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 ?, a 
 
 VINEYARD" 
 CULTURE 
 
 IMPROVED AND CHEAPENED 
 
 A. DU BREUIL 
 
 \ \ 
 Professor of Viticulture and Arboriculture in the Royal School of Arts and Trades 
 
 PARIS 
 TRANSLATED BY E. AND C. PARKER 
 
 Of Longworth's Wine House 
 
 With Notes and Adaptations to American Culture 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN A. WARDER 
 
 Author of "American Pomology " 
 
 LIBRAE Y 
 
 I 
 
 ,44 ILLUSTRATION^ ^ ^ U S I T Y Q F il 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
 ROBERT CLARKE & Co. PUBLISHERS, 65 WEST FOURTH STREET 
 1867 
 
1 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, ^X 
 
 ROBERT CLARKE AND COMPANY, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the 
 Southern District of Ohio. 
 
 "/*/ 
 
etc 
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 IN attempting to adapt this manual to the wants of 
 American vine planters, the Editor has been actuated by 
 a desire to add something to the usefulness of the work when 
 it is presented to his countrymen, in its new form. 
 
 Prof. Du Breuil is one who deservedly stands high in the 
 horticultural world, and he has been honored with the post 
 of teacher of vine and tree culture in the Imperial School of 
 Arts and Trades of France, and has traveled in the provinces 
 as a lecturer employed by the Government. His published 
 works are standard. 
 
 The vastness of the interest arising from the cultivation of 
 the vine in France can only be judged by the immense returns 
 of the products made to the Government. This is also shown 
 by the production of such magnificent works as the large folio 
 of VICTOR RENDU, or the Ampelograpbie Universelle of COUNT 
 ODART The former volume, which may be seen in the Agri- 
 cultural Library at Columbus, Ohio, has a map of France, 
 showing the portions devoted to viticulture, and a list of the 
 regions in which the vine is cultivated, from which it appears 
 that only eleven of the eighty-six provinces have no vineyards. 
 Twenty-seven produce common wine, and forty yield a 
 superior article. In the south, between latitude 43 and 44 
 
 (Hi) 
 
Editor's Preface. 
 
 degrees, are produced the Roussillon, the Languedoc, and the 
 heavy wines of Provence. As we proceed northward, the 
 vineyards produce a lighter wine, but possessed of great 
 delicacy. 
 
 To give an idea of the extent of this culture and its amounts, 
 the following statement is made on the authority of VICTOR 
 RENDU : 
 
 In 1857 there were 2,000,000 hectares occupied as vine- 
 yards ; nearly 5,000,000 acres. The produce amounted to 
 30,783,223 hectolitres, over 813,000,000 gallons of wine, and 
 1,085,802 hectrolitres, nearly 29,000,000 gallons of brandy. 
 The annual value being 478,088,302 francs, or nearly 91,000- 
 
 000 dollars. 
 
 In this country vine culture is yet in its infancy, but our 
 people have made rapid strides, now that they have started in 
 the right direction, and there is no calculating the extent which 
 our vineyards may attain within a few years. The character- 
 istic energy and intelligence, with abundant wealth, have been 
 embarked in the business, and the efforts must be crowned 
 with successful results. Still we have much to learn, and for 
 want of proper information and attention to the pointings of 
 experience guided by common sense, many will fail. 
 
 When I say we have at length started in the right direction 
 
 1 mean to refer to the errors of the early vine planters, who 
 attempted to naturalize and acclimatize the foreign grapes, 
 and who signally failed. Now, we are producing new varieties 
 oy crossing and selecting the species and varieties indigenous to 
 the country, which are better adapted to our soils and climate, 
 and among the numbers that are annually presented to the 
 
Editor's Preface. 
 
 public, there will, no doubt, be some that are eminently fitted 
 for our cultivation. The great difficulty will soon be to make 
 a judicious selection of those we wish to plant. 
 
 In reference to this subject, Mr. T. S. KENNEDY, President 
 of the Kentucky Horticultural Society remarks : " Grape 
 culture in this country is infinitely more profitable than it is 
 in Europe, where from a single species more than two thou- 
 sand good varieties have been produced, and upwards of four 
 hundred of them are now cultivated in France and Spain 
 exclusively for wine."* He supports his statement by the 
 following statistics, taken from Harasthy's work. 
 
 THE AVERAGE WINE PRODUCTION OF EUROPE REDUCED 
 TO AMERICAN ACRES AND GALLONS. 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Millions 
 gallons. 
 
 Gallons 
 per acre 
 
 Austria, and her provinces 
 Greece, and her islands 
 
 2,685,950 
 
 4.1.78 I 
 
 7'4f 
 
 8 
 
 265 
 IQC 
 
 Italy 
 
 2,887,970 
 
 1,275 
 
 44 1 
 
 France ... 
 
 r oi 7 774. 
 
 884 
 
 176 
 
 Spain . 
 
 o c c 004. 
 
 14.4. 
 
 I ?2 
 
 Portugal 
 
 278.7 ci 
 
 26 
 
 IO7 
 
 Belgium, Switzerland, Ionian Islands . . 
 German States . 
 
 112,212 
 
 j?8 118 
 
 4 
 
 C2 
 
 33 
 
 I4-O 
 
 
 
 
 
 The aggregate number of acres under vine culture in 
 Europe is 12,285,780. 
 
 The total average yield of wine per year is 3,107,039,000 
 gallons. 
 
 The wines, at twenty-five cents per gallon, are worth, total 
 annual value, $776,759,750. 
 
 * " Western Ruralist," Louisville, Ky., Vol. I, No. i. April, 1867. 
 f Of these 714,000,000 gallons, Hungary produces some 450,000,000. 
 
VI 
 
 Editor's Preface. 
 
 In Germany, the average income per acre, at twenty-five 
 cents per gallon, amounts to $37 18. 
 
 In the other countries, the average per acre, $63 98. 
 
 But taking each country separately, their annual average 
 production of wines amounts, at twenty-five cents per gallon, 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Total Amount. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Austria, and her provinces . . 
 
 $178 coo ooo 
 
 $ 66 46 
 
 Greece, and Grecian Islands 
 
 2,040,000 
 
 4.8 82 
 
 Italy 
 
 7 1 8, 7 co, ooo 
 
 I IO 77 
 
 
 221,000,000 
 
 44 07 
 
 Spain 
 
 76,1 2C, OOO 
 
 77 02 
 
 
 6,77 C,OOO 
 
 26 7O 
 
 Belgium, Switzerland, Ionian Islands . . 
 German States .... 
 
 942,500 
 
 I 7 026 2 CO 
 
 8 50 
 
 77 l8 
 
 
 
 
 As yet the high prices of grapes and of wines in this 
 country, and the large yield per acre, have been such that the 
 gross earnings of the land appear to sustain the assertion of 
 Mr. Kennedy, though when our gross product approximates 
 that of older wine countries, it can not be doubted that the 
 returns to the farmer will be greatly diminished; at the same 
 time the cheaper production will be greeted as a boon to the 
 consumer, and this is a consummation which is much to be 
 desired. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty gallons per acre has been considered 
 a very moderate estimate of the average crops of our vine- 
 yards, four times that amount having been produced, and one 
 dollar a gallon is certainly a very low figure for the product. 
 But the true friends of the vineyard interest look forward to 
 the time of much cheaper production. 
 
Editor's Preface. vii 
 
 The careful attention of the reader is asked to the teachings 
 of Prof. Du BREUIL, from whom we may learn much that is 
 useful, though we may not be inclined to adopt literally all 
 of his suggestions. The American workman is not a machine, 
 blindly to follow in the nits that have been worn for him by 
 his predecessors, nor hastily to adopt suggestions : it is our 
 boast that we have intelligent labor, which ever becomes 
 skilled labor the thinking laborer has greatly the advantage 
 over the mere routinist, and though he may not be a good 
 subject, the American workman makes a- capital sovereign, who 
 always prefers to direct his own efforts, and will often im- 
 prove upon the teachings of his professor. 
 
 To distinguish the Editorial matter from the text it is set 
 in smaller type, and within brackets. 
 
 JNO. A. WARDER. 
 
 North Bend, 0., April, 1867. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE culture of the vine, as now practiced, exists under 
 circumstances which have necessarily influenced the 
 Various processes of which it is composed. In those regions 
 which are at a distance from the great centers of consumption, 
 such as at Languedoc, 1'Aunis, Saintonge, the want of a mar- 
 ket and the difficulty of transportation have reduced the price 
 of wine to the minimum. Hence it has become necessary to 
 reduce the expenses of cultivation as much as possible. The 
 vines are not staked, but cover the ground with their shoots ; 
 to diminish the expense of transportation to market, the wines 
 are distilled into brandy. 
 
 Burgundy, Bordelais, Champaign, Maconnais, Beaujolais, 
 etc., are more favorably situated as to outlets for their products ; 
 they have a denser population, and their climate is more favor- 
 able for the production of wines of high quality, commanding 
 a better price. Here it is justifiable to expend more capital 
 in the culture and management of the vineyard, the vines are 
 set more closely, and are trained upon stakes. 
 
 However, within a few years, the circumstances that existed 
 at the introduction of vine planting, and which then modified 
 its arrangements, have been materially changed in several 
 respects. The price of labor is not only exorbitant, but in 
 many localities hands can scarcely be obtained. Hence the 
 viii 
 
Author's Preface. ix 
 
 absolute necessity of substituting the plow for the hoe, wher- 
 ever that implement can be used. Then, again, the constantly 
 increasing price of stakes must require the adoption of some 
 cheaper mode of support. Railroads, which penetrate every 
 portion of the empire, have opened markets to the most re- 
 mote parts, and have thus enhanced the value of the products ; 
 this, in the south, will tend greatly to diminish the produc- 
 tion of brandies, because of the greater value of the wine. 
 
 These increased facilities of transportation have induced 
 great changes in the culture of some vineyards. Thus the 
 cheap wines of Languedoc are now easily carried to Switzer- 
 land, and come into competition with those of the Jura, 
 which are thus almost driven from the market. It will there- 
 fore be necessary to cheapen the production in the vineyards 
 of that region. Elsewhere, as in 1'Aunis and Saintonge, one 
 half of the northern wines are mixed with a small proportion 
 of brandy, flooding the market under the name of "Cognac,"* 
 very sensibly lowering the price of brandy wines. In those 
 regions it will be necessary to substitute, to a large extent, 
 vines that will produce good table wines, in place of those 
 choice varieties now grown. 
 
 The increasing value of choice wines should direct our 
 attention to the inquiry whether it would not be profitable to 
 endeavor to shelter the vines that produce them, and thus to 
 protect them from sudden changes of temperature, which so 
 often diminish the vintage. 
 
 The various modes of cultivating a vineyard in different 
 places are no doubt the result of long-continued observation 
 
 *Not Cognac Brandy but Cognac Winct. 
 
Author's Preface. 
 
 and experience, and should therefore be regarded with con- 
 sideration, but it can not be claimed that the management has 
 reached its highest degree of perfection, nor that it may not 
 be much benefited by the sciences which have made such 
 valuable advances during the last half century. 
 
 These considerations have induced me to believe that the 
 time has arrived when we should bring to the vineyard all the 
 improvements that are adapted to its management. These 
 are the objects that we have endeavored to attain in the book 
 we now offer to the public ; which is, indeed, simply the re- 
 production of the lessons upon this important subject which 
 have been presented at the School of Arts and Trades, and in 
 the several Departments of France where the lectures were 
 repeated. 
 
 We shall successively examine the various operations of 
 vine culture, and shall endeavor to modify them in the fol- 
 lowing particulars : 
 
 1st. The substitution of the plow for manual labor. 
 
 2d. The use of wire trellises instead of stakes. 
 
 3d. Shelter from inclement weather. 
 
 The various processes of cultivation being modified as much 
 as possible, we shall make the application to each of our 
 principal vineyards in the different regions into which we 
 have been called during the ten years of our traveling 
 instruction. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I. CHOICE OF SITE FOR A VINEYARD. 
 
 PACK 
 
 Climate, - - 2 
 
 Latitude, - 3 
 
 Soil, - 6 
 
 Situation, - - - 1 1 
 
 Exposure, - 17 
 
 II. PREPARATORY OPERATIONS. 
 
 Fences, 20 
 
 Roads, - - 23 
 
 III. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Drainage, - 25 
 
 Breaking up the Ground, - - 29 
 
 Cultivated Lands accessible to the Plow, - 30 
 Waste, Uncultivated, or Swamp Lands, accessible to 
 
 the Plow, - - 34 
 
 Steep, Hilly Lands, inaccessible to the Plow, 35 
 
 Breaking up in Strips or Ditches, - - 35 
 
 Trenching in Squares or Pits, - 36 
 
 Lands Rocky near the Surface, - 36 
 
 Hill -Sides covered with Rocks, - 37 
 
 Vineyards recently Planted, - 39 
 
 IV. CHOICE OF VINES. 
 
 List of Varieties, - 42 
 
 American Grapes, - "47 
 
 (xi) 
 
xn Contents. 
 
 CHOICE OF VINES Continued. PAGE 
 
 List of American Varieties, - 48 
 
 Plants Producing the Best Wines, - - 62 
 
 V. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 
 
 Seeds, - - 65 
 
 Cuttings, - - -----67 
 
 Nursery for liaising Cuttings, - - - - 69 
 
 Preparing the Crossettes, ----- 69 
 
 Nursery Planting, - - - - - - 7 1 
 
 Cultivation of the Nursery, - 73 
 
 Removal of Plants from the Nursery, - 74 
 
 Long and Short Cuttings, ----- 77 
 
 Single Eyes,* - - - - - -78 
 
 Objections to Single-Eye Plants, - 79 
 
 Layering, - - - - 80 
 
 Taking up and dividing, - - - - 84 
 
 Grafting, - - 85 
 
 Time, - 89 
 
 Choice of Plants, for Propagation, - - - 90 
 
 Sports, 9 1 
 
 VI. PLANTING OF A VINEYARD. 
 Arrangement of the Vines, - 92 
 
 Mixed Planting, 92 
 
 Planting in Close Rows, - "93 
 
 Planting in Isolated Rows, - 93 
 
 Space to be left between Stocks, - 94 
 
 Arrangement of Rows of Plants, - - 98 
 
 In what direction to lay out the Rows, - - 101 
 
 Last Preparation of the Soil, - - 102 
 
 Choice of Plants, - - - - - - -102 
 
 Planting, - _.. -105 
 
 The Proper Time, 105 
 
 Distribution of the Different Varieties in the same 
 
 Vineyard, ___ > - 106 
 
Contents. xnl 
 
 PLANTING OF A VINEYARD Continued. PACK 
 
 At what Depth to Plant, - 106 
 
 Laying out the Line for Planting, 106 
 
 Mode of Planting, - 108 
 
 Planting by Layering, - 113 
 
 Operations Supplemental to Planting, - -114 
 
 Replanting, - - 115 
 
 VII. PRUNING THE VINE. 
 
 Object of the Operation, - - 116 
 The Proper Time for Pruning the Fine, - -117 
 Method of Cutting the Shoots and Large Stems, - 119 
 Pruning Instruments, - - 1 1 9 
 What Forms to give to the fines, - 122 
 Use of the Parent Stock, - -123 
 Proper Dimensions of the Vine, - - - 1 23 
 Hight of the Plants above Ground, - 124 
 High-trained Vines, - 125 
 Average-sized Vines, - 1 28 
 Low Vines, - 138 
 Mode of Pruning in order to Form the Stocks, - 141 
 Cup-shaped Vines of the South, without Stakes, - 142 
 Four- Armed Trellis, for Vigorous Varieties, with Stakes, 1 45 
 Trellis with Two Arms, for Plants of Moderate Vigor, 147 
 Trellis with a Single Arm, for Vines that are not Vig- 
 orous, - - 147 
 Restoring Badly-Planted or Badly-Formed Vines, - 147 
 Annual Pruning of Fruit-Stems, - - 149 
 Principles on which the Operation must be Based, 149 
 The foregoing Theory put in Practice, - - 1 54 
 
 VIII. VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORTING GRAPE-VINES. 
 
 Necessity of the Operation, - 155 
 
 Parlous Modes of Support, - 156 
 
xiv Contents. 
 
 VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORTING GRAPE-VINES Continued. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Self-supported Vines, - 156 
 
 Vines supported by Trees, - - - - 157 
 
 Vines Trained to Grape-Stakes, - 157 
 
 Vines supported by Horizontal Laths, - - - 166 
 
 Training on Wire, - 1 68 
 
 Knox's Vertical Wooden Trellis, - - 179 
 
 IX. OPERATIONS OTHER THAN PRUNING. 
 
 Laying down the Plants, - 180 
 
 Fastening of the Plant, and Bending of the Fruit-Stems, - 181 
 
 Rubbing out a?id Pinching, - - 185 
 
 Buds to be Suppressed, - - - 186 
 
 Nipping the Bunches, - 188 
 
 Fastening the Shoots, - - 188 
 
 Pinching the Shoots, - - - 189 
 Clipping the Shoots, - _.___i^o 
 
 Summer Pruning of the Grape, - - 191 
 
 Thinning the Leaves, - 200 
 
 X. ANNUAL CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Ploivings, - 203 
 
 Implements used in Working the Ground, - 206 
 
 Comparison between the Cost of Working by Hand 
 
 and with the Plow, - - 219 
 
 Second Dressings, - 221 
 
 Comparative Cost of Light-Dressing, by Hand and 
 
 by the Plow, - - 225 
 
 XL MANURES AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS FOR VINE- 
 YARDS. 
 
 Manures their Importance, - 227 
 
 Are Manures Prejudicial to the Quality of the Wine? 228 
 
 Nature of the Manures to be Employed, - - 232 
 
 Highly Nitrogenous Manures, - - 233 
 
Contents. xv 
 
 MANURES AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS FOR VINEYARDS 
 
 Continued, FACE 
 
 Well-Prepared Farm- Yard Manures, - 233 
 
 Night-Soil, Garbage, etc., - - 233 
 
 Broken Bones, Fragments of Horns, Wool-Waste, 234 
 
 Sea-Weeds, - - 234 
 
 Composts, - - 234 
 
 The Slimy Mud of Rivers and Ponds, or the Sea, 235 
 
 Herbaceous Plants, - 235 
 
 Manures Rich in Potash, - - 236 
 
 Pomace, - - 236 
 
 Wood Ashes, - 236 
 
 Woody Plants, - 236 
 
 Quantity of Manure to be Employed, - - 236 
 
 How to Apply the Manure, - - 238 
 
 Top- Dressing, - - 240 
 
 Modifying Agents, - 241 
 
 Chalks, - - 241 
 
 Gravelly Sands, ...--- 243 
 
 Clayey Earths, - - 243 
 
 XII. MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL OF THE PLANTS. 
 
 Provinage, - - 246 
 
 Layering, - 248 
 
 Cutting Down, - - 249 
 
 Planting, - 250 
 
 XIII. INCLEMENT WEATHER, DISEASES, HURTFUL INSECTS. 
 
 Inclement Weather, - 254 
 
 Cold, - 254 
 
 Early Frost, - - 254 
 
 Winter Frosts, - - 254 
 
 Spring Frosts Shelter, - - 257 
 Summer Colds, ------- 273 
 
 Damp Atmosphere, - - 277 
 
Contents. 
 
 INCLEMENT WEATHER, DISEASES, ETC. Continued. PAGE 
 
 Cost of Matting, - - 279 
 
 Hail, - 286 
 
 Heat of the Sun, - 288 
 
 Diseases, - - - - -290 
 
 Jaundice, - 290 
 
 Red Leaves, - - - 291 
 Blight, - .... 292 
 Oidium, or White Leprosy, ----- 292 
 
 Hurtful Insects, Etc., - ... - 3 5 
 The Vine-Beetle, - .... 305 
 
 Spider-Shaped Beetle, - - 307 
 
 Blue Beetle of Dunal, - - 307 
 
 Common May-Beetle, - 308 
 
 The Vine-Pyralis, - 309 
 
 Destroying Larvae and Eggs on Stakes and Plants, 312 
 
 American Insects, - 313 
 
 Slugs, Snails, - - 324 
 XIV. VINTAGE 
 
 Degree of Ripeness of the Grapes, - 325 
 
 Receptacles Employed in Making the Vintage, - 327 
 
 Vintagers' Baskets and Buckets, - 327 
 
 Tubs, Dorsers, etc., - - 328 
 
 Vintagers, - - 33 
 
 Cutters, - 330 
 
 Basket-Carriers, - 331 
 
 Porters, or Tub-Carriers, - 331 
 
 Superintendents of Vintage, - 331 
 
 Picking and Cleaning the Grapes, - 331 
 
 XV. DIFFERENT MODES OF WORKING A VINEYARD. 
 
 Renting, - 332 
 
 Letting out on Shares, - 334 
 
 Working the Vineyard by the Proprietor, - - - 336 
 
 Work done by the Piece or Day, - 336 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA. J 
 
 v ^_ . r--.^-^-=^ * 
 
 VINEYARD CULTURE 
 
 IMPROVED AND CHEAPENED. 
 
 ECE most of our most useful food plants, the vine, 
 Vitis vinifera of the botanists, appears to have 
 come originally from Asia. From the time of Homer 
 it was found in a wild state in Sicily and Italy; but 
 prior to this the Phoenicians had introduced it into 
 cultivation, first in the Islands of the Archipelago, in 
 Greece, then in Sicily and Italy, and finally in Mar- 
 seilles. As it progressed into more temperate regions 
 the products of the vine became successively meliorated. 
 The mild climate of France is the most favorable for 
 the production of good wines ; and so this branch of 
 culture has extended so greatly that in 1815 it occu- 
 pied a surface of two millions hectares, producing near- 
 ly forty millions of hectolitres of wine, valued at a 
 billion, paying to the State and to the communes, more 
 than two hundred millions, and furnishing occupation 
 to more than eight millions inhabitants. This has, 
 therefore, been placed in the second rank in the scale 
 of the land interest of the country. 
 
 M. de Gasparin has well remarked that in the center, 
 and especially in the south of France, the vine yields a 
 harvest, the product of which is almost certain, whereas 
 other crops are not always to be depended on ; that it 
 
 2 (i) 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 was one that needed the least labor relatively to the net 
 profit received, that it banished fallows, and contin- 
 uously occupied the whole extent of country that had 
 a suitable climate ; that it is adapted to all kinds of 
 soils, and occupied those which produced nothing but 
 useless thorns and briers ; that it furnishes labor at all 
 seasons, to all ages and to both sexes ; that it yields 
 several important products, and valuable merchandise ; 
 finally, that it requires little manure, allowing this to 
 be applied to other crops. 
 
 I. 
 CHOICE OF SITE FOR A VINEYARD. 
 
 /CLIMATE. The vine grows vigorously in all parts 
 of France, and its berries will ripen at almost 
 any point ; still its pulp does not acquire in all parts 
 those qualities which render it fit for the mannufacture 
 of wine. The saccharine properties indispensable to 
 vinous fermentation are not formed in sufficient quanti- 
 ties in the pulp of the grape, except under influence of 
 a bright sun and pretty high temperature. Beyond the 
 5Oth degree of latitude, the vine no longer meets with 
 the necessary degree of heat, and the sugar of its grapes 
 yields nothing by fermentation but an acid liquor. 
 
 But though an insufficient degree of heat injures the 
 quality of the grape, a too high temperature is not less 
 hurtful. The saccharine principle, in that case, is de- 
 veloped in such abundance that the grapes yield a thick 
 liquid, rich in alcohol, but of very inferior quality. 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 
 
 This is what occurs in vines cultivated below the 35th 
 degree of latitude. 
 
 As we approach too near the equator this cultivation 
 often meets with another difficulty, namely : the unin- 
 terrupted growth of the vine, which produces on the 
 same stock blossoms, green fruits, and ripe fruits ; each 
 bunch displaying the same phenomenon ; wine making 
 is therefore impracticable. 
 
 It is, then, between the 35th and 5<Dth degrees of 
 latitude that the vine can be cultivated to advantage. 
 It is also between these two limits that we find the 
 richest wine countries, such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
 Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Hungary, Transylvania, and 
 especially France, which is celebrated for the variety 
 and quality of its vines. 
 
 Latitude, however, is not the only condition on which 
 success depends ; we must also take into account the 
 elevation of the soil above the level of the sea, for that 
 circumstance exercises no small influence on the cli- 
 mate of a country. This explains why certain locali- 
 ties in France, otherwise situated in a latitude favorable 
 to the vine, but too elevated above the level of the sea, 
 do not admit of this cultivation. In Hungary, the cul- 
 tivation of the vine ceases at an elevation of about 980 
 feet; in the north of Switzerland at 180 feet, while it 
 reaches to 2,130 feet on the southern slope of the Alps, 
 and may reach 3,150 feet in the southern Apennines. 
 Thus we see that this limit of elevation varies as we 
 approach or recede from the equator. 
 
 The exposure of the land, and its natural shelter, also 
 modify the condition of climate : the southern expo- 
 sure being warmer than the northern, the limit of ele- 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 vation toward the south will be higher than toward 
 the north. Certain deep valleys, sheltered from the 
 cold winds, will admit of the cultivation of the vine, 
 although situated beyond the degree of latitude to which 
 it can usually be grown. Other regions, although sit- 
 uated within this limit, exposed to the cold and damp 
 winds of the north-west and west, will not admit of 
 the production of wine. The deep and sheltered val- 
 leys of the Moselle and Lower Rhine, on the 5ist de- 
 gree of latitude, produce excellent wines ; while in the 
 provinces of ancient Normandy, and the largest portion 
 of Brittany, much further south, the culture of the 
 vine had to be abandoned. 
 
 [In applying these data as a guide to the selection of a site 
 for grape culture, in this country, we must bear in mind the 
 fact that equal latitudes are not blessed with a similar mean 
 temperature. Humboldt long ago observed a very great dif- 
 ference in the climates of countries that were equidistant 
 from the equator. His observations, and those of other 
 students of physical geography, have resulted in the establish- 
 ment of lines of equal temperature. These are called the 
 isothermal lines ; they are very curiously curved, and do not at 
 all coincide with the parallels of latitude. This is very man- 
 ifest in the maps that have been prepared, upon which the 
 lines are laid down. It will be observed that a given line 
 reaches much farther to the north on the Pacific than on the 
 Atlantic coast of this Continent, while in South America the 
 reverse is the case. In the interior of our Continent the lines 
 are deflected northward on account of the effects of the in- 
 terior basin, in which we reside, which is about one thousand 
 feet above the level of the sea. The line which passes through 
 Savannah, Ga., (N. Lat. 32), dips southward in its westward 
 course, skirting along the coast of Texas, and from the point 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 5 
 
 of its crossing the Rio Grande at its mouth Lat. 26 it is de- 
 flected southward in its passage over the high lands of Mexi- 
 co, to Lat. 20, turning again to the north as it descends the 
 coast, and meeting the peninsular of Lower California near 
 the tropic of Cancer. Here we have, in crossing the Conti- 
 nent, an extreme variation of 1 2 degrees of latitude. If we 
 trace these lines upon a map of the world, we shall see that 
 as they leave our Continent eastward they all turn decidedly to 
 the northward, on account of the influence of the gulf-stream, 
 which carries the temperature from the tropical seas toward 
 the arctic region, and striking the west coast of Europe, modi- 
 fies the climate there, even in high latitudes. Let us now 
 follow the line that passes through Cincinnati, in its eastward 
 course ; it is but slightly turned to the north until it reaches 
 the Atlantic, when it is deflected northward, and crossing this 
 ocean is projected upon the west coast of France, in lati- 
 tude 49, and reaches the banks of the Rhine, in the wine 
 region, latitude 48 degrees. We are in the habit of 'consid- 
 ering France a warm country ; and so it is, as shown by these 
 lines, though nearly the whole of its territory lies north of 
 latitude 43, which is near the north line of Iowa, passes 
 through Milwaukie and Madison, Wisconsin, Grand Haven 
 on the west and Fort Gratiot on the east of Michigan, by the 
 mouth of Lake Huron, through Canada, to Niagara Falls, 
 north of Albany, and almost touches Maine as it reaches the 
 ocean. The latitude of the wine region of the Rhine, in 
 France and Germany 49 north is found in the inhospitable 
 region of British North America, a whole degree beyond 
 Lake Superior. 
 
 This difference in the temperature of the two Continents 
 is attributed in great part to the different distribution of land 
 and water under the equator in each. Europe feels the 
 influence produced by the broad extent of burning sands ex- 
 posed to a tropical sun in Africa, while in the Western Henii- 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 sphere the space between the equator and the tropic of 
 Cancer is chiefly water, which reflects the rays and does not 
 heat the air to the same extent as the sands of the desert. 
 
 Certain data have been reached which are of great import- 
 ance. We can not depend entirely upon a given mean tem- 
 perature of the whole year, for this may be accompanied by 
 great extremes, on the one hand, from which the resultant 
 mean has been derived ; or, on the other hand, there are re- 
 gions, like some of the uplands of South America, where the 
 mean temperature is as high as that required by the grape, but 
 the heat is at no time great enough to induce the proper 
 ripening erf the fruit the change to sugar. 
 
 The summer mean temperature, or that of the season of 
 growth, is considered the safer criterion, and it is stated that 
 65 is the lowest at which grapes will ripen. Baussingault, 
 the distinguished French Philosopher, who has bestowed much 
 careful study and observation upon the influence of meteorol- 
 ogy upon vine-growing, has left us the following conclusion : 
 "in addition to a summer and an autumn sufficiently hot, it 
 is indispensable that at a given period that which follows the 
 appearance of the seeds there should be a month, the mean 
 temperature of which does not fall below 66.2 Fahrenheit." 
 
 Mr. James S. Lippincott, of New Jersey, has contributed 
 some very valuable papers upon the philosophical bearing of 
 climate upon the culture of the grape. These appeared in 
 the Reports of the Agricultural Department at Washington, 
 for 1862 and 1863, and they should be carefully studied by 
 all who are intending to plant vineyards.] 
 
 SOIL. Clayey, compact, impervious soils are not 
 adapted to vine culture ; the superabundance of moist- 
 ure which they contain,causes the root to rot, and the 
 stocks to languish and droop. Silico-argillaceous, and 
 rich, deep soils, do not suit the vine any better. It will 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 
 
 grow in them with great vigor, but that very vigor in- 
 jures the quality of the grapes, which then contain an 
 insufficient proportion of the saccharine principle, and 
 consequently yield but a light wine, without aroma. 
 Nevertheless, while taking into account all these objec- 
 tions, it may be said that all soils, suitably exposed and 
 in a favorable climate, are adapted to this cultivation, 
 whatever their composition may be in other respects. 
 A glance at the different soils which produce the best 
 wines of France will prove this. 
 
 Silico-argillaceous soils mixed with a considerable por- 
 tion of gravel and silicious stones : such as the vine- 
 yards on the banks of the Rhine, the hills of Reims, of 
 Romanee-Conti (Burgundy). 
 
