rnia 1 mm THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE $nferati0ral $foxtta;ti0n: Stories \i*S EDITED BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A.M., LL.D. VOLUME I. THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 12mo, cloth, uniform binding. 'T'HE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES was projected for the pur- * pose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings, new and old, upon educational subjects, and presenting a complete course of reading and training for teachers generally. It is edited by W. T. HARRIS, LL. D., now United States Commissioner of Education, who has contributed for the different volumes in the way of introductions, analysis, and commentary. The volumes are tastefully and substan- tially bound in uniform style. VOLUMES NOW READY: VoL I. THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. By JOHANN KARL FRIED- RICH ROSENKRANZ, Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy at the Uni- versity of Konigsberg. Translated from the German by ANNA C. BRACKKTT. Second edition, revised, and accompanied with Commentary and complete Analysis. Price, $1.50. Vol. II. A HISTORY OF EDUCATION. By F. V. N. PAINTER, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages and Literature in Roanoke College, Va. Price, $1.50. Vol. III. THE RISE AND EARLY CONSTITUTION OF UNIVER- SITIES. WITH A SURVEY OF MEDIEVAL EDUCATION. By S. S. LAURIE, LL. D., Professor of the Institutes and History of Education in the University of Edinburgh. Price, $1.50. Vol. IV. THE VENTILATION AND WARMING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. By GILBERT B. MORRISON, Teacher of Physics and Chem- istry in Kansas City High School. Price, $1.00. Vol. V. THE EDUCATION OF MAN. By FRIEDRICH FROEBEI. Trans- lated and furnished with ample notes by W. N. HAILMANN, A. M., Superin- tendent of Public Schools, La Porte, Ind. Price, $1.50. VoL VI. ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. By Dr. J. BALDWIN, author of " The Art of School Management" Price, $1.30. Vol. VII. THE SENSES AND THE WILL. (Part I of "THE MIND OF THE CHILD.") 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INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES THE PHILOSOPHY OP E DUG ATION BY JOHANN KAEL FEIEDRICH ROSENKRANZ ii DOCTOR OF THEOLOGY AND PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT THB OF KOENIGSBEBG TBAN8LATED FBOM THE GEBMAN BT ANNA C. BKACKETT SECOND EDITION, REVISED, AND ACCOMPANIED WITH COMMENTARY AND ANALYSIS NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET ' 1892. U' 6 7 COPYRIGHT, 1886, Bt D. APPLETON A1TO COMPANY. EDITOR'S PREFACE. THIS work was translated originally for The Jour- nal of Speculative Philosophy, appearing in volumes vi, vii, and viii of that periodical (1872-'73-'74r). It was intended for the use of philosophical students who, in general, admire precise technical terms and the terse German of the original was rendered by equal- ly terse English. An edition of two thousand copies was reprinted in a separate volume. Demands for the work continuing after the first edition was exhausted, it was determined to publish a new one. For this purpose a revision has been made of the translation with a view to better adapt it to the needs of readers not skilled in philosophy. Where it has been thought necessary, phrases, or even entire sentences, have been used to convey the sense of a single word of the original. Typ- ographical errors that had crept into the first edition, through careless proof-reading, have been carefully cor- rected. It may be safely claimed that no obscurity re- mains except such as is due to the philosophic depth and generality of the treatment. In this respect the trans- lation is now more intelligible than the original. In ad- dition to these helps, a somewhat elaborate commentary vi EDITOR'S PREFACE. on the whole work has been undertaken by the editor, wKo has also prefixed to it a full analysis of the text and commentary. It is believed that the book as it now appears will meet a want that is widely felt for a thorough-going Philosophy of Education. There are many useful and valuable works on " The Theory and Practice of Teach- ing," but no work that entirely satisfies the description of a genuine Philosophy of Education. To earn this title, such a work must not only be systematic, but it must bring all its details to the test of the highest prin- ciple of philosophy. This principle is the acknowl- edged principle of Christian civilization, and, as such, Rosenkranz makes it the foundation of his theory of education, and demonstrates its validity by an appeal to psychology on the one hand and to the history of civi- lization on the other. This work, on its appearance, made an epoch in the treatment of educational theory in Germany. It brought to bear on this subject the broadest philosophy of mod- ern times, and furnished a standard by which the value of the ideas severally discussed by radicals and conserv- atives could be ascertained. It found the truth lying partly on the territory of the established order and partly on the territory of the reformers Ratich, Co- menius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and their followers. It showed what was valid in the idea that had come to be established in the current system of education, and also exposed the weakness that had drawn the attack of the reformers. Its Author. Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz was born at Magdeburg, April 23, 1805. He took up EDITOR'S PREFACE. v ii his residence in Berlin in 1824, distinguishing himself as a disciple, first of Schleierraacher, and afterward of Hegel. In 1833 he became Professor of Philosophy at Konigsberg, and occupied for forty-six years, until his death in 1879, the chair held for twenty-four years by the celebrated Herbart, and for thirty- four years by the still more celebrated Kant. He wrote extensive works on philosophy and literature, and published the present work in 1848 under the title of Paedagogik ate System. Points of Great Value. Special attention is called to the deep significance of the principle of self-estrange- ment (Selbst-Entfremdung) as lying at the foundation of the Philosophy of Education (p. 27). It furnishes a key to many problems discussed by the educational reformers from Comenius to Herbert Spencer. / Since man's true nature is not found in him already realized at birth, but has to be developed by his activity, his true nature is__his ideal, which he may actualize by education. Hence the deep significance of this process. Man must estrange himself from his first or animal nature, and assimilate himself to his second or ideal nature, by habit. At first all things that belong to culture are strange and foreign to his^ ways of Fiving and thinking. Education begins when he puts aside what is familiar and customary with him, and puts on the new and strange that is to say, begins his "self-estrangement."' The nature of such important matters as work and play (p. 28) and habit ( 29-34) becomes evident from this insight. The distinction of corrective and retributive punish- ment ( 38-45) is of great value practically in deciding EDITOR'S PREFACE. upon the kind of punishment to use in an American school where pupils have a precocious sense of honor. The part of this work devoted to educational psy- chology ( 82-102) is believed to possess great interest for the thoughtful teacher, as tracing the outlines of the only true science of the mind. The phases most worthy of the educator's attention are certainly those that relate to the development of the intellectual and moral powers; it is their development rather than their mere existence that the practical teacher wishes to know about. This treatise is commended to the notice of those who have hitherto been unable to find a satisfactory psychologi- cal basis for their educational theories. They are in- vited to ponder what is said about attention (p. 73) ; how the lower faculties grow into higher faculties, and how the higher faculties re-enforce the lower (pp. 75, 76) ; the function of the imagination in forming general types' and in leading to abstract ideas (pp. 84-87). The methods of treating the three grades of capacity the blockhead, the mediocre talent, and the genius are especially suggestive to the teacher (p. 109). The subject of morality is treated with great care, and all will admire what is said on the inadrnissibility of vacations in moral obedience (p. 153), as well as what is said (p. 147) on the subject of urbanity (politeness with a dash of irony), as the flower of social culture. Rosenkranz very properly makes religious education the last and highest form of the particular elements of education. In no place may one find deeper insights in regard to the proper culture in religion in an age abounding in unbelief and skeptical influences. His dis- tinction of three stages of theoretical culture in religion EDITOR'S PREFACE. i x (a) pious feeling, (&) enjoyment of religious symbols, (c) interest in the dogmas as such to which he adds the three practical stages of (a) self-consecration, (J) performance of church ceremonies, (c) the attainment of a pious trust in the divine government of the world these distinctions are thorough-going. What he says (p. 167) on the dangers of unduly hastening the child from the stages of religious feeling to religious thought and reflection, or, on the other hand, of unduly repress- ing religious reflection in those who have begun to ask question's and suggest doubts, is very instructive to re- ligious teachers, whether in the Sabbath-school or in the family. So, too, is the distinction (p. 170) drawn be- tween the provinces of morality and religion. The entire third part of the work is taken up with a history of education, based on the philosophy of his- tory. It is rather an outline of the history of human culture than a special history of schools or of pedagog- ics. As such, it is highly valuable, not only for the teacher or parent, but also for all who desire to see in a condensed form the essential outcome of human history. In this brief survey of the philosophy of history the reader will take note, first of all, of the deepest contrast that found between the Oriental and Occidental world- principles. The former is that of obedience to exter- nal authority, the latter that of independence in all its forms. The educator will here find practical hints on all points of school management. In China, for in- stance, he may see exactly what kind of education will make conservative citizens mere mechanical memoriz- ing will do this (p. 197). He may see how too much stress on education for one's vocation may lead to castes x EDITOR'S PREFACE. like those of India (p. 200), while abstract asceticism in education may produce something akin to Lamaism. The enlightened reader will find it of great interest, in these days of the study of Buddhism (" The Light of Asia" as well as the so-called "Esoteric Buddhism"), to read the distinction between Buddhism and Christi- anity (pp. 205 and 256), i. e., the distinction between the renunciation of selfishness and the annihilation of self- hood itself. The "active" or restless peoples of Western Asia are of very great importance in the history of culture mediating as they do between the extremes of the East and the West (p. 212). But, above all, we of modern times are most eager to study the three kinds of indi- viduality which Europe has furnished us (p. 218) in the Greek, the Roman, and the Teutonic peoples. For these three elements of individuality, dominated by the spir- itual idea which we received from Judea the idea of God as a Divine Person are the elements that enter our civilization and compose it. We have to study these four strands of our civilization in order to know ourselves. What is said about the religious significance of the games to the Greeks (p. 220) and the interpreta- tion of Nature by the unconscious poetic power of the Greek mind (p. 223), as well as the characterization of the Roman principle (p. 230), will be recognized as a new elaboration of Hegel's insight given in his " Phi- losophy of History " a work which alone would give its author a rank among the foremost of the great think- ers of the world. The Roman idea of genus humanum and its relation to the ideal of the Hebrew prophets the Messiah, Prince of Peace, to be worshiped of all EDITOR'S PREFACE. XI nations is the key to the explanation of the adoption of Christianity as a world-religion (p. 249). The spirit of modern history is characterized as that which seeks to realize the good of all men in each man (p. 251). The reader will find a mine of important ideas by fol- lowing out the lead of any one of these thoughts. Es- pecial mention, however, should be given to the appli- cation of the principle of self-estrangement hi explain- ing the study of the classics (pp. 277, 278), and to the remarks on Rousseau (p. 283). Omissions. Occasional references to contemporary educational literature, to German customs, and to local or temporary interests have been omitted, and the fact of omission has been indicated by , or, if it is of the slightest importance, by express notice inserted in the text. Nearly all that is omitted may be read in the first edition of the work. "W. T. HARRIS. CONCORD. MASS., August 18, 1886. SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. PART I. Education in its General Idea : f Possible only to self-active beings 19 A Its Nature Education by Divine Providence, by experience, or by oo i Q_QO i tG&cncrs 21 Relates to body, intellect, and will ; must be systematic ; I conducted in schools 23 B Its Form f Self-estrangement, work and play 27 88 23-45 " i Habit 30 I Authority, obedience, punishment 88 r TtaTimite f Subjective limit in the pupil's capacity 47 J ' 68 4fMiO \ Objective limit in the pupil's wealth and leisure 48 [ Absolute limit in the pupil's completion of school-work. . . 49 PART II. Education in its Special Elements : A PhvRiVnl f Dietetics 61 ^ Gymnastics . 63 I Sexual [omitted]. Psvcholosical f Intuitive sense-perception 77 T Imaginative fancy and memory 82 [Logical 94 ' Of development of the pupil 96 Of development of the subject 97 Logical order. - | Analytic 101 Of demonstration . . < Synthetic 101 ' ( Dialectical 102 Pupil's capacity 106 Pupil's act of learning mechanical 115 dynamical 115 Instruction, -j assimilative 116 living example . . 120 Method of instruction text-book 121 oral 126 Social usages. .'. 143 MorallTrain f The Virtues 151 Mor ?5 4 Discipline 154 C.Will-Train- m ' I. Character 155 ing. 137- f a. Feelings ; b. Symbols ; c. Dogmas 160 174. -Rniirrirt,,. a - Self-consecration ; b. ceremonies ; c. reconciliation with one's lot 165 a. Family worship ; b. union with church ; c. religious insight 175 PART HI. Education in its Particular Systems : Family China 196 Passive. Caste India 200 Monkish Thibet 206 A isrtionftl Military Persia 207 68 m?22B 1 A c v e. Priestly-Egypt 211 IndustrialPhoenicia 214 ^Esthetic Greece 218 Individual. Practical Rome 229 Abstract individual German tribes 240 B. Theocratic. " Jews 249 227-233. f Monkish 253 ChiTalric 258 C. Humanita- f V( ._ Rnpcial Secular life 263 rian or SuSSi 1 Jesuitic 270 Christian. I Pietistie 272 234-260. Citizen. " To achieve an ( Humanist 276 ideal of culture. | Philanthropist 279 For free citizenship 284 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. 1. The Science of Education, a mixed sci- ence presupposing and using others resembling medicine. What other sciences it presupposes its place in a complete arrangement of all the sciences (p. 1). 2. The shallow character of educational treatises due to the vagueness of the definition of the province of education (p. 9). 3. Business competition in education increases charlatanism (p. 10). 4. The science of education belongs in the same department as the ethical sciences. It begins in the family (p. 10). 5. The science of education contains the principles the art of education relates to the devices of applying them, taking into consideration the local circumstances (p. 12). 6. The local circum- stances must not be elevated into general principles (p. 13). 7. The science of education unfolds the general idea of education, and shows the divisions and the historical systems that have prevailed (p. 13). 8. The general idea different from the system (p. 13). g 9. The divisions into physical, intellectual, and moral education (p. 14). 10. The history of civilization shows the various ideas of education that have prevailed (p. 14). 11. How the present one has arisen (p. 16). The FIRST PART considers the general idea of education. 12. (1) The nature of education in general, (2) its form, (3) its limits (p. 19). CHAPTER I. The Nature of Education. Education is possible be- cause ( 13) the mind is self-active (p. 19). Hence the human being is ( 14) the only fit subject of education (p. 20). The guidance of the race by Divine Providence ( 15) may be called education (p. 21), or ( 16) the molding of the individual by the influences of life (p. 21), or, in the narrowest sense ( 17), the influence of the teacher on a pupil (p. 22). The general problem of education ( 18) includes x iv ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. development of intellect and moral nature (p. 23). It must be sys- tematic ($ 19), or it will effect but little (p. 24). Necessity of dividing the work of education ( 20) into special departments (p. 24), and ( 21) hence special schools (p. 25). Possibilities and limits of educa- tion ( 22), the capacities of the individual (p. 25). CHAPTER II. The Form of Education. 23. The mind at first undeveloped ; second, occupies itself on strange and foreign subjects ; third, gets familiar with them, so that it is at home in a world of ob- jects (p. 26). 24. Self-estrangement and its removal belong to all culture (p. 27). 25. Definition of work and play (p. 28); necessity of insisting ( 26) on respect for work (p. 29) ; equal necessity of play in order to develop the pupil's individuality. 27. Recreation found for the educated man in change of work (p. 30). 28. Education seeks to transform into habit whatever ought to belong to one's na- ture (p. 30). 29. Indifference of habit anything good or bad may become a habit (p. 31). Hence education should cultivate a sensitive- ness for what is ethical. 30. Utility a relative standard of judg- ing what habits are to be cultivated (p. 32). 31. The absolute stand- ard is the moral one (p. 33). 32. Active habit and passive habit defined (p. 33). 33. Habit the end of education, but the power of breaking habits to be acquired (p. 34). 34. Too much supervision of the pupil versus too much exposure to temptation (p. 35). 35. Importance of studying the historic growth of defects of character (p. 36). 36. When mere authority is sufficient (p. 37), and when explanations and arguments should be addressed to the pupil's reason. 37. Scolding (p. 38). 38. Punishment defined (p. 38): it should be given for particular and specified acts, and not for general dispo- sition to evil action. 39. Corrective versus retributive punishment (p. 39) ; school punishment the former. 40. Punishment for cor- rection should be regulated by the needs of the offender (p. 40), and not by the magnitude of the offense, as in the case of re- tributive punishment. 41. Corporal punishment, isolation, pun- ishment based on a sense of honor (p. 40). 42. Corporal pun- ishment defined (p. 41) ; the rod the best means. 43. Isolation, its effect explained (p. 42). 44. Punishment through the sense of honor the danger in its use (p. 43). 45. Necessity of careful dis' crimination in selecting the kind of punishment to use and in decid- ing its amount (p. 44). CHAPTER III. The Limits of Education. 46. When work has become a habit, and the pupil has learned to practice the right meth- ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. XV ods from his own impulse rather than on account of external author- ity, his education in school has ended (p. 45). g 47. The subjective limit of education (p. 47) is the limit found in the pupil's capacity. 48. The objective limit depends on the leisure and means of the pupil (p. 48). 49. The absolute limit of education is found in the mastery of the means and methods, and the formation of correct habits on the part of the pupil (p. 49). 50. Self-culture succeeds school edu- cation (p. 50.) SECOND PART. The Special Elements of Education (p. 55). INTRODUCTION. 51. Education defined as the development of the inborn theoretical and practical reason of man (p. 55). Its three stages described. 52. The special elements: 1. Education of the body ; 2. Of the intellect ; 3. Of the will (p. 56). The fivefold sys- tem of education family, school, vocation, citizenship, and the Church defined in the commentary (p. 57). CHAPTER I. Physical Education. 53. The essential point in hygiene is an insight into the relation of assimilation to elimination in the bodily processes (p. 59). 54. Perpetual process in the organ- ism ; balance between activity and rest (p. 59). 55. Fatigue ex- plained (p. 60) ; true strength arises only from activity. 56. Phys- ical education divided into dietetics, gymnastics, and sexual educa- tion (p. 61). CHAPTER II. Dietetics. 57. What is the method of sustain- . ing the repair of the organism (p. 61) f 58- 63. Summary of con- tents. 64, Cleanliness explained (p. 62). CHAPTER III. Gymnastics, 65, is the art of normal training of the muscular system (p. 63), and depends on the relation of the vol- untary to the involuntary muscles. 66. Gymnastics corresponding to the national military drill (p. 63) ; Turner-halls ; effect of invention of fire-arms on gymnastics (p. 64) ; why the Greeks paid so much at- tention to gymnastics (p. 65). 67. Gymnastics should aim to make the body an energetic and docile servant of the will (p. 65) ; it should not aim at making acrobats. 68. Classification of gymnastic exer- cises (p. 66). 69. The foot-movements (p. 66). g 70. The arm- movements (p. 66). 71. The whole-body movements (p. 67). CHAPTER IV. Intellectual Education. 80. Didactics, or the science of the art of teaching presupposes physical education, but chiefly deals with psychology and logic (p. 69). 81. The psycholog- ical presupposition. There must be a brief discussion of the outlines of psychology in didactics (p. 69). 82. Attention the most impor- 2 xvi ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. tant subject in educational psychology. Mind is essential self-activity (p. 70). Deduction of the powers or faculties of the mind from self- activity (p. 71) ; sense-perception, analysis, abstraction, perception of necessary relation, reflection, reason, etc. (p. 72). 83. Education of attention (p. 72). Attention is the combination of intellect and will. Aristotle's distinction between first and second substances (p. 73). Avicenna's first and second intentions of the mind. Fichte's psychol- ogy. 84. The mind does not consist of different faculties, but of different activities of the same power (p. 73) ; sense-perception, repre- sentation, thinking; intuitive, imaginative, and logical epochs of mind; fairy tales (p. 74); dialectical development of one stage of mind into another (p. 75), and the reaction of higher activities on lower ones so as to strengthen the power of the lower, illustrated by examples Agassiz and Asa Gray how science re-enforces the power of sense-reception (p. 76). CHAPTER V. 85. The intuitive epoch. Sense-perception, how educated by isolation of the object, by discovery of relations be- tween objects, by connecting objects in one system (p. 77). 86. Pictorial representation, its function (p. 78) type or general form of an object versus individual specimen. 87. Picture-books, their history Comenius's picture-book (p. 78). 88. Collections and cabi- nets ; drawings ; children should not attempt works of art (p. 79) ; the outlines which serve to characterize an object (p. 80). 89. Ex- planations essential to instruction by means of pictures (p. 80). 90. Educate the ear as well as the eye music careful articulation and quality of voice in reading Plato and Aristotle on the importance of music ; piano-playing ; German musical dramas symphonies and sonatas (p. 81). CHAPTER VI. The Imaginative Epoch. 91. The formation of mental images and their verification ; creative imagination ; memory (p. 82). 92. Comparison of mental image with the sense-perception of the object in order to verify and correct it (p. 82.) 93. Eman- cipation from particular objects through generalization ability to see the type of all objects of a given species also the ability to recog- nize a particular object as belonging to a given species (p. 83). 94. Art and literature as cultivation of imagination furnishing the images which every educated person is obliged to know, because the mind of the race does most of its thinking by means of the images derived from literature and art, and communicates its thoughts like- wise by their aid (p. 84). Homer and the Old Testament as furnishing ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. X vii the typical specimens of human nature which all must know (p. 85). 95. Fairy stories of a nation furnishing the images with which children first learn to think (p. 85) ; list of the books which all youth should read at some time what the nursery-tale gives the child (p. 86). g 96. Genuine fairy-tales immeasurably superior to those made to order, because they contain an unconscious reproduction of univer- sal types, purified and made universal by passing through the minds of innumerable individuals in the course of oral transmission from one century to the next (p. 86). 97. In later youth the pupil should approach more closely the study of noteworthy historic characters, and be moved by the stories of famous men (p. 87) ; he should at- tempt to understand the world, and grapple with its problems rather than remain content with passively viewing its pictures (p. 88) ; in what sense tragedy purifies the mind from passions (p. 89) ; necessity of gallant attacks upon works of great difficulty. 98. How general conceptions are derived from works of the imagination (p. 90) ; mem- ory and its relation to imagination mnemonic helps (p. 91) ; distinc- tion between recollection of particular objects and memory by means of general types, such memory as the scientific mind possesses ; sym- bolic stage of culture versus conventional stage (p. 92) ; how recollec- tion may be strengthened (p. 93). 99. Repetition and writing down as a means of memorizing (p. 93). CHAPTER VII. The Logical Epoch. 100. General concepts or schemata (p. 94) ; logical distinctions of particular, individual, and universal (p. 95). 101. The cultivation of the sense of truthful- ness; illusion and deception (p. 95). 102. Logical forms, their use in education (p. 96). CHAPTER VIII. Method. 103. Method the order in which a study or topic develops in the mind ; the three elements of instruc- tion (p. 96). 104. The order of arrangement that belongs to the nature of the subject (p. 97). 105. The order in which the pupil can best learn a subject, depending upon his stage of intellect, whether in the stage of sense-perception or imagination or abstract thought (p. 98) ; progress from the known to the unknown ; function of illus- tration ; symbolizing (p. 99) ; discovery of relations finding the definition or complete description of a subject ; necessary conditions of being (p. 100) ; the dialectic method which investigates the neces- sary presuppositions (p. 101). g 106. Method of demonstration analytic, synthetic, and dialectic proofs invention and construction, or heuristic and architectonic methods (p. 101) ; the genetic or dia- xviii ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. lectic method (p. 102) ; ascent from particular fact or event to the Cause of All by the dialectic method (p. 103) ; the notion or idea the judgment as distinction of universal and particular the syllo- gism as distinguishing and uniting the universal, particular, and in- dividual (p. 104). 107. The adaptation of the subject taught to the actual capacity and need of the pupil by the teacher (p. 104) ; the teacher must know the individual case, and use the necessary means to make the subject understood (p. 105). CHAPTER IX. Instruction. 108. The pupil lacks what the teacher possesses and can give him by instruction (p. 106). 109. Apprentice and master; true basis of authority found only in supe- rior knowledge and ability (p. 106). 110. Apprenticeship, journey- manship, mastership (p. 107). 111. Three degrees of capacity in the pupil dullness, mediocrity, talent and genius (p. 107) ; medioc- rity the general rule among pupils dunces and geniuses the excep- tions (p. 108) ; genius has unbounded inclination and capacity, and is clear as to the methods which it should use talent lacks insight into the best methods (p. 109). 112. Difficulty of educating talent and genius wisely on account of precocity, which must be repressed (p. 109) ; vanity, affectation, and self-consciousness to be repressed (p. 110). 118. The traditional learning which controls a sphere of knowledge (p. 110) ; the dilettant or amateur neglects the neces- sary preparation, but hastens to produce without it (p. Ill); self- taught men and their obstacles; genius can teach itself (p. 112); the professionally educated ; the role of reformer. 114. Correspond- ence between apprenticeship and professional education, etc. (p. 113). CHAPTER X. The Act of Learning. 115. The first object of the teacher to arouse the pupil to self-activity (p. 113) ; difference be- tween didactic and artistic expositions (p. 114). 116. Three ele- ments in learning (p. 114). 117. The mechanical element denned punctuality, regularity, and system (p. 115). 118. Dynamical element or self-activity of the pupil (p. 115). 119. How to develop the power of the pupil to assimilate or digest knowledge by his own activity through attention and repetition (p. 116). 120. Indus- try denned; laziness, over-haste, and over-exertion (p. 117). 121. Seeming laziness and seeming industry (p. 118). CHAPTER XI. The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 122. Three methods of instruction (p. 120). 123. The lessons of experi- ence ; what is learned in the period of infancy (p. 120) ; in learning one's trade or vocation ; in partaking of citizenship ; in the church ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 3n X (p. 121). 124. What is learned through books; convenience of such learning necessity of translating into elements of one's own experience (p. 121). 125. Text-books should give us the principal results in any department, omitting no essential elements (122) ; good and bad text-books described (p. 123). 126. If intended for private study the book should go more into details (p. 124). 127. Oral in- struction the most powerful agent of education (p. 124) ; the latest discoveries, the pronunciation of foreign languages, and similar mat- ters, require oral instruction (p. 125). 128. Oral and text-book in- struction contrasted (p. 125). 129. Acroamatic or lecture system and erotematic or catechetical method described and criticised (p. 126) ; system of Bell and Lancaster ; Diesterweg's opinion of the lect- ure system in German universities (p. 127). 130. Technical and popular lectures contrasted (p. 128) ; Kant's opinion of popular lect- ures. 131. The order of educational institutions (p. 129) ; general education to be given to all citizens in the elementary schools ; Real- schule, Gymnasium, and university (p. 130); self-educated men compared with university educated men (p. 131) ; academies of art ; natural science and modern languages versus Latin and Greek (p. 132). 132. Rules and regulations of the school ; programme of work (p. 133) ; struggle between the Gymnasia and the industrial interests of the community (p. 134). 133. The teachers should manage the programme, course of study, methods of instruction (p. 135) ; in other matters it is governed by the civil power (p. 135) ; historical origin of the school through the Church (p. 136). 134. State and church contrasted ; their relation to the school (p. 137) ; disposition contrasted with overt act; freedom from authority in matters of science (p. 138). 135. Limitations of church and state in their control over the school (139). 136. School inspection ought to extend over the entire system so as to properly co-ordinate the several departments and give unity to the work (p. 140). CHAPTER XII. Education of the Will. 137. The third spe- cial element of education is will-training (p. 141). 138. The will- training consists in discipline, or the voluntary putting on of the forms of action prescribed by civilization, in preference to following one's natural impulses ; morality and religion furnish the highest forms to which the natural will must be subjected (p. 142) ; polite- ness or conformity to the social code the least essential form (p. 143). CHAPTER XIII. Social Culture. 139. The beginning of educa- tion of the will is the training in obedience to social manners and XX ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. customs i. e., training in behavior toward others (p. 143). 140. The family training for the will begins with requiring obedience to elders (p. 144). The accident of birth determines this relation of su- periority and inferiority. 141. After the family comes the education of civil society, which insists on obedience to a social code of eti- quette ; politeness celebrates the form of devotion to the welfare of others (p. 146). 142. Dangers of the mania for attracting atten- tion of others, or of too much restraint and slavish dependence on the social code (p. 147). 143. Urbanity is the mastery of the social code rather than slavish subordination to it. It obeys forms, but with a sort of irony (p. 147). 144. The necessity of training one to prudent wariness against the dangers that arise from human self- ishness in the world (p. 149). CHAPTER XIV. Moral Culture. 145. Morality is the true es- sence of social culture. Its categories are duty, virtue, and conscience (p. 150). 146. Unconditional obedience to duty is the first demand of moral education ; not happiness, but duty, must be the guide of the will (p. 151). 147. The training of the will to obey duty re- sults in virtue ; three things to be noticed dialectic of virtues, moral discipline, character (p. 151). 148. Dialectic interdependence of virtues (p. 151) ; the doctrine of the mean (p. 152) ; no unessential virtues ; no vacations to be permitted in moral obedience (p. 153) ; missteps undo the whole work (p. 154). 149. Self-government to be attained by disciplining the will to renounce some things that are permitted it (p. 154). 150. The development of character is the final result of discipline of the will in self-control (p. 155) ; the fac- tors that form it are temperament, external events, the energy of the will. 151. Conscience is the consciousness of one's ideal self (p. 156) in contrast to the real self. CHAPTER XV. Religious Culture. 152. Conscience is the bridge that leads over from morality to religion ; the difference be- tween the atheistic moralist and the religious moralist (p. 157) ; the unconscious irony of atheism (p. 158). 153. The change of heart (p. 159). 154. Three things in religious education the theory or view of the world taught in religion, the discipline in the practice of religious observances, the union with a particular church (p. 160). CHAPTER XVI. The Theoretical Process of Religious Culture. 155. Three stages of religion feeling, religious images and sym- bols, religious insight into dogmas (p. 160). 156, Feeling or emo- ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. xxi tion the basis of religion ; but, if only a feeling, then only fetichism is possible ; Schleiermacher's opinion (p. 161). 157. Above mere emotion is the religious act which forms mental images of the Divine Being and his relation to man (p. 162). 158. Mysticism an ar- rested development of the mind on this stage of religious feeling (p. 162). 159. Religious imagination not an idle exercise of the fancy, but the fancy under the control of unconscious reason (p. 163). 160. By reflection on the meaning and significance of the religious images, there arises a clear insight into the essential nature of the divine (p. 163). 161. If the mind is arrested in its development at this stage of religious imagination, polytheism and idolatry arise ; education must not for this reason reject the religious imagination altogether (p. 164). 162. Religious thought, as a higher stage than religious imagination, has three stages abstract, reflective, specula- tive (p. 165). 163. The abstract stage, which sets up dogmas with- out any attempt to show their connection or their necessity in reason, is forced to give way before reflection, which, unless guided properly, will discover difficulties and become skeptical (p. 167); education must take care not to attempt to develop the reflective stage prema- turely ; it should, however, be careful to direct the inquiries of those already advanced to the stage of reflection, so that they may attain the speculative insight into the necessity of religious truth. 164. The final stage of religious instruction in doctrinal matters therefore endeavors to give philosophical insight (p. 168). CHAPTER XVII. The Practical Process of Religious Culture. 165. The three phases of religious discipline consecration of self, performance of religious ceremonies, religious reconciliation with one's lot (p. 169). 166. Distinction between the moral and the re- ligious standpoints the latter looks upon duty as the action of the Divine Will, and thus comes into personal relation to God (p. 169) ; distinction of sin, crime, and evil as the categories of religion, civil authority, and morality (p. 170). 167. Consecration of self, the re- nunciation of selfish egotism ; observance of religious ceremonies is intended to make consecration easy, because it gives the support of the whole church to each member of it (p. 170) ; but there is danger sometimes of confounding ceremonies with religion itself (p. 171). 168. Religious peace and reconciliation may come through conse- cration of self, or through that and the practice of religious cere- monial (p. 171) ; but often it is only the rough discipline of life which brings home to the mind the truth of religion (p. 172) ; recon- ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. ciliation must not be mere stoicism or fanatical asceticism, but cheer- ful activity in one's vocation (p. 173); discontent with one's lot; the blase mood (p, 174). CHAPTER XVI II. The Absolute Process of Religious Culture. 169. Three stages feeling and consecration, symbolism and cere- monial, religious insight and reconciliation (p. 175). $ 170. The first stage of religion a mysterious impulse toward the infinite (p. 176). 5 171. The family instructs the child in its own chosen form of wor- ship (p. 176). 172. Reflection on the dogmas of revealed religion leads to insight into their rational basis (p. 177). 173. The three stages are all essential to complete religious experience (p. 178). 174. Religious education is the last and highest form of the particu- lar elements of education (p. 179). THIRD PART. Particular Systems of Education. INTRODUC- TiON.-\-Historical systems of fidjiratinn./ 175. The number of peda- gogical principles is limited to a few ideas, and hence there are only a limited number of historic systems (p. 183); the deduction of the fundamental ideas and the three general forms of civilization and their corresponding systems of education (p. 185). 176. Civiliza- tion conditions all education and furnishes its object and aim ; an outline of the three great phases of civilization (p. 185) the Oriental civilizations, together with the Greek and Roman, form the first ; the Jewish, the second; Christian civilization, the third (p. 187). 177. The national, the theocratic, the humanitarian systems of education based on the three types of civilization (p. 188). CHAPTER I. The System of National Education. 178. The family is the natural germ out of which grow the other institutions, and it furnishes the basis of national education (p. 190) ; the mean- ing of pietas ; Des Coulanges and ancestor-worship ; Hegel's defini- tion of Oeist (p. 191). 179. National education includes three systems passive, active, individual (p. 191). 180. The passive a sub- jection, first, to the family authority (China) ; second, to the caste (In- dia) ; third, to the cloister (Thibet) (p. 192). 181. The active system is directed against the restraint of Nature ; first, the Persian, whose aim is conquest ; second, the Egyptian, whose aim is preparation for death and the immortal life; third, the Phoenician and the conquest of the ocean (p. 192). 182. The individual system with the Greek aims at freedom and its expression in the work of art. 183. The {esthetic (Greek) aim is followed by the practical (Roman) aim, which seeks individuality in its essential form of rights under equal laws ; the ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. German tribes possessed a morbid love of individuality for its own sake (p. 194). CHAPTER II. First Group the System of Passive Education. 184. The rational basis of passive education, the desire to free man from the thralldom of Nature by mutual social help ; its defect lies in the fact that it produces a new thralldom to social order, which, how- ever, is better than the former thralldom to Nature (p. 196). 185. Family education, in its purest form in China (p. 196). 186. The family feeling (pietas) demanding obedience to paternal authority and the protection and guidance of the younger by the elder (p. 197). 187. Family education consists in learning the network of usages or etiquette ; punishment corrective only ; endless number of maxims of obedience ; Hegel's description of the Chinese (p. 198) ; the Chinese alphabet ; Chinese schools and fourfold system of examinations ; effect of exclusive cultivation of the memory in producing a conservative people (p. 199). 188. Chinese reading and writing (p. 200). 189. Caste education in India ; the station determined by birth and not by education (p. 200). $ 190. Education consists in learning the cere- monies due from one caste to the others (p. 201) ; examples of this (p. 202). 191. Literature of India ; fables and proverbs ; the Hito- padesa (p. 202). 192. Monkish education in Thibet ; its reaction against Nature, against the family, and against civil society and in- dustry (p. 203). 193. Division into monks and laity (p. 204). 194. The Chinese Buddhism and Indian hermit system form a natural transition to the cloister system of Thibet (p. 204) ; the defect of quietism ; contrast of Lamaism and Christian monasticism ; nirvana ; selfishness versus selfhood-: the Sankhya doctrine of India the root of Buddhist theology (p. 205). CHAPTER III. Second Group the System of Active Education. 195. Active education subordinates family, caste, and cloister to an objective purpose of conquest military as in Persia, future life as in Egypt, industrial as in Phoenicia (p. 206). 196. Military educa- tion for the purpose of establishing an absolute, unlimited empire by subjugation of all neighboring nations; history of Persia (p. 207), the absolute limit of Persian conquest found in Grecian individuality (p. 208). g 197. Persian education in truth-speaking, in riding horse- back, and in the use of the bow and arrow ; its contrast with education in India and Thibet (p. 208) ; explanation of truth-speaking as indi- cating a sense of the reality of finite things the Hindoo believed finite things to be a dream-product; the uses of social order, its xx i v ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. sacredness to the Chinese and Hindoos ; its better appreciation by the Persians and active peoples (p. 209). 198. Herbeds, Mobeds, Destur-mobeds among the Magi; the Persian deities Orniuzd and Ahriman at war with each other (p. 210). 199. Priestly education of Egypt for the sake of preparing man in this life for the next ; how the Persian meets death ; in Egypt the death-court the supreme tri- bunal (p. 211) ; Osiris and Amenti (p. 212). 200. School studies ; aim in life ; Chinese, Hindoo, Buddhist, Persian, and Egyptian contrasted (p. 212) ; Egyptian science ; engineering ; surveying, why so impor- tant ; hieroglyphics ; method of teaching arithmetic : cost of rearing a child up to manhood only four dollars (p. 213). 201. Industrial education of Phoenicia resembles in its aim that of the other active (i. e., restless) peoples ; manufacture of articles of luxury ; commerce ; Phoenician quarter in foreign cities ; education in deceit, and in in- difference toward family and native land ; love of gain ; extent of Phoe- nician commerce and manufactures ; the alphabet (p. 214). 202. Branches of study ; sacrifice of first-born to Moloch produced filial indifference necessary to a nation of sailors (p. 215). CHAPTER IV. Third Group the System of Individual Education. 203. Individuality contains both passivity and activity ; it desires to be rather than to hare ; its three principles beauty (Greek), legal rights (Roman), dtemonic love of individuality (German tribes) (p. 216) ; characterization of these principles (p. 217) ; Norse sea-kings, knights-errant, " cow-boys " (p. 218). 204. ^Esthetic education, Gracefulness, the expression of freedom in the control of the limbs, constitutes the essence of Greek beauty (p. 218). 205. At first athletic games formed the chief education in Greece ; then politics and poetry (p. 218); an account of the games; cultivation of the sense of the beautiful in the human form; followed by a race of artists who fixed in stone the ideal types of gracefulness (p. 220). 206. Composite races of Greece ; Dorians, ^Eolians, lonians ; gym- nastics, music, poetry; Athens the supreme center of Greek indi- viduality (p. 221). 207. Education in the heroic age; epic histo- ries and adventures (p. 221); Hercules, Melkarth, Izdubar, Mar-duk, Babel (p. 222). 208. Gymnastics, music, grammatics (p. 222). 209. Objects aimed at in gymnastics (p. 222). 210. Music ex- pressed to the ear what gracefulness did to the eye a sense of rhythm and self-control (p. 222) ; rhythm explained ; the nine muses ; Uriel's description of the Greek spirit ; Greek faculty of interpret- ing the sounds and movements in Nature (p. 223). 2H The cith- ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. XXV ern ; the flute at Thebes (p. 223) ; strange theory of Aristotle in regard to the immoral effect of flute-music (p. 224). 212. Gram- mar or literary culture; Iliad, Odyssey, JEsop, and tragic poets (p. 224). 213. The Peloponnesian war destroyed the Greek worship of the beautiful (p. 224); sophists; Diogenes the Cynic; Socrates and his teaching of conscious investigation of motives ; the oracle or external omen versus conscience (p. 225). 214. Socrates' doctrine that virtue can be taught ; Plato's Dorianism ; Aristotle's modern views (p. 226). 215. Dissolution of the Greek principle in Stoicism and Epicureanism (p. 227). 216. Educational signifi- cance of Stoicism and Epicureanism to be found in the fact that they both depend on a careful discipline of the intellect and will, whereas early Greek life was spontaneous not labor, but play (p. 228) ; Marcus Aurelius (p. 229). CHAPTER V. Practical Education. 217. The Roman makes usefulness rather than beauty his principle, and the ideal of the use- ful is to him the political power of the State which makes possible to the citizen all the good things life itself, and all the enjoyments of life (p. 229) ; discussion of the peculiarity of the Roman character ; its history ; outlaws living on a border-land ; compact ; the political bond the highest religion ; private right of property and the net- work of laws that protect it ; essential dualism in the Roman con- sciousness (p. 230). 