MitfM' JESEEJ LIBRARY OF THE University of California. GIFT OF Class ///r yjs/J/r'/rV / '///'//>/. f (Q$feiewM In 4:to, cloth and gold, price only 25s. GOLDEN LEAVES FROM THE WORKS OF THE POETS AND PAINTERS. EDITED BY ROBERT BELL. Illustrate foitlj &ixt%-ftbz sugperlj ingtaMngs on Steel. (From the " Saturday Review.") " Golden Leaves" is by far the most important book of the season, and, in at least one respect, may be set down as about the very best of the Christmas Books which have appeared in the long succession of these annual livres de luxe. First of all, it is edited with something of a scientific aim in literature. Mr. Bell, himself a poet, and whose life has been given to editing and commenting on the British Poets, has attempted to give a specimen catalogue, as it were, of the sacred tribe, from Chaucer to our own con- temporaries. Of course a single volume, though of the portly dimensions of " Golden Leaves," cannot pretend to rival such books as Southey's and Campbell's Specimens ; but there are points in which Mr. Bell's selection is much to be preferred. In the first place he selects according to scale, and everybody remembers how disproportionate in Southey's Specimens the whole of the "Faery Queen" was in com- parison with a single song of Lovelace. And next, Mr. Bell has evidently spent much pains in settling a principle of selection. Campbell, we fear, had neither literature nor patience for this sort of thing, and a single morning and a pencil might have done as much as he ever did in thinking over what to take and what to reject from the British Poets. Mr. Bell's reading has been enormous, and his taste is refined and discriminating ; and the fulness and variety of the banquet is very charming. Here are none of the old stock-pieces from Enfield's "Speaker, " or even from Mr. Axis Wilmott's many Anthologies ; but Mr. Bell has read for liimself and selected for himself, and the list of contributors show an independent research which would alone make Mr. Bell's volume a living one in English Literature. But it has another claim to excellence. The illustrations are really works of art, in this respect reminding us of Mr. Moxon's beautiful edition of Rogers's Poems, with Stothard's and Turner's illustra- tions, published two years ago. The Editor's object is to marry the sister arts, and to mate the very best poetry with the very best engraving. Here we have good artistic engravings, on solid steel, not woodcuttings, each executed and printed on the page, from artists of mark such as Stothard, Etty, Uwins, Roberts, and Howard. These have not been ordered by the lot, and for this particular publication, as a mere batch of the usual woodcuts ; but well-known works of art, of the artist's own choice, his paintings and drawings intended for another purpose, have been selected and engraved. In other words, this volume does credit to the Arts of England, as well as to a judicious publisher's catering for the taste of purchasers of mere Christmas Books, in which a gaudy outside, flashy illustra- tions, and gilt leaves stand in the stead of more substantial merits. Not that "Golden Leaves'' is not fine enough. The crimson and gold of the cover almost detract from the more solid gold within ; but the rich paper, sumptuous typography, and admirable printing of this noble volume might almost recall Dr. Dibdin from that paradise of bibliography where, we trust, he revels in the creamy tomes of unique vellum copies of the Sixteenthers, among which he twaddled and prattled while on earth. (From the " Athen^ium.") The engravings are from drawings by Stothard, Newton, Danby, Leslie, and Turner, and it is needless to say how charming are many the above have given. (From the " Times.") The poems are selected with taste and judgment. (From the "Spectator.") Mr. Bell has preserved a judicious mean between too wide a range of poets and too imperfect a collec- tion of poetry; altogether, " Golden Leaves" is one of the most attractive of gift-books. T. Say. - THE RANK AND TALENT 01 THE TIME A DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY BIOGRAPHY OVT.\ININ<: THOUSAND INTERESTING AND ACCURATE MEMOIRS OF EMINENT LIVING CELEBRITIES LONDON GRIFFIN, BOHN, AND COMPANY stationers' hall court 1861 .*. : : : : .. .". c < \ o ^> <> PREFACE. The utility of a Handbook of Contemporary Biography, if reliable, is so apparent, that the only use of a preface to this work is to give information as to the manner in which it has been prepared. In the first place, the memoirs were compiled from every available general and special source, and here we may express our obligations to Hachette's valuable French work the "Dictionnaire Universel des Con- temporains." It was found, however, that great discrepancies existed among statements derived from many authorities, and that, unless means were taken to verify the facts by communicating with the parties them- selves, the hope of producing a reliable book must be abandoned. Accordingly, we took the liberty of addressing a communication to every individual whose name is introduced in the volume, with the exception of a few royal personages, whose actions and fortunes are matters of history. We stated that we wished to produce a trust- worthy work, endeavouring to avoid, as far as possible, matters of opinion, seeing that until the whole career of a man is finished it is impossible fairly to estimate his character, and that we therefore respectfully requested replies regarding points of fact. Our commu- nications have been generally responded to ; and whatever may be the literary shortcomings of this work, we believe that it may be pro- nounced to be the most trustworthy Manual of Contemporary Biography yet published. Yet, as the volume contains nearly one thousand memoirs, it is impossible but that there are many errors both of omission and commission, and these we shall only be too happy to correct in future editions, if our readers will have the kindness to point them out, and to supply the information. 10, Stationers' Hall Court, November, 1860. 235173 INDEX OF NAMES. Aali Pasha .... PAGE . 1 Abbott, Rev. Jacob . 1 Abbott, Rev. John . 2 Abd-el-Kader 2 Abdul-Medjid, Khan . 3 Aberdeen, Earl of . 4 About, Edmond . 6 Adam, Jean Victor 6 Adams, John Couch . 6 Agassiz, Louis Jean . 7 Ainsworth, William F. . . 8 Ainsworth, William H. . . 8 Aird, Thomas 9 Airy, George Biddell, M.A. . 9 Albert, Prince 10 Albert, Martin 11 Alboni, Marietta . 11 Alexander II., Emperor of Russia 12 Alford, The Very Rev. Henry, D.I ). 12 Alison, Sir Archibald, Bart. . . 13 Almodovar, Count of 14 Alvarez, Juan . 14 Ampere, Jean Jacques . 14 Andersen, Hans Christian 15 Andral, Gabriel 15 Anster, John, D.C.L. 15 Anstey, Thomas Chisholm . 16 Anthon, Charles, LL.D. 16 Antonelli, Cardinal 16 Arago, Etienne 17 Argelander, Friedrich . 18 Argyll, Duke of 18 Argyropoulo, Pericles 18 Aristarchi, Nicolas 19 Arnold, Matthew . . . 19 Arnott, Neil, M.D. 19 Arthur, T. S. 19 Aahburton, Lord . . 20 Ashley, Lord. {See Shaftesbury) 353 Astronomer Royal. {Se i Airy) 9 Auber, Daniel F. E. . . .20 Auerbach, Berthold . . .20 Augier, Guillaume Victor . .21 Austria, Emperor of . . .163 Auzoux, Th. Louis . . .21 Aytoun, William Edniondstoune . 22 Azeglio, Marquis d' . . .22 Babbage, Charles .... 23 Back, Sir George, D.C.L. . . 23 Baehr, John Christian . . .24 Bailey, Philip James . . .25 Baily, Edward Hodges, R.A. .25 Baines, Edward, M.P. . . .26 Balfe, Michael William . . .26 s Bancroft, George . . . .26 Baraguey, Marshal . . .27 Barante, Baron de ... 27 Barbes, Armand . . . .28 Baring, Sir Francis, Bart. . . 28 Baring, Thomas . . . .29 Baring, William. {See Ashburton) 20 Barlow, Peter .... 29 Barnes, Albert . . . .29 Barnum, Phineas Taylor . . 30 Baroche, Pierre Jules . . .30 Barrett, Miss . ( See Browning, Mrs. ) 69 Barrot, Odilon . . . .31 Barry Cornwall. {See Proctor) . 320 Barth, Sir Henry . . . .32 Barthelemy, Auguste-Marseille . 33 Bartlett, John Russell ... 33 Bastide, Jules . . . .34 Bauer, Bruno . . . .34 Bavaria, King of. {See Maximilian II.) 270 Baxter, William Edward, M.P. . 35 Becquerel, Antoine Cesar . . 35 Bedeau, Marie Alphonse . . 36 Beecher, Miss Catherine . . 36 Beecher, Rev. Charles . .36 vnl INDEX OF NAMES. Beecher, Rev. Edward, D.D. . 36 Beecher, Henry Ward . . .37 Beecher,- Lyman, D.D. . . .37 Bekker, Emmanuel ; . .38 Belcher, Sir Edward , . .38 Belgians, King of the. (See Leopold George Christian Frederick) . 242 Bell, Henry Glassford ... 39 BeU, John 39 Bell, Robert . . ... .40 BelL Thomas . . ' . .39 Bendemann, Edward . . .41 Benedict, Julius . . . .41 Bennett, William Sterndate . . 42 Berghaus, Henry . . . .42 Berkeley, Hon. Francis, M.P. . 43 Berlioz, Hector . . . .43 Bernard, Claude .... 44 Berryer, Pierre Antoine . . 44 Bethell, Sir Richard ... 45 Bibesco, George Demetrius . .46 Billault, Auguste . , . . 46 Binney, Rev. Thomas . . .47 Biot, Jean Baptiste . . 47 Black, Adam, M.P. . . .48 Black weU, Elizabeth, M.D. . .48 Blanc, Louis . . . .49 Blanqui, Louis Auguste . . 50 Boeckh, Augustus . . .50 Bohn, Henry G 51 Bonaparte, Jerome . . .51 Bonaparte, Louis Lucien . . 52 Bonaparte, Napoleon . . .52 Bonheur, Mademoiselle Rosa . 52 Bopp, Franz ..... 53 Bordeaux, Due de . . . .93 Borrow, George . . . .53 Bosquet, Pierre Francois Joseph . 54 Bosworth, Joseph, D.D., LL.D. . 54 Botfield, Beriah . . . .55 Botta, Paul Emilie ... 55 Bourqueney, Comte de . . 55 Boussingault, Jean Baptiste . . 55 Bowring, Sir John . . .56 Boz. (See Dickens) . . . 127 Bravo- Murillo, Juan . . .57 Bray, Mrs. Anna Eliza . . .58 Bremer, Miss Fredrika . . .58 Brewster, Sir David ... 59 Bright, John, M.P. ... 61 Brodie, Sir Benjamin, Bart. . 63 Broglie, Due de . . . .64 Brooke, Sir James ... 64 Brooks, Charles Shirley . . 66 Brougham, Lord .... 66 Broughton de Gifford, Lord . . 68 Brown, Miss Frances . . .69 Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett 69 Browning, Robert ... 69 Brunnow, Baron von ... 70 Bryant, William Cullen . . 70 Buccleuch and Queensberry, Duke of -70 Buchanan, James . . . 70 Buckle, Henry Thomas . . 71 Buckstone, John Baldwin . . 71 Bulwer,Rt. Hon. Sir Henry Lytton 72 Bunsen, Chevalier von . . 72 Buol, Count .... 74 Buren, Van, Martin ... 74 Burgoyne, Sir John Fox . . 74 Burmeister, Hermann . . . 75 Burnet, John .... 75 Burritt, Elihu .... 76 Barton, John Hill ... 76 Bustamente, Don Carlos Maria de 76 Caballero, Firmin Agosto . . 76 Cabet, Etienne .... 77 Cabrera, Don Ramon ... 77 Cailliaud, Fr&leric ... 78 Caird, Rev. John, D.D. . . 78 Caird, James, M.P. . . .78 Cairns, Sir Hugh M'Caknont . 79 Cambridge, H.R.H. Duke of . 79 Campbell, Lord .... 79 Campbell, Rev. John, D.D. . . 80 Campbell, Sir Colin. (See Clyde, Lord) 101 Candlish, Rev. Robert, D.D. . 81 Canning, Charles John, Viscount 81 Canrobert, Francois Certain . . 82 Canterbury, Archbishop of . .82 Canterbury, Dean of . (See Alf ord) 12 Cantu, Cesar .... 82 Capefigue, Jean Baptiste . . 82 Cardigan, Earl of ... 83 CardwelL Right Hon. Edward . 83 Carey, Henry C 83 Carlen, Madame Emilie . . 84 Carleton, William ... 85 INDEX OF NAMES. IX Carlisle, Earl of . Carlisle, Deaii of. (See Close) Carlyle, Thomas . Carnot, Lazare Hippolite Carpenter, Wm. Benjamin, M.D. Cary, Miss Alice Casabianca, Count of . Cass, General Lewis, LL.D. Cattermole, George Caussidiere, Marc Cavour, Count Cay ley, Arthur . Celeste, Madame . Chadwick, Edwin, C.B. Chambers, William and Robert Chambord, Count de . Chancellor, Lord. (See Campbell) Changarnier, General . Charles XV., Louis Eugene . Cheever, George Burritt, D.D. Chelmsford, Lord . Chesney, Major-General Chevalier, Michel Chevalier, Paul. {See Gavarni) Chevreul, Michel Eugene Child, Mrs. Lydia Maria China, Emp. of. {See Hien Fung) Chisholm, Mrs. Caroline Christison, Robert Clare, John .... Clarendon, Earl of Clark, Sir James, Bart. Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden Clausen, Henri Nicolas Close, The Very Rev. Dean Clyde, Lord Cobden, Richard . Cochrane, Lord. (See Dundonald) Cockerell, Chas. Rob. , R. A. , D. C, L Codrington, Sir William, K.C.B. Cole, Henry, C.B. Coleridge, The Rev. Derwent Collier, John Payne Collin de Plancy, Jacques . Collins, Wilkie . Combermere, Viscount, G.C.B. Jiam, William, M.P. . Conscience, Henri Constantino, Nicholaewitch . Cook, Miss Eliza . PAGE 85 101 86 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 93 93 79 94 94 94 95 95 96 171 97 97 208 97 98 98 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 140 102 103 103 104 104 105 106 106 106 107 107 108 PAGE Cooper, Thomas Sidney, A.R.A. . 108 Cope, Charles West, R. A. . . 108 Copley, John S. (See Lyndhurat) . 253 Corbaux, Miss Fanny . . . 109 Corbould, Edward Henry . . 109 Cormenin, Vicomte de . . .110 Cornelius, Peter Von . . .111 Costello, Miss Louisa Stuart . .111 Cousin, Victor . . . .111 Coutts, Miss Burdett . . .112 Cowley, Lord . . . .112 Craik, George Lillie, LL.D. . .113 Cran worth, Baron . . .113 Creasy, Sir Edward S., M.A. . 113 Cremieux, Isaao Adolphe . .114 Creswick, Thomas, R.A. . .114 Croatia, Ban of. (See Jellachich) . 220 Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. . .114 Crosland, Mrs. Camilla . . .115 Crowe, Mrs. Catherine Stevens . 115 Cruikshank, George . . .115 Cullen, Paul, D.D. . . .116 dimming, Rev. John, D.D. . .116 Cunningham, Peter . . .117 Cunningham, William, D.D. . .117 Curtis, Benjamin R. . . .117 Curtis, George William . . .118 Cushman, Miss Charlotte . .118 Dahlmann, Frederick Christopher . 118 Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. . .119 Dalhousie, Marquis of . . .119 Dallas, George Mifflin . . .120 Dana, James Dwight, LL.D. . 120 Dana, Richard Henry . . . 121 Danby, Francis, A. R.A. . . 121 Danilo, Prince .... 121 Dargan, William . . . .122 Darwin, Charles, M.A. . . .122 D'AubignS, J. H. Merle, D.D. . 123 David, Felicien . . . .123 Davis, Sir John, Bart., K.C.B. . 123 Dawson, George, M.A. . . . 124 Decazes, Elie Due . . . .124 De Grey, Earl. (tfeeRipon, Earl of) 331 Delacroix, Eugene . . . .124 Delane, John T 125 Delaroche, Paul . . . .125 Demidov, or Demidoff, Anatol . 125 De Morgan, Augustus . . .126 INDEX OF NAMES. PAGE Denmark, King of . . . .165 Derby, Earl of . . . .126 Deschenes, Admiral Perceval . 127 Deville, Henry. (See Sainte- Claire) 345 Dewey, Orville, D.D. . . . 127 Dickens, Charles . . . .127 Dickson, Samuel Henry, M.D. . 128 Dilke, Charles Wentworth . . 129 Dilke, Charles Wentworth, junior . 129 Dindorf, Wilhelm . . . .129 Disraeli, Right Hon. Benjamin . 129 Dixon, William Hepworth . .131 Dobell, Sydney . . . .132 Doo, George Thomas, R.A. . . 132 Doran, John, Ph.D. . . .133 Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bart. 133 Doyle, Richard . . . .133 Drouyn De Lhuys, Edouard . .134 Duch&tel, Charles M. T., Count . 134 Dudevant, Madame . . .135 Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas . 136 Duff, Alexander, D.D., LL.D. . 136 Dufferin and Clandeboye, Lord . 137 Duffy, Charles Gavin . . .138 Dumas, Alexandre . . . 138 Dumas, Alexandre, junior . .139 Dumas, Jean Baptiste . . .139 Duncombe, Thomas Slingsby, M.P. 139 Dundas, Vice- Admiral . . . 139 Dundonald, Earl of . . .140 Dunglison, Robley, M.D., LL.D. . 141 Du Petit Thouars, Admiral . . 142 Dupin, Andre Marie Jean Jacques . 142 Dupin, Baron .... 142 Dupont de L'Eure, Jacques Charles 143 Dupont, Pierre .... 143 Dyce, Rev. Alexander . . . 144 Dyce, William, R.A. . . .144 Eadie, John, D.D., LL.D. . . 145 Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock . . 146 Edwardes, Sir Herbert B., K.C.B. 146 Egg, Augustus, R.A. . . .147 Eglinton and Winton, Earl of . 148 Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfreid . 148 Eichwald, Edward . . .149 Elgin and Kincardine, Earl of .150 Ellenborough, Earl of . . .150 Elliotson, John, M.D. . . . 151 Ellis, Mrs. Sarah .... 151 PAGE Ellis, Rev. William . . .151 Ellis, Sir Henry, K.H. . . .152 Emerson, Ralph Waldo . . .152 Encke, Johann F 152 Enfantin, Barthelemy Prosper . 153 Eotvos, Josef . . . .153 Espartero, Don Baldomero . .154 Espinasse, Esprit Charles Marie . 154 Eugenie, Empress of the French . 155 Evans, Lieut. -Gen. Sir De Lacy . 155 Everett, Edward, D.C.L. . . 155 Exeter, Bishop of . . . .156 Faed, Thomas . . . .156 Fairbairn, William . . . 156 Fanny Fern. (/See Parton, Mrs.) . 307 Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. . . 157 Fazy, Jean 157 Ferdinand IV 158 Fergusson, James . . . .158 Fields, James T 158 Fillmore, Millard . Foley, John Henry, R.A. Fonblanque, Albany Forbes, Sir John, M.D. Forrest, Edwin Forster, John Fortune, Robert Fould, Achille Fox, W. J., M.P. 159 159 159 160 160 160 161 162 163 Francis Joseph I., Emp. of Austria 163 Francis IL, King of Naples . . 164 Francis V 164 Franklin, Lady Jane . . . 164 Fraser, Alexander . . . .165 Frederick VIII., King of Denmark 165 Frederick William IV., K. of Prussia 165 Freiligrath, Ferdinand . . .167 Fremont, Colonel .... 167 French, Emperor of. (See Napoleon) 285 French, Empress of. (See Eugnie) 155 Frerichs, Frederic Theodore . . 168 Frith, William Powell, R.A. . 169 Frost, William Edward, R.A. . 169 Garibaldi, Joseph . . . .169 Gamier Pages, Louis Antoine . 171 GaskeU, Mrs. L. E. . . . 171 Gavarni, or Paul Chevalier . .171 Gavazzi, Padre Alessandro . .172 INDEX OF NAMES. XI Geefs, Guillaume . Geefs, Joseph . George V., King of Hanover Georges Sand. (See Dudevant) Gerhard, Edward . . Gerstaecker, Frederic . Gervinus, Georges Godefroid . Ghika, Alexander .... Gibson, John . Gibson, Right Hon. Thomas Milner Gigliucci, Countess. (See Novello) Gilbert, John Graham . GilhUan, Rev. George . Girardin, Emile de Gladstone, Right Hon. Wm., M.P. Gleig, Rev. George Robert Glencorse, Lord . Goderich, Lord. (See Ripon) Godwin, George . . . . Goldschmidt, Madame . Gomm, General Sir William, G.C.B. Goodall, Edward, R.A. . GoodalL Frederick, R.A. Gordon, Lady Lucy Duff Gordon, SirJohnW.,P.R.S.A.,R.A. Gore, Mrs. Catherine Frances Gbrgei, Arthur .... Gortchakoff, Prince Alexander Gortchakoff, Prince Michael Gosse, Philip Henry Gough, Lord . Gough, John B. Gould, Augustus Addison Gould, Benjamin Apthorp Gould, John, F.R.S. Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir James Graham, Thomas, F.R.S. Grant, Francis, R.A. Grant, James . Granville, Earl Grattan, Thomas Colley . Gray, Asa, M.D. . Greece, King of. (See Otho) Greeley, Horace Grey, Earl Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, Grey, Sir George, K.C.B. Griffin, John Joseph Grimm, Jacob Ludwig . Grisi, Giulia . Bart. PAGE 172 172 172 135 173 173 174 174 175 176 295 176 177 177 178 179 180 331 180 181 181 182 182 183 183 183 183 184 184 185 185 186 186 186 186 187 188 188 188 189 189 190 300 190 190 191 191 192 192 192! Grote, George, M.P. Gudin, Theodore . Guizot, Francois . Guthrie, Thomas, D.D. . PAGK 193 193 193 195 Hagenbach, Charles Rodolphe . 196 Haghe, Louis 196 Hahn-Hahn, Countess von . .196 Halevy, Jacques- Elie Fromental . 196 Haliburton, Hon. Mr. Justice, M.P. 197 Hall, Mrs. Anna Maria . . . 197 Hall, Samuel Carter . . .198 Hall, Sir Benjamin. (See Llanover) 250 Halleck, Fitz-Greene . . .198 HalliwelL James Orchard . .199 Hamilton, Rev. James, D.D. . .199 Hampden, Renn Dickson, D.D. . 199 Hannay, James .... 200 Hanover, King of. (See George V.) 172 Hardwicke, Earl of . . .200 Harris, James. (See Malmesbury). 264 Harris, Sir William Snow . . 200 Hart, Solomon Alexander, R.A. . 201 Harvey, George, R.S.A. . .202 Hawthorne, Nathaniel . . .202 Hayes, Mrs. Catherine . . . 202 Hayter, Sir George . . . 203 Head, Sir Francis, Bart., K.C.H. . 203 Headley, Joel Tyler . . .204 Helps, Arthur . . . .204 Hengstenberg, Ernest William . 204 Henley, Right Hon. Joseph W. . 205 Herapath, William, F.C.S. . . 205 Herbert, John Rogers, R.A. . . 205 Herbert, Rt. Hon. Sidney, M.P. . 205 Hereford, Bishop of. (See Hampden) 199 Herring, John Frederick . . 206 Herschel, Sir John F. W., Bart. . 206 Herzen, or Hertzen, Alexander . 208 Hien Fung, Emperor of China . 208 Hildreth, Richard . . . .209 H ill Sir Rowland, K.C.B. . . 209 Hind, John Russell . . .210 Hinds, Right Rev. Samuel . . 210 Hobhouse,Jno.Cam. (#eeBroughton) 67 Holland, Sir Henry, Bart., M.D. . 210 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, M.D. . 210 Hook, The Very Rev. Dean . .211 Hooker, Sir William Jackson, K.H. 211 Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M.D. . 212 INDEX OF NAMES. PAGE Hope, George William, M.P. . . 212 Home, Eichard Henry . . . 212 Horsley, John Callcott, R.A. . 213 Houdin, Kobert Jean-Eugene . .213 Houssaye, Arsene .... 214 Houston, General .... 214 Ho wick, Lord. (See Grey) . .190 Howitt, Mary . . . .214 Howitt, William . . . .215 Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte . 215 Hullah, John . . . .216 Hunt, Robert, F.R.S. . . . 216 Hunt, Thornton . . . .217 Hunt, William Holman . . .217 Ingemann, Bernard Severin . .217 IngersolL Charles Jared . . .218 Inglis, John. (See Glencorse) . 180 Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste . 218 Ireland, Lord Lieutenant of . 85 Isabel II., Maria Isabel Luisa . 218 Isabey, Eugene Louis Gabriel . 219 Ismail Pasha. {See Kmety) . . 228 Isturitz, Don Xavier de . . . 219 Janin, Jules Gabriel . . . 219 Jasmin, Jacques .... 220 Jellachich, Baron von . . . 220 Jerdan, William . . . .220 Jerrold, William Blanchard . . 221 Jewsbury, Miss Geraldine . . 221 Johnston, Alexander Keith . . 221 Jomini, Henri, Baron . . . 222 Jordan, Sylvester .... 222 Josika, Nicolas, Baron . . . 222 Junghuhn, Frank Wilhelm . . 222 Kane, Sir Robert, M.D. . . 223 Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse . 223 Kaulbach, William . . .223 Kavanagh, Miss Julia . . . 224 Kean, Charles .... 224 Kean, Mrs. Charles . . . 224 Keble, The Rev. John, M.A. . 224 Kelly, Sir Fitzroy . . . .224 Kemble, Mrs. Fanny . . . 225 Kern, J. Conrad . . . .225 Kinglake, Alexander William, M.P. 226 Kingsley, The Rev. Charles, M.A. 226 KinkeL Gottfried . . . .226 , PACK Kinnaird,, Lord .... 227 Kiss, Augustus .... 227 Kisseleff, Paul Dmitrevitch . . 227 Klapka, General George . . 228 Kmety, General George . . . 228 Knight, Charles . . . .229 Knowles, James Sheridan . . 230 Kobell, Franz von ... 230 Kock, Charles Henri Emmanuel . 230 Kock, Charles Paul de . . . 231 Kossuth, Lajos de Kossuth Falva . 231 Kiigler, Franz Theodore . . 234 Laborde, Leon, Count de . . 234 Lacordaire, Abbe" .... 234 La Marmora, Marquis de . . 235 Lamartine, Alphonse de . . 235 Lamoriciere, General . . . 236 Lance, George, R.A. . . .236 Landor, Walter Savage . . . 237 Landseer, Sir Edwin, R.A. . . 237 Langenbeck, Maximilian . . 237 Lankester, Edwin, M.D. . . 238 Lansdowne, Marquis of . . . 238 Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. . 238 Lauder, Robert Scott, R,S. A. .239 Lawrence, Sir John . . . 239 Layard, Austen Henry . . . 240 Ledru Rollin 240 Lee, Frederick Richard, R. A. .240 Lee, Rev. Robert, D.D. . . 241 Lee, Mrs. A. Bowdich . . . 241 Leech, John 241 Lemon, Mark .... 242 Lennep, Jacob Van . . . 242 Leopold, King of the Belgians . 242 Lepsius. Carl Richard . . . 243 Lesseps, Ferdinand de . . . 244 Lever, Charles .... 244 Leverrier, Urban Jean Joseph . 244 Lewes, George .... 245 Lewis, John Frederick . . . 245 Lewis, Sir George Cornewall . . 245 LiddelL Very Rev. Henry G., D.D. 246 Lieber, Francis, LL.D. . . . 246 Liebig, Justus, Baron . . . 246 Lind, Jenny. {See Goldschmidt) . 181 Lincoln, Lord. (See N'castle,Duke of) 291 Lindley, John, M.D. . . .247 Lindsay, Lord , . _ . , . . 248 INDEX OF NAMES. xiu PAGE Lindsay, William Schaw, M.P. . 248 Linnell, John . . . .248 Liszt, Franz 249 Livingston, The Eev. David, LL.D. 249 Llanover, Lord .... 250 London, Bishop of ... 250 Longfellow, Henry Wads worth . 251 Lough, John Graham . . . 251 Lover, Samuel . . . .251 Lowell, James Kussell . . . 252 Lucas, Hippolyte Julien Joseph . 252 Luders, General .... 252 Lyell, Sir Charles, F.B.S. . . 253 Lyndhurst, Lord .... 253 Lytton, Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. 254 M'Culloch, Horatio, RS. A. . .256 M'Culloeh, J. E 256 Macdowell, Patrick, E.A. . 256 M'Hale, Eight Eev. John, D.D. . 256 Mackay, Charles, LL.D. . . 257 Maclaren, Charles .... 258 Macleod, Eev. Norman, D.D. . 258 M'Clintock, Sir Francis. . .258 Maclise, Daniel E.A. . . .259 Maclure, Sir Bobert Le Mesurier . 260 Macmahon, Marshal . . .261 M'Neile, The Eev. Hugh, D.D. . 261 M'Neill, Sir John, G.C.B. . .261 M'NeilL Sir John, C.E. . . 262 Macready, William Charles . . 262 Madden, Sir Frederick, K.H. . 262 Madoz, Pascal .... 263 Magnan, Marshal .... 263 Mahon, Lord. {See Stanhope) . 359 Malakof, Duke of. (See Pelissier) . 310 Malmesbury, Earl of . . . 264 Mauteufel, Baron .... 264 Manzoni, Count .... 264 Mario, Joseph .... 265 M an K-hetti, Baron . . . . 265 Marsh, Mrs. Anne. . . . 265 Marshall William Calder, E.A. . 266 Marston, John Westland . . 266 Marti neau, Miss Harriet . . 266 Martinez de la Eosa, Francisco . 267 Martius, Carl F. P. von . . . 267 y, Gerald . . . .268 Masson, David . . . .268 Maule, Fox. (See Panmure, Lord) 306 PAGB Maurice, Eev. Frederick D., M.A. . 268 Maury, Matthew F. . 270 Maximilian II. , King of Bavaria . 270 Mayhew, Henry . . 270 Mazzini, Joseph . 271 Mehemet Emin. (See Aali Pasha) . 1 Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest . 271 Melvill, The Eev. Henry, B.D. . 272 Melville, Herman . . 272 Menchikoff, Prince . 272 Menzel, Wolfgang . . 272 Merimee, Prosper . . 273 Mery, Joseph . 273 Metz, Frederick Auguste de . 274 Meyerbeer, Giacomo . 274 Miall, Edward . 275 Michaud, Louis Gabriel . . 275 Michelet, Jules . 275 Mignet, Francois Auguste . 275 Mill, John Stuart . . 275 Millais, John Everett, A. E.A . 276 Miller, Thomas . 276 Milman, The Very Eev. Dean . 276 Milnes, Eichard Monckton, M.P. . 277 Mini6, Claude . 277 Mitscherlich, Eilhard . 277 Mocquard, Constant . 278 Moffat, Eobert . 278 Montalembert, Comte de . 279 Monteagle, Lord . . 280 Monti, Eaffaelle . 280 Morella, Count of. (See Cabrera) . 78 Morny, Comte de . . 280 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese . 280 Mulgrave, Lord, (See Normanby) . 295 Miiller, Johannes . . 281 Muloch, Miss Dinah M. . 282 Mulready, William, E. A. . 282 Munch, Peter Andreas . . 282 Murchison, Sir Eoderick, D.C.L. .283 Mushaver Pacha. (See Slade) . 355 Musset, Paul Edm6 de . . 284 Napier, Eobert . . . .284 Napier, Admiral Sir Charles . . 284 Naples, King of. (See Francis II.) 164 Napoleon III., Emp. of the French 285 Narvaez, Don Eamon . . . 290 Nash, Joseph . . . .290 Nasmyth, James .... 291 INDEX OF NAMES. PAOI Nees Von Esenbeck, Christian G. . 291 Nesselrode, Comte de . . .291 Newcastle, Duke of 291 Newman, Rev. John Henry, D.D. . 292 Newman, Francis William . . 292 Nichols, John Gough, F.S.A. . 293 Niepce, De Saint Victor . . 293 Nightingale, Miss Florence . . 294 Noel, Hon. and Rev. Baptist, M. A. 294 Normanby, Marquis of . * . 295 Norton, The Hon. Mrs. . . 295 Norwich, ex-Bishop of. (See Hinds) 210 Novello, Madame Clara . . . 295 O'Brien, William Smith. . .296 O'Donnell, Marshal . . .297 Oliphant, Lawrence . . . 297 Olmsted, Denison .... 299 Omer Pacha 299 Orbigny, Charles d' 299 Orloff, Alexis, Prince . . .300 O'Shaughnessy, Sir William B. . 300 Otho I., King of Greece . .300 Oudinot, Marshal .... 301 Outram, General Sir James . . 302 Overbeck, Friedrich . . .302 Overstone, Lord .... 303 Owen, Richard, F.R.S. . . . 303 Oxenford, John . . . .304 Oxford, Bishop of . . . .304 Pakington, Sir John, G.C.B. . .304 Palgrave, Sir Francis, K.H., F.R.S. 305 Palmerston, Viscount . . . 305 Panizzi, Antonio .... 306 Panmure, Lord .... 306 Pardoe, Miss Julia . . . 307 Paris, Count of . . . .307 Parton, Mrs. Sara P. . . . 307 Patmore, Coventry . . . 308 Paton, Joseph Noel, RS. A. . .308 Paxton, Sir Joseph, M.P. . . 309 Payen, Anselme .... 309 Pedro V., King of Portugal . . 309 Peel, Frederick, M.P. . . . 310 Peel, The Right Hon. Jonathan . 310 Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. . . .310 Pelissier, Marshal, Due de Malakof 310 Pelouze, Theophile Jules . .311 Pennefather, Lieutenant-General . 311 PAGE 311 311 312 312 11 Pennethorne, James Pepe, General Pepe, Gabriel . . i Pepoli, Charles Pepoli, Marchesa di. (See Alboni) Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin 312 Petermann, August Heinrich . . 313 Peto, Sir Samuel Morton, Bart. , M. P. 313 Petty, Lord Henry. (tfeeLansdowne) 238 Phelps, Samuel . . . .314 Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D. . . 315 Piccolomini, Maria . . .315 PickersgilL Fred. Richard, R.A. . 315 Pius IX 315 Planch6, James Robinson . .316 Playfair, Lyon, C.B. . . . 316 Poerio, Carlo 317 Poggendorf, John Christian . .318 Pollock, Right Hon. Sir Frederick . 318 Poole, Paul Falconer, A.R.A. . 318 Pope of Rome. (See Pius IX. ) . 315 Portugal, King of. (See Pedro V.) 309 Potter, Cipriani . . . .319 Potter, Louis Joseph . . . 319 Pouillet, Claude S. M. . . . 320 Powers, Hiram .... 320 Prince Consort. (See Albert, Prince) 9 Proctor, Bryan W. . . .320 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph . . 320 Prussia, King of. (See Fredk. Wm.) 165 Pulszky, Ferencz . . . .321 Pulszky, Madame Ferencz . . 322 Pusey, Edward Bou^erie, D.D. . 322 Pyat, Felix 322 Pyne, James B 323 Quinet, Edgar 323 Raffles, Rev. Thomas, D.D. . . 323 Ramsay, William, M.A. . 324 Ranke, Leopold . 324 Rankine, W. J. Macquorn . 324 RaspaiL Francis Vincent . 325 Rauch, Christian . . 325 Raumer, Frederick von . . 325 Rawlinson, Sir Henry . . 326 Reade, Charles . 327 Reboul, Jean . . 327 Redding, Cyrus . ' . . 327 Redgrave, Richard, R.A. . 328 INDEX OF NAMES. PAGE Reed, Rev. Andrew, D.D. . . 328 Reggio, Duke of. (See Oudinot) . 301 Regnault, Henri Victor . . .329 Reichenbach, Baron de . . . 329 Reid, Captain Mayne . . . 330 Remilly, Ovide .... 330 Rescind, Pasha . . . .330 Ribera, Count of. (See Almodovar) 13 Richardson, Charles, LL.D. . .331 Richardson, Sir John, K.C.B. . 331 Ripon and De Grey, Earl of . . 331 Ripon, Bishop of . . . .332 Ristori, Adelaide . . . .332 Ritchie, Leitch . . . .332 Roberts, David, RA. . . .333 Robson, Frederick . . .333 Roebuck, John, M.P. . . . 333 Roger, Gustave H. 334 Rogers, Henry .... 334 Rogers, Henry Darwin, LL.D. . 334 Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. . .335 Rokitansky, Charles . . . 335 Rolfe, Baron. (See Cranworth) . 113 Rollin, Ledru. (See Ledru) . . 240 Ronge, Johannes .... 336 Rosas, Don Juan Manuel de . . 336 Rose, Gustave . . . .336 Rose, Heinrich .... 337 Rosetti, Constantine . . . 337 Ross, Rear- Admiral Sir James Clark 338 Rosse, Earl of . . . .338 Rossini, Joacchino. . . . 339 Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, M.P. 339 Rudersdorff, Madame . . .339 Ruhmkorff, N 340 Ruskin, John .... 340 Russel, Alexander . . .341 Russell, John Scott, F.R.S. . .341 Russell, Right Hon. Lord John, M.P 341 Russell, William Howard, LL.D. . 343 Russia, Emp. of. (See Alexander II. ) 11 Sabine, Major-General Edward . 344 Sainte-Claire Deville . . .344 Saint Leonards, Baron . . . 345 St. Paul's, Dean of. (See Milman) 276 Sala, George Augustus . . . 345 SaManha, Duke of 346 Salomons, David, M.P. . .346 PAGE Sam Slick. (See Haliburton) . 197 Santa Anna, Don Antonio Lopez de 347 Santini, Giovanni . . . 347 Sardinia, K. of. (See Victor Emanuel) 383 Sartorius, Ernest William Christian 347 Saulcy, Louis Caignart de . . 348 Say, Horace Emile . . . 348 Scarlett, The Hon. Sir James Yorke 349 Schamyl 349 Schnorr, Jules .... 349 Schcelcher, Victor .... 349 Schomburgk, Sir Robert Hermann 350 Schonlein, Johann Luk . . . 350 Scott, George Gilbert, A.R.A. . 350 Scribe, Eugene .... 351 Sedgwick, Amy . . . .351 Sedgwick, Miss Catherine Maria . 352 Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. . 352 Senior, Nassau William . . 352 Seymour, Right Hon. Sir George . 352 Shaftesbury, Earl of 353 Shuttleworth, Sir James Kay . 353 Simpson, General Sir James, G.C.B. 353 Simpson, James Young, M.D. . 354 Sinclair, Miss Catherine . . 354 Skoda, Joseph .... 354 Slade, Sir Adolphus . . .355 Smirke, Sir Robert . . . 355 Smith, Alexander .... 356 Smith, Sir Henry, Bart. . . 356 Smith, Thomas South wood, M.D. . 356 Smith, William, LL.D. . . 357 Somerville, Mrs. Mary . . . 357 Soulouque, Faustin . . 357 South, Sir James, F.R.S. . . 358 Spain, Queen of. (See Isabella II.) 218 Sparks, Jared .... 358 Spring Rice. (See Monteagle, Lord) 280 Spurgeon, Rev. Charles Haddon . 358 Stanfield, Clarkson, R.A. . . 358 Stanhope, Earl of . . . . 359 Stanley, Rev. Arthur . . . 359 Stanley, Right Hon. Lord, M.P. . 359 SteelL John, R.S.A. . . . 360 Stirling, William, M.P. . . 360 Stowe, Harriet Beecher . .361 Stratford de Redcliffe, Viscount . 361 Strauss, David Friedrich , . 362 Strickland, Miss Agnes . . 362 Swain, Cha/les , . , . . 363 INDEX OF NAMES. Sweden, King of. (ee Charles XV.) 94 Syme, James, M.D. . . . 363 Taglioni, Marie . . . .363 Tait, Right Rev. Archibald . . 250 Taunton, Right Hon. Lord . . 364 Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D. . 364 Taylor, Bayard . . . .365 Taylor, Isaac . . . .365 Taylor, Isidore, Baron . . . 365 Taylor, Tom . . . .366 Tenerani, Pietro . . . .367 Tennent, Sir James E., M.P. . 367 Tennyson, Alfred, D.C.L. . . 368 Thackeray, William Makepeace . 368 Thalberg, Sigismund . . .369 Thesiger, Sir Fred. (See Chelmsford) 95 Thierry, Alexandre . . . 369 Thierry, Amgdee . . . .370 Thiers, Louis Adolphe . . . 370 Thirlwall, Rt. Rev. Connop, D.D. 371 Tholuck, Friedrich Gottreu . .371 Thompson, Rev. R. Anchor, M.A. 371 Thompson, Major-General Perronet 372 Thorns, William . . . .373 Thorneycroft, Mrs. Mary . . 373 Ticknor, George .... 373 Timbs, John, F.S.A. . . . 373 Tite, William, M.P.,F.R.S. . . 374 Titiens, Teresa . . . .374 Titmarsh,M. Angelo. (See Thackeray) 368 Todleben, Francis Edward . . 375 Trench, Very Rev. Rich. Chenevix 376 Trollope, Mrs. Frances . . . 376 Troubridge, Col. Sir T., Bart., C.B. 376 Tuam, Archbishop of. (See M'Hale) 256 Tulloch, Rev. John, D.D. . . 377 Tupper, Martin Farquhar, D.C.L. 377 Turkey, Suit. of. (See Abdul-Medjid) 3 Uhland, Johann Ludwig . . 377 Ullman, Karl . . . .378 Urquhart, David . . . .378 Valencia, Duke of. (See Narvaez) 290 Vandenhoff, John . . . .378 Vaughan, Rev. Robert, D.D. . 379 Velpeau, Alfred Marie . . . 380 Verdi, Giuseppe . . , .380 Vernet, Horace .... 380 Veron, Louis Desire . . .381 PAGE Veuillot, Louis .... 382 Viardot, Pauline Garcia . . 382 Victor Emmanuel II., K. of Sardinia 383 Victoria, Her Majesty the Queen . 383 Vittoria, Duke of. (See Espartero) . 154 Vigny, Alfred, Count de . .384 Villemain, Abel . . . 385 Waagen, Gustave Friedrich . . 385 Wagner, Richard . . . .386 I Wagner, Rudolph . . . .386 Wales, Prince of. (See Albert Edwd.) 10 Walewski, Florian Alexandre . 386 Walpole, Right Hon. Spencer, M. P. 387 Walter, John, M.P. . . . 387 Ward, Edward Matthew, R.A. .387 Warren, Samuel . . . .388 Watt, James Henry . . .389 Watts, Alaric Alexander . . 389 Webster, Thomas, R.A. . . 389 Wensleydale, Baron . . .390 Westmacott, Richard, R.A. . . 390 Whately, Archbishop . . .390 Wheatstone, Charles, F.R.S. . . 391 Whewell, Rev. William, D.D. . 392 Whiteside, Right Hon. James, M. P. 392 Whitty, Edward Michael . . 393 Whitworth, Joseph . . .393 Wilberforce, Right Rev. Samuel . 304 Wilkes, Charles . . . .393 Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, Kt . 393 William III., King of Holland . 394 Williams, Major-General Sir W. F. 395 Willis, Nathaniel Parker . . 395 Willis, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 396 Wills, William Henry . . .396 Wilmore, James Tibbits . . 397 Windham, Major-General C, C.B. 397 Windischgratz, Alfred, Prince de . 397 Winslow, Forbes, M.D. . . 398 Winterhalter, Franz Xavier . . 398 Wiseman, Nicholas, Cardinal . 399 Woehler, Frederick . . .399 Wood, Right Hon. Sir C. M.P. . 399 Wrangel, Ferdinand . . . 400 Wright, Thomas . . . .400 Wurtemburg, King of, William I. . 401 Wyatt, Matthew Digby . . 401 Yendys, Sydney. (See Dobell) . 132 Young, Brigham .... 402 COTEMPORARY BIOGRAPHY. AAL AALI PASHA, Mehemit Emin, a Turkish statesman and legislative re- former, was born at Constantinople in 1815. At the age of fifteen he was admitted to the Translation Office of the Porte, on the recommendation of Rescind Pasha, the enlightened Turkish Reformer, who had the year before acted rotary to the Turkish Plenipoten- tiaries at Adrianople. In 1834 Aali Pasha pointed Second-class Secretary to the Embassy of Ahmed Fethi Pasha to Vienna, where he spent two years. He visited Russia before returning to Con- stantinople, making no stay, however, in the empire of the Czar. In November, 1837, he became Chief Interpreter to the Divan, and in 1838 Charge hy was raised to the high position it now holds as a science by this work, which has been largely pirated from, and almost copied in publications which fail to acknowledge the source of their information. An English edition of this work, incorporated with new mat- ter, was published by A. K. Johnston, of Edinburgh, in which the materials derived from Berghaus were duly pointed out. The geographical works written by Berghaus are very numerous ; several others are at this moment in the press, or in course of preparation. In 1852, at the request of a society under the auspices of the East India Company and the Governor-General of India, he wrote a Manual of Geography, which, on being translated into the Hindustani, Tamil, and other dialects, was to be introduced into the Indian native schools. Among the students who attended the geographical school founded by Berghaus at Potsdam in 1839, were the well- known A. Petermann of Gotha, who is his foster-son, Henry Lange of Leipsic, and Hermann Berghaus of Gotha. BERKELEY, the Hon. Francis Henry Fitzhardinge, an English poli- tician and member of Parliament, was born on the 5th of December, 1794. He is the fourth son of the Earl of Berkeley, the representative of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in England. Elected in 1837 for the city and county of Bristol, he has sat in Parliament for that constituency ever since. Among Mr. Berkeley's speeches, one on the Commons' Enclosure Bill, and a speech in seconding Sir John Bowring's motion for the abolition of corporal punishment in the army, and a defence of the con- duct of his brother, Sir Maurice Berkeley, who resigned a seat at the Admiralty, because the Board, with Lord Minto, declined to increase the crews of Her Majesty's navy, were among his earlier efforts. '' A speech in moving for a com- mittee on the Beer Bill, which he car- ried, and a motion to abolish the Yeo- manry force, were a happy mixture of satire and argument; and one moving for inquiry into the conduct of Lord Lucan, was acknowledged to be ex- tremely able. Mr. Berkeley, however, has chiefly acquired his reputation as the chief speaker on the Ballot question, BER 42 BER his speeches in favour of which have always secured the ear of the House, from their happy combination of wit and argument. BERLIOZ, Hector, a French musical composer, was born on the 11th of De- cember, 1803, at La C6te St. Andrg, in France. He was intended for the pro- fession of medicine, but soon abandoned it for that of music. Proceeding to Paris, he was enabled to acquire from Reicha and Lesueur, at the Conservatoire, all the instruction within reach likely to fit him for the profession he had adopted. He went to Italy in 1830, and, on his return to France in 1832, produced various operas and symphonies, which were, however, more scholastic than popular in their character. His produc- tions thoroughly combine the gentle and plaintive with the massive and sonorous elements in music, and his style is founded on that of Beethoven. BERNARD, Claude, a French ana- tomist and physiologist, was born at St. Julien, near Villefranche, 12th July, 1813. He studied medicine at Paris, was received into the Hospitals in 1839, and became assistant to M. Magendie in 1841. In 1843 he received his diploma as Doctor of Medicine ; and his know- ledge increasing with study and practice in his profession, he became Doctor of Sciences in 1853. As principal assistant, in the fullest sense, to M. Magendie, he was called, in 1854, to the Chair of General Physiology, founded by the Paris Faculty of Sciences, and in the same year elected Member of the Aca- demy of Sciences. In 1855 lie was appointed Professor of Experimental Physiology to the College of France, suc- ceeding M. Magendie in that chair. M. Bernard struck out a new path in the science of which he was a brilliant teacher ; his discoveries were important ; and he recalled attention to physiolo- gical problems that had been regarded as definitely solved, but of which he proved the solutions unsatisfactory. Hi8 papers published in the "Gazette Medi- cale" and the "Comptes Rendus de la Socit6 de Biologie," are considered admirable expositions of the effects of the secretions on animal organization; but his reputation as a physiologist was firmly founded by his "Recherches sur les Usages du Pancreas," inserted ori- ginally in "Comptes Rendus" to the Academy of Sciences. He has published various papers on physiological subjects, all striking for their minute investi- gation and close logic, establishing principles previously unknown or un- heeded. BERRYER, Pierre Antolne, a French lawyer, Legitimist politician, man of letters, and member of the In- stitute, was born in Paris in January, 1790. The son of an eminent pleader, he was educated at the College of Juilly, and embraced the profession of the law. His first appearance at the bar was in 1811. In politics he was a Legitimist; but believing that clemency would best serve the throne, he joined his father and M. Dupin in defending Marshal Ney and others who had been devoted to the cause of Napoleon. " It is a dis- grace in conquerors, " said he, " to gather the wounded on the field of battle to lead them to the scaffold." In vain he recommended Ney to the clemency of the Royalists. Notwithstanding the Legitimist traditions of his family, he pursued a course quite independent of party tactics or feeling. In 1816 he attacked the Minister of Police De- cazes, and warmly advocated the rights of the press. In a professional point of view his upright and independent con- duct proved of great advantage. His denunciations of all measures that ap- peared oppressive, brought him immense practice. Returned to the Chamber of Deputies by the department of Hante Loire, he became the most brilliant orator of the Legitimist party. On the BER 43 BET Revolution of July, 1830, taking place, M. Berryer, of all the Royalist party, alone remained in the chamber to advo- cate a fallen cause. His policy, when he could no longer resist a change, was to turn the altered circumstances to the best account. He disputed the right of the Chamber to give a new constitution to France, in every instance advocated liberal measures, and demanded a broad enlargement of political privileges. When the Duchess de Berri landed in France in 1832, M. Berryer endeavoured to in- duce her to pursue a course the reverse of that which she had proposed to follow, but his efforts were fruitless, and dread- ing being more deeply compromised he fled to Switzerland, but was arrested, and imprisoned at Nantes. Tried, how- ever, by the Court of Assize at Blois, he was acquitted triumphantly of all the charges against him. In 1833 he spoke from the tribune on behalf of the Duchess de Berri, defended Chateau- briand, and otherwise engaged himself in the interest of the Bourbons ; in all his speeches exhibiting the same candour and liberality. In 1834 he opposed the government in the attempt to proceed against two members of the Chamber for libel, and was equally hostile to further restrictions on the press. When Louis Napoleon, in 1840, was captured at Boulogne, M. Berryer boldly undertook his cause. In the same year he made one of his finest speeches on the Eastern question. He visited London some time afterwards, to lay his allegiance at the feet of the Due de Bourdeau x. After the Revolution of 1848, he was assiduous in endeavouring to promote the Legitimist cause, but he afterwards perceived that France was not ripe for a second resto- ration of the Bourbons. He was, in 1848, returned by the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, but he confined himself in the republican assembly to questions of finance and administration. In conjunction with M. Thiers and other Orleanists, he opposed the pretensions of the Prince President, and in 1851 ex- pressed himself as hostile to the extreme course which was adopted by Louis Napoleon in December of that year. Since then he has retired from public political life, and devoted his great talents to his profession. The political importance which M. Berryer had at- tained to, almost unsought, involved him in pecuniary difficulties, which com- pelled him, in 1836, to advertise for sale his estate of Agerville, but to the honour of the party to which he belongs, and for which he had made so many sacri- fices, it was disencumbered of the debts he had contracted, and restored to him. In 1852 he was appointed Dean or Batonnier of the Faculty of Advocates at Paris. In 1854 he was elected a member of the French Academy; the customary visit to the Chief of the state, in his case, being dispensed with. He is still engaged in laborious practice at the bar, as all English readers of news- papers know from the reports of his speeches in cases which excite an in- terest in this country, such as the Jeufosse case in 1857, and the Mon- talembert case in 1859. His speeches are quoted in all French collections as models of forensic eloquence, and those for Seguin against Ouvrard, for Cas- taing, Dehors, &c. , have long been con- sidered masterpieces by those best able to judge. BETHELL, Sir Richard, an English lawyer and law reformer, was born at Bradford, in Wiltshire, in 1800. His father, a distinguished physician in Bris- tol, was descended of an eminent Welsh family. He was educated at the Bristol Grammar School, and afterwards en- tered Wadham College, Oxford, where he took his degree of B.A. In 1823 he was called to the bar, and in 1840 be- came Queen's Counsel. In 1851 he was elected for Aylesbury, was nominated Solicitor-General in the Aberdeen ad- BIB 4* BIL ministration, and knighted. He suc- ceeded Sir Alexander Cockburn as At- torney-General in 1856. Though dis- placed by the retirement of Lord Aber- deen, it has been stated that he might have retained his office under Lord Derby. The oscillations of parties have again placed the Attorney-Generalship in the hands of Sir Richard Bethell, who has long been universally admitted to be the ablest and one of the most learned lawyers at the bar. It is not as a successful practitioner alone that Sir Richard Bethell has risen to distinction. His efforts in the cause of law reform have gained for him the esteem of all who are not interested in the perpetua- tion of the abuses he has attacked. It is to be hoped that what he has done is but a mere prelude to what he is destined to do. The Ecclesiastical Courts, and the present system of conveyancing, to which he has hitherto chiefly directed his atten- tion, are merely parts of a great system of abuses which urgently call for reform. In his schemes for the improvement of legal education in the Inns of Court, he has perhaps not sufficiently adverted to elements in the present machinery which, clumsy as they are, serve to protect the honourable character of the English bar, and to insure in its members qualifica- tions not tested by examination papers. During the late session (1860) Sir Richard introduced a most elaborate act, which was intended to effect a reform in the administration of the Bankruptcy Laws, but owing to the protracted length of the session, he was compelled to with- draw it from the consideration of the House. BIBESCO, George Demetrius, ex- Hospodar of Wallachia, was born in 1804. He is a younger brother of the Hospodar Barbo Stirbey. After being educated at home, he went to Bucharest and Paris, where he spent seven years in perfecting his studies. Before his elevation to the Hospodorat he held the office of Sub-Secretary of Justice, under General Kisseleff's administra- tion ; afterwards he resigned, and visiting France and Austria, contracted friend- ships with many of the most eminent statesmen of those countries. On his return to Wallachia he was elected Hos- podar, the choice being confirmed by the Porte. Eight days after the elec- tion he was solemnly installed. Pre- viously liberal in his principles, the con- stitutional party founded all their hopes on his administration, but he soon be- trayed a tendency towards absolutism, and a desire to conciliate Russian influ- ence. Opposition grew strong in 1849 ; measures were adopted to impede, if not end, the encroaching rule of the Hospo- dar ; the once popular Governor was dis- liked when it was found that he tempo- rized and wavered, until at length, abandoned by the populace and the army, he gave in his adhesion to a new constitution, and named as his ministers the leaders of the opposition. His pro- ceedings were of no avail ; in a few days after, notwithstanding the representa- tions of the Russian Consul, he abdi- cated the Hospodarat, and set out by Transylvania to Vienna. Since this period Prince Bibesco has resided al- ternately at Bucharest, Constantinople, and Paris. He is not the author of a work attributed to him, entitled "The Rouman Principalities before Europe. " BILLAULT, Auguste Adolphe Marie, advocate and senator, was born at Valines in 1805. After studying law at Rennes, he settled at Nantes, as an advocate, and rose rapidly to reputation and practice. In 1830 he became a member of the Municipal Council, and in 1834 member of the Council-General of the Department. In 1837 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by three constituencies, of which he chose that of Ancenis. He entered into poli- tical life with great zeal, his views being liberal. In 1840 it was expected that BIN 46 BIO the portfolio of Commerce and Agricul- ture would be placed in his hands by M. Thiers; but instead, the then new functions of Under-Secretary of State were confided to him. He subsequently joined the ranks of a moderate though progressive opposition, in conjunction with M. Dufaure. He was much abused for accepting the law business of the Due d'Aumale, but without any tan- gible reason. After the Revolution of 1848 he was elected representative for the Loire Inferieure, and took his place in the ranks of the moderate democratic party, to which he has since remained faithful, though acknowledging the force of circumstances which it was out of his power to control. In 1854, believing he could be useful to France, he accepted the appointment of Minister of the In- terior, on the retirement of M. de Per- signy; but in February, 1858, resigned in favour of General Espinasse. He is a Commander and Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. BINNKY, Kkv. Thomas, an English Nonconformist clergyman, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and educated for the ministry at Wymondley, Hertford- shire. He was first placed at Newport, Isle of Wight, from which he removed in 1820 to London, to become the pastor of the Weigh House Chapel, Little East- cheap. The building was taken down in 1834, when Eastcheap was widened, and the present large and more com- modious chapel built on Fish Street Hill, the old name being retained. Since then he has always been recognised as one of the leaders of the English Inde- pendents. He has both travelled and written, but the great source of his fame is the pulpit, where he has acquired im- mense popularity, by the clear and strik- ing way in which he explains the mean- ing of Scripture, the wide and thorough grasp lie takes of the subject under dis- cussion, and the Christian love and charity which everywhere pervade his sermons. He has lately returned from a lengthened tour in Australia, whither he had proceeded for the benefit of his health, and where his ministrations were highly valued. BIOT, Jean Baptiste, an illustrious French savant and man of letters, was born at Paris in 1774. After studying at the College of Louis Le Grand, Biot joined the artillery; but, preferring scientific pursuits, he was eventually appointed Professor of Mathematics in the Central School at Beauvais. In the year 1800 Biot was appointed to the chair of Natural Philosophy in the Col- lege of France, and when only twenty- eight years of age was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1806 he was a member of the Bureau des Longitudes; and, in conjunction with Arago, continued a series of researches on the properties of gases, which had been commenced by Borda. With Arago he assisted in extending the French arc of meridian, and for this purpose visited Spain, and subsequently embarked for England. The "Inves- tigator" brig of war was placed at his service. The "Investigator" sailed north to the little island of Uist, and in this bleak region of fogs and storms his observations were completed. In 1840 the Royal Society awarded Biot their Rumford medal for his researches on the polarization of light. He has conducted an immense number of researches in physical science; a few in conjunction with M. Pouillet, most of them indepen- dently. They are recorded in the "Me- moires" and "Comptes Rendus" of the Academy, the "Memoires d'Arcueil" and the "Journal des Savants," of the mathematical section of which he was long the editor. He is the author of "An Analysis of the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace," published in 1801 ; a work on "Analytical Geometry, applied to Curves and Surfaces of the Second Order," of which an eighth edition was BIS 46 BLA published in 1834; of "An Elementary Treatise on Physical Astronomy," of which a third edition was published in 1850; and of a great number of other scientific works of the highest merit. M. Biot is distinguished as a literary man as well as a man of science. He is the author of an Eloge of Montaigne, and another of Gay Lussac. His remarks on education in this country attracted much attention some years ago. As a litterateur he has been ad- mitted a member of the Academy of ' ' Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, " and also the French Academy ; a rare distinction for a savant, and this is perhaps the best evidence that can be adduced of the high estimation in which his literary qualifi- cations are held. M. Biot is a Com- mander of the Legion of Honour. BISHOP, Madame Anna, an English vocalist, was born in London in 1815. Her musical taste having been early evidenced, she entered the Royal Aca- demy of Music, and soon distinguished herself. She had at first intended to devote her attention to instrumental music, but being strongly urged by her professional friends, who had not failed to notice the superior voice she possessed, she resolved to study with the view of becoming a vocalist. Having made considerable progress, she sang as prima donna in 1838, at the Philharmonic Concerts, and at the Gloucester, Wor- cester, and other festivals. At first she had chiefly sung the productions of Handel, Mozart, and Beethoven; but eventually devoting herself to the Italian school, she appeared at the Royal Italian Opera House, at a concert given there. She subsequently travelled through most parts of continental Europe, and in every city achieved astonishing success. In 1839 she visited Copenhagen, and in 1840 Stockholm, where, notwithstanding the presence of Jenny Lind, Madame Bishop created a complete furore. She next visited St. Petersburg, where she achieved an equal success. Proceeding southwards, she afterwards appeared at Novogorod, at Kasani in Tartary, sing- ing in the Tartar language, at Odessa, and, eventually reaching Vienna, added still further to her laurels. Returning through various German cities, she sang at Munich. In 1843 she visited Italy, and sang at Florence, Venice, &c, be- coming prima donna at Naples, at the theatre of San Carlo. At Rome she undertook the rdles of 'Amina' in "La Sonnambula," and 'Lucia' in "Lucia di Lammermoor," where, as also at Palermo, she was received with great enthusiasm. She afterwards appeared at several concerts in England, and in 1846 went to America and visited the United States, Mexico, and California. In 1853 she left America for Sydney, and appeared also at Melbourne and Adelaide. South America was her next destination, and after singing in Valpa- raiso, &c, she returned to England in 1858. After singing at various concerts, she gave her farewell one on 17th of Au- gust, 1859, and shortly afterwards sailed for America. From the above imperfect sketch it will be observed that Madame Bishop has sung in every civilized part of the world, a feat unequalled by any other vocalist, and in the prosecution of which her success has been as constant as it has been deserved. BLACK, Adam, M.P., publisher of the ' ' Encyclopaedia Britannica, " was born in Edinburgh, in the year 1784. After completing his education at the Univer- sity of Edinburgh, he commenced busi- ness as a bookseller in 1807. Meeting with success in trade, he erected extensive premises at the North Bridge, which connects the old and new towns of Edinburgh, where his place of business has ever since remained. He is publisher of many important works ; the chief of which, however, is the recent edition of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." For many years he was also publisher of the BLA 47 BLA "Edinburgh Beview." More recently, he has bought the copyright of Sir Walter Scott's works, of which he has issued many well-known cheap editions. Mr. Black's connexion with the "Edin- burgh Review" brought him into* close contact with the most intelligent and influential members of the liberal party in Scotland ; and for the last half century he may be said to have taken a lead in every agitation for burgh and parlia- mentary reform, which has met with the approval of moderate Liberals, and has distinguished himself by his cordial and indefatigable attention to the affairs of his native city. The highest municipal office, that of Lord Provost, was held by him from 1843 to 1848. As an acknow- ledgment of his unwearied public ser- vices the honour of knighthood was offered him, which, however, he declined. In 1856 he was elected by a large majority of his fellow -citizens as their representative in Parliament. Through- out his parliamentary career he has been a supporter of every practicable measure of social reform, especially of an extended and unsectarian system of education, and he has always been an uncompro- mising opponent to all intolerance in Church or State. BLACKWELL, Elizabeth, M.D., was born in Bristol, February 3, 1821. Her father emigrated with his family to the United States, where his death threw the latter on their own exertions for support. Having assisted her elder sister in bringing up the younger members of the family, she determined to devote her attention to medical studies. With this view she spent several years in accumulating, as a teacher, the neces- sary funds for the prosecution of her plans ; during which period she studied Latin, and went through a preparatory course of medical and anatomical read- Itefused admission to twelve med- ical schools, she was at length received as a pupil at Geneva (N.Y.), where, in 1849, she passed her examination, and obtained the first medical degree ever' conferred upon a woman. Having com- pleted her medical studies in the hos- pitals of Paris and London, she settled in New York as a physician for women and children only. On revisiting Eng- land in 1859, she met with a cordial welcome ; was admitted by registration to the right of practising medicine in this country, and delivered lectures on Hygiene to ladies in London, Birming- ham, Manchester, and Liverpool. She has a very large practice in New York, where she has founded an hospital for female patients, and has published a book on "The Physical Education of Girls." BLANC, Louis, a Frenchman of letters and publicist, was born at Madrid in 1813, in which city his father held the office of Inspector-General, under Joseph Bona- parte. By his mother's side he is descended from the Corsican family of Pozzi di' Borgo, of which the celebrated diploma- tist of the same name was also a member. At the age of seventeen, immediately after the Revolution of 1830, and the accession of the House of Orleans to the throne, he returned to Paris, and connected him- self with the "Bon Sens" newspaper; and by his contributions to that and other journals, speedily succeeded in acquiring for himself a high reputation as a political writer. He was the founder of the "Revue du Progres," in the columns of which he first published his ideas upon industrial economics ; a subject of peculiar interest to the working-classes of a country like France, in which there is no legislative provision, as in England, for the support of the poor when in distress, or when, from age and infirmity, they have become incapable of earning their subsistence. In the still more important work, by which he estab- lished his claim to the rank of an his- torian, "L'Histoire de Dix Ans," he gave a description of the corruption of BLA 48 Louis-Philippe's government so vivid, that he did more than any other writer M. de Lamartine excepted to produce that electrical state of feeling in the public mind which exploded in the Revo- lution of 1848. When that event took place, the party known as that of the Social Democratic Republic, looking upon him as one of its most prominent leaders, saw with satisfaction that he had courage enough to accept the risks and responsi- bilities incurred by being a member of the Provisional Government. He sub- sequently undertook the office of Presi- dent of the "Labour Commission," and thus gave the guarantee of his name and character to the working-classes, that their interests would not be ne- glected in the great revolutionary con- flict of the time. He was elected as one of the representatives of the city of Paris, in the National Assembly of 1848, by 120,000 votes; and in that capacity brought forward and carried the famous motion for a repeal of the law by which the Bourbons, both of the elder and the younger branches, doomed the family of the Bonapartes to per- petual exclusion from the soil of France. Neither the author nor supporters of this motion foresaw the consequences that would result consequences no less startling than the destruction of the Republic, which the Assembly were anxious to consolidate, and the re- establishment of the Napoleonic dy- nasty. The creation of the National Workshops, or Ateliers Nationaux, shortly after the Revolution, has been attributed to the influence of M. Louis Blanc. But this is quite a mistake. The principles on which they were established are directly at variance with all the ideas expounded in his work, the "Organisation du Travail." He pro- tested against them most emphatically, both in his place at the councils of the Provisional Government as well as in the National Assembly. Their inevitable BLA dissolution led to the memorable insur- rection of June, 1848, and the invasion of the National Assembly by an armed mob. After the insurrection had been quenched in blood, it was asserted that M. Louis Blanc had been a party to the attempt, and the new Government de- manded authority for the Assembly to institute a prosecution against him. The Assembly declared by its vote, with- out any discussion, that there were no grounds for the prosecution, and the matter dropped. But amid the fearful excitement of that period, when "So- cialism" had become the enemy which the whole of the influential and moneyed classes of France thought it their duty to denounce and combat, the charge was again brought forward. This time it met with more success. The As- sembly recalled its previous vote, and leave was given for the prosecution. M. Louis Blanc immediately proceeded to the railway station, and made his way unmolested to England a step which saved the Government from some difficulty if not danger, and for good reason, no effort was made to prevent his escape. M. Louis Blanc has ever since resided in England, and devoted himself to the peaceful pursuits of litera- ture. He has published ten volumes of his ' ' History of the French Revolution, " and is still engaged upon that work. During his exile in this country, M. Blanc has thoroughly mastered the diffi- culties of the English language, and speaks and writes it with as much ease and elegance as his own. He first wrote in English his work entitled "Historical Revelations in answer to the Marquis of Normanby's 'A Year of Revolution in Paris,"' and translated it from Eng- lish into French, for publication on the Continent. The most successful of M. Louis Blanc's works is his "History of the Last Ten Years," from 1830 to 1840, the publication of which was begun at Paris in 1841. The work, which con- BLA 49 BOH sists of six volumes 8vo, has gone through a great number of editions. BLANQUI, Louis Auguste, a French politician and rivolutionnaire, was born at Paris in 1805. He is the younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the celebrated economist. In his youth he studied both law and medicine, and entered into all the political agitations occurring at the period of his student life, having for their object the entire reversal of existing political and social institutions. He was wounded in 1827, in the affair of the Rue St. Denis. He was a combatant on the barricades of 1830, and decorated for his services on that occasion. Taking an active part in the conspiracies and emeutes of the early part of Louis Philippe's reign, he was condemned to various terms of imprison- ment, which it would be tedious to enumerate. The Provisional Govern- ment of the 24th February, 1848, had no sooner been installed, than M. Blanqui formed the Club of the Central Republican Society, which created great popular excitement at that period. The last revolutionary manifestation in which he was concerned was the at- tempt of the 15th of May, the failure of which led to his flight. Appre- hended and tried by the Court at Bourges, he was condemned to ten years' imprisonment. BOECKH, Augustus, a German phi- lologist and classical scholar, was born in 1785, at Carlsruhe, in the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was educated at the Uni- versity of Halle, and in the Teachers' Seminary at Berlin. Subsequently he became Professor of the Greek language in the University of Heidelberg, and, since 1811, in the University of Berlin. The works of this great scholar form an epoch in historical criticism, and in phi- lology .and archaeology. The object of Philology should be, he maintains, to reproduce the whole political and social life of a people within a certain period. Although the views adopted by Professor Boeckh have been opposed by scholars of the old school, who fear that they will lead to a neglect of grammatical studies, they have had a most important influ- ence on classical education in Germany. Professor Boeckh' s principal philological and critical works are his edition of Pindar, consisting of the Greek texts, with various readings, a Latin transla- tion, and notes ; "Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener," translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, under the title of "The Public Economy of Athens;" and the "Corpus Inscrip- tionum Groecarum, auctoritate et im- pensis Academies Regiae Borussiae." Professor Boeckh is a member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and holds a high position amongst living philologists. BOHN, Henry G., an eminent Lon- don publisher and bibliopole, was born in London, of German parents, in the year 1796. He is favourably known as the editor of the "Bibliotheca Parr- iana," and as a translator from the German. He has translated various works of Schiller, including "The Rob- bers;" compiled a "Handbook of Pro- verbs," and a "Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs," from the French, Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, and Danish; also a "Handbook of Games," and numerous other works of merit, published in his popular libra- ries. He has edited Addison's works, and also a new and enlarged edition of Lowndes's "Bibliographer's Manual;" but his great work is his "Catalogue," published in 1841, which consists of 1,948 pages, and contains the titles of about 300,000 volumes. It is a literary lexicon on the most extensive scale, and admirable as a work of reference. Mr. Bohn has done great service to the read- ing public of this country by republish- ing cheap editions of books which, previous to his time, were confined to the E BON 50 BON great libraries. He has shown great discrimination in selecting the works which form his Scientific, Illustrated, Classical, Antiquarian, Philologico-phi- losophical, Historical, and Ecclesiastical Libraries; his Library of the British Classics; and his Cheap Series, which form, altogether, nearly 1000 volumes. To Mr. Bohn is due the first cheap edi- tion of the "Cosmos" of Humboldt; a work which has had a remarkable influ- ence in widely spreading a taste for the natural sciences in this country. In 1850 he added a translation of the "Views of Nature," by the same author, the English edition being the joint work of Miss Ofcte and himself. BONAPARTE, Jerome, the youngest brother of Napoleon L, was born at Ajaccio, on the 15th of December, 1784. On Napoleon becoming First Consul, he removed Jerome, then fifteen years of age, from college, and placed him in the naval service. When hostilities broke out between France and England, in 1803, Jerome cruised off the "West India Islands. Forced to quit that station without doing anything either brilliant or effective, he took refuge in New York. In the United States he married Miss Elizabeth Paterson. The marriage was a misalliance in the estimation of his brother, and Jerome's wife was for- bidden to enter France. Under this interdict the daughter of the Baltimore merchant proceeded to England, where she gave birth to a son, J6rome Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon, on becoming Emperor, caused the marriage to be annulled by a decree of the Council of State. The Pope, however, refused to ratify the divorce. As Jerome made no figure at sea, Napoleon transferred him from the naval to the military service, and in 1807 he entered the army with the rank of general. In the same year he married FrSderique Catherine, daughter of the King of Wurtemberg. Some time after, Napoleon I. erected Westphalia into a kingdom, and created Jerome king. Compelled to abandon his terri- tories on the abdication of Napoleon, he lived in exile until the return from Elba, when he repaired to Paris, and distin- guished himself at Waterloo. After the final abdication of his brother, he lived chiefly at Trieste, where he purchased a palace, until Louis Napoleon became ruler of France. Jerome was then re- called to Paris, and the old man who had witnessed so many changes of for- tune was created a Marshal of France, President of the Senate, and, in failure of the direct succession, heir to the Imperial throne. All parties concur in pronouncing him a most estimable gen- tleman, and if not the most fortunate yet the most amiable of his race. BONAPARTE, Louis Lucien, second son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born in Worcestershire, January, 1813, during his father's residence in England. He passed his childhood in Rome and his youth in Florence. He visited Italy in 1854. Though travelling under every disguise that could secure privacy, he was recognised by his likeness to the Bonapartes, and met with an enthusiastic reception. The science of chemistry has much engaged his attention, and he has written several works on the subject. On the establishment of the Empire he was made a member of the Senate of France. Of late years he has been busily employed in translating the Par- able of the Sower from St. Matthew into seventy -two European languages and dialects. He has also translated portions of the Old and New Testaments into the various dialects of the north of England. It is understood that he con- templates giving a version of the Holy Scriptures in every dialect spoken in England ; a work certainly of immense labour, and requiring no ordinary philo- logical discernment. BONAPARTE, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, second and only sur- BON 5] BOP viving son of Jerome Bonaparte by his second wife, was born at Trieste, 9th of September, 1822. He passed his earlier days alternately at Vienna, Florence, and Rome, and occasionally in Switzer- land and America. Elected a member of the Legislative Assembly in 1850, Prince Napoleon, supporting the Red Republic and Ultra-democratic opinions, was known as the " Prince Montagne." The elevation of Napoleon III., however, to the throne made Prince Napoleon a devoted adherent of the imperial policy. During the Russian war in 1854 he held a command in the Crimea, but did not gain any distinction, although present at the Alma. He married, in 1859, the Princess Clotilde, daughter of the King of Sardinia, in pursuance, it was sup- posed at the time, of a design upon the throne of Tuscany or of Central Italy, to be brought to completion by the war Against Austria for the liberation of Italy. At the head of a division of the French army, the Prince landed in Italy to co-operate with the forces of his im- perial cousin and his royal father-in-law, but no opportunity presented itself for his being of service; and the sudden peace declared at Villafranca forbade his indulging in further hopes of military glory. The Prince is understood to be a warm friend of the English alliance, and a staunch Free-trader. BONHEUR, Mademoiselle Rosa, a French animal painter, was born at Bordeaux, 22nd March, 1822. She ex- perienced considerable advantage in the daughter of a French artist of some note, and from this circumstance her intense devotion to art may have arisen. She was in a great measure self-taught. At first she had few oppor- tunities of studying from life the ani- mals to the painting of which she specially devoted her attention. Her enthusiasm, however, was so strong that she has even repaired to the slaughter-houses of Paris in search of subjects for her pencil. Her earliest productions were "Goats and Sheep," and "Two Rabbits" paintings which attracted considerable attention ; and from that time she advanced rapidly in public estimation, her position, however, not being attained without severe study and indefatigable labour. Her first great work, that which at once settled her position as the French female Land- seer, was the "Labourage Nivernais," finished in 1849, and now in the Lux- embourg. " The Horse Fair" is known over the world by engravings, and stamps her as among the foremost ani- mal painters of this or any other age. Her subsequent productions, although of great merit, have not surpassed in their execution and finish this splendid painting. Since 1849 she has been directress of the Free School of Design for females at Paris. BOPP, Franz, a German philologist, was born on the 14th September, 1791, at Mayence, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse -Darmstadt. He studied at As- chaffenburg, where he formed an inti- macy with Professor Windischmann, a learned Sanscrit scholar, who held the chair of philosophy and history in the University, and eventually Bopp deter- mined to devote himself to the literature of the East. Having obtained a small pension from the Bavarian Government, he went, in 1812, to Paris, where, under the great French orientalists, Chezy Silvestre de Sacy and Auguste Guil- laume Schlegel, he pursued for some years a course of severe study. He pro- ceeded from Paris to London, where he continued his studies. After his return to Germany he was appointed Sanscrit Professor at Berlin. The labours of Bopp form an epoch in the linguistic researches which have been prosecuted with so much success in our times. His great work, which indeed is the standard treatise on the subject of which it treats, is the "Comparative Grammar of the. BOR 52 BOS Sanscrit, Zenod, Greek, Latin, Lithu- anian, ancient Slavic, Gothic, and Ger- man languages." A second edition was published at Berlin in 1857. It is the most important contribution which has been made in our times to the science of comparative philology, which is indebted very much for its rapid growth to this clear summary of its principles. Pro- fessor Bopp is the author of several edi- tions and translations of the old Indian poems ; of important works on Sanscrit grammar ; on the Celtic languages (1849) ; on the connexion between the Malay- Polynesian and the Indo-Germanic lan- guages ; and on the Caucasian members of the Indo-Germanic languages. BORROW, George, an English author, was born near Norwich in 1803. His early education seems to have in- cluded a period of study at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. His father, as an officer in the army, was obliged to move about a good deal, and that may have given rise to those wandering habits, that love of adventure, and pre- dilection for the study of languages to which we are indebted for some of the most agreeable accessions to our litera- ture. He made himself familiar, when but a youth, with the habits, customs, maimers, and dialects of the gipsy tribes who roamed throiigh England. Leaving this country, he travelled in France and Spain almost over the entire Conti- nent, associating with the gipsies as with familiar friends. The result was his first work, "The Zincali," which gave lively and faithful descriptions of the Spanish gipsies, with a collection of their songs and poetry, and a dictionary of their language. This was new ground, broken for the first time in 1 84 1 . The work became instantly popular, for it was fresh in subject and style. The Bible Society of London, discovering that he had a fit- ness for the task, despatched him shortly afterwards on a mission to distribute the Bible, printed in the Spanish language, wherever opportunity arose, in the Pen- insula. He undertook the mission, and on his return in 1843, published his "Bible in Spain," wherein he recounts his adventures, his journeys, and his imprisonment, the latter being the cause of a misunderstanding so serious between this and the Spanish Govern- ment as to nearly produce a rupture. His "Bible in Spain" was followed by ' ' Lavengro, " a work partly autobiograph- ical and partly imaginative. He is a considerable landed proprietor in the county of Suffolk, but spends much, if not all his time, in rambling through foreign countries on foot. He was from his youth upwards a determined pedes- trian, having, in 1825, walked from London to Norwich, a distance of 112 miles, in about twenty-seven hours. He has written several works which have not yet been committed to the press, amongst others one called " Wild Wales," said to be in many respects a counterpart of the " Bible in Spain." BOSQUET, Pierre Francois Joseph, a French Marshal, was born at Mont- de-Marsan, Landes, 8th November, 1810. He entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1829, from which he passed to the Ecole d' Application, at Metz, in 1831, be- coming a sub -lieutenant of Artillery in 1833, and in 1835 he went with his re- giment, the 10th Artillery, to Algeria, where he served until 1853. During that period his promotion was rapid, and after passing through various grades he was appointed colonel in 1848. In May, 1843, he distinguished himself, at the head of his corps, in a "razzia" against one of the Arab tribes. He was more than once wounded. Raised to the rank of general of division in 1854, he accompanied the French army to the Crimea, where, at Balaclava and Inker - mann especially, his gallantry and mili- tary skill were conspicuous, acquiring for him the highest character for courage and military daring. In 1856 he was BOS 53 BOT named Senator, and soon after received the highest honour that can be conferred on a French soldier the baton of a Mar- shal of France. He has received from the Queen the Order of the Bath ; and the Emperor conferred on him the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, in ac- knowledgment of his valuable services. BOSWORTH, Joseph, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., an Anglo-Saxon scholar and Professor at Oxford, was born in Derby- shire in 1788. He studied at the Uni- versity of Aberdeen, passing the ex- amination for, and obtaining the degree of Master of Arts. He was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England ; and that he might be enabled to fulfil the duties of his position efficiently, in addition to Latin and Greek, he at an early age acquired a knowledge of Hebrew, with its cognate dialects, Chal- dee, Syriac, and Arabic. His success was soon acknowledged by various honours conferred on him by the Uni- versities of Cambridge and Oxford, and he received the diploma of Ph.D. from Ley den. In 1857 he received the degree of D.D. from Christ Church, Oxford. Besides two Anglo-Saxon Dic- tionaries and three Grammars, he is the author of works entitled the " Origin of the Danish Language" (1834) ; " Origin of the English, Germanic, and Scan- dinavian Languages and Nations" (1836); an "Abstract of Scandinavian Litera- ture;" "Origin of the Dutch, with a Sketch of their Language and Litera- ture." He is editor of " King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of the Compen- dious History of the World, by Orosius, with an English translation," and a "Description of Europe, and the Voy- of Othere and Wulfstan," written in Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred the Great. An edition of King Alfred's works in Anglo-Saxon and Latin; and the Gospels in the version of Wycliffe, of the Anglo-Saxons, and of the Maeso- Goths, in parallel columns, have engaged his attention. He is a member of the principal literary and scientific societies of England and the Continent. BOTFIELD, Beriah, M.P., F.R.S., F.S.A., an English author and man of science, is son of the late Beriah Bot- field, Esq. of Norton Hall, Northamp- tonshire. He was born at Earl's Ditton, Salop, in 1807, and received his educa- tion first at Harrow and then at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1828, in 1847 tak- ing the degree of Master of Arts. He entered Parliament, as representative for Ludlow, in May, 1840, and continued to sit for that borough until 1847, being again elected in 1857. Mr. Botfield has written a "Tour in Scotland," privately printed, and "Notes on the Cathedral Libraries of England," published in 1849, besides contributing various papers to the learned societies of which he is a member. The politics of Mr. Botfield are Moderate Conservative. BOTTA, Paul Emilie, a French trav- eller and archaeologist, was born in 1805. He is son of an eminent histo- rian of the same name. After studying medicine, he made a voyage round the world in the capacity of surgeon. Be- tween 1830 and 1833, as physician to Mehemet Ali, he visited Sennaar and other parts of Egypt. On his return to France he was appointed French Consul at Alexandria, and afterwards, on settling on the banks of the . Tigris at Mosul, having learned that a mound in the vicinity was supposed to cover part of the seat of ancient Nineveh, he com- menced excavating, but obtaining no great success he next examined a similar mound at Khorsabad, and there he com- menced operations anew. In this in- stance his hopes were realized, for ulti- mately he had the gratification of lay- ing open the apartments of an Assyrian palace, thus opening up the way to discoveries which have since been fol- lowed up with so much success by Mr. BOU 54 BOU Layard and others. Sculptures and other objects of interest removed from the edifice were transferred to the Assy- rian Museum in Paris; thanks to the cordiality with which the French autho- rities seconded M. Botta's labours. In 1857 he was appointed Consul-General at Tripoli. He has published a " Nar- rative of a Journey to Yemen, under- taken in 1837, for the Museum of Natural History at Paris ; " a work en- titled, "The Monuments of Nineveh, discovered and described by M. P. E. Botta, and measured and sketched by M. E. Flaudin" (1849, 1850); and an abstract from the same work, named "Inscriptions Discovered at Khors- abad" (1848). BOURQUENEY, Francois Adolphe, Comte de, a French diplomatist, was born at Paris in 1800. He entered on his diplomatic career under the Restora- tion. He was attached to the French embassy at London in 1822, with M. de Chateaubriand, and was afterwards Secretary of Legation at Berne. Em- ployed on the editorial department of the "Dbats" (under the direction of M. de Chateaubriand), he became a Councillor of State. After the Revolution of 1830 he was successively Secretary and Charge d' Affaires to the French Embassy in London, under M. Guizot. He was afterwards appointed Ambassador at Constantinople. At the Conferences of Vienna, in 1854, he insisted on the "four guarantees" as necessary condi- tions of peace. He was next accredited as Ambassador to Vienna in 1856, after having taken part, as French Plenipo- tentiary, in the Congress of Paris. After the signature of the Treaty of Zurich, where he represented France, he retired from the public service of the state, and took his seat in the Senate. BOUSSINGAULT, Jean Baptiste, a French chemist and agriculturist, and a member of the Institute, was born at Paris on the 2nd of February, 1802, He became a pupil at the Mining School of St. Etienne, and gave indications there of his intelligence and laborious disposition. Having received an offer from an English company to go to South America, for the purpose of retracing old mines which had been left unworked for many years, he at once decided on accepting it, and proceeded to his desti- nation. His extensive powers of obser- vation were thus called into exercise; and in 1821 he was appointed Professor of Metallurgy at Bogota, in South America. The revolution in the Spanish colonies compelled him, for a time at least, to enter the military pro- fession as an engineer, with the rank of Lieutenant -Colonel, on the staff of General Bolivar. In 1826 he was ap- pointed Superintendent of Mines in New Grenada, and while holding this situation he prosecuted several impor- tant scientific investigations. His geolo- gical and geographical observations, his excursions to the volcanoes of Ecuador, and his exploration of Chimborazo, which he ascended to the height of 19,700 English feet, with the view of studying the law of the decrease of tem- perature in the higher regions of the atmosphere, attracted the notice of European men of science, and more par- ticularly of Humboldt and Arago. On his return to France in 1833 he was named Dean of the Faculty of Sciences, at Lyons, and subsequently appointed to the Chair of Agriculture at the Conser- vatoire des Arts et Mtiers, at Paris. He has devoted himself, with great energy and success, to the study of science in its application to agriculture, more especially in reference to the economical production of food for cattle, and his observations on this subject have been published in the " Annales de Physique et de Chimie," and in the "Comptes Rendus" of the Academy of Sciences. He has also published various works, the chief of which is a "Treatise on BOW 55 BOW Rural Economy. " He has been a mem- ber of the National Assembly and the Council of State. He is a Commander of the Legion of Honour. He has, how- ever, entirely withdrawn himself of late from political affairs, and has given him- self to the pursuit of scientific research. BOWRING, Sir John, an English writer and colonial governor, was born on 17th October, 1792, at Exeter, where his father was engaged in the woollen trade. Belonging to a family of Dissen- ters, he early contended, both through the press and on the platform, against the laws which excluded from political authority persons holding similar reli- gious principles. This did not prevent him from turning his attention to matters of more enduring interest. Trade, eco- nomics, literature, and languages engaged his intellect, until his qualifications as linguist were recognised throughout Europe, not less, if not more, than his knowledge of commerce, extensive though that was. He became conversant with many modern living tongues, and, so to speak, "excavated" the literary treasures hidden in many of the nearly- forgotten dialects of Europe. The Uni- versity of Groningen showed its appre- ciation of his acquirements by conferring on him the degree of LL.D. One of his earliest literary productions was pub- between 1821 and 1823, entitled "Specimens of the Russian Poets;" in 1824, "Bavarian Anthology;" "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain;" in 1827, "Specimens of the Polish Poets," and " Servian Popular Songs;" in 1830, "Poetry of the Magyars ;" and in 1832, Irian Anthology." His compre- >e views of commerce led, under various governments, beginning with that of Earl Grey, to his employment as a Commercial Commissioner to other countries. In that capacity he visited France, Italy, the states of the Zollve- rein, and the Levant. At this period of his career he drew up several reports of the highest merit, published as Govern- ment Blue -Books, among which the chief are : "On the Commercial Relations be- tween France and England" (1834 and 1835); "On the Commerce and Manu- factures of Switzerland" (1836); "On Egypt, Candia, and Syria" (1840) ; and "On the Prussian Commercial Union" (1840). He was appointed Secretary to the Commissioners of Public Accounts by Earl Grey, and from 1835 to 1837, and from 1841 to 1849, he sat in parliament. When the treaty of Sir Henry Pottinger had opened to our trade the five prin- cipal ports of China, and gave us a footing on the seaboard, Dr. Bowring was nominated British Consul at Canton in 1841, and afterwards Chief Superin- tendent of Trade in China, and Plenipo- tentiary to the Court of Pekin. Having performed his duties satisfactorily, he returned to England in 1853, was knighted, and appointed Governor of Hong-Kong and its dependencies, with the chief control of the naval and mili- tary power. In 1855 he visited Siam, concluded a treaty with the two kings of that country, and returned to his gov- ernmental post. About two years after- wards a serious matter occurred, which led to the nomination of Lord Elgin as Ambassador Extraordinary, without, however, displacing Sir John Bowring. By an ordinance of the Legislative Council of Hong-Kong, which had been confirmed by the Queen's authority, certain colonial vessels were recognised by licence as of British ownership, and, consequently, were entitled to the privi- leges of the treaties with China. In defiance of this ordinance, a lorcha, desig- nated the " Arrow," which had been sailing under the Hong-Kong licence, was boarded by the Chinese authorities, who seized the whole of the crew. Pro- testing, but not obtaining any redress, Sir John referred the question to the British Admiral, who resorted to strong measures to enforce obedience to the BRA 56 treaties ; but, owing to the small force at his disposal, failed to obtain satisfaction. It was said that the licence of the "Arrow" had expired; but such an averment was not put forward by the Chinese authorities, who stated she did not at the time carry British colours, and was amenable, as a Chinese vessel, to the law of China. Sir John Bowring was accused of wanton and barbarous conduct in bombarding Canton. Be these matters as they may, Sir John re- turned from his post in 1859. The most important of his recent works are, " The Kingdom of Siam and its People," which was published in 1857 ; and " A Visit to the Philippines," in 1857-8. At the meeting of the British Association at j, Aberdeen, last year, Sir John Bowring read a paper on the Opium Trade, which attracted much attention. BRANDE, William Thomas, an English chemist, was born in London in 1788. Having received his early education at a school in Kensington, he afterwards proceeded to Westminster School, where his abilities soon gained him the respect of his tutors. After travelling on the Continent, he entered St. George's Hospital as a medical pupil. He here evidenced that devotion to chemistry which has since made him so eminent as a man of science. In 1809 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, and became, in 1816, the secre- tary of that learned body. About this time Mr. Brande had become highly popular as a lecturer on chemistry, and through his scientific attainments ob- tained a post in the Mint in 1825. Con- nected with various scientific societies, both in England and abroad, he had the honour of D.C.L. of Oxford conferred on him at the time that Lord Derby was chosen Chancellor of that Univer- sity. His fame as an author rests on two elaborate and masterly productions, his " Manual of Chemistry," and his "Dictionary of Science, Literature, and BRA Art," works which rank at the present time among the best authorities on the subjects of which they treat. BRAVO-MURILLO, Juan, a Spanish statesman, was born at Frejenal de la Sierra, in the province of Badajoz, on the 8th of June, 1803. Destined for the church, he studied theology at Seville and Salamanca. Abandoning theology, however, he became a student of law, and, in 1825, entered the College of Advocates of Seville, filling at the same time the chair of philosophy in the university of that city. His great ora- torical powers soon gave him celebrity, and he was appointed Attorney -General at Caceres, in the province of Estrama- dura. This official position was held by him until the beginning of 1836, when, for various reasons, he proceeded to Madrid, and became the chief editor, in concert with Pacheco and Perez Her- nandez, of the " Bulletin of Jurispru- dence." In 1837 he was elected to the Cortes, and in 1838 he was twice offered the post of Minister of Justice, once by the Count of Ofalia, and again by the Duke of Frias, which, however, he did not accept. When the Cortes was dis- solved, he established the "Porvenir" newspaper, in which he renewed his attacks on the Government, as he did afterwards in the "Pilot," and had done before in several other newspapers. He became involved in political affairs in 1840, was arrested, but escaped by some means, and at last fled to Paris. He afterwards returned to Madrid ; and in 1843 he was appointed, by the Lopez Cabinet, member of a commission which was formed for the compilation of a code, and of which he became afterwards the president, fulfilling this charge gra- tuitously for a long time. In 1847 he became Minister of Justice. In the same year General Narvaez, Duke of Valencia, being at the head of affairs, he was appointed Minister of Commerce, and fulfilled this charge until August, BRA 57 BEE 1849, when he passed to the Ministry of Finance, the Duke of Valencia being still President, until November, 1850, when he resigned. Two months after, in January, 1851, on the fall of Narvaez, he was charged with the formation of a new cabinet, and was appointed Presi- dent and Minister of Finance; he dis- charged the duties of both of these offices, worked a great deal in Finance, and made the arrangement of the Spanish debt by the law of August, 1851. On the 14th of December, 1852, he resigned his office, and the counter- revolutionary measures of his successors resulting in the insurrection of 1854, obliged him to quit Spain, Espartero and O'Donnell being then at the head of affairs. He was recalled in 1856, and elected member of the Cortes and President of the Chamber of Deputies in the legislature of 1858. This Cortes was dissolved by the cabinet, O'Donnell calling another, in which he decided to take no part. He has since retired from public life. BRAY, Mrs. Anna Eliza, an English authoress, daughter of the late John Kempe, Esq. , was born in the county of Surrey, towards the end of last century. She was married in 1818 to Charles Stothard, author of "The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain," son of the eminent painter. Her first work, illus- trated by her husband, was " Letters from Normandy and Brittany," pub- lished in 1820. In the following year Mr. C. Stothard was accidentally killed, and she published a memoir of his life. She subsequently married the late Rev. Edward A. Bray, vicar of Tavistock. From that period she has produced, in quick succession, " De Foix," a romance of the 14th century; "The White ;" "The Protestant;" " Fitz of Fitzford;" "The Talba;" "Warleigh, or the Fatal Oak;" "Trelawny;" "Trials of the Heart;" "Henry de Pomeroy ;" " Courtenay of Walreddon ;" " Trials of Domestic Life ;" "Borders of the Tamar and the Tavy," in letters to the late Robert Southey, poet laureate ; "The Mountains and Lakes of Switzer- land ; " "A Peep at the Pixies ; " " Life of Thomas Stothard, R.A. ;" "Sketch of the Life of Handel," &c, &c. Her style is graceful, and her works are alike remarkable for sound morality and interesting narration. BREMER, Miss Fredrika, a Swed- ish novelist and poet, was born in 1802, at Abo, in Finland. At the time that Finland was ceded to Russia she was three years old. Her father then sold his estate and removed to Sweden, where she resided with her family, some- times at Stockholm and sometimes at Asta, a property which her father had purchased, three miles from the capital. When eighteen years of age, Miss Bremer began to compose verses in Swedish, but it was not till a much later period in life that she committed any important production to the press. In 1828 she published at Stockholm the first volume of her "Pictures of Every- day Life." They were succeeded by a new collection of the same kind, pub- lished between 1844 and 1848. The striking descriptions of modern Scandi- navian life contained in these works obtained for them a wide circulation in Germany, and subsequently in France and England, and even in Italy and Holland, they having been translated into the languages of all these countries. In 1831 she obtained the gold medal of the Academy of Stockholm. Miss Bremer, shortly after publishing two books, giving an account of tours in Sweden and Norway, undertook, in 1849, a journey to America. The letters which she wrote to her sister during her stay in the United States and in the island of Cuba, from October, 1849, to September, 1851, were published at Stockholm, London, and New York, in 1853-4, in 3 volumes 8vo, under the BRE 58 BRE title of " Homes of the New World." In this work she gives a very interest- ing account of the manners and institu- tions of our Transatlantic cousins, who seem to have accorded to her a very warm and flattering reception. On her way home to Sweden she stayed for some time in England. She is at present engaged in carrying out philanthropic schemes connected with the education and elevation of children of the poorer classes. In 1842 Mrs. Howitt first in- troduced her to the literary world of Great Britain by a translation of " The Neighbours," which, on account of its vivid delineations of domestic life in Sweden, at once found favour. "The Home" followed, and afterwards ap- peared in English "The Diary," "The H. Family," " The Midnight Sun," " The President's Daughter," "Nina," and ' ' Brothers and Sisters. " BREWSTER, Sir David, M.A., LL.D., K.H., a physicist and author, Principal of the University of Edinburgh, was born at Jedburgh, in Scotland, on the 11th December, 1781. He was edu- cated for the Church of Scotland, and admitted a licentiate, but a decided bias led him to the study of natural science. In 1800 he obtained the degree of M.A. at the University of Edinburgh. Taking up his abode in the Scottish capital, he commenced his researches and experi- ments in physical science, meantime studying under Robison, Playfair, and Dugald Stewart, then Professors in the University. Having made important discoveries regarding some properties of light, he received, in 1807, the honorary degree of LL. D. from the University of Aberdeen, and in 1808 was elected a FeUow of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh. He became editor of the "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," a great work, which employed many years of his life, and of which he remained editor till its completion in 1830. The attention of Dr. Brewster was more especially directed to optics, a science in which many of his discoveries have been of the highest scientific and prac- tical value. In 1813 appeared his "Treatise on New Philosophical Instru- ments," in which, and in various papers and essays, he gave publicity to disco- veries on the refraction, dispersion, and polarization of light, which placed him in the first rank of contemporary in- quirers in physical science. In 1815 Dr. Brewster was awarded the Copley medal, by the Royal Society of London, in recognition of the value of his optical researches, and in the same year that learned body elected him a Fellow. In 1816 the French Institute decreed him 1,500 francs, being one-half of their prize for the most important discoveries in physics made in any part of the world during the two preceding years. About the same time he invented the kaleidoscope, on which he published a treatise in 1819, and in 1818 the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford gi >ld and silver medals for his " Discoveries on the Polarization of Light." In 1819 he commenced, with Professor Jameson, "The Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal," and in 1824, as sole editor, "The Edinburgh Journal of Science," of which twenty volumes were published, these periodicals being the first estab- lished in Scotland devoted to scientific subjects. In 1821 he founded the Scot- tish Society of Arts, which was incorpo- rated by Royal Charter in 1841. In 1825 the French Institute elected him a corresponding member, and he received the same honour from other continental scientific societies. He originally sug- gested the formation of, and, indeed, may be said to have founded, the "Bri- tish Association for the Advancement of Science," which has since proved so successful in forwarding the objects for which it was intended. So early as 1811, Sir David Brewster had thrown out the suggestion that a powerful lens SIR DAVID BREWSTER, ] LL.D. : BEE 59 BRI might be constructed of zones of glass built up out of several circular segments, and had recommended the adoption of the instrument, as a means of brilliant illumination, to the Scottish Lighthouse Board. It was shown that by the use of this invention, the navigation of our coast would be freed from many of its dangers. The plan was not, however, adopted, until Sir David Brewster had published, in 1826, his "Account of a New System for the Illumination of Lighthouses, " and urged its adoption in the "Edinburgh Review," and had ob- tained a parliamentary committee for inquiry into the management of our British Lighthouses. At last, however, the dioptric system, his invention, was introduced in 1825 into the Scottish lighthouses, and afterwards into those of England and Ireland. It is now in general use in our colonies, and in every part of the world. Sir David Brewster is also the inventor of the lenticular stereoscope, now to be found in every household throughout the whole civi- lized world. He was elevated to the dignity of knighthood in 1832 by King William IV., an honour well won and justly conferred. In 1831 he received the decoration of the Hanoverian Guelphic order. He is now Vice-Presi- dent of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, having twice obtained its medals and long been its secretary. In 1833 he received the degree of D. C. L. from Ox- ford, and afterwards from the Univer- sity of Durham. He is also an officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1849, on the death of Berzelius, was chosen one of the eight Foreign Associates of the Paris Academy of Sciences. He is a Chevalier of the Prussian Order of Merit, a Fellow of the Astronomical and Geological Societies, and a Member of the Boyal Irish Academy. In 1838 Sir David Brewster was appointed Principal of the United Colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard's, in the University of St. Andrews, a position which he retained until 1859, when he was in- vited to assume the duties of Principal of the Edinburgh University. He holds that office at present, enjoying at the same time a pension of 300 per annum from the Crown. Sir David has written extensively on scientific subjects. His principal works are a " Treatise on New Philosophical Ir struments, " published in 1813; "Memoirs of the Life, Writ- ings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton;" separate Treatises on the "Kaleidoscope" and "Stereoscope;" "The Martyrs of Science;" "More Worlds than One;" and "Letters on Natural Magic." He is also the author of numerous articles in the " Edinburgh Review," the " Quarterly Review," and the "North British Review;" his contributions embracing a wide range of subjects, scientific and literary, and attesting the versatility of his talents and the variety of his accomplishments. To the "North British Review," in particular, he has contributed a series of articles, one of which will be found in almost every number of that periodi- cal. The subjects are generally con- nected with astronomy, physics, optics, geology, and physical geography; but they treat of many purely literary and historical topics, in no way con- nected with science, and all are remark- able for elegance of diction. At the disruption of the Scottish Church, Sir David Brewster joined the Free Church; he has been uniformly a liberal in politics. BRIGHT, John, an English orator and statesman, was born at Greenbank, Rochdale, in Lancashire, on the 16th of November, 1811. He is the second son of the late Jacob Bright, a cotton-spinner and manufacturer at Rochdale. Having received an ordinary school education, he was transferred, at the age of fifteen, to his father's office, to be initiated into the detail and management of the busi- BRI GO BRI ness, which, in default of his elder brother, who died young, he was des- tined to inherit. In 1835 he spent some months on the Continent, and extended his travels as far as Egypt and Palestine ; thus helping to complete an education which circumstances had somewhat re- stricted. In 1838, when the famous Anti-Corn-Law Association of Manches- ter was formed, Mr. Bright became one of its council ; and when in the following year the agitation assumed larger pro- portions, and grew into the Anti-Corn- Law League, the public career of Mr. Bright received its final determination. He became intimately associated with Mr. Cobden and the other leading spirits of the most powerful political organiza- tion of our time, and by the force of his genius, perseverance, and eloquence, shook the ancient citadel of monopoly till it tottered to its falL While Mr. Cobden lent his calm and unanswerable logic to the cause, Mr. Bright gave it the impetus of zeal and passion. The one sapped the foundations of economic error, the other battered at its walls. The one convinced his opponents, the other carried them away captive; and both rendered such efficient service as to make it difficult to say which was the most useful or the most powerful. The organization of the Anti-Corn-Law League was remarkably adapted to ac- complish the object in view. Public meetings were held in every part of the country; newspapers were established in the interest of the agitation ; wherever there was a chance of success, the coun- try was deluged with pamphlets ; emi- nent men entered the ranks, but tower- ing high above them all were the names of Cobden and Bright. The speeches of Mr. Bright were of the most effective description, and thoroughly English in tone as well as phraseology. Powerful, impassioned, and convincing, he so car- ried his auditors with him, that even those who opposed his politics were com- pelled to admire his genius. But the oratory of the platform, however useful, is of comparatively little influence unless its echo be heard in Parliament. The League was always aware of this fact, and lost no opportunity to find and make an opening for the admission of its most prominent members into the House of Commons. In 1841 Mr Cobden was returned for Stockport, and in April, 1843, a vacancy having occurred, Mr. Bright contested the city of Durham; but the influence brought against him was too strong, and he was defeated. Not deterred by the failure, his opponent, Lord Dungannon, having been unseated for bribery, he contested the city a second time, in the month of July, in the same year, and was successful. His general political profession was that of a Radical and Free-Trade Reformer attached to no party, but willing to support either Whigs or Tories, if their measures were such as he could approve, and founded upon the wants of the country and the rights of the people. Mr. Bright, although the repeal of the Corn Laws was the one leading object of his political life, found time to ori- ginate and support the appointment of two select committees of the House of Commons. The first of these was a com- mittee on the Game Laws, appointed in 1845. The evidence which it procured was printed in the usual Blue -Book form in 1846. The same year, through the instrumentality of Mr. Bright, an abridgment of this evidence was pub- lished in a volume more suited for general circulation, and containing, from his pen, an "Address to the Tenant Farmers of Great Britain," strongly condemning the existing Game Laws. The other committee was on the subject of cotton cultivation in India ; and the bulky volume containing the evidence taken by it has been often since referred to in discussions on this question. On this point Mr. Bright has always been BR I well informed ; and it was chiefly through his instrumentality that the late Mr. Alexander Mackay was de- spatched to India, at the expense of some of the leading manufacturers of Man- chester, to report upon the causes, fiscal, natural, or political, which pre- vented and impeded the cultivation of cotton in such quantities as to render this country less dependent upon the Southern States of the American Union. Mr. Bright continued to represent the city of Durham until the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the consequent final establishment of Free-trade principles as the policy of the British Empire. After the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the ministerial crisis that followed the break up of the Conservative party by the defection, or self-sacrifice, of Sir Robert Peel, Mr. Mark Philips, a Liberal and Free Trader, who had shared with Mr. Milner Gibson the representation of Manchester, an- nounced his intention of retiring from parliamentary life. After some discus- sion, involving the claims of Mr. Cob- den (who refused to stand), and an invitation to Lord Lincoln, now the Duke of Newcastle, who withdrew, however, before the poll was taken, Mr. Bright became a candidate for the city of Manchester. Although many were opposed to his claims, their oppo- sition was fruitless, and the party of Free Trade, aided by the Ultra Liber- als, carried his election triumphantly. During the interval between his elec- tion for Manchester and the accession of the first Derby Ministry to power, Mr. Blight's activity in Parliament and on the platform was varied and continuous. In the House of Commons he proposed to apply the remedy of free trade in land to the state of things which produced the Irish famine. He appealed, unsuccessfully, for the de- spatch of a royal commission to inves- tigate the condition of India; and in 61 BR I 1849 he was appointed one of the members of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on official salaries. At Westminster, and still more in the provinces, especially at Manchester, he co-operated with Mr. Cobden in the movement which the latter sought to create in favour of Financial Reform, mainly with a view to the reduction of our naval and military establishments. In 1851 he added his vote to those who attempted to censure Lord Palmerston for his conduct towards the Govern- ment of Greece in the matter of the claims of Don Pacifico, a British sub- ject ; and in 1852 he took a prominent part in the welcome given to Kossuth by the Liberals of Manchester. On the formation of the first Derby Ministry, Mr. Bright aided in that temporary re -organization of the Anii-Corn-Law League which the acceptance of Free Trade by the new Government after- wards rendered unnecessary. At the general election which followed, the return of Mr. Bright, as well as of Mr. Gibson, for Manchester, was opposed. But the principle of Free Trade was supposed to be once more at stake, and Mr. Bright, with Mr. Gibson, were re-elected by a considerable majority. Soon after the accession to power of the Aberdeen Ministry, the Emperor of the French, then newly elected to the throne, began to develop designs upon the custody of the Holy Places in Syria, which alarmed the jealousy of the late Emperor Nicholas, and led to the mission of Prince Menschikoff to Constantinople to insist upon concessions to Russia, as the head of the Greek Church, which the Ottoman Porte could not with safety or with dignity agree to. The Porte being supported in its resistance by the Government, the people, and the Press of Great Britain, the Emperor of the French saw that he had made a mistake, and withdrew from a false position. Not so the Emperor of Russia : persisting BRI G2 BRO in his claims, and being encouraged in the belief that under no circumstance whatever would the people of Great Britain consent to undertake a war to support the independence of Turkey, or of any other state he marched his armies across the Pruth. The result was the immediate alliance of England and France, who were afterwards joined by Sardinia, in support of the rights of the Sultan and the integrity of the Turkish empire. Mr. Bright and his political friends protested against the war, but his health having become im- paired, partly from over-work in the service of the public, he was ordered by his physician to seek change of scene in foreign travel. In the spring of 1857, during his absence from Parliament, Mr. Cobden proposed and carried a vote of censure on the Government of Lord Palmerston, for the origin and conduct of the Chinese war that arose out of the quarrel incident to the capture of the lorcha "Arrow," in the waters of Canton. This vote led to a dissolution of Parliament, and at the election for Manchester which ensued, Mr. Bright lost his seat. In the autumn of the same year, the death of Mr. Muntz caused a vacancy in the representation of Birmingham. Mr. Bright having been invited to offer himself as a can- j didate, was unanimously elected, and i took his seat once more in the House of | Commons, amid the general acclamation j of the country, who valued his honesty too highly to see him without regret dis- carded from Parliament. He supported, but did not speak on the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson, hostile to the second reading of the Conspiracy BilL brought in to satisfy the jealous fears of the French Government, and the result of which was the overthrow of Lord Pal- merston' s Government. During the remainder of the session he spoke occa- sionally, especially on the subject of India, and with every evidence of a complete restoration to health. In the autumn and winter of 1858-9, Mr. Bright made a tour of the provinces, and published an elaborate scheme of change in our representative system. Although dissatisfied with the moderate liberalism of the Pahnerston-Russell ad- ministration he has generally supported that ministry, and gave in his adhesion to the Reform Bill unsuccessfully intro- duced by Lord John Russell in the ses- sion of 1860. BRODIE, Sir Benjamin Collins, Bart., D.C.L., an English surgeon, was born in 1783, at Winterslow, Wiltshire. His professional education was received at an anatomical school in London, and at St. George's Hospital, as a pupil of Sir Everard Home. After having delivered lectures on anatomy (in conjunction with Mr. Wilson) and on surgery, he was, in 1808, elected assistant -surgeon to St. George's Hospital, and eventually surgeon. He was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1810, having con- tributed a paper to the " Philosophical Transactions," on the circulation of the blood in a foetus without a heart, dur- ing the previous year. In 1811 he received the Copley Medal for papers published in the ' ' Transactions. " These contributions treated of the influence of the brain on the ction of the heart, the generation of animal heat, the modes by which death is produced by vegeta- ble poisons, and other physiological prob- lems. In 1814 he published an account of his experiments and observations on the influence of certain nerves on the secretions of the stomach. Dr. Brodie then rose gradually in reputation, and in 1832 was appointed Sergeant-Surgeon to Queen Adelaide. In 1834 he was created a baronet, and in 1850 he re- ceived the degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford. He is President of the Royal Society, and a correspond- ing member of the Institute of France, and also a member of numerous learned la > > I > ~> 5 : '-yWEMnte fern aibatfg^tpbTyiMkuH ScB^hlaiik. BRO 63 BRO societies in Europe and America. Sir Benjamin has published works " On Local Nervous Affections ;" "On various Subjects in Pathology and Surgery;" "Pathological and Surgical Observa- tions on Diseases of the Joints;" " Phy- siological Researches;" "Psychological Inquiries;" and "Lectures on the Dis- eases of the Urinary Organs. " He has besides contributed largely to the Trans- actions of the Royal Medical and Chir- urgical Society. BROGLIE, Achille Charles Leonce Victor, Due de, a French statesman and member of the Institute, was born on the 28th November, 1789. His father was a nobleman who refused to emigrate, and was guillotined in 1794 for his ad- hesion to the cause of the Constitution. Under the Empire, M. de Broglie dis- charged duties in the administrative office he held with so much intelligence as to attract the notice of the first Napo- leon, who entrusted liim with missions in Illyria, Spain, and Poland, although he was well known to be unfriendly to the empire. He was appointed by Louis XVIII. a peer of France, but he soon opposed, as a liberal, the Government of the Restoration. In 1828 he founded the "Revue Francaise," contributing to it many articles, among which the most remarkable was one on Capital Punish- ments. After the revolution of July, 1830, he held office for a few days as Minister of the Interior, ceding it, how- ever, to his friend M. Guizot, for the ministry of Public Instruction. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in October, 1832, resigning the office in April, but resuming it in May, 1834. He retired " finally" from public life in February, 1835; but after the election of Louis Napoleon he returned again to the arena of active politics, as a representative to the Legislative Assembly. The coup d'etat changed affairs once more, and the Due de Broglie has not since been heard of as a politician. In 1856 he was elected a member of the French Academy, his title to this distinction being founded on his contributions to reviews, and his parliamentary speeches. His reception was quite an event, as it gave him, a statesman respected by all classes of politicians, an opportunity of expressing his opinions on the political changes which had overthrown the great men of Louis Philippe's time. BROOKE, Sir James, the Rajah of Sarawak, and Governor of Labuan, in the island of Borneo, was born in the year 1803, near the city of Bath. His father was in the Civil Service of the East India Company, and the subject of this notice at an early age went out to India as a cadet. The corps to which he belonged being engaged in the first Burmese war, he was wounded in the chest so severely as to render it neces- sary for him to return to England on furlough. As soon as his health and vigour were restored he returned again to India, but found himself superseded in the service for undue length of ab- sence from his duties. This was owing chiefly to his being shipwrecked on his voyage to India, and the lengthened period required for his convalescence. He determined to take a voyage to China, and on the passage he was very much impressed by the natural wealth and fertility of the great islands of the Malay peninsula, rich in minerals and in all the products of the tropics, to an extent unknown on the continent of India. He wondered even at this time that no attempt had been made to put down piracy in seas so much frequented by European vessels, and to introduce European civilization into countries so accessible by the great extent of their sea-board. On his return to England in 1838 he urged upon the attention of Government the schemes he had formed respecting the Malay Islands. He wrote a paper at this time, an abstract of which was published in the Journal of the Geo- BRO 64 logical Society, in which he pointed out the importance in an industrial and commercial point of view of the Malay archipelago, and enforced the necessity of something being done to establish peace and civilization in one of the most fertile regions of the tropics. All his efforts proving unsuccessful, he determined to proceed to Borneo as a private adven- turer. Purchasing a small yacht named the " Royalist," he set sail with a picked crew of twenty men ; and, well provided with the munitions of war, he under- took the formidable task of extirpating piracy in the Indian archipelago, and founding a settlement on some part of it. Fixing upon Sarawak, in the island of Borneo, as his first scene of opera- tions, he sailed for that place. On his arrival he found the Rajah MudaHassim engaged in suppressing a rebellion in his territories, and being asked to assist him in the undertaking, willingly consented. With the aid of Mr. Brooke and his small band of followers, Muda Hassim easily put down the insurrection, and with the consent of the sovereign in- stalled Mr. Brooke as his successor. The latter then vigorously applied himself to the reform of the most open abuses. In 1841 his domination was firmly estab- lished. In a paper which he wrote during the following winter, he claimed the assis- tance of the English Government, on the ground that his objects were "to call into existence the resources of one of the richest and most extensive islands of the globe, to relieve an industrious people from oppression, and to check, if possible to suppress, piracy and the slave trade, which are openly carried on within a short distance of three European settle- ments, on a scale and system revolting to humanity." He had received no assis- tance up to this time, and had expended 10,000 of his own fortune. It is impossible to give any account of the beneficent measures he carried out in his attempts to put an end, one after the BRO other, to the barbarous customs of the country. In 1847 he returned to Eng- land, and was warmly welcomed by his friends and the public, created a Knight of the Bath, and invited to dine with the Queen. The Government of the day ac- knowledged his title of Rajah, sent him out in a man-of-war, and made him governor of the new settlement of Labuan, in Borneo, with an allowance of 1,500 a-year, and 500 more for his services as consular agent. In the meantime, how- ever, his enemies had been at work. The late Mr. Joseph Hume, prompted, it is said, by persons who had an inter- est in putting down Sir James Brooke, arraigned him in the House of Commons, accused him of various malversations, and endeavoured to have him morally condemned as a reckless spiller of human blood. While these charges were being discussed, Sir James Brooke, forsaken by the government, was attacked at Kutchin, his head -quarters, by the Chinese settled in the colony, and only succeeded in quelling the insurrection at the immi- nent peril of his life. A most satisfactory reply to the calumnies brought against Sir James Brooke will be found in his " Private Correspondence," published in 1853, which fully establish his claims to be considered a man of genius, actu- ated by the purest and most unselfish motives in his attempts to reclaim from barbarism the races of the Malayan archi- pelago, and entitle him to our esteem and admiration as one of the most daring and heroic men of the age. We regret to add that the Rajah has been com- pelled by shattered health to return again to England. BROOKS, Charles Shirley, a dra- matic author and journalist, was born in 1815. His father was the eminent architect, William Brooks, who built the London Institution and the Church Missionary College. Mr. C. S. Brooks was educated for the law, and admitted a solicitor ; but abandoning the profes- BRO 65 BRO sion, he devoted his attention to the drama and journalism. A series of plays, including " The Lowther Arcade," " Our New Governess," and "Honours and Riches," produced by him at the Lyceum in 1845-51, made his theatrical reputation. Becoming connected with the "Morning Chronicle," he visited, as its special correspondent, Southern Russia, Asia Minor, and Egypt, with the view chiefly of inquiring into the condition of the labouring classes in those countries. He has written several novels, of which "Aspen Court" and "The Gordian Knot" are the best. Mr. Brooks is also a contributor to the "Quarterly Re- view," and other leading periodicals. He is one of the principal writers in ' ' Punch. " He has collected the greater part of his contributions to the "Morn- hronicle" in a work published separately, entitled "The Russians of the South." BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord Brougham, a man of science, orator, statesman, and lawyer, was born at Edinburgh in 1778. He is the descend- ant of one of the oldest families in Westmoreland, which dates from the Conquest, and has title to the ancient peerage of Vaux. His education was commenced in the High School, and finished in the University of Edinburgh. His quick intelligence and extraordinary aptitude were not unobserved, and during his residence at the University he gave himself ardently to the study of mathe- matics and physical science. At seven- teen years of age he wrote a paper which he forwarded to the Royal Society, entitled an "Essay on the Inflection and Reflection of Light," which was in- serted in its " Transactions " in 1 796. He contributed another on the same subject in 1797, and one on Porisms in 1798. Having left the University on the termi- nation of his studies, he travelled for some time on the Continent, making Sweden and Norway the principal points of his tour. On returning to Scotland he settled in Edinburgh as an advocate or barrister for a few years. During this period he was the friend and com- panion of Jeffrey, Murray, Sydney Smith, Horner, Thomas Brown, and the other young men of genius who at this period did honour to the northern capi- tal. In 1802, when the "Edinburgh Review" was founded, he was one of its most indefatigable contributors. He removed to London in 1806, and in 1807 he was called to the English bar. In the short truce which followed the peace of 1814 he visited Paris, and as a savant became acquainted with Carnot and other eminent Frenchmen. Once fixed in London, his practice as a lawyer grew upon his hands, his first great appear- ance being before the House of Lords, as counsel for Lady Essex Kerr, whose family claimed the Dukedom of Rox- burgh. In 1808 he was counsel for some British merchants in London, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, claiming a repeal of the Orders in Council which had been issued in retaliation of Na- poleon's Berlin and Milan decrees, orders which went to prohibit, under the pain of capture, neutral vessels from entering any port in France. For some weeks Mr. Brougham examined wit- nesses for his clients at the bar of the House of Commons, doing his utmost for the interests of his clients ; but the " Orders in Council" were not rescinded until 1812, when he was in Parliament, and could as a member support the petitions of his former clients. He had in 1810 entered Parliament for the burgh of Camelford, and at once ranged himself with the Whig oppo- sition. In 1811 he carried the Bill which declared participation in the slave trade a felony, and thereby put an end to that traffic. On the dissolu- tion of Parliament in 1812 he pre- sented himself to the electors of Liver- pool as a candidate for their suffrages; BRO 66 BRO but Canning, whom he opposed, pos- sessed the weightier influence, and Mr. Brougham was defeated. He did not re-enter Parliament for four years, when, in the recess of 1815, he was returned for Winchelsea, a close borough. He en- tered with spirit, energy, and consum- mate ability on the discussion of all the questions that then agitated the public mind. Slavery and the slave trade, agricultural distress, parliamentary re- form, Catholic emancipation, the Holy Alliance, reduction of the army, the Corn -law monopoly, and other topics, occupied his attention, and elicited his most fervid oratory. It was during one of his impassioned speeches about this period that he accused Canning of "baseness," and designated Peel an ' ' ignominious parasite. " Popular though Mr. Brougham had become, as a member of Parliament, exposing and denouncing abuses in the State, he was destined to command a still higher degree of estima- tion. Queen Caroline came to England to claim her rights as Queen Consort and wife of George IV. Supported by Lords Eldon and Liverpool, and all the Tories of the day, the King not only repudiated the claim, but put her on her trial before the House of Lords for adultery. Mr. Brougham having been the Queen's legal adviser on previous occasions, was now appointed her Attor- ney-General, and it fell to him to vindi- cate her honour and chastity before the first Court of Judicature known to the constitution. His labours were incessant, his eloquence without parallel; and, eventually, the King felt constrained to withdraw his Bill of Pains and Penalties against his wife. Mr. Brougham's cause was the cause of the people, and thence- forth he became a popular idol, and continued to mix himself up with every prominent question of the day. When Parliament was dissolved, on the death of George IV., Mr. Brougham contested the representation of the most important seat in England, that of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and won it. In the new Parliament he gave immediate notice of various measures of parliamentary re- form. Before, however, his motion could come on, Sir Henry Parnell applied to the House for an inquiry into the Civil List, which was resisted by the Welling- ton government, but carried. The Duke resigned, and Earl Grey was commanded to form a ministry, in which he appointed Mr. Brougham Lord Chancellor, with a peerage, the title being "Brougham and Vaux." In the House of Lords, Lord Brougham was mainly instrumental in carrying the Reform Bill, and for four years, from 1830 to 1834, he toiled with- out intermission on behalf of various measures of reform; but in the latter year, William IV. caused the Melbourne administration to retire, and called the Conservatives to office, the Duke of Wellington being interim dictator, while Sir Robert Peel was on his way from Italy. The Peel government having been defeated on the first motion of importance submitted to the House of Commons, the Irish Church Revenues Bill, Lord Melbourne returned to power, and nominated his ministers, among whom, however, Lord Brougham had no place, and he has never since been a servant of the Crown. When Louis Philippe was deprived of the throne and a republic established, Lord Brougham, who had purchased property and built a house at Cannes, where he went every winter, applied, along with other English residents having property there, for naturalization as a security for it, but the claim was unsuccessful, in conse- quence of the opinion of the French lawyers, that the applicants must, as a preliminary to naturalization in France, cease to be English citizens. As an orator, Lord Brougham has had few equals in or out of the Senate ; no living statesman possesses the same versatility. As an author he is occasionally care- BRO 67 BRO less, but always clear ; as Chancellor, he performed the greatest judicial feat on record: he retired from the Court of Chancery without leaving a single case which had been heard in arrear for judgment. It is impossible to enume- rate in this place Lord Brougham's practical efforts in the cause of educa- tion; suffice it to say, that among his other undertakings he established the " Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," and was the founder of University College, London. The ad- dresses delivered by Lord Brougham to the meetings of the Social Science As- sociation at Bradford, on the occasion of the foundation of the monument to Newton, and of his installation at Edin- burgh as Chancellor of the University on which he has conferred so much honour, show that his activity and in- tellectual vigour are unimpaired. He has again evinced his interest in social affairs in his presidential address to the Social Science Congress lately held at Glasgow (September, 1860), where, in a speech of great length, he reviewed some of the most interesting occurrences which had taken place since the previous meeting, and which had a bearing on the objects of the Association. These recent efforts would alone, could they be detached from his earlier career, give him a title to be ranked as a phi- lanthropist, statesman, orator, philoso- pher, and savant, among the most illus- trious men whom this country has ever produced. The title of Brougham and Vaux descends by a recent grant to his brother, who also inherits the old claim to the title of Vaux. A collected edition of Lord Brougham's works has been published by Messrs. Charles Griffin & Co. They consist of Critical, Historical, and Miscellaneous works, forming ten octavo volumes, including " The Lives of Philosophers of the Time of Oeorge III. ;" "The Lives of Men of Letters of the Time of George III.;" "Sketches of Eminent Statesmen of the Reign of George III.;" "Natural Theology," comprising a Discourse on Natural Theology; "Dialogues on In- stinct, and Dissertations on the Struc- ture of the Cells of Bees, and on Fossil Osteology;" "Rhetorical and Literary Dissertations and Addresses, with Dis- courses of Ancient Eloquence," &c. ; " Historical and Political Dissertations," contributed to various periodicals ; and " Speeches on Social and Political Sub- jects, with Historical Introductions;" "Contributions to the Edinburgh Re- view, Political, Historical, and Miscel- laneous," in three octavo volumes, ar- ranged under the heads of Rhetoric, History, Constitutional Questions, Po- litical Economy, Finance, Commercial Law, Physical Science, and Miscella- neous Subjects; " Paley's Natural The- ology, with Notes and Dissertations by Lord Brougham and Sir Charles Bell," in three volumes ; " Political Philosophy ;" and what may be termed his Lordship's magnum opus, " A Treatise on the Bri- tish Constitution," which has just issued from the press. BROUGHTON DE GIFFORD, John Cam Hobhouse, Baron, an English statesman, was born in 1786. The son of a wealthy brewer in London, he was educated at Cambridge, and in 1809 travelled in the East, publishing his observations under the title of "A Journey into Albania and other Pro- vinces of the Turkish Empire." Lord Byron dedicated the fourth canto of " Childe Harold" to him. Being in France during the "Hundred Days," he wrote, after Waterloo, his "Letters to an Englishman," the opinions ex- pressed in which subsequently led to his incarceration in Newgate. This con- demnation rendered him popular, and on his release he was returned to the House of Commons in 1820. He adopted at first radical opinions, but in a few years his liberalism became less BRO OS BRO extreme. In 1831 Lord Grey appointed him Secretary-at-War, and in 1833 he became Chief Secretary for Ireland subsequently, Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and Secretary to the Board of Control. He was elevated to the peerage in 1851. BROWN, Miss Frances, a blind poetess, was born June, 1818, at Stran- orlar, in Ireland, where her father was postmaster. She lost her sight by small- pox when only eighteen months old, so that education in the ordinary form she could not receive. But her memory was mcst retentive, and she learned, from listening to others, to read and re- peat their lessons. She attempted verse at seven years of age, and continued to compose, her sister being her amanu- ensis, until 1841, when the "Athe- naeum " introduced her to the public. She is the author of a large number of poems and tales of considerable merit, and enjoys a small pension from the Crown. BROWN, William, a capitalist, donor of the Liverpool Free Library and Mu- seum, was born at Ballymena, county Antrim, in 1784. His father, Alexander Brown, was a native of Ballymena. Wil- liam Brown was early sent to England for his education, which he received at a private academy, kept by the Rev. J. Bradley, of Catterick, near Richmond, Yorkshire. His educational opportu- nities were slender. At the early age of sixteen he was summoned from his books to acquire a knowledge of men and things. An active business career awaited him, and he was thenceforward compelled to pursue his studies and self- improvement under disadvantages, and in the absence of aids and auxiliaries which he has generously supplied to his younger and more fortunate fellow- townsmen. In the year 1800 his father determined to emigrate to America, and to seek his fortune in that land of pro- mise. His family accompanied him; and when the father had established himself in Baltimore as a linen mer- chant, William assisted in the counting- house. He soon became so useful, and manifested such aptitude for business, that his father took him into partner- ship. Mr. Brown, pere, was a man of remarkable shrewdness and enterprise. He established one son at Philadelphia, another at New York, while a third remained in Baltimore to assist him in carrying on the parent or central busi- ness. William, the eldest, was sent to England in 1809. The young merchant lost no time in revisiting the scenes of his birth, and in 1810 he married Sarah, daughter of Mr. Andrew Gihon, of Bally- mena. The young couple came to Liver- pool, and here William established a branch of his father's Baltimore firm, in correspondence with his brothers in New York and Philadelphia. The name of William Brown soon became known upon the Liverpool Exchange, and henceforward he became identified with the unparalleled progress and prosperity of the port. And to so great an extent did his business increase that in 1836 his transactions for the year amounted to above ten millions. In 1844 Mr. Brown offered himself for South Lanca- shire, but was defeated ; although even- tually he took his seat in the House, in 1846, having been elected by that consti- tuency without opposition. His politi cal principles are liberal, and throughout his career Mr. Brown has been the earnest advocate in every way of the principles of Free-trade. He retired from active political life in 1859. Mr. Brown has always shown the deepest interest in the affairs of the town of Liverpool, and the last instance of his munificence has been the presentation of a Free Library and Museum to his fellow-townsmen, at a cost to himself of forty thousand pounds, an instance of princely gene- rosity scarcely paralleled in any age. BROWNING, Mrs. Elizabeth Bar- BRO CO BRU rett, an English poetess, was born in London, in 1809, of a family in affluent circumstances. She was educated with great care, and at the age of fifteen her powers as a writer were known to her friends. Owing to the bursting of a blood-vessel in the lungs, she was for a long time in very delicate health, residing, for the sake of the climate, at Torquay. There she experienced a shock which permanently tinged her character with melancholy. Her brother, and two young men, friends, took out a small sailing- vessel, for a few hours' trip. They had been but a few minutes on their voyage of pleasure, when the boat went down, and all on board perished, within sight of the house where Miss Barrett resided. She was married to Mr. Robert Brown- ing in 1846, and immediately after accompanied him to Pisa, subsequently removing to Florence, which they made their permanent home, varied by an occasional visit to England. In 1850 the publication of her collected works increased her reputation in England and on the Continent. Mrs. Browning can boast of a rich mine of poetical ideas, but the diction in which she fre- quently indulges detracts from what would otherwise be appreciated as the- result of unlaboured poetic impulse. BROWNING, Robert, an English l>oet, was born at Camberwell in 1812. He was educated at the London Uni- versity, where he was looked upon as a thoughtful and imaginative student. His iirst literary production, "Para- celsus," was published in 1835. In 1837 he brought out ' ' Strafford, an Historical Tragedy;" and in 1840, a long poem, entitled "Sordello." Each of these works attracted much notice, from their originality, choice of subject, and style of treatment ; but being more addressed to the minds of cultivated readers than to the million, none of them became extensively popular. From 1842 to 1846 he published a series of poems, which he entitled "Bells and Pome- granates." Many of these are very beautiful ; though they all, more or less, partake of that intellectual subtlety which precludes all but highly intel- lectual readers from clearly and fully comprehending them. Still they tended generally to extend and confirm the reputation he had previously acquired. In 1846 there appeared a collected edi- tion of his poems ; and in the same year he married Miss Elizabeth B. Barrett, the celebrated poetess. In 1850 he published one of his finest compositions, "Christmas Eve, and Easter Day," and in 1855 his "Men and Women," a col- lection of miscellaneous poems which go further than all his other works to prove him a genuine poet, not of the merely intellectual and metaphysical order, but one who feels as deeply as he thinks. Mr. Browning has frequently been compared with Tennyson, but their ideas and their styles are widely diver- gent. Since his marriage he has resided principally at Florence. BRUNEL, Isambard Kingdom, an English engineer, was born at Ports- mouth in 1806. His youth was spent in France, receiving his education at the College of Caen. One of his earliest engineering attempts was that of form- ing a tunnel under the Thames, which has been completed at great cost, but has not afforded the results which its promoters at first anticipated. After various engagements in connexion with engineering affairs, Mr. Brunei was ap- pointed, in 1833, the engineer of the Great Western Railway, and in this capacity introduced the broad gauge. His views in reference thereto were strongly opposed by many eminent en- gineers, but eventually he carried his point. Many of the bridges on that line are fine specimens of engineering talent. He has been comiected with several foreign railways, and was one of the chief engineers engaged in erecting BRU 70 BUC the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges. He was the first to propose building large vessels for long voyages, and the Great Western steam -vessel was constructed on plans furnished by him. The boldest effort of Mr. Brunei's genius, however, has been the construction of the Great Eastern, which is the largest vessel ever built. Mr. Brunei is a Pel low of the Royal Society, and a member of many foreign learned Associations. BRUNNOW, Ernest Philip, Baron Von, a Russian diplomatist, was born at Dresden, 31st August, 1796, his father belonging to an ancient family of Cour- land. After having studied at Leipsic, he was admitted in 1818, by order of the Emperor, to the ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1820 to 1823 he was Secretary to the Russian Embassy in London. After serving in various sub- ordinate diplomatic offices, in 1839, having fallen into bad health from too close application to business, he was appointed ambassador to Wurtemberg, and conducted, at Darmstadt, the ar- rangements relative to the marriage of the Grand Duke Alexander. In 1839 he was sent to London on special busi- ness, and the following year he returned as ambassador, and then it was that he displayed rare ability as a diplomatist in negociating the treaty of 18th of July, 1840. When the Russian war broke out in 1854 he was recalled, and sent, in 1855, as Plenipotentiary to the German Confederation, with instructions spe- cially to secure the neutrality of the lesser states. Along with Count Orloff he was chosen by Alexander II. to as- sist at the Conferences of Paris, and in 1757 he was sent to Berlin as Minister Plenipotentiary. He has since been re- appointed to his old post in London. BRYANT, William Ccllen, a poet and journalist, was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November, 1797. After receiving an excellent pre- liminary education, he entered William College, at the age of sixteen, where he soon reached a conspicuous position by his superior classical attainments. He afterwards entered the office of a coun- sellor-at-law, and pursued for some years the practice of the law. He early became known as a poet, by the publication in verse of some political satires. Giving up the profession of the law, he, in conjunction with a friend, founded the "New York Review," and with two others an Annual named "The Talisman," in which many of his poems appeared. Eventually, how- ever, Mr. Bryant became editor of the " New York Evening Post," and to this journal he has devoted his chief atten- tion for many years. The genuine feeling and quiet gracefulness of style displayed in almost all his poetic effu- sions have rendered them peculiarly popular, no less in England than in America. After Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant is perhaps the American poet best known in Britain. In addition to his poetical works, Mr. Bryant has published several tales and sketches, which have attained considerable popu- larity in America, but which have not been reproduced in England. BUCCLEUCH and QUEENSBERRY, Walter Francis Montague Douglas Scott, fifth Duke of Buccleuch, was born in 1806. After studying at St. John's College, Cambridge, he, on arriving at majority in 1828, took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1842 he was Lord Privy Seal under Sir Robert Peel, and in 1846 President of the Council. In 1842 he was nominated a Colonel of the Edinburgh militia, and in 1857 appointed one of Her Majesty's aides-de-camp. The Duke is a moderate conservative in politics, and takes considerable interest in agricultural and social improvements, and the amelioration of the condition of the Scottish peasantry. BUCHANAN, James, ex-President of the United States, was born 23rd April, BUC 71 BUC 1791, in the county of Franklin, Penn- sylvania. His father was a native of Donegal, in Ireland. Mr. Buchanan studied law, but had a strong bias for politics. In 1814, and again in 1815, he was elected a member of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, but he found the labours harassing, and retired after two years' servitude. In 1821 he first took his seat in Congress, and again retired into private life; but in 1831 he pro- ceeded on political affairs to Russia, remaining at St. Petersburg for about two years. On his return to America he was elected to the Senate, and in 1845 was appointed Secretary of State to President Polk. In 1853 he was sent by General Pierce as Ambassador to the Court of St. James's, resigning that post in 1856, when his friends had secured his election as president. Mr. Buchanan has been a successful politician, belong- ing to what is called the Democratic in opposition to the Republican party; he of necessity supports the Southern or pro-slavery cause, but the pith of his policy lies in his principles of annexation, and his desire to wrest from Great Britain every inch of territory capable of ab- sorption into the Union. His term of office expired in 1860. BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, an Eng- lish thinker and historian, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th November, 1822. His father was a well-known merchant in Mark -lane; his mother a Miss Middleton, of the Yorkshire family of that name. For a short time he at- tended Dr. Holloway's school at Kentish Town, but his health, when a boy, being delicate, he was not subjected to what is called a regular education. Dr. Birk- beck, whose advice had been taken, having recommended that he should not be tormented with task-work, or con- fined to the close atmosphere of a school- room, he was allowed to pursue his own course undisturbed ; and that he did not mis- spend his time is abundantly appa- rent in every page he has written. Mr. Buckle is the author of two papers published in "Eraser's Magazine;" one ' ' A Lecture on the Influence of Women, " the other "An Essay on Liberty," being a review of Mr. J. S. Mills' work on the same subject. But his most remarkable production is the first volume of his "History of Civilization in England," published in 1857. It is merely the first part of a great work, which is to embrace the whole history of English civilization, and which, if carried out with the range of learning, the ability and the capacity to arrange and systematize materials drawn from the most varied sources, displayed in every chapter of this intro- ductory volume, will place Mr. Buckle's name among the foremost of those writers who have treated of the philo- sophy of history. It is not, however, as an original thinker on the transcen- dental questions of sociology that Mr. Buckle's claims to distinction rest. His histories of the English intellect from the middle of the sixteenth to the eigh- teenth century, and that of the French intellect during the same period, forming part of this volume, are warmly admired by some of those who denounce most strongly his philosophical ideas, and even by them placed among the most important recent contributions to our historical literature. The remainder of the introduction is yet unpublished, and will be devoted to the investigation of the civilization of Germany, America, Scotland, and Spain and the study of their differences. Its appearance is looked forward to with great interest. BUCKSTONE, John Baldwin, a comedian and prolific dramatic author, was born at Hoxton, Middlesex, 18th September, 1802. His connections were highly respectable, being descended from the Derbyshire Buckstones, members of which are now amongst the principal landed gentry of that county. When but a boy he was a great favourite BUL 72 BUN because of his quickness of repartee and aptitude for study. Educated at Wal- worth Grammar School, when but eleven years of age he was placed on board a man-of-war; but, after a cruise, his grandfather objected to the little fellow's going to sea, and had him brought home and sent back to school. His family then intended him for the law, but he did not follow that profession. He was a very discursive reader, though a quick learner; the stage had its attractions for him. He contracted his first engagement in the provinces. He then came to Lon- don and appeared at the Surrey Theatre, then at the Coburg, then at the Adelphi, then at the Haymarket, then at Drury Lane. In 1853 he became manager of the Haymarket, on the retirement of Mr. Benjamin Webster. In this theatre he, for several years, has accomplished the remarkable feat of keeping the house open every lawful night throughout the year, and always commanding full au- diences. As an author, Mr. Buckstone has produced more comedies, dramas, and farces than any man of the age, and all have been without exception success- ful. His style as a performer is removed from that of all others in the same line. It is quaint, easy, and highly comic. Being a great favourite with Her Majesty, he has on many occasions received the honour of appearing at court dramatic representations at Windsor Castle. Mr. Buckstone is treasurer and master of the Royal General Theatrical Fund; joint- treasurer of the Royal Dramatic College, and a member of the Dramatic Authors' Society and of the Garrick Club. BULWER, the Right Hon. Sir Henry Lytton, a diplomatist and au- thor, was born in 1804. He is the elder brother of the novelist, Bulwer Lytton. In 1830 he was sent on a special service to Brussels, and on his return became member for Wilton. He represented Coventry in 1831 and 1832, and Mary- lebone from 1834 to 1838. In 1837 he was Charge" d' Affaires at Brussels, and in 1837 Secretary of the Embassy at Constantinople, filling a similar post at Paris in 1839. At the Court of Madrid he was the British representative for several years, and, subsequently, pro- ceeded in the same capacity to Wash- ington. In 1848 he married the youngest daughter of Lord Cowley. From 1852 to 1855 he was Envoy Extraordinary to Tuscany. In 1856 he was appointed a Commissioner for the Danubian Principalities, and thereafter successor to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, as ambassador to Turkey, where he still remains. He is an author as well as a diplomatist, having published "An Au- tumn in Greece," "The Lords, the Gov- ernment, and the Country," "France, Social and Literary," and the "Mon- archy of the Middle Classes. " B U N S E N, Christian Charles Josaias, Chevalier von, a German scholar, philosopher, and statesman, was born at Korback, within the prin- cipality of Waldeck, but not far from the frontiers of Rhenish Prussia, on the 25th of August, 1791. In 1808 he became a student at Marburg ; whence, in 1809, he proceeded to Gbttingen. In 1811 he obtained a professorship, and not long afterwards published a work, entitled "De Jure Atheniensium Hae- reditario," which at once established his position as a scholar. He devoted his attention chiefly to philological and phi- losophical studies, although his works everywhere display an intimate ac- quaintance with the great results of the physical sciences, and more especially of those which have a bearing on philo- logical researches. To complete his studies he visited various parts of the Continent. His first journey was to Holland ; thence he repaired to Copen- hagen, where he studied the Norse language and literature under Mag- nussen. In 1816 he proceeded to Paris, and there he devoted his attention to BUN 7:5 BUN Arabic, Persian, and Sanscrit, under the great French Orientalists. From Paris he went to Rome. There he had the good fortune to secure the friendship and confidence of Niebuhr, whom he had some years before known at Berlin. This distinguished historian and critic at once appreciated the high abilities of Bunsen, and in 1818 secured for him the appointment of Secretary to the Prussian Legation, he himself being at that time Ambassador to the Papal See. In 1822 King Frederick William visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Bunsen, whose religious views were much akin to those entertained by the monarch, then intent upon the innovations after- wards introduced into the Prussian Church. After the departure of Nie- buhr, Bunsen was appointed Prussian Ambassador in his stead. During the whole period of his stay in Italy, Bunsen continued his laborious researches in philology, not confining himself to mere grammatical studies, but carrying his investigations into the history of the philosophical literature and political institutions of antiquity, ecclesiastical and liturgical history, archaeology, and every department of human knowledge which throws light upon the history of civilization. The visit of the younger (Jhampollion to Rome, in 1826, directed his attention to the new field of re- search opened by the clue discovered to the interpretation of the hierogly- phics. It was he who induced Lepsius to turn his attention to this subject. Bunsen took the deepest interest in the foundation, in 1829, of the Archaeological Institute of Rome, for which he erected a hall near his own house upon the Capitol. His duties as Minister and 56 d' Affaires at Rome threw upon him some very delicate negociations between the Pope and the Prussian Government, more especially those relat- ing to mixed marriages, or marriages between Catholics and Protestants; which, although arranged to the satis- faction of the Court of Rome, could not be settled to the contentment of the zealous Roman Catholics of Rhenish Prussia. After the disturbances on the Rhine, and the apprehension of the Bishop of Cologne, Chevalier Bunsen found his position at the Papal Court disagreeable, and was recalled at his own request. In 1839 he was ap- pointed Minister at Berne to the Swiss Republic, and in 1841 Ambassador to this country. In 1844, on the occasion of one of those frequent visits he made to Berlin, to give the Prussian Govern- ment the benefit of his advice, he is understood to have recommended to King Frederick William IV. a liberal policy, and an assimilation of the legis- lative system to that of England. He supported the German policy in Schles- wig-Holstein. On this question he published, in April, 1848, a work, ad- dressed to Lord Palmerston, entitled "A Memoir on the Constitutional Rights of the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol- stein." Having a strong bias in favour of constitutional government, he resigned his embassy in 1854, when he found that the Prussian Court had determined to lean towards Russia. His absence from this country, where he had been looked upon as an adopted citizen, was generally felt as a public loss. He now resides in the neighbourhood of Heidel- berg. In the midst of his labours as a statesman and diplomatist, Chevalier Bunsen has never discontinued his philological and philosophical researches, by which he is so well known in this country. In 1845 he published his "Church of the Future;" in 1847, " Ignatius of Antioch, and his Times ;" in 1848, "Egypt's Place in Universal History;" and in 1851, "Hippolytus and his Age;" followed, in 1854, by the "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, applied to Language and Religion." The last is perhaps BUN 74 BUR one of the most important books which our generation has produced, and may be said to stand towards philology and the cognate sciences in the relation which Humboldt's "Cosmos" bears to those departments of knowledge which have for their object the study of the material uni- verse. The work is written in an Eng- lish style, remarkable for elegance and brilliancy. BUN SEN, Robert William, a German chemist, was born at Gottingen, where his father was Professor of Litera- ture. He studied at the University of that city, evidencing a decided taste for experimental science, and completed his education at Paris. He afterwards suc- ceeded Wohler as Professor of Chemis- try at the Polytechnic Institute at Cassel. In 1841 he was titular professor at the University of Marburg, and subsequently director of the Chemical Institute. In 1851 he held an appointment at the Uni- versity of Breslau. Mr. Bunsen is chiefly known to scientific circles through his extensive researches in chemistry, but more especially by his invention of the carbon voltaic battery, which is now so extensively used by electricians. He has been a large contributor to the " Annales de Chimie," and has also pub- lished works which chiefly relate to his discoveries in inorganic chemistry. BUOL, Shauenstein Charles Fer- dinand, Count, a German statesman and diplomatist, and Austrian minister, was born at Hamburg on the 17th May, 1797. He is a son of the celebrated Count Buol, who as Plenipotentiary of Austria presided for many years over the Frankfort Diet. In 1816 he was at- tached to the Legation at Florence, and was sent as Secretary to the Embassy at Paris in 1822, and to London in the same capacity in 1824 He afterwards held various diplomatic appointments, and was Plenipotentiary at Turin when the Revolution of 1848 broke out. In 1848 he went as Ambassador to St. Peters- burg, returning in 1850 to Dresden, to act as second imperial Plenipotentiary in the settlement of the Holstein ques- tion. After acting for some time as Ambassador to England, he returned to Vienna to become Minister of Foreign Affairs in place of Prince Schwartzenberg, who had just died. He appeared with Baron Hiibner, at the Congress of Paris, as imperial Plenipotentiary, and signed the Treaty of 30th March, 1856. Count Buol has not confined his attention to mere matters of diplomacy, but has en- deavoured on all occasions to further the progress of internal improvements in Austria. The position of neutrality which Austria held during the war was in a great measure to be ascribed to his exertions ; he having sought throughout his whole career to emancipate Austria from Russian control. In 1859 he re- tired from office. BUREN, Van, Martin, ex-President of the United States of America, was born at Kinderhook, in the State of New York, 5th December, 1782. Although receiving a limited education when young, he turned his attention success- fully to politics and law, and was appointed Attorney -General of the State, and sent as a senator to the Legislative Assembly of New York in 1812. He was one of the most ardent supporters of the war against Britain. In 1817 he led the opposition against Clinton, elected Governor of New York, and was deprived of offices which he held ; but after a long struggle he was ap- pointed Senator of the United States' Congress, in which he served eight years. He was an active partizan of General Jackson's presidency, and on that gentle- man's election he was appointed Secre- tary of State of the United States, and nominated Ambassador to London, but the Senate afterwards refused to ratify the appointment. He gained popularity by that opposition, and was elected Vice- BUR 75 BUR President. When Gen. Jackson's term of office expired Van Buren was nominated as his natural successor ; and though he had to contend with Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and Harrison, he was elected, holding office till 1840, when his claims for re-election were rejected. BURGOYNE, Sir John Fox, an English general, was bom in Ireland in 1782. As one of the corps of Royal Engineers, he commenced his military career August, 1798, and served in Malta, Egypt, Sicily, and Sweden in the early part of the present century. In 1809 he joined the army under Sir Arthur Wel- lesley, and remained in Spain till the end of the Peninsular war in 1814. He con- ducted the sieges of Burgos and Saint Sebastian, and received the Gold Cross and one clasp for Badajos, Salamanca, Vittoria, San Sebastian, and Nive; and the silver medal and three clasps for Busaco, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Nivelle. After passing through the various inter- mediate military grades he attained the rank of Lieutenant-General in 1852, and was then created a Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1854 he was sent to Turkey, and as chief of the Engineer- ing Department of the British army took part in the events of the Crimea till his recall in 1855. He was present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann. For his services he was raised to the rank of General, and created a baronet. Sir John was thirteen years Chairman of Public Works in Ireland, and since 1845 has held the appointment of Inspector-General of Fortifications. BURMEISTER, Hermann, was born in 1807, in Stralsund, in Prussia, where Ins father was a Custom-house officer. He studied medicine for four years in the Universities of Greifswald and Halle. Professor Nitzch, with whom he was on terms of friendship, cultivated his taste for zoology and entomology. On the death of Nitzch, at Halle, in I 1842, Burmeister filled the zoological chair in his stead, and between then and 1848 produced several scientific works of high merit, which added to the fame he had previously acquired both as an author and an entomologist. In 1840, having been already well known for his liberalism, and his facility of expressing his political opinions, Burmeister was chosen representative for Halle to the National Assembly; but his health, broken down by incessant work, com- pelled him to seek a warmer climate, and he went to Brazil. On his return to Europe, after two years' absence, he resumed his functions in the University of Halle. He has published numerous scientific works, among which may be enumerated, "A Manual of Entomo- logy," and a work on the animals of Brazil. He also wrote two popular treatises, "The History of Creation," and "Sketches of Natural History," which have been very successful with the general public. BURNET, John, a painter, engraver, and art-critic, was born at Fisher-row, near Edinburgh, in 1784. Apprenticed to Robert Scott, the engraver, he studied assiduously, devoting his little leisure to the cultivation of drawing under John Graham, at the classes of the Scottish Academy. Here he was the fellow- pupil of Sir William Allan and Sir David Wilkie, his engravings from the works of the latter artist first directing attention to his abilities. Wilkie re- moved to London in 1804, and produced such a sensation by his picture of the "Village Politicians" that Mr. Burnet resolved also to attempt success in the English capital. He arrived in London in 1806, and called on Wilkie, who re- ceived him cordially, and assisted to obtain him employment in book engrav- ing; but aspiring to a higher walk in art, he requested liberty to engrave "The Jew's Harp." Wilkie granted permission, and in 1809 he published BUR 70 BUR the work, which was very meritorious. He afterwards, by his plate from "The Blind Fiddler," became established in public opinion as an artist of unsurpassed power. " Reading the Will," " Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette," "The Rabbit on the Wall," and other works, were successively engraved by him with equal firmness and delicacy. All these are now familiar to the world, and it has been asserted that Wilkie's present fame rests nearly as much on the hand of Burnet as on his own productions. He has engraved his own pictures, as, for example, "The Greenwich Pension- ers." He has also engraved several of Rembrandt's and Raphael's pictures, and has published some works, the value of which to the art-student can scarcely be over -rated; among these are, "Practical Hints on Painting," published in 1812; " Landscape Painting in Oil;" and "Hints on Portrait Paint- ing." These and other writings of a similar class are illustrated by himself. BURRITT, Elihu, known as the "learned blacksmith," was born in Con- necticut in 1811. His early education was by no means extensive, but by per- severance and industry he acquired a knowledge of many languages and dia- lects, and he is a proficient in mathema- tics. Mr. Burritt has made himself well known in this country and in France by his untiring exertions to form and con- solidate the league of Universal Brother- hood. He is also a strenuous advocate for the ocean penny postage. In the prosecution of these philanthropic ob- jects, Mr. Burritt has had a principal share in convening congresses of repre- sentatives of peace societies in London, Brussels, Paris, and Frankfort. He was the first to put forth the idea of an elec- tric telegraph around the globe vid Beh- ring's Straits, connecting St. Petersburg and San Francisco. He is now engaged in urging upon the people of the United States the peaceful extinction of slavery by compensating the Southern States out of the national treasury for the emancipation of their slaves. "The Bond of Brotherhood," a monthly organ for the promulgation of peace principles, is understood to be chiefly the production of the ' ' learned blacksmith. " ' Sparks from the Anvil," "A Voice from the Forge," and "Peace Papers for the People," are his chief independent con- tributions to literature. BURTON, John Hill, an author and historian, was born 22nd of August, 1809, at Aberdeen. His father was an officer in the 94th Regiment, who dying, left his family but slenderly provided for. Mr. Burton, after studying at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1831 was called to the Edinburgh bar. At first he had to contend with the vicissi- tudes attached to the career of a young advocate without independent means, but he struggled through with a manly spirit, writing for the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews, when briefs were scanty. As an author he is sound and practical, and every work he has written bears evidence of the care and research bestowed on its preparation. His " Life and Correspondence of David Hume," "Lives of Simon Lord Lovat, and Duncan Forbes, of Culloden," and the "Narratives from Criminal Trials in Scotland," are all excellent. "The Scot Abroad," a very interesting series of papers, which appeared in "Black- wood's Magazine" some short time ago, is the production of Mr. Burton. His " Manual of the Law of Scotland," and "Treatise on the Law of Bankruptcy," are clear and well digested. He wrote the articles "Parliament" and "Prison Discipline" for the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," and a great part of the articles on law subjects for the " Penny Cyclopaedia. " His chief work, however, is "The History of Scotland, from the Revolution of 1088 to the Extinction of the Jacobite Insurrection of 1745." He BUS 77 CAB has held since 1854 the office of Secre- tary to the General Prison Board of Scotland. BUSTAMENTE, Don Carlos Maria de, a Mexican archaeologist, was born in Mexico about the close of the last cen- tury. He has devoted himself chiefly to the study of the antiquities of Mexico. His first production was a "Topograph- ical Memoir of the Country of Ouxuca" (1821), which was followed by a disser- tation ' ' On the Republic of Tluxucola. " His writings, though not very numerous, have appeared at intervals from this period to 1842. They are distinguished for original information and accuracy. BUTT, George Medd, Q.C., an Eng- lish statesman and lawyer, was born in 1797. He is the son of the late Mr. John Butt, of Sherborne. In early life he practised for some years as a special pleader, and in 1839, being then in his thirty-third year, he was called to the bar by the Hon. Society of the Inner Temple, and went on the Western Cir- cuit, where he soon rose into reputation, and acquired an extensive practice. In 1845, during the Chancellorship of Lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Butt was made a Queen's Counsel, and shortly afterwards was elected a Bencher of the Inner Temple. At the general election in July, 1847, Mr. Butt offered his services to the electors of Weymouth, but was defeated, losing his election, however, by only three votes. In July, 1852, he again stood for Weymouth, and this time with more success, as he was returned at the head of the poll, the other candidates being Colonel W. L. Freestun and Mr. Oswald. Mr. Butt was a professed adherent of the Conservative party, but differed from that body in many impor- tant political points. CABALLERO, Firmin Agosto, a Spanish journalist and statesman, was born in 1800 at Barajas de Melo. Hav- ing received a good education, he turned bin attention to the study of geography, and in a series of essays exposed the shortcomings of Minano's " Dictionary," which brought him at once into notice. In 1833 Caballero established the " Boletin de Comercio," and on its suppression he published the " Eco del Comercio," a paper which, mainly from the vigour of its original writing, speedily rose in popular favour. In 1843 Caballero became a member of the Cabinet, but did not long continue in office. His published works are mostly on geography, and one of the best of these is his "Manual Geographico Ad- ministrative de la Monarquia Espanola." CABET, Etienne, leader of the French Communists or Icariens, was born at Dijon on the 2nd of January, 1788. After completing his education he entered the bar as an advocate, and brought himself into public notice by his spirited defence of some conspirators in 1816. He then proceeded to Paris, but, owing to the violence of his political opinions, was prosecuted, and at length took refuge in England, where he re- mained for some years. On his return to France in 1839 he published a history of the Revolution of 1789, and became the advocate of Socialist opinions. In 1842 he brought out his "Voyage en Icarie," in which he sets forth the bless- ings of an imaginary State where all things were held in common for the public good, and whose government should simply exercise a paternal control over the masses. To put these ideas into practice he procured a grant of a tract of country in Texas, and a portion of his followers set out from France to found a social republic in the New World. Subsequently Cabet followed his disciples. In his journey through the United States he heard of the expul- sion of the Mormons from Nauvoo, and in May, 1850, Cabet with his followers took possession of that city. He even- tually returned to Paris, and pleaded his I own cause against a sentence of imprison- CAB 78 CAI ment which had been passed against him. Besides the numerous statements he published for his defence, M. Cabet produced a declaration in his favour which had been given him at Nauvoo, entirely absolving him from many of the charges which had been brought against him. He fearlessly pleaded his own cause, and eventually gained an acquit- tal. After the coup oVStat he found that all hopes of political advancement were lost, and he accordingly determined to return to Nauvoo. He eventually had to take severe steps with his followers, and becoming unpopular thereby, he fled to Saint Louis in Missouri. CABRERA, Don Ramon, Count of Morella, a Carlist general, was born at Tortosa, in Catalonia, in August, 1810. His early life was spent in a very irregular manner, but taking advantage of an insurrection in 1833, he joined Don Carlos, under whom he soon dis- tinguished himself by the boldness and ferocity of his disposition. The Carlists believed themselves, for a short time, masters of Spain, and Cabrera prepared to remove Isabella from the throne by a decisive stroke ; but the defection of Maroto changed the face of affairs ; and the Carlists, from being victors, were compel led to act on the defensive. On the fall of Don Carlos, being more attached to the cause than to the person of the Pretender, Cabrera made war on his own account, and established himself in a strong position amid the mountains of Catalonia and Arragon; but in 1840, his forces having been totally routed by Espartero, he was compelled to flee to France, where, not being looked upon in the light of a political refugee, he was confined in the fortress of Ham, whence he went to London in 1846. In 1848 he endeavoured to rekindle the civil war, and proceeded to Spain, where, however, he was defeated. On returning to England he gave up his warlike propensities, and married an English lady, with whom he afterwards went to Italy; but, having interfered in Italian affairs, he was expelled from Naples, and has since retired from public life. CAILLIAUD, Frederic, a French traveller, was born at Nantes, on the 17th of March, 1787. Having completed his education at Paris, he travelled through the southern parts of Europe, and in 1815 proceeded from Constantin- ople to Egypt, remaining a number of years in the East, and rendering by his investigations, considerable service to its history. On his return to France in Feb - ruary, 1819, he brought with him a valu- able collection of minerals and antiqui- ties, and plans and copies of inscriptions, which were purchased of him by the French Minister of the Interior. He is the author of various works, the chief of which are, "Travels to Meroe, to the White Nile, beyond Fazoyl, to the south of Sennaar, to Syonah, and to five other Oases, between 1819 and 1822;" and "Researches in the Arts and Trades, the Usages of Civil and Domestic Life among the Ancient Races of Nubia and Ethiopia," followed by " Details on the Manners and Customs of the Modern Inhabitants of the same Countries." CAIRD, James, M.P., an eminent agricultural writer, was born at Stran- raer, in Wigtonshire, in 1816, and re- ceived his education at Edinburgh. Mr. Caird, who is a proprietor in Wigton- shire, originally devoted himself to the practical pursuits of agriculture; and was first brought into public notice by contributing letters on the agriculture of England to the " Times," and by the publication of various works on farming. In 1853 he stood for the Wigton Burghs, and lost his seat by a majority of one vote against him ; but at the general election of 1857 he stood for Dartmouth, was returned, and immediately became an authority in the House of Commons. He has lately travelled over a consider- able portion of the United States and CAI Canada, noting carefully as he went, the modes of cultivation followed in the New World, and on his return pub- lishing a little volume on "Prairie Farming." On agricultural questions his observations are always shrewd, in- telligent, and practical. In 1859 Mr. Caird stood for the Stirling and Dun- fermline Burghs in the Liberal interest, and was returned unopposed. His best known works are his " English Agricul- ture," a fifth edition of which was pub- lished in 1852 ; his " Plantation Scheme " (1850), of which several editions have been published; his "High Farming under Liberal Covenants the best Sub- stitute for Protection ; " and his "High Fanning Vindicated." CAIRD, Rev. John, D. D. , a popular preacher of the Church of Scotland, was born at Greenock in 1823. After com- pleting his studies at the University of >w he was appointed minister of New ton -on- Ayr, and subsequently offi- ciated in Lady Tester's church in Edin- burgh. In 1850 he removed to Errol, and in 1858 from this country parish to Glasgow, where a magnificent church en erected for him. Mr. Caird's pulpit appearances are marked by sim- plicity, earnestness, and fervour. A discourse preached before the Queen, in the parish church of Crathie, published by request of her Majesty, has attained an unprecedented popularity, and a collected volume of his sermons has recently won almost equal admiration. CAIRNS, Sir Hugh M'Calmont, ex-Solicitor-General for England, second son of the late William Cairns, Esq. of Calton, was born in 1819, near Belfast, in the county Down. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was first-class in classics, and obtained other honours. He was called to the bar in 1844, and rose to considerable practice in the Court of Chancery, where he was soon considered a leading man. He was elected member for Belfast in 9 CAM 1852 by one of the largest majorities ever known in that borough; in 1856 he was made Queen's Counsel; and in 1858, under Lord Derby, Solicitor-Gen- eral, with the honour of knighthood. He is considered one of the most effective orators on the Conservative benches, where he still represents his first consti- tuency. His speech on the Paper Du- ties, and the Interpretation of the Com- mercial Treaty with France, delivered in the House of Commons in August, 1860, displays all the best characteristics of his eloquence. CAMBRIDGE, H. R. H. George William Frederick Charles, Duke of, is the son of Adolphus Frederick, first Duke, and is grandson of George III., and cousin to her Majesty. His Royal Highness was born at Hanover, on 29th March, 1819, and on the death of his father in 1850, succeeded to the dukedom. In 1837 he became Colonel in the army; in 1845, Major-General ; in 1854, Lieutenant -General. He was appointed to command the Highlanders and Guards, which formed the first divi- sion of the army sent to the Crimea to support the interests of Turkey. At the battle of the Alma his Royal Highness displayed both ability and valour as a commander, leading his troops into ac- tion in a manner that gained the confi- dence of the men and the esteem of the officers. At Inkermann he had a horse shot under him, and displayed the same vigour and courage. On the retirement of Lord Hardinge, the Duke was ap- pointed Commander-in-Chief of the Bri- tish army, with whom he is as great a favourite as was his uncle the Duke of York. During his administration of this office he has introduced many valu- able reforms, and has proved himself an untiring friend of the common soldier. CAMPBELL, John, Lord, Lord Chancellor of England, was born at Springfield, near Cupar, Fife, in 1779; his father being the parish minister. CAM so CAM He studied at the University of St. An- drews. On entering the legal profession he went to London, and kept his terms at Lincoln's Inn. Called to the bar in 1806, he became King's Counsel in 1827. In 1830 he entered the House of Com- mons for the borough of Stafford, as an ardent reformer. In 1832 he became Solicitor-General; in 1834 Attorney- General and member for Edinburgh, and in 1841 he was appointed Lord Chancellor of Ireland. The fall of the Melbourne Cabinet in that year left him at more leisure to prosecute literary pursuits, and he presented the world with the "Lives of the Lord Chancel- lors and Keepers of the Great Seal from the earliest Times to the Reign of George IV.," and the "Lives of the Chief Justices of England, from the Norman Conquest to the death of Lord Mansfield." When Lord John Russell came into office, Lord Campbell was appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1850 became Lord Chief Justice of England, in which capacity he has presided at some very remarkable trials, displaying unabated vigour, power of attention, and sagacity. He remained Lord Chief Justice until the fall of the Derby Government in 1859, when Lord Palmerston removed him from the Queen's Bench to the Woolsack. He is now Lord Chancellor, and discharges the functions of his office with an ability scarcely to have been expected in a judge much more accustomed to common law than to equity procedure. As a constitutional lawyer Lord Campbell has no superior, and very few equals ; as a judge his de- cisions have invariably been character- ised by sound legal knowledge and acute discrimination. He married, in 1821, a daughter of Lord Abinger, who was created a peeress in her own right, with the title of Baroness Stratheden, and has seven children, of whom the eldest, William Frederick, born in 1824, was for some time M. P. for Harwich, but since his mother's death, in 1860, has taken his seat in the House of Lords as Lord Stratheden. Lord Campbell's speeches at the bar and in the House of Commons were published in 1842. CAMPBELL, Rev. John, D.D., a divine and journalist, was born in For- farshire at the close of the last century. Between the years 1819 and 1823 he passed through a regular course of literary education at the Universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow, after which he studied theology in the Hall of the Independent denomination in Glasgow, under the presidency of the late Dr. Ralph Wardlaw and the Rev. Greville Ewing. He became pastor of the Inde- pendent church in Kilmarnock in 1827; and from the notice he soon attracted as a preacher, he was, in 1828, invited to the pastorate of the church assem- bling in the Tabernacle, Moorfields, London, erected by the celebrated Whit- field, one of the largest congregations in the metropolis. Here Dr. Campbell laboured with undiminished popularity for upwards of twenty years, till his health failed. Under these circum- stances he was led to comply with the invitations of a body of Christian gen- tlemen to commence a popular religious newspaper, "The British Banner," which met with unexampled success. This journal he conu acted for nine years, when he relinquished it, and on his own account established the "British Standard," to which two years after- wards he added the "British Ensign." In 1844, by the public vote of the As- sembly of the Congregational Union of England and Wales, he was invited to undertake the editorship of a popular religious magazine, the " Christian Witness," which realized a monthly cir- culation of 30,000 copies. To this, two years afterwards, he added the " Chris- tian Penny Magazine," which obtained a monthly issue of 100,000 copies. Dr. CAN 81 Campbell is a voluminous author. Among his larger works may be men- tioned his "Maritime Discovery and Christian Missions;" "Jethro," a hun- dred-guinea prize essay; the "Martyr of P^rromanga;" the " Life of Nasmith, the Founder of City Missions ; " " Popery and Puseyism;" and "John Angell James: a Review of his Character, Eloquence, and Writings." Dr. Camp- bell has entered largely into the eccle- siastical controversies of the day. In 1839 he issued a volume of Letters, re- printed from the "Patriot" newspaper, against the Bible printing monopoly, which contributed to a great reduction in the price of Bibles, and to greater accuracy in the correction of subsequent editions. CANDLISH, the Rev. Robert, D.D., a Scottish clergyman, and leader of the Free Church. Dr. Candlish is distin- guished by great subtlety and acuteness as a debater, and as an ecclesiastical leader has attained a distinguished posi- tion in Scotland. Excessive devotion to Free Church interests has left him little leisure to achieve that excellence as an author which his undoubted native powers might warrant us to anticipate. His works on "Genesis," on "Scrip- lore Characters," on the "Atonement," on the "Resurrection," and on "Mau- rice's Theological Essays," all display great acuteness, although perhaps some- times wanting in that fulness of informa- tion and carefulness of finish which greater leisure would bestow. CAN.X I X< ;,( iiarles John, Viscount, Governor- General of India, was born in 1812, at Gloucester Lodge, Brompton. He is the son of the late Right Hon. George Canning, by a daughter of Major- General Scott of Balcomie, Fifeshire. He was educated at Christ Church, Ox- ford. In 1835 he married a daughter of Lord Stuart de Rothesay, a lady who, as Maid of Honour to Queen Adelaide, was in high favour at Court. In 1836 CAN he was returned to the House of Com- mons as member for Warwickshire ; but on his mother's death, in 1837, he suc- ceeded to the title of Viscount, and took his seat in the House of Lords, where he acquired a reputation for good sense and intelligence as a speaker. For some time his political opinions were unde- cided, but eventually he adhered to the Conservative party. In 1841 he took office under Sir Robert Peel as Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Af- fairs, a post which he held until about the beginning of 1846, when a few months previous to the resignation of Sir Robert Peel he became Chief Com- missioner of Woods and Forests. In 1853 he accepted office in the adminis- tration of Lord Aberdeen, and as Post- master-General introduced great im- provements into that institution, retain- ing the office under the ministry of Lord Palmerston. In 1855, on the resignation of the Marquis of Dalhousie, Lord Can- ning became Governor -General of India, a position which he has since held, through good and bad report, during a period the most critical in the history of our Indian empire. It is probable, that after the mists of prejudice have cleared away, and the heats of passion, together with the prepossessions of party, have subsided, it will be acknowledged by all parties that India never had a fairer or more honourable British chief. The severest trial Lord Canning had to undergo in his Indian government was when Lord Derby's Ministry was formed in 1858. Lord Ellenborough was ap- pointed President of the Board of Con- trol, and in that capacity forwarded a despatch to the Governor -General which conveyed heavy censure in not the most moderate language. Lord Canning's vindication of himself was triumphant, and Lord Ellenborough was obliged, by the voice of the country, and the demon- strations of Parliamentary hostility, to resign his seat in the ministry. G CAN 82 CAN CANROBERT, Francois Certain, a French commander, was born in 1809. After receiving his military education at the school of St. Cyr, he in 1828 joined the army as a sub-lieu- tenant in the 47th Regiment of the Line ; and in 1835, having been previously made lieutenant, he went to Africa. Having distinguished himself in 1842, he was made a chief of battalion, in 1846 lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847, colonel. In 1848 he was entrusted with the com- mand of an expedition against the Arabs, in which he acquitted himself with great success and bravery. He then took command of the Zouaves, and marching against the Kabyles, was again victorious. Promoted to be gen- eral of brigade, in 1850 he led an ex- pedition against Narah, one of the most powerful strongholds of the Arabs ; but such was the ability of his attack, that after a few hours' determined fighting, the place was reduced. In 1852 Louis Napo- leon made him one of his aides-de-camp, and in 1853 general of division. On the death of St. Arnaud he succeeded to the command of the French army in the Crimea, but, probably owing to the difficulties of his position, did not much distinguish himself in that capacity. It has been suggested that he permitted Napoleon, whose nominee he was, to dictate from Paris the tactics of the army, a procedure which Pelissier on his appointment at once repudiated. How- ever, on his return from the East, the Emperor treated him with marked dis- tinction, created him a Marshal of France, and despatched him on diplo- matic service to the courts of Denmark and Sweden. In 1855 he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. CANTERBURY, John Bird Sum- ner, D.D., Archbishop of, was born in 1780, at Kenilworth, in Warwickshire, of which his father was vicar. He was educated at Eton and King's College, gaining honours as Browne's Medallist, and Hulse's Prizeman. After publish- ing, in 1815, his principal work, entitled "Apostolical Preaching," he wrote his "Records of Creation," which gained the second Burnett. Prize of 400 in the following year. In 1820 Dr. Sum- ner was a canon of Durham; in 1828 he was consecrated Bishop of Chester; and in 1848 translated to the Arch- bishopric of Canterbury. His patron- age as Primate is large, and it is ad- ministered with discrimination, the in- tercourse of the Primate with subordi- nates being marked by uniform urbanity. He has been called on, by innovations introduced into the services of the Church of England, to express his de- cided hostility thereto, but he has always exhibited a conciliatory feeling, even in the rebukes he has aclministered. The Archbishop, who is a liberal in politics, is regarded as the head of the Low-Church party in the Church of England. Besides the works above mentioned, Dr. Sumner has published many others on theological subjects, together with several volumes of sermons. CANTU, Cesar, an Italian historian, was born at Brescia in 1805. He was educated at Sondio, in the Valtelline, where, at eighteen years of age, he was appointed Professor of Literature in the college of that city. He afterwards resided at Como, Milan, and Piedmont. Owing to the exprc3sion of his political views in his "Reflections on the History of Lombardy in the 17th Century," Cantu was condemned to a year's im- prisonment at the instance of the Aus- trian Government. Cantu's chief work is his "Storia Universale," a produc- tion which is considered as one of the most valuable contributions to the literature of Italy. His "Reformation in Europe" has been translated into English by F. Prandi. Besides the works alluded to, M. Cantu has produced many others, chiefly relating to historical subjects. CAP 83 CAR CAPEFIGUE. Jean Baptiste Ho- [ NORE RAYMOND, a French historian and \ periodical writer, was born at Marseilles in 180*2. He received his early educa- tion in his native place, afterwards be- gan the study of the law, and to complete his legal training went to Paris in 1821. In Paris he became connected with po- litical affairs as editor of the " Quoti- dienne," and afterwards wrote articles for many of the Parisian journals. He was engaged preparing, in the mean- time, his "Operations of the French Army in Spain." He obtained a post in the Foreign Office, which, however, he resigned in 1848, and subsequently devoted himself to historical studies, availing himself of the varied informa- tion which his official position placed at his disposal. The revolution, how- j ever, closed against him the archives of foreign affairs. He was one of the first who opposed the Republic in the Na- tional Assembly, and for two years liis letters, dated from London, Vienna, and Berlin, guided the policy of the counter revolution. Among his principal works are the " Essai sur les Invasions," "Histoire de Philippe Auguste," the "Histoire de la Reforme, de la Ligue, et du Regno de Henri Quatre," "Riche- lieu, Mazarin, et la Fronde," "Louis XIV.," " L' Europe pendant le Consulat et PEmpire de Napoleon," "L'Europe depuis l'avenement de Louis Philippe," his latest work of note being "Avant 1780, Tloyautg, Droit, Liberty." CARDIGAN, James Thomas Bru- DENELL, Earl of, was born in 1797. His father was sixth Earl of Cardigan. He entered the army on 8th May, 1824, and in December, 1830, attained the rank (if lieutenant-colonel. Under the title of Lord Brudcnell he sat in Parlia- ment for Marlborough and Northamp- ton. In 1837 he was called to the House of Lords, on the death of his father. The 'n-eat fortune to which he became heir he employed in improving the con- dition of his regiment. He acquired a good deal of notoriety in connexion with the "black bottle" and other mess squabbles, terminating in a duel with Captain Tuckett, and his celebrated trial before the House of Lords, which broke down chiefly on technical grounds. After this period Lord Cardigan devoted himself to his military duties, and ac- quired great commendation for his ser- vices in this respect from the highest authorities in the army. In 1854 he was appointed Major-Ceneral, and took the command of the Light Cavalry in the Crimean War. His heroic charge at the battle of Balaklava will long be re- membered as one of the most memorable incidents in the campaign. It invested his lordship for a time with well -merited popularity, which, however, was some- what diminished, owing to the charges, well or ill-founded, brought against him by the Crimean Commissioners, although these in no respect affect his character as a gallant officer. In 1855 he was ap- pointed Commander of the Bath, and in 1856 Commander of the Legion of Honour. CARDWELL, Right Hon. Edward, a politician and member of Parliament, was born at Liverpool in 1813, and is the son of a merchant of that town. He studied at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1838. Afterwards he entered on a political career, and was returned as member of Parliament for Clitheroe in 1842. He sat for Liverpool from 1847 till 1852, when he was defeated at the general election; and for Oxford from 1853 to 1857, when he was again de- feated but afterwards returned, on adopt- ing the views of the Peelite party. He was Secretary of the Treasury from February, 1845, to July, 1846, and Presi- dent of the Board of Trade, under Lord John Russell, from 1852 to 1855, and is now Chief Secretary for Ireland. Since 1852 he has been a member of the Privy Council. CAR 84 OAR CAREY, Henry C, an American political economist, was born in Phila- delphia, the 15th December, 1793, where his father, Matthew Carey, a distin- guished writer, had established a large publishing business. In 1821 Mr. Carey succeeded his father, and three years afterwards established the system of periodical trade-sales which are now the ordinary channels of exchange be- tween American booksellers. He pub- lished an "Essay on the Rate of Wages, with an Examination of the Causes of the Difference in the Condition of the Labouring Population throughout the World," in 1835; and a work on the "Credit System of France, England, and the United States," in 1838. These treatises were reproduced and expanded into his "Principles of Political Econo- my" (1837-40). He has since published "Past, Present, and Future" (1848); "The Harmony of Interest, Agricul- tufal, Manufacturing, and Commercial" (1850); and "The Slave Trade, Do- mestic and Foreign : why it exists, and how it may be extinguished" (1853). In 1858-9 he gave to the world the digested and methodized results of his studies and discoveries, under the title of "Principles of Social Science," in 3 vols., 8vo. His separate publications extend in the aggregate to something like four thousand pages, and his con- tributions to newspapers and periodicals to as many more. He has written various pamphlets, among which are " Answers to the Questions, What con- stitutes Currency? What are the Causes of its Unsteadiness? and What is the Remedy?" (1840); "Letters on Inter- national Copyright" (1853); "Letters to the President of the United States" (1858). In his essay upon the " Rate of Wages," Mr. Carey took his first step in opposition to the Ricardo-Malthusian system, affirming that profits and wages do not vary inversely, but that high wages are the index of prosperity to both capitalist and labourer. In the "Principles of Political Economy" he advanced to the position now universally known as his theory of labour-value, and generally accepted by economists as an exposition of rent and value, which places in the clearest light the errors of Ricardo and his school. In " The Past, Present, and Future," Mr. Carey over- turned the assumptions of preceding economists in respect to the law which rules the occupation of the earth, and its capacity to support its ever-growing population. In his latest work, "The Principles of Social Science," all the doctrines of his completed system are arrayed in the form of a "Vindication of the provisions of Providence for man, in all his terrestrial surroundings." The author denies the alleged antagon- ism between Nature and human labour and capital, population, and subsistence. His principal works have been translated into Italian and Swedish ; and within the current year his last and largest work will be published in French and German. CARLEN, Madame Emilie, or Smith, a Swedish novelist, was born at Stock- holm in 1810. She is the wife of Mr. J. G. Carlen, a lawyer in Stockholm, who has acquired a reputation in Sweden by the publication of a hand-book of Swedish Jurisprudence, and various poems and tales. Mrs. Carlen has written a great number of works, among which may be enumerated: "Walde- mar Klein" (1838); "The Representa- tive" (1839); "Gustavus Lindorm" (1839); "The Foster Brothers" (1840); " The Church of Hammarby" (1840-41) ; "The Postboy" (1841); "The Rose of Tistelcen," and "Paul Vrerning" (1844); "The Hermit of John's Rock," and "One Year of Married Life" (1846); 1 * A Night on Lake Pullar" (1847) ; " The Maiden's Tower" (1848); and "The Heroine of the Novel" (1849); "A Name," "The Tutor," "In Six Months," CAR 85 CAR and numerous other romances. Madame Carlen is, after Miss Bremer, the most popular novelist of Sweden. She pos- sesses remarkable fertility of invention, and great powers of description. She is a keen observer, and in her best works the interest is well sustained. Many of her works have been translated into English. CARLETON, William, a writer of fiction, was born at Clogher, Tyrone, in 1796. The son of a respectable and wealthy farmer, he was anxious to obtain a classical education ; and as there was no proper school within twenty miles, he urged his friends to send him to Munster. This they did with a purse of twenty pounds in his pocket ; but he never went farther than the town of Granard, from whence, overcome by his affection for his mother, he returned home the next day. Mr. Carleton's pas- sion for adventure was produced by his perusal of Gil Bias, whereby he was tempted to seek the Irish metropolis, Which he entered with only two and ninepence in his pocket, to begin a hard Life, such as Savage and Chatterton had known in London. In Dublin he pro- duced his first two volumes of the ' ' Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry. " Al- though published anonymously, they at once met with public favour, because of their pathos, humour, and truth. Thenceforward 1830 he lived by his writings, and could afford to publish them in small portions, and to bestow great pains on their preparation. Some of his works have been objected to, in consequence of their political bias ; but his characters are always sharply defined, and his incidents have an amount of local colouring which never fails to give them a great charm. His Traits and Stories were translated into German so far back 25, and several of his subsequent productions into French and Italian. Mr. Carleton has been a voluminous writer, having published about forty - | five volumes. Although in his sixty- fifth year, he is still fresh and vigorous, and will, doubtless, for years to come, be able to give to the public many other such works as those which have gained him such a high and universal popularity, and caused his fellow-countrymen to bestow upon him the honourable title of the "Father of Irish Literature." His latest production is "The Evil Eye; or, the Black Spectre." CARLISLE, George William Fred- j erick Howard, Earl of, K.G., long | well known as Lord Morpeth, was born in April, 1802. As Viscount Morpeth he pursued his studies with great suc- cess at Oxford, and entered public life as Member for the Borough of Morpeth. In 1841, after being elected for York- shire, he became Chief Secretary for Ireland. Party feeling at that period ran immoderately high in the sister island, and Lord Morpeth was as much esteemed by one section of the people as he was condemned by another. He was, on the whole, a favourite of Mr. O'Connell, a fact indicative of his poli- tical bias. On the dissolution of Parlia- ment which preceded the retirement of Lord Melbourne's administration in 1841, he stood again for the West Riding of Yorkshire, and was defeated. After- wards he visited the United States, where unusual honours awaited him. On his return he was appointed Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and subsequently Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. As Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland under Lord Palmerston's ad- ministration, he was extremely popular. He was appointed to that high post in 1855, but when the ministry gave way he was removed, the Earl of Eglinton being his successor. In 1859 Lord Eglinton was recalled, and Lord Carlisle was once more placed at the head of the Irish Government, where he still con- tinues. It may not be uninteresting to state that Lord Carlisle is as amiable CAR SO CAR and benevolent in private life as in public affairs lie is just and impartial. The Earl has acquired a reputation altogether distinct from his political career as a public lecturer ; his discourses, delivered at Mechanics' Institutes, on America, and the "Life and Writings of Pope," having merits of a high order as literary pro- ductions, and claims to notice altogether independent of the fact of their having been read by a lord to mechanics. Lord Carlisle is the author of "A Diary in Greek and Turkish Waters." CARLYLE, Thomas, an essayist and historian, was born on 5th December, 1795, at Ecclefechan, in Dumfriesshire. Educated at Annan, at the age of four- teen he removed to the University of Edinburgh, where he devoted himself chiefly to the study of mathematics and natural philosophy under Leslie and Playfair. His private studies were, however, at this period of more impor- tance in his future career than the tasks of the classes. In the College library he read works in every department of literature, while he assiduously studied the modern languages of Europe, and especially German, which was then little cultivated in Scotland. He remained at the University for about seven years, with the view of entering the Church ; but he changed his intention, and in 1820 became a teacher of mathematics at Kirkcaldy, in Fifeshire, where Edward Irving, who had been for some years his intimate friend, had settled in a similar capacity. After remaining two years in this situation, he resolved to enter on a new field of activity. He held the doc- trine that the Press was the only true priesthood and governing power of the world, that literature was the best church, and that writers are the best preachers of modern times for all kinds of people and in all places. He steadily adhered to this principle on removing to Edinburgh, in 1822, where he enthusias- tically devoted himself to authorship ; his first work being a translation of " Legendre's Geometry," to which he prefixed an ' ' Essay on Proportion. " In 1 1825 he published a translation of Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister," a work which directed his mind into a new current of thought. Once among the Germans, he went boldly to work on a " Life of Schiller," which was published from month to month in the "London Magazine. " In 1825 Mr. Carlyle married Miss Veitch, a lady of cultivated tastes and much literary ability, and he shortly afterwards proceeded to Craigenputtock, a small farm in the moors of Dumfries- shire, where he kept up a correspondence with Goethe, and prosecuted the study of German literature. Here he wrote various articles for the Edinburgh Ency- clopaedia" and the "Edinburgh Review," to the former contributing the Lives of Montesquieu, Montaigne, Xelson, and the two Pitts, and to the latter his remark- able Essays on "Jean Paul," "German Literature, " and ' ' Burns. " While living at this place he also wrote " Sartor Re- sartus," a history of the life and opi- nions of Herr Teufelsdrockh, an imagi- nary German professor, in which he set forth a whole philosophy of life and society. The mixture of subtle specula- tion, true poetry, and grotesque humour which characterised this work had their effect heightened by the use of a novel and peculiar phraseology, to some extent the imitation of a German literary .- but to a greater extent still the product of Mr. Carlyle's invention. It enabled him to compress within a small compass a great variety of ideas, which could not have been expressed within the same space under the ordinary forms of pure, precise, and measured English prose ; and it seems to have been found so service- able and effective in this respect that it has been adhered to by the author in all his subsequent writings. In 1834 Mr. Carlyle removed to London, and has since resided in a house at Chelsea, ex- CAR ST CAR ercising a strong personal influence on the most eminent literary men of the metropolis. During the first year of his residence in London "Sartor Resartus" was published in a separate form. It was not till 1837 that he published the " French Revolution," which placed him in the first rank of living writers. This work produced a profound impression on the public mind, abounding as it did in vividly graphic and picturesque de- scription, and intensity of feeling. " Chartism" appeared in 1839. In 1840 Mr. Carlyle delivered a series of lectures on "Heroes and Hero Worship," which were published in 1841. "Past and Present" appeared in 1843, and in 1850 the "Latter Day Pamphlets," in which the author declaims vigorously against the revolutionary events of 1848: his "Life of John Sterling" (1851); and the "Letters and Speeches of Oliver Crom- well" (1847). The latter holds a high place as shedding new light on a character of the highest mark in British history. His latest work, "The Life of Frederick the Great, " partakes at once of his failings and his genius, but is still as interesting as, and more instructive than, a romance. Few authors have been better abused, and more admiringly upheld, than Carlyle, but his influence over contem- porary literature continues powerful. A uniform and handsome edition of his works, comprising sixteen volumes, has lately been published. CARNOT, Lazare Hippolite, a French political writer and Minister of Public Instruction under the Republic of 1848, was born at St. Omer in 1801. He is a son of the celebrated republican general; and was originally intended for the Polytechnic School, but the events of 1815 compelled his family to seek an asylum in Germany, where he continued his studies, devoting his atten- tion specially to philosophy and political economy. On his return to France he became a zealous adherent of the St. i Simonians, in the spirit of whose doc- trines he conducted the "Revue Ency- clopedique." On this becoming a reli- gious sect, however, he withdrew from the body. As President of the Central Committee for the Paris Elections of 1839 he was chosen a deputy for the metropolis, and again in 1842 and 1846. He sat for nine years on the benches of the Opposition, taking an active part in the debates on foreign affairs, the refor- mation of prisons, colonial slavery, and juvenile labour in factories. Appointed Minister of Public Instruction after the Revolution of February, he exerted him- self successfully in improving the condi- tion of schoolmasters; proposed a law making elementary instruction gratui- tous and obligatory on all ; opened classes for the working people, evening lectures for those engaged during the day, houses of refuge, and a great school for admin- istrative instruction, which was subse- quently suppressed by M. de Falloux, one of Louis Napoleon's Ministers. He defended the Republic to the last, and when it was overthrown he left France of his own accord. However, the elec- tors of the capital remained faithful to him, and re-elected him as a member of the legislative body. He returned, but refused to accept of the distinction con- ferred upon him, and, instead, explained in a published letter his reasons for declining to take an oath of allegiance to the Napoleonic Empire. In 1856 M. Carnot was elected for the seventh time, but he still persisted in his refusal, and has lived since in retirement at Paris, engaged in studious pursuits. He has written several books on politics, modern history, and German literature, and he is now on the eve of publishing "Memoirs of his Father's Life," which is certain to prove an important and attractive book. CARPENTER, William Benjamin, M.D., a physiologist, is the son of the late eminent Unitarian minister, Dr. CAR 88 CAR Lant Carpenter, of Bristol, and was born in 1813. Circumstances having induced him to devote his attention to medical science, he pursued the study of his profession for some years at home, afterwards in London, and finally in Edinburgh, where he graduated as M.D. in 1839. Whilst residing in Bristol he was appointed Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence in the medical school of that city. Here it was that Dr. Car- penter wrote his "Principles of General and Comparative Physiology," and his "Principles of Human Physiology," which by competent critics is said to be the best work on the subject yet pub- lished. During the same period he com- menced an elementary series of treatises on various departments of science, under the title of the "Popular Cyclopaedia." Having determined to devote himself rather to the literary and scientific than to the practical department of his pro- fession, and having been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, Dr. Carpenter removed to London in 1844, on being appointed Fullerian Professor of Physi- ology in the Royal Institution. He soon afterwards undertook the editorship of the "British and Foreign Medico-Chir- urgical Review," which he held for some years. Subsequently he became Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in University College, and Examiner in Physiology in the University of London. The latter of these appointments, how- ever, he resigned on being appointed to the office of Registrar of the University ; and in consequence of the recent increase of his duties in that capacity he has now withdrawn from every other public occu- pation. His larger treatises on "Physi- ology," as well as a smaller manual on that science, and a manual on the "Microscope," have gone through seve- ral editions. The latter is a most valu- able work on microscopic science, being replete with instruction as to the con- struction and uses of microscopes of every kind. In 1849 Dr. Carpenter gained a prize of 100 guineas offered for the best Essay upon the Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors, of which a people's edition, published by Bohn, has obtained great popularity. He has also been an occasional contributor to the leading reviews, as well as to the "Philosophical Transactions," and the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology." CARY, Miss Alice, an American poetess, was born in Hamilton County, in the North American State of Ohio, in April, 1820. On her father's side she is of Huguenot descent. Up to 1850 Miss Cary resided at Clovernook, in her native county, where, although the ordi- nary means of a sound education were not within her reach, she seems to have acquired varied accomplishments by means of self- culture. When eighteen, she published her first volume of poems at Cincinnati, which met with a favour- able reception from the public. She was warmly encouraged by many of the most eminent literary men in America. In 1850 she removed to New York, and since then she and her sister Pha?be have become regular contributors to the leading magazines and journals of Ame- rica. In 1851 Miss Alice Cary wrote the first of her Clovernook Papers, a work which at once gave her a position as a prose writer. In 1852 she produced "Hagar, a Story of To-day;" and in 1853, a second series of Clovernook Papers, which, having been republished in this country, has met with great s uccess. Her ' ' Lyra, and other Poems, ' ' is a work placing her in the first rank among the American female writers of verse. In the following year she pub- lished the "Clovernook Children Pa- pers," a little volume prepared especially for the young. A complete edition of Miss Cary's poems was issued in 1855, containing also a poem of a more elabo- rate, if not more ambitious, character than any that had preceded it, called CAS 89 CAT ' ' The Maiden of Tlascala. " It has been characterised as one of the best narrative poems yet produced in America. It is remarkable for purity of language, beauty of imagery, and energy and power in depicting passion. The last of the best known publications of Miss Cary was "Married not Mated," which was, in America, contrasted with some of Mr. Dickens's happiest efforts; and "Pic- tures of Country Life," published in 1859, and republished in the same year in London. CASABIANCA, Francois Xavier, Count of, a French senator, son of a Corsican general, and grandson of the Count of Casabianca, a Senator of the First Empire, was born at Nice, on 27th June, 1796, and studied at the Lycee Napoleon, where he took the prize in philosophy, and afterwards passed through the usual course of a legal edu- cation. He was called to the bar in 1818, but a considerable time elapsed before he obtained the success to which his talents entitled him. He was a liberal in politics, and at the same time an earnest supporter of the cause of the exiled Bonaparte family. After the Revolution of 1848 he was returned to the Constituent Assembly as represen- tative of Corsica, and when, by the elec- tions of December, Louis Napoleon be- came President of the Republic, M. Casabianca supported the policy of the Prince with energy and zeal. Towards the close of 1851 the President called him to his councils, first as Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, and next as Minister of Finance. When the coup i r r!