
 Webster: First Bunker Hill Oration. 
 
 And why take ye thought for raiment? Consider the 
 lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil not, neither do 
 they spin: 
 
 And yet I say unto you. That even Solomon in all his 
 glory was not arrayed like one of these. 
 
 Matthew VI, 28, 29. 
 
 6. In the paragraph quoted in Chapter 17, pages 224, 
 225, Carlyle is describing Coleridge's appearance — age, 
 face, eyes, figure, walk, voice, and talk ; yet he suggests, 
 also, the man's physical and moral weakness, mildness, 
 suffering, and irresolution. The following words, for 
 example, all aid in the suggestion of irresolution: 
 " heavy-laden, half-vanquished, swimming painfully, 
 bewilderment, flabby and irresolute, confused, express- 
 ive of weakness, hung loosely, stooping, shuffled, con- 
 tinually shifted, in corkscrew fashion, kept trying 
 
Figures of Speech 277 
 
 both, heavy-laden, much-suffering, plaintive snuffle and 
 singsong, hopelessly, sang and snuffled, shake or 
 quaver, rolled along," 
 
 Make a list of words (including some of the above) 
 that suggest suffering; of those suggesting kindness. 
 
 In the selection from Stevenson's " Kidnapped," 
 pages 146-148, note all the words conveying images 
 or suggestions of sound. 
 
 7. In a description of a sunset, occur the words, " red, 
 gray, clouds, darkness, brilliant." For each of these, 
 make a list of five words which might possibly be sub- 
 stituted in its stead. These may be synonyms, or more 
 specific words, or figures of speech, or even descriptive 
 phrases. Thus, " scarlet, orange, flaming, blushing " 
 might all be used in place of " red " ; and Ruskin uses 
 " drifted wings of many companies of angels " for 
 " clouds." 
 
 These lists are to be compared in order to see how 
 many expressions can be found by the class. It will 
 then be found possible to separate the words suggested 
 into classes according to their meaning or suggestion : 
 as, for " red," (i) names of colors; (2) tropes — from 
 fire, from flowers; (3) personification, etc. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 WORDS TO AVOID 
 
 1. We have considered in the last two chapters some 
 ways of increasing the taste and judgment of the stu- 
 dent in the use of words in order that he may be able 
 to answer for himself such questions as: what word 
 to use in a particular case; when a certain word is 
 preferable to another; why such a word has more force 
 than another. His answers to such questions will de- 
 pend less on rules than on the number of words at his 
 command and his knowledge of their value both in 
 naming and suggesting ideas; but there are a number 
 of faults in the choice of words so common that they 
 may be enumerated in rules. Certain classes of words 
 should be used with caution or avoided altogether. 
 
 2. Avoid overusing words. Some words, good 
 enough in themselves, have become so much overused 
 that they have lost all their freshness. Their original 
 meaning has been rubbed off as they have passed from 
 hand to hand. " Fine," " awfully," " nice," " splen- 
 did," "striking," "perfectly lovely," "weird," are 
 words of this sort, which are worked to death by young 
 women. They should be used with caution and pre- 
 cision. Once a year something might be " perfectly 
 
 278 
 
Words to Avoid 279 
 
 lovely or "awfully pretty" or '* weird," but used 
 every day these expressions become meaningless. 
 Sometimes a word comes into fashion and is overused 
 for a few months or years. So one year the news- 
 papers speak of " gowns," the next of " frocks " ; so 
 " environment," " tendency," " lines " (of study, 
 thought, investigation, etc.), " evolution," " tendency," 
 " psychic," are at present forced into all kinds of ser- 
 vice. Sometimes you will find that you are overusing 
 some particular word yourself, and thus blunting your 
 meaning and tiring your reader. No matter how ser- 
 viceable a word may be, it can do only a certain 
 amount of work; it needs an occasional rest. Some 
 overused expressions, however, have done all the 
 work they are capable of, and should be left to a peace- 
 ful death. Such are trite phrases, hackneyed quota- 
 tions, of which the following are a few examples : 
 
 Barkis is willing. waiting like Mica wber .for 
 
 every walk in life. something to turn up. 
 
 faded into oblivion. vale of tears. 
 
 the worm will turn. on his native heath, 
 misguided youths. 
 
 3. Avoid pretentious words. A word should suit the 
 idea which it helps to express; it should not be too 
 large, too imposing for the thought. Some pretentious 
 expressions might also be classed under overused 
 words. Such are many vague general terms, very use- 
 ful in their place, but often applied, when not demanded 
 by the thought, for the sake of making a show. " So- 
 ciety," "characteristics," "ideals," " ideahsm," "real- 
 
2 8o Words 
 
 ism," are examples. Superlative, extravagant expres- 
 sions are often used with an idea that they give im- 
 pressiveness, but if you use a superlative when only 
 the positive degree is required, what force will the su- 
 perlative have when it is really needed? Remember 
 that you do not describe an object by observing that it 
 is " indescribable," and that few things in this world 
 are " inevitable " or " infinite." Don't say " tremen- 
 dous " when you mean " large," or " sublime " when 
 you mean " impressive," or " brilliant " when you mean 
 " bright." Don't speak of " rushing madly " when 
 you mean " running at a dog-trot," of being " fam- 
 ished " when you are " hungry," or use ^' fascinating " 
 when you mean " interesting." Words like " fascina- 
 ting," " tremendous," " sublime," should be saved for 
 rare occasions. The worst kind of pretentious expres- 
 sions is '' Une^zvriting/' This is an attempt to make 
 something seem more important or beautiful than it is. 
 If a few people clap their hands, it is an " ovation " ; a 
 school is " an institution of learning " ; a bed is a 
 " downy couch " ; a new street lamp is " a praisewor- 
 thy innovation." If a barn burns, it is " a disastrous 
 conflagration " ; birds are " feathered songsters " ; the 
 snow is always " a white mantle " ; the grass, " a gar- 
 ment of green"; and the rain is "Nature's tears." 
 Good style in writing, as in dress, it should be remem- 
 bered, depends on good taste, on suitability to the 
 subject and occasion, not at all on tawdry ornaments 
 and sham jewelry. 
 4. Avoid superfluous words. You must use enough 
 
Words to Avoid 281 
 
 words to make your meaning clear; there is danger of 
 too few as well as too many words. Indeed, the repe- 
 tition of words may add to the clearness or force or 
 beauty of style. There are too many words only when 
 some are useless. As we have seen in preceding chap- 
 ters, good sentences may consist of few or many words, 
 but every word must count. A prolix style wastes 
 words in repetition, in valueless adjectives and adverbs, 
 or in superfluous words and phrases of any sort. The 
 repetition of an idea, unless for some good purpose, is 
 a fault that can be readily corrected in revision, as in 
 the following sentence. 
 
 Among the alumni (who had graduated from this col- 
 lege) were a number of (old) veterans of the Civil War. 
 
 The use of too many adjectives or adverbs is a fault 
 that may require some pains to remedy. Some writers 
 cannot use one adjective without adding two more; 
 for them a deed is never merely noble, but " grand, 
 noble, and generous." And they can never let a noun 
 stand by itself, but must prop it up with an adjective, 
 after this fashion: 
 
 This dreaded animal, the panther or painter of the 
 backwoods-man, which has for its kindred the royal tiger 
 and the fatal leopard of the Old World, the beautiful oce- 
 lot and splendid unconquerable jaguar of the New. . . . 
 
 Any of the adjectives will go equally well with any of 
 the nouns. Other writers do not like to let a verb go 
 without an adverb; a man is not dead, but " unhappily 
 
282 Words 
 
 dead." A careful writer will say as much as possible 
 with his nouns and verbs, and while he will use adjec- 
 tives and adverbs freely, he will watch them for wasted 
 words. 
 
 5. Superfluous phrases usually have some value, but 
 not enough for the number of words employed. Ex- 
 amine the following sentence. 
 
 I do not know that there is any more healthful game 
 that a girl or a young woman, who is fairly strong and 
 not nervous, can play during the spring and fall, when it 
 is not too hot, than the game of basket-ball. 
 
 The gist of the sentence is, " There is no more healthful 
 game for girls than basket-ball." The clause, " who is 
 fairly strong and not nervous," is a qualification of 
 considerable but not great importance ; " during the 
 spring and fall " is of less importance; " when it is not 
 too hot" is of still less; and "I do not know that," 
 and " or a young woman," and " the game of " are 
 phrases of no apparent value. The usefulness of each 
 expression can be determined only by the demands of 
 the subject and the reader; but some or all of these 
 clauses and phrases may surely be omitted. Of every 
 phrase, then, you should ask, is the idea worth the 
 words? Penuriousness is not advised; the student 
 should try to secure a great wealth of words and 
 should use them freely, but he should not waste words. 
 
 6. Certain classes of words may be proscribed by rule. 
 Overused words, including trite phrases and hack- 
 neyed quotations; pretentious words, especially fine- 
 
Words to Avoid 283 
 
 writing; and superfluous words of all kinds are to be 
 avoided. Words are to be chosen which will exactly 
 suit the student's ideas, and used for their full value 
 and no more, if his style is to be fresh, unaffected, and 
 concise. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. The words in themes assigned to you may now 
 be criticized according to the following plan. 
 
 *i 
 
 1. General or specific. Suggest any change. 
 
 2. Figures of speech. Mixture of literal and figura- 
 tive language. Faulty metaphors. Absence of figures. 
 
 3. Suggestiveness. 
 
 4. Words to avoid, (a) Overused words, (b) Pre- 
 tentious words, (c) Superfluous words. 
 
 5. Violations of Good Use. Spelling. Grammar. 
 Meaning of words. 
 
 2. Criticize the words in the following paragraph, 
 especially the adjectives. 
 
 The sultry afternoon had merged into a sultry night. 
 The white moonbeams lay motionless over the dewy earth, 
 and the still night echoed drowsily the chirp of the cricket. 
 From our open window, Margaret and I lay gazing out 
 into the beautiful night, thinking. Gradually a delicious 
 sense of repose stole over our wearied spirits, and we 
 slept. How long I never knew, but suddenly, frightened 
 almost to insensibility, we both sat bolt upright staring 
 at each other in wild-eyed terror. A sound as of some 
 one trying to force an entrance into the house, came from 
 
284 
 
 Words 
 
 the outside door of the room adjoining our own. Loud, 
 terrific knocking, nay actual pounding, smote our ears 
 and sent cold quivers rushing along our bodies. Stiff 
 with fright, we could hardly utter a sound. We were 
 alone on that floor. Ashen-faced, I gasped, ** Margaret, 
 let 's go upstairs. Hurry ! " 
 
 3. Examine and criticize according to the outline in 
 Exercise i, the adjectives in the selections from Swift 
 and Ruskin in Exercises 4 and 5, Chapter 12; in the 
 selection from Stevenson, Exercise 15, Chapter 8. 
 
 4. In themes assigned to you, note carefully the verbs. 
 Criticize them, suggesting any changes. 
 
 5. Examine the following sentences with respect to 
 choice of words. Which sentence of each pair is pref- 
 erable? Why? Can you suggest any changes in the 
 choice of words? In the sentence structure? 
 
 A B 
 
 1. Through God we shall i. Through God we shall 
 do valiantly: for he it is that do valiantly: For he it is that 
 shall tread down our enemies. shall tread down our adver- 
 saries. 
 
 2. Woe unto the world be- 2. Woe unto the world be- 
 cause of offences! for it must cause of occasions of stumb- 
 needs be that offences come ; ling ! for it must needs be that 
 but woe to that man by whom the occasions come ; but woe to 
 the offence cometh ! that man through whom the 
 
 occasion cometh ! 
 
 3. The robbers also cast 3. The thieves also cast the 
 upon him the same reproach. same in his teeth. 
 
 4. She fell lifeless, and left 4. She dropped down dead 
 her life among the ethereal and left her life among the stars 
 stars, and falling brings back of heaven; and falling to the 
 the adhering arrow. ground, brings back the arrow 
 
 fastened (in the wound). 
 
Words to Avoid 
 
 285 
 
 5. Why stand ye here par- 
 alyzed, like fawns? who, when 
 they are weary with running 
 over a vast plain, stand still, 
 nor is there any strength in 
 their breasts. 
 
 6. We were ascending 
 through a cloven rock, which 
 moved on one side and on the 
 other, even as the wave re- 
 treats and approaches. 
 
 7. " We must use some dex- 
 terity," said my guide, "in 
 keeping close alternately to 
 each side that opens hollow." 
 
 8. The beautiful planet, the 
 fountain of love, appeared 
 with a graceful smile all over 
 the east, spreading a veil of 
 light over the fishes, stationed 
 in its escort. 
 
 9. Now may it please thee 
 to approve his coming. He 
 goes seeking liberty, which is 
 so dear, as he knows who for 
 her, refuses life. 
 
 10. The soul comes forth 
 simple and ignorant, like a 
 babe that sports about, some- 
 times whining and sometimes 
 smiling, from the hand of Him, 
 who, with joy, sees it before 
 its existence, and concerned for 
 nothing after leaving its boun- 
 tiful Creator, cheerfully turns 
 to any object that amuses it. 
 
 B 
 
 5. Why stand ye here as- 
 tounded, like fawns, which, 
 when they are wearied run- 
 ning through the extensive 
 plain, stand, and have no 
 strength in their hearts? 
 
 6. We struggled up the 
 craggy riven rocks, winding at 
 both sides, like the undulating 
 waves that roll and return. 
 
 7. "Here must be used a 
 little art," began the leader, 
 "in keeping close, now here, 
 now there to the side which re- 
 cedes." 
 
 8. The fair planet which 
 incites to love was making all 
 the Orient to smile, veiling the 
 Fishes that were in her train. 
 
 9. Therefore condescend to 
 receive his visit; he is in 
 search of liberty, so dear, as is 
 well known to whoever sacri- 
 fices his life for her sake. 
 
 10. Forth from the hand of 
 him who delights in it ere it 
 exist, like a little maid who, 
 weeping and smiling, wantons 
 childishly, issues the simple 
 soul, which knows nothing, 
 save that, proceeding from a 
 glad Maker, it willingly turns 
 to that which allures it. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 GOOD USE 
 
 1. In the second chapter of this book it was stated 
 that rhetoric has its foundation in grammar and a 
 correct use of words. Throughout the book it has been 
 taken for granted that the student was trying to write 
 good EngHsh, free from foreign or vulgar words or 
 incorrect grammar. In composing words into sen- 
 tences, paragraphs, and whole compositions, we have, 
 indeed, found that we cannot use whatever words we 
 please in any way we please, but that we are always 
 limited by a fourth principle, that of Good Use. By 
 this principle of Good Use we mean that in trying to 
 make other people understand us, we must accept the 
 standards which they accept, we must in our choice 
 and arrangement of words be guided by the gram- 
 mars, and the dictionaries, by the usage of the best 
 writers. We may now determine just what is Good 
 Use, how extensive is its operation, and what words 
 and constructions it forbids. 
 
 2. Good Use is not fixed but changing, just as our 
 language is changing. What is slang to-day may be 
 used by the best writers of the next generation. Words 
 
 286 
 
Good Use 287 
 
 and constructions which our ancestors were familiar 
 with may be unknown to most of us. Good Use is not, 
 therefore, based simply on the history of the language. 
 A knowledge of the derivation and history of words 
 is very helpful in the correct use of words, but words 
 of good Anglo-Saxon derivation used in Shakespeare 
 and the English Bible may be obsolete to-day, while 
 new-comers of no very respectable lineage may be in 
 good repute. Good Use, again, is not based on the 
 use of the bookish and fastidious. Careful and fastidi- 
 ous writers often protest in vain against homely and 
 inexact constructions which prove their fitness by their 
 survival. Good Use, again, is not limited by grammar, 
 for idiomatic expressions which disregard the strict 
 rules of grammar are constantly adding their vigor 
 and picturesqueness to our language. Still further, 
 Good Use is not determined by any one grammar or 
 dictionary, or indeed by all of them. Grammars and 
 dictionaries and most text-books on rhetoric do report 
 to us what is prescribed by Good Use, but Good Use 
 is really determined by the best writers of English at 
 the present time. It may be defined as Present, Na- 
 tional, and Reputable Use. 
 