218. ^Esthetic culture, which was religion to the Greeks, was to the Romans mere amusement ; three epochs in Roman education (p. 231). 219. The first epoch, juristic and mili- tary (p. 231) ; laws of the twelve tables ; fugitives to the Roman hills ; Latin words expressing self-control and severe self-criticism (p. 232) ; ancestor-worship in Rome ; Christianity adapted to solve the contra- diction of the Roman mind (p. 233). 220. Education of woman in Rome contrasted with that in Greece (p. 233). 221. Education by the mother ; by a jurist ; in the army ; stress laid on implicit obedi- ence ; schools called ludi ; love of moderation (p. 234) ; Shakespeare's " Coriolanus " (p. 235). 222. Influence of Greece after the conquest ; aesthetic education supplants the old Roman education ; study of Greek language and rhetoric (p. 235) ; Greek philosophy ; Cicero, Seneca, Boethius : use of rhetoric ; Apollonius of Rhodes (p. 236). 223. Literary trifling and the study of art for amusement ; belles- lettres ; salons; Sallust, Pliny, Nero (p. 237). 224. Wearied of amusement in art, the Roman betook himself to mysticism and secret rites borrowed from Persian and Egyptian mysteries (p. 288), XXV J ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 225. Grades of initiation in the mysteries ; Mithras, Isis, Pytha- goreanism ; Apollonius of Tyana ; the Illuminati (p. 239). 226. Ab- stract individual education. The individualism of the Germanic tribes called abstract because pure and simple ; its characteristics ; why called dcemonic (p. 240) ; Berserker rage ; tragedy of Brunhild in the old Norse Edda (p. 241). CHAPTER VI. The System of Theocratic Education. 227. The Roman idea of the genus humanum ; same idea reached by the He- brew prophets in the doctrine of a Messiah recognized as God by all nations ; the Jewish view of Nature as entirely distinct from God ; God a pure, spiritual personality (p. 249); Jewish proselytes; in what the Jewish and Roman ideas are identical (p. 243). 228. Emanci- pation from idolatry and superstition through the worship of God as absolutely above Nature; the ceremonial law as God's direct will and not as a natural law ; the decalogue (p. 244). 229. Patriarchal ele- ment, hereditary people of God ; hierarchical element, observance of ceremonial law ; cultivation of the memory (p. 245). 230. A prog- ress from the external to the internal and from lower to higher (p. 245). 231. At first the inducement of external prosperity and the threat of punishment for disobedience ; then the insight into the fact that the law contains its own reward ; Jesus Sirach, Plato's " Republic " and " Laws " (p. 246). 232. In the law was revealed an ideal standard of conduct by which each one could criticise his own life ; the belief that the one true religion will prevail everywhere ulti- mately (p. 248). 233. The Prince of Peace ; not beautiful, not great in battle, but holy ; this ideal the highest of all ideals (p. 249). CHAPTER VII. The System of Humanitarian Education. 234. The systems of national and theocratic education unite in that of hu- manitarian education (p. 250) ; this looks upon all men as having the same ultimate possibilities; the goal to be reached is the brotherhood of all men and the realization of the consciousness of freedom in each. Its ideal is the foundation of such institutions as secure the common good of all without suppressing the individuality of each. The best institution enables each of its members to participate to the greatest degree in the good of all, and it encourages self-activity in the high- est degree (p. 251). 235 and 236. The epochs of humanity-educa- tion are three monkish, chivalric, citizen, corresponding to the predominance of the Greek, Roman, and Protestant Christianity (p. 253). 237. The epoch of monkish education; within the Greek Church the principle of renunciation of the world took strongest ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. hold, and produced the hermit phases of Christianity, together with the first phase of raonasticism (p. 253) ; St. Francis and St. Dominic make essential changes in monasticism (p. 254). 238. The one- sidedncss of monasticism ; its tendency toward Oriental quietism (p. 254). 239. Its tendency to reproduce the historic past rather than to realize an ideal in the present (p. 254). 240. The three vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, signify the rejection of the institutions of civilization civil society, the family, the state ; relation of La- maism to Christian monasticism ; Abbe Hue (p. 255) ; explanation of the effect of the three vows (p. 256). 241. Monkish discipline fasts, vigils, penances (p. 256) ; espionage (p. 257). g 242. The with- drawal of the religious element into cloisters leaves the secular world to barbarism ; the Roman Church corrects this defect (p. 257). 243. The epoch of chivalric education. 243. By the principle of sanctity in works, the Roman Church brings back religion into the secular, and chivalric education arises (p. 258). 244. Industry was admitted side by side with religious ceremonial in the Roman Church ; Tauler's " Imitation of the Life of Christ " (p. 258). 245. The education of chivalry in the practice of arms, in knightly eti- quette, and poetry (p. 259). 246. Chivalry goes to the opposite ex- treme of monkish education in its placing unbounded value on indi- viduality ; eccentricity of knight-errantry (p. 260). 247. Downfall of chivalry (p. 260) ; the Crusades ; free cities ; free citizenship (p. 261). CHAPTER VIII. The Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil Life. 248. The growth of cities and free citizenship finds especial recognition in Protestantism, whose most important feature is the recognition of secularism (p. 262). 249. The phases of development three citizen education in the two forms of pietism and Jesuitism, a reaction in favor of classics and history on the one hand and toward the study of natural science on the other, the reconciliation of these in the education of the future (p. 262). 250. Civil edu- cation as such overcomes the one-sidedness of chivalric and monkish education (p. 263) ; sensuality and love of display (p. 264). 251. Utility becomes a very important principle (p. 265). 252. Found- ing of schools for citizens' children ; defects of educational methods ; Melanchthon, Amos Comenius, Sturm, Roman law, and medicine at Bologna and Salerno ; Protestant universities (p. 266). $ 253. The citizen class is recognized as one of the three estates ; French the language of courts; unscrupulous, worldly-wise maxims; self- xxviii ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. estrangement of the nobles (p. 268). 254. Two religious systems Jesuitic and pietistic (p. 269). 255. Jesuitic education character- ized ; Claudius of Aquaviva ; dialectics ; rhetoric ; physics ; morals ; declamation; diplomatic conduct (p. 270); obedience; discipline; number of schools ; emulation ; supervision (p. 271). 256. Pie- tism as the counterpart of Jesuitism its tendency toward quietism ; its estrangement from the world ; its negative dependence on works (p. 272) ; its espionage ; its attitude toward Nature, history, and phi- losophy ; the catechism, the Bible and hymn-book ; the feeling of abandonment by God (p. 273) ; Spener and Francke ; Quakers and Puritans ; the truth of pietism ; the truth of Jesuitism (p. 274). CHAPTER IX. The Ideal of Culture. 257. Civil education rested on the fourfold basis of (a) marriage and the family, (b) labor and enjoyment of its products, (c) equality of all before the law, (d) the duty of acting according to conscience ; a counter-reaction now set in against Jesuitism and pietism (p. 275) ; this was the study of Latin and Greek and the study of natural science (p. 276). 258. The humanist ideal was supposed to be attained through the study of Latin and Greek (p. 276) ; the uselessness and remoteness of these studies gave the mind an ideal drift ; the true reason for the study of Latin and Greek self-estrangement (p. 277); Trotzendorf and Sturm, the founders of academic methods that still prevail; dis- cipline of mind (p. 278). 259. The philanthropic ideal was found in the study of natural science and of useful knowledge (p. 279) ; it spared no pains to make the pupil's work interesting ; it sought cos- mopolitanism, and found its ideal realized in the state of Nature the savage in America or Otaheite (p. 280) ; Rousseau ; the Philan- thropina of Basedow ; the French Revolution ; Pestalozzi (p. 281) ; Fichte; the dangers of humanism; the "moderns" (p. 282); self- estrangement studies ; the imaginary " natural man " of Rousseau (p. 283); Friedrich Froebel (p. 284). 260. Free education or edu- cation of all classes of society for free citizenship (p. 284) ; moral culture ; the consciousness of the essential equality of all men (p. 285) : the education by means of the newspaper ; modern literature ; universal toleration ; fraternal interest of each in all ; commerce uniting all nations ; facilities of rapid transit, rapid communication, and the printed page, hasten forward the participation of each in the life of the whole race (p. 286). THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. INTKODUCTION. 1. THE science of education can not be deduced from a simple principle with such strictness as logic, ethics, and like sciences. It is rather a mixed science, which has its presuppositions in many others. In this respect it resembles medicine, with which it has this also in common, that it must make a distinction between a sound and an unhealthy system of education, and must devise means to prevent or to cure the latter. It may, therefore, have, like medicine, the three departments of physiology, pathology, and therapeutics. [* The science of education is not a complete, independent sci- ence by itself. It borrows the results of other sciences, e. g., it presupposes psychology, physiology, esthetics, and the science of rights (treating of the institutions of the family and civil society, as well as of the state) ; it presupposes also the science of anthrop'ology, in which is treated the relation of the human mind to nature. Nature conditions the development of the in- dividual human being. But the history of the individual and the history of the race present to us a record of continual eman- cipation from nature, and continual growth into freedom, i. e., into ability on the part of man to know himself and to realize himself in the world by making the matter and forces of the * The [ ] include an analysis of, and commentary on, the text. EDITOB. THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. world his instruments and tools. Anthropology shows us how man as a natural being i. e., as having a body is limited. There is climate, involving heat and cold and moisture, the seasons of the year, etc. ; there is organic growth, involving birth, growth, reproduction, and decay ; there is race, involving the limitations of heredity ; there is the telluric life of the planet and the circulation of the forces of the solar system, whence arise the processes of sleeping, waking, dreaming, and kindred phenomena ; there is the emotional nature of man, involving his feelings, passions, instincts, and desires ; then there are the five senses, and their conditions. Next, there is the science of phenomenology, treating of the steps by which mind rises from the stage of mere feeling and sense-perception to that of self- consciousness, i. e., to a recognition of mind as true substance, and of matter as mere phenomenon created by Mind (God). Then follows psychology, including the treatment of the stages of activity of mind, as so-called " faculties " of the mind, e. g., attention, sense-perception, imagination, conception, understand- ing, judgment, reason, and the like. Psychology is generally made (by English writers) to include, also, what is here called anthropology and phenomenology. After psychology, there is the science of ethics, or of morals and customs ; then, the science of rights, already mentioned ; then, theology, or the science of religion ; and, after all these, there is philosophy, or the science of science. Now, it is clear that the science of education treats of the process of development, by and through which man, as a mere animal, becomes spirit, or self-conscious mind ; hence, it presupposes all the sciences named, and will be defective if it ignores nature or mind, or any stage or process of either, espe- cially anthropology, phenomenology, psychology, ethics, rights, aesthetics, religion, or philosophy. Here is a conspectus showing the systematic classification and arrangement of the topics necessary to a full treatment of man as a spiritual being, according to Rosenkranz (who follows Hegel) : PART I. ANTHROPOLOGY. A. The soul in its unity with the body. I. Natural qualities that affect mental development. (1) Telluric influences of locality, climate, seasons, etc. (2) Race peculiarities. INTRODUCTION. 3 (3) Individual endowments of temperament, talents, idio- syncrasy. II. Natural processes that arise in the human organism, and produce various shades and varieties of character. (1) Difference of sex. (2) Age : infancy, youth, maturity, old age. (3) Alternation of sleeping and waking. III. Feeling. (1) Feeling as distinction of the soul into subject and object (pleasure and pain). (2) External and internal feeling or (a) sensations of touch, taste, smell, hearing, seeing, and (b) emo- tions of love, hate, joy, sorrow, fear, hope, envy, etc. (3) Feeling of personality or individual identity in con- tradistinction to sensations and emotions. 3. The soul in its struggle against its union with the body : L Dreams. (1) Ordinary dreams that occur in sleep. (2) Waking dreams that take the form of (a) presenti- ments, (b) hallucinations, (c) "second-sight," so called. (3) Hypnotism : (a) somnambulism, (b) " animal magnet- ism " or " magnetic sleep," (c) clairvoyance. II. Sanity and insanity. (1) In what sanity consists. (2) Derangement: (a) idiocy and feeble-mindedness, (b) lunacy, (c) raving madness. (3) Cure of insanity. III. Habit (1) How the soul makes new and strange things familiar and natural by repetition. (2) By habit the soul makes a second nature in place of its animal nature, controlling its body in accord- ance with customs, fashions, and ethical laws. (3) The body obedient to the soul becomes a symbol. C. The symbolical manifestation of the soul by means of its body. I. Mimicry and gestures (conventional mimicry of different nations). II. Physiognomy and facial expression. III. The voice. 3 4 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. PART II. PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE SOUL (or the history of consciousness and its views of the world). A. Consciousness. I. Sensuous certitude. II. Perception. 111. Understanding (the discovery of laws of nature and the announcement of ethical laws for itself). B. Self-consciousness. I. The non-personal, or that which is devoid of self. II. The ego. III. The ego related to other egos. C. Rational self-consciousness (or that view of the world that recognizes it as a manifestation of reason). PART III. PSYCHOLOGY. A. Theoretical mind (or the intellect). I. Sense-perception. II. Representation (or mental picturing). (1) Recollection. (2) Imagination and fancy. (3) Memory. III. Thinking. (1) Understanding. (2) Reflection. (3) Speculative thinking. B. Practical mind (or the will). I. Practical feeling (or the emotions that lead to action of the will). II. The species of practical feeling. (1) Appetite (or desire for present objects of sense-per- ception). (2) Inclination or propensity (desire for absent ob- jects). (3) Passion (or desire that absorbs the entire thought and will). III. Happiness as the result of regulated impulses arid their gratification. INTRODUCTION. 5 PART IV. ETHICS. A. The good (established form of civilization). I. Will realized in the form of law. II. Caprice and arbitrariness (its sphere). IIL Freedom. (1) Self-legislation (autonomy). (2) Self-rule (autocracy). (3) Independence (autarky). B. Morality. I. Duty. (1) The deed of the individual. (a) Free-will (voluntary and involuntary action). (b) The purpose proposed to be accomplished by the deed. (c) The ethical intention of the deed. (2) Duty. (a) Division into duties toward one's self and toward society. (b) Collision of duties. (c) Relation of duties to ability to perform them. II. Virtue. (a) System of virtues (physical, intellectual, and practical).* (b) Self-discipline. (c) Character. IIL Conscience. C. Ethical institutions, or science of rights. I. Rights of the individual. (1) Natural rights. (a) Personal freedom. (b) Property. (c) Contract. (2) Wrong. (3) Punishment. II. Particular rights (L e., those that appertain to institutions). (1) The family. (2) Civil society and the community. (a) The nature of society. * " Practical " used in the Aristotelian sense of belonging to the will. THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. (b) Its functions in detail. (a) Human wants (food, clothing, shelter, etc.), and the division of labor, in order to supply them. (b) Courts of law, civil and criminal. (c) Civil and municipal authority (having charge of public peace and order, sani- tary regulations, public works for the common benefit, such as highways, water-works, police, poor-house, jail, markets, tax-levies, etc.). (c) The commonwealth. (3) The state. (a) The legislative power. (b) The administrative power. (c) The supreme executive power. III. International relations and the history of nations. (1) The national state. (a) The states of the passive peoples. (a) Patriarchal state (China). (b) Caste state (India). (c) Cloister state (Thibet). (b) The states of active peoples. (a) Warrior state (Persia). (b) Priestly-agricultural state (Egypt). (c) Manufacturing and commercial state (Pho3- nicia). (c) The states of free individuality. (a) ^Esthetic individuality (Greece). (b) Practical (will-power) individual ity (Rome). (c) Chivalric individuality (the German or " Holy Roman " Empire). (2) The theocratic state. (a) Jewish theocracy. (a) Mosaic rule. (b) Talmudic rule. (b) Mohammedan state, (3) Humanitarian state. INTRODUCTION. 7 PART V. ESTHETIC ART. A. The beautiful. I. The nature of the beautiful. II. The ugly. III. The comic. B. Art. I. The ideal II. Style. III. The work of art. C. The system of fine arts. I. Plastic arts and those that offer visible shapes. (a) Architecture. (b) Sculpture. (c) Painting. II. Music. III. Poetry. (a) Epic. (b) Lyric. (c) Dramatic. PART VI. RELIGION. A. The nature of religion. I. Subjective process (regeneration). (a) Unconscious unity with God. (b) The fall, and consciousness of sin. (c) The atonement and reconciliation. II. Objective process (worship). (a) Prayer. (b) Ceremonial. (c) Sacrifice. III. Absolute process (the Church). (a) The Church educates the individual by awakening his consciousness of sin and leading him to regen- eration. (b) The Church organizes worship and provides times, places, and a consecrated priesthood. (c) The Church organizes a universal missionary move- ment to extend its view of the divine world-order to all men. THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. B. Religious phenomenology. I. Religions of mere emotion. (1) Fetichism. (2) "Worship of elements. (3) Worship of plants and animals. II. Religions of imagination. (1) Cosmogonies. (2) Ethical-heroic. (3) Allegorical. III. Religions of pure thought. C. Historic systems. I. Religion of absolute substance (the heathen religions). II. Religion of absolute subjectivity (Jewish). III. Religion of absolute spirituality (Christianity which holds that the Absolute is Divine-human). PART VII. SCIENCE. A. Sciences of nature. I. Matter mechanics. II. Force dynamics. (1) Gravitation. (2) Cohesion. (3) Reaction against cohesion. (a) Sound acoustics. (b) Heat. (c) Light. (4) Magnetic polarity. (5) Electric polarity. (6) Chemical polarity. (7) Meteorological process. (a) Process of the atmosphere winds, tempera- ture, zones, etc. (b) Process of the water. (c) Fire process. HI. Life organics. (1) Geology. (a) Mineralogy. (b) Stratification. INTRODUCTION. 9 (c) Configuration of the surface of the earth, (a) The factors : mountains, rivers, sea. (I) The formations : insular, continental, and peninsular. (2) Vegetation botany. (3) Animal zoOlogy. (a) Structure of animal form. (b) Vital process. (c) Classification of animals. B. Sciences of spiritual individuality. I. Anthropology. II. Phenomenology. III. Psychology. IV. Ethics. (1) The will. (2) Morality. (3) Institutions of civilization. V. Esthetic art. VI. Eeligion. VII. Philosophy.] 2. Since education is capable of no such exact definitions of its principle and no such logical treat- ment as other sciences, the treatises written upon it abound more in shallowness than any other literature. Short-sightedness and arrogance find in it a most con- genial atmosphere, and uncritical methods and declama- tory bombast flourish as nowhere else. The literature of religious tracts might be considered to rival that of the science of education in its superficiality and assur- ance, if it did not for the most part seem itself to belong, through the fact that it attempts to influence human conduct, to the science of education. But teachers as persons should be treated in these their weaknesses and failures with the utmost consideration, because with most of them the endeavor to contribute their mite for the improvement of education arises from pure motives. 10 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. and the work of teaching tends to foster the habit of administering reproof and giving advice. [The scope of the science of education being so broad, and its presuppositions so vast, its limits are not well denned, and its treatises are very apt to lack logical sequence and conclusion ; and, indeed, frequently to be mere collections of unjustified and unexplained assumptions, dogmatically set forth. Hence the low repute of educational literature as a whole.] 3. The charlatanism of educational literature is also increased by the fact that schools have become profitable undertakings, and the competition in this business tends to encourage the advertising of one's own merits. When " Boz " in his " Nicholas Nickleby " exposed the shocking doings of an English boarding-school, many teachers of such schools were, as he assures us, so accurately described that they openly com- plained he had aimed his caricatures directly at them. [Moreover, education furnishes a special vocation, that of teaching. (All vocations are specializing being cut off, as it were, from the total life of man. The " division of labor" re- quires that each individual shall concentrate his endeavors on his own specialty and be apart of the whole.)] 4. In the system of the sciences, the science of education belongs to the philosophy of spirit and in this, to the department of practical philosophy, the problem of which is the comprehension of the essence of freedom ; for education is the conscious influence of one will upon another, so as to produce in it a conform- ity to an ideal which it sets before it. The idea of sub- jective spirit, as well as that of art, science, and religion, forms an essential presupposition for the science of education, but does not contain its principle. In a com- plete exposition of practical philosophy (ethics), the sci- ence of education may be distributed under each of its several heads. But the point at which the science of INTRODUCTION. 11 education branches off in practical philosophy is the idea of the family, inasmuch as here the distinctions of age pjid degrees of maturity are taken account of as arising from nature, and the claim of children upon their par- ents for education makes itself manifest. ( All other phases of education, in order to succeed, must presup- pose a true family life.) They may extend and comple- ment the school, but can not be its original foundation. In this systematic exposition of education, we must not allow ourselves to be led into error by those theories which do not recog- nize family nurture as an essential educative influence, but demand that children shall be removed from then* parents at an early age, and brought up in institutions provided for infants. The Platonic philosophy is the most respectable representative of this class. Mod- ern writers who testify their great pleasure at seeing the world full of children, but who would dispense with the loving care of the fam- ily in their education, offer us only a weak and impractical imitation of the Platonic " Republic." [The science of education, as a special science, belongs to the collection of sciences (already described, in commenting on 1) included under the philosophy of spiritual being or Mind, and more particularly to that part of it which relates to the will (ethics and science of rights, rather than to the part relating to the in- tellect and feeling, as anthropology, phenomenology, psychology, aesthetics, and religion. " Subjective spirit " includes anthro- pology, phenomenology, and psychology. ? Theoretical " relates to the intellect, " practical " relates to the will, in this philoso- phy). The province of practical philosophy is the investigation of the nature of freedom, and the process of securing it by self- emancipation from nature. The science of education presup- poses the conscious exertion of influence on the part of the will of the teacher upon the will of the pupil, with ? lurpose in view that of inducing the pupil to form certain prescribed habits, and adopt prescribed views and habits. According to this defi- nition, the unconscious influences which are so powerful in forming human character are not included under the term "education" (Erziehung) as here used. The entire science of 12 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. man (as above shown) is presupposed by the science of educa- tion, and must be kept constantly in view as a guiding light. The institution of the family (treated in practical philosophy) is the starting-point of education, and, without this institution properly realized, education would find no solid foundation. (The right to be educated on the part of children and the duty to educate on the part of parents are reciprocal ;\ and there is no family life so poor and rudimentary that it does not furnish the most important elements of education no matter what the subsequent influence of the school, the vocation, and the state.] 5. Much confusion also arises from the fact that many do not clearly enough draw the distinction be* tween education as a science and education as an art. a science, it busies itself with developing a priori idea of education in the universality and necessity of that idea, but as an art it is the concrete special re- alization of this abstract idea in any given case. And, in any such given case, the peculiarities of the person who is to be educated and, in fact, all the existing cir- cumstances necessitate an adaptation of the universal aims and ends, that can not be provided for beforehand, but must rather test the ready tact of the educator who knows how to take advantage of the existing conditions to fulfill his desired end. Just here it is that the edu- cator may show himself inventive and creative, and that pedagogic talent can distinguish itself. The word " art " is here used in the same way as it is used when we say, the art of war, the art of government, etc. ; and rightly, for we are talking about the possibility of the realization of the idea or theory. The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to such a degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change ; on the con- trary, he must be sure that the pupil shall learn through his ex- perience the independence of the object studied, which remains un- INTRODUCTION. 13 influenced by his variable personal moods, and the adaptation on the teacher's part must never compromise this independence. [The science of education distinguished from the art of educa- tion: the former containing the abstract general treatment, and the latter taking into consideration all the conditions of con- crete individuality, e. g., the peculiarities of the teacher and the pupil, all the local circumstances, and the power of adaptation known as " tact."] 6. If conditions which are local, temporal, and in- dividual, are fixed as constant rules, and carried beyond their proper limits, unavoidable error arises. The for- mulae of teaching are admirable material upon which to apply the science, but are not the science itself. [The special conditions and peculiarities considered in educa- tion as an art may be formulated and reduced to system, but they should not be introduced as a part of the science of edu- cation.] 7. The science of education must (1) unfold the general idea of education ; (2) must exhibit the particu- lar phases into which the general work of education is divided ; and (3) must describe the particular standpoint upon which the general idea realizes or will realize it- self in its special processes at any particular time. [The science of education has three parts : First, it considers the idea and nature of education, and arrives at its true defini- tion ; second, it presents and describes the special provinces into which the entire field of education is divided ; third, it considers the historical evolution of education by the human race, and the individual systems of education that have arisen, flourished, and decayed, and their special functions in the life of man.] 8. The treatment of the first part is logically too evident to offer any difficulty. It would not do to sub- stitute for it the history of education, because history uses and hence presupposes all the ideas that are treated of in the general and particular divisions of the system. 14 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. (Reference to G. Thaulow's pamphlet on "Pedagogics as a Philosophical Science." Berlin, 1845.) [The scope of the first part is easy to define. The history of education, of course, contains all the ideas and definitions of the nature of education ; but it must not for that reason be substi- tuted for the scientific investigation of the nature of education, which alone should constitute this first part (and the history of education be reserved for the third part).] 9. The second division unfolds the subject of the physical, intellectual, and practical culture of the human race, and constitutes the main part of all books on the science of education. Here arises the greatest difficulty as to the limitations, partly in relation to the amount of explanation to be given to the ideas that are borrowed from other sciences, partly in relation to the degree of amplification allowed to the details. Here is the field of the widest possible differences. If, e. g., one studies out the idea of the school with reference to the dif- ferent species which may arise, it is evident that he can extend his treatise indefinitely ; he may, for exam- ple, go into the consideration of technological schools of all kinds, for mining, navigation, war, art, etc. [The second part includes a discussion of the threefold nature of man as body, intellect, and will. The difficulty in this part of the science is very great, because of its dependence upon other sciences (e. g., upon physiology, anthropology, etc.), and because of the temptation to go into details (e. g., in the prac- tical department, to consider the endless varieties of schools for arts and trades).] 10. The third division distinguishes between the different standpoints which are possible in the working out of the conception of education in its special ele- ments, and which therefore produce different systems of \jT education wherein the general and the particular are INTRODUCTION. 15 united or realized in different ways. Tn every system (historically realized) the general principles that belong to the idea of education (treated under the first division), and the different phases of physical, intellectual, and practical culture of man (treated under the second di- vision), must be found. But the mode of treatment is decided by the historical standpoint which gives reality in a special form to the system of education. Thus it becomes possible to discover the essential contents of the history of education from its idea, since this can fur- nish only a limited number of systems. The lower standpoint always merges into the higher, and in so doing first attains its full meaning, e. g. : Education for the sake of the nation is set aside for higher standpoints, e. g., that of Christi- anity ; but we must not suppose that the " national phase " of edu- cation was counted as naught from the Christian standpoint, but rather that now, being assigned its proper limits, it can unfold its true idea. This is seen to be the case in the fact that the national individualities become indestructible by being incorporated into Christianity a fact that condemns the abstract seizing of such re- lations. [The third part contains the exposition of the various nation- al standpoints furnished (in the history of the world) for the bases of particular systems of education. In each of these sys- tems will be found the general idea underlying all education, but it will be found existing under special modifications which have arisen through its application to the physical, intellectual, and ethical conditions of the people. But we can deduce the essential features of the different systems that may appear in history, for there are only a limited number of systems possible. Each lower form finds itself complemented in some higher form, and its function and purpose then become manifest. The sys- tems of " national " education (i. e., Asiatic systems, in which the individuality of each person is swallowed up in the substan- tiality of the national idea just as the individual waves get lost in the ocean on whose surface they arise) find their com- plete explanation in the systems of education that arise in Chris- 16 THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. tianity (the preservation of human life being the object of the nation, it follows that, when realized abstractly or exclusively, it absorbs and annuls the mental independence of its subjects, and thus contradicts itself by destroying the essence of what it undertakes to preserve, i. e., human life, which demands freedom and enlightenment ; but within Christianity the principle of the state is found so modified that it is consistent with the infinite, untrammeled development of the individual, intellectually and morally, and thus not only life is saved, but spiritual, free life is attainable for each and for all).] 11. The last system must be that of the present, and since this is certainly, on one hand, the result of all the past which still dwells in it, while, on the other hand, engaged in preparing for the future, education demands the unity of the general and particular princi- ple as its ideal, so that looked at in this way the science of education at its end returns to its beginning. The first anc 1 second divisions already contain the idea of the system necessary for the present. [The history of pedagogy ends with the present system as the latest one. As science sees the future ideally contained in the present, it is bound to comprehend the latest system as a reali- zation (though imperfect) of the ideal system of education. Hence, the system, as scientifically treated in the first part of our work, is the system with which the third part of our work ends.] FIRST PART. THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. FIRST PART. THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. 12. THE idea of the science of education in gen- eral must distinguish (1) The nature of education in general ; (2) Its form ; (3) Its limits. [The nature of education, its form, its limits, are now to be investigated. ( 13-50.)] CHAPTER I. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 13. THE nature of education is determined by the nature of mind that it can develop what it is in itself only by its own activity. Mind is in itself free ; but, if it does not actualize this possibility, it is in no true sense free, either for itself or for another. Education is the influencing of man by man, and it has for its end to load him to actualize himself through his own efforts. The attainment of perfect manhood as the actualization of the freedom essential to mind constitutes the nature of education in general. 20 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. The completely isolated man does not become man. Solitary human beings who have been found in forests, like the wild girl of the forest of Ardennes, sufficiently prove the fact that the truly hu- man qualities in man can not be developed without reciprocal action with human beings. Caspar Hauser, in his subterranean prison, is an illustration of what man would be by himself. The first cry of the child expresses in its appeals to others this helplessness of man's spiritual being on its first advent in nature. [The nature of education determined by the nature of Mind or Spirit, whose activity is always devoted to realizing for itself what it is potentially to becoming conscious of its possibilities, and to getting them under the control of its will. Mind is po- tentially free. Education is the means by which man seeks to realize in man his possibilities (to develop the possibilities of the race in each individual). Hence, education has freedom for its object.] 14. Man, therefore, is the only fit subject for edu- cation. We often speak, it is true, of the education of plants and animals ; but, even when we do so, we apply other expressions, as "raising," "breaking," "breeding" and " training," in order to distinguish it from the edu- cation of man. " Training " consists in producing in an animal, either by pain or pleasure of the senses, an activity of which, it is true, he is capable, but which he A\A^ never would have developed if left to himself. On the other hand, it is the nature of education only to assist in the producing of that which the subject would strive most earnestly to develop for himself if he had a clear idea of himself. We speak of raising trees and animals, but not of raising men ; and it is only a planter who looks to his slaves for an increase in their number. The education of men is quite often enough, unfortunately, only a " breaking," and here and there still may be found examples where one tries to teach mechanically, not through the almighty power of the creative Logos, but through the powerless and fruitless appeal to physical pain. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 21 [Man is the only being capable of education, in the sense above defined, because the only conscious being. He must know himself ideally, and then realize his ideal self, in order to become actually free. The animals and plants may be trained, or culti- vated, but, as devoid of self-consciousness (even the highest ani- mals not getting above impressions, not reaching ideas, not seizing general or abstract thoughts), they are not realized for themselves, but only for us. (That is, they do not know their ideal as we do.)] 15. The idea of education may be more or less comprehensive. We use it in the widest sense when we speak of the education of the race, for we under- stand by this expression the connection which the situa- tions and undertakings of different nations have to each other, as steps toward self-conscious freedom. In this the world-spirit is the teacher. [Education, taken in its widest compass, is the education of the human race by Divine Providence. Here education (Er- ziehung) is recognized to include much more than the "con- scious " exertion of influence as defined in 4.J 16. In a more restricted sense we mean by educa- tion thejihaping of the individual life by the laws of nature, the rhythm of national customs, ancLthejnight ql 3estiny ; since, in these, each one finds limits set to his arbitrary will. These mold him into a man often with- out his knowledge. For he can not act in opposition to nature, nor offend the ethical sense of the people among whom he dwells, nor despise the leading of destiny with- out discovering through experience that upon the Neme- sis of these substantial elements his subjective power can dash itself only to be shattered. If he perversely and persistently rejects all our admonitions, we leave him, as a last resort, to destiny, whose iron rule must educate him, and reveal to him the God whom he has ignored. oA. 6- . 5 8 oj / . 22 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. It is, of course, sometimes not only possible, but necessary for one, moved by the highest sense of morality, to act in opposition to the laws of nature, to offend the ethical sense of the people that sur- round him, and to brave the blows of destiny ; we are not, however, now speaking of a sublime reformer or martyr, but of the perverse, the frivolous, and the conceited. [In a narrow sense, education is applied to the shaping of the individual by his environment, so that his caprice and arbitrariness shall give place to rational habits and views, in harmony with nature and ethical customs. He must not abuse nature, nor slight the ethical code of his people, nor despise the gifts of Providence (whether for weal or woe), unless he is will- ing to be crushed in the collision with these more substantial elements.] 17. In the narrowest sense, which, however, is the usual one, we mean by education the influence which one individual exerts on another in order to develop the ktter in some conscious and methodical way, either generally or with reference to some special aim. The teacher must, therefore, be relatively finished in his own education, and the pupil must possess complete confidence in him. If authority be wanting on the one side, or respect and obedience on the other, this ethical basis of development will be lacking, and it can not be replaced by talent, knowledge, skill, or prudence. Education takes on this form only under the culture which has been developed through the influence of town life. Up to that time we have the naive period of education, which is limited to the gen- eral powers of nature, of national customs, and of destiny, and which lasts for a long time among the rural populations. But in the city a greater complication of the environment owing to the uncertainty of the results of reflection (one's environment being chiefly human and given to reflection, and not so simple as the rural environment of plants and animals), the specializing of individuality, through the need of the possession of many arts and trades (and consequent division of labor), these render it impossible for men longer to be THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 23 ruled by mere custom. The Telemachus of Fenelon was educated to rule himself by means of reflection ; the actual Telemachus in the heroic age lived simply according to custom. [In the narrowest but most usual application of the term, we understand by " education " the influence of the individual upon the individual, exerted with the object of developing his powers in a conscious and methodical manner, either generally or in special directions, the educator being relatively mature, and ex- ercising authority over the relatively immature pupil. Without authority on the one hand and obedience on the other, educa- tion would lack its ethicarbasis a neglect of the will-training could not be compensated for by any amount of knowledge or smartness.] 18. The general problem of education is the de-' -p Jj!( velopment of the theoretical and practical reason in the/ individual. If we say that to educate one means to 5 fashion him into morality, we do not make our defini- tion sufficiently comprehensive, because we say nothing of intelligence, and thus confound education and ethics. A man is not merely a human being in general, but, as a rational, conscious subject, he is a peculiar individual, and different from all others of the race. [The general province of education includes the development of the individual into the theoretical and practical reason im- manent in him. The definition which limits education to the development of the individual into ethical customs (obedience to morality, social conventionalities, and the laws of the state Hegel's definition is here referred to : " The object of education is to make men ethical ") is not comprehensive enough, because it ignores the side of the intellect, and takes note only of the will. The individual should not only be man in general (as he is through the adoption of moral and ethical forms which are general forms, customs, or laws, and thus the forms imposed by the will of the race), but he should also be a self-conscious sub- ject, a particular individual (man, through his intellect, exists for himself as an individual, while through his general habits and customs he loses his individuality and spontaneity).] 24 THE GENERAL IDEA OP EDUCATION. 19. Education must lead the pupil, by a connected series of efforts previously foreseen and arranged by the teacher, to a definite end ; but the particular form which this shall take must be determined by the individuality of the pupil and the other conditions. Intermittent ef- fort, sudden and violent influences, may accomplish much, but only systematic work can advance and fashion him in conformity with his nature ; and, if this is lacking, it does not belong to education, for this includes in itself the idea of an end, and that of the technical means for its attainment. [Education has a definite object in view, and it proceeds by grades of progress toward it. The systematic tendency is essen- tial to all education, properly so called.] 20. But as culture comes to mean more and more, there becomes necessary a division of labor in teaching on account of technical qualifications and special infor- mation demanded, because as the arts and sciences are continually increasing in number one can become learned in any one branch only by devoting himself exclusively to it, and hence becoming a specialist. A difficulty hence arises, which is also one for the pupil, of pre- serving, in spite of this unavoidable one-sidedness, the unity and wholeness which are necessary to hu- manity. The naive dignity of the happy savage and the good-natured simplicity of country people appear to very great advantage when contrasted with the narrowness of a special trade, and the endless curtailing of the wholeness of man by the pruning processes of city life. Thus the often-abused savage has his hut, his family, his cocoa- tree, his weapons, his passions ; he fishes, hunts, plays, fights, adorns himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he is the center of a whole, while a modern citizen is often reduced by culture to a mere shred of humanity. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION*. 