 Sand) more or less pure, mixed with round stones of 
 various sizes, so much so as even at times to give the 
 ground the appearance of the dried-up bed of a torrent : 
 vineyards of Bordeaux and Medoc. 
 
 Limestone soils : vineyards of Champagne, Pierry, 
 Ay, pernay, Avize and Grammont ; vineyards of 
 Xeres in Andalusia. 
 
 Clay-slate soils : vineyards of Malaga, Granada, Ar- 
 agon and Anjou. 
 
 Other celebrated vineyards are located upon granitic 
 lands, such as those of Mas, of Condrieu, of PErmit- 
 age, of Saint Peray, as also a few of the vineyards of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Although volcanic lands are rarely used as vineyards, 
 they nevertheless deserve to be mentioned. The vine- 
 yard of Roquemaure in Vivarais, some of those on the 
 banks of the Rhine, those of Vesuvius and ^tna, are 
 located on soils of this description. 
 
8 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 [Our experience in this country has led us to similar con- 
 clusions, though the most intelligent grape growers express 
 themselves very much at fault, when asked to describe the 
 best "grape lands" We find the vine cultivated with success 
 and profit in the sands of New Jersey ; indeed, some varieties 
 appear to escape the mildew, in such soil, that suffer from the 
 malady elsewhere. 
 
 On the pebbly drift of the Hudson, some vines have been 
 remarkably successful. On a similar, but more fertile soil, in 
 western New York, and in Pennsylvania, on Lake Erie, the 
 grape-culture has been very successful, and along the same 
 shore we -find the vine yielding most satisfactory results on the 
 light, sandy soils, on the rich limestone clays, and even in the 
 close, heavy, whitish clays of the shales, some of which look 
 cold and repulsive enough to the farmer. All of these are 
 respectively called "grape-soils" and are claimed to possess 
 peculiar advantages. 
 
 In the blue-grass region were planted some of the first 
 vineyards of the West. The French in Kentucky, and the 
 Swiss at Vevay, Indiana, selected the rich, heavy clays of this 
 limestone region, which occupies a circle around Cincinnati 
 that would be described by a radius of fifty miles. Within this 
 magic ring the first and the first successful efforts at grape- 
 culture were made. The soils here are sufficiently heavy, 
 and by some are considered too rich for the profitable culture 
 of the vine. 
 
 The limey clays, tempered with the detritus of sandstones, 
 as found in the coal-measures, have also been very successfully 
 planted with the grape, about Pittsburgh and Wheeling, and 
 at some other points. In the prairies of Illinois, the grape 
 has been grown on black soils, but it can hardly be said with 
 success, except upon the borders of the Mississippi, where it 
 is chiefly planted on the loess deposit, which also prevails to 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 
 
 some extent in the lands of Missouri that are devoted to the 
 vine. 
 
 With all these facts before us, can we say with confidence 
 that this or that is essentially a grape-soil, to the exclusion of 
 other lands with very different characters and constituents ? 
 
 This subject has been repeatedly brought before the mem- 
 bers of the Ohio Pomological Society, and of the Lake Shore 
 Grape Growers' Association, and the reader is referred to the 
 papers and discussions printed in their Reports. It would, 
 indeed, appear that any and all soils may prove to be adapted 
 to the culture of some variety af the grape.] 
 
 Thus we see that the vine can give good results in 
 soils of various composition, but those soils are better 
 adapted to this cultivation if they contain a certain 
 quantity of pebbly stones, which appear to act favor- 
 ably on the fertility of the soil, by rendering it more 
 accessible to air and water, and assisting it to draw the 
 heat from the sun's rays. Therefore, care must be had 
 not to clear the soil of pebbles, if appropriated to vine- 
 culture, but only to remove such large stones as may 
 impede cultivation. 
 
 [The radiating power of stones upon the surface of the 
 soil, has been suggested as a valuable means of aiding the ma- 
 turing of the grape, and has been applied to practice in New 
 England, where this material often abounds. The stones 
 were all taken out of the soil in its preparation, the vines 
 were well cultivated until they were established, and then a 
 complete covering of stones was replaced upon the surface. 
 These served the purpose of a mulch, and kept down the 
 weeds, but allowed the vines to grow and spread upon a trellis 
 near their surface. This was found to exercise a beneficial in- 
 fluence in the ripening of the fruit. 
 
 It is a very common thing with vine-dressers to express 
 
IO Vineyard Culture. 
 
 their preference tor leaving the shelly masses of our lime- 
 stones upon the surface of the ground, instead of gathering 
 and removing them. They are supposed to retain moisture 
 in the soil as well as to radiate heat at night.] 
 
 The knowledge we possess of the unfavorable in- 
 fluence which a superabundance of moisture exercises 
 on the vine, points out clearly enough the kind of sub- 
 soil which is adapted to it. The substratum being of 
 an impervious nature, water, by accumulating on its 
 surface, would cause the roots of the vine to rot, or 
 would keep near them an excess of moisture injurious 
 to the quality of their product. Nevertheless, an im- 
 pervious subsoil is more injurious to the vine in a tem- 
 perate climate, and in a naturally moist atmosphere, than 
 in a burning clime, where the vines frequently suffer 
 from excessive drought. 
 
 In short, it is chiefly owing to this property, which 
 the soil has, of receiving and retaining moisture, that we 
 must attribute the principal differences in wines. This 
 quantity, greater or smaller, quickens or slackens veg- 
 etation, which influences the transformation of the 
 cc must" and thus decides the relative proportions of all 
 its component parts. 
 
 These observations have been confirmed by the ex- 
 amination of the vine regions in their aggregate. The 
 wines from the hills of the West (Portugal, Medoc) 
 are rich in tannin, and not so sweet as those from the 
 East (Granada, Malaga, Xeres, Syracuse). Passing 
 from south to north we also find the proportion of 
 sugar decreasing as the moisture increases and the tem- 
 perature falls. This is demonstrated by the successive 
 examination of the wines of Languedoc, those of the 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 1 1 
 
 banks of the Rhone, of Burgundy, and of the Rhine. 
 We know likewise that wet years produce more acid, 
 and less sugary, wines. 
 
 SITUATION. A vineyard may be located in a valley, 
 on an elevated plateau, or on a hill-side : let us exam- 
 ine whether all these positions are equally favorable. 
 
 Narrow vales are little adapted to vine-culture ; the 
 dampness of the atmosphere is too great ; it prevents 
 the ripening of the grapes, and the vines are more ex- 
 posed than elsewhere to the spring frosts. 
 
 Neither are elevated plateaux, nor the crowns of high 
 hills, more favorable : there, the air being too sharp, and 
 always in motion, hardens the skin of the grapes, and 
 they contain but a very small proportion of saccharine 
 matter. Unsheltered plains produce very good wines ; 
 take, for instance, the vineyards of Medoc, those on 
 the plains of Thassis (Drome) or of Roussillon, of 
 Crau, near Aries, of St. Nicholas de Bourgeuil, in 
 Touraine etc., etc. Lastly, the hills of Burgundy, and 
 those of a great number of other localities, celebrated 
 for the quality of their wines, also prove how well adapt- 
 ed are inclined plains, or hill-sides, to the culture of the 
 vine. 
 
 Upon the whole, in the northern portion of the belt 
 which we have described as adapted to the vine, we 
 must choose, first, large, level, open plains ; then hills, 
 and hillocks, or slight declivities, and, as we approach 
 toward the southern portion of that belt, we must 
 ascend toward the summits of high mountains, in or- 
 der to remove the vine from the too scorching heat of 
 the plains. The slopes of Vesuvius, the high hills of 
 Madeira, the cloud-capped rocks of Teneriffe, and of 
 
12 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the Cape, produce wines that are much esteemed, while 
 the plains that are situated in their neighborhood, yield 
 a liquor that is little sought after. To the north it is 
 the reverse : the wines of exposed plains, or hillocks, 
 are generally superior to those grown on the mountains. 
 
 [The subject of drainage and its necessity can not be too 
 strongly urged upon vine-planters, especially those who select 
 heavy lands. The majority of grapes require a porous and 
 well drained soil, through which the superabundant moisture 
 may readily percolate, and to which it will also return by cap- 
 illarity in a. period of drought ; hence the importance of 
 loams, or even sandy loams, for all cultivated lands, and hence 
 the necessity for drainage in our heavy clays. For further 
 argument in favor of drainage, and for instruction in the de- 
 tails of performing the operations, the reader is referred to 
 the excellent manuals upon that subject which may now be 
 obtained. 
 
 Surface drainage is very well in its way, but can not at all 
 supply the place of thorough underdraining. The methods 
 of applying surface drainage to the vineyard will be explained 
 in another page.] 
 
 It will be equally well to avoid declivities that are 
 too abrupt, for in such cases the cost of cultivation 
 will be much greater. The plow can not be used 
 there ; the rain floods tear up the ground and wash 
 down a portion of the soil, which has to be carried up 
 again by hand. The transporting of manure, as well 
 as the gathering of the grapes, is much more difficult. 
 
 [In our own country we have similar illustrations of the 
 different situations that have been appropriated to grape cul- 
 ture. On the banks of the Ohio the first vineyards were all 
 planted upon the abrupt hill sides, where it was necessary to 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 13 
 
 perform every part of the labor by hand. From the prepara- 
 tion of the soil to the culture of the vines, and even manur- 
 ing them, when that was done, nothing but human labor 
 could be applied. Gradually the vineyards were extended 
 upward to the exposed hill tops, and downward until they 
 expanded over the level terraces of the river valleys. It was 
 soon discovered that where the land was sufficiently level to 
 admit of the use of the plow, the cultivation could be much 
 more easily performed, and vines were much more extensively 
 planted. Next came the observation that those on the tops 
 of the hills, freely exposed to light and air, were more pro- 
 ductive, and in every way preferable and more satisfactory in 
 their results, being much more cheaply managed also. 
 
 Those on the gravelly and sandy river terraces, though 
 easily tended, did not generally succeed, but planters on ele- 
 vated plateaux of clayey soil were more successful with their 
 vineyards. 
 
 In the northern portion, of Ohio, on Lake Erie, flat lands 
 and gentle slopes have always been selected, and they have 
 been remarkably successful, in some cases, when but a few 
 feet above the level of the lake, except in certain situations 
 where a black, mucky soil was chosen, when the grape dis- 
 eases soon made their appearance, and destroyed the crop. 
 In that part of the country the soils vary, as above stated, but 
 while heavy clay lands, rich in lime, are preferred, those of a 
 more stony character, and gravelly drifts, with good natural 
 drainage, have been found very successful, and some soils 
 called sandy have yielded good results. 
 
 With the high price of labor in this country, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary for us to select our sites with reference to 
 performing the work of the vineyard as much as possible by 
 the use of animals, with plows and cultivators. We must 
 have access to our vineyards with the horse and wagon, to 
 transport material to and from the soil, instead of depending 
 
14 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 upon human thews and shoulders, for "packing" the manure 
 to the exhausted soil in baskets, or for transporting the abund- 
 ant vintage from the vines to the press ; horse-power must be 
 applied, as cheaper than man-power, for which there will be 
 found abundant need in the higher operations of the vine- 
 yard : therefore the abrupt declivities of our hill-sides will 
 be abandoned for the plains and gentle slopes and hill-tops.] 
 
 It has been noticed that the neighborhood of rivers 
 exercises a beneficial influence upon the products of the 
 vine ; certain it is that the most celebrated vineyards 
 are almost all situated in the vicinity of large water- 
 courses. Tokay wine is made from grapes grown on 
 the Theiss ; the celebrated wines of PHermitage, Cote- 
 Rotie, and Condrieu, are grown on the hills which bor- 
 der the Rhone. The Garonne flows not far from the 
 best growths of the red and white wine of the grav- 
 elly districts extending from Langon to Bordeaux ; the 
 Gironde waters the far-famed vineyards of Margeaux, 
 Latour and Laffite ; the Dordogne is separated from 
 those of Saint Emilion only by the alluvial plains 
 stretched along its right bank. The Loire, the Marne 
 and the Seine, see, as it were, nothing but vines spread 
 over the whole extent of their course, and the famous 
 ridge which traverses Burgundy overlooks a plain wa- 
 tered by the Saone. It is true that the no less cele- 
 brated vineyards of Champagne and the Cote-d'Or 
 might be cited as exceptions. For this reason M. de 
 Gasparin attributes the superior quality of all these 
 growths to their location on hill-sides, and to their good 
 exposure, rather than to the vicinity of water-courses. 
 
 [The influence exerted by rivers in favoring the products 
 of the vine, as cited by the author, is probably not merely 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 1 5 
 
 owing to the mere presence of water, for many of the streams 
 are of moderate size. There are other concomitant circum- 
 stances which must exert a happy influence : near the streams, 
 there are often terraces of warm and gravelly soils ; the land 
 is nearer the level of the sea, and may be sheltered by ranges 
 of high mountains ; on the sides of the valleys, advantage is 
 often taken of favoring exposure to the more direct rays of 
 the sun, and the surrounding hights may afford both reflected 
 heat and shelter. But beside all this, the general level of the 
 country, in a large portion of the grape region of northern 
 Europe, lies at such an elevation as to be too cold for the suc- 
 cessful cultivation of the vine ; the mean temperature of the 
 summer months is too low ; while, in the favored spots just 
 indicated, the requisite conditions for the vine are found. In 
 this country, we have not generally the same differences of 
 elevation between the rivers and the uplands, so as to make a 
 marked change in the temperature, but, on the other hand, 
 we have an obnoxious element arising from such situations 
 adjacent to the streams. This is the occurrence of fogs, 
 which are oftentimes disastrous to the welfare of the grape, 
 when occurring at midsummer. These fogs, and an excessive 
 rain-fall, alternating with periods when the atmosphere is very 
 dry, are exceedingly injurious to the vine in the vicinity of 
 some of our rivers. 
 
 The influence of the lakes, however, has proved to be 
 exceedingly valuable, in so modifying the climate, both in 
 winter and summer, as to enable us to cultivate the vine in 
 latitudes which were formerly considered too high for it as 
 in northern Ohio, and all along the southern shore of Lake 
 Erie, and portions of that of Lake Ontario, as well as in the 
 vicinity of some of the lakes of New York State. The ob- 
 servations made upon Lake Erie will demonstrate this, and 
 explain the phenomenon. In the spring, the waters are chilled 
 by the supplies from the upper lakes, and thus retard vegeta- 
 
1 6 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 tion until all danger of spring frosts has passed by. When 
 the sap starts, at last, everything goes on rapidly, and without 
 check. The mean temperature rises to a sufficient hight for 
 the grape, and the accumulated warmth of the lake water 
 modifies the temperature, so as to prevent autumnal frosts, and 
 the season is prolonged in the same ratio that it was shortened 
 in the spring, and the necessary length of time is furnished 
 for the maturation of the fruit. 
 
 It has been demonstrated, for a series of years, that grapes 
 will ripen in such situations, when favored by these influences, 
 although they fail to reach maturity at inland situations much 
 further south, as in the interior of Ohio. 
 
 For further details, and illustrations of the happy influence 
 of our lakes, the reader is referred to essays and discussions, 
 to be found in the Reports of the Societies above mentioned, 
 which can be had of the Secretary, M. B. Bateham, Paines- 
 ville, Ohio. 
 