 3' A word or construction must be in present use. 
 Most of the words used by King Alfred, and many of 
 those used by Chaucer, are not in the written language 
 of to-day. On the other hand, a word like " talented," 
 which was scoffed at by all reputable writers of sev- 
 enty years ago, is now in perfectly good use. New 
 inventions, new ideas are all the time bringing new 
 
2 88 Good Use 
 
 words into the language; old words which remain, 
 moreover, often change their meaning. In Shake- 
 speare, for example, "presently" means "immedi- 
 ately," not, as to-day, " in a short time," " by and by." 
 In the same way the use of constructions is changing. 
 The double negative, and " for to," are found in Shake- 
 speare and the Bible, but they are now incorrect. The 
 expressions " had rather " and " had better " were con- 
 demned by Tennyson and most of the best writers of 
 his day, but they are recognized as good idioms to-day. 
 4' A word or construction must be in national use. 
 That it is used in Pennsylvania or New England does 
 not establish it as a good word. In some parts of this 
 country " gums " is used for " over-shoes," " clever " 
 for " good-natured," " hitch-up " for " harness " 
 (verb), "right" for "very." In other parts of the 
 country such provincialisms would not be understood. 
 Other words are used in some particular business or 
 science but are not in general, national use. Others 
 are used by Englishmen and not by Americans. Eng- 
 lishmen, for example, say " luggage " instead of 
 " baggage," " lift " instead of " elevator," " railway " 
 instead of " railroad." They use, too, some expres- 
 sions which we regard as incorrect ; as " different 
 than" instead of "different from." In general, we 
 should follow the best American rather than the best 
 English usage, but we should be willing to accept the 
 English when it seems distinctly preferable. 
 5' A word or construction must be in reputable use. 
 
Good Use 289 
 
 By reputable use we do not mean the use of the latest 
 novelist or the newspapers, of our town, or even the 
 use of one of the best writers of the time, like Mr. 
 Howells or Mr. Henry James, but the use of all those 
 writers whom the best judges hold in good repute. 
 Some words which are used at present all over the 
 country have not yet come into reputable use; such 
 are " boodle," " hold-up," " stunts," " combine " (as a 
 noun), "it don't." Many other slang words and 
 newspaper phrases fall into this class. 
 6. Good Use, then, means the use of the vast major- 
 ity of present, national, and reputable writers. New 
 words and old words, homely words and bookish 
 words, words of all sorts of derivations, ungrammati- 
 cal expressions that have become idiomatic, may all be 
 admitted into Good Use. Text-books and dictionaries 
 attempt to discover and report to us the rules for the 
 use of words and grammar that Good Use prescribes. 
 The experienced writer or student of the language 
 may use his own judgment in regard to the correct- 
 ness or authority of these rules. A beginner must 
 learn them and follow them, meanwhile enlarging his 
 own knowledge of Good Use by observant reading in 
 our best writers. In following rules of Good Use, he 
 may remember that he is simply following the sensi- 
 ble principle that in writing for other people he must 
 adopt their standards. There is no surer way of an- 
 noying or offending an intelligent reader than by vio- 
 lating a rule of Good Use. 
 19 
 
290 Good Use 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In the first 60 lines of " Julius Caesar " what words 
 occur that are not used at all to-day ? What words are 
 used with different meanings to-day ? What words are 
 still used in poetry but not in prose? Apply the same 
 questions to the first 50 lines of Milton's " L' Allegro " ; 
 to the first 25 lines of the " Prologue to the Canterbury 
 Tales." 
 
 2. The following words were mentioned as barbar- 
 isms in a rhetoric in general use as late as 1850: 
 (neologisms) opine, ignore, fraicheur, adroitness, 
 opiniatry, opiniatrety; (obsolescent) behest, fantasy, 
 tribulation. In 1835 John Sterling criticized the fol- 
 lowing words in Carlyle's " Sartor Resartus " as with- 
 out authority: talented, environment, vestural, sterto- 
 rous, visualized, complected. Of these two lists what 
 words are in good use to-day? what are never heard? 
 3- In the following passage what words are technical 
 or slang and hence not in good use? Rewrite the 
 paragraph, using words that will be intelligible to any 
 one with a slight knowledge of baseball. 
 
 In the seventh Cooley was patient and got a base on 
 balls. Hamilton's clever bunt to the right of the pitcher's 
 box was a base hit all the time, but Bill Donovan was not 
 satisfied to let it go at that. He picked up the ball and 
 hurled it out of Joe Kelley's reach and so far into the 
 wilderness that Cooley had scored and Hamilton was on 
 
Good Use 291 
 
 third when Willie Keeler retrieved the ball. The next 
 play was an instance of how hard it was to get runs over 
 the plate. Lowe drove a liner to Dolan in center field. 
 Nine times in ten Billy Hamilton would have scored on 
 the catch, but Casey's throw to the plate was perfect and 
 Farrell pinned Hamilton down three feet from the 
 rubber. 
 
 4. Make a list of five reputable English writers of 
 the present time with whose writings you are ac- 
 quainted. Make a list of ten reputable American wri- 
 ters. These lists are to be handed to the instructor. 
 5» In the following passage what words (disregard- 
 ing changes in spelling) and what constructions are 
 not in good use to-day ? Rewrite the passage in mod- 
 ern English. 
 
 Thenne was kyng Arthure ware where Syr Mordred 
 lenyd upon his swerde emonge a grete hepe of deed men. 
 " Now gyve me my spere," sayd Arthur unto Syr Lucan, 
 " for yonder I have espyed the traytour that alle thys woo 
 hath wrought.'' " Syr, late hym be," sayd Sir Lucan, " for 
 he is unhappy; and yf ye passe thys unhappy day, ye 
 shalle be ryght wel revengyd upon hym. Good lord, re- 
 membre ye of your nyghtes dreme, and what the spyryte 
 of Syr Gauwayn tolde you this nyght, yet God of his 
 grete goodnes hath preserved you hyderto ; therfore for 
 Goddes sake, my lord, leve of by thys, for blessyd by God 
 ye have wonne the fielde ; for here we ben thre on lyve, 
 and wyth Syr Mordred is none on lyve. And yf ye leve 
 of now, thys wycked day of desteynye is paste." " Tyde 
 me deth, betyde me lyf ," sayth the kyng, " now I see hym 
 yonder allone, he shal never escape myn handes ; for at a 
 better avaylle shal I never have hym." " God spede you 
 wel," sayd Syr Bedwere. Thenne the kyng gate hys 
 spere in bothe his handes, and ranne toward Syr Mordred 
 
292 Good Use 
 
 cryeng, " Tratour, now is thy deth day come.'* And whan 
 Syr Mordred herde Syr Arthur he ranne untyl hym with 
 hys swerde drawen in his hande. And there kyng Arthur 
 smote Syr Mordred under the shelde wyth a foyne of his 
 spere thorughoute the body more than a fadom. 
 
 Sir Thomas Malory (about 1450) : Morte Darthur, 
 
 II 
 
 6. Make a list of five violations of good use that you 
 have heard made in conversation within three days. 
 Make a list of five violations of good use that you have 
 noticed in your reading. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 IDIOMS. TRANSLATION ENGLISH 
 
 1. An idiom is an expression peculiar to our language 
 and cannot always be exactly translated into another 
 language. Many idioms cannot be squared with strict 
 grammar, but have nevertheless worked their way into 
 Good Use. " How do you do? " " Please pass the 
 cake," " to catch cold," " to put up with," " full many 
 a," are familiar examples. Other idioms noticed in 
 the last chapter are " had better," " had rather," " dif- 
 ferent from." The verb " do " is found in many idio- 
 matic expressions. " He does well for (provides for) 
 his family, but this strike has done for (ruined) him." 
 " Do not have anything to do with him." " Did you 
 not have your shirt done up at this laundry?" The 
 curious phrase " done up " is used in several different 
 meanings. It is no objection to any one of these idioms 
 that it violates a grammatical rule. Many construc- 
 tions contrary to strict grammar or logic are doing 
 good service in the language. 
 
 2. Among these serviceable idioms we may note the 
 following classes. 
 
 I. The use of the double possessive: " This play of 
 Shakespeare's." 
 
 293 
 
2 94 Good Use 
 
 2. The use of an adjective for an adverb after a few 
 verbs: *' to speak louder " ; " to run faster." The longer 
 adverbial forms, ''more loudly," "more rapidly," are 
 being pushed out of the language. 
 
 3. The use of a noun for an adjective: " the news- 
 paper article," " a university professor," " a college edu- 
 cation." We do not form new adjectives readily, and 
 frequently a noun used as an adjective enables us to 
 avoid a clumsy phrase; as in the title of this chapter, 
 " Translation English." 
 
 4. The use of a preposition at the end of a clause or 
 sentence: "Where did you come from?" "What are 
 you looking for ? " 
 
 3. These idioms do not do away with grammar. The 
 double possessive occurs rarely; you need not often 
 end a sentence with a preposition. You will need to 
 exercise great caution in using adjectives for adverbs, 
 or nouns for adjectives. Idioms are the exceptions 
 which prove the rules in grammar. 
 4« Our use of prepositions is largely a matter of 
 idiom. For example : one breaks into a house ; breaks 
 up housekeeping; one's health may break down; yellow 
 fever breaks out; an engagement is broken off. The 
 following brief list indicates the prepositions required 
 to go with certain words by Good Use. 
 
 accord with, 
 accordance with, 
 according to. 
 agree with — a person, 
 agree to — a proposal, 
 confer on=give to. 
 confer with === talk to. 
 confide in=trust in. 
 confide to = intrust to. 
 
Idioms 295 
 
 conform to. 
 
 dependent on, but independent of. 
 
 different from. 
 
 disappointed in. 
 
 need of. 
 
 profit by. 
 
 reconcile to or with. 
 
 rely on or upon, not in. 
 
 taste of — food. 
 
 taste for = appreciation, fondness for. 
 
 5. Violations of idiom are likely to occur in transla- 
 tions. A literal translation of Latin or German often 
 makes very poor English. The student should take 
 pains not only to reproduce the thought of the foreign 
 language, but also to put it into idiomatic English. 
 Two constructions, borrowed from other languages, 
 should be used with particular caution. 
 
 1. The use of the Latin ablative absolute: " He being 
 willing, the message was intrusted to his care." " The 
 army advanced against the city, the inhabitants having 
 been informed of the emperor's death." Usually English 
 idiom requires a clause introduced by " when," '' al- 
 though," " since," " because," in place of a Latin partici- 
 pial phrase. Possibly, in consequence of the study of 
 Latin, participial phrases of all sorts are very common in 
 school compositions. 
 
 2. The use of phrases in place of adjectives or nouns. 
 This is good idiom in German but not in English. Occa- 
 sionally a phrase may be so used with an epigrammatic or 
 humorous effect, but such expressions are more likely to 
 be clumsy than apt. " Stick-to-it-ive-ness " may be a 
 good word to use once, but it will hardly remain in the 
 English language. A " pinned together " girl may be 
 recognizable, but what can you make of this expression, 
 " a young lady pinned together friend of mine"? 
 
296 
 
 Good Use 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 In comparing the following parallel sentences, note 
 all unidiomatic expressions that occur. Which one of 
 each pair of sentences seems to you the better Eng- 
 lish ? Can you suggest any improvements in it ? 
 
 FROM XENOPHON'S "ANABASIS 
 
 1. Here Apollo is said to 
 have flayed, Marsyas, after 
 conquering him in a trial of 
 musical skill, and to have hung 
 his skin in the cave, where the 
 source of the stream rises. 
 
 2. The Cicilian queen, see- 
 ing the lustre and order of 
 their army, was in admiration, 
 and Cyrus pleased to see the 
 terror with which the Greeks 
 had struck the Barbarians. 
 
 3. This coming to the ears 
 of those who were appointed 
 to attend Cyrus, made their re- 
 port to the soldiers, who sus- 
 pected his design was to lead 
 them against the king; yet 
 they resolved to follow him. 
 
 4. The whole space be- 
 tween the fortresses was three 
 stadia; and it was impossible 
 to pass it by force; for the 
 passage was very narrow, the 
 walls reached down to the 
 
 B 
 
 1. Here Apollo is said to 
 have slain Marsyas, whom, con- 
 tending with him in music, he 
 had overcome, and to have 
 hung up his skin in the cave, 
 from whence the springs flow. 
 
 2. The Cicilian queen, on be- 
 holding the splendor and dis- 
 cipline of the army, was struck 
 with admiration ; and Cyrus 
 was delighted when he saw the 
 terror with which the Greeks 
 inspired the Barbarians. 
 
 3. The delegates having 
 heard this answer, reported it 
 to the soldiers, who had still 
 a suspicion that he was lead- 
 ing them against the king, but 
 nevertheless resolved to ac- 
 company him. 
 
 4. The interval between 
 them was three stadia in the 
 whole, through which it was 
 not possible to force a way; 
 the pass being narrow, the for- 
 tresses reaching down to the 
 
Translation English 297 
 
 sea, and above were inacces- 
 Llble rocks. 
 
 5. As for the bustards, they 
 may be taken, if one springs 
 them hastily, they • making 
 short flights, like partridges, 
 and are soon tired. 
 
 6. The breadth of this river 
 is two plethra, and a bridge 
 was thrown over it, con- 
 structed of seven boats. Hav- 
 ing crossed the stream, he 
 went forward through Phry- 
 gia. 
 
 B 
 
 sea, and above were inacces- 
 sible rocks. 
 
 5. The bustards might be 
 taken if a person started them 
 suddenly; for they fly but a 
 short distance, like partridges, 
 and soon tire. 
 
 6. This river is two plethra 
 in breadth; and having a 
 bridge over it, supported by 
 seven boats, he passed over, 
 and advanced through Phry- 
 gia. 
 
 FROM VIRGIL'S "^NEID" 
 
 1. When these things have 
 been said he has struck the 
 hollow mountain against the 
 side with his turned spear 
 and the winds as in a formed 
 band burst forth where an 
 entrance has been given and 
 blow over the lands in a 
 whirlwind. 
 
 2. Nor desists he, till con- 
 queror he stretches seven huge 
 deer on the ground, and equals 
 their number with his ships. 
 
 3. To him, revolving such 
 cares in his mind, Venus, in 
 mournful mood, her bright 
 eyes bedimmed with tears, ad- 
 dresses herself. 
 
 B 
 
 I. Thus having said, whirl- 
 ing the point of his spear, he 
 struck the hollow mountain's 
 side; and the winds, as in a 
 formed battalion, rush forth 
 at every vent, and scour over 
 the lands in a hurricane. 
 
 2. Nor does he desist be- 
 fore that as a conqueror he 
 may prostrate on the ground 
 seven huge bodies and equal 
 their number with his ships. 
 
 3. Venus, more sad, and be- 
 dewed as to her shining eyes 
 with tears, addresses him re- 
 volving such cares in his mind. 
 
298 
 
 Good Use 
 
 B 
 
 4. Likewise his associates 
 joyful bear gifts, which plenty- 
 is to each; and they load the 
 altars, and sacrifice bullocks. 
 
 5. Such Dares uplifts his 
 lofty head first in the lists, and 
 presents his broad shoulders, 
 and in alternate throws bran- 
 dishes his arms around, and 
 beats the air with his fists. 
 
 6. Then the whole grove 
 resounds with the applause 
 and the noise of the men, and 
 the anxiety of those favoring, 
 and the shores inclosed roll 
 back their voice; the beaten 
 hills re-echo with the cry. 
 
 7. I have been accustomed 
 to these, when my better blood 
 gave strength, nor yet had en- 
 vious age turned me gray, be- 
 ing sprinkled on my temples. 
 
 8. He said and stood 
 against the front of the oppo- 
 site bull that was set for the 
 prize of the combat, and rear- 
 ing himself up, with his right 
 hand drawn back, leveled the 
 cruel gauntlets directly be- 
 tween the horns; and, batter- 
 ing the skull, drove through 
 the bones. 
 
 9. But to be pitied he coiild 
 not touch the bird with lf|| 
 dart; he broke the knots a^d 
 
 4. In like manner his com- 
 panions offer gifts with joy, 
 each according to his ability; 
 they load the altars and sac- 
 rifice bullocks. 
 
 5. Such was Dares, who 
 raised his lofty head in the 
 first contest, and showed his 
 broad shoulders, and, extend- 
 ing, he throws about his arms 
 alternately, and beats the air 
 with blows. 
 
 6. Then with the applause 
 and uproar of the seamen, and 
 the eager acclamations of the 
 favoring crowd, every grove 
 resounds; the bounded shores 
 roll the voices on; the lashed 
 hills re-echo the sound. 
 
 7. With these I was wont 
 (to combat) while better blood 
 supplied me with strength, 
 nor envious age as yet had 
 scattered grey hairs over my 
 temples. 
 
 8. He said and stood oppo- 
 site the front of the bullock, 
 which stood the prize of the 
 contest; and high, with his 
 right hand drawn back, he 
 poised the hard gauntlets be- 
 tween the horns and dashed 
 them into the bones, the brains 
 being broken. 
 