25 [Division of labor has become requisite in the higher spheres of teaching. The growing multiplicity of branches of knowl- edge creates the necessity for the specialist as teacher. With this tendency to specialties it becomes more and more difficult to preserve what is so essential to the pupil his rounded human culture and symmetry of development. The citizen of modern civilization sometimes appears to be an artificial product by the side of the versatility of the savage man.] 21. As it becomes necessary to divide the work of instruction, a difference between general and special schools arises, also, from the needs of growing culture. The former give to the pupil with various degrees of completeness all the sciences and arts reckoned as be- longing to "general education," and which were in- cluded by the Greeks under the general name of Ency' clopsedia. The ktter are known as special schools, suited to particular needs or talents. The isolation of country life renders it often necessary, or at least desirable, that one man should develop culture symmetrically in very different directions. The poor tutor is required not only to instruct in all the sciences, he must also speak French, and be able to play the piano. [Prom this necessity of the division of labor in modern times there arises the demand for two kinds of educational institu- tions those devoted to general education (common schools, col- leges, etc.), and special schools (for agriculture, medicine, me- chanic arts, etc.)]. 22. For any person, his actual education compared with its infinite possibilities remains only an approxima- tion, and it can be considered as only relatively finished in particular directions. Education is impossible to him who is born an idiot, since the want of the power of generalizing and of ideality of conscious personality leaves to such an unfortunate only the possibility of a mechanical training. 26 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION". Sagert, the teacher of the deaf-mutes in Berlin, has made lauda- ble efforts to educate idiots, but the account, as given in his publica- tion, " Cure of Idiots by an Intellectual Method," Berlin, 1846, shows that the results obtained were only external ; and, though we do not desire to be understood as denying to this class the possession of a mind in potentia, it appears in them to be confined by disease to an embryonic state. [The infinite possibility of culture for the individual leaves, of course, his actual accomplishment a mere approximation to a complete education. Born idiots are excluded from the possi- bility of education, because the lack of universal ideas in their consciousness precludes to that class of unfortunates anything beyond a mere mechanical training.] CHAPTER II. THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 23. THE general form of education is determined by the nature of the mind : mind has reality only in so far as it produces it for itself. The mind is (1) immediate (or potential ; but (2) it must estrange itself from itself, as it were, so that it may place itself over against itself as a special object of attention ; (3) this estrangement is finally removed through a further acquaintance with the object it feels itself at home in that on which it looks, and returns again enriched to the form of immediate- ness (to unity with itself). That which at first appeared to be another than itself is now seen to be itself. Education can not create ; it can only help to develop to reality what was already a possibility ; it can only help to bring forth to light the hidden life. THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 27 [Spirit, or mind, makes its own nature ; it is what it produces a self-result. That is to say : it produces its ideas through self-activity, and only in proportion to its stock of ideas their number and importance can mind be said to be realized. Ideas form its " nature," and they are made by the self-activity of mind. From this follows the form of education. It commences with (1) undeveloped mind that of the infant wherein nearly all is potential, and but little is actualized ; (2) its first stage of development is self-estrangement it is absorbed in the observa- tion of objects around it ; (3) but it discovers laws and principles (universality) in external nature, and finally identifies them with reason it comes to recognize itself in nature to recognize con- scious mind as the creator and preserver of the external world and thus spirit becomes at home in nature. Education does not create, but it emancipates. It does not make self-activity, but it influences it to develop itself. " Self-estrangement " as here used is perhaps the most important idea in the philosophy of education. Rosenkranz and others have borrowed it from Hegel, who first used it in his " Phenomenology of Spirit " (p. 353) in explaining the revolutionary reaction against established authority and traditional faith as it had been manifested in the French Revolution. The explanation of the effect of the study of classics, pure mathematics, the effect of foreign travel, of the isolated life of students at universities, of wearing special garbs that distinguish one's order from the rest of the community, in short, of any study of strange and far-off phases of the world the explanation is to be found in the principle of self-estrange- ment, and its annulment by changing what was foreign into what is familiar.] 24. All culture, whatever may be its special pur- port, must pass through these two stages of estrange- ment, and its removal. Culture must intensify the dis- tinction between the subject and the object, or that of immediateness, though it has again to absorb this dis- tinction into itself ; in this way the union of the two may be more complete and lasting. The subject recog- nizes, then, all the more certainly that what at first ap- 28 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. peared to it as a foreign existence belongs to it poten- tially as its own possession, and that it comes into actual possession of it by means of culture. Plato, as is known, calls the feeling with which knowledge must begin, wonder ; but this can serve as a beginning only, for wonder itself can only express the tension between the subject and the object upon their first presentation to each other a tension which would be impossible if they were not in themselves identical. Children have a longing for the far-off, the strange, and the wonderful, as if they hoped to find in these an explanation of themselves. They want the object to be a genuine object. That to which they are accus- tomed, which they see around them every day, seems to have no longer any objective energy for them ; but an alarm of fire, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, Robinsons' adventures on far- off happy islands, etc. everything high colored and glaring leads them irresistibly on. The necessity of the mind's making itself for- eign to itself is that which makes children prefer to hear of the ad- venturous journeys of Sindbad rather than news of their own city or the history of their nation. On the part of youth this same necessity manifests itself in their desire of traveling. [This process of self-estrangement and its removal belongs to all culture. The mind must fix its attention upon what is for- eign to it, and penetrate its disguise. It will discover its own substance under the seeming alien being. That is to say, it will discover the rational laws that underlie the strange and foreign being, and thereby come to recognize reason or itself. Wonder is the accompaniment of this stage of estrangement. The love of travel and adventure arises from this basis. Culture endeav- ors first to develop the contrast of the strange to the familiar, but it does this in order to annul it and make the alien into the well-known. Thus it enlarges the individual by making him more inclusive, by making him contain his environment.] 25. This activity of the mind in concentrating it- self consciously upon an object with the purpose of making it one's own, or of producing it, is work. But when the mind gives itself up to its objects as chance may present them, or through arbitrariness, careless as THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 9 to whether they have any result, such activity is play. Work is laid out for the pupil by his teacher authori- tatively, but in his play he is left to himself. [Labor is distinguished from play : The former concentrates its energies on some object, with the purpose of making it con- form to its will and purpose ; play occupies itself with its object according to its caprice and arbitrariness, and has no care for the results or products of its activity ; work is prescribed by authority, while play is necessarily spontaneous.] 26. Thus work and play must be sharply distin- guished from each other. If one does not insist on re- spect for work as an important and substantial activity, he not only spoils play for his pupil (for this loses all its attraction when deprived of the antithesis of an earnest, set task), but he undermines his respect for real exist- ence. On the other hand, if he does not give him space, time, and opportunity, for play, he prevents the pecul- iarities of his pupil from developing freely through the exercise of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the pupil back refreshed to his work, since in play he forgets himself in his own way, while in work he is required to forget himself in a manner prescribed for him by another. Play is of great importance in helping one to discover the true individualities of children, because in play they may betray thought- lessly their inclinations. The antithesis of work and play runs through the entire life. Children anticipate in their play the earnest work of after-life ; thus the little girl plays with her doll, and the boy pretends he is a soldier and in battle. [Work and play : the distinction between them. In play the child feels that he has entire control over the object with which he is dealing, both in respect to its existence and the object for which it exists. His arbitrary will may change both with per- fect impunity, since all depends upon his caprice ; he exercises his powers in play according to his natural proclivities, and 30 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. therein finds scope to develop his own individuality. In work, on the contrary, he must have respect for the object with which he deals. It must be held sacred against his caprice, must not be destroyed nor injured in any way, and its purpose must like- wise be respected. His own personal inclinations must be entirely subordinated, and the business that he is at work upon must be carried forward in accordance with its own ends and aims, and without reference to his own feelings in the matter. Thus work teaches the pupil the lesson of self-sacrifice (the right of superi- ority which the general interest possesses over the particular), while play develops his personal idiosyncrasy.] 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor play as if it were work. In general, tlie prac- tice of the arts and the study of the sciences stand in this relation to each other : the accumulation of stores of knowledge is the recreation of the mind which is en- gaged in independent creation, and the practice of arts fills the same office to those whose work is to collect knowledge. [Without play, the child would become more and more a ma- chine, and lose all freshness and spontaneity all originality. Without work, he would develop into a monster of caprice and arbitrariness. From the fact that man must learn to combine with man, in order that the individual may avail himself of the experience and labors of his fellow-men, self-sacrifice for the sake of combination is the great lesson of life. But as this should be voluntary self-sacrifice, education must train the child equally in the two directions of spontaneity and obedi- ence. The educated man finds recreation in change of work.] 28. Education seeks to transform every particular condition so that it shall no longer seem strange to the mind or in any wise foreign to its own nature. This identity of the feeling of self with the special character of anything done or endured by it, we call habit (Ge- wohnheit = customary activity, habitual conduct or be- havior. Character is a "bundle of habits"); It con- THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 31 ditions formally all progress; for that which is not yet become habit, but which we perform with design and an exercise of our will, is not yet a part of our- selves. [Education seeks to assimilate its object to make what -was alien and strange to the pupil into something familiar and habitual to him. The pupil is to attack, one after the other, the foreign realms in the world of nature and man, and con- quer them for his own, so that he can be "at home" in them. It is the necessary condition of all growth, all culture, that one widens his own individuality by this conquest of new provinces alien to him. By this the individual transcends the narrow limits of particularity and becomes generic the individual be- comes the species. A good definition of education is this :f It is the process by which the individual man elevates himself to the species.]) 29. (1) Habit may be, in the first place, indiffer- ent as to the subject-matter to which it relates. But that which is to be considered as indifferent or neutral can not be defined in the abstract, but only in the con- crete, because anything that is indifferent as to whether it shall act on this particular man, or in this special situ^ ation, is capable of another or even of the opposite meaning for another man or even for the same man in other circumstances. Here, then, appeal must be made to the individual conscience in order to be able from the depths of individuality to decide what we can per- mit to ourselves and what we must deny ourselves. The aim of education must be to arouse in the pupil this spiritual and ethical sensitivenessjwhich does not look upon anything as merely indifferent,! but rather knows how to seize in everything, even in the seem- ingly unimportant, its universal human significance. But, in relation to the highest interests, he must learn AAxiA^. 32 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. that what concerns his own immediate personality is entirely indifferent, and must be subordinated to them. [Therefore, the first requirement in education is that the pupil shall acquire the habit of subordinating his likes and dis- likes to the attainment of a rational object. It is necessary that he shall acquire this indifference to his own pleasure, even by employing his powers on that which does not appeal to his in- terest in the remotest degree. Habit is " formal," i. e., it is an empty form that will fit any sort of activity or passivity. Habit can make anything a second nature.] 30. The indifference of habit to its subject-matter disappears when external considerations of usefulness or hurtfulness (advantage or disadvantage) come into view. Whatever tends as a means to the realization of an end is useful, but that is hurtful which, by contra- dicting it, hinders or destroys it. Usefulness and hurt- fulness being then only relative terms, a habit which is useful for one man in one case may be hurtful for another man, or even for the same man, under diiferent circumstances. Education must, therefore, accustom the youth to judge as to the expediency or inexpediency of any action by its relation to thefessential vocation) of his life, so that he shall avoid that which does not promote its success. [Habit soon makes us familiar with subjects which seem re- mote from our personal interest, and they become agreeable to as. The objects, too, assume a new interest upon nearer ap- proach, as being useful or injurious to us. That is useful which serves us as a means for the realization of a rational purpose ; injurious, if it hinders such realization. It happens that objects are useful in one respect and injurious in another, and vice versa. Education must make the pupil capable of deciding on the use- fulness of an object! by reference to its effect on his permanent Tocation in life, ) THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 33 31. But the absolute distinction for the subject- matter of habit is the moral distinction between the good and the bad. For from this standpoint alone can we finally decide what is allowable and what is forbid- den, what is useful and what is hurtful. [But good and evil are the ethical distinctions which furnish the absolute standard to which to refer the question of the use- fulness of objects and actions.] 32. (2) As relates to form (in contradistinction to subject-matter), habit may be either passive or active. The passive is that which teaches us to bear the vicissi- tudes of nature as well as of life with such composure that we shall hold our ground against them, being al- ways equal to ourselves, and that we shall not allow our power of acting to be paralyzed through any mutations of fortune. Passive habit is not to be confounded with obtuseness in receiving impressions, a blank abstraction from the affair in hand, which at bottom is nothing more than a selfishness which desires to be left undis- turbed ; it is simply composure of mind in view of changes over which we have no control. While we vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure inwoven as these are with the change of seasons, of the weather, or with the alternation of life and death, of hap- piness and misery we ought nevertheless to harden our- selves against them, so that at the same time, in our con- sciousness of the supreme worth of the soul, we shall build up the inaccessible stronghold of freedom in ourselves. Active habit (or behavior) is found realized in a wide range of activity which appears in manifold forms, such as skill, dexterity, readiness of information, etc. It is a steeling of the internal for ac- tion upon the external, as the passive is a steeling of the internal against the influences of the external. 34 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. [Habit is (a) passive or (b) active. The passive habit is that which gives us the power to retain our equipoise of mind in the midst of a world of changes (pleasure and pain, grief and joy, etc.). The active habit gives us skill, presence of mind, tact in emergencies, etc.] 33. (3) Habit (i. e., fixed principles of behavior, active and passive) is the general form which culture (or the outcome of education) takes. For, since it reduces a condition or an activity within ourselves to an instinct- ive use and wont (to a second nature), it is necessary for any thorough education. But as, according to its content (or subject-matter to which it relates), it may be either proper or improper ( 29), advantageous or disadvan- tageous ( 30), good or bad ( 31), and according to its form may be the assimilation of the external by the in- ternal, or the impress of the internal upon the external ( 32), education must procure for the pupil the power of being able to free himself from one habit and to adopt another. Through his freedom he must be able not only to renounce any habit formed, but to form a new one ; and he must so govern his system of habits that it shall exhibit a constant progress of development into greater freedom. "We must discipline ourselves < constantly to form and to break habits, as a means to- ward the ever developing realization of the good in us. We must characterize those habits as corrupting which relate only to our convenience or our enjoyment. { They are often not blamable in themselves, but there lies in them a hidden danger that they may allure us into luxury or effeminacyA It is a false and me- chanical way of looking at the mind to suppose that a habit which has been formed by a certain number of repetitions can be broken by an equal number of denials. We can never renounce a habit, which we decide to be pernicious, except through clearness of judgment and firmness of will. THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 35 [Education deals altogether with the formation of habits. For it aims to make some condition or form of activity into a second nature for the pupil. But this involves, also, the break- ing up of previous habits. This power to break up habits, as well as to form them, is necessary to the freedom of the indi- vidual.] 34. Education comprehends, therefore, the recip- rocal action of the opposites : authority and obedience ; rationality and individuality ; work and play ; habit and spontaneity. If these are reconciled in a normal man- ner, the youth is now free from the tension of these opposites. But a failure in education in this particular is very possible through the freedom of the pupil, through special circumstances, or through the errors of the edu- cator himself. And for this very reason any theory of education must take into account in the beginning this negative possibility. It must consider beforehand the dangers which threaten the pupil, in all possible ways even before they surround him, and fortify him against them. Intentionally to expose him to temptation in order to prove his strength, is devilish; and, on the other hand, to guard him against the possible chance of dangerous temptation, to wrap him in cotton (as the proverb says), is womanish, ridiculous, fruitless, and much more dangerous ; for temptation comes not alone from without, but quite as often from within, and secret inclination seeks and creates for itself the opportunity for its gratification, often perhaps an unnatural one. The truly preventive activity consists not in an abstract seclusion from the world, all of whose elements are in- nate in each individual, but in the activity of instruc- tion and discipline, modified according to age and culture. 5 36 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. The method that aims to deprive the youth of all free and indi- vidual intercourse with the world only leads to continual espionage, and the consciousness that he is watched destroys in him all elasticity of spirit, all confidence, all originality. The police shadow of con- trol undermines all self-reliance, and systematically accustoms him to dependence. The tragi-comic story of Peter Schlemihl * shows, it is true, that one can not lose his own shadow without falling into ths saddest fatalities ; but the shadow of a constant companion, as in the pedagogical system of the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness and ease of mind. And if one endeavors too strictly to guard against that which is ill-mannered and forbidden, the intelligence of the pupils reacts in deceit against such efforts, till the educators are amazed that such crimes as often come to light can have arisen under such careful control. [Education deals with these complementary'relations (antithe- ses) : (a) authority and obedience ; (b) rationality (general forms) and individuality ; (c) work and play ; (d) habit (general custom) and spontaneity. The development and reconciliation of these opposite sides in the pupil's character, so that they become his second nature, remove the phase of constraint which at first ac- companies the formal inculcation of rules, and the performance of prescribed tasks. The freedom of the pupil is the ultimate object to be kept in view, but a too early use of freedom may work injury to the pupil. To remove a pupil from all tempta- tion would be to remove possibilities of growth in strength to resist it ; on the other hand, to expose him needlessly to temp- tation is fiendish. The cure of vicious tendencies is best accom- plished by strict discipline in such habits as strengthen the pupil against them.] 35. If there should appear in the youth any de- cided moral deformity which is opposed to the ideal of his education, the instructor must at once make inquiry as to the history of its origin, because the negative and the positive are very closely connected, and, what ap- pears to be negligence, rudeness, immorality, foolish- * See F. II. Hedge's " Prose Writers of Germany," for a translation ot Adalbert von Chamisso's " Wonderful History of Peter Scblemihl." THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 37 ness, or oddity, may arise from some real needs of the youth which in their development have only taken a wrong direction. [Deformities of character in the pupil should be carefully traced back to their origin, so that they may be explained by their history. Only by comprehending the historic growth of an organic defect are we able to prescribe the best reme- dies. Such deformities are often mere symptoms of deeper evils.] 36. If it should appear on such examination that the negative action was only a product of willful igno- rance, of caprice, or of arbitrariness on the part of the youth, then this calls for a simple prohibition on the part of the educator, no reason being assigned. His mere authority must be sufficient to the pupil in such a case. Only when this has happened more than once, and the youth is old enough to understand, should the prohibition be accompanied with a brief statement of the reason therefor. This should be brief, because the explanation must retain its disciplinary character, and must not become extended into a doc- trinal essay, for in such a case the youth easily forgets that it was his own misbehavior which was the occasion of the explanation. The statement of the reason must be honest, and it must present to the youth the point most easy for him to seize. False reasons are morally blamable in themselves, and they tend only to confuse. It is a great mistake to unfold to the youth the broadening consequences which his act may bring. These possibilities seem to him too uncertain to affect him much. The severe lecture wearies him, especially if it be stereotyped, as is apt to be the case with fault-finding and talkative instructors. But more unfortunate is it if the painting of the gloomy background to which the consequences of the wrong-doing of the youth may lead, should fill his feelings and imagination prematurely with gloomy fancies, because then the representation has led him one step toward a state of wretchedness which in the future man may become fearful depression and degradation. 38 TUB GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. [If the negative behavior of the pupil (his bad behavior) re- sults from ignorance due to his own neglect, or to his willful- ness, it should be met directly by an act of authority on the part of the teacher (and without an appeal to reason). An appeal should be made to the understanding of the pupil only when he is somewhat mature, or shows by his repetition of the offense that his proclivity is deep-seated, and requires an array of all good influences to re-enforce his feeble resolutions to amend.] 37. If the censure is accompanied with a threat of punishment, then we have the kind of reproof which in daily life we call " scolding " ; but, if a reprimand is given, the pupil must be made to feel that it is in earnest. [Reproof, accompanied by threats of punishment, is apt to de- generate into scolding.] 38. Only when all other efforts have failed is pun- ishment, which is the real negation of the error, the transgression, or the vice, justifiable. Punishment in- tentionally inflicts pain on the pupil, and its object is^ by means of this sensation, to bring him to reason, a result which neither our simple prohibition, our expla- nation, nor our threat of punishment, has been able to reach. But the punishment, as such, must not refer to the subjective totality of the youth, i. e., to his disposi- tion in general, but only to the act which, as result, is a manifestation of that disposition. It nevertheless acts on the disposition, but mediately through pain ; it does not touch directly the inner being ; and this (return of the deed upon the doer) is not only demanded by justice, but is even rendered necessary on account of the sophis- try that is inherent in human nature, which assigns to a deed many motives (and takes refuge against blame by alleging good motives). THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 39 [After the failure of other means, punishment should be re- sorted to. Inasmuch as the punishment should be for the pur- pose of making the pupil realize that it is the consequence of his deed returning on himself, it should always be administered for some particular act of his, and this should be specified. The " overt act " is the only thing which a man can be held account- able for in a court of justice ; although it is true that the har- boring of evil thoughts or intentions is a sin, yet it is not a crime until realized in an overt act. It is a mistake to punish for " general naughtiness," or for evil intent, or for the " subject- ive totality " as Rosenkranz calls it. Any particular deed is one of a thousand possible deeds the intention or disposition con- tains the totality of all these possible deeds, but they belong to the pupil as his exclusive property for which he is not respon- sible to his fellow human beings until he by an act of the will makes one of the possible deeds actual.] 39. Punishment as an educational means is never- theless essentially corrective, since, by leading the youth to a proper estimation of his fault and a positive change in his behavior, it seeks to improve him. At the same time, it stands as a sad indication of the insufficiency of the means previously used. The youth should not be frightened from the commission of a misdemeanor or from the repetition of his negative deed through fear of punishment a system which leads always to terror- ism; but, although this effect may be incidental, the punishment should, before all things, impress upon him the recognition of the fact that the negative is not al- lowed to prevail without limitation, but rather that the good and the true have the absolute power in this world, and that they are never without the means of overcoin- ing anything that contradicts them. In the statute-laws, punishment has a different office. It must first of all satisfy justice, and only after this is done can it attempt to improve the guilty. If a government should proceed on the same basis as the educator, it would mistake its task, because it has to deal 4:0 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. with adults, whom it elevates to the honorable position of responsi- bility for their own acts. The state must not go back to the genesis of a negative deed in the disposition, or the motives, or the circum- stances. It must assign to a secondary rank of importance the bio- graphical factor which contains the origin of the deed and the cir- cumstances of a mitigating character, and it must consider first of all the deed in itself. It is quite otherwise with the educator ; for he deals with human beings who are relatively undeveloped, and who are only growing toward responsibility. So long as they are still under the care of a teacher, the responsibility of their deed belongs in part to him. If we confound these two standpoints on which pun- ishment is administered, that of the state and that of education, we work much evil. [Corrective punishment seeks solely the improvement of the delinquent ; retributive punishment under statute laws seeks only the return of the deed upon the doer ; i. e., to satisfy the claims of justice. Hegel, in his " Philosophy of History," in speaking of state punishments in China, drew this distinction and pointed out its significance.] 40. Punishment as a negation of a negation, con- sidered as an educational means, can not be determined, as to its application, by mere reference to tlie deed, but must always be modified by the peculiarities of the in- dividual offender and by the other circumstances. Its administration calls for the exercise of the ingenuity and tact of the educator. [Punishment should be regulated, not by abstract rules, but in view of the particular case and its attending circumstances, for the reason that it is for correction and not for retribution. Retributive punishment need only consider the magnitude of the offense.] 41. Generally speaking, we must take into consid- eration the sex and the age: (1) some kind of corporal punishment is most suitable for children, (2) isolation for older boys and girls, and (3) punishment based on the sense of honor for young men and women. THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 4-1 [Sex and age of pupil should be regarded in prescribing the mode and degree of punishment. Corporal punishment is best for pupils who are very immature in mind ; when they are more developed they may be punished by any imposed restraint upon their free-wills which will isolate them from the ordinary rou- tine followed by their fellow-pupils. (Deprivation of the right to do as others do is a wholesome species of punishment for those old or mature enough to feel its effects, for it tends to secure respect for the regular tasks by elevating them to the rank of rights and privileges.) For young men and women, the punishment should be of a kind that is based on a sense of honor. This distinction by Rosenkranz is very important. It is based on Hegel's distinction alluded to above ( 39) of correct- ive from retributive punishment. In cities, suspension of the pupil from school, and his transfer to another school on resto- ration, is one of the most effective means ever devised for devel- oping in the pupil a self-control that secures good behavior without resort to corporal punishment.* 42. (1) Corporal punishment is the production of physical pain, generally by whipping, and this kind of punishment, provided always that it is not too often ad- ministered or with undue severity, is the kindest method of dealing with willful defiance, with obstinate careless- ness, or with a really perverted will, so long or so often as the higher perception is closed against appeal. The imposing of other physical punishment, e. g., that of depriving the pupil of food, partakes of cruelty. The view which sees in the rod the panacea^ for all teacher's embarrassments is reprehensible, but equally so is the false sentimentality which assumes that the dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a * " Report of St. Louis Public Schools for 1873-'74," pp. 200-202. t " Although Orbilism is reprehensible," says Rosenkranz, referring to the flogging schoolmaster of Horace : " Memini quse plagosum mihi parvo Orbilium dictare" (sc. Carmina). Hor. Ep., 2, 1, 71. 42 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. child, and confounds self-conscious humanity with child- humanity, to which a blow is the most natural form of reaction, when all other forms of influence have failed. The fully-grown man ought never to be whipped, because this kind of punishment reduces him to the level of the child, and, when it becomes barbarous, to that of a brute animal, and so is absolutely degrading to him. In the English schools the rod is much used. If a pupil of the first class be put back into the second at Eton, he, although before exempt from flogging, becomes liable to it. But however necessary this system of flogging may be in the discipline of the schools of the English aristocracy, flogging in the English army is a shameful thing for the free people of Great Britain. [Corporal punishment should be properly administered by means of the rod, subduing willful defiance by the application of force.] 43. (2) By isolation we remove the offender tem- porarily and locally from the society of his fellows. The boy or girl left alone, in abstract independence, cut off from all companionship, suffers from a sense of help- lessness. The time passes heavily, and soon he is very anxious to be allowed to return to the company of par- ents, brothers and sisters, teachers, and fellow-pupils. To leave a child entirely to himself without any supervision, even if one shuts him up in a dark room, is as mistaken a practice as to leave a few together without supervision, as is sometimes done when they are kept after school ; in such situations they give the freest rein to their childish wantonness and commit the wildest pranks. [Isolation makes the pupil realize a sense of his dependence upon human society, and of his need for the constant expression of this dependence by co-operation in the common tasks. Pupils should not be shut up in a dark room, nor removed from the personal supervision of the teacher. (To shut up two or more in a room without supervision is not isolation, but association ; only it is association for mischief, and not for study.) (All good behavior that is not founded on fear must take its rise in a sense of honor. Corporal punishment degrades the man or the youth THE FORM OF EDUCATION. 43 vrho has arrived at a sense of honor. In communities where children acquire this sense at a very early age, corporal punish- ment should be dispensed with altogether, and punishments re- sorted to that develop a sense of responsibility by causing the culprit to feel the effect of his deeds in depriving him of privi- leges common to all good pupils.)] 44. (3) This way of isolating a child does not prop- erly touch his sense of honor, and is soon forgotten, be- cause it relates to only one side of his conduct. It is quite different from punishment based on the sense of honor, which, in a formal manner, shuts the youth out from social participation because he has attacked the prin- ciple which holds society together, and for this reason can no longer be subsumed under its generality (i. e., allowed to participate in the society of his fellows). ( Honor is the recognition of one individual by others as their equal.) Through his transgression, or it may be his misdemeanor, he has simply lost his equality with them, and in so far has separated himself from them, so that his banishment from their society is only the outward expression of the real isolation which he himself has brought to pass in his inner nature, and which he by means of his negative act only betrayed to the outer world. Since the pun- ishment founded on the sense of honor affects the whole ethical man and makes a lasting impression upon liis memory, extreme caution is necessary in its application lest a permanent injury be inflicted upon the character. The idea of his perpetual continuance in disgrace, de- stroys in a man all aspiration for improvement. Within the family this feeling of honor can not be so actively developed, because every member of it is bound to every other im- mediately by natural ties, and hence is equal to every other. Within its sacred circle, he who has isolated himself is still beloved, though it may be through tears. However bad may be the deed he has com- 44: THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. mitted, he is never given up, but the deepest sympathy is felt for him because he is still brother, father, etc. But first in the relation of one family with another, and still more in the relation of an indi- vidual with any institution which is founded not on natural ties, but is set over against him as an entirely independent existence, this feel- ing of honor appears. In the school, and in the matter of ranks and honors in a school, this is very important. [Punishment based on the sense of honor may or may not be based on isolation. It implies a degree of maturity on the part of the pupil. Through his offense the pupil has destroyed his equality with his fellows, and has in reality, in his inmost nature, isolated himself from them. Corporal punishment is ex- ternal, but it may be accompanied with a keen sense of dishonor. Isolation also may, to a pupil who is sensitive to honor, be a severe blow to self-respect. But a punishment founded entirely on the sense of honor would be wholly internal, and have no ex- ternal discomfort attached to it. He who " attacks the principle that holds society together," by doing things that tend to de- stroy that social union, should be excluded from it or " not sub- sumed under its generality." Social union is a common bond, a general condition, or a participation. Regularity, punctuality, silence, attention, and industry, are indispensable for the associ- ated effort of the school, and the pupil who persistently violates these conditions should be isolated from the school.] 45. It is important to consider well this gradation of punishment which, starting with physical pain, which appeals to the senses, passes through the external tele- ology (appeal to external motives) of temporary isolation up to the idealism (appeal to one's ideal) of the sense of honor both in relation to the different ages at which they are appropriate and to the training which they bring with them. Every punishment must be consid- ered merely as a means to some end, and, in so far, as transitory. The pupil must always be deeply conscious that it is very painful to his instructor to be obliged to punish him. This pathos of another's solicitude for his THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 45 cure, which he perceives in the mien, in the tone of the voice, in the hesitation with which the punishment is administered, will become a purifying fire for his soul. [The necessity of carefully adapting the punishment to the age and maturity of the pupil renders it the most difficult part of the teacher's duties. It is essential that the air and manner of the teacher who punishes should be that of one who acts from a sense of painful duty, and not from any delight in being the cause of suffering. Not personal likes and dislikes, but the ra- tional necessity which is over teacher and pupil alike, causes the infliction of pain on the pupil.] CHAPTER HI. THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 46. As respects its form, education reaches its lim- its with the idea of punishment, because this is the ef- fort to conquer the negative reality (i. e., the resistance which it meets in the pupil's opposition) and to make it conformable to its positive idea. But the general limits of education are found in the idea of its function, which is to fashion the individual into theoretical and practical rationality. The authority of the educator at last be- comes imperceptible, and it passes over into advice and example, and obedience changes from blind conformity to free gratitude and attachment, (individuality wears off its rough edges, and is transfigured into the univer- sality and necessity of reason without losing in this pro- cess its personal identity.J Work becomes enjoyment, and he finds his play in a change of activity. The 46 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. youth takes possession of himself, and can be left to himself. There are two widely differing views with regard to the limits of education. One lays great stress on the weakness of the pupil and the power of the teacher. According to this view, education has for its province the entire formation of the youth. The despotism of this view often manifests itself, where large numbers are to be edu- cated together, and with very undesirable results, because it assumes that the individual pupil is only a specimen of the whole, as if the school were a great factory where each piece of goods is to be stamped exactly like all the rest. Individuality is reduced by the tyranny of such despotism to one uniform level till all originality is destroyed, as in cloisters, barracks, and orphan asylums, where only one indi- vidual seems to exist. There is a kind of pedagogy, also, which fan- cies that one can thrash into or out of the individual pupil what one will. This may be called a superstitious belief in the power of edu- cation. The opposite extreme is skeptical, and advances the policy which lets alone and does nothing, urging that individuality is uncon- querable, and that often the most careful and far-sighted education fails of reaching its aim in so far as it is opposed to the nature of the youth, and that this individuality has made of no avail all efforts to- ward the obtaining of any end which was opposed to it. This view of the fruitlessness of all educational efforts engenders an indiffer- ence toward it which would leave, as a result, only a sort of vegeta- tion of individuality growing at hap-hazard. [Punishment is the final topic considered under the head of " Form of Education," and it introduces us to the next topic, " The Limits of Education." In the act of punishment, the teacher abandons the legitimate province of education, which seeks to make the pupil rational or obedient to what is reason- able, as a habit, and from his own free-will. The pupil is pun- ished in order that he may be made to conform to the rational, by the application of constraint. Another will is substituted for the pupil's, and good behavior is produced, but not by the pu- pil's free act. In disobedience and in the occasion for the use of punishment accordingly education encounters its negative limit the limit that excludes it and refuses to receive it. While education finds a negative limit in punishment, it finds a posi- tive limit in the accomplishment of its legitimate object, which THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 47 is the emancipation of the pupil from the state of imbecility, as regards mental and moral self-control, into the ability to direct himself rationally. The school has done its work and is no longer needed. When the pupil has acquired the discipline which enables him to direct his studies properly, and to control his inclinations in such a manner as to pursue his work regular- ly, the teacher is superfluous for him he becomes his own teach- er. There may be two extreme views on this subject the one tending toward the negative extreme of requiring the teacher to do everything for the pupil, substituting his will for that of the pupil, and the other view tending to the positive extreme, and leaving everything to the pupil, even before his will is trained into habits of self-control, or his mind provided with the neces- sary elementary branches requisite for the prosecution of further study.] 47. (1) The first limit of education is a subjective one, a limit found in the individuality of the youth. This is a definitive (insurmountable) limit. Whatever does not exist in this individuality as a possibility can not be developed from it. Education can only lead and assist ; it can not create. What Nature has denied to a man, education can not give him any more than it is able, on the other hand, to annihilate entirely his origi- nal gifts, although it is true that his talents may be sup- pressed, distorted, and measurably destroyed. But the decision of the question in what the real essence of any one's individuality consists can never be made with cer- tainty till he has left behind him his years of develop- ment, because it is then only that he first arrives at the consciousness of his entire self; besides, at this time, many superficial acquirements will drop off ; and on the other hand, talents, long slumbering and unsuspected, may first make their appearance. Whatever has been forced upon a child in opposition to his individuality, whatever has been only driven into him and has lacked 48 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. receptivity on his part or a demand for cultivation, re- mains attached to his being only as an external orna- ment, a parasitical outgrowth which enfeebles his own proper character. We must distinguish from that false tendency which arises through a misunderstanding of the limit of individuality, the affecta- tion of children and young persons who often suppose, when they see models finished and complete in grown persons, that they themselves are endowed by Nature with the power to develop into the same. When they see a reality which corresponds to their own possibility, the anticipation of a like or a similar attainment moves them to an imitation of it as a model personality. This may be sometimes car- ried so far as to be disagreeable or ridiculous, but should not be too strongly censured, because it springs from a positive striving after culture, and needs only proper direction. [The subjective limit of education (on the negative side) is to be found in the individuality of the pupil the limit to his natural capacity.] 