 The following remarks upon this subject, are from an 
 article on the " Climatology of American Grapes," by Jas. S. 
 Lippincott, of New Jersey, which may be found in the An- 
 nual Report of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, 
 D. C., 1862, p. 206: 
 
 " The meliorating influence of our lakes is too marked to 
 escape our attention. The peninsula of Michigan, northern 
 Ohio, western New York, and western Vermont, show 
 higher temperatures near the lake, and the abrupt curves of 
 the isotherms, from the upper Mississippi valley to Lake 
 Michigan, prove that altitude is not the cause of their me- 
 lioration. The success attending fruit-growing in western 
 New York, may be properly attributed to the influences of 
 Lake Ontario and the minor lakes of that district. The 
 spring frosts do not occur so late as at points further in the 
 interior, and the expanse of melting ice retards vegetation until 
 the season is so far advanced that it escapes injury therefrom. 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 1 7 
 
 " Throughout the month of May, the temperature of the 
 water taken from about one foot beneath the surface, is but 
 seven degrees above the freezing point. This is owing to 
 the continued flow of waters from the melting ice of the 
 upper lakes. It gradually rises to that of the atmosphere in 
 the latter part of July, and above it in August. In September, 
 it is nearly three degrees warmer, and in October, it retains 
 the temperature of 53, which is six degrees above that of 
 the air on its southern shore. Its effect in warding off un- 
 timely frosts, is thus readily comprehended. 
 
 " The eastern shores of the lakes are much more safe than 
 those on the west side. Altitudes make a great difference, 
 and the best influence is not felt immediately upon the lake, 
 but some miles distant, often upon higher ground. 
 
 " In the State of Ohio, ten miles inland from the shores of 
 Lake Erie, the Catawba is unworthy of cultivation, and rarely 
 ripens. On sandy soils, along the lake-shore, it generally 
 matures, while, on the islands, on clayey limestone, it always 
 ripens, and of a quality not uniformly met with elsewhere."] 
 
 EXPOSURE. Writers on grape culture are very far 
 from agreeing about the choice of exposure. Some 
 advise a southern exposure exclusively ; others think 
 the north equally good ; and, lastly, there are some 
 who seem to think this a point of little importance, 
 grounding their argument on the fact that if, on the one 
 hand, a large number of celebrated vineyards are ex- 
 posed to the south or east, several, not less renowned 
 for the quality of their products are exposed to the 
 north. Such are, in Champagne, those of the hills of 
 pernay, Mailly, Chigny and Rilly ; such are the most 
 celebrated on the Rhine ; several of those of Saumur 
 and Angers ; and, in the vicinity of Tours, the hills of 
 Jone and St. Avertin, where excellent red wines are 
 
1 8 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 grown. A certain portion of the vines of 1' Hermitage 
 are also exposed to the west. 
 
 What other conclusion can we arrive at, from these 
 conflicting opinions, except that the best exposure can 
 not be indicated with absolute certainty ; that it must 
 vary according to local circumstances, and be deter- 
 mined by the combined influences of latitude, elevation 
 above the sea-level, as well as the nature of the soil 
 and the frequency of white frosts in the locality ? 
 
 The vine especially dreads a damp atmosphere, for 
 such injures the quality of its grapes. Therefore, as a 
 general rule, exposures open to the influence of cold 
 and damp winds from the north-west, the west and 
 south-west, must be avoided. In the northern portion 
 of the climatic zone adapted to vine-culture, the south- 
 ern, south-eastern and eastern exposures are prefer- 
 able. In the southern portion of that belt, the northern 
 exposure may be added to the foregoing, provided the 
 angle of inclination is not over 20 degrees. This last 
 exposure is even necessary in the warmest localities, in 
 order to remove the vine from the action of too intense 
 heat. 
 
 The elevation of the land above the level of the sea 
 must also be taken into account in choosing an expos- 
 ure ; the higher the land, the more southern must be 
 the exposure, especially in the northern portion of the 
 zone adapted to the cultivation of the vine. Where 
 the soil will retain a great deal of moisture, the north- 
 ern and eastern exposure, being generally dryer, must 
 have the preference. Lastly, the west must be chosen 
 in localities where white frosts prevail, in order that the 
 
Choice of a Situation for a Vineyard. 19 
 
 sun may not strike the shoots until after the frost has 
 disappeared. 
 
 Thus we see how difficult it is to say what degree of 
 success a vineyard planted on any particular spot will 
 have, so much do certain causes, apparently unimport- 
 ant, influence the result. Chaptal thinks that all soils 
 in which the fig-tree, the soft-shelled almond and the 
 peach-tree (ungrafted) will grow well and yield fine 
 fruit, are adapted to the vine. 
 
 [The question of exposure is a new one to planters in this 
 country, and hence the importance of observing the results of 
 observation and experience in older lands. The suggestions 
 in the text appear to be very sensible, and, guided by their 
 home experience in the northern portion of the vine-growing 
 region of Europe, our German vine-dressers selected south- 
 ern slopes for their vineyards. It has seemed, however, that 
 the exposure of the vines to the freely moving currents of air, 
 was a more important element of success, in most cases, where 
 these vineyards were situated on river hills, than the exposure 
 to the sun on the southern slopes. As the vineyards extended, 
 it often happened that other exposures were occupied, and 
 it was soon observed that those which inclined to the north 
 were equally successful. A well-founded prejudice, sustained 
 by observation, exists against a bold eastern and south-eastern 
 exposition, on account of the greater liability to frost, or 
 rather the greater damage which is done by the frosts of 
 spring, and even by the cold of winter, where the vines are 
 exposed, while frozen, to the direct rays of a bright sunshine. 
 It often happens that the shoots are destroyed in the open 
 situation, whereas, if but partially shaded, even by one an- 
 other and by the stakes and trellises, and by a different expos- 
 ure, they may escape the damage, even where the freezing 
 itself may have been equally severe. Hence, a western, or 
 
2O Vineyard Culture. 
 
 even a northern slope, is often preferred to one which lies 
 more directly toward the rays of the rising sun/j 
 
 II. 
 PREPARATORY OPERATIONS. 
 
 *T*HE location for the vineyard having been chosen, 
 we proceed to a consideration of the preparatory 
 labors for the vineyard. 
 
 FENCES. It is to be regretted that most of our vine- 
 yards are without fences. They should all be in- 
 closed ; otherwise the following inconveniences may be 
 the result : 
 
 ist. In countries still under the ban of the ordinances 
 fixing the time for the gathering of the grapes, it is im- 
 possible to introduce in their cultivation certain much- 
 needed improvements. For, what profit would there 
 be, for instance, in introducing into one's vineyard a 
 vine of more precocious growth, if the gathering of its 
 fruit is to await the raising of the ordinance ban ? 
 Neither will it be possible to derive benefit from opera- 
 tions having for their object the ventilation of the vines, 
 so as to allow the grapes to remain longer on the stocks, 
 without fear of the rot, and thus reach more perfect 
 maturity. The grapes must be gathered before the 
 proper time. And, lastly, if the vineyard is made up 
 of different varieties of grapes, maturing at different 
 periods, the ban will compel the gathering of the whole 
 at the same time. Vineyards that are fenced in are 
 free from all these inconveniencies. 
 
Preparatory Operations. 
 
 21 
 
 2d. Fences protect the produce of the vineyard from 
 the depredations of marauders and dogs. 
 
 But all kinds of fences are not equally adapted to 
 vineyards. Evergreen hedges, planted on the level 
 ground, often keep up a moisture which favors white 
 frosts, or retards the ripening of the grapes ; besides, the 
 roots of these hedges injure the grapes, by exhausting 
 the soil to a distance of from twenty to twenty-six feet. 
 Stone fences are too expensive, unless on a small scale, 
 or for the protection of very valuable crops. If suitable 
 rock, or stones, be at hand, walls may be erected to pro- 
 tect the vineyards. Or, the vineyard may be sur- 
 rounded with a ditch about five feet wide at the top, 
 twenty inches at the bottom and three feet three inches 
 in depth. The earth should be thrown on the outer 
 edge, like a levee, or embankment. To prevent the 
 soil from sliding back into the ditch, it will be neces- 
 sary to sod the banks, and to plant the top with such 
 
 [F,G. I.] 
 
22 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 small shrubs as are best adapted to the climate and 
 locality. These shrubs [Fig. i] will strengthen the 
 levee, and render the crossing of it more difficult. 
 
 [Americans can not realize that vast tracts of land in Europe 
 are cultivated in common, with only a turning furrow, or a 
 pathway, between the different proprietaries, and that all the 
 country is open, even to the road-sides, in many places. We 
 are so accustomed to see everything fenced in from intrusion, 
 and have so long borne this burden of fencing, that we neither 
 realize that it is more oppressive than all our other taxes, nor 
 can we conceive how it strikes the Europeans, who look upon 
 our fences as a great waste of lumber, and by no means as 
 ornamental fringes to our farms. 
 
 Where timber or stone is plenty, and while labor is dear, 
 we must have inclosures to restrain our cattle, or cultivated 
 crops will be impossible. But we may feel encouraged at the 
 progress we are making in this respect, and be happy to 
 know, that in many of the States, laws have been made and 
 enforced, which require that all cattle shall be restrained by 
 their owners. The result of this is, or will be, the abolition 
 of many of these burdensome and cumbrous appendages of 
 the farm ; the cattle will be confined to their appropriate 
 grazing lands, or kept in stables and yards, and there fed by 
 soiling, as it is called carrying the feed to them all the year 
 round and our roads and lanes will no longer be the resort 
 of lean kine and sharp-nosed swine, seeking an entrance into 
 our gardens and cultivated fields, to commit depredations which 
 can never be repaid by their owners ; and causing a grievous 
 moral wrong, by provoking the ill temper of the unfortunate 
 proprietor, which no appraised damages can atone for nor 
 alleviate. 
 
 We rejoice in our cattle law, and hope these animals may 
 ever be restrained, that the fence burden may, in a great de- 
 gree, be thus averted; but we do not expect to see choice 
 
Preparatory Operations. 23 
 
 vineyards and fruit gardens exposed to the depredations of 
 wandering thieves, until they become personally interested in 
 such treasures of their own ; no common fences will bar their 
 entrance, however, when they are disposed to trespass upon 
 us : the watch-tower, as of old, must accompany the vine- 
 yard in the present state of society. 
 
 We may rejoice, too, that there is in this country no such 
 thing as an " ordinance ban" to direct us when to commence 
 our vintage, and to oblige us to gather our grapes at a certain 
 date, whether they be early or late ; the culture of the vine 
 is here free as its tendrilled shoots, and every one may exer- 
 cise his own judgment in selecting the period for the various 
 operations he has to perform among his plants.] 
 
 ROADS. It is very important that teams should be 
 able to pass through all parts of a vineyard, especially 
 when it is one of considerable extent. For this pur- 
 pose it would be well, in planting the vines, to have 
 roads conveniently laid out wherever the grades of the 
 ground will allow it. This will render it easier to dis- 
 tribute by wagons, to all points of the vineyard, the 
 manure, the soil etc., which may be needed in it, and 
 it will cost much less than if done by means of pack- 
 horses and mules, or by hand, with baskets. The 
 gathering of the grapes will also cost much less. 
 
 The principal roads of a large vineyard ought to be 
 not less than fifteen feet wide, so as to allow teams to 
 pass each other freely ; they ought to be not less than 
 fifty yards apart, and should run across, or at right an- 
 gles with the rows of the vines ; other roads, two yards 
 wide, should cross the first at right angles, two hundred 
 yards apart ; by this means the soil or manure required 
 in the vineyard may be carried in wagons close to the 
 
24 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 spot where needed, and unloaded in piles, whence it will 
 be easily distributed at short distances, in wheel-barrows 
 or baskets. If the soil be a little clayey, it will then be 
 equally necessary to make these roads by excavating ; 
 by this means they will carry off the surplus water al- 
 ways so injurious to vineyards. 
 
 [These directions, for the laying out of roads and path- 
 ways through the vineyard, are admirable, and something of 
 the kind is practiced in all our large vineyards, though many 
 are planted at such a width that a hand-cart, or a sled, some- 
 thing like a* " stone-boat," and pulled by a horse, may pass 
 easily between the rows, to carry off the vintage ; for few 
 vine-dressers have yet done much in the way of hauling on 
 soil or manure, though this may often be practiced with ad- 
 vantage, particularly on hill-sides, where the soil is washed 
 away by the rains. The surface drainage is very important, 
 and should always be provided for ; first, by laying out the 
 rows in such a manner that the water may pass between them, 
 toward either end, in a gradual flow ; next, by providing 
 proper conduits for its passage. On abrupt slopes, or declivi- 
 ties, these may be across the rows, directly or obliquely, and 
 it will be well to have them protected by masonry. These 
 conduits, or water-ways, are often made by setting long, thin 
 stones on edge, as a curb, or by laying up two walls, at such 
 distance apart as may be necessary to convey the water, and 
 afterward, paving the bottom of the ditch between them. 
 These water-courses are often used as the paths of the vine- 
 yard, and when very abrupt, they are sometimes paved like 
 steps, for the convenience of the workmen. As the reader 
 will have observed, however, such steep declivities are not 
 recommended for vineyard sites. 
 
 The author advises, in the concluding sentence, that in 
 clayey land, the road- ways should be cut down so as to furnish 
 a depressed water-course. This method has been very nicely 
 
Preparation of the Soil* 25 
 
 practiced by one of our most successful and intelligent vine- 
 planters, and it is improved upon in a way that is worthy to 
 be presented to the reader. Mr. Robert Buchanan,* of Cin- 
 cinnati, O., provides shallow water-courses between all the 
 "squares," or subdivisions of his vineyard; these are wide, 
 and serve him also as roads. They are cheaply prepared 
 with the plow, and the loose earth is distributed among the 
 adjoining vines, or used in grading, so that there shall be a reg- 
 ular and easy fall with the road-way. In the first laying out 
 of the vineyard, a proper grade for the roads was secured. 
 
 The crowning merit of these shallow ditch-roads, however, 
 is, that they are laid down to grass, so as to prevent washing. 
 They receive the surplus water that escapes from between the 
 rows, and quickly convey it out of the vineyard. They give 
 easy access to all parts of the ground; they act as turning rows 
 in cultivating with the horse ; they furnish an easy outlet for 
 surplus surface water, without washing into gullies, and they 
 admit the air freely to the vineyard ; besides all this, they 
 give a look of finish, at a very cheap rate. 
 
 The grass should be kept cut short during the season, and 
 it may be fed to stock or thrown upon the soil as a mulch to 
 the vines.] 
 
 III. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 I CALIFORNIA 
 
 "P\RAiNAGE. One of the evils most i&^eJeared fora^ 
 vineyard is too much moisture in the soil. In such 
 a condition the roots of the vine will rot, its life will be 
 short, its produce limited, of inferior quality, and ripen- 
 ing slowly. If, therefore, it is intended to plant a vine- 
 
 *Author of a Treatise on Grape Culture. 
 
 4 
 
26 . Vineyard Culture. 
 
 yard in a soil of this nature, the first step is to drain 
 the land. On the Lower Rhine district, near Saverne, 
 we have seen a vineyard located on an abrupt hill-side, 
 composed of argilo-silicious soil, resting on quite imper- 
 vious clay. In consequence of the stagnant moisture 
 arising from this bad condition of the soil, the vines 
 languished, produced little fruit, which was of inferior 
 quality and ripened with difficulty. On this land, drains 
 have been made [A, Fig. 2] running with the slope, so 
 that each comes out at the base of the hill at B, on the 
 vertical cut formed at this point by the passage of a 
 vineyard road C. The upper ends of the drains ap- 
 peared on the surface of the land at D, on the hori- 
 zontal plane situated above the slope. This great 
 
 [FIG. 2.] 
 
 difference in the level of the two extremities of these 
 drains suggested the following observations : if, during 
 the heat of summer, a lighted candle is placed at each 
 extremity of one of these drains, the flame of the 
 lower candle will be carried, by the draft, into the 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 27 
 
 drain, while the flame of the candle at the upper end 
 will frequently be extinguished by the force of the cur- 
 rent escaping at this point. This abundant and rapid 
 circulation of warm air below the surface of the soil, 
 warms it while making it more salubrious. This vine- 
 yard at once became unusually healthy and vigorous, 
 and its maturity was accelerated by two or three weeks. 
 We think it unnecessary, here, to enter into the details 
 of drainage. We refer our readers to special treatises 
 on that subject ;* or, rather, we advise landholders hav- 
 ing such work to do, to apply to the contractors of 
 drainage, who are now to be found in every Department 
 of France, and who, provided with special tools and 
 skilled workmen, will do the drainage better and quicker, 
 and at less cost, than if undertaken by the landholder 
 himself. 
 