 9. But it was his misfor- 
 tune not to be able to hit the 
 bird itself with his shaft: he 
 
Translation English 299 
 
 hempen bandages, with which 
 being bound as to its foot it 
 hung from the lofty mast. 
 
 10. Here is unexpectedly- 
 presented to view a prodigy 
 designed to be of high portent ; 
 this the important event after- 
 ward declared, and the alarm- 
 ing soothsayers predicted the 
 omens late. 
 
 11. Proceed go, said he, 
 and tell Ascanius, if now he 
 has the boyish troop prepared 
 with him and has arranged 
 the courses of the horse, that 
 he should lead out the bands 
 to his grandfather and show 
 himself in arms. 
 
 B 
 
 burst the cords and hempen 
 ligaments to which it hung 
 tied by the foot from the high 
 mast. 
 
 10. A prodigy suddenly, 
 and about to be a great por- 
 tent, is presented here to their 
 eyes; the great event taught 
 afterwards, and the terrified 
 prophets foretold the late 
 omens. 
 
 11. Go quick, says he, de- 
 sire Ascanius (if he has now 
 gotten ready with him his 
 company of boys, and has ar- 
 ranged the movements of his 
 horses) to bring up his troops, 
 and show himself in arms in 
 honor of his grandsire. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 BARBARISMS. IMPROPRIETIES 
 
 A Barbarism is a word not in good use. The fol- 
 lowing list includes a few of those most commonly 
 seen. 
 
 Foreign Words— for which there are good English equiv- 
 alents. Artist (for actor), distingue, furore, in medias 
 res, nee, role (part). 
 
 Obsolete "Words, foreword, (an affectation for preface), for 
 to, gotten (for got), quoth. 
 
 New Coinages, baseballist, burglarize, bike, combine 
 (noun), educationalist, suicide (verb), trolley (for trolley 
 car). 
 
 Slang, invite (noun), nit, size up, squelch (snub), steal 
 (noun), stunt. 
 
 Technical words, luff, go in stays, cut on the bias, home- 
 run. 
 
 localisms, carryall, homesteader, illy, sightly. 
 
 Abbreviations, cap (captain), exam, gent, gym, prexy, prof. 
 
 Vulgarisms, ain't, everywheres, tasty. 
 
 Pope gave some good advice on the use of words 
 which has been quoted in all text-books on rhetoric 
 and may be repeated here. 
 
 In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; 
 Alike fantastic, if too new, or old ; 
 Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
 Nor yet the last to lay the old aside, 
 300 
 
Barbarisms 301 
 
 An Impropriety is a word used in a sense not author- 
 ized by good use. Where the student is guilty of one 
 Barbarism, he is probably guilty of twenty Improprie- 
 ties. The exercises which follow offer some opportu- 
 nities to test his ability to choose between proper and 
 improper expressions. At the close of the exercises is 
 a list of some of the most common improprieties, in- 
 tended for convenient reference. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 In the following sentences, choose from each paren- 
 thesis the word which seems to you preferable. All 
 improprieties in these sentences are included in the list 
 at the end of the chapter. 
 
 (l?) If your book is to (affect, effect) any reform, it must 
 (affect, effect) the emotions of your readers, 
 
 2, He would not (admit, allow) that he was suffering; he 
 (allowed, declared,) in fact, that he was in the best of health, 
 
 3, (While, When) the storm was in progress, we remained in 
 his (home, house) ; (when, while) it was over, we went on, 
 
 4, How long have you been (staying, stopping) at this hotel? 
 
 5, I have sent my (acceptance, acceptation) of the invitation, 
 
 6, Students are (apt, likely, liable) to write their themes hast- 
 ily, (as, since, because) they do not realize the value of careful re- 
 vision. 
 
 7, All the (parties, persons) to whom I wrote answered (quite, 
 very) promptly. 
 
 8, I (respectfully, respectively) ask you to (pay, settle) this 
 bill. 
 
 9, All the (scholars, students) in our class (like, love) to 
 read the Waverley Novels. 
 
 10, Of the four candidates for president, (neither, no one) 
 received a (ipajority, plurality). 
 
302 
 
 Good Use 
 
 "S 
 
 (jji When I refused to (lend, loan) him any more money, he 
 became (quite, very) (angry, mad), 
 
 12. I have already (alluded to, mentioned) the general (ob- 
 servance, observation) of Arbor Day in this state. 
 
 13. We went (in, into) the house, but not a (individual, per- 
 son) was there. 
 
 14. (Leave, Let) him stay at the (depot, station). 
 
 15. I (confess, admit) that it is difficult to (learn, teach) stu- 
 dents the (distinct, distinctive) qualities of a good paragraph. 
 
 16. We saw a (lady, woman) and a (gentleman, man) in the 
 (carriage, team). 
 
 17. My opinion is (decided, decisive) that (continual, con- 
 tinuous) writing is necessary in connection with the study of 
 rhetoric. 
 
 18. They have just (discovered, invented) the bacillus of 
 typhoid fever. 
 
 19. I can recall every (circumstance, feature) of the day. 
 
 20. We went (almost, most) to the post-office. 
 
 21. The (balance, remainder, rest) of the audience remained. 
 
 22. The recitation was (oral, verbal). 
 
 ^23. This rain is very (aggravating, annoying,) for I had in- 
 tended to go to town to-day. 
 
 24. She (can, may) not go until she has (arranged, fixed, put 
 in order) my books in the library. 
 
 25. I should like your (council, counsel) how to (derive, 
 eliminate) some conclusions from these (data, datum). 
 
 26. It was a (beautiful, ideal) day, and we had an (elegant, 
 enjoyable) time, finally (driving, riding) home in Mr. Smith's 
 (carriage, team). 
 
 . 27. If we take up the various (items, matters, points) in the 
 report, and consider their (respective, respectful) merits, we 
 shall not be (apt, liable, likely) to overlook any (proposal, propo- 
 sition) that we ought to refuse. 
 
 28. His bravery was (exceptional, exceptionable,) (as, be- 
 cause) it was (human, humane) as well as daring. 
 
 29. (Among, Between) the eleven there is much dissension. 
 
 30. He (prescribed, proscribed) a (preventative, preventive) 
 for the evil. 
 
Improprieties 303 
 
 For the improprieties, italicized in the following sen- 
 tences, substitute preferable expressions. 
 
 1. When I heard the explosion, I feared that some accident 
 had transpired. 
 
 2. It is impossible to predicate the result of the election. 
 /3.' The observation of a few rules will help you in the struc- 
 
 tiife of your sentences. 
 
 4. I had quite a nice time though it rained real hard. 
 
 5. He lead the way with aggravating coolness. 
 
 6. Although it is not liable to be pleasant, we shall likely go. 
 C^ He is laying in the shade, having an elegant time. 
 
 8. The whole of the students desired a holiday. 
 
 9. He don't ride on the electrics any more. 
 
 10. The party fjho was to sing a solo has not yet arrived. 
 
 IMPROPRIETIES 
 
 In this list the impropriety is always printed first in 
 black- faced type and the correct word second in ordi- 
 nary type; as, "aggravate, for annoy or irritate." 
 When, however, two w^ords are confused in meaning, 
 each being sometimes misused for the other, both are 
 printed in black- faced type ; as, " affect, effect." 
 
 This list calls attention to some of the distinctions 
 between words that are most commonly neglected. For 
 full definition and discrimination of the meanings a 
 dictionary should be consulted. 
 
 Acceptance, acceptation. Acceptance is "the act of accepting" or 
 "favorable reception." Acceptation is "the sense in which an 
 expression is accepted." 
 
 affect, effect. To affect is to influence; to effect is to accom- 
 plish. 
 
304 Good Use 
 
 aggravate, for annoy or irritate. The proper meaning for ag- 
 gravate is to make heavier or worse. 
 
 allow, for declare or admit. A colloquialism. 
 
 allude, for mention. We allude to something not distinctly men- 
 tioned. 
 
 alone, for only. This use — as, " Not alone at Ephesus, but al- 
 most throughout all Asia" — is now nearly obsolete. Alone is 
 restricted to the meaning, "solitary," "unaccompanied." 
 
 alternative, for choice — when there are more than two things. 
 
 among, between. Between applies only to two ; among to more 
 than two. Between, however, is sometimes used of more than 
 two things, to indicate contrast or opposition; as, "distinc- 
 tions between words." 
 
 apt, liable, likely. Likely denotes any kind of probability; apt, 
 probability arising from natural tendency of persons or things ; 
 liable, an unpleasant probability. " It is likely to be pleasant." 
 " The poor are apt to be proud." " He is liable to die from 
 the wound." Apt and liable are often used improperly for 
 likely. 
 
 as, overused for since, because, or when. 
 
 avocation, vocation. Vocation means one's regular calling cr 
 business; avocation, some occupation other than the regular 
 one. 
 
 balance, for rest or remainder. Balance is the difference be- 
 tween the two sides of an account. Remainder is a small part 
 left over ; rest may be a large or a small part. 
 
 between, for among. See among. 
 
 bring, carry, fetch. "Bring (bear hither) the book to me, and 
 I will carry (bear thence) it to town." Fetch means " go and 
 bring." 
 
 but what, for but that. 
 
 calculate, for intend, believe, think. A provincialism. 
 
 can, may (as auxiliaries). Can refers to some form of abil- 
 ity; may, to some form of permission, or possibility. 
 
 capacity, for ability. 
 
 claim, for assert, maintain. To claim is to demand for one's 
 own, or for one's right or advantage. 
 
 clever, for good-natured or kind. A provincialism. 
 
Improprieties 305 
 
 complement, compliment. Complement is a full quantity or 
 what is needed to complete a quantity; compliment is an ex- 
 pression of praise. 
 
 confess, for admit. 
 
 continual, continuous. Continual is used of oft-repeated actsj 
 continuous, more properly of uninterrupted action. 
 
 council, counsel. A council is a body of men; counsel means 
 advice or a person who gives advice. 
 
 credible, creditable, credulous. That is credible which may be 
 believecl; that is creditable which deserves credit or is in 
 y good repute. A credulous person is one who is easily de- 
 ceived. 
 
 decided, decisive. A decided opinion is a strong one ; a decisive 
 opinion settles the case. 
 
 depot, for station. Depot is in general use, but careful writers 
 prefer to write "railway station." 
 
 deprecate, depreciate. To deprecate is to express regret for or 
 to argue against; to depreciate is to lower the value of. 
 
 different to, or dififerent than, for different from. 
 
 discover, invent. The steam-engine was invented; the Roentgen 
 rays were discovered. 
 \/ di stpct) distinctiv e. Distinct means separate ; distinctive means 
 characteristic. 
 
 done, for did. Never say, "He done it." 
 
 don't, for does n't. Do not say, "He don't." 
 
 e5^ct^ affect. See affect. 
 
 elegant, as a general term of approval. Elegant implies elegance. 
 
 eliminate, for derive. To eliminate is to thrust out, not to bring 
 in. The author tries to eliminate all errors from this book ; he 
 tries to derive (not to eliminate) principles from a mass of 
 details. 
 
 emigrants, immigrants. Foreigners coming to this country are 
 emigrants from their fatherlands and immigrants to America. 
 
 exceptionable, exceptional. An exceptional case is one making 
 an exception, contrary to rule ; exceptionable conduct is con- 
 duct to which exception can be taken. 
 
 feature, for circumstance, or characteristic. 
 
 fix, overused for adjust, put in order. 
 
 ( 
 
 y 
 
3o6 
 
 Good Use 
 
 
 flee, fly, flow. See page 315. 
 
 function, for party, entertainment. A function is an official cere- 
 mony of an elaborate sort. 
 
 gentleman, for man. Gentleman should be used to designate a 
 man of certain qualities. 
 
 had n't ought, for ought not. A vulgarism. 
 
 home, for house. A man's home is his habitual place of abode; 
 it may or may not be a house. 
 
 hur^^y hu"iar,** Men are all human; only compassionate men 
 are humane. 
 
 ideal, used carelessly for beautiful, noble, delightful. 
 
 if, for whether. 
 
 immigrants, emigrants. See emigrants. 
 
 in, into. Into denotes motion toward. You are in a carriage 
 after you have jumped into it. 
 
 individual, for person. Individual should be used only for a 
 single person, opposed to many. 
 
 kind of a, for kind of. 
 
 lady, for woman or wife. 
 
 last, latest. Latest has a reference to time; last may have no 
 reference to time. " The latest news " ; " the last house on the 
 street." 
 
 lead, for led. Perhaps a mistake in spelling. 
 
 learn, teach. " You can't teach an old dog new tricks " ; the 
 dog can't learn them. 
 
 leave, let. Leave means to let remain, or to go away from. 
 
 lie, lay. See page 315. 
 
 like, for as. '* Do as I do,"— not " Do like I do." The vulgar- 
 ism like as for as is current in some parts of the country. 
 
 likely, liable, apt. See apt. 
 
 loan, for lend. Loan is not in good use as a verb. 
 
 love, for like. Sometimes incorrectly used when there is no 
 reference to the affections. 
 
 mad, for angry. Mad means insane; though its use for angry 
 in some cases is, perhaps, permissible in conversation. 
 
 majority, plurality. A plurality is the excess of votes for one 
 candidate over those for another; a majority is more than 
 half of the whole number. A plurality may be much less than 
 a majority. 
 
Improprieties 307 
 
 most, for almost. An abbreviation. 
 
 neither, for no one, when there are more than two. 
 
 nice, much overused for pleasant. 
 
 rti^gArTr^pr^^ yhservatjon. An observance is a celebration, or the 
 act of complying with; observation is notice, or the act of 
 looking at. "The observance of a birthday"; "the observa- 
 tion of a star." " The observance of the rules of grammar " ; 
 "the observation of mistakes in the themes." 
 
 onto, for on or upon. Onto seems to be coming into good use 
 but can usually be avoided. 
 
 oral, verbal. Oral means in spoken words; verbal, in words. 
 
 party, for person. A party is a number of persons. In legal 
 phraseology a person may be a party to a contract. 
 
 pled, for pleaded. 
 
 point, much overused in various senses. 
 
 predicate, for predict. To predicate is to affirm as a quality; 
 to predict is to foretell. 
 
 prescribe, proscribe. Synonyms of prescribe are command, desig- 
 nate, establish; of proscribe, doom, forbid. 
 
 preventative, for preventive. 
 
 progosal^progosition. A proposal is something proposed to be 
 done ; a proposition something proposed for one's consideration. 
 "The proposition that a new building was needed was being 
 
 debated, when he came forward with a proposal to build one at 
 
 his own expense." 
 
 quite, for very or rather. Quite means wholly ; though its use for 
 very is almost universal in conversation. 
 
 raise, for bring up or rear. Cattle, not men, are raised. 
 
 real, for really or very. Real is not an adverb. 
 
 r<>spprt^y]1y, yygpfiptivply Respectfully means in a deferential 
 way; respectively, severally. 
 
 ride, for drive. You ride horseback, but drive a horse in a car- 
 riage. 
 
 scholar, for pupil or student. 
 
 settle, for pay. 
 
 shall, will; should, would. See page 317. 
 
 sit, set. See page 315. 
 
 stop, for stay. Stop may well be restricted to the meaning, " to 
 stop without staying." 
 
3o8 
 
 Good Use 
 
 team, for carriage. Team is used for two or more beasts or 
 persons, not for a vehicle. 
 
 transpire, for happen. To transpire means to leak out, to be- 
 come public gradually; to happen is to occur. 
 
 verbal, oral. See oral. 
 
 while, for when. Strictly speaking, while means "during the 
 time that"; when, "at the time that." While should not be 
 used unless there is some implication of duration of time. 
 
 whole, for all. Whole is used of something considered as a 
 unit; all with reference to a number of persons or things. 
 
 without, for unless. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 SOLECISMS 
 
 A solecism is a mistake in grammar. If a writer 
 makes grammatical mistakes, you at once conclude that 
 he does not know his business. In conversation, to be 
 sure, some slight inaccuracies may be permitted, but 
 in writing there is plenty of time to correct one's 
 faults. English syntax is not very complex, but it con- 
 tains a good many constructions that need careful 
 study if you are to make no mistakes. These exercises 
 afford the student an opportunity to test his practice; 
 following the exercises is a discussion of many of the 
 most common solecisms. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 In the following exercises words are italicized or 
 dashes inserted, for which you are to substitute the 
 correct expressions. From several words indicated 
 you are to choose the grammatical one. If the choice 
 of words involves a difference in the meaning of the 
 sentence, explain the difference. 
 