48. (2) The second or objective limit of educa- tion lies in the means which can be appropriated for it. That the talent for a certain culture shall be present is certainly the first thing ; but the cultivation of this tal- ent is the second, and no less necessary. But how much cultivation can be given to it extensively and intensively depends upon the means used, and these again are con- ditioned by the material resources of the family to which one belongs. The greater and more valuable the means of culture which are found in a family, the greater is the immediate advantage which the culture of each one has at the start. With regard to many of the arts and sciences this limit of education is of great signifi- cance. But the means alone are of no avail. The finest educational apparatus will produce no fruit where cor- responding talent is wanting, while on the other hand THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 49 talent often accomplishes incredible feats with very lim- ited means, and, if the way is only once open, makes of itself a center of attraction which draws to itself with magnetic power the necessary means. The moral cult- ure of each one is, however, fortunately from its very nature, out of the reach of such dependence. In considering the limit made by individuality we recognize the side of truth in that indifference which considers education entirely superfluous, and in considering the means of cultiire we find the truth in the other extreme, that of pedagogical despotism, which fan- cies that it can command whatever culture it chooses for any one without regard to his individuality. [The objective limit to education lies in the amount of time that the person may devote to his training. It, therefore, de- pends largely upon wealth, or other fortunate circumstances.] 49. (3) Finally, the absolute limit of education is the time when the youth has apprehended the prob- lem which he has to solve, has learned to know the means at his disposal, and has acquired a certain facil- ity in using them. The end and aim of education is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to make himJ self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so it] wishes to retire and leave to him the sole responsibility' for his actions. To treat the youth after he has passed this point of time still as a youth, contradicts the very idea of education, which idea finds its fulfillment in the attainment of this state of maturity by the pupil. Since the completion of education cancels the original inequality between the educator and the pupil, nothing is more oppressing, nay, revolting to the latter than to be excluded by a continued state of dependence from the enjoyment of the freedom which he has earned. The opposite of this extreme, which protracts education beyond its proper time and produces this state of inward revolt, is the undue 50 THE GENERAL IDEA OF EDUCATION. hastening of the emancipation. The question whether one is pre- pared for freedom has been often opened in politics. When any peo- ple have gone so far as to ask this question themselves, it is no longer a question whether that p*eople are prepared for it, for without the consciousness of freedom this question would never have occurred to them. [The absolute limit of education is the positive limit (see 46), beyond which the youth passes into freedom from the school, as a necessary instrumentality for further culture.] 50. Although teachers must now leave the youth free, the necessity of further culture for him still re- mains. But it will no longer come directly through them. Their prearranged, pattern-making work is now supplanted by self-education. Each sketches for him- self an ideal to which in his lif e he seeks to approximate every day. In the work of self -culture one friend can help another by advice and example ; but he can not educate, for education presupposes in- equality of acquirement and authority. The necessities of human nature produce societies in which equals seek to influence each other in a pedagogical way, since they establish certain grades or orders based on steps of culture. They presuppose education in the ordi- nary sense. But they wish to bring about education in a higher sense, and therefore they veil the last form of their ideal in the mys- tery of secrecy. To one who lives on contented with himself and without the impulse toward self-culture, unless his unconcern springs from his belonging to a savage state of society, the Germans give the name of Philistine, and he is always repulsive to the student who is intoxicated with an ideal. [The prearranged pattern-making work of the school is now done, but self-education may and should go on indefinitely, and will go on if the education of the school has really arrived at its " absolute limit " i. e., has fitted the pupil for self-education. Emancipation from the school does not emancipate one from learning through his fellow-men. Man's spiritual life is one depending upon co-operation with his fellow-men. Each must avail himself of the experience of his fellow-men, and in turn THE LIMITS OF EDUCATION. 51 communicate his own experience to the common fund of the race. Thus each lives the life of the whole, and all live for each. School-education gives the pupil the instrumentalities with which to enable him to participate in this fund of experi- ence this common life of the race. After school-education comes the still more valuable education, which, however, with- out the school, would be in a great measure impossible.] SECOND PART. THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. SECOND PART. THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. INTRODUCTION. 51. EDUCATION in general consists in the develop- ment in man of his inborn theoretical and practical ra- tionality ; it takes on the form of labor, which changes that state or condition, which appears at first only as a mere thought, into a fixed habit, and transfigures in- dividuality into a worthy humanity. Education ends in that emancipation of the youth which places him on his own feet. The special elements which form the concrete content of all education in general are the life, cognition, and will of man. /Without life mind has no phenomenal reality jj without cognition, no genuine i. e., conscious will ; and without will, no self-confirma- tion of life and of cognition, j It is true that these three elements are in real existence inseparable, and continu- ally exhibit their interdependence. But none the less on this account do they themselves prescribe their own succession, and they have a relative and periodical as- cendency over each other. In infancy, up to the fifth or sixth year, the purely physical development takes the precedence; childhood is the tune of learning, in a 56 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. proper sense, an act by which the child gains for hirn- self the picture of the world, such as mature minds, through experience and insight, have painted it ; and, finally, youth is the transition period to practical activity, to which the self-determination of the will must give the first impulse. [Education is the development of reason innate in man theoretical as intellect, practical as will-power. It is a labor that changes an ideal into a real, making what is potential into an actual ; transfiguring the " natural " man. so to speak, into a spiritual man. Education forms "habits." It develops ideal human nature into real human nature by means of this forma- tion of 'habits. (Play differs from labor in this, that it does not seek to transform an ideal into a real, but to make a semblance of contradiction between the ideal and real ; it makes a reality seem to be what it is not.) There are three special elements in man, each of which needs education : these are life (bodily or- ganism), cognition (knowing faculty or intellect), and will. To some extent there is a succession of periods based on this dis- tinction: (1) the period of nurture, lasting till the sixth year, or during infancy, in which the education of the body is more important than the education of the mind; (2) the period of the school, lasting through childhood say to fourteen years in which general or intellectual education is most important : (3) the period of youth from fourteen to eighteen in which the most important education is the specializing of the practical ap- plication of knowledge and strength to particular forms of duty, hence will-education. While these periods are thus distin- guished by the relative importance of the three different disci- plines, it is essential that no one of these disciplines shall be neglected in any period.] 52. The classification of the special elements of education is hence very simple: (1) the physical, (2) the intellectual, (3) the practical (in the sense of will- education). We sometimes apply to these the words orthobiotics, didactics, and pragmatics. INTRODUCTION. 57 training constitutes only an element of intellectual 5L, a* i. fa educationist as social, moral, and religious training form elements of practical (or will) education.^ But because these latter elements^ ? concern themselves with the action of the individual upon the ex- ^ ternal world, the name " pragmatics " is appropriate. In this sphere, :f A^vo-i-*.. education (Padagogik) should coincide with politics, ethics, and re- ligion. But it is distinguished from them through the skill with which it puts into practice the problems of the other two (life and cognition). The scientific arrangement of these ideas must therefore show that the former, as the more abstract, constitutes the condition, and the latter, as the more concrete, the ground of the former, which is presupposed ; and in consequence of this it is itself their principle and teleological presupposition, just as in man the will presupposes the cognition, and cognition life ; while, at the same time, life, in a deeper sense, must presuppose cognition, and cognition will. [The classification in pedagogics is based on the distinction of the three elements in man that require education : (1) Physi- cal (correct living = orthobiotics) ; (2) intellectual (correct per- ceiving, knowing, and thinking = didactics) ; (3) practical (cor- rect action, proper habits = pragmatics). ^Esthetic training, or the sense for the appreciation and production of the beautiful, falls, in a threefold division, into the second into theoretic education. Social, moral, and religious training belong to the third division, as they concern the will and its utterance in deeds. " Pragmatics " signifies the doctrine of human deeds, and in- cludes the spheres of ethics, politics, and religion. (There may be defined a fivefold system of education, basing the distinction on the institutions of civilization : (a) Nurture = the education of the family ; (b) the school, or education into the convention- alities of intelligence ; (c) the art, trade, or profession that forms the vocation in life = the education of civil society; (d) the political education into citizenship, resulting from obedience to laws and participation in making and sustaining them ; (e) re- ligious education. These five forms of education depend on (a) the family, (b) the school, (c) civil society, (d) the State, (e) the Church. The school is properly a transition between the family and civil society, and forms the institution of education par excellence. Hence, while education, very properly, is defined so as to include all of human life, there is a period specially characterized as " education " which transpires in the school, a 58 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. special institution that partakes of the character of the family on the one hand, and of civil society on the other. In the school, of course, there should be some attention paid to all spheres of education, but its main business should be the acquisition " of the picture of the world such as mature minds through experi- ence and insight have painted it " (see 51 near the end), or, in other words, conventional items of information, insights into laws and principles, and the elementary processes of their com- bination. This makes the " view of the world " which each civilized human being is supposed to possess. It is important to know the exact province of the school, and to see that it is only one of the five forms of education that civilization provides for man. Much of the carping criticism leveled against schools, in times of financial distress or general social depression, is based on the assumption that the province of the school is all education instead of a small but very important fraction of it. The school may do its share of correct education, but it can not correct the effects of neglect of family nurture, nor insure its youth against evil that will follow if civil society furnishes no steady employment, no opportunity for settled industry, and the state no training into consciousness of higher manhood by its just laws, and by offering to the citizen a participation in the political process of legislation and administration, carefully guarding its forms so that its politics does not furnish a train- ing in corruption. Nor can the school insure the future of its pupils unless the Church does its part in the education of the individuals of the community.) " The scientific arrangement of these ideas " i. e., life, intellect, and will " must show that the former, as more abstract, constitute the conditions " i. e., life is the condition of intellect, and both intellect and life the con- ditions of will while "the latter, as more concrete, are the ground of the former " i. e., intellect is the ground of life, or, in other words, its final cause, and so will is the ground and final cause of intellect.} Intellect contains all that life contains, and much more namely : While life realizes its totality of spe- cies only in many individuals, and each individual is a partial and special half of the species as male or female, the intellect as consciousness is subject and object in one, and each indi- vidual intellect is potentially the entire species each thinking being can think all the thoughts of the greatest thinkers of the PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 59 race. So, will contains all that intellect contains, and more. For what is potential in intellect (the identity of subject and object of thought) is real in the will. The will makes objective its internal subjective forms, and in its highest ethical activity it becomes conscious freedom.] CHAPTER I. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 53. THE art of living rightly is based upon a com- prehension of the process of life. Life is the restless dialectic process which ceaselessly transforms the inor- ganic into the organic, and at the same time produces the inorganic, and separates from itself whatever part of its food has not been assimilated, and that which has become dead and burned out. The organism is healthy when it corresponds to this idea of the dialectic process of a life which moves up and down, inward and out- ward ; of formation and reformation ; of organizing and disorganizing. All the rules for physical education, or of hygiene, are derived from this conception. [The rules of hygiene are derived from an insight into the twofold process of assimilation and elimination which goes on in the living organism with relation to the inorganic substances which it uses.] 54. It follows from this that the change of the relatively inorganic to the organic is going on not only in the organism as a whole, but also in its every organ and in every part of every organ ; and that the organic, as soon as it has attained its highest point of energy, is 60 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. again degraded to the inorganic and thrown out. Every cell has its history. Activity is, therefore, not contra- dictory to the organism, but favors in it the natural progressive and regressive metamorphosis. This process can go on harmoniously that is, the organism can be in health only when not merely the whole organism, but each special organ, is allowed, after its productive activ- ity, the corresponding rest and recreation necessary for its self-renewal. We have this periodicity exemplified in waking and sleeping, also in exhalation and inhalation, excretion and taking in of material. "When we have discovered the relative antagonism of the organs and their periodicity, we have found the secret of the peren- nial renewal of life. [Perpetual change goes on in the living organism, converting the inorganic into organic tissue and then reconverting it. This alternation is the basis of the demand for the alternation of pro- ductive activity with rest and recreation in the whole physical system.] 55. Fatigue makes its appearance when any organ, or the organism in general, is denied time for the return movement into itself and for renovation. It is possible for some one organ, without injury, as if isolated, to exercise a great and long-continued activity, even to the point of fatigue, while the other organs rest ; as, e. g., the lungs, in speaking, while the other parts are quiet ; on the other hand, it is not well to speak and run at the same time. The idea that one can keep the organism in better condition by inactivity is an error which rests upon a mechanical view of life. Equally false is the idea that health depends upon the quantity and excel- lence of the food; without the force to assimilate it, it is poison rather than nourishment. True strength DIETETICS. 61 arises only from activity. [Mention of works on hy- giene here is omitted in this translation.] [Fatigue defined. It may occur with the whole organism or with a part. The idea that total rest is healthy is a misappre- hension. The organism requires alternation of rest and activity, which alternation itself is activity because it is change. Hence, " true strength arises only from activity."] 56. Physical education, as it concerns the repairing, the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided into (1) dietetics, (2) gymnastics, (3) sexual education. In real life these activities are scarcely separable, but for the sake of exposition we must consider them apart. In the regular development of the human being, moreover, the repairing system has a relative precedence to the motor system, and the latter to the sexual maturity. But edu- cation can treat of these ideas only with reference to the infant, the child, and the youth. [Physical education treats of (a) the repairing activity or nu- trition, (b) the motor or muscular activity, and (c) the nervous activity, as far as they concern children and youth. CHAPTER H. (A.) DIETETICS. 57. DIETETICS is the art of sustaining the normal repair of the organism. Since this organism is, in the concrete, an individual one, the general principles of dietetics must, in their manner of application, vary with the sex, the age, the temperament, the occupation, and the other conditions of the individual. Education as a 62 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. science can only go over its general principles, and these can be named briefly. If we attempt to speak of de- tails, we fall easily into triviality. So very important to the whole life of man is the proper care of his physi- cal nature during the first stages of its development, that the science of education must not omit to enumer- ate the various systems which different people, accord- ing to their time, locality, and culture, have made for themselves ; many, it is true, embracing some preposter- ous ideas, but in general never devoid of justification in their time. [Dietetics defined. Details here are trivial.] [ 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, relating to diet, omitted. The following is a brief summary of the contents : 58, 59, 60, 61, treat of food for infants. 62, why children need much sleep. 63 treats of clothing of children.] 64r. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be accustomed for the sake of their physical well-being, as well as because, in a moral point of view, it is of the greatest significance. Cleanliness will not endure that things shall be deprived of their proper individuality through the elemental chaos. It retains each as distin- guished from every other. While it makes necessary to man pure air, cleanliness of surroundings, of clothing, and of his body, it develops in him a sense by which he perceives accurately the particular limits of being in general. [Cleanliness means " a place for everything and everything in its place." To take a thing out of its proper relations is to " de- prive it of its proper individuality," and in an " elemental chaos '' everything has lost its proper relations to other things, and has no longer any use or fitness in its existence.] GYMNASTICS. 63 CHAPTER m. (B.) GYMNASTICS. 65. GYMNASTICS is the art of the normal training of the muscular system. The voluntary muscles, which are regulated by the nerves of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary automatic muscles depending on the spinal cord, while they are the means of man's inter- course with the external world, at the same time react upon the automatic muscles in digestion and sensation. Since the movement of the muscular fibers consists in the alternation of contraction and expansion, it follows that gymnastics must bring about a change of movement which shall both contract and expand the muscles. [Gymnastics. The voluntary and involuntary muscles distin- guished : the voluntary muscles form the means of communica- tion with the external world, and also react on the automatic functions of digestion, sensation, etc. Gymnastics seeks to de- velop the voluntary muscles in a normal manner, and through these indirectly to affect favorably the development of the other bodily systems and processes.] 66. The system of gymnastic exercise of any na- tion corresponds always to its mode of fighting. So long as this consists in the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand contest, gymnastics will seek to increase as much as possible individual strength and adroitness. As soon as the far-reaching missiles projected from fire-arms be- come the center of all the operations of war, the indi- vidual is lost in a body of men, out of which he emerges only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the charge, in close contests, and in the retreat. Because of this incorpora- tion of the individual in the one great whole, and because 64: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. of the resulting unimportance of personal daring, gym- nastics can never again be what it was in ancient times. Besides this, the subjectiveness of the modern spirit is too great to allow it to devote so much attention to the care of the body, or so much time to the admiration of its beauty, as was given by the Greeks. The Turner societies and Turner-halls in Germany belong to the period of subjective enthusiasm of the German student popula- tion, and had a political significance. At present, they have been brought back to their proper place as an educational means, and they are of great value, especially in large cities. Among the mount- ains, and in rural districts, special arrangements for bodily exercise are less necessary, for the matter takes care of itself. The situation and the instinct for play help to foster it. In great cities, however, the houses are often destitute of halls or open places where the chil- dren can take exercise in their leisure moments. In these cities, therefore, there must be some gymnastic hall where the sense of fel- lowship may be developed. Gymnastics are not so essential for girls. In its place, dancing is sufficient, and gymnastic exercise should be employed for them only where there exists any special weakness or deformity, when it may be used as a restorative or pre- servative. They are not to become Amazons. The boy, on the con- trary, needs to acquire the feeling of good-fellowship. It is true that the school develops this in a measure, but not fully and simply, because in school the standing of the boy is determined through his intellectual ambition. The college youth will not take much inter- est in special gymnastics unless he can gain distinction in it. Run- ning, leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too tame for their more mature spirits. They can take a lively interest only in the exercises which have a warlike character. With the Prussians, and some other German states, gymnastic training is provided for in the military training. [Gymnastics affected by the national military drill. The an- cient tribes and nations found special bodily training indispen- sable to success in war, and even to national preservation. Gun- powder and improved fire-arms have almost rendered gymnas- tics obsolete the successful army, other things equal, being the one composed of men thoroughly disciplined in mano3uvres, and GYMNASTICS. 65 possessed individually of tact and versatility necessary to ma- nipulate the destructive fire-arms now used. The Greeks (see 204-216) paid so much attention to pure gymnastics because they worshiped the beautiful as the highest manifestation of the divine, and therefore looked upon their own physical perfection as the highest object of life. The favorite exercises with our students are boating, ball-playing, bicycle-riding, etc., rather than boxing, fencing, wrestling, and " exercises which have a warlike character," as Rosenkranz enumerated them in 1840.] 67. The fundamental idea of gymnastics must al- ways be that the spirit shall rule over its body and make this an energetic and docile servant of its will. Strength and adroitness must unite and become confident skill. Strength, carried to its extreme, produces the athlete ; adroitness, to its extreme, the acrobat. Education must avoid both. All gigantic strength, as well as acrobatic skill, fit only for display, must be discouraged and so too must be the idea of teaching gymnastics with the motive of utility ; e. g., that by swimming one may save his life when he falls into the water, etc. Among other things, utility may also be a consequence ; but the principle in general must always be the necessity of the spirit of subjecting its bodily organism to the condition of a per- fect instrument, so that it may ever find it equal to the execution of its will. [Gymnastics, therefore, in modern times must aim chiefly at developing the body for the sake of physical strength and en- durance, with a view to the demands of useful industry and mental culture on the bodily health and vigor. Health requires harmonious development ; the exercises must develop the parts of the body so as not to produce disproportion. The result of gymnastics is to give the mind control over the body as a whole the will interpenetrates, as it were, the various organs, and by this means the conscious mind can re-enforce the automatic functions of the body ; the will-power can to a certain degree even ward off disease.] 66 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 68. Gymnastic exercises form a series from simple to compound. There seems to be so much arbitrari- ness in plays and games that it is always very agreeable to the mind to find, on nearer inspection, some rational order. The movements are (1) of the lower, (2) of the upper extremities ; (3) of the whole body, with relative predominance, now of the upper, now of the lower ex- tremities. We distinguish, therefore, foot, arm, and trunk movements. [Gymnastic exercises classified: (1) of the lower extremities: (a) walking, (b) running, (c) leaping (including varieties and modifications, such as walking on stilts, skating, dancing, bal- ancing, bicycle-riding, etc.) ; (2) of the upper extremities : (a) lifting, (b) swinging, (c) throwing (including also the modifica- tions of climbing, carrying, pole and bar exercises, quoits, ball and nine-pin playing, rowing, etc.) ; (8) of the whole body : (a) swimming, (b) riding, (c) fighting. Foot, arm, and trunk move- ments. Such games as base-ball, and such athletic exercise as rowing are practiced as whole-body movements.] 69. (1) The first series of foot-movements is the most important, and conditions the carriage of all the rest of the body. They are (a) walking ; (5) running ; (c) leaping: each of these being capable of modifica- tions, as the high and the low leap, the prolonged and the quick run. Sometimes we give to these different names, according to the means used, as walking on stilts ; skating ; leaping with a staff, or by means of the hands, as vaulting. Dancing is only the art of the graceful mingling of these movements. 70. (2) The second series includes the arm-move- ments, and it repeats also the movements of the first series. It includes (a) lifting ; (b) swinging ; (o) throw- ing. All pole and bar practice comes under lifting, GYMNASTICS. 67 also climbing and carrying. Under throwing, come quoits, and ball-throwing, and nine-pin playing. All these movements are distinguished from each other, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, in the position of the stretched and bent muscles ; e. g., running is something different from quick walking. [Omission here of notes on books relating to the physiology of ex- ercise.] 71. (3) The third series, or that of movements of the whole body, differs from the preceding two, which prepare the way for it, in this, that it brings the organism into contact with an object, which it has to overcome through its own activity. This object is sometimes an element, sometimes an animal, sometimes a man. Our divisions then are (a) swimming ; (b) riding ; (,,t .- . , ct^A-t-A^-^-t^yAfcrfLy U^/t,-LA i. [The conception of attention the most important one in pedagogics. Nothing exists for the mind unless the mind gives attention to it i. e., voluntarily entertains it. Attention is self- activity, not a passivity of the mind. It is the will acting upon the intellect, and hence a combination of intellect and will. Out of the infinitely manifold objects before the senses each object is capable of endless subdivision, and there is no part so small that it does not possess variety and the possibility of further subdivision attention selects one special field or province, and refuses to be diverted from it. It neglects all else and returns again and again from the borders of the field of attention and takes note of the relation of the surrounding objects to the ob- ject of special attention. It makes it the essential thing, and considers everything else only as related to it. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 71 It is interesting to note how the higher faculties (so-called " faculties " one must not, however, suppose these faculties as isolated " properties " of the mind, existing side by side, like properties of a thing) all originate from the process of attention ; they are higher powers or " potencies " of attention. Isaac New- ton ascribed his superiority to other men in intellectual power simply to the greater power of attention. Attention appears : Jirst, as a mere power of isolating one object from others a power of concentration upon it to the exclusion of others jjfsee- ondly, it discriminates distinctions within the object or analyzes it : thus analysis is continued attention the second power or potence of attention ; thirdly, it seizes again upon one of the distinctions found by analysis, and becomes abstraction ; ab- straction might be named the third power or potence of atten- tion ; fourthly, the attention may be directed to essential rela- tions of the elements found by analysis and abstraction their essential relations to each other. This is a process of synthetic thought, a grasping-together, a comprehension a higher activ- ity of mind a fourth potence of the power of attention. It is the most important matter in psychology, this process of synthesis, through necessary relation. To find that one object of atten- tion, A, involves another, B (i. e., possesses essential relation to it, such that A can not exist without B) is to find a necessary synthesis. It is to discover that instead of A by itself, or B by itself, there is one existence having two phases to it, one phase being A, and the other phase being B. It is a finding of one in place of two, and is a synthetic act of mind. The synthesis is not an arbitrary one. It is a discovery of truth : A and B were really two aspects of one and the same being which we may call A B, but they seemed to be independent. The process of atten- tion, up to its fourth power, is thus an ascent of cognition from seeming to being. The perception of dependence (" essential re- lation " is dependence) is the perception of synthesis, and belongs to the activity of comprehension. Reflection, as a mental activ- ity (or " faculty "), is the process of discovering relations and dependencies among objects hence it is a stage of synthesis belonging to what we call here the " fourth power of attention." The student of educational psychology should follow out this mode of exploring the mind, and define for himself all of the so-called " faculties " and mental acts, in terms of attention. Ha 72 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. must note, too, that the act of attention is an act of the mind directed upon itself, the will controlling the intellect, because it confines its own activity (i. e., the perception in general) to a special field), i. e., makes it a perception of a special object to the exclusion of others). This synthesis is, as just remarked, the most important theme of psychology it is also the most won- derful a veritable fountain of surprise. For the strangest thing to learn in psychology is that the process of reflection (the direc- tion of the mind in upon itself) discovers the truth about the objects or things in the world. The first activity of sense-per- ception notices objects as independent of each other, as having no essential relations. Reflection, or attention in its higher powers, discovers necessary relations, and forms more adequate ideas of the truth. Isaac Newton saw the sun and planets as one gravitating whole a system and his knowledge certainly came nearer the truth than did the knowledge of previous astron- omers who merely knew the sun and planets in their separate existence. In going into the truth of objects the mind goes into itself at the same time. (Psychology pqiots backward to the great fact that reason made both the world and the human intellect.] 83. Attention, depending as it does on the self- determination of the observer, can therefore be im- proved, and the pupil made attentive, by the educator. Education must accustom him to an exact, rapid, and many-sided attention, so that at the first contact with an object he may grasp it sufficiently and truly, and that it shall not be necessary for him always to be changing his impressions concerning it. The twilight and par- tialness of intelligence which force a pupil always to new corrections because he has all along failed to give entire attention must not be tolerated. [Attention (depending as it does upon the voluntary powers of the mind) can be developed or educated. (The fact that the child is capable of exercising his will-power on his intellect is the fundamental fact that makes all intellectual education pos- sible. There is no intellect, strictly speaking, until fho will has INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 73 combined with the perception.) Self-determination or self -activ- ity is the characteristic principle of life or living being. Related to itself it becomes consciousness. By new relations to itself it develops the mental orders or stages of thinking (perception, representation, understanding, reason, as described in the com- mentary to the preceding section). Aristotle (in his book on the Categories) distinguishes between first and second substances (ova-leu) referring to the object of perception (this animal or thing) and the object of the intellect (animal or thing as general concept). By the Arabians (Avicenna) this doctrine becomes a psychological doctrine of first and second intention of the mind (intentio animi). With the first intention we perceive objects of sense or " primary substances " ; with the second intention we perceive universal objects or " second substances." " Inten- tion " here signifies the act of attention or the directing inward of the intellect by the will upon its own processes, so that the process of the " first intention " becomes the object of the " sec- ond intention." This wonderful insight is an anticipation of Pichte's modification of the Kantian philosophy. In the " Science of Knowledge " (Wissenschaftslehre) Fichte has laid the basis for the only true psychology by a deduction of the main func- tions of mind from self -activity as Ego. The intellect and the will are discriminated : the forms of sense-perception (time and space), the categories of the intellect (causality and substantiality), the principles of the will (the moral ideas of duty and virtue).] 84. "We learn from psychology that mind does not consist of distinct faculties, but that what we choose to call so are only different activities of the same power. Each one is just as essential as the other, on which ac- count education must grant to each faculty its claim to the same fostering care. Although we construe the axiom apotiorifit denominatio quite correctly to mean that man is distinguished from animals by thought, and by will mediated by thought [i. e., will-activity based on rational motives, action directed by moral principles], we must not forget that feeling and imagination are not less necessary to a truly complete human being. The 74 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. special directions which the activity of cognitive (or theoretical as opposed to practical intelligence or the will) intelligence takes are (1) sense-perception, (2) representation (or imagination), (3) thinking. Dialecti- cally, they pass over into each other ; not only does per- ception grow into representation, and representation into thinking, but thinking goes back into representation, and this again into perception. In the development of the young, the perceptive faculty is most active in the infant, the representative faculty in the child, and the thinking faculty in the youth ; and thus we may distin- guish an intuitive, an imaginative, and a logical epoch. Great errors arise from the misapprehension of these different phases and of their dialectic, since the different forms which are suit- able to the different grades of youth are mingled. The infant cer- tainly thinks while he perceives, but this thinking is to him uncon- scious. Or, if he has acquired sense-perceptions, he makes them into mental images, and manifests his freedom in making them the sport of his fancy. This play of fancy must not be taken for mere amuse- ment ; it also signifies that he takes care to preserve his intellectual balance, and his power of assimilation while engaged in filling his consciousness with material. Herein the delight of the child for fairy-tales finds its deeper reason. The fairy-tale constantly tran- scends the limits of common actuality. The abstract " common sense " can not endure this arbitrariness and want of fixed condi- tions, and thus would prefer that children should read, instead, home-made stories of the " Charitable Ann," of the " Heedless Fred- erick," of the " Inquisitive Wilhelmine," etc. Above all, it praises Campe's * " Robinson Crusoe," which contains much heterogeneous matter, but nothing improbable. When the maturity of youth neces- sitates the transition into the earnestness of real life, the drying up of the imagination and the sway of the understanding supervene. * J. H. Campe, the disciple of Basedow, wrote an adaptation of De Foe's work, under the title of" Eobinson der Jungere," with a view to teach how '' to live according to Nature." First edition, 1779 ; fifty-seventh edition, 1859 1 Note by ED. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 75 [(Note what has been said above in 82.) Perception, con- ception, and thinking are named as the three stages of intellect. Perception (German word, Atischauen) here refers simply to the contemplation of objects by the senses. Conception (German word, Vorstelleri) makes in the mind a picture of the object, but a general picture a representation of the object in its outlines a representation that will correspond not only to the particular object, but to all objects of the same class. Think- ing perceives the essential relations of the object, its depend- encies on its environment, and the reciprocal action. Educa- tion produces in the pupil the ability to carry back the activ- ity of the higher faculties into the lower ones, as stated in the text. In the presence of perception the mind learns to be able to recall the general representation of the type or class of objects, and compare the object before the senses with the general type or the definition. It enables it also to think in the presence of the object, and to perceive essential relations at the same time that it is occupied with perception and conception. Thus it elevates the lower faculties to thinking perception and to think- ing conception. The child delights in fairy-tales because they sport with the fixed conditions of actuality, and present to him a picture of free power over nature and circumstances. Thus they, to some extent, prefigure to him the conquest which his race has accomplished, and is accomplishing it is made to ap- pear as the exploits of some Aladdin, or Jack the Giant-Killer. To modify, change, or destroy " the limits of common actuality " is the perpetual work of the race. It molds the external world to suit its own ideas. Play is the first education that the child gets to prepare him for this human destiny. The term " dia- lectic" is a stumbling-block to the reader unacquainted with German philosophy. " Dialectically they pass over into each other " i. e., in tracing out either of these phases of intellect we discover that it implies each of the others in order to its own completeness and perfection. Perception is increased immensely in power by adding to it conception, which brings the aid of the general image in which are summed up all previous perceptions ; thus perception re-enforced by conception is an individual activ- ity re-enforced by the sum total of the race activity, or at least by the sum total of all previous activity of the same individual as well as by what he has learned from his fellows. Thus, too, 76 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. perception is still more increased by adding to it the thinking activity which perceives necessary relations. Agassiz looks at a new fish from the Amazon River and sees at once its type and its variations knows at once the great mass of its properties, functions, faculties, habits, and history, simply by its classifica- tion under already known genera, species, and sub-classes. This enables him to distinguish at once its variations from the gen- eral type and to see the significance of its peculiarities. In the same manner a botanist (Prof. Gray, for example) glances at a tree as he passes it rapidly, from the car-window. He sees its resemblances and its differences, however, in that rapid glance, because he subsumes it under all that he knows all that is known, in fact, as the aggregate result of all observations for thousands of years. By recognizing its series, class, sub-class, order, sub-order, tribe, genus, species, and variety, he is instantly in possession of information enough to make a library of books on the subject of that one tree. He saw enough, too, in the rapid glance to inform himself of its individual differences, its particular size, age, shape, and condition, in so far as these were peculiar. Contrast this with the information obtained by the sense-perception of an observer endowed with excellent sight but no knowledge of botany. Science, which is the product of conception and thinking, thus re-enforces sense-perception, and ' dialectically " the latter demands for its perfection those higher activities, and, vice versa, thinking and conception, which deal with the universal or the possibility and the process which cre- ates particular individuals, demand sense-perception to take cognizance of those individuals.] CHAPTER V. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (a) Psychology (continued). (1) The Intuitive Epoch. 85. SENSE-PERCEPTION, as the beginning of intel- lectual culture, is the free grasping of an object immedi- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 77 atelj present to the mind. Education can do nothing directly toward the performance of this act ; it can only assist in making it easy : (1) it can isolate the object of consideration ; (2) it can give facility in the transition to another ; (3) it can promote the many-sidedness of the interest, by which means the return to a perception already obtained has always a fresh charm. [Sense-perception (German Anschauung) is called intuition in all the earlier translations of Kant, because the Latin word intueri was suggested by Kant as an equivalent for anschauen. Hence " intuitive epoch " means epoch of sense-perception. Per- ception can be assisted by isolation of the object to be perceived. The pupil should be trained to look for certain properties and attributes, and to note their peculiarities. The categories under which one may classify these properties and attributes are fur- nished by reflection. Hence, when one in the so-called " object- lessons " trains the pupil to note in all objects certain constantly recurring predicates, such as color, shape, frangibility, solubility, size, number, taste, smell, etc., he is bringing thought and con- ception " back into perception " (see previous section) and ele- vating mere perception into thinking perception. The difference between ordinary perception and scientific perception lies just here : while the former is unsystematic and fragmentary, and does not accumulate or collect and retain data in the form of general ideas, the latter is systematic, exhaustive and cumu- lative. Thinking gives the system. Hence, the training of perception is the subordination of it to the will, and the intro- duction of complete systematic habits of activity in place cf accidental perception.] 86. There are many things which can not be pre- sented to immediate perception, however desirable it may be. We must then have recourse to a mediated perception, and supply the lack of actual seeing by rep- resentations through pictures and models. But here the difficulty presents itself, that there are many objects which we are not able to represent in their true size, 78 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. and we must have a reduced scale, whence results a diffi- culty as to the selection of the best standard. An ex- planation is then also necessary as a judicious supple- ment to the picture. [All perceivable objects should be learned by actual perception so far as is possible. "When remoteness in space and time or in- accessibility on account of size prevents this, a good substitute offers itself in the way of pictorial representation. The picture, of course, idealizes much it magnifies some objects and reduces others, and it never presents all of the features found in nature. But it omits unessential details for the most part, and this fact makes a picture much easier to learn than the real object, al- though the knowledge is not so practical. The picture is com- monly nearer the type or general form of the object than real specimens ; the real specimens have much about them that is accidental, and need much comparison to discover what is the normal type. The picture gives this type at once, and hence gives assistance to the pupil half digests his mental food for him, in fact. Hence the pictorial representation has advantages (it is easy of apprehension because it is a perception reduced to conception), and disadvantages (the pupil does not get tLe strength that comes from reducing the specimens of nature to their types by his own efforts).] 