<;t changed the aspect of public affairs in France, M. Casabianca was appointed to organize a new Ministry, which he did in January, 1852; but soon afterwards he gave up his various important offices to enter the Senate, where he still continues an able and sagacious adviser of the Emperor. CASS, General Lewis, LL.D., an American statesman of the democratic party, and of notorious pro-slavery pre- dilections, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, 9th October, 1782. He was called to the bar in 1802, and elected to the Ohio Legislature in 1806. Not being very successful in the legal pro- fession, he entered the army of the United States, and was opposed to the English in 1812-14. He held the post of Governor of Michigan until 1831, when he became War Secretary under General Jackson's Presidency. He was appointed Minister to France in 1836, retaining that position till 1842. Two years afterwards he was a candidate for the chief magistracy of the Union, but was defeated ; and in 1857 was appointed Secretary of State under Mr. Buchanan. He possesses considerable influence in the American Senate, of which he is a mem- ber. As a politician he seems to enter- tain an inveterate animosity towards Great Britain. Had affairs been at his disposal, he would have plunged America into a war with this country even while the Oregon dispute was in course of ar- rangement. He is the author of a work entitled "France: its King, Court, and Government. " His life has been written by Mr. T. Young and W. L. G. Smith. CATTERMOLE, George, a painter, was born at Dickleburgh, near Diss, in Norfolk, in 1800. When young he was an admirable architectural draughtsman. He contributed to the Annuals, but afterwards devoted himself to water- colour painting, and for more than twenty years his works adorned the Water-colour Exhibition. For the last five or six years, however, he has ceased to send his pictures there, and has de- voted himself to oil-painting. He was one of the five English painters who re- ceived the first-class medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1855. In 1856 he was, by special diploma, elected a Member of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, and also Honorary Member of the Belgian CAU 90 CAV Society of Painters in Water Colours. His pictures embrace a comprehensive range of subjects, historical and poetical. The Bible, Scott, and Shakspere have furnished him with ample materials on which to exercise his peculiar powers. His pictures invariably display great imaginative power, deep poetic feeling, delicate conception, and exquisite mas- tery of execution. CAUSSIDIERE, Marc, a French politician, was born at Lyons in 1809, of a family of artisans. Up to 1834 he was little more than an obscure workman, employed in the manufactories of Lyons and St. Etienne. In the sanguinary revo- lutionary affrays of these cities, in 1834, he was at once a resolute leader and hardy combatant in the ranks of the in- surrectionists. Condemned to imprison- ment for his connexion with these pro- ceedings, he was restored to liberty by the amnesty of 1837. His imprisonment appears only to have strengthened the ardour of his convictions, and soon after his release from incarceration he became recognised as one of the leaders of the advanced Reform party. At the Re volu - tion of February, 1848, Caussidiere, who was constantly found at the barricades up to the moment of the victory of his party, was installed Prefect of Police. Possessing a refined mind under a rough and unpolished exterior, he was a man of action in contact with the people, and surrounded by a militia ready for any- thing. During the brief reign of the Provisional Government, his energy con- tributed to restrain the imprudence of those Polish and Italian refugees with whom Paris swarmed, and who sought early to compromise the Republic by involving it in wars of aggression in the interest of foreign factions. His efforts to maintain order during several disturb- ances in Paris were of such a nature as to achieve this end, and at the same time render him popular with the people. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly for the department of the Seine ; but being accused of supineness, he defended himself in the tribune, and resigned his office. In August the Assembly re- turned to the charge, and ultimately Caussidiere felt flight essential to his safety, and he took refuge in London, where, giving up political life, he entered into business as a wine -merchant. Caus- sidiere, in his exile, has published a memoir of the revolution, which has perhaps not received the attention its importance deserves. CAVOUR, Count Camille de, an Italian orator and statesman, President of the Council of Ministers, and chief adviser of the King of Sardinia, was born at Turin in 1809. He is the second son of the late Marquis de Cavour, who belonged to one of the most ancient and distinguished families of Piedmont. When the reform movement began in 1847, he, with Count Balbo, founded the constitutional journal, " II Risorgi- mento. " After the fall of the democratic party he entered, in 1849, the Chamber of Deputies, and subsequently succeeded Santa Rosa as Minister of Commerce and Agriculture. In 1851 he was also entrusted with the Ministry of Finance, when he endeavoured to repair the in- jury caused by an unhappy war, and to restore the equilibrium of revenue and expenditure. In 1852, disagreeing with his colleagues, he retired for a brief space from the ministry, but was re- called in November of the same year, and succeeded M. d'Azeglio as President of the Council. During this period of his administration he introduced the prin- ciples of Free -trade into the commercial code of the kingdom of Sardinia, greatly reduced the tariffs, and by commercial treaties with several powers, among others with England, extended the com- merce of Sardinia with foreign countries. In the beginning of 1855, through his exertions and advice, Piedmont joined the Anglo-French alliance, and de- CAY 01 CEL spatclied Sardinian troops to share in the Crimean expedition. At the peace he took an active part in the Congress of Paris, and there, for the first time, called the attention of the representatives of the great powers of Europe to the cause of Italy. He concluded the alliance, in 1859, between France and Sardinia for the deliverance of the Peninsula from the domination of Austria, resigning his office at the end of July, 1859, in conse- quence of the sudden termination of the campaign against Austria by the French Emperor. In January of the present year (1860) Count Cavour again assumed the Presidency of the Council, and was placed at the head of the department of 2 1 i Affairs, as well as of the Interior. He has since shown great political sagacity in the present crisis of Italian affairs, resulting from the successes of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, and at last has had the satisfaction of witnessing the annexation of both countries to the kingdom of Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel entered Naples on 7th November, 1860. Combining the highest qualities of a statesman and orator, Cavour is the firm friend of representative government. Under his administration Sardinia has taken a more conspicuous place in the European political system than she has ever formerly occupied ; and the almost certain formation of a united Italy is destined to bring him more prominently under the notice of the English public, as a judicious and wise, yet liberal man, well able to guide his countrymen when they have attained that independence and influence to which they aspire. CAYLEY, Arthur, a mathemati- cian, was born on the 16th August, 1821, at Richmond, in Surrey. He entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree, and was in 1842 senior wrangler, and first Smith's prize-man, and a Fellow of the College. Afterwards he studied for the law; was called to the bar in 1849; and has since been in practice as a con- veyancer. He was elected a Fellow of the Eoyal Society in 1852, and of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1857. Mr. Cayley is the author of various memoirs relating chiefly to pure mathe- matics, which have been published in the "Philosophical Transactions," the i "Cambridge Philosophical Transac- tions," the "Memoirs of the Royal j Astronomical Society," the " Cam- j bridge, and Cambridge and Dublin, I and the Quarterly Mathematical Jour- 1 nals," and the "Journals of Crelle and Liouville." CELESTE, Celeste Elliot, better known as Madame, an actress, and in the early part of her career a favourite da mmum, was born at Paris in August, 1815, of French parents, whose par- ticular position in the world is not j clearly known. She early received instruction in dancing at the Royal Academy of Music, and when fifteen accepted an engagement for the United States, where, at the early age of six- teen, she married a Mr. Elliot, who died sometime afterwards. She then returned to this country, and devoted her atten- tion to such pantomimic parts as that of "Fenella" in " Masaniello. " After having appeared in all the principal cities and towns of the United King- dom, she performed as a danseuse in London, and her unique style met with unbounded applause. In 1834 she re- turned to the United States. Wherever she went she met with an enthusiastic reception; and spent three years in a sort of daily ovation. In 1837 she re- appeared on the boards of Drury Lane Theatre, no longer, however, in the capacity of a dancer, but as an actress ; thence she proceeded to the Haymarket, afterwards accompanying Mr. Webster to the Adelphi, as directress of that theatre. Having remained in con- nexion with that establishment for CHA 92 CHA several years, Madame Celeste dis- solved the partnership, and at present manages the Lyceum on her own ac- count. CHADWICK, Edwin, C.B., a legis- lative and administrative reformer and social economist, was born near Man- chester, in 1800. Educated for the legal profession, he was called to the bar in 1830, and entered the public service in 1832. In 1828 he wrote an article in the "London Review," on the administration of public charity, which, with other papers on public questions, subsequently published, led to his being applied to and appointed first an Assis- tant-Commissioner, and afterwards one of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the means of improving the administra- tion of the Poor-Laws. Mr. Chadwick's cardinal principle of administrative con- solidation was in great part adopted, and the results were the Poor-law Unions in England and Ireland, and local Boards of Health, with their staff of paid officers. Lord John Russell stated that so far as Mr. Chadwick's measures had been applied they had saved the country from great social evils, if not absolutely from social revolution. In 1828 he contri- buted an article to the " Westminster Review," on "Life Assurance," which set forth some of the first principles of sanitary science. In 1829 he wrote a paper in the "London Review," on "Preventive Police," which induced a friendship with Jeremy Bentham, that only ceased with the death of that great thinker in 1832, when he bequeathed to Mr. Chad wick his library of Jurispru- dence. In 1834, when the permanent Poor-law Commission was established, he was appointed Secretary to the Board. As one of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the labour of young persons in factories, he was charged with the preparation of the bill by which the short time system of labour, and the half-school time system of in- struction, now in the course of exten- sion, were introduced under Govern- ment inspection. While Secretary to the Poor-law Board, he was associated with Dr. Arnott, Dr. Southwood Smith, and Dr. Kay, in an inquiry as to how far the physical causes of fever in London might be removed by sanitary agencies. He was also selected to investigate the constitution of the Constabulary in England and Wales, his labours leading to the appointment of county police forces. His report on sanitary questions, completed in 1842, is a model of conden- sation and suggestive analysis. The water supply and drainage of towns did not escape his attention; he prepared separate reports on these questions, in which the measures he proposed are, for the most part, in course of adoption, under the superintendence of numerous local Boards of Health. Upon the re- port of a Committee of Inquiry, the constitution of the new Poor-law Board having been changed, he was appointed to the Sanitary Commission in 1847, and in that and the following years pre- pared reports which led to large altera- tions. The establishment of the General Board of Health led to the origination by Mr. Chad wick of many of those sani- tary measures which have so materially altered the health of towns for the better ; but the administration of the Public Health Act being placed in charge of a member of the House of Commons in 1854, he retired with a pension. He was one of the earliest advocates of the repeal of taxes on knowledge, on which he wrote an article in the "West- minster Review," in 1831. When the war with Russia ensued, he pointed out the disastrous effects certain to occur from want of proper sanitary arrangements in the army, and chiefly on his representa- tion a commission was appointed to in- vestigate the measures requisite for the protection of the army in India. His published papers and reports occupy CHA 93 CHA many volumes. His measures have been alluded to in several royal speeches. Lord John Russell, Lord Brougham, and Lord Shaftesbury, have spoken highly of his labours ; and continental states- men have consulted him frequently on the subjects to which he has devoted his life. CHAMBERS, Montagu, an English lawyer and politician, was born in 1800. He was at first intended for the army, and for some time studied at Sandhurst, obtaining a lieutenancy in the Grenadier Guards. He, however, resigned the profession of arms for that of the law, was called to the bar in 1828, and speedily became distinguished as an ad- vocate. In 1845 he was made Queen's Counsel. He was elected Member for Greenwich in 1852, and as a politician has always advocated Liberal measures. As a pleader he has been engaged for many years past in some of the most remarkable cases on the Home Circuit. CHAMBERS, William and Robert, authors and publishers, were born in Peebles, William in 1800, Robert in 1802. Both brothers received a good education in their native town, Robert passing through a complete classical course, as preparatory to his adopting a learned profession. Through the misfor- tunes of their father, a cotton manufac- turer on a scale of some extent, they at an early age were left dependent on their own exertions, by which their natural energy and self-reliance were called into play. The family having removed from Peebles to Edinburgh, William and Robert conducted separate establish- ments as booksellers until 1832, when they united in establishing their well- known "Journal." Since that time their course has been steadily upwards. Many anecdotes are told of their early struggles, their incessant labour, their ingenuity, and, above all, of their self- denial. At an early period of life Mr. Robert Chambers published his "Tra- ditions of Edinburgh" (1824), and "Pic- ture of Scotland" (1828), and contri- buted seven historical volumes to "Constable's Miscellany," including a very popular work, "The History of the Rebellion of 1745-6." Messrs. Chambers are, without doubt, the pio- neers of cheap literature. The estab- lishment of the "Journal," and its success, demonstrated that a respectable miscellany of original literature could be produced at a cost placing it within the reach of the masses. Now their printing and publishing house in High- street is one of the most remarkable and extensive in Scotland. Among the more important works they have pub- lished are their "Information for the People," the "Cyclopaedia of English Literature," "Instructive and Entertain- ing Library and Tracts," " Educational Course," and "A Cyclopaedia for the People." Mr. Robert Chambers has devoted great attention to literature and science. His chief works, besides those mentioned, are "Popular Rhymes of Scotland," the "Life and Works of Burns" (by far the best Life of Burns yet published), and the "Domestic An- nals of Scotland." His "Ancient Sea Margins" is an important contribution to geological science. "The Book of Scotland," and " Things as they are in America," are Mr. William Chambers's chief works. In the early part of 1860 a splendid institution erected at Peebles, at the cost of Mr. William Chambers, was opened. It includes a museum and library, &c, and is a judicious applica- tion of the wealth which that gentleman has so worthily acquired during his past successful career. CHAMBORD, Henri Charles Fer- dinand, Due de Bordeaux, Count de, head of the eldest branch of the House of Bourbon, was born at Paris, on the 29th September, 1820. The posthumous son of the Due de Berri, assassinated in February of the same year, he was CHA 04 CHE brought up in the principles of the ancient monarchy. At the Revolution of 1830 Charles X. made a futile effort to have him recognised as King, under the title of Henry V. ; and the Count of Chambord, following the destinies of his family, went into exile. He resided by turns at Holyrood, Prague, and Goritz, and then travelled over most of Europe, in order to complete his education. In all the countries which he visited he was treated with the respect due to his misfortunes ; and in many with the ob- servances due to his pretensions. In 1846 he married Maria Theresa, daugh- ter of the Duke of Modena. After the Revolution of 1848, and the flight of Louis Philippe, the Legitimists cherished hopes that the tide of events would establish the Count on the throne of France ; but the revival of the Empire in 1852, if it did not dissipate every lingering remnant of expectation, ad- journed its realization. The Duke of Bordeaux has no family by his wife, and it is assumed that the elder branch of the Bourbons will become extinct at his decease, and the family of Orleans be left in undisputed possession of all the privileges, real or imaginary, that may pertain to their legitimacy, and to the "divine right," which they will then be enabled to insist upon. CHANGARNIER, Nicolas Aime Theodule, a French-African general, was born at Autun, in April, 1793. Leaving St. Cyr in 1815, with the rank of a sub -lieutenant, he entered, as a simple guardsman, one of the privileged companies of the Gardes-du-Corps of Louis XVIII. , from which he passed as lieutenant to the Line. In Algeria he rose from the lowest position, as an officer in the French army, to his pre- sent rank. Throughout the whole of his career in A lgiers, he was noted for his bravery and success. As chief of a battalion he distinguished himself by coolness in the campaign against Achmet Bey. For these services he was made lieutenant-colonel. At the termination of the Cheliff expedition he was made camp-marshal. In 1847 he received from the Due d'Aumale the command of the Algerian division of the army. He was made Governor of Al- giers in 1848, but, returning to Paris, he became connected with the events of June in that year, assuming the sole military command in that city. After being some time in the confidence of Louis Napoleon, who was then Presi- dent, his command was taken from him. On the evening of the coup d'etat he was arrested and conveyed to Mazas ; since then he has been an exile. Lately per- mission to return to France was given him, in common with the other exiled generals, but was rejected, and he is now living in retirement in Belgium. CHARLES XV. (Louis Eugene), King of Sweden and Norway, and of the Goths and Vandals, was born on the 3rd of May, 1826. He is grandson of the celebrated General Bernadotte, who was the son of an innkeeper in France, and the only one of the soldiers of fortune elevated to royal dignity by the Emperor Napoleon I., who wm able to preserve his throne after the fall of that conqueror. Charles XV. succeeded on the death of his father, Oscar L, on the 8th of July, 1850. He was married in 1850 to the Princess Wilhelmina, daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, by whom he has issue one daughter, the Princess Louisa Josephine Eugenie, born in 1851. The aged grand- mother of his Majesty, the widow of Bernadotte, still survives (I860), in the 70th year of her age. CHEEVER, George Burritt, D.D., an American theological writer, was born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1807. He studied in the seminary of Andover, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, and was ordained pastor of Salem Church in 1832, and of Allen-street CHE 95 CHE Church, New York city, in 1839. In 1832 he visited Europe, and remained there two years and a half. In 1835 he published a vigorous temperance pamphlet, entitled "Inquire at Amos Giles's Distillery," which brought him into prominent notice, but which also contained such matter as gave rise to law proceedings, and a subsequent sentence of imprisonment. He has contributed extensively to religious periodicals in America, and is the author of " Lec- tures on the Pilgrim's Progress," "Wan- derings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont Blanc," and other popular works. CHELMSFORD, Lord, better known by the world as Sir Frederick Thesiger, and late Lord Chancellor of England, was born in London in 1794, and entered the navy in 1807. He subsequently left the navy, and entering the legal profes- sion, was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1818. He almost at once succeeded, was for many years recognised as the leader of the Home Circuit, and in 1834 became a King's Counsel. He entered Parliament as member for Abingdon in 1844 ; was appointed Solicitor-General Older the government of Sir Robert Peel, and in 1845 succeeded the late Sir William W. Follett as Attorney -General. When Sir Robert Peel retired, he also resigned office, but continued to sit for Abingdon until 1852, when Lord Derby's Ministry being formed, he was re -ap- pointed Attorney-General, having a seat in Parliament for Stamford, which he continued to represent until his admission to the peerage. On the second accession of Lord Derby to power, in 1858, Sir ick Thesiger was created Lord Chelmsford, on his elevation to the tck. The resignation of Govern- ment deprived him of office. His chief characteristics as a pleader were dignity and energy, accuracy and acuteness, perfect self-possession and persuasive eloq nonce. An unprecedented incident occurred in his professional life. Pre- viously to his being raised to the Upper House he had been counsel in a cause which involved a large property ; but considering the suit more one for extra- judicial settlement than litigation, he compromised it without directly con- sulting his client. Lord Chelmsford was but a few days Lord Chancellor when this client sued him for damages. The case has been heard and re -heard since ; and judgment has been given in his lordship's favour. During the session of 1860 Lord Chelmsford has brought in several measures in the House of Lords. CHESNEY, Francis Rawdon, D.C.L., Major-General in the Royal Artillery, was born at Ballyrea, in the county of Down, Ireland, in 1789. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. In 1804 he received his first commission in the Royal Artillery. In 1815 he obtained the rank of second captain ; and in 1821 was ordered to Gibraltar. In 1829 he pro- ceeded to Constantinople, expecting by means of Congreve rockets and steamers to give effectual assistance to Turkey in her struggle with Russia. The war having terminated soon after his arrival, he visited the contending armies and their various fortresses and positions, and prepared a report upon them for Sir R. Gordon, the British ambassador at Constantinople. His inquiries led to the consideration of an overland route to India. Proceeding to examine the mouths of the Nile, the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Isthmus of Suez, he sailed down the Red Sea, exa- mined the lower course of the Nile, and arrived at the conviction that a voyage to India from Egypt by means of steam vessels could be performed in the course of about three weeks. He also urged the opening of a sea canal from Suez to the Mediterranean, through Lake Men- zaleh. From Egypt he proceeded to Syria, to explore the route between the i Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. CHE 96 He crossed Northern Syria, caused a raft to be constructed on the Upper Euphrates, and surveyed the Great River down to the Persian Gulf. He returned through Persia and Asia Minor to the Upper Euphrates, explored other parts of Western Asia, and coming home to England in 1833, published an ac- count of the relative advantages of both routes to India. He urged the further exploration of the Syrian route, and at last was enabled by a vote of the House of Commons to undertake an expedition to the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Appointed Colonel on this service, he proceeded to the coast of Syria in 1835, with a staff of naval and scientific officers. He met with many difficulties in his progress, but finally put together and floated two steamers on the Eu- phrates. Four hundred miles of the survey had been completed when a fearful hurricane sent the Tigris steamer to the bottom with twenty of her crew. Colonel Chesney and eight others were saved, and with the remaining steamer he descended and surveyed 1,200 miles of river; thus solving the problem of the overland route through the Plains of Mesopotamia. The results of this expe- dition have an importance which can CHE went to China as Brigadier, commanding the Royal and East India Artillery, and remained there until 1847. He has been at the head of the Royal Artil- lery in the Cork district from that period until 1852. In 1851 he published his large work and maps on the Expedition to the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the same year received the degree of D. C. L. at Oxford. He has since published " Observations on the Past and Present State of Fire-arms," in which he discusses the effects of the new musket in warfare. CHEVALIER, Michel, State Coun- cillor of France, and Member of the Institute, was born at Limoges, on 13th January, 1806. He is the son of a small merchant, and was at the age of eighteen admitted to the Polytechnic School, from which he passed to the Mining School. Shortly before the Revolution of 1830 he was attached as engineer to the Depart- ment of the Nord. He then embraced Saint Simonian doctrines, and became director of the "Globe" newspaper, which supported the views of this sect. He exerted himself so strenuously in the advocacy of the "New Church," that he was prosecuted for outrages on public morals, and condemned to a year's im- prisonment. After the expiration of his scarcely be exaggerated. Should the j sentence, he did not hesitate to retract Euphrates route ever become frequented all he had written against Christianity ; to an extent in any degree corresponding j and he afterwards obtained from M. to that of the Suez line and political events may any day have this effect, it will bring Western civilization into inti- mate contact with the very heart of the Mahomedan east ; with regions which, previous to the dawn of European his- tory, were peopled by vast and rich communities, which recovered their fer- tility and importance in the first ages of Arab civilization, and which may again, under the influence of European example and precept, be re -incorporated with the civilized world. He returned to Eng- land in 1837, and continued absent from military duties until 1842. In 1843 he Thiers a special mission to the United States, with the view of studying the American System of communication by water and railway. In 1836 he pub- lished his "Letters on North America," a brilliant work, which was highly praised by Humboldt. After visiting England in 1836, he published a work on "The Material Interests of France," a programme of industrial ameliorations which might be advantageously carried out by the State. He filled several high offices, and was appointed by Louis Napo- leon to be Ingenieur-en-chef of France. He is a clever political economist, founding his CHE 97 CHI deductions on the example of England, and he enjoys a high reputation as a writer on all subjects connected with industry and finance in his native country. He is at present engaged in working out the details of the Com- mercial Treaty between France and England. CHEVREUL, Michel Eugene, a French chemist, was born at Angers, on the 31st August, 1786. The son of a dis- tinguished physician, he studied in the Central School of his native place. He went to Paris and became chemical assistant to Vauquelin, who soon recog- nised in his young pupil such aptitude and sagacity that he gave him the direction of his laboratory. He pro- gressed rapidly. In 1826 he took, in the Chemical Section of the Academy of Sciences, the place which the death of Prevost had left vacant; and in 1829, succeeded his old master, Vauquelin, in the chemical chair appropriated to the Museum of Natural History. He has been Commander of the Legion of Honour since September, 1844, and was a member of the Juries in the Great Expositions of London and Paris. He has published a number of works, chiefly relating to Animal Chemistry, and to colours and their contrasts, which record many al researches. He has also con- tributed extensively to scientific periodi- cals. CHILD, Mrs. Lydia Maria, an eminent American educational writer, before marriage Miss Francis, was born in Medford, Massachusetts, on the 11th February, 1802. Her father was a baker, much respected for his integ- rity and native good sense, who made improvements in the manufacture of bread. She enjoyed merely the edu- cational advantages common to all chil- dren in New England; but her early fondness for literature was much stimu- lated by the active mind and studious habits of a brother, somewhat older than herself, now Dr. Convers Francis, Pro- fessor in Harvard University. In 1828 she married David Lee Child, a lawyer and editor in Boston. She and her hus- band united with W. L. Garrison, at the very outset of his labours for the Anti- Slavery cause, in which their zeal re- mains unabated. This circumstance has rendered her books unpopular with the Pro-Slavery classes in America. While Miss Francis, she wrote "Hobomok," an Indian story, and "The Rebels: a Tale of the Revolution." After her marriage she edited "The Juvenile Miscellany" for eight years, and wrote "The Girl's Own Book" (1831), re- published in England; "The Mother's Book" (1831), which was republished in England and Germany; "An Appeal in behalf of that Class of Americans called Africans" (1833); "The Oasis: an Anti-Slavery Annual" (1833); " His- tory of Women" (1835); "Philothea: a Grecian Romance" (1836); "Letters from New York" (1843-4); "Fact and Fiction," a collection of stories (1845); "Flowers for Children" (from 1845 to 1856); "Progress of Religious Ideas" (1855); and "Autumnal Leaves," a col- lection of stories (1857) ; she edited "The Anti-Slavery Standard" during 1841 and 1842. CHINA, Emperor of. {See "Hien Fung.") CHISHOLM, Mrs. Caroline, emi- nent for her efforts to improve the con- dition of emigrants, was born at North- ampton about the year 1810. She received from her mother an excellent education, which developed all her gen- erous and charitable instincts. In her twentieth year she married Captain Archibald Chisholm, of the Madras army. She proceeded with her husband to Madras, and there commenced a work of benevolence by establishing an In- dustrial Home for the benefit of soldiers' daughters, who were thus removed from temptation, and instructed in different CHI OS CLA branches of useful knowledge. In 1838, owing to the failure of Captain Chis- holm's health, they went to Sydney. Remaining there with her three children during her husband's return to India, she established "The Female Immi- grants' Home," and its branches in neighbouring districts, whose objects were to provide for, and to protect friendless young women who were con- tinually arriving from Europe. In 1846, Major Chisholm having rejoined his family, Mrs. Chisholm proceeded to England, taking with her a mass of ad- dresses and facts concerning emigrants and their relations, collected laboriously in the interior of the colony, by going from farm to farm, in order to effect the reunion of families. Her first business on her arrival in this country was to send out shiploads of poor children who had been left behind by their parents when they themselves emigrated, for want of means to pay the charges de- manded for children beyond a certain number. By her exertions the Emigra- tion Commissioners were induced to ship them, as well as the wives and children of prisoners who were emancipated and well to do. In 1850 she instituted the Family Colonization Loan Society, in order to encourage a more general system of emigration, with the view of carrying out which Major Chisholm volunteered to proceed alone to Victoria in 1851, while his wife remained in England. He proceeded to South Australia and Victoria, and forming there committees of the most influential gentlemen in the colony to co-operate with the committee of the society in London, remitted in less than two years upwards of 10,000, paid into his office at Melbourne by re- latives for the emigration of their kin- dred at home. Mrs. Chisholm joined her husband in Victoria with her six children in 1854, and immediately after her arrival proceeded to the "Diggings," where she discovered that much evil arose from the want of proper accommo- dation for travellers. At her solicita- tion the Colonial Government was in- duced to erect sheds, placed under the care of respectable couples, fifteen miles from each other, between Melbourne and the "Diggings," and by this means wives and children were enabled to re- join their families by short stages, and at small expense. On account of serious and dangerous illness, Mrs. Chisholm went to Sydney in June, 1858, where she has since remained, unfortunately in rather indifferent health. Her untiring exertions in behalf of those who are compelled to leave their native homes for other lands, are universally held in high esteem. CHRISTISON, Robert, a physician, and Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edinburgh, son of the late Alexander Christison, Professor of Humanity in the same University, was born in the Scottish capital, 18th July, 1797. He became a student of Arts in the University in 1 8 1 1 , graduated in 1 8 1 9, and afterwards studied in London and Paris. While in Paris in 1820-21 he was a pupil of Robiquet, and bent the powers of his intellect to the study of the department of science in which his name has become so eminent. After his return to Edinburgh in 1823, he was appointed Professor of Medical Juris- prudence, and nine years afterwards, in 1832, was elected to the chair of Materia Medica, his reputation both as a pro- fessor and physician ranking deservedly among the highest in the kingdom. His "Treatise on Poisons" (1829), has run through several editions, and is a stand- ard work with the faculty. CLARE, John, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, was born at Help- stone, 13th July, 1793. His father was an agricultural labourer, yet he managed to obtain some little knowledge of read- ing and writing from his scanty means. Obtaining a copy of Thomson's "Sea- GLA 99 CLA sons," he was incited to attempt com- posing, and eventually produced a volume of poems, which met with suc- cess, and by the kind patronage of the Marquis of Exeter and Lord Milton, he was placed in comparatively easy circumstances. He was residing in Rutland, and married in 1820. His occupation being that of a farm -servant, doubtless affected the burden of his song, which was always descriptive of rural life and scenery. But when the wonder of a farm -servant being a poet had fallen away, his aristocratic friends took less interest in him. The anxieties of a family and the maintenance of his infirm father and mother preyed on his mind, and the result was that he dropped into a state of harmless lunacy. He entertains the hallucination that he is the author of the chefs-d'oeuvre of Byron, Wordsworth, and Campbell, and affords a melancholy spectacle of a man of genius, whose mind is unequal to struggle with the realities of life. CLARENDON, George William Frsdkbick Villiers, Earl of, ex- Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs under Lord Pabnerston's administration, was born 12th January, 1800. After studying at Cambridge, he entered the diplomatic service in 1820, as Attache to the Embassy in Russia, and continued in that office for about three years, after which he was a Commissioner of Customs. In 1831 he negotiated a treaty of com- merce with France ; but his first promi- nent public appointment was that of Plenipotentiary to Madrid in 1833. On his accession to the earldom in 1838 he returned to England. In 1840 Lord Clarendon was appointed Lord Privy Seal. In 1846 he became President of the Board of Trade, under Lord John Russell, and in the subsequent year was nominated Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. The circumstances under which Lord Clarendon commenced his duties were of the most perplexing nature. Disease and famine were prevalent throughout Ireland, and political affairs were sources of disturbance in every part of the country. It was about this period that the Repeal Association was using its most active endeavours to produce universal discontent. The energy and prudence with which Lord Clarendon conducted himself during the crisis of 1848 added much to his reputation for sagacity by all classes of moderate liberals ; and there is little doubt that he is destined to take a more conspicuous position than he has yet filled, in the political events of the future. Lord Clarendon held his office until the resig- nation of the Russell ministry in 1852. Under Lord Aberdeen he was appointed to the Foreign Office, a position which he likewise filled under the Government of Lord Palmerston. He had, during 1855, to take a leading position in the affairs relating to the Russian war, Lord Aberdeen having resigned, on account of the censure which had been cast on him by a vote of the House of Commons. Lord Clarendon also took part in the Congress at Paris, at which peace was concluded in 1856. When the ministry of his party was overthrown in 1858, Lord Clarendon, of course, changed to the opposition side of the House of Lords; but when a liberal Government was again formed in 1859, under Lord Palmerston, he was, at his own request, left out of the Cabinet. There is no statesman of the present day who is looked up to with higher respect than Lord Clarendon. He married in 1839 a sister of the present Earl of Verulam, by whom he has a family. He was created a G.C.B. in 1838, and in 1849 received the knight- hood of the Garter. CLARK, Sir James, Bart., M.D., Physician to the Queen, was born in 1788 at Cullen, in Banffshire. He went to school at Fordyce, took his degree of M.A. at Aberdeen, studied CLA 100 CLA medicine in the University of Edin- burgh, passed as physician there, and as surgeon in London, and afterwards travelled through several continental countries. He settled as a physician at Home, remaining there for some years, also visiting the principal medical schools of Italy, France, and Germany. In 1820 Dr. Clark published a work entitled ' ' Medical Notes on the Climate, Diseases, Hospitals, and Medical Schools in France, Italy, and Switzerland." He returned to England in 1826, settling in London, where he was appointed Physician to St. George's Infirmary. In 1829 he published his work " On the Sanative Influence of Climate;" the first accu- rate and philosophical book on the sub- ject of which it treats. He was elected in 1832 a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1835 Physician to the Duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria, be- coming, on the accession of the latter to the throne, Physician in Ordinary. He published, in 1835, "A Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption and Scrofulous Diseases," which, propounding new views of these complaints, has had a remarkable effect in the mode of treat- ing them, and has served to establish the reputation of the author as a medical adviser in affections of the chest. In 1838 Sir James Clark was created a Baronet, and since then he has received various other distinctions, been several times on the Council of the Royal Society, exerted himself in the cause of sanitary reform, and risen to the very highest distinction as a medical practi- tioner in the English metropolis. CLARKE, Mrs. Mary Cowden, au- thoress of the " Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," was born in June, 1809; she is the daughter of the eminent musician, Mr. Vincent Novello, and sister to the celebrated singer, Madame Clara Novello. She was married in 1828 to Mr. Charles Cowden Clarke. In 1829 she commenced to analyse the works of Shakspeare, possibly impelled to the task by the incomplete indices of Ayscough and Twiss. It apparently occurred to her that a " Concordance to Shakspeare " would be invaluable to the literary world; and towards accom- plishing her grand purpose Mrs. Clarke devoted sixteen years of laborious toil. The work was brought out in 1846 ; it contains 2,578 columns, and about 309,000 lines, and so faithfully has it been prepared that the table of errata contains only thirteen lines, consisting exclusively of simple omissions, there not having been an "error," as yet, de- tected by the keenest critic. Mrs. Clarke has written other works, among which are " The Iron Cousin : a Novel ;" " Kit Bam, the Modern Sinbad ;" " The Girlhood of Shakspeare's Heroines;" "World -noted Women;" and "Many Happy Returns of the Day: a Birthday Book," lately published. She has also contributed to magazines ; but her name is embalmed in the pages of the Con- cordance, which has conferred on her the distinguished honour of being the first female editor of Shakspeare. CLAUSEN, Henri Nicolas, a Danish politician and theologian, was born at Maribo, in the Island of Laland, in April, 1793, and is the son of an emi- nent clergyman. He studied at Copen- hagen, and from 1818 to 1820 visited Ger- many, Italy, and France. On his return he was named Professor of Theology at Copenhagen, though his tendencies were rationalistic. He published some works embodying his opinions ; and though he met with numerous adversaries he gained the affections of the people and the esteem of the King. In 1836, when he had published "Popular Discourses on the Reformation, " he became Rector of the University. Politically, he is an avowed partizan of Danish nationality, of civil liberty, of the liberty of the press, and a defender of all liberal and patriotic ideas. He has ceased to take CLO 101 cry an active part in public affairs, confin- ing himself to his rectorial duties. His works, though not numerous, are highly esteemed in Denmark. CLOSE, the Very Rev. Francis, D.D., late scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge, Dean of Carlisle, is an eminent preacher of the "Evangelical " school He held for thirty years the Perpetual Curacy of Cheltenham, where he was extremely popular with the re- ligious or evangelical section of the com- munity. When Dr. Tait was elevated to the See of London, Mr. Close ljecame Dean of Carlisle, and in the border city has displayed the same eloquence which characterised him at Cheltenham: re- taining his popularity as a preacher, and affording in his sermons a faithful expo- sition of the doctrines of the Evangeli- cal school in the Church of England. Li 18*20 he published " Discourses on Genesis;" in 1840 "Miscellaneous Ser- mons;" "Fifty -two Sketches of Ser- mons. " He has since published a volume "On Church Architecture," which has become popular. His first work has gone through a great number of editions. Dr. Close has lately taken a very active part in advocating social reform, more especially in respect to the abolition of some customs, such as the use of to- bacco, &c, and the evil tendency of various kinds of amusements. Both in the pulpit and by the pen, he has proved himself a formidable opponent to all who hold contrary opinions to those he maintains, and who have ventured into the lists against him. CLYDE, Colin Campbell, Lord, Lieutenant-GeneraL K.C.B., late Com- mander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, was born at Glasgow in 1792. In 1808 he joined the army as Ensign in the 9th Foot. In 1809 he was Lieutenant; in 1813 Captain; in 1825 Major; in 1832 Lieutenant-Colonel. He served in Por- tugal and Walcheren, and also under Sir John Moore in the Peninsula. He was wounded at San Sebastian, where he led the storming -party. He subse- quently proceeded to the United States. In 1842 he was appointed colonel of the 98th regiment, and served in the expe- dition to China. In the Punjaub he was a General of Brigade, and as commander, he defeated the Sikhs at Ramnuggur, 22nd November, 1848; rendering also eminent service at the passage of the Chenab early in the following December. In 1851 and 1852 he commanded the Peshawur District, and in all his en- gagements was successful over the enemy. In 1854 Sir Colin was appointed to the Command of the Highland Bri- gade. At the Alma his coolness and intrepidity contributed in a singularly marked manner to the distinguished success of the British arms. At Bala- klava he held the post of honour. The "thin red line" has Income a thing of history. In 1854 he was promoted to the rank of Major-General, and subse- quently he became Lieutenant-General, receiving at the same time the Grand Cross of the Bath, the Cross of the Legion of Honour, and the Sardinian Order of Maurice and St. Lazare, the freedom of the cities of London and Glasgow, and the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford. He was, for some time after the Peace of Paris, Inspector- General of Infantry, and without being a martinet effected various improve- ments in the Line. So conspicuous had been Sir Colin's services in the Crimea, that when the revolt of the sepoys broke out, he was at once appointed to the command of the army in the East. "When will you be ready to start?" said Lord Palmerston. "To-morrow;" said the veteran; "all I want can be got in Calcutta as well as here. " What Havelock and Outram so gloriously began, Campbell has no less gloriously terminated. These three share the honour of having crushed the Indian mutiny, and avenged our slaughtered <3&B 102 COC countrymen. His relief of Lucknow is, perhaps, one of the most brilliant examples of strategy any age or country has on record; and his after -military career in India has been one of con- tinued victory, without a reverse no check whatever, indeed, having caused a pause from the hour he en- tered the field. As a reward for these last services he has been raised to the peerage as Lord Clyde, and has taken his seat in the House of Lords. He has been heartily welcomed on his re- turn home, and it is to be hoped that he may long live to enjoy his well -merited honours. COBDEN, Richard, was born at Mid- hurst, Sussex, in 1804. His father, who was a small farmer, sent him from home, at an early age, to fill a situation in London, where he soon gained a thorough knowledge of business. He afterwards made a tour of the United States and a portion of Europe. He was energetic, and anxious to rise, and seeing a good prospect before him, he entered into business on his own account, in Lan- cashire, and soon became a prosperous man. A pamphlet from his hand, en- titled "England, Ireland, and America," and another on "Russia," drew atten- tion to his literary qualifications. He entered boldly on the question of Free Trade, and was one of the originators of the Anti-Corn-Law League one of the most formidable political organiza- tions ever known. Mr. Cobden was returned to the House of Commons in 1841, as member for Stockport. He "took" with the House, and Sir Robert Peel acknowledged that his measure of 1846, which practically admitted the justice of Mr. Cobden's principles, was elicited by the "unadorned eloquence" of the cotton printer. The Corn Laws repealed, Mr. Cobden was presented with a testimonial of 70,000 for his services to Free Trade. He was re- turned for the West Riding of York- shire in 1847, which he represented for some years, and then retired, under the impression that his re-election would not be secure. In 1857, after opposing Lord Palmerston's Chinese policy, and driv- ing that ministry to a dissolution, he was started for Huddersfield and de- feated a surprise to himself and his friends, but he was immediately after elected for Rochdale. In 1859 he tra- velled over a large portion of the United States; and, during his absence, Lord Derby's ministry having been over- thrown, Lord Palmerston proposed that he should accept office, but he refused. Mr. Cobden, we need scarcely add, is a Radical Reformer, and a member of the Peace Society. He is now in Paris, busily occupied as British Commissioner in arranging the details of the Commer- cial Treaty, which owes its origin in a great measure to himself In this Mr. Cobden has been so far successful as to have acquired the esteem of the French manufacturers. The commerce between the two countries has much benefited by the fiscal changes which have already been effected, and it is not too much to expect that his exertions will tend to draw together the sympathies of the two nations, now engaged in the peaceful pursuits of commercial rivalry. COCKEREL L, Charles Robert, R.A., D.C.L., an architect, was born in London on the 27th day of April, 1788. His early life was spent among the architectural remains of classic lands, in a laborious study of the details of Greek and Roman architecture. He undertook many extensive excavations, and brought to this country several frag- ments of sculpture, now in the British Museum. An admirable draughtsman, in 1829 he was elected Associate of the Academy; in 1836 R.A.; and in 1840 Professor of Architecture in the Royal Academy, an appointment which he held during sixteen years. In 1848 he received the first Gold Medal of the COD 103 COL British Architectural Institute, of which he became President in 1860. He was elected in 1841 Foreign Member of the Institute of France; in 1843 a Member of Merit in the Academy of St. Luke, at Rome; in 1845 the honour of D.C.L. of Oxford was conferred on him; and in 1858 he became a member of the Dilettanti Society. He was appointed ar- chitect to the new Public Library at Cam- bridge, after a very long competition, and architect of the Taylor Buildings at Oxford, also after a competition; as well as standing architect to the Bank of England, and architect to the Cathe- dral of St. Paul's. He was the ai*chi- tect of the National Monument of Scot- land, on the Calton Hill at Edinburgh, which has been only partly erected, and of various other buildings in England, Wales, and Ireland ; amongst which are the "Sun" and "Westminster" Fire Offices, London, and the St. George's Hall, &c, in Liverpool. Mr. Cockerell is the author of a valuable work en- titled the "Architectural Life of Wil- liam of Wykeham." He has of late years devoted much attention to the study of Gothic architecture, and has published illustrations of the West Front of Wells Cathedral, and of the Sculp- tures of Lincoln Cathedral. His lec- tures, which he delivered regularly dur- ing his appointment as Professor of Ar- chitecture, contain much original and important information regarding the history and theory of architecture. CODRINGTON, Sir William John, K.C.B., an English general, was born in 1800. He is the eldest surviving son of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington. In 1821 he entered the army ; and in 1836 became Lieutenant-Colonel of the Cold- stream Guards. In 1846 he attained the rank of Colonel, and in 1854 that of Major-General He was always looked up to as a steady officer, attached to the ranks, and very accessible. When the British army went out to Turkey, Sir William accompanied it as a spectator. Being at Varna, immediately before the sailing of the expedition to the Crimea, Lord Raglan, requiring at the moment a Brigadier-General, and Codrington being at hand, he was appointed to the command of the first Brigade of the Light Division, vacant by the appoint- ment of General Airey to the Adjutant- Generalship of the Army of the East. Sir William led this brigade with great steadiness and gallantry at the battle of the Alma. His bravery at Inkermann was highly spoken of by the Commander- in-Chief; and when Sir George Brown retired wounded to Malta, General Codrington was appointed to the com- mand of the Light Division. On the death of Lord Raglan, and the resigna- tion of General Simpson, he was ap- pointed Commander-in-Chief of the British army in the Crimea. He has since been made a Knight Commander of the Bath, and on his return to Eng- land, after the peace, he was elected Member of Parliament for Greenwich. In 1859 he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar. COLE, Henry, C.B., civil adminis- trator, art critic, and editor of the "Journal of Design," was born at Bath in 1808. He entered the public service in 1822, and became an Assistant- Keeper of the Public Records. During this period he published "Henry the Eighth's Scheme of Bishopricks ; " a volume of "Miscellaneous Records of the Exchequer;" and many pamphlets on record reform, which led to the establish- ment of a general record office, and the present system. He contributed to the Westminster and British and Foreign Reviews, and obtained one of the four prizes of 100 offered by the Treasury for suggestions for carrying out the penny -postage plan of Rowland Hill ; a measure which, as secretary of the mercantile committee on postage, he had helped to bring into public notice. COL 104 COL Under the nom de plume of Felix Sum- merley, he published several guide-books to the National Gallery, Hampton Court, &c., and several editions of children's books, illustrated by royal academicians and other eminent artists. He originated the series of "Art Manufactures," de- signed to associate the fine arts with the fabrication of objects of utility, and organized the exhibitions of the Society of Arts, which he proposed should cul- minate every fifth year in a national exhibition of arts and manufactures. The first of the series was intended to be held in 1851. The scheme adopted by Prince Albert was expanded by him into the great International Exhibition of that year, which was carried out so successfully. Mr Cole was one of the executive committee of management, and at the termination of his labours was made a Companion of the Bath. Subsequently he was invited to under- take the superintendence and reform of the Schools of Design, and his efforts led to the establishment of the Govern- ment Department of Science and Art, of which he was Senior Secretary and afterwards Inspector-General. He filled the office of British Commissioner for the Universal Exhibition at Paris in 1855, and accomplished the work effec- tively, whilst economizing 10,000 on the original parliamentary estimate. Since that time he has organized with unexpected success the South Kensing- ton Museum, which is the first national institution lighted at night for exhibi- tion. He is now Superintendent of this institution, as well as Secretary of the Science and Art Department under the Committee of Council on Education. COLERIDGE, the Rev. Derwent, youngest son of Samuel Taylor Cole- ridge, was born at Keswick, on 14th September, 1800. He was educated at Ambleside, and subsequently at St. John's College, Cambridge. His earliest contributions to literature were made to "Knight's Quarterly Magazine," under the signature of Davenant Cecil. His admirable memoir of his brother Hartley, whose "Poems" and "Biographies of Northern Worthies" he edited, is well known. Since the death of his sister Sarah, the Rev. Derwent Coleridge has edited his father's works. He is now Principal of St. Mark's College, Chelsea, and Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral. COLLIER, John Payne, a philolo- gist and critic, was born in London, 11th January, 1789. His father was originally a Spanish merchant, but turned his mind to books early in life, and became editor of the "Monthly Register," and of the "Critical Re- view." About 1814 the subject of this notice entered the Inner Temple, as a law student, and was called to the bar, having previously been engaged in the arduous duties of parliamentary reporter for the "Morning Chronicle," a journal which at that period held the highest position in London. He had not been long on the "Morning Chronicle" when he became a law reporter to the "Times," occasionally lending his assistance in Parliament. In 1816 he married a lady who brought him a considerable fortune, and he subsequently devoted his leisure to the study of the earlier English poets, on whose works he has since written so many able criticisms and commentaries. His taste for the dramatic poets of the Elizabethan era was not a matter of a day's creation. It was manifested when he was a boy, and it strengthened with his years. Among his first works calcu- lated to attract the notice of the judicious, was "The Poetical Decameron," con- sisting of dialogues on our early poets, and containing a fund of information unknown to general readers. As a sup- plement to a new edition of "Dodsley's Old Plays," he reprinted a number of dramas, all of them being of Shakspeare's day, and works, too, of great merit, COL 105 COL though, of course, inferior to those of their wondrous prototype. Still studying in the same direction, he produced, in 1831, his "History of English Dramatic Poetry," which increased his reputation as an original writer, and as an accurate collector of forgotten but interesting facts. In every respect he was careful and conscientious. Many new sources of information were placed at his dis- posal ; and it was in his varied researches in public and private libraries that he picked up the manuscripts or documents from which he wrote, in 1835, that delightful book, "New Facts regarding Shakspeare," a work which he supple- mented by "New Particulars" and " Further Particulars," the latter in 1839. For many years he was engaged in preparing a Life of Shakspeare, which he published with the great poet's works in 1844, a task in which difficulties met him at every step of his progress, all, ultimately, being surmounted. A second edition of the whole undertaking has since been demanded. In 1850 he was appointed Vice-President of the Society of Antiquaries, in place of the late Mr. Hallam. He enjoys a pension of 100 a-year from the Crown, in acknowledg- ment of his services to literature. His "Book of Roxburgh Ballads," and " Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of Shakspeare," are or ought to be in every good English library; the latter was one of his contributions to the Shakspeare Society, of which for ten years he was a director. Mr. Collier, some years since, purchased an edition of Shakspeare in folio, published in 1632, with marginal notes, which has proved very useful in correcting spurious readings, and in supplying many new ones of indisputable value, all of which made their appearance in a volume pub- lished in 1852, entitled "Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakspeare's Plays." With respect to the emenda- tions, there can be no doubt that Mr. ! Collier has acted with wisdom in claim- ing for many of them a place in every future reprint of Shakspeare's dramatic works, and that in point of fact they do, in the majority of cases, very much improve the old text. COLLIN DE PLANCY, Jacques, otherwise Jacques Collin Dan ton, a French writer, was born at Plancy, near D'Arcis-sur-Aube, on the 28th of Janu- ary, 1793. He is nephew of the famous Danton, and at the commencement of the Restoration changed the dangerous name of his relative to that he now bears. In 1812 he went to Paris, wrote for the booksellers, and became a book- seller and publisher. His commercial position being compromised in 1830, he took refuge in Belgium, where he cul- tivated the good will of the Belgians by advocating their nationality. He returned to France, after some years' absence, about 1837, and founded a sort of universal society, or Societe Phalans- tgrienne, which has since, by a complete transformation, become the Society of Saint Victor. His writings are closely associated with the events of his life. From 1812 to 1815 the very titles of his publications were vehement against the pontificate; but since 1837 he has made the amende honorable to Rome. To the first period belong his "Infernal Dictionary," his "Memoirs of a Villain of the Fourteenth Century," " The Pic- turesque Biography of the Jesuits," and " The Devil Painted by Himself." To the second period belong his "Legends of the Holy Virgin," "Legends of the Seven Capital Crimes," and "The Christian Book of Songs" (Le Chan- sonnier du Chretien), which contains much abuse of the philosophers put in rhyme. COLLINS, Wilkie, an English biographer and novelist, was born in London in 1824. A son of the cele- brated painter, the late William Collins, R.A., he was educated at a private COM 106 CON school, and passed a considerable time in Italy. His biography of bis father is remarkably interesting ; not more as a life of the man than as a history of English art. ' ' Antonina ; or, the Fall of Rome," his first novel, became popular at once. His other works are, ' ' Rambles beyond Railways," "Basil," "Mr. Wray's Cash -box," " Hide and Seek," " After Dark," and "The Dead Secret." Although roughly handled by many cri- tics, those who have studied the works of Mr. Collins will bear testimony to their merits, as regards plot and variety of incident, and their clearness and simplicity of style. His earlier works were, no doubt, tinged with exaggera- tion; but with time came mellowness, and when he does write now, he writes well and vigorously. One of his dra- matic productions is that of "The Frozen Deep, " which was played before the Queen. His latest work of fiction is "The Woman in White," which ap- peared in weekly parts, in the columns of "All the Year Round," and has since been reprinted. He is also the author of a drama called "The Light- house," which has been played under the care of Mr, Dickens. COMBERMERE, St apleton Cotton, Viscount, G.C.B., an English field- marshal, was born in 1773. He is the eldest surviving son of the late Sir R. S. Cotton, M.P. for Cheshire. At eighteen years of age he entered the army, serving in the Flemish campaign of 1793-94. In 1796 he obtained the command of the 25th Light Dragoons. With them he proceeded to India, and took part in the war of 1798 and 1799 against Tippoo Sultan. After his return to Europe he accompanied Wellington to Spain, where he distinguished himself as a cavalry officer and gained promo- tion after Talavera to the rank of Lieuten- ant-General. At the battle of Salamanca he was second in command. When the war was over, he was appointed, in 1817, Governor of Barbadoes and Commander of the forces in the British West Indies ; in 1822 Commander of the forces in Ire- land; and in 1825 Commander of the army in India, where he distinguished himself very much, more especially at the siege of Bhurtpore in 1825-6. For his Indian services he received the title of Viscount. After the Duke of Well- ington's death he was appointed Con- stable of the Tower of London, and sub- sequently a Field-Marshal CONINGHAM, William, member of Parliament for Brighton, was born at Penzance, Cornwall, in 1815. He is son of the Rev. Robert Coningham of Londonderry. After the usual course of study he entered the military service in 1834, as an officer in the 1st Royal Dragoons. He afterwards sold out, mar- ried in 1840, and in 1847 contested the representation of Brighton, but was defeated. At the general election of 1852 he stood for Westminster, but again without success. In 1857, how- ever, he stood again for Brighton an J was returned, and took his place among the liberals. He advocates the Ballot, a gradual extension of the suffrage, re- trenchment, and Free-trade; and opposes the Maynooth endowment and church- rates. In a general sense, however, he supports the policy of Lord Palmerston. He is not a politician of extreme opinions, but his views, taken as a whole, are enlarged and liberal He does not often address the House, but when he rises he is listened to with respect and attention. CONSCIENCE, Henri, a Flemish novelist, was born at Antwerp, in Bel- gium, on the 3rd of December, 1812. His father was a Frenchman, settled in Flanders as a ship-broker. In his boy- hood, Conscience was passionately fond of books, and, as a means of gratifying his literary taste, became a teacher. In 1830 the Belgian Revolution broke off his studies, and he entered the military CON 107 COO service as a volunteer. He soon became the poet of the army, and wrote songs full of ardour and point, which became very popular. Discharged in 1836, after having obtained the rank of Sergeant- Major, he was obliged, on account of bickerings with his step-mother, to break with his family, and, poor and lonely, to pick up as he best could the means of a precarious existence. By turns an assistant-gardener, an employ^ in a government office at Antwerp, and clerk to an academy of arts, he at last, in 1845, received the title of Agrege from the University of Ghent. After obtain- ing this distinction he turned his atten- tion to the revival of the Flemish national literature. His enthusiasm for the resto- ration of the Flemish idiom has led him to protest incessantly against tl e intro- duction of the French language. He is ; now a Commissaire d'Arrondissement, [ at Courtrai, but his official duties do not interfere with his literary pursuits, and every year he publishes two or three volumes illustrative of Flemish life. His first production was "The Year of Mira- cles," which is less a romance than a series of brilliant dramatic pictures of an inter - Mting period in Flemish history. It was followed, in 1837, by "Phantasia," a collection of legends and Flemish poetry. In 1838 he published the "Lion of Flanders ;" since that period, quitting the Middle Agee, he has produced very pleasant sketches of the manners of modern Flanders, "Hours of the Night," "The Executioner's Child," "The New Niobe," "The Conscript," and " The Poor Gentleman," one of his most touching works. In 1845 he pub- lished "The History of Belgium." He has since written "Quintin Matsys," b from the Book of Nature," and "Jacques D'Artevelde." His most re- cent works are, " The Curse of the Vil- "The War of the Peasants," "The Demon of Gold," and "Simon Turchi at Batavia." His works have been translated into most modern tongues. CONSTANTINE, Nichol^witch, second son of the late Emperor Nicholas, Grand Duke of Russia, brother of the present Czar, and Grand Admiral of the Imperial Fleet, was born in 1827. He was declared Admiral of the Fleet by his father in 1831, when he was four years old. His chief naval instructor was Admiral Lutke, celebrated by his voyage from Cronstadt to Kamtschatka and back in 1826-27. Constantine, in his boyish studies, displayed a marked predilection for everything Russian, His general reputation for talent earned him a wide popularity in Russia, more especially with the old Russian party. In 1847 he visited England, and went to all the public establishments, leaving a favourable impression upon all with whom he came in contact. In the late war he was entrusted with the control of the defensive operations in the Baltic. The high expectations entertained re- specting his spirit and ability were scarcely realized during the contest. He again visited England (1859), in- specting the dockyards and forts of the country, and learning a due regard for that nation in peace, which his country- men in the Crimea had learned to re- spect in war. The Grand Duke is a good English scholar, and is well ac- quainted with English literature, ancient as well as modern. He was married in 1848 to the Princess Alexandria Jo- sefowna, daughter of Joseph Duke of Saxe Altenburg, by whom he has a family of four children. COOK, Eliza, a song writer, was born in 1817, at South wark, where her father was a tradesman. When in her twentieth year, she gained considerable reputation as a poetical contributor to several of the London periodicals, and especially to the "New Monthly Maga- zine," and " Metropolitan and Literary Gazette." In 1840 a volume of her coo 108 COP poems was published, numbers of them having been, and continuing to be, very popular. In 1849 "Eliza Cook's Jour- nal" appeared; but it has since ceased to exist. Miss Cook's most popular poems are the " Old Arm Chair," " The Old Farm Gate," "Home in the Heart," "The Last Good-Bye," and "I Miss Thee, my Mother ; " but she is the writer of many more of equal merit, and all characterised by great freedom, ease, and heartiness of sentiment and expres- sion. " She makes you feel," says a dis- tinguished writer, "that her whole heart is in all she writes ; that she gives full utterance to the depths of her soul a soul that is in sympathy with all that is pure and true. " A complete collection of her poems has just been published. COOKE, Edward William, A. It. A., an English painter, was born in London in 181 1. He seems to have acquired a taste for art from his father, who was an emi- nent engraver. His first productions were sketches of plants intended as illustra- tions for the "Botanic Cabinet," and "Loudon's Encylopaedia." He subse- quently engaged in marine sketching, and in 1832 commenced painting in oiL His artistic education was completed in Italy and France. In 1851 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. The following of his productions are at pre- sent in the South Kensington Museum, namely, "Lobster Pots," "Mending the Bait Nets," "Brighton Sands," "The Antiquary's Cell," "Mont St. Michel, Normandy," "A Mackerel," "Portsmouth Harbour," "The Hulks," "Hastings, from All Saints' Church," ' Windmills, Blackheath, " ' ' Carp, " " Portsmouth Harbour," "The Victory," "Dutch Boats in a Calm," and "The Boat House." COOPER, Thomas Sidney, A.R.A., a painter, was born at Canterbury on the 26th September, 1803. His parents were in trade, but not in opulent cir- cumstances, and his father having, while the subject of this notice was a child, deserted his family, the boy was early thrown on his own resources. Having learned to draw, he succeeded in occa- sionally earning a few shillings by the sale of sketches of old buildings. He afterwards received instruction from Mr. Doyle, a scene painter, after whose death (which took place in the following year) he was employed in this capacity. In 1827 he went to Belgium, obtaining his living by the way through the exercise of his artistic skilL He at last reached Brussels, where he studied the works of the Old Flemish and Dutch Masters, without, however, copying their pictures, gained patrons, and ultimately settled and married. While resident in the Belgian capital, Mr. Cooper also mas- tered the methods of the living painters of Flanders and Holland, especially the style of the eminent animal painter, M. Verboeckhoven. In 1831 he re- turned to England resolved to adopt animal painting as his particular de- partment of art, and by the novelty of his manner at once caught attention and attracted purchasers. His first pic- ture was exhibited at the Gallery of the Society of British Artists, and since that time his career has been one of con- tinued prosperity. For some years he has painted cattle for the landscapes of Lee, and the harmcny of the productions is unexceptionable, and the effect highly admired by the best judges of art. His "Farm Yard Milking Time," a study from a farm near Canterbury, and "Cattle Early Morn on the Cumber- land Hills," are in the Vernon Collec- tion at the South Kensington Museum. COPE, Charles West, R.A., an his- torical and domestic painter, was born at Leeds in 1811; his father being an artist, highly esteemed in his own neighbourhood. Having studied under Mr. Sass, and at the Royal Academy, he painted a "Holy Family," which was purchased by the late Mr. Beckford. COR 109 COR His first picture for the Academy was exhibited in 1831, from which time he painted with great diligence and care, gradually adding laurels to his wreath, until 1843, when his cartoon, the "First Trial by Jury," obtained the 300 prize in the Westminster Hall competition. Thenceforward he met with great suc- cess, taking a high place among modern artists. In 1843 he was elected Asso- ciate of the Academy, and in 1848 ele- vated to the rank of Royal Academician. He has progressed surely, though not rapidly, still deservedly, for he has been a close student, and is a conscientious painter. Among his chief works are a "Pastorella," from Spenser; "L' Alle- gro" and "II Penseroso," from Milton; the "Last Days of Cardinal Wolsey" (1848); "Lear and Cordelia" (1850); "Laurence Saunders, the Second Marian Martyr, in Prison" (1851); "Othello relating his Adventures" (1853); "The Children of Charles I. in Carisbrook Castle" (1855) ; and three frescoes for the New Houses of Parliament ; namely, "Edward III. conferring the Order of the Garter on Edward the Black Prince," "Prince Henry's Sub- mission to the Law," and " Griselda's First Trial," which are universally ad- mitted to be among the most successful of recent attempts in this department of art. The following of Mr. Cope's pro- ductions are in the South Kensington Museum: "Palpitation," "The Young Mother," "The Hawthorn Bush," "Maiden Meditation," "Beneficence," "Almsgiving," "L' Allegro," " II Pen- seroso," and "Mother and Child." CORBAUX, Miss Fanny, a female artist, is daughter of a gentleman who was a well-known Fellow of the Royal Society. Miss Corbaux was born in 1812, and when quite a child exhibited decided talent in drawing. She prac- tised at first for mere amusement, for sue had no idea of ever turning her skill to other account. But misfortune over- took her father, who, reduced to poor circumstances, and old and feeble, was unable to help himself. Then came Miss Corbaux' s trial. She was only fifteen, and her knowledge of art was but inci- pient. She scarcely knew the use of colours, and still less the art of mixing them; but the cares of the family urged her on, and she resolved on becoming the support of her father. The heroism of this young lady is not outdone in the history of the straggles of artists. She bore up under every trial, and at length had her reward. Even while she was drooping and toiling she received three high-art honours. Miss Corbaux was then sixteen. She gained first, the large silver medal of the Society of Arts, for a por- trait in miniature; secondly, the silver Isis medal, for a copy of figures, in water-colours: and, thirdly, the silver palette, for a copy of an engraving. Next year, 1828, she again received the Isis medal, for a figure -composition, in water-colours; and in 1830 she ob- tained the gold medal, for a miniature portrait. She had studied with a dili- gence unknown to all but herself, in the National Gallery and the British In- stitution. In the same year that she received the gold medal she was ad- mitted an honorary member of the So- ciety of British Artists. Miss Corbaux has been chiefly occupied in portrait - painting, and in this department she has been highly and deservedly successful, her portraits being striking likenesses, her colour pure, and her manipulation firm. Miss Corbaux has not limited her thoughts to art she permitted them to travel through the realms of sacred liter- ature, and the result has been a series of investigations so acute and satisfactory that their conclusions have been adopted by numbers of the most learned of our time in Biblical history. CORBOULD, Edward Henry, an English water-colour painter, was born in London on 5th December, 1815. COR 110 COR His father and grandfather were well- known historic painters. He was edu- cated at Dr. May's school, at Enfield, in a building which had been a palace of Queen Elizabeth. He left this place in 1832, and about a year afterwards he sent an original design, in water-colours, to the Society of Arts, " Phaeton draw- ing the Chariot of the Sun;" obtained the gold Isis medal, which he had again the following year for a model of "St. George contending with the Dragon," from Spenser's "Faerie Queene;" and afterwards he obtained the large gold medallion, for a model of a "Chariot Race," from Homer. In 1839 he pro- duced "The Eglinton Tournament," "The Meeting of the Pilgrims at the Tabard Inn," from Chaucer; and "The Woman taken in Adultery." In 1843 he painted a cartoon, " The Plague of London," for which he received a prize of 100. His success in this in- stance induced him to devote his ener- gies to fresco -painting, and work after work proceeded from his hand until 1847, when he seemed to have relin- quished frescoes for water-colours ex- clusively. His subjects are chiefly historical, and treated in a dramatic manner. He has drawn his inspiration from the days of chivalry, with their pageantry and picturesque shows. In art he revived the form and semblance of mediaeval times, as in literature Sir Walter Scott had given new life to the characters and sentiments of those who figured in the Middle Ages. His prin- cipal works, besides those already mentioned, are: "Fair Rosamond," "William of Eynesham reciting Valor- ous Deeds before a Chivalrous Court," 4 ' Destruction of the Idols at Bale, " and a ' ' Scene from the Opera of the Prophete, " painted by command of Her Majesty, and which is said to be one of his best productions. He is a brilliant colourist, and possesses extraordinary knowledge of ancient architecture and costume. His whole manner and mode of thought, it is said, have been influenced by the picturesque old palace in which he was educated, and the pageantry of the Eglinton tournament, at which he was present, before the production of his first great picture, in which he has em- balmed his impressions of that event. CORMENIN, Louis Marie de la Haye, Vicomte de, a French political writer, was born at Paris, January 6, 1 788. He is a member of a distinguished family) his grandfather being the Due de Pen- thievre; His early education was re- ceived at the school of M. Lepitre at Paris. He subsequently studied with great success in the legal schools, and was chosen an advocate in 1808. Mean- while he had continued his literary studies under MM. Laya and Villemain in Paris. He at the same time exhibit- ed a taste for poetry, and some of his early verses appeared in the " Mer- cure de France," and the "Alma- nach des Muses." At the early age of twenty-two he was appointed by Napoleon First Secretary of the Council of State, and while in that office was charged with drawing up some of its most elaborate reports. In 1828 Cormenin was elected Deputy, and continued to be re-elected during eighteen years. His intimate and comprehensive know- ledge of jurisprudence, his logical method, whether of speaking or writ- ing, gave him great power. In 1830 M. Cormenin protested strongly against the elevation of the Orleans dynasty to the throne of France. He resigned his posi- tion in the Council of State, and refused the highest offices. He also gave up his Deputy ship. Repenting the latter step, he offered himself to the electors of Loiret, but was not elected. He was, however, sent to the Chamber by the Department of Ain in October, 1830, and sat on the extreme left. In 1831 he commenced his famous "Lettres sur la Liste Civile," during the discussion on the budget. COR 111 COU After the Revolution of 1848 he dili- gently set to work to remodel the Constitution, being President of the Commission named for that purpose. On the coup d'etat taking place, he was appointed a member of the Council of State, reconstructed by Napoleon III. An advocate by profession, he has been the opponent of everything that dis- played the semblance of abuses, never relaxing in his exertions to promote the cause of progress. M. de Cormenin is the author of a work on "The Par- liamentary Orators of France," which was published under the name of "Ti- mon." This book, containing a series of articles on Berryer, Guizot, Thiers, Dupin, Lamartine, Odilon Barrot, &c, &c, had an extraordinary success, and has been so highly appreciated by its numerous readers in France as to have passed through upwards of twenty editions. It has long been considered in France a model in the style to which it belongs, although the English trans- lation has attracted no great attention in this country. CORNELIUS, Peter Von, a German painter, was bora at Dusseldorf on the 16th September, 1787. In his youth he had severe struggles. At the age of sixteen he lost his father, and was about to give up art for some other means of supporting the family, but his mother perceived his genius, and made many sacrifices for his advancement. At the age of nineteen he painted the cuj>o]a of the Old Church at Neuss, and in 1810 he executed designs for Goethe's " Faust," in which he did full justice to the ideas of the great German author. He proceeded to Rome in 181 1, and in 1 8 1 9 went to Munich. In 1 825 he was appointed Director of the Academy in that city. Whilst at Munich he exe- cuted his most famous works, and the frescoes which decorate the Glyptothek. He also painted the walls of the Church of Saint Louis with frescoes, entitled "God the Father," "The Birth of Christ," "The Crucifixion," and "The Day of Judgment." He returned to Rome in 1833, and in 1841 visited Berlin. His designs, frescoes, and other works are very numerous, and exhibit the ster- ling qualities which denote genius. COSTELLO, Miss Louisa Stuart, a popular writer of the day, was born hi Ireland in 1815. In 1835 she published her " Specimens of the early Poetry of France, " dedicated to Thomas Moore. In 1840 her " Summer amongst the Bocages and the Vines," a pleasant book de- scriptive of Normandy and Brittany, ap- peared. She continued to write with taste and discrimination of her continental wanderings, until in 1844 she produced "Memoirs of Celebrated English- women. " Thenceforward Miss Costello has been an indefatigable authoress and student of history ; while her contribu- tions to periodicals have been almost without a break. She is a poetess be- sides, although she rarely indulges in verse writing. Her brother, Dudley Costello, is a well-known contributor to periodical and light literature. COUSIN, Victor, a French meta- physician, was born in November, ] 792, at Paris, where his father was a watch and clockmaker. He gained various prizes at the Lycee Charlemagne ; and showed a bias for metaphysical pursuits. A translation of "Plato" into French, published in 1812, first gave Cousin ce- lebrity in the literary and philosophical world. In 1815 he delivered lectures on the history of philosophy in the Univer- sity. He attached himself to the Royal cause, but after the fall of the Emperor, the freedom with which he uttered opinions against the restored monarchy caused the Government to insist on his ceasing to lecture. In 1828 he resumed his lectures, and was appointed Inspec- tor-General of Education. In this capa- city he visited Germany in 1831, and in 1832 published a report on the Prussian cou 112 COW system of education, which has given popular instruction such an impulse over Europe. As a metaphysician, Cousin showed, in this early part of his career, a greater bias towards the Scottish philo- sophy than to any other. Sir William Hamilton's celebrated paper on the " Philosophy of the Unconditioned" was mainly directed against the principles of Cousin, and is accepted by many of the profoundest and most cautious thinkers as an effectual demolition of the theories of the brilliant Frenchman. He gave General Cavaignac, while in power, all the benefit of his experience and ad- vice; but in 1849 he disappeared from public life. His works are very numer- ous, and are characterised by a style which places him among the first of living philosophical writers, and entitles him undoubtedly to the very first place among modern French philosophical authors. Mr. Cousin's chief works are, a " Translation of the Works of Plato," in 13 volumes (1825-40) ; an edition of "Descartes' Works," in 11 volumes; a * 'Course of Lectures on Moral Philosophy, delivered to the Faculte des Lettres, in 1818, on the Foundation Ideas of the Absolute, the True, the Beautiful, and the Good" (1836); "Lectures on the History of Modern Philosophy, deli- vered in 1816-17 " (1841 ); " Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century, delivered for the Faculte des Lettres, from 1816 to 1820," published in five volumes, Oct., 1840-41; "Lessons on the Philosophy of Kant" (1842) ; "A Dissertation on the Pensees de Pascal" (1842); and a series of studies on the distinguished women of the seventeenth century, including Ma- dame de Longueville (1853), Madame de Salle (1854), Madame de Chevreuse and Madame de Hautefort (1856). M. Cousin, who has been a leading contri- butor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes," the " Memoirs of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences," and th^ " Journal des Savans," published in 1846-47 a col- lected edition of his works up to that period, in 22 volumes 18mo. COUTTS, Miss Angela Georgiana Burdett, was born in 1814, and is the youngest daughter of the celebrated Sir Francis Burdett who was imprisoned in the tower for his advocacy of reform in 1810. She is grand -daughter of the emi- nent banker whose name she bears, and to whose great wealth she has succeeded. Miss Burdett's enormous fortune came to her quite unexpectedly. Old Mr. Coutts had married the actress, Harriet Mellon, and when he died bequeathed to her all his vast fortune. Mrs. Coutts afterwards married the Duke of St. Albans, and before her death conveyed to Miss Angela Burdett everything she possessed, limited only by the condition that the heiress should adopt the name of Coutts. There are few of the wealthy classes whose names are more identified with public and private benevolence than is that of Miss Coutts. Her liberality is on the largest scale, and her means are expended in assisting every scheme which has for its object the moral or physical improvement of the masses. Amongst her numerous instances of be- nevolence, we may state that she has endowed a bishopric in Australia, and has built a handsome church in the west end of London. COWLEY, Henry Richard Wel- lesley, Lord, British Minister at Paris, was born in London, 1804. He entered the diplomatic service when only twenty, having become an attache to the Em- bassy at Vienna in 1824, afterwards Secretary of Legation at Stuttgart in 1832, and Secretary of the Embassy at Constantinople in 1831. In 1848 he was Minister Plenipotentiary to Switzer- land, when delicate negotiations called him to Frankfort. In 1851, during an anxious period for the German States, he was accredited to the Confederation, and in 1852 succeeded the Marquis of Nor- CRA 113 manby as Ambassador at the Court of the Tuileries. In conjunction with Lord Clarendon, he represented Great Britain at the Congress of Paris, when peace was proclaimed ; and so late as last year he proceeded on a brief mission to Vienna, the object of which was to lay before the Emperor of Austria England's views re- specting the state of affairs in Italy. * CRAIK, George Lillie, LL.D., a literary writer, was born in Fifeshire in 1798. He is the son of the Rev. William Craik. At the University of St. Andrew's he went through the usual course of a divinity student for the Church of Scotland, but never entered the ministry. Soon after the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge was formed, Mr. Craik wrote for it the " Pursuit of Knowledge imder Dif- ficulties," which was one of the works/ forming part of the " Library of Enter- taining Knowledge." Though appear- ing anonymously, this work established its author's reputation as a writer of extensive and varied acquirements. To the " Penny Cyclopaedia". Mr. Craik con- tributed some of the most valuable articles in history and biography. In 1839 he became editor of the "Pictorial History of England, " writing himself all those parts of the work which relate to religion, laws, literature, and industry. His principal works, besides those re- ferred to, are "Sketches of the History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman Conquest, " " History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times," " Spenser and his Poetry," n : his Writings and his Philo- sophy," "Outlines of the History of tlie English Language," "The English of Sliakspere," and the "Romance of the Peerage," the last being one of the most instructive and interesting books which have appeared during the present century. In all his writings Dr. Craik exhibits the same laborious research, accuracy, and capacity to explain in CRE clear and graceful language subjects of a recondite character, and a most anxious desire to aid as far as he can in im- proving the education and habits of his countrymen. Dr. Craik is at present Professor of History and English Litera- ture in the Queen's College, Belfast, and is engaged on an enlarged and corrected edition of his " History of English Literature." CRANWORTH, Robert Monsey Rolfe, Baron, late Lord Chancellor of England, was born in 1790. Educated at Winchester and Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1816, and soon got into extensive practice. In 1834 he was appointed Solicitor-General, an office which he held, with a short interval, until 1839, when he was elevated to the Bench as a Baron of the Exchequer. He was appointed Vice-Chancellor in 1850, and in the same year raised to the peer- age. He was one of the Lords Justices of Appeal in Chancery in 1851, and Lord Chancellor in 1852 ; continuing to hold this office during the Ministry of Lord Palmerston. He has since retired, taking no prominent part in the proceed- ings of the House of Lords, although he is firmly attached to the opinions of the Whig party. CREASY, Sir Edward Shepherd, M.A., a lawyer and historian, and Chief Justice of Ceylon, was born in 1812, at Bexley, in Kent. He is the son of Edward Hill Creasy, of Brighton, who was at one time part proprietor of the " Brighton Gazette. " The subject of this notice was educated at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow in 1834. In 1837 he passed as barrister, and has since prac- tised at the Common Law Bar, as a member of the Home Circuit. In 1850 he was appointed Professor of History in University College, London, and in the following year published "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," a work now in its ninth edition. Professor CRE 114 CEO Creasy has also written the " Rise and Progress of the English Constitu- tion," published in 1834, which is now in its fourth edition, having been re- printed in America, and translated into several foreign languages. "The His- tory of the Ottoman Turks," published in 1856, the last work of the author, is about to be followed by a work on "International Law," which is now in the press. Mr. Creasy was knighted in 1860, on the occasion of his being ap- pointed Chief Justice of Ceylon. CREMIEUX, Isaac Adolphe, a French legislator, and ex- Minister of Justice under the provisional govern- ment of France in 1848, was born at Nismes, of Jewish parents, in 1796. After attending classes at the college of Louis-le -Grand, he studied law at Aix, and settled as an advocate at first at Nismes, and afterwards at Paris. His career was highly successful, until he received his first check by defending Guernon Ranville, one of Charles X.'s Ministers. In political pleadings in the courts, he was almost uniformly em- ployed in defending the Radical party when attacked by the prosecution of their organs of the press. Cremieux was long a member of the Chamber of Depu- ties, entering the Assembly first in 1842, and being re-elected in 1846. He ad- vocated Free Trade, and a law that no paid official should have a seat in the Chamber, with the exception of Ministers, always voting with the reform party against Guizot. When it was announced that the Government would put down the reform banquets, Cremieux ex- claimed, "There is blood in this!" Meeting Louis- Philippe and his queen in the Place de la Concorde, on the Thursday of their departure, he urged the king to flee immediately, no hope for them being left. He subsequently urged in the Chamber of Deputies the for- mation of a Provisional Government. After the events of 1848, he, though a democrat, showed but little favour to Cavaignac, upholding the candida- ture of Louis Napoleon for the Pre- sidency. However, after the election of December he became one of the most earnest orators of the Opposition. When the coup anied him. On the 21st of September, 1799, he executed a task which displayed at once his reso- lution and his judgment. The Lady Nelson cutter was hemmed in off Cabritta Point, Gibraltar Bay, by the French and Spanish vessels. He took with him the Queen Charlotte's boats, attacked the opposing force, and ultimately boarding some, rescued the beleaguered vessel In March, 1800, in command of the war-sloop Speedy, he captured no fewer than 50 vessels, with 122 guns and 534 prisoners, his own ship mount- ing only 14 guns and carrying 54 men. He encountered the Gamo, 32 guns, 319 men, off Barcelona, on May 6th, 1801, and after a desperate struggle made her a prize. This action gained him his rank as Captain. But there is no sunshine without shadow. The Speedy was obliged, after a thirteen months' cruise, to surrender to a French squadron consisting of three ships of the line. Lord Cochrane became a pri- soner of war, but was soon after ex- changed. From that time, although very badly used by the Admiralty, he was scarcely ever out of service or out of danger, cruising in the Pallas and the Imperieuse, taking the enemy's ships here, and blowing up batteries DUN 141 DUN there ; when, in 1809, he was ordered, as the most intrepid commander at the time within reach, to destroy by means of fire-ships the French fleet, then in the Basque Roads. He undertook this mission of victory or death, went on board one of the ships, which contained a large quantity of gunpowder, and was successful. After being knighted, he became member for Honiton and then for Westminster. Lord Cochrane, while in Parliament, exposed the shortcomings and venality of the Admiralty, and was an inveterate opponent of ministers; the result of which was, that when, in the early part of 1814, a report was spread that Napoleon had fallen, and Lord Cochrane and his friends had taken advantage of this for their own interests, the ministry considering this a good opportunity to stifle his opposition, accused him of stock jobbing and fraud. He was found guilty of spreading a report that damaged thousands for his own gain, was fined, and deprived of all his rewards and decorations. In addi- tion, he was to be imprisoned for a year. But before the term was con- cluded, his Westminster constituents considering that he was the victim of party feeling, re-elected him to the House of Commons, and escaping from jaiL to the astonishment of the mem- bers made his bow to the Speaker. From a prison to foreign service was no unpleasant change. Lord Cochrane went to South America, and fought heroically for the independence of the Spanish colonies. He next gave the weight of his character and genius to Greece, after being a short time em- ployed by the Brazilian government, and eventually, forty-four years after the war, was restored to his rank in the navy of ( i i eat Britain. He became Earl of Dundouald in 1831, Vice-Admiral of the Blue in 1841, and mounted once more the order of the Bath in 1847. In 1851 he was Vice-Admiral of the White, and in 1852 Bear- Admiral of the United King- dom. It is much to be regretted that the Earl of Dundonald has not met with that cordial response throughout his life which his talents, energies, and patriotism have deserved. In former days he has had to contend with the jealousies of his inferiors in ability, although by the accidents of life they may have been his superiors in sta- tion. His various inventions, offered to different governments, prove him to be a man of genius; and although some of the improvements he has suggested in the mode of carrying on war may have ap- peared at first sight somewhat too highly coloured in their promised results, still the motives which induced him to present them to the j udgment of the naval and ord- nance boards, should at least have secured for them a careful examination. But he has outlived his enemies, and can now well afford to forget past circumstances. Ca- lumnies have been disproved ; the evil spirit that had haunted him is banished ; and the maligned Lord Cochrane is more honoured than ever. Since his retirement from active service, he has turned his at- tention to the science of naval warfare, and has invented new projectiles and new methods of blowing up ships ; but his plans have been always rejected by the powers that be. In his eighty-sixth year Lord Dundonald' s activity is still on the ascen- dant, and he is occupied on the " Story of his Life," a memoir which will, in all time to come, stimulate the pluck and energy of English seamen. DUNGLISON,Robley, M.D., LL.D., a medical writer, was born at Keswick, in 1798. He commenced the practice of medicine in 1819 in London, but in 1824 went to America, having been chosen Professor of Medicine in the newly- established University of Virgi- nia. In 1833, he was appointed Pro- fessor of Materia Medica in the Univer- sity of Maryland ; and, since 1836, of the Institutes of Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence in the Jefferson Medical DUP 142 DUP College of Philadelphia. Dr. Dunglin- son's works are so many text-books, on which students and practitioners may place implicit reliance. He is one of the most popular medical authors of the day. So great has been the demand for his works, that of the "Medical Lexi- con," "General Therapeutics and Ma- teria Medica," "Human Physiology," "Human Health," "New Remedies," and the "Practice of Medicine," re- prints of 100,000 volumes had been sold up to 1858. DU PETIT THOUARS, Abel Au- bert, a French navigator, was born in 1793. He entered the French Marine Service in 1804. He was promoted in 1819 to the rank of lieutenant; and in 1824 to that of captain of a frigate. In 1841, he was rear-admiral, when he pro- posed to Louis-Philippe to occupy the Society Islands. His proceedings there are well known ; when he returned from the Pacific to France, they were dis- avowed. Under the Republic he sat in the National Assembly for the depart- ment of Marne-et-Loire, always voting with the majority. Latterly there has been nothing heard of him. DUPIN, Andre-Marie Jean Jacques, known as Dupin ain6, ex-President of the National Assembly, was born at Varzy, on the 1st February, 1783. He was called to the bar in February 1800 ; and in 1802, when the schools were re-opened, he was the first to pass as Doctor before the new faculty. He endeavoured to obtain a vacant pro- fessorship in the School of Law in Paris, but being refused, he commenced prac- tice at the bar, where the piquant origi- nality of his speech, the brilliancy of his wit, and the extent and accuracy of his knowledge, gained for him a great repu- tation. In 1811 he was recommended for the place of Advocate-General to the Court of Cassation, which he did not obtain, but he was almost immediately appointed to the Commission for Classi- fying the Laws of the Empire, which immense undertaking was afterwards entrusted to his sole charge. His poli- tical life began in 1815, when he was returned to the Chamber of Representa- tives, and took part with the liberal opposition. He was, with M. Berryer, the defender of Marshal Ney, in 1815 ; he also defended the Englishmen, Wil- son, Hutchinson, and Bruce, who had been so instrumental in the memorable escape of Lavalette ; and as the steadfast enemy of the Jesuits, enjoyed an ex- tended popularity under the Restoration. Dupin has directed great attention to the productive powers of France, and has written two works upon that sub- ject. From 1815 to 1830 he was a member of the Representative Chamber. In 1830 he was a zealous supporter of Louis-Philippe, and in 1831 was named Procureur-General. Towards the end of 1832 he became President and Speaker of the new parliament His political career for a number of years presents few striking features. In 1842 he was named reporter of the project of law in favour of the Duke de Nemours being regent ; and in 1848, he introduced the Count of Paris to the Chamber, recom- mending the members to recognise him as king and the Duchess of Orleans as regent. He made a show of moral oppo- sition to the coup d'itat when the As- sembly was dispersed, but he has since seen it his interest to reconcile himself to the rule of Napoleon. In point of fact, Dupin is the solitary example of the seduction of any eminent statesman of the old rggime, by the Emperor. DUPIN, Baron Francois Pierre Charles, a French statistician and se- nator, brother of the preceding, was born at Varzy, in Nivernais, on 6th October, 1784. He studied in the Poly- technic School, and in 1808 was named engineer to the Marine Service, when he was employed in the preparation of the channel fleet and in forming the arsenal DUP 143 DUP of Antwerp. He was four years at Corfu, whither he went after the Ionian Islands had been ceded to France. On his return to Paris, in 1812, he devoted his attention to the study of the con- struction of ships ; in 1813 he founded the Maritime Museum, which has served as a model for the naval museum of the Louvre. A favourite pupil of Monge, aud a friend of the republican Carnot, he witnessed the fall of the empire with- out regret. He asked permission of Fouche to defend Carnot. Entrusted with the superintendence of the dock- yard at Dunkirk, he visited in 1816 the maritime establishments of England. Four years afterwards he began the publication of his "Voyages dans la Grand Bretagne entre 1816 et 1821," in which he pointed out the advantages of constitutional government. In 1815 he was admitted to the Institute. In 1824 Louis XVIII. conferred on him the title of Baron ; but he continued true to liberal principles, and being returned Deputy for Tarn he made numerous speeches on public instruction, the navy and its organization, &c. He opposed Polignac, and was elected for Paris, July 1820. He filled various offices up to 1837, when he was created a peer of France ; and since then he has main- tained his principles without sacrificing his independence. Among his works may be enumerated a work entitled " Geometry and Mechanics, in their Application to Industry and the Fine Arts" (Paris, 1825 and 1826); "The British System of Administration" (1823); "Lectures on Industry, Commerce, Na- vigation, and the Sciences applied to the Arts ;" " Opening Addresses to the Conservatory;" "The Eloge of Gas- pard Monge," read on the 2nd of Sep- tember, 1849, in the name of ,the Aca- demy of Sciences ; " Discourse pro- nounced at the Distribution of Prizes to the French Exhibitors on the 25th of November, 1851;" a pamphlet on the " Comparative Industry of Paris and London" (1852); and various other re- ports and eloges. DUPONT DE L'EURE, Jacques Charles, President of the Provisional Government of France in 1848, was born at Neubourg, Eure, on the 27th of February, 1767. In 1789 he was admitted as an advocate before the parliament of Normandy, and embraced the principles of the Revolution with ardour. He led a very active public life, filling many offices, his political creed being, liberty of the people and the press, equal civil and political rights, and a representative system. Through all the changes of dynasty that have occurred during his long life, M. Dupont De L'Eure has sustained the reputation of being a pure-minded citi- zen and an honest man. DUPONT, Pierre, a French poet aud song writer, was born at Lyons in 1821. His parents were very poor, but, by one means and another, he received a fair education, and got to be employed in the office of a notary, and afterwards obtained a clerkship in a bank. In 1839 he went to Paris, and in time attracted notice. He published a volume of poetry, entitled ' ' The Two Angels," in 1844; and its success, thoiigh moderate at first, evoked the spirit of poetry. He awoke one morning and found he had risen to fame by his song of ' ' Les Bceufs. " Thenceforward he devoted himself to the composition of songs, to most of which he composed music, without knowing anything of the science. After 1848 he was car- ried away by the Socialist notions of the day, and wrote a few songs which compromised him with the government. In December, 1851, he remained under concealment for six months ; at the end of which he was dis- covered, and condemned to six months' banishment to Landessa, in Algeria. He, however, obtained a pardon, and since BYC 144 D YC then he has not interfered in politics. The best known of his songs are, ' ' Les Boeuf s, " " Le Braconnier, " ' ' Le Louis d'Or," " Le Chant des Nations," "Le Chant des Soldats," "Le Dahlia Bleu, " "La Vigne, " "La Chanson du Big," "La Vache Blanche," "La Fin de la Pologne," &c. Various editions of his songs have been published, both with and without music. M. Dupontmay be looked upon as the Burns of France. DYCE, the Rev. Alexander, an English author and critic, was born in Edinburgh, in June, 1798, and received his education at the High School of that city, and Exeter College, Oxford. Having completed his curriculum, he received episcopal ordination, and offi- ciated for several years as a curate in Cornwall and Suffolk. On going to London he entered there upon a literary career, in which his general learning and critical sagacity have gained him merited distinction. After publishing "Select Translations from Quintus Smyrnseus," an edition of the poet Collins, and " Specimens of British Poetesses," he edited the works of Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher, Peele, Greene, Webster, Shirley, Mid- dleton, Marlowe, Bentley, and Skelton. Amongst his other publications are, " Specimens of British Sonnets ;" "Re- marks on Collier's and Knight's Edi- tions of Shakspeare;" "A Few Notes on Shakspeare;" and "Strictures on Collier's new Edition of Shakspeare." The lives of Shakspeare, Pope, Akenside and Beattie, in the "Aldine Poets," were written by him ; and he has edited various volumes for the Camden and Percy Societies. His " Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers," has been several times reprinted. As a Shakspearian critic Mr. Dyce is perhaps most favourably known, and his text of the great dramatist has been pronounced by the "Quarterly,'* to be by far the best yet given to the world. DYCE, William, R.A., a painter of history, and writer on subjects connected chiefly with the Fine Arts and ecclesi- astical antiquities, was born at Aber- deen, in 1806. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and took the degree of M. A. at the age of sixteen. He was intended for one of the learned pro- fessions, but subsequently devoted him- self to art, and went to London in 1825 to be entered as a pupil of the Royal Academy. He was admitted ; but his father having been advised to send him to study in Italy, Mr. Dyce set out for Rome in the same year. On his return, he produced a picture on a classical sub- ject, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1827. After a second visit to Italy, he finally returned to this country, and spent some years partly in London and partly in Aberdeen and Edinburgh. A pamphlet, which he wrote in 1836, "On the Application of Design to Manuf actures, " having been brought under the notice of the Board of Trade, he was summoned to London, and sent by the President then Mr. Poulett Thomson on a mission to the Continent, to report on the organiza- tion of Foreign Schools of Design, with a view to the formation of an establish- ment of that kind in London, which was then in contemplation. The report made by him was printed by the House of Commons, and he was appointed Di- rector of the new establishment, with Mr. Herbert, R.A., as Head Master. He held this office for five years ; and on his resignation in 1843, was appointed Inspector of the Provincial Schools, which had been established under his management, and a member of the Council. His occupations at the School of Design having become less engross- ing, he again applied himself to art, and in 1844 exhibited his picture of "King Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliver- ance," the merits of which were so fully recognised that he was electe d E AD 145 E AD Associate of the Royal Academy. The same year he exhibited a specimen of fresco painting at the Westminster Hall Exhibition. He soon afterwards received a commission for a fresco for Buckingham Palace, and subsequently for Osborne. He was the first of the artists employed on the New Houses of Parliament, and so highly was his ' ' Bap- tism of Ethelbert" his grand fresco in the House of Lords appreciated, that he has been for years engaged in adorn - iug the New Palace. He was elected an Academician in 1848 ; but of late years, in consequence of his other com- missions, he has exhibited few oil pic- tures. He published in 1843-44, in 2 vols. 4to, an edition of the Book of Common Prayer, with the ancient musi- cal notation ; accompanied by a Disser- tation on Gregorian Music, and its adap- tatii >n t< > Knglish words. He is also the author of a reply to a pamphlet of Mr. Buskin on a theological subject ; of a work on "The Management of the National Gallery;" and of numerous articles in periodicals to which his name is not attached. He is Professor of the Theory of the Fine Arts, in King's Col- lege, London. EADIE, John, D.D., LL.D., an eminent biblical critic, was born about the year 1814, in Alva, a small town in the county of Stirling. At a very early period Dr. Eadie began to manifest superior powers, and made rapid pro- gress in all those branches of a liberal education, forming a necessary prepara- tion for the ministry. Having completed : his preparatory studies, Mr. Eadie en- tered the University of Glasgow ; thence he passed with honour to the divinity j hall of the United Presbyterian Church, then under the superintendence of Drs. Dick and Mitchell. Having completed his theological curriculum, Mr. Eadie be- ; came a preacher of the Gospel. His supe- j rior powers were soon appreciated, and , at the early age of twenty-one he was, in 1835, ordained minister of the congrega- tion of which he is still the pastor. On the death of the late accomplished Dr. Mitchell, Professor of Biblical Literature to the United Presbyterian Synod, such was the estimation of Dr. Eadie's scholar- ship and capacity, that he was unani- mously appointed in 1843, by the Synod, to fill the chair of his quondam teacher. Dr. Eadie was in 1846-47 twice called to a pastoral charge in Edinburgh, but re- fused to go. While discharging with high acceptability the duties of this professorship, and continuing to minister to his large congregation, every seat in his chapel being let, Dr. Eadie has also devoted himself to the production of not a few works of great usefulness and ability. ' Cruden's Concordance," which has since passed through twenty editions, was the first work with which his name was associated, and was undertaken in conjunction with the Rev. Dr. King. The "Biblical Cyclopaedia," "Lectures on the Bible to the Young," "Early Oriental History," "Divine Love," "A Complete Analytical Concordance," "Paul the Preacher," and a "Life of Dr. Kitto," are all peculiarly popular and able works ; while his Commen- taries on Ephesians, Colossians, and Philippians are highly valuable contri- butions to the science of biblical inter- pretation. The second edition of the first of these is now in the press. Some of the most erudite and graceful papers in " The Journal of Sacred Literature," and also in "Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," were contributed by Dr. Eadie. The pages of the "North Bri- tish Review" have likewise been en- riched by his pen. His latest production is a touching and admirable estimate of that facile princeps of English Congre- gational theologians, the late Dr. Pye Smith. This essay has been appro- priately prefixed to a new edition of the "Scripture Testimony to the Messiah," of that, learned divine. Dr. Eadie is EAS 146 ED W now engaged in editing an Ecclesiastical Cyclopaedia, as a companion to the "Biblical Cyclopaedia." Dr. Eadie re- ceived the degree of LL.D. in 1844, from the University of Glasgow, and that of D.D. in 1850, from the University of St. Andrews. EASTLAKE, Sir Charles Lock, a painter, and President of the Royal Academy, was born at Plymouth, in 1793. Having passed through the usual course of education at the grammar schools of his native place, he adopted painting as a profession, and entered the Royal Academy, London, as a pupil of Fuseli, and afterwards visited Paris. He re- turned to England, and established him- self as a portrait painter at Plymouth When, after Waterloo, the ship of war which was to carry Napoleon to Saint Helena lay off Plymouth, Eastlake seized this opportunity for securing the last portrait of the ex-Emperor obtained in Europe. As the great man walked the deck of the " Bellerophon, " the artist, while in a small boat, took sketches of him, and from them produced a full-length portrait, which gave quite a new idea of the personal appearance of Napoleon, the French portraits being in general highly idealized. After a tour to Italy, Sicily, and Greece, he, in 1823, forwarded to the Exhibition of the Royal Academy, views and sketches he had made. In 1828 he contributed his famous "Peasants on a Pilgrimage to Rome, first coming in sight of the Holy City." In 1830 Mr. Eastlake was elected R.A. His next great work, one of the most important of recent contri- butions to the English historical school of painting, was "Christ Weeping over Jerusalem. " The deep sentiment of this great picture won its way to all hearts. It was followed by "Hagar and Ish- mael." In 1841 Mr. Eastlake was ap- pointed Secretary to the Royal Commis- sion, formed for inquiring whether advantage might not be taken of the rebuilding the Houses of Parliament, to promote the Fine Arts. In 1850 Mr. Eastlake was elected President of the Royal Academy, and in the same year he received the honour of knighthood. In 1855 he was appointed Director of the National Gallery, with a salary of 1,000 a year. Opinion is divided respecting the precise position of Sir Charles as an artist, although by many able judges he is esteemed not only the ablest, but also the most learned of English painters. He is the translator of "Goethe on Colours," "Notes to Kugler's Hand- book of Painting," and "Contributions towards a History of Oil Painting." EDWARDES, Sir Herbert Ben- jamin, K.C.B., an Indian officer, was born at Frodesley, in Shropshire (where his father was rector), on 12th November, 1819. Educated at Richmond, Surrey, and at King's College, London, he received a cadetship in 1840. Having attracted notice by a series of letters on public affairs in the "Delhi Gazette," ad- dressed by "Brahminee Bull to his cousin John Bull in England," he was appointed, in 1845, aide-de-camp on the staff of the Commander-in-Chief, Sir Hugh (now Lord) Gough. After taking part in the battles of Moodkee and Sobraon, and being woimded in the former engagement, he was entrusted, in 1846, with an important mission to the court of the king of Iummoo and Cashmere, in which he was completely successful. In the following year he was deputed by Sir Henry Lawrence to accompany, and control, a Sikh force, despatched to realize the arrears of tribute withheld from the Sikh govern- ment by the tribes of Burmoo, a hill- bound country on the Afghan border of the Punjaub. The expedition was only partially successful ; and, at Lieutenant Edwardes' advice, a second was despatch- ed at the close of the year, permanently to reduce and occupy the valley. The complete success of the Lieutenant's EDW 147 EGG plans is narrated in his "Year on the Punjaub Frontier in 1848-9." Scarcely had Burmoo been reduced than Avar broke out at Mooltan. Hearing of the murder of two English officers, Lieut Edwardes, on his own authority, commenced military operations against Dewan Moolraj, the Sikh governor of that province ; and his plans being ap- proved of by Sir Frederick Currie (then officiating as President at Lahore during Sir Henry Lawrence's absence in Eng- land), he levied an irregular force from the border tribes, in aid of a force of Sikh Regulars, and obliged Moolraj to withdraw his army from the left bank of the Indus, and won a complete vic- tory, taking eight guns from the enemy. This battle was fought on the 18th June, and is called "Kineyree," from the neighbouring ferry of the Chenab. The defeated rebels fled to Mooltan, were followed, and again defeated there, with Moolraj at their head, on July 1st, with a loss of two more guns. Moolraj then shut himself up in his fort, and was blockaded by the united forces of Lieut. Edwardes, General Cortlandt, and the Nawab of Bhawulpoor (commanded by another English subaltern, Lieut. Ed- ward Lake, of the Bengal Engineers), till a regular British force under General Whish arrived to besiege the fortress. For these services Lieut. Edwardes was promoted to a Brevet-majority, was made an extra Companion of the Bath, and had a gold medal voted to him by the East India Company. During the operations he lost the use of his right hand by the accidental explosion of a pistol in his belt; in consideration of which the East India Company gave him a good service pension of 100 a year. On the assassination of the Com- missioner of Peshawur, in September 1853, he was selected to succeed him. His services in that post, though attracting less notice, are perhaps the most useful and solid which he has rendered; for by a firm but kind administration, he gradually attached the frontier tribes, and induced government to retrace its former policy towards Afghanistan, and form a friendly alliance with Dost Ma- hommed, the Ameer of Cabul. The fruits of these labours were reaped, in the memorable yean 1857, when the native army of Bengal mutinied. In- stead of fraternizing with the Sepoys, the tribes of the Peshawur frontier sided with government, and furnished import- ant levies for service in Hindostan, while Dost Mahommed maintained a friendly attitude throughout the war, iu stead of marching down to Peshawur, and turn- ing the scale against the English. In Indian politics Lieut. -CoL Edwardes is a decided advocate of an openly-avowed Christian policy, in opposition to the traditional policy of neutrality in reli- gious matters, and advocates, in all government schools in India, the forma- tion of a Bible class at which attendance may be voluntary. In 1850 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from Oxford, and on the 18th June, 1860, the honorary degree of LL.D. from Cam- bridge. EGG, Augustus, a painter, was born in London, in 1816. Of his early life we have no record, but we find him ex- hibiting at the Academy in 1838, and elected an Associate in 1848. He is an admirable illustrator of Shakspeare and Le Sage, to some of whose lighter fancies he has given a charm beyond the reach of written description. Among his chief works are " Le Diable Bot- teux," "The Victim," "Gil Bias ex- changing Rings with Camilla," "Queen Elizabeth discovering that she is no longer Young," "Henrietta of England relieved by Cardinal De Retz," " Kath- arine and Petruchio," and "Bucking- ham rebuffed." A more important work is " Peter the Great seeing Cathe- rine, his future Empress, for the first time ; " a picture which, for conception EGL 148 EHR and masterly handling, may stand com- parison with any production of its class. It is excelled, however, by two other works of more recent date ; one being "The Life and Death of Buckingham," exhibited in 1855, and the other a "tri- logy" exhibited in 1858, which had no title, but was described in an extract from a Diary (termed by most of the papers a domestic tragedy). Mr. Egg was one of the artists selected to arrange the paintings at the Manchester Exhi- bition. EGLINTON and WINTON, Archi- bald William Montgomerie, fifteenth Earl of, and K. T., late Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, was born at Palermo, in Sicily, in 1812. He succeeded to the peerage in 1819, and when he attained his majority took his seat in the House of Lords on the Conservative benches. Attached to field-sports, he encouraged racing and hunting ; but though display- ing what many were pleased to term eccentricities, he never neglected the culture of his intellect. At an early period in life, under the influence of ideas quite allowable in a young nobleman who represented the Sir Hugh Mont- gomery of Chevy Chace, he got up the famous tournament which was to evoke the spirit of the chivalrous age, and which indeed produced a lasting effect on the minds of many persons who wit- nessed it. The pageant was gorgeous. Lady Seymour, now Duchess of Somer- set, was the Queen of Beauty, and the present Emperor of the French one of the spectators. In 1841 his lordship married the widow of the late Captain CockerelL R.N., but who died in 1853, greatly regretted. Lord Eglinton took no very prominent part in political life ; and when, in 1852, on Lord Derby's accession to power, he was appointed to the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, the Opposition sneered and the Ministerialists doubted ; but both were discovered to have made a great mistake, when in the course of a few months he attained to a popularity never accorded to any of his predecessors. He displayed ability for which he had never got credit ; he was accessible and genial ; above all, for the first time in Ireland during a hundred years, he exhibited the novel spectacle of a nobleman re- solved to govern the country without reference to party ; and thus was turned the first leaf in the history of Ireland's social advancement. On the overthrow of Lord Derby's administration, in 1853, he was necessarily recalled ; but on the reinstatement of the Conservatives, in 1858, he returned to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant ; of course retiring when Lord Derby resigned in 1859. As a landlord, Lord Eglinton takes great interest in agricultural improvements. He is fond of out-door games, and there are few better curlers or bowlers in Scotland. He preserves his attachment to field-sports, but at the same time no one more highly appreciates intellectual cultivation, and he has endeavoured to the utmost to promote the diffusion of education through every class of the community. The Scottish rights ques- tion was warmly espoused by Lord Eglinton, on grounds which have been much misrepresented by the press. He was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1853 ; and he is Lord Lieutenant of the county of Ayr. He married, in November 1859, Lady Adela Capel, daughter of the Earl of Essex. EHRENBERG, Christian Gott- freid, a German naturalist and micro- scopist, was born on the 19th of ApriL 1795, at Delitzch, in Prussian Saxony. He received his early education at Schulpforta, and there commenced the study of theology, which he afterwards abandoned for that of medicine, at Leipsic, in 1815. In 1817 the law of military service called him to Berlin, where he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1818 ; and published in the EHR 149 EIC "Academia Leopoldina," his observa- tions upon the germination of seeds. At this time he became acquainted with the celebrated Hemprich, with whom he was sent on a scientific expedition into Egypt. The two travellers visited the coasts of Lydia, Middle Egypt, Nubia, Dongola, and Syria, exploring the ruins of Baalbec and Mount Lebanon. After returning again to Cairo, they proceeded to Mount Sinai, the height of which was ascertained by Ehrenberg, and thence to the Red Sea, Arabia, and Abyssinia. On his return from his eastern journey, Ehrenberg was appointed one of the professors of the Faculty of Medicine, at Berlin. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to the Ural Mountains, di- recting his attention especially to micro- scopic investigations. Cuvier in the French Academy, and Humboldt in " Cosmos, " have pointed out the immense scientific value of these inquiries. Eh- renberg's great work on "Infusoria," forming one part of his investigations, was published in 1838, and drew upon him the attention of scientific men all over Europe. In 1842 he was elected Perpetual Secretary of the Koyal Aca- demy of Berlin, having been a Fellow from the year 1827, and having con- tributed many memoirs to the Trans- actions, during the whole of the inter- vening period, among which may be enumerated one on "The Cynocepha- lus;" a second on "The Soil of the Desert ;" a third on " The Corals of the lied Sea;" a fourth on "The Lumino- sity of the Sea." Since the publication of his "Infusoria," he has pursued his investigations of the fossil forms of mi- croscopic organisms, the result of his inquiries being embodied in a work entitled "Micro-geologie," published in 1854. This work illustrates the micro- scopic life of the whole globe ; more especially in its connexion with and influence upon rocks, the soil, the bed of the sea, and the atmosphere in which floats microscopic dust. From objects examined, and drawings made, during his travels in Africa, Syria, and Arabia, a great number of plates have been prepared and published at intervals, since 1828, the work not having yet been finished. Ehrenberg is a member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and enjoys a higher reputation with sci- entific men than with the general public, in consequence of the character of his researches, which have opened up new fields of scientific observation, in the cultivation of which he has throughout his whole career held the highest rank. EICHWALD, Edward, a naturalist, was born in July, 1795, at Mittau, in Lithuania. He studied medicine, and the natural sciences, at Berlin. After travelling over a great part of Europe, he returned to Russia in 1821, where he delivered some popular lectures, and was appointed Professor of Zoology and Midwifery, at Casan. From 1825 to 1827 he explored the Caspian Sea, and the country of the Caucasus; and on reaching Europe once again, was ap- pointed Assistant Professor in the Uni- versity of Wilna. That institution hav- ing been suppressed, he was appointed, in 1838, Perpetual Secretary and Pro- fessor of Zoology and Mineralogy to the Medical and Surgical Academy of that place. Called then to St. Petersburg, he filled several scientific situations, and roamed through various countries, adding to his own knowledge, and the power of conveying it to others. In 1851 the learned Professor retired from the really active pursuits of his pro- fession, and received the title of Coun- cillor of State. He is a member of all the Academies of Russia, as well as of many foreign societies. Belonging to a German province of Russia, Eich- wald has written his works in Latin, French, Russian, and German, but chiefly in German. Among the most important of his works, are his "Jour- ELG 150 ELL ;" "Researches on Russian Infuso- ' "The Palaeontology of Russia," ney to the Caspian Sea and the Cau- casus ;" " The Ancient Geography of the Caspian, the Caucasus, and Southern Russia;" "A Treatise on the Silurian Deposit of Esthonia;" "Sketches, by a Naturalist, of Lithuania, Volhynia, and Podolia ;" "Plantarum No varum quas in itinere Caspio, Caucasico, observavit Fasciculi;" "Fauna Caspico-Cauca- sica ria; &c. &c. ELGIN and KINCARDINE, The Earl of, K.T., late Governor- General of Canada, and now British Ambassador Extraordinary to China, was born in 1811. Lord Elgin, the representative in the male line of the great Scottish house of Bruce, is the son of the dis- tinguished nobleman who enriched the art treasures of this kingdom by his collection of sculpture, generally known as the "Elgin marbles." The present Lord Elgin was educated at his father's seat in Fifeshire, and afterwards at Oxford. He was returned to Parlia- ment as member for Southampton, in 1841 ; and in 1842, on the death of his father, was called to the House of Peers. In the same year he was ap- pointed Governor of Jamaica, where he continued to administer the affairs of the island with equal ability and suc- cess until 1846, when he was sent to Canada as Governor- General. His ad- ministration of the Canadian govern- ment was beyond all precedent suc- cessful. Recognising no party, he sought to develop the industrial and commer- cial resources of the colony, a difficult undertaking with a country which had long been distracted by intestine feuds. He encouraged agriculture and trade by every means at his command, and ad- mitted no distinction between the citi- zens of the Upper and Lower Provinces. By his patience, forbearance, and a desire to accommodate himself to the habits of those with whom he had to deal, he conciliated all parties ; and since that time, Canada has been one of the most, if not the most, prosperous of all the British colonies. In 1857, the serious disputes between the European and native population in China, which had broken into an open rupture, induced the British Government to look out for some able and resolute diplomatist to settle matters in that remote quarter of the world. His antecedents at once pointed out Lord Elgin as the fittest man to act in an intricate case with vigour and discretion. He accordingly proceeded to the East, arranged the difficulties, and procured a treaty which gave Britain freer access to China than she ever enjoyed before. His task was not only delicate, but dangerous ; but he fulfilled it, so far as it lay in his power, with consummate address and skill. He regretted not having had the opportunity of overawing the Chinese Government in their capital before re- turning to Europe, which he seems to have considered absolutely necessary to bring them to a true sense of their posi- tion with regard to the European powers. After the return of the Earl of Elgin to England, and on the formation of the present ministry, he was appointed Post- master-General. Owing to a breach of the Chinese treaty, he has again left this country for the East, where there can be little doubt that decisive mea- sures will now be taken to curb the insolence of the "Celestials," and to pro- tect both the European merchants and the native producers from the rapacity and stupidity of the ruling power. ELLENBOROUGH, The Right Hon. Edward Law, Earl of, was born on 8th of September, 1790. He is the son of the celebrated Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and was educated at Eton and Cambridge. He succeeded to his father's title and estates in 1818. In the Wellington ministry he held the office of Privy Seal, and in Sir ELL 151 ELL Robert Peel's government (1835) was President of the Board of Control. That administration existing but a few months, Lord Ellenborough had no post until 1841, when Sir Robert Peel placed him in his old situation. Lord Auck- land having been recalled from the government of India, Lord Ellenbo- rough succeeded him; arriving at Cal- cutta in 1842. He conquered Scinde, and reduced Gwalior ; but his opponents accused him of so many eccentricities, that the now defunct East India Com- pany recalled him, though contrary to the wish of the ministry. In 1846 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, but went out with Sir Robert Peel. In 1858 he once again took charge, under Lord Derby, of Indian affairs, but an untoward despatch to Lord Canning, the Governor-General, having become public property, such a storm was raised as compelled him to resign office. Lord Ellenborough is an accomplished orator, though somewhat dogmatic in the ex- pression of his opinions. ELLIOTSON, John, M.D. Cantab., F.R.S., was born in London about the close of last century. He studied in the Universities of Edinburgh and Cam- bridge, his earlier education having been received from private tutors. He attend- ed the medical practice of St. Thomas's and Guy's Hospitals for about three years, and was elected one of the phy- sicians to the former institution. In 1831 he was appointed Professor of the Practice of Medicine in the London University, where he became one of its most popular and effective of instructors. In 1834 he succeeded in establishing an hospital in University College, and then resigned his appointment at St. Tho- mas's. His lectures, published in the "Lancet" and "Medical Gazette," were universally attractive ; as was his translation of Blumenbach's "Physio- logy," with notes more voluminous than the text, a work which reached to five editions. He was the founder and Pre- sident of the Phrenological Society ; President of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, and is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians. In 1837 Dr. Elliotson became a convert to Mesmerism, as a curative and an anaesthetic agent. The council of University College not concurring with, but strongly opposing his views, he resigned his situation in 1838. He con- tinued to follow his favourite pursuit, at great expense to himself, and established the "Zoist," a journal devoted to mes- merism and phrenology, and extending to fifty-two numbers. He is the author of many medical, mesmeric, and meta- physical writings ; the first chiefly pub- lished in the Transactions of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, the two last in the "Zoist." ELLIS, Mrs. Sarah, formerly Miss Stickney, a writer on female education, was born about the beginning of the present century, and received her earlier schooling in a "friend's" seminary. Her first literary effort was a series of do- mestic stories, called "Pictures of Pri- vate Life." About the time of her marriage with the Rev. Wm. Ellis (1837), her mind was strongly directed to the position of women in modern society, and towards the best means for their moral and intellectual improve- ment. To aid in developing her ideas she wrote and published " The Women of England," which was followed by ' ' The Daughters, " " Wives, " and ' ' Mo- thers of England." The same tendency towards treating her favourite subject the elevation of the female character runs through all her works ; the "Sons of the Soil," "Family Secrets," "Preven- tion better than Cure," "The Education of Character," and " Social Distinc- tion," being perhaps the happiest of her voluminous productions. ELLIS, Rev. William, an English missionary. In 1814 Mr. Ellis became ELL 152 ENC connected with the London Missionary Society. In November 1815 he married Miss Moor, a young lady devoted to missionary work, and in the following month embarked with his newly-mar- ried wife at Portsmouth for the scene of their future labours. From the period they landed in the South Seas, until 1824, Mr. and Mrs. Ellis were inces- santly engaged in missionary work ; and in his " Polynesian Researches" he has embodied the results of his acquaint- ance with the condition of the islands, and the character of the population. Having returned to England, Mr. Ellis acted as one of the secretaries of the London Missionary Society; and from information received from the mission- aries, together with official documents, he prepared a " History of Madagascar. " More recently he has published " Three Visits to Madagascar," a work which is highly esteemed, and very popular. He has also written a " History of the London Missionary Society," a "Vindi- cation of the South Sea Missions," and "Village Lectures on Popery." Mrs. Ellis died in January, 1835, and in 1837 Mr. Ellis married Miss Sarah Stickney, a lady well known by her works on female education. ELLIS, Sir Henry, K.H., a writer, and principal librarian of the British Museum from 1827 to 1856, was born in 1777. Amongst his most valuable pub- lications is " Original Letters illustrative of English History, from Autographs in the British Museum, the State Paper Office, and one or two other sources, with Notes and Illustrations." This work has brought to light new and important facts ; and is a most interest- ing collection. Sir Henry Ellis has also been responsible editor of an en- larged edition of Dugdale's "Monasti- con Anglicanum, " a work of great re- search, and has edited, revised, and added to numerous publications on Bri- tish antiquities, and history. The "General Introduction to Domesday Book" was also one of his successful labours. EMERSON, Ralph Waldo, a dis- tinguished American writer and specula- tist, was born at Boston about the begin- ning of the present century. He belongs to the transcendental school of philoso- phers. Having graduated at the early age of eighteen, at Harvard University, Mr. Emerson accepted an invitation to become the pastor of a Unitarian church, in his native city, and during the next seven or eight years continued to dis- charge the duties of that office. Being afterwards severed from his church, he delivered lectures at Boston, devoted himself to study, and eventually pub- lished a work called "Nature," wherein he expressed some peculiar sentiments. " Man Thinking " was the next embo- diment of his special opinions. Called in 1838 to deliver an address to the senior class in Divinity College, Cam- bridge, the "idealistic pantheism" of his philosophy was still more fully de- veloped : subsequently he addressed the same views to literary societies of Dart- mouth College, and produced a great effect by his orations. Mr. Emerson published the "Dial;" and in 1846 a volume of poems. In 1849 Emerson visited England, receiving a cordial recep- tion from the literary society of London. His impressions of things as they are in England, the result of that visit, has since been published in a small volume, en- titled " English Traits," not indeed wanting in mannerism, but singularly fair, and justly appreciative. A col- lected edition of Emerson's works has been published in England, but his in- fluence upon the British mind has been comparatively limited. This circum- stance is perhaps accounted for by the fact that he is more an interpreter of Coleridge and Carlyle, than an original thinker. ENCKE, Johann F., an eminent ENF 153 EOT German astronomer, was born 23rd Sep- tember, 1791, at Hamburg. In early life he was connected with military matters in the Prussian service, but having a taste for astronomy, he eventually devoted him- self to the study of that sublime science. He is most known in connexion with his researches respecting the comet of Pons, now called after him, whose period of revolution he has fixed at 1,200 days; and also by his calculations of the dis- tance of the earth from the sun. He also speculated on the existence of an ether as the cause of comets not re-ap- pearing at their calculated time. These labours have secured for Mr. Encke a great reputation among German astronomers. He was appointed joint- director of the Observatory at Gotha, whence he was called to Berlin as Secretary of the Academy of Sciences and Director of the Observatory. He was also entrusted with the publication of the astronomical almanacs. He pub- lishes regularly an account of the astro- nomical observations made at Berlin. ENFANTIN, Barthelkmy Prosper, a French politician and social reformer, was born at Paris, on the 8th February, 1790. He was admitted to the Poly- technic School in 1813, and was one of the pupils who, in March 1814, offered such a determined resistance, at the Barriere du Trone, to the allied armies. The school having been broken up he lost all chance of promotion in the army, and in 1821 entered a banking establish- ment. In 1825 he adopted the prin- ciples of the St. Simonians, and soon afterwards endeavoured to disseminate his opinions on social questions in the columns of the " Producteur, " a journal which he and some of his friends set on foot. Be and his fellow-labourers toiled zealously to place the doctrines of social reform, and the "religion of thought," on a firm basis. The conversion of the ladies was one of his especial objects. Neither he nor his friends desired any profit from these exertions. Enfantin, indeed, lost his whole patrimony, and was ultimately prosecuted as an enemy to public morals, and condemned, in 1832, to a year's imprisonment. This sentence had the effect of dispersing the St. Simonians. After a confinement of a few mouths Enfantin was liberated, and proceeded with some of his followers to Egypt. There they remained for three years, studying carefully the Suez canal projects, and the embankments of the Nile. From 1839 to 1842 Enfantin was a Member of the Scientific Commission of Algeria. After his return to France, in 1845, abandoning his earlier social projects, he was appointed to carry through the amalgamation of the Paris and Lyons, Lyons and Avignon, and the Nord and Strasburg Railways. He is now acting manager of the Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway, and Manager of the General Water Company at Paris. EOTVOS, Josef, was born at Ofen, on the 3rd September, 1813. After en- joying the instructions of a private tutor, Eotvos was sent to a public school, and de- voted himself to the study of his native language, of which he is the first living writer. Eotvos commenced his literary career by a translation of Goethe's "Goetz von Berlichingen," followed, in 1833, by two original comedies, and a tragedy, which were highly successful. After travelling in 1836 in Germany, Switzerland, France, and England, he returned to Hungary, and edited a work, the proceeds of which were given to the relief of the sufferers from an inundation at Pesth. ' ' The Carthusian, ' ' a novel, was contributed to by him. Entering the Hungarian diet, the novelist soon distin- guished himself in the arena of politics. In 1841, owing to family losses, Eotvos, from occupying one of the first positions in Hungarian society, was suddenly plunged into poverty. Eotvos, despite of temptation, remained faithful to the ESP 154 ESP national cause, and rather than sacrifice his principles, preferred to seek a subsist- ence in the labours of his pen. In pur- suance of this resolution, the ' ' Village Notary " was produced. This work was followed by a romance entitled ' ' Hungary in 1514." In 1848 Eotvos accepted the post of Minister of Public Instruction in the Batthyani administration, but the stormy course of events that shortly fol- lowed was ill suited to his feelings and character, and he retired to Bavaria, de- voting himself to the preparation of a work on the ' ' Influence of the Leading Ideas of the Nineteenth Century on the State." ESPARTERO, Don Baldomero, Duke of Vittoria, was born February 27, 1792, at Granatula, in the old province of La Mancha. Having received a good education, in 1806 he was sent to the University of Almagro, and entered the army as a volunteer to oppose the French invaders of Spain, in 1808. In a little more than a year from the time he had adopted the profession of arms, he entered a military school at Cadiz, acquiring a complete acquaintance with military science and tactics, and from 1811 to 1814 he continually advanced his posi- tion in the army. In the following year he proceeded to South America under General Morillo, to defend the Spanish provinces against General Bolivar and his companions in rebellion. After an adventurous ten years passed in South America, Espartero returned to Spain in November, 1825, enriched, and married the daughter of a wealthy Spanish proprietor. On the outbreak of the civil war, when the -death of Ferdinand VII. left the Salic law to be a bone of contention (1833), Espartero quickly rose to the chief command of the Queen's troops. For his services against Don Carlos, he was created a Grandee of the First Class, with the title of Duke of Vittoria. On the usurpation of the regency by the Queen- mother, Espartero was appointed Regent of Spain. For two years after this appointment he continued to perform the duties of that office, and governed the country well and wisely; but the Queen-mother, incessantly engaged in attempts to grasp at power which she could only use for evil, had made a party which sought to restore her in- fluence. Overthrown by this conspiracy against his authority, Espartero retired to London. He, the only true patriot Spain has had for a century, was de- creed a traitor, and deprived of his dignities. For about six years he lived a quiet and retired life, but parties grew too numerous in Spain for the safety of the throne, and in the perplexity of the time the Queen and the Constitution- alists could fix upon but one man capa- ble of extricating the nation from its troubles, and the Duke of Vittoria was the man. Having returned to Spain, Espartero was again placed at the head of the government in 1854, and con- tinued to occupy that position for two years, when, through intrigues, his re- signation was necessitated. The con- stitutional minister gave place to despotism and O'DonnelL one of those men whom the wicked fear, and the good dare not trust. From an humble position Espartero raised O'Donnell to a high position, made him a bosom friend and took him into his confidence. On the first opportunity O'Donnell intrigued to overthrow his patron. In most respects Espartero stands out as a noble exception to those who have lately been the ad- visers of the Spanish crown. ESPINASSE, Esprit Charles Ma- rie, a French general, was born on the 2nd of April, 1815, at Saissac, in the department of the Aude. He entered the Military School of St. Cyr in 1833, and gained his first promotions in Al- geria. As Chief of Battalion in 1845, he commanded the Zouaves ; in July, 1851, was a Colonel; in 1852 General of EUG 155 EVE Brigade, and Aide-de-Camp to the Em- peror. When war was declared against Russia, he commanded a brigade of the first division of the army of the East. He distinguished himself at the Tcher- naya, and at the assault on the Mala- koff, and in 1855 was advanced to the rank of General of Division. In 1858 he was called to be Minister of the In- terior, a position which, however, he did not long retain. EUGENIE, Empress of the French, born at Granada, May 5, 1826, is the second daughter of the Count of Monti jos, her mother being of Scottish descent. Having been educated partly in France and England, she visited Paris in 1851, and by her grace and beauty attracted great attention. Amongst her admirers was the Emperor, to whom she was eventually married on the 30th January, 1853, the ceremony being performed amidst the splendour which the rank of all parties demanded. Her Majesty has become the mother of a son, on whom the hopes of the imperial family are centred. She has accompanied the Emperor in most of his journeys, and with him visited Queen Victoria at London in 1855. She is highly esteemed for her kind and amiable disposition by all classes in France. EVANS, Lieutenant-General Sir De Lacy, G. C. B. , M. P. , a native of Ireland, was born in 1787. In 1807 he became ensign in the 22nd Regiment of Foot, with which he served three years in India. In 1812 he joined the 3rd Light Dragoons, serving with them during the campaign of the Peninsula, and taking part in the chief actions of the war. In 1814 he served in the 5th West India Regiment as brevet lieu- tenant-colonel, and was present at the capture of Washington, the attack on Bal- timore, and the operations before New Orleans. Returning to England early in 1815, he took part in the battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo. In 1835 he became commander of the Spanish Le- gion, and again distinguished himself by his genius and bravery on the soil of the Peninsula. In 1831 General Evans was elected a member of the House of Com- mons. Having lost his seat for Rye, in 1833 he was chosen for Westminster. It was while in Parliament for this borough, that he was offered the com- mand of the Spanish Legion already alluded to, which he accepted, with the sanction of his constituents. In this position his difficulties can scarcely be over-estimated ; he and his legion were of great service to the Queen's cause, and, as usual in Spanish matters, were treated with ingratitude. He was promoted to the rank of Major-General in 1846. In 1854 he was appointed to the command of the second division of the army in the East, with the rank of Lieutenant-General. At Alma and In- kermann he behaved with great gallan- tly. On his return to England he received the thanks of the House of Commons, and was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. Sir De Lacy Evans' military career has been as varied as it is extensive. India, the Peninsula, America, Waterloo, and the Crimea, are the witnesses of his genius and his valour. Asa politician he has been a consistent Liberal. EVERETT, Edward, D.C.L., was born in April, 1794, at Dorchester, near Boston, United States, and in 1811 graduated at Harvard University. After having studied law for some time, he abandoned it for theology. Succeeding the Rev. J. S. Buckminster, he fully sustained his already high reputation. His health failing, in 1815 he exchanged his pastoral office for that of Professor of Greek in Harvard University. Having received permission to visit Europe, Mr. Everett came to England, where he con- tinued for a short time, when he pro- ceeded to Gottingen, in order to study the German language and literature, and methods of instruction. Having visited EXE 156 FAI Paris, Rome, Greece, and Turkey, after an absence of five years he returned to America, and in 1820 became the editor of "The North American Review," which, by his exertions, obtained a high position in literature. The prominent part which Mr. Everett had taken in political affairs in the United States in- duced General Harrison, when he became President of the United States, to nomi- nate him minister to the English Court, a post which he held for five years with the highest honour to him- self and government. It was during this official residence in England, that Oxford bestowed upon him the de- gree of D.C.L. On returning home, Mr. Everett was elected President of Harvard University. Having resigned this office in 1849, from ill health, he remained without any specific appoint- ment until 1853, when he was elected a member of the Senate of Massachusetts. Mr. Everett holds the highest position as a scholar and an orator. He has retired into private life, owing to the delicate state of his health. EXETER, Henry Phillpotts, Bi- shop of, leader of the High Church party in the Church of England, was born in 1777. He studied at Oxford ; was M.A. in 1798, and D.D. in 1821. He was first rector of Stanhope, and then chaplain to the Bishop of Dur- ham. It was well understood, at the time, that he was appointed to the See of Exeter (1830), as a reward for the vigorous support he gave the Duke of Wellington's government on the ques- tion of Roman Catholic Emancipation, the year before. He was, at one time, a keen controversialist, and an indefatiga- ble pamphleteer ; whilst in the House of Lords he appeared in the light of an eccle- siastical Lord Brougham, for energy, fire, and independence. It may be remarked as a singular circumstance, that he was born in the same house as was Whitefield, the eminent dissenting minister. FAED, Thomas, a painter, was born, in 1826, at Burley Mill, near Gatehouse of Fleet, Kirkcudbrightshire. Shortly before his father's death, in 1843, he com- menced his studies as an artist, under the careful eye of his eldest brother, then a miniature painter in Edinburgh, and now one of the leading artists in Scotland. He was for some time one of Sir William Allan's pupils, labouring with unremitting zeal and gaining prizes at every competition in the School of Design. After being chosen an Asso- ciate of the Royal Scottish Academy (1849), and painting the often engraved and well-known picture, "Sir Walter Scott and his friends, at Abbotsford," Mr. Faed settled in London, in 1852, and rose rapidly in public estimation. In 1855 he painted the " Mitherless Bairn," which elicited the admiration of critics and connoisseurs. "Home and the Homeless," "Conquered but not Subdued," "First Break in the Family," "List'ners Hear nae Gude o' Them- sels," and "Sunday in the Backwoods," are noble pictures, overflowing with genius, as well in composition as in treatment. FAIRBAIRN, William, a civil en- gineer and machinist, was born at Kelso, in 1789, and brought up as a mechanic in the vicinity of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1817 he commenced business in Man- chester in partnership with Mr. Lillie, and the firm soon rose into the very foremost position in the trade of that city; and when this partnership was dissolved, Mr. Fairbairn continued the business. About the year 1830 or 1831, he made various trials as to the shape of vessels, and employed a small iron vessel for that purpose. The suc- cess of the experiments emboldened the experimenter, and by 1836 he ventured on the construction of iron vessels of considerable tonnage. He was one of the earliest members of the British Association for the Advancement of F. graved by JCook. MIC IIAK1, FARADAY, D.C I, F. IIS. FAR 157 FAZ Science, to which he has contributed some valuable papers on engineering subjects. His practical knowledge has been employed in assisting some of the largest constructions, one of these being the bridge over the Menai Straits for the Chester and Holyhead Railway, and his experiments on the strength of iron are highly valued. Mr. Fairbairn has occasionally made his appearance in the lecture-room, discoursing upon engineer- ing and other matters in a lucid manner. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a corresponding member of the National Institute of France. FARADAY, Michael, an eminent chemist and electrician, was born in Lon- don in 1791, and from a comparatively obscure origin, has by his own unaided genius obtained a position as one of the most noted philosophers of Europe. Whilst working at a bookbinder's he was by accident introduced to a gentle- man, who, perceiving his abilities, ena- bled him to attend some of Sir Hum- phrey Davy's lectures at the Royal Institution. To these young Faraday paid the deepest attention ; and by for- warding Sir Humphrey the notes he had taken, he thus became acquainted with that well-known chemist. This circumstance laid the foundation of his future fame. Young Faraday, disgusted with trade, which he considered as "vicious and selfish," already aspired to devote himself to science. Having communicated his longings to the great chemist, through his good offices he obtained, in March 1813, the post of assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. Sir Humphrey, however, advised him not to give up the prospects he had before him, as "Science was a harsh mistress, and in a pecuniary point of view, but poorly rewarding those who devoted themselves to her service." In the au- tumn of the same year he went abroad with Sir Humphrey Davy ; and return- ing in the spring of 1815, resumed his labours at the Institution, where he has ever since remained. Dr. Faraday's discoveries have raised him to a fore- most place among that crowd of illus- trious investigators of physical science that adorn our age. His distinguished merits have been long since acknow- ledged by nearly every learned body in Europe. In 1832 the University of Ox- ford named him D. C. L. His best known works are (1) "Chemical Manipula- tion," the third edition of which was published in 1842; (2) "Experimental Researches in Electricity;" (3) "Six Lectures on the Non- Metallic Ele- ments," edited by Dr. Scoff ern, 1853 ; and (4) " Six Lectures on the Various Forces of Matter," edited by William Crookes, F.C.S. FAZY, Jean James, born at Geneva, in May 1796, is descended from a French Protestant family, exiled after the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. He studied in Paris, and early became a writer on political economy. His works, up to 1840, indicated that he preferred the material interests of society to specula- tive or theoretical politics. In July, 1830, he was appointed principal editor of "La Revolution;" when he signed the protest of the journalists against the ordonnances of Charles X. He opposed, subsequently, the candidature of Louis- Philippe, and after that King's acces- sion M. Fazy embraced the side of the Radical opposition. His views were of a character so violent that he was even- tually obliged to relinquish the manage- ment of the "Revolution;" and he then established the "Revue Republi- caine." But the many miscarriages of the democratic party, the difficulties of the position he had taken, the dis- couragement of Lalitte and La Fayette, together with other causes, decided him to leave France, and change the field of his activity and his ambition. As a Genevan he was noted for his patriotism. FER 158 FIE In 1833 he was marked as the head of the philosophical radicals, having long before rendered himself conspicuous. He then founded the "Revue de Geneve," and in 1841, organizing a Radical committee, he initiated a revolutionary agitation. His labours were incessant ; and he took part in almost all the political movements of the time. In the discus- sions of 1846, on the subject of the Jesuits, between the Protestant and the Roman Catholic Cantons, the State Coun- cil observed a neutrality that strength- ened the hands of the Sonderbund a policy which deeply irritated M. Fazyand the Radicals, and which led to such a demonstration of the popular will as con- strained the Council to lay down its power. On the following day October 9th a Provisional Government was formed, M. Fazy being its chief. He exercised very considerable influence ; and the Canton of Geneva was among those which, in 1848, adopted the new Federal Constitution. M. Fazy con- tinued to maintain his republican opi- nions, advocating them through his journai^roclairning his sympathy with all nations which then demanded liberty and independance. The reaction of 1840 modified his language, however, if not his ideas. He remained a member of the State Council of Geneva, and was elected its President, being at the same time a member of the Federal Assembly. He took an important part relative to the affairs of NeufchateL zealously supporting Swiss nationality. FERDINAND IV. (Salvator Marie Joseph Jean Baptiste Louis Gonzaga Raphael Renia Janvia), ex-Grand Duke of Tuscany, Imperial Prince and Archduke of Austria, and Prince of Hungary and Bohemia, was born on the 10th of June, 1835, and succeeded to a nominal throne, on the abdication of his father, on the 21st July, 1859, con- sequent upon the French invasion of Lombardy, and the war waged by the Emperor Napoleon III. for the "idea" of the enfranchisement of Italy. It is understood that the Grand Duke, whose subjects sternly refuse to recognise him, has taken refuge in the armies of his relative, friend, and patron, the Em- peror of Austria. FERGUSSON, James, an architect and archaeologist, was born at Ayr, in the year 1808, and received his educa- tion at the High School of Edinburgh. From school he went into the counting- house, and thence to be partner in a large mercantile establishment, where prices current more engaged his attention than the Arts. After having devoted himself, during four years, to commercial pursuits in Holland and London, Mr. Fergusson proceeded to India in 1829, first as an indigo planter, and subse- quently as partner of a firm in Calcutta. He afterwards returned to England, hav- ing realized a fortune, and has published the first volume of an " Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, more especially with reference to Architecture," and subse- quently the "Illustrated Handbook of Architecture." Mr. Fergusson has since produced a work on Fortification, in which he recommends the employment of earthworks instead of masonry, and a larger development of artillery-fire for defence than had previously been thought of, and illustrated his proposals at the Exhibition of 1851 by a model. His theory, as a matter of course, was ridiculed by military martinets ; but the prolonged defence of Sebastopol by earthworks has taught greater respect for his opinions. He is erudite, reflec- tive, and suggestive, and all his works indicate minute and judicious research. FIELDS, James T., an American poet, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1820, is chiefly known in Europe from his being a partner in the cele- brated publishing and bookselling house of Ticknor and Fields, Boston. Mr. FIL 159 FON Fields is, however, regarded in his own country as an excellent critic, and he has edited numerous poetical works, besides writing poems* himself, which are characterised by natural sentiment and refined expression. A volume of his poems was published at Boston, in 1849. He also printed, in 1858, a vol- ume entitled "A Few Verses for a Few Friends." A collected edition of his compositions has been published. FILLMORE, Millard, ex- President of the United States, was born on the 7th January, 1800, at Summer Hill, Hew York. His father was a small farmer, and the son's education was therefore limited. He was sent, at the age of fourteen, to Livingston County, to learn the trade of a tailor, and was then apprenticed to a wool-carder and cloth-dresser. His heart was fixed on applying his educational defects, and with this view he for some time kept a school Rising gradually, but slowly, he studied law, got into practice, in 1829 was elected member of the State Assembly, and in 1832 sent to Congress. He resumed his profession in 1835; but was again returned to Congress in 1837, where he continued till 1843. He soon took a distinguished position at the bar ; in 1847 was elected Comptroller of the State of New York, and in 1848 Vice-President of the United States by the Whigs, General Taylor being President. The death of the General put Mr. Filhnore in posses- sion of the presidental chair, July 9th, 1850. His constitutional term of office expired on the 3rd of March, 1853; and though he had many ardent friends, he took no steps towards a re-election. In 1854 he made the tour of the United States ; and in 1855 and 1856 travelled through the continent of Europe, and while at Rome was nominated by the American party for the Presidency, but was not elected. He has now with- drawn from politics. FOLEY, John Henry, R.A., a sculptor, was born in Dublin, in 1818. At an early age he studied modelling in the schools of the Royal Dublin So- ciety of Art ; went to London in 1834, and became a student of the Royal Academy, where he was distinguished for his talent and industry. The mo- del of "Innocence," and the "Death of Abel," exhibited in 1839, were his first works of mark. His " Ino and Bacchus," a work of great beauty, brought his name prominently before the public in 1840. His next works of note were the " Houseless Wan- derer," and "A Youth at a Stream." The latter, in conjunction with the group of "Ino and Bacchus," exhi- bited in competition at Westminster Hall, in 1844, obtained for him an appointment to execute works for the New Houses of Parliament ; the results of this commission being the well- - known statues of Hampden and Sel- den, erected in St. Stephen's Hall. In 1851 his group of " The Mother" was produced ; and since that time, the sta- tues of "Egeria" and " Caractacus," for the Egyptian Hall in the Mansion House. These works have helped to extend Mr. Foley's reputation in an eminent degree; but his greatest pro- duction is an equestrian statue of the late Viscount Hardinge, erected at Cal- cutta. This statue has been considered, by the most eminent artists of the day, to be " one of the finest works of sculpture of modern times," and they have united in signing and presenting to Mr. Foley a testimonial to that effect, at the same time recommending a dupli- cate of the work to be secured for erec- tion on some public site in London. FONBLANQUE, Albany, formerly ed- itor of the ' ' London Examiner, " was born in 1797. This eminent journalist has of late years been withdrawn from the news- paper world, by his appointment as Sta- tistical Secretary to the Board of Trade. FOR 160 FOR Mr. Fonblanque was originally intended for the bar ; but directing his atten- tion to the political questions of the day, he sent some articles to the "Ex- aminer," which were so well received that he gave up law and took to the press. His style was brilliant, polished, and yet caustic a mingling of Addison and Sheridan with Swift and Cobbett. Ultimately he became the editor of that journal, and his services to the liberal cause were such, that he was appointed to his present office at the Board of Trade. The only book that bears his name is "England under Seven Ad- ministrations," which is simply a re- print of leading articles published from time to time in the "Examiner." FORBES, Sir John, M.D., an Eng- lish physician, was born in 1787, at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire. He studied, in the first instance, at the Marischal College, Aberdeen, and graduated at Edinburgh, as M.D., in the year 1817. He practised for some time in Penzance, Cornwall, then at Chichester, from which he removed to London. He was the first amongst English medical prac- titioners to recognise the importance and value of physical diagnosis as a means of detecting diseases of the heart and lungs. Dr. Forbes has drawn at- tention to the value of auscultation, and was one of the founders of the British Medical Association. As editor of the " British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgi- cal Review," Sir John did much to elevate the tone of the literature of the profession ; unfortunately, however, it was not successful in a pecuniary sense, although it greatly enhanced his re- putation. He was appointed Phy- sician in Ordinary to Her Majesty's household, and Physician Extraordi- nary to His Royal Highness Prince Albert, with the honour of knighthood, in 1853, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and created a D.C.L. by the University of Oxford. Sir John has taken a deep interest in the diffu- sion of knowledge, and in the improve- ment of education. FORREST, Edwin, a tragedian, was born in Philadelphia, on the 9th March, 1806. He was early trained to the stage ; at twelve years of age he played one or two minor parts in his native city, and at thirteen appeared there as ' ' Young Norval," two years afterwards entering upon his first regular engagement with Jones and Collins, managers of the Western Circuit. After several years of professional vicissitudes, he returned from the Backwoods to the Atlantic States, and in 1826, at Albany, he played second to Kean. In 1827 he first appeared in New York, in the cha- racter of "Othello," and was hailed as a powerful and true interpreter of Shak- speare. After performing several years in the principal cities of the United States, gaining new laurels everywhere, he visited Europe, in 1834. Preceded by a high reputation, he received offers to play in London, which he declined ; his visit being one of study and obser- vation. In 1836 he returned to his native country, and resumed his profes- sion. The same year he received new proposals from London, which he ac- cepted, and in November appeared at Drury Lane, as " Spartacus," and next as "Othello." His gigantic frame, deep sonorous voice, and a truly original conception of the Shakspearian parts he embodied, made him the lion of the season. Revisiting England in 1845, the applause which greeted his first ap- pearance was revoked in some quarters, more from jealous feeling, it is said, than from any other cause. In 1837 he mar- ried, in London, a daughter of Mr. John Sinclair, the vocalist, from whom he separated in 1849. He has for some time, from ill health, been unable to re- sume his professional avocations. FORSTER, John, an English jour- nalist and essay writer, was born at FOR 161 FOR Newcastle, in 1812. Having received an excellent preliminary education, Mr. Forster completed his studies at London University. He and his fellow- students commenced a work called the "London University Magazine." In 1834 Mr. Forster wrote for the "Examiner," of which he afterwards became the sole editor. As a journalist, Mr. Forster has long worked in a wide field of use- fulness, and has never failed to exhibit a generous appreciation of merit. His "Lives of the Statesmen of the English Commonwealth" has been highly praised. Peculiarly exact in matters of fact, teeming with the best information respecting the men and the times of which it treats, remarkable for energy and grace of style, this work is at once one of the most useful and attractive memorials of that memorable epoch, when "the crown of England hung ou a bush, and Cromwell sat on an ungar- nished throne." Since this original publication Mr. Forster has given the literary world the most delightful and the most erudite "Life of Oliver Gold- smith" that has yet appeared. The publication of this work involved Mr. Forster in a controversy with another of Goldsmith's biographers, Mr. Prior, who sought to show that Forster had purloined his facts. In this controversy Prior forgot the old adage, "the tools are for those who can use them. " The biographic genius of Forster had given a life and beauty to the sterile collection of dry-as-dust detail which Prior had brought together. It was impossible, after what had been done with respect to Goldsmith's memoirs, that different biographers should not traverse much ground in common. But though that was inevitable, Mr. Forster succeeded in showing that he needed not, in his intellectual opulence, to plunder the scanty treasury of Prior. The elaborate and valuable illustrative notes, with which the Life of Goldsmith abounds, render the work at once most delightful and instructive. In addition to these independent contributions to literature and history, Mr. Forster has written some able articles in the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. These articles have recently been collected and republished, with a new and elaborate paper on the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, in two volumes of Historical and Biographical Essays. Mr. Forster has also very re- cently published a volume upon the "Arrest of the Five Members by Charles the First." In 1856 he was appointed Secretary to the Lunacy Commission an office for which he possesses every mental fitness and legal qualification. Few men enjoy in so large a degree the esteem and confidence of those who know them best, as does the author of the "Statesmen of the English Com- monwealth." That chivalrous honour which he has so well described as ani- mating the stern Republican of the seventeenth century, is his own guiding star ; its brightest influence is shed over his character, and on every occasion where the weight of his name has been evoked, it has been to achieve some noble or beneficent purpose. FORTUNE, Robert, a botanist and author, was born in the county of Ber- wick, in 1813. Being the son of a border farmer, his early education was confined to what he could glean in a parish school. His taste for horticul- ture was strongly manifested when he was a mere youth ; and eventually he was engaged as an assistant in the Botanical Gardens at Edinburgh. He de - voted his leisure to the study of Botany, attending the classes of the professor of that branch of science. His progress in his prof ession^ was rapid; and soon at- tracting notice, his services were sought for Chiswick Gardens. There he in- creased his knowledge of botany and hi3 already extensive acquaintance with the species of plants. In 1842 the Botanical FOU 162 FOU Society of London appointed him col- lector of plants in North China, then for the first time opened to European explo- rations. Mr. Fortune fulfilled his mis- sion with sagacity and zeal, wandering through many districts of the empire hitherto unknown to Europeans, and making himself well acquainted with Chinese life, without in any instance neglecting the main purpose of his tra- vels and researches. After a three years' sojourn in the "flowery land," during which he collected and sent home a magnificent collection of botanical specimens, he returned to England, and in 1847 published a very interesting and valuable account of his travels, under the title of "Three Years' Wanderings in China." He was then appointed Cu- rator of the Physic Garden at Chelsea, an office in which he gave the greatest satisfaction, and remained in the situa- tion until the East India Company re- quested him to proceed once more to the East, to pursue investigations regarding the tea plant. He left England in 1848, and only returned in 1851, when he ar- ranged the results of his observations, publishing in 1852 his " Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China." Soon after the issue of this work he left Eng- land for China for the third time, and he has since laid before the world the fruit of his investigations in a work en- titled "A Residence among the Chinese: Inland, on the Coast, and at Sea." FOULD, Achille, a French states- man, was born at Paris, in October 1800. He is the son of a wealthy Jewish banker, who died in 1855. After leaving the Lycee Charlemagne, where he was educated, he travelled in Italy and the East. In 1842 he entered on political life, when he entered the Chamber as deputy for Turbes. Having early turned his attention to the study of economical questions, his opinions on taxation, finances, and general as well as special imposts, were always received with respect, frequently as authoritative, by the Chamber. He took an active part in the discussions of all questions relating to social and political economy, and to the improvement of the agriculture and commerce of the country. In 1844 he was nominated Reporter for the Com- mission appointed to inquire into the operation of the Stamp Duty on News- papers ; and in general he supported the foreign policy of M. Guizot. On the occurrence of the Revolution of 1848 M. Fould accepted the change as an accomplished fact, and his counsel and advice were placed at the service of the Provisional Government. At the elec- tions of July he was returned to the Constituent Assembly, as representative for the Seine ; and about that period he published two brochures on the assig- nats, expressing the danger likely to be incurred by adopting the monetary propositions of the parties then in power. His remarks in the Assembly on nu- merous points connected with the finances, gained him not only the esteem but the confidence of a large majority of that body ; and he was, as a matter of necessity, nominated on the various commissions planned by government to regulate the internal affairs of the country. Under the presidency of Louis Napoleon he laboured to obtain and con- firm the confidence of capitalists, and proposed several measures calculated to effect that end, subsequently preparing a considerable number of projects of law chiefly tending to modify the pressure of existing imposts. Finally, he projected the Bank of Algiers, and promoted the laws on civil pensions, the establishment of the penitentiary colony at Cayenne, and some important reforms in the com- mercial code, though he still adhered to the system of protective import duties. j Though there occasionally arose differ- ! ences between M. Fould and the Presi- dent, these were not of such a character j as to prevent him, in December 1851, FOX 163 FRA from acting as Minister of Finance, but he resigned in January, 1852. On the 25th of the latter month he was created Senator, and shortly afterwards was recalled to power as a Minister of State. In this capacity he advanced various measures of importance, and was consti- tuted a Commander of the Legion of Honour in December. He was one of the Directors of the Paris Exhibition in 1855, and from 1853 to 1857 much of his time, attention, and judgment were taken up with the completion of the new Louvre. M. Fould is warmly attached to the Fine Arts. FOX, W. J., a politician and M.P. for Oldham, was born near Wrentham, in Suffolk, in 1786. Although of obscure origin, his talents procured him a good education at the College belonging to the Independents at Homerton, but he subsequently embraced Unitarian opinions, and officiated as pastor of the Unitarian Chapel, Finsbury. He be- came one of the most powerful plat- form advocates for the repeal of the Corn -laws. Guizot, in his Life of Peel, has honoured some of his speeches delivered during that struggle with selection as the most finished exam- ples of oratory which the great con- flict produced. In 1847 Mr. Fox was elected M.P. for Oldham. At the gene- ral election of 1852 he lost his seat, but in a few months afterwards was rein- stated. He is understood to have been a contributor to the Westminster and Prospective Reviews, and to be now one of the contributors to the "Weekly Dispatch" London newspaper. Mr. Fox is the author of "Lectures to the Working Classes," and a philosophical dissertation on Religious Ideas. FRANCIS JOSEPH I., Emperor of i a, King of Bohemia, Hungary, irA, Dalmatia, Croatia, Escla- vonia, Gallicia, &c, eldest son of the Archduke Francis Charles Joseph, born August 18th, 1830, ascended the throne December 2nd, 1848, on the abdication consequent upon the revolution of that year of his uncle Ferdinand I. , and the renunciation on the part of his father of all right to the crown. The difficulties of the Austrian empire were great, but the new monarch was too young to have added to them by any unpopular acts, and his accession was hailed as the sal- vation of the country. He promised his people a free constitution, equality of citizenship, and a representative consti- tution ; but his ability to carry his words into effect was tested by unprecedented difficulty and danger, and found insuffi- cient. Surrounded by evil counsellors, he was induced to dissolve the repre- sentative assembly, and to withdraw the charter from Hungary. The Hungarians, under the leadership of Kossuth, re- volted, and after a noble struggle all but succeeded in acquiring their inde- pendence and their liberty; but with the aid of Russia he was enabled to crush them. The support of Russia was dearly bought at the price of national humiliation. In 1851 the Emperor pub- licly declared himself an absolute monarch, after having re-conquered, by the vigorous and successful generalship of Radetzky, the revolted provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. The most per- nicious act of his reign has been the Concordat with the Pope, a humilia- tion even greater than his acceptance of Russian aid for the conquest of Hungary, and the evil effects of which have been visible alike in his foreign and in his domestic policy. In the conduct of the Italian war, forced upon Austria by the ambition of the King of Sardinia, and the still wider and more astutely schemed ambition of the Emperor of the French, the Emperor Francis Joseph has acted with more dignity than in other events of his reign ; and though success did not attend his efforts to preserve Lombardy, or to repel the unjustifiable interference of a foreign power in a matter that in no FRA 164 FRA wise concerned it, the governments of Europe, and such of the nations as look upon French military propagandism with alarm and distrust, have not been able to withhold their sympathy from the Austrian Emperor in the arduous and yet unended struggle for the preserva- tion of his hereditary dominions. His Imperial Majesty married, on the 24th of April, 1854, the Princess Elizabeth Amelie Eugenie of Bavaria, by whom he has two infant children, the Arch- duchess Gisella Louisa Marie, born on the 12th of July, 1856; and the Arch- duke Rudolph, heir apparent to the throne, born on the 21st of August, 1858. In private life, the Emperor and his amiable Empress are models of the domestic virtues, and highly beloved and respected. FRANCIS II., Marie Leopold, King of Naples, of the Two Sici- lies, and of Jerusalem, Duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Castro, was born on the 16th of January, 1836, and succeeded his father, the late Ferdi- nand II. (the Bomba of an unhappy notoriety, and the most unpopular of European monarchs), on the 22nd of May, 1859. He was married on the 3rd of February, 1859, to the Princess Marie Sophie Amelie, daughter of Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Bavaria. His Majesty occupies a perilous throne, and is understood to have adopted in all essential points the retrograde and arbitrary policy of his un- happy father. He has already ac- quired among his people the too signi- ficant nickname of " Bombalino," or Little Bomba ! FRANCIS V., Ferdinand Gemtnten, ex-Duke of Modena, Archduke of Austria, Prince of Bohemia and Hungary, Duke of Reggio, Miran- dola, massa-carrara, and guas- talla, was born on the 1st of June, 1819, and succeeded his father, Fran- cis IV., on the 21st of January, 1846. Like the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and every other Italian potentate connected by blood with the House of Hapsburg, and supported on his throne by Aus- trian bayonets, he was detested by his subjects ; and when the French marched into Italy, in 1859, the people rose in revolt and drove him from the throne, declaring their intention never again to submit to his rule, and voting the an- nexation of their state to the dominions of the Constitutional King of Sardinia. His Highness married, in 1842, the Duchess Adelgonde, daughter of Louis, ex-King of Bavaria, and sister of King Maximilian. The Duke and Duchess are both in exile. FRANKLIN, Lady Jane, widow of the celebrated Arctic navigator, was born about the year 1802. She is the daughter of Mr. Griffin, of Bedford - place, London, and became the wife of Sir John Franklin in 1826. When her husband was appointed Governor of Van Diemen's Land, in 1836, she ac- companied him to that colony. On the 26th of May, 1845, the gallant and intrepid commander left England, on his third and, unhappily, his last expe- dition to the Northern Seas, in search of the impracticable North-west passage ; he, at the head of the expedition, hoisting his flag in the "Erebus," and Captain Francis Crosier, second in com- mand, on board the " Terror." Two years passed without any intelligence being received of the progress of the expedition, and alarm began to be expe- rienced throughout the country, regard- ing its probable fate. The anxiety grew into apprehension, and, for the first time, Lady Franklin came before the world prominently offering, from her private means, rewards of two to three thousand pounds to those who should discover the missing ships, their officers, and their hands. Toward^ the same end Lady Franklin appealed to Ame- rica : to her the cause was one of heart ; CAPTAIN SIR JOHN FRANKLIN, KT K.C.H. K.R.G-. D.C.L. F.R.S. <&c. Xpcmz^Tzzi^ta^r lj^tL> J>$?< 0^v^a^ W;C6>, J6>4<: FRA 165 FEE to the world it was one of science ; and the United States gave a noble response to her call, on both grounds. Government having sent out a searching expedition, in 1850, Lady Franklin gave additional as- sistance by fitting out the ' 'Prince Albert, " at an expense to herself of 2,500. This vessel returned, without bringing any tidings, in 1851. Six years had rolled away since Sir John Franklin had sailed for the North, and all hope was gone ; but the great-hearted woman was re- solved that though she could not save her husband, she would use every effort to ascertain his fate. Careless of per- sonal sacrifices, she fitted out and dis- patched the "Prince Albert," a second time ; but with no more satisfactory result. Still Lady Franklin persevered. The lapse of time rendered the idea of Sir John Franklin surviving the rigour of the climate for so many years impos- sible. But this noble English lady left no stone unturned, corresponded with men of science in every quarter of the globe, incited the wavering, and strengthened the courage of the bold, rousing a genuine national spirit of sym- pathy with the living, and sorrow for the dead. Dr. Rae having found some relics of the lost expedition, she fitted out another, of which Captain M'Clin- tock was the commander. He sailed on his exploring enterprise with a full expectation of realizing one of two results : he would either discover the Franklin party or their remains, or recommend that all further Northern search should be abandoned. Captain M'Clintock's expedition was successful. He returned in his little vessel, the "Fox," bringing with him sad memo- rials of seamen who had not hesitated to endanger their lives for the glory of their country. But for Captain M'Clin- tock's search and its termination, we refer to his name in another place. FRASER, Alexander, a painter, was born in Scotland about 1796. He may be considered as one of the best delinea- tors of the scenes and daily life of his native country. Amongst some of his best Scottish subjects are the "Laird's Dinner," the "Interior of a Highland Cottage," "Scene from the Prison of Edinburgh," &c. His "Robiu son Crusoe," and the " Last Moments of Mary, Queen of Scotland," have gained him- great praise, and are, perhaps, two of his best pictures. Nearly all of his productions are illustrative of homely and rural incidents, and he is extremely facile in executing them in a life-like manner. FREDERICK VIII. , Charles Chris- tian, King of Denmark, was born 6th of October, 1808. He married, in 1828, the Princess Wilhelmina of Denmark, his cousin, which marriage was dis- solved in 1837. He married a second time, in June 1841, the Princess Caro- line, of Mecklenburg Strelitz, which marriage, proving as unhappy as the previous one, was dissolved in like manner, in 1846. The King, nothing daunted by these marital reverses, was married a third time in 1850, to Louisa Christine, Countess of Danner, a Lady of the Bedchamber to his previous Queen. This marriage, a private and morganatic one, and not giving the lady the rank of Queen, has rendered his Majesty exceedingly unpopular ; and at one time in 1859, and again in 1860, threatened to lead to insurrection in the streets of the capital, and to the abdi- cation of the King. His Majesty made a tour of the British isles soon after his accession to the throne, and inspected more particularly the great cotton and woollen manufactories in Lancashire and Yorkshire, as well as the Potteries and the mining districts. FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., King of Prussia, was born October 15th, 1795, and succeeded his father, Frede- rick William III. , on the 7th of June, 1840. Having received his education under the most eminent professors in FEE 166 FEE Germany, he took part as a simple offi- cer, in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. For some years prior to the death of his father, the Crown Prince was looked upon as the hope of the absolutist party ; but shortly before his accession to the throne, his feelings and principles are supposed to have undergone a change. It was seen with pleasure by the most enlightened men of Prussia that he in- clined to the liberal side, and a policy was expected of him which would have the effect of bringing his administration into closer harmony with the national feeling, at least in so far as its foreign policy was concerned, whieh leaned too much to the side of Russia to please the patriotic and intensely German party ; that desire to be German above all things, even more than it desired to be Prussian. When in the fulness of time he mounted the throne, these hopes seemed on the point of realization. He conceded several reforms which, though of a minor character, were hailed with delight as the precursors of a better system, and presented, in many re- spects, a marked and favourable con- trast to his father, who had almost uniformly held and acted upon the doc- trines of absolutism. The new reign was unmarked by any great event until the fatal year of 1848, when the revolutionary insanity of the period in- fected the people of Berlin, and led to collisions between the military and the citizens. The king took measures to calm the tempest of insurrection, placed himself at the head of the national party, and proposed to fuse all the Ger- man states into a great federal union, under a single monarch. His famous saying, ' ' Prussia disappears and Germany is born," added fervour to the existing excitement throughout Germany. But the king's enthusiasm not only led him too far for the time, but very soon cooled. An unfortunate though acci- dental quarrel between the people of Berlin and the soldiers induced exas- peration on both sides, and renewed bloodshed was the result. Prisoners were taken, but the king released them, following up his clemency by a general amnesty for political offences, and by forming a new administration from the ranks of men in the popular confidence. Restored tranquillity was the almost immediate consequence of his measures. Shortly afterwards, and still with Ger- man unity as his watchword, he under- took to protect Schleswig-Holstein in opposition to the claims of Denmark ; but when the National Assembly at Frankfort passed over his pretensions, and elected the Archduke John Lieu- tenant-General of the German empire, Frederick William became convinced to all appearances that "German unity," such as is desired by the enthusiastic students of Germany, was a game too difficult for him to play ; and that as a king he would better consult the in- terests of his kingdom, by giving more of his attention to Prussia, and less to Germany, than he had been in the habit of doing. At the same time, as if fear- ful of the fate of Louis XVI. and other weak though well-meaning monarchs, whose sad end is recorded in history, he thought it safer to act the part of a conservative than. that of a revolu- tionary monarch, and entered upon a career of reaction, which exposed him to much ill-will, if not danger; but which never again eventuated in popular insurrection. At the outbreak of the Crimean war, it was confidently ex- pected that the King of Prussia would have cast in his lot with Great Britain and France in support of the equili- brium of Europe, but with the vacilla- tion which has marked every period of his career, his intentions were always in advance of his acts ; and the reason for doing the right thing was balanced in his mind by some reason equally co- gent for not doing it, or at all events for FEE 167 FEE postponing it; and time wore on, and found him equally distrusted by Russia and by the powers opposed to her. In the year 1857 symptoms of mental aber- ration were observed by the physicians of his Majesty, and these symptoms continuing to grow stronger, it was at length deemed necessary to establish a regency ; and on the 9th of October, 1858, the king's brother, Prince Frede- rick William Louis, the heir presumptive to the throne, was inducted into that office, and took the necessary oaths amid the general satisfaction of the people. The king was married on the 29th of November, 1823, to Elizabeth Louisa, daughter of the late Maximilian Joseph, King of Bavaria. There has been no issue by the marriage, so that after the actual regent, the heir presumptive to the throne of Prussia is the Prince Fre- derick William Nicholas Charles, mar- ried on the 25th of January, 1858, to the Princess Royal of England. FREILIGRATH, Ferdinand, a Ger- man poet, was born June 17th, 1810, at Detmold, capital of the German principality of Lippe. Receiving his early education from his father, he was employed at a mercantile, and then in a banking establishment, and published some poems in 1838. Their success induced him to pursue literature as a profession. In 1841 Freiligrath married, and removed first to Darmstadt, and then to St. Goar on the Rhine, receiving a small pension from the Prussian go- vernment. This he afterwards gave up on his publishing some political poems which opposed the measures of the government. Owing to their great suc- cess, the author underwent a prosecution, and his work was suppressed. Compelled by the hostility of the government to expatriate himself, Freiligrath in 1844 passed from Belgium into Switzerland, and ultimately to that general rendez- vous of the oppressed of Europe Lon- don, where he became a banker's clerk. He subsequently published translations into German of the poems of Victor Hugo, and of the more popular English poets, and in the spring of 1848 visited the United States, whence he soon re- turned to Germany. During the revo- lution he took an active part on the side of democracy, and composed a poem entitled "Die Todten an die Liebenden" ("The'Dead to the Living"), for which he was prosecuted, but the jury would not convict him. The ill-will of his an- tagonists, however, finding fresh means to plague him, he, for a second time, emigrated in May 1851, since which time he has lived in London. His poeti- cal works, originally published in 1838, have passed through eighteen editions, besides a large reprint of his complete works, issued at New York in 1858. The poetry is original in the highest sense, bearing almost no resemblance to the works of any former German poet. His translations from the English are numerous and excellent; the sense, spirit, and rhythm of the originals being most successfully rendered. He first intro- duced the songs of Robert Burns to the German public. FREMONT, John Charles, was born on the 21st of January, 1813, in Savannah. While he was but a boy, his father, who was of French extrac- tion, died, leaving his mother in circum- stances far from affluent, although she managed to give her son a good educa- tion. After studying in Charleston College he became a teacher of mathe- matics, and subsequently practised sur- veying. As second lieutenant in the corps of topographical engineers, he entered upon that series of explorations which opened to America the gates of her Pacific empire, and won for him- self the title of " the Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains," and his success at once made the name of Fremont famous. The report of the enterprise was pub- lished by the American government ; the FRE 168 FRE intrepid pathfinder was raised to the rank of brevet-captain, and the Victoria medal of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain was awarded to him. Captain Fremont now entered upon an exploring expedition, intended to give an uninterrupted view of the route from Missouri to the west coast of the Ameri- can continent. This expedition was crowned with a success fully equal to his former enterprise. The task occu- pied many months, during which he completed a circuit of 12 degrees in diameter north and south, and 10 de- grees east and west, having travelled some 3,500 miles. So soon as this second exploration was completed, Cap- tain Fremont started on a third survey. The enterprise was one of peculiar difficulty, but at length every obstacle was surmounted, and he reached Cali- fornia, where he found the United States and Mexico were at war. Captain Fremont accordingly gave his country his energetic services. When these ser- vices were no longer needed, he became mixed up in a miserable quarrel between Stockton and Kearney, the military commanders, was tried by a court- martial, and deprived of his commission. Feeling keenly the injustice done him, he retired into private life. Having arranged to proceed to California, Fre- mont collected a strong party, and started in 1848 across the Rocky Mountains. So great were the difficulties of this last expedition, that even its stout- hearted commander began to quail. His mules were dead, his men began to droop : ten had perished amidst the deep snows of Sierra San Juan. Only after a series of unprecedented struggles, mani- festing the most unconquerable energy and the sternest resolution, did the shattered remnant of his followers reach New Mexico ; thence they proceeded to California. Fremont was afterwards sent as representative to Congress, and also received the Prussian gold medal as a reward for his eminent services to science. Mr. Fremont was a candi- date for the presidency of the United States in opposition to Mr. Buchanan at the presidential election of 1857. His principal work is entitled " ColonelJohn Charles Fremont's Explorations" (1859), which contains an account of all his expe- ditions, with annotations and additions by several of the most eminent men of science. An account of his life and ex- plorations by C. W. Upham (Boston, 1856), had a remarkable success, 50,000 copies having been sold as soon as it was issued. FRERICHS, Frederic Theodore, a German physician, was born at Au- rich, in Hanover, on the 24th of March, 1819. He proceeded in due time to Gbttingen, in order to study medicine, and the natural sciences. Being ad- mitted a physician in the ordinary course, he successively visited Berlin, Prague, and Vienna, devoting his attention spe- cially to the study of pathology and anatomy. He afterwards resided for a time in Holland, Belgium, and France, but eventually settled down at Got- tingen. A Fellow of the School of Medicine, and attached to the Physio- logical Institute of Rodolph Wagner, he opened a course, which soon became one of the most popular of the University. In 1851 he was invited to Kiel, to direct the Polyclinical and Academic Hos- pital ; but having taken a part, though it does not seem to have been an active one, in the dispute between Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (1852), he found it necessary to return to Germany, and was almost immediately appointed Pro- fessor of Pathology and Therapeutics in the University of Breslau. In 1854 the King of Prussia conferred on him the order of the Red Eagle, and the King of Bavaria the order of St. Michael. He contributed actively and extensively to the "Physiological Dictionary" of Wagner j to Liebig's "Dictionary of FRI 169 GAR Chemistry," and to the "Supplement" of 1850-52, as well as to other publi- cations of cognate character. In 1858-9 he went to Berlin, and succeeded to the chair of Clinical Medicine on the re- tirement of Schbnlein ; to whose large practice he has also in some measure succeeded. He is the author of a work on "Morbus Brightii," published at Brunswick, in 1851 ; and of another, on "Diseases of the Liver," published at Brunswick, in 1859, on which his re- putation as a physician and pathologist is mainly formed. It is now being trans- lated for the New Sydenham Society. FRITH, William Powell, R. A., a painter, was born at Studley, Yorkshire, in 1819; and, like Lawrence, was the son of an inn-keeper. His picture of "Malvolio before the Countess Olivia," gave evidence of a future successful career being in store for him. This was succeeded by picture after picture, all of which rose in estimation and value. His composition is excellent, and his colour admirable. He throws into his works, occasionally, sly touches of humour, which produce a greater effect than he probably intends. Cervantes, Shaks- peare, Goldsmith, Addison, and the British Classics, have been the well- springs of his inspiration. " Coming of Age," and "Life at the Sea-side," are among his best known works. In 1853 Mr. Frith was elected a Royal Acade- mician. In 1855 he sent to the Paris Exhibition his picture of " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme," with several others, for which he received a gold medal. In 1858 was produced the ' 'Derby Day," for which he received three thousand pounds. FROST, William Edward, was born at Wandsworth in 1810. He early Rtadied as an artist, and soon distin- ; London, a Romance." In 1844 he removed from London to Glasgow, to succeed the late Mr. Weir as editor of the "Argus," then a leading liberal journal in the West of Scotland. During his residence in Scotland, he produced "The Legends of the Isles, and other Poems," "A Series of Twelve Letters to Lord Morpeth on the Education of the People," and a volume entitled " The Scenery and Poetry of the Eng- lish Lakes : a Summer Ramble. " He also published "Voices from the Crowd," which contained the spirit-stirring song, "The Good Time Coming." It was while Mr. Mackay remained in Scotland that he received from the University of Glasgow the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1847 he returned to the metropolis, where he succeeded to the political editorship of the " Illus- trated London News." He published in 1848 his "Town Lyrics;" in 1850 1 * Egeria, or the Spirit of Nature ; and other Poems," to which was prefixed "An Inquiry into the alleged Anti- Poetical Tendencies of the Present Age." In 1851 he edited for the Percy Society, with Notes and an Introduction, an important antiquarian work, entitled "A Collection of Songs and Ballads relative to the London 'Prentices and Trades ; and to the Affairs of London generally, during the Fourteenth, Fif- teenth, and Sixteenth Centuries." He also edited "A Book of English Songs," and "A Book of Scottish Songs, with Notes and Observations." In 1856 Dr. Mackay published the "Lump of Gold," and in the following year " Under Green Leaves," two poetical works abounding with verses of the utmost melody, rich with the choicest Eng- lish epithets and phrases. After the publication of these works, Dr. Mackay made a tour to America, where he de- livered lectures upon ' 'Poetry and Song, " receiving everywhere a cordial and enthusiastic reception; his poetry and songs, owing perhaps to the higher standard of education in the Northern States, being well known and appre- MAC 258 MAC ciated among our Transatlantic cousins. After his return to this country he pub- lished his "Life and Liberty in Ame- rica," which is characterised in "The Athenaeum" as a bright, fresh, and hopeful book, worthy of an author whose songs are oftenest heard on the Atlantic. He also edited a Christmas book, entitled "The Home Affections as portrayed by the Poets. " Dr. Mackay lately published a narrative poem, en- titled "A Man's Heart," and has just edited "A Collection of the Jacobite Ballads of Scotland." He is still ac- tively engaged in journalism, having recently founded the "London Re- view. " Like all the great song writers, Dr. Mackay is a musician, and the com- poser of the melodies published with many of his songs. He possesses in a high degree the rare faculty of a true lyric poet, that of working his words and music up into harmony and unison with the feelings they express. MACLAREN, Charles, a journal- ist, was born in 1783. He is a man of humble birth, but well educated, and has been distinguished through life for energy, ability, and modesty of character. In conjunction with the late Mr. William Ritchie, he commenced the "Scotsman" newspaper. Under Mr.Maclaren's management, the " Scots- man" rose to the highest position in journalism ; though, perhaps, as Lord Cockburn remarks, "just a little heavy occasionally. " Mr. Maclaren is not only an able editor, but is also a geologist and geographer. " The Topography of Troy," and "The Geology of Fife and the Lothians, " with his various commu- nications to the "Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica" and "Edinburgh Philoso- phical Journal," bear testimony to his scientific attainments. He is a mem- ber of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Geological Societies of Lon- don and Paris. Under the initials "C. M." he still occasionally contri- butes papers, chiefly scientific, to the "Scotsman." ^ MACLEOD, ReT. Norman, D.D.,an eminent Scottish divine, was born at Campbeltown, Argyleshire, on the 3rd June, 1812. He is the son of the Rev. Norman Macleod, D. D. , Minister of St. Columba's (Gaelic) church in Glasgow, who is also one of the Deans of the Chapel RoyaL and has been a Mo- derator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in Ger- many, and was appointed to the min- isterial charge of Loudoun, in Ayrshire, in 1838, and of Dalkeith in 1843. In 1851 he was called to the Barony parish, Glasgow, the largest, and one of the most important, in Scotland ; and he has continued to discharge the duties of his onerous office since then with zeal and ability. Dr. Macleod's works are of a practical character, the two most exten- sively read being "The Earnest Stu- dent," and "Home Education." He at present edits a literary and religious pe- riodical, entitled "Good Words," which has obtained the widest circulation of any publication of its class hitherto known in Scotland. The constant claims of large and populous parishes have, however, rendered it almost im- possible for Dr. Macteod to devote any but occasional time to literary pursuits. His principles are evangelical ; his ora- tory is free and graceful, and he is an ardent friend to the working classes. He received the degree of D.D. in 1858. He has lately commenced special services for the labouring classes in his church, and is connected with several associa- tions for their benefit in Glasgow. M'CLINTOCK, Sir Francis Leopold, a celebrated Arctic navigator, was born at Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819. When quite a boy, in 1831, he entered the navy as midshipman, and in 1845 obtained his lieutenancy, on account of his distin- guished services under Sir Charles CAPT.M'CLINTOCK, R.N. LL.D. ><&&eytJvd^3%Z&ws3fn.J &>???; MAC 259 MAC Hotham when H. M. ship "Gorgon" was stranded at Monte Video. Having chosen his profession, he resolved to master it, as well in theory as in detail ; and to that end studied with unre- mitting zeal, when opportunity afforded, at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, where he was warmly commended for his proficiency in science. When the Enterprise and Investigator were des- patched by Government, in 1848, to search for Sir John Franklin, under the command of Sir James Clark Ross, M'Clintock was appointed Lieutenant on board the Enterprise. In all the three expeditions sent out in search of Franklin, he was actively employed, dis- tinguishing himself by the extraordinary journeys he made overland on foot, and the great additions he made to geogra- phical knowledge. In 1849, he and Sir James Ross were absent from the ship forty days, during whieh time they tra- versed 500 miles of coast ; and again, in 1851, when attached to Captain Austin's expedition, he made a pedestrian journey of 900 miles, which occupied about 80 days. In 1853 he commanded the In- trepid, one of the four ships forming Sir Edward Belcher's searching expedition. He had given much attention to the subject of sledge-travelling, as a most important means of exploring the coun- try ; and he is accordingly found im- proving on the systems previously adopted, achieving his purpose so well that it has been stated that every part of the sledge scheme carried out by Sir Edward Belcher was grounded entirely on M'Clintock's original ideas. The advantages of his system are now thoroughly recognised ; but the best proof of its value rests on the fact that in his sledge journey of 1853 he accom- plished on foot the extraordinary dis- tance of 1,400 miles in 105 days, thus not only surpassing himself, but every other competitor. As such a journey was never performed before, the proba- bility is that it will never be equalled. It is, however, by the recent voyage of the "Fox," its successful issue, and the unerring skill joined to the indomitable perseverance of its commander, that Captain M'Clintock's name will ever rank among the first and greatest of our Arctic heroes. All previous efforts at penetrating the mystery of the fate of the Franklin expedition had proved abortive, though aided by the resources of the two most powerful maritima na- tions of the world. It was reserved for Captain M'Clintock, with a steam-yacht of but one hundred and seventy-seven tons burden, and only twenty-four of a crew, to solve the problem. For eight months his little craft was helplessly beset in the pack of ice in Baffin's Bay. Many commanders would have aban- doned the undertaking then, but he was not to be deterred from the prosecution of his object by any impediment short of destruction. He persisted ; the ice gave way; the "Fox" was liberated; and the termination of his toils and dan- gers was success. Into the particulars of this eventful voyage it is not neces- sary to enter ; but it may be observed that, while Captain M'Clintock never lost sight of his primary purpose, he left no opportunity of advancing the cause of science unimproved. He has seen more Arctic service than, perhaps, any other officer in the Royal Navy, having spent six winters within the Arctic circle, and travelled on foot, on his ex- ploring journeys, not less than 5,500 miles, without his health suffering. He has brought home many interesting relics of the lost expedition, and amongst other things, the original despatch stating the date and circumstances of Sir J. Frank- lin's death. MACLISE, Daniel, an English painter, was born at Cork, in 181 1. His father had served in the Elgin Fen- cibles, and his grandfather in the 42nd regiment of the line. He was early MAC 260 MAC intended for commercial pursuits, and spent some time in a banking establish- ment in his native town ; but preferring the pursuit of the Fine Arts, he speedily gave vent to his earnest desire by pro- ducing sketches, &c, which brought him into some little notoriety. He at last proceeded to London and entered the Royal Academy, and here soon obtained leading prizes for his drawings from life, and for the best copy of a picture. He sketched for " Eraser's," and other periodicals, and then devoted his talents to oil painting, in which he has since met with extraordinary success. He was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1840. His productions have been very numerous, and some of the following are specially admired : " The Vow of the Ladies, and the Peacock," "Henry the Eighth's Interview with Anne Boleyn," "Gil Bias and the Parasite," "The Sleeping Beauty," " Hunt the Slipper," " The Sacrifice of Noah," "Caxtonin his Printing Office," "Merry Christmas and the Baron's Hall," " Shakspeare's Seven Ages," &c. &c. He has also made many designs for illustrated works, is a first-rate draughtsman, and has painted several frescoes in the New Houses of Parlia- ment. Two of his best pictures are in the national collection at the Kensington Museum, namely, his " Play Scene in Hamlet," and " Malvolio and the Coun- tess." MACLURE, Sir Robert Le Mesu- rier, an Arctic discoverer and traveller, was born at Wexford, in January, 1807. Having been kindly provided for by an intimate friend of his father during his early years, he was sent to Eton, and afterwards to Sandhurst. Being dis- gusted, however, with the prospect of a military life, he secretly left the College, and was, through the influence of his old friend, placed as midshipman on board the "Victory." He passed some years in the navy, and having become lieutenant, entered into that line of service which has since rendered him so much known and esteemed. His first Arctic voyage was under Sir George Back, and in 1836 he went with him to the northern seas, but was nearly ship- wrecked on his return. In 1848 he pro- ceeded in search of Franklin, who had been absent for three years, and of whom no account had been received since he re-victualled at Greenland, shortly after his departure from Eng- land. This voyage, however, was un- successful, and the whole party returned to England towards the end of 1849. Another expedition was fitted out in the ensuing year, in which Captain Maclure commanded one of the vessels, the "En- terprise;" and in this voyage he obtained a result which had been long sought, namely, the discovery of the North- West passage. The description of Arctic voyages always includes accounts of severe hardship and privation, but in this case the crews seem to have been in the greatest danger, not only from the ice, but also from their provisions falling short. Instead of proceeding northwards to Greenland, which is the usual course, Captain Maclure sailed round to Behring's Straits, and then pursued an eastern course. He travelled by sledge and on foot from the Pacific to the Atlantic ; and although perceiving no traces of the Franklin expedition, he succeeded in that which had hitherto baffled every other navigator. On his return home, after overcoming all difficulties by great per- severance, and receiving also assistance from Captain Kellet, who had been sent out to relieve him, Captain Maclure was heartily welcomed to his native shores, was knighted by her Majesty, and received a portion of the reward which had been many years previously offered for the discovery of a passage to India by proceeding in a north-westerly direction, instead of the usual route by the Cape of Good Hope. He at pre- MAC 261 MAC sent commands a vessel in the Chinese seas, and will most probably be called on to exercise, in warlike matters, those talents which have already rendered him famous in his past career. MACMAHON, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, Marshal of France, and Senator, is descended from an ancient Irish family who attached themselves to the cause of the Stuarts, and left their native country after the defeat of King James II. at the Boyne. Marie Edm6 was born in 1807, at Autun, Saone-et-Loire, and after being educated at the School of St' Cyr, joined the army. As captain in 1833, he signalized himself in Africa at vari- ous serious engagements. After leaving Africa he joined the French army before Sebastopol, and there acquired great renown by his bravery and success^ He led his division against the Malakoff, and although this was stoutly defended by the Russians, he effected a lodgment. For four hours he was assailed by the Russian forces, who fought desperately, but with Macmahon the position was one of death or glory, and he held it against every effort of the enemy, who eventually retreated only to witness the French masters of the position. Digni- ties, chiefly titular but ennobling, were showered on him, not the least of which were the British Order of the Bath, and the rank and emolument of a Senator of the Empire. On the war of 1859 breaking out with Austria, General Macmahon was again selected for the field; and, having been triumphant in the sanguinary contest of Magenta, promptly received the baton of a Mar- shal. A testimonial has just been pre- sented to him by his "countrymen," the Irish, in the shape of a sword. In the inscription reference is made to ' ' the oppressed Ireland," and many of the subscribers do not hesitate to express the hope that he may one day be called upon to rescue "their country" from the hand of the Saxon, and, as a descendant of its ancient kings, occupy the throne of his ancestors. M'NEILE, The Rev. Hugh, D.D., a clergyman, and Canon of Chester, was born in 1795, at Bally castle, near Bel- fast, in the county of Antrim, Ireland, He graduated at Trinity College, Dub- lin. He was for some years Rector of Albury in Surrey, and then frequently preached in London, where his eloquent and energetic style of pulpit oratory attracted great attention, and filled the churches where he officiated. He was in- vited to the incumbency of St. Jude's, Liverpool, which he held for many years, butremoved to that of St. Paul's, Prince's Park, near Liverpool. He has pub- lished several theological works, toge- ther with separate sermons and con- troversial pamphlets, and his writings have acquired great popularity, some having reached as many as seven edi- tions. M'NEILL, Sir John, G.C.B., Knight of the Lion and Sun of Persia, a diplo- matist, was born in 1795, at Colonsay, Argyleshire. He was educated in St. Andrew's University, and subsequently joined the Bombay army. In 1821 he was sent to Persia as assistant to the Charge" d' Affaires ; in 1831 he became Assistant Secretary; in 1834 was British Minister, and remained in that position till 1844. For his services in Persia he was created G.C.B. in 1839. Sir John availed himself of the opportunity thus afforded him of observing the peculiari- ties of Oriental customs and government. He was chosen a President of the Scot- tish Poor-Law Board, on his return to his native country. He was also engaged in the inquiry into the state of the army before Sebastopol, for which service he was specially fitted on account of his previous acquaintance with the resources of the neighbouring countries. He was nominated a mem- ber of the Privy Council in 1857, as a MAC 262 MAD recognition of the services he had ren- dered to the nation. M'NEILL, Sir John, LL.D., F.R.S., C.E., was born at Mount Pleasant, near Dundalk, county Louth, Ireland. He was educated as a military engineer, but adopted instead the civil branch of the profession, and was in 1842 appointed Professor of Practical Engineering in Tri- nity College, Dublin. He was chief en- gineer for the Dublin and Drogheda Rail- way, and on the opening of the line in 1 844, received the honour of knighthood from the Lord Lieutenant. He has constructed most of the principal railways in Ireland, as well as the celebrated bridge over the Boyne, and the large viaducts on the Great Southern and Western Railway, and the Dublin and Belfast Railway. MACREADY, William Charles, a tragedian, was born in London, in 1793. His early education was received at Rugby, but owing to his father's .mis- fortunes he was compelled to abandon the hope of other prospects, and as- sumed the theatrical profession, of which his parent was a member. He made his debut at Birmingham in 1810 ; and after .performing in maDy of the leading pro- vincial theatres, appeared before a Lon- don audience, in Covent Garden, in 1816, as "Orestes," in the "Distressed Mo- ther." His reception on this occasion was most enthusiastic, and had the effect of encouraging him to persevere in the study of some of Shakspeare's principal characters, in which however he did not appear, owing to professional jealousies, till his success, and a furore to see him in "Richard III.," in November 1819, placed him indisputably at the head of Covent Garden Theatre. He subse- quently represented " Coriolanus," and other leading characters of Shakspeare, ia the same season ; and at its termina- tion acted in Knowles's tragedy of " Virginius," which confirmed his posi- tion and reputation. He afterwards made a tour in the United States, and ' also appeared in the French capital. In J 1837 he became lessee of Covent Gar- den Theatre ; but after two years' trial gave it up, on the grounds of injustice and rapacity according to his own statement on the part of the propri- | etors. He afterwards performed at the Haymarket, and in the provinces. As- suming the management of Drury Lane, he endeavoured to elevate the taste of the habitues of the theatres ; but, like all public benefactors, did not meet with an adequate pecuniary return for I his exertions. H e performed in Ame- : rica in 1849 ; but through the malice of an actor was in danger of losing hi.