 I. A, an, the, or no article. 
 
 I. In warm weather you will not suffer from 
 
 lack of clothing. 2. He is entitled to promo- 
 
 309 
 
3IO Good Use 
 
 tion. 3. educated men do not read that kind 
 
 of paper. 4. To student of Latin, 
 
 English inflected forms seem few. 5. Your themes are 
 faulty both in sentences and paragraphs. 
 
 2. I, me, myself. 
 
 I. My sister and have read the stories. 2. They 
 
 have been very kind to both my sister and . 3. She 
 
 is taller than . 4. Every one had gone except you 
 
 and . 5. will go . 6. She knew it to be 
 
 . 7. Between you and , I wish it were . 
 
 3. He, him, himself. 
 
 I. Charles wrote that letter. 2. I knew it to be 
 
 3. None can run fast except John and , but 
 
 John can run faster than . 4. Good students, like 
 
 you and , ought to write better themes. 5. That is 
 
 coming up the street. 
 
 4. Who, whom. 
 
 I. do you think she looks like? 2. do you 
 
 think he is ? 3. do you think him to be ? 4. 
 
 do you think will go? 5. do you think they will 
 
 send ? 6. is that for ? 7. He gave the presents to 
 
 those he thought deserved them. 8. He gave the 
 
 presents to those he thought he could bribe. 9. 
 
 There is John, we expected to be late. 10. 
 
 could it have been? 11. I cannot tell to send for. 
 
 5. Substitute the past tense for the present. 
 
 I. They begin to come. 2. Mr. Jones bids me to say 
 that he bids $10. 3. The bird Hies; the river Hows; the 
 coward flees. 4. The superintendent lies back in his car- 
 riage, while the workingmen lay the track. 5. I lie in 
 the hammock. 6. I lay the book on the table. 7. I 
 choose this apple. 
 
Solecisms 311 
 
 6. Change to the perfect tense. 
 
 I. He wakes, and they go. 2. They lie in the grass. 3. 
 He pleads earnestly but proves nothing. 4. I set the lamp 
 on the table. 5. I sit by the table. 6. He gets the place. 
 
 7. He stole my watch. 8. He took my hat. 9. He wrote 
 home. 10. She wakes early and sets the table. 11. He 
 rose from his chair and hung his coat in the closet. 12. 
 He broke his arm. 
 
 7. Shall or Will. 
 
 I. I be beaten unless he help me. 2. We 
 
 have a wet day. 3. I be obliged to you, if 
 
 you give me your assistance. 4. If determination 
 
 can do it, we win. 5. He tells me that he be 
 
 fifty years old in April. 6. He thinks that his brother 
 
 get the prize. 7. He has made up his mind that 
 
 he not go. 8. 1 call to-morrow ? 9. 
 
 you have time to say good-by? 10. you call for 
 
 me to-morrow? 
 
 8. Should or Would. 
 
 I. I hardly know him. 2. we be safe? 3. 
 
 If it be foggy, the boat not start. 4. I 
 
 be heartbroken if he die. 5. If he decided that he 
 
 not come, I be obliged to stay. 6. I did not 
 
 think that I enjoy the picnic, but he felt sure that 
 
 he . 7. He feared that he die. 8. you 
 
 go if I send a carriage ? 
 
 g. To or To have. 
 
 I. It would have been difficult refuse (d) 
 
 help(ed) him. 2. He intended see(n) you to-mor- 
 row. 3. He expected (win, won) the race. 4. He 
 
 is lucky (meet, met) him yesterday. 5. He had 
 
 hoped see(n) you a week ago. 
 
312 
 
 Good Use 
 
 10. All violations of good use in the following sen- 
 tences are to be noted and corrected. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF BAD ENGLISH 
 
 1. I am afraid I will differ from such an individual as him. 
 
 2. Who did you stop with over Sunday? 
 
 3. I do not see but what you ought to plainly tell him his 
 mistake. 
 
 4. Each student who only had one memoranda was repri- 
 manded by their teacher. 
 
 5. I do not hardly think that there are two spoonsful of sugar 
 in the bucket. 
 
 6. Neither of our three friends begun as early as yourself. 
 
 7. He has spoke the most absolutely incorrect English that I 
 ever heard. 
 
 8. Should you whip your child if she runs away from home? 
 
 9. We are liable to have a pleasant day to-morrow, so we will 
 likely take a drive. 
 
 10. The black and white canines were both laying on their 
 backs. 
 
 11. He fell off the trolley onto the ground, 
 
 12. Every one was dressed in their best; it is a beautiful 
 sunny day, one of those kind we have been longing for. 
 
 13. He neither took them in the house or gave them clothing. 
 
 14. The train was composed entirely of parlor cars, which 
 were quite well filled by the passengers, not one of whom will 
 forget their narrow escape. 
 
 15. They would have been glad to have sent that kind of a 
 book. 
 
 A List of Common Mistakes in Grammar 
 
 This list contains only those constructions in the use 
 of which mistakes are frequently made. All examples 
 given are of correct usage, unless they are preceded by 
 the word not in black- faced type. Not indicates that 
 the expression following is an example of misuse. 
 
Solecisms 313 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 The use of a or an in the expressions "sort of a" and "kind 
 of a " is a common error. " I do not like that kind of dog." 
 
 The is sometimes incorrectly used for a or when no article is 
 necessary. "He threw a stone (or stones) at the dog" — particu- 
 larizes the dog but not the stone. 
 
 The omission of an article may cause confusion. " A black 
 and white dog" refers to one dog; "a black and a white dog" 
 to two dogs. 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 The Possessive Case is formed by adding 's to the nominative ; 
 but the s is sometimes omitted when the sound is unpleasant ; as, 
 " for conscience' sake," " Socrates' wife." If the nominative plural 
 end in s, the possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe 
 (') ; if the nominative plural does not end in s, 's is added. 
 " Girls' and women's shoes." 
 
 The possessive case should as far as possible be used only in 
 cases of actual possession. " The leg of the table " not, " the 
 table's leg." " The course of history " — not, " history's course.'* 
 
 The plurals of the following nouns cause trouble : alumna, 
 alumnae; alumnus, alumni; analysis, analyses; axis, axes; 
 cherub, cherubim or cherubs; curriculum, curricula; genius, 
 geniuses (men) or genii (spirits); ignoramus, ignoramuses; 
 maximum, maxima; memorandum, memoranda; phenomenon, 
 phenomena ; seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; spoonful, spoonfuls ; 
 stimulus, stimuli ; tableau, tableaux. 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 The Personal Pronouns in the nominative and objective cases 
 are often confused. The following are examples of correct use. 
 " It is he." " I do not think it to be him." " It seems to be he." 
 " Between you and me there is no disagreement." 
 
 Pronouns ending in -self are properly used only for emphasis 
 or in a reflective sense. " I will see to it myself." " It is he, 
 himself." Not — "You and myself will go;" "it is himself." 
 
 Before 'a verbal noun, a pronoun should be put in the posses- 
 sive case. " Your singing was delightful." " I remember his 
 
314 Good Use 
 
 telling that story," But the possessive is not used with a par- 
 ticiple. " I heard you singing and him telling a story." 
 
 When more than two persons or things are referred to, any 
 one is preferable to either; no one to neither. " Any one of the 
 three is taller than I." 
 
 Any one, each, either, every, neither, nobody, or not one, as an 
 antecedent, requires a pronoun in the singular number. " If any 
 one has the example correct, let him hold up his hand." " Every 
 one of them gave up his arms." " Each must judge for himself." 
 
 Each other and one another may be used indiscriminately. 
 
 Who and whom must be carefully distinguished. " Whom are 
 you following ? " " Who do you think will win ? " " Whom will 
 you give it to ? " 
 
 Who, which, and that. Who and which are used in explan- 
 atory, descriptive, non-restrictive relative clauses; that in relative 
 clauses restricting the meaning or application of the antece- 
 dent ; as, " the countries that bordered on the ocean " — mean- 
 ing " only the countries that bordered on the ocean." This 
 distinction has been much insisted on in rhetorics but is open to 
 many exceptions and has never been generally adopted in good 
 use. Although that is the customary word for restrictive rela- 
 tive clauses, who or which may frequently be preferable. 
 
 A change of person should not be made without good reason. 
 If you begin a composition in the third person, you should not 
 change to the first; and vice versa. 
 
 VERBS 
 
 Vulgarisms must be shunned. " He did " — not, " he done It." 
 " He is n't "—not, " he ain't." " It does n't "—not, " it don't." 
 " He ought not " — not, " he had n't ought." " You were "—not, 
 *'you was." 
 
 The Principal Parts of certain verbs must be thoroughly 
 learned if you are to avoid many common solecisms and im- 
 proprieties. 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST INDICATIVE 
 
 PAST PARTiaPLE 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 bid (ask, or command) 
 
 bade 
 
 bidden 
 

 
 
 Solecisms 
 
 315 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 
 
 PAST INDICATIVE 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 bid (as, to bid 
 
 at 
 
 an 
 
 bid 
 
 bid 
 
 auction) 
 
 
 
 
 
 choose 
 
 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 eat 
 
 
 
 ate (eat (et)is per- 
 missible) 
 
 eaten 
 
 flee 
 
 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 flow 
 
 
 
 flowed 
 
 flowed 
 
 fly 
 
 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 get 
 
 
 
 got 
 
 got (preferable to 
 gotten) 
 
 hang (clothes, pictures) 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
 hang (men) 
 
 
 
 hanged 
 
 hanged 
 
 lay 
 
 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 lie 
 
 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 plead 
 prove 
 
 
 
 pleaded 
 proved 
 
 pleaded 
 
 proved (preferable to 
 proven) 
 
 raise 
 
 
 
 raised 
 
 raised 
 
 rise 
 
 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 set 
 
 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 sit 
 
 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 wake 
 
 
 
 woke 
 
 waked 
 
 write 
 
 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 Tenses 
 A change from the present to the past tense in passages deal- 
 ing with past events should occur very rarely. In general keep 
 to the past tense; the historical present (the present tense used 
 in relating past events) sometimes promotes emphasis and vivid- 
 ness, but only if employed infrequently. 
 
 Sequence of Tenses. The tense of the verb in a dependent 
 clause depends on the tense of the verb in the principal clause. 
 General truths, however, are always put in the present tense. 
 I think he will. I thought he would. 
 
 When you have finished, I When you had finished, 
 
 will speak. I spoke. 
 
 Every one hopes that you Every one hoped that you 
 
 will speak, would speak. 
 
3i6 
 
 Good Use 
 
 I had always believed that men are a little lower than the 
 angels. 
 
 The Perfect Infinitive denotes action completed at the time of 
 the principal verb; the present infinitive, action incomplete at the 
 time of the principal verb. Past tenses are followed by the pres- 
 ent infinitive. 
 
 I am glad to have seen you so often the past week. 
 They expected to win. (Not, to have won). 
 He will be glad to see us. (When he sees us.) 
 He will be glad to have seen us. (After he has seen us.) 
 They would have been glad to go home. (Not, to have gone.) 
 We should have been pleased to catch a few fish. (Not, to 
 have caught.) 
 
 Moods 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood of the verb " to be," rather than the in- 
 dicative, should be used in expressing wishes and conditions 
 contrary to fact. " I wish I were there." " If I were there, what 
 a good time we could have." Do not use the indicative in one of 
 two parallel clauses and the subjunctive in the other. " If I were 
 ten years older and were (not, was) as strong as you." 
 
 Number 
 
 Each, either, every, neither, many a, and similar words take a 
 singular verb. 
 
 A subject consisting of two words connected by " or," " either 
 — or," "neither — nor," takes a singular verb. 
 
 Words joined to the subject by "with," "in addition to," "as 
 well as," or a similar phrase, are parenthetical and do not affect 
 the number of the verb. 
 
 A collective noun, when it refers to the collection as a whole, 
 takes a singular verb; when it refers to the individual members 
 of the collection, it takes a plural verb. 
 
 The audience was attentive to the lecture. 
 
 The audience were of a dozen opinions. 
 
Solecisms 317 
 
 Shall and Will. Should and Would 
 
 The distinctions in the uses of " shall " and " will " are unfor- 
 tunately complicated, but they are much insisted upon by careful 
 speakers and writers. 
 
 The auxiliaries used to indicate the future tense are: 
 
 Sing. Plu. 
 
 I shall we shall 
 
 you will you will 
 
 he will they will 
 
 The auxiliaries used to indicate volition (intention, promise, 
 or command) on the part of the speaker are: 
 
 Sing. Plu. 
 
 I will we will 
 
 you shall you shall 
 
 he shall they shall 
 
 The distinctions between should and would are the same as 
 between shall and will. 
 
 The main difficulty lies in the first person, where there is a 
 wide-spread tendency to use will incorrectly instead of shall to 
 express simple futurity. 
 
 Examples of Correct Usage: I shall be glad to see you and I 
 hope that you will come early. I will return the book to-mor- 
 row; you shall not go to the trouble to call for it. He will be 
 there, without doubt; so shall I. I promise you that I will 
 come next week. I promised that I would go, but I should be 
 late, even if I started now. He would be a model candidate; 
 we should all vote for him. 
 
 In Questions, shall is always used in the first person. With 
 the second and third persons, shall or will is used accordingly 
 as the one or the other may be expected in reply. If one asks, 
 " Shall you go ? " — one inquires not as to intention or volition 
 but simply as to the fact, and expects an answer, " I shall " or 
 " I shall not." But if one asks, " Will you go to drive with us? " 
 — one expects an act of volition expressed in the answer, "I 
 
3i8 
 
 Good Use 
 
 will" or "I will not." So, "Will they come?" implies an 
 answer, "They will" or "They will not." 
 
 In Indirect Discourse, when the subject is the same as that 
 of the principal clause, the auxiliary is used which would be 
 used in direct discourse. 
 
 John says that he shall be there. (Direct: I shall be there.) 
 
 I do not think that I will try. (Direct: I will try.) 
 
 He writes that he shall come next week. (Direct: I shall 
 come.) 
 
 They promise that they will not interfere. (Direct: We will 
 not.) 
 
 In all other cases of indirect discourse, the auxiliary in a 
 dependent clause follows the regular conjugations. 
 
 In Conditional Clauses shall or should is used in all persons to 
 express simple futurity; will or would in all persons to express 
 volition. The auxiliaries in the conclusions to the conditions fol- 
 low, of course, the regular conjugations. 
 
 Examples, the conditional clauses expressing simple futurity. 
 
 If I should go, they would be pleased to see me. 
 
 If you should go, I should (future) be pleased to see you. 
 
 If you should go, I would (promise) meet you. 
 
 If he should go, we would meet him. 
 
 If it should rain, we should get wet. 
 
 Should and Would, as has been seen, follow the rules for shall 
 and will, but they have some additional peculiarities. Should is 
 sometimes used in the sense of ought; as, " She should remain 
 at home." It is also sometimes used in politeness or to soften 
 the force of a statement ; as, " I should not think so " (= I hardly 
 think so, or I do not think so). Would is used to denote a wish; 
 as, " Would that he were here ! " — or to express habitual action ; 
 as, "He would sleep by the fire after dinner." 
 
 The solecisms of using will or would for shall or should to 
 express simple futurity have been so frequently condemned that 
 persons now often make the opposite error and use shall in the 
 first person to express volition. In general, however, the follow- 
 ing rule is still a safe one : 
 
 When in doubt between shall and will in the first person. 
 Use Shall. 
 
Solecisms 319 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
 
 Adjectives go with nouns or pronouns; adverbs with verbs, ad- 
 jectives, and adverbs. After certain verbs — look, sound, feel, 
 smell — there is some difficulty in deciding whether to use a word 
 referring to the subject or the verb. " I feel cold," means that I 
 am cold ; " I feel coldly toward you," means that my feeling is 
 cold. So we say, " the rose smells sweet ; " " the boy looks 
 bright" — ^but, "he smelt carefully of the mixture;" "he looked 
 brightly at us." Sometimes either adjective or adverb can be 
 used without any perceptible difference in the meaning ; as, " The 
 piano sounds harsh (or harshly)." 
 
 Misplaced Adverbs. Only and even should come next to the 
 words or expressions that they qualify. " I shall read only a 
 few pages." " Even our teacher thinks that our class is a 
 bright one." 
 
 In general^ an adverb should, if possible, come next to the 
 word it modifies. 
 
 The Cleft Infinitive. A careful writer will avoid placing an 
 adverb between " to " and the infinitive. " He was prepared to 
 follow cheerfully." Not, "to cheerfully follow." 
 