87. Pictures are extremely valuable aids to in- struction when they are correct and characteristic. Cor- rectness must be demanded in these substitutes for nat- ural objects, historical persons, and scenes. Without this correctness, the picture, if not an impediment, is, to say the least, useless. It is only since the last half of the seventeenth century, i. e., since the disappearance of the genuine art of painting, that the pict- ure-book has appeared as an educational means ; first of all, coming from miniature-painting. Up to that time, public life was more picturesque with its display of arms, furniture, houses, and churches ; and men, from their fondness for constant travel, had their hun- ger for immediate perception sated. It was only afterward, when, ii thr excitement of the Thirty Years' War, the arts of sculpture and INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 79 painting and Christian and pagan mythology became extinct, that there arose a greater necessity for pictured representations. The Orb is Rerum Sensualium Pictus, which was also to be &janua lln- guarum reserata, of Amos Comenius, appeared first in 1658, and was reprinted in 1805. Many valuable illustrated books followed. Since that time innumerable illustrated Bibles and histories have appeared, but many of them look only to the pecuniary profit of the author or the publisher. [The remainder of this section, devoted to a criticism of the German illustrated books of the period, is omitted.] [Accuracy is, above all, demanded in pictorial representations. The picture-book came into use chiefly after the decline of paint- ing. Comenius (1658) gave a great impulse to education by his book, which attempts to convey a knowledge of the world by pictures.] 88. Children have naturally a desire to collect things, and this may be so guided that they shall collect and arrange plants, butterflies, beetles, shells, skeletons, etc., and thus gain exactness and reality in their percep- tion. Especially should they practice drawing, which leads them to form exact images of objects. But draw- ing, as children practice it, does not have the educational significance of cultivating in them an appreciation of art, but rather that of educating the eye, as this must be exercised in estimating distances, sizes, and colors. It is, moreover, a great gain in many ways, if, through a suitable course of lessons in drawing, the child is ad- vanced to a knowledge of the elementary forms of na- ture. That pictures should affect children as works of art is not to be required. They confine themselves at first to distinguishing the outlines and colors, and do not yet appreciate the execution. If the children have access to real works of art, we may safely trust in their power, and quietly await their moral and {esthetic effect. [Notice of a work on drawing omitted.] [Children should be exercised in classification. They should collect and arrange cabinets for themselves. This will give 80 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. them ability in recognizing the type in the specimen, the gen eral in the particular. Drawing, too, is excellent for the train- ing of sense-perception, if from objects direct, inasmuch as it requires the pupil to omit all that is not characteristic of the object. How far lines suffice to delineate an object, and fix it unmistakably, and what these few lines are, the art of drawing teaches. Characterization must be learned first before any at- tempt at aesthetic effect. But true works of art must be placed where the child will receive a silent education from them, al- though no positive instruction is given in them.] 89. In order that looking at pictures shall not de- generate into mere diversion, explanations should accom- pany them. Only when the thought embodied in the illustrations is pointed out, can they be useful as a means of instruction. Simply looking at them is of as little value toward this end as is water for baptism without the Holy Spirit. Our age inclines at present to the superstition that man is able, by means of simple sense- perception, to attain a knowledge of the essence of things, and thereby dispense with the trouble of think- ing. Illustrations are the order of the day, and, in the place of enjoyable descriptions, we find inferior pict- ures. It is in vain to try to get behind things, or to comprehend them, except by thinking. [Pictorial representation is of little service, unless accom- panied by analysis and explanation. Mere gazing upon a picture is like the thoughtless gazing upon real objects it is not systematic, and does not separate the essential from the accidental, nor exhaust the subject.] 90. The ear as well as the eye must be cultivated. Music must be considered the first educational means to this end, but it should be music inspired by ethical purity. Hearing is the most internal [i. e., it reveals to us the internal character of objects] of all the senses, INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 81 and should on this account be treated with the greatest delicacy. Especially should the child be taught that he is not to look upon speech as merely a useful vehicle for communication and for gaining information ; it should also give pleasure, and therefore he should be taught to speak distinctly and with a good intonation, and this can be reached only through careful attention. Among the Greeks, extraordinary care was given to musical cul- tivation, especially in its ethical relation. Sufficient proof of this is found in the admirable detailed statements on this point in the " Re- public " of Plato, and in the last book of the " Politics " of Aristotle. Among' modern nations, also, music holds a high place, and makes its appearance as a constant element of education. Piano-playing has become general, and singing is also taught. But the ethical sig- nificance of music is too little considered. Instruction in music often aims only to train pupils for display in society, and the tendency of the melodies which are played is restricted more and more to orches- tral airs of an exciting or bacchanalian character. The railroad- gallop style only makes the nerves of youth vibrate with stimulating excitement. Oral speech, the highest form of the personal mani- festation of mind, was also treated with great reverence by the an- cients. Among us, communication is so generally carried on by writing and reading that the art of speaking distinctly, correctly, and agreeably, has become very much neglected. Practice in decla- mation accomplishes, on the whole, very little in this direction. But we may expect that the increase of public speaking occasioned by our political and religious assemblies may have a favorable influence in this particular. [Training of the ear by music and by correct speaking. Tones are of all kinds solemn, joyous, lively, sad, contemplative, dis- cordant and suggestive of hate and bitterness, harmonious and sweet and suggestive of love and agreement, etc. There is a long scale of degrees to each one of these feelings and passions, and music can present all shades of each. Even the keys have each a special character. The German composers have used these and other properties of tones to advantage in constructing great musical dramas, in which pure music accomplishes results similar to words in poetry.] 82 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER VI. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (a) Psychology (continued) (2) The Imaginative Epoch. 91. THE activity of perception results in the for- mation of an internal picture or image which intelli- gence can call up at any time at pleasure, and imagine it as occupying an ideal space, although the object is absent, in fact, and thus this image or picture becomes a sort of general schema (or pattern applicable to a class of objects), and hence an image-concept. The mental image may (1) be compared with the perception from which it sprang, or (2) it may be arbitrarily altered and combined with other images, or (3) it may be held fast in the form of abstract signs or symbols which intelli- gence invents for it. Thus originate the functions (1) of the verification of conceptions, (2) of creative imagi- nation, and (3) of memory. For their full treatment, we must refer to psychology. [(1) Verification of conceptions through comparison of the conception with the perception ; (2) creative imagination, which modifies or combines images; (3) memory, which holds fast perceptions by attaching them to arbitrary or conventional symbols, such as words.] 92. (1) The mental image which we form of an object may be correct ; again, it may be partly or wholly defective, if we have neglected some of the predicates of the perception which presented themselves, or in so far as we have added to it other predicates which only seemingly belonged to it, and which were attached to it INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 83 only by its accidental connection with other existences. Education must, therefore, foster the habit of comparing our conceptions with the perceptions from which they arose ; and these perceptions, since they are liable to change by reason of their connection with other objects, must be frequently compared with our conceptions pre- viously derived by abstraction from them. [Method of verification and its function.] 93. (2) We are thus limited in our conceptions by our perceptions, but we exercise a free control over our conceptions. We can create out of them, as simple ele- ments, the manifold mental shapes which we do not treat as given to us by objects, but as essentially our own work. In the science of education, we must not look upon this freedom as if its exercise were only to afford gratification, but we must see in it the reaction of the absolute independence of mind against the dependence in which the empirical reception of impressions from without and their reproduction in conceptions place it. In this process, it not only fashions in itself or repro- duces the phenomenal world, but it produces for itself a world which is all its own. [Emancipation of the mind takes place through its ascent into formative power, and this is realized in two ways : (a) in reaching the general types of objects, the mind finds the one form that stands for many, and gains ability to see the one in the many, the power to hold the essential and permanent with- out depending on any one particular object or specimen or act of sense-perception ; (b) in reproducing, by aid of the general con- ception or abstract definition, a number of special examples, it is able to fashion them in various ways, and yet endow them all with possible attributes and characteristics. The mind thus has free scope of realization, and can, in an ideal world of its owu creation, participate in creative activity.] 8 84: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. 94. The study of art comes here to the aid of educa- tion, especially of poetry, the highest art and at the same time the most easily communicated. The imagination of the pupil can be led by means of the classical works of creative imagination to the formation of a good taste both as regards ethical merit and beauty of form. The proper classical works for youth are those which nations have produced in the childhood of their culture. These works bring children face to face with the picture of the world which the human mind has sketched for itself in one of the necessary stages of its development. This is the real reason why our children never weary of reading Homer and the stories of the Old Testament. Polytheism and the heroism (as well as hero-worship) which belongs to it are just as substantial an element of the view of the world that childhood forms as monothe- ism with its prophets and patriarchs. The standpoint of modern civilization is above both of these, because it is mediated by both, and embraces both in itself. The best literature designed for the amusement of children from their seventh to their fourteenth year consists always of that which is honored by nations and the world at large. One has only to notice in how many thousand forms the story of Ulysses is repro- duced by the writers of children's tales. Becker's " Ancient Stories," Gustav Schwab's most admirable " Sagas of Antiquity," Karl Grimm's " Tales of Olden Times," etc., what were they without the well-talk- ing, wily favorite of Pallas and the divine swine-herd I And just as indestructible are the stories of the Old Testament up to the separa- tion of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their wives and daughters, these judges and prophets, these kings and priests, are by no means ideals of virtue from the standpoint of our modern lifeless morality, which would smooth out of its pattern-stories for the " dear children " everything that is hard and uncouth. For the very reason that the shadow-side is not wanting here, and that we find envy, vanity, evil desire, ingratitude, craftiness, and deceit, among these INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 85 hithers of the race and leaders of God's chosen people, have these stories so great an educational value. Adam, Cain, Abraham, Joseph, Samson, and David, have justly become as truly world-historical types as Achilles and Patroclus, Agamemnon and Iphigenia Hector and Andromache, Ulysses and Penelope. [In the epoch of the development of the imagination the study of art and literature comes in. The first classics for youth are those which have been developed by nations in their earliest stages. Not only the light sides, but the darker sides of char- acter in these naive stories, are essential to their educative effect. They furnish types of human character, and types of human situations, a knowledge of which constitutes wisdom. The conception of the characters of Cain, Joseph, Samson, David, Saul, Ulysses, Penelope, Achilles, and the like, furnishes a ready classification for special instances of character that we encounter in our experience.] 95. There may be produced, also, out of the sim- plest and ndivest phases of different epochs of culture of one and the same people, stories which answer to the imagination of children, and represent to them the char- acteristic features of the past of their people. The Germans possess such a collection of their stories in their popular books of the " Invulnerable Sigfried," of the ' Heymon Chil- dren," of "Beautiful Magelone," " Fortunatus," "The Wandering Jew," " Faust," " The Adventurous Simplicissimus," " The Schild- biirger," " The Island of Felsenburg," " Leonard and Gertrude," etc. Also, the poetical art works of the great masters which possess na- tional significance must be mentioned here, as the " Don Quixote " of Cervantes. [Every child should read as indispensable the stock of stories which furnish these general types of character and situation. " Robinson Crusoe," " Gulliver's Travels," " Don Quixote," the "Arabian Nights," Plutarch's "Lives," Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey," and the dramas of Shakespeare, should be read sooner or later. Earlier than these, the old English stories and fairy-tales, and even " Mother Goose's Melodies." A scale thus extending from the earth to the fixed stars of genius furnishes pictures of human life of all degrees of concreteness. 86 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. The meager and abstract outline is given in the nursery-tale, and the deep, comprehensive grasp of the situation with all of its motives is found in Shakespeare. The summation of the events of life in " Solomon Grundy " has been compared to the epitome furnished by Shakespeare in the " Seven Ages," and the disastrous voyage of the " Three Men of Gotham " is made a universal type of human disaster arising from rash adventure. The bald incident related in the nursery rhyme gives the child a typical fact or event which answers for a general concept and enables him to " re-enforce " (see commentary to 84) his sense- perception, so that he acquires conscious experience far more rapidly than he could do without its aid.] 96. The commonest form in which the childish imagination finds exercise is that of fairy-tales ; but edu- cation must take care that it has these in their proper shape as national productions, and that they are not of the morbid kind which artificial poetry so often gives us in this species of literature, and which not seldom degenerate into sentimental caricatures and silliness. The East Indian stories are most excellent because they have their origin with a child-like people who live wholly in the imagina- tion. By means of the Arabian nitration, which took place in Cairo in the flourishing period of the Egyptian caliphs, all that was too characteristically Indian was excluded, and they were made in the " Tales of Sheherazade," a book for all peoples, with whose far-reach- ing power in child-literature the local stories of a single people, as, e. g., Grimm's admirable ones of German tradition, can not compare. Fairy-tales made to order, like those with a medijeval Catholic tend- ency, or very moral and dry, as we often see them, are a bane to the youthful imagination in their insipid sweetness. We must here add, however, that lately we have had some better success in our attempts since we have learned to distinguish between the naive natural poetry, which is without reflection, and the poetry of art, which is more or less molded by criticism and a conscious ideal. This distinction has produced good fruits even in the picture-books of children. The pretensions of the gentlemen who printed illustrated books contain- ing nothing more solid than the alphabet and the multiplication- table have become less prominent since such men as Speckter, Froh- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 87 rich, Gutsmuths, Hofmann (the writer of "Slovenly Peter"), and others have shown that seemingly trivial things can be handled with intellectual power, if one is blessed with it, and that nothing is more opposed to the child's imagination than the childishness into which so many writers for children have fallen when they attempted to de- scend with dignity from their assumed lofty standpoint. (Men are beginning to understand that Christ promised the kingdom of heaven to little children on other grounds than because they had, as it were, the privilege of being thoughtless and foolish^J [Importance of avoiding morbid tendencies in the stories for children. They must be naive and not sentimental ; but mere childishness is to be avoided.] 97. For youth and maidens, especially as they ap- proach manhood and womanhood, the cultivation of the imagination must yield place and allow the earnestness which deals with the actual affairs of the world to mani- fest itself in its undisguised energy. This earnestness, no longer through the symbolism of play but in its ob- jective reality, must now thoroughly penetrate the con- ceptions of the youth so that it shall prepare him to seize hold of the machinery of active life. Instead of the all-embracing Epos, now comes Tragedy, whose purifying process, through the feelings of fear and pity, unfolds to the youth the secret of all human destiny sin, and its expiation. The works best adapted to lead to an interest in history and the affairs of the actual world are those of biography of ancient times, Plutarch ; of modern times, the autobiographies of Augustine, Cellini, Rousseau, Goethe, Varnhagen, Jung - Stilling, Moritz Arndt, etc. These autobiographies contain a view of the growth of individuality through its interaction with the influences of its time, and, together with the letters and memoirs of great or at least noteworthy men, tend to produce a healthy excitement in the youth, who must 88 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. learn to fight his own battles through a knowledge of the battles of others. To introduce the youth to a knowledge of nature and man no means are better than books of travels which describe for us the charm of the first interview, the joy of discovery, instead of the gen- eral consciousness of the conquests of mind. If educative literature on the one hand broadens the field of knowledge, on the other it may also promote its elaboration into ideal forms. This happens, in a strict sense, through philosophical literature. But only two species of this are to be recommended to youth : (1) well-written treatises which endeavor to solve a single problem with spirit and thoroughness ; or, (2) when the intelligence has grown strong enough for it, the classical works of a true philoso- pher. German literature is fortunately very rich in treatises of this kind in the works of Lessing, Herder, Kant, Fichte, Schleiermacher, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Schiller. But nothing does more harm to youth than the study of works of mediocrity, or those of a still lower rank. They stupefy and narrow the youthful mind by their empty, hollow, and constrained style. It is generally supposed that these standard works are too difficult, and that one must first seize them In a trivial and diluted form in order to understand them. This is one of the most prevalent and most dangerous errors, for these " introductions " or " explanations," " easily comprehended treatises," " summary abstracts," are, because of their want of originality and of the acuteness which belongs to it, much more difficult to under- stand than the standard work Itself, to which they propose to con- duct us. Education must train the youth to the courage which will attempt classical works in philosophy, and it must not allow any such miserable preconceived opinions to grow up in his mind as that his understanding is totally unable to comprehend works like Fichte's " Science of Knowledge," the " Metaphysics " of Aristotle, or Hegel's " Phenomenology." No science suffers so much as philosophy from this false popular opinion, which understands neither itself nor its authority. The youth must learn how to learn to understand, and, in order to do this, he must know that one can not immediately un- derstand everything in its minutest subdivisions, and that on this ac- count he must have patience, and must resolve to read over and over again and to think over what he has read. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 89 [Earnestness must predominate over play, as the child ad- 1 Tances into youth and youth into riper age. Aristotle said that tragedy purifies the mind, by fear and pity, from the passions depicted in the drama as having tragic results. Certainly in the ; dramas of Sophocles and _arth. 98 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. Much change and adaptation will be made by the teacher in order to make the subject entertaining to his pupil and easy of access, but the logical order of dependence of one topic on an- other within arithmetic, geometry, natural history, grammar, etc., can not be changed ; he must take it as it is, for that is its intelligible order and must be followed. The words of the classic author must be translated as they stand, and not from the end backward, if we would find sense in them.] 105. (2) But the subject must be adapted to the consciousness of the pupil, and here the order of pro- cedure and the exposition depend upon the stage which he has reached intellectually, for the special manner of the instruction must be conditioned by this. If he is in the stage of sense-perception, we must use the illustra- tive method ; if in the stage of image-conception, that of combination ; and if in the stage of thinking, that of demonstration. The first exhibits the object directly, or some representation of it; the second considers it according to the different possibilities which exist in it, and turns it around on all sides (and examines its rela- tions to other things) ; the third demonstrates the ne- cessity of the relations in which it stands either with it- self or with others. This is the natural order from the standpoint of the developing intelligence : first, the ob- ject is presented to the perception ; then combination with other things shows its relations and presents its different phases ; and, finally, the thinking activity cir- cumscribes the restlessly moving reflection by the idea of necessity. Experiment in the method of combina- tion is an excellent means for a discovery of relations, for a sharpening of the attention, for the arousing of a many-sided interest ; but it is no true dialectic, though it be often denoted by that name. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 99 Illustration is especially necessary in the natural sciences and also in aesthetics, because both of these departments appeal to sense- perception. [Omission here of reference to editions of atlases and wall-maps.] [With regard to the second point mentioned above the con- sciousness of the pupil or his grade of advancement, this too must be considered, as well as the logical order of the develop- ment of the subject. Inasmuch as instruction is a leading of the ignorant into knowledge by translating the unknown into the known, there are two factors involved: (a) the unknown subject; (b) the stock of knowledge already possessed by the pupil. The knowledge already possessed is the means by which the unknown can be grasped and retained. All learning is a translating of an unknown into a known, just as the learning of a foreign language proceeds by translating the unfamiliar words into familiar words and thereby changing the strange into the familiar. This being so, unless constant reference is nad by the teacher to the stock of familiar ideas belonging to the pupil, there is imminent danger to instruction ; it may pass off into the process of exchanging unknown words for unknown words a movement entirely within the realm of the unfamiliar. Such a process is not instruction, whatever else it may be. Thus the method of instruction must be largely determined by the consciousness (what he knows) or stage of advancement of the pupil. If the pupil is young and has few ideas of abstract depth, but mostly ideas of objects perceived by the senses, then the method must be one of illustration. It must translate the subject into particular objects of sense-perception so far as this is possible. If such a process is not possible with a given branch of instruction, then that branch must not be taken up now ; its logical presupposition requires it to be preceded by other studies. If the pupil has reached the stage of thinking by means of mental images or pictures of the mind (Vorstellungen), then the method may be less illustrative and may combine objects and symbolize to some extent (as in fairy-stories, or as hi any stories when the objects used are types of whole classes of objects); or, in the stage of reflection there may be demonstration or the showing up of logical necessity, or the relations of cause and effect, or of power and manifestation, or of fact and logical pre- 9 100 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. supposition, or any logical relation the object may have to other objects or to the whole environment in which it is found. These three stages make up the range of the " consciousness " of the pupil he may be in the (a) first stage, and mere percep- tion or beholding of external objects be his chief mental ac- tivity, or (b) he may be active in representing objects, that is to say, active in his fancy, imagination, or recollections ; or (c) ac- tive in discovering relations between objects, and hence active in the application of such abstract conceptions as identity and difference, likeness and unlikeness, force and manifestation, whole and parts, cause and effect, thing and properties, etc. " Combination," spoken of in the text, means the considera- tion of the various phases and properties of the subject under different relations. It is necessary to multiply the examples and see the object tinder new combinations in order to discover all of the possibilities in it. The individual oak-tree before us is only one of infinite possible examples of the oak, and, as each actual oak differs from every other in some respect, we learn some new possibility with each new specimen. Thus we add or combine by experience the possibilities which together make up the nature or entire being of an object. Water is easily discovered to have three states liquid, solid (as ice), and aeriform (as steam). It is only one of these states at a time, and all only in succession. Hence the necessity of " combination " or of discovery of different relations or of the behavior of the ob- ject under different " combinations " or environments, in order to learn its totality of possible being. The idea of necessity ar- rives when one has reached a totality of " combination." This may be reached only relatively in the realm of experience ; we may treat the total of states actually discovered thus far as the absolute totality this we do as a fact in practical experience, e. g., we do not hesitate to treat water as though it had only three possible states, liquid, solid, and gaseous. But the true absolute necessity comes only from the logical side of presupposition. Every fact has a presupposition which is the logical condition of its existence. This oak-tree presupposes space and time, and could not exist without them. All the properties that follow from the nature of space and time may be named as logical con- ditions absolutely necessary to the existence of the oak-tree. "Experiment in the method of combination is an excellent INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 101 means for the discovery of relations," but " it is no true dialec- tic," or, in other words, it does not discover the inward necessity which appertains only to the logical presupposition, because the dialectical method does not make combinations or experiments at hap-hazard, but by careful analysis and observation of the object discovers in what manner its essential properties demand or presuppose other objects. Given one object, it unfolds the system to which it belongs. The dialectic proceeds from the part to the whole, following the thread of dependence which may be discovered in any object. In {esthetics, or the science of art (architecture, sculpture, painting, and music), illustration is necessary, because presenta- tion to the senses is essential to the nature of art. 106. The demonstrative method, in order to bring about its proof of necessity, has a choice of many differ- ent ways. But we must not imagine, either that there are an unlimited number, and that it is only a chance which one we shall take ; or that they have no connec- tion among themselves, and run, as it were, side by side. It is not, however, the business of pedagogics to develop different methods of proof ; this belongs to logic. We have only to remember that, logically taken, proof must be analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analysis begins with the single individual, and leads out from it by in- duction to the general principle from which its exist- ence results. Synthesis, on the contrary, begins with a general which is presupposed as true, and leads from this through deduction to the special determinations which were implicit in it. The regressive search of analysis for a determining principle is invention ; the forward progress of synthesis from the simple elements seeking for the multiplicity of single individuals is con- struction. The former method has been called the hen- ristic [from the Greek word for to discover, eupdv] ; the LIBRARY UNJVPPQiTV nr /*AI ir 102 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. latter, the architectonic. Each, in its result, passes over into the other ; but their truth is found in the dialectic method, which in each phase allows unity (of principle) to separate into diversity (of particulars), and diversity to return into unity. While in the analytic as well as in the synthetic method the mediation of the individual with the general, or of the general with the individual, brings in the phase of particularity as only subjectively connected with it, in the dialectic method we have the going over of the general through the particular to the individual, or to the self-determination of the idea, and it therefore rightly claims the title of the "genetic" method. We can also say that while the inventive method gives us the idea (notion) and the constructive the judgment, the genetic gives us the syllogism which leads the determinations of reflection back again into substantial identity. [The demonstrative method deals with necessary relations, and uses the forms of demonstration furnished it by logic, namely, analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analytic demonstra- tion, according to Rosenkranz, begins with some object, as a whole, and proceeds to find its derivation or dependence on some- thing else, and thus gradually leads out to the idea of that larger whole in which the object exists as a part (invention). Synthetic demonstration, on the other hand, proceeds from a principle to the particular results that follow from it (construction). " Each of these passes over into the other in its result," i. e., the result of analysis is synthesis, because in our analysis of the object we discovered dependence and derivation, and hence discovered that It was not a true whole or totality, but involved something else hence we found that the compass of its being was greater than we had at first supposed we have added to it, and our analysis proves to have been synthesis rather. So, too, synthesis or construction is really an analysis of the constituent elements of the principle. By deducing (analyzing) what is given us in the principle, we discover the results or spe- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 103 cial characteristics that the principle produces ; hence we rise to the idea of the total, which includes both the principle and its results, and the demonstration involves both analysis and syn- thesis. The one-sided methods of analysis and synthesis are therefore always united in fact, although they seem to be separate when we consider them abstractly ; we find them to be dialectic methods, therefore, if we look upon both of the phases of their activity. In the former (analytic), diversity returns to unity the sub- ordinate unities are traced back to their higher unity, or in the latter (synthesis) unity separates into diversity ; the higher unity gives rise to lower unities. In the analytic method there is a " mediation of the individual " object with the general object, i. e., a tracing of the relations of the individual to other individ- uals with which it forms a totality or higher unity. In the syn- thetic method there is a " mediation of the general or total with the particular object," because we see how a force, power, energy, or principle develops particular forms. In both of these, when considered superficially or inadequately and one-sidedly, there is only a subjective connection stated between the particulars and the general " subjective connection " meaning a connection only in our minds, and not an essential connection which woiild be one existing in the object as a real dependence upon other objects. In the dialectic method, or in the method which sees both synthesis and analysis in each step, we see in every phase the principle of self-activity, because we see that the subordinate objects arise through the energy of the totality, and the energy of the totality produces the subordinate phases and unities. All totalities must be self-determined or self-active, because they can not be at the same time totalities and depend on anything be- yond them for their movement or form. This self-active totality is called by the Hegelian philosophy (from which Rosenkranz borrows it) "the self-determination of the notion (Begriff) or idea," because in that philosophy the technical term for self- activity is Begriff (idea or notion). Inasmuch as it shows self- activity as the principle that connects the general with the par- ticular, and hence explains all things through evolution, it " rightly claims the title of genetic (or development) method." " The inventive or analytic method gives us the idea or notion " {Begriff). because it proceeds beyond the particular object to its 104 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. genesis in a higher vinity whose energy or self-activity has pro- duced it; it has therefore explained the object through self- activity (Begriff). " The constructive method (synthetic) gives the judgment (Urtheil)" In Hegelian technique, the distinction arising through self-activity (distinction into active and passive or actor and acted upon) in the notion (Begriff) is called judgment ( Ur- theil). The analytic method leads us back to self-activity (Begriff, notion). The synthetic method leads us to distinction of uni- versal and individual (Urtheil, judgment). The genetic method leads us to syllogism (Schluss). In the same system of philoso- phy, Schluss, or syllogism, is the technical term for the unity of all the phases of self -activity, and includes the universal or self- active, and the particular (or distinguished phases of active and passive that form an antithesis), and it is the unity of these two, or that which is self-identical and self-distinct in one act (just as mind or consciousness is subject and object of itself).] 107. (3) The living mediation of the pupil with the content which is to be impressed upon his conscious- ness is the work of the teacher, whose personality cre- ates an individual or peculiar method ; for, however clearly the subject may be defined, however exactly the psychological stage of the pupil may be regulated, the teacher can not do away with his own individuality even in the most objective relations. This individuality must penetrate the whole with its own exposition, and that peculiarity which we call his manner, and which can not be determined a priori, must appear. The teacher must place himself on the standpoint of the pu- pil, i. e., he must adapt himself ; he must see that the abstract is made clear to him in the concrete, i. e., he must illustrate ; he must fill up the gaps which will cer- tainly appear, and which may mar the thorough seizing of the subject, i. e., he must supply. In all these rela- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 105 tions the pedagogical tact of the teacher may prove it- self truly ingenious in varying the method according to the changefulness of the ever-varying needs, in contract- ing or expanding the extent, in omitting or accumulat- ing examples, in stating, or only indicating, what is to be supplied. The true teacher is free from any super- stitious belief in any one procedure as a sure specific which he follows always in a monotonous bondage. This freedom can only be enjoyed by him who is capa- ble of the highest method. The teacher has arrived at the highest point of ability in teaching when he can make use of all means, from the loftiness of solemn seriousness, through smooth statement, to the play of jest yes, even to the incentive of irony, and to humor. Education can be in nothing more ostentatious than in its method, and it is here that charlatanism can most readily intrude itself. Every little change, every pitiful modification, is proclaimed aloud as a new or an improved method ; and even the most foolish and superficial changes find at once their imitators, who themselves conceal their effrontery behind some trifling differences, and, with ridiculous conceit, hail themselves as inventors. [" The living mediation of the pupil," etc. " Mediation " here refers to the adjustment and adaptation of the subjects taught to the pupil, so as to suit his intellectual and moral capacity and meet his special difficulties. The teacher adopts his own method within limits. He finds that his capacity and peculiarities make it most convenient to lead the pupil to his task in this way rather than in that way. But all teachers must (a) keep in view the standpoint of the pupil, (b) use illustration, (c) supply neces- sary steps to make the connection clear to the pupil. The live teacher is careful to avoid being hampered by the limits of any one method, although he finds use for all on occasions.] 106 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER IX. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION (c) Instruction. 108. ALL instruction starts from the inequality be- tween those who possess knowledge and ability and those who have not yet obtained them. The former are qualified to teach, the latter to learn. Instruction is the act which gradually cancels the original inequality of teacher and pupil, in that it converts what was at first the property of the former into the property of the lat- ter by means of his own activity. [Instruction presupposes two parties, one possessing knowledge and ability, and the other lacking them.] (1) The Subjects of Instruction. 109. The pupil is the apprentice, the teacher the master, whether in the practice of any craft or art, or in the exposition of any systematic knowledge. The pupil passes from the state of the apprentice to that of the master through that of the journeyman. The appren- tice has to appropriate to himself the elements; jour- neyman&hip begins, by means of their possession, to be- come independent ; the master combines with his tech- nical skill the freedom of production. His authority over his pupil consists only in his knowledge and ability. If he has not these, no external support, no trick of false appearances which he may put on, will serve to create it for him. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 107 [Distinction of three stages : (a) apprenticeship, (b) journey- manship, (c) mastership after the old distinction of degrees of perfection in the trades.] 110. These stages (1) apprenticeship, (2) journey- manship, (3) mastership are fixed limitations in the di- dactic process; but they are relative in the concrete. The standard of special excellence varies with the dif- ferent grades of culture, and must be varied that it may have validity for each period of time. The master is complete only in relation to the journeyman and ap- prentice; to them he is superior. But, on the other hand, in relation to the infinity of the problems of his art or science, he is by no means complete ; to himself he must appear as one who begins ever anew, one who is ever striving, one to whom a new problem ever rises from every achieved result. lie can not discharge him- self from work, he must never desire to rest on his laurels. He is the truest master whose finished per- formances only force him on to never-resting progress. [The standard of mastership varies with the demands of the age or nation. In judging a particular example, we must always take the standard into consideration. The true master always regards himself an apprentice before the new problems that step forth out of the solution of the old ones.] 111. The possibility of culture is found in general, it is true, in every human being ; nevertheless, as a prac- tical matter, there are distinguished : (1) incapacity, as the want of all gifts; (2) mediocrity; (3) talent and genius. It is the part of psychology to give an account of all these. Mediocrity characterizes the great mass of intelligences that are merely mechanical, and that wait for external impulse as to what direction their en- deavors shall take. Not without truth, perhaps, may 108 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. we hypothetically presuppose a special talent in each individual, but this special talent in many men never makes its appearance, because under the circumstances in which it finds itself placed it fails to find the exciting occasion which shall give them the knowledge of its ex- istence. The majority of mankind are contented with the mechanical impulse which makes them into some- thing, and impresses upon them certain characteristics. Talent shows itself by means of the confidence in its own especial productive possibility, which manifests it- self as an inclination, or as a strong impulse, to occupy itself with the special object which constitutes the ob- ject of its ability. Education has no difficulty in dealing with mechanical natures, because their passivity is only too ready to follow prescribed patterns. It is more dif- ficult to manage talent, because it lies between medioc- rity and genius, and is therefore uncertain, and not only unequal to itself, but also is tossed now too low, now too high, is by turns despondent and over-excited. The general maxim for dealing with it is to spare it no diffi- culty that lies in the subject to which its efforts are di- rected. Genius must be treated much in the same way as talent. The difference consists only in this, that genius, with a premonition of its creative power, usually manifests its decision with less doubt for a special prov- ince of activity, and, with a more intense thirst for cult- ure, subjects itself more willingly to the demands of instruction. Genius is in its nature the purest self-de- termination, in that it feels, in its own inner existence, the necessity which exists in the object to which it de- votes itself ; it lives, as it were, in its object. But it can create no valid place for the new idea, which is in it INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 109 already immediately and subjectively, if it has not united itself to the already existing culture as its objective pre- supposition ; on this ground it thankfully receives in- struction. [Abstractly speaking, each human being has the possibility in him of every talent that has appeared or will appear in the human race. But, practically, there is immense difference in the facility with which individuals can realize this possibility. Hence we have the scale : (1) incapacity (pure dunce) ; (2) medi- ocrity (mechanical intelligence, who can do the average task as others do) ; (3) the talent and genius who have great self -activity. The talent has an inclination to his vocation, but is not perfectly clear as to all of the means that lead to it ; does not value indus- try as much as he ought, or despises the methods discovered be- fore him. The genius is clear as to methods sees all that has been as tools and materials out of which to build his ideals and therefore works with a passion.] 