 [Too much importance can not be attributed to this subject 
 of drainage, not merely as a means of escape for the surplus 
 water of the soil, but also as affording access to the air, which 
 will warm the roots by its direct influence, imparting its own 
 temperature to the earth through which it passes. While 
 alleviating the effects of a drought, by depositing its own 
 moisture on the sides of the passages through which it flows, 
 it also gives off the latent heat by which the water was kept 
 in the state of vapor. 
 
 Our vine-planters are urged to drain their heavy, clayey 
 lands, wherever it is possible, and the suggestion of Mr. Du 
 Breuil is an excellent one, wherever professional drainers can 
 
 *A very practical work on "Drainage," by John H. Klippart, Cor. Sec'y 
 of Ohio State Board of Agriculture, is published by Robert Clarke & Co., 
 who have a new edition just ready. 
 
 The reader is also referred to the very practical work of Mr. George B. 
 Waring, Superintendent of Drainage of Central Park, New York City. 
 
2 8 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 be had, though in this country, the versatile genius of our 
 people makes them feel competent to meet any emergency, 
 and where no help can be obtained from without the farm or 
 shop, men generally manage to succeed in whatever they un- 
 dertake. 
 
 The inventive genius is also aroused in this direction, and 
 we have already several labor-saving machines to aid in the 
 work of ditching. Among these the mole-plows are found 
 to work admirably, wherever the sub-soil is of a peculiarly 
 adhesive character, so as not to disintegrate readily, and thus 
 silt up the passages. Some lands that have been drained with 
 these implements, for there are several devices of the kind, 
 have continued for many years to reap the beneht of the 
 drainage afforded, and the current of water continued to flow 
 through them. As a mere outlet for the surplus water, the 
 mole-plows are a success, but it is doubtful whether the 
 other benefits of drainage can ever be so well furnished by 
 any means as by the porous burnt-clay tile commonly used. 
 
 Messrs. Moon & Doan, of Wilmington, Ohio, have in- 
 vented a machine to aid in opening the ditches, which, it is 
 said, will lessen the expense by one half. 
 
 This apparatus was exhibited, in model, before the Lake 
 Shore Grape Growers' Society, at their recent meeting at 
 Cleveland. It consists of a strong frame-work, in which is 
 suspended a wheel, armed with cutters on its periphery, that 
 penetrate the soil as the wheel revolves, bringing up a portion 
 of the soil, which is thrust out by a set of plungers, as they 
 approach the summit. The dirt falls off to one side of the 
 ditch. The frame is drawn along, and the wheel made to 
 revolve, by a strong rope, that is wound upon a drum at the 
 end of the ditch, by means of horses or oxen working on a 
 lever.]* 
 
 *For further description of this excellent machine, and cut, see "Klip- 
 part's Land Drainage," p. 230. 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 29 
 
 BREAKING UP THE GROUND. The vine, like all 
 ligneous plants, requires for its proper devlopment a 
 soil sufficiently pervious to the roots. The ground 
 must, therefore, be broken up before planting, so as to 
 bring it to that condition. 
 
 The depth to which the soil must be trenched will 
 necessarily vary according to its looseness, and degree of 
 dryness : a dry and warm soil must be dug deeper than 
 a rich, substantial, and somewhat -cold soil, because the 
 root must penetrate deeper in the first than in the last. 
 
 It will also be evident, that soils of the same kind 
 must be trenched deeper in a southern than in a north- 
 ern latitude^ because drought is more to be feared in 
 the former than in the latter. In this respect it will 
 be well to confine ourselves within the following lim- 
 its : the dryest soils of northern regions ought to be 
 trenched to a depth of eighteen inches, at least ; in rich 
 and somewhat cold soils, twelve inches will be enough. 
 In the south, twenty-four inches will not be too much, 
 in the first case, and fifteen inches in the last. The 
 manner of performing this work depends on the nature 
 of the soil. 
 
 But in all cases the following rules ought to be ob- 
 served : ist the breaking up or trenching ought to be 
 done several months before planting, so that the sub- 
 soil brought to the surface may have time to improve 
 under the influence of atmospheric agents ; 2nd the 
 subsoil must be replaced by surface soil, and vice versa. 
 Some have, it is true, advised, in such cases, the loos- 
 ening only, of the subsoil, without bringing it to the 
 surface. This system, though adapted to herbaceous 
 plants, the roots of which live at the surface of the 
 
30 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 ground, is little suited to the development of the vine, 
 the absorbing organs of which at once penetrate to 
 a greater depth, where, consequently, they need to 
 find the nutritious elements of soils reversed by the 
 plow. 
 
 *yiultivated Lands accessible to the Plow. If the vine- 
 yard is to be laid out on cultivated lands, it will be well 
 to sow it with a last crop of clover and sainfoin,* for 
 the deep roots of these plants loosen the soil and im- 
 prove it by their decay. If the breaking up is to be 
 eighteen inches deep, two plows must be used in the 
 same furrow ; the first, an ordinary plow, which will 
 penetrate about six inches deep ; the secon-d, of strong 
 make, must be so constructed as to cut to a depth of 
 twelve inches from the bottom of the furrow, and to 
 carry this earth over that turned up by the first plow. 
 
 [Fio. 3.] 
 
 Bonnet's plow [Figures 3 and 4] performs this op- 
 eration admirably, but it requires a team of six horses 
 or oxen to reach this result. Thus plowed, the land 
 must be left idle until the time for planting. The 
 same mode of breaking up the ground to the depth of 
 twelve inches is used, with this difference only, that 
 
 *Hedysarum onobrichis. 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 31 
 
 the first plow will turn up a layer of only four inches, 
 and the second one of eight inches. 
 
 When the breaking up is to be two feet, as is often 
 the case with the very dry lands of the south, the two 
 plows will be used to reach a depth of fifteen inches, 
 and the other nine inches will be obtained by men fol- 
 lowing the wake of the plow with spades, and throw- 
 ing up the subsoil over that turned up by the last 
 plow. If a sufficient number of men are employed, so 
 as not to delay the teams, this work can be performed 
 pretty rapidly. 
 
 . [Fio. 4.] 
 
 [The attention of the reader is directed to the beautiful 
 cuts of these implements, but they are not within our reach. 
 As we have, deservedly, a high reputation for the excellency, 
 and indeed, almost perfection, of our various agricultural im- 
 plements and as this has been accorded to us by intelligent 
 juries, at the great industrial expositions of Europe we may, 
 perhaps, be justified in a few words of praise respecting some 
 American plows, with which our lands are very admirably 
 prepared for the planting of grape vines. These implements 
 can only be used, however, upon ground that is level, or 
 but moderately sloping, and which is not encumbered with 
 rocks, loose stones, stumps, or large roots, as when first re- 
 claimed from the forest ; nor is such new land to be preferred 
 if that which has been long cleared can be had. If stumps 
 
32 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 and bowlders exist, they must be removed by extra hands, as 
 they are discovered by the plow. 
 
 Many farmers will prefer to use two plows, with two 
 teams ; the first one reverses the sod and surface soil ; the sec- 
 ond, made with a long and high mold-board, follows in the 
 furrow, and throws out the next layer of earth, and piles it 
 upon the furrowvlice cast by the first plow. In this man- 
 ner, the two layers will be pretty well reversed and trans- 
 posed ; the deeper will be chiefly upon the surface. The 
 second plow will require a strong team, to make it run six 
 inches deep, and the two combined will loosen the earth to a 
 depth of twelve to fourteen inches seldom more. If de- 
 sired, a subsoil-lifter plow may now be passed along the 
 bottom of the deep furrow, and, with sufficient team, it may 
 be made to loosen the soil or subsoil to the depth of six 
 or eight inches more, completely filling the space with loos- 
 ened material, and admitting the air to meliorate this com- 
 pact layer of crude earth, which is often unfit to be placed 
 upon the surface. 
 
 In this plan, the same ground is passed over three different 
 times, first with a strong two-horse team, turning six or eight 
 inches, next with a team of four horses or oxen, and lastly, 
 with a powerful team of four or six oxen; for it is found that 
 these patient creatures are best adapted to the heavy soil and 
 obstructions that are often met with in the subsoils, particu- 
 larly when they consist of tenacious clays. All the imple- 
 ments should be of the firmest construction, put together in 
 the most substantial manner, made of the best material steel, 
 iron and wood and kept duly sharpened. 
 
 The cost of such a force of men and teams, to say nothing 
 of the wear and tear, will be considerable. The following 
 estimate is based upon the prices paid for teams in this neigh- 
 borhood : 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 33 
 
 Say one man and two horses, - $3 25 
 
 two men and four horses, - 6 50 
 
 two men and six oxen, 6 50 
 
 Total expense per diem, - - $16 25 . 
 
 At the clcse of the day, if all things have worked smooth- 
 ly, and there have been no serious interruptions, the proprie- 
 tor will find, perhaps, one half acre thoroughly plowed. 
 
 But we have an implement by which, with one team, we 
 may perform the work of two plows. This is known as 
 the " Double Michigan," and is really a trench-plow, though 
 sometimes erroneously called a subsoil. This may be drawn, 
 in light soils, by a team of three horses, or still better by 
 four, or by three yoke of oxen. The object of increasing the 
 power, in oxen, is to make up, by greater breadth of furrow, 
 for the usual slowness of the cattle. 
 
 The " Double Michigan," or trench-plough, has one share 
 and mold-board attached to the beam, in front of the other or 
 larger one. The first reverses the sod, cutting to the depth 
 of four or six inches, at the will of the workman ; the sec- 
 ond, with its larger and longer mold-board, follows immedi- 
 ately behind the first, and takes the next layer, to the depth 
 of eight or ten inches, and throws it over the first completely, 
 and admirably disintegrates the soil. By this plough, a trench 
 is opened to the depth of fifteen inches or more, according to 
 the strength of the team and nature of the soil. 
 
 A favorite plan for the preparation of land for a vineyard, 
 is to use the "Double Michigan" and the subsoil-lifter alter- 
 nately, with the same team. Using oxen, there is no difficulty 
 in making the change, going once around a land with the 
 plow, and then, casting the chain hook into the ring of the 
 lifter, all is ready to go around again and loosen the subsoil. 
 A tilth is thus made to the depth of eighteen to twenty 
 inches, or more, where the soil is not too heavy ; but in 
 stiiF clay and compact or tenacious subsoils, it is often dif- 
 
34 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 ficult to make an average of eighteen inches, honestly meas- 
 ured, on the land-side, from the natural surface, for the plowed 
 soil will look much higher and measure deeper, at first. 
 These teams and plows will pulverize one third of an acre 
 per diem. 
 
 This work will cost, say 
 
 For two men and six oxen, per diem, - - $ 6 50 
 The same, three days, for one acre, 19 50 
 
 It is very important in all these implements, to avoid fric- 
 tion, as much as possible, by having the joints well fitted, the 
 cutting edges sharp, and the mold-boards of the most perfect 
 pattern, and* made of the best steel, highly wrought and pol- 
 ished. 
 
 The share of the lifter should be very slightly convex up- 
 ward, it need not be more than two inches higher at the cen- 
 ter than at the edges, and there should be a counter-sunk space 
 on the under side for the nuts that keep it attached to the 
 sheath and supporter. This attachment was formerly, made by 
 riveting, but should be by tap and screws. 
 
 Some very good work has been done in this country upon 
 the plan suggested by Mr. Du Breuil, of having a gang of 
 hands with spades, to turn up, or simply to disintegrate the 
 third or lower layer of soil. This may be desirable when 
 there are stones to interrupt the subsoil plow, but the scarcity 
 of hands and the high price of labor, induce most of us to 
 prefer the oxen and a good steel subsoil-lifter.] 
 
 Waste, Uncultivated or Swamp Lands, accessible to the 
 Plow. These lands must first be cleared of the un- 
 dergrowth which covers them and would impede the 
 work. The largest of this underwood, the roots of 
 which would stop the plow, must be grubbed up, and 
 may be turned over to the men in part payment of wages. 
 The lighter brush must be cut close to the ground, and 
 laid in lines parallel to the furrows ; these lines must 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 35 
 
 be sufficiently near one another to be thrown into each 
 successive furrow opened by the plow. The plows 
 are then used as described above, to obtain the required 
 depth, according to the nature of the soil and climate 
 of the locality. As the furrows are opened to that 
 depth, the brush placed alongside of each one is thrown 
 into it ; thus buried, it will soon be reduced to com- 
 post, and will furnish the vine with rich and lasting 
 nourishment. 
 
 [In referring to swamp lands, Mr. Du Breuil has given no 
 directions for the drainage which would be essential to them. 
 Indeed, we should not think of planting grapes in such soils 
 as we denominate swamp land, even if sufficiently dried by 
 drainage ; the peaty or mucky character of the soil would be a 
 bar to its use for grapes, as we find that vines, so situated, will 
 grow too much to wood, and seldom yield a paying crop of 
 fruit, because they are most subject to attacks of disease.] 
 
 Steep, Hilly Lands, inaccessible to the Plow. For the 
 breaking up, or trenching of the lands just named, we 
 have advised the use of the plow, because it is the 
 cheapest process. But frequently it is advantageous to 
 locate vineyards on hill-sides so abrupt that it is, un- 
 unfortunately, impossible to use that implement. In 
 / such cases recourse must be had to manual labor to 
 prepare the soil. In other respects, operations must be 
 I so performed as to produce the foregoing results ; that 
 j is, the surface earth and brush must be placed at the 
 bottom of the trench, if the lands have been unculti- 
 vated. 
 
 Breaking up in Strips or Ditches. This mode of pre- 
 paring the soil consists in opening a ditch of sixteen 
 
36 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 inches in v/idth for each row of vines, and of a depth 
 varying according to the circumstances indicated above. 
 These ditches are separated by a strip of unworked 
 land, broader or narrower, according to the distance of 
 the rows from each other. The first ditch being dug, 
 the plants are placed in it, and the soil taken from the 
 new ditch serves to fill the first, and so on throughout 
 the extent of the field. 
 
 Trenching in Squares or Pits. In a straight line, little 
 pits, about twenty-four inches square, are made, in 
 each of wHich one layer or root is planted. 
 
 These two systems are much more economical than 
 the immediate trenching of the entire surface, but they 
 can only be used in fertile lands, which have been al- 
 ready cultivated ; besides, in due time the untrenched 
 spaces between the plants will have to be successively 
 dug out, or otherwise the development of the vines will 
 be checked, when their roots come in contact with the 
 sides of the trenches or pits. We must add, in con- 
 clusion, that this partial and successive trenching will 
 not be so well performed on lands already planted, as if 
 performed, in the first instance, over the entire surface ; 
 from which we conclude that uniform trenching is bet- 
 ter, without being expensive. 
 