 The Comparative Degree should be used when you are refer- 
 ring to two objects or persons; the superlative, when to more 
 than two. "He was the taller of the two brothers." "He was 
 the tallest in a large family of tall men." 
 
 Some adjectives and adverbs from their meaning can log- 
 ically have no comparative or superlative degrees ; as, " abso- 
 lutely, entirely, extreme, faultless, supreme, unparalleled, unpre- 
 cedented." By a kind of hyperbole, however, words of this sort 
 are sometimes used with the adverbs of comparison, "more, 
 most, very ; " so, " most certain " " more complete," " very funda- 
 mental," and even "more perfect." 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 In choosing proper prepositions you must rely on your sense 
 of good idiom and your sense of the precise meaning you wish to 
 express. A list of prepositions required with certain words is 
 given in Chapter 2Zy page 294, and in the list of Improprieties in 
 
320 Good Use 
 
 Chapter 24 there are cases of misuse: between for among; dif- 
 ferent to or than for different from; in for into; onto for on. 
 " At, by, in, of, to, on, with," are used almost indiscriminately by 
 careless speakers. Usually, however, only one of these preposi- 
 tions will exactly fit in the sentence; the others are misfits. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 A few cases of misuse of conjunctions may be noticed here, 
 although they have nearly all been included in the list of Impro- 
 prieties in Chapter 24. 
 
 As is misused for that. " I do not know that it is true " — not, 
 "as it is true." 
 
 But is misused where there is no antithesis. 
 
 But what is used for but that. " I do not know but that it 
 would be better"— not, "but what it would." Perhaps either 
 "but" or "that" would be preferable to "but that." 
 
 // is sometimes used where though would be preferable. Note 
 the difference in the meaning of the following sentence, if " if " 
 is substituted for "though": "Though he is a republican, he is 
 honest." // should not be used in place of whether: " I do not 
 know whether he will come." As though, equivalent to as if, is 
 good idiom. 
 
 Nor (not, or) must follow neither. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Double negatives are condemned by good use to-day. 
 
 She looked but once. Not, She did n't look but once. 
 
 I hardly believe that. Not, I don't hardly believe that. 
 
 It won't rain, I think. Not, It won't rain, I don't think. 
 
 Can but and cannot but differ in meaning. " I can but hope " 
 means that I can only hope, that is the only possibility. " I 
 cannot but hope " means that I must hope, though the alternative 
 of despair is suggested. " I can but laugh, because there is 
 nothing else to do." " I cannot but laugh, because it is so funny." 
 
 The omission of words often makes a construction ungram- 
 matical. The words within parentheses in the following sen- 
 tences are necessary. 
 
Solecisms 321 
 
 (I) have received your letter and will reply at length Friday. 
 
 Old English usage differs in many respects from (the usage 
 of) the present. 
 
 I am as glad to see you as John (is). Or, "as (to see) John." 
 
 He spoke enthusiastically as (he) always (did) of his pros- 
 pects. 
 
APPENDIXES 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 PUNCTUATION. CAPITALIZATION 
 
 Punctuation is determined in part by Good Use and in part 
 by Good Sense. The marks of punctuation are signs which edu- 
 cated people have agreed upon in order to make what they 
 write easier to read. Their use is in some particulars fixed; in 
 many others it is left to the good sense of individual writers. 
 Absolute rules for punctuation, therefore, cannot be laid down. 
 Rules merely indicate the general practice, to which there are 
 often many exceptions. The rules that follow are not designed 
 to dictate absolutely how a writer shall punctuate, but to indicate 
 the practice of a majority of writers. 
 
 The use of the different marks of punctuation is always 
 changing, the tendency at the present being to use them less 
 than formerly, but the main functions of each remain the same. 
 The period indicates a full stop, the completion of a sentence. 
 The semicolon indicates a change in the thought, an important 
 stopping place in the sentence. The comma indicates a short 
 pause, a minor break in the sentence. If there is no break in 
 the thought, no word or phrase that should be separated from 
 the rest, there is no need of punctuation until you come to the 
 period. If there is a change in thought, some words to be sep- 
 arated from others, a division to be indicated to the reader's 
 eye, you will need a comma, a semicolon, or possibly a dash, 
 according to the importance or abruptness of the division. 
 
 The student is using the marks of punctuation in order to 
 make what he writes easier to read. Examine and learn the fol- 
 lowing rules with this in mind. You will not aid the reader by 
 scattering commas over a paragraph as if from a pepper-box; 
 and you will certainly annoy the reader if you do not provide 
 
 325 
 
326 Appendix A 
 
 many commas and semicolons to aid his eye. Above all, never 
 omit a mark, the omission of which will make your meaning in 
 the least degree ambiguous. 
 
 THE COMMA 
 
 The comma separates words, phrases, or clauses that should 
 be kept apart in thought. It usually marks either some kind of 
 parenthesis, such as a phrase in apposition; or some kind of 
 ellipsis, such as the omission of a verb; or some kind of disjunc- 
 tion, when elements come together which are not closely con- 
 nected grammatically or logically. 
 
 It is used: 
 
 1. To separate expressions in apposition from the rest of 
 the sentence; as, "James, the brother of John, came first." 
 
 2. To mark off adverbs or adverbial phrases that modify not 
 a single word but an entire phrase; as, however, then, therefore, 
 moreover. These commas are sometimes omitted, especially in 
 short sentences. 
 
 3. To separate all kinds of parenthetical phrases or clauses 
 from the context. If a phrase or clause interrupts the thought of 
 a sentence without being necessary to make complete sense, it 
 should usually be marked off by commas. 
 
 The crumbs and discolorations of the cannibal feast, as yet 
 hardly consummated, were exceedingly visible about his mouth. 
 
 Hawthorne. 
 
 Dashes and marks of parenthesis () are also used to mark off 
 parenthetical expressions, when a more distinct separation from 
 the sentence is desired than that indicated by commas. 
 
 4. To mark off adverbs that might be mistaken for prepo- 
 sitions; as, "Above, the sky was bright." 
 
 5. To separate a long subject from its verb. 
 
 6. To mark off any element of a sentence that is out of its 
 natural position. 
 
 Of the plays which bear the name of Shakespeare in the late 
 editions, the greater number were not published until seven years 
 after his death. {But, — ^The greater number of the plays, etc.) 
 
Punctuation 327 
 
 Without a single glance at the house, he ran forward. (But, 
 —He ran forward without a single glance, etc.) 
 
 7. To mark the omissions of words. 
 
 English is the favorite study of one half of the class; rtiathe- 
 matics, of less than one tenth. 
 
 8. To separate words, phrases, or pairs of words used in 
 series without conjunctions to connect them. 
 
 Nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs are often found in 
 series. Some writers omit the comma before " and " in such a 
 series. No comma is used between two adjectives; as, "It is a 
 bright sunny day." 
 
 9. To separate short quotations from the context ; as, " He 
 cried, 'I am ready.'" Or to separate "he said" or similar ex- 
 pressions from the quotation in which they are placed. 
 
 10. To separate dependent clauses from the context whenever 
 they are not closely connected with adjoining words, especially 
 in the following cases: 
 
 (a) A long clause at the beginning of a sentence. 
 
 (b) A clause introduced by " as " or " for," meaning " be- 
 cause." 
 
 (c) A parenthetical (Rule 3), transposed (Rule 6), or a non- 
 restrictive relative clause (Rule 11). 
 
 But commas are not used to mark off short or closely con- 
 nected clauses, or clauses beginning with "that." 
 
 11. To separate non-restrictive relative clauses from the con- 
 text. A non-restrictive relative clause is one that adds an ex- 
 planation or description to the substantive; it may be regarded 
 as a parenthesis. A restrictive clause is one that narrows the 
 meaning of the substantive and cannot be omitted without de- 
 stroying the meaning of the sentence. The two clauses beginning 
 with "that" in the two preceding sentences are restrictive and 
 need no commas. This distinction in punctuation is important, 
 because it may affect the meaning of the sentence. " The mem- 
 bers of the team, who had done the best they could, were heartily 
 praised" — means that all the members of the team had done 
 their best and were praised. Without the commas, the sen- 
 
328 Appendix A 
 
 tence would mean that only those members that had done their 
 best were praised. 
 
 12. To separate independent clauses from the context; these 
 often require a semicolon, as in this sentence. "And" and 
 "but," connecting clauses, should be preceded by commas or 
 semicolons when there is a change of subject; but (usually) 
 not when the verbs in the two clauses have the same subject. 
 
 I shall go down-town this afternoon, and you can meet me at 
 the post-office. 
 
 I shall go down-town this afternoon and will meet you at the 
 post-office. 
 
 THE SEMICOLON 
 
 The semicolon marks a greater pause than the comma and 
 indicates a greater separation between the elements of the sen- 
 tence. In many cases the question whether to use a comma or a 
 semicolon depends for its answer on the amount of emphasis 
 you wish to put upon the separation. 
 
 The semicolon is used: 
 
 1. To separate clauses or phrases having a common gram- 
 matical dependence; as in the first sentence quoted from Ma- 
 caulay, Chapter 16, Exercise 4. 
 
 2. To separate a dependent clause from the context, when a 
 more distinct separation is needed than the commas would indi- 
 cate. See The Comma, Rule 10. 
 
 3. To separate loosely connected independent clauses. 
 Roger Bacon and Galileo languor in princely dungeons ; Tasso 
 
 pines in the cell of a mad-house; Camoens dies begging in the 
 streets of Lisbon. 
 
 4. To separate the parts of a compound sentence. See also 
 Comma, Rule 12. If the clauses contain commas, semicolons 
 between the clauses are necessary for distinct division. 
 
 5. Before "as," introducing an instance; as in this sentence. 
 
 THE COLON 
 
 . / 
 The colon indicates specification; as before a quotation or a 
 
 series of particulars. It may also mark distinct separation be- 
 tween the elements of a sentence. 
 
Punctuation 329 
 
 It is used: 
 
 1. To introduce a series of particulars; as in the first line of 
 this page. See also Semicolon, Rule 5. 
 
 2. To introduce a long quotation. See also Comma, Rule 9. 
 
 3. To separate elements of a sentence containing semicolons. 
 
 THE DASH 
 
 The dash marks an abrupt separation between the elements of 
 a sentence. It is too conspicuous a mark to be used often. 
 Students sometimes commit the bad fault of punctuating largely 
 by dashes. 
 
 It is used: 
 
 1. To indicate parenthesis. Sometimes a single dash is placed 
 before the parenthesis and some other mark of punctuation after 
 it ; sometimes dashes are placed before and after the parenthesis. 
 Unless the separation of the parenthesis from the context is ab- 
 rupt, commas should be used rather than dashes. 
 
 2. To separate any element from its context, when the 
 transition of thought is abrupt. The dash may be used in place 
 of the comma, semicolon, or colon, especially in conversational, 
 fragmentary, or interrupted discourse. 
 
 3. With the comma, semicolon, or colon, (, — ) (; — ) (: — ). 
 In this case the dash adds emphasis to the other mark. 
 
 PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS 
 
 Parentheses () are used to inclose explanatory phrases which 
 interrupt the sequence of the thought and are quite discon- 
 nected with the context. The double dash (see Dash, Rule i) is 
 more generally used than parentheses. The parenthetical marks 
 are also used to inclose examples or references ; as in the second 
 line above. 
 
 Brackets [] are used to inclose words added, as in a transla- 
 tion; or words to be omitted, as on page 223. 
 
 THE PERIOD 
 
 The period is used at the end of every declarative sentence, 
 and after abbreviations, numerals, titles, and headings. 
 
330 Appendix A 
 
 THE EXCLAMATION POINT 
 
 The exclamation point is used after interjections and ex- 
 clamatory sentences. It is not used after " O," nor after every 
 " oh " or " ah," nor after every slightly emotional sentence. 
 
 THE INTERROGATION POINT 
 
 The interrogation point is used after every direct question. 
 Sometimes it is placed directly after the interrogative part of a 
 sentence instead of at the end. Inclosed in parentheses (?) it 
 indicates doubt; as, "Hamlet was written in 1601 (?)." 
 
 QUOTATION MARKS 
 
 Quotation marks (" ") inclose quotations. If one quotation 
 is made up of several paragraphs, the marks may be placed at 
 the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end only of the last. 
 If the quoted passage is printed in different type from the con- 
 text, marks of quotation may be omitted. A quotation within 
 a quotation is indicated by single marks (' ') ; one within that by 
 double marks. Titles of books, plays, addresses, periodicals may 
 be inclosed in quotation marks or italicized. 
 
 Quotations of any length or importance should be accom- 
 panied by references to the books or authors quoted. A com- 
 plete reference gives title, author, place of publication, date, and 
 page. A reference to this paragraph would be : " The Elements 
 of Rhetoric and Composition." A. H. Thorndike. The Cen- 
 tury Co., New York, 1905. P. 330. 
 
 THE HYPHEN 
 
 The hyphen is used to join the parts of compound words; 
 and to divide words, as at the end of a line. 
 
 THE APOSTROPHE 
 
 The apostrophe (') is used to mark the omission of a letter or 
 letters, or of figures; or to distinguish the possessive case. 
 The apostrophe is not used in the possessive case of pronouns; 
 as, its J ours. 
 
Capitalization 331 
 
 CAPITALS 
 
 The following words should begin with capitals : 
 
 1. The first word of every sentence, paragraph, chapter, let- 
 ter, and book. 
 
 2. The first word of every line of poetry. 
 
 3. Names of the Deity, but not necessarily personal pronouns 
 referring to the Deity. 
 
 4. Proper names of persons, places, bodies of water, geo- 
 graphical divisions, and the like. 
 
 5. The first word of an exact quotation. 
 
 6. The pronoun "I" and the interjection " O.'* 
 
 7. Adjectives derived from proper names. 
 
 8. Terms of great historical importance; as, the Civil War, 
 the Renaissance. 
 
 9. The names of political parties, religious sects, organiza- 
 tions, and the like. 
 
 10. The principal words in titles of books, addresses, and the 
 like. 
 
 11. The principal words in official titles. Titles are usually 
 capitalized only when used with a proper name. 
 
 12. The words. North, East, South, and West, when they re- 
 fer to sections of the country. 
 
 13. Names of days, months, and festivals, but not of seasons. 
 
 14. Words of special importance, which the writer desires to 
 make conspicuous. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis, for in- 
 stance, are capitalized in this book. This use of capitals for 
 emphasis will be determined by circumstances. In your school 
 paper the name of your school should be capitalized; as, "the 
 High School," "in our Academy." Generally, however, these 
 words would not receive capitals. Perhaps the present tendency 
 of good use is to employ capitals rarely for emphasis in ordinary 
 composition. 
 
 ITALICS 
 
 Italics are used for foreign words, quoted or specified words, 
 titles of books (quotation marks may be used for all these pur- 
 poses), and for the sake of emphasis. The use of italics for en*- 
 
332 Appendix A 
 
 phasis seems to be decreasing. Its effectiveness in ordinary com- 
 position depends largely on its infrequency. In manuscript, 
 words to be printed in italics are underlined. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 The best way to learn punctuation is by carefully revising 
 your themes and placing a mark of punctuation wherever one is 
 required by any of the preceding rules or wherever one would 
 be helpful in aiding the reader to perceive quickly the meaning of 
 the sentence. In criticizing themes assigned to you, you should 
 always mark mistakes in punctuation. 
 
 1. Find examples in this book for each of the uses of the 
 different marks cited above. 
 
 2. The passage from Swift, Chapter 12, Exercise 4, is punctu- 
 ated according to the usage of his time. How would you change 
 the punctuation and capitalization to suit present usage? 
 
APPENDIX B 
 ENGLISH VERSE 
 
 The subject of English meter is a very complicated one which has been much 
 discussed by scholars with the result that there are many conflicting theories 
 but no completely satisfactory system for the analysis of the structure of verse. 
 The methods of classifying and indicating structure followed in this appendix 
 are the simplest and the most generally adopted. Teachers may consult Schip- 
 per's " Handbuch der Englischen Metrik," " Guest's " History of English 
 Rhythms," Mayor's " English Metre," Oman's *' English Metrists in the Eigh- 
 teenth and Nineteenth Centuries," and Lanier's " English Verse." Both 
 teachers and students will find Gummere's " Handbook of Poetics" and Alden's 
 " English Verse " of great practical value. 
 
 Meter. Poetry as distinguished from prose has meter. Meter 
 is measured rhythm, the regular recurrence of accented and un- 
 accented syllables. Certain combinations of accented and unac- 
 cented syllables are called feet, and a certain number of feet 
 make a line or verse. 
 