^ , life during a riot which took place in j the theatre where he was performing. j He returned home, and after appearing in many of his favourite representations in different parts of the kingdom, he retired from the stage in 1851. He now i resides in Dorsetshire, where he applies his past experience and eminent talents to the improvement of the social and mental condition of his neighbours. MADDEN, Sir Frederick, K.H., F. R.S., M.R.I. A., an antiquarian writer, was born at Portsmouth, in 1801. His first literary occupation was that of assisting Mr. Roscoe in 1825, in mak- ing a catalogue of manuscripts belong- ing to the Earl of Leicester. In the course of a year afterwards he became an Assistant in the British Museum, and in 1837 was appointed Keeper of the Manuscript department. Sir Frede- rick has been a most valuable contri- butor to English history, and has edited many works relating thereto. Amongst the most important of these may be named " The Holy Bible in the ear- nest English Version, by Wycliffe ; " bis " Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess Mary, afterwards Queen Mary, with a Memoir of the Princess, and Notes ; " "Havelock, the Dane;" "Layamon's Brut, or Chronicle of Britain;" " Sir Gawayne," &c. He is at present en- M A D 263 M A a gaged in preparing for the press, under the sanction of the Master of the Rolls, "The Minor Chronicle of Matthew Paris, the Historian of St. Alban's Abbey, of the Thirteenth Century." He was nominated companion of the Guelphic order in 1832, knighted by King William IV. in 1833, and in 1834 was appointed one of the Gentlemen of the King's Privy Chamber. MADOZ, Pascal, a Spanish states- man and author, was born at Pampe- luna, in May 1806. He pursued his legal studies at the University of Sara- gossa, but becoming mixed up with political matters, he was cast into prison, where he remained for many months. He graduated after his release, but was expelled from the university on account of his theological opinions. He commenced to practise in the legal profession in 1835, and was soon after made Judge of the First Instance, at Barcelona. He became deputy to the Cortes, and in 1854 was elected Presi- dent of that assembly. As Minister of Finance, he proposed the sequestration of the Church and other property, in the following year, and as such incurred the odium of the Church party ; taking part with the popular cause, he was compelled through its want of success to quit Madrid, in 1856. He has pub- lished some valuable works, the two most important being his "Collection of Celebrated Law Cases," and "A Geo- graphical and Statistical Dictionary of Spain," the latter of which he printed himself. He is of decided liberal opi- nions, and has at times had considerable influence in Spanish affairs. MAGNAN, Pierre Bernard, a French Marshal, was born in Paris, on 7th December, 1791. He originally in- tended to follow the profession of the law, but when eighteen years old vo- luntarily entered the 66th Regiment of the Line, and remained in it during the campaign in Spain and Portugal. His services procured him the distinction of admission to the Imperial Guard, and with the rank of Captain he served in the campaign of 1814, after which he was created an officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1827 he obtained the com- mand of the 49th Regiment of the Line, and took part in the Algerian expe- dition of 1830. Here again he distin- guished himself by his conduct at the battle of Staoueli, and for his services was rewarded by obtaining the rank of Commander. In 1831 he received an order to march upon Lyons, which was then in a state of insurrection, and he succeeded in putting down the insur- gents; but his conduct not being ap- proved of by the Government, the com- mand of the regiment was taken from him. He was then sent on a mission to Belgium. Appointed a General of Brigade by the King of the Belgians, he set himself assiduously to effect the re- organization of the Belgian army, of which he commanded the vanguard at the time when war was imminent be- tween Belgium and Holland. Peace having been concluded, he asked and obtained permission to return to France, where he had been named a General of Brigade in 1839. He was appointed to the command of the Department of the Nord, which he retained for seven years. When the revolution of 1848 broke out, having no command, he placed himself at the disposal of the Minister of War, and was the only general officer who accompanied the Duchess of Orleans and her children to the Chamber of Deputies. Under the Provisional Government he soon ob- tained the command of the 3rd division of the Army of the Alps. Appointed in the month of July, 1851, to the chief com- mand of the Army of Paris, and devoted to the schemes of Prince Louis Napoleon, he was one of the small number of persons who prepared for the coup oVStat. He aided by his able and energetic advice MAL 2G4 MAN the projects of the President during the eventful days of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th of December, and was rewarded by the dignity of Marshal of France. He re- mained in command of the Army of Paris during the Crimean and Italian campaigns, the confidence of the Em- peror retaining him in that important position. MALMESBURY, The Right Hon. James Howard Harris, third Earl of, Secretary of Foreign Affairs in the minis- try of Lord Derby, was born 25th March, 1807. He was educated at Eton, and Oriel College, Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university, he married Lady Emma Bennet. In 1841, as Viscount Fitz-Har- ris, he was returned to the House of Com- mons as member for Wilton. Scarcely, however, had he taken his seat among the people's representatives, when the unexpected death of his father called him to the Upper House. His conduct there was singularly unobtrusive ; and not until 1852 was public attention drawn towards him. His selection by Lord Derby as Minister for Foreign Af- fairs, during his short-lived administra- tion, first drew the noble lord from the obscurity he had hitherto courted. The friends of the noble earl claim for him the merit of having preserved inviolate the national honour at that critical juncture, when Lord Palmerston, ex- pelled from office, was succeeded by Lord Derby; but an impartial observer might be apt to deny to the minister more merit in that crisis than simply be- longs to the registrar of the national wilL On Lord Derby's restoration to power in 1858, Lord Malmesbury again became Foreign Secretary, and it spoke well for the administration of that department, that, on Lord Derby's retirement in 1859, the succeeding government stated their intention, so far as regarded foreign policy, of following in the track of their MANTEUFEL, Baron Otho Theo- dore, Prussian Minister of Foreign Af- fairs, was born at Lubben, Brandenburg, Feb. 1805, and after taking the ordinary collegiate course, studied law and political science at the University of Halle. In 1827 he went to Berlin, where he was appointed to a small office, which he left, and was afterwards named successively to various posts of trust in Brandenburg, for which province he became Deputy to the Provincial Diet in 1837. From 1841 to 1843 he directed the internal affairs of the government of Kbnigsberg ; in 1843 he obtained the Vice-Presidency of the government of Stettin. The year fol- lowing found him Special Counsellor to the Prince of Prussia, and member of the Council of State ; in 1845 he was Under- Secretary to the Minister of the Interior ; in 1847 he defended the Prussian Con- stitution with all his power ; and in 1848 was appointed Minister of the Interior, under Count Brandenburg. The king- dom was somewhat unsettled at the time, and as Manteufel exhibited an amount of administrative ability and moderation in his course of proceeding not expected from him, he gained popularity and influence. In 1850, when a serious dis- agreement between Prussia and Austria was at its height, he was appointed Min- ister for Foreign Affairs. In 1852 he was constituted President of the Council of Ministers, and in 1856 he was a party to the Peace Congress of Paris, when he represented the Prussian government. Different ideas of his policy are enter- tained. A large section in France express themselves by designating him gloomy and austere ; but the general Prussian opinion is probably the correct one, that he is emphatically a Prussian politician, endeavouring, with the best of his abi- lity, to hold the balance equal between conflicting interests, whether at home or abroad. MANZONI, Count Alessandro, an Italian poet and novelist, was born at Milan, in 1784. Having studied in his MAR 265 MAR native city, he completed his education at Pavia, and afterwards proceeded to Paris. His most popular novel is "I Promessi Sposi," which has appeared in English as "The Betrothed Lovers." He has also produced tragedies and poems, on which, however, his reputa- tion does not depend. Amongst his other works are " A Vindication of Catholic Morality ; " "Storia della Co- lonna Infame," an historical essay treat- ing on some supposed means of secretly propagating the plague which in 1630 ravaged Milan ; and several odes, com- posed as illustrative of different events connected with history. MARIO, Joseph, an Italian singer, was born at Turin, in 1810, and received a first-rate musical educa- tion. He entered the Sardinian army as an officer in 1830, but for some cause quitted the service and went to Paris, where his fine tenor voice soon obtained him an engagement at the Opera, with a handsome salary. It was here that he assumed the name of Mario, in place of his proper title the Marquis of Candia. In December, 1838, he made his debut in " Robert le Diable," and in the following year ap- peared in the Italian Theatre, where he was the rival of Rubini. He subse- quently travelled in Russia, where he remained for some years. Since then he has repeatedly appeared in London and Paris at the Italian Opera houses, has achieved successes in every engage- ment, and acquired a European reputa- tion for the taste and excellence of his vocalism. MAROCHETTI, Baron Charles, a sculptor, was born at Turin, in 1805. After studying at the Lycee Napoleon, he entered the ateliers of Bosio and Gros. He subsequently spent some time in Italy, and returning to France in 1827, exhibited in that year his "Young Girl Playing with a Bog," which was greatly admired for its combination of vigour and grace. In 1831 he produced his "Fallen Angel," and some time after- wards executed the equestrian statue of Emanuel Philibert, which is erected at Turin. The statue of the Duke of Wel- lington, erected in front of the Royal Exchange in Glasgow, was produced by him in 1844. Since his removal to Lon- don, in 1848, he has executed numerous well-known statues, which have been greatly admired. His "Richard Coeur de Lion" was exhibited at Hyde Park in 1851. The statue of her Majesty, erected in Buchanan-street, Glasgow, was produced in 1854. He has also executed busts of the Queen and Prince Albert, and of many well-known public individuals. He stands high in popular favour, owing to the force and felicity of all his numerous produc- tions. MARSH, Mrs. Anne Caldwell, an English authoress, was born in Stafford- shire, about the end of the last century. Having received an excellent education at home, she proceeded, after marrying Mr. Marsh, to London, and published her first literary effort, "Two Old Men's Tales," which at once secured her suc- cess as a writer. After producing in 1836 her " Tales of the Woods and the Fields," and the "Triumphs of Time," she again received the praise of her readers for her work entitled "Mount Sorel," which appeared in 1843. Since then Mrs. Marsh has been a most inde- fatigable writer ; and in all her works her depth of feeling and high descrip- tive powers are eminently apparent. Her "Emilia Wyndham" has had ex- traordinary success as a popular novel. Amongst many others, the following may be named as the best of her public cations: "Father Darcy," "Time the Avenger," "Aubrey," " The Protestant Reformation in France," "Angela," and "The Heiress of Haughton." Mrs. Marsh's style is exceedingly attractive ; and she infuses much of truth and high- MAR 266 MAR toned morality in all her charming works of fiction. MARSHALL, William Calder, R.A., a sculptor, was born at Edin- burgh, in 1813. He studied in the Royal Academy of London, and became the pupil of Chantrey and Bailey. After visiting Rome he settled in London, and commenced those labours in sculp- ture for which he has since become so well known, and wherein he has been a dain to borrow the material of their works from foreign sources. Besides the above-named plays, and others in blank verse, Mr. Marston has written i two or three prose dramas, of which the one entitled "A Hard Struggle," has excited the most attention. MARTINEAU, Miss Harriet, an English authoress, was born at Nor- wich, on 12th June, 1802. She is de- scended from one of the old French successful competitor against men of the I families who sought a refuge in England highest rank in the profession. Perhaps j on the revocation of the Edict of one of the best of his works is the colossal statue of Sir Robert Peel, which has been erected at Manchester. He received the prize for a model of the national monument to the Duke of Wel- lington, the bas-relievos of which he is at present executing, and which will be placed in St. Paul's Cathedral. The public statues he has executed in Lon- don are those of Dr. Jenner, Thomas Campbell, and Captain Coram. He is an Associate of the Scottish Academy, and a Royal Academician. The follow- ing are some of Mr. Marshall's choice productions: "Una and the Lion," "Cupid and Psyche," "Caractacus," 11 Paid and Virginia," " Hebe Rejected," Nantes. At the cost of much self- denial, the parents of Miss Martineau secured for their children a superior education, the best masters at home being provided for them without stint. Miss Martineau's specialty was music, singing, and the pianoforte. A sound classical education, combined with steady, regular, mental discipline, and an innate love of literature, rendered composition a pleasure and a profit. Some years after the death of her father, who was a manufacturer, his successor in business failed ; and as the family had left their money in the concern, Miss Martineau and her mother and sisters lost their alL With a noble spirit " Godiva," " Imogene Asleep," " Dane- I she resolved to maintain herself; it was ing Girl Reposing," "The Grecian | a great struggle, but she saw its end. Maid," " Sabrina," and his " Claren- ! In 1823 she published a volume of "De- don" and " Somers," in the New Houses \ votional Exercises for Young Persons ;" of Parliament. MARSTON, John Westland, a dramatic author, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 7th of January, 1820. He entered the office of his uncle with the view of adopting the legal pro- fession ; but on the completion of his ar- ticles he abandoned the profession, and now writes principally for the theatres. His "Patrician's Daughter," "Strath- in 1824, "Christmas Day;" in 1826, "Principle and Practice," and "The Rioters," succeeded by "The Turn Out," "Mary Campbell," and "My Servant Rachel," a series of tracts on subjects relating to the working classes, of whose interests she has invariably been an ardent advocate. In 1831 her "Tra- ditions of Palestine" appeared, and was successful. The Committee of the Bri- more," and "Ann Blake," are well | tish and Foreign Unitarian Association known as among the most sterling of modern dramatic works. All his plays have been successfid, and he is one of our few writers for the stage who dis- having offered prizes for three tracts on the introduction and promotion of Unitarianism among the Roman Catho- lics, the Jews, and the Mahomedans, MAR 267 MAE Miss Martineau sent in three essays for competition, and she was awarded the first prize for each. Shortly afterwards she projected the publication of a monthly series of tales, illustrative of political economy, and offered one of them to the Society for the Diffusion of Usefid Knowledge ; but being rejected by that body, they were brought out independently, and became extremely popular. The " Illustrations of Political Economy " were followed by ' ' Illustra- tions of Taxation," a series of six tales ; and these were succeeded by others on " Poor Law and Paupers. " In 1834 Miss Martineau visited the United States ; and on her return published a work entitled "Society in America," and a "Retrospect of Western Travel." In 1838 she wrote "Deerbrook," the most widely circulated of any of her works, except the series on political economy. For some years her health was im- paired, but she did not abandon litera- ture altogether. In the course of this protracted period of suffering she wrote "The Playfellow," " The Hour and the Man," and "Life in the Sick Room." Recovering her health in 1844, she re- sumed authorship, and produced "Forest and Game Law Tales." After publish- ing "The Billow and the Rock," a charming story, in 1846, she visited Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy Land, the result of her observations being given to the world in a work entitled " Eastern Life, Present and Past," published on her return. Miss Martineau, after- wards, at the instance of Mr. Charles Knight, brought to a conclusion the "History of the Thirty Years' Peace," which that gentleman had commenced, but for various reasons had not com- pleted. This is generally considered her greatest work. She has since given to the English public a translation of Comte's "Positive Philosophy." Miss Martineau for some years has been closely confined to her residence at Ambleside, labouring under heart-disease, from which she suffers greatly. MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, Fran- cisco, a Spanish poet, historian, orator, and statesman, was born at Granada, in 1789. He studied for the legal profes- sion, and before completing his twentieth year was appointed a professor and lec- turer on Ethics at the College of San Miguel. In 1811 his first literary pro- ductions were given to the world. Up to 1813 he wrote and published dramas and poems ; and in the latter year was elected Deputy to the Cortes by the city of Granada. After having been im- prisoned, for political reasons, for nearly six years, the insurrection (of 1820) in- troduced the second constitutional rule in Spain, and Martinez was liberated. When the French overthrew the con- stitutional government once more, Mar- tinez left Spain. In the meantime he was composing some of his best dramas ; but the French revolution of 1830 alarmed Ferdinand of Spain, and Mar- tinez obtained permission to return to Granada. On the death of Ferdinand, Martinez was recalled to power, became head of the ministry, and established a new constitutional system, founded on that of Great Britain. From various causes his influence declined, until, in 1836, he resigned office. In 1840, when Espartero assumed the Regency, Mar- tinez left Spain, but returning to Ma- drid, he was made Spanish Ambassador to Paris in 1847, and was first Secre- tary of State in October, 1857. He has been a voluminous writer, particularly of dramas ; and as a politician, it is agreed that his integrity and patriotism are unquestionable. MARTIUS, Carl Frederich Phil- lip Von, a German botanist, was born at Erlangen, on 17th April, 1794. His earliest predilections were for the science of botany. He studied for me- dicine at the University, and after gra- duating, he proceeded to the Brazils MAS 268 MAU with the zoologist Spix. He there had every opportunity of practically pur- suing his favourite study, and in the course of four years returned to Ger- many with a splendid herbarium, and subsequently published the results of his observations in a work called "Travels in Brazil." His reputation was thus so far enhanced as to procure him the ap- pointment of Professor of Botany at Munich, and Director of the Botanic Garden. He has also been elected a member of most of the European scien- tific societies. Amongst his numerous bo- tanical works are the following: "Nova Genera et Species Plantarum," " Icones Plantarum Cryptogamicarum," "Flora Brasiliensis, " and his " Genera et Species Palmarum," which is at once attractive and highly instructive. Besides these, he has published numerous papers on medical botany, physiology, and the geographical distribution of plants, which have gained for him a high reputation for accuracy as a man of science. MASSEY, Gerald, an English poet, was born May 1828, near Tring, in Herts. His parents were so steeped in poverty that the children received scarcely any education. When only eight years Id, Gerald was sent to work in a neighbour- ing silk mill ; but the mill being burned down, the boy took to straw-plaiting. He had learned to read at a penny school ; and when fifteen went up to London as an errand boy, and spent all his spare time in reading and writing. When out of a situation, he has gone without a meal to purchase a book. His first appearance in print was in a pro- vincial paper ; he published a small col- lection of his verses in his native town, and during the political excitement of 1848, edited a cheap paper called the " Spirit of Freedom." His writing was so bold and vigorous, that his political manifestations cost him five situations in eleven months. He was a warm ad- vocate of the co-operative system, and thus was introduced to the Rev. Charles Kingsley and others who were promot- ing that movement. Still continuing to write, his name began to be known ; and in 1853 " Christabel" took the public completely by surprise. Five editions of the work were published in two years ; his pecuniary circumstances improved in proportion to his fame as a poet ; and in 1855 he removed to Edin- burgh, where in 1856 he issued "Craig- crook Castle, " in his own estimation his best work. A collected edition of his poems has just been published. MASSON, Davtd, Professor of the English Language and Literature at University College, London, was born 2nd December, 1822, at Aberdeen. After studying at Marischal College, Aberdeen, he entered the University of Edinburgh, and for some time subse- quently was editor of a Scottish news- paper. After removing to London he returned to Edinburgh, and for some time was a contributor to various re- views and magazines. Taking up his residence in London again, he was chosen Professor of English Literature at the London University. A volume of "Cri- tical and Biographical Essays" (1856), "Life and Times of Milton" (vol. i. 1859), and "British Novelists and their Styles" (1859), aie his chief indepen- dent contributions to literature. The remainder of Mr. Masson's productions have been read with delight by all who love vigorous, poetic, and original ex- pression. Mr. Masson has become the editor of "Macmillan's Magazine, " which he conducts with the greatest ability. MAURICE, Rev. Frederick De- nison, M.A., Chaplain of Lincoln's Inn, Minister of Vere Street Chapel, Marylebone, and formerly Professor of Theology at King's College, London. Mr. Maurice was in early life educated as a Unitarian, his father being a minister of that denomination ; but being desir- ous of a University education, he, at M A U 269 MAU the age of eighteen, proceeded to Cam bridge and was entered of Trinity Hall, his father, although not approving of the step, generously providing the means ; but not being a member of the Church, he left Cambridge without a degree. Having changed his views respecting the Church, Mr. Maurice went to Exeter College, Oxford, and took the degree of B.A. in 1831, was ordained Deacon in 18.34, and Priest in 1835, in which year he also received his M.A. degree. The first work which made any sensation was anonymous "Sub- scription no Bondage." In 1830 he edited the " Athenseum," receiving some assistance from his friends the late Archdeacon Hare and John Sterling. " Eustace Conway," a three volume novel, was disposed of in 1831 to Mr. Bentley (then in partnership with Mr. Colburn), but was not published till 1834, after the author had taken orders. " The Kingdom of Christ," a work which had much influence upon mem- bers of the Society of Friends, appeared in 1841. During the time Mr. Maurice held the appointment of Chaplain of Guy's Hospital he published a volume of sermons; and in 1846, the year in which he was appointed Professor of Theology at King's College, he pub- lished an expository work on " The Epistle to the Hebrews." Although not unfrequently classed amongst that section of the Church of England known as the "broad," Mr. Maurice is too honest and out-spoken to be tied down by the formularies of any party, and consequently he has been both mis- understood and misrepresented. While at King's College, some of his views ting the eternity of future punish- ment raised such a storm of disappro- bation that he was obliged to resign the professorship in 1853. He "denounced the popular teaching respecting eternal punishment, believing it to be at variance with the scriptural revelation of God in Christ; that eternity in Scripture and in our creeds has an altogether different meaning to that which is given it by popular preachers, who, in their attempts to make their notion tell upon the terrors of their congregations, set at nought the Gospel, as well as all the real terrors which should deter them from sin. " No question was raised by the authorities at King's College respect- ing the soundness of Mr. Maurice's views respecting the Atonement; they knew that he had always preached the doctrine ' ' that God was in Christ, reconciling the world to Himself," and "that Christ's death was a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction for the sins of the whole world." In 1849 Mr. Maurice exerted himself successfully in establishing the Queen's College for Ladies, and more lately in founding the College for Working Men, in Bed Lion Square, and there are few social ques- tions in which he does not feel a warm interest. Mr. Maurice believes that the Church of England ought to grapple intellectually with the most advanced forms of scepticism and error, in order to exhibit the supremacy of religion : " That the Church is sent into the world to proclaim Christ as the Head of all human society, and that she fails in her mission when she substitutes a mere aesthetical religion for the teaching that men are brothers of each and all others, and that God is their Father in heaven." Mr. Maurice was married to Miss Hare, sister to the late Archdeacon of Lewes, who also married a sister of Mr. Maurice. Mr. Maurice is the au- thor of numerous other controversial and theological works ; but his most im- portant contribution to literature, is the article on Moral and Metaphysical Phi- losophy, in the "Encyclopaedia Metropo- litana," and which has been republished in a greatly enlarged form. Mr. Mau- rice has recently been appointed to the ministry of Vere Street Chapel, London. MATT 270 MAY MAURY, Matthew F., an Ame- rican hydrographer, son of Richard Maury, was born in Spottsylvania Count}', Virginia, on the 14th January, 1806. After receiving an ordinary edu- cation, Maury applied for and obtained a midshipman's appointment, and made several voyages, in which he highly dis- tinguished himself. He then commenced his celebrated Wind and Current Charts, and gradually came into notice as a scientific man. In 1853 he visited Eu- rope for the purpose of inducing the maritime nations to agree upon, and carry out, some general plan of observa- tion at sea. For this purpose he called a conference, for August of that year, at Brussels. He was there met by repre- sentatives from England, France, Hol- land, and the other principal maritime powers. The plan of observation then adopted is now carried on under all flags. In acknowledgment of the services ren- dered by Lieutenant Maury in the ad- vancement of science and improvement of navigation, the Emperors of France, Russia, and Austria, the Kings of Denmark, Sweden and Norway, of Prussia, Holland, Belgium, Portugal, and Sardinia, have either awarded him medals, conferred orders of knighthood, or offered ribbons. Humboldt ascribed to him the credit of founding a new department of science, called the "Physical Geography of the Sea," and, in token of his estimation of its value, requested his king to bestow the great Cosmos medal upon the American lieutenant. His principal work is the "Physical Geography of the Sea," of which several editions have been pub- lished both in this country and America. MAXIMILIAN II. (Joseph), King of Bavaria, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, Fran- conia, and Swabia, was born on the 28th of November, 1811, and assumed the reins of government on the abdica- tion of his father, King Louis, on the 21st of March, 1848. This abdication was the direct consequence of the French Revolution of February, but was ex- pedited and prepared, not only by the deep offence which the ex-king had given to the Jesuits in his dominions, but by the displeasure excited in the minds of his subjects by the influence exercised over him in his senility by the young and fascinating and too noto- rious Lola Montez, whom he had made Countess of Landsfelt, and laden with wealth and favour. The present king has reigned without exciting any atten- tion beyond the boundaries of his own kingdom, or taking any conspicuous part in European politics. He was married in 1842 to the Princess Frederica, daughter of William, Prince of Prussia, the uncle of the king, by whom he has two sons Louis Otho Frederick William, born 25th August, 1845; and Otho William Leopold Adalbert Waldernaz, born 27th April, 1848. MAYHEW, Henry, author of "Lon- don Labour and the London Poor," was born in London, on November 25th, 1812. He was sent for his education to Westminster School, but rebelling against the discipline enforced, he ran away. He was then placed as midshipman in the East India Company's service, but soon left the sea. Returning to London from a stay in Wales, he, in partnership with the late Gilbert A'Beckett, became manager of the Queen's Theatre, where his farce of the " Wandering Minstrel " was produced, but the speculation was a failure. In 1841 he projected and ob- tained the co-operation of the principal writers in "Punch," which he edited for some years, when he had a difference with the proprietors and vacated his office. He was editor of "The Comic Almanac," after leaving "Punch," and contributed to numerous magazines and other periodicals. In 1842 he published a small work entitled "What to Teach, and How to Teach it," in which he MAZ 271 MEI contended stoutly against task-work, flogging, and prizes in schools. From 1846 to 1850 several works of a lively and comic character appeared, George Cruikshank being the illustrator. His chief work is " London Labour and the London Poor," showing the condition and earnings of those who will work those who cannot work and those who will not work. In 1856 Mr. May hew struck out the idea of an association for the reformation of criminals, and to- wards promoting this object he called meetings of the thieves of London, of whom several narrated their experience of the world and its ways. The associa- tion seems to have proceeded little far- ther than the prospectus. Mr. May- hew's latest publication is the "Great World of London," a work which, owing to the sudden death of Mr. Bogue, remains incomplete. Mr. May hew is also the author of several works for young people, of which the most recent is " Young Benjamin Franklin." MAZZINI, Joseph, an Italian poli- tician and revolutionist, was born at Genoa, in 1809. Having had the ad- vantage of home training, he entered the legal profession, but soon turned aside to political pursuits. The cir- cumstances of Italy were at that time most unfortunate. Discontent, tyranny, and oppression were dominant through- out the land ; and Mazzini, touched with a strong patriotic feeling, determined to devote himself to the liberation of his oppressed country by any and every means of which he could avail himself. He soon brought himself into notice by the productions of his pen, and con- ceived the idea of forming a universal society, whose objects were the spread of revolutionary ideas through every class of society by secret means. Mazzini thus fell under the displeasure of the Piedmontese government, and after being imprisoned for some time was expelled Italy, and settled at Mar- seilles in 1831. Here his pen was again called into use, and he urged a general insurrection as the only means of freeing Italy. By correspondence with refugees and others, he succeeded in organizing, in 1833, an extensive conspiracy, which however came to nothing, but com- pelled Mazzini to take refuge in Switz- erland. Again engaged in revolutionary attempts, he had to leave Switzerland, and went to London, where for some time he wrote for various journals and engaged in literary pursuits as a means of gaining a subsistence. In 1848 Mazzini took advantage of the conti- nental revolutions, and proceeding to Rome was there elected Triumvir of the Republic, and became the soul of the defence of the Eternal City against the arms of France. Again was he doomed to disappointment, and fled to England on the occupation of Rome by the French army. Till lately he has re- sided in London ; but since the astonish- ing progress of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, Mazzini has once more returned to Italy, and at the present time (Sep- tember, 1860), it is greatly feared that his peculiar republican views will come into collision with those of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel, and that scenes of bloodshed and anarchy will, through the disunion of her sons, render Italy, one of the fairest spots on the earth, a disgrace and blot to civilization. MEISSONIER, Jean Louis Ernest, a French painter, was born at Lyons, in 1815. In 1836 he exhibited two pic- tures at the Salon, which were greatly admired, and were followed by "Le Liseur," in 1840; "La Partie"d'jchecs," in 1841 ; and in 1843 he produced his "Le Peintre dans son Atelier," for each of which he obtained a medal. In these and his other productions M. Meissonier generally chooses familiar subjects for illustration, and he is distinguished by the care and complete execution which he always bestows on them. He was MEL 272 MEN made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and officer of the same in 1856, after having obtained one of the ten large medals offered to painters at the Exhibition in Paris, held during the previous year. MELVILL, The Rev. Henry, B.D., President of Haileybury College, Herts. Mr. Melvill is a preacher of singular eloquence, and was educated at Cam- bridge, and became a Fellow of St Peter's College. He was then appointed minister of Camden Chapel, Camberwell, London. Having received the degree of B.D., he was appointed by the late Duke of Wel- lington Chaplain to the Tower of Lon- don; by the East India Company he was made President of Haileybury Col- lege. He held for seven years the Tuesday morning lectureship at St. Margaret's, Lothbury, and is one of her Majesty's Chaplains in Ordinary. In 1856 he was appointed by the Queen a Canon of St. Paul's Cathedral. He has published a considerable number of volumes, all on religious topics, most of them being sermons. MELVILLE, Herman, an American author, was born in New York, August 1st, 1819. At an early age, being seized with a passion for the sea, he embarked as a common sailor, and visited many parts of the globe. His first work, "Typee," giving an account of his ad- ventures in the Marquesas, had a great success, and was followed by "Omoo," "Mardi," and a number of others. MENCHIKOFF, Prince Alexander Sergius, a Russian general, was born in 1789. He entered the diplomatic service in 1805, and was for some time attached to the Embassy at Vienna. The Emperor Nicholas sent him on an Extraordinary Mission to the Shah of Persia, Abbas Mirza, in 1826, which was not successful ; he was detained, and at last escaped with considerable trouble. In 1828 he had the command of a division, possessed himself of Ana- pu, then passed into Europe as General- in-Chief, and undertook the siege of Varna, where he was so badly wounded that he was obliged to retire from the campaign. In 1831 he received the command of Finland after having been created Vice- Admiral and Chief State Major of the Russian Marine. His government was characterised by great rigour and severity. In 1853 the Em- peror confided to him the Embassy to Constantinople. His insults to the Sul- tan, his ultimatum, and abrupt de- parture from Constantinople, which was equivalent to a declaration of war ; the massacre at Sinope, and his persistent, though unsuccessful, defence of the Crimea, are fresh in the memory of every one. Shortly after the death of the Czar he fell ill and was replaced, and afterwards charged with the defence of Cronstadt. He is the recognised chief of the old Russian party, and the de- clared adversary of all reform. MENZEL, Wolfgang, an eminent German critic, littirateur, and historian, was born at Waldenbourg, in Silesia, in 1798. He studied at Breslau, Jena, and Bonn, where, seized by the enthusiasm of the times, he became the head of the patriot students' corps, and a zealous liberal. In consequence of the decrees of the Congress of Carlsbad, in 1819, he left Prussia, where politics had become reactionary, and for some years lived as a professor at Aarau, in Switzerland. Since 1825 he has resided at Stuttgart, in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, and was elected deputy to the Estates, after the revolution of July, and during the revolutions of 1848 and 1849. He has published a "Journal of Literature," founded in 1826, and continued, with an interruption of only two years, namely, 1848 and 1849, to this day ; a " His- tory of the Germans," which has, since 1824, gone through five editions, and been translated into English; a "His- tory of the last Forty Years," published MER 273 MER in 1855; aworkon "German Literature" (1828), twice translated into English; and a " History of German Poetry " (1858). He published in 1840 a pam- phlet against Russia, which was trans- lated into English ; in 1854, "Christian Symbolics," and in 1856, a " History of Nature in a Christian point of View. " MERIMEE, Prosper, a French litte- rateur and senator, born at Paris, Sep- tember 1803, is son of Merimee, the artist. He studied law, and became an advocate, but he rarely if ever pleaded, literature being more consonant to his tastes than the bar. After the revo- lution of 1830, he became successively Secretary to the Count d'Argout, Secre- tary both to the Minister of Commerce and Minister of Marine, appointed Inspector of the Historical and Antiquarian Monuments of France. In connexion with this office he tra- velled extensively, extending his jour- neys into Spain, where he became ac- quainted with the family of the Em- press Eugenie. He was chosen by the Provisional Government, in 1848, one of the Commissioners to decide upon the extent and value of the property of the House of Orleans ; and some time after, when his friend M. Libri was con- demned by the tribunals for contumacy, M. Merimee inserted two letters in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," impugning the judgment, for which act he was sen- tenced to fifteen days' imprisonment. In 1853 he was elevated to the rank of senator. M. Merimee has published va- rious archaeological works, based on his French and Corsican travels ; and has also entered frequently into the re- gions of history and romance. Of his histories, perhaps the "Chronique du Regne de Charles IX.," though it is tinged with romance, and the " Histoire de Don Pedre I., Roi de Castille," are the best specimens of his style. His works, "La Venus d'llle," "LaPestede Toledo," " La Partie de Trictrac," " La Double Meprise," and, above all, " Co- lomba," are charming novels, full of life and character. Originally printed in the " Revue de Paris," and the " Revue des Deux Mondes," they were afterwards republished in a separate form. Whe- ther to mislead or puzzle critics, his first two literary efforts were published under the tiom de plume of "Hyacinthe Ma- glanowich." The "Theatre de Clara Gazul" (1825), and "La Guzla" (1827), certainly did mystify many persons, as they professed to be mere translations of which the originals were unknown, and in the search for which ingenuity was baffled. M^RY, Joseph, a French poet, was born in January, 1798, and after re- in IS 11 he was ceiving instruction at home he completed his studies at Marseilles. Witnessing some of the strange scenes which were coeval with the restoration of the Bour- bons, he was drawn into the ranks of the Bonapartists. After being in prison for a sharp satire in verse, in 1820 he took his first journey to Paris, where he eventually obtained a place on the journal called the " Nain Jaune," where he subsequently became the leading man. Becoming intimate with Victor Hugo and Barth6lemy, he published satires and wrote politics until 1826. When M. de Martignue was Minister, he ceased penning satires ; but the advent of M. Polignac to power was his signal to recommence the use of his formidable weapon, and so keenly was it employed, that he contributed greatly to the revo- lution of July, 1830. M. Mery took up arms during the "three days," and celebrated the victory over Charles X. in a hymn entitled ' ' La Tricolore, " and a poem called " L'Insurrection." The hopes M. Mery entertained from the revolution were so disappointed, that he resolved to retire to Marseilles, and abandon politics; but M. Barthelemy having announced a new journal, M. Mery was induced to participate in it as T MET 274 MEY editor. He wrote with great vigour, but the journal ceased to appear in 1832, and M. Me>y departed for Italy. Not previously much known as a prose writer, he turned his mind, after some time, to that department of composition, and produced with considerable rapidity a number of lively romances and feuil- letons, together with a few successful dramas. Among his works may be men- tioned "Scenes de la Vie Italienne," "Un Amour dans l'Avenir," "Van Dyck au Palais Brignola," " Les Adeptes de TlinmortaliteV "La Comtesse Hor- tensia," and several others, published between 1837 and 1843, among which may be noticed " Les Nuits de Lon- dres," written after visiting England in 1840. The specialties of M. Mery's genius consist in his extraordinary faculty for creating the incidents of a romance or a drama at will ; and for the vivacity of his descriptions and elimination of character. METZ, Frederick Auguste de, founder of the Reformatory of Mettray, was born in May 1796, studied the law in Paris, and when twenty-five was named Assistant Judge to the Tribunal, and successively became Examining Magistrate, Vice-President of the Chambre de Police Correctionnelle, and, lastly, Counsellor to the Court. While a judge his attention had been drawn to the best means of effecting the reformation of juvenile criminals. A society had been established for that purpose in Paris, which De Metz joined. After examining various schools in the Netherlands and other places, De Metz returned to France in 1839, and founded the establishment at Mettray, near Tours, for the reception of young offenders. Twenty-three youths, respectably con- nected, were trained as teachers; in 1840 twelve young criminals were ad- mitted, and the number gradually in- creased. The exertions of De Metz are incessant; he considers the young cri- minals in the light of an adopted family, and he brings to bear upon them the law of kindness, and the light of religion. His success gave the first real impulse to the establishment of Reformatory Schools in Great Britain, as well as to the exer- tions of individuals who have given their mind to the rescue of young offenders from the evil associations of prison life. M. de Metz has published a few works which fully explain the details of his favourite schemes. MEYERBEER, Giacomo, a German composer, was born at Berlin in 1794, and belongs to a family of Hebrew descent. Having been some time under a music master of some repute, Meyerbeer pro- ceeded to Darmstadt, and placed himself under the care of Volger; the great Weber, composer of "Der Freischutz," being one of his fellow-pupils. His first dramatic piece, entitled "Jephtha's Daughter," was not very successful on its first performance. He then proceeded to Vienna, where he remained for some time, and produced "The Two Caliphs,'' which was scarcely more successful than 1 ' Jephtha' s Daughter. ' ' Meyerbeer now discovered that he was working upon a mistaken principle, and repaired to Italy to study melody. His first successful work, "Romilda e Constanza," was performed at Padua in 1818. Since that time his reputation has been steadily increasing, until now he occu- pies the highest position among the living masters of his art. In 1832 he visited London for the first time to superintend the bringing out of "Robert le Diable," and a second time on the occasion of producing his "Etoile du Nord." "Les Huguenots," "Le Pro- phete," "L'EtoileduNord," "LePardon de Ploermel," or "Dinorah," and "Ro- bert le Diable," are the operas by which Meyerbeer is best known. Meyerbeer enjoys various honours ; he is Musical Director to the King of Prussia, Com- mander of the Legion of Honour, As- MIA 275 MIL sociate of the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris, besides being decorated with numerous orders. MIALL, Edward, editor of the "Nonconformist" newspaper, and late M.P. for Rochdale, was born at Ports- mouth, in 1809. After being educated at a Dissenters' college in Herts, he was successively the pastor of Indepen- dent congregations at Ware and Lei- cester. He then proceeded to London in order to edit a newspaper, intended as the organ of the Dissenting interest. Mr. Miall entered Parliament as member for Rochdale in 1852, and distinguished himself by an energetic opposition to Church-rates, and endowments of every kind. His political views are extremely liberal, but since 1857 he has not been again returned, although he has con- tested two boroughs with that object. MICH AUD, Louis Gabriel, a French author and publisher, was born at Bourg- en-Bresse, in 1772. He founded a printing and publishing establishment in Paris in 1801, his first publication of consequence being a "Biographie Mo- derne, ou des Hommes Vivants," which was issued in 1802, attracted notice, and called forth many strictures. In 1811 he commenced a new series of a similar publication, under the title of a '* Biographie Universelle," afterwards changed to the "Biographie Michaud," which was continued from 1811 to 1837, and is at once a voluminous and care- fully edited compilation. Another work, with the same object, and conducted much like his own, having appeared, M. Michaud gained a legal decision as to his exclusive property in the editor- ship, and the title of the "Biographie Universelle." M. Michaud's talents have not been confined to mere pub- lishing. He has written a History of the Crusades, some excellent articles for his own works of reference, and edited numerous publications on various sub- jects. MICHELET, Jules, a French histo- rian, was born at Paris, in 1798. From an early period he has been engaged in teaching history and philosophy, and is distinguished by his earnest advocacy of opposition to the Jesuits. In England he is best known by his works "Priests, Women, and Families," and the "Peo- ple," which, while they created a great sensation here, had the effect of putting an end to Michelet's public prelections in Paris. The majority of his writings are highly popular, but his histories of Rome and of France have obtained him the highest praise from literary critics. Amongst his later works are " L'Oi- seau," "L'Insecte," " L' Amour," and "La Femme," which have been widely read throughout France. M. Michelet's productions are vivid, energetic, and their descriptive parts so true as to fas- cinate and rivet the attention of the most cursory reader. MIGNET, Francois Auguste Alexis, a French historian, was born at Aix, in 1796. After leaving the univer- sity he turned his attention to legal pur- suits, and was the successful competitor, shortly afterwards, for a prize offered by the Academy of Ntmes. He first appeared as an author by the publication of two works, one on " Feudalism," and the other, the "History of the Revolution." After having contributed to various journals, he assisted M. Thiers in bringing out the "National" newspaper. Under Louis - Philippe he became Director of the Archives, Councillor of State, and, in 1837, Secretary to the Academy, of Moral and Political Science. He was appointed a Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1840. M. Mignet has published several historical works, among which may be named his " His- tory of Mary Stuart," " Life of Frank- lin," and a collection of his lectures delivered before the Academy on histo- rical subjects. MILL, John Stuart, a political writer, MIL 276 MIL was "born In 1806, and received his early- education under the care of his father, the historian of British India. He was gra- dually promoted in the East India service, until in 1856 he became Examiner of In- dian Correspondence. Mr. Mill is the au- thor of several papers contributed to the Edinburgh and Westminster Reviews, the principal of which have been re- printed under the title of " Disserta- tions and Discussions." His "System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive," and ' ' Essays upon some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy," ap- peared in 1843 and 1844. In 1848 he published his popular work, "The! Principles of Political Economy, with some of their Applications to Social i Philosophy. " Mr. Mill has always been identified with liberal political views, and for some time edited the " West- minster Review." His latest work, an " Essay on Liberty," is a valuable con- tribution, on account of its cautious and legitimate views on a very delicate sub- ject, and was extremely apposite to the events which preceded its publication. MILLAIS, John Everett, A.R.A., a painter, was born at Southampton, in 1829. He belongs to a Jersey family, his childhood having been passed in that island and in France. Exhibiting a remarkable talent for art, he was sent at an early age to Sass's art school, in London, to prepare for the Royal Academy, which he entered in his eleventh year ; his progress was re- markable, and in 1847 he achieved a high position by gaining the gold medal for his picture, " The Tribe of Benjamin seizing the Daughters of Shiloh." In 1849, Mr. Millais and Mr. Hunt exhibited respectively "Isabella " and "Rienzi," which were looked upon as invasions of the convention- alities of the schools. Mr. Millais' conceptious are almost invariably poeti- cal, but many of his works are marred by their excessrv e minuteness of detail. It seems, however, from his more recent productions, as if he were gradually taking leave of his old and working out a new style, though he has not entirely abandoned some of his early peculiari- ties. One of the most attractive of his works is the "Order of Release," a picture superbly coloured, and finely conceived. It is scarcely necessary to add, that Mr. Millais was one of the founders of "The Pre-Raphaelites," a school which is fast losing its influence. He is an Associate of the Royal Aca- demy. MILLER, Thomas, a poet and novel- ist, was born in 1809, at Gainsborough, in Lincolnshire. He was almost en- tirely self-taught. He was at first a farmer's boy, and afterwards adopted the humble trade of a basket-maker. He neglected no opportunity of reading ; but though those opportunities were few, the poetic spirit was within him ; and some of his verses having caught the attention of Moore, Campbell, Rogers, and others, he was encouraged and as- sisted forward. He has been no idle author, having written altogether forty volumes of history, poetry, biography, and novels ; his most attractive publica- tions being those which relate to country life, such as "A Day in the Woods," "Beauties of the Country," "Rural Sketches," "Country Scenes," "Our Old Town," &c. MILMAN, The Very Rev. Henry Hart, Dean of St. Paul's, an author and divine, was born in London, in 1791. He is son of Sir Francis Milman, who was physician to George III. After being educated at Greenwich and Eton, he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where he, graduated, and became a Fellow. In 1812 he carried the Newde- gate prize for an English poem ; and in 1815 published his noble tragedy of " Fazio." He took orders in 1817, and afterwards became Vicar of St. Mary's, Reading. In 1818 he published an MIL 277 MIT heroic poem, entitled "Samor, Lord of the Bright City ;" and in 1820 his dra- matic poem, "The Fall of Jerusalem," one of the greatest works of its class. He was appointed in 1821 Professor of Poetry, at Oxford, and produced some dramatic poems, of which the " Martyr of Antioch" is the chief. In 1840 he published the "History of Christianity, from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire," which evidences talent of the highest order. In 1849 he was made Dean of St. Paul's, being already Rector of St. Margaret's, and a Canon of West- minster. He has published an edition of "Horace, with a Life of the Poet and Critical Remarks," much valued for its elegance of style and critical acumen ; and also an edition of Gib- bon's "Decline and Fall," and "The His- tory of Latin Christianity, including that of the Popes to the Pontificate of Nicholas V.," 6 vols. 8vo, of which the first edition appeared in 1855-6, the second in 1857. MILNES, Richard Monckton, M.P., a poet and statesman, born in 1809, is the only son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, and Bawtry, Yorkshire. Educated at Cambridge, he graduated in 1831. In 1837 he was elected member for Pontefract, and is generally a supporter of liberal mea- sures. He is a philanthropist, and earnestly advocates public education, religious equality, and various reforms in the state of our criminal population. He brought into Parliament, in 1846, the great Act for establishing Reformatories, most of the provisions of which are now the law of the land. Whether in the world of literature or politics, he has secured an honourable position. Mr. Milnes is the author of " Memorials of a Tour in Greece," "Poems of Many Years," "Palm Leaves," "Poems, His- torical and Legendary," "Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats," and has contributed many political and literary articles to the Westminster,. Edinburgh, and Quarterly Reviews ; but his literary acquirements are principally recognised in his poetical works. He is Hon. D.C.L. of the University of Ox- ford, Deputy Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and Captain of the Second West York Regiment of Militia. He married the daughter of John, se- cond Baron Crewe. MINIE, Caude, inventor of the rifle which bears his name, was born in Paris about 1810, and entered the French army at an early age, taking part in some of the campaigns of Al- giers. He was captain in a battalion of Chasseurs, when he turned his atten- tion to the improvement of fire-arms, and under the patronage of the Duke de Montpensier several of his alterations were adopted. Having a practical know- ledge of gun-making, he succeeded in effecting still further improvements ; and his name got so far abroad as Russia, from which he received tempting offers to superintend a royal manufactory of fire-arms at St. Petersburg, but which he declined. He continues to work in his atelier, at Vincennes, still experiment- ing with his leather apron before him, and the decoration of the Legion of Honour on his breast. M. Miuie's im- provements consist chiefly in using an elongated instead of a spherical ball, which thereby insures a revolution on an axis parallel to the line of flight, in- stead of at right angles to it, as is the case of the common bullet. By a pecu- liarity of construction, the ball expands during its passage through the barrel, and so prevents the loss of speed by windage. The Minie rifle is now known all over the world, and has been the model on which many recent improve- ments have been effected. MITSCHERLICH, Eilhard, a Ger- man chemist, was born in the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, in January 1794 y MOC >7S MOF and had as his primary teacher the his- torian Schlosser. In 1811 he proceeded to Heidelberg, where he studied philo- logy and history, removing thence to Paris, to facilitate his study of the Ori- ental languages. In 1814 he returned to Germany and commenced the com- position of an historical work, of which only a fragment has been published, and which still remains incomplete. His studies now took another direction, geology and chemistry supplanting his- tory and the languages. During his investigations he discovered a new law, namely, that bodies of different compo- nent parts can assume similar crys- tallized forms. The celebrated Swedish chemist, Berzelius, visiting Berlin in 1819, was at once struck with the dis- covery. It has received the title of * ' Isomorphism, " or " equal - formed. " Mitscherlich afterwards proceeded to Sweden, and remained there for two years, returning to Berlin in 1821, when he was named a Member of the Aca- demy of Sciences, and appointed Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University. He contributed numerous papers to the "Annals" of the Academy of Sci- ences, at Berlin ; but the production by which he is best known is "A Manual of Chemistry," the preparation of which occupied his leisure for four years, and which has run through nume- rous editions, and become a standard work. He treats his various subjects in an attractive style. Among the che- mists of Germany he is considered to have no superior. MOCQUARD, Constant, a French politician, author, and private Secretary to the Emperor Napoleon III., was born at Bordeaux, in November 1791. He studied at Paris with considerable dis- tinction, obtaining honours. In 1812 he was sent to Wurtzburg with General Montholon, as Secretary of Legation, and in 1813 was appointed Charge d' Affaires. Towards the close of that year he was recalled to Paris, when he completed his legal studies, and was called to the bar. He became closely connected with the liberal party on the restoration of the Bourbons. In 1817 he pleaded with power and eloquence for those who were accused of conspi- racy ; but his health failing, he was con- strained to leave the bar in 1826. The revolution of 1830 drew him from retire- ment, and he was appointed Sous-Prefet of Bagneres-de-Bigorre, but resigned in 1839. Cultivating friendly relations with the Bonaparte family, Louis Napo- leon became warmly attached to him. After paying the Prince a visit in 1840, in London, he returned to Paris, and acted as editor of the "Commerce," a journal devoted to Napoleonic ideas. He zealously defended the cause of the Prince, when the issue of the Boulogne affair rendered Louis Napoleon a cap- tive at Ham, and also in 1848 he was his active partisan. When Louis Napo- leon was elected President of the Re- public, M. Mocquard was named Chief of the Cabinet. Having initiated some of the primary steps of the coup d'etat, he assisted in carrying them out, and since that event has continued to act as pri- vate Secretary to the Emperor, with the title of Chief of the Cabinet He has published several works, among which are a " Biographical Notice of Queen Hortense," a book entitled "Nouvelles Causes Celebres," and several dramas. MOFFAT, Robert, a missionary agent of the London Missionary Society in South Africa, is a native of Inver- kei thing, Scotland. In 1816 he was appointed, in conjunction with the mar- tyr of Erromanga (John Williams), to the work of that association. Mr. Moffat's labours were commenced in Namaqua Land. Subsequently he re- moved to the Bechuana country. In 1840 Mr. Moffat visited England, after an absence of nearly a quarter of a cen- tury; he published a volume entitled MON 279 MON "Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa ;" and produced a trans- lation of the New Testament, and the Psalms, in the Bechuana language. His daughter is married to the Rev. David Livingston, LL.D., another world-wide known missionary, and explorer in the same country. They are both now en- gaged in penetrating into the interior of the country north of the Cape of Good Hope. To facilitate these explorations, the British government has just de- spatched a steam- vessel, which will pro- ceed to the Zambesi River. (September, 1860.) MONTALEMBERT, Charles Forbes, Comte de, a French politician, was born in April 1810, and after re- maining some time in Sweden, entered the University of Paris. When scarcely twenty- one, he joined the Abb Lacor- daire in opening a free school for Roman Catholic children in Paris ; in order to assert by this means the freedom of public education, which had been pro- mised by the charter of 1830. The school having been closed by the police, the matter was carried before the Chamber of Peers, and Montalembert having just entered the Chamber, vindi- cated the cause of free education in a speech of remarkable ability. This speech created a great effect ; but the defendants were condemned to a trifling fine. From that period till 1848 he distinguished himself by his zeal for the defence of Poland, of Belgium, and par- ticularly of the interests of the Catholic Church, which he has always attempted to combine with the progress and main- tenance of political liberty. In lite- rary matters he was also highly suc- cessful by the publication of a "Life of St. Elizabeth," &c. In January 1848, the opinions he expressed on Switzer- land attracted great notice, and his views were subsequently verified by events. He was elected a member of the National Assembly. He then became one of the leaders of the Conservative majority ; and, together with M. Thiers and M. de Falloux, took a prominent part in the debate which led to the restoration of Pius IX. by the French army, and to the settlement of the long- vexed question of public education. He subsequently took part with Louis Napo- leon, as President of the Republic, against the different parties of the National Assembly. After the coup d'etat, and the confiscation of the Or- leans' property, he refused a seat in the new Senate, and became a decided an- tagonist of the Empire. His "Catholic Interests in the Nineteenth Century," and "The Political Future of England," are the works in which his opposition to the Imperial policy and institutions have been most conspicuously displayed. In October 1858, in an article contri- buted to the " Correspondant, " on the "Indian Debate," he, under cover of a eulogy of England, assailed the despo- tism of Napoleon in a strain of the most eloquent invective. For this article the Count was put upon his trial, and being convicted, was fined and imprisoned. Pardoned by the Emperor, he resented the injustice of the prosecution, and appealed to a higher tribunal. The ap- peal was only partially successful. Louis Napoleon discovered he had committed mistake, and again gladly tendered the Count a remission of the mitigated sen- tence of the Supreme Court. In Oc- tober, 1859, he published another pam- phlet, entitled "Pie IX. et la France, en 1849 et 1859," protesting against the Emperor's policy towards Rome ; and giving the signal of the numerous bro- chures, to the amount of two or three hundred, which that question has called out. This pamphlet was seized through- out France, and another prosecution begun ; but the Count having been called up before the Court, and having there maintained his usual ground, the pro- ceedings were suddenly quashed. MON 280 MOK MONTEAGLE, Loed, Thomas Spring Bice, an English statesman, was born at Limerick, in February, 1790. His father being a gentleman of considerable landed property in the counties of Limerick and Kerry, he was sent to study at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. After becoming a bencher of Lincoln' s- inn, he stood for Limerick in 1818, and in 1820 ; and was elected member. He retained the seat for twelve years ; after- wards representing Cambridge, and supporting liberal measures on all occa- sions. Having filled the office of Under- Secretary for the Home Department, in 1827, he was appointed Secretary to the Treasury in 1830, which post he held until 1834, when he became a member of Lord Grey's cabinet, as Colonial Secretary of State. In 1836 he was named Chancellor of the Exchequer, in Lord Melbourne's administration ; and in 1839 was appointed Comptroller of the Exchequer, and raised to the peerage as Lord Monteagle, of Brandon. Of late years Lord Monteagle has taken but little part in public affairs, with the exception of having given his most strenuous opposition to the Bepeal of the Paper Duties during the late ses- sion (1860). MONTI, Baffaelle, a sculptor, was born at Milan, in 1818. Having com- pleted his education in his native city, and gained a prize medal, he proceeded to Vienna, in 1838. He had already produced two fine works ; namely, "Alexander Taming Bucephalus, " and "Ajax Defending the Body of Pa- troclus." He made a visit to England in 1847, and then produced his " Veiled Vestal," which was greatly admired. On his subsequent return to Milan, he became involved in political affairs, and was compelled to revisit London, where he has since settled. His works exhibited in Hyde Park, in 1851, brought him into popular favour; and of these, his "Circassian Slave," and "The Boy Catching a Grasshopper," were, perhaps, the most admired, next to his veiled figure, which was also there. MOBNY, Charles Augusts Louis Joseph, Comte de, a French diploma- tist and politician, was born at Paris on the 23rd of October, 1811, and received his early education under the Comtesse de Souza. After passing some time in the military school, he left it as a Sub- Lieutenant, and eventually served in Africa, where he exhibited considerable daring and gallantry. Quitting military affairs, we next find him engaged in in- dustrial matters in 1838, his attention being specially devoted to the production of sugar from beet-root. In 1849 he entered into the political questions of the day, and being, it is said, related to the present Emperor of the French, he heartily espoused his cause, and as his confidant, participated in the successes which followed the coup d'etat of De- cember, 1851. Despatched to Moscow on the coronation of the present Em- peror of Bussia, Count Morny married a most accomplished and handsome lady, and subsequently returned to France. He has for many years past held a pro- minent position in commercial and in- dustrial circles, and the possession of a taste of a refined character is evidenced in his splendid gallery of paintings. MOBSE, Samuel Finley Breese, an American artist, and one of the in- ventors of the Electric Telegraph, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1791. He was educated at Yale College, and took his Bachelor's degree in 1810. Having a great taste for art, he decided on becoming a painter, and, with a view to the prosecution of his profession, in 1811 he proceeded to Lon- don, to study in the Boyal Academy, under Benjamin West. In 1813 he re- ceived the gold medal for his first effort in sculpture, " The Dying Hercules. " On his return to America he followed his MO R 281 MUL profession with moderate pecuniary re- sults, but he succeeded in laying the foundation of the National Academy of Design, in organizing the schools and exhibitions connected with it, and in associating the artists of the United States into a harmonious brotherhood. He was annually elected President of the Academy for nearly twenty years. In 1829 he again visited Europe, for further study in the schools of the Continent, and resided in Rome, Florence, Venice, and Paris for three years. On his voyage home, in 1832, he conceived and made drawings of the Recording Tele- graph, which bears his name. A por- tion of the apparatus was constructed before the expiration of the year 1832, but his professional avocations caused so many interruptions, that it was not until the year 1835 that he completed his first rude instrument. In 1837 it was improved upon, and publicly exhi- bited at work upon a circuit of upwards of ten miles. By the aid of the Ame- rican Government he had, in 1844, the satisfaction of establishing the first telegraphic line on his plan between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. His patents in America have been the means of a handsome competency. In 1848 the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon him by his Alma Mater, Yale College, and in the same year he received from the Sultan of Turkey the decoration in dia- monds of the Nishan Ifftichar. The gold medals of scientific merit of their respective states were awarded him by the Kings of Prussia and of Wurtem- burg, and by the Emperor of Austria. More recently he has received the deco- ration of Chevalier of the Order of the Legion of Honour from the Emperor Napoleon ; of Knight of the Danebroge, from the King of Denmark; and of Knight Commander of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic, from the Queen of Spain. He is also member of numerous learned societies in Europe and America. The most distinguished mark of public gratitude, however, for his invention, has been conferred upon him by a Con- gress of Representatives of ten of the Governments of Europe, specially con- vened for the purpose in Paris in 1858, at the suggestion of the Emperor Napoleon, when it was unanimously decided that the sum of 400,000 francs should be presented to him. Mr. Morse's telegraph differs from that we use in Great Britain, inasmuch as his, by means of dots and strokes on paper or cloth, prints the message. Those generally employed in this country indicate the message by the alternate divergence of one or two magnetic needles acted on by electric currents passing over them in different directions. MULLER, Johannes, a German physiologist, was born of humble pa- rents at Coblentz, on the Rhine, in July 1801. The earlier stages of his educa- tion were passed in the Gymnasium of Coblentz, and in 1819 he entered the University of Bonn. Four years after- wards he took his degree in medicine ; and in 1824, having obtained a prize for an essay, he repaired to Berlin, where he succeeded Professor Charles Rudol- phi in 1833. Professor Miiller may be said, by his works, his experiments, and his lectures, to have reversed many of the ancient speculative physiological doctrines and hypotheses, and to have substituted acute observation and rigid deduction, bringing physiology within the range of a positive science. Some time after the publication of the "Phy- siology of Man," Professor Miiller com- menced a journal devoted to his fa- vourite study, and has continued it up to the present time, often contributing extensively to its pages. He has not, however, limited his investigations to physiology, but turning his mind to the structure and classification of animals, he has rendered many important ser- MUL 282 M UN vices to science. His writings are so numerous that it would be impossible to detail them. His separate publications are carefully illustrated, the plates add- ing, if possible, to the literary and scientific value of the works. MULOCH, Miss Dinah Maria, an authoress, was born at Stoke-upon- Trent, Staffordshire, in 1826. It was not, however, until 1849 that she be- came known to the literary world. In that year she published her charming work, " The Ogilvies," which imme- diately attracted the attention of the public. "The Ogilvies," though a fic- tion, exhibited a genial quality of heart, a philosophy of enlarged benevolence, and a keenness in the perception and delineation of character, which rendered the work, to all appearance, more one of reality than of imagination. It is at once deep in thought and pathetic in sentiment, while there runs through it here and there an occasional vein of humour. In 1850 she published "Olive," which fully sustained her re- putation, and perhaps advanced it, as the latter work displayed a riper style, and a closer penetration into minute phases of character. In 1851 appeared " The Head of the Family," one of the most admirable stories of Scottish life that has been written since the time when Gait was in his zenith. A fairy tale, entitled "Alice Learmont," a com- position which seems to have given her thoughts a new direction, was published in the same year. Miss Muloch's other works are "Agatha's Husband," "John Halifax, Gentleman," one of the most popular works in English fiction, "A Life for a Life," "Romantic Tales," "Bread upon the Waters," "Nothing New," " A Woman's Thoughts about Women," and "Poems," and "Dra- matic Tales." She has also written various books for young people, among which we may cite " Cola Monti," " A Hero," "The Little Lychetts," "Our Year," and others, which are of an ex- ceedingly instructive and interesting nature. MULREADY, William, R.A., a painter, was born at Ennis, in Ireland, in 1786. In his fifteenth year he entered the Royal Academy as a student. His pictures at first were small, and it was not until 1815, when he exhibited his "Idle Boys," that his position was as- sured, its merits being recognised by his election as an associate of the Academy. In 1816 his "Fight Inter- rupted " insured his elevation to the rank of R. A. He never relapsed in his efforts, or in his studies, even when a perfect master of his art, always consi- dering there was something to learn. His works are exceedingly numerous, but latterly he has appeared only on rare occasions before the public. The following of Mr. Mulready's works are now to be seen in the National Collec- tion at the South Kensington Museum : "Near the Mall," " Blackheath Park," " The Seven Ages," " The Fight Inter- rupted," "Giving a Bite," "First Love," " The Sailing Match," "Choos- ing the Wedding Gown," " The Toy- seller," "Hampstead Heath," and se- veral others. MUNCH, Peter Andreas, a Nor- wegian historian, geographer, and philo- logist, was born at Christiania, on the 15th December, 1810. After being edu- cated at Skien, he entered the Uni- versity of Christiania in 1828, and passed his examination for the law in 1834; but history and language having been his favourite studies, even in his school- days, he soon devoted himself entirely to them, and since 1837, when he obtained the Chair of History in the University of Christiania, his labours have been essen- tially literary. In 1859 he paid a visit to the Orkneys, in order to trace the vestiges of the ancient Norsemen. His works are very numerous, and to the class of readers and students to whom MUR 283 MUR tliey are specially addressed, are of no ordinary importance. His chief work is "The History of the Norwegian People" ("DetNorske Folks Historie "), from the earliest times, in six volumes. He has constructed and published several maps of Norway, among which those of Southern Norway (Christiania, 1845), and of Northern Norway (Christiania, 1852), are the largest and most accurate which have hitherto appeared. At pre- sent he is living at Rome, whither he has been sent by the Norwegian Govern- ment, in order to search for documents illustrating the history of Norway, in the Vatican and other archives ; and in this work it is said he has succeeded far beyond his expectations. MURCHISON, Sir Roderick Impey, D. 0. L. , a geologist, was born at Tarra- dale, in Ross-shire, in 1792. He received his education at the Durham Grammar School, and afterwards at the Military College of Marlow. From 1807 to 1815 iuclusive, he acted as an officer, first inthe 36th Foot in Spain and Portugal, after- wards on the staff of his uncle, General Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in Sicily ; and latterly, as a captain in the 6th Dra- goons. He carried the colours of his first regiment, the 36th, at Vimiera, under Wellesley; advanced with the army to Madrid, and under Moore shared in the dangers of the retreat to Corunna. At the peace of 1815 he married the only daughter of General Hugonin, and left the army. After some years of foreign travel and occupation in field sports, he was led, by the persuasion of his wife and the advice of Sir Humphry Davy, to devote himself to science. In 1825 he was elected a Fellow of the Geo- logical, and in 1826, of the Royal Society. He chose Geology in the field for his special line, and his early military habits peculiarly qualified him for its pursuit. Mr. Murchison then undertook extensive geological tours, which comprised the greater portion of Europe. These have lasted for thirty-five years, and have resulted in the greatest advantage to the science of Geology. His first great work, completed after seven years of close and hard labour in England and Wales, was the "Silurian System," by which the older rocks containing organic remains (till then a chaotic assemblage) were reduced to a clear order. The next comprehensive effort was to parallel the geological formations of Russia into those of his own country, as published in 1845 (in conjunction with his col- leagues De Verneuil and Von Keyserling) in the large quarto volumes entitled ' ' Russia and the Ural Mountains. " From the experience so obtained, he was the first to predict the existence of gold in Australia. His ardour in promoting the cultivation of geographical science is well known. He was not only one of the founders of the Royal Geographical So- ciety, but has always been on its council ; he has presided over it for seven years, and has had the satisfaction of seeing it rise under his auspices, to a high state of prosperity. In 1845 Mr. Murchison having completed his survey of Russia, the Emperor Nicholas presented him with the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stanislaus and the commandership of St. Anne in diamonds, and upon his return to England he obtained the royal permission to wear these Imperial orders, and received the honour of knighthood. Sir Roderick Murchison, to great scientific eminence, unites the most generous re- gard for, and manifests the most prompt recognition of obscure worth. Many men of genius, explorers of distant lands, have been indebted to him for the frankness with which, when yet all unknown to fame, he proclaimed their merits. In 1855 Sir Roderick became Director-General of the Geological Sur- vey of Britain, including the Direction of the Government School of Mines. He has received the honorary degrees of M.A. from the Universities of Cam- MUS 284 NAP bridge and Durham, and is D.C.L. of Oxford; he is also a Trustee of the British Museum, of the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, of the Hunterian Museum, and a mem- ber of most of the scientific academies in Europe and America. Besides the works above mentioned, Sir Roderick has published numerous memoirs in the Transactions of scientific societies in all upwards of one hundred the most striking of which are probably his "Alps, Apennines, and Carpathians," and his recent classification of the rocks of his native Highlands, for which the first Brisbane Gold Medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh was presented to him at the Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association. The Copley Medal, or first honour of the Royal Society of London, was awarded to him in 1847, for his " Silurian System." The condensed views of all his labours in clearing away the obscurities in which the order and re- lations of the oldest rocks were involved, is given in the last edition (1859) of his work " Siluria." MUSSET, Paul Edme de, brother of the late Alfred de Musset, was born at Paris on the 7th of November, 1804. He is best known by his novels, which are written in a style at once calm and chaste. He resided for some time at Venice, where he translated the eccentric memoirs of Gozzi, publishing them in the "Na- tional," in 1846. In 1848 he became editor of the dramatic department of that journal, and was esteemed for his conscientious criticisms. He has writ- ten a few dramas, represented at the Odeon, but his principal works are the romances "La Table de Nuit," "La T6te et le Cceur," " Lauzun," "Anne de Boleyn," Les Femmes de la Regence," " Le Bracelet," "Mignard et Rigaud," " Orginaux du XVII. Siecle," "Madame de la Guette," "Jean le Trouveur," "Voyage en Italie," and "Nouvelles Italiennes. " He has contributed a num- ber of articles to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." NAPIER, Robert, a shipbuilder and mechanical engineer, was born at Dum- barton in 1791, where his father, though but a blacksmith by trade, gave his son a liberal education. From an early age, Mr. Napier had a great taste for mechanical pursuits, and despite his father's desire that he should proceed to college, he preferred being a skilled craftsman, and was therefore appren- ticed to his parent. At the end of his time he went to Edinburgh in 1811 ; and afterwards, in 1815, commenced business on his own account in Glasgow, with very moderate means. In 1S23 he completed his first marine engine for a Clyde boat, and from that date his career has been one of continued pro- sperity. In 1840 he built and engined four steamers for the Cunard Line, and these were followed by others for a similar service. In 1856 he launched the Persia from his yard near Glasgow, which is the largest steamer afloat, with the exception of the Great Eastern, and belongs to the Cunard Company. Mr. Napier has held numerous government contracts, amongst which is one for an enormous steam-ram, which is now in course of construction (September 1860). His extraordinary success has entirely depended on the excellent workmanship with which all his vessels are con- structed, and a consequent freedom from failure. His firm employs several thousand hands, and is the most exten- sive concern on the Clyde. NAPIER, Vice - Admiral Sir Charles, K. C.B. , M. P. , late commander of the Baltic fleet, born 1786, is the eldest son of the late Hon. Charles Napier of Merchiston Hall, and grandson of the sixth Lord Napier. Sixty years ago Sir Charles entered the navy as a first-class volunteer, and during this long period of service he has always distinguished himself as a brave and dashing tar. He '4f#7?/s, 6> NAP 285, NAP served before Martinique, and was the first to scale its walls, for which service he obtained promotion. He was engaged on the coast of Sicily in 1811, served in North America in 1813, and in 1829 was sent on special service to the coast of Portugal. In 1833 he was appointed to the command of the Portuguese fleet, engaged with the fleet of Don Miguel, and gained a decisive victory for Don Pedro. In 1839 he was appointed second in command to Sir Robert Stopford in the Mediterranean, and after distinguish- ing himself in several actions he assisted at the taking of Acre. For his Syrian and Egyptian services he received the thanks of Parliment, the dignity of K. C. B. , and the decorations of almost all tlic military and naval orders in Europe. He afterwards held for some time the command of the Channel fleet. Such was the prestige of his name that, although no special favourite of government, when the Russian war was about to be proclaimed, he was appointed to the com- mand of the Baltic fleet In that com- mand, however, he was doomed to be an example of the signal folly into which the hero falls, who, when putting on his armour, boasts as one who is putting it off. The Baltic fleet was to take Cron- stadt, but beyond the blockade and the affair of Bomarsund, nothing was done. Sir Charles blamed the Admiralty for not having furnished him with the fitting fighting tools ; and there was no doubt that much of the cause of the resultless character of the expedition was due to official bungling. But although no very brilliant deed was done in the Baltic by Sir Charles in the late war, his previous services confer sufficient renown. Egypt, Syria, Spain, have, each in turn, owned his prowess. But not alone as a naval commander is Sir Charles known ; his pen is ever quite as vigorous as his sword. The innumerable caustic epistles he has issued from time to time, have rendered him a thorn in the side of nearly every administration during the last twenty years. Sir Charles Napier was elected member for South war k in 1855, and at the dissolutions in 1857 and 1859, was again returned to the House of Commons. He has lately distinguished himself in the House by his continued onslaught on the Board of Admiralty respecting the state of the navy, and has brought forward several motions, which, however, have produced no effect. NAPOLEON III., Charles Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French, born at Paris, in the Palace of the Tuileries, April 20th, 1808, is the third son of Louis Bonaparte, formerly King of Holland, by Hortense Beauharnois, daughter of the Empress Josephine. Louis Napoleon was baptized November, 1810, by Cardinal Fesch, his great uncle; the Emperor and his new Empress, Maria Louisa, standing sponsors. After the final overthrow of the fortunes of the first Napoleon, at Waterloo, all the kings and queens of his race or favour, with the sole exception of Bernadotte, King of Sweden, who had proved false to him, were removed from their thrones. The Queen of Holland took refuge in Geneva, from whence she removed to Aix, in Savoy, to Augsburg, and lastly to Thurgovia, on the Swiss shores of the Lake of Constance. Here Louis Napo- leon passed the quiet years of his early youth and manhood. His first precep- tor was the Abbe Bertrand, by whom he was instructed in the rudiments of knowledge. He subsequently studied classics under M. Lebas, since professor at the Paris Athenaeum. While at Augsburg the Prince acquired a high reputation at the Gymnasium, and exhibited considerable aptitude for the sciences, as well as for the study of the dead and living languages. He also devoted some attention to chemistry, in which he received instruction from M. Gaspard, at that period the principal manager of a chemical manufactory in NAP 286 NAP Switzerland. The military education of the Prince was not neglected, for he be- came a good fencer and rifleman, and an admirable horseman. At the garrison of Constance he received his first lessons in practical drill ; and having joined the camp at Thurr, canton of Berne, he be- came proficient in artillery practice, under General Dufour, a veteran of the Empire. At this period of his youth, when freed from study, it was his plea- sure to take pedestrian journeys over the mountains and through the passes. Dur- ing one of these trips the news of the revolution of July, 1830, reached him. The Bonapartes at once imagined that their opportunity had come to return to France. When it was known that Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans, had been "elected" king, Louis Napoleon and his family petitioned for liberty to return to their native soil. The request was refused. Louis Napoleon subse- quently asked to be allowed to serve as a common soldier in the French army," but the only answer he received, or had a right to expect, was a renewal of his banishment. He was at Rome, with his mother and his elder brother, when the revolution swept over Italy, and* he took so active a part in the struggle of the Romans for civil freedom, that he was obliged to abscond from Rome. He met his brother at Florence, and both together fought against the Papal troops until hope was gone. His brother died at Forli, and he himself fell ill of fever at Ancona. Hunted at every turn, he contrived, amid many dangers, to make his way to England the harbour of safety for all political refugees. He continued in London for a few months, and then removed to Arenenberg in Switzerland. From 1832 to 1835 he wrote and published "Political Reve- ries," "Political and Military Thoughts on Switzerland," and a "Manual of Artillery." The Duke of Reichstadtj being still alive, the hopes of the Bona- partist and Republican party in France turned towards him, during the early years of the reign of Louis- Philippe, and before the power of that monarch had been consolidated. In 1832, the death of the son of the great Napoleon left Louis Napoleon heir to the fortunes and the traditions of the Empire. In 1836 he planned an attack on Strasbourg, calculating that, if successful he could march upon Paris, rouse the provinces, and convert to his cause the garrisons of Alsace and Lothringen. He gained over a number of adherents to this daring and reckless plan, everything seemed favour- able, but an unlucky accident, a division in his followers, one part marching in one direction, and the other part another, caused the scheme to miscarry, and the Prince was made prisoner. His punish- ment was slight, exile to the United States. Returning to Europe, he bent his steps once more to Switzerland. The government of Louis-Philippe, re- pentant when too late of their former clemency, fearing the outbreak of some new conspiracy, demanded that the exile should be expelled from Switzer- land ; but as he had been enrolled as a Swiss citizen, the Cantons decided upon resisting the demand, as contrary to their rights as a free people. The French Government pressed their- de- mand by threat, and Louis Napoleon acting with a wise discretion, which he did not always exhibit, at that time sought shelter in more powerful Eng- land, where he arrived in 1838. In 1840, impelled by that self-reliance, if not fatalism, which marks his character, he undertook to make another desperate struggle for the Crown of France. He chartered a steamer in London, and with Count Montholon, and some fifty others, made a descent upon Boulogne- sur-Mer, 6th August. He in vain tried to induce the soldiers of the garrison, one of whom he shot dead, to join his standard, and after a futile attempt to NAP 287 NAP retreat on board the ' ' City of Edinburgh " he was captured. Again the French government was lenient. The Prince was tried, with his followers, in the fol- lowing October, and condemned to im- prisonment for life in the citadel of Ham. Here, in solitude and in suffer- ing, for upwards of six years, he had leisure to meditate upon the failure of his last schemes, and to devise greater ones for the future, all the while school- ing his mind by the noble teachings of adversity. Suddenly, he astonished France, and all Europe, by making his escape in the dress of a common work- man. Again hospitable England was open to him, and he reappeared in London, no one suspecting the greatness of his destiny, or looking upon him as other than a desperate and rash adven- turer. But his long-formed design was seldom absent from his mind, and it is related that when Louis -Philippe was foolish enough to attempt to fan up the embers of his own fast fading popularity by obtaining the consent of the British government for the removal of the re- mains of the great Napoleon from St. Helena to the Invalides at Paris, the Prince called upon an ambassador in London, with whom he was personally acquainted, and rubbing his hands joy- ously together exclaimed "Comme il est bSte, ce Louis- Philippe, il fait mon jeu. " ( " What a fool Louis-Philippe is ; he is playing my game !") The result verified the prediction, and when the corruption of that monarch's system of government at home, and his intrigues abroad, more especially in Spain, had so exasperated the French people as to lead to the memorable outbreak of February 1848, and his expulsion from France, one of the first measures of the new Government, upon the motion of M. Louis Blanc, was the nullification of the decree of exile passed upon all the mem- bers of the Bonaparte family. Prince Louis Napoleon did not immediately re- turn to France, but ten weeks after the abdication of Louis-Philippe served as a special constable in the streets of Lon- don, in defence of law and order, when both were imperilled by the great Chartist demonstration of the 10th of April. Elected a member of the Na- tional Assembly by several places, he made choice of Paris, and took his seat in that body, which it afterwards be- came his "destiny" to overthrow. A candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in opposition to General Cavaignac, who had rendered himself unpopular with the ultra -democracy by the rigour, if not cruelty, with which he had crushed an insurrection of the people, he was elected by 5,534,520 votes, while his opponent had less than two millions. His oath, on assuming the Presidency, may be quoted here : "In the presence of God, and before the French people, I swear to remain faithful to the Democratic Republic, and to fulfil all the duties imposed on me by the Constitution. " But the ultra- Democrats and Socialists, aided by the impracticable National Assembly, and its duly appointed general, Changarnier, brought affairs to a dead lock ; and there would have been an end of the Bonapartes, or at all events of the Pre- sident, had he not acted in self-defence. Having previously prepared all his mea- sures, the President and his chosen friends began to work. On the morn- ing of December 2nd, every influential man known in Paris to be opposed to the Bonapartist system, was seized, im- prisoned, or escorted to the frontiers. The Assembly was 'dissolved, and the President proclaimed Dictator. So dar- ing an act was not effected without bloodshed. The troops shot down in the streets all who appeared in favour of the Constitution; and thus having completely subdued all opposition, and baptized the new regime in blood and fire, he offered himself to the nation as NAP 2 President for ten years. Opposition was in vain, for the army was staunch in support of the nephew and representa- tive of the great Napoleon, and he was triumphantly elected. This condition of affairs continued for about a year, when in 1852 he resolved to make a tour of the departments, and test the popu- larity of his name, and the opinion of the country. "Wherever he went he was received with shouts of acclamation and cries of Vive VEmpereur. It can- not be denied that these manifestations were genuine and spontaneous, and he accepted them as the will of the nation that the "Empire " should be restored. All having been pre-arranged prior to his tour, and the country being really, though unwisely, alarmed at the projects of Socialists and Red Republicans, and knowing moreover that change of title could add nothing to the already su- preme authority of the President, he was elected Emperor. He was accordingly proclaimed in December 1852, exactly one year from the date of the coup oVetab. He assumed the title of Napoleon III., and was at once recognised by Great Britain as a sovereign elected by the people, and more tardily by the other great powers. The new Emperor de- clared that his empire was "peace," but the promise has not been realized. Having put forth pretensions con- nected with the custody of the Holy Places in Palestine, projects deeply laid, and with ulterior views on the great question of the Papacy, the Em- peror of Russia became alarmed for the stability of his influence in the East ; and sent a mission to Constantinople, under Prince MenschikofF, the complica- tions arising out of which produced the alliance between Great Britain and France, intended to curb the ambition and the pretensions of the Czar. The war in the Crimea was the speedy re- sult, a war humiliating to Russia, and in its progress not altogether satisfac- 8 NAP tory to the high spirited people of Eng- land. Its cost, however, was too great for the resources of France, and the war was not so popular among his people as the Emperor wished. Sebastopol, after a long siege, having been captured, with the lion's share of the glory to the arms of France, the Emperor suddenly de- clared himself satisfied, and would go no further. Great Britain reluctantly acquiesced : an unsatisfactory peace was made ; and the popularity gained for the Emperor in this country grew less and less fervent, and threatened to be en- tirely extinguished, if not replaced by animosity or jealousy. This growing ill-feeling was strengthened in 1857-8, by the injudicious demand made upon the British Government, by that of the French Emperor, to alter the laws af- fecting political and other exiles in Eng- land, to meet the case of the persons supposed to be implicated in the cow- ardly attempt at assassination, with which the name of Orsini is so infamously associated. This attempt to dictate to a friendly nation, so jealous and so sus- ceptible of its dignity as Great Britain, and the manner in which the British Government appeared disposed to yield to it, led to the downfall of the Pal- merston administration, and increased the pre-existing coolness for the person and policy of the Emperor. The large mi- litary, but more especially the naval ar- maments of France, and the fortifications of Cherbourg, within five hours' sail of our coast, and which seemed to have no possible object or necessity but an inva- sion of England, created, if not a panic, a wide-spread alarm, that we were not sufficiently prepared to confront such a peril; and the press, the people, and the parliament, being of one mind upon the subject, the Government was com- pelled to take the necessary measures for securing our naval supremacy against the attacks of all comers whether France alone, or France in combination NAP 2S9 NAP with any power or powers on the earth. In the midst of these preparations, Eu- rope was startled on the 1st of January, 1859, by a declaration of the Emperor of the French to the Austrian ambas- sador, at Paris, expressive of his regret that the relations between the two countries were no longer satisfactory. The price of the public funds went down rapidly in every capital of the civilized world ; and it was calculated that within three weeks after the ominous words had been spoken, public securities in the various capitals of Europe had been depreciated by them to the ex- tent of, at least, sixty millions ster- ling. In due time, Austria having been placed in such a position that she must either fight or lose her Italian provinces and her rank in Europe, the Emperor, Francis Joseph, played the game of the Emperor of the French, by declaring war against the King of Sardinia, and his French ally. The Emperor Napoleon placed himself at the head of his army, appointed the Empress to act as Regent during his absence, and in the course of a few weeks proved to foes as well as to friends, that he was both a theoretical and a practical soldier, and that he had all the qualifications of a great general. He marched from victory to victory ; gained laurels at the hard-fought field of Magenta, and finally defeated the whole Austrian army at the great and decisive battle of Solferino. The famous quadri- lateral of fortresses, supposed to be im- pregnable, lay before him, where Aus- tria might have accepted the prolonga- tion ef hostilities, with something like a well-founded anticipation that Solfe- rino would be the last victory of the year, and that the tide of battle might be turned against the invader. But no one suspected peace. Yet peace was imminent and pre-arranged. The Em- peror of the French thus proved him- self as great in war as in domestic ad- ministration : he had wrested Lombardy, with its beautiful capital of Milan, from the grasp of Austria, and done enough for his future fame, as well as for his present purpose. An armistice was con- cluded between the two Emperors ; who, on the following day, had a private in- terview at a little road-side house in the small town of Villafranca, and, to the surprise of the whole world, agreed to the terms of a peace ; by which Lom- bardy was ceded to France, and by France to Sardinia ; and Venetia, with the quadrilateral, left in the possession of Austria. The Emperor of the French agreed, at the same time, to the restora- tion of the sovereigns of Parma, Mo- dena, and Tuscany, who had been expelled by their subjects, when the French army entered Italy ; but the attitude assumed by the Tuscans and Modenese, and the support they re- ceived from the public opinion of all Italy, as well as of Eugland, whose government declared itself against the right of any power to force back their sovereigns upon the people against their clearly expressed wishes, placed him in a dilemma. To escape from it, so as not to incur any reproach from Austria, for breach of faith with regard to the treaty of Villafranca, he proposed a Congress of the European powers, to assemble in Paris, to discuss the whole subject of Italy. But the project fell through, and Italy remains armed and expectant, deter- mined to be mistress of her own des- tinies. The quarrel with Austria, and the general results of the Italian campaign, not having been of a nature to regain for the Emperor the lost sympathies of the British people, whose alliance he seems earnestly to court as one of the surest bulwarks of his throne and dy- nasty he made, early in 18G0, a new and more sagacious move than he had hitherto attempted. Though the French people, with the sole exception of the wine growers of Bordeaux, Burgundy, and the Rhone, are universally Protec- u NAR 290 NAS tionists, the Emperor fond of surprises declared himself a convert to the prin- ciples of Free-trade, and notified an approaching relaxation of the suicidal stringencies of the French tariff. Aided by the experience and advice of Mr. Cobden, who was charged with a con- fidential mission to that effect from the British Government, a treaty of com- merce between France and Great Bri- tain was drawn up, of which the prin- ciple was triumphantly affirmed in the British House of Commons ; and the Emperor regained that popularity in England which he enjoyed in the early stages of the Crimean war. This is, perhaps, the most important act, both to France and England, of his remark- able and eventfid career ; and pregnant with untold and unimagined blessings to both nations. Though it cannot be said that the Emperor has given the French the freedom which they covet, it cannot be denied that he is in other respects a great, an illustrious, and a magnificent sovereign. He has done what previous sovereigns longed, but did not dare, to attempt. He has com- pleted the Louvre and the Rue de Ri- voli, and made Paris beautiful even before his time the most eminently beautiful city in the world. Improve- ment has followed his footsteps wherever he has gone ; and if Napoleon I. was the Julius Caesar of France, Napoleon III. is justly entitled to be called her Augustus. The Emperor having failed to ally himself with some of the royal houses of Europe, married, on the 29th January, 1853, Eugenie Marie de Guz- man, Countess de Teba, born 5th May, 1826, by whom he has one son; Napo- leon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, Prince Imperial, born March 16th, 1856. NARVAEZ, Don Ramon, Duke of Valencia, was born in Andalusia, in 1800. He entered the military service at an early age as a cadet, and soon be- came distinguished by his gallantry. In 1822 he ranged himself on the liberal side, and most courageously contributed in quelling an attack made by the royal party against the revolutionists in July of that year. Having, however, been wounded, during the next year he retired from active life to his native place for nearly ten years. In 1836 he took com- mand under Espartero ; but about four years afterwards, he entirely changed his political views, and leaving the cause of the Constitution, became a Royalist. In 1844 he became President of the Council, and was created Duke of Va- lencia, but sustained a reverse of royal favour within three years afterwards. The revolutionary events of 1854 to 1856 again served to raise Narvaez to power in place of O'DonnelL He was again made President of the Council, and used energetic efforts in restoring the regal authority. However, in a country like Spain, where intrigue is the rule, and consistency the exception, it is no matter of surprise that the year 1859 found O'Donnell at once Prime Minister, Commander of the forces, destined to chastise Morocco in the war which has just been concluded, and thus at the same time the supplanter of Narvaez. NASH, Joseph, water-colour painter, was born in 1813, and is eminent for his illustrations of architectural interiors. His career has been one of unbroken success, as, from the moment his draw- ings from the architecture of the Middle Ages became known, his works have been in demand. His "Mansions of England in the Olden Time," published in lithography, over a space of ten years, forms a splendid gallery of architectural portraiture as it was some century or two since. He has illustrated Shak- spere and Sir Walter Scott with great felicity. All Mr. Nash's works are re- markable for their exceeding care and conscientious handling : however trifling the object may be, it receives its proper treatment. He has three water-colour NAS 291 NEW paintings in the South Kensington Mu- seum, viz., " The West End of Rouen Cathedral," "Rochester," and "The Hall at Speke." NASMYTH, James, a practical en- gineer, was born at Edinburgh, on the 19th August, 1808. At an early age he showed a taste for mechani- cal pursuits, and was accustomed by his father to the use of tools and the employment of a pencil. After studying at the University, where he was much esteemed, he set out for London in 1829, and entered the engineering establish- ment of Messrs. Maudslay and Field. Returning thence to his native city in 1832, he remained two years arranging tools for his intended entry into com- mercial life on his own account. In the spring of 1834 he settled in Manchester, and commenced on a small scale those now extensive works with which his name is associated. He had there many difficulties to overcome, the chief of which was, the repeated attempts of Trades Unionists among the men in his e mploy to subject his establishment to the dictation of their society's rules ; but the successful resistance he offered re- sulted in the perfect emancipation of the manufactory from all such interference. He erected workshops at Patricroft, and there brought out in a short period his pile-driving machine, steam hammer, and other contrivances for facilitating the production of machinery, which have made his name known wherever the value of modern mechanism is under- stood. He retired from the concern at the close of 1856, with an ample reward for the exertions of mind and body which he had made during his previous successful career. NEES VON ESENBECK, Chris- tian Godfrey, a German botanist, was born at Reichenberg, in the Odenwald, February 1776, and studied medicine at the University of Jena. He practised for several years, and was appointed suc- cessively Botanical Professor in the Uni- versities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Breslau. At Breslau he held the chair from 1831 to 1851, when he was removed on account of his assumed connexion with the re- volutionary movements of 1848. He is an able botanist, a skilful classifier, and gives to the science a philosophic tone which is now becoming prevalent in Germany. His botanical -works are very numerous, and he has written, besides, several volumes on philosophy and the politics of the day. His first treatise, ' ' Die Algen des Siissen Was- sers, &c," was published in 1814; and his last, "A Series of Researches and Observations on Animal Magnetism," in 1853. NESSELRODE, Charles Robert, Comte de, a Russian diplomatist and politician, was born at Lisbon, in 1780. His early career was in connexion with military affairs, but he soon showed the bent of his disposition by entering into the diplomatic service, in which he has acted successfully in Russian matters for more than half a century. 