112. But talent and genius offer a special difficulty to education in the precocity which often accompanies them. But by precocity we do not mean that they early render themselves perceptible, since the early manifestation of gifts by talent and genius, through their intensity of decision and self-confidence, is to be looked at as perfectly legitimate. But precocity is rather the hastening forward of the human being in feeling and moral sense, so that, where in the ordinary course of nature we should have a child, we have a youth, and a man in the place of a youth. We may therefore find precocity among those who belong to the class of mediocrity, but it is developed most readily among those possessed of talent and genius, because with them the early appearance of superior gifts may very easily bring in its train a derangement of the feel- ings and the moral nature. Education must deal with ]10 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. it in so far as it is inharmonious, and reminds us of the pourri avant d'etre muri, and see to it strictly that the demands made on it from without shall not minister to vanity ; and must take care, in order to accomplish this, that social naturalness and lack of affectation be preserved in the pupil. Our age has to combat this precocity much more than others. We find, e. g., authors, who, at the age of thirty years, in which they publish their collected works or write their biography, are chilly with the feelings of old age. . . . Music has been the sphere in which the earliest development of talent has shown itself, and here we find the absurdity that the cupidity of parents has so forced early talents that children of four or five years of age have been made to appear in public. [Precocity defined : not intense self-confidence, but the omis- sion of some natural stage of development. Education must take care that its vanity is not encouraged, and do all in its power to prevent affectation and self-consciousness, which de- stroy the proper relation of the pupil to his fellows.] 113. Every sphere of culture contains a certain quantity of knowledge and ready skill which may be looked at, as it were, as the created result of the cult- ure. It is desirable that every one who turns his atten- tion to a certain line of culture should take up into him- self the traditional learning which controls it. In so far as he does this, he is professionally educated. The con- sciousness that one has in the usual way gone through a school of art or science, and has been made familiar with the general inheritance of the acquisitions of a special department, creates externally a salutary composure which is very favorable to internal progress. We must distinguish from the professionally educated the dilettant and the self-taught man. The dilettant or amateur busies himself with an art, a science, or a trade, from free incli- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. HI nation, -without having gone through any strict training in it. As a rule, he dispenses with elementary thorough- ness, and hastens toward the enjoyment which produc- tion gives. The conscious amateur confesses this him- self, makes no pretension to mastership, and calls him- self in distinction from the professional, who subjects himself to rules a tyro. But the self-deluded dilet- tant, on the contrary, conceals his weakness, cherishes in himself the self-conceit that he is equal to the heroes of his art or science, constitutes himself the first admirer of his own performances, explains their want of suc- cess by accidental circumstances, never by their own want of excellence ; and, if he has money, or edits a paper, is intoxicated with being the patron of talent which produces such works as he would willingly pro- duce or pretends to produce. The self-taught man has often true talent, or even genius, to whose develop- ment nevertheless the inherited culture has been denied, and who by good fortune has through his own strength worked his way into a field of effort. The self-taught man is distinguished from the amateur by the thorough- ness and the industry with which he acts : he is not only equally unfortunate with him in the absence of school-training, but is much less assisted by advice of the competent. Even if the self-taught man has for years studied and practiced much, he is still haunted by a feeling of uncertainty as to whether he has yet reached the standpoint at which a science, an art, or a trade, will receive him publicly. It is of very great conse- quence that man should be comprehended and recog- nized by man. The self-taught man, therefore, remains embarrassed, and does not free himself from the appre- 112 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. hension that he may expose some weak point to a pro- fessional, or he falls into the other extreme he be- comes presumptuous, steps forth as a reformer, and, if he accomplishes nothing, or earns only ridicule, he sets himself down as a martyr unrecognized by an unap- preciative and unjust world. It is possible that the dilettant may get beyond the stage of su- perficiality and subject himself to a thorough training ; then he ceases to be a dilettant. It is also possible that the self-taught man may be on the right track, and may accomplish as much as, or even more than, one trained in the usual way. In general, however, it is very desir- able that every one should go through the regular course of the in- herited means of education, partly that he may be thorough in the elements, partly. to free him from the anxiety which he may feel lest he in his solitary efforts spend labor on some superfluous work su- perfluous because done long before, and of which he, through the ac- cident of his want of culture, had not heard. We must all learn by ourselves, but we can not teach ourselves. Only genius can do this, for it must be *ts own leader in the new paths which it opens. Gen- ius alone passes beyond where inherited culture ceases. It bears this in itself as of the past, and uses it as material for its new crea- tion ; but the self-taught man, who may possibly be a genius, wastes his time in doing things already accomplished, or sinks into eccen- tricity, into secret arts and sciences, etc. [The professionally educated, the dilettant or amateur, and the self-taught, (a) The professionally educated masters thor- oughly what the experience of the race has transmitted to his own specialty, and hence increases his own stature by standing on the shoulders of the human race, (b) The dilettant wishes to eat of the kernel without breaking the shell, and is a sort of futile individual who amuses himself by producing what is good for nothing when produced, (c) The self-taught man works with great industry and thoroughness, but has not access to the best means, i. e., the traditional culture of the race as taught in the schools. He works under embarrassment, haunted with the feeling that the professionally educated see defects in his train- ing, or, throwing off his embarrassment, he plays the role of " reformer," and becomes imbittered against the world.] INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 113 114. These ideas of the general steps of culture, of special gifts, and of the ways of culture appropriate to each, which we have set forth above, have a manifold connection with each other which can not be established a priori. We can, however, remark that apprenticeship, the mechanical intelligence and the professional educa- tion ; secondly, journeymanship, talent, and dilettante- ism ; and, finally, mastership, genius, and self education, have a relationship to each other. [Correspondence (a) between apprenticeship, mechanical intel- ligence, and professional education ; also (b) between journey- manship, talent, and dilettanteism ; (c) between mastership, genius, and self-education.] CHAPTER X. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (c) Instruction (continued). (2) The Act of Learning. 115. IN the process of instruction the interaction between pupil and teacher must be so managed that the exposition by the teacher shall excite in the pupil the im- pulse to reproduction. The teacher must not treat his exposition as if it were a work of art which is its own end and aim, but he must always bear in mind the need of the pupil. The artistic exposition, as such, will, by its completeness, produce admiration ; but the didactic, on the contrary, will, through its perfect adaptation, call out the imitative instinct, the power of new creation. From this consideration we may justify the frequent statement that is made, that teachers who have an elegant diction do not really 114: THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. accomplish so much as others who resemble in their statements less a canal flowing smoothly between straight banks than a river which works its foaming way over rocks and between ever-shifting banks. The pupil perceives that the first is considering himself when he speaks so finely, perhaps not without some coquettish self-compla- cency; and that the second, in the repetitions and the sentences which are never finished, is concerning himself solely with him. The pxipil feels that not want of facility or awkwardness, but the holy zeal of the teacher, is the principal thing, and that this latter uses rhetoric only as a means. [The teacher should expound the subject in such a way as to arouse in the pupil an impulse to reproduce it. It differs in this respect from a work of art, which seeks only complete pres- entation and the appearance, of self-existence. The pupil sees in the elegant diction of one teacher a studied attempt to win ad- miration for himself, while in the inelegant repetitions and un- finished sentences of another teacher he feels the genuine and exclusive interest manifested in his own progress.] 116. In the act of learning there appears (a) a me- chanical element, (5) a dynamic element, and (c?) one in which the dynamic again mechanically strengthens it- self. [The process of learning involves (a) a mechanical element; (b) a dynamic element ; (c) a dynamic element re-enforced by the mechanical element (i. e., dynamic attention re-enforced by mechanic regularity, punctuality, and system, so as to constitute industry).] 117. (a) The mechanical element consists in this, that the right time be chosen for each lesson, an exact arrangement observed, and the suitable apparatus, which is necessary, procured. It is in the arrangement that especially consists the educational power of the lesson. The spirit of scrupulousness, of accuracy, of neatness, is developed by the external technique, which, however, should be subordinated to the interests of the subject studied. The teacher must, therefore, insist upon it INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 115 that work shall cease at the exact time, that the work be well done, etc., for on these little things many greater things, in an ethical sense, depend. To choose one's time for any work is often difficult because of the pressure of a multitude of demands, but in general it should be determined that the work requiring the strongest and keenest energy of the thinking activity and of memory should have appropriated to it the first half of the day. [The mechanical element consists in (1) right time (punctu- ality) ; (2) exact arrangement (regularity) ; (3) neatness and ac- curacy (system). These constitute the mechanical morals of the school-room, and furnish a sort of training in self-control and obedience to rule that forms the basis of all more spiritual mo- rality. Attention to these punctilios often seems a waste of ener- gy ; but it tells on the moral character as nothing else does, and makes his future life far more successf id. The importance of choosing the morning hours for studies requiring hardest think- ing or greatest strain on the memory.] 118. (b) The dynamical element (i. e., the self-ac- tivity of the pupil) consists of the previously developed power of attention, without which all the exposition made by the teacher to the pupil remains entirely for- eign to him. All apparatus is dead, all arrangement of no avail, all teaching fruitless, if the pupil does not by his free self-activity receive into his inner self what one teaches him, and thus make it his own property. [The dynamical element is the activity of the pupil's will directed on the intellect ; its general form being attention (see 82, 83). It is the door that opens the mind of the pupil the mechanical element relates to externals, the dynamical to the internal, the self-activity of the pupil.] 119. This appropriation must not limit itself, how- ever, to the first acquisition of any knowledge or skill, but it must give perfect command over whatever the pupil has learned ; it must make it perfectly familiar 116 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. and natural, so that it shall appear to be a part of him- self. This must be brought about by means of repe- tition. This will mechanically secure that which the attention first grasped. [Besides attention, there must be repetition frequent reviews in order to transmute the new knowledge and skill into per- manent possession ("into faculty" as Herbert Spencer says). Repetition corresponds to habit in will-training, and is itself mechanical hence with it the dynamical is re-enforced by the mechanical, and the best name for the union of the two is industry.'] 120. (c) The careful, persistent, living activity of the pupil in these acts we call industry. Its negative opposite is laziness, which is deserving of punishment inasmuch as it proceeds from a want of self-determina- tion. ( Man is by nature lazy. ; But mind, which is only what it does, must resolve upon activity. This connec- tion of industry with human freedom, with the very essence of mind, makes laziness appear blameworthy. The really civilized man, therefore, no longer knows that absolute inaction which is the greatest enjoyment to the barbarian, and he fills up his leisure with a variety of easier and lighter work. The positive opposite of industry is the unreasonable activity which rushes in breathless chase from one action to another, from this to that, over-tasking the person with the immense quan- tity of his work. Such an activity, seldom directed with proper deliberation, is unworthy of a man. It de- stroys the serenity and repose which in all industry should penetrate and inspire the deed. Nothing is more repulsive than the beggarly pride of such stupid labo- riousness. One should not permit for a moment the pupil, seeking for distinction, to begin to pride himself INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 117 on an extra industry. Education must accustom him to use a regular diligence. The frame of mind suitable for work often does not exist at the time when work should begin, but more frequently it makes its appearance after we have begun. The subject takes its own time to awaken us. Industry, inspired by a love and regard for work, has in its quiet uniformity a great force, without which no one can accomplish anything essential. The world, therefore, holds industry worthy of honor ; and to the Romans, a nation of the most enduring persever- ance, we owe the inspiring words, " Incepto tantum opus est, ccetera res expediet" ; and, " Labor improbus omnia vincit" Unflinching labor conquers everything. " Every one may glory in his industry ! " This is a true word from the lips of a truly industrious man, who was also one of the most modest. But Lessing did not, however, mean by them to char- ter Pharisaical pedantry. The necessity sometimes of giving one's self to an excess of work injurious to the health generally arises from the fact that he has not at other times made use of the requi- site attention and the necessary industry, and then attempts suddenly and as by a forced march to storm his way to his goal. The result of such over-exertion is naturally entire prostration. The pupil is, therefore, to be accustomed to a generally uniform industry, which may increase from time to time without his thereby overstraining himself. What is really gained by a youth who has hitherto neg- lected time and opportunity, and who, when examination presses, overworks himself, perhaps standing the test with honor, and then must rest for months afterward from the over-effort! On all such occasions attention is not objective and dispassionate, but rather be- comes, through anxiety to pass the examination, restless and cor- rupted by egotism ; and the usual evil result of such compulsory in- dustry is the ephemeral character of the knowledge thus gained. ' Lightly come, lightly go," says the proverb. A special worth is always attached to study far into the night. The student's " midnight oil " always claims for itself a certain ven- eration. But this is a sad vanity. In the first place, it is injurious 118 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. to contradict Nature by working through the night, which she has ordained for sleep ; secondly, the question is not as to the number of hours spent in work and their position in the twenty-four, but as to the quality of the work. With regard to the value of my work, it is of no moment whatsoever whether I have done it in the morning or in the evening, or how long I have labored, and it is of no conse- quence to any one except to my own very unimportant self. Finally, the question presents itself whether these gentlemen who boast so much of their midnight work do not sleep in the daytime ! [Industry denned as the vital, circumspect, persistent activity of the pupil. Its opposite is laziness, which deserves corrective punishment. Man by nature is lazy. Since mind develops into existence only through self -activity, industry is a fundamental virtue because through it alone can spiritual growth take place. Spiritual growth produces freedom, i. e., emancipation from the limitations of time and space, giving man possession of the past and present within himself and in his environment, however distant. The savage loves intervals of absolute inaction; the civilized man hates torpidity, but rests himself by change of work. He supplements his vocation by avocations. Industry has besides its negative opposite a positive opposite which is over-haste and over-exertion.] 121. But industry has also two other opposites seeming-laziness and seeming-industry. Seeming-lazi- ness is the neglecting of the usual activity in one de- partment by the individual because he is so much more active in another. The mind possessed with the liveliest interest in one subject buries itself in it, and, because of this, can not give itself up to another which before had engrossed the attention. Thus it appears more idle than it is, or rather it appears to be idle just because it is more industrious. This is especially the case in passing from one subject of instruction to another. The pupil should acquire such a flexibility in his intellectual pow- ers that the rapid relinquishment of one subject and the taking up of another should not be too difficult. Noth- INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 119 ing is more natural than that when he has become thor- oughly aroused on one subject he should, on going back to the subject that has just been presented to him, feel himself still attracted to the former, and remain indif- ferent to the following lesson, which may relate to an entirely different topic. The young soul is brooding over what has been said, and is really exercising an in- tense activity, though it appears to be idle. But in seeming-industry all the external motions of activity, all the mechanism of work, manifest themselves noisily, while there is no true energy of attention and produc- tivity. One busies himself with all the apparatus of work ; he heaps up instruments and books around him ; he sketches plans ; he spends many hours staring into vacancy, biting his pen, gazing at words, drawings, num- bers, etc. Boys, under the protection of so great a scaf- folding for work erected around them, often carry on their own amusements. Men, who arrive at no real concentration of their force, no clear defining of their vocation, no firm decision as to their action, dissipate their power in what is too often a great activity with absolutely no result. They are busy, very busy; they have hardly time to do this thing because they really wish or ought to do that ; but, with all their driving, their energy is all dissipated, and nothing comes from their countless labors. [Industry is opposed to (I) seeming-laziness, which neglects some things to attend to others which are considered more impor- tant ; all specialization is of this character. (2) It is opposed likewise to seeming-industry, which goes through all the mo- tions of industry in a noisy and ostentatious manner, but is in* ternally idle. Importance of disciplining the mind to turn completely from one subject to another.] 120 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER XI. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, (c) Instruction (continued) (3) The Modality of the Process of Teaching. 122. Now that we have learned something of the relation of the teacher to the taught, and of the process of learning itself, we must examine the mode and man- ner of instruction. This may hare (T) the character of contingency : the way in which our immediate existence in the world, our life, teaches us ; or it may be given (2) by the printed page ; or (3) it may take the shape of formal oral instruction. [The modality that is to say, the mode and manner in which ' the instruction is given, hence its form or method. Instruction (-/) the lessons of experience; (2) by the written or printed page ; (?) oral.] 123. (/) For the most, the best, and the mightiest things that we know we are indebted to life itself. The sum of perceptions which a human being makes for himself up to the fourth or fifth year of his life is incalculable ; and after this time we continue involun- tarily to gain by immediate contact with the world countless ideas. Cut we understand, by the phrase " the school of life," especially the ethical knowledge which we gain by what happens in our own lives. If one may say, Vitce non 'scholce discendum est. one can also say, Vita docet. Without the power exercised by the immediate world our intelligence would remain abstract and lifeless. [Instruction by experience begins with infancy and con- tinues through life. Especially in the first four or five years the sum of perceptions from this source is enormous. What INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 121 ftie child learns of the ways of life, manners, and customs, and moral principles ; proper habits of eating and drinking, care of the person and clothing, forms to be observed toward the various ranks in the family and society ; glimpses of the action of the law of the state, its resistless might, its punishment of crime ; numerous observations on the division of labor and its sustenta- tion by trade and commerce ; the daily and weekly spectacle of the rites and ceremonies of religion : here is the education of life through the four institutions of civilization family, civil community, state, and church. The education that one gets by adopting a trade or form of industry and earning his living, or by acting as a citizen, obeying the laws and assisting at the ballot-box to make them, or in the army risking one's life to defend them each of these is a peculiar form of the education that life offers, and its results can not be obtained through any other form certainly not by the school however much the school may re-enforce them.] 124. (2} What we learn through books forms a contrast to that which we learn through living. life forces upon us its wisdom ; the book, on the contrary, is entirely passive. It is locked up in itself ; it can not be altered ; but it waits by us till we wish to use it. We can read it rapidly or slowly ; we can simply turn over its leaves what in modern times one calls reading we can read it from beginning to end or from end to be- ginning ; we can stop, begin again, skip over passages, or cut them short, as we like. To this extent the book is the most convenient means for instruction. If we are in- debted to life for our perceptions, we must chiefly thank books for our understanding of our perceptions. We call book-instruction u dead " when it lacks, for the exposition which it gives, a foundation in illustration addressed to sense-perception, or when we do not add to the printed description the perceptions which it implies ; and these two are quite different. 122 THE SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF EDUCATION. [Instruction through books is in some respects the opposite of instruction throiigh living, because life forces its wisdom on us, while the book is entirely passive. The book is the most con- venient form of instruction. We must have gained by experi- ence from real life a sort of alphabet or key, with which we may spell out or unlock the meaning of the wisdom stored up in books. Unless we can translate what the book says into elements of our own experience, it is dead to us.] 125. Books, as well as life, teach us many things which we did not previously expect to learn directly from them. From the romances of Walter Scott, for example, we learn, first of all, while we read them for entertain- ment, the English language, and English and Scotch history and geography. . . . We must distinguish from such books as those which bring to us, as it were acci- dentally, a knowledge for which we were not seeking, the books which are expressly intended to instruct. These " text-books " must (a) in their consideration of the subject give us the principal results of any depart- ment of knowledge, and denote the points from which the next advance must be made, because every science comes to results which are themselves again new prob- lems ; (5) in the consideration of the particulars they must be exhaustive, i. e., no essential elements of a sci- ence must be omitted. But this exhaustiveness of exe- cution has different meanings according to the stand- points of those for whom it is made. How far we shall pass from the universality of the principal determina- tions into the multiplicity of the particular, into the fullness of detail, can not be definitely determined, and must vary, according to the aim of the book, whether for the apprentice, the journeyman, or the master ; ( stractly spiritual determinaten ess is the concrete unity of the spirit with nature, in which it recognizes nature as its necessary organ, and itself as in its nature divine. Spirit in this stage, as the internal presupposition of the 188 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. two previously named, takes up into itself on one hand the phase of nationality, since this is the form of the immediate individualization (of modern civilization) ; but it no longer distinguishes between nations as if they were abstractly severed the one from the other, as the Greeks shut out all other nations under the name of barbarians. It also takes up into itself the phase of spirituality, since it knows itself as spirit, and knows it- self to be free from nature, and yet it does not estrange itself from the world as the Jews did in their repre- sentation of pure spirit, to whom nature seemed to be" only the work of divine caprice. ( Humanity knows na- ture as its own, because it knows the divine spirit and its creative energy manifesting itself in nature and his- tory, as also the essence of its own spirit.) Education can be complete only with Christianity as the religion of humanity. [Man is educated by man for humanity, i. e., for the realiza- tion of all the possibilities of humanity as a whole in each in- dividual ; education of the youth shall give him the results of all human experience. But humanity in its complete unfolding is not to be found at the beginning of history. The totality of a people or nation is the highest realization of humanity that can be found at first (countless ages pass away before science, art, philosophy, and theology come to exist). " The naturalness of this principle," i. e., the bond that unites a people, is a natural and not an artificial bond ; it does not depend on leagues and treaties, but on community of descent and consequent identical race-peculiarities, common language, manners and customs, and traditions. Each individual of a people finds himself living in this identity with his people just as he finds himself living in identity with a family. The family identity (called " identity " because it is a common life, the same for each, consisting of mutual relations and common possessions in which each owns an undivided share) is a " natural " one in the fact that it, too, arises from the laws of nature and not from free choice. The HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 187 individual, e. g., can not choose his ancestry. This natural unity of people gradually gives place to the recognition of com- mon humanity and an observance of humane duties toward all men. The spiritual nature of man (his will, intellect, and heart) is opposed to his animal nature. Matter is exclusive; animal gratifications are exclusive and selfish; spiritual life is gaj- ticipation ; the intellect and the moral will develop through sharing all acquisitions with others. Wisdom is a product of the race, and not of one individual exclusively ; the greater the number who participate in wisdom, the better for all. The second phase of the history of culture is the one in which God is revealed as a pure spiritual being, not identical with the sun or moon or any part of nature, or indeed with the whole of nature. In the contemplation of this _pure ideal man begins to see that his own destiny is something transcending nature. "The chosen people plant the root of their nationality " not in any particular territory or feature of nature, but in their faith in Jehovah. The Jewish nationality is a sort of pivot on which the history of the world turns from the thralldom of nature to the freedom of spirit. Nevertheless, spirit is not free when it simply renounces nature and regards it as a work of divine ca- price. It must conquer nature and use it for spiritual purposes or rational ends before it is free in the highest sense. Concrete freedom is therefore said to be a unity of spirit and nature, but it is a unity in which nature is subordinated to an instrument, and spirit is exalted to the end and aim of creation. In this it "takes up into itself the phase of nationality," or, in other words, modern civilization retains the form of the nation or of separate peoples, but at the same time it repudiates more and more the jealousy and hatred that was wont to be directed to outside nations. It also "takes up into itself the phase of spirituality," i. e., btsides retaining nationality, modern civiliza- tion also worships God as a person, and places on the summit the ideal of the divine-human. By this it " knows itself to be free from nature," i. e., to be immortal and able to survive death and live without this world. " Humanity knows nature as its own " because it recognizes its right to use it for its own advantage ; it sees nature as created by Absolute Reason for the behoof of reasonable creatures made in his image. Hence edu- 188 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. cation becomes "complete with Christianity as the religion of humanity."] 177. We have thus three different systems of edu- cation : (1) the National ; (2) the Theocratic ; and (3) the Humanitarian. ( The first works after the manner of na- ( ture, since it educates the individual as a type of his race. ) The original nationality endeavors sharply to dis- tinguish itself from others, and to impress on each per- son the stamp of its uniform type. One individual is like every other, or at least should be so. The second system in its manner of manifestation is identical with the first. It even marks the national difference more emphatically ; but the ground of the uniformity of the individuals is with it not merely the natural element in common, but the common interest is the result of the spiritual unity, which neglects nature, and concentrates its whole attention upon the events of its own history ; satisfied with no present, it remains in continual self- alienation, looking back to its past, or forward to its fu- ture. The theocratic system educates the individual as the servant of God. He is the true Jew only in so far as he is this ; the genealogical identity with father Abraham is a condition but not the principle of the nationality. The third system emancipates the indi- vidual, and elevates him to the enjoyment of freedom as his essence ; educates him within national limits which no longer separate but unite ; and, in the consciousness that each, without any kind of mediation, has a direct relation to God, makes of him a man who knows him- self to be a member of the spiritual world of humanity. We can have no fourth system beyond this. From the side of the state-pedagogics we might characterize these HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. 189 systems as that of the nation-state, the God-state, and the humanity-state. From the time of the establishment of the last, no one nation can attain to any sovereignty over the others. By means of the world-religion of Christianity, the education of nations has come to the point of taking, for its ideal^man as determining him- self according to the demands of reason.} [Three different systems of education founded on the stages of civilization : (a) National ; (b) Theocratic ; (c) Humanitarian " humanitarian " not used here in a sentimental sense ; it ex- presses rather the missionary sense love for the souls of men of whatever race or land ; the care of the civilization for its un- fortunate, the care of the highest for the lowest. C It is a civil- ization that interests itself in all nature as a revelation of the divine, and hence specializes its work in the several sciences, in- vestigating the humblest orders of nature with as much pains- taking care as the mightiest. 1 ) The National system workst" after the manner of nature, since it educates the individual as a type of his race " ;)education among the people of Asia does not attempt to develop individualism, but only to repress individuality and produce perfect conformity to the established type of behavior, just as Nature compels new acorns to be like the old ones. ^Species is tyrannical in nature, allowing only the slightest of variations from the type. } But in the highest civilization individuality is cherished to such a degree that social caste, intellectual modes of thought, habits of behavior, and vocation may be completely varied in the second generation. In the second system (the Theocratic) the uniformity of indi- ( viduals is based on its spiritual unity, a continual straining of the mind after what is not present a past to which it looks back with longing as the days of patriarchal ancestors who lived in close personal favor with Jehovah, or a future in which it ex- pects peace and plenty, and the renewal of divine favor. The Jewish child must be educated as a servant of God. The race principle, based as it is on nature, yields in the case of the He- brews to the purely spiritual principle of service of Jehovah. If one serves Jehovah, it is not necessary that he be descended from Abraham. 190 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. The third system has for its ideal the brotherhood of all men, and continually impels the nations toward commerce in articles of use and beauty, necessity and luxury, as well as the inter- change of ideas and the mutual toleration of differences. There can be no fourth system beyond this, because this com- pletely mediates the particular with the universal, holding as its end and aim the perfect collection of all that the individual pro- duces into the market of the world, material and spiritual, and the perfect distribution of all thence again to the individual, so that each helps all and all help each. Each person gives his mite to the world ; each person receives from the world infinitely more than he gave, not in quantity but in quality, enriched by variety and all manner of precious attributes. For each locality has a limited number of precious material productions, and like- wise a few spiritual gifts ; by world-commerce each locality is made to abound in the desirable productions of all climes, and the spiritual gifts of all places and all times are brought to every human being. This is achieved progressively by the inspiration fi Christianity as it gradually regenerates society.] CHAPTER I. THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 178. THE National is the primitive system of edu- cation, since the family is the organic starting-point of all education, and it grows into the basis of nationality. Education has always in view the preparation of youth for life in institutions. Even inorganic peoples, those in a state of nature the so-called savage races are possessed of something more than a mere physical education ; for, though they set much value upon gymnastic and warlike practices, and give much time to them, they inculcate also respect for parents, for the aged, and for the decrees of the community. Education with them is essentially family train- ing, and its object is to cultivate in children a natural love and rev- THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 191 erence for the elders and those in authority. That the finer forms to which we are accustomed are wanting must not be forgotten. Be- sides, education among all these people of nature is very simple and much the same, though great differences in its administration may exist, arising from differences of geographical situation or race char- acteristics. [The National is the primitive system of education because it is the education of the family, which is the germ out of which grows civilization. The education of the family lays chief stress on what Rosenkranz calls " naturliche Pietat" i. e., love and reverence for parents and blood-relatives, and obedience to eld- ers what the Romans called pietas, the affection and respect due to parents and departed ancestors ; it expressed the piety of ancestor-worship, which is the oldest form of religion. (See Des Coulanges' La Cite Antique.') Rosenkranz says: "Education has always in view the production of spirit (Geisf) Geist being the technical term in Hegel's Philosophy for the social life of man in the institutions of civilization; Geist might here be translated ' civilization,' although its literal ordinary meaning is spirit."] 179. National education is divided into three spe- cial systems : (1) passive, (2) active, (3) individual. It begins with the humble attitude of an utter subjection to nature, and ends with the arrogance of an equally entire rejection of nature. [Three systems of National education : (1) passive (China, India, Thibet); (2) active (Persia); (3) individual (Greece and Rome).] 180. Man subjects himself at first to the natural authority of the family; he obeys unconditionally its behests. Then he substitutes for the family, as he goes on in his culture, the artificial family of his caste, to whose rules he again unconditionally yields. To relieve himself from this artificiality and this tyranny, at last he breaks away from the family and from the training that prepares him for family and caste. He flees from 192 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. both, and, becoming a monk, he again subjects himself to the tyranny of his order. A monk presents to us only a specimen of his species all are alike. [(1) The passive, (a) Man begins in the humble attitude of subjection to Nature as it is found in the family : he obeys the authorities of the family implicitly. The Chinese state is founded on patriarchal rule, (b) The Indian civilization substitutes caste for family, and obeys its rules, (c) Then he revolts against the tyranny of caste, and subjects himself to a new tyranny, the rules of the cloister the Buddhist civilization in its purest form. These phases of civilization will be treated in detail further on.] 181. This absolute abstraction from nature and from education that fits one for life in family and caste, this quietism of spiritual isolation, is the ultimate result of the passive system. In opposition to this, the active system seeks the positive vanquishing of natural re- straints. Its people are courageous. They attack other nations in order to rule over them as conquerors. They live for the continuation of their life after death, and for this purpose build for themselves tombs of granite. They brave the dangers of the sea. The unvaried prose of the patriarchal state, the fantastic dreamy reveries of the caste-state, the ascetic self-renunciation of the cloister- state, yield gradually to the recognition of the world of reality, and the fundamental principle of Persian edu- cation consisted in the inculcation of veracity. [The passive system (1) results in quietism or the renunciation of activity and the adoption of a life of seclusion and meditation. We shall see ( 184) the ground for this result : its view of the world and its relation to the Absolute Being explains the pecul- iarity of its civilization. (2) The active system directs itself against restraints thrust upon it by Nature, (a) The Persian strives to overcome limits and boundaries, and to extend his do- minion over space. (See the peculiar ground for this in his re- ligion, 195). (b) The Egyptian civilization is directed toward THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 193 a preparation for the life after death (see 199). (c) The Phoe- nician braves the dangers of the sea. Note in 197 the remark- able thought of Hegel on the contrast between the Persians and the Hindoos in respect to the education in telling the truth " inculcation of veracity."] 182. But the nationality which is occupied with simple, natural elements other nations, death, the mys- tery of the ocean may revert to the abstractions of the previous stage, which in education often takes on cruel forms nay, often truly horrible. First, when spiritual being begins not only to suspect its nature, but rather to recognize itself as the true essence ; and when the God of Light places as the motto on his temple the command to self-knowledge, the natural individuality becomes free. Neither the passive nor the active sys- tem permits the free self-distinction of the individual from his fellows. In them, to be an individuality is a betrayal of the very idea of their existence, and even the suspicion of such a thing is sufficient to destroy ut- terly and mercilessly the one to whom it refers. Even the solitary individuality of the despot is not the one- ness of free individuality ; but he is also only a speci- men of his kind, although the only specimen. Nation- ality rises to individuality through the free dialectic of its component peoples, whereby it dissolves its presup- position, or the peculiarities that arise from limitations by alien nationalities. [The defects and limits of the "active" systems liable to revert to the abstractions of the passive systems, and take on cruel forms (Phoenician Moloch-fires, Egyptian slavery, Persian luxury, etc.). (3) The individual system is far in advance of the passive and active systems in the fact that it is based on a recog- nition of individuality in the divine, and hence permits itself to develop individuality in men. Apollo, the god of light, places 194 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. the motto " Know thyself " over his temple at Delphi, and, under the inspiration of this command, the Greek people gradually free themselves from blind obedience to custom, and seek to find a necessity in reason for all things in nature and history. The later civilization borrows this from the Greeks, and also borrows the Greek idea of the beautiful. " The free dialectic of its com- ponent peoples," as in the Persian wars, gradually wears off, or dissolves the national peculiarities of the peoples around the Eastern Mediterranean, and develops them all toward the prin- ciple of individuality, which they enter at the time of the Alex- andrian conquest.] 183. Nevertheless, individuality must always pro- ceed from natural conditions. .^Esthetically it seeks na- ture, but nature in the form of living body, in order, by penetrating it with mind, to make of it a work of art ; practically it seeks it, partly to disdain it in gloomy res- ignation, partly to enjoy it in revels of excessive sensu- ality, and to heighten the extravagance of its own in- ternal morbid self-consciousness by cruel or shameless public spectacles. The Germans were not savage in the common signification of this term. They were men each one of whom constituted himself will- ingly a center for others, or, if this was not the case, renounced them in proud self-sufficiency. All the glory and all the disgrace of our history lie in the power of individualizing which is divinely infused into our veins. As a natural element, if this be not controlled, it degenerates easily into intractableness, into violence. The Germans need, therefore, in order to be educated, severe discipline, the impo- sition of difficult tasks ; and for this reason they attack such subjects as Roman law, Greek philology, Gallic usages, etc., in order to work off their superfluous strength. The natural love of independent in- dividuality which characterized the German found its needed com- plement in Christianity. The history of the German race shows that it would have been destroyed by this extreme tendency toward indi- viduality which led to minute political divisions and to weak political ties. The German people, full of faith in their own personal resources, ventured forth upon the sea, and managed their ships as skillful horsemen their chargers. THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 195 [Individuality, however, must always have a natural basis, for its differences will not be found in the common rational endow- ment of intellect and will. Hence it happens that we find the first nation that sets up individuality as its principle seeking it in the form of the beautiful as it shines through physical nature, especially in the human body. The second nation, the Roman, seeks individuality practically for epicurean enjoyment and sensuality, or for Stoic renunciation, setting up its natural in- dividual self as a target for the universe. (These peculiarities will be explained in detail in 203-225.) The German " ab- stract individualism " (treated in 226), which is that of the love of isolated personal freedom, needs severe discipline (such as feudal vassalage) to educate it into the necessary feeling of dependence on society.] CHAPTER IL FIE8T GROUP THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 184. ALL education desires to free man from his finitude, to make him ethical, to unite him with God. It begins, therefore, with a negative relation to natural conditions, limits, and restraints, but at once falls into a contradiction of its aim, by converting this opposition to nature into a natural necessity. Spirit (that is to say, man acting in institutions) subjects the individual (1) to the rule of the family as the institution that is the closest approximation of nature ; (2) to the rule of the caste as to a principle in itself spiritual, mediated through the division of labor, which it nevertheless, through the principle of hereditary descent, joins again to the fam- ily 5 (3) to tne abstract self-determination of the monk- ish quietism, which turns itself away as well from the 15 196 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. family as from work, and makes this flight from nature and human society, this absolute passivity, his educa- tional ideal. We shall not here enter into the details of these systems, but simply endeavor to make clear their distinctions and remove the vagueness which is generally found in the descriptions of them abounding in educational works, which employ the terms " hierarch- ical and theocratical education " without historical accuracy. [The rational ground for the system of " passive education." It sets out to free man from thralldom to Nature, and hence as- sumes a " negative relation " toward " natural conditions," i. e., it refuses to permit the individual to give free rein to his animal impulses, but constrains him to obey the rules and regulations ordained for the establishment and preservation of institutions. First, the institution of the family is set up as the supreme ob- ject of life in China. Secondly, the division of labor (the voca- tions of life) is made the basis of caste, which is the chief con- cern of the Hindoo. Then the renunciation of all concrete life for the sake of monastic institutions is the reqiiirement of the third species of " passive education," as found in Central Asia, and more or less in Ceylon and Farther India.] I. Family Education. 