 Scansion is the separation of a verse into its feet and the 
 indication of the accented and unaccented syllables of each foot. 
 To scan a verse, therefore, is to indicate its metrical structure. 
 
 Evidently scansion will not show all the qualities which make 
 up the rhythm of poetry. We speak of accented and unaccented 
 syllables, but there are many degrees of accentuation. In any 
 line, or in almost any word, as " magisterial," there are various 
 degrees of stress on different syllables. Again, the time occur- 
 ring between accented syllables will not be exactly the same and 
 may vary greatly. Again, differences in quantity or pitch of syl- 
 lables affect the rhythm of the verse. Again, the pauses and the 
 emphasis necessitated by the sense modify the rhythmical effect. 
 All these elements may be noted as of importance in the actual 
 effect of verse in expressive reading, but no method has been 
 devised for their complete analysis. Scansion is only a method 
 
 333 
 
334 Appendix B 
 
 for indicating the most marked structural elements. It some- 
 times results in a kind of singsong, which is not the way to read 
 poetry. Poetry should be read with a feeling for both its 
 rhythm and its meaning. But, while the division into feet and 
 lines does not indicate the whole rhythm of verse, it does in- 
 dicate essential elements of this rhythm. Some study of scan- 
 sion is therefore necessary if one is to have an intelligent 
 knowledge of poetry. 
 
 KINDS OF FEET 
 
 A foot is a group of accented and unaccented syllables. An 
 accented syllable is conveniently indicated by an accent '; an 
 unaccented by a cross \ There are many kinds of feet, four of 
 which are common in English verse: the iambus or iamb {^0, 
 the trochee (/x), the anapest (x^O, and the dactyl (/^x). 
 Less common is the spondee (//). 
 
 The iambus consists of an unaccented followed by an accented 
 syllable (x^). 
 
 X / X / X / X / X / 
 
 How soon I hath Time, ! the sub ] tie thief | of youth. 
 
 The trochee consists of an accented followed by an unaccented 
 syllable. 
 
 / X / X /X / X 
 
 Westward, | westward, | Hia | watha ! 
 
 The anapest consists of two unaccented syllables followed by 
 an accented syllable. 
 
 xx/x X / xx/xx/ 
 
 And his co | horts were gleam | ing in pur [ pie and gold. 
 
 The dactyl consists of an accented syllable followed by two 
 unaccented syllables. 
 
 / XX /XX / XX /xx 
 
 Naught but tra \ dition re | mains of the ] beautiful | 
 
 /xx/x 
 village of | Grand-Pre. 
 
 Only a few variations from ordinary pronunciation are per- 
 missible in verse. Most of these are due to slight changes in 
 
English Verse 335 
 
 the stress on certain syllables. Some words, as "heavens," may be 
 pronounced as one syllable or two according to the requirements 
 of the meter. In other words, such as "misery" or "majesty," the 
 unaccented second vowel may be unpronounced. In other cases 
 a syllable usually unaccented may receive the accent. There are 
 indeed many monosyllabic words which may be accented or un- 
 accented according to the requirements of the meter, as in the 
 following, 
 
 / X / X / X / 
 
 Not a I note does | he com | plain 
 / X / X / X / 
 
 But he I feels the | storm's re | f rain. 
 
 Elision may occur between the final vowel of one word and 
 the initial vowel of the following. So we may have either " thou 
 art" or "thou 'rt," "the old" or " th' old." 
 
 KINDS OF VERSE 
 
 A verse or line is composed of one or more feet and is named, 
 first, from its prevailing foot, iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactylic ; 
 and, second, from the number of feet in the line. A verse of 
 one foot is called a monometer; one of two feet a dimeter; of 
 three feet a trimeter; of four, a tetrameter; of five, a penta- 
 meter; of six, a hexameter; of seven, a heptameter. A verse 
 with four iambic feet is an iambic tetrameter. So we have 
 iambic pentameter, anapestic dimeter, dactylic hexameter, etc. 
 In the following iambic lines from Herrick's poem " To Daffo- 
 dils," the first and third are monometers, the second, fourth and 
 sixth are trimeters and the fifth is a tetrameter. 
 
 We die 
 As your hours do, and dry 
 
 Away, 
 Like to the summer's rain; 
 Or as the pearls of morning's dew. 
 Ne'er to be found again. 
 
 Examples of the various kinds of verse will be found on 
 pages 336, 337. 
 
336 Appendix B 
 
 VARIATIONS IN FEET AND VERSE 
 
 In iambic verse the prevailing foot is an iambus, but other feet 
 may occasionally be substituted without changing the character 
 of the rhythm. The iambus and the anapest may be readily 
 interchanged. The substitution of one for the other involves 
 no change in the position of the accented syllables, but merely 
 one unaccented syllable more or less. In the following iambic 
 lines, for example, an anapest is substituted for an iambus in the 
 third foot of the first line. 
 
 X / x/xx/x / 
 
 They chain'd | us each | to a col | umn stone. 
 
 And we were three — ^yet, each alone. 
 
 In the following anapestic lines an iambus is several times sub- 
 stituted for an anapest. 
 
 xx/xx/xx / X / X / X 
 
 For I trust | if an en | emy's fleet | came yon ] der round | by 
 X / 
 the hill, 
 
 XX/X/XX/ XX / XX 
 
 And the rush | ing bat | tie-bolt sang | from the three- [ decker 
 
 / X X / 
 
 out I of the foam. 
 
 Trochees and dactyls may be readily interchanged, for here 
 again the substitution involves no change in the position of the 
 accented syllables, but merely one accented syllable more or less 
 in the foot. Note the frequent substitution of trochees for 
 dactyls in the following lines from " Evangeline," 
 
 /X/X X /XX/ X / XX /x 
 
 Firmly | builded with | rafters of | oak, the | house of the j farmer 
 
 /XX /XX/X /XX / XX 
 
 Stood on the i side of a | hill com | manding the | sea ; and a | 
 / X 
 shady 
 
 /XX /XX / XX/ X /x 
 
 Sycamore | grew by the | door, with a | woodbine | wreathing 
 
 X / X 
 
 a I round it. 
 
 The interchange of the dactyl and the anapest or of the trochee 
 and iambus involves a change in the positions of the accented 
 syllables and is infrequent except at the beginning. of a line. 
 
English Verse 337 
 
 In the first foot of an iambic line, however, a trochee fre- 
 quently occurs, as in the first and third lines of the following : 
 
 Break off, break off, I feel the different pace 
 Of some chaste footing near about this ground. 
 Run to your shrouds, within these brakes and trees; 
 
 Milton: Comus. 
 
 Unaccented syllables at the end of a line or occasionally in the 
 middle may frequently be omitted or added without affecting the 
 general structure. A verse that ends with an incomplete foot is 
 called catalectic, and the absence of the unaccented syllable may 
 be indicated by a caret. Thus, in the following stanza the verse 
 is trochaic trimeter and the second and fourth lines are catalectic. 
 
 Hail to thee, blithe Spirit! 
 Bird thou never wert, 
 That from heaven, or near it, 
 Pourest thy full heart 
 In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. 
 
 Shelley: The Skylark. 
 
 In an iambic line an unaccented syllable at the end does not 
 affect the structure and is usually called an extra syllable and 
 the verse is called hypermetrical* 
 
 X / X / X / X / X / X 
 
 And, like 1 the base | less fab | ric of | this vi | sion. 
 
 Rests. The absence of a portion of a foot sometimes coincides 
 with an abrupt break in the sense. This may be regarded as 
 analogous to a rest in music. The pause made in reading may 
 be said to take the place of the omitted portions of the foot. 
 
 X / X / X / 
 
 Break, | break, | break, 
 
 X X / X / X / 
 
 On thy cold | gray stones, | O sea ! 
 
 Apparent irregularities in structure can often be explained by 
 taking into consideration the necessary rests or pauses. 
 
 22 
 
338 Appendix B 
 
 CESURA 
 
 Most verses are divided into two parts by a metrical pause 
 called the cesura, which often coincides with a pause in the 
 sense. It is indicated by the symbol ||. Its position varies in 
 different kinds of verse, and often in verses of the same structure. 
 
 But, O the heavy change, 1 1 now thou art gone. 
 Now thou art gone, 1 1 and never must return ! 
 Thee, shepherd, 1 1 thee the woods and desert caves. 
 
 RHYME 
 
 Rhyme is the regular correspondence of the sounds of differ- 
 ent words. It is generally used in reference to similar sounds at 
 the ends of lines in verse. Rhyme is wholly a matter of sound 
 and not of spelling. It should be perfect; that is, the words 
 should agree exactly in their vowel sounds and in the sounds of 
 the consonants following the vowels, but not of the consonant 
 sounds preceding the vowels. Rhyming syllables must also have 
 like accent. Examples of imperfect and incorrect rhyming are: 
 
 Door, boor; love, Jove; bring, twinge; bow, bough; thee, 
 clearly; angel, bell; seen, scene; stir, mutter. 
 
 When the rhyming syllables are complete monosyllabic words 
 or final accented syllables, the rhyme is called single or mas- 
 culine. 
 
 Win, pin; thus, discuss; might, flight; raise, praise; say, 
 obey; believe, receive; destroy, annoy; dear, cavalier. 
 
 When the rhyming syllables include both an accented syllable 
 and a following unaccented syllable, the rhyme is called double or 
 feminine. 
 
 Setting, forgetting ; splendid, attended ; affections, recollections ; 
 dwelling, swelling. 
 
 When the rhyming syllables include an accented syllable and 
 two following unaccented syllables the rhyme is called triple. 
 
 Locality, banality; furious, injurious; importunate, unfor- 
 tunate. 
 
English Verse 339 
 
 BLANK VERSE 
 
 Blank verse, is verse without rhyme. The term is generally 
 restricted to unrhymed iambic pentameter, like that of Milton 
 and Shakespeare. 
 
 x/ x/x/ x/ x/ 
 
 He spake ; 1 1 and to | confirm | his words, | out-flew 
 
 /xx/x / / xx/ 
 
 Millions | of flam | ing swords, 1 1 drawn from | the thighs 
 
 x/x/x/ x/x/ 
 
 Of migh I ty cher | ubim; || the sud | den blaze 
 
 X / x/x / /xx/ 
 
 Far round | illu \ mined hell : 1 1 highly | they raged 
 x/x/x x/ x/x/ 
 
 Against | the High | est, 1 1 and fierce | with grasp | ed arms 
 
 / X X / X / X / X / 
 
 Clash'd on | their sound | ing shields 1 1 the din | of war, 
 
 /xx/x / X / X / 
 
 Hurling | defi | ance | \ toward | the vault ] of heaven. 
 
 Milton: Paradise Lost. 
 
 In the preceding quotation there is no pause at the end of the 
 first or second lines. These are called " run-on lines." The last 
 two lines have pauses at the end and are " end-stopt lines." The 
 third and fifth are also end-stopt ; the fourth, run-on. An inter- 
 mixture of these two classes is necessary to avoid disagreeable 
 monotony. Run-on and end-stopt lines, of course, occur in 
 rhymed poetry as well as in blank verse. It will also be noted 
 that variety of effect is obtained in this selection by the different 
 positions of the cesura. The structure of blank verse is also 
 varied by the use of an extra or hypermetrical syllable at the 
 end of the line. Such eleven syllable lines are sometimes called 
 feminine. 
 
 In dramatic blank verse the structure is especially varied. In 
 the following quotation from Shakespeare, the intermingling of 
 end-stopt and run-on lines, the varying position of the cesura, and 
 the use of feminine endings, are all exemplified. 
 
340 Appendix B 
 
 X / 
 
 We fail! 
 XX xxx/x/xx 
 
 But screw | your cour | age 1 1 to 1 the stick | ing-place 
 
 x/ x/ X /x/x/ 
 
 And we '11 1 not fail. 1 1 When Ehin j can is | asleep — 
 
 x/x/x /x/ x/ X 
 
 Whereto | the ra | ther || shall j his day's | hard jour | ney 
 
 / X X / X / ^ ' X / 
 
 Soundly | invite j him — 1 1 his | two cham | berlains 
 
 x/ X / X /x/x/ 
 Will 1 1 1 with wine | and was | sail so ] convince 
 
 X /x/ X / x/x / 
 That mem | ory, 1 1 the ward | er of | the brain, 
 
 x/x/ X /x/x/x 
 
 Shall be | a fume, 1 1 and the 1 receipt | of rea | son 
 x/ x/x /x /x/ 
 
 A lim I beck on | ly. 1 1 When | in swin | ish sleep 
 
 X / x/x /x/x/ 
 
 Their drench J ed na 1 tures 1 1 lie | as in [ a death, 
 
 x/ x/ x/x/ x/ 
 
 What can \ not you | and 1 1 perform | upon 
 z' — \ /x/x /x/x/ 
 
 The unguard | ed Dun | can ? 1 1 what | not put | upon 
 
 x/x/xx /x/x / 
 
 His spon j gy of I ficers, 1 1 who | shall bear | the guilt 
 x/x / 
 
 Of our J great quell? Macbeth, I, vii. 55^7?. 
 
 COUPLETS 
 
 A group of two rhymed lines of the same metrical structure is 
 a couplet. The commonest couplets are the heroic or pentameter, 
 and the short or tetrameter, but there are many other kinds. 
 
 I. The heroic or ten-syllable couplet consists of two iambic 
 pentameters. It is one of the commonest of English meters and 
 is found in many Ox Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales," in most of 
 the poems of Dryden, Pope, Goldsmith and frequently in later 
 writers. 
 
 But most by numbers judge a poet's song. 
 And smooth or rough, with them is right or wrong: 
 In the bright Muse, tho' thousand charms conspire. 
 Her voice is all these tuneful fools admire. 
 
 Pope: Essay on Criticism. 
 
English Verse 341 
 
 2, The short or eight-syllable couplet consists of two iambic 
 tetrameters. It has been much used since the early Middle Ages, 
 especially in narrative verse. It is used in Burns's " Tam 
 O'Shanter," Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel," " Marmion " and 
 " Lady of the Lake." It is sometimes named Hudibrastic, because 
 of its use in Butler's satire " Hudibras." 
 
 Ill fared it then with Roderick Dhu 
 That on the field his targe he threw, 
 Whose brazen studs and tough bull-hide 
 Had death so often dash'd aside; 
 For, train'd abroad his arms to wield 
 Fitz-James's blade was sword and shield. . . 
 Three times in closing strife they stood. 
 And thrice the Saxon blade drank blood; 
 No stinted draught, no scanty tide, 
 The gushing flood the tartans dyed. 
 
 Scott: The Lady of the Lake, 
 
 STANZAS 
 
 A stanza is a group of three or more verses. Stanzas of the 
 same poem usually have the same structure. The number of 
 varieties of stanza is practically unlimited. Only a few of the 
 most used kinds are noticed here. The arrangement of rhymes 
 is indicated by the use of letters; thus aabb represents a stanza 
 of four verses, the first rhyming with the second, and the third 
 with the fourth. 
 
 Three-line Stanza. Three-line stanzas or triplets often occur in 
 verse written mainly in couplets. They also appear as regular 
 stanzas in various forms. The following from Longfellow is 
 trochaic tetrameter catalectic, rhyming aaa. 
 
 Like the swell of some sweet tune, 
 Morning rises into noon, 
 May glides onward into June. 
 
 Quatrains. Quatrains, or four-line stanzas, are found in many 
 variations. 
 
342 Appendix B 
 
 1. Alternating rhyme abab. Iambic tetrameter. 
 
 Mine be a cot beside the hill ; 
 A beehive's hum shall soothe my ear; 
 A willowy brook that turns a mill, 
 With many a fall shall linger near. 
 
 Samuel Rogers: A Wish. 
 
 2. Alternating rhyme abab. The first and third lines, iambic 
 tetrameters; the second and fourth, iambic trimeters. In the 
 second example only the second and fourth lines rhyme. This is 
 the " Ballad stanza," so called because much used in the early 
 ballads. 
 
 I come from haunts of coot and hern, 
 
 I make a sudden sally, 
 And sparkle out among the fern, 
 
 To bicker down a valley. 
 
 Tennyson: The Brook. 
 
 Thej-e lived a wife at Usher's Well, 
 
 And a wealthy wife was she; 
 She had three stout and stalwart sons. 
 
 And sent them o'er the sea. 
 
 The Wife of Usher's Well. 
 
 3. Quatrain of iambic pentameters, rhyming alternately abab. 
 This is the stanza of Gray's " Elegy," and is known as " Elegiac 
 measure." 
 
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 Gray: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. 
 