'His first occupation was that of "attache" to the Prussian court. In 1807 he was connected with the embassy to Paris, and subsequently took part in the various events which transpired till the fall of Napoleon in 1814, suiting his policy to the various changes, as expe- diency rather than principle induced him. From that period till very lately, the administration of foreign affairs has been mostly in his hands. He was some- what compromised in Russia with the patriotic party, owing to his supposed want of integrity during the late Cri- mean war, and has not lately taken an active part in public matters, although he still retains high office in Russia. NEWCASTLE, Henry Pelham Clin- ton, Duke of, was born 22nd May, 1811. After being educated at Eton, he studied at Christ Church, Oxford, and first enterecLParliament in 1832, as mem- NEW 292 NEW ber for South Nottinghamshire. As Lord Lincoln he held several offices under different administrations from 1834 till 1846, when he was for a short time the chief Secretary for Ireland. When Sir Robert Peel commenced his Free-trade measures, Lord Lincoln became a sup- porter of that statesman, and was mem- ber for the Falkirk Burghs till 1851, when he succeeded to the dukedom on the death of his father. He was also a member of Lord Aberdeen's Coalition Ministry, which, although including "all the talents, 1 ' had the misfortune not to include that of success. The ge- neral feeling of the country being, that the war in the Crimea was not vigor- ously and judiciously managed, the Duke, who was Secretary at War, al- though feeling that he was not to blame, made himself the victim of popular clamour, and resigned in 1855. He shortly afterwards visited the seat of war, for the purpose of investigating the condition of matters there. On the re- turn of Lord Palmerston to power in 1859, the Duke was made Secretary for the Colonies. He has lately (1860) ac- companied the Prince of Wales to Ca- nada, and by his judicious and affable demeanour has acquired the esteem of all parties with whom he has had to deal. NEWMAN, Rev. John Henry, D.D., brother of F. W. Newman, was born in London, in 1801. After being some time at a school at Ealing, he pro- ceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where he made a rapid and successful progress. In 1818 he gained a scholarship, in 1822 was made Fellow of Oriel, in 1824 was ordained deacon, in 1825 priest, and in the same year was chosen Vice-Principal of one of the Halls, and subsequently Vicar of St. Mary's. Dr. Newman is best known as the author of a cele- brated tract, "No. 90," published in 1841, which produced an astonishing sensation throughout theological circles, and which was in reality an attempt to fuse the doctrines of the English establish- ment with those of the Roman Catho- lic Church. Dr. Newman, like many of his followers, thought it his duty to secede from the Church of England, and in 1845 he joined the Catholics, becom- ing Principal of the Roman Catholic University of Dublin, in 1851. He has subsequently resigned this office, and has lately appeared on the Continent as a preacher in some of the leading Catholic cathedrals, where he has most earnestly held forth in favour of the dogmas of the Romish Church. He has published several pamphlets relating to the contro- versies of which he has been the pars magna; and is the author of the article on Miracles in the " Encyclopaedia Metro- politana," and of many volumes of ser- mons. Dr. Newman is understood to be engaged on the new translation of the Scriptures which the English Roman Catholics have at present in preparation. NEWMAN, Francis William, a theological and literary author, was born in London, in 1805. His early education was conducted at Ealing. In 1822 he went to Worcester College, and was Fellow of Balliol CoDege in 1826. Mr. Newman, bike his brother, seceded from the Church of England, but on entirely different principles, and has been distinguished for an energetic de- fence of opinions, which by some have been thought to be verging towards scepticism. He is the author of several works on religious subjects, the best known of which are " The Soul, her Sorrows and Aspirations," " The Pha- ses of Faith," and a " History of the Hebrew Monarchy." His other writings are a translation of the "Odes of Ho- race," "Regal Rome," "Lectures on Logic," "Lectures on Political Eco- nomy," and a "Grammar of the Berber Language." He contributed articles for many years to the Eclectic and Prospec- tive Reviews, and he now writes on NIC 293 NIE political subjects for the "Westminster Review. " To give some idea of the range of his acquirements, it may be added that he is the author of papers on Ellip- tic Integrals, &c. , which imply extensive reading in the higher mathematics. NICHOLS, John Gough, F.S.A., an antiquarian, was born in London, in 1807. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and embarked in literary pursuits before he had attained to man- hood. After materially assisting his grandfather in the completion of the "Progress, &c. of King James L," he completed that work, when left unfi- nished at his grandfather's death. For thirty-two years, from 1824 to 1856, he compiled the obituary for the " Gentle- man's Magazine ; " and from January 1852 to June 1856, he was the sole editor of that time-honoured periodical. The " Collectanea Topographicaet Gene- alogica," set on foot by Sir Thomas Phillipps, Sir Frederick Madden, and the Eev. Dr. BandinaL in 1834, was chiefly conducted by him, and completed in 8 vols. 8vo, 1843. He also edited its sequel, the "Topographer and Gene- alogist," in 3 vols. His distinct works are " Autogiaphs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Persons con- spicuous in English History ;" "London Pageants ;" "Description of Fresco Paint- ings discovered in the Guild Chapel of Stratford-upon-Avon, and of the Cor- poration Records of the same Town;" " Description of the Monuments of the Earls of Warwick, &c, in the Beau- champ Chapel;" "The Pilgrimage of Canterbury and Walsingham," trans- lated from Erasmus; "The Armorial Windows of Woodhouse Chapel." After having acted as treasurer of the Sarley Society from its formation in 1834, a position which he still retains, Mr. Nichols, in 1838, set on foot the Cam- den Society, which has, up to the present time, issued more than eighty works, besides suggesting the establishment of many book-printing societies on the like popular plan as the Shakspere, the Percy, the Parker, and the Sydenham Societies. NIEPCE, De Saint Victor, Claude Marie Francois, a French chemist and photographer, was born at St. Cyr, on 26th July, 1805. Having studied at Saumer he entered the army, and after passing through various grades became a chef (Tescadron in 1854. M. Niepce had meanwhile devoted himself to sci- entific pursuits, and it is chiefly from his discoveries in photography that he became so well known. To his uncle and M. Daguerre are due the merit of the first successful attempts to obtain like- nesses by the action of light on salts of silver. M. Daguerre used for this pur- pose silver plates, whose surfaces were rendered sensitive to the action of light by exposing them for a short time to the vapour of iodine, &c. M. Niepce im- proved on this troublesome and uncer- tain process, by showing that the surface of glass properly prepared with albumen, &c, might be employed with advantage ; and the present mode of photographing on glass where collodion is used, is simply an expansion of the ideas first suggested by him.. M. Niepce next showed that, by certain agents, light might not only be employed to give the effect of an ordinary picture, but also be used to en- grave the result on plates of metal. This process has since been extended, and at the present time excellent engraved cop- per plates are produced, entirely by the action of light and electricity, and with- out the least skill or work on the part of the operator beyond that of applying the chemical agents. M. Niepce has published several works on his favourite pursuit, among which are his "Photo- graphy on Glass," "The Production of Coloured Images by the Action of Light," and ' ' Sun Engravings on Steel and Glass. " His principal productions are collected in one work of eight volumes, entitled NIG 294 NOE 1 ' Photographic Researches. " M. Niepce is a member of many of the learned societies of Europe, and is a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. NIGHTINGALE, Miss Florence, an English philanthropist, was born at Florence, in 1820. She was principally educated at home, and there acquired a knowledge of several modern languages. Very early, even in childhood, she mani- fested sympathy with affliction in every form that presented itself. This gentle and true spirit was sustained in her by her friends, who gave her ample encou- ragement. She visited schools and hos- pitals within reach of Lea Hurst, where she was brought up, her appearance being always welcome to the poor, the sick, and the needy. But the field of Lea Hurst was too narrow for her expansive benevolence. She wished to understand suffering in all its phases, and to ad- minister to its alleviation. She went to London and examined workhouses, reformatories, and hospitals ; observing, as she proceeded, the modes of nursing in- valids, and then visited many hospitals in the country towns with a similar feeling and sentiment. Miss Nightingale came to the conclusion that a staff of edu- cated nurses is essential, and that a school for training them to their duties was much required. She learned that such an establishment existed in Germany, that it was successful, and she resolved to enter it as a voluntary nurse. She there spent upwards of six months, and saw many ladies attending the sick without dread of catching disease. It was thus that she acquired all absence of fear, and fully felt the grandeur of her earthly mission. Leaving Ger- many in 1851, she visited the hospitals and asylums for the poor in France and Italy. After returning to England, she was for some time in ill health ; but, notwithstanding, pursued her career of self -training. The war in the Crimea breaking out, the Secretary-at-War found the wounded of the French sol- diery carefully tended by French Sis- ters of Charity, and urged Miss Night- ingale to take the superintendence of a staff of nurses attached to the British camp. She acceded to this request, and leaving her family and friends, pro- ceeded to the Crimea, to enter on her mission of mercy. Sickness spread to an alarming extent through the British forces in the East ; at one time, ten thousand men were ill in the various hospitals. Miss Nightingale was every- where, and by her cheerful demeanour and thoughtful consideration smoothed many a rough pillow. She returned to England in 1856, weak in health, but honoured by her country from the Queen down to the lowest subject. A subscription was raised for a testimonial to her, but she requested that it might be applied to founding an institution for training nurses. Since her return, although a complete invalid, she has been the prime mover in the wise and suc- cessful measures initiated by Mr. Sidney Herbert and his colleagues to reduce the high rate of mortality in the British army, and has taken a most lively in- terest in the establishment of the Army Medical College at Chatham. Miss Nightingale has lately published a work . entitled " Notes on Nursing," which, from its eminently practical nature, is calculated to do much good. NOEL, The Hon. and Rev. Baptist Wriothsley, M.A., born in 1799, is the third son of Sir Gerard Noel Noel, Bart., and brother to the Earl of Gains- borough. He was educated, and took his degree of M. A., at Trinity College, Cam- bridge. Mr. Noel was for many years an eminent member of the Church of England, and one of her most faithful ministers ; and as a popular preacher exerted himself strenuously in the cause of missions, but taking views of baptism different from those inculcated by the Church of England, he, though appa- NOR 295 NOV rently with reluctance, severed his con- nexion with that Church, and became a Baptist minister. He produced a great effect by his pamphlet on the Corn-laws, which was published many years ago, and in which he nobly pleaded the cause of the poor. Previous to leaving the Church of England, he was one of her Majesty's Chaplains. He has published several popular devotional works, and has long been esteemed for his eminently philanthropic spirit. NORMANBY, Constantine Henry Phipps, Marquis of, an English diplo- matist, was born in May, 1797. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, and returned to Parliament on the Whig interest for Scarborough, in 1818. He was in favour of Roman Catholic Eman- cipation, and of Parliamentary Reform. His father finding fault with him for advocating these principles, he resigned his seat and went to Italy, but after being absent about two years he re- turned and sat for Higham Ferrers. He succeeded to the peerage as Lord Mulgrave in 1831, and shortly after- wards was appointed Governor of Ja- maica, and during his term of office the emancipation of the slaves was effected. In 1833 he returned to Eng- land, and in 1834 was Lord Privy Seal. In 1835 he accepted the then difficult office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, which position he held for four years. He was made a marquis in 1838 ; and in 1839 became Secretary for the Colonies, but after holding that office a few months he was appointed Home Secretary. In 1846 he was Am- bassador to Paris, and in that capacity recognised the Provisional Government in 1848, approving the measure of Cavaignac to suppress further insur- rectionary manifestations. He remained in Paris until after the coup cF6tat, and the election of Louis Napoleon as Emperor. In 1854 his diplomatic services were transferred to the court of Tuscany, a change generally considered indicative of his ultimate removal from diplomatic employment. He was re- lieved of the Tuscan embassy in 1858, and has since resided in England, taking frequent part in the debates of the Upper House on questions of continental policy. Lord Normanby has written some four or five novels, which were popular, but are now almost forgotten. His latest literary production is "A Year of Revolution," being his Parisian experience of 1848-9. This work has been severely criticised. NORTON, The Honourable Caro- line Elizabeth Sarah, granddaughter of the celebrated Richard Brinsley Sheridan, was born in 1808. Her father died when she was very young, and she and her two sisters, the present Duchess of Somerset and the Dowager Lady Dufferin, were educated by their mo- ther. Mrs. Norton wrote verses at an early age, but it was not until after her marriage with the Honourable G. C. Norton, one of the police ma- gistrates of London, that she became known to the literary world. Her first work was "The Sorrows of Rosalie," published anonymously in 1829, which was followed in 1830 by " The Undying One." This volume established Mrs. Norton's place among the most emi- nent of living poetesses. A number of other works, chiefly poetical, succeeded, but none so popular as " The Undying One." She contributed to the Annuals for several years, and has written one novel, "Stuart of Dunleath." NOVELLO, Madame Clara, Countess Gigliucci, an English vocalist, is daughter of Mr. Vincent Novello, a musician of considerable repute, and was born in London, June 1818. In 1827, when quite a child, she commenced her musical studies at York, and was afterwards entered a pupil of the Con- servatoire de Musique Sacre at Paris. Young though she was, Miss Novello, OBK 296 OBR by devoting her whole heart to the sub- ject, became distinguished in the Aca- demy for her intelligent manner of ren- dering Church music. In 1833 she returned to England, and made her first appearance at a concert given at Wind- sor, and was afterwards engaged to sing at the Ancient Concerts. Mendelssohn invited her to Leipsic, and she charmed the public of that city. Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Germany were visited by her, and on account of the beauties of her style she was highly successful. Possibly her first great appearance was made at the Manchester Festival, in 1836, when she fairly divided the palm with Malibran in oratorio music. She afterwards studied for the lyric stage, and took for her first part "Semira- mide," at Padua, Rossini recommend- ing that special line of art. It was one of the most difficult rdles that a young cantatrice could undertake, but Miss Novello carried the piece through bril- liantly, and thenceforward she was eagerly sought for to appear on the stage, in the concert-room, and at ora- torios. She married in 1848, but re- turned to the stage in 1850. At the Glasgow Musical Festival, in January 1860, she gained golden opinions. She then returned to Italy to fulfil an en- gagement at the Scala of Milan. But her career may now be regarded as closed. The two great performances of sacred music, at the Crystal Palace, October 1860, were her adieux to the public of the metropolis. At length, the brighter days which have begun to shine on Italy, and other circumstances, now allow her to cease from her self-imposed toils no longer Madame Clara Novello, but the Countess Gigliucci, to retire with her husband to the enjoyment of her proper social position in her adopted country. O'BRIEN, William Smith, an Irish politician of the independent school, is descended from the ancient kings of Munster, and was born at Dromoland, in 1803. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, and having inherited a considerable fortune from his mother, he was returned to Parliament for the borough of Ennis in 1830, afterwards in 1835 for Limerick. Though closely con- nected with various aristocratic families, he joined O'Connell in demanding a re- peal of the Union, as the only remedy for Irish grievances. But the great agitator and Mr. O'Brien differed on one essential point ; the former believed in the efficacy of moral force, while the latter contended that nothing could be extorted from the British Govern- ment, except by demonstrations of phy- sical power. The Young Ireland party, of which Mr. O'Brien was the leader, was gaining ground but slowly, when the French Revolution of 1848 broke out, and seemed the Irish opportunity. Mr. O'Brien proceeded to Paris ; was received with sympathy by the Provi- sional Government, and returned fully impressed with the conviction that he would be supported by France in sepa- rating Ireland from England. The Earl of Clarendon, then Lord Lieutenant, saw the approaching danger, and pre- pared for it, by suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, and placing the disaffected districts under martial law. Mr. O'Brien held on his way, reviewed assemblages of peasantry, and pronounced insurrec- tion inevitable. As a commencement he attacked a police station at Ballin- garry, July 29, 1848, but his followers fled and he escaped. In the following September he was arrested on a charge of high treason his disciples took care of themselves he was tried for the im- puted State crime, found guilty and condemned to death, on the 9th October, but the punishment was commuted to transportation for life, and even that pe- nalty was mitigated by the Crown in 1856. In the latter year Mr. O'Brien once more found himself free on his ODO 297 OLI native soil. During the seven years of his involuntary exile, political excite- ment had died a natural death in Ire- land ; the country was fast improving ; agitation was at a discount ; and without abandoning his cherished opinions, Mr. O'Brien has since taken no active steps towards their promulgation. O'DONNELL, Leopold, Duke of Tetuan, marshal and minister of Spain, was born in 1808, and is descended from an old Irish family. He entered the army when young, and in the civil war in Spain, incited by Don Carlos, on the faith of his claim to the Crown, O'Donnell took part with the Queen, and in 1838 was chief of the staff, and subsequently became Commander. Es- partero was his patron and friend ; but forgetful of all he owed to the patriot Regent, O'Donnell eventually adopted the cause of the Queen-mother, and was obliged to throw up his command and fly to France for safety. In 1841 he returned to Spain, but no sooner had he set his foot within the Escurial than he commenced to plot for the overthrow of Espartero, who at last fell through his intrigues. He afterwards was Governor of Cuba, where he became very rich by the slave trade. He returned to Spain, and was appointed Director-General of Infantry. Narvaez soon after gave way to Sartorius ; O'Donnell raised an insurrection in Andalusia, but was de- feated at all points, and his property confiscated. He was, however, again restored to office, and made Secretary - at-War, and again betrayed Espartero, who had twice saved him from destruc- tion. O'Donnell was nominated Presi- dent of the Council, in place of Espartero ; but the change was unpopular, and he signalized his elevation by means similar to those adopted by Louis Napoleon on the 2nd December, 1851. The streets of Madrid were gorged with the blood of citizens, and the minister was trium- phant, but only for a season, for Narvaez plotted and O'Donnell was forced to retire. He returned to power again, however, in 1858, and in 1859 held the double position of Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the forces de- spatched to wage war against Morocco. His campaign has been highly successful. The Moors have been obliged to capitu- late, pay a heavy sum towards the ex- penses of the war, and submit to a loss of territory. O'Donnell, on his return to Spain, has been received with high honours, and created by the Queen Duke of Tetuan. OLIPHANT, Lawrence, an English author and traveller, was born in 1 832. His father belonged to an old family in Perthshire, and was Sir Anthony Oliphant, C.B., Chief Justice of Ceylon. Educated in England, Mr. Oliphant, be- fore completing his professional studies as a lawyer, went out to India, and while in Ceylon received an invitation from Jung Bahadoor to accompany him to NepauL This invitation he accepted. He visited the native court of that country, and after enjoying unrivalled opportunities of attaining information as regards the manners and feelings of the inhabitants, he, on his return, wrote an account of his tour, which he pub- lished under the title of " A Journey to Katmandu." That this work was the production of a mere youth does not appear to have been detected by the critics. It displayed some of the best qualities which characterise Mr. Oli- phant's subsequent efforts. It received high praise for its graphic power, and the sagacity of its observations. The author having returned to this country from India, studied law at the Univer- sity of Edinburgh, and was called to the Scotch bar, and subsequently to the English bar, at Lincoln's Inn. In the autumn of 1852 he made a tour to Rus- sia, in the course of which he descended the Volga, and visited the Steppes of the Don Cossacks, and the Crimea. OLI 298 OLI This journey furnished the materials for . another work, entitled " The Russian j Shores of the Black Sea," which, making its appearance in 1853, at a period when the Crimean war was on the eve of breaking out, and furnishing the most recent information regarding the coun- tries to which our armaments were pro- ceeding, became at once popular, and in the course of a few months passed through four editions. A well- written and lively book, displaying everywhere good sense and careful observation, it secured for its author the reputation of being one of the best writers of modern books of travel Shortly after his re- turn to England from this autumnal tour, Mr. Oliphant became private se- cretary to the Earl of Elgin, then Gover- nor-General of Canada. In this capacity he went to America, where he held a responsible situation in connexion with Canadian and Indian affairs. He tra- velled to most parts of the continent of North America at this period, visiting the latest settlements in the backwoods of Canada and the United States, as well as the countries of Central Ame- rica, where the English and Spanish race have come into collision. The materials collected in the course of his rambles through the Northern States were embodied in "Minnesota," a work in which narration of adventure, pleasant glimpses of American scenery, and with descriptions of the latest Eu- ropean settlements in the far West, were mingled with broad views of political events. This work entitled Mr. Oli- phant to be considered something better than a mere writer of Impressions, or Voyages. Pursuing the same spirit of generalization, he wrote at this period an anonymous pamphlet, entitled "The Coming Campaign," in which he advo- cated views as to the mode of conduct- ing the struggle with Russia, at variance with those adopted by Government. This work was republished in 1855, under the title of "The Trans-Caucasian Provinces, the Proper Field of Opera- tions for a Christian Army." In the meantime Mr. Oliphant returned to the countries referred to in this work, and accompanied Omer Pacha in his most dangerous expeditions, participating in all the hardships and dangers of the campaignj as a correspondent of the press. "The Caucasian Campaign of Omer Pacha ; a Personal Narrative, " was the result of this expedition, in the course of which districts were visited which had hitherto been all but un- known to Europeans. Not long after the conclusion of the Russian war, Lord Elgin, who had in the interval returned from Canada, was appointed Special High Commissioner to China ; Mr. Oli- phant again became his private secre- tary. He accompanied the expedition, of which he was the historiographer. His daring journey to Sou-Chou with M. de Cintades, through the midst of a hostile population, was one of the most memorable episodes in the expedition, throughout which, however, he distin- guished himself by his pluck and readi- ness to face danger where there was any chance of obtaining information. The voyage made by Lord Elgin up the Yang-tse-Kiang, past the great city of Nankin, and far into the interior of vast regions never before explored by Euro- peans, gave the undertaking an import- ance altogether independent of its poli- tical object, and made it highly desirable that its details should be recorded by a competent pen. Mr. Oliphant was well fitted for this task. His account of it, entitled a "Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, in the Years 1857-58-59," published at the end of last year, is unquestionably the best official history we have of any di- plomatic expedition of the kind. It is a well-arranged and well- written book, giving all the information that could be desired on the subject to which it refers, OLM 299 ORB in a shape attractive to general readers. Mr. Oliphant is a contributor to " Black- wood's Magazine," the "Cornhill Ma- gazine," and various other periodicals. His latest work, published within the last few months, is entitled ' ' Patriots and Filibusters, or Incidents of Political and Explorating Travel." OLMSTED, Denison, was born at East Hartford, Connecticut, in 1791; educated at Yale College ; and has filled in turn the chairs of chemistry, mathe- matics, and astronomy, in the university of North Carolina. He is the author of numerous scientific papers that have ap- peared in the American journals, but his speciality is more as a popularizer of science than a philosopher. OMER PACHA, whose real name is Michel Lattas, late Commander-in-Chief of the Turkish forces in Europe, was born at Vlaski, a village of Austrian Croatia. His relations adhered to the Greek Church. His education was pri- marily at the military school of his native village, and afterwards at the School of Mathematics in Thurm, Tran- sylvania, from which he passed as cadet into the Austrian army. He wrote a superior hand, was a good mathemati- cian, and had served but a short time when he was appointed Assistant Sur- veyor of roads and bridges. An un- fortunate circumstance obliged him, when about twenty-eight, to leave the Austrian service. He repaired to Bosnia, became tutor in the family of a Moham- medan merchant, and embraced the faith of the Moslem, assuming the name of Omer. Having proceeded with his pupils to Constantinople, he married a wealthy heiress; in 1833 he became chief of a battalion, was in- troduced to the late Sultan, gave lessons in writing to the present Sultan, and advanced in favour. His first actual military service was in 1839, when he took part in the contest with Ibrahim Pacha. In 1842 he received the title of Bey, and was afterwards sent to suppress an Albanian insurrec- tion, in which he was so successful that he received the title by which he is at present known. In 1848 he was ap- pointed to command the army of occu- pation in Wallachia, when the Russian army entered that territory to check the Hungarians. His conduct on that oc- casion met with general approbation. Having put down one or two insurrec- tions, he was next despatched to quell the disturbances in Montenegro in 1852, but Austrian interposition at Con- stantinople caused him to withdraw his troops when on the verge of completing the subjection of Montenegro. His successes in war and politics raised him now to the highest position. The war with Russia was declared in September 1853, and Omer Pacha took command of the army of the Danube. The events of that struggle are too recent to call for recapitulation. He gained victory after victory, until he was ordered to the relief of Kars. In this expedition he was unsuccessful, the general belief being that his delay was premeditated. Subsequent inquiry, however, has shown that his failure arose from obedience to higher authority, which marked out a route for his forces impossible of accomplishment within the necessary time. The conclusion of the war withdrew him from the public eye, but he has received various honours from the Sultan, and is decorated with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. ORBIGNY, Charles d\ a French naturalist, was born at Coueron, in the Department of the Loire- Inferieure, in December, 1806. He was educated at Rochelle, where his father was a medi- cal practitioner, and in 1827 went to Paris for the purpose of studying medi- cine. His views changed, however, and in 1832 he directed his attention almost exclusively to the natural sciences. OKL 300 OTR In 1835 he was appointed Assistant Naturalist to the Museum of Natural History, where he still continues. M. d'Orbigny is held in much repute on the Continent as a man of extensive scientific acquirements. He has published various works, the most important being the "Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Na- turelle," in thirteen octavo volumes. His latest publication, issued in 1855, is a treatise on Palaeontology. ORLOFF, Alexis, Prince, a Russian soldier, diplomatist, and statesman, was born in 1787. He entered the army, and took a distinguished part in all the Russian campaigns against Napoleon I., receiving several wounds at the battle of Borodino, in 1812. After having been attached to the person of the Grand Duke Constantine, he was appointed Aide-de-camp to the Emperor Alex- ander L, and afterwards promoted by the same sovereign to the dignity of principal Aide-de-camp in 1819. During the great insurrection of 1825, and on the famous day of the 14th of December, he commanded the regiment of horse -guards, by means of which he powerfully con- tributed to crush the rebels and secure the victory to the Imperial government. After this period he became the most intimate and faithful friend of the Emperor Nicholas throughout the whole of his reign. In 1833 he was ap- pointed Ambassador and Commander- in-Chief of the forces sent by his sovereign to the assistance of the Sultan against the Viceroy of Egypt, and he negotiated the famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, the most advantageous arrange- ment for Russia which has been entered into with the Porte. He was Ambassa- dor of Russia at the coronation of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and re- paired to Vienna to ensure the neutrality of the Emperor Francis Joseph during the Eastern war in 1853-4. In 1856 he sat in the quality of first Russian Pleni- potentiary to the Congress of Paris, and negotiated the treaty of the 18th March, after the signature of which he was raised by the Emperor Alexander II. to the highest dignity in the state, as President of the Council of the Empire and Ministry, functions with which he is still invested. O'SHAUGHNESSY, Sir William Brooke, K.C.B., was born at Limerick in 1809. After studying at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, he entered the East India service, and became Professor of Chemistry at Calcutta College. He was the first to introduce the electric tele- graph into India, and through his ex- ertions that vast empire has now become covered by a network of telegraphic wires, reaching over about five thousand miles in length. An attempt has been lately made to extend the telegraph from Suez to Kurrachee, and when com- pleted, India will be, telegraphically speaking, within a few hours' reach of London. About four years ago Sir Wil- liam visited England, when he was made K. C. B. , and on returning to India took with him several young gentlemen who had been carefully trained in electric science, as assistants in future telegraphic extensions. The British and Indian Go- vernments derived the greatest advantage from Sir William's arrangements during the late war; and to the completeness of the telegraphic apparatus then used many of the successes of the armies under Lord Clyde and others were due. OTHO I., King of Greece, second son of Louis I., ex-King of Bavaria, and brother of Maximilian II. , was born on the 1st of June, 1815. When the Greeks, after a long, arduous, and ro- mantic struggle against the Turks, (in which they were supported by the active sympathy, no less than by the pecuniary aid of all the ardent minds of Europe, who were imbued with the classic recol- lections of that illustrious land,) had in- volved the great powers in their quarrel, the question of the establishment of OTH 301 OUD their independence became the ques- tion of the day. After the battle of Navarino Turkey had no alter- native but to submit to a dismem- berment ; and by the preliminary Con- vention held at London on the 6th of July, 1827, Greece was declared an independent state, and taken under the protection of the contracting powers, Great Britain, France, and Russia. Count Capo d'Istria was elected Pro- visional President or Governor of the new state, and destined to fill the office until 1832, when the Greeks, having in vain offered their crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, now King of the Belgians, made choice of the young Prince Otho of Bavaria, then in his seventeenth year. By a treaty concluded at London, on the 7th of May, 1832, and ratified by the King of Bavaria on the 27th of the same month, the powers of Europe supported the proposition of the Greeks. The Prince accepted the offer in October of the same year, and arrived in Greece in the January following (1833), when he was proclaimed King, but submitted to the control of a Regency until he should have attained his twentieth year. He finally took the reins of government into his own hands in June, 1835 ; and in the following year was married to the Princess Mary Frederica Amelia, daughter of the Grand Duke Augustus of Oldenburg. The reign of King Otho over the Greeks has not been peaceful or successful. He has laboured under the great disadvantage of being a fo- reigner, and committed the great im- prudence of endeavouring to support his authority against an often unwilling and discontented people by the aid of Ger- man and other foreign and mercenary troops. The Queen has made herself the ruling spirit in Greece ; her influence is entirely pro-Russian, and under her actual agency, and the sleepy acquies- cence of the King, Greece has become independent only in name, and a virtual appanage of the Russian empire. Con- vulsion has succeeded convulsion at Athens, till violent revolution has often appeared the only remedy for the deep- rooted evils of the state. Hitherto this unlucky specimen of a constitutional monarchy has been of little use to the world, or to itself, except as an example to prove that free constitutions are not sufficient of themselves to make a free and happy people ; and that knowledge, patience, and self-control on the part of the citizens, are at least as necessary to procure and maintain good government as are charters of liberty, or constitu- tions on the British or any other model. There being no issue by the king's mar- riage, the crown of Greece will descend (revolution not intervening) to Prince Adalbert of Bavaria, his majesty's younger brother. OUDLNOT, Nicholas Charles Vic- tor, Due de Reggio, son of the famous marshal of that name, was born No- vember 3rd, 1791, at Bar-le-Duc, Meuse. In 1805 he was one of the Emperor Napoleon's pages ; in 1809 he became, by brevet, lieutenant of the 5th Hus- sars ; and notwithstanding his youth, he was appointed Aide-de-camp to Massena, and had his share in the vicis- situdes of the Portuguese campaign. He returned to France in 1811, and after- wards signalized himself by his un- daunted courage at Leipsic, Hanau, Montmirail, and Craonne at the latter conflict being seriously wounded. In 1814 he was named chefd? escadron. Na- poleon after his abdication had promoted him to the rank of colonel ; but the Count d'Artois, though he might have cancelled the commission, confirmed Oudinot in his grade, and charged him with the organization of a regiment of Hussars. During the " Hundred Days, " Oudinot was faithful to the Bourbons, and he was appointed to the command of the Hussars du Nord, which he ex- OUD 302 OVE changed, in 1822, for the First Horse Grenadiers of the Royal Guard. In 1824 he acted as field-marshal, of which he had the rank, and was charged with the re-organization of the School of Cavalry at Saumur, on a broader basis thaD before. He retained that position until the revolution of 1830. True to his sentiments he resigned office, and was not again called to active life until after the death of his brother in 1835. He was despatched to Africa, and distinguished himself; but being injured by an explosion, he returned to France. In the same year he was pro- moted as Lieutenant-General, and be- came one of the Inspectors-General of Cavalry. From that period until the revolution of 1848, he took as a deputy but a moderate part in public affairs ; but the Republic proclaimed, he adhered to the change, and was elected repre- sentative for Maine-et-Loire. In March, 1848, he was placed at the head of the Army of Observation assembled at the foot of the Alps. Marshal Bugeaud succeeded him in command in Ja- nuary, 1849, and he was re-elected by the department of Maine-et-Loire to the Legislative Assembly shortly after- wards. Selected to command in chief the expedition sent against the revolu- tionists of Rome, he debarked at Civita Vecchia on the 25th April. The city of Rome was not taken till July 3rd. Handing over his command to M. de Rostolan, he returned to France, and took his place in the Legislature. He was one of those who protested against the coup oVUat on December 2, 1851 ; and by a unanimous vote of the As- sembly was chosen to command the troops of the first military division, and the National Guard ; he was arrested and detained some days at Mont Valg- rien. On obtaining his liberty he passed into private life, as a retired general- in-chief. General Oudinot is the author of a few military works, which profes- sional readers say possess considerable merit. OUTRAM, General Sir James, a British military commander, who has signalized himself in India, was born at Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, in 1805. His father, who was an eminent engi- neer, sent him to study at Aberdeen, and afterwards, in 1819, procured him a cadetship. He left for India, and after some time was appointed Adjutant to the 23rd Regiment of Native In- fantry, and disciplined the corps. Sub- sequently he was Political Agent at Goojerat, Commissioner at Upper Scinde, and Resident at Hyderabad, Sattara, and Lucknow ; in all which offices he exhibited administrative ability com- bined with military skilL When he left Scinde, he wrote a severe animadversion on Sir Charles Napier's conquest of that country ; a publication which seemed to have had no small effect in retarding his promotion. He afterwards bore an active share in the extinction of the Thugs, and was one of the Marquis of Dalhousie's most judicious coadjutors in the project for the annexation of Oude. He was created Knight of the Bath in 1856, and sent to Persia in command of the British expedition, with fidl diplo- matic powers and the rank of lieutenant- general. The short war that ensued was marked by the judicious conduct of Sir James Outram. Bushire fell, and he signed an armistice, all points de- manded by General Outram being con- ceded by the Shah, and he returned with his army to Bombay. When the Indian insurrection broke out he was nominated to a difficult command, being sent against Dinapore and Cawnpore, but he was equal to the emergency ; and recent events have demonstrated that his skill as a general is equal to his wisdom as a cabinet councillor. For his gallantry in India he has received the Grand Cross of the Bath. OVERBECK, Friedrich, a German . K U.S. Sec. J%Mtuz4Z ? A iof M. Liebig, subsequently making va- rious useful scientific discoveries. He was admitted to the Academy of Science* in 1837, and filled various chairs in the College of France and the Polytechnic School. Since 1849 he has been a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, without abandoning the prac- tice of instructing pupils. He resigned his last professorship in 1851, shortly afterwards being created Commander of the Legion of Honour. His scientific writings have been very numerous, chiefly in the form of papers and lec- tures, which have appeared in the " Annales de Chimie et de Physique ; " and it is universally conceded that his essays elevate him to a level with the highest cotemporary chemists. He is at present President of the Imperial Mint at Paris. PENNEFATHER, Lieutenant- General Sir John Lysaght, was born in the county of Tipperary, in 1800, and entered the army in 1818. He greatly distinguished himself in India in 1843, during the war in Scinde, and for his gallantry received the thanks of the British Parliament. He was present in the Crimea during the Russian war, and at the Alma performed prodigies of valour, and likewise in the battle of Inkermann. He is a Knight Com- mander of the Bath, and the Emperor of the French conferred on him the order of the Legion of Honour. PENNETHORNE, James, an archi- tect and surveyor, was born in Wor- cester in 1801. He went to London in 1820, remained with Pugin two years, and then travelled through Italy and Sicily. In 1828 he became principal assistant to Nash, and planned a great number of works both public and private. He was appointed to a situation in con- nexion with the Woods and Forests, which he still retains. Some of the leading improvements in the formation of new streets in London have been effected under his superintendence, and he is held in high esteem by his brethren in the profession. PEPE, Florestan, an Italian general, PEP 312 PER was born in Calabria, in 1 780. He entered the army when young, and was a Lieu- tenant when the French entered Naples in 1799. He served in Spain as Brigade Major in 1806, and rose gradually until, in 1811, he held the rank of General of Brigade. In 1812, during the Russian campaign he led his Italian corps to Dantzic, and during the retreat he covered with his cavalry the French rear- guard. Ill and severely wounded, he fell into the hands of the enemy, after having performed extraordinary feats of valour. Liberated, he returned to Italy, and in 1815, for the gallant stand he made against the Austrians in Upper Italy, Murat gave him the grade of Lieutenant-General. To quell the insurrectionary movements of 1820 he was sent to Sicily with 5,000 men, but the terms of the capitulation of Palermo not being satisfactory to those in power, he was dismissed and went abroad, after- wards residing in Naples as a private individual. In 1848 he resigned his honours, together with his position as a general on active service. Since then his name has rarely come before the public. PEPE, Gabriel, brother of Florestan, was born at Bojano, in 1781. He studied law, but forsook it for the army in 1799. His first prominent appearance as a soldier was in 1806, when he took service under Joseph Bonaparte, and passed through the Spanish campaigns. He was a Colonel under Murat, yet after the restoration of King Ferdinand he commanded a regiment, and held the garrison of Syracuse. At the revolution of 1820 he was named a member of the National Parliament at Naples, and voted for the removal of his brother ; but when the Bourbon dynasty was again restored, he was arrested and cast into prison at Olmutz, where he was confined strictly for two years. After his release he re- tired to Florence, and instead of em- broiling himself with politics he turned his mind to the pursuits of science. Re- moving from Florence, he fixed his abode at Nice, where he has resided for a num- ber of years. PEPOLI, Charles, an Italian littera- teur, was born at Bologna, of a noble family, in 1801. His education was re- ceived at various academies, but chiefly in that of his native city, where he devoted himself to the study of the Fine Arts. When but a young man he was introduced to public life ; and at the in- surrection of Central Italy in 1831, he was one of the members of the Provi- sional Government of Bologna. The revolution stifled, Signor Pepoli and a large number of his compatriots em- barked for Corfu, but the ship was cap- tured by the Austrians, and all the pas- sengers, ninety-six in number, were brought to Venice as prisoners of war. M. Pepoli suffered much for some months of his captivity, and, eventually exiled, he landed in France. From Paris he repaired to Geneva, but returned to the former city at the request of Bellini the composer, for whom he wrote the li- bretto of "IPuritani," afterwards pro- ducing libretti for two operas, one by Costa, the other by Vaccai. In 1837 he settled in London, and after two years of literary difficulties he was appointed Professor of Italian Literature in the London University. Taking a lively interest in Italian affairs, he was called to Rome as a deputy in 1848, and elected Vice-President of the Assembly. When the Italian cause broke down he returned to London, but owing to infirm health he was compelled to suspend his literary labours, though, after his country, they formed the dearest attachment of his life. He retained his professorship for nine years, and is a facile and eloquent writer. PERSIGNY, Jean - Gilbert -Victor Ft a ltn, a French politician and diplo- matist, was born in January, 1808. His father having lost his patrimony by bad PEE 313 PET speculations, entered the army, and was killed at the battle of Salamanca, in 1812. Victor Persigny commenced his studies at Limoges, removing to Saumur, and afterwards serving as Quartermaster to a regiment of Hussars (1828). At this period his opinions were Royalist ; but owing to certain influences they became greatly modified, and in 1830 he took an active part in the military movements of Pontivy, which favoured the revolution of July. He went to Paris in 1833, in search of employment, and became for a short period attached to the "Temps" journal. He some time afterwards un- dertook a journey to Baden, and through Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and on his return published an account of his ob- servations. Though an active supporter of the Bourbons, he appears in 1834 to have been converted to the cause of the 1 Jonapartes, and in a paper which he founded, he advocated the cause of the "Napoleon ideas" with great vigour. He attached himself to Louis Napo- leon, and was the principal instigator of the Strasbourg attempt. He clung to the fortunes of the Prince, whether for good or evil, followed him in his dangers, and prompted his measures. He was tried, imprisoned, and re- leased when health failed him. In 1848, he fulfilled his part, in adopting with great zeal the Bonapartist cause, and aiding everywhere the election of Louis Napoleon, as President of the \U 'public. He was not unrewarded. The President elevated him in position, and it was he who afterwards carried out, if he did not plan, the coup d'etat. In 1852 he was appointed Minister of the Interior, but in 1854 he resigned on account of his health ; was after- wards appointed Minister at the British Court (1855), and retained that post till 1858, when he was succeeded by Marshal Pelissier. He married a Rus- sian lady in 1852, and received with her a large marriage portion, and a gift and the title of Coimt from the Emperor. He afterwards returned to London, as ambassador, where he still remains. PETERMANN, August Heinrich, a German geographer, now Director of the celebrated establishment of Justus Perthes, in Gotha, was born at Bleiche- rode, in Prussia. He showed an early predilection for geographical studies, and was sent to Potsdam as special pupil of the savant Berghaus, in 1839. He remained at Potsdam, and there ac- quired the friendship of Humboldt, who entrusted him in 1841 with the exe- cution of his "Map of Central Asia." In 1845 he assisted Mr. A. K. Johnston, of Edinburgh, in preparing the "Phy- sical Atlas," and, two years after, pro- ceeded to London, where he published his " Atlas of Physical Geography. " He was a zealous promoter of the expedi- tions of Barth to Africa. In 1855 the University of Gbttingen conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. He founded in the same year his "Geo- graphical Journal," the best work of the kind in existence, which has attained a large circulation, five thousand copies being published every month, with a running collection of excellent maps of the most important new discoveries and geographical investigations. Sir Rode- rick Murchison said of this work, in his ' ' President's Address to the Royal Geo- graphical Society," in 1857 that "it is exercising a powerful and salutary influ- ence on the progress of geographical science." " The American Journal for Science and Art " makes the remark, in the following year, that ' ' Mr. Peter- mann, by his wide correspondence and relations with various scientific men in England, Germany, and America, is better able than any other man of science to give early and reliable intelligence in respect to all important explorations. " PETO, Sir Samuel Morton, Bart. , M.P., a contractor for large engineering PET 314 PHE works, was born at Woking, in Surrey, in 1809. He was placed for seven years with his uncle, Henry Peto, a contractor and builder, under whom he obtained a thorough and practical insight into the various branches of the business to which, on his uncle's death in 1830, he succeeded, in conjunction with his cousin, Mr. Thomas Grissell, of Norbury Park. After the dissolution of part- nership with that gentleman in 1845, Mr. Peto devoted his attention chiefly to railway works, both alone, and jointly with Mr. Brassey and Mr. Betts, and constructed various important un- dertakings, amongst which may be men- tioned, the Western Railway of France ; the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, including the Tubular Bridge, two miles long, over the St. Lawrence, near Mon- treal, lately opened by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales (September, 1860), confessedly the largest work of its kind in the world ; the Royal Danish Rail- way, and many others, both on the Continent and in England. During the Russian war in 1854, Mr. Peto con- structed for the Government a line of railway from Balaklava to the English camp before Sebastopol, and that in the most disinterested manner to himself, and at the cost of his seat in the House of Commons, for Norwich, which city he had represented for several years. In recognition of this patriotic service, the honour of a baronetcy was in the following year conferred upon him by her Majesty. In 1859 Sir Morton was invited to become a candidate for Fins- bury, and was returned by a larger number of voteS than had ever previ- ously been polled in that important metropolitan borough. Sir Morton Peto was one of the Royal Commis- sioners for the Great Exhibition. He is a Director of many railway and other companies, and a Deputy-lieutenant for Suffolk. Sir Morton Peto makes good use of his great wealth, in building and endowing chapels and schools, and his purse and influence are ever open for the furtherance of any scheme calculated to promote the happiness and welfare of his fellow-creatures. PHELPS, Samuel, an English trage- dian, was born at Devonport, in 1806. He was not intended for any particular profession, and should have gone to Cambridge, where his brother, the pre- sent Master of Sidney College (the Rev. Dr. Phelps), is still ; but his attachment to the dramatic art overcame all other aspirations, and in 1827 he made his first appearance at the York Theatre. His early career, like that of all per- formers, was chequered with reverses ; but he was an earnest and persevering student of his*art; and his versatility was without limit, his tragedy and his comedy being true to nature. His ta- lents were not long overlooked by Lon- don managers, and accordingly he was engaged at the Theatre Royal, Hay- market; appearing first as "Shylock," and afterwards as ' ' Hamlet. " When Mr. Macready undertook the management of Covent Garden, Mr. Phelps was at once secured as a leading man among a bril- liant band of actors ; and many critics pronounced him the only performer on whom the mantle of Macready was worthy to descend : which opinion Mr. Macready also expressed in his speech at the dinner given him on his retire- ment from the stage in 1851. The legi- timate drama was at the lowest point, 'when Mr. Phelps resolved to attempt its revival in what was deemed an un- congenial region. In 1844 he opened Sadlers' Wells Theatre, and in that un- classic locality his experiment was com- pletely successful His skill in manage- ment, his own unrivalled acting, and his judicious selection of performers, carried all before them. He created a new era in the drama, and the " Wells" became famous as a theatre where the plays of Shakspeare were enacted. He PHI 315 PIU has continued to manage that theatre until the present time without a failure, maintaining his place as an artist, who unites the force of the old histrionic mas- ters with the more subtle discrimination of the modern school. He has edited an excellent edition of Shakspeare, a work for which he was eminently qualified by learning and experience. PHILLIPS, John, M.A., LL.D., F. R. S. , Professor of Geology in the Uni- versity of Oxford, and Assistant-general Secretary of the British Association, was born on December 25th, 1800. Few living geologists possess a more intimate or wider acquaintance with the geology of England. With his uncle, William Smith, the father of English geology, he early acquired that intimate and practical knowledge of his favourite science which has rendered him so ac- ceptable and valuable a teacher. In addition to his independent works, Mr. Phillips, in his capacity of Secretary to the British Association, has arranged and edited twenty-seven volumes of re- ports of proceedings and transactions. Mr. Phillips succeeded Dr. Buckland in the chair of geology at Oxford, having previously occupied similar positions in King's College, London, and Trinity College, Dublin. He was elected Presi- dent of the Geological Society in 1858 and 1859. PICCOLOMINI, Maria, was born at Sienna in 1835. When only a child she gave the highest promise of the eminence she has since attained. Her parents, desirous of encouraging her favourite passion, confided her musical education to Romani, one of the leading profes- sional teachers in Italy. Under his in- structions she made her debut in Florence, in 1852, in " Lucrezia Borgia." For twenty successive nights, and always with immense success, did she appear in this part. On the last night of her en- gagement at the theatre, a band of young men, enthusiastic in their admira- tion of the artiste, sought to usurp the place of the horses in her carriage. Piccolomini sternly rebuked their levity, and ironically called upon them to keep their strength for their country. After this successful debut in the capital of Tuscany, she spent four years in a tour through Italy, remaining a season at each place of importance. Wherever she appeared, she immediately became a favourite. This Italian triumph at once attracted the attention of the directors of the operas of London and Paris ; and, in 1856, Mademoiselle Pic- colomini appeared, for the first time, before an English audience. Her suc- cess in England and America has been equal to that she attained in Italy, but she was severely censured by the critics for choosing to appear as the heroine in "Traviata," one of Verdi's most finished productions. The lady's success has sprung more from her youth, her nalvetS, and her dramatic power, which is unquestionably great, than from her vocalism. PICKERSGILL, Fred. Richard, R. A., a painter, was born in London in 1820, and studied at the Royal Academy. His first oil picture, "The Combat between Hercules and Achelous," was produced in 1840. At the Exhibiton in Westminster Hall in 1843, Mr. Pickers- gill received a prize for his cartoon of the "Death of King Lear," and in 1847 one of the first-class prizes for the "Burial of Harold." This picture was of great advantage to him in his career. His powers had before been doubted, but the drawing and execution of this work were excellent, and the picture was at once purchased for the New Houses of Parliament. In that year he was elected A.R.A., and in 1857 became a Royal Academican. Since then he has been a regular exhibitor. PIUS IX., Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti, was born in Sinigaglia, on the 13th of May, 1792. At the age of PI u 316 PLA sixteen he went to Rome with the in- tention of completing his ecclesiastical studies, his desires having always tended to the priesthood. But in consequence of the sad events which shortly after- wards ensued, he retired in 1810 to Sinigaglia. Two years after this he was summoned to join the guard of honour in Milan, but an exemption was granted him on accoimt of epileptic fits, to which he was then subject. He con- tinued to reside in his native city until the return of Pius VII. to the States of the Church, after which he hastened once more to Rome. He was ordained priest in 1819, and sent in 1823 upon a special mission to South America. In 1827 he became Archbishop of Spoleto, and after- wards of Imola. During his episcopate he was remarkable for the assiduity with which he discharged his duties. He was elected Pope on the 16th of June, 1846, and crowned on the 21st of the same month. Seated in the chair of St. Peter, he gave himself to the task of granting liberal reforms to his people, but his intentions were frustrated by the violence of the extreme revolution- ary party, and he was ultimately forced in 1848 to leave his capital, and to take refuge at Gaeta. He was restored to Rome by the arms of France, in 1850. The war. of 1859 in Italy occasioned fresh disturbances in the Legations, and Napoleon III., by an autograph letter of December of the same year, counselled the Pope to give up the disturbed pro- vinces ; but in an encyclical letter of the 19th of January, 1860, Pius IX. de- clared that he could never consent to any dismemberment of his states. In August of this year, when the progress of Gari- baldi in Italy threatened the entire de- struction of the Papal power, the Pope placed his forces under the command of Lamoriciere, who endeavoured by enlisting Germans, Swiss, and Irish, to form an army which might enable him to resist the progress of the enemy. But Sardinia having sent a large army, under the command of Cialdini, into the States, many of the provinces near Rome broke out into insurrection. The result has been that Lamoriciere was routed, the Roman forces entirely dis- banded, and the Pope has now no sup- port of any kind but that of the French garrison in Rome. PL AN CHE, James Robinson, a dramatist and historian, was born in London, in February, 1796. Receiving his early instruction from his mother, a lady of literary habits, his inclination for the drama was early manifested ; and a burlesque of his having been pro- duced in 1818, at Drury-lane Theatre, with complete success, he determined to pursue dramatic authorship as his pro- fession. He devoted his attention spe- cially to matters of costume, and furnished Mr. Charles Kemble with numerous designs for the costume proper to the representation of Shakspeare's plays. In 1826 and 1827 he travelled on the Continent, afterwards publishing his " Lays and Legends of the Rhine," and the "Descent of the Danube." In 1828 his dramatic work, and perhaps his best, "Charles XIL," was brought out at Drury-lane. Hjs " History of British Costume" was published in 1834, the "Regal Records" in 1838, and the "Pursuivant of Arms" in 1852. In 1855 he published the "Countess d'Aulnoy's Fairy Tales," which for excellence admits of no comparison. Mr. Planche has, at one time and another, written a great number of dramatic pieces, not one of which has failed. He is a Rouge Croix Pursuivant at Arms. PLAYFAIR, Lyon, C.B., an English chemist, was born in Bengal, in 1819. He received his early education at St. Andrew's University, Fifeshire; and from his decided taste for chemical pursuits was sent to Glasgow to study under Mr. Graham. After returning /- RAW 326 RAW Gottingen, he entered on his judicial career in 1801, and in 1810 took his place as Councillor in the Cabinet of the Chancellor of State for Hardenberg. Previous to this appointment he had published several works which elevated his reputation, and in 1811 he obtained a professor's chair in the University of Breslau. From 1815 to 1817 he travelled through Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and other countries, and gave the result of his observations in two new works, which were considered so important that he was called to occupy the chair of political economy and history in the University of Berlin. From that time forward he filled various public situa- tions, among the most prominent of which was that of Secretary to the Berlin Academy of Sciences ; but an eu- logium which he passed on Frederick II. was so unfavourably received by the members, that he resigned Iris office. The citizens of Berlin, not being of the same mind as the Academy, elected him first to the Municipal Council, and se- condly to the Parliament of Frankfort, where he took his place among the mo- derate party ; afterwards being sent to Paris in the capacity of ambassador. On his return to Berlin, M. Raumer was elected member of the First Chamber of Prussia; and in 1859, seeking repose after a long and arduous life, he obtained the title and emoluments of Professor in the Berlin University. His works are very numerous, and are popular with all classes of readers in Germany ; whilst in this country and France they are well known through translations. RAWLINSON, Sir Henry Cres- wicke, belongs to the old Lancashire family of Rawlinson, settled in Furness since the time of Henry V., and was born at Chaddington, Oxfordshire, in 1810. He was educated at Ealing, and entered the East India Company's ser- vice in 1827. Serving with the Bombay army till 1833, he was appointed to Persia to assist in organizing the Shah's army. In 1835 he commenced the study of the cuneiform inscriptions of Persia, being then stationed at Kermanshah. In 1836 he visited Baghdad, travelled in Luristan and Susiana, returned to Teheran, and accompanied the Persian army to the Junernan frontier ; whence he was sent back on duty to Ispahan, and ultimately to Kermanshah. In 1837-38, being again stationed at Te- heran, he announced to the Royal Asi- atic Society of London, his cuneiform discoveries ; and also published, in the 1 'Geographical Society's Journal, " his Su- siana travels. In 1839, being stationed at Baghdad, in consequence of the inter- ruption of relations with Persia, he wrote his paper on "Ecbatana," for the "Geographical Society's Journal, * which obtained him the society's gold medal at the next anniversary meeting. He also, during the same year, for- warded to the Royal Asiatic Society, an abstract translation of the greater por- tion of the "Bekistun Inscription," in order to secure priority of discovery. Recalled to India in 1840, he travelled through Scinde to Candahar, and thence proceeded to Cabool to be associated with Captain Arthur Conolly, in the mission to Khiva, Bokhara, and To- kand. His services, however, being required in Afghanistan, he was sent back from Cabool to Candahar, where he remained as political agent until our final evacuation of the country at the end of 1842. He was present in all General Nott's actions with the enemy at this period, and finally accompanied the Candahar column as political agent, on the advance to Ghuzni and Cabool, and subsequent retirement to India. In 1843 he was appointed political agent in Turkish Arabia, and proceeded from Calcutta to Baghdad; where, with the exception of occasional excursions to the Persian mountains, and a visit to England for two years in 1850 and 1851, R A W 327 RED he resided uninterruptedly until 1855, when he returned home. During this period he was throughout diligently oc- cupied with the study of the cuneiform inscriptions Persian, Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian ; and published nu- merous papers on the subject in the "Royal Asiatic Society's Journal," the main results of which have been em- bodied in the translation of "Hero- dotus," recently published by his brother, the Rev. G. Rawlinson, of Oxford. He received a commission as Major, in Persia, in 1836, and as Lieut. -Colonel, in Turkey, in 1850; was made a C.B., in 1854, for military services in Afghanistan, and received the first class of the Persian order of the Lion and Sun, and the third class of the order of the Dooranee Empire. He was further granted the commission of Consul at Baghdad in 1844, and of Consul-General in 1851. His literary honours also have been numerous. He was admitted into the Institute of France, as Correspond- ing Member, as early as 1837 ; was made a F. R. S. of London, and D. C. L. of Oxford, in 1850 ; and received the Order of Merit from the King of Prus- sia, in 1852. He has also been honoured with diplomas from almost all the his- torical, geographical, and antiquarian societies, both of England and of the Continent, and even from the American universities. In 1856 he retired as Lieut. -Colonel from the East India Company's service, and was immedi- ately afterwards appointed a Crown Director of the East India Company, having been previously made a Civil K.C.B. In January, 1858, he was elected member for Reigate ; and on the extinction of the East India Company, in the same year, was appointed a member of the Council of India, being obliged thereby to vacate his seat in Parliament. In April, 1859, he was appointed her Majesty's Envoy Extra- ordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of the Shah, and was granted the rank of Major-General in Persia. He is now residing at Teheran. READE, Charles, a novelist, was educated at Oxford. His first work, "Peg Woffington," at once brought him into notice. Mr. Reade still further in- creased his literary success by producing his "Never Too Late to Mend" in 1856. He has since published several works of fiction, which are highly popular and have been extensively read. His papers contributed to different serials are at once amusing and captivating in their style, and possess a lively and continuous interest. His last work is " The Eighth Commandment." REBOUL, Jean, a French poet, was born at Nismes, on 23rd of January, 1796. His early education was received in a school of his native place, and al- though of a very moderate kind, he soon improved on it by his own assiduity. For some time he followed the trade of a baker, but his natural genius for poetry soon became evident, in the pro- duction of songs and satires composed for a circle of private friends. In 1828 his "Angel and Child " appeared in the "Qnotidienne." In 1836 he published a collection of poems, which speedily ran through five editions. Proceeding to Paris in 1839, he was received with great enthusiasm in literary circles. He has composed some tragedies, and his last production is a volume of poems published in 1857, under the title of " Les Traditionnelles. " REDDING, Cykus, a journalist and author, was born at Penrhyn, Cornwall, in 1785. He commenced his literary career in 1806, by contributing to the " Pilot," which was then edited by Sir Herbert Compton, late Chief Justice of Bombay. He then passed to the ' ' Ply- mouth Chronicle," which, after editing, he purchased, and parting with it, in 1814, returned to London. In 1811 he EED 328 REE published "Letters to Lord Holland, on the Question of Libel," and also "Mount Edgecumbe," a poem. He edited, about the same time, the "Dra- matic Review ; " contributed to the "Morning Chronicle," and published "Specimens of Kcerner and Goethe," afterwards proceeding to France. In 1820 he was connected with the "New Monthly ; " but subsequently, with Campbell, the poet, started the "Me- tropolitan Magazine." After a variety of literary engagements he produced, in 1833, a work by which he is well known ; namely, his " History of British Wines." After editing the "Bath Guardian," he went to Lichfield, and took the management of the ' ' Stafford- shire Examiner," in 1836. Since then Mr. Redding has been connected with the London " Examiner," and has also published various works connected with general and political literature, distin- guishing himself by the liberality and uncompromising nature of his opinions. REDGRAVE, Richard, R.A., an English painter, was born in London, on the 30th April, 1804. His father's business, in which he had been en- gaged, falling off, Mr. Redgrave followed the bent of his inclination, became a student of art, and in 1826 entered the schools of the Royal Academy. His first really successful picture, though he had previously exhibited a number of others, was "Gulliver on the Farmer's Table," exhibited at the British Insti- tution in 1837, which was at once pur- chased. Thenceforward his course was steady and unimpeded. He aimed at drawing attention by his works, to the struggles of those who had seen better days, and in most instances achieved his purpose. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1840; and, since then, has been a constant exhi- bitor. Six of his works having been secured for the Sheepshanks' collection, and one for the Vernon Gallery, his position was established as one of the greatest artists of the day. He was elected an Academician in 1851. For some years he was Head-Master of the School of Design; and on that institu- tion being incorporated with the Depart- ment of Science and Art, he was ap- pointed Art- Superintendent, and sub- sequently Inspector-General of Art Schools, which office he still retains, together with that of Surveyor of Crown Pictures, conferred on him by her Ma- jesty on the death of Mr. Uwins, R.A. in 1857. His pictures in the South Kensington Museum, at the present time, are " Cinderella about to try on the Glass Slipper," "The School Teacher," "Gulliver exhibited to the Brobdignag Farmer," "Throwing off her Weeds," "Ophelia weaving her Gar- land," "Bolton Abbey," and "Country Cousins." REED, The Rev. Andrew, D.D., philanthropist, divine, and author, was born in London on the 27th November, 1788. Early in life he was designed for business, but having evinced a great passion for study, and remarkable skill in the mastery of languages, he relin* quished business and went to college. In 1812 he was chosen the minister of one of the most important congregations among the Dissenters, where he remains to the present day, having for forty- nine years discharged all the duties there without assistance. In 1818 a work entitled "No Fiction," issued anonymously from the press, and the fact that it ran rapidly through many editions, the present being the twenty- fourth, shows that it is a popidar fa- vourite. This work was subsequently acknowledged by Dr. Reed. It has been reprinted in America, Germany, and Holland. The great feature in Dr. Reed's life has been his devotion to the noble works of benevolence with which, as founder, his name has become fa- miliarly associated. He has seized on REE 329 REI the work as soon as he has seen it, and besides giving his whole time gra- tuitously -to the building up of these in- stitutions, he has been foremost as a munificent contributor to their support. In 1820 he felt the want of a provision for orphan children, and commencing it in his own house, he founded the Lon- don Orphan Asylum at Clapton, where thousands of respectable men and women of the present day have received their education. The same need was per- ceived for infants, and he foimded the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead. In addition to this, he established, in 1847, the Asylum of Fatherless Children at Eeedham, near Croydon, for children of any age, till old enough for appren- ticeship. Travelling abroad, Dr. Reed's attention was drawn to the state of the poor idiot, and when he returned home he investigated the condition of this class of suffering humanity in this country. From this has risen the Asylum at Col- chester, and the noble Earlswood Asylum at Croydon, exhibiting a treatment of a most remedial character. The Hospital for Incurables is the last of the institu- tions owning Dr. Reed as founder. It occurred to him that something should be done for the poor objects who were discharged from our great hospitals as incurable, and having no provision of support, were forced to seek a place to die in the workhouse. This hospital is now full, and a building is to be erected at Coulsden. In 1834 Dr. Reed was chosen by the United Body of Congre- gationalists to visit the churches of America, and he travelled through the States and Canada during ten months, publishing, on his return, a narrative of his visit, two vols. 8vo. Some other works on revivals of religion, and many sermons, are also from his pen. Descended from an ancestry personally attached to the cause of the Commonwealth, Dr. Reed early espoused advanced liberal principles, but through life he has ex- hibited a singular catholicity of spirit in co-operation with others differing from him in opinion on public questions, and his administrative power and talent for organizing have gained for his many philanthropic projects the help of all classes of society at home and abroad. REGNAULT, Henri Victor, a French chemist, born at Aix-la-Chapelle, in July 1810, was a pupil of the Poly- technic School in 1830, and afterwards became Chief Mining Engineer, Direc- tor of the Imperial Manufactory of Sevres Porcelain, Professor of Physics in the College of France, and of Che- mistry at the Polytechnic School. He has been a member of the Academy of Sciences since 1840, and is correspond- ing member of the Academies of Berlin, St. Petersburg, &c. In 1850 he was created Officer of the Legion of Honour. Though a most distinguished chemist, and a profound scientific scholar, it is, nevertheless, as a physician that he holds a first place in the ranks of the learned men of his day. He is consi- dered in France to be one of the most precise and definite practitioners in the empire ; leaving nothing to chance, but submitting the diagnosis of every dis- ease to philosophical and experienced in- vestigation. He has not been a volumi- nous writer, but the works he has pub- lished are universally held as authorities on the subjects of which he treats. REICHENBACH, Charles, Baron de, a German naturalist, was born at Stuttgard, February 1788. His educa- tion completed, he conceived, at the age of sixteen, the peculiar idea of founding a new German State in the South Sea Islands. He followed up this project with ardour for about three years, but owing to French interference it was broken up. He then turned his atten- tion towards science and manufactures ; and after having visited the principal works in France and Germany, he founded similar establishments at Vil- REl 330 RES lingen and Hausach. He embarked in undertakings of the same description in Moravia and Germany Proper ; and hav- ing acquired a large fortune, the King of Wurtemberg raised him to the dignity of a Baron. Though chiefly known as a manufacturer, he is held in considerable estimation as a man of science, and has written works on geology, electricity, animal magnetism, the laws of heat, and physiology. He resides principally at Reisenberg, where he has a magnificent museum. His chief works are " Re- searches in Electricity and its Relation to the Vital Force," and others relating to sensation and nervous action with respect to magnetism. REID, Captain Mayne, a novelist, was born in Ireland, in 1818, and is the son of the Rev. Mayne Reid, for many years senior clerk to the General As- sembly of the Irish Presbyterian Church. He was educated for the ministry, but soon gave way to a desire of seeing the world, and before he was twenty years old he left his native country for Mexico. Proceeding up the Red River, he became acquainted with the Indians, his obser- vations here no doubt affording materials for his future works. He subsequently visited the United States, in 1845 joined the American army in the war against Mexico, and in a battle fought during the campaign, was wounded. Having a special taste for military affairs, he next turned his attention to Hungarian mat- ters ; but through the sudden fall of the popular cause, his hopes of service were disappointed. He then resolved to pur- sue literature, and has been exceedingly happy in rendering the scenes of his early days interesting to the general reader, by publishing them embodied in novels. His chief productions of this class are "The Rifle Rangers," "The Scalp Hunters," "The Quadroon," and ' ' Oceola. " He has published many other works intended for juvenile readers. REMILLY, Ovide, a French politi- cian, was born at Versailles, Nov. 18, 1800, of an old and wealthy commercial family. He chose the law for his pro- fession, and was in due time admitted advocate, though he subsequently turned his attention to politics. His energy, public spirit, and generous dis- position, brought him into prominent notice, and he was elected Mayor of Versailles in 1837 ; a position which he retained for many years, with credit to himself and advantage to the community. From 1839 to 1848 he had a seat in the Chamber of Deputies, but though ordi- narily voting with the majority he never sacrificed his independence. After the revolution of February, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and ex- erted every effort to preserve order, plac- ing himself in the ranks of the moderate republicans, and restraining as far as in his power the wild schemes of the ex- treme democrats. He opposed the re- pressive laws bearing on societies, clubs, and the press ; although, when he per- ceived that a special line of policy was essential to the public safety, he sup- ported Louis Napoleon. From 1849 to 1851 he was a member of the Legislative Assembly, occupying the best part of his time in reforming and extending the system of public instruction, but still adhering to the necessity of a parliament to secure good and free government for the people. After the coup d/^tat he refused to enter the Corps Legislatif, and the people of his native city, to testify their high estimation of his worth and esteem for his public rectitude, had a gold medal struck in his honour. His moderation, candour, and upright prin- ciple have commanded the favour of all the governments under which he has lived and held office for nearly sixty years. RESCHID, Pasha, a Turkish states- man, was born in Constantinople in 1802. He was educated by a relative, entered the army, and was also engaged RIC 331 RIP in various political matters during the earlier years of his life. In 1834 he was sent on a mission to London and Paris, where he was first struck with new ideas of Western civilization ; and, setting himself to study the customs and laws of the countries to which he was accredited, he returned to Turkey, after an absence of two years, carrying with him an influence previously unknown. He had been in England during the passing of the Reform Bill; saw to his astonishment that a great constitutional change had been effected without blood- shed ; and being observant, he became deeply impressed with the desire of re- forming the Turkish government. This object he steadily pursued, though sur- rounded by discontent and hostility. It is highly probable, that had his views been adopted, many of the difficulties in which the Sultan now finds himself involved, might have been avoided. Though holding the highest situation in the power of the Sultan to bestow, Reschid Pasha has been the victim of intrigue. He was accused of misman- agement of the public funds in 1859, and obliged to resign ; afterwards be- ing called again to power, and resigning once more. RICHARDSON, Charles, LL.D., an English lexicographer, was born in July, 1775. He was intended for the pro- fession of the law, and educated with that object; but a predilection for lite- rary rather than legal studies, induced him to abandon law and devote himself to literature. In 1805 his first work, " Illustrations of English Philology," ap- peared. Subsequently he became a con- tributoi 4 to the "Encyclopaedia Met:o politana;"andin 1835 his "Dictionary," as a separate work, began to be issued by Mr. Pickering. In addition to this great work, Dr. Richardson has published an on the "Study of Language," besides contributing some interesting papers on his favourite study to. the reviews of the day. The philological principles that lie at the basis of Dr. Richardson's investigations are substan- tially the same as those Home Tooke enunciated in his "Diversions of Pur- ley." RICHARDSON, Sir John, K.C.B., a naturalist and Arctic explorer, was born in 1787, at Dumfries, in Scotland. After completing his early education at the grammar-school of his native town, he entered the University of Edinburgh, in 1801, prosecuted his studies in medi- cine, and then served in the Navy as medical officer for some years. He took his degree of M.D. in 1816. In 1819 he sailed with Franklin, as surgeon and naturalist, and in 1825 joined the same intrepid navigator on a second explora- tory voyage. Dr. Richardson, in 1829, began the publication of the zoology of these northern regions, a work which established his reputation as a naturalist. In 1838 he was appointed Physician to the Fleet ; in 1840 an Inspector of Hos- pitals ; in 1846 a Knight Bachelor ; and in 1850 was made a Companion of the Bath. In 1848 he once more set out for the Arctic regions, this time in search of his former companion, Sir John Franklin. An account of this "Arctic Searching Expedition" was published by Sir John in 1851. His works are nume- rous and valuable. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, an Hono- rary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a member and associate of many foreign and scientific bodies. He has retired from active service for some years. RIPON and DE GREY, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Earl of, was born on the 24th of October, 1827. The son and heir of the first Earl of Ripon, who succeeded Mr. Canning for a short time as First Lord of the Trea- sury, the subject of this notice was known for many years under the cour- tesy title of Lord Goderich. After RIP 332 KIT leaving the university he entered Parlia- ment, and represented successively Hull, Huddersfield, and the West Riding of Yorkshire. Adopting advanced liberal opinions, he advocated the introduction of competitive examinations in the Civil services, and other measures of a similar kind, which have lately been partially adopted in our administrative system. For some time he held office as Under- Secretary of State for the War Depart- ment. On his father's death, in January 1859, he succeeded to the title of Earl of Ripon, and took his seat in the Upper House. In November of the same year he, on the death of his uncle, acquired the title of De Grey, and is now known as Earl De Grey and Ripon. RIPON, Right Rev. Robert Bicker- steth, D. D. , Bishop of, was born in Suf- folk, in 1816. He was at first intended for the medical profession, but eventually proceeded to Cambridge, where he gained a scholarship and graduated in honours. After holding the curacy of Sapcote, in Leicestershire, of which his father was rector, Dr. Bickersteth be- came Incumbent of St. John's, Clap- ham ; and by the eloquence and force of his discourses, was soon known as one of the most popular ministers in the metropolis. He was subsequently Rector of St. Giles's, London, and Canon of Salisbury. In 1856 Dr. Bickersteth became Bishop of Ripon, and since then has been distinguished by the judicious performance of those duties which his high position devolves on him. A Charge to the clergy of his diocess, lately de- livered, has attracted the attention and approval of many of the best friends of the Church of England. RISTORI, Adelaide, an Italian ac- tress, was born in 1821. Her. father was an obscure comedian, and she appeared early on the stage. Her life, like the lives of all who engage in the profession, was for years an uphill struggle with difficulties, and presents few features of interest, unless the plays in which she appeared, and the various degrees of success she achieved, were to be minutely noted. Her first great triumph # as an actress was in 1855, when the prestige of Rachel was in the ascendant, and when she appeared in Paris before a somewhat prejudiced audience. The power of her genius surmounted all antagonism ; she carried the house with her ; and her fame has not since been clouded by a reverse. She lately visited England, and created a wonderful impression by the truthfulness and brilliancy of her representations, RITCHIE, Leitch, a journalist and popular writer, was born at Greenock, of a respectable family, in the beginning of the present century. After being in various mercantile situations, he settled in the metropolis as an author by pro- fession, and in a short period his name became familiar to the public. He fur- nished the letter-press of some of Charles Heath's splendid annual volumes, tra- velling in most of the countries of Europe to pick up the light materials requisite for this work. He contributed to the miscellaneous annuals, editing one of them for several years ; and wrote innumerable papers in reviews and magazines, on all questions of passing interest, from the Irish Poor- law to the fiscal reforms of Indian trade. After editing the " Indian News " for some time, he became proprietor of that journal, which he afterwards sold on removing from London to Edinburgh. He then edited "Chambers's Journal," till the close of 1858, when he returned to London, where a small selection from his Edinburgh papers was published in two volumes, with the title of "Winter Evenings. " Of the works of fiction by which this versatile writer is best known to the public, the ' ' Magician " and " Schinderhannes " have been several times reprinted ; but " Wearyfoot Com- mon," his last production of the kind, ROB 333 ROE gives, perhaps, the best idea of his manner and spirit. ROBERTS, David, R.A., an artist, was born at Stockbridge, a suburb of Edinburgh, on the 24th October, 1796. After being with a house painter in that city, he studied at the Trustees' Academy, and in 1821 went to London and became a scene painter. From dis- temper he took to oil-painting, and soon exhibited some of his productions. His sketches and pictures, painted after a visit to Spain, gained him great and de- served credit. He was elected A.R.A. in 1839, and a Royal Academician in 1841. He has recently presented to the Royal Scottish Academy one of his finest works, for which he received not only the thanks of that body, but of the citizens of Edinburgh at large. The "interiors ""of Mr. Roberts are held by connoisseurs to be the finest works of their class ever painted. His ' Sketches in the Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia," engraved by Haghe, with descriptions by Dr. Croly, are well known, and have contributed perhaps beyond all other productions to his popularity as an artist. The following pictures painted by Mr. Roberts are now in the collection at South Kensington Museum : " Entrance to the Crypt, Roslyn Castle," " Old Buildings on the Darro, Granada," "The Gate of Cairo," and " Interior of the Cathedral at Burgos." ROBSON, Frederick, a comedian, was born at Margate, in Kent, in 1821. Having received a general education, he was apprenticed to a copperplate en- graver in London ; but the occupation not being suitable to his tastes, he even- tually abandoned it, and entered that profession in which he has since become so eminent. His def/ut was made in an amateur performance, in Catherine - street, where he acted the part of Simon Mealbag, in "Grace Huntley." He was, however, by no means successful, and his friends endeavoured to dissuade him from again appearing on the stage, but his perseverance enabled him to overcome all difficulties. Having ap- peared at Whitstable and Uxbridge, he returned to London, and accepted an engagement at the Grecian Saloon, which lasted from 1844 till 1849. He next appeared at the Queen's Theatre, Dublin, where he soon became an esta- blished favourite. His great success during this engagement, obtained him an offer from the lessee of the Olympic, London, where he appeared in 1853, and has ever since been a most popular actor. Mr. Robson's style is perfectly unique. ROEBUCK, John Arthur, of the Inner Temple, Q.C., a politician and M.P., was born at Madras in December 1802. In 1815 Mr. Roebuck visited Canada, and returned to England in 1824, In 1832 he was called to the bar of the Inner Temple, and in the same year was elected one of the members for Bath against the brother of Sir J. Cam Hobhouse (now Lord Broughton), a circumstance alleged by his friends to have been the main cause of the opposition he has invariably met with from the Whigs from that day to the present. As an or-ator Mr. Roe- buck stands high in the House. The startling way in which he brings for- ward facts which he has got hold of, often causes opposition to his opinions from persons who afterwards, when better informed, entirely agree with him. In 1837 Mr. Roebuck lost his seat for Bath, but in 1841 was re-elected. In 1843 he was appointed Queen's Counsel, and called to the bench of the Inner Temple. In 1847 the Whigs at Bath canvassed for "the two Lords" Duncan and Shaftesbury, and Mr. Roebuck in consequence was unsuccessful ; but in May 1849 he was elected for Sheffield, for which borough he now sits. In 1855, after a period of severe illness, Mr. Roebuck resumed active life in ROG 334 ROG Parliament, and moved for the famous inquiry into the state of the army before Sebastopol. The Government was averse to this step, but the motion being car- ried against them, the Aberdeen Ministry resigned. Mr. Roebuck, after every means had been tried to prevent his being Chairman of the Committee, was appointed to that post. Many im- provements in the army have resulted from the investigations then made. Mr. Roebuck some years ago contri- buted to the Westminster and the Edinburgh Reviews. He is the author of "A History of the Whig Party," and of a work entitled "The Colonies of England," which exposes and meets the difficulties of colonial legislation. These are distinguished by great ability and fairness to political opponents. Mr. Roebuck has been in the directorate of various commercial undertakings during the last few years. As a politician he maintains a severe independence in the House of Commons, allying himself to no party, and occasionally attacking both friends and foes. ROGER, Gustave Hippolyte, a French vocalist, born at Paris, August 1815, is the son of a notary, who in- tended him to follow the same business, but the taste for the stage was too de- cided, and he entered the Conservatoire in 1837. Having obtained the first prize for singing and elocution, he made his (tebut at the Opera Comique in 1838, and was received with unusual favour. He remained in that establishment for several years, taking part in rendering effective the works of Auber and Ha- levy. He afterwards quitted the Opera Comique and came to England, and on his return to France reappeared with increased power. Subsequently, visit- ing Germany, he sang with Mademoi- selle Wagner and Jenny Lind ; at Frankfort he was feted ; at Hamburg and Berlin he was applauded to the height of his ambition ; and at Paris he continues one of the chief favourites of the lyric stage. His voice is a pure tenor, and he manages it with consum- mate skill. Owing to an accident, he was some time since obliged to submit to the amputation of an arm, but recovered in health, and with a mechanical substi- tute, which can scarcely be distinguished from a living limb, he is performing and singing as perfectly as ever. ROGERS, Henry, a critic, was born at St. Alban's, Herts, in 1806. He was originally destined for the medical pro- fession, and passed through the usual preliminary course f but subsequently studied in one of the colleges of the In- dependents, with a view to the ministry, though a very feeble voice gave him but moderate prospects of success as a pulpit orator. .Convinced, for this and other reasons, after a brief trial, that the pul- pit was not his sphere, he devoted his attention to the duties of a college tutor, and to literature. In 1836 he was ap- pointed Professor of the English Lan- guage and Literature, University College, London, a chair which he vacated in 1839 for that of Philosophical Tutor in the newly founded Independent College, at Spring Hill, Birmingham. There he remained nearly twenty years, when lie accepted the principalship of the Lan- cashire Independent College, Manches- ter. His first literary efforts of any considerable extent were critical es- says on the genius and writings of Jonathan Edwards, Edmund Burke, and Jeremy Taylor, prefixed respectively to editions of the works of those authors. His contributions to the ' ' Edinburgh Re- view" have been published in a collected form, and, with his "Eclipse of Faith" and a " Life of John Howe," are his principal literary productions. ROGERS, Henry Darwin, Professor of Natural History in the University of Glasgow, was born in Philadelphia, United States. Both his parents were of Scotch- Irish extraction. Like the ROG 335 ROK Gregories and Thomsons, he belongs to a family in which the passion for science seems hereditary. His father long held the important appointment of Professor of Physics and Chemistry in nearly the most ancient seat of learning in America, the old College of William and Mary ; and, trained in the laboratory of their father, three brothers of the professor have held scientific appointments in the United States. At the age of twenty- one, Professor Rogers was appointed to the Chair of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Dickinson College, Penn- sylvania. After holding this appoint- ment for two or three years, he repaired to Europe, partly to increase his scien- tific knowledge, partly for the benefit of his health ; and devoted himself assi- duously to the cultivation of analytical chemistry and practical and theoretical geology. Returning, after two more years, with renovated strength, he was entrusted with the geological surveys of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. From the limited extent of territory, the New Jersey survey was but a minor task, and early completed. Pennsylvania, a state as large as half the area of Great Britain, and a region of complicated geological structure, was a more gigantic work, occupying some twenty -two years. The results of the survey have lately been published in three volumes, illus- trated by numerous engravings and elaborate geological maps of Penn- sylvania and its coal-fields. This work is the most complete survey that has yet been made of any of the coal-fields of the world. Professor Rogers is a Fellow of the Royal and Geological Societies of London, and of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, as well as of the chief scien- tific societies of the United States ; and recently the University of Dublin con- ferred upon him the degree of LL. D. In 1857 he was appointed Regius Profes- sor of Natural History in the University of Glasgow. ROGET, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., an English physician, the nephew of the late Sir Samuel Romilly, was born in. London in 1779. He was educated for the medical profession in Edinburgh, and graduated there in 1798. He held for some years the appointment of phy- sician to the. Manchester Infirmary, Lunatic Asylum, and Fever Hospital, and afterwards settled in London, where his knowledge of science being appre- ciated, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and for a period of one- and-twenty years discharged the duties of Secretary to that learned body. He is a Fellow of the Royal College or Phy- sicians, and of the Astronomical, Geo- logical, Zoological, and Entomological Societies. He is also a member of the Senate of the University of London, where he was, for some years, one of the Examiners in Physiology. His pub- lications embrace a wide range of sub- jects. His "Animal and Vegetable Physiology " forms one of the Bridge- water Treatises, published in 1834, and is perhaps his greatest work, though his treatises on "Electricity," "Magnet- ism," "Physiology, "and "Phrenology," are held in high esteem. He has pub- lished a mass of other papers on subjects that came within the scope of his inves- tigations, and has contributed exten- sively to periodicals connected with his profession. His more recent publica- tion, entitled ' ' A Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, classified and ar- ranged so as to facilitate the Expression of Ideas, and assist in Literary Composi- tion," which has reached its ninth edi- tion, is a work of extensive utility to all, classes of English writers. ROKITANSKY, Charles, a phy- sician, was born in Bohemia on the 19th of February, 1804. He studied medi- cine at Prague and Vienna, and re- ceiving his degree as Doctor in 1828, was attached to the Institution of Patho- logical Anatomy in the latter city, EON 336 EOS afterwards acting as Clinical Surgeon to the School of Medicine. The post- mortem examinations and dissections which he has conducted or superin- tended,, amount to many thousands. He, was named in 1848 Honorary Direc- tor of the University of Prague, and member of the Academy of Sciences at Vienna. In 1849 he became Dean of the professors of the School of Medicine, and in 1850 Eector of the University of Vienna. His principal work is a " Ma- nual of Pathological Anatomy." Eich in facts and observations, and precise as well as new in its conclusions, this work has been warmly received by the pro- fession, and has been translated into various modern languages. EONGE, Johannes, an educational and religious reformer, was born at Bischofswalde, Silesia, in 1813. Owing to the humble circumstances of his parents, he received but a scanty educa- tion. However, after attending the Col- lege of Neisse, he proceeded to Breslau, where he studied theology. He was after- wards appointed Chaplain at Breslau; but owing to the jealousies which his zeal excited, and the decided stand he made against the conduct of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was soon de- prived of his charge. This seems to have laid the foundation of that vio- lent opposition to the Catholic autho- rities which he afterwards evinced ; and he took the opportunity which the fame of the " holy coat" of Treves afforded him of writing a letter, which, exposing the worship of relics, aided in producing a schism in the Eomish Church. Eonge soon found himself at the head of numerous followers throughout Ger- many, and forming them into societies, their number increased to an astonishing extent. His next difficulty arose with the government, which, viewing these associations as a source of political dan- ger, decided on their speedy suppression. Eonge soon after fled to England, where he has since resided, and engaged him- self in originating schools for the educa- tion of young people on plans peculiar to his views. EOSAS, Don Juan Manuel de, was born at Buenos Ayres in 1793, and is de- scended from an ancient family of the Asturias. In 1831 Eosas was chosen Captain-General of Buenos Ayres. After subduing the Indians, against whom he had been sent, he took measures to unite the whole States in the Argentine Con- federation (1835) ; but his sole object being to advance the condition of Buenos Ayres, he took such extreme steps as led to a war with Brazil. He was defeated, but resisted notwithstand- ing, for five years. He became too ab- solute in his mode of government. A revolt ensued ; and in February, 1851, Eosas and his forces were put to flight at Moron, he only escaping by disguis- ing himself. Urquiza then took charge of affairs in Buenos Ayres, and Eosas sought the hospitable shelter of England, arriving in the early part of 1852. EOSE, Gustave, a German chemist and Professor of Mineralogy in the Uni- versity of Berlin, was born on the 18th of March, 1798. His father, Valentine Eose, was a chemist of some distinction, who died, however, when the subject of this notice was only eight years of age. In 1815 he and three of his brothers took part in the war of liberation, but he withdrew at the end of the year from military service, with the view of study- ing mining. In 1816 he went to Konig- shiitte, near Tamourtz, in Upper Silesia, to learn the practical department of the business, returning in autumn to Berlin to prosecute the scientific studies con- nected with it. His success as a student in mineralogy, geology, and chemistry, was such that he abandoned all inten- tion of entering upon a practical career. After defending publicly a thesis which was afterwards published in ' ' Leonhard's Mineralogical Manual" (in 1822), he EOS 337 ROS obtained the degree of Doctor of Philo- sophy. In 1821, having obtained per- mission to work in the laboratory of Berghaus, he joined his brother Heinrich Rose, and Mitscherlich at Stockholm, who had been there for nearly a year previously. In the autumn of the same year he visited the most important dis- tricts in Sweden and Norway, returning to Berlin in November, where he con- tinued his chemical studies in the labo- ratory of Mitscherlich. At the same time he compiled his " Treatise on the Feldspars," in which he promulgated views which have become the basis of the new science of Petrography. In the autumn of 1822 he was appointed assist- ant to Professor Weiss, of the Mineralo- gical Museum of the University. He qualified himself as a private lecturer, and opened his first course on miner- alogy in the early session of 1823. His lectures were interrupted for a year, while he made a tour in France and England, staying for six months in Paris, where he was much in the society of Alexander Humboldt. In 1826 he was appointed an adjunct Professor in the University of Berlin. Two years after- wards he accompanied his friend Ehren- berg and Alexander Von Humboldt in their journey of exploration into Central Asia. He afterwards published, in a narrative form, an account of the miner- alogical observations made during this memorable expedition. In 1834 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and in 1839 Pro- fessor in the University. After the publication of his travels he took part in the geological survey of Russia, his share in the work lying in Silesia. The first two maps have just appeared, the re- mainder being in preparation. Up till 1856 he was almost constantly employed in this work. In 1850, however, he spent his autumn holidays in visiting the Hyeres group of islands, and in 1852 made an excursion to the extinct vol- canoes of central France. On the death of Weiss, in 1846, he was appointed Di- rector of the Mineralogical Museum at Berlin. He is a member of most of the scientific societies of Europe. Besides the travels to which we have referred, Gustave Rose is the