 Lands Rocky near the Surface. We have thus far sup- 
 posed that the land to be prepared contained a layer of 
 free soil, at least equal to the depth of the required 
 trenching. Now, certain lands capable of producing 
 very good wine, have a surface soil of five to six inches' 
 depth, resting on lamellar or shelly rocks. In that 
 case it will be necessary to loosen this superficial soil, 
 either with the plow or by hand, according to the 
 
Preparation of the Soil. 37 
 
 slope of the land. At the time of planting, a hole is 
 made between the stones with an iron bar, large enough 
 to admit a cutting to a sufficient depth. 
 
 Hill-sides covered with Rocks. Certain lands which 
 are exceedingly well adapted to vine-growing, especially 
 as regards the quality of the product, are of difficult 
 and expensive preparation. Such are abrupt declivities, 
 covered more or less completely with rocks, that pro- 
 trude above the surface. 
 
 It is impossible to adapt such surfaces to this culti- 
 vation, except by clearing them of rocks to a depth of 
 sixteen or twenty inches. For that purpose crow-bars 
 are used, and even blasting is resorted to. With these 
 stones little walls are built along the side of the hill. 
 This allows the construction of a series of benches, 
 wider or narrower, according to the steepness of the 
 hill. The surface of these benches, well trenched, is 
 made level. Most of the vineyards on the Rhine, and 
 some of those on the Rhone, are constructed in this 
 manner. 
 
 [Most of our hill-side vineyards have been located upon 
 such abrupt declivities as to preclude the use of the plow, 
 and they were prepared for planting by human labor. The 
 trenching was sometimes done with the spade, and sometimes 
 with the grubbing hoe and the pick. In all cases, the object 
 was to reduce the hill-side to a series of narrow levels, or 
 slopes, generally called terraces, or benches. Where stone 
 abounds in the soil, it is used for walls. On the river hills, 
 the earth is chiefly composed of the detritus of the alternating 
 shales and limestones of our Silurian formation, known as the 
 blue limestone ; here there is plenty of material for making 
 the walls. In digging the soil, the stones are thrown on top, 
 
38 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 or at once laid in regular lines along the side of the hill, and 
 the soil thrown against the wall, so as to make the terrace ap- 
 proach to a level on the surface. The width of the benches, 
 and the hight of the walls, will depend upon the steepness of 
 the hill. It is a notable fact that the soil on the lower side 
 of the walls is seldom dug so deeply as is desirable. 
 
 Sometimes these walls and benches are carried horizontally; 
 sometimes they are made to incline a little toward one end, to 
 give outlet to the water. Generally, the surface drainage is 
 provided for, by making paved gutters at some point of the 
 vineyard, toward which the ends of the benches incline on 
 one or both, sides. 
 
 The cost of digging and walling these hill-sides, varies with 
 the amount of stone and masonry, and will range from two 
 hundred to as much as five hundred dollars per acre. 
 
 In appropriating a grassy slope to vineyard uses, where 
 there is no stone for the construction of walls, the ground is 
 often thrown into benches, or terraces, and the abrupt slopes 
 are protected by sodding. This is either done by setting 
 masses of earth with the grassy surface placed regularly on the 
 lower line of the terrace, as the work progresses, so as to 
 make a regular sod-bank, at once, or the earth is dug into 
 shape and sodded with blue-grass afterward. 
 
 These sod-banks have quite a pretty effect in the landscape, 
 and they answer a very good purpose in holding the soil in 
 shape, if they have been properly constructed, but they do 
 not furnish so good a drainage as the dry stone walls, and, 
 being sloped, they occupy more space. There is another 
 objection to sod-banks : they reduce the temperature by radia- 
 tion at night ; and sometimes this reduction amounts to a frost, 
 which would not have occurred, but for the grassy surface. 
 This objection applies with equal force to the sodded road- 
 ways, recommended on a previous page, as a means of pro- 
 viding for the surface drainage. 
 
Choice of Vines. 39 
 
 The blue-grass must be cut by hand, and the first mowing 
 should be done in the end of May.] 
 
 Vineyards recently Planted. A vineyard, from which 
 the old vines have recently been removed, may be im- 
 mediately replanted, after being sufficiently cultivated, 
 provided, at the same time, jt has been well manured, 
 so as to renew, in the lower strata of the soil, the nour- 
 ishment which the deep roots of the old vine had ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 If this expense of enriching the soil can not be in- 
 curred, it will be well, for some years, to devote this 
 land to ordinary cultivation, by sowing it with forage 
 plants, such as sainfoin and clover. These plants will, 
 by degrees, renew the productiveness which the lower 
 strata of the soil has lost. 
 
 [In this country, we have had little or no experience in 
 replanting a piece of ground that had been devoted to vine- 
 yard, and which had become exhausted, or which had failed 
 from neglect. But, upon general principles, such a course 
 would not be recommended, until after a course of culture 
 with farm crops, among which, clover should have a prom- 
 inent place. This is only carrying out the idea of rotation of 
 crops, to the vineyard, as to the other departments of agri- 
 culture.] 
 
 IV. 
 CHOICE OF VINES. 
 
 HPHE number of varieties of grapes cultivated for 
 
 wine-making has gradually increased, by means of 
 
 seedlings. Although the nomenclature of these varie- 
 
40 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 ties is not yet well established, they may be said to 
 number at present, over twelve hundred. These dif- 
 ferent varieties are very far from possessing the same ad- 
 vantages for cultivation ; they are not all adapted to the 
 same climate, or the same kind of soil ; they are espe- 
 cially far from yielding alike, either as to quality or 
 quantity. From this springs the necessity of choosing 
 from among them such as are best adapted to the cli- 
 mate, the soil of the locality where the vineyard is to 
 be laid out, and the description of wine which it is in- 
 tended to produce. This choice constitutes one of the 
 most important operations of vine-culture. The fol- 
 lowing are the chief conditions which ought to influ- 
 ence it : 
 
 ist. That the vine ripen its fruit thoroughly in the 
 climate for which it is intended. 
 
 2d. That it be adapted to the soil where it is to be 
 cultivated, so as to develop itself with sufficient vigor, 
 and that the quality of its product be not impaired. 
 
 3d. That its average product be as large as possible, 
 and of good quality ; that is to say, that its berries con- 
 tain, in suitable proportions, the elements best adapted 
 to the manufacture of fine wines. This double ad- 
 vantage will be the more valuable because it is seldom 
 met with, for frequently the most productive varieties 
 yield but poor grapes. 
 
 4th. That its period of leafing be backward in the 
 spring, without delaying the ripening of its fruit, so 
 that it may the more easily escape the injurious effects 
 of spring frosts. 
 
 5th That it possess a sufficient degree of vigor to 
 
Choice of Vines. 41 
 
 resist, to a certain extent, the action of the frost, that 
 its fruit may ripen in spite of the cold of autumn. 
 
 6th. That the strength and stiffness of its shoots 
 need no support. 
 
 [With our limited experience in this country, we think we 
 have learned enough to add another condition, as important 
 as any above named, but which appears to have been strangely 
 overlooked by the author. 
 
 Reference is made to the well-settled principle among 
 pomologists, to insist upon the perfect hardiness and healthi- 
 ness of the vine or plant, rather than to allow our judgment 
 to be warped by the excellence of the fruit alone, without 
 inquiring into the qualities of the plant.] 
 
 As regards the nomenclature, the characteristics, the 
 period of maturity, the quantity and quality of the 
 products of various vines, we still lack a complete work, 
 in spite of the remarkable labors of Count Odart. 
 And, for this reason, the list which we give here com- 
 prises only the principal varieties cultivated in France. 
 In this list we have preserved the nomenclature adopted 
 by Count Odart, and have classified them on the plan 
 proposed by Count Gasparin, based on the date of ma- 
 turity, and the color of the grapes. 
 
 [Count Andre de Gasparin, here referred to, was the father 
 of Count Agenor de Gasparin, whose work, called the " Up- 
 rising of a Great Nation," has made him dear to our coun- 
 trymen, because it showed his deep sympathy with the Amer- 
 ican people in their recent struggle for the maintenance of the 
 integrity of the nation. The glory of our free institutions 
 was eloquently portrayed by Gasparin to his own country- 
 men, and secured from the masses of the French nation 
 a hearty sympathy with the American people.] 
 
42 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD \yhjuly in the South; zotA August at Paris. 
 
 Almost all the grapes of this period are table grapes, yielding very in- 
 ferior wine. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD 25^ August in the South; jth October a: Paris. 
 
 COLORED GRAPES. 
 
 Black " Pinot." Yields little, but most delicate wine ; its wood being very 
 slender it must be staked. (Burgundy.) 
 
 Reddish " Pinot" Table grape ; light wine ; fine aroma. 
 
 Moorish " Pinot." Very dark berry; dark, inferior wine. (Dijon.) 
 
 " Pulsart" Pearl color ; leaves much indented ; large, thin pedicles j 
 bunches thin ; fine berries, easily picked when ripe ; very productive on 
 level ground ; yielding a good wine, which keeps well ; requires to be 
 trained high to be productive ; steep, clayey lands. (Jura.) 
 
 " Plant of the Dole.'''' Of slow growth, but ripening early j oblong, dark 
 blue berries. (Switzerland.) 
 
 Little "Negran." Yielding little, but of fine aroma. 
 
 " Li-verdun." Large leaves, without down ; oblong berries ; yielding much 
 wine, but not very alcoholic. (Lorraine.) 
 
 " Meunier." Black grape ; leaves covered over with a white down ; very 
 productive; wine flat; will not keep. 
 
 Black " Franc." Black, oblong berries ; light, pleasant wine j adapted to 
 light, calcareous soils. 
 
 WHITE AND GRAY GRAPES. 
 
 Gray "Pinot." Berries, dead leaf color ; very delicate ; light wine j fine 
 aroma. (Sillery-Versenay.) 
 
 White " Pinot." Oblong berries loose, with brown spot; golden color j 
 fine wine; yield small. (Montrachet.) 
 
 Aligotuy. Leaves large, and downy on the under side ; red wood j fine 
 skin ; liable to rot, but pretty good yielder. (Pouilly.) 
 
 Sauvignin. Round, sweet berries ; pretty good yielder. 
 
 Musquette. Round, sparse berries ; amber color ; wood fawn-colored j 
 berries liable to rot; requires long pruning. (Gironde and Dordogne.) 
 
 Blanquette. Under side of leaf somewhat downy ; berries rather oblong ; 
 pleasant flavor ; large, full bunches, drying quickly on the stock. (Aude 
 and Dordogne.) 
 
Choice of Vines. 43 
 
 THIRD PERIOD 1st September in the SoutA; October loth in latitude of 
 
 Parh. 
 
 BLACK OR RED GRAPES. 
 
 Plant of Pernant. Leaves entire, of a yellowish green ; berries black, of 
 moderate size ; hardy and prolific ; wine inferior in quality and aroma to 
 that of the Black Pinot, but liked, because of its great productiveness. 
 (Burgundy.) 
 
 Fri-z-zled Pinot. More productive than the other Pinots, but of inferior 
 quality. 
 
 Black Muscat of Jura. 
 
 Merlot. Leaves deeply indented; rough, downy, under side ; berries round, 
 of a velvety black j skin fine j apt to rot in wet seasons ; very productive, 
 and much liked. (Bordelais.) 
 
 Sirak (little and great). Leaves large and downy on the under side; 
 berries black and even, slightly elongated, purple eyes far apart ; very good 
 wine. (Hermitage.) 
 
 Deep-black "Dyer" (Oporto). Productive; berries close, black and 
 round; produces a reddish juice; wines rich; grown for coloring "must." 
 
 Big Gamais (large-headed Pinot). Leaves downy on the under side; 
 leaf-stalk purple; bunches numerous ; wine flat and acid. (Burgundy.) 
 
 Little Gamais (black Gamais of Lyons). Pretty productive; yields a 
 wine of good quality. Maconnais.) 
 
 Neyrau (big and little Aforet). Yields a dark-red wine, with a good 
 bouquet. (Allier and Puy de Dome.) 
 
 WHITE GRAPES. 
 
 ** Pendant." Berries close, and remain green. This kind is of red and 
 pink varieties. (Switzerland.) 
 
 White Morillon. Leaves large, little indented ; berries not very close, 
 quite round, not spotted brown j sweet flavor and aroma j good yielder. 
 (Champagne.) 
 
 Semilion. Leaves much indented, of a light green j large bunches ; ber- 
 ries round and loose, light yellow j hardy plant, eyes close together. (Bor- 
 delais.) 
 
 Colomban. Plant hardy and productive; grapes apt to rotj wine indifferent. 
 
 " Pascal " Vine. Large leaves, downy underneath ; large bunches j ber- 
 ries round, whitish green, with fine skin j eyes close together j good table 
 grape. (Bouches du Rhone.) 
 
44 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD zjtA September in the South ; do not mature in the 
 latitude of Paris. 
 
 COLORED GRAPES. 
 
 The " Co/." Very short jointed ; plant hardy, berries black, sparse, round; 
 apt to rot ; wine of a fine color, of good body and flavor. (From the Lot 
 to the Loire.) 
 
 Black Couche. Leaves small ; little indented, downy underneath, yellow- 
 ish on the upper side ; average bunches ; short stem j berries long ; wine 
 colored, alcoholic. 
 
 Simoreau. Bunches long ; stem red ; berries sparse, smoky taste ; very 
 productive. (Lorraine.) 
 
 Carmcnct. Leaves thin, with fine pointed, smooth lobes ; bunches thin j 
 moderate sized berries, round and black ; stem and pedicles purple ; wood 
 reddish ; wine fine and clear ; great bouquet; will keep; yield pretty regular, 
 but not large. (Bordelais.) 
 
 Black Serine. Leaves slender, smooth and pointed ; one of the lobes 
 smaller than the other j bunches long ; berries oblong and scattering. 
 (Cotes du Rhone.) 
 
 Persaigne. Good producer; dark, rough wine ; improves with age. (Ly- 
 onnais.) 
 
 Grolot. Berries round 5 table grape. (From the Loire to the Lot.) 
 
 Big Merille. Leaves little indented ; rough underneath ; fine bunches ; 
 berries round, black and close; very productive; wine ordinary. (Garonne 
 and Gironde.) 
 
 " Dyer" of the Jura. The leaves, shoots and wood, are of a reddish 
 tinge; grown for the same purpose as the "Dyer," already described. 
 
 Tanat. Leaves rough on the upper side ; downy underneath, with edges 
 turned in ; berries black, close and round, of moderate size, apt to rot at 
 times ; wine colored, strong and agreeable. (Higher Pyrenees.) 
 
 Black Olivet, Berries oblong ; smoke black ; rich pulp, crisp and sweet j 
 table grape. 
 
 Manosquin. Leaves smooth and entire ; fine bunches ; berries black, 
 large, slightly oblong; thick skin ; long wood ; table wine ; adapted to 
 transportation. 
 
 Black Ouillade. Great yielder ; berries large, oblong and black ; stem fine; 
 wine of a beautiful color, and sweet, like cordial. 
 
 Milgranet. Very productive. (Tarn.) 
 
 Savoyant. Leaves of a fine green ; very downy underneath ; pretty well 
 indented ; wood heavy ; very productive ; wine rough. (Switzerland.) 
 
Choice of Fines. 45 
 
 Black Muscat. Very productive. (Vaucluse.) 
 
 Baclan. Eyes far apart ; dark green leaves ; berries sparse; dark wine, of 
 good quality ; adapted to strong, clayey soil. (Jura.) 
 
 Trousseau. Large, thick, round leaves, of a yellowish green ; slightly 
 downy underneath ; berries black ; strong wine, and will keep well ; plant 
 very hardy, productive, and requiring plenty of space; must be pruned long. 
 The little Trousseau yields less, but is more certain. (Jura, Avalon.) 
 