 4. Quatrain, rhyming abha, iambic tetrameters. The stanza of 
 Tennyson's "In Memoriam." 
 
English Verse 343 
 
 I hold it true, whate'er befall; 
 
 I feel it when I sorrow most; 
 
 'T is better to have loved and lost, 
 Than never to have loved at all. 
 
 Tennyson: In Memoriam. 
 
 Five and Six Line Stanzas, The following examples illustrate 
 a few of the numerous varieties of five and six line stanzas. 
 
 1. Six line stanza, octo-syllabic, iambic, rhyming ababcc. 
 
 The tumult and the shouting dies — 
 
 The Captains and the Kings depart — 
 
 Still stands thine ancient sacrifice. 
 An humble and a contrite heart. 
 
 Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet. 
 
 Lest we forget — lest we forget. 
 
 Kipling; Recessional. 
 
 2. Six line stanza; first, second, third and fifth lines are iambic 
 tetrameter, with an additional unaccented syllable; fourth and 
 sixth lines are iambic dimeter, with additional unaccented syl- 
 lable. All the rhymes are feminine, aaabab. 
 
 Oh, wad some power the giftie gie us 
 To see oursel's as ithers see us! 
 It wad frae monie a blunder free us 
 
 An' foolish notion: 
 What airs in dress an' gait wad lea'e us, 
 
 An' e'en devotion! 
 
 Burns: To a Louse on a Lady's Bonnet. 
 
 3. Five line stanza, first four lines are trochaic trimeter, the 
 fifth an Alexandrian (iambic hexameter). Rhyme is ababb. 
 
 In the golden lightning 
 Of the sunken sun 
 O'er which clouds are brightening, 
 Thou dost float and run, 
 Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun. 
 
 Shelley: The Skylark. 
 
344 Appendix B 
 
 Longer Stanzas. "Rhyme royal" is a seven line stanza of iambic 
 pentameters, rhyming ababbcc. "Ottava rima" (see Keats' "Isa- 
 bella") is a stanza of iambic pentameters, rhyming abababcc. The 
 Spenserian stanza was first used in Spenser's "Faery Queen," and 
 later in many English poems, including Byron's "Childe Harold," 
 Keats' "Eve of St. Agnes," Tennyson's "The Lotos Eaters." 
 It is a nine line stanza, rhyming ababbcbcc, all iambic penta- 
 meters, except the last, which is an Alexandrine, iambic hex- 
 ameter (x/ I x/ I x/ II x/ I x/ I x/). 
 
 A gentle Knight was pricking on the plaine, 
 Ycladd in mightie armes and silver shielde. 
 Wherein old dints of deepe woundes did remaine, 
 The cruell markes of many a bloody fielde; 
 Yet armes till that time did he never wield, 
 His angry steede did chide his foming bitt, 
 As much disdayning to the curbe to yield : 
 Full jolly knight he seemd, and faire did sitt, 
 As one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt. 
 
 Spenser: The Faery Queen, Bk. I, 11. 1-9. 
 
 THE SONNET 
 
 The sonnet is a complete poem of fourteen iambic penta- 
 meters. In the strict or Petrarchian form, the verses are divided 
 into two groups — the octave (the first eight verses), and the 
 sextet (the last six verses). The octave has two rhymes ar- 
 ranged abba abba. The sextet has two or three rhymes, differ- 
 ent from those of the octave and arranged cdcdcd or cdecde. 
 
 ON FIRST LOOKING INTO CHAPMAN'S HOMER 
 
 Much have I traveled in the realms of gold 
 And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; 
 Round many western islands have I been 
 Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. 
 Oft of one wide expanse had I been told 
 That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne: 
 Yet did I never breathe its pure serene 
 
English Verse 345 
 
 Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold : 
 Then felt I like some watcher of the skies 
 When a new planet swims into his ken; 
 Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes 
 He stared at the Pacific — and all his men 
 Looked at each other with a wild surmise — 
 Silent, upon a peak in Darien. 
 
 Keats. 
 
 Shakespeare's sonnets are divided rather into three quatrains 
 and a couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 Scansion may be studied in any English poetry ; blank verse in 
 Shakespeare and Milton, stanzaic structure in the poems of Lowell, 
 Bryant, Holmes, Tennyson, Wordsworth and others. Poems 
 like Wordsworth's "Ode on Immortality," or Matthew Arnold's 
 "Forsaken Merman," with a varied arrangement of rhymes and 
 lines of irregular length, may be made the objects of special study. 
 
 Practice in writing verse gives useful training in writing prose. 
 It requires skill in selecting words and in forming phrases and 
 sentences, and may develop a sense of the value of sound and 
 rhythm in style. The student should begin with simple measures, 
 as the rhyming couplet, or the ballad stanza. His prose themes 
 may be recast into verse, or new themes written in verse. Later, 
 more difficult stanzaic forms may be attempted. 
 
/ 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Names of persons or publications are in small capitals ; words and phrases, 
 in italics; titles of themes or articles, inclosed in quotation-marks. In gen- 
 eral, the exercises are indexed only for authors. 
 
 Abbreviations, 8, 300 
 
 Ablative absolute, 295 
 
 " A Child's Play-house," 125 
 
 Addison, 58, 69, 204, 205, 206; 
 quoted, ii, 244, 269; exercises, 10, 
 100, 140, 164, 244 
 
 Adjectives, too many, 281; for ad- 
 verbs, 294, 319; pronouns as, 
 used for connectives, 43 
 
 Adverbs, superfluous, 281 ; for ad- 
 jectives, 319; misplaced, 319; 
 punctuation, 326 
 
 "A Good Note Book," 73 
 
 Alfred, King, 287 
 
 Ambiguity, of pronouns, 207; of 
 participles, 207; of clauses, 209; 
 m punctuation, 326, 327 
 
 Americanisms, 288 
 
 Amplification, methods in para- 
 graphs, 52-68; in longer themes, 
 128—140; in sentences. 188 
 
 and, overused as connective, 42, 193, 
 208, 236 
 
 " A New England Hill Town," 
 quoted, 120, 122 
 
 Anglicisms, 288 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, words from, 255, 258, 
 287 
 
 "An Old Oak," 125 
 
 Antecedent, omitted, 206; implied, 
 207 
 
 Anticlimax, 225 
 
 Antithesis, 267 
 
 Apostrophe, 266 
 
 "A Ramble," 154 
 
 Argument, in paragraph, 59; in 
 themes of two paragraphs, 71. 74— 
 78; in longer themes, 105, 128 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, exercises, 164 
 
 Arrangement of material, governed 
 by coherence, 17; by emphasis, 
 18; in the paragraph. 37-40; in 
 themes of two paragraphs, 70; in 
 exposition, 72—74; in argument, 
 76, 77; in description, 87, 88; in 
 narrative, 93; in plans, 107-110; 
 varieties of, 109, no; in sen- 
 tences, 174, 200—203, 209, 210, 
 
 221-225. See Coherence, Logical 
 order. Order of words. Plan 
 as, inexact use of, 208, 320 
 Austen, Jane, 95; quoted, 14; ex- 
 ercises, 124 
 
 Bacon, Francis, quoted, 244, 269; 
 exercises, 244 
 
 Balanced sentences, 221 
 
 Barbarisms, 300 
 
 Beauty, a quality of style, 6; in 
 sentences, 234-253 
 
 Beginning, emphatic, 18; of a para- 
 graph, 38-40, 44, 45, 46, 52; of a 
 narrative, 93; of a paragraph as a 
 connective, 144-146; of a theme, 
 118— 121, 176; of a sentence, deter- 
 mined by coherence, 201, 202; of 
 a sentence, determined by empha- 
 sis, 221—226 
 
 Besant, Sir Walter, quoted, 65 
 
 Bible, 135, 136, 241, 276, 287, 288 
 
 Blackmore, R. D., quoted, 90; ex- 
 ercises, 104 
 
 Blank verse, 238 
 
 both, and, 210 
 
 " British Naval Manoeuvres," 120 
 
 BrontE, Charlotte, quoted in exer- 
 cise, 276 
 
 Brougham, quoted in exercise, 274 
 
 Browning, exercise, 30 
 
 Burke, 5, 6, 71, 175, 176; quoted, 
 S3, 126, 245, 272, 274; exercises, 
 115, 126, 216, 229, 245, 258, 272, 
 274 
 
 Burns, exercises, 100 
 
 Burroughs, John, 164 
 
 but, as connective, 42, 193, 208, 236, 
 
 ^320 
 
 Byron, exercises, 30 
 
 can but, cannot but, 320 
 
 " Canning Peaches," 73 
 
 Capitalization, 221, 331 
 
 Carlyle, 76, 88, 290; quoted, 59, 
 
 224, 229, 246; exercises, 166, 229, 
 
 246, 274, 276 
 
 349 
 
350 
 
 Index 
 
 Cause and effect, in development 
 of paragraph, 6i, 68 
 
 Change of person, 314 
 
 Change of subject, 211 
 
 Change of tense, 3^5 , „ 
 
 •• Character of Macaulay, 73 
 
 Chaucer, 287; exercises, 290 
 
 Chronological order, in paragraphs, 
 37, 60, 61; in description, 87; in 
 narrative, 93. 96; in long themes, 
 108, 109, 145. 148 
 
 " Circus Parade," 125 
 
 Clauses, connecting, 202, 224; inqe- 
 pendent or coordinate, 172, i73. 
 187, 193, 236, 328; dependent or 
 subordinate, 172, 190, 327. 328; 
 ambiguity of, 209; end of, a 
 place for emphasis, 224 
 
 Clearness, quality of style, 6 
 
 Cleft infinitive, 319 
 
 Climax, in narratives, 94; in plan, 
 112; as means of development, 
 129, 135; for emphasis, 225; 
 figure, 266 
 
 Coherence, principle of, defined, 17; 
 in single paragraph, 37-44; in ex- 
 position, 72; in argument, 75; in 
 description, 87, 88; in narrative, 
 93; in plans, 107—110; at begin- 
 ning, 118, 119; in development of 
 theme, 133; in paragraphing 
 theme, 108, 109, 145, 148; in sen- 
 tences, 200-^219; rules for, 206—211 
 
 Comparison, in development of par- 
 agraph, 57; of adjectives, 319 
 
 Complex sentences, 172, 187—192 
 
 Composition, problems of, 4; de- 
 fined, 8; units of, 9; material for, 
 22-26; processes of, 157, 158 
 
 Compositions, See Subjects and 
 Themes 
 
 Compound sentences, 172, 187, 236, 
 328, 329 
 
 Conciseness, 226, 235, 236-238, 280— 
 283 
 
 Conclusion, 121, ifi2. See End 
 
 Confusion of " its," 207 
 
 Conjunctions, as connectives, 42; 
 misuse of, 320. See Connectives; 
 and, but 
 
 Connectives, list of, 42; purpose of, 
 43; between sentences in a para- 
 graph, 40-44; between para- 
 graphs, 134, 144-146; between 
 words, phrases, clauses, 203-206, 
 208, 209; exact use of, 203-206, 
 208, 209, 236, 238, 320; adjectiye 
 pronouns as, 43; conjunctions as, 
 42; nouns and pronouns as, 43; 
 phrases as, 42, 134; clauses as, 
 202, 224; sentences as, 41, 134, 
 144-146; and, but as, 42, 208, 236 
 
 Construction, change of, needless, 
 210, 211; for emphasis, 222 
 
 Contrast, in development of para- 
 graph, 57 , . , 
 Conversation, paragraphing of, 141, 
 
 142 . ,, 
 
 Cooper, exercises, 100, 124, 100 
 Correspondents, 210 
 
 Darwin, 56, 57. 7i; quoted, 54; ex- 
 ercises, 258, 259 
 
 Declarative sentences, 179 
 
 Definition, in development of para- 
 graph, 53; in exposition, 72; in 
 argument, 74. 75 
 
 Defoe, quoted in exercises, 180 
 
 Dependent clauses, 172, 190, 327. 
 328 
 
 Derivation of words, 255. 287 . 
 
 Description, in paragraphs, 60; in 
 themes of two paragraphs, 70, 71, 
 84-91, 96-104; arrangement of, in 
 longer themes, 109; development 
 of, in longer themes, 1 28-1 31 ; sug- 
 gestive words in, 257, 258, 269-271 
 
 Details, in development of para- 
 graph, 54; in description, 85-87 
 
 Dickens, 56, 88, 95, 240; quoted, 
 55, 27s; exercises, 100, 164, 166, 
 183, 275 „ , . 
 
 Diction. See Barbarisms, Impro- 
 prieties, Solecisms, Words 
 
 Dictionary, use of, 10, 15, 254, 289 
 
 different from, 288, 293 
 
 Diffuseness, 226, 237, 281, 282 
 
 Digressions, 130 
 
 Disagreement in number, 207 
 
 Discrimination in use of words, 256 
 
 done up, 293 
 
 Double negative, 288, 320 
 
 Double possessive, 293 
 
 each, 314, 316 
 
 each other, 314 
 
 Earle, John, quoted, 81 
 
 either, 314, 316; either, or, 210 
 
 Elaboration, for emphasis, 135 
 
 Eliot, George, exercises, 97, 140, 
 164 
 
 Emerson, 83; quoted in exercise, 
 247 
 
 Ernphasis, principle of, defined, 18; 
 in single paragraph, 44, 45; in 
 exposition, 72', in description, 88; 
 in narrative, 94; in plan of longer 
 theme, no— 112; in beginning of 
 theme, 118; in end of theme, 121, 
 122; in development of theme, 
 134-136; in sentences, 220-233; 
 capitals used for, 331; italics used 
 for, 332 
 
 End, emphatic, 18; of a paragraph, 
 44-47, 61; of an argument, 77; of 
 a narrative, 93; of a plan for a 
 longer theme, 112; of a theme, 
 118, 121, 122, 146; of a sentence. 
 
Index 
 
 351 
 
 determined by emphasis, 221-225; 
 of a clause, 224 
 
 Euphony, 239 
 
 Evelyn, John, quoted in exercise, 
 i8i 
 
 every, 314, 316 
 
 Examples, in development of para- 
 graph, 56; in exposition, 73 
 
 Exclamation, 266 
 
 Exclamative sentences, 179 
 
 Explanation, in development of par- 
 agraph, 53; exposition another 
 name for, 71. See Exposition 
 
 Exposition, in themes of two para- 
 graphs, 70-74; with argument, 74— 
 78; with narrative, 96; in longer 
 theme, 105, 109, no, 128, 130 
 
 Figures of speech, 264-277 
 
 Fine writing, 280 
 
 FisKE, John, 95, 164 
 
 Force, a quality of style, 6 
 
 Foreign words, 300 
 
 Forms of prose, four distinguished, 
 70, 71 ; in themes of two para- 
 graphs, 69-104; in longer themes, 
 105; development of, 129 
 
 for to, 288 
 
 Fragmentary sentences, 172, 192, 
 193 
 
 Franklin, quoted, 41 
 
 Froude, quoted, 138; exercises, 137 
 
 Gaskell, Mrs., quoted, 120; exer- 
 cises, 124, 166 
 
 General words, 256, 257 
 
 Gibbon, 60, 85; quoted, 39, 223 
 
 GoDKiN, E. L., quoted, 120, 121 
 
 " Gold Mines," 125 
 
 Goldsmith, 95, 145, 267; quoted, 
 146; exercises, 20, 49, 97, 99, 163, 
 164, 166, 184, 216 
 
 Good Use (Chapters 22—25), mean- 
 ing, 15; rules of, 16; in intro- 
 ductions, 121; in words, 254; ex- 
 plained, 286—292; idioms, transla- 
 tion En^jlish, 293—299; barbarisms, 
 improprieties, 300—^08; solecisms, 
 309-321; punctuation, 325. See 
 Grammar 
 
 Grammar, 15; in sentences^ 171, 
 173, 174, 200, 206-208, 222, 286, 
 287; solecisms, 309; list of mis- 
 takes in, 312—320 
 
 Grant, U. S., quoted, 66 
 
 Green, John Richard, quoted in 
 exercise, 227 
 
 Hawthorne, 25, 85, 95, loi, 129, 
 130, 131; quoted, 11, 179, 248; 
 quoted and discussed, 189—192, 
 201-203; exercises, 11, 34. 83, 
 97, 124, 164, 184, 216, 248^ 274 
 