185. The family is the organic starting-point of all education. The nation looks upon itself as a family. Among all uncivilized people education is family edu- cation, though they are not conscious of its necessity. Identical in principle with these people, but distin- guished from them through the fact that it is conscious of it, the Chinese nation, in its laws, regulations, and customs, has established the family as the absolute basis of its life, and the only principle of its education. [The " organic starting-point of all education " is the family, that is to say, the family is the institution that most resembles a product of Nature ; it arises through the natural relations of THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 197 sex and parentage on the one hand, and through the necessary ethical laws that perfect and secure these natural relations on the other hand. The first form of the nation is a direct out- growth of the family. The tribe is patriarchal in its organiza- tion. The first collection of tribes into a nation retains the same form. The Chinese nation (437,000,000 of people !) is a vast fam- ily of families. Mere tribes can not be civilized because they have to devote their entire attention to protecting their narrow borders from neighboring tribes. When these tribes are united into a great nation the border-land recedes, and all classes of people may devote themselves to productive industry.] 186. The natural element of the family is found in marriage and kinship; the spiritual element, in love. We may call the nature of family feeling, which is the immediate unity of both elements, by the Latin name of pietas. In so far as this appears not merely as a sub- stantial feeling, but at the same time as conscious rule of action, there arises from it the subordination involved in the implicit obedience of the wife to the husband, of children to the parents, of the younger children to the elder. In this obedience man first renounces his will- fulness and his natural selfishness ; he learns to master his passions, and to conduct himself with deferential gentleness. When the principle that governs the family is transferred to po- litical relations, there arises the tyranny of the Chinese state, which can not be fully treated here. We find everywhere in it an analogi- cal relation to that of parents and children. In China the ruler is the father and mother of the people ; the civil officers are represent- atives of a paternal authority, etc. It follows that in school the chil- dren will be ranked according to their age. The authority of parents over children is absolute, but its exercise is in point of fact very mild. The abandonment of daughters by the poorest classes in the great cities is no instance to the contrary, for the government rears the children in foundling asylums, where they are cared for by nurses appointed by the state. 198 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. [The family has a natural element and a spiritual element, (a) kinship by marriage and parentage : (b) love ; (c) pietas, or affectionate loyalty to one's relatives is the unity of love and kinship. Obedience and providential care are the mutual duties arising out of the relation of subordination within the family.] 187. These relations which are conditioned by na- ture take on the external shape of a definite ceremonial, the learning of which is a chief element of education. In conformity with the naturalness of the pervading principle all crimes against it are punished by whipping with the rod, which, however, does not entail dishonor. In order to lead man to self-control and to obedience to those who are naturally set over him, education devel- ops an endless number of fragmentary maxims to keep his attention ever watchful over himself, and his be- havior always fenced in by a code of prescriptions. We find in such moral sentences the substance of what is called, in China, philosophy. [The family preserves itself by a code of observances con- stituting a ceremonial or system of etiquette which forms the chief part of education. How to behave, is the important ques- tion. For details regarding the rules of etiquette in China, see Hegel's "Philosophy of History." Five mutual duties named in the Shu-King as fundamental, (1) between the emperor and his people ; (2) between parents and children ; (3) between elder and younger brothers; (4) between husband and wife; (5) be- tween friend and friend. " The son may not accost the father when he comes into the room ; he must seem to contract himself to nothing at the side of the door, and may not leave the room without his father's permission." The same obedience nnist be shown to the elder brother. The son does not receive honor for his meritorious deeds ; they are attributed to his father. The school flourishes there because it is the road to all preferment in the state. The Chinese alphabet has a separate sign for each word, and has to be mastered by an enormous effort of the memory ten thousand of these characters being necessary for graduating as a scribe. The primary reading-books are filled THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 199 with maxims relating to etiquette and behavior, and have to be memorized, words, characters, and all. Strict examinations are held to sift out the incompetent and admit the competent to a higher course of study. The third grade of examination is held by the chancellor of the province twice in three years, and suc- cessful candidates receive the degree of Blooming Talent (B. T., instead of B. A. /), and are qualified for primary teachers, lawyers, notaries public, or physicians. The fourth examination is held at the capital of the province and under the direction of two imperial examiners sent from Pekin. In some instances as many as twenty thousand " blooming talents " attend this ex- amination, but only one in a hundred of the candidates is suc- cessful in obtaining the degree of " Licentiate." The licentiates may enter the fifth and highest examination held in the Im- perial Palace at Pekin, and if they pass are entitled at once to membership in the Imperial Academy and a salary for life. This academy furnishes committees of counsel to whom the emperor refers all difficult matters for consideration and report. These five sifting examinations have at last obtained as net result the men best fitted of all for carrying on the Chinese government in the prescribed path, for they have had not only to learn by heart the five classics of Confucius, filled with maxims of family piety and patriarchal etiquette, but they have had to prove in the final examination that they understand and are able to defend the doctrines on which the government is founded. In the first and second examinations only verbal memory is tested and no insight required. The minute details of Chinese education are of importance to us as proving clearly the function of the exclusive education of the memory. Con- servative people without aspiration and firmly bound to the established order of things can be produced without fail by schools that lay great stress on verbal memory (e. g., " learning by heart " the capricious orthography of the English spelling-book, historical dates, geographical names, arithmetical tables, etc., etc.).] 188. The theoretical education includes reading, writing i. e., painting the letters with a brush arith- metic, and the making of verses. But these accomplish- ments are not looked at as means of culture, but as 200 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. qualifications for official position. The Chinese possess formally all the means for literary culture printing, libraries, schools, and academies ; but the extent to which these appliances are used is not great. Their value has been often overrated because of their external resemblance to those found among us. [The effort requisite to learn the Chinese alphabet is sufficient to commit to memory all the Chinese classics. Hence, the library is not so important in that country as in Europe and America, where one may learn to read with so little trouble. Hence, too, the obstacle in the way of original literary production.] II. Caste Education. 1 89. The members of the family, as a matter of course, differ from each other in sex and age, but this difference is entirely immaterial as far as the nature of their employment goes. In China, therefore, every position is open to each man ; he who is of humblest birth in the great state-family can climb to the highest honor. But the next step in the development of the state, as an institution, is that on which the division of labor is made the principle, and a new distinction added to that of the family : each one shall perfect himself only in that labor which was allotted to him as his own through his birth into a particular family. This fatal- ism (the distinction of caste) breaks up the life, but in- creases the social tension, by the necessary mutual de- pendence that flows from the division of labor; for human civilization moves on the one hand toward the deepening of its distinctions ; on the other, toward lead- ing them back into the unity which continually works against the natural tendency to fix human activity in ruts. THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 201 [Distinction of caste imposes a new yoke on the individual. The highest preferment is not open to each as in the family state ; in India, the station of life is absolutely determined by birth. If born a Brahman, he may be a religious teacher, and the object of unbounded reverence on the part of the other castes. There are warriors and merchants and common labor- ers, besides many mixed castes founded on intermarriages. The members of the lowest castes are far more degraded and brutally treated than the negro slaves of the West India Islands.] 190. The chief work of education thus consists in teaching each one the rights and duties of his caste so that he shall observe their precise limits, and not pollute himself by passing beyond them. As the family-state concerns itself with fortifying the distinctions founded on nature by a far-reaching and vigorous ceremonial, so the caste-state must do the same with the distinctions of caste. A painful etiquette becomes more and more ex- acting in its requisitions, the higher the caste, in order to make the isolation more sharply defined and more perceptible. This feature penetrates all exclusively caste-education. All aris- tocracy exiles itself on this account from its native country, speaks a foreign language and loves its literature, adopts foreign customs, lives in foreign countries in Italy, Paris, etc. In this way man be- comes " distinguished." But that he should strive thus to " distin- guish " himself has its ultimate ground in the accident of his birth, and this is assuredly always the principle of the caste-state in which it is to be found in its most perfect form. The castes require gene- alogical records, which are of the greatest importance in determining the destiny of the individual. The Brahman may strike dead one of a lower caste who has denied him by contact, without becoming thereby liable to punishment ; he would be regarded as criminal, in fact, if he neglected to kill him. Thus it was formerly with the officer who did not immediately kill the citizen or common soldier who struck him a blow. [Education consists chiefly in teaching the etiquette and cere- monies proper to one's caste. To omit one of these observances 202 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. is to become defiled, and requires a complicated ceremony of purification. The Chinese etiquette is very simple compared with that of India : " The Brahman must rest on a particular foot when rising ; read the Vedas, each word separately, or doubling them alternately, or forward and backward; must not look at the sun when rising or setting, nor at its reflection in the water ; must not step over a rope at which a calf is fastened, nor go out when it rains ; must not look at his wife when she eats, or when she sneezes ; must not step on ashes, cotton-seeds, or broken crockery," etc., etc. One of the lowest caste may be struck dead if he comes in the way of a Brahman ; if he hears the Vedas read, he must have melted lead poured into his ears, etc.] 191. The East Indian education is far deeper and richer than the Chinese. Its theoretical instruction also includes reading, writing, and arithmetic ; but these are subordinate, as mere means for the higher activities of poetry, speculation, science, and art. The practical edu- cation limits itself strictly by the lines of caste, and since the caste system constitutes a whole in itself, and each for its permanence needs the others, it can not forbear giving utterance suggestively to what is universally hu- man in the soul, in a multitude of fables (Hitopadesa) and apothegms (sentences of Bartrihari), especially in- tended for the education of princes, and furnishing a sort of mirror of the world. Xenophon's Cyropedia is not Greek but Indian in its plan. [The Brahman caste may be said to be devoted to religious lit- erature and worship. Through them have arisen epic and dra- matic poems, systems of philosophy, science, and art. The Hito- padesa is the Indian .Jjlsop, and contains a multitude of fables for the instruction of the sons of a king. They are ingeniously interwoven. The animals of one fable relate other fables. The pigeon relates to the crow the fable of the tiger and the trav- eler ; the king of the mice relates the fable of the deer, the jackal, and the crow ; the crow relates the fable of the blind vulture^ the cat, and the birds, etc.] THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 03 in. Monkish Education. 192. Family education demands unconditional obedience toward parents and toward all who stand in an analogous position. Caste-education demands un- conditional obedience to the duties of the caste. The family punishes with the rod ; the caste, by excommuni- cation, by loss of honor. The negative tendency against nature appears in both systems in the form of a strict ceremonial, distinguishing between the differences aris- ing from nature. The family as well as the caste has within it a fountain of manifold activity, but it has also just as manifold a limitation of the individual. The impulse toward higher civilization is forced, therefore, to turn against nature in general. It must become in- different to the family. But it must also oppose the social order, and the fixed distinctions of division of labor as necessitated by nature. It must become indif- ferent to labor and the fruits derived from it. That it may not be conditioned either by nature or by human civilization, it denies both, and makes its action to con- sist in producing an abstinence from all action. [Monkish education "turns against nature" altogether, and does not, like the family and the caste, lay emphasis on differences arising from nature (such as sex, age, birth, hereditary descent, etc.). Labor, and even the fruits of labor, are a matter of in- difference to it. The activity of Buddhism is directed toward abstention from activity. Here the passive education culmi- nates.] 193. Such an indifference toward nature and the social order produces the education which we have called monkish. Those who perpetuate the race, care for food, clothing, and shelter, and for these material 204: PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. contributions, as the laity, receive in return from those who live this contemplative life the spiritual reward of participation in the blessings which wait upon ascetic contemplation. The family institution as well as the institution of human labor is subordinated to the abstract isolation of the cloister, in which the individual lives only for the purification of his soul. All things are justified by this end. Castes are found no more ; only those are bound to the observance of a special ceremonial who as nuns or monks subject themselves to uncondi- tional obedience to the rules of the cloister, these rules solemnly enjoining on the negative side celibacy and cessation from business, and on the positive side prayer and performance of ceremonial rites. [Such a system requires a distinction of the people into laity and monks. For with Buddhist monks alone the race would soon perish. The laity supply the material wants of the monks, and keep up the race. The dreadful oppression of ceremonial which prevails in Chinese etiquette and Hindoo observance of caste is avoided in Buddhism. All is simplified. There are three hundred million Buddhists scattered over China, Farther India, Ceylon, and among the Mongolians of Siberia. In China Buddhism takes on an essentially modified form ; it does not replace the family principle as in Thibet.] 194. In the school of the Chinese Tao-tse, and in the command to the Brahman after he has established a family to become a hermit, we find the transition as it actually exists to the Buddhistic quietism which has covered the rocky heights of Thibet with countless cloisters, and reared the people who are dependent upon it into a child-like amiability, into a contented repose. Art and science have here no value in themselves, and are regarded only as ministering to religion. To be able to read, in order to mutter the prayers, is desirable. TEE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION. 205 With the conscious purpose of the monk to reduce self to nothing, as the highest good, the system of passive education attains its highest point. But civilization can not content itself with this abstract and dreamy absence of all action, though it demands a high stage of cult- ure ; it has recourse therefore to action, partly on the positive side to conquer nature, partly to double its own existence by building up human institutions. Inspired with affirmative courage, it descends triumphantly from the mountain-heights, and fears secularization no more. [In Thibet every father who has four sons must dedicate one of them to monastic life. The supreme object of life among the Buddhists where Lamaism prevails for Lamaism is a political form, not at all coextensive with Buddhism as a religion is to attain the elevated spiritual condition of the monastic order. Failing in this highest object, the people strive to share in the di- vine favors dispensed or obtained by the priests. The Buddhistic view of the world is in sharp contrast with the Christian view, although its monasticism as well as its ceremonial has a close external resemblance to the forms of the Catholic Church ; and, in fact, Lamaism may have borrowed its ceremonial from East- ern Christians in the eighth century or later. The Buddhist seeks nirvana, or the absolute repose of being ; a state in which he is freed not only from all earthly cares and distracting thoughts, but also from all cares and thoughts of whatever description. In fact, while Christianity seeks deliverance from selfishness, Buddhism seeks deliverance from selfhood, and aims to lose all consciousness, as the Sankhya doctrine of India, which is apparently the root of Buddhist theology, plainly teaches. In this respect the " passive " education comes most strongly into contrast with the " active " education. The former seeks to free itself from evil by passively renouncing not only all action, but life itself. The latter strives to conquer evil by action, and edu- cates to a life which helps itself by helping others.] 206 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER III. SECOND GKOUP. THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 195. ACTIVE education elevates man from his com- plete subjection to the family, caste, and asceticism, into a concrete activity guided by a definite aim which sub- ordinates those institutions into means of its own devel- opment, and grants to each independence on condition of its perfect accord with the spirit of the whole. These aims are the military state, the future condition after death, and industry. There is always an element of nature present, which gives occasion to the activity ; but this no longer appears, like the family, the caste, the egoistic personal seclusion of the cloister, as immedi- ately dwelling within the individual, but as something outside of himself which limits him; and yet, as his destined career has an internal relation to him, is es- sential to him and assigns to him the object of his activity. The Persian has for his object of conquest, other nations; the Egyptian, death; the Phosnician, the sea. [Active education in contrast to passive education directs its efforts outward with a view to accomplish some new conquest. Passive education was conservative, and aimed to crush out in- dividuality by imposing on it burdensome codes of etiquette, ceremonies, and moral order. Active education has the opposite tendency. The Persian strives to prepare his youth for military conquest. The Phoenician educates for foreign commerce, the perils of the sea and hostile lands. The Egyptian makes this life a preparation for immortality, building gigantic tombs, and embalming the corporeal hull of the soul, so that it may serve its purpose again at the resurrection.] THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 207 I. Military Education. 196. That education which would emancipate a nation from the passivity of isolation and one-sided de- velopment must throw it into a process of intercourse with other forms of civilization. A nation does not find its real limits in its territorial boundaries ; it can leave its habitat and seek a new and distant one. Its true limit is made by another nation. The nation which feels its own genuine substantiality turns itself there- fore against other nations in order to subject them and to reduce them to the condition of mere accidents of it- self as substance. It begins a system of conquest which has in itself no limitations, but goes from one nation to another, and extends its course indefinitely. The final result of this attack on other nations is that it combines them against it, and is in its turn invaded and conquered. The early history of the Persian is twofold : the patriarchal in the high valleys of Iran, and the religio-hierarchical among the Medes. We find under these circumstances a repetition of the prin- cipal characteristics of the Chinese, Indian, and Buddhist education ; even the Indian is included, because in ancient Zend there were also castes. Among the Persians themselves, as they descended from their mountains to the conquest of other nations, there was properly only a military nobility. The priesthood was subjected to the royal power which represented the concrete might of the nation. Of the Persian kings, Cyrus attacked Western Asia; Cambyses, Africa; Darius and Xerxes, Europe ; until at last the reaction of the spirit- ually higher nationality of Greece did not content itself with mere self-protection, but under the Macedonian Alexander returned the attack upon Persia itself. [Intercourse with foreign nations is the prime source of na- tional activity. The Persian desires to establish an uncondi- tioned empire. To do this he must reduce to submission the tribes and states that border on his frontier. Out of the Eu- 208 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. phrates Valley in earlier times the Chaldeans and Assyrians had made inroads upon the separate branches of the Aryan race, which are now united and form the Persian Empire. On the north and east the Mongolian tribes menaced the peace of his border-land. Under Cyrus the valley of the Euphrates, and later, all Syria and Asia Minor are subdued ; under Cambyses, Egypt. But the Persian can not annihilate border-lands, al- though he removes them thousands of miles from his capital. Beyond Asia lies Europe. Greece contains another Aryan peo- ple in whom are beginning the impulses toward a new civiliza- tion far more favorable to individual development than anything that has yet appeared. Darius and Xerxes attempt to conquer this new limit, but fail at last. Greece, aroused by the contest, and learning to know its own power, returns the attack in the following century, and all the territory that Persia had conquered yields to Alexander and his generals.] 197. Education enjoined upon the Persians (1) to speak the truth ; (2) to learn to ride horseback, and to use the bow and arrow. There is implied in the first command a recognition and acknowledgment of the re- ality of things and events, the negation of all dreamy absorption, of all fantastical vagueness ; and in this light the Persian, in contrast with the Hindoo, appears to be sober and reasonable. In the second command is im- plied warlike practice, but as yet that of the nomadic tribes. The Persian fights on horseback, and thus ap- pears in contrast to the Indian hermit-seclusion and the quietism of the Lamas as restless and in constant motion. The family increases in value as it rears a large number of war- riors. To have many children was a blessing. The King of Persia gave a premium for all children over a certain number. Nations were assembled as nations for war ; hence the immense multitude of a Persian army. Everything family, business, possessions must be regardlessly sacrificed to the one aim of war. Education, there- fore, cultivated an unconditional obedience to the king ; the slightest inclination to assert an individual independence was high treason THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 09 and was punished with death. In China, on the contrary, duty to the family is paramount to duty to the state, or rather is itself duty to the state. The civil officer who mourns the loss of one of his family is released during the period of mourning from the duties of his function. [The education of the Persians is said to have laid great stress on (1) speaking truth, and (2) learning to ride horseback, and use the bow and arrow. To speak the truth implies a respect for the facts and events of the world as they are. Under the pas- sive peoples there prevailed a greater respect for human ordi- nances, etiquette, caste, etc. The Hindoo looked upon all nature as pure illusion a sort of dream which is imposed upon man because of his fallen condition. East Indian poetry gives rein to the imagination, and allows truth to interpose no limits to its exaggerations. Hence truth-speaking seems to have great significance. It could not be encouraged among people who despised real facts and events and held in contempt all ex- istence. We must not, however, count the civilizations of Brahminism and Buddhism as of no value. They are immense steps in advance of mere tribal civilization. In his first step away from mere savage life man exaggerates the importance of ethical usages and despises in a corresponding degree the facts and events of Nature. In mere tribal life the savage fears Nature, and has no peace from its inconstancy and dreadful might. After long progress he comes to revere human social order as superior. The members of the family are supple- mented and rendered equal by mutual help, so that infancy, old age, sickness, calamity, and sex are robbed of their special ter- rors. The state performs a similar service in insuring the in- dividual against vicissitude, and especially against violence from mankind. Civil society protects the individual from famine, in case of failure of crops in one particular locality. But notwith- standing the importance of social order, the nations of Eastern Asia go to extremes in their reverence for it. The Western Asiatic nations, whom Rosenkranz calls " active nations," cor- rect this one-sidedness in various ways. The Persian trained his youth carefully in observing accurately the exact state of facts and events by insisting on scrupulous statements. He taught him to ride horseback and use the bow and arrow. Here the state as such became the most important institution, whereas 210 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. in China the family, in India the divisions of civil society, in Thibet .the church, were most important.] 198. The theoretical education, which was limited to reading, writing, and to instruction in religious cere- monial, was in the hands of the magi, the number of whom was estimated at eighty thousand, and who them- selves had enjoyed the advantages of a careful education, as is shown by their gradation into Herbeds, Mobeds, and Destur-mobeds, i. e., into apprentices, journeymen, and masters. The very fundamental idea of their religion was military ; it demanded of man to fight on the side of the king of light, and guard against the princes of darkness and evil. It gave to him the honor of a free position between the world-moving powers and thus the possibility of a self-chosen career, by which means vigor and chivalrous feeling were developed. Religion di- rected the activity of man toward the realities on this planet, making it its object to increase the dominion of the good, by purifying the water, by planting trees, by extirpating troublesome wild beasts. Thus it increased bodily comfort, and no longer, like the monk, treated this as a mere negative affair. [The Magi, a separate tribe, said to number eighty thousand, furnished the teachers of reading, writing, and religion. They had three degrees of advancement in culture among them ap- prentice, journeyman, and master (Herbed, Mobed, and Destur- mobed). The religion of China has a family character the wor- ship of ancestors ; the religion of Old Persia has a character tend- ing to promote the interests of the state a military tendency. Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), the good spirit, fights against Angra- Mainya (Ahriman), the evil spirit. The Persian religion teaches that life is a warfare, and that all good men must fight on the side of Ormuzd, the king of light. It was enjoined by religion to con- quer the desert by planting trees and digging wells and increas- ing bodily comfort. This is in contrast to the spirit of Buddhism.] THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 211 II. Priestly Education. 199. War achieves its purpose through its capacity to inflict death. It deals out death, and by its means decides who shall serve and who obey. But the nation that finds its activity in war, though it makes death the servant of its purpose, yet finds its own limit in death. Other nations are only its boundaries, which it can pass over by fighting with and conquering them. But death itself it can never escape, whether it come in the sands of the desert that buried for Cambyses an army which he sent to the oracle of the Libyan Ammon or in the sea, that scorns the rod * of the angry despot, or by the sword of the free man f who guards his household gods. On tliis account, a people stands higher that in the midst of life reflects on death, or rather lives for it. The edu- cation of such a nation must be priestly, because death is the means of the transition to the future life, and con- sequently it, like birth, becomes a sacrament. The fam- ily-state, the caste-state, the monkish-state, and the mili- tary-state are not hierarchies hi the sense that the national life is directed by a priesthood. But in Egypt this was actually the case, because the chief educational tribunal was the death-court which judged only the dead, awarding to them or denying them the honor of burial as the result of their whole life. Its award, how- ever, affected also the honor of the surviving family. [War is directed against the limits of national sovereignty. Death is a natural limit to life. War succeeds because it deals out death to the enemy. While the Persian directs his energies * Xerxes ordered the Hellespont to be scourged with rods because hia bridge was broken by the waves. t Say, at Marathon, Salamis, and Thermopylae, lii 212 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. against the limit of the state, the Egyptian occupies himself with the consideration of the supreme limit of life itself. The leading idea of Egyptian civilization seems to be the prepara- tion for death. The death-court that decided upon the merits of the life of each individual at his decease furnished che most important educative influence in the land. It established an ideal standard of living and gave daily illustrations of its appli- cation to particular examples. Those who approximated this ideal were awarded the honor of being embalmed they were considered fit. to dwell with Osiris in the "still kingdom of Amenti." The priestly caste in Egypt were the teachers.] 200. General education here limited itself to read- ing, writing, and arithmetic. Special education con- sisted properly only in training the youth for a definite vocation within the circle of the family. In this fruit- ful and warm land the expense of supporting children was very small. The division into classes was without the cruel features of the Indian civilization, and life itself in the narrow valley of the Nile was very social, abounding in festivities, and in eating and drinking, and was brave and cheerful, because the familiarity with death heightened the force of Enjoyment. In a stricter sense only, the warriors, the priests, and the kings had an education. The aim of life, which was to determine at death its eternal future, to secure for itself a passage into the still kingdom of Amenti, manifested itself ex- ternally in the care which they expended on the pres- ervation of the dead hull of the immortal soul, and on this account devoted its temporal life to building tombs to last an eternity. The Chinese builds a wall to secure his family-state from attack ; the Hindoo builds pagodas for his gods ; the Buddhist erects for himself monastic cells ; the Persian constructs in Persepolis the tomb of his kings, where they may retire in the evening of their THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 213 lives after they have rioted in Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa ; but the Egyptian builds his own tomb, and car- ries on war only to protect it. [The Egyptian finds it possible to conquer Nature and make it serve him. He builds canals and dikes to regulate the over- flow of the Nile, and thereby get the utmost service from the fertilizing power of the fine soil that the river brings down to him from the mountains at the south. Observation of Nature, necessary for the purpose of utilizing the Nile freshets, leads him to a knowledge of astronomy, the construction of calendars, and to hydraulic engineering. He understands irrigation, the con- struction of canals, dams, and reservoirs. He invents the science of geometry, so far as it is required in surveying, because he has to recover his farm every year after the inundation, and fix anew its boundaries. Farms on the banks of the river are liable to be washed away by new channels cut through by freshets, or the old landmarks may be covered up or destroyed ; hence he is led to a more careful system of laws on the subject of landed property, the rights and privileges appertaining to its use and its ownership. Egypt invents writing by hieroglyphics, and develops out of it two other systems, the syllabic and alphabetic. The priestly caste taught arithmetic, geometry, surveying and mensuration, civil engineering, reading and writing and music to youth of their own caste as well as to the caste of warriors. Plato, however, tells us that the children of the Egyptians were taught to read in classes. Diodorus says that even the artisans were taught to read. Perhaps this was necessary to the numer- ous artisans who engraved inscriptions on the temples and tombs. We learn that arithmetic was taught by means of games and plays, such as trading pieces of money, guessing at the number of grains of wheat held in the hand, or by arrang- ing pupils in military lines. The cost of living was so cheap that four dollars in oxir money would have supported a single individual until twenty years of age.] III. Industrial Education. 201. The system of active education was to find its solution in a nation which wandered from the coast 214 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. of the Red Sea to the foot of the Lebanon Mountains on the Mediterranean, and ventured forth upon the sea which before that time all nations had avoided as a dan- gerous and destructive element. The Phoanieian was industrial, and needed markets where he could dispose of the products of his skill. But while he sought for them he disdained neither force nor deceit : he planted colonies ; he stipulated that he should have in the cities of other nations quarters for himself; he induced the nations to adopt articles of luxury, and insensibly intro- duced among them his culture and even his religion. The education of such a nation must have seemed pro- fane, because it fostered indifference toward family and one's native land, and made restless and even passionate activity subservient to gain. The practical understand- ing and utilitarianism rose to a high dignity. [The Phoenician resembles the other active peoples in having for his supreme aim the conquest of a limit to his being. In- dustry aims to conquer Nature in so far as it limits our lives in the form of three wants food, clothing, and shelter. In order to overcome these completely, man must lay under contribution all lands and all climates. One locality compensates for the de- ficiencies of another. Commerce, then, is the form of industry that aids most effectively the conquest over Nature. The Phoeni- cian leaves his home and braves the ocean. Education must be of such a character that it will wean the youth from love of home. Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradis, were places of great security on the land side, while they afforded security for shipping on the seaward side. Manufactures of metallic goods, glass, linen textures dyed with the wonderful Tyrian purple, furnished the home productions with which to obtain the coveted articles of foreign peoples. Tin from Cornwall, amber from the Baltic, gold-dust from Western Africa, were brought home and used in manufactures. Trains of loaded camels pierced the deserts and arrived at the great cities on the Euphrates. Phoenician colonies settled Cyprus, Crete, Carthage, THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. 215 Gades (Cadiz). The Phoenician carried the alphabetic writing of Egypt to all parts of Europe, for in commerce writing is in- dispensable.] 202. Of the education of the Phoenicians we know only so much as to enable us to conclude that it was certainly various and extensive : among the Carthagini- ans, at least, that their children were practiced in read- ing, writing, and arithmetic, in religious duties; sec- ondly, in a trade; and, finally, in the use of arms. Commerce became with the Phoenicians their chief oc- cupation, and self-interest made them brave to plow the inhospitable sea and, led by curiosity, penetrate the horror of its vast distances, but yet conceal from other nations their discoveries and wrap them in a veil of fable. It is a beautiful testimony to the quality of the Greek mind that Plato and others assign as a cause of the low state of arithmetic and mathematics among the Phoenicians and Egyptians the want of free and disinterested investigation. [Education assumes a utilitarian character for a commercial people especially arithmetic and penmanship form the com- mercial arts. Inasmuch as affection for home and parents would injure the quality of the sailor, education rooted out this affection. The fearful worship of Moloch, the fire-god, to whom they sacrificed children, laying them in his red-hot arms in the presence of mothers who were not permitted to express their pain by cries was a powerful means of educating parental and filial indifference necessary to produce a population of commer- cial adventurers. Their religious rites thus assisted to form the national character. Not only arithmetic and writing, but cun- ning and deceit were taught, as necessary for skillful bargains.] 216 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. CHAPTER IV. THIRD GROUP. THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION 203. ONE-SIDED passivity as well as one-sided activ- ity is subsumed under individuality, which makes itself into its own end and aim. The Pho3nician made gain his aim ; his activity was of a utilitarian character. In- dividuality as an educational principle is indeed selfish in so far as it endeavors to cultivate its own peculiarity, but it is at the same time noble. It desires not to have, but to be. Individuality also begins in what is natural, but it elevates nature by means of art to ideality. The principle of beauty gives place to the principle of cult- ure, which renounces the charm of appearance for the knowledge of the true. The aesthetic individuality is followed by the practical, which has no longer any basis in natural relations, but proceeds from an artificial basis a state formed for a place of refuge. In order to cre- ate an internal unity in this, a definite code of laws is framed; in order to assure its external safety, the in- vincible warrior is demanded. Education is therefore, more exactly speaking, training in juristic and military affairs. The morality of the state is undermined as it brings into its mechanism one nation after another, unti^ it encounters an individuality, become daemonic, whicl makes its war-hardened legions tremble with weakness. We characterize this individuality as daemonic because it desires recognition simply for its own sake. Not for its beauty and culture, not for its knowledge of business and its bravery, only for its peculiarity as such does it THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 21? claim value, and in the effort to secure this it is ready to hazard life itself. In its naturally growing existence this individuality is deep, but at the same time without self-limit. The nations educate themselves to this in- dividuality when they destroy the Roman world that of self-limit and balance which they find. [Individuality contains both passivity and activity. Rosen- kranz understands by " individual education " that education which has for its sole aim the development of the individual, instead of seeking an external object for which it subordinates the individual. It desires not to have, but to be. The phases of " individual " education are three : (a) aesthetic education, which seeks to make a work of art out of man ; it develops into a love of truth, and finally sets aside seeming for being ; (b) practical edu- cation, that of Home, deals not with the beautiful nor with the true, but with the realization of the will in its essence. The will of man is not revealed in caprice and arbitrariness, nor in mere customary usages. The essential forms are embodied in laws of justice and in rights. For these express what is and may be universal the common ground of all particular volitions. Violate the law, and each man's deed is against the deeds of all other men. Without law the aggregate action of man tends toward self-nullification. The Roman principle in the world- history concerns the discovery and enunciation of the just self- limitation of will, and it has bequeathed to the world the code of laws and forms of municipal government which make possi- ble modern civilization. The Greek has left us the ideal stand- ard of the beautiful and the statement of the true, as well as the form of its investigation. Each of these activities involves the culture of the individual: (a) the graceful body; (b) the de- veloped intellect; (c) the formation of character. The Greek individuality is undermined by the discovery of the principle of truth as higher than beauty. The Roman principle is under- mined by the conquest of all nations ; its success destroys it by removing the tension which had existed against other nations, and which had helped it to form the Roman character. It now encounters the third phase of individuality that of the Gothic or Teutonic nations. These northern peoples do not make special 218 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. individuality their object either in the form of the beautiful, of the true, or of the firm and just character. They make general indi- viduality their object, without any special aims, or with any and all aims. Individuality of this sort is called " daemonic " by Rosenkranz, because it does not consider any other motives than recognition of the peculiar self of the individual, counting as naught all possessions, wisdom, justice, sacred ordinances, and demanding recognition solely. This trait of the Gothic race re- appears always when its individuals settle on a border-land ot resort to partisan warfare. The chieftains of the Scottish bor- der-land, the Norse sea-kings, the Crusaders, the knights of Charlemagne, the Cid even the " cow-boy " desperadoes of our own border-land exhibit this supreme love of individuality for its own sake. Rome conquered the northern peoples, and then taught them civil law and military tactics. They then assumed the mastership of the world, and modern history begins.] I. ^Esthetic Education. 204. The system of individual education begins with the transfiguration of the immediate individuality into beauty. On the side of nature this system is pas- sive, for individuality is given through nature ; but on the side of spirit it is active, for spirit must determine to restrain itself within limits as the essence of beauty. [^Esthetic individuality involves a passive side, in so far as it presupposes the body as an organic product of nature. It pro- ceeds to cultivate its natural gifts by training through gymnas- tics, and this is its active side. Self-control, manifested physical- ly, produces what we call gracefulness, and gracefulness is the Greek ideal of beauty. It may be defined as the bodily mani- festation of freedom. Every limb of a Greek statue seems to be posed as it is because the soul within thus wills it. "Self- limitation " is a characteristic of Greek character moderation, the golden mean, being its manifestation.] 