author of "A Treatise on the Elements of Crystallo- graphy," of which an edition, which has been completely recast, is in prepara- tion ; and of a " Cry stallo -Chemical System of Mineralogy." His numerous mineralogical and chemical papers have been published in " Poggendorff 's An- nals, " the Transactions of the Academy of Science of Berlin, the Geological Society of Germany, and extend over a period of from 1836 to 1859. ROSE, Heinrich, a German chemist, was born at Berlin in 1795. He studied and graduated at Berlin, and in 1835 became Professor of Chemistry in the University of that city. He is well known for his ability as an analyst ; and his work entitled "A Manual of Che- mical Analysis," has been extensively read, and is often used as a text-book in this country. He has chiefly re- stricted his researches to inorganic bodies, and has thus rendered a service in that department of science similar to what Liebig has done in organic chemistry. ROSETTI, Constantine, a revolu- tionary writer, was born at Bucharest, about 1816; entered the militia in 1833, and left the service in 1836 to pursue literature. His first efforts were trans- lations of Byron, Voltaire, and Lamar- tine; and after obtaining some popu- larity, he was appointed to a command in the police, but resigned that post in 1845. He then went to Paris, married, and returned to his native city, where, to the astonishment of the Boyards, he opened a bookseller's shop. In 1846 he was a member of the Revolutionary Com- mittee, and in June of that year was arrested, but liberated by the people, and afterwards filled several offices under ROS 338 EOS the Provisional Government, besides founding the ' ' Pruncul Ruman, " a de- mocratic journal. In September, having protested against the re- establishment of what were termed the Organic Regula- tions, he was again arrested, with seve- ral of his companions, and exiled to Orsowa, but escaped and took refuge in Paris. In the French capital he founded one or two journals specially devoted to the advocacy of his political principles, and published a work justifying the revolution. For some time past Rosetti has rarely appeared before the public, either as an author or a politician. ROSS, Rear-Admiral Sir James Clark, Knight, an Arctic explorer, was born in London, on the 15th of April, 1800. He entered the navy in 1812, under his uncle Sir John Ross. In 1822 he was promoted to be Lieu- tenant, and in 1827, for his services under Sir E. Parry in an attempt to reach the North Pole, during which the lat. of 82| N. was attained by travelling over the sea in sledge-boats, he was made Commander by the Duke of Clarence, then Lord High Admiral. He embarked with his uncle in 1829 on the remarkable voyage of the " Victory " steamer, equipped by Sir Felix Booth to seek the North-west Passage. After an absence of four and a half years, and when all expectation of their return had been abandoned, they arrived in Eng- land in October, 1833. For the deter- mination of the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole and eminent scien- tific and geographical discoveries, he received the rank of Post-Captain in October, 1834. He was next employed in 1836, in Sound Cove, having volun- teered in the depth of winter to cross the Atlantic to carry provisions to the whale ships in Baffin's Bay, an arduous and hazardous service. On his return to his country he spent the two follow- ing years in making a magnetic survey of Great Britain and Ireland by order of the Admiralty. In April 1839 he was appointed, with Captain Crozier under his orders, to command the "Erebus" and "Terror," and to proceed on a voyage of discovery to the Antarctic Ocean; and the expedition left in September of that year, and was absent about four years. In the Southern regions he dis- covered a tract of ice-bound land, and acquired valuable information respecting the natural history of those inhospitable regions. On the 31st January, 1848, he was appointed to command the first expedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin. He returned to England in November of the following year, receiv- ing for his services the thanks of the Admiralty, and on the first vacancy that occurred, the good service pension, which he enjoyed until his promotion to the rank of Rear-Admiral in December, 1856. Sir J. C. Ross was elected a Fellow of the Linnaean Society in 1823 ; of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1825 ; and of the Royal Society in 1828. He is also a member of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Copenhagen, and cor- responding member of the Institute and Geographical Society of Paris. He re- ceived in 1833, the thanks of the city of London, and a handsome piece of plate from the subscribers to the Land Arctic Expedition. He obtained in 1841, the Founder's Gold Medal from the Geogra- phical Society of London ; in 1842 the Gold Medal of the Geographical Society of Paris ; was knighted in 1844, and re- ceived the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford in the same year. He married on the 18th of October, 1843, Anne, eldest daughter of Thomas Coutman, Esq., of Whitgift Hall, Goole, by whom he has four chil- dren. Lady Ross died on the 25th of January, 1857. ROSSE, Earl of, William Parsons, an astronomer, was born at York in 1800. He was educated at Oxford, where he gained great distinction as a EOS 339 RUD student of mathematics. He repre- sented, under his title by courtesy of Lord Oxmantown, King's County for many years, and in 1845 entered the House of Lords as one of the Irish repre- sentative peers. Lord Rosse has ac- quired a European reputation on account of his extraordinary devotion to prac- tical astronomy. His gigantic tele- scope, erected at his residence, Parsons- town in Ireland, is the largest ever constructed. The speculum is about six feet in diameter, weighs over three tons, and its tube is about fifty-six feet in length. This instrument, which cost an immense expenditure of time and money, has been of the highest value in resolving nebulae, which inferior tele- scopes had failed to divide, and has shown the falsity of theories of the nebulous system which had previously received great countenance from men of science. Lord Rosse was President of the Royal Society for some time, and his name is enrolled amongst the mem- bers of the leading scientific associations of Europe. ROSSINI, Joacchino, an Italian musician and composer, was born at Pesaro, in 1792. His parents followed the musical profession, and young Ros- sini speedily gave evidence that he seed extraordinary talents in that line. He studied at Bologna, and having discovered the channel in which his musi- cal genius would have free course, he abandoned the practice of music for that of its composition, and resolved to devote himself to the production of B. After severe study of the best masters, he produced ' ' Tancredi, " at Venice in 1813, which soon brought him into high repute. Its success encour- aged him, and he afterwards produced others, which, however, did not meet with so good a reception. Having be- come Musical Director at Naples in 1816, he brought out two operas, one of these being the well-known "II Bar- biere cli Siviglia. " These were followed, in 1817, by "La Cenerentola" and "La Gazza Ladra," " Mose in Egitto, " "La Donna del Lago," "Zelmira, " and " Semiramide. " He visited Paris and London in 1824, and in both cities his talents obtained for him an enthusiastic reception. His "Guillaume Tell" was produced in 1829, since which he com- posed his "Stabat Mater," one of the last effusions of his genius. He has for some years retired into private life, and takes but little interest in subjects to which he had devoted his earlier days. ROTHSCHILD, Lionel Nathan, M.P., Baron de, a capitalist, and one of the firm of the Rothschilds, was born in London in 1808, and is the son of Baron Nathan, who, after leaving Man- chester in 1800, became resident in Lon- don. He succeeded to his father's con- nexions and title in 1836. Baron Roths- child was the first member of the Jewish persuasion who ever attempted to enter the House of Commons. In 1847 he was proposed and elected together with Lord John Russell and others as one of the four members for the city of London. Declining, however, to take the neces- sary oaths, ' ' on the true faith of a Chris- tian," he was precluded from taking a seat in the House till the session of 1858, when Mr. T. S. Duncombe suc- ceeded in placing him on a committee which the rules of the House did not provide against. Eventually a resolu- tion was passed by means of which he was enabled to sit as a member. The city of London had returned him at every election during the interval, and had thus asserted its rights as to the choice of its representatives. Baron Rothschild is liberal in his politics, but has never taken any prominent position in the House of Commons. RUDERSDORFF, Madame, a vocal- ist, is a native of Russia, having been born at Ivanofsky, in the Ukrane. Coming EUH 340 RUS to England with her father while a child, she sung in Hull when only twelve years of age. Under the distinguished masters Bordogni, Rubini, and La- blache, she afterwards studied at Paris, and, at the age of fourteen, sung Men- delssohn's Hymn of Praise with great success in Leipsig, at the celebration in honour of the centenary of printing. Subsequently the youthful artiste went to Italy, to complete her musical train- ing under the Cavalier Micheroux, the | celebrated master of Pasta. Having I accomplished that object, she returned to Germany, and sung there at all the i principal Courts. Persuaded by the \ Grand Duchess of Baden to go on the i stage, Madame Rudersdorff made her first appearance in that new sphere at Frankfort, with remarkable success. Subsequently she appeared at Berlin, Vienna, Dresden, Hamburg, and Lon- don, with equal acceptability, exciting peculiar admiration from the remarkable diversity of her style. RUHMKORFF, N., a French instru- ment maker, was born in Germany in the early part of the present century. He is chiefly known in scientific circles as the inventor of a coil machine, which produces astonishing effects by electro- magnetic induction. By carefully con- sidering the construction of the old form of coil machine, M. Ruhmkorff was led to the construction of an instrument which has been of the highest value to electricians, inasmuch as it has com- pleted the link which was long wanting between the sciences of frictional and voltaic electricity. A modification of his coil was some time employed in working the Atlantic telegraph, for which it seemed suitable, on account of the great intensity of the current it produces. M. Ruhmkorff's coils have been improved upon by Messrs. Bent- ley and Hearder, of this country. In 1855 he received a medal and decoration of the first class at the Exposition Uni- verselle of Paris, for his various applica- tions of electricity. RUSKIN", John, an art critic, was born in London in February, 1819. His education was completed at Oxford, where, in 1839, he carried off the New- degate prize for an English poem, and graduated double fourth class in 1842. Art was his favourite study, and con- ceiving an extraordinary admiration for Turner, and deeming that artist entitled to a higher place in public estima- tion than that conceded to him, he com- menced a letter, in reply to some of Turner's censors, which ultimately ex- panded into a treatise, with the title of "Modern Painters : their Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to all the Ancient Masters, by a Graduate of Oxford." This work at once secured for its author a high position as a man of genius. He took very bold ground, not scrupling to condemn, with all his force, the great old masters in landscape, such as Claude, Poussin, Salvator, Ruys- dael, and numerous others, as compared with such men as Turner. He did not even stop there, for he dealt his blows on all sides at the modern painters of the French and German schools. The work startled every one; it was tho- roughly iconoclastic in its tone, knock- ing down, without remorse, the art idols of centuries. After an interval of ten years, the subsequent portions of this work were published. " Modern Pain- ters" was followed by "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," and "The Stones of Venice," a work of sound criticism. Lectures on "Architecture and Painting ; " Elementary Treatises on Drawing and Perspective ; Notes on the ' * Construction of Sheepf olds ;" a pamphlet on " Pre - Raphaelitism, " and notes on the " Exhibitions of the Royal Academy," are his chief recent productions. Mr. Ruskin is re- ported on good authority to have aban- doned all other studies, in order to l(\u- to have exercised any perceptible influence over the architectural tastes of his pupiL Before the subject of this notice entered into the active practice of his profession he visited many of the principal cities of Europe, and remained some years abroad, especially in Italy, Sicily, and Greece, where he doubtless contracted that marked partiality for the simple forms and severe features of the early Greek and Roman architecture which he has constantly displayed in his works. Amongst his most successful efforts may be enumerated the late Theatre at Covent Garden, the General Post Office, London, and the British Museum. Sir Robert Smirke has been always admitted by competent judges thoroughly to understand the construc- tive principles of his art. The general use of concrete foundations in marshy or insecure sites, has also been justly ascribed to him. But perhaps the merit SMI 356 SMI of this eminent architect which has been most universally conceded to him, at least by his employers, is the great fidelity with which he succeeded in bringing the ultimate costs of his various works within the limits of those esti- mates on the faith of which they were undertaken. Sir Robert Smirke became an academician in the year 1811, was for many years one of the architects of the Board of Works, and when that Board was finally remodelled under the administration of Lord Melbourne, he received the honour of Knighthood, in testimony of his services. He has recently deserved well of the profession by resigning his academical station and honours, when he found that failing health and advancing years had (in his own opinion, at least) disqualified him for the useful performance of his pro- fessional duties. SMITH, Alexander, a poet, was born on 31st of December, 1830, at Kil- marnock, Ayrshire. His early intention was to qualify himself for the ministry, but circumstances of various kinds pre- vented him from entering on the prepa- ratory studies. While following the business of a lace-pattern designer, in Glasgow, he began to write verses, and sent some extracts from his first sus- tained poem to the Rev. George Gilfillan, of Dundee, then understood to be one of the writers for the "Critic," who in- serted them in that journal. His " Life Drama " was afterwards published, and although severely criticised, was ad- mitted on all hands to contain lines of the highest poetical merit. In 1854 Mr. Smith was elected to the secretaryship of the Edinburgh University. His "Life Drama," and "City Poems," are his principal works. SMITH, Sir Henry George Wake- lyn, Baronet, an English general was born at Whittlesea, in Cambridgeshire, where he was educated under the Rev. ^George Burgess. In 1805 he entered the army as second lieutenant in the Rifle Brigade, served in the storm and capture of Monte Video, in the attack on Buenos Ayres, and in the Peninsula. In 1814 he married Donna J. Maria de los Do- lores de Leon. In the same year he was adjutant-general of the forces which captured Washington and New Orleans. He was an assistant quartermaster- general of the sixth division at Water- loo. In 1835-6 he commanded on the frontier in the Kaffir war, and was warmly commended for his services. From the Cape General Smith went to India. He distinguished himself greatly in the battles of Moodkee and Feroze- shah. He conducted the manoeuvres which terminated in the decisive battle of Aliwal on the Sutlej, in 1846, when seventy-six guns of the enemy were cap- tured. He fought and was present at the battle of Sobraon. In 1847 he was ap- pointed Governor of the Cape of Good Hope, whence he returned in 1852, after having conducted the Kaffir war of 1851-2. He was appointed lieutenant- general in 1854, and commanded the northern and midland districts of Eng- land from 1854 to 1859. He is one of the strongest and most influential advo- cates of the Rifle movement. Sir George has twice received the thanks of Parlia- ment, and had the honour of a baronetcy conferred on him in 1846. SMITH, Thomas Southwood, M.D., an English physician and sanitary re- former, was born about 1790. He gra- duated at the University of Edinburgh in 1816, and went to London in 1820. He was one of the founders of, and earliest writers in, the "Westminster Review." About 1825 he was appointed Physician to the London Fever Hospital, and somewhat earlier to the Eastern Dispen- sary. Here it was that he learnt the true sources of epidemics, which he ex- pounded in his " Treatise on Fever,'' published in 1830. The revelations he made as to the condition of the localities SMI 357 SOU and dwellings of the poor, in his ' ' Re- ports on the Physical Causes of Sickness and Mortality which are capable of Re- moval by Sanitary Regulations," aroused the attention of the public and the Legis- lature, and gave rise to Sanitary Re- form. To the knowledge obtained by extensive experience, he thus gave a practical direction. He was an arm of strength to Lord Shaftesbury in obtain- ing the Factory Ten Hours Act ; and more persevering and self-denying efforts have not been made in the history of the country than those of Dr. Southwood Smith, to improve the sanitary condition of the people. The Public Health Act, and the various methods adopted for drainage, sewerage, and the prevention of malaria, are chiefly to be ascribed to his zeal and labours. SMITH, William, LL.D., a classical scholar, author, and Examiner in the London University, was born in London in 1814. He was educated at the Lon- don University, and was intended for the bar ; but his taste for the classics was so great that he devoted himself entirely to their study, and became Professor of Greek and Latin literature at the Col- leges of Highbury and Homerton, after- wards amalgamated into the "New College, London." In 1853 he was appointed Classical Examiner in the University of London. He has pub- lished numerous classical works, among which may be mentioned the ' ' Diction- ary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology," the " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography," a * * Latin and English Dictionary, based on the works of Forcellini and Freund." Dr. Smith has also edited an edition of "Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Ro- man Empire," which is certainly the best extant. SOMMERVILLE, Mrs. Mary, was born at Burntisland, in Fifeshire, in 1790. Until after her first marriage she displayed no special aptitude for the study of the exact sciences, though by her father, who was an officer in the Royal Marines, she was instructed in Greek and Latin, and led to cultivate music and painting. The first positive public appearance made by this lady was in the publication, of her "Mecha- nism of the Heavens," but she became known in scientific circles by her inte- resting experiments on the magnetical influence of the solar rays. She is the author of the "Connexion of the Phy- sical Sciences," and "Physical Geo- graphy," and honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society. Mrs. Som- merville enjoys a pension of 300 a year for her services to literature. SOULOUQUE, Faustin, the ex- Emperor of Hayti, was born in Saint Domingo, 1789. Brought into the world a slave, he received his freedom when but twelve months old, and therefore never personally experienced the degra- dation of being a bondsman. At four- teen he entered the army, and took part in the expulsion of the French from Hayti ; he was captain in 1820, and gradually rose until he obtained the rank of colonel, then general of bri- gade, and in 1846 general of division. Having obtained a high reputation for sagacity and prudence, the Republic of Hayti, having been on the point of disso- lution by the contests of antagonistic factions, Soulouque, in imitation of the Emperor of the French, destroyed the republic', and declared himself Emperor, under the title of Faustin I. Unlike his model, he was moderate in his de- mands on the pecuniary resources of his people, for he merely required for his civil list the annual stipend of 4,000, while his chief ministers of state were paid at the yearly rate of 120 each. Early in 1859 his imperial career came to an end, which might have been ex- pected, from his violence and tyranny. The Haytians rose against him as one sou 358 STA man, and he was expelled, with all his family, from the island, all his personal property being confiscated by the victors. First seeking an asylum in Jamaica, he proceeded to Europe, and it is under- stood that, retired from the world and all its vanities, he leads a quiet life in one of the southern provinces of France. SOUTH, Sir James, F.R.S., M.R.I. A., F.L.S, F.R.A.S., an astronomer, was born towards the close of the last cen- tury. He was educated for the medical profession, and practised for some time, but he became absorbed in astronomical science, and acquired distinction as an observer. In 1820 he helped to form the Royal Astronomical Society, and in 1821 became Fellow of the Royal Society. In pursuit of his cherished science he was most ardent, and made extensive additions to our knowledge of the stellar heavens. For his discoveries he was presented with the Copley medal, by the Royal Society, in 1826. At this period he removed to the Kensington Observatory, where he has ever since pursued his astronomical observations. He was knighted in 1830, and a sum of 300 a year was granted him for the promotion of astronomy. SPAIN, Queen of. (See Isabel II. ) SPARKS, Jared, an American bio- grapher, was born of poor" parents, at Wellington, in Connecticut, towards the close of last century. Placed under the care of a Unitarian clergyman, he was educated for the ministry, and ordained in 1819. His attention, however, was next given to historical studies, and he retired from the ministry, and was in 1839 elected Professor of History in Harvard University. Three years later he was chosen Principal of that Uni- versity; but, in 1852, was obliged to retire, on account of the state of his health. Since then he has lived at Cambridge, United States. His best known work is the " Life and Writings Oeorge Washington," and he is now engaged on a great work on the History of the American Revolution. SPURGE ON, The Rev. Charles Haddon, was born on 19th June, 1834, at Kelvedon, Essex. His father was minister of an Independent church ; but his son considering the baptism of be- lievers by immersion to be a scriptural ordinance, was immersed before he was sixteen. Shortly after, he commenced his career as a preacher ; and when nine- teen he made his first appearance before a London audience. In a short time New Park Street Chapel was crowded, Exeter Hall was also filled, and subse- quently in the Surrey Music Hall he attracted a congregation which filled it, spacious as it is. He was preaching there, to an immense congregation, when the false alarm of fire, on a pre- concerted signal by disturbers, caused a rush, by which a number of persons were killed, in October, 1856. A new tabernacle is nearly finished for the re- ception of his congregation, which, from the grandeur of its proportions, will con- tain from 5,000 to 6,000 persona Like all class orators, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, his mode of preach- ing has been denounced by one party and lauded by another. Probably the middle method of characterising it would be nearest the truth ; but it has never been questioned that he is a most original preacher. In doctrinal points Mr. Spurgeon is a High Calvinist, and in all his discourses gives prominence to those opinions. STANFIELD, Clarkson, R.A., an English marine painter, was born at Sunderland about 1798. He early showed a predilection for the sea, and whilst serving on board a vessel, gave the first indication of his love of art, by painting scenes for an amateur perform- ance by the officers. Leaving the sea, he became scene painter to one of the theatres in London. His style was bold and easy. He was afterwards employed STA 359 STA as scene painter at Drnry Lane, and pro- duced pictures such as never had graced its stage before. He then turned his attention to oil-painting, and rose so rapidly in public estimation, that in 1832 his merits were recognised by his being elected an A.R.A., and in 1835 he became R.A. It is impossible to convey any impression of the beauty of bis works, or of the facility with which he paints. But many of them are well known, and the following character- istic specimens may be seen in the South Kensington Museum : " En- trance to the Zuyder Zee," "The Battle of Trafalgar," " The Lake of Como," " The Canal of the Giudecca, Venice," 11 Near Cologne," "A Market Boat on the Scheldt," aud " Sands near Bou- logne." STANHOPE, Phillip Henry, Earl of, better known as Lord Mahon, F.R.S., an English historian, was born at Wal- mer, Kent, in 1805, and was educated at Oxford. He entered Parliament for Wootton-Bassett in 1832, and was re- turned for Hertford in 1835, retaining that seat for seventeen years. In the latter part of 1834, and the early months of 1835, when King William IV. dis- missed the Melbourne ministry and called Sir Robert Peel to the Treasury, Lord Mahon held office as Under Secre- tary of State for Foreign Affairs, going out with Ministers in the latter year. J He was appointed Secretary to the Board of Control in 1845, and held that office for a year, when he again retired with Government. His tone as a politician was taken in a great degree from Sir Robert Peel, to whom he was warmly attached ; and his exertions secured the passing of the Copyright Act of 1843. In 1855 he succeeded to the peerage, on the death of his father. His principal works are a ' ' History of the War of Succession in Spain," a " History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles," in seven volumes, a "History of Spain under Charles the Second," a "Life of Beli- sarius," a "Life of Joan of Arc," a series of "Historical Essays," a "Life of Louis, Prince of Conde," and the ' ' Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel. " Lord Stanhope has edited several publications, and the manner in which he has per- formed the duty of selecting, arranging, and revising, may be pointed to as a model for all who aspire to follow this walk of literature. As an historian, his facts are always carefully weighed, he extenuates nothing, but is rigidly im- partial, his reflections being just, whilst his style is always polished, and often rises to eloquence. Lord Stanhope was, some years ago, President of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1834 had the honour of D.C.L. conferred on him at Oxford. STANLEY, Rev. Arthur Penrhyn, was born in December, 1815. After having been at Rugby school in 1833, he graduated at Oxford in 1838, became a scholar of Balliol College in 1839, and a Fellow and Tutor of University Col- lege, Oxford, in 1841. He was ap- pointed one of the Canons of Canter- bury in 1851, and Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford in 1856. He is the author of the "Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold," the " Memoir of Bishop Stan- ley," " Sermons and Essays on the Apostolical Age," "A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians," " Sinai and Palestine in connexion with their History," "Historical Memorials of Canterbury," " Sermons preached in Canterbury Cathedral on the Unity of Apostolical and Evangelical Teaching, " "Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History," and numerous other works. STANLEY, The Right Hon. Ed- ward Henry Smith, M.P., an English statesman, was born at Knowsley, the seat of his father, the Earl of Derby, on' STA 360 STI the 21st of July, 1826. He received his early education at Rugby, where he was a pupil of the late Dr. Arnold. He afterwards entered Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he closed a distinguished university career by graduating in the spring of 1848, as a first-class in the classical tripos, gaining also mathemati- cal honours. Very shortly after leaving the university he unsuccessfully con- tested the borough of Lancaster, and so not finding his way into the House of Commons, he went abroad to add a knowledge of mankind to his knowledge of books. On this tour he visited Canada, the United States of North America, and the West Indies. Whilst travelling he was elected member of Parliament for King's Lynn, vacant by the death of Lord George Bentinck, and on receiving intimation of this, he re- turned to England, and took his seat in the House of Commons. Lord Stanley afterwards visited India, not troubling himself so much with scenes of Oriental magnificence as desirous to whet his intellect and extend his knowledge by intercourse with the representatives of British wisdom and British valour ; and in his absence was appointed Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, in the first administration of his father, in March, 1852. The news of this un- expected appointment hastened his jour- ney homewards, and cut short his oppor- tunity of acqiiiring that complete know- ledge of the position and prospects of our Oriental empire which a more lengthened residence would undoubtedly have con- ferred. The policy recommended by the noble lord in 1853 on Indian reform, was a foreshadowing of that which, in 1858, was adopted to preserve our dis- organized empire in Hindostan. Shortly after this, in a pamphlet entitled " The Church - Rate Question Considered," he exhibited that antagonism to church rates which has made his lordship so great a favourite with the Noncon- formists of England. In 1853 Ox- ford created him a D.C.L. On the death of Sir William Molesworth in 1855, Lord Palmerston offered Lord Stanley the Seals of the Colonial Office ; the appointment was, however, declined. On the formation of Lord Derby's second Cabinet in February, 1858, the same post was offered and accepted. The sudden resignation of Lord Ellenborough left Lord Derby's Cabinet without a Presi- dent of the Board of Control. In this crisis Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton be- came Secretary for the Colonies, and Lord Stanley took Lord Ellenborough' s position at the Board of Control. Under his Presidency the "Double Govern- ment" fell; and the President of the Board of Control became a creature of the past, Lord Stanley having held his office under the style and title of Secretary of State for India. On the overthrow of Lord Derby's ministry in 1859, Lord Stanley necessarily went out of office ; but his assiduous attention to the affairs of India while presiding over the council, was the theme of unquali- fied approbation with all who had an interest in our Eastern Empire. During the session of 1860 he has taken little share in politics. STEELL, John, R.S.A., a Scottish sculptor, was born in Edinburgh, in 1804, his father being a carver and gilder in that city. He studied at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Rome. His principal pro- ductions are the statue of Sir Walter Scott, under the arch of the Scott monu- ment ; the Queen, above the Royal In- stitution ; the Duke of Wellington, an equestrian statue, placed before the Register House, Edinburgh ; Admiral Lord de Saumarez, in Greenwich Hos- pital, London; and the Marquis of Dalhousie, at Calcutta. STIRLING, William, M.P., a bio- graphical writer and art critic, was born at Kenmuir, near Glasgow, in 1818. He is the representative of an ancient STO 361 STR and wealthy Scottish house, the Stirlings of Keir. He graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, in 1843, and afterwards repaired to the Continent, where he de- voted himself assiduously to the study of Spanish literature in the libraries of France and Spain. In 1852 he stood for the representation of Perthshire, and since then has sat in Parliament for that county. He is the author of "The Annals of the Artists of Spain," " The Cloister Life of Charles the Fifth," and " The Life of Velasquez." STOWE, Harriet Elizabeth Beecher, an American authoress, was born in 1814, at Lichfield, Connecticut, where her father, the Rev. Dr. Lyman Beecher, was minister. For a time, Harriet assisted her sister, Catherine Esther Beecher, in teaching a school ; but in 1832, circumstances having called her father to Cincinnati to superintend a theological seminary, Harriet accom- panied the family, and there married the Rev. Professor Calvin E. Stowe. Mrs. Stowe was an occasional contribu- tor of tales and sketches to the news- papers and periodicals of the day, and a collection of these was published in New York in 1844, under the title of " The Mayflower," which obtained consider- able popularity. Mrs. Stowe's attention was called in 1850, by certain circum- stances, to the more atrocious features of " the peculiar institution, " which re- sulted in the production of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," a work which has had a greater popularity than perhaps was ever before known, and it would be difficult to find any civilized part of the world where this thrilling narrative has not been read. Some criticism to which the work was subjected in the United States, induced Mrs. Stowe to publish, in 1853, as a "Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin," the documents and facts on which it was based. In that same year she visited England, Scotland, and the Continent. Returning to America, she published, under the title of " Simny Memories," her impressions of her journey. This work was followed by "Dred ; a Tale of the Dismal Swamp," published in 1856. In 1856 Mrs. Stowe visited Europe ; and again in 1859, when she completed a work on the social condition of the new world, entitled " The Minister's Wooing." STRATFORD DE REDCL1FFE, Stratford Canning, first Viscount, a British diplomatist, was born in Lon- don, January 6th, 1788, and received his early education at Eton. In 1806 he entered Cambridge University, but left in the following year on receiving a junior appointment in the Foreign Office. Having in the interim filled satisfactorily various subordinate posi- tions in the diplomatic service, in 1812 he returned to Cambridge, and took the degree of M. A. In 1814 he was sent as Envoy to Switzerland. In 1820 he acted as British Plenipotentiary to the United States. After a three years' sojourn at Washington, he was appointed on a spe- cial mission to St. Petersburg, and sub- sequently to Vienna. He was next sent to Constantinople as Ambassador Extraordi- nary in 1825. At that time Mr. Canning's good offices were energetically exerted with the Sultan on behalf of the Greeks. In 1827 Mr. Canning returned to Eng- land, and entered the House of Com- mons as member for Old Sarum. In 1829 he was decorated with the order of K. G. C. B. , and then represented the now extinguished borough of Stockbridge. In 1831 he went to Turkey with refer- ence to the fixing of the boundaries of the kingdom of Greece. Having settled the treaty, on the basis of which Otho as- cended the Greek throne, Sir Stratford Canning was then appointed a special envoy to the courts of Lisbon and Ma- drid. In December, 1834, he was elected for King's Lynn, Norfolk, which he continued to represent until having twice previously refused the Governor- STR 362 STR Generalship of Canada he was sent out to Constantinople in 1841. In 1852 he became a peer, under the title of Vis- count Stratford de Redcliffe. After a long, and often anxious servitude, Lord Stratford retired in 1858 from the Turk- ish embassy, and has since his return, spoken frequently and with effect, in the Upper House, on questions of East- ern as well as foreign policy generally. His influence in Turkey has been inva- riably exerted in behalf of civilization and Christianity, and science and Pro- testantism have ever found in him a warm friend. STRAUSS, David Friedrich, a German theological writer, was born at Ludwigsbourg, in Wurtemberg, on the 27th January, 1808, and educated in his native town, and subsequently at Blaubeuren and Tubingen. In 1831 he was an Assistant Professor in Maulbronn; in 1832, a teacher in the Theological Institute of Tubingen. He was dis- missed from his situation on account of the startling doctrines' he promulgated, and became a private tutor at Stuttgardt. In 1839 he was appointed to be Pro- fessor of Divinity and Church History in the University of Zurich. Public meetings were held, and the popular discontent was so warmly expressed that the Council of Education was obliged to relieve him of his duties. He returned to authorship, and published several works, when in 1848 he was sent to the Wurtemberg Diet, as repre- sentative for his native place. His mode of proceeding in the Diet was such as to highly exasperate his constituents, and he felt compelled to resign his seat. He again returned to literary pursuits. His most noted work is his "Life of Jesus," which is considered highly hete- rodox, and he has published others, also of a theological nature. STRICKLAND, Miss Agnes, an English authoress, was born in 1806. She had the best opportunities of culti- vating her genius, on account of her father's Hterary acquirements. Her first published work was a metrical romance in four cantos, entitled "Worcester Field; or, The Cavalier," followed by a poem in heroic verse, entitled "De- metrius : a Tale of Modern Greece." After the death of her father she made her first visit to the metropolis, and while staying with a relative obtained a ticket of admission to the British Mu- seum ; and becoming a daily student of its treasures, she commenced to collect materials for her "Royal Female Biogra- phies," a task in which she was assisted by her eldest sister. She published in 1840 the first volumes of "Lives of the Queens of England ; from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Queen Anne :" the series was concluded in the year 1848, when it was reprinted as a whole, and subsequently stereotyped. " The Lives of the Queens of Scotland, and English Princesses, connected with the Regal Succession of Great Britain" followed, as a necessary companion and adjunct to the first series of Royal Female Bio- graphies. This second series contains the most complete and really authentic life of Mary, Queen of Scots, that has been published ; because, embodying a great amount of recent discoveries, gathered from the State Paper Offices of Great Britain, France, and various foreign libraries, and many sources of private information, in the correspon- dence of the times, preserved among the archives of noble families, both in England and Scotland, which have never been introduced into any other of the numerous, but necessarily imperfect, Hves of Mary Stuart In these royal biographies Miss Agnes Strickland has originated an entirely new school of history, which has since been very ex- tensively, but not always successfully, imitated by some of her contemporaries. Her last published work is of a lighter character, being a series of scenes and SWA 363 TAG sketches, illustrative of life in the East- ern Counties, where she has had peculiar opportunities of studying the manners and dialects of the people : it is entitled " Old Friends and New Acquaintances." She has recently published a volume of poems, entitled "Historic Scenes." SWAIN, Charles, an English poet, was born at Manchester, in 1803. His father died when he was but six years of age, and his mother's brother, a French gentleman, named Tavare, settled as a dyer in Manchester, gene- rously provided for the widow and orphan, gave the right direction to the boy's education, and encouraged his taste for literature. In the year 1818. he received him into his works as a clerk, and in this establishment he remained for fourteen years; but the pursuit was uncongenial, and he aban- doned it to become an engraver. On com- mencing verse- writing his earlier pieces were published in the "Literary Gazette" and some of the annuals, but the first marked impression Mr. Swain made on the public mind was in 1827, when he published his "Metrical Essays," a delightful volume of thought and fancy. In 1831 he gave to the world "The Mind, and other Poems," which ob- tained instant popularity, passed through several editions, and established the author's position. In 1832 he wrote a poem on the death of Sir Walter Scott, which he named "Dry burgh Abbey," and which, for the union of imagination, feeling, eloquence of diction, and de- scriptive power, is up to this moment without a rival in its class. In 1847 he published " Dramatic Chapters, and other Poems;" in 1849, " English Melodies;" and in 1853, " The Letters of Laura D'Auverne, and other Poems," books which many years hence are likely to be perused with pleasure, as records of unaffected sentiment. SWEDEN and NORWAY, King of. {See Charles XV.) SYME, James, a physician, was born in Fifeshire, in 1799. His education was received at Edinburgh University, where he early manifested a taste for scientific pursuits. He studied anatomy under Liston. Having passed his exa- mination as a Surgeon, in London, he returned to Edinburgh, and soon became eminent as an anatomist and lecturer. He published in 1831 his "Treatise on the Excision of Diseased Joints," and in 1833 became Professor of Clinical Sur- gery in the Edinburgh University, and subsequently Surgeon to the Royal In- firmary. He was chosen Professor of Surgery at University College, London, but after being a short time there, he returned to Edinburgh, and resumed his professorship. He is considered by the profession as one of the most finished of living operators. Amongst various works and memoirs, the following have gained him great reputation, namely, his "Treatise on Diseases of the Rec- tum," "Contributions to Pathology," " The Practice of Surgery," and other treatises referring to practical surgery. TAGLIONI, Marie, a Swedish dan- sense, was born at Stockholm, in 1804, of a family the members of which had long followed the profession of ballet- dancers. Her father being ballet-master in several of the continental opera houses, she received lessons at Vienna, Stuttgardt, and Munich, from 1822 to 1826, making her first appearance at the French Opera in 1827, when her reception was of the most flattering description, and her success undoubted. She subsequently appeared on the stage of every principal city in Europe ; mar- ried Count Gilbert de Voisons in 1832 ; and took leave of the profession in 1847, retiring to Italy, where she has two splendid residences, one at Venice, and the other on the Lake of Como. By her exertions, Mademoiselle Taglioni ac- quired a large fortune, being enabled, TAU 364 TAY after her first season in Paris, to com- mand her own terms. It has been stated, that during the height of her career she has been paid by the manage- ment of Her Majesty's Theatre, in the Haymarket, the enormous sum of 120 per night ; and adding to her pecuniary engagement the presents she received from the court of St. Petersburg, her Russian remuneration exceeded 200 per night ! TAUNTON, the Right Honourable Henry Labouchere, Lord, a British statesman, is son of the late Mr. P. C. Labouchere, of Rylands, Essex, and was born in London, in 1798. He was edu- cated at Christchurch, Oxford, where he took a first class in classics in 1820, and graduated Master of Arts eight years afterwards. He was first returned to Parliament by the electors of St. Michael's, and held the seat until 1830, when he exchanged it for Taunton, representing the latter borough until he was elevated to the peerage in 1859. Lord Taunton's political experience thus embraces a period of upwards of thirty years, and during that time he has taken part in almost every public movement. A liberal from the first, he has rendered valuable service to the party with which he associated himself, and the recogni- tion of his services has not been more marked than merited. From 1832 till 1834 he was a Lord of the Admiralty ; from 1835 till 1839 he filled the two offices of Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and Master of the Mint ; in the early part of the latter year exchanging his post for that of Under Secretary for the Colonies, a position which he held but a few months, when he was ap- pointed President of the Board of Trade. He continued in the last-named office until 1841, when Sir Robert Peel's ac- cession to power caused his retirement. On the resignation of the Peel govern- ment in 1846, he was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland. He administered Irish affairs for about a year, when he was recalled, and placed again at the head of the Board of Trade, holding that office till March, 1852, when he retired with ministers. In November, 1855, he became Secretary of State for the Colo- nies, and continued to direct that de- partment until Lord Derby was called to power in March, 1858. On the dis- solution of the Derby government, and the re-accession of Lord Palmereton, Mr. Labouchere was raised to the peerage. TAYLOR, Alfred Swaine, an English physician, was born at North- fleet, Kent, on 11th December, 1806. In October, 1823, he became a pupil of the late Sir Astley Cooper and Mr. J. H. Green, at the then united Hospitals of Guy and St. Thomas. On the sepa- ration of the hospitals he joined the classes of Guy's, and continued his me- dical education there until 1828. He afterwards studied in the medical schools of France, Germany, and Italy, attend- ing the lectures of Gay Lussac, Orfila, Dupuytren, and other distinguished French professors. In March, 1831, he was appointed Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence at Guy's Hospital, and in the autumn of 1832 he succeeded Mr. Alexander Barry as joint Lecturer on Chemistry with the late Mr. Arthur Aiken. These appointments he still re- tains. He passed the examination of the Society of Apothecaries in 1828, became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1830,. and a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians in 1848. He has since been elected a Fellow of the Col- lege, and has received from the Univer- sity of St. Andrews the honorary degree of M.D. At an early period of his career Dr. Taylor devoted himself to one of the most difficult and yet most valuable departments of his profession, that of Medical Jurisprudence, in which he has long held the foremost rank in this country. For many years past he TAY 365 TAY has been called on to undertake the responsibility of post-mortem examina- tions, and chemical analyses in cases of supposed poisoning. Amongst the most remarkable of these, was the trial of William Ealmer, in 1856, for poisoning by strychnine, and that of Smethurst, in 1859, who was indicted at the Old Bailey for administering arsenic. In both of these cases Dr. Taylor had to contend with an array of scientific evi- dence in opposition to his views, which was truly formidable ; and although his conclusions were objected to by some chemists, his eminent abilities as an analyst could not be called in question. TAYLOR, Bayard, an American author and traveller, was born in the State of Pennsylvania, April, 1825. In his youth he gave early promise of those literary abilities which have rendered him one of the most popular writers in the United States. His first effort of consequence was a long poem founded upon incidents connected with the chi- valrous era of the history of Spain. In 1844 he left the New for the Old World, and after visiting England, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and France, he returned to America, and published an account of his travels, under the title of " Views Afoot ; or, Europe seen with the Knap- sack and Staff." The work was suc- cessful ; the young author attracted at- tention and elicited encomium; and in 1846 he was appointed one of the prin- cipal editors of the "New York Tri- bune," a democratic paper, to which he contributed a series of vigorous sketches of the people, the manners, and the po- litical state of California in the years 1848 and 1849, when he traversed that region on a journey of investigation. In 1851 he made a tour of the Mediter- ranean shores ; and that accomplished, he bent his steps towards the far east, exploring India, China, Japan, subse- quently visiting Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Sicily, and penetrating into Central Africa. Concerning all these lands he has written in his naturally straightforward and honest style ; and those who have read his " El Dorado," "Life and Landscapes in Egypt," "Japan, India, and China, " "Pictures of Palestine," and " Travels in Central Africa," will admit his quick observa- tion and power of description. He has also written a volume entitled " Eastern Poems," but it is not so widely known as his prose works. TAYLOR, Isaac, an English writer and essayist, was born at Lavenham, in Suffolk, August, 1787. His education was received at home, and he eventually chose literature as a profession. After his "Natural History of Enthusiasm," the most popular of his productions have been "Fanaticism," "Spiritual Des- potism," and "The Physical Theory of Another Life ;" though for calm beauty, and a cheerful hoping tone, he has writ- ten nothing superior to " Home Educa- tion," " Saturday Evening," and "Spi- ritual Christianity." His "Ancient Christianity " completely demolished, by its erudition and argumentative power, the position taken by the Tractarians. Besides the works already named, he is the author of "Loyola and Jesuitism," and " Wesley and Methodism." He is somewhat peculiar in his style, but evinces in all his works a great origina- lity and depth of philosophical inquiry. TAYLOR, Isidore Justin Seve'rin, Baron, a French antiquary and tra- veller, descended from an Irish family naturalized in France, was born at Brus- sels, on 15th August, 1789. He studied at Paris, and was intended for the Ecole Polytechnique, but his tastes lay more in the direction of art and literature ; and after taking lessons from the painter Save, he wrote some stirring criticisms in the journals of the day. Escaping the conscription in 1810, on account of ill health, he travelled through Germany, Italy, and Belgium, on a tour of artistic T A Y 366 TA Y nvestigation. Towards the end of 1813 he was enrolled in the army of the Em- pire, with the rank of sous-lieutenant, and on the Restoration he was chosen to form part of a brigade of artillery of the Gardes du Corps. He entered the Royal Guard as aide-de-camp to General Count d'Orsay, with whose London ce- lebrity most of our readers are familiar. M. Taylor was afterwards attached to the staff of Marshal Lauriston. During the Spanish campaign he was on the staff of General Guilleminot. Though for years employed in arduous, and often difficult and delicate enterprises, he never neglected cultivating literature and the arts, even when promoted to the rank of Chef d'Escadron. On ob- taining the latter grade, he retired from the army. Previously, his name had been widely known, especially as a dra- matic author, and in 1824 he was ap- pointed Royal Commissioner of the Theatre Francais, having in the interim materially aided in restoring the monu- ments of the middle ages all over France. As a theatrical superintendent he was a reformer, and therefore not popular with those who knew no distinction between jealousy and rivalry. Under the aus- pices of Charles X. he proceeded to Egypt to bring the obelisk of Luxor to Paris ; a commission which he executed with perfect success. After the revolu- tion of 1830, Louis-Philippe entrusted M. Taylor with the execution of various missions which came more immediately into the class of his archaeological and artistic studies. He was named Inspec- tor-General of the Fine Arts. In con- nexion with these pursuits he visited Italy and Sicily, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Africa, and succeeded in gathering together a noble collection of works of art. He has been remarkably active in founding Societies for the support of decayed authors, painters, musicians, &c, and seems to be in reality a genuine, though a modest and unassuming, philanthropist. His works are not very numerous, but they are valuable. Among the best are his "Voyages pittoresques et romantiques dans l'ancienne France," 20 vols, folio; the "Voyage pittoresque en Espagne," and the "Voyage aux Pyrenees," the "Voyage en Syrie, Palestine, et en Judee,"and the "Voyage en Egypte." Baron Taylor has received various honours as a recognition of his learned labours: for some time he has been a Member of the Academy of the Fine Arts, and a Commander of the Legion of Honour. TAYLOR, Tom, an English dra- matist, was born at Sunderland, in Durham, in 1817. His early education was received at the Grange School, at the University of Glasgow, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where his talents and acquirements obtained for him various distinctions. He was subse- quently appointed to the chair of English Literature at University College, London. In 1845 he was called to the bar, in 1850 was appointed Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Health, and in 1854 he became Secretary. Since September, 1858, he has held the situation of Secre- tary to the Local Government Act Office, a branch of the Home Office. During his residence in London, after leaving Cambridge^ he was a frequent contributor to " Punch," and became known as a writer of keen observation and pithy humour. His dramatic works are numerous, and always achieve the great end of interesting an audience. ' ' Still Waters run deep, " ' 4 The Victims, " "The Unequal Match," "The Contested Election," and " The Overland Route," are all pictures of real Hie, and are re- plete with remarkable dramatic skill. He has also written a careful biography of Haydon, the painter, from the journals of that artist. He is captain of the Whitehall corps of the Civil Service Rifle Volunteers. Mr. Taylor was mar- TEN 367 TEN 1855 to Miss Laura Wilson a lady whose musical composi- ried in Barker, tions are widely known, as combining the qualities of rare originality, science, and sweetness. Her musical adaptation of the "Miller's Daughter," and many other of Tennyson's lyrics, are works of unquestionable merit. TENERANI, Pietro, an Italian sculptor, was born at Torano, near Carrara, about the year 1789. His ear- lier art education was received from Peter Marchetti, his maternal uncle, and in the Academy of Carrara. In 1814 he went to Rome, where he gained the pre- mium awarded by Canova for a statue of the ' ' Risen Saviour. " He afterwards studied under Thorwaldsen, and bene- fited by that sculptor's assistance. Te- nerani has risen to the highest place among sculptors ; for his ideas are novel, and he draws his subjects as well from the inspiration of Christianity as from the mythology of the ancients. In 1819 when but a step or two removed from boyhood he produced one of his most striking works, " Psycne with the Box of Pandora, " which is at present in Florence, a gem in the Lenzoni palace. Other my- thological subjects followed with won- drous rapidity from his hand, and each production called forth fresh enthusiasm, from the combination of grace and power which was so definitely manifested. His first great religious work, ' ' Christ on the Cross," was executed in silver, in 1823, for the Church of St. Stephen at Pisa ; this was succeeded by the ' Descent from the Cross, " a relievo, for the Torlo- nia Chapel of St. John of Lateran, the " Martyrdom of Eudorus," and other works similarly characterised in style and subject. Many Italian churches possess statues of saints from his chisel, while his monumental statues are very numerous. Tenerani has had commis- sions from almost all the potentates and nobles of Europe, Queen Victoria being in possession of " Flora," one of his most admirable efforts, and the Duke of De- vonshire having in his gallery "Cupid extracting a Thorn from the Foot of Venus." He is Professor of Sculpture at the Academy of St. Luke, in Rome, and member of various academies. TENNENT, Sir James Emerson, LL.D., M. P., an English statesman and writer, son of the late William Emer- son, Esq., was born at Belfast, in April, 1804, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Feeling a strong sympathy with the cause of Greek independence, he vi- sited Greece, and wrote there works enti- tled "Greece in 1825," "Letters from the iEgean," and subsequently his "History of Modern Greece," all remarkable for research and eloquence of style. In 1 83 1 , marrying the daughter and heiress of Mr. William Tennent, he, on that gentle- man's death, succeeded to his estates in the counties of Antrim, Sligo, and Fer-. managh, assumed the name of Tennent in addition to his own, and took up his abode at the beautiful demesne of Tempe, which was the scene of Miss Edgeworth's tale of " Castle Rackrent." In 1832, and in 1835, he was elected one of the members in Parliament for his native town, and in 1841 was appointed Secre- tary to the India Board by Sir Robert Peel. In 1845 he became Secretary, and afterwards Lieutenant-Governor, of Ceylon receiving at the same time the honour of knighthood. In 1851 Sir Emerson was appointed Governor of St. Helena, which he shortly after resigned, without proceeding to the seat of his government. Shortly after he was re- turned member for Lisburn, and on Lord Derby's accession to power in 1852, he held the office of Secretary to the Poor Law Commission, which he resigned in 1853, to accept that of Joint Secretary to the Board of Trade. His " Belgium'' appeared in 1841, and in the same year "A Treatise on the Copyright of De- signs for Printed Fabrics" in 1850 " Christianity in Ceylon " in 1855 TEN 368 THA "Wine : its Uses and Taxation," and in 1859 "Ceylon," a work which has al- ready obtained European popularity. His greatest parliamentary achievement was that of carrying the Copyright of De- signs Act, for which services the manu- facturers of the United Kingdom, in 1843, presented him at Manchester with a magnificent testimonial and service of silver plate, valued at 3,000. TENNYSON, Alfred, D.C.L., the poet-laureate, was born in 1809, at So- mersby, in Lincolnshire, where his father was rector. The laureate's father, the Rev. George Clayton Tennyson, LL.D., was a man of no inconsiderable ability as a poet, painter, architect, musician, lin- guist, and mathematician. After some preparatory training at the grammar school of Louth, he returned home, and was educated by his father, being sent, in due time, to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he specially dis- tinguished himself, obtaining the Chan- cellor's Medal for an English Poem on Timbuctoo. The year following this, " University Success Poems, chiefly Lyrical, by Alfred Tennyson," were published. Three years after this maiden effort, Tennyson published a second volume, which contained "The Miller's Daughter," " A Dream of Fair Woman," "The Palace of Art," and " The May Queen ;" and compared with his first volume, was a surprising ad- vance, at once in richness of thought and beauty of imagery. In 1842 he published a collected edition of his works, in two volumes, and at once took the highest rank as a poet. Since then he has published " The Princess," a medley, ' ' In Memoriam, " " Maud, ' ' an " Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington," and the "Idylls of the King," which appeared in the summer of 1859. He is now engaged on a new poem, the subject of which is Boadicea. A few years ago Oxford conferred on him the honour of D.C.L., after he had been appointed poet-laureate. We have not attempted anything more than a bare enumeration of the titles of Mr. Tennyson's poems. The list is, we trust, not yet closed, and it would be out of place tc enter, within our narrow limits, on any estimate of the influence which they have already exercised, and are likely to exercise, in the present and the coming age. THACKERAY, William Make- peace, a novelist and essayist, was born at Calcutta, in 1811. His father and grandfather, Mr. W. M. Thackeray, of Hadley, both belonged to the East India Company's civil service. On his arrival in England he was sent to school, and afterwards completed his studies at the University of Cambridge. After having studied art at Rome, with the design of devoting himself to the profession, he returned to London, and gave himself unreservedly to literature. The "Times " is understood to have been one of the earliest of the mediums through which he addressed the public. It was, how- ever, not in the leading journal, but in "Fraser's Magazine," that Thackeray came prominently before the public. His "Paris Sketch Book," " The Second Funeral of Napoleon," and the "Chro- nicle of the Drum," were published in 1841. The success of these independent publications was not great, the public being slow to appreciate the merit of the new candidate for its favour. But while the higher order of mind was be- ginning to acknowledge his genius, it was his connexion with " Punch " that first constituted Thackeray a power in English literature, and there " Jeames's Diary," and the "Snob Papers," ap- peared. In 1846 Thackeray's next separate publication was brought out, entitled "Notes of a Journey from Corn- hill to Grand Cairo," by " Michael An- gelo Titmarsh," a pseudonym under which he then wrote, and almost simul- taneously he commenced the publication THA 369 THI of " Vanity Fair, " a work which at once placed him in the foremost position as a writer of fiction. "Vanity Fair" was followed, in 1848 and 1849, by two little Christmas volumes. In the latter year also the ' ' History of Pendennis " began to appear ; this, again, was followed in 1850, by "Rebecca and Rowena," and in 1851 he wrote the " Kickleburys on the Rhine." In 1852 the finest of his novels, "Esmond," appeared. Thack- eray's "Lectures on the English Hu- morists " is a work which, though slightly marred by mannerism, forms one of the most delightful pieces of biography in the language. The Lectures were first delivered in 1851, in London ; they were published in 1853, and re- cently a cheap re-issue has appeared. The success of the " Lectures on English Humorists " induced Mr. Thackeray to prepare another series, the "Four Georges," which were first delivered in America, during 1855 and 1856, and have since been re -delivered in all the chief cities of England and Scotland, with eminent success, and have ap- peared in the " Cornhill Magazine." "The Newcomes," and "The Virgi- nians," are the most recent fictions of this eminent novelist. In July, 1857, Mr. Thackeray contested Oxford with Mr. Card well, but was unsuccessful. During the last three years, the sketches/ bal- lads, and burlesques written by Mr. Thackeray, while yet unknown to fame, have been in process of republication. These miscellanies give us Thackeray in dishabille Thackeray in masquerade and carry us through the entire gamut of his exercises light or sober cynical or cheery. The forte of this social satirist has lain among the professional, aristocratic, and would-be aristocratic world, and never has the pitiless day- light been so let in upon the rouge and tinsel of that world's "Vanity Fair." Mr. Thackeray now edits, and confines his literary labours to the "Cornhill Magazine," a new periodical, which already circulates to the large number of 100,000 copies. THALBERG, Sigismund, pianist, was born at Geneva, in January 1812, and received a careful education under the direction of his mother, his father being the Count Dietrichstien. When very young he received lessons from the celebrated Hummel, and surpassed even his master by the firmness of his touch and the grace of his expression. His successes in the concert room began when he was only fifteen, and at sixteen he published his first compositions. In 1830 his name became extensively known, and in 1834 he was appointed Imperial Pianist to the Court of Austria, which laid the foundation of his fame and for- tune. He appeared in Paris in 1835, and his reputation being now European, he entered in 1836 on a series of visits to all the cities of the Continent and Great Britain, giving concerts, and ac- quiring wealth while adding to his cele- brity. For some years past he has been professionally engaged in the United States. In 1845 he married a daughter of Signor Lablache. As a composer and pianist M. Thalberg is the founder of a new school, which has had numerous followers, but none, with the exception of Liszt, coming up to the standard of the master. THIERRY, Alexandre, a French Doctor of Medicine and Surgeon, was born in February, 1803. His father and grandfather having been medical men, he embraced that profession, and studied with the utmost diligence. He received his degree as Doctor in 1828, and after- wards published various learned disser- tations on intricate subjects of medicine and surgery. Being on the most friendly terms with Armand Carrel, he wrote for the "National," and became in 1832 Chef d'Escadron of the National Guard. In 1846 he was elected a member of the Municipal Council, and in 1848 he took THI 370 TB I an active part, as well in stimulating the revolution of February, as in assisting General Cavaignac to maintain the peace of the city. Amid all the chances and changes of government in Paris, M. Thierry has been esteemed as an ear- nest and yet moderate conservator of public institutions, and has acquired the affections of the people because of his sacrifices on their behalf. Profession- ally, he is recognised as one of the most skilful operators in France. THIERRY, Amedee Simon Domi- nique, a French historian, was born at Blois, on the 2nd of August, 1797. He received a good education in his na- tive town, and afterwards at Paris. Having entered in 1820 the central office of colonial administration, he began his historical studies about the same period. He published in 1824 a short " History of the Province of Guyenne," and four years afterwards, " A History of the Gaulois, or old Celtic Population of France," which has reached a fifth edi- tion. The success of this book induced him to look out for employment in connex- ion with education. He was appointed Professor of History to the Faculty of Letters of Besangon, where his course of lectures attracted large audiences. In spite of the moderation of opinions and views expressed in his lectures, the government of the day took alarm, the course was suppressed, and M. Thierry was exposed to petty perse- cutions, which only terminated with the downfall of the Polignac ministry, followed by the revolution of 1830. This revolution completely changed the posi- tion of M. Thierry. The new Minister of the Interior, M. Guizot, whose pupil and friend he had been, appointed him Prefect of the Haute-Sa6ne, a situation which he held for eight years. In 1838 he returned to Paris, where he entered the Council of State as Mattre des Re- queues, an office which he filled till 1853, when he was named a Councillor of State. In 1860, the dignity of Senator of the Empire was conferred upon him. Having resumed his literary labours in 1838, and published a "History of Gaul under the Roman Domination," he was in 1842 unanimously elected a member of the Institute, of the section of the moral and political sciences. In 1855 he pub- lished his "History of Attila and his Sons and Successors in Europe," a work which was received with favour by the French public, and translated into all the continental languages. He has con- tributed a number of interesting articles to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." M. Thierry has the merit of having founded in France the study of the " Origines Gauloises," and on this subject his ideas and doctrines are quite in conformity with those of the most competent Bri- tish authorities. THIERS, Loins Adolphe, a French statesman and historian, was born at Marseilles, on 16th April, 1797. Sprung from a poor but respectable parentage, he was first educated at the Marseilles Lyceum, and subsequently studied for the bar, becoming an advocate in 1820. His prof essional career was, however, by no means encouraging, and at length he resolved to seek his fortune in literary pursuits, and for that purpose removed to Paris. He procured some employment in connexion with the "Constitutionneh" and soon attracted notice by the talents which he exhibited in his contributions to that newspaper. These were charac- terised by great versatility, and his sub- jects ranged through politics, theatricals, the fine arts, &c, indicating the posses- sion of a master mind on the part of their author. In the meantime he was engaged on his great work, the " History of the French Revolution," which, on the appearance of the first part, imme- diately became popular, and has since given to M. Thiers considerable emi- nence as an historian. In 1830 M. Thiers began to take an active interest in poli- THI 371 THO tical matters, and held an office in Fi- nance, exchanging it for that of an Under Secretaryship, which he continued in till 1831. Having been returned a deputy, he took a prominent position as a parlia- mentary speaker, and was successively Minister of the Interior and of Public Works, maintaining the system of pro - tection as essential to the commercial prosperity of France. He held various offices till 1836, when he became Presi- dent of the Council and Foreign Mi- nister. He occupied the same office in 1840, and in 1848 participated in the misfortunes of the Orleans dynasty, and has since entirely passed away from the platform of political affairs. M. Thiers subsequently occupied himself in histo- rical pursuits, and his " History of the Consulate and the Empire," commenced in 1845, was completed in 1860. Among his other literary productions are some of a minor character, such as his ' ' Law " and his "Financial System," and numerous papers contributed to the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and the " Revue Fran- cais," &c. THIRLWALL, The Rtght Rev- erend Connop, D.D., Bishop of St. David's, and historian of Greece, was born at Mile End, Middlesex, in 1797. He was educated at Cambridge, and became a Fellow of Trinity College. He was called to the bar in 1825, but after- wards took orders, and was appointed to a rectory in Yorkshire. He commenced his " History of Greece" in 1835; and in 1840 was elevated to the see of St. David's. THO LUCK, Friedrich August Gottreu, a German theologian, was born at Breslau, in 1799. He began as a schoolboy to devote himself to the study of Eastern languages, which he prosecuted afterwards in the University of Berlin. He was brought up on prin- iples hostile to Christianity, but having been introduced, in Berlin, into a circle of pious laymen and theologians, among whom was Neander, he 1 changed his views. This took place during the pe- riod of a religious enthusiasm which had been awakened by the war of liberation in Germany, and principally in Prussia. The yoimg student felt himself bound in conscience to prefer the theological career to that of Oriental scholarship, and began in 1820, a course of theolo- gical study in the University of Berlin. In 1825 he was sent by the Prussian Government on a mission to the libraries of Holland and England, from which he returned with a literary store, part of which he afterwards communicated to the public in his works "On the Spe- culative Doctrine of the Trinity in the Philosophical Systems of the East," and his "Poetical Collections from the Mys- tical Writings of Persian Authors." In 1826 he was transferred by his Govern- ment to the University of Halle, the most numerously attended theological faculty in Prussia, the number of divi- nity students amounting at that time to 950. The rationalistic system having been the prevailing one in this faculty, it was the intention of the Prussian King and the Government of the day, to supplant it by an orthodox theology. Tholuck succeeded in this object. He introduced Christian sentiments, and awakened a Christian spirit in the university. His theological works are mostly exegetical, and consist chiefly of a "Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount," "On the Epistles to the Ro- mans and Hebrews, and the Gospel of St. John," all of which have been translated into English. Of late, M. Tholuck has edited a number of volumes connected with the history of religious ideas in the seventeenth century, pre- paratory to a work on Rationalism. THOMPSON, The Rev. R. Anchor, M.A., a divine of the Church of Eng- land, was born in Durham in 1821. After being educated at the School and. University of Durham, he graduated at THO 372 THO Cambridge. He was Curate of Louth, and of Binbrooke, Lincolnshire, and is now Master of the Hospital of St. Mary the Virgin at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, an ancient foundation in the patronage of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of that town. He published a volume of sermons in 1853; " Christian Theism," the Burdett Prize Treatise, in 1855; and " Principles of Natural Theology," in 1857. THOMPSON, Major - General Thomas Perronet, political reformer and author, was born at Hull in 1783, where his father was a banker, holding a high position as a man of business, and also as a member of the Wesleyan connexion. He was educated at the Grammar School at Hull, and made great progress. From thence he pro- ceeded to Queen's College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B.A. in 1801. In 1803 he entered the navy as midship- man in the ' ' Isis, " the flag-ship of Vice- Admiral Gambier, on the Newfound- land station. On returning home he was put on board the "Pomona" frigate, one of the vessels which blockaded the French coast during the war. He remained till 1805 in that service, and during the interval was elected to a Fellowship at Queen's College, Cam- bridge. He longed, however, for mili- tary service, and in the spring of 1806 he entered the Rifle Corps as second lieutenant. He proceeded with his regiment to Buenos Ayres, and was made prisoner in the attack of September, 1807. After his return to England, he was induced to accept the Governorship of Sierra Leone, and one of his first acts was to issue a pro- clamation for the suppression of the slave-trade in that colony. He found, however, that the slave-dealers were in combination against him ; they used every effort to thwart his measures, but he was firm. They then complain- jed to Lord Castlereagh; and though Governor Thompson had done no more than carry out the acts of the legisla- ture, he was ordered home. He arrived in England in 1810, and two years after- wards was appointed to a lieutenancy in the 7th Fusileers. In 1813 and 1814 he served against the French in Spain ; but he was always a student, and he wrote in the camp his treatise on morals and law. In 1814 he composed a work entitled " On a Constitution." In 1814 he became Captain in the 30th Foot, which he afterwards exchanged for the 17th Light Dragoons, then serving in India. He served with honour in the Pindaree campaign, and accompanied Sir William Keir Grant in 1819, as Arabic interpreter in that commander's expedition to the Persian Gulf, drawing up a treaty with the Arab tribes, which declared trading in slaves to be piracy. In 1825 he was promoted to an un- attached Majority ; in 1829 advanced to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel un- attached ; and in 1854 he was gazetted Major- General. Retired from military service, he turned his attention to litera- ture and politics. On the establishment of the "Westminster Review" in 1824, under the auspices of Jeremy Bentham and Dr. Bowring, he contributed a paper on the " Instrument of Ex- change." Five years afterwards he became joint proprietor of the "Re- view " with Dr. Bowring, and wrote regularly in its pages until 1836, when it changed hands. In the meantime his "True Theory of Rent," and the "Corn Law Catechism," appeared. His writings embraced a multitude of subjects, and were at once racy, vigor- ous, and pointed. Free-trade, Reform, Slavery, Catholic and Jewish Disabi- lities, Property Tax, Flogging, Music, Mathematics, and various other topics of the day, were treated by him with masterly skill. His friends desiring to see him in Parliament, put him forward before several constituencies, but without THO 373 TIM success until 1835, when he was re- turned for Hull, his native town. At the general election of 1837 he was not returned, but afterwards sat for Bradford, and after five years' absence from Parliament was elected again in 1857. He does not sit in the present Parliament. His writings were col- lected in 1842, and published in six volumes. He has always been regarded as one of the most consistent reformers of the day. THOMS, William, an English anti- quary, was born in Westminster, November 16th, 1803. Mr. Thorns has led an official life. Originally placed in the Secretary's office, Chelsea Hospital, he has been for some years clerk of the printed papers in the House of Lords, employing his spare time in writing articles for various periodicals, and pub- lishing works of antiquarian interest. He is a Fellow of the Societies of An- tiquaries of London, Edinburgh, and Copenhagen. As the originator and editor of " Notes and Queries," for the last ten years Mr. Thorns has become well known in literary circles, and his paper has been the medium of some most interesting and useful additions to the facts of literature and history. THORNEYCROFT, Mrs. Mary, a sculptor, was born at Thornham, Nor- folk, in 1814. Inheriting the tastes and talents of her father, Mr. John Francis,, the eminent sculptor, she spent much of her youth in modelling busts and figures. At the age of twenty she exhi- bited " Penelope," and " Ulysses and his Dog," at the Royal Academy, and subsequently the " Flower Girl," a statue of great beauty and careful exe- cution. Having married in 1840, she afterwards proceeded with her husband to Italy. At Rome she modelled two graceful pieces, " Sappho " and the " Sleeping Child," and through the sculptor Gibson, Mrs. Thorney croft was recommended to Queen Victoria, as the fittest artist to execute statues of the* royal children. So satisfactory were, the works which emanated from her chisel that she has ever since enjoyed the patronage of the Court. Mrs. Thorneycroft's productions are charac- terised by grace, strength, and poetic conception, in her representations of children. A statue lately executed for the Queen, representing the Princess Beatrice floating in the shell of a Nau- tilus, is probably her best work of this kind, being singularly original in design, and happy in arrangement. TICKNOR, George, an American author, was born at Boston, Massa- chusetts, on 1st August, 1791. After graduating at Dartmouth College, he followed the legal profession, and was called to the bar in 1813 ; but pre- ferring literature, he determined to abandon the law. He accordingly sailed for Europe, and spent some time in studying at the leading universities, devoting himself chiefly to philology. On arriving in America, in 1819, he was installed Professor of Modern Languages at the Harvard University, a position he held for several years, and one in which he acquired great distinction. In 1835 he paid another visit to Europe, and during his stay devoted special attention to ancient Spanish literature. The results of his investigation were em- bodied in a work which he published in 1849, entitled " History of Spanish Literature." This production is one of the most valuable that has appeared of its class, and has achieved a high repu- tation for its author, both in his own and other countries. His other works are of a minor character, but they have, how- ever, in every case, been well received, TIMBS, John, F.S.A., an English compiler, was born in London, August 17, 1801. He was for many years editor of the "Mirror," one of the first attempts made to establish the now popular cheap press j it was published weekly, at the TIT 374 TIT price of twopence. Mr. Timbs is the author of " The Curiosities of London," a volume of 800 pages, comprising all the information that could be gleaned, historical and statistical, concerning the capital of England, published in 1855, and the produce of many years' labour and research. It has been followed by " Things not Generally Known," a series of five volumes ; " The School Days of Eminent Men," "Stories of Inventions and Discoveries," and two volumes of Anecdote Biography. Mr. Timbs has also edited the "Arcana of Science," and "The Year-book of Facts," in 33 volumes. He was for fifteen years one of the editors of the "Illustrated London News," but withdrew from its manage- ment in the beginning of 1858. TITE, William, an English archi- tect, M.P., and F.R.S., was born in the city of London early in the present cen- tury. He was articled to Mr. Laing, the architect of the new Custom House, and while still his pupil had the entire charge and management of rebuilding the church of St. Dunstan-in-the-East. His next important work was the erec- tion of a very large Gothic church in Regent- square, for the celebrated Edward Irving. His connexion with the rail- ways having commenced, he built the stations in London, Southampton, and Gosport, for the South-Western Rail- way, and rebuilt the great terminus for the North- Western in Liverpool. He also built the station for the Blackwall Railway. In 1846 he was appointed architect for the new Royal Exchange, and since that time Mr. Tite has had one of the largest architectural connexions in England and France, but principally in London. He was the architect of the Missionary College, Blomfield- street ; the Chapel for Mr. Binney, on Fish- street-hill ; and many of our largest commercial buildings and establish- ments. In France he erected the large station at Havre, for the Rouen and Havre line, and all the intermediate stations, up to Rouen. At Rouen he built the two large stations for the Paris and Rouen line. Mr. Tite was elected a F.R.S. and F.S.A. in 1835; and has been on the councils of both societies. He was President of the Architectural Society, until it merged in the Institute. Mr. Tite is also a Fellow of the Geological, Statistical and other learned societies. In 1854 he was first returned member for Bath, in the place of Mr. Phinn. He has been three times returned for the same constitu- ency, and has exerted himself very much in Parliament on questions con- nected with lunacy, having obtained the appointment of a select commission on that subject, which has sat for two sessions. His exertions, with reference to the Foreign Office, are well known ; particularly on the vexed question of the adoption of the Gothic style for civil buildings, of which he has shown himself a determined opponent. Since his return to Parliament he has been less active in the practice of his profession. His last work is a small memorial church at Gerrard's-cross, in a Romanesque style, which is a bold de- parture from ordinary types, and has thereby attracted much notice and re- mark. TITLENS, Teresa, a vocalist and actress, was born at Hamburgh, in the summer of 1834. Her parents were of Hungarian extraction. During her early years her taste and proficiency in music were so remarkable as to have attracted the notice of her friends ; and she was accordingly, at twelve years of age, placed under a professor in her native town, from whom she received a course of preliminary instruction. The brilliancy and compass of voice thus early developed, at once indicated the profession to which she ought to devote herself ; and being sent to Vienna, she studied under some of the most eminent TOD 375 TOD masters in that city, and thus prepared herself for a career in which she has become so successful. She made her debut at Hamburgh, in the rdle of " Lu- crezia," in 1849, and subsequently spent some time in that city. In 1850 she sang at the Imperial Theatre at Vienna, as " Donna Anna" in "Don Giovanni." In 1858 she made her appearance before an English audience in her Majesty's Theatre, as "Valentiue" in "Les Huguenots," and subsequently as "Leonora," in "II Trovatore." She then returned to Vienna. In 1859. she again visited London, and in the present year (1860) has taken the foremost position in her profession, and is at the present time one of the most popular vocalists connected with the stage. TODLEBEN, Francis Edward, a Russian General of Engineers, was born at Mitau, in Courland, on 8th May, 1818. His father, who was a merchant in easy circumstances, bestowed upon him the advantages of a good education. He entered the engineering school of St. Petersburg at the age of fourteen, and the Grenadier Corps of Sappers, with the rank of Lieutenant. From 1841 to 1848, General de Schilder, a very distin- guished artillery officer, employed him specially in preparing projects for the attack and defence of fortifications, which he was afterwards to carry out under the superintendence of the general. Raised to the rank of Captain in 1845, he was sent in 1848 to the Caucasus, to take part in the attacks upon several strongholds among the mountains of Daghestan, where Schamyl, the native general and prophet, offered a deter- mined resistance ; and rendered efficient service at the siege of GherghebiL He was next concerned in the expeditions against the fortresses of Arctati and Tschoch. In 1851 Todleben was named Aide-de-camp to General de Schilder, then at Warsaw. Entering, in 1852, the Engineers of the Guard at St, Petersburg, he worked incessantly for two years, studying projects of attack and defence against fortresses construct- | ed upon the newest principles of fortifi- cation, and superintended, at the same time, the works which the battalions of the Sappers of the Guard executed at the camp of Peterhof. These were inspected by the Emperor Nicholas, who, having been an Officer of Engineers previous to his accession to the throne, took an especial interest in this department of the service. In 1854 Captain Todleben was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant - Colonel, when General de Schilder, then commanding the artillery in the army of the Danube, asked his assistance as the officer in whom he had the greatest confidence. Todleben was present at all the engagements, which at this period took place between the Rus- sian and Turkish troops, and also served at the siege of Silistria. In the month of August, 1854, Prince Gortchakoff, Commander-in-Chief of the army of the Danube, suspecting the projects of the Allies against the Crimea, and alarmed about the fate of Sebas- topol, which was extremely weak on the land side, despatched Colonel Tod- leben, on his own authority, to Prince Menschikoff, recommending him in the warmest manner. Until the disem- barkation of the allied army, Lieute- nant-Colonel Todleben was not en- trusted with any official employment at Sebastopol. He was not idle, however. He studied the character of the ground carefully, at the same time making the acquaintance of the Admirals Nachi- moff, Carniloff, and Istomine, who formed a high opinion of his abilities. Prince Menschikoff at length entrusted him with the defence of Sebastopol, and his astonishing success is well known. In the month of September, 1854, on the personal recommendation of Prince Menschikoff, the Emperor Nicholas raised him to the rank of Colonel, and TEE 376 TRO in March, 1855, to that of General of his Military household ; and in Septem- ber of the same year, to the rank of Aide-de-camp General. .Recalled to St. Petersburg after the fall of the southern part of Sebastopol, General Todleben was entrusted with new works of defence ; in the first place to fortify Nicolaieff, and afterwards to pro- tect Cronstadt from the attack which the prolongation of the war left too much reason to fear would be made. Since the peace, General Todleben has had no active employment. His health has been severely affected by a wound caused by a balL which passed through his right leg under the knee during the siege of Sebastopol. TRENCH, Very Rev. Richard Che- nevix, Dean of Westminster, a scholar, poet, and divine, was born at Dublin in September, 1807, and graduated at Cambridge in 1829, after which he spent some years in travelling abroad. While holding the incumbency of Curdridge, Hants, he published in 1838, two volumes of poems. These having been well received by the public, were followed by "Genoveva," "Elegiac Poems," and " Poems from Eastern Sources," which also elicited favourable notices. In 1841 he became Curate to the present Bishop of Oxford, at Alverstoke, and after- wards Rector of Itchinstoke. He was also Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge, and in 1847 he was appointed to the im- portant office of Theological Professor in King's College, London. On the death of Dr. Buckland, which caused a vacancy in the Deanery of Westminster, he was nominated to that office, which he con- tinues to fill. His sermons are con- sidered eloquent and impressive. Those preached at the special services for the working classes delivered at West- minster Abbey, have been attended by very crowded congregations. He has published several works on theological subjects; among these are, "Notes on the Parables," "Notes on the Miracles," "The Sermon on the Mount," &c; and his Lectures on the "English Lan- guage," and on the "Study of Words," have had a large circulation. TROLLOPE, Mrs. Frances, an English authoress, was born in 1791, at Heckfield, Hampshire. The education of the young lady was excellent, and she was naturally gay and thoughtful by turns. At the age of nineteen, she married Mr. Anthony Trollope, bar- rister- at-law, and a few years afterwards was left a widow. In 1829 she visited America, and prolonged her stay there for about three years. In 1832, Mrs. Trollope published her " Domestic Life of the Americans," a work which caused a sensation in Britain, and created ex- treme excitement in the United States. Mrs. Trollope continued to write, pro- ducing book after book, on a variety of subjects novels, travels, society, nothing came amiss to her flying pen. A con- siderable portion of her life was spent in travel, and to this source may be as cribed numbers of her most vigorous delineations of character and manners. Mrs. Trollope has written and published no fewer than 102 volumes, all of which have been more or less popular according to their groundwork a sufficient proof of her industry and facility of composi- tion. " The Vicar of Wrexhill," " The Widow Barnaby," " The Widow Mar- ried," "The Barnabys in America," "Eustace," "Petticoat Government," and " The Lauringtons," are among the best specimens of her novels ; of her travels, the jottings in America, Ger- many, Paris, and Vienna, are charac- terised by keen observation and an evi- dent desire to suppress no truth. Mrs. Trollope at present resides abroad. TROUBRIDGE, Colonel Sir Tho- mas St. Vincent Hope Cochrane, Bart., C.B., was born in 1817, and is the son of Admiral Sir Edward Trou- bridge, and grandson of the famous Sir TUL 377 UHL Thomas Troubridge, who served at Aboukir. Joining the army in 1834, he saw comparatively little active service until the war in the Crimea, when, as Major of the 7th Royal Fusileers, he became attached to Sir George Brown's division, and assisted in forcing the pas- sage of the Alma. At Inkermann he commanded the outposts, sustaining the shock of the Russian attack with a heroism which adds to the lustre of the British arms. Even when seriously wounded, he remained on the field ; and while his limbs were but partially bandaged, he continued his command. In January, 1855, he returned to England, having, the year before, re- ceived the brevet rank of Lieut. -Colonel, and soon after arriving at home, he was promoted to be full Colonel, and honoured with the decoration of C.B. TULLOCH, The Rev. John, D.D., Principal and Professor of Divinity of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews, was born in 1823, at Dron, Perthshire. He studied at St. Andrews, and was then licensed as a preacher in the Church of Scotland. In 1845 he was appointed to a charge in Dundee, from which he re- moved in 1849 to the parish of Kettens, in Forfar. As a contributor to the " British Quarterly" and "North British Reviews," he first acquired literary dis- tinction, and in 1854 became Principal of St. Mary's College, at St. Andrews. He obtained the second Burnett prize in 1855, for an essay since published by the Messrs. Blackwood, on the "Being and Attributes of God." In 1859 he pub- lished his " Leaders of the Reformation : embracing Sketches of Luther, Calvin, Latimer, and Knox." T U P P E R , Martin Farquhar, D.C.L., F.R.S., a literary writer, was born in London, 1810. He was educated at the Charter House, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1831, and was afterwards called to the bar. The first work which brought his name into celebrity, was "Proverbial Philosophy," a book which has reached upwards of forty editions in England alone. It was followed by " The Crock of Gold," "A Modern Pyramid," "An Author's Mind," "A Thousand Lines," "Heart," "The Twins," "Ballads for the Times," "^Esop Smith," "Stephen Langton," "Paterfamilias' Diary," and a multitude of lyrical and national poems, among which the most noticeable for their public influence were those which bore upon our relationships with America, and upon the Rifle movement in England. TURKEY, Sultan of. (See Abdul Medjid.) UHLAND, Johann Ludwig, a Ger- man poet, was born at Tubingen, in 1787, educated in its public schools, and adopted law as a profession. Before he entered upon the study of law, Uhland was a poet ; and his muse, like the muse of Burns intensely national found a fitting theme in the French aggression of the first Napoleon. In a series of soul-stirring lyrics he denounced the Gallic invaders of the Fatherland. The popularity of these patriotic effusions may be guessed from the fact that, before 1846, seventeen editions had been called for. From 1819, he became a member of the Representative Assembly of Wur- temburg, gaining by his superior abilities and varied information, a preponderating influence. In 1830 he was appointed Professor of the German Language and Literature in the university of his native town. In 1844-45 he published a work, doing for German, what Scott had done so well for Scottish, minstrelsy an ad- mirable collection of ancient High and Low popular German songs. In 1848 he was elected to represent Tubingen in the United German National Assembly, in which he spoke and acted with the democratic party. Uhland, in addition to his poetry, has also given the world some superior prose compositions, chiefly ULL 378 VAN devoted to the elucidation of northern mythology. His songs are, however, the most valuable of his literary produc- tions, and have become highly popular. ULLMAN, Karl, a German theo- logical writer and historian, was born at Eptenbach, in the neighbourhood of Heidelberg, in 1796. He received the rudiments of his education at Heidelberg, and afterwards continued his more ad- vanced studies in that university, at Tubingen, and Berlin. In 1819 he re- turned to Heidelberg, and in 1821 was appointed Extraordinary Professor of Theology, and subsequently he obtained a chair as Ordinary Professor. From Heidelberg he was called to the Uni- versity of Halle, to fill a similar post there, and in this place he continued to lecture to a numerous auditory until 1836, when he returned to Heidelberg as Professor of Theology. In 1857 he was appointed a member of the Church Council, which situation he continues to fill. He is favourable to a Christian union of sects, in conformity with the theological and ecclesiastical views en- tertained by Neander, J. Muller, and others. Since 1828, he has edited a journal bearing the name of "Theo- logical Expositions and Criticisms. ' ' His other works are " The Reformers before the Reformation," "The Sinlessness of Jesus," and several treatises against David Strauss, most of which have been translated into English and other European languages. URQUHART, David, an English publicist and political writer, was born at Cromarty, in 1805. He studied at Oxford, where he chiefly devoted him- self to the Oriental languages and poli- tical economy. In 1827 he accompanied Lord Cochrane to Greece, and laboured indefatigably to procure the internal prosperity of that country. After the Peace of Adrianople, he visited Turkey, and on his return to England in 1831, he published his first work on "Turkey and its Resources, " which was devoted to administrative questions. He published afterwards another work on " England and Turkey," which was the political complement to his former book. Some time after, he travelled through Ger- many, Turkey, Persia, and the principal part of Asia, observing and noting the political and commercial influence of Russia in these countries. During his stay at Constantinople, he wrote and published various books and pamphlets directed to the exposure of projects of the Muscovite despotism. These pub- lications attracted attention by the fear- less and able manner in which the author developed his views. Appointed Secre- tary to the Turkish Embassy by Lord Palmerston in 1835, he became still more intimately acquainted with Russian policy. Disagreeing on this subject with our Minister at Constantinople, he re- signed his office and returned to England, and, with a hardihood that no man not sure of his ground would venture to dis- play, he accused Lord Palmerston of playing foolishly into the hands of the Czar. In 1840 he published "The Crisis," showing the relation in which the four Great Powers of Europe stood to each other. In 1847 he was elected member for Stafford, but lost his seat in 1852. His strong views in reference to our foreign policy, have tended to alienate many who would otherwise have supported him, and during late years he has rarely appeared in public on political questions. VANDENHOFF, John, a dramatic performer, was born 31st March, 1790, at Salisbury. He is of Dutch origin, his grandfather having been an Amsterdam merchant. After the ordinary schooling of boys brought up in a city, he was sent to the College of Stonyhurst, Lanca- shire, at one period entertaining a strong fancy for an ecclesiastical life. He re- mained at Stonyhurst for about three years, but a change having come over VAN 379 VAU his views, he returned home and thought of other pursuits. For a few months he tried the drudgery of a solicitor's office, but at the age of sixteen he did not much relish that occupation, and he abandoned it for a sub-preceptorship of a grammar school in the Isle of Wight. He remained in that situation for nearly two years. The reading and study of Shakspeare, however, suggested the idea of the stage as a profession more con- sistent with his tastes than commerce or teaching. His first appearance as an actor was made on the boards of his native city, where he undertook the arduous declamatory character of ' Os- mond' in Monk Lewis's "Castle Spectre," a drama of peculiar romantic construction. Mr. Vandenhoff could scarcely have chosen a more trying part ; but his success was such, that his friends urged a re-appearance in the following week as 'Octavian' in Colman's "Mountaineers," another part which draws on all the powers of an actor. The theatre was crowded, and the ap- plause was such that the stage was resolved upon as his profession. An old friend and correspondent of Garrick, Mr. James Wickens, was lavish in his approbation of the young actor's efforts. Provincial engagements were at once secured ; Cheltenham, Taunton, Exeter, and Weymouth, giving him scope for the exercise of his talents. At Wey- mouth he acted with Edmund Kean, before that great performer appeared in London ; and as Mr. Vandenhoff pos- sessed a versatility which falls to the lot of few performers, he did anything and everything until May, 1814, when he appeared in Liverpool as 'Rolla' in "Pizarro." This was his starting-point on the path of fame ; his reception was enthusiastic beyond precedent, and in Liverpool and Manchester he enjoyed, for six seasons, all the honours of a high reputation and as substantial proofs of regard as ever fell to a provincial actor. In December, 1820, he appeared first in London as ' King Lear,' and played at Covent Garden amid rapturous applause. This part was followed by ' Coriolanus, ' in which he has had no competitor since the days of Kemble. Mr. Macready having preceded him in London, he relinquished his engage- ment and made a tour of the provinces, playing his favourite characters with marked success. In 1834 he re- visited London, and appeared for the second time as 'Coriolanus,' which, after an interval of fourteen years, he played with distinguished ability. Mr. Bunn secured his services for Covent Garden and Drury Lane. His subsequent per- formance of Adrastus,' in the tragedy of "Ion" at the Haymarket, was re- markably fine. In 1837 he visited America, where he met with great suc- cess. In September, 1838, he re-ap- peared at Covent Garden, then under the management of Mr. Macready, after- wards visiting America. In 1841 he accepted an engagement from Charles Kemble, and continued to perform in London and in the provinces, until October 29th, 1858, when he retired finally from the stage, after fulfilling a round of engagements in the principal theatres of the United Kingdom. -At Liverpool, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, he was always a special favourite, and was received with the respect and esteem due to a gentleman, a scholar, and an accomplished artist. VAUGHAN, The Rev. Robert, D.D., a Nonconformist divine and critic, editor of the "British Quarterly Re- view," was born towards the close of the last century. Educated at Bristol, he became Professor of History in the London University, where he remained for several years. In 1842, he removed to Manchester, becoming President of the Lancashire Independent College. He retained the presidency until 1857, when the failing health of his family obliged VEL 3 him to resign. He projected the "British Quarterly Review" in 1844, and has been its editor ever since. He was sneered at originally when starting the "British Quarterly" by some of those who might have been expected to have hailed his disinterested effort to elevate Nonconformist literature. The distinguished success of that review has shown that the powers of its projector are of no common order. He has pub- lished numerous works, chiefly on theo- logical and church history matters, and on popular education. VELPEAU, Alfred Armand Louis Marie, a French surgeon, was born at the little village of Briche, near Tours, in May, 1795, where his father was a country blacksmith and veterinary sur- geon. In his early days, young Velpeau assisted at his father's craft, but owing to an accidental circumstance, he at- tracted the attention of a country gentle- man, M. Ducan, who procured the means of sending him to Tours to study. His progress was rapid, though he had to endure many privations, for he was gifted with great decision of character. When admitted to the Hospital of Tours, he studied night and day, passing through the courses of Latin, French, geography, history, anatomy, physiology, and all the medical branches, with such success, that he was soon admitted a pupil in surgery, and then received as an officer of health. In 1818 he achieved the rank of first scholar, and soon after formed the hazardous resolution of re- pairiDg to Paris. He carried this reso- lution into effect ; attended the hospitals ; received the highest honours from the Ecole Pratique; was named an ana- tomical assistant ; added daily to his reputation ; and eventually obtained his diploma as doctor in 1823. After several years of laborious practice, M. Velpeau was named, in 1830, Surgeon to the Hdpital de la Pitig ; in 1835 he carried the chair of Clinical Surgery of the 10 VER Faculty of Medicine at the H6pital de la Charite ; and in 1842, he was called to supply the Academic Chair, left vacant by the decease of the eminent M. Larrey. He has discharged all his public offices with distinguished ability; he holds a first place among the surgeons of Paris, is an admirable operator, and possesses remarkable influence with the profes- sion. He is a very voluminous author in the vast domain of surgery, and his works are received by the faculty as standard authorities. VERDI, Giuseppe, an Italian com- poser, author of a number of operas, some of which are among the most suc- cessful that have been produced during the last twenty years, was born at Roucole, Parma, 9th of October, 1814, and is son of an innkeeper of that town. He received his first lessons from an obscure organist, but soon surpassed his master. From 1833 to 1836 he studied at Milan, under the direction of Lavigna. In 1839 he produced bis first work at Milan, a musical drama entitled "Oberto di San Bonifazio," which was tolerably well received ; but his next totally failed, and he was so discouraged that for ten months he ceased to write. The year following his "Nabucco," re- presented at La Scala during the Car- nival of 1842, was so successful that he became recognised as a composer. He wrote rapidly afterwards, "Ernani" adding to his reputation. His operas best known in this country are, "II Rigoletfco," "II Trovatore," and "La Traviata," and he ranks at the present time as one of the most popular of living composers, VERNET, Horace, a French histo- rical painter, was born at Paris in 1789. His early days were passed in compara- tive poverty, and his taste for art was employed in various humble ways in gain- ing him a bare livelihood. His first exhi- bition was in 1809, and having chosen military incidents for illustration, the VER 381 VER popular taste soon showed its apprecia- tion of his productions. In 1812 he received a medal ; in 1814 became a Che- valier of the Legion of Honour ; and in 1825 an Officer of the same order. His reputation being now established, he changed his style of painting, and adopted historical subjects. Amongst his productions of this class are his "Judith and Holofernes," "The Ar- rest of the Princes, by order of Anne of Russia," " The School of Rafaelle," &c. In 1849 he painted his "Taking of Rome by Oudinot ;" and in 1855 received a me- dal of honour at the Exposition Univer- sale at Paris. Besides the subjects above enumerated, M. Vernet has produced others in various departments of the art, and is one of the most prolific painters of the day. VERON, Louis Desire, a French writer and journalist, was born at Paris in April, 1798. He has been by turns a Doctor of Medicine, a writer on the laws of nations, a deputy to the Corps Legislatif, and a director of the Opera. He commenced his studies under an ex- priest, and finished them at the Lycee Imperial, in 1816. He first chose the profession of medicine for the exercise of his talents, and having passed the usual course of study he was named, in 1821, a house surgeon to the hospitals. In 1823 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, and in 1824 he published at intervals, in a sort of pamphlet form, the results of his medical observations, at the same time that he filled the post of di- rector of the Opera. These publications led to his being noticed by the Duke of Orleans, and in 1824, to his appoint- ment to the office of Medecin des Musees Royaux. For the benefit of the children of a deceased apothecary and chemist, M. Regnauld, Dr. Veron entered into a speculation connected with the once famed jtffe Regnauld, a pectoral paste bearing the name of the inventor. He embarked his all in the undertaking ; his relations with a number of the journals gave notoriety to the pdte ; and Dr. Veron, while doing a good action for the children of Regnauld, established the basis of a fortune for himself. In 1828 he relinquished medicine and de- voted himself to journalism, first join- ing the "Quotidienne," afterwards the " Messager des Chambres," and then founding the "Revue de Paris." In 1831 Dr. Veron became the responsible director of the Opera, and superintended the production of a number of the finest works on the modern lyric stage. This situation he abandoned in 1835, but his active spirit could not remain without employment, and he chose political ground. Being defeated in an election he returned once more to the journals, and becoming proprietor of the " Con- stitutional," he imparted new vitality to its columns. He supported the policy of M. Thiers at the revolution of 1848, but in 1849 he broke with the ex-minis- ter, and supported Louis Napoleon. The coup d'etat of 1851 found an advocate in Dr. Veron, and, as a known government candidate, he was elected to the Corps Legislatif for the Arrondissement of Sceaux, and re-elected in 1857. In the mean time he continued to conduct the " Constitutional ;" but dissenting from some points of the Emperor's policy, he was twice warned. Legal proceedings had also been taken against the journal, but though he was victorious in these conflicts the conjunction of misadven- tures induced him to close with the most eligible of the offers made for the pur- chase of his paper. In possession of a handsome fortune acquired by time, abi- lity, and enterprise, Dr. Veron lives tran- quilly, and when he does write, writes with a piquancy almost unknown to the present journalists of Paris. He is the author of a few volumes, apart from his newspaper contributions ; and since 1852 he has been an officer of the Legion of Honour. VEU I VEUILLOT, Louis, a French author and journalist, was born in 1813, at Boynes en Gatinais. He is the son of a poor working cooper, with whom he went to Paris in 1818, and picked up sufficient reading and writing to enable him, at thirteen years of age, to fill some small place in an attorney's office. Though his education was deficient, his literary instincts were strong, and he entered with courage on the noble work of self- instruction. He was only nineteen when he wrote his first articles for a ministe- rial journal. His style was so vigorous, and his polemical power so decided, that he was challenged to two duels, one with an actor for a criticism, and the other with a brother journalist of repub- lican sentiments. He subsequently be- came editor in chief of several newspapers until, in 1837, he was appointed princi- pal editor of "La Paix." His fearless style of writing, and the resolute cha- racter of his attacks, were fast drifting him into an untoward and unenviable position when, in 1838, one of his friends suggested a visit to Italy. He arrived in Rome during Holy Week ; his fancy was inflamed by the religious spectacles of the city ; he was presented to the Pope ; and when he returned to Paris he was no longer the same man, having cast aside his semi-scepticism to make way for an ecclesiastical faith. He pub- lished several works on the Roman Ca- tholic Church, and accompanied General Bugeaud to Africa, in the capacity of >2 VIA likewise published a variety of works tending to promote the adoption of his views by those who read them. He con- ducted the " Univers" until the begin- ning of the present year, when his language and his method of conducting controversies were found so dangerous to the state, that the Emperor of the French caused a decree to be promul- gated suppressing the journal. It is understood that M. Veuillot has re- moved to Brussels. In matters of church polity M. Veuillot is determined, even to obstinacy ; in his contests he is implacable ; more a theorist than an ob- server of cause and effect, he believes Ultramontanism to be the only true prin- ciple by which the world should be ruled ; but it must not be denied that though his defects are many, he is sin- cerely religious according to his belief. VIARDOT, Pauline Garcia, a French vocalist, daughter of Emmanuel Garcia, and sister to Malibran, was born at Paris, in 1821. She exhibited the highest order of musical talent at an early age, and after visiting England and America with her parents, returned to Paris in 1828, and received lessons of Liszt. She afterwards devoted herself to the study of vocal music, and visiting London in 1839, appeared in "Otello" and " Cenerentola." making a most suc- cessful dSbut. Returning to Paris, she married M. Louis Viardot, Director of the Italian Opera. Again visiting Lon- don in 1841, she afterwards proceeded secretary. On his return M. Veuillot to Madrid, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and was appointed Chief Secretary to the Minister of the Interior, and in 1848 be- came the chief editor of the "Univers," a journal established for the sole purpose of promoting the interests and progress of the Ultramontane party generally. Fired with zeal, M. Veuillot assailed universities, philosophy, philosophers, revolutionists, socialists, and any or every system not immediately conform- able to the dictates of the Vatican. He Berlin. In 1848 she appeared at Covent Garden. Madame Viardot has attained to the highest position in her profession, and is also one of the most accomplished cantatrices of the time, speaking with fluency the Spanish, Italian, French, German, and English languages. Her repertoire is very extensive, and she has filled various rdles in the compositions of Gluck, Mozart, Beethoven, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, and Meyerbeer, and VIC 383 VIC has sung most of them in French, Ger- man, and Italian. VICTOR EMMANUEL II., Maria Alberto Eugenio Ferdinando To- maso, King of Sardinia, son of Charles Albert, by a Princess of the House of Hapsburg, was born on the 14th of March, 1820, and until the resignation of the Sardinian crown in his favour, by his father, was known by the title of Duke of Savoy. In 1842 he married the Archduchess Adelaide, of Austria. When Charles-Albert took the field against Austria, the present King of Sardinia took part in the struggle. On the fatal issue of the battle of Novara, his father's abdication gave to him a tottering throne. The hopes of the Piedmontese were by no means high when, after the ruin of the national cause at Novara, they beheld their new King entering Turin. At Genoa, so great was the distrust of the new govern- ment, that the republican party rose in rebellion. General Delia Marmora, how- ever, crushed the revolt. But, though not disposed to succumb to the repub- licans, Victor Emmanuel was as little inclined to accept Austrian absolutism. Even with so tempting a bait as Parma, he refused to give up constitutionalism. Peace with Austria was scarcely ratified, when the policy of Rome, which sought to engross temporal, in virtue of its spiritual jurisdiction, found in the Sar- dinian monarch an uncompromising foe. The assumption of the Church was effec- tually checked. Time rolled on, and the liberal policy of Victor Emmanuel de- veloped itself. The Crimean war arose a military convention between France and England was concluded General Marmora was despatched to the aid of the allied powers, and on the banks of the Tchernaya gave full proof of the valour of Sardinia. The King visited France and England in 1855, receiving in London and Paris the most enthusi- astic reception. Since that time he has still further cemented the alliance with France, by giving the hand of his daughter the Princess Clotilde to Prince Napoleon, the cousin of the Emperor; and France and Sardinia successfully combated in 1859, on the ancient battle- fields of Italy, against Austrian ascend- ancy in the Italian peninsula, causing the Austrian Emperor to withdraw his claims to govern in Lombardy, and annexing that state to the Sardinian crown. For this assistance on the part of the Emperor of the French, Victor Emmanuel ceded the territories of Nice and Savoy, a course which has been highly condemned in this and other countries. Since the peace of Villa- franca, the Italians have been ready to break out in open insurrection against the Neapolitan and Papal governments, and only required a leader to cause them to throw off their allegiance. They found one in Garibaldi, who, in less than four months previous to this time (October, 1860), has delivered Sicily, Naples, and many provinces of the Papal States. Victor Emmanuel has thought it necessary to enter the Papal domin- ions with an army, and his general, Cialdini, has succeeded in defeating the forces of the Pope in the north, whilst Garibaldi, simultaneously, has put the King of Naples and his army to flight, near Capua. Victor Emmanuel is just about to enter Naples, and thus to annex the major part of the Italian peninsula to his dominions. VICTORIA, Alexandrina, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India, was born at Kensington Palace, May the 24th, 1819, and is the only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, the fourth son of George III., and of Maria Louisa Victoria, a daughter of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Ceburg Saalfeld, and sister of the King of the Belgians. The Duke of Kent died in 1820, leaving to his widow the care of their infant VIC 384 VIG daughter. Subsequently, the Duchess of Northumberland was associated with her in this charge. As the heiress of the throne advanced in years, she re- ceived a careful and complete instruc- tion in all the varied branches of a liberal education. On the 20th of June, 1837, she ascended the throne; and on February the 10th, 1840, r was married to Prince Albert, second son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The family of her Majesty consists, of : 1. The Princess Royal now Princess of Prussia born November 21st, 1840; 2. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir apparent, born November 9th, 1841 ; 3. Princess Alice Maude Mary, born April 25th, 1843; 4. Prince Albert Ernest Albert, born August 6th, 1844 ; 5. Princess Helena Augusta Victoria, born May 25th, 1846 ; 6. Princess Louisa Caroline Alberta, born May 18th, 1848; 7. Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, born May 1st, 1850 ; 8. Prince Leopold George Duncan Albert, born April 7th, 1853 ; 9. Princess Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born April 15th, 1857. The constitutional freedom of the people of Great Britain, their parliamentary government, and the strict responsibility of the ministers, whom it is always in the power of the House of Commons to displace, leave but little scope either for the virtues or the vices of the sovereign, whether male or female, unless it be in the example set from so splendid and conspicuous an eminence as the throne to all the fami- lies of the kingdom. In this respect Great Britain has been highly fortunate, under the graceful sceptre and mild sway of her present Majesty, a lady who, by the exercise of every domestic and public virtue, has shown herself a model to all her female subjects, as woman, wife, and mother ; and who has endeared herself to every man in her dominions, not as a lady alone, but as the excellent pains- the widest and noblest empire on the globe. Under the rule of the two pre- ceding monarchs, royalty had become less popular than the friends of the British constitution desired to see it, and there would have been a demur if the Duke of Kent had left no issue, that the sceptre would have passed into a hand which would have still further increased that unpopularity, and pre- pared the way for commotions and per- plexities of no common magnitude. Happily, the auspicious birth of the Princess Victoria averted the evil, and her every act since her accession to the throne has tended to increase, not only the respect, but the love of the people, and to build up the throne on surer foundations than it ever before rested upon. In after periods >' The Victorian Era " bids fair to be cited, to the admi- ration of posterity, as that in which the history of England shines with the fairest lustre, and of which the principal events rival in grandeur, and surpass in fruitfulness of good, those of any pre- vious reign, since that of King Alfred. In 1855 her Majesty and the Prince Consort paid a visit to the Emperor of the French, and at the present date (October, 1860) the Queen and Prince are visiting the relations of his Royal Highness in Coburg, in company with their daughter and son-in-law, the Princess and Prince Frederick William of Prussia. VIGNY, Alfred Victor, Count de, a French poet, was born at Loches, in March, 1799. In 1814 he entered the Academical Institution of M. Hix in Paris, but, in common with his fellow- students, the passion for war overcame the love of learning. To counteract this influence, the mother of M. de Vigny procured him a private tutor, but no teaching at home could dissipate his dreams of warfare and triumph. When scarcely sixteen, and shortly after the restoration, he was appointed to the VI L 3S5 WAA household troops of Louis XVIII. , and accompanied that monarch to Ghent during the " Hundred Days. " In 1816 he joined the Infantry of the Guard, in which he continued for about seven years ; afterwards entering the Line, and taking part in the Spanish cam- paign of that period. In time, the reali- ties of active military life wore away all its romance ; and in 1828, having often previously employed his leisure in com- position, he relinquished arms and de- voted himself to literature. In 1822 he published a volume of poems, and in 1824 and in 1826 other poems appeared, the themes of which were mostly taken from the sacred writings. In 1826 his first historical romance, "Cinq Mars," was given to the world and achieved popularity. In 1832 and 18,35 he pub- lished his "Stello, ou les Diables Bleus, " and ' ' Servitude et Grandeur Militaires. " Since the latter date he has written vari- ous works, both in prose and poetry, and contributed some successful dramas to the stage. Several of his works were severely criticised, on the ground that he depicted character more from a poetical than an historical point of view, but M. de Vigny silenced hostility by the simple process of showing that a ro- mance is nothing more than its designa- tion proclaims. VILLEMAIN, Abel Francois, a French author and politician, was born in Paris, June, 1791. He was educated at the Imperial Lyceum, and being ap- pointed Professor of Rhetoric in the College Charlemagne, he obtained high reputation as a lecturer. He published two discourses in 1812 and 1814, which gained him so much celebrity, that in 1816 he was made Assistant-Professor of Modern History in the University of Paris, and subsequently became Pro- fessor of Eloquence. He had been ap- pointed to an office in the Council of State, but his politics displeased an ultra-legitimist Ministry, and in 1827 he was dismissed from all public em- ployment, and his lectures suspended. He, however, continued authorship. In 1830 he again rose in political favour. In 1833 he was made a Peer of France, and appointed Minister of Instruction, which office he resigned in 1845, owing to the state of his health. He has been Perpetual Secretary to the Academy, of which he became a member in 1821, since 1834. His works, which have been numerous, are on various subjects. His " Life of Cromwell," a new edition of "Pascal's Letters," and "Reminis- cences of Historical and Literary Con- temporaries," being the most appre- ciated. WAAGEN, Gustave Friedrich, a German art critic, was born at Ham- burgh, in February, 1794 His father being a painter and his uncle the cele- brated Tieck, he received every en- couragement to study and cultivate the arts. He was appointed in 1830, Di- rector of the Royal Gallery of Painting, at Berlin ; and, while holding this office, he effected a most satisfactory reform arranging the pictures on a chrono- logical system, so that the development of art could be traced, as far as possible, from the collection. He subsequently visited nearly all the principal galle- ries of art, both public and private, throughout the Continent and in Great Britain, afterwards publishing works on their distinctive merits. He has written much on his favourite pursuits ; but his most elaborate and important pro- duction is his "Treatise on the Works of Art and Artists in England and France," published in 1837. An edition of the English section of this work was issued in 1854, under the title of "The Treasures of Art in Great Bri- tain." To this work he has since ap- pended a "Supplement," containing an account of additional works. His most recent publication of importance is a new edition of the "Hand-book of the WAG 386 WAL History of Painting in Germany and the Low Countries." In his position as a Professor of the Royal University, at Berlin, he delivers annually, a course of lectures on the History of the Fine Arts. WAGNER, Richard, a German com- poser, was born at Leipsic, May 22, 1813, of an old and honourable family, and received a complete academical education in his native city and at Dresden His love of music was in- tense ; and he studied, for years, with the greatest assiduity visiting various cities in a professional capacity, until he reached Paris in 1841 ; from which city he passed to London. His first important work, "Rienzi," was produced in 1842 ; and in 1843 he re- turned to Germany, where he achieved an eminent position, but lost it again in 1848 through mixing himself up with the political disturbances of the time. He was obliged to quit the country, and retired to Zurich. His musical theo- ries in the exposition of which he has written extensively, and not without considerable ingenuity have elicited extreme diversities of opinion. It is not within our province to pronounce any judgment on his compositions, which, popular in Germany, are so little known in this country, that, except in a frag- mentary state, scarcely any of them have been performed. WAGNER, Rudolph, a German phy- siologist, was born at Bayreuth, in Ba- varia, on the 30th June, 1805. He studied for the medical profession at Erlangen, and also at Wurtzburg, and took his degrees in 1826. He then re- paired to Paris ; where, under the advice of Cuvier, he commenced the study of Comparative Anatomy, which has lite- rally proved the passion of his life. After a journey made for scientific purposes, through Sardinia and a large portion of France, he returned to Germany, hoping to obtain an Academic chair at Munich ; but being disappointed in that object, he settled down as a Doctor of Medicine at Augsburg ; in 1829 becoming attached, however, to the University of Erlangen in a subordinate capacity. In 1832 he was named Assistant-Professor ; in 1833, Professor of Zoology; and so rapidly did he attain to distinction in this post, that, in 1840, he was invited to Got- tingen, to replace Professor Blumenbach in the chair of Physiology. Owing to the state of his health, he was obliged to pass the winters of 1845 and 1846 in Italy. Here he made some of his most interesting experiments in electricity, as connected with the nervous system. He is, perhaps, the most ardent supporter in Germany of an ideal spiritualism, or "double life" in man. He has been a most volu- minous writer, publishing papers, tracts, and works, on physiology and psy- chology, with scarcely any intermission, for upwards of thirty years. M. Wag- ner's style will always be popular, as it is clear and precise. He is at present occupied with the publication of his "Researches on the Physiology of the Brain, with Special Reference to Psycho- logy," in the Memoirs of the Royal So- ciety of Gottingen. WALEWSKI, Floriat/ Alexandre Joseph Colonna, late French Minister for Foreign Affairs, is the son of a Polish gentleman, and was born in Poland, May, 1810. Educated in Geneva, he was remarkable for almost precocious in- telligence and spirit ; and young though he was, he proceeded to London in 1830, to win the statesmen of the day to favour the cause of Poland, after having fought for it at Grochowo. His mission not succeeding, and being on terms of friendship with the Duke of Orleans, he entered the French army, after the revolution of July. After having risen to the rank of Captain in the 4th Re- giment of Hussars, and been sent on a special mission to Abd-ei-Kader, at WAL 387 WAR Mascara, he grew wearied of a soldier's life, resigned his commission, and adopted the profession of literature. Being an ardent politician, and knowing much of the world and of society, his position in literature was soon taken ; but after writ- ing some nouvdettes and a few good plays, in 1840 his career was changed. He was appointed in the beginning of that year to a special mission to Egypt and Constantinople, and under M. Guizot, after having undertaken various mis- sions, he was sent as Minister-Plenipo- tentiary to Buenos Ayres. Returning to France before the elections of December, 1848, he resolved to follow the fortunes of Louis Napoleon, and had no reason to regret the choice. In January, 1849, he was named Envoy Extraordinary to Florence, from whence he subsequently removed to Naples and Madrid. In 1851 he became Ambassador to the Bri- tish Court ; and in 1855 he was called to fill the place of M. Drouyn de l'Huys, as Minister for Foreign Affairs. He took an active part in the proceedings which preceded and followed the war in the Crimea, and signed the treaty of April, 1856, as President of the Congress of Paris. M. Walewski retained office under Louis Napoleon until 1860, when he resigned in consequence of a dif- ference with the Emperor on Italian policy. He was succeeded as minister by M. Thouvenel. W A LP OLE, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.P., an English statesman, was born in 1806. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was highly distinguished by his abilities. He was called to the bar in 1831^ and obtained the silk gown of a Queen's Counsel in 1846. Mr. Walpole entered the House of Commons as member for Midhurst ; and in various debates of im- portance has displayed decided power. He accepted the office of Home Minister under Lord Derby. When Lord Derby's administration fell, Mr. Walpole re- signed; but on its return to power in 1858, he again took office in the same department. A difference of judgment with his colleagues, on the merits of some clauses in the Conservative Reform Bill of 1859, induced him to relinquish his post as Chief of the Home Office, and on that measure he went into opposition. He is now member for Cam- bridge University, and is respected by all parties in the House. WALTER, John, M.P., chief pro- prietor of the "Times," was born in London, in 1818, and is the son of the late John Walter, the founder of the "Times." He was educated at Eton and Oxford. In 1847 he was called to the bar of Lincoln's Inn, and in the same year he was returned for Notting- ham, which he represented till the last general election, when he was returned for the county of Berks, which his late father represented in the parliaments of 1832 and 1834. He is a liberal conserva- tive in politics. WARD, Edward Matthew, R.A., a painter, was born in London, in 1816. He became a pupil of the Royal Aca- demy in 1834, and had the advantage in his early studies of the advice of Wilkie and Chantrey. He went to Rome in 1836, and while there gained a medal for his picture of ' ' Cimabue and Giotto. " He returned to England in 1839, stop- ping at Munich on his way, to study fresco painting. For two or three years the pictures he exhibited failed to attract the attention to which their artistic merits fairly entitled them, but in 1843 his picture of "Dr. Johnson perusing the Manuscript of the Vicar of Wake- field," exhibited at the Academy, im- mediately drew public notice to the artist. The story was felicitously told ; the drawing faultless ; and the style vigorous and painstakings Next year he produced a "Scene from the Early Life of Oliver Goldsmith," and " Lo WAR 388 WAR Fleur's Departure for Montreuil ;" in 1845, "A Scene in Lord Chesterfield's Ante-room, in 1748;" and in 1846, "The Disgrace of Lord Clarendon," each successive work displaying additional power. He has painted several pictures for the New Palace at Westminster, that of "The Last Sleep of Argyle" being considered one of the best works of its class. He was elected an Asso- ciate of the Royal Academy in 1847, and Royal Academician in 1855. The fol- lowing of his pictures are at the South Kensington Museum, namely, "Doctor Johnson in the Ante-room of Lord Chesterfield," "The Disgrace of Lord Clarendon," " The South-Sea Bubble, a Scene in Change Alley, in 1720," and "James II. in his Palace of Whitehall, receiving the News of the Landing of the Prince of Orange in 1688." WARREN, Samuel, a lawyer, legal writer and novelist, Q.C., D.C.L. of Oxford, F.R.S., was born in 1807, in Denbighshire, where his father, at one time a Wesleyan minister, has been for many years a clergyman of the Church of England. He attended classes at the University of Edinburgh, with the view of entering the medical profession, but he abandoned his intentions, and after wavering for a short time between the Church and the Bar, he entered the Middle Temple as a law student. Having practised, for nearly seven years, as a special pleader, he was called to the bar in 1837. In the meantime there ap- peared in the columns of " Blackwood's Magazine" a series of papers, entitled "Passages from the Diary of a late Physician," which, although somewhat melodramatic, displayed more than or- dinary power, and attracted much notice. Of these Mr. Warren was the author; and curiously enough, the opening nar- rative of the series, entitled "Early Struggles, " had been rejected by every leading London periodical as unsuitable, and not calculated to interest the public. As a last resource, Mr. Warren for- warded his manuscript to the late Wil- liam Blackwood, of Edinburgh, by whom it was accepted. From this publisher the young author received some valuable literary hints. The "Passages" ex- cited at first some controversy as well as interest in medical circles, the author being even denounced in the ' Lancet," on the assumption that the " Diary " was a real record of medical experiences, and for violating the secrets of the sick chamber. In 1839 Mr. Warren com- menced the publication, in "Black- wood," of "Ten Thousand a Year," which was some time afterwards fol- lowed by " Now and Then," in both of which he displayed high talent as a novelist. After the great English Ex- hibition, he published a work, "The Lily and the Bee," in commemoration of that event, which has met with much hostile criticism. He is an able pleader, and has besides increased his reputation as a lawyer by the publica- tion of several excellent professional works, the best known of which are his " Introduction to Law Studies," and "Abridgment of Blackstone." He was appointed a Queen's Counsel in 1851, and Recorder of Hull in 1854. Having been returned to Parliament in 1856 for Midhurst, he made several effective speeches in the House, the best received of which, perhaps, was that delivered by him on moving the adjourned debate on the Conspiracy Bill. After Lord Derby's accession to power, Mr. Warren was, early in 1859, appointed one of the Masters in Lunacy, a situation of great responsibility and delicacy. His literary works, including all his contri- butions to " Blackwood," published in a collected form and issued in a cheap shape, have had a very wide circulation. There are numerous American editions of all his books, and translations of his fictions into most of the modern lan- guages. Even the "Lily and the Bee," WAT 389 WEB the least successful of liis works, lias been rendered in Italian. His law books have become standard works of reference, both in this country and in America, and in one or two continental universities. WATT, James Henry, an engraver, was born in London, in 1799, and at six- teen years of age commenced his artistic education with Mr. Charles Heath, than whom no man then was better calculated to convey instruction. Mr. Watt was an ardent student, but his rapid pro- gress may, to a great extent, be attri- buted to his inherent love of art and nature. The engraving of Stothard's "Procession of the Flitch of Bacon," now so widely known, was his first great happy effort, and Mr. Watt immediately attained to a high position. Landseer's " Highland Drover's Departure" is fa- miliar to the world by the engraving executed by Mr. Watt. "Horses at a Fountain," "A Court-yard," "May- Day in the Reign of Elizabeth," and " Christ Blessing Little Children," after Landseer, Leslie, and Eastlake, were also engraved by him, besides many other productions, which are as popular as they are pleasing even to the uneducated eye. WATTS, Alaric Alexander, poet and journalist, was born in London on the 16th March, 1799. Having been educated at Wye Grammar School and at Ashf ord, he spent some years in teach- ing at various schools, and eventually became private tutor in a Manchester family. He first became known to the public in 1822, when he published some poems, under the title of "Poetical Sketches," which proved highly suc- cessful. He shortly afterwards became editor of "The Leeds Intelligencer," and distinguished himself by attacking the neglect and inhumanity of the then existing factory system. Some of the suggestions he then made have since been adopted in the Factory Act, and have become imperative on mill owners. After being some time engaged on the " Manchester Courier," he proceeded to London, and edited the " Literary Souvenir," which was one of the first of the annuals, and contained prose and poetic sketches, intermingled with en- gravings, of the highest class, from pic- tures of leading painters. He became connected with the " Standard " news- paper in 1827, and subsequently the " United Service Gazette," established in 1833. Mr. Watts has now been con- nected with the press for many years, and has published an exquisitely illustrated work, entitled " Lyrics of the Heart," which includes several of his choice poems. He enjoys a pension of 100 per annum from the Civil List. WEBSTER,. Thomas, R.A., a painter, was born in London, March, 1800. He was originally a chorister at the Chapel Royal, St. James's, but his talents lay in a different direction, and he entered the Royal Academy in 1820, five years after- wards bearing away the first prize for painting. His career as an artist has been one of unbroken success. His first exhibited work, "Rebels shooting a Prisoner," was highly eulogized, as was also his " Gunpowder Plot." He has been a frequent exhibitor in the Aca- demy, the British Institution, and in the Galleries of the Society of British Artists. By 1841 his position was secured with the public, and confirmed with artists, by his election as an Asso- ciate of the Royal Academy, and he already struck out a line specially his own. He is remarkable as a genial artist, entering apparently into the frolic of the personages depicted. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1846, and has since produced some of his choicest works, " A Rubber," "See- Saw," "A Slide," "A Cherry Seller," "A Dame's School," and "Hide and Seek," all being of the highest order of merit Several of his pictures have WEN 390 WHA been engraved, and are widely known through Art Union prints. The ad- mirers of his productions will find the following in the South Kensington Museum at the present time, namely, "Sickness and Health," "Going to the Fair, " " Returning from the Fair, " " A Village Choir," "Contrary Winds," " Reading the Scriptures," "Going into School," and "A Dame's School" WENSLEYDALE, James Parke, Baron, an English lawyer, was born near Liverpool, in 1782. After receiving a preliminary education at the Maccles- field Grammar School he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated, and became a wrangler. He eventually adopted the law as his profession, and entered the Inner Temple in 1813. Mr. Parke acquired great success in his pro- fessional pursuits, and in 1834 he was appointed a Baron of the Court of Exche- quer. For many years Baron Parke held this high position to his own credit and to the satisfaction of all with whom he came in contact. In 1856 he was created Baron Wensleydale, at first only as a life peerage, but eventually, owing to the jealousy shown by the Members of the Upper House against new precedents being introduced, Baron Parke entered that assembly with all the usual privi- leges of his new rank and station. WESTMACOTT, Richard, R.A., a sculptor, was born in London, in 1799. He is the son and grandson of sculptors, his father being the celebrated Sir Richard Westmacott, from whom he received his early training. He visited Italy, where he remained from 18*20 to 1826, neglecting no opportunity of tracing the history and development of ancient classic art. Of late years monumental works and busts have chiefly occupied his attention, and pro- bably his fancy; for to judge of his mind from his productions, he is grave and reflective. In 1827 he first exhibited at the Academy. In 1837 he was elected F.R.S. ; in 1838 an Associate of the Royal Academy; in 1849 a Royal Academician ; and, in 1857, Pro- fessor of Sculpture to the Academy. Mr. Westmacott has delivered lectures on Art at the Royal and London Insti- tutions, and is otherwise distinguished for literary qualifications. " Venus and Ascanius " ( 1831 ) ; " The Cymbal Player," an admirable work (1832); "Blue Bell" -(1836); "Paolo and Francesca" (1838) ; the statues in the pediment of the Royal Exchange (1842); and " Go and Sin no More " (1850), are among his best known works. WHATELY, The Right Rev. Richard, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin, a theological and economical writer, was born in London, in 1787. The son of a prebendary of Bristol Cathedral, he was educated at Oxford, taking his B.A. degree in 1808, gaining the Uni- versity Prize for an English essay in 1810, and in 1811 becoming a Fellow of Oriel College. He was Bampton Lec- turer in 1822, and also became Rector of Haleswerth, Suffolk, in that year. In 1825 he was chosen Principal of St. Alban's Hall, Oxford. In 1831 he was consecrated Archbishop of Dublin, and Bishop of Glendalagh. Dr. Whately took an active part in founding the National System of Education in Ire- land, and materially assisted Mr. Stan- ley, now Lord Derby, then Chief Secre- tary, in bringing the plan to a successful issue. He remained a member of the Board of Irish Education until 1853, when, believing that undue concessions were being made to the Roman Catholic element, he retired from the Commission, in conjunction with Chief Justice Black - burne, and Baron Greene. As Primate of Ireland, his life has been one of in- dustry and philanthropy, his greatest attention, however, having been directed to the cause of education. The mere titles of a few of his works, which have been very numerous, are sufficient to WHE 391 WHE indicate his views. In 1819 appeared ' ' Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte," a very ingenious attempt to show the fallacy of sceptical criticism, by proving that there never was such a general in existence ; afterwards came the "Elements of Logic," the "Ele- ments of Rhetoric," "Errors of Ro- manism, traced to their Origin in Human Nature," "Introduction to Political Economy," "Thoughts on Secondary Punishments," and ' ' Remarks on Trans- portation." He was for a short time Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford, and was the principal means of founding a professor- ship of that science in Trinity College, Dublin. Archbishop Whately has never belonged to any party, political or eccle- siastical, but has carefully kept aloof from all purely political questions, and in what pertains to religion he has al- ways strenuously opposed sectarian feel- ing, having, in the Bampton Lectures and in other works, laboured to prove it to be unchristian. He is a member of the French Institute. WHEATSTONE, Charles, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosophy in King's College, London, was born at Gloucester, in 1802. In his early days he was engaged in the manufacture of musical instruments, and from studying the laws of sound seemed to have been gradually led to investigate the sciences of light and electricity. The results of some of his researches were presented to the Royal Society in 1833, in a paper on " Acoustic Figures ;" this was fol- lowed in 1834 by another " On Expe- riments to Measure the Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of the Electric Light," and in 1838 he gave the first idea of the stereoscope and the nature of binocular vision in a commu- nication entitled " Contributions to the Physiology of Vision." His scientific abilities were recognised in 1834 by his being appointed Professor of Experi- mental Philosophy in King's College. Professor Wheatstone has, however, ac- quired his high reputation by bringing out, in conjunction with Mr. Cooke, that most remarkable instance of the power of mind over matter^the Electric Tele- graph. It is no part of our province to say one word on the dispute which has arisen respecting the individual rights of these gentlemen. We will only express our regret that from the time of Sir Isaac Newton to this day, there has scarcely been an instance of a grand discovery which has not been intermingled with dSsagrtmens, which every true lover of science for its own sake has had to de- plore ; we trust, however, that the day will arrive when the consciousness of having rendered service to our fellow- creatures will be a higher reward than the mere and transient acknowledgment to be obtained by their applause. The first practical application of electricity to telegraphic purposes was made under Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone's patents, on the Black wall railway in 1838. The wires employed were made of copper, enclosed in an iron tube, each wire being separated from its neighbour by some non-conducting material. Even- tually the present needle-telegraph was perfected, and the wires, now of iron, suspended on poles raised on the banks of railways. To so great an ex- tent has this mode of instantaneous communication been adopted, that at the present time a message may be sent and received in every or any part of Eu- rope in the course of a few minutes, and the total length of wire employed in Eu- rope, India, and America amounts to many thousand miles. Professor Wheat- stone has invented some curious optical instruments besides the stereoscope. In 1856 he made an interesting application of his researches on sound, in a mode of conveying music by means of deal rods from one part of a building to any other, between a musical instrument and any WHE 392 WHI diffuser of sound placed in a distant apartment. His merits have been recog- nised by most of the learned societies of Europe. He was an active member of the London and Paris exhibitions, is a corresponding member of the Institute of France, and Knight of the Legion of Houour. WHEWELL, The Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, was born, in 1795, at Lan- caster. His father, who was a joiner, originally intended to bring him up to his own occupation, but the head-master of the grammar school where he was educated, persuaded his parent to send him to Cambridge. After graduating in 1816, and obtaining a Fellowship, he was chosen in 1828 Professor of Minera- logy. In 1838 he obtained the Chair of Moral Philosophy. In 1841 he succeeded to the Mastership of Trinity College, and in 1855 became Vice- Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Dr. Whewell is a man of an earnest and enthusiastic temperament, and is one of the most generally accomplished men of the pre- sent day, his scholarship extending over every department of human knowledge. Dr. Whewell's first publications were mathematical treatises intended chiefly for use among the students of the Uni- versity. They consist of a work on "Me- chanics," in two volumes; an edition of " Newton's Principia," a "Treatise on Conic Sections," and the "Mechanics of Engineering." Dr. Whewell wrote the Bridgewater Treatise on "Astro- nomy and Physics, considered with re- ference to Natural Theology." In 1837 he published his " Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," which has gone through three editions, being expanded in the last into the "History of Scien- tific Ideas." In the present year he has published the "Philosophy of Disco- very." He is the author of several works on Moral Philosophy, of which the principal are "The Elements of Morality," " Lectures on Systematic Morality, " and ' ' Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England." He has published several volumes of ser- mons, various lectures and papers on university education, &c, and several translations, the most remarkable of which is a version into English hexa- meters of Goethe's " Hermann and Do- rothea. " WHITESIDE, The Right Hon. James, M.P., LL.D., a politician and lawyer, was born at Delgany, county of Wicklow, in the year 1806. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he took honours and graduated M.A. While prosecuting his studies for the bar, he obtained premiums in the first law class formed in the London University. He was called to the Irish bar in 1830, where he rose rapidly into practice, his powers being so highly valued as a lawyer and forensic orator, that when Mr. O'Connell was tried for political conspiracy in 1843, Mr. White- side was chosen one of the leading coun- sel for the defence. He delivered an address to the jury on that occasion, which was pronounced to be the most brilliant effort of its kind since the days of Curran. During the memorable year of 1848, Mr. Whiteside acted as leading counsel for Smith O'Brien and Meagher. A vivid account of these remarkable trials, with a criticism highly favourable to the eloquence of Mr. Whiteside, will be found in the work of W. C. Town- send, entitled "Modern State Trials." He was returned to Parliament for the borough of Enniskillen in 1851, and con- tinued to hold the seat until 1859, when he resigned it, and then represented the University of Dublin. He was appointed Solicitor-General for Ireland by Lord Derby's Government in 1852, resigning with Ministers in the same year. In 1858, on Lord Derby's return to power, he became Attorney-General, retaining WHI 393 WIL his office until the change of ministry in 1859. He is one of her Majesty's Privy Council. He is the author of " Italy in the Nineteenth Century," and of a book on "Ancient Rome." His parliamen- tary, not less than his legal career, has been very successful, his style of speak- ing being such as to please the ear of the House, and he never touches a subject without mastering its details. WHITTY, Edward Michael, a journalist, is son of Mr. M. J. Whitty, proprietor of the ' ' Liverpool Daily Post " and " Liverpool Journal" newspapers, and was born in 1827. He was educated in his native town and in Germany. He has been connected with the press from his earliest days, and after receiving an appointment on the "Times," which he held for three years, he joined in 1849 the "Daily News." He afterwards edited the " Leader," and was for a year or so editor of the "Northern Whig" newspaper, published in Belfast, but left the commercial capital of Ireland, and returned to England in 1858. He has been a contributor to the "Nation," a journal which still supports its character as an advocate of the Repeal of the Union, and the overthrow of the English Church in Ireland. WHIT WORTH, Joseph, an engineer, who has lately become so well known through his inventions of improved rifles and ordnance, has for some years been engaged in mechanical pursuits in Man- chester. In the Exhibition of 1851 Mr. Whitworth exhibited some splendid specimens of ingenuity in the way of planing machines and other articles intended to facilitate the production of machinery. He subsequently turned his attention to the construction of guns of all calibres, and has been so highly suc- cessful, that at the present time (1860) a " Whitworth " rifle is considered one of the best instruments for military and sporting purposes. Mr. Whit- worth has also produced some extraordi- nary cannon of large bore and of great propulsive power. He is still engaged in perfecting those weapons of warfare which seem to promise, by their destruc- tive effects, to put a speedy conclusion to any campaign in which they may be employed. WILKES, Charles, an American traveller, was born about 1805, and becoming early known for his familiarity with maritime affairs and his spirit of inquiry, he was chosen in 1838, by the United States Government, to explore the shores of the Pacific and Southern Seas, as commander of the Expedition, with the rank of captain. Nearly four years were occupied with this voyage, and the result did not disappoint the expectations of the Government, his ob- servations being extensive and valuable. He returned to New York in 1842, when he commenced writing his "Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedi- tion," which appeared in 1845, in five octavo volumes. In 1848 the Geo- graphical Society of London awarded him their gold medal ; and in 1849 he brought out a valuable work on "West- ern America," in which he treats of the capabilities of California and the Oregon territory. Captain Wilkes never pre- tends to literary excellence, but his few volumes are nevertheless highly descrip- tive and interesting. WILKINSON, Sir John Gardner, Knt., an English archaeologist, was born 5th of October, 1797. His educa- tion was received at Harrow, and Exeter College, Oxford. On leaving Oxford, his original purpose was to enter the 14th Light Dragoons, but his attention having been directed by Sir William Gell to the study of Egyptian monu- ments, he determined to devote himself to the study of the antiquities, ruins, and topography of Egypt. In 1827-28, his first work, entitled " Hieroglyphical Extracts and Materia Hieroglyphica," was given to the world ; and in 1835 his WIL 394 WIL "Topography of Thebes, and General I View of Egypt." For a topographical work on Thebes he was eminently qualified ; he had for a considerable time dwelt in the neighbouring country, and made accurate surveys and drawings of every point of interest in the district. In 1836 he published "The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, including their Private Life, Govern- ment, Laws, Arts, Manufactures, &c, derived from a Comparison of Paintings, Monuments, and Sculptures still in existence, with Ancient Authors." This work exhibits an extraordinary amount of research and analytical power. The second series appeared in 1841. He published in 1843 his "Modern Egypt and Thebes;" and in 1847 the third edition of his "Ancient Egyptians ;" the two series in one revised, with profuse illustrations. In 1848 he published his "Dalmatia and Montenegro," and in 1850 the "Architecture of Ancient Egypt, with Remarks on the Early Pro- gress of Architecture," accompanied by a volume of illustrative plates. In 1851 appeared his " Fragments of the Hieratic Papyrus at Turin;" and in 1854, "A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyp- tians," being a condensation of his larger works, but containing additional matter derived from a new visit to Egypt. In 1855-56 he again returned to the Nile, and on coming home published a small volume entitled "The Egyptians under the Pharaohs," in which much new matter was introduced, and which serves as a supplement to "The Popular Ac- count" of the same people. In 1858 he published a new edition of his " Hand- book of Egypt;" and his work on "Colour, and the General Diffusion of Taste among all Classes ; " at the same time completing the notes he contributed to the Rev. G. Rawlinson's "English Version of the History of Herodotus." He has also published papers in the various Proceedings of the Royal Geo graphical Society, the Royal Society of Literature, the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Archaeological Associa- tion, &c. His " Plants of the Egyptian Desert," with nearly 200 illustrations coloured on the spot, and his large "Map of Egypt," comprising the valley of the Nile, and the deserts east of the Red Sea, and west of the Oases, un- fortunately still remain unpublished. On Oct. 16th, 1856, he married Caroline Catherine, daughter of Henry Lucas, Esq., of Uplands, in the county of Glamorgan. Sir John Gardner Wilkin- son, in all his works, exhibits pro- found learning, accuracy, research, en- thusiasm, and genius. He is an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a F.R.S., a member of most of the leading literary and scientific societies of Europe, and he re- ceived the honour of knighthood in 1839. WILLIAM III., Alexander Paul Frederic Louis, King of Holland, Prince of Orange, Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, and Duke of Lui- burg, was born on 19th February, 1817, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, William II., on 17th March, 1849. He took the constitutional oath to uphold the liberties of the Nether- lands at Amsterdam on the 12th of May ensuing. His Majesty married in 1839 the Princess Sophia Frederica Matilda, daughter of William L, King of Wur- temburg, by whom he has a family of two children; William Nicholas Alex- ander Frederic Charles, Prince of Orange, and heir-apparent to the throne, born in September, 1840, and Prince Alexander of Orange, born in August, 1851. The Prince of Orange has lately made the tour of Great Britain, when a matrimonial connexion between the royal families of England and Holland is said to have been resolved upon. The reign of this king has as yet been quiet, and presenting no events requiring men- tion. WILLIAMS, Major-General Sir WIL 395 WIL William Fenwick, Baronet, K.C.B., a Brigadier- General in the English army, was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1800. The son of the late Mr. Thomas Williams, Commissary -General at Anna- polis Royal, Nova Scotia, and grandson of Edward Amherst, the brother of Jeffrey, the first Lord Amherst, he came to England when young, and his family having extensive military connexions, he was enabled to enter Woolwich Academy. He received a commission in the Artillery in 1825, and was promoted to be Captain in 1840. He served in Ceylon for some years, and was thence sent to Turkey, and assisted to settle the Turkish and Persian frontiers ques- tion in 1848, concluding it in 1852. He received for these services the Com- panionship of the Bath, and was pro- moted to be Lieut. -Colonel. Shortly after the commencement of the war with Russia in 1854, he was advanced to the rank of Colonel, and then made Brigadier- General, being also her Ma- jesty's Commissioner with the Turkish forces in the East. The defence of Kars is of too recent date to require detailed notice. General Williams was com- pelled to capitulate, and was sent as a prisoner of war to St. Petersburg. In 1856 he returned to England, was made a Baronet, and a pension of 1,000 a year conferred on him. He also re- ceived the freedom of the City of London, having previously obtained the order of K.C.B. He sat for two sessions as Member of Parliament for Calne. At present he is Commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America. WILLIS, Nathaniel Parker, an American author and journalist, who has acquired considerable reputation on both sides of the Atlantic, was born at Portland, State of Maine, January 20, 1807, was educated at Boston, Andover, and Yale College, and graduated in 1827. His first literary occupation was that of editing "The Legendary" and " The Token," and, in 1828, he com- menced the "American Monthly Maga- zine," which was, in 1830, united with the ' ' New York Mirror. " Subsequently he travelled through France, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and European Turkey, as a member of the American Legation, afterwards reaching England, where he remained for about two years. In his travels Mr. Willis took a keen observation of men, manners, and places, and transmitted his views and impres- sions to New York, the "Mirror" being his vehicle of publication. His "Pencillings by the Way," as he styled his sketches, were pleasant gossiping papers. Numbers of them were trans- planted to the field of British journalism, but his descriptions of the titled society of London, though it has since appeared that they offended nobody but the critics, were very severely handled in the "Quarterly Review," the reviewer being Mr. Lockhart. The description most objected to was Lady Blessington's circle of beaux esprits, which has since been copied by Lord John Rus- sell in his ' ' Memoir. " " The Pencillings" were collected and published in London in 1835, and shortly afterwards "Ink- lings of Adventure," a series of tales, were published in an independent form. Returning to America in 1837, he wrote his "Letters from under a Bridge," and lived in retirement until 1839, when he became editor of the " Corsair," a New York periodical. In the following year he published his " Loiterings of Travel, " and an illustrated edition of his Poems, and " Two Ways of Dying for a Husband." He revived the "New York Mirror" in 1843. In 1844 he visited England for the third time ; and, in 1845, published "Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil." In 1846 Mr. Willis published all his writings in a complete form, and sub- sequently undertook the editorship of a literary paper entitled "The Home Journal." His "Health Trip to the WIL 396 WIL Tropics" is a gallery of pictures ar- ranged from outlines made during a journey to and through the West Indies. His later volumes have been chiefly re- prints from the "Journal." He was married in England to the daughter of an English officer, and this lady died in America, leaving one child. He has since married a niece of Mr. GrinnelL whose name is so honourably connected with the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. He now resides at Idlewild, a romantic and beautiful estate in the Highlands of the Hudson. His prose works are read as extensively as those of any living American author, while his reputation as a writer of sacred poetry is, perhaps, that for which he is most likely to be cherished in the memory of his countrymen. WILLIS, Rev. Robert, M. A. ,F.R. S. , F. G. S. , Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in Cam- bridge University, was born in London, in 1800. He was educated at Caius Col- lege, Cambridge, where he took his de- gree of B.A. in 1826, and afterwards gained a Fellowship. In 1830 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and, in 1837, appointed Jacksonian Professor. The range of Professor Wil- lis's investigations is almost unequalled for a single mind's elucidation. Acous- tics, language, machinery, mechanism of all kinds, architecture and its history, whether decorative or purely construc- tive, and numerous cognate subjects, have passed under his review, and are treated with a wonderful application of a rare faculty, that of mathematically demonstrating every position he ad- vances. When the Archaeological Insti- tute was founded in 1843, he became one of its most ardent supporters ; he was at once its chief and its ornament. At Cambridge he lectures on mechanics, statics, dynamics, and their practical application to manufactures, the steam- engine, and other similar subjects ; not, however, confining himself to these, but giving oral expositions to the Philoso- phical Society, of which he is a member, to the Royal Institution, to the Royal Institute of British Architects, and to the Archaeological Institute. Mr. Willis is the author of a number of works, the titles of which serve to point out the range of his numerous studies. He has published the "Principles of Mechan- ism," a number of papers on "The Vowel Sounds," the " Mechanism of the Larynx," the "Teeth of Wheels," "On the Pressure produced on a flat Plate when opposed to a Stream of Air," &c, " On the Construction of the Vaults in the Middle Ages," "On the Character- istic Interpenetrations of the Flamboyant Style," "A Description of the Sextry Barn at Ely," "Architectural Nomen- clature of the Middle Ages," "The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral," "The Architectural His- tory of Winchester Cathedral," " York Cathedral" " On the Conventual Build- ings attached to the Cathedral at Canter- bury," "Description of the Ancient Plan of the Monastery of St. Gall," ' ' An Architectural History of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre," " Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages." As a lecturer on "Applied Mechanics," a subject widely separated in one sense from archaeology, he has no superior, and in all his prelections his varied information is employed in the elucida- tion of the subject-matter in hand. WILLS, William Henry, a journal- ist, was born at Plymouth, January 13th, 1810. He contributed papers to the Penny and Saturday Magazines ; wrote many of the articles in Maculloch's Geo- graphical Dictionary, and was for several years one of the editors of " Chambers's Journal." Mr. Wills belonged to the staff of writers who commenced " Punch," was sub-editor and leading contributor of the "Daily News," and was associated with Mr. Charles Dickens WIL 397 WIN in the management of " Household Words," from 1850 till the extinction of that periodical in 1859, when those gen- tlemen started "All the Year Round." He has recently collected and published his contributions to this periodical (many of them written in conjunction with Mr. Charles Dickens) in a book entitled " Old Leaves Gathered from Household Words. " Mr. Wills is Honorary Secre- tary of the Guild of Literature and Art. WILMORE, James Tibbits, an engraver, was born in the parish of Handsworth, Staffordshire, in Septem- ber, 1800. In the matter of style he is entirely original, having struck out his own method, which renders with unrivalled force the peculiarities of Eng- lish landscape. His principal plates from Turner are "The Old Temeraire," "Mercury and Argus," "Ancient Italy," "The Golden Bough," "The Doganna," and "Bellini's Picture con- veyed to the Church of the Reventore," prints distinguished for their faithful ren- dering of the chiaroscuro and atmos- pheric effects. He has also engraved Eastlake's "Byron's Dream," " Cal- cott's "Rhine," and "Powis Castle;" Stanfield's "Wind against Tide," and "An Italian Town ; " Landseer's "Har- vest in the Highlands," and "Crossing the Bridge," and numerous other works. In 1843 he was elected Associate En- graver in the Royal Academy. WINDHAM, Major - General Charles Ashe, C.B., is fourth son of the admiral of that name, and was born in the county of Norfolk, in 1810. He entered the army, as an officer of the Coldstream Guards, in 1826, and be- came, successively, Captain in 1833, Major in 1846, Lieutenant- Colonel in the same year, and Colonel in June 1854. When the Crimean war broke out he had an opportunity of distinguishing himself, and of exhibiting those qualities which have rendered his name so well known. Both at Balaklava and Inker- mann his conduct was signalized by skill and courage worthy of a Picton. At Inkermann, the command of his division devolved on him, and he led his men into action under a tremendous fire, with a devotion unknown to those who are unacquainted with genuine British daring. His star rose at the advance on the Redan, where although the slaughter around him was fearful on every hand, the men being cut down as by a sickle, until at length he had not an officer left, yet, undaunted, he held his ground. His heroism could not be overlooked, and he was immediately gazetted Major - General, appointed Governor of that portion of Sebastopol occupied by the English, and in 1855 he was nominated a Companion of the Bath. On returning to England, he was elected one of the representatives in Parliament for East Norfolk. He again entered the battle-field in India, and became attached to the staff of the Commander-in-chief during the conflicts which are now, happily, at an end. Gene- ral Windham is a Commander of the Legion of Honour, the cross of the order being presented to him in 1856, by the Emperor of the French. WINDISCHGRATZ, Alfred, Prince de, an Austrian general, was born at Brussels, May 22, 1787, entered the army as Lieutenant in Schwarzen- berg's Lancers in 1804, and took part in the German campaigns against Napo- leon. His brilliant conduct at Leipsic gained him the grade of Colonel, and he was not only decorated with orders after the fall of the French Empire, but promoted to the rank of Major- General in 1826, when he took command of a brigade at Prague. In 1833 he became General of Division ; and after the popular movements in 1848, he was for some time Military Governor of Vienna, proceeding thence to govern Bohemia. In the war with Hungary, WIN 398 WIN the forces of that country almost inva- riably gave way before him, but retriev- ing their sinking fortunes the Austrians were, in their turn, driven back, and the Hungarians became the victors. He certainly had many obstacles to sur- mount many difficulties to contend against but these were not taken into account, and he was removed from his command. Though an able and cou- rageous general, he exercised his autho- rity in such a manner as to draw down a heavy amount of opprobrium on his character. Yet notwithstanding the censure of Europe on his execution of Robert Blum, he was invited to resume the Governorship of Bohemia, an office which he declined, for reasons best known to himself. He has resided since on his Bohemian estates, and sin- gular as is the paradox, though he was execrated as a public man, he appears to be respected as a private gentleman though denounced as a governor, he seems to be esteemed as a citizen. WINSLOW, Forbes, M.D., an Eng- lish physician, was born in London, in August 1810, and is the youngest son of Captain Thomas Winslow, of her Majesty's 47th Regiment. He received his education for the medical profession, at the London University. Dr. Win- slow has devoted his attention to one of the most interesting but painful branches of his profession, namely, that of diseases of the mind. His first work published on the subject was, "An Essay on the Application of the Principles of Phreno- logy to the Elucidation and Cure of Insanity." He established, some years ago, Sussex House, Hammersmith, an asylum for the reception of the insane, and his intimate acquaintance with the almost infinite variety of the phases of lunacy, has secured him the position of medical referee in most of the leading cases which have come before our law courts during the last few years. Besides the work above mentioned, Dr. Winslow is the author of "A Synopsis of the Lunacy Act," "The Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases," "The Preservation of the Health of Body and Mind," &c. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, and had conferred on him the degree of D. C. L. by the University of Oxford, at the installation of the Earl of Derby as Chancellor of the University. He has been President of the Medical Society of London, and was one of the Vice-Presidents of the Juri- dical Society. He has also been Presi- dent of the Association of Medical Officers of Asylums for the Insane. The "Anatomy of Suicide" was the first medical treatise published in this country on the subject of suicidal in- sanity. In 1848 Dr. Winslow esta- blished the ' ' Q uarterly Journal of Psycho- logical Medicine and Mental Pathology." It has an extensive circulation, and a high reputation in all parts of the world. Dr. Winslow's last work is a voluminous one, on ' ' The Obscure Dis- eases of the Brain, and Disorders of the Mind." This consists of nearly 800 pages of an elaborate exposition of the incipient symptoms of disease of the brain and disorders of the mind. The first edition of this work was exhausted in less than six months, and a very favourable review of it appeared in the October number of the "Edinburgh Re- view," 1860. WINTERHALTER, Franz Xavier, a painter, was born at St. Blasien, in Baden, in 1803. Educated at Carlsruhe, he entered as student at the Munich Aca- demy of Arts in 1823, and passed through the ordinary course of instruction. His earlier works were historic and poetical, but portrait painting being more lucra- tive, he adopted that line of the profes- sion, and found the most ample patron- age. He has painted kings, queens, princes, and nobles, and has been patronized by her Majesty Queen Vic- WIS 399 WOO toria. His life, however, possesses no incidents of the slightest public interest. WISEMAN, Nicholas, Cardinal, was born at Seville, August 2nd, 1802. His early education was received at Waterford, and St. Cuthbert's College, near Durham. He was afterwards member of the English College at Rome, where he was created a D. D. in 1 824. He became, not long after, Professor of Ori- ental Languages in the Roman Univer- sity ; and Rector of the English College in 1829. In 1835 he delivered a series of sermons on the " Doctrines and Prac- tices of the Catholic Church," which were afterwards published. His " Lec- tures on the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion " were much ad- mired, and gave him great reputation. He was appointed in 1840 Coadjutor to the late Bishop Walsh, and President of St. Mary's College, Oscott. He was chosen in 1850 Vicar Apostolic of the London district ; in the following year he was named by the Pope "Archbishop of Westminster," and raised to the dig- nity of Cardinal. This proceeding gave such offence in England, that Lord John Russell introduced into the House his Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, which need scarcely have been debated, as it is now a dead letter. He has since then deli- vered numerous lectures on various sub- jects on behalf of public institutions. He was one of the founders, and for a long time one of the editors of, and a copious contributor to, the " Dublin Review." W T OEHLER, Frederick, a German chemist, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Gbttingen, was born at the village of Eschersheim, near Frank- fort, in July, 1800, and studied for the medical profession at Marburg and Heidelberg. After having obtained the diploma of Doctor of Medicine, he left the profession to devote himself exclu- sively to chemistry. He was fortunate enough to obtain admission to the labo- ratory of Berzelius at Stockholm, where he worked for a year. Returning to Germany, he was appointed Pro- fessor in the School of Arts and Trades at Berlin, and six years later he obtained the Chair of Chemistry and Technology in the Polytechnic School of Cassel. In 1836 he was appointed Professor of Che- mistry and Pharmacy in the University of Gbttingen, being entrusted at the same time with the direction of the Chemical Institute, and the general inspection of the apothecaries of the kingdom of Hanover. Of all the Ger- man laboratories that of Gbttingen is at present much frequented. Among the numerous researches which M. Woehler has conducted, partly with the assistance of his friend Lie big, may be enumerated those resulting in the discovery of alum- inium, the metal extracted from clay, and of what has been supposed to be an organic body, under circumstances which seem to have afforded an instance of spon- taneous generation. In recognition of his eminence as a chemist he has been admitted a Fellow of various learned bodies, and among others of the Royal Society of London. His works have passed through many editions, besides being translated into several languages. WOOD, Right Hon. Sir Charles, G.C.B., M.P. for the borough of Halifax, is eldest son of the late Sir Francis Lindley Wood, and was born at Pontefract, in 1800. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, pursuing his studies with a success which enabled him to take a double first-class degree in 1821. He entered Parliament in 1826, as member for Great Grimsby, a seat which he retained until 1831, when he was elected for Wareham. After having been for some time private secretary to Earl Grey, he was ap- pointed Secretary to the Treasury in 1832, an office which he held until the close of 1834. From 1835 to 1836 he discharged the duties of Secretary to the WRA 400 WEI Admiralty ; but the Conservative party coming into power, Sir Charles was out of office until 1846, when, on the resigna- tion of Sir Robert Peel, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Though his measures, while discharging the du- ties of this most onerous of state offices, were sharply censured, and though he felt himself obliged to amend his budget more than once, yet the very principles he advanced then, only to be condemned, are now received with cordiality, and acted upon by the Legislature. Sir Charles Wood's financial schemes had the great merit of being cautious and safe. He retired with the ministry from the Chancellorship of the Exche- quer in 1852, being, in the December of that year, appointed President of the Board of Control, an office which he ad- ministered for upwards of two years, when he was transferred to the Board of Admiralty, as First Lord of that de- partment. He retained that position until 1858, when ministers resigned on a defeat in the House of Commons, but on the recall of Lord Palmerston to power, Sir Charles Wood took the place of Lord Stanley, as Secretary of State for the Indian Department. WRANGEL, Ferdinand Petrovich, Baron von, a Russian navigator of the Northern Seas, was born in Esthonia, in 1796. After being a pupil in the School for Cadets, at St. Petersburg, he made a number of voyages in the Baltic, and northwards, until 1817, when he went on board the " Kamschatka, " Captain Golowin commanding, to circumnavi- gate the globe. In this expedition he displayed such talent, that after his return he was appointed to explore the Russian Polar Seas, in the discharge of which duty he was occupied for four years. He was required to deter- mine, if possible, the exact position of tracts of land which were rumoured to exist north of the Siberian coast ; and he used every exertion towards accom- plishing that object ; but though making numerous discoveries, the great purpose remained unachieved. In 1825 he again set out on a voyage round the world, this undertaking occupying him about two years. On his return he was ap- pointed Governor of the Russian terri- tory in America, where he remained for five years. On returning again to Rus- sia, he was elevated to the rank of Admiral. In 1836 he was appointed Director of one of the various depart- ments of the Imperial Naval Ministry. At the same time the Russian American Company proposed to him to take the chief direction of that establishment, which he accepted. He managed the affairs of the department of the Naval Ministry, as well as of the Russian American Company, during fourteen years. His health having failed in 1850, he retired from the service, and left St. Petersburg with his family for Esthonia. In 1854 he again entered the Imperial service as Chief Director of the Hydro- graphical department of the Naval Mi- nistry, and in 1855 was appointed Chief Assistant to the High Admiral Con- stantine, as a mark of high distinction, being nominated (1856) General- Adju- tant to his Imperial Majesty. His health being again totally deranged through very hard duties, the physicians sent him to the German baths, and to the south of Europe ; whence he returned, after a year's absence, in 1858, to be appointed Member of the High Council of the Empire. His northern surveys and adventures are held by the Russians to rank him with Parry, Ross, and Franklin ; and his published narratives certainly demonstrate that he is at once an able and well-informed writer, and an adventurous and skilful seaman. The narratives of his northern voyages have been translated into the German, French, and English languages. WRIGHT, Thomas, M.A., an Eng- lish antiquary, was born on the borders WUR 401 WYA of Wales, in 1810, was educated at Ludlow, and afterwards graduated at Cambridge. He early commenced lite- rary pursuits by writing for various magazines, but eventually devoted him- self almost exclusively to historical and archaeological studies. He was one of the founders of the Camden Society (1838), and of the Percy Society, of which latter he was for some time hono- rary secretary and treasurer. He assisted to found the British Archaeolo- gical Association, and for some years edited its journal. He is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, Correspond- ing Member of the Academy of Inscrip- tions in the Institute of France, Mem- ber of the Societies of Antiquaries of France, Normandy, and Scotland, of the Ethnological Society of Paris, of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquarians of Copenhagen, and of many other learned bodies. Of his untiring labour, some idea may be formed from the cir- cumstance that his works extend to seventy-eight volumes, several of them quartos, all being admitted authorities on the subjects of which they treat. Mr. Wright has lately (1860) taken a deep interest in the excavations which have laid bare the remains of an old Roman town, near Wroxeter, in which numer- ous relics, illustrating the daily life and occupations of its ancient inhabitants, have been brought to light; and to his exertions, we are thus indebted for many disco vieries which have materially added to the stores of the early history of Britain. WURTEMBURG, William I., Frederick Charles, King of Wur- temburg, was born 27th of September, 1781, and succeeded his father Frede- rick I. on the 30th of October, 1816. In 1816 he married Catherine Paulo wna, daughter of Paul late Emperor of Russia, and after her death, Pauline Theresa Louisa, his cousin, daughter of Louis Frederick, Duke of Wiirtemburg. His Majesty had issue by both, marriages. The heir- apparent to the throne, issue of the second marriage, is Prince Charles Frederick Alexander, born on the 6th of March, 1823. The long reign of his Majesty has been quiet and uneventful. WYATT, Matthew Digby, an archi- tect, and writer on decorative art, was bornat Devizes, in Wiltshire, in 1820. He was educated in his native town, and after being with his brother, the archi- tect of Wilton Church, &c, he en- tered in 1837 the Royal Academy as a student. In 1844 he travelled on the Continent, and returned home with a large number of architectural and decorative drawings. While en- gaged in the practice of his profession, he occupied his leisure in writing for the press. Taking a lively interest in the application of art to manufactures, the Society of Arts despatched him to study at the Exhibition of Industry at Paris, in 1849, which mission led to the publica- tion of an able report. In 1851 he took a most active part in organizing the Ex- hibition, of which he was acting secre- tary, and superintended the arrangement and architectural details of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, receiving His Royal Highness Prince Albert's private gold medal at the close of the exhibition. He has published several valuable works on art, manufactures, and decoration ; and has designed the Pompeian and other courts of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. He was a juror and reporter for the British Government at the Paris Exhibition of 1855, and on that occasion was created a Knight of the Legion of Honour. In the same year he gained with his brother, in whose office he had been brought up, the first pre- mium in the great government compe- tition for cavalry barracks, and was also selected to fill the office of Architect to the Hon. the East India Company. After executing many large works for that body, including their new Museum^ D D YOU 402 Y OU on the change in the mode of govern- ment, his services were transferred to the Secretary of State for India in council, and he was associated with Mr. G. G. Scott in preparing designs for the proposed new India office. As an archi- tect, his principal works have been, in addition to those already referred to the Paddington Station of the Great Western Railway Company ; the Neeld Memorial for Her Majesty ; and several bridges in India. In 1856 Mr. Wyatt, in response to an appeal from the most distinguished men in his own profession, undertook the duties of Honorary Secre- tary to the Institute of British Architects. He held that office for three years, and gave it up only because his close pro- fessional engagements made it impos- sible for him to fulfil its duties as he desired. YOUNG, Brigham, the present leader of the Mormons, or Latter-day Saints, was born in Whitingham, Wind- ham county, in the state of Vermont (U.S.), on the 1st June, 1801. He lived with his father, who was a farmer at Whitingham, until he was sixteen. He then learned a mechanical trade, and on the 14th April 1832, joined the Mormons, or to use a phrase of these sectaries, "was baptized into the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints." In 1835, thanks to his superior ability r and education, he became a member of the Governing Council, or " Quorum of the Twelve Apostles." He suffered all the tribula- tions of the Mormons during their stay at Nauvoo, when Joseph Smith was put to death by the riotous inhabitants of Illinois. In June, 1844, Brigham Young, "in accordance with a previous ap- pointment by the prophet, and ordina- tion under his hands," succeeded to the presidency of the Church. Nauvoo had no sooner become a prosperous settle- ment, than the Mormons were forced to abandon it, in consequence of the strong popular feeling against their creed and morals in Illinois. In 1846 the President set out from this settlement with a large company of his followers, in search of a locality where they would not be inter- fered with, either by the mob or the legislature. A prompt compliance, how- ever, with a requisition by the Go- vernment of the Union to furnish 500 "Saints" to serve in the war with Mexico, connected with other circum- stances, enabled the emigrants to halt on the right bank of the Missouri at a point since called Florence, where they passed the winter of 1846-47, under tents, or on transport waggons, exposed to the ravages of disease and the depre- dations of the wild Indian tribes of the country. In the spring of 1847, Presi- dent Young, with a pioneer company of 143 men, left the winter quarters at Florence in quest of the promised land ; and crossing the Rocky Mountains, ar- rived at the Great Salt Lake Valley, between California and Oregon, on the 24th July in the same year. After sur- veying the site for a city afterwards built and named the Great Salt Lake City, and erecting temporary forts for the reception of companies who were to emigrate that season, the President re- turned to winter quarters at Florence. With his family, and large additional numbers of the Saints, he returned to the new city in the autumn of 1848. The city rapidly grew in importance. In 1850 it contained 8,000 inhabitants. The colony was shortly afterwards recog- nized as a territory by the Federal Gov- ernment, Brigham Young being appointed Governor, with a salary fixed for him at Washington. In 1856, when the popu- lation of Utah had increased to 30,000, which, under ordinary circumstances, would have entitled it to be received as a state of the Union, President Pierce refused to acknowledge its claims to ad- mission, on account of the recognition of polygamy, and its prevalence among the Saints. Brigham Young protested against YOU 403 YOU interference, and defied the Government authorities to prove to him by the Bible, that a man is not entitled to take as many wives as he thinks proper. By the laws of the community, six wives are allowed to each Saint, the President only being permitted an unlimited number, a privilege of which he has taken ample advantage, he having some years ago taken unto himself no less than seventy ladies from his flock. According to his disciples, Brigham Young is endowed with great firmness and energy of charac- ter, wit, sound practical sense, and good judgment, which, with his natural kind- liness and benevolence, admirably fit him to control and influence his followers, and to maintain peace among them. ANALYTICAL TABLE OE MEMOIRS CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME J ACTOBS. ANTIQUABIANS. ARCHITECTS. ASTBONOMEBS. AUTHOBS. BOTANI8T8. CAPITALISTS. CHEMISTS. CLERGYMEN. DIPLOMATISTS. ENGINEEBS. ENGBAVEBS. COMPRISING : GEOGBAPHEBS. GEOLOGISTS. HISTOBIANS. JOUBNALISTS. LAWYEBS. MILITABY OFFICEBS. MUSICAL PBOFES8ION. NATUBALISTS. NAVAL OFFICEBS. NOVELISTS. PAINTEBS. PHILANTHBOPISTS. PHILOLOGISTS. PHYSICIANS. PHYSICISTS. PHYSIOLOGISTS. POETS. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMISTS. SCHISMATICS. SCULPTOBS. SOVEBEIGNS. STATESMEN. TBAVELLEBS. ACTORS. (See " Musical Profession.") Alboni, Marietta. Barnum, Phineas Taylor. Bishop, Madame Anna. Buckstone, John Baldwin. Celeste, Madame. Oushman, Miss Charlotte. Forrest, Edwin. Grisi, Giulia. Houdin, Robert Jean Eugene. Kean, Charles. Kean, Mrs. Charles. Kemble, Mrs. Fanny. Macready, William Charles. Mario, Joseph. Phelps, Samuel. Piccolomini, Maria. Ristori, Madame Adelaide. Robson, Frederick. Sedgwick, Amy. Taglioni, Marie. Vandenhoff, John ANTIQUARIANS, Botta, Paul Emile. Bustamente, General. Collier, John Payne. Dyce, Rev. Alexander. Ellis, Sir Henry. Gerhard, Edward. Halliwell, James 0. Laborde, Leon, Count de. Layard, Austen Henry. Lepsius, Carl Richard. Madden, Sir Frederic, K. H. Nichols, John Gough, F.S.A. Palgrave, Sir Francis, F.R.S. Planche, James R. Rawlinson, Sir Henry. Saulcy, Louis Caignart de. Taylor, Isidore, Baron. Timbs, JohD, F.S.A. Thorns, William. Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. Wright, Thomas, F.R.S. 406 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. ARCHITECTS: Cockerell, Charles Robert, R.A. Fergusson, James. Godwin, George. Paxton, Sir Joseph, M.P. Pennethorne, James. Scott, George Gilbert, A.R.A. Smirke, Sir Robert Tite, William, M.P., F.R.S. Wyatt, Matthew Digby. ASTRONOMERS. Adams, John Couch. Airy, George Biddell, F.R.S. Argelander, Friedrich. Encke, Johann F. Herschel, Sir John F.W., Bart. Hind, John Russell. Leverrier, Urban Jean Joseph. Rosse, Earl of. Santini, Giovanni. South, Sir James, F.RS. AUTHORS^ (See "Historians," "Journalists,' "Novelists," and "Poets.") Abbott, Rev. Jacob. Abbott, Rev. John. About, Edmond. Ampere, Jean Jacques. Anthon, Charles, LL.D. Arthur, T. S. Auerbach, Berthold. Beecher, Henry Ward. Beecher, Miss Catherine. BelL Robert. Bohn, Henry G. Borrow, George. Bowring, Sir John. Bray, Mrs. Anna Eliza. Brooks, Charles Shirley. Bulwer, Right Hon. Sir Henry. Bunsen, Chevalier Von. Carey, Henry C. Carlyle, Thomas. Chambers, Robert. Chambers, William. Child, Mrs. Lydia Maria. Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden. Clausen, Henri. authors (Continued). Cole, Henry, C.B. Coleridge, Rev. Derwent. Collier, John Payne. Collin de Plancy. Costello, Miss Louisa Stuart. Craik, George Ldllie, LL.D. Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. Crosland, Mrs. Camilla. Crowe, Mrs. Catherine Stevens. Cunningham, Peter. Curtis, Benjamin R. Curtis, George William. Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Dickens, Charles. Dixon, William Hepworth. Doran, John, LL.D. Dyce, Rev. Alexander. Eadie, John, D.D., LL.D. Ellis, Mrs. Sarah. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Eotvos, Josef. Forster, John. Gerstaecker, Frederic. Gilfillan, Rev. George. Gleig, Rev. George Robert. Gordon, Lady Lucy Duff. Grimm, Jacob Ludwig. Hagenbach, Charles Rodolphe, Haliburton, Hon. Mr. Justice. HalliwelL John O. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Head, Sir Francis Bond. Headley, Joel Tyler. Hengstenberg, Ernest William. Herzen, or Hertzen, Alexander. Hildreth, Richard. Home, Richard Henry. Ingersoll, Charles Jared. Jerrold, William Blanc hard. Jewsbury, Miss Geraldme. Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse. Kavanagh, Miss Julia. Kinglake, Alexander William, MP. Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Kinkel, Gottfried. Knight, Charles. Knowles, Sheridan. Kugler, Franz Theodore. Lamartine, Alphonse de. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 407 authors ( Continued) . Landor, Walter Savage. Lee, Mrs. A. Bowdich. Lewes, George. Lewis, Sir George Cornewall. Lucas, Hippolyte Julien Joseph. M'Culloch, J. R. Marston, John Westland. Martineau, Miss Harriet. Masson, David. Maurice, Rev. Frederick, M.A. Mayhew, Henry. Melville, Herman. Merimee, Prosper. Michaud, Louis Gabriel. Montalembert, Comte de. Muloch, Miss Dinah M. Newman, Francis William. Oliphant, Lawrence. Oxenford, John. Pardoe, Miss Julia. Parton, Mrs. Sara P. Pepoli, Charles. Planch 6, James Robinson. Pulszky, Madame Ferencz. Pyat, Felix. Quinet, Edgar. Redding, Cyrus. Ritchie, Leitch. Rogers, Henry. Ruskin, John. Russell, Lord John. Russell William Howard, LL.D. Sala, George Augustus. Sartorius, Ernest William Christian. Say, Horace Emile. Schcelcher, Victor. Scribe, Eugene. Sinclair, Miss Catherine, Stanley, Rev. Arthur. Stirling, Willam, M.P. Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Taylor, Bayard. Taylor, Isaac. Taylor, Tom. Tennent, Sir James E., M.P. Tholuck, Friedrich Gottren. Timbs, John, F.S.A. I Trollope, Mrs. Frances. Tulloch, John, D.D. authors (Continued). Tupper, Martin Farquhar, D.C.L. Ullman, Karl. Urquhart, David. Vaughan, Robert, D.D. Villemain, Abel. Waagen, Gustave Friedrich. Warren, Samuel. Whatley, the Right Rev. Richard. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D. Willis, Nathaniel Parker. BOTANISTS. (See "Naturalists.") CAPITALISTS. Ashburton, Lord. Baring, Sir Francis, Bart. Baring, Thomas. Brown, William. Demidov, or Demidoff, Prince. Overstone, Lord. Rothschild, Nathan, Baron de, M.P. Salomons, David, M.P. CHEMISTS. BecquereL Antoine Cesar. Boussingault, Jean Baptiste. Brande, William. Thomas. Bunsen, Robert William. ChevreuL Michel Eugene. Christison, Robert, M.D. Dumas, Jean Baptiste. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. Graham, Thomas, F.R.S. Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.S. Herapath, William, F.C.S. Kane, Sir Robert. Liebig, Justus, Baron. Mitscherlich, Eilhard. Niepce, de Saint Victor. Payen, Anselme. Pelouze, Theophile Jules. ' Playfair, Lyon, C.B. Poggendorf, John Christian. Raspail, Fran9ois Vincent. Regnault, Henri Victor. Rose, Heinrich. Sainte- Claire Deville. Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D. Woehler, Frederick. 408 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. CLERGYMEN. Abbott, Rev. Jacob. Abbott, Rev. John. Alford, Very Rev. Dean. Anderson, William, LL.D. Antonelli, Cardinal. Barnes, Albert, D.D. Beecher, Rev. Charles. Beecher, Rev. Edward, D.D. Beecher, Lyman, D.D. Binney, Rev. Thomas. Caird, John, D.D. Campbell, John, D.D. Candlish, Robert, D.D. Canterbury, Archbishop of. Cheever, George Burritt, D.D. Close, Very Rev. Dean. Coleridge, Rev. Derwent. Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. Cullen, Paul, D.D. Cumming, Rev. John, D.D. Cunningham, William, D.D. Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. D'AubignS, J. H. Merle, D.D. Dewey, Orville, D.D. Dublin, Archbishop of. Duff, Alexander, D.D., LL.D. Dyce, Rev. Alexander. Eadie, John, D.D. Ellis, Rev. William. Exeter, Bishop of. Gavazzi, Padre Alessandro. Gilfillan, Rev. George. Gleig, Rev. George Robert. Guthrie, Thomas, D.D. Hamilton, James, D.D. Hereford, Bishop of. Hinds, Right Rev. Samuel. Hook, Very Rev. Dean. Keble, Rev. John, M.A. Kingsley, Rev. Charley M.A. Lacordaire, Abbe\ Lee, Robert, D.D. Liddell, the Very Rev. Henry. London, Bishop of. M'Hale, Right Rev. John. Macleod, Norman, D.D. M'Neile, Rev. Hugh, D.D. Maurice, Frederick D., M.A. Melvill, Henry, B.D. clergymen ( Continued) . Milman, Very Rev. Dean. Moffat, Rev. Robert. Newman, John Henry, D.D. Noel, the Hon. and Rev. Baptist W. Oxford, Bishop of. Pius IX. , Giovanni Maria Mastai Feretti. Pusey, Edward Bouverie, D.D. Raffles, Rev. Thomas, D.D. Reed, Rev. Andrew, D.D. Ripon, Bishop of. St. David's, Bishop of. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. Spurgeon, Rev. Charles Haddon. Stanley, Rev. Arthur. Thompson, Rev. R. Anchor, M.A. Trench, Very Rev. Dean. Tulloch, Rev. John, D.D. Vaughan, Rev. Robert, D.D. WhewelL William, D.D. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.RS. Wiseman, Nicholas, Cardinal. DIPLOMATISTS. (See "Statesmen.") ENGINEERS. Albert, Martin. Armstrong, Sir William. Brunei, Isambard Kingdom. Burgoyne, Sir John F. Dargan, William. Fairbairn, William. M'Neill, Sir John, C.E. Minie, Claude. Napier, Robert Nasmyth, James. Peto, Sir Samuel Morton. Rankine, J. W. Macquorn, F.R.S. Russell, John Scott, F.R.S. Todleben, General. Whitworth, Joseph. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. ENGRAVERS. Burnet, John. Doo, George Thomas, R.A. Goodall, Edward, R.A. Watt, James Henry. Wilmore, James Tibbits. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 409 GEOGRAPHERS. Berghaus, Henry. Johnston, Alexander Keith. Maury, Matthew F. Munch, Peter Andreas. Petermann, August Heinrich. GEOLOGISTS. (See " Naturalists.") HISTORIANS. Alison, Sir Archd. , Bart. BaD croft, George. Bauer, Bruno. Brougham, Lord. Buckle, Henry Thomas. Burton, John HilL Campbell Lord. Cantu, Cesar. Capefigue, Jean Baptiste. Carlyle, Thomas. Craik, George Lillie, LL.D. Creasy, Sir Edward. Dahlmann, Frederick Christopher. D'Aubigne, J. H. Merle, D.D. Forster, John. Gervinus, Georges Godefroid. Gleig, Rev. John R. Grote, George, M.P. Guizot, Francis. Helps, Arthur. Jomini, Henri, Baron. Lamartine, Alphonse. Liddell, Very Rev. Henry. Lieber, Francis, LL.D. Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco. Menzel, Wolfgang. Merimee, Prosper. Michaud, Louis Gabriel. Michelet, Jules. Mignet, Fraugois Auguste. Milman, Very Rev, Henry. Quinet, Edgar. Ranke, Leopold. Raumer, Frederick Von. Sparks, Jared. Stanhope, Earl of. Strickland, Miss Agnes. Thierry, Ameaee. Thiers, Louis Adolphe. Thirlwall, Right Rev. Connop, D.D. JOURNALISTS. Arago, Etienne. Bryant, William Cullen. Delane, John T. Dilke, Charles Wentworth. Dilke, Charles Wentworth, junior. Dixon, William Hepworth. Duffy, Charles Gavin. Fonblanque, Albany. Forster, John. Girardin (Emile de). Greeley, Horace. Hall, Samuel Carter. Hannay, James. Hunt, Thornton. Janin, Jules Gabriel. Jerdan, William. Jerrold, William Blanchard. Lemon, Mark. Mackay, Charles, LL.D. Maclaren, Charles. Miall, Edward. Redding, Cyrus. Ritchie, Leitch. Russel, Alexander. Russell, William Howard, LL.D. Veron, Louis Desir6. Veuillot, Louis. Watts, Alaric Alexander. Whitty, Edward Michael. Wills, William Henry. Alison, Sir Archibald, Bt. Baroche, Pierre Jules. Bell, Henry Glassford. Berryer, Pierre Antoine. Bethel! Sir Richard. Billault, Auguste. Brougham, Lord. Butt, George M. . Cairns, Sir Hugh M'Calmont. Campbell, Lord. Chambers, Montague. Chelmsford, Lord. Cranworth, Baron. Creasy, Sir Edward S. Curtis, Benjamin R. Glencorse, Lord. Kelly, Sir Fitzroy. 410 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. lawyers [Continued). Lyndhurst, Lord. Pollock, Sir Frederick. St. Leonards, Baron. Senior, Nassau William, M.A. Warren, Samuel. Wensleydale, Baron. Whiteside, Hon. James, M.P. MILITARY OFFICERS. Abd-el-Kader. Alvarez, Juan. Baraguey, Marshal. Bedeau, Marie Alphonse. Bosquet, Pierre Francois Joseph. Burgoyne, Sir John Fox. Bustamente, General. Cabrera, Don Ramon. Cambridge, Duke of. Canrobert, Francois Certain. Cardigan, Earl of. Changarnier, General Chesney, Francis Rawdon, D.C.L. Clyde, Lord. Codrington, Sir William, K.C.B. Combermere, Viscount, G.C.B. Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bart. Edwardes, Sir Herbert Ben j. K.C.B. Espinasse, Esprit Charles Marie. Evans, Sir De Lacy. Garibaldi, Joseph. Gomm, General Sir William, G.C.B. Gbrgei, Arthur. Gortchakoff, Prince Michael Gough, Lord. Houston, General Jellachich, Baron Von. Klapka, General George. Kmety, General George. La Marmora, Marquis de. Lamoriciere, General Luders, General. Macmahon, Marshal Magnan, Marshal Menschikoff, Prince. O'Donnell, Marshal Omer Pacha. Oudinot, Marshal Outram, General Sir James. Pelissier, Marshal military officers (Continued). Pennefather, Lieutenant- General. Pepe, Florestan. Pepe, Gabriel Rosas, Don Juan Manuel de. Sabine, Major-General Edward. Santa Anna, Don A. Lopez de. Scarlett, Sir James Yorke. Schamyl Simpson, Gen. Sir James, G.C.B. Smith, Sir Henry, Bart. Thompson, Major-General Perronet. Todleben, General Troubridge, CoL Sir Thomas, Bart., C.B. Williams, Major-General, Sir W. F. Windham, Major-General Charles, C.B. Windischgratz, Alfred Prince de. MUSICAL PROFESSION. Alboni, Marietta. Auber, Daniel F. E. Balfe, Michael William. Benedict, Julius. Bennett, William Sterndale. Berlioz, Heotor. Bishop, Madame Anna. David, Felicien. Goldschmidt, Madame. Grisi, Giulia. Halevy, Jacques- Elie-Fromental Hayes, Mrs. Catherine. Hullah, John. Liszt, Franz. Mario, Joseph. Meyerbeer, Giacomo. Novello, Madame Clara. Piccolomini, Maria. Potter, Cipriani Roger, Gustave. Rossini, Joacchino. RudersdorfF, Madame. Thalberg, Sigismund. Titiens, Teresa. Verdi, Giuseppe. Viardot, Pauline Garcia. Wagner, Richard. NATURALISTS. (See Physicians " and ' ' Physiologists. ") Agassiz, Louis Jean. Bell Thomas. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 411 naturalists (Co ntinued) . Burmeister, Hermann. Dana, James Dwight, LL. D. Darwin, Charles, M.A. Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. Eichwald, Edward. Fortune, Robert. Gosse, Philip Henry. Gould, Augustus Addison. Gould, John, F.R.S. Gray, Asa, M.D. Hooker, Sir William Jackson, K.H. Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M.D. Junghuhn, Frank Wilhelm. KobelL Franz Von. Kock, Charles Henri Emmanuel. Lankester, Edwin, M.D. Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. Lindley, John, M.D. Lyell, Sir Charles, F.R.S. Martius, Carl Von. Murchison, Sir Roderick, D.C.L. Nees, Von Esenbeck. Orbigny, Charles d\ Owen, Richard, F.R.S. Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D. Reichenbach, Baron de. Rogers, Henry Darwin, LL. D. Rose, Gustave. Schomburgk, Sir Robert Hermann. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. NAVAL OFFICERS. Back, Sir George, D.C.L. Belcher, Sir Edward. Constantine, Nicholsewitch. Deschenes, Admiral Percival. Dundas, Vice-AdmiraL Dundonald, Earl of. Du Petit Thouars, Admiral. Napier, Sir Charles. Slade, Sir Adolphus. NOVELISTS. (See "Authors" and "Poets." Ainsworth, William Harrison. Andersen, Hans Christian. Bremer, Miss Frederika. Carlen, Madame Emilie. Carleton, William. novelists (Continued). Collins, Wilkie. Conscience, Henri. Dickens, Charles. Disraeli, Benjamin, Right Hon. , M. P. Dudevant, Madame. Dumas, Alexandre. Dumas, Alexandre, jun. Gaskell, Mrs. L. E. Gore, Mrs. Catherine Frances. Grant, James. Grattan, Thomas Colley. Hall, Mrs. Anna Maria. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Howitt, Mary. Howitt, William. Josika, Nicolas Baron. Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Kock, Charles Paul de. Lennep, Jacob Van. Lever, Charles. Lover, Samuel. Lytton, Sir Edward Bulwer. Manzoni, Count. Marsh, Mrs. Anne. Miller, Thomas. Muloch, Miss Dinah. Musset, Paul Edme de. Normanby, Marquis of. Norton, Hon. Mrs. Reade, Charles. Reid, Captain Mayne. Sedgwick, Miss Catherine Maria. Stowe, Mrs. Beecher. Thackeray, William Makepeace. Trollope, Mrs. Frances. Warren, Samuel. PAINTERS. A dam, Jean Victor. Bendemann, Edward. Bonheur, Mile. Rosa. Cattermole, George, R.A. Cooke, Edward W., A.$.A. Cooper, Thomas Sidney, A.R.A. Cope, Charles West, R.A. Corbaux, Miss Fanny. Corbould, Edward Henry. Cornelius, Peter Von. Creswick, Thomas, R.A. 412 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. painters (Continued) . Cruikshank, George. Danby, Francis, A.R.A. Delacroix, Eugene. Delaroche, Paul. Doyle, Richard. Dyce, William, R.A. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, P.R.A. Egg, Augustus, R.A. Faed, Thomas. Fraser, Alexander. Frith, William Powell, R.A. Frost, William Edward, R.A. Gavarni, or Paul Chevalier. Gilbert, John Graham. Goodall, Frederick, R.A. Gordon, Sir John Watson, P. R. S. A. , R. A. Grant, Francis, R.A. Gudin, Theodore. Haghe, Louis. Hart, Solomon Alexander, R.A. Harvey, George, R.S.A. Hayter, Sir George. Herbert, John Rogers, R.A. Herring, John Frederick. Horsley, John Callcott, R.A. Hunt, William Holman. Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste. Isabey, Eugene Louis Gabriel. Kaulbach, William. Lance, George, R.A. Landseer, Sir Edwin, R.A. Lauder, Robert Scott, R.S.A. Lee, Frederick Richard, R.A. Leech, John. Lewis, John Frederick. LinnelL John. M'Culloch, Horatio. Maclise, Daniel, R.A. Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest. Millais, John Everett. Mulready, William, R.A. Nash, Joseph. Overbeck, Friedrich. Paton, Joseph Noel, R.S.A. Pickersgill, Fred. Richard, R.A. Poole, Paul Falconer, A.R.A. Pyne, James B. Redgrave, Richard, R.A. Roberts, David, R.A. painters (Continued). Schnorr, Jules. Stanfield, Clarkson, R.A. Vernet, Horace. Ward, Edward Matthew, R.A. Webster, Thomas, R.A. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier. PHILANTHROPISTS. (See "Political and Social Economists. ") PHILOLOGISTS. (See "Antiquarians.") Allen, William, D.D. Baehr, John Christian. Bekker, Emmanuel. Boeck, Augustus. Bopp, Franz. Bosworth, Joseph, D.D., LL.D. Dindorf, Wilhelm. Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. Panizzi, Antonio. Ramsay, William, M.A. Richardson, Charles, LL.D. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. Smith, William, LL.D. Trench, Very Rev. Dean. PHYSICIANS. Andral, Gabriel. Arnot, Neil M.D. Auzoux, Th. Louis. Black well, Elizabeth, M.D. Brodie, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Christison, Robert, M.D. Clark, Sir James, Bart. Dickson, Samuel Henry, M.D. Dunglison, Robley, D.D., LL.D. Elliotson, John, M.D. Forbes, Sir John, M.D. Frerichs, Frederic Theodore. Holland, Sir Henry, M.D. Langenbeck, Maximilian. Rokitansky, Charles. Schbnlein, Johann Luk. Simpson, James Young, M.D. Skoda, Joseph. Smith, Thomas Southwood, M.D. Syme, James, M.D. Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D. Thierry, Alexandre. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 413 physicians {Continued). Velpeau, Alfred Marie. Winslow, Forbes, M.D. PHYSICISTS. (See " Astronomers. ") Arnot, Neil, M.D. Babbage, Charles. Barlow, Peter. Becquerel, Antoine Cesar. Biot, Jean Baptiste. Brewster, Sir David. Bunsen, Robert William. Cayley, Arthur. De-Morgan, Augustus. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. Gould, Benjamin Apthorp. Harris, Sir William Snow. Herschell, Sir John, Bart. Hunt, Robert, F.R.S. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. Olmsted, Denison. O'Shaughnessy, Sir William B. Pouillet, Claude. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. Ruhmkorff, N. Sabine, Major-General Edward. Somerville, Mrs. Mary. Wheatstone, Charles, F.R.S. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D. PHYSIOLOGISTS. (See "Physicians" and "Naturalists.") Bernard, Claude. Carpenter, William Benjamin, M.D. Muller, Johannes. Owen, Richard, F.R.S. Wagner, Rudolph. POETS. (See "Authors" and "Novelists.") Aird, Thomas. Andersen, Hans Christian. Anster, John, D.C.L. Arnold, Matthew. Augier, Guillaume Victor. Aytoun, William Edmondstoune. Bailey, Philip James. Barthelemy, Auguste Marseille. Bell, Henry Glassford. Brown, Miss Frances. poets (Continued). Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett. Browning, Robert. Bryant, William Cullen. Carey, Miss Alice. Clare, John. Cook, Eliza. Dana, Richard H enry. Dobell, Sydney. Dupont, Pierre. Fields, James T. Freiligrath, Ferdinand. Hahn-Hahn, Countess Von. Halleck, Fitz- Greene. Holmes, Oliver Wendell. Houssaye, Arsene. Hugo, Victor Marie Vincent. Ingemann, Bernard Severin. Jasmin, Jacques. Keble, Rev. John. Kobell, Franz Von. Lamartine, Alphonse. Landor, Walter Savage. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. Lover, Samuel. Lowell, James Russell. Mackay, Charles, LL.D. Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco. Massey, Gerald. Mery, Joseph. Milnes, Richard Monckton, M.P. Norton, the Hon. Mrs. Patmore, Coventry. Procter, Bryan W. Reboul, Jean. Smith, Alexander. Swain, Charles. Tennyson, Alfred, D.C.L. Uhland, Johann Ludwig. Vigny, Alfred, Count de. Watts, Alaric Alexander. Willis, Nathaniel Parker. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMISTS. (See "Statesmen.") Albert, Martin. Blanc, Louis. Bright, John. Brougham, Lord. Brown, William. 414 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. economists (Continued). Burritt, Elihu. Carey, Henry C. Chad wick, Edwin, C.B. Chevalier, Michel. Chisholm, Mrs. Caroline. Cobden, Richard, M.P. Cousin, Victor. Coutts, Miss Burdett. Dawson, George, M.A. Godwin, George. Gough, John B. Guthrie, Thomas, D.D. HilL Sir Rowland, K.C.B. Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Lieber, Francis. M'Culloch, J. R. Martineau, Miss Harriet Maurice, Rev. F. D., M.A. Metz de, Frederick A. Mill, John Stuart. Milnes, Monckton, M.P. Nightingale, Miss F. Potter, Louis Joseph. Proudhon, Pierre Joseph. Reed, Andrew, D.D. Rollin, Ledru. Say, Horace Emile. Senior, Nassau William. Shaftesbury, Lord. Shuttleworth, Sir James Kay. Smith, Southwocd, M.D. Thompson, Major- General. Whatley, Archbishop. SCHISMATICS. Cabet, Etienne. Proudhon, Pierre Joseph. Ronge, Johannes. Strauss, David Friedrich. Young, Brigham. SCULPTORS. Baily, Edward Hodges, R.A. BeU, John, R.A. Foley, John Henry, R.A. Geefs, Guillaume. Geefs, Joseph. Gibson, John, II. A. Kiss, Augustus. Lough, John Graham. Macdowell, Patrick, R.A. sculptors (Continued) . Marochetti, Baron. Marshall, William Calder, R.A. Monte, Raffaelle. Powers, Hiram. Rauch, Christian. Steell, John, R.S.A. Tenerani, Pietro. Thorneycroft, Mrs. Mary. Westmacott, Richard, R.A. sovereigns and princes. Abdul Medjid Khan, Turkey. Albert, Prince Consort. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. Alexander II. , Russia. Bonaparte, Jerome, Prince. Bonaparte, Louis Lucien, Prince. Bonaparte, Napoleon, Prince. Buchanan, James, Ex-President U. S. Chambord, Comte de. Charles XV., Sweden. Constantine, Nicholas witch. Danilo, Petrovitch, Montenegro. Eugenie, Empress of the French. Ferdinand IV. , Ex-Duke of Tuscany. Francis Joseph I., Austria. Francis II., Naples. Francis V., Ex-Duke of Modena. Frederick VIII. , Denmark. Frederick William IV. , Prussia. George V. , Hanover. Ghika, Ex-Hospodar, Wallachia. Hien Fung, China. Isabel II. , Spain. Leopold I. , Belgium. Maximilian II. (Joseph), Bavaria. Napoleon III., France. Otho L , Greece. Paris, Comte de. Pedro V. , Portugal. Pius IX., Pope of Rome. Soulouque, Ex-Emperor of Hayti. Victor Emmanuel, Sardinia. Victoria L, Queen of Great Britain, &c. William I. , Wiirtemburg. William III., Holland. STATESMEN. (See " Political and Social Economists.") Aali Pasha. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 415 statesmen {Continued) . Aberdeen, Earl of. Almodovar, Count of. Anstey, Thomas Chisholm. Antonelli, Cardinal. Argyll, Duke of. Argyropoulo, Pericles. Aristarchi, Nicolas. Ashburton, Lord. Azeglio, Marquis d'. Baines, Edward, M.P. Barante, Baron de. Barbes, Armand. Barrot, Odilon. Bastide, Jules. Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Berkeley, Hon. Francis, M.P. Bethell, Sir Richard. Bibesco, George Demetrius. Black, Adam, M.P. Blanc, Louis. Blanqui, Louis Auguste. Botfield, Beriah, M.P. Bourqueney, Comte de. Bowring, Sir John. Bravo- Murillo, Juan. Bright, John, M.P. Broglie, Due de. Brooke, Sir James. Brougham, Lord. Broughton de Gifford, Lord. Brunow, Baron Von. Buccleuch and Queensberry, Duke of. Buchanan, James. Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton. Bunsen, Chevalier Von. BuoL Shauenstein, Count. Buren, Martin Van. Caballero, Firmin Agosto. Caird, James, M.P. Cairns, Sir Hugh M'Calmont. Campbell, Lord. Canning, Charles John, Viscount. Cardwell, Right Hon. Edward. Carlisle, Earl of. Carnot, Lazare Hippolite. Casabianca, Count of. Cass, General Lewis, LL.D. Caussidiere, Marc. Cavour, Count. statesmen {Continued) . Chelmsford, Lord. Clarendon, Earl of. Cobden, Richard. Coningham, William, M.P. Cormenin, Vicomte de. Cowley, Lord. Cranworth, Baron. CrSinieux, Isaac Adolphe. Dalhousie, Marquis of. Dallas, George Mifflin. Decazes, Elie Due. Derby, Earl of. Disraeli, Benjamin, Right Honourable. Drouyn de Lhuys, Edouard. Duchatel, Charles M. T., Count. Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas. Dufferin and Clandeboye, Lord. Duffy, Charles G. Duncombe, Thomas Slingsby, M.P. Dupin, Andre-Marie Jean Jacques. Dupin, Baron. Dupont de l'Eure, Jacques Charles. Eglinton and Winton, Earl of. Elgin and Kincardine, Earl of. Ellenborough, Earl of. Enfantin, Barthelemy Prosper. Espartero, Don Baldomero. Everett, Edward, D.C.L. Fazy, Jean J. Fillmore, Millard. Fould, Achille. Fox, W. J., M.P. Fremont, John Charles. Gamier Pages, Louis Antoine. Gibson, Rt. Hon. Thomas Milner, M.P. Gladstone, Right Hon. William E., M.P. Gortchakoff, Prince Alexander. Graham, Sir James. Granville, Earl. Grey, Earl. Grey, Sir George, M.P. Grey, Sir George, K.C.B. Guizot, Francois. Haliburton, Mr. Justice, M.P. Hardwicke, Charles P. Yorke, Earl of. Henley, Right Hon. Joseph W., M.P. Herbert, Right Hon. Sidney, M.P. Hope, George William, M.P. Isturitz. Don Xavier de. 416 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. statesmen {Continued). Jordan, Sylvester. Kern, J. Conrad. Kinnaird, Lord. Kisseleff, Paul Dmitrevitch. Kossuth, Lajos de Kossuth "Falva. Lamartine, Alphonse de. Lansdowne, Marquis of. Lawrence, Sir John. Ledru Rollin. Lesseps, Ferdinand de. Lewis, Sir George CornewalL Lindsay, Lord. Lindsay, William Schaw, M. P. Llanover, Lord. Lyndhurst, Lord. Lytton, Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. M'Neill, Sir John, G.C.B. Madoz, Pascal. Malmesbury, Earl of. Manteufel, Baron. Martinez de la Rosa. Mazzini, Joseph. Milnes, Richard Monckton, M. P. Mocquard, Constant. Montalembert, Comte de. Monteagle, Lord. Morny, Comte de. Narvaez, Don Ramon, Duke. Nesselrode, Comte de. Newcastle, Duke of. Normanby, Marquis of. O'Brien, William Smith. O'Donnell, Marshal. Orloff, Alexis, Prince. Overstone, Lord. Pakington, Sir John, G.C.B. Palmerston, Viscount. Panmure, Lord. Peel, Frederick, M.P. Peel, The Right Hon. Jonathan. Peel Sir Robert. Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin. Poerio, Carlo. Pulszky, Ferencz. Remilly, Ovide. Reschid Pasha. Ripon and De Grey, Earl of. Roebuck, John, M.P. statesmen (Continued). Rosetti, Constantine. RusselL Lord John, M.P. Saint Leonards, Baron. Saldanha, Duke of. Santa Anna, Don Antonio Lopee de. Schcelcher, Victor. Seymour, Sir Geo. , G. C. B. Shaftesbury, Earl of. Stanhope, Philip H., Earl of. Stanley, Lord. Stirling, William, M.P. Stratford de Redcliffe, Viscount. Taunton, Lord. Tennent, Sir James E., M.P. Thiers, Louis Adolphe. Urquhart, David. Villemain, Abel. Walewski, Comte de. Walpole, the Right Hon. Spencer, M. P. Walter, John, M.P. Whiteside, the Right Hon. James, M.P. Wood, SirChas., M.P. travellers. Ainsworth, William Francis. Back, Sir George. Barth, Sir Henry. Bartlett, John Russel. Belcher, Sir Edward. Borrow. George. Cailliaud, Frederic. Chesney, Francis Rawdon, D.C.L. Davis, Sir John F., Bart., K.C.B. Franklin, Lady. Kinglake, Alexander Wm. , M.P. Laborde, Comte de. Layard, Austen Henry. Livingston, Rev. David, LL.D. M'Clintock, Sir Francis. Maclure, Sir Robert Le Mesurier. Richardson, Sir John, K.C.B. Ross, Rear- Admiral Sir James Clark. Schomburgk, Sir Robert Hermann. Taylor, Isidore Baron. Taylor, Bayard. Wilkes, Charles. Willis, Nathaniel Parker. WrangeL Ferdinand. Heed Sf Pardon. Printers, Paternoster-row, London. 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