 Harte, Bret, 164 
 
 Holmes, quoted, 273; exercises, 273, 
 
 „275 
 
 Howells, 289 
 
 •' How I Furnished My Room," 28 
 
 Hugo, Victor, 87 
 
 Hyperbole, 266 
 
 Idioms, 293 
 
 if, for though, 320 
 
 Illustration, in developing para- 
 graphs, 56; in exposition, 73, 
 128 
 
 Imperative^ sentences, 179 
 
 Improprieties, 301; list of, 303-308 
 
 Indention, of paragraphs, 36, 141 
 
 Independent clauses, 172, 187, 236, 
 328, 329 
 
 Infinitive, cleft, 319 
 
 Interrogation, 266 
 
 Interrogative sentences, 179; for 
 emphasis, 220 
 
 Introduction, 118-121. See Begin- 
 ning 
 
 Inversion, 221 
 
 Irony, 264, 266 
 
 Irving, 164; quoted, 65; exercises, 
 6z, IIS. 164 
 
 Italics, 221, 331 
 
 James, Henry, 160, 289; quoted in 
 
 exercises, 49, 155 
 Johnson, Samuel, 269; quoted, 228, 
 
 245; exercises, 166, 228, 245 
 
 Keats, quoted, 270 
 Kipling, exercises, 164 
 
 Landor, Walter Savage, quoted in 
 exercises, 246 
 
 Language, changing, 286-289; idio- 
 matic, 293-295 
 
 Latin, words from, 255; ablative 
 absolute, 295 
 
 Lincoln, quoted, 238, 247; exer- 
 cises, 83, 233, 247 
 
 Literature, 6 
 
 Localisms, 288, 300 
 
 LocKHART (Life of Scott), quoted 
 in exercise, 184 
 
 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 95 
 
 Logical order, in paragraphs, 37-4°; 
 in exposition, 72—74; in argument, 
 77', in description, 87, 88; in 
 plans, 109, no 
 
 Longfellow, exercises, 30, 166 
 
 Long sentences, and short, 1 75-177*, 
 and loose, 193 
 
 Loose sentences, 177; violating 
 unity, 193-195 
 
 Lord's Prayer, quoted, 239 
 
 Lowell, exercises, 275 
 
 Macaulay, 5, 6, 44. 71. 144, i45f 
 211, 267; quoted, 12, 57, 122, 
 
352 
 
 Index 
 
 14S. ^77f 217, 222, 228; exer- 
 cises, 12, 13. 19. 62, 126, 166, 184, 
 216, 217, 2181, 219, 228, 229 . 
 Malory, Sir Thomas, quoted in 
 
 exercises, 291 , 
 
 Manuscript, preparation of, 9, 10 
 Material, for themes, 22-26. See 
 
 Selection of material 
 Meredith, quoted, 142 
 Metaphor, 265, 266, 268, 269 
 Methods of development of the 
 
 paragraph, 52-68 
 Metonymy, 266 
 
 Milton, 238; quoted, 244; exer- 
 cises, 64, 244, 290 
 Mixed figures, 268, 269 ,, 
 
 " My Enjoyment in Reading, 
 plans of, 106, 108, 112, 113, 131. 
 ^32, 143 .. 
 " My Room," 27 
 
 Narrative, in single paragraphs, 60; 
 in themes of two paragraphs, 70. 
 71, 84, 91—104; combined with 
 description, or exposition, 96; the 
 plan of a, 109; the development 
 of a, 129-132, 135, 136; point of 
 view in, 131, 132; fictitious narra- 
 tor of, 94. 131. ^32 
 
 National Use, 287, 288 
 
 neither. 314, 316; neither, nor, 210 
 
 New coinages, 300 
 
 Newman, Cardinal, 71; quoted, 56, 
 178, 246; exercises, 246 
 
 New words, to be learned, 255 
 
 New York " Sun," 120 
 
 •' Night Before the Battle of Has- 
 tings," 21 S 
 
 Non-restrictive clauses, 327 
 
 no one, 314 
 
 not only, but also, 210 
 
 Nouns for adjectives, 294 
 
 Number, agreement in, between an- 
 tecedent and pronoun, 206, 207; 
 between verb and subject, 316 
 
 Objective description, 85 
 
 Objective point in narrative, 92—96, 
 130, 13s 
 
 Obsolete words, 300 
 
 Omission of words, 320; punctuation 
 for, 327, 329 
 
 one another, 314 
 
 Order of explanation, no. See 
 Logical order 
 
 Order of impressions, 87, 88, 109 
 
 Order of proof, 76, no 
 
 Order of things in space, 40, 87, 91, 
 98, 109 
 
 Order of words in sentences, deter- 
 mined by grammar, 173, 174, 200; 
 determined by paragraph struc- 
 ture, 174, 17s, 200, 201; deter- 
 mined by coherence, 202, 203, 
 
 209-210; rule for, 209; deter- 
 mined by emphasis, 222-225 
 
 Outline. See Plan 
 
 Overuse, of and and but, 42, 236; 
 of participles, 236, 295; of cer- 
 tain words, 278; of trite phrases, 
 279; of adjectives or adverbs, 
 281; of one construction, 236 
 
 Paragraph (Chapters 5-8, 12), as a 
 unit 36-51; a unit of composi- 
 tion, 8; cause and effect as 
 method of development, 61, 68; 
 coherence in, 37-44; comparison 
 and contrast as method of de- 
 velopment, 57, 58; connecting 
 sentences in, 144-146; connecting 
 words in, 41-44; corresponding 
 to division of thought, 143; defi- 
 nition as method of development, 
 53. 54; details and particulars as 
 method of development, 54-56; 
 development of, 52—68; division 
 of longer theme, 141—156; em- 
 phasis in, 44—47; examples and 
 illustrations, as method of devel- 
 opment, 56, 57; governing sen- 
 tence structure, 171, 174, 200—202; 
 in a plan, 142-144; in conversa- 
 tion, 141, 142; indention of, 
 36, 141 ; in themes of two 
 paragraphs, 69, 70, 73, 74, 76, 
 77; length of, 142; narrative, 60, 
 61, 146—148; proof as method of 
 development, 59; relation to 
 whole composition, 141, 144; 
 topic-sentence in, 37, 47, 52, 53; 
 unity in, 37; various methods of 
 development, 61, 62, 68 
 
 Parallel structure, in sentences, 44, 
 201, 203. See Uniformity of 
 construction 
 
 Parenthesis, punctuation for, 326, 
 329 
 
 Participles, relation to subjects, 
 207; awkward, 236; in transla- 
 tions, 295 ^ 
 
 Particulars in development of 
 paragraph, 54 
 
 Perfect infinitive, 316 
 
 Periodic sentences, 177—179; for 
 emphasis, 220, 221 
 
 Personification, 265, 266 
 
 Phrases, as connectives, 42; for 
 nouns or adjectives, 95; par- 
 ticipial, 236, 295 
 
 Plan, for argumentative paragraph, 
 59; for an exposition of two para- 
 graphs, 73; for an argument of 
 two paragraphs, 76, 77; for a nar- 
 rative of two paragraphs, 96, 97; 
 need of, 105, 106; for longer 
 themes, 105—117; unity governing 
 selection in, 106, 107; coherence 
 
Index 
 
 353 
 
 governing arrangement of, 107- 
 110; emphasis governing propor- 
 tion of, 110-112; example of a 
 good, 82, 112-114, 143; examples 
 of various plans, 11 5-1 17; to be 
 followed, 133; to provide for 
 paragraphs, 142-144; indicated to 
 reader, 144—146 
 
 Plato's " Apologia," quoted in ex- 
 ercises, 251-253 
 
 Plurals, 313 
 
 Point of view, 87, 130-133 
 
 Pope, quoted, 300 
 
 Prepositions, list of, 294; at end of 
 sentence, 294; solecisms, 319 
 
 presently, 288 
 
 Present use, 287 
 
 Pretentious words, 279 
 
 Prevision, 158 
 
 "Princess, The," 48 
 
 Principal parts of verbs, 3^4 _ 
 
 Principles of composition, defined, 
 16-19; as guides, 160; necessary 
 for beauty in sentences, 234. 
 See Coherence, Emphasis, Unity 
 
 Pronouns, ambiguity of, 207; per- 
 sonal, 313; ending in -self, 313; 
 before verbal nouns, 313 
 
 Proofs, in development of para- 
 graph, 59; separated in argument, 
 76 
 
 Proportion, directed by principle of 
 emphasis, 18; problem of, 70; in 
 exposition, 72; in argument, 77; 
 in description. 88; in narrative, 
 93. 13s. 136; in a plan, no, in; 
 in developing a theme, 134-136 
 
 Proposition, in an argument, 74— 7^ 
 
 Provincialisms. See Localisms 
 
 Purpose, the writer's, determines: 
 choice of methods of developing 
 paragraphs, 61, 62; use of four 
 forms of prose, 70, 71, 74. 84, 
 85; the plan, 105-107; use of 
 principles, 161, 162; sentence 
 structure, 176, 179; choice of 
 words, 257, 258 
 
 Qualities of style, 7 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, quoted in 
 exercise, 244 
 
 Reader, problem of, 4, 6; special, 6; 
 average, 7; paragraph indention 
 to aid, 36; sentence structure to 
 aid, 288 
 
 Reading, aloud, 239; to enlarge vo- 
 cabulary, 256 
 
 Repetition, in development of para- 
 graph, 53; for emphasis, 221 
 
 Reputable use, 287, 288 
 
 Restrictive clauses, 327 
 
 Revision, 158 
 
 Rhetoric, Art of, 3-9; defined, 4, 8; 
 
 purpose, 9; founded in good use, 
 
 15 
 Rhythm, 238—240 
 Roosevelt, President, 95, 164 
 RusKiN, 88, loi; quoted, 152. 240; 
 
 exercises, 152, 153 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, quoted, 66; ex- 
 ercises, 79, 97, 99, 124, 127, 140 
 Scribner's Magazine, quoted, 90 
 Sedgwick, H. D., 44, 211; quoted. 
 
 Selection of material, governed by 
 unity, 17; in themes of two para- 
 graphs, 70 ; in expositions, 72 ; in 
 arguments, 75, 76; in descriptions, 
 86, 87; in narratives, 92, 93; in 
 
 f)lanning longer themes, 107; in 
 ong themes, 129 
 
 Sentences (Chapters 14—18), antith- 
 esis in, 267; as connective, 41, 
 134, 144-I/16; as unit of composi- 
 tion, 8; balanced, 221; beauty in, 
 234-253; climax in, 225; coher- 
 ence in, 200—219; complex, 172; 
 compound, 172; conciseness in, 
 226, 236-238; connectives in, 203— 
 206, ,208, 209; declarative, 179; 
 definition of, 171, 172; emphasis 
 in, 220—233; find of, 221—226; ex- 
 clamative, 179; fragmentary, 172, 
 192, 193; good use applied to, 16, 
 171, 173, 174, 200, 206—208; gram- 
 mar governs order of, 200, 206— 
 208; imperative, 179; kinds of, 
 172—179; long or short, 175-177; 
 loose, 177-179, and long, 193-195; 
 order of words in, 202, 203, 209, 
 210, 222—22$; organic unity of, 
 171, 187—192, 195; paragraph 
 governs structure of, 171, 174," 
 200-202; parallel structure in, 201- 
 203; periodic, 177-179, 220, 221; 
 related to paragraph, 144, 171, 
 174. 200-202; rhythm in, 238—240; 
 rules for coherence, 206-210; 
 simple, 172; suggestiveness in, 
 240-242; uniformity of construc- 
 tion in, 201-203, 210—212; unity 
 in, 187-199; variety in, 173, 235, 
 236 
 
 Sequence of tenses, 315 
 
 Shakespeare, 255, 287, 288; 
 quoted, 238; exercises on, 63, 
 64, 68, 79, 100, 164, 166, 167, 
 233, 290 
 
 shall and will, 317 
 
 Short sentences, or long, 175-177; 
 for emphasis, 220 
 
 should or would, 317 
 
 Simile, 265, 266, 268, 269 
 
 Simple sentence, 172 
 
 " Slang," 73. 286, 300 
 
354 
 
 Index 
 
 Solecisms, 173, 309; list of, 312-321 
 
 SouTHEY, exercises, 164 
 
 Specific words, 256 
 
 Spoken language, differs from writ- 
 ten, 7 
 
 Sterling, John, 290 
 
 Stevenson, 32, 87, 88, loi, 131; 
 quoted, 26, 103, 146—148; exer- 
 cises, 102-104, 146-148, 274, 277 
 
 Style, qualities of, 7; defined, 8; 
 beauty, 234-242; false and true 
 aims in, 242, 280 
 
 Subject, problem of, 4, 5; fitted to 
 space, 31, 32 
 
 Subject and predicate, 172 
 
 Subjective description, 85 
 
 Subjects for themes, discussed, 22— 
 26; lists of, 20, 26, 30, 34, 47, 49, 
 63, 64, 68, 78, 79, 83, 97, 98, 99, 
 100, IIS, 136, 137, 156, 162, 163, 
 164, 16s, 166, 167 
 
 Subjunctive mood, 316 
 
 Subordination of ideas in sentences, 
 172, 188-192 
 
 Suggestiveness in words, 240, 264- 
 277; in sentences, 240-242 
 
 Summary, at the end, 121; paragraph 
 
 « as, 133 
 
 Superfluous words, 281 
 
 Suspense, 94, 129. 135 
 
 Swift, 58; quoted in exercises, 149, 
 ISO 
 
 Synecdoche, 266 
 
 Synonyms, 256 
 
 Tarbell, Ida, quoted, 38 
 
 Technical words, 300 
 
 Temple, Sir William, quoted in 
 exercise, 244 
 
 Tennyson, 288; quoted, 262; exer- 
 cises, 20, 30, 49, 140, 166, 262 
 
 Tenses, 315 
 
 Thackeray, 95; quoted, 60, 247; 
 exercises, 124, 140, 247 
 
 that, who, which, 314 
 
 Themes (Chapters 1-13), defined, 8, 
 9; directions for writing, 9; ma- 
 terial for, 22-30; principles ap- 
 plied to, 16-18; prevision and 
 revision of, 157, 158; by students, 
 quoted, 27, 28, 48, 124, 125, 154, 
 262, 283; subjects for. See 
 Subjects 
 
 Title, 32, 33 
 
 Topic-sentence, defined, 37, 47, 52, 
 53; methods of developing, 53—60; 
 implied, 53, 61; in narrative para- 
 graphs, 60, 61, 148 
 
 Transition, between paragraphs, 133. 
 See Connectives 
 
 Translation English, 295 
 
 Trite phrases, 279 
 
 Tropes, 265 
 
 Uniformity of construction, aids co- 
 herence of paragraph, 44, 201, 
 202; aids coherence of sentence, 
 203, 210—212, 217, 218, 220; vio- 
 lated by change of subject, 44, 
 211; rule for, 210 
 
 Unity, principle of, defined, 17; in 
 single paragraph, 37;^ in exposi- 
 tion, 72; in description, 87; in 
 narrative, 92; in the plan, 107; 
 in beginning and end, 118; in de- 
 velopment of theme, 129-133; of 
 expression, 129-133; in sentences, 
 187-199 
 
 Variety in sentence structure, 173, 
 
 17s; necessary for beauty, 235 
 Virgil, quoted in exercises, 297—299 
 Voltaire, 58 
 Vulgarisms, 300, 314 
 
 Washington, 83 
 
 Webster, Daniel, quoted in exer- 
 cise, 276 
 
 " What Our School Needs," plans 
 of, 108, 119 
 
 who, which, that, 314 
 
 who, whom. 314 
 
 Whole compositions, principles ap- 
 plied to, 16—18; paragraphs as, 
 37; paragraphs, divisions of, 36, 
 144. See Themes 
 
 will and shall, 317 
 
 Williams, Jesse Lynch, quoted, 90 
 
 Wilson, Woodrow, 95 
 
 Wordiness, 226, 237, 279-282 
 
 Words (Chapters 19-21. See also 
 Chapters 22-25), abbreviated, 300; 
 Anglo-Saxon, 255; barbarisms, 
 300; choice of, 258, 271, 272, 282, 
 283; derivation of, 255. 287; dis- 
 crimination of, 256; foreign^ 300; 
 figures of speech, 265-269; gen- 
 eral and specific, 256—258; good 
 use in, 286—288; images of, 257; 
 improprieties, 301, 303-308; local, 
 288, 300; new, 255, 300; number 
 of, 25s; obsolescent, 290; obsolete, 
 300; overused, 278; pretentious, 
 279; slang, 289^ 300; specific, 256- 
 258; suggestiveness in, 269-271; 
 superfluous, 260, 282; synonyms, 
 256, 260; technical, 300; tropes, 
 265; vulgar, 300 
 
 Wordsworth, quoted, 266, 271 
 
 would and should, 317 
 
 Writer, the problem of, 4, 5 
 
 Xenophon, " Anabasis," quoted in 
 exercises, 250, 296 
 
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