 UEnfarine. Leaves longer than broad, sharp-pointed fringe, downy un- 
 derneath, on the veins , bunches short ; berries large and round, black, cov- 
 ered with a white bloom ; very harsh ; very productive ; a tart wine, im- 
 proving with age | trims very long. 
 
 WHITE GRAPES. 
 
 White Gouais. Acid wine, without vinous flavor; will not keep; is 
 very productive. 
 
 Green Savagnin. Leaves round, dark green, downy underneath ; leaf- 
 stalks and veins red ; long berries j skin thick, with greenish tinge. (Jura, 
 Cote d'Or, Champagne.) 
 
 FIFTH PERIOD October id in the South; ivill not ripen in the latitude of 
 
 Paris. 
 
 COLORED GRAPES. 
 
 Aramon. Very productive ; wine clear, will keep well ; easily affected by 
 spring frosts, and liable to rot. 
 
 Agudct. Bunches fine ; berries oval ; productive. (Tarn and Garonne.) 
 
 Carignan. Berries round, black, apt to blight ; yields largely in good 
 soils; wine dark, of good quality. (Bouches du Rhone, Gard, Herault, 
 Aude.) 
 
 Tibouren. Very productive when the blossoms do not blight; very early 
 growth ; berries very sweet ; wine light colored, fine and delicate ; light 
 soil. 
 
 Black Terret. Berries round, black; seldom blights, and yields little; 
 dark colored wine, and good. 
 
 Mourastel. Makes a great deal of wood, with short joints ; berries large, 
 crisp, sweet ; never blights ; strong, clayey soils ; wine very dark, but flat. 
 
 Maulan. Average leaves, yellowish green, shining, turned in ; bunches 
 fine ; berries long, black, pretty large ; early growth ; often blights ; is very 
 productive. 
 
 Bouteillan. Large bunches ; large and small berries ; of a reddish black ; 
 blights sometimes; wine light in color and body; very productive. 
 (Lower Alps.) 
 
46 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Maldoux. Very productive; wine flat and rough. (Jura.) 
 
 Grenache, Leaves smooth on both sides ; bunches fine ; berries sparse, 
 not very close, oblong, bluish black; joints short; suffers from spring 
 frosts; wine very sweet; productive; strong ferruginous soils. (Gard, 
 Herault, Vaucluse.) 
 
 Mourned. Leaves with purple veins ; downy underneath ; red wood, 
 with purple eyes ; berries round, of medium size, sky-blue, taste not very 
 pleasant; thick skin; strong wine, which will bear transportation, and keep 
 a long time; early bearer; does not blight. (Vaucluse.) 
 
 Black Spiran. Berries black; bright red wine, good, and delicate; grown 
 also as a table grape. There are gray and white varieties of this. (Gard, 
 Herault.) 
 
 MarocainT- Secondary leaves very much indented ; large bunches, with 
 large, sparse berries, hard, and covered with a white bloom ; grown as a 
 table grape. (Provence.) 
 
 WHITK GRAPES. 
 
 Picardan. Light green grape, oval, somewhat firm, without being tough ; 
 very sweet ; keeps well ; wine smooth, will sparkle easily ; not productive. 
 
 Calitor. White berries, oval, not very soft ; apt to rot ; makes a good, 
 dry wine, and yields largely after a few years. 
 
 Clairette. Leaves very green on the upper side, and downy on the under 
 side; bunches long; berries oblong^ not crowded, firm, and sweet; keeps 
 well ; white wine, of good quality ; very productive in virgin and fertile 
 soils ; somewhat apt to blight. 
 
 White Muscat. Of all these grapes, this is the sweetest, and the one 
 having the most aroma ; very good for the table. (Lunel, Frontignan.) 
 
 SIXTH PERIOD lot A October in the South} do not ripen in the latitude of 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Pique-Poule. Close-jointed wood ; berries oblong, close, reddish black ; 
 very good grape ; fine, delicate, strong wine ; not productive j must be 
 close-trimmed. (La Nerthe.) 
 
 Terret-Bouret. Light red, or gray berries, oval ; large bunches, weighing 
 as much as eight Ibs. ; hangs heavy ; seldom blights ; likes good soil, and will 
 bear a good deal of manure ; grown principally for brandy. 
 
 WHITE GRAPES. 
 
 Furmint. Leaves nearly entire, slightly three-lobed, dark green ; downy 
 underneath; berries white, sparse, irregular ; cylindrical bunches; very sweet j 
 yields little ; apt to blight ; dries well without spoiling ; very good wine. 
 
Choice of Fines. 47 
 
 SEVENTH PERIOD 31^ October in the South ^ do not mature in the lati- 
 tude cf Paris. 
 
 COLORED GRAPES. 
 
 Danugue. Large berries; reddish black; juicy; bunches very large; 
 needs trellising ; yields, in abundance, a weak, light colored wine ; light 
 soils. 
 
 Pocket Grape. Trellis vine ; very hardy, good grapes ; berries red and 
 round, the size of a hazel-nut, so hard that they may be carried in the 
 pocket without mashing ; not very sweet, and will keep a long time. 
 
 WHITE GRAPES. 
 
 Common Paunch. Large bunches ; berries long, firm, and large ; good 
 as table grapes, and keep well ; white wines of good quality ; strong, hardy 
 vine, producing largely in good soils ; needs training and little pruning. 
 
 Musked Paunch. Berries very large, oblong, firm, and pointed at the 
 end ; sweeter than the foregoing ; apt to blight ; needs training and little 
 pruning ; good table grape, fresh or dried. 
 
 Spanish Paunch. Large berries ; round seeds ; very sweet ; fine skin. 
 
 Currant. Berries very small, and without pulp ; needs training and 
 little pruning. 
 
 Gherkin. Berries very large and curved, white ; productive in good soils ; 
 needs training and little pruning. 
 
 White Olivette. Berries olive shaped, but smaller; taste flat; keeps 
 better than the others. 
 
 LIST OF AMERICAN GRAPES. 
 
 [The number of varieties of grapes that are now being in- 
 troduced into cultivation, more or less generally, is becoming 
 so extensive, that it is high time some one should undertake 
 to reduce them to order, by adopting a system of classifi- 
 cation. 
 
 This, however, will be a difficult task. Even the botanists, 
 who observe the peculiar traits of the native vines, are not 
 agreed as to the number of distinct species that exist within 
 our borders. Our American authority, on such matters, is Dr. 
 Asa Gray, who makes four species, the LABRUSCA, ^ESTIVALIS, 
 CORDIFOLIA, and VULPINA, all of the genus Vitis proper. Be- 
 
48 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 sides these, he ranges two species under the section Cissus, as 
 V. indivisa, and V. bi-primata, formerly called Ampelopsh, by 
 Michaux, both beautiful ornamental vines. 
 
 Those grapes which are cultivated for their fruit, in this 
 latitude, may, perhaps, all be referred to the first three of 
 these species, though there are several varieties, the place of 
 which it is very difficult to assign. They may be crosses, or 
 simply variations from the normal type, or even hybrids of 
 two distinct species ; if so, they are, at least, fertile mules. 
 Slight variations will constantly occur in our cultivated plants, 
 which, as fruits, may be considered totally distinct, and which 
 yet present no strong botanical characteristics to distinguish 
 them from one or another species, and sometimes the specific 
 characteristics themselves will be blended, so that we can not 
 declare to which they belong. The present status of our 
 knowledge hardly justifies an attempt to classify our cultivated 
 varieties, by the species, and, desirable as some grouping 
 would be, I hesitate attempting it, and shall content myself 
 with an alphabetical list. 
 
 This has been compiled from various sources beside my 
 own somewhat extended notes ; among these I have been 
 largely indebted to the list in the "American Horticultural An- 
 nual," including the school of vines left by the late N. Long- 
 worth. To avoid occupying too much space, the descrip- 
 tions have been given in a very condensed form, merely to in- 
 dicate the strong characters. 
 
 AMERICAN VARIETIES. 
 
 Adlrondac. New York. Dark, large, good; needs winter protection J 
 not tested for wine. 
 
 Aiken. Thought to be only a variety of Isabella, which it much resem- 
 bles; berries round, large. 
 
 Albam. Vine thrifty, hardy ; bunch large ; berry large, round, black ; 
 good. 
 
 Albino. Pennsylvania. White; recommended in Missouri. 
 
 Allen** Hybrid. Massachusetts. In favorable localities does well. 
 
Choice of Vines. 49 
 
 Alvey. Southern. Bunch large ; berry medium or less, black ; fine fla- 
 vor; promising for wine. 
 
 Anna. New York. Poor grower ; bunch rather small ; berry large, am- 
 ber yellow; very sweet. 
 
 Arkansas. Vine vigorous, productive ; berry small, black, resembling 
 Norton ; promises well for wine. 
 
 August Pioneer. Black, early; not otherwise desirable; foxy. 
 
 Baldwin Lenoir. Thrifty, hardy and healthy; very rich in sugar. 
 
 Black Hawk. Pennsylvania, from Concord. Said to be earlier; very 
 promising vine. 
 
 Black King. Early ; bunch small ; berry medium ; foxy. 
 
 Blackstone. Early; black; poor and foxy. 
 
 Bland. Virginia. An old variety of excellence, but not profitable ; ten- 
 der; bunch large, loose; berry large, purple, sweet. 
 
 Blood^s Black. Like Mary Ann; early; bunch compact; berry rather 
 large, round, black; a market grape; vine hardy and productive. 
 
 Brackets. Late, large, and resembles the Union Village. 
 
 Jirinkle. Pennsylvania ; Bunch large, compact ; berry large, round, black, 
 sweet. 
 
 Brown. One of the Isabella style. 
 
 California Rosea. Cincinnati. Thrifty and vigorous, productive ; bunch 
 large; berry large, red; very fine. 
 
 California White. Originated with the above; bunch full, medium ; berry 
 large, yellow; very fine. 
 
 Canbfs August, or Tork Madeira. Early, black ; good size. 
 
 Cape. Much planted in the early vineyards ; hardy, productive ; berry 
 round, black ; pulp firm ; has made a very good red wine. 
 
 Carpenter. New York. Appears to be a foreign variety. 
 
 Cassaday. Vigorous, but not free from mildew; bunch medium; berry 
 full medium, white, sweet; foxy; makes a good white wine, says Hussman. 
 Catawba. N. Carolina. This excellent variety is too well known to 
 need a description ; few sorts equal it in flavor and other good qualities. 
 Its failure, from rot, has discouraged planters from increasing it, but no one 
 should destroy a vineyard of this fine grape. 
 
 Charlotte. Ohio. Very like Diana. 
 
 Charter Oak. Connecticut. An enormous fox-grape, and nothing more. 
 
 Chillicothe. Ohio. Bunch long, loose ; berry medium, oval, dark purple 
 
 Christina. Pennsylvania. Large, black, early; a fox-grape. 
 
 Clara. Pennsylvania. Has a very foreign air ; bunch long, loose ; berry 
 
 6 
 
50 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 medium, light yellow; highly commended by Hussman, for amateurs 
 only. 
 
 Clinton. New York. Thrifty, hardy, productive ; bunch medium, com- 
 pact ; berry medium, black, juicy. Makes a fair red wine. 
 
 Cloantha. Kentucky. Black, like Isabella j earlier, and more foxy. 
 
 Concord. Massachusetts. Well known, and everywhere successful } 
 hardy and productive ; yields a large quantity of wine 1000 gallons per 
 acre, says Hussman. This has been called the grape for the million. 
 
 Corjfh New Jersey. Hardy j bunch medium j berry small, oval, black 
 or blue 5 good. 
 
 Corsican. Ohio. Perfectly hardy j bunch large j berry small, round, 
 red*; very good. 
 
 Crevc/ing. Pennsylvania. Healthy ; hardy ; bunch loose, berry large, 
 ^ Slack ^ early j- Very good. 
 
 Cunning/tam.yigOrouSy healthy ; bunch large; berry below medium, 
 black, juicy, sweet ; very good ; promising. 
 
 Cuyahoga. Ohio. A foreign look and behavior, as it is apt to mildew ; 
 when successful, very good, but late ; berry greenish. 
 
 Cuyarano. Bunch large ; berry large ; promising. 
 
 Cynthiana. Arkansas. Hardy, healthy, productive; a rival of Norton, 
 which it resembles ; makes delicious wine. 
 
 Delaware. New Jersey. Very famous; this delicious grape is subject 
 to mildew in many places j has made excellent wine. 
 
 Delaware Seedling. Ohio. Vine healthy ; bunch short ; berry full me- 
 dium, dull red, rich, sweet, rather foxy ; very early. 
 
 Detroit. Michigan. Bunch medium 5 berry full medium, red, good ; 
 early. 
 
 Devereux. Southern. Subject to mildew in Missouri ; bunch very long, 
 loose, shouldered ; berry small, black, juicy, sweet. 
 
 Diana. Massachusetts. Well known and highly appreciated ; bunch 
 compact j berry large, dull red, sweet. 
 
 Diana Hamburgh. New York. "A hybrid of Black Hamburgh ;" 
 berry large, round, bluish purple. 
 
 Dorr's. New York. Medium ; early and red ; " promising for wine.' 
 
 Dracut Amber. Massachusetts. Red, early, foxy ; poor. 
 
 Early June. Like Vitis cordifolia. Bunch large; berry large, dark, 
 sweet, very early. 
 
 Early Lebanon. Pennsylvania ; bunch medium ; berry medium, blue, 
 very early ; good for market. 
 
 Early York. Is Canby's August, or York Madeira. 
 
Choice of Fines. 5 1 
 
 Elmira. New York. "A luscious black grape," noticed in Horticul- 
 turist, November, 1866. 
 
 Edinburgh. New Jersey. Vigorous, hardy ; bunch large, loose ; berry 
 small, black, juicy, sweet ; very good. 
 
 Emily. Pennsylvania. Bunch large, loose ; berry rather small, pale red, 
 sweet ; not generally satisfactory. 
 
 E-v a. Pennsylvania. Little known j a Concord seedling^ 
 
 Eivings. Like Isabella. r j . 
 
 Fane her. Probably Saratoga. *^ * *-* R A R 
 
 Framingham. Very like Hartford. 
 
 Franklin. Like the Clinton. I U ^N J V l R S T T V 
 
 Garrigues. Like Isabella ; early. 
 
 German Wine. Is it York Madeira ? {! /"^ A T TTXf \ | y T 
 
 Go/Jen Clinton. Yellow ; highly recommended fi^ome. ^--N I A. 
 
 Graham. Pennsylvania. Black; sweet. 
 
 Guignard. Vigorous, productive, not hardy; bunch compact; berry 
 rather small, juicy, fine ; brownish. 
 
 Hartford. Connecticut. Exceedingly vigorous, hardy, productive; early; 
 bunch large ; berry large, black, pulpy, musky ; for market. 
 
 Hattie. Michigan. Like Catawba ; early ; good. 
 
 Hcrbemont. Southern. Vigorous, productive, rather tender ; bunch 
 large, compact ; berry rather small, brown, juicy, very fine ; table and 
 wine. 
 
 Hirbcmont Seedling. Ohio. Like its parent ; very good ; promising for 
 wine. 
 
 Hyde's Eliza. Some think it York Madeira ; black ; early. 
 
 lona. New York. This celebrated grape is far in advance of most 
 American varieties of the Labrusca type. Unfortuately, it has mildewed in 
 many places. Bunch large ; berry large, red, sweet and rich. The must 
 weighs very heavy, as reported by M. Masson. Hence it is considered 
 promising for wine. 
 
 Isabella. An old variety, well known ; not satisfactory for wines ; not 
 rich for table. 
 