205. Here the individual is of value only in so far as he is beautiful. At first beauty is apprehended as TEE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 219 natural, but secondly it is carried over into the realm of spirit (i. e., into the institutions of civilization), and the Ygqod is posited as identical with the beautiful, j The ideal of aesthetic education demands always that there shall be also an external unity of the good with the beautiful, of spirit with Nature. We can not here give in detail the history of Greek education. It is the best known among us, and the literature in which it is worked out is very extensive. . . . We must content ourselves with mentioning the chief epochs which follow from the nature of its principle. [The beautiful was first realized in the living bodies of ath- letes (the " natural " phase of the beautiful). In the next place it was realized in social forms, civil and political. The " natu- ral " phase of the beautiful was developed in the games. There were the great national games : thejplympian, celebrated once in four years ; the Isthmian, once in two years ; the Nemean, once n; in two years ; the Pythian, once in four years ; so that nearly /,- every year there was a great national celebration in which it< L, ' was determined who of all Greece should carry off the prize at ; wrestling, boxing, and throwing the discus, the spear, or the javelin ; who could excel at running, leaping, the chariot-race, or the horseback-race. The preparation for these great national festivals took place in every village in the land every week and every day. The daily labor for the necessities of life was all well enough, but the Greek considered games of far greater im- portance. Games were in fact his highest religious ceremonies. / For he believed that his gods were supremely beautiful human V forms Jin whose likeness human beings were intended to be. The games were instituted to celebrate this likeness of man to the gods as well as to develop and increase this likeness. The people attended these games and in time each and all became good judges of what is beautiful and graceful in human form just as a community that attends horse-races comes to know at a glance the good points of a horse. Neighboring villages unite for more general games on special occasions. Then the entire state has its festival. The victors in each state go up to those great national games founded by heroes and demi-gods in order 220 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. to decide their relative claims for the leadership. Among a people thus educated as to the living work of art, it became possible for such artists to arise as Phidias, Polycletus, and Praxiteles. Their works could be appreciated as never since. The perfection in form and gracefulness of carriage reached by the victors in the games are fixed for eternity in shapes of stone, and no one is considered fully educated in any civilized land until he knows something about the Greek ideal of the beauti- ful. Greek education has thus resulted in preparing for us one phase of the world-education. The statues of gods and demi- gods that have come down to us cause our unbounded astonish- ment at their perfection of form. It is not their resemblance to living bodies, not their anatomical exactness that interests us, nor their so-called " truth to nature," but their gracefulness and serenity, their " classic repose." Whether these statues represent gods and heroes in action or in sitting and reclining postures, there is ever present this "repose," which means indwelling vital activity, and not mere rest as opposed to movement. They are full of movement, though at rest, and full of repose when in violent action. In their activity they manifest con- siderate purpose and perfect self-control. The repose is of the soul and not a physical repose. Even sitting and reclining figures for example, the so-called Theseus from the Parthenon, or the torso of the Belvedere are replete with will-power in every limb, so that the repose is seen to be voluntary self- restraint, and not the repose which accompanies the absence of vital energy.] 206. Education was in Greece thoroughly national. ) Education gave to the individual the consciousness that he was a Greek and no barbarian, a free man, and so subject only to the laws of the state, and not to the ca- price of any one person. Thus the nationality was freed at once from the despotic unity of the family and from the exclusiveness of caste, through the fact that it com- bined within itself the manifold talents of individuals of different races. Thus the Dorian race held as essen- tial, gymnastics ; the ^Eolians, music ; the lonians, po- THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 221 etry. The ^Eolian individuality was absorbed in the development of the two others, and the latter unfolded an internal antagonism. The education of the Dorian race was national education in the fullest sense of the word ; in it a uniform public education was given to all in common, even including the young women ; among the Ionic race it was also in its subjects taught truly national, but in its form it was select and private for those belonging to various great families and clans. The former, reproducing the Oriental phase of abstract unity, educated all in one mold ; the latter was the nurs- ery of particular individualities. [Greek education gave the individual the consciousness of freedom from the despotism of arbitrary will. The laws were the will for all. Neither family nor caste prevailed over the in- dividual. Since the (Amphictyonic/ League united the different Greek states without consolidating them, the distinctions of in- dividuality were preserved. While the Dorian races (of Sparta, Argos, and Messenia) held to gymnastics almost exclusively, the JEolians (of Bceotia and Thessaly) cultivated music as of equal importance, and the lonians (of Athens and the islands of the Archipelago) included poetry as especially essential. The Dori- ans tended toward the Persian form of Orientalism, educating all in one mold and repressing individualism. But, as the main object of its education was individualism, it contradicted itself by forcing all into one type. Especially in Athens we find the nursery of individuality in all its peculiarity.] ^07. (1) Education in the heroic age was without any systematic arrangement, and left each one perfectly free. They told the histories of the adventures of other heroes, and by their own deeds gave material for similar histories to others. The Greeks began where the last stage of the active system of education ended with piracy and the seizure of women. Swimming was a universal practice among the sea-dwelling Greeks, just as in 222 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. England the mistress of the ocean rowing is the most prominent exercise among the students, and for its encouragement public re- gattas are held. 7?*~~ [In the heroic age education fitted the individual for advent- ures, chiefly in the interest of the welfare of Hellas, however. Surrounding peoples were called " barbarians," and were thought to possess no rights that the Greek was bound to respect. The heroes belong to the maritime states, and are associated with ad- ventures on the sea. Hercules, who seems to have been sug- gested by the Phoenician Melkarth, is of a more humane type than the Phoenician educational ideal. There is a trace of a sun- myth in his twelve labors, showing Oriental origin, and doubtless the hero is a reminiscence, through several modifications, of the hero Izdubar and the famous god Mar-duk of the Euphrates Val- ley (the great " Tower of Babel " was dedicated to Mar-duk).] -f 208. (2) In the period of state-education proper, education developed itself systematically ; and gym- nastics, music, and grammatics, or literary culture, consti- tuted the general pedagogical elements. [Besides gymnastics and music, grammatics, or study of letters and literature, is named as an element of the later education.] 209. Gymnastics aimed not alone to render the body strong and agile, but^ far more, to produce in it a noble carriage, a dignified and graceful manner of ap- pearance. Each one fashioned his body into a living, diyjne statue, and in the public games the nation crowned the victor. (Note on the Greek relation of Afrrjs and enr/ijAas here omitted.) [Objects aimed at in gymnastics. See commentary on 204 and 205.] f 210. It was the task of music, by its rhythm and measure, to fill the soul with well-proportioned harmony. ) So highly did the Greeks prize music, and so variously did they practice it, that to be a musical man meant the same with them as to be a cultivated man with us. THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 223 Education in this branch was very painstaking, inas- much as music exercises a very powerful influence in developing discreet behavior and self-possession into a graceful naturalness. Among the Greeks we find a spontaneous delight in Nature a Jistcning to her voices, the tone of which reveals the internal qualities of things. In comparison with this tender sympathy of the Greeks / with Nature who heard in the murmur of the fountains, in the dashing of the waves, in the rustling of the trees, and in the cry on animals, the voice of divine personality the sight and hearing of thg Oriental people for Nature is dulL [Music expressed to the ear what gracefulness did to the eye a sense of rhythm. Rhythm is appearance of an internal meas- ure, a principle that regulates and harmonizes external appear- ance. The Greek temple was a petrified hymn to the gods (Goethe said that architecture is " frozen music "). Music did not have the narrow meaning that it possesses in our language. It referred to the nine Muses and to all rhythmical culture. In Hegel's " Philosophy of History " is found the most wonderful characterization of the Greeks. The ear with which they list- ened to the tones of Nature murmur of fountains, rustling of trees, cries of animals, etc. revealed to them the spiritual beings which they conceived to be behind natural appearances. The faculty of thus interpreting Nature was called /wurefo, as Hegel (p. 245, English translation) calls to our attention.] 211. The stringed instrument, the cithern, was pre- ferred by the Greeks to all wind instruments because it was not exciting, and allowed the accompaniment of recitation or song, i. e., a simultaneous spiritual activity on the part of the performer, in poetry. Flute-playing was first brought from Asia Minor after the victorious progress of the Persian war, and was especially culti- vated in Thebes. They sought in vain afterward to oppose the wild excitement raised by its influence. [The cithern (KiBdpa, pronounced nearly like guitar, which is its modern equivalent) was first preferred. The flute, used after- 22 1 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. ward in Thebes, is spoken of by the ancients as dangerous to the virtues of the people. Aristotle (" Politics," book viii, chap, vi) says, " The flute is not a moral instrument, but rather one that will inflame the passions." This surprises us.] 212. Grammar comprehended letters (jpafji/juira), i. e., the elements of literary culture, reading and writ- ing. Much attention was given to correct expression. The fables of JEsop, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, and later the tragic poets were read, and partly learned by heart. The orators borrowed from them often the orna- ment of their commonplace remarks. [The favorite reading-books were " ^Esop," the " Iliad," and " Odyssey," and later the tragic poets, certainly a rich collection.] 213. (3) The internal growth of what was peculiar to the Grecian state came to an end with the war for the Hegemony. Its dissolution began, and the philo- sophical period followed the political. The beautiful ethical life dissolved before the thoughts of the true, beautiful, and good. Individuality developed the habit of reflection, and undertook to subject freedom, the ex- isting regulations, laws and customs, to the criticism of reason, and to inquire whether these were in and for themselves universal and necessary. The Sophists, as teachers of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, under- took to extend the cultivation of reflection ; and this in- troduced instability where the moral customs had hith- erto obtained unquestioning obedience. Among the women, the Iletcerce undertook the same revolution ; in the place of the TTOTVIO. ^rr^p appeared the beauty, who stood apart from her sex in the consciousness of her charms and in the perfection of her varied culture, and exhibited herself to the public admiration. The tend- ency to idiosyncrasy often approached willfulness, ca- THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 225 price, and whimsicality, and opposition to the national moral sense. A Diogenes in a tub became possible ; the genial but graceful frivolity of an Alcibiades charmed, even though it was openly condemned ; a Socrates com- pleted the rupture in the popular consciousness, and urged upon the system of the old morality the pregnant ques- tion, whether virtue could be taught ? Socrates worked as a philosopher who was at the same time an educator. Pythagoras had imposed upon his pupils of both sexes the strict and narrow discipline of a common, exactly defined manner of living. Socrates, on the contrary, freed his disciples in general, those who conversed with him leading them to the consciousness of their own individuality. He introduced a revolution into the education of youth in that he taught them, instead of a thoughtless obedience to moral customs, to seek to comprehend things and events by their purpose in the world, and to rule their actions by deliberate consider- ation of ends and aims. Outwardly he conformed to the popular standard in politics, and in war (as at Mara- thon) ; but in the direction of his teaching he was sub- jective and modern. [The Peloponnesian war broke up the internal unity of Greece and put an end to the worship of the beautiful. Teachers of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy taught the youth to criticise existing customs and regulations. All simplicity disappeared. Individuality approached whimsicality. Socrates completed the revolution. He is the first to elevate blind adherence to custom to free moral action. He recognizes conscience or individual standard of right, and urges each one to rule his actions by re- flection upon what is just and expedient. Before his time divi- nation was resorted to, or an appeal was made to the oracle or to the auspices on the occasion of any new undertaking. The will looked to some external event some sign, portent, or omen 226 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. to guide its action. With Socrates begins the mode to which we are accustomed, the decision through reflection on several courses of action possible.] 214. This idea, that virtue could be taught, was realized especially by Plato and Aristotle ; the former inclining to Dorianism, the latter holding to the prin- ciple of individuality in nearly the modern sense. As regards the pedagogical means gymnastics, music, and grammar both philosophers substantially agreed. But, in the seizing of the pedagogical development in gen- eral, Plato held that the education of the individual be- longed to the state alone, because the individual was to devote himself wholly to the state. On the other hand, while Aristotle also holds that the state should, as a . general thing, conduct the education of its citizens, and that the individual should be trained for the interest of the state, yet he recognizes also the family, and the pe- culiarity of the individual, as positive powers, to which the state must accord relative freedom. Plato sacrifices the family to the state, and must therefore have sacred marriages, nurseries, and common and public educational institutions. Each one shall do only that which he is fitted to do, and shall work at this one employment so as to perfect his skill in it ; but to what he shall direct his energies, and in what he shall be instructed, shall be determined by the government, and the individuality consequently is not left free. Aristotle also will have for all the citizens a uniform, common, and public edu- cation ; but he allows, at the same time, independence to the family and self-determination to the individual, so that a sphere of private life presents itself within the state : a difference by means of which a much broader scope of individuality is possible. THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 227 These two philosophers have come to represent two very differ- ent directions in the science of education, which at intervals, in cer- tain stages of culture, reappear the one, the tyrannical guardian- ship of the state which assumes the work of education, tyrannical to the individual ; and the other, the free development of the liberal system of state-education, which directs itself against idiosyncrasy and fate. [Plato inclines to the Spartan form of civilization, and would have strict control exercised by wise men in power. Aristotle inclined to the direction of greater individualism, and his views are approximately those of the present day.] 215. The complete dissolution of the principle of aesthetic individuality takes place when the individual, in the decay of public life, in the disappearance of all beautiful morality, isolates himself, and seeks to gain in his isolation such strength that he can bear the changes of fortune with composure "ataraxy." The Stoics sought to attain this end by turning their attention in- ward into pure internality, and thus, by preserving the self-determination of abstract thinking and willing, maintaining their equanimity : the Epicureans endeav- ored to do the same, with this difference, however, that they strove after a positive satisfaction of the senses by filling them with concrete pleasurable sensations. As a consequence of this, the Stoics withdrew from practical life in order to maintain their independence of external conditions, and to preserve their mental quiet unbroken. The Epicureans lived in companies, because they height- ened the results of their pleasure - seeking principle through harmony of feeling and through the sweetness of friendship. In so far the Epicureans were Greeks and the Stoics Romans. With both, however, the beauty of manifestation was secondary to the immobility of the inner feeling. The plastic union of the good and the 17 228 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. beautiful was destroyed by the extremes of thinking and feeling. This was the advent of the Roman principle among the Greeks. [With the principle of Stoicism the Greek has finally deserted the aesthetic standpoint and arrived at the Roman principle. To be imperturbable (" ataraxy ") in the midst of calamity is the object of both Stoics and Epicureans. The former strives, by cultivating his will through self-denial and his intellect through reflection, to build for himself a world in the depths of his soul secure from external events. The Epicurean seeks to make the most of the world as it actually is, and to make sure of happiness, but he takes care to hold his feelings under restraint, and, like the Stoic, to create his happiness by thinking and willing.] 216. The educational significance of Stoicism and Epicureanism consists in this, that, after the public moral life was sundered from the private, the individual began to educate himself, through philosophical culture, into stability of character, for which reason the Roman emperors particularly disliked the Stoics. At many times, a devotion to the Stoic philosophy was sufficient to make one suspected. But, at last, a noble emperor, in order to win himself a hold in the chaos of things, was forced himself to become a Stoic, and took refuge in the inaccessible calm of the depths of thought occu- pied in reflecting on its own nature, and of the will en- gaged in restraining itself by ethical maxims. Stoics and Epicureans both had what we call an ideal. The Stoics used for this ideal the expression, " kingdom " ; as Horace says, sarcastically, "Sapiens est rex nisi pituita molesta est" [With Stoicism and Epicureanism, education assumes a new significance, because both depend on careful training of intellect and will. The early stages of Greek life were spontaneous ; edu- cation simply enjoined the following of blind custom. Heredi- TilE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 229 tary instincts rendered it all easy and natural. Greece came under Roman power, and this contradiction between native Greek customs and the course of educated thought and feeling became very marked. Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic emperor, whose " Meditations " we prize so much, rendered Stoicism ac- ceptable with the government of Rome.] CHAPTER V. SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION (continued). II. Practical Education. 217. THE outcome of the dissolution of the beau- tiful individuality is the earnest individuality that di- rects all its labor to the achievement of purposes useful to the state, which, on the one hand, considers carefully end and means, and, on the other hand, seeks to realize the end through the corresponding means, and in this effort subordinates mere beauty of form to usefulness. The practical individuality is therefore directed to the achievement of an external object, since it is not its own purpose like the beautiful, as it was even in the case of the Stoics and Epicureans, but has an external object, and finds its satisfaction not so much in this after it is attained as in the striving for its attainment. [The Roman makes usefulness rather than beauty the supreme end. He looks upon things and events as means to ends. But the end or object for which all things, even the lives of individ- uals, are means, is Rome. While the individuality of the Greek is educated for beauty, and hence for its own culture and not for an external end and aim, the Roman individuality is educated for the preservation and prosperity of the state. But in this 230 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. we must not forget that the Roman differs from the Persian who is educated for the conquest of boundaries and the extension of the sway of the nation. The Persian does not distinguish be- tween the state in the abstract and the king in the concrete. But Romans always make this distinction, and never confound the abstract sovereignty to which all owe their lives and prop- erty with individuals in authority. Even the most absolute dic- tator is simply a means and not an end ; he must " see that the republic does not suffer detriment." Therefore it is that the Roman education is an " individual system," and not a one-sided "active" or "passive" system. The historical myths and le- gends relate that Rome was settled by fugitives and outlaws on the border-land of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Etruscans. This colluvies, as Livy calls it, the dregs of the surrounding peoples, must unite for its own safety, and form a govern- ment on a purely artificial basis. All other nations had united on a religious basis. But these peoples had different religions and different manners and customs. The political bond, pure and simple, is set up as the highest. It becomes the object of religion in fact. Another interesting feature is the fact that compact or contract is the essence of the Roman spiritual life. Founded not on religion, but on mutual agreement for common safety, tho Roman state exists as a sort of higher will of each individual. Two or more wills unite and consolidate in a sort of higher, re- sultant will. Such is a contract. To sum up Roman education in a word, one may say that his idea of the all-importance of a contract and the implicit obedience which the individual should render it, is the great educative influence always present with the Roman in the republic. On the basis of this idea arises the noble patriotism which the citizen displays when he offers up his life and property for the safety and honor of Rome. On the same basis arises the opposite feeling of private right, the intense enjoyment of private property, and the network of civil laws which protect it. The Roman unites in his consciousness these two antithetic notions : (a) utter devotion of life and property for the state; (b) absolute freedom and independence within the limits of his private property. In his mind he reconciles and adjusts these two relations the one for Rome, the other for him- self. This makes the Roman character peculiar in the history of the world. There is this dualism in it.] THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 231 218. The education of this system begins with strict simplicity. But, after it has attained its object, it gives itself up to the pursuit of aesthetic culture as a recreation, not for the sake of producing works of art, but in order to enjoy them and without any further ob- ject. What was to the Greeks a real delight in the beautiful became therefore with the Romans simply an aesthetic amusement, and as such must finally become wearisome. The Roman earnestness of individuality made for itself a new object in mysticism, which was distinguished from the original one in that it concealed in itself a mystery and exacted an activity that was partly theoretical and partly ascetic. [^Esthetic culture, which was religion with the Greeks, there- fore becomes mere idle amusement with the Romans. There are three epochs in Roman education : (1) the strictly simple edu- cation of the republic; (2) the education for amusement and the enjoyment of fine arts ; (3) the education Into secret rites and mysteries which took place in the latter days, when the special religions of all nations had been mingled, and a tendency to eclecticism prevailed.] 219. (1) The first epoch of Roman education, as properly Roman, was the juristic-military education of the republic. The end and aim of the Roman was Rome ; and Rome, as from the beginning an eclectic state, could endure only through the adaptation of its laws and external politics to hold together the composite elements of the nation, and subordinate each interest to the interest of the whole. It bore the same contradic- tion within itself as in its external attitude. The latter forced it into an attitude of violence against neighboring nations ; the plebeians were likewise opposed to the pa- tricians in the same attitude of violence, for they robbed 232 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. them gradually of all their privileges. On this account education directed itself partly to giving a knowledge of the law, partly to training for war. The boys were obliged to commit to memory and recite the laws of the Twelve Tables, and all the young men were subject to military service. The Roman possessed no individuality of native growth, but one formed through the inter- mingling of various national stocks ; fugitives collecting on the Roman hills furnishing the population. This developed a very great energy. Hence from the first he was attentive to his own conduct ; he watched jeal- ously over the limits that bounded his rights from the rights of others, measured his strength, moderated him- self, and constantly guarded himself. In contrast with the careless cheerfulness of the Greeks, he therefore ap- pears gloomy. The Latin tongue is crowded with expressions which paint pres- ence of mind, effort at reflection, a critical attitude of mind, the im- portance of personal control : as gravitas morum, sui compos esse, sibi constare, au-sterUas, vir strenuus, vir probus, vitam honestam gerere, sibimet ipse imperare, etc. The Etruscan element imparted to this earnestness a peculiarly stiff, ceremonial, solemn character. The Roman was no longer, like the Greek, unembarrassed in the presence of naturalness. He was ashamed of nudity; verecundia, pudor, were genuinely Roman. Vitam prceferre pudori was disgrace- ful. On the contrary, the Greek gave to Greeks a festival in exhibit- ing the splendor of his naked body, and the inhabitants of Crotona erected a statue to Philip solely because he was perfectly beautiful, Simply to be beautiful, only beautiful, was enough for the Greek. But a Roman, in order to be recognized, must have done something for Rome : se bene de republica mereri. [Rome, being an eclectic state, could exist only by subordinat- ing all interests to the supreme one of the safety of the state. The individual may cherish all other interests as private inter- ests, but must not allow them to interfere with the public cause. Here, for the first time, is freedom of the individual in such THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 233 matters as manners and customs and modes of religious worship that were peculiar to the separate tribes which united to form Rome. Each family had its own " household gods." Strange, too, we find ancestor-worship in Rome in almost as pure a form as it exists in China. It seems to have been arrested in its de- velopment by the establishment of an artificial abstraction, the republic as absolute. Education had to make the youth ac- quainted with the written law of the " Twelve Tables," which recited the fundamental limitations of private freedom and pos- session that are rendered necessary to secure the public weal. These laws concerned chiefly the forms of transference of proper- ty and the forms of recovery. The individuality of the Roman is realized in private property through the fact that the supreme power, political and religious, re-enforces his private will and protects it in its rights within the limits prescribed in the code of laws. Private ownership in this sense is a participation on the part of the particular will of the individual in the universal or collective will of the state. The other side of education was the preparation for military service. Most remarkable is the vocabulary of Latin words expressing the gravity, soberness, austerity, probity, honesty, self-restraint, composed manners, etc., of this people. His (the Roman's) mind is divided between the private and the public interests, and always under a sort of constraint never spontaneous and free like the Greek in early ages before Greek philosophy had super- induced reflection. All modern peoples that have entered civili- zation inherit from Rome this double consciousness of the self and the public interest, but not in the contradictory form which it once assumed. Christianity solved its contradiction by giving to it an infinite ground in the doctrine of the divine-human and of the atonement.] 220. In the first education of children the Roman mother was especially influential, so that woman with the Romans took generally a more moral, a higher, and a freer position. It is worthy of remark that, while the beautiful woman set the Greeks at variance, among the Romans, through her ethical authority, she acted as reconciler. 234: PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. [Woman in Greece as the ideal of the beautiful in the person of Helen set states at variance. In Rome the daughters of the Sabines, stolen by the Romans, reconciled the conflicting armies. In Rome woman took a higher and freer position.] 221. The mother of the Roman helped to form his character ; the father undertook the work of instruc- tion. When, in his fifteenth year, the boy exchanged the toga prcetextata for the toga virilis, he was usually sent to some relative, or to some respectable jurist, as his guardian, to learn thoroughly, under his guidance, the laws and political usages of the state ; with the sev- enteenth year began military service. All education was for a long time entirely a private affair. On account of the necessity of the mechanical unity which war demands in its evolutions, the greatest stress was laid upon obe- dience. In its restricted sense instruction was given in reading, writing, and arithmetic ; the last being, on account of its usefulness, more esteemed by the Romans than by the Greeks, who gave more time to geometry. The schools, very characteristically, were called Ludi, because their work was, in distinction from other occu- pations, regarded simply as a recreation, as play. The Roman recognized with pride this distinction between the Greek and himself ; Cicero's introduction to his " Essay on Oratory " expresses it. To be practical was the one result aimed at by the reflective character of the Romans, which was always proposing to itself new objects and seeking the means for their attainment ; which loved moderation, not to secure beauty thereby, but respected it as a means for a happy success (medium tenuere beat-i) ; which did not possess serene self-limitation, or o-w^poa-wtj, but rather carefully estimated quid raleant hi>,meri, quid ferre recusent ; but which, as a matter of course, went far beyond the Greeks in persistency of will, in constantia ammi. The schools were at first held publicly in booths at the intersection of streets ; hence the name trivium. Very significant for the Roman is the predicate which he conferred upon THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 235 theoretical subjects when he called them artes bonce, optimce, libera- lex, ingenues, etc., and brought forth the practical element in them (their relation to the will). [The influence of the Roman mother over her son is well portrayed in Shakespeare's " Coriolanus." At fifteen the Roman youth studied the laws ; at seventeen entered the army. Obedi- ence emphasized. Branches of study. Schools called by the Romans places for sport and recreation (ludi) ; by Greeks, places of leisure (trxo^i). The difference between the Roman and the Greek in the matter of self-possession of individuality; the Roman has constancy of purpose ; the Greek, serene self -limita- tion, i. e., moderation and self-control in his reaction against impulses and external incitements.] 222. (2) But the practical education could no longer keep its ground after it had become acquainted with the aesthetic. The conquest of Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt made necessary, in a practical point of view, the acquisition of the Grecian tongue, so that these lands, so permeated with Grecian culture, might be governed effectively. The Roman of family and prop- erty, therefore, took into his service Greek nurses and teachers who should give to his children, from their earliest years, instruction in the Greek tongue. It is the first instance in the history of education in which a nation has undertaken to teach a foreign tongue to its youth. Moreover, the usefulness of it in political and other affairs caused the study of Greek rhetoric, so that not only in the deliberations of the senate and in the assem- blies of the people, but in pleadings before the courts, the Roman citizen might gain his cause by its aid. Whatever effort the Roman government made to pre- vent the invasion of the Greek rhetorician was all in vain. The Roman youth sought this very useful knowl- 236 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. edge even abroad, e. g., in the flourishing school of rhet- oric on the island of Rhodes. At last, even the study of philosophy commended itself to the practical Roman, in order that he might obtain consolation amid the disappointments of life. When his practical activities did not bring him any re- sult, he devoted himself in his poverty to abstract con- templation. The Greeks desired philosophy for its own sake ; the ataraxy of the Stoics, Epicureans, and skeptics even wished to be considered the result of a necessary principle ; but the Roman, on the contrary, wished to lift himself by philosophemes above trouble and mis- fortune. This direction which philosophy took is noteworthy, not alone in Cicero and Seneca, but at the fall of ihe Roman Empire, when Boethius wrote in prison his immortal work on the " Consolation of Philosophy." [After the conquest of Greece and the necessary introduction of the study of the Greek language in order to rule Egypt, Asia, and places where that language had been carried by the Alex- andrian conquests, the Roman education changes rapidly, and introduces literary studies. The useful art of rhetoric, so neces- sary to the politician and the barrister, initiated this change. Greek teachers of rhetoric taught the most eminent Roman politicians. Apollonius of Rhodes taught both Cicero and Cassar. Afterward the poets and historians, and finally the philosophy of Greece, came to be studied.] 223. The earnestness which pursued a definite ob- ject degenerated into its opposite. The idleness of the wealthy Roman, who felt himself to be the lord of a world without limits, led to desire for enjoyment and dissipation, which, in its entire want of moderation, abused Nature. The most elegant form of the educa- tion that became prevalent at this period was that in THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 237 belles-lettres ', which also for the first time came to belong to the sphere of education. There had been a degenera- tion of art in India and Greece, but never an artistic tri- fling. But in Rome there arose a pursuit of art in order to win a certain consideration in social position, and to create a species of recreation adapted to the ennui of a soul satiated with sensual debauchery. Such a treatment of art is unworthy, for it no longer recognizes its inde- pendent significance, but subordinates it as a means to personal gratification. Literary salons then appear. In the introduction to his " Catiline," Sallust has painted excel- lently this complete revolution in the Roman education. The younger Pliny in his letters furnishes ample material to illustrate for us this pursuit of belles-lettres. In Nero it became insanity. We should transgress our prescribed limits did we enter here into par- ticulars. Its analysis shows the perversion of the aesthetic into the practical, the aesthetic losing thereby its proper nature. But the Roman could not avoid this perversion, because, according to his original tendency, he could not move except toward the utile et ho- nestum. [Mere literature, as means of amusement, and trifling with matters of art, now entered the education of the idle Roman possessed of wealth. He did not attain the genuine aesthetic, but rather destroyed it by perverting its aim to mere amusement. The Greek had produced it in a religious mood. The Roman enjoyed it as an idle pastime.] 224. (3) But this pursuit of fine art, this mere showy display, must at last weary the Roman. He sought for himself an object to which he could devote himself again with some degree of exertion. His do- minion over the world was assured, and conquest as an object could no more charm him. National religion had fallen with the destruction of the national indi- vidualities. The soul looked out over its political life into an empty void. It sought to establish a relation 238 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. between itself and another world filled with imaginary spiritual powers. In place of the depreciated nationality and its religion there enters the eclecticism of mystic orders. There had been, it is true, here and there, in national religions certain secret signs, rites, words, and meanings ; but now, for the first time in the history of the world, there appeared secret organizations as edu- cational societies, which concerned themselves only with the private individual and were indifferent to nation- ality. Everything had been profaned by the roughness of violence. They believed no longer in the old gods, and the superstitious faith in ghosts and evil spirits be- came only a thing fit to frighten children with. Thus they took refuge in secrecy, which for Uase men had a piquant charm. [When the Koman Empire had conquered the world, she had at the same time destroyed the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the city of Rome which made it politically sacred. The rights of citizen- ship were conferred by the emperors on the inhabitants of cities in all parts of the world. The peculiar religions of the con- quered nations were adopted and recognized and their gods trans- ported to Rome and set up in the Pantheon. Such toleration of all religions enforced on the peoples composing the Empire necessarily sapped the foundations of religious education and caused a wide-spread indifference as to sacred matters. One set of heathen gods is just as good as another, and neither of them receives the worship of the educated Roman. Accord- ingly, the religious sentiment takes refuge in a sort of mystic pantheism, using especially Persian and Egyptian forms. The worship of Mithras and Isis became common.] 225. The education of the mysteries was twofold, theoretical and practical. In the theoretical we find a regular gradation of symbols and symbolical acts through which one seemed gradually to approach the revelation of the secret ; the practical contained a regular grada- THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION. 239 tion of ascetic actions [disciplinary training] alternating with an abandonment to wild orgies. These two forms of education elevated one from the rank of the novice to that of the initiated. The degrees of the orders formed an instrumentality for the development of ethi- cal growth, and this form has been retained in the edu- cation of all such secret worship, -mutatis mutandis, down to the Illuminati. In the Roman Empire, its Persian element was the worship of Mithras; its Egyptian, that of Isis; its Grecian, the Pythagorean doctrines. All these three, however, were much mingled with each other. The Roman legions, who really no longer had any native country, spread these artificial religions throughout the whole world. The breaking away from established forms led often to clairvoyance, which was not yet understood, and to belief in miracles. Apollonius of Tyana, the messiah of heathenism, is the principal figure in this group ; and, in comparison with him, Jamblichus appears only as an enthHsiast, and Alexander of Abonoteichus as an ordinary impostor. [Secret societies with graded symbolism and secret initiations celebrated the esoteric or inner meaning which was supposed to underlie all religions, especially the Persian and Egyptian. Those who seized the deep meaning called themselves the illu- minated. In 1776 Adam Weishaupt founded the Illuminati re- ferred to in the text. Apollonius of Tyana (A. D. 30-70) collected a mass of doctrines from the East, resembling what passes for " esoteric Buddhism " or " theosophy " in our literature of 1886. Jamblichus was an extravagant Neo-Platonist, holding the doc- trines of the pre-existence of the soul and the descent of creation by a lapse (" fall " or degradation) from the Absolute. Alex- ander of Abonoteichus (in Paphlagonia), a notorious sorcerer, about the middle of the second century A. D., who gave himself out for a prophet. His life was written by Lucian.] III. Abstract Individual Education. 226. What the declining nations in their despair sought for in these mysteries was individuality, which 240 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. in its special singularity is conscious of the universality of the rational world of institutions as its own essence. This individuality existed more immediately in the Ger- manic race, but, nevertheless, on account of its peculiar nature, it attained its true actualization first in Christian- ity. It can be here only pointed out that the Germanic people most thoroughly, in opposition to Nature, to men, and to the gods, felt themselves to be independent, as Tacitus says, " Securi adversus homines, securi adversus Deos." This individuality, which had for its object only itself, must necessarily be destroyed, and was saved only by Christianity, which overcame and enlightened its daemonic and defiant spirit. We can not speak here of a system of education. Respect for personality, the free acknowledgment of the claims of woman, the loy- alty to the leader chosen by themselves, loyalty to their chosen companions (the idea of comradeship) these features all deserve to be well noted, because from them arose the feudalism of the middle ages. What Csesar and Tacitus tell us of the education of the Germans ex- presses only the free play allowed itself by individuality, which in its rudimentary savage state had no other form in which to manifest itself than wars of conquest. To the Roman there was something daemonic in the German. He perceived dimly in him his future, his master. When the Ro- mans first met the Cimbri and Teutons in the field, their commander had to accustom them gradually to the fearful sight of the wild, giant-like forms. [The individualism of the Germanic race is called " abstract " by Rosenkranz because that race loved individuality pure and simple. They cared neither for men nor gods, having that in- toxication of bravery which utter desperation gives. The Ger- manic individuality is here called daemonic (not demonic), in the Greek sense of " possessed by a spirit." It is a sort of madness THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 241 or frenzy the Berserker rage, described in Kingsley's " Hypa- tia," as possessing the Norsemen in battle. (See 203.) They had loyalty to their friends and leaders, and acknowledged the claims of woman. The tragedy of Brunhild in the old Norse Edda shows how deeply prophetic was their sentiment regarding woman.] CHAPTER VI. THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 227. THE system of national education was founded on the substantial basis of the family institution ; its second phase is the division of the nation by means of division of labor which it makes permanent in castes ; its third stage presents the free antithesis of the laity and clergy ; next it makes war, immortality, and trade, by turns, its end ; after this, it sets up beauty, patriotic duty, and the immediateness of individuality, as the essence of human nature ; and at last dissolves the unity of nationality in the consciousness that all nations are really one since they are all human be- ings. In the intermixture of races in the Roman world arises the conception of the human race, the genus hu- manum. Education had become eclectic: the Roman legions leveled the national distinctions. In the waver- ing of all objective morality, the necessity of self -edu- cation in order to the formation of character appeared ever more and more clearly ; but the conception, which lay at the foundation, was always, nevertheless, that of Roman, Greek, or German education. But in the midst of these nations another system had striven for develop- 242 PARTICULAR SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. ment, and this did not base itself on the natural bond of nationality, but made this, for the first time, only a sec- ondary thing, and made the direct relation of man to God its chief idea. In this system God himself is the teacher. He manifests to man his will as law, to which he must unconditionally conform, for no other reason than that he is the Lord and man is his servant who can have no other will than His. The obedience of man is, therefore, in this system mere mechanical submission to authority, until through experience he gradually attains to the knowledge that the will of God has in it the very essence of his own will. Descent, talent, events, work, beauty, courage all these are indifferent things com- pared with the subjection of the human to the divine will. To believe in God is the way to be well-pleasing to him. Without this unity with God, what is natural in national descent is of no value. According to its form of manifestation, Judaism is not so advanced as the Greek spirit. It is not beautiful, but rather gro- tesque. But in its essence, as the religion of the con- tradiction between the absolute, divine ideal and the finite and the imperfect existence of the world, it takes a step beyond Nature, which it perceives to be created by an absolute, conscious, and reasonable will ; while the Greek concealed in a myth concerning the birth of Gaea, his mother-earth, the fact of the dependence of all Nature on a higher source. The Jews have been pre- served in the midst of all other civilizations by the elas- tic power of the thought of God as one who was free from the control of Nature. The Jews have a patriotism equal to that of the Romans. The Maccabees, for ex- ample, were not inferior to the Romans in greatness. THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION. 243 Abraham is the genuine Jew because he is the genuinely faith- ful man. He does not hesitate to obey the horrible and inhuman command of his God. Circumcision was made the token of the national unity, but the nation may assimilate members to itself from other nations through this rite. The essential condition of membership in the chosen people always lies in belief in a spiritual relation to which the natural relation is secondary. The Jewish nation makes proselytes, and these are widely different from the Socii of the Romans or the Metoeci (MTO