 Isabella Seedling. Ohio. An improvement on its parent, which it re- 
 sembles. 
 
 Isabella Seedling. New York. Said to be sweeter and earlier than its 
 parent. 
 
 Israel/a. New York. Bunch large ; berries large, black ; early, and 
 hangs well. 
 
52 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Kingscssing. Bunch long, loose | berry medium, round, red, pulpy ; mil- 
 dews. 
 
 faes. Ohio. Very thrifty, productive, and hardy ; bunch large ; berry 
 large, black, pulpy, musky ; makes a very superior red wine. 
 
 Laura. Ohio. Hardy, productive | berry large, light green to pale red, 
 sweet, foxy, little pulp. 
 
 Lenoir. Southern. Vigorous ; resembles Herbemont ; black ; very good. 
 
 Lincoln. Southern. Tender; resembles Lenoir ; unproductive. 
 
 Little Ozark. South-western. Bunch long, loose | berry medium, black, 
 juicy ; good for wine. 
 
 Logan. Hardy ; bunch long, loose ; berry medium, oval, black ; no 
 better than Isabella. 
 
 Long. Southern. Berry medium, dark purple, sweet ; recommended for 
 wine. 
 
 Lor.gworth. Ohio. Vigorous, healthy, productive ; shoots red ; bunch 
 large, handsome ; berry rather small, black, juicy ; excellent. 
 
 Longiuorth's Monster. Ohio. Exceedingly vigorous, healthy, productive; 
 bunch medium ; berry large, round, blue. 
 
 Lorain. Ohio. Bunch medium | berry large, amber yellow, sweet ; 
 good. 
 
 Louisa. Pennsylvania. Like Isabella, but earlier. 
 
 Louisiana. Southern. Seems to be a foreign sort. Approved for wine, 
 in Missouri. 
 
 ' Lydia. Ohio. Vigorous, healthy ; bunch medium ; berry large ; green 
 to yellow ; sweet ; ripens early. 
 
 Lyman. Healthy, vigorous, productive ; bunch large, handsome | berry 
 full medium, blue or black ; very good ; makes a fine red wine. 
 
 Macedonia. Pennsylvania. A Concord seedling 5 said to be early and 
 white. 
 
 Maguire. " Foxy and poor." 
 
 Manhattan. New York. "An Isabella seedling ; bunch small ; berry 
 sweet, tough, foxy." 
 
 Marion. Ohio. Vigorous, hardy, productive 5 bunch large, handsome, 
 close ; berry large, round, blue ; very good. 
 
 Marion Post. Ohio. Too much like York Madeira. Not desirable. 
 
 Marique. Ohio. Healthy, vigorous, very productive | bunch full me- 
 dium, compact ; berry oval, large, blue, spicy ; very good. 
 
 Martha. Pennsylvania. A white Concord ; vigorous, healthy, and 
 hardy ; bunch medium to large ; berry large, round, white, sweet ; very 
 promising. 
 
Choice of Vines. 53 
 
 Mary Ann. Too foxy to be desirable, except for early market ; black. 
 
 Maxataivny. Pennsylvania. Healthy, vigorous, hardy ; rather late ; 
 white. 
 
 Mead's. Massachusetts. Resembles Catawba, which some think it is. 
 
 Miles. Pennsylvania. Hardy and healthy ; early ; black. 
 
 Miner's. Pennsylvania. Wild, very vigorous, hardy ; bunch medium ; 
 berry large, foxy, dull red ; useful for wine. 
 
 Missouri. Moderate grower ; bunch large J berry small, very sweet ; 
 black. 
 
 Madeira. New York. Seedling of Concord, which it resembles ; black. 
 
 Mottled. Ohio. Hardy, healthy, productive; bunch medium, compact; 
 berry large, round, mottled red ; a promising wine grape. 
 
 Mount Lebanon. " Large and showy, but coarse and foxy." 
 
 Mustang. Texas. Vigorous ; bunch medium ; berry full medium, 
 black ; acerb 5 not promising. 
 
 North America. Healthy ; bunch small ; early | black ; fair quality. 
 
 Northern Muscadine. Vigorous, healthy, sometimes very productive J 
 bunch medium ; berry medium to large, round, dark, dull red j early ; very 
 foxy ; poor ; falls badly as it ripens. 
 
 North Carolina. Bunch small, loose j berry medium, round, black j 
 thought to be good for wine. 
 
 Norton. Virginia. Vigorous, healthy, productive ; bunch large, full j 
 berry rather small, black, sweet, rich ; very fine for wine. 
 
 Offer. Bunch large j berry large, dark red, sweet, musky ; not approved. 
 
 OAio t or Segar Box. Southern. Juicy ; fine. 
 
 Ontario. Very like Union Village. 
 
 Oporto. New York. Exceedingly vigorous, hardy ; bunch medium J 
 berry medium, black, acid ; poor ; too much acid for good wine. 
 
 Pauline. Southern. Resembles Lenoir somewhat ; black. 
 
 Perkins. Vigorous ; bunch medium ; berry large, light red, very foxy J 
 approved by some for early market. 
 
 PoeschelPs Mammoth. Missouri. Healthy ; berry large, red ; late ; not 
 desirable. 
 
 Post Oak. Texas. Foliage peculiarly lobed ; fruit has not proved satis- 
 factory. 
 
 Radbe. Pennsylvania. Berry full, medium, black, sweet. 
 
 Rachel. Hardy ; bunch medium ; berry medium, white ; early. 
 
 Rebecca. New York. Mildews in some localities ; never very robust} 
 bunch medium; berry large, round, yellow; very good. 
 
 Red Shepherd. Very vigorous ; very foxy. 
 
54 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Rente, Ohio. Vigorous, healthy, productive; early; bunch rather 
 large; berry full medium to large, round, black, pulpy, sweet, musky; 
 makes very good light red wine. 
 
 ROGERS' HYBRIDS.* No. i. Vigorous; bunch large; berry very large, 
 round, pale red, rather late; esteemed by some; said to improve in the west} 
 foxy flavor, as are they all. 
 
 No. z. Late, large, black. 
 
 No. 3. " Hardy and vigorous 5" large ; amber colored ; quite early. 
 
 No. 4. The most popular of the lot ; may prove profitable for market; 
 said to be healthy and vigorous; bunch handsome, rather large; berry 
 large, black. 
 
 No. 9. Foliage scanty ; canes long jointed } early as Delaware ; reddish, 
 sweet. 
 
 No. 15. Vigorous, healthy, productive ; bunch large; berry large, am- 
 ber, rich, sweet, aromatic. 
 
 No. 19. Resembles No. 4; not considered quite so good. 
 
 No. zz. Resembles No. 15 in color and quality; more Diana flavor. 
 
 Nos. 41, 43, 44. All black and large; better than No. 4, but not so 
 large bunches. 
 
 Rulandcr. Foreign ; berry medium, black ; valued as a wine grape in 
 Missouri. 
 
 Sage. Massachusetts. Vigorous ; berry large ; very foxy. 
 
 Sanbornton. New Hampshire. One of the Isabella type ; said to ripen 
 where the Isabella will not. 
 
 Saratoga. New York. Supposed to be the same as Fancher ; very like 
 Catawba; red, good. 
 
 Segar Box. Same as Ohio; rather tender; vigorous; bunch large, rather 
 loose; berry small, black, juicy ; very good. 
 
 *These seedlings are reputed to be true hybrids, of the Vit'is vinifera t on 
 the labrusca, or wild fox-grape of New England. They were introduced at 
 the meeting of the Lake Shore Grape Growers' Association, at Cleveland, 
 Ohio, in October, 1866, when their merits were set forth by Hon. Marshal 
 P. Wilder, who exhibited them. The above descriptions are condensed 
 from the statements there made. There are said to be still others, some of 
 which have merit. It must be confessed that if hybrids, they are far below 
 the choice varieties of the European grapes that are their reputed parents ; 
 but, if only seedlings, from the miserable wild-fox grape, their mother, they 
 evince a most wonderful tendency to improvement in that variety, that 
 that would have transported Van Mons, had they occurred in his experience. 
 
Choice of Vines. 55 
 
 Shaker. Is Union Village. 
 
 Shaker Seedling. Resembles Union Village, but is earlier ; black, large. 
 
 South Carolina. Ohio. Vigorous; bunch large ; berry small, black, juicy, 
 spicy, very promising. 
 
 SchuylkilL Same as Cape. 
 
 Taylor. Kentucky. Very vigorous, rampant; not generally productive; 
 bunch rather small ; berry small, green, yellow, and rosy, juicy, good. 
 
 To Kalon. Not vigorous ; very like Isabella ; bunch above medium ; 
 berry large, black, round, pretty good ; by some highly esteemed. 
 
 Ulrey. Indiana. Bunch medium ; berry large, white, sweet, rich ; "per- 
 fectly hardy." 
 
 Underbill. New York. Vigorous, hardy; berry red, sweet; another 
 fox. 
 
 Union Village. Ohio. Very vigorous, healthy; not hardy when over- 
 grown; bunch large; berry very large, blue; only an overgrown Isabella, to 
 my taste ; very attractive in the market. 
 
 Urbana. A Concord seedling. Bunch medium ; berry large, white ; not 
 very sweet; worthy of trial. 
 
 Venango. Pennsylvania. Same as Miner's 
 
 Wachita. 
 
 Walter. New York. " Hardy, productive j a cross between Delaware 
 and Diana ;" bunch full medium ; berry medium, red j very like Diana in 
 many of its characters ; early. 
 
 Warren. Is Herbemont. 
 
 Washington. New York. Early, black. 
 
 White Cataivba. Ohio. Resembles Catawba, but inferior; bunch me- 
 dium ; berry large, greenish, pulpy. 
 
 White Muscadine. 
 
 Wilmington. Delaware. Vigorous ; berry medium, white. 
 
 Worthington. Ohio. Vigorous, hardy ; bunch small j berry medium, 
 black, very acid, poor. 
 
 TTcddo. Japan. Has not succeeded ; tender. 
 
 York Madeira. An improved fox, only ; valued for its earliness. 
 
 Young America. Pennsylvania. A Concord seedling 5 late. 
 
 Zane. Ohio. Berry full medium, red ; not cultivated. 
 
 In most vineyards a long experience has pointed out 
 what vines are the best adapted (considering the state 
 of the soil, the location and exposure) to the produc- 
 
56 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 tion of the kind of wine desired. When, therefore, a 
 vineyard is to be planted, the first thing to be ascertained 
 will be the situation, the exposure, and the nature of the 
 soil, and subsoil, of the land to be used ; after which we 
 must choose, in the neighborhood, those vines which, 
 under the same conditions, have given the best results. 
 
 There are, however, a few general rules which may 
 serve as guides in that particular. 
 
 1st. Consider whether quality of product is more 
 profitable than quantity ; for these two conditions can 
 scarcely ever be united. It does not depend upon the 
 cultivator to produce that bouquet that smoothness 
 which characterizes fine wines. Those qualities cer- 
 tainly depend partly on the climate, the nature of the 
 vine, the character of the soil, and its exposure ; but 
 they are especially the results of certain local influences, 
 which it has been impossible, so far, to determine in a 
 very positive manner. Therefore, when a vineyard is 
 to be planted in one of these favored localities, quan- 
 tity must undoubtedly be sacrificed to quality ; for, the 
 high price which the product will command, may com- 
 pensate for its smaller quantity ; but, these desirable 
 products excepted, it will be well to sacrifice quality to 
 quantity ; for, do what we may, the price will never be 
 sufficiently high to compensate for the diminished yield. 
 Nevertheless, it has been recently suggested, that the 
 fine varieties should be everywhere substituted for the 
 much more common, but, at the same time, much more 
 productive ones. This is unfortunate, for it is evident 
 that under no circumstances can one acre of Burgundy 
 cc Pinots," in their highest state of productiveness, yield 
 the same quantity which the " Gamais " will yield, if 
 
Choice of Vines. 57 
 
 planted on the same extent of land, and also in its high- 
 est state of productiveness. It is equally certain that 
 the produce of the fine varieties acquires all its excel- 
 lent qualities only under the influence of certain con- 
 ditions of the soil, and its favorable exposure. This 
 being admitted, let us suppose two acres of land, very 
 richly manured, heavy, little subject to drought one 
 planted with " Gamais," the other planted to Burgundy 
 "Pinots." The "Gamais" will yield 1056 gallons, 
 which, at one dollar per gallon, is $1,056. The 
 " Pinot," owing to the unfavorable state of the soil in 
 which it is planted, will yield 264 gallons, of a quality 
 below its proper standard, which, at two dollars fifty 
 cents, will give $660. It is evident, therefore the 
 expense of cultivation being the same that the ad- 
 vantage will be in favor of the " Gamais." 
 
 If, on the other hand, one acre of well drained land, 
 of good depth, a little gravelly, situated on a hill-side, 
 with a good exposure in fact, situated in the condi- 
 tions most favorable to the " Pinot " is planted with 
 " Gamais," that space will perhaps yield 422 gallons, 
 which, at one dollar, will bring $422 ; whilst the same 
 space, under the same conditions, and devoted to the 
 "Pinot," will produce only 211 gallons, it is true, but 
 it will sell at five dollars, and realize $1,055 f r tne 
 entire crop. In that case, the advantage is in favor of 
 the " Pinot." 
 
 Besides, supposing that fine wines could be produced 
 anywhere, and that their greater value should compen- 
 sate for their small yield, the production of fine wines, 
 almost exclusively, would soon bring about the follow- 
 ing unfortunate result, namely : that two-thirds, at least, 
 
58 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 of consumers, being unable to buy anything but com- 
 mon wines, producers of fine wines could no longer 
 find a market. Therefore, it would not be advisable to 
 be too positive as to the choice of vines, as regards 
 quantity or quality. Quality, exclusively, must not be 
 thought of, except in those favored localities where the 
 high price of the product will compensate for the small- 
 ness of the yield ; everywhere else quantity must have 
 the preference. 
 
 2d. If wines of medium quality are to be obtained, 
 the finer descriptions, generally very rich in alcohol, 
 must be mixed with the more abundant but much weak- 
 er ones. It is thus that in the second class vineyards 
 of Burgundy, the " Pinots," which produce a fine wine, 
 but in small quantity, are mixed with the ct Gamais," 
 which is of inferior quality but produces largely. In 
 the Gironde district, the " Verdal," the " Merlot," the 
 big " Merille," are mixed with the " Carmenet." On 
 the banks of the Rhone the " Pique-Poule," yielding 
 little, but excellent wine, is mixed with a small quan- 
 tity of " Grenache," producing very strong wine, and 
 with the tc Terret," a large yielder of wine, but weak 
 in alcoholic principle. The vine of PErmitage is com- 
 posed exclusively of the tc Big Sirah," which is very 
 productive, but not so fine as the " Little Sirah," with 
 which it is sometimes mixed. 
 
 3d. It is enough that ordinary wines contain a suf- 
 ficient proportion of alcohol : that is, 0.08 at least ; 
 when weaker than that they are difficult of sale. 
 Therefore, the vines which will most readily give this 
 result ought to be selected. Thus, as the u Gamais," 
 
Choice of Vines. 59 
 
 in a good soil, will contain 0.0649 of alcohol, the " Pi- 
 not," which yields 0.1062, is mixed with it. 
 
 4th. If the wines are for distillation, preference must 
 be given to the most productive descriptions, and they 
 must be cultivated in rich soils. Weak wines will be 
 obtained, but their greater abundance will more than 
 compensate for their small yield of alcohol ; besides, 
 this poverty will not be an obstacle to the sale of these 
 wines, since, in the process of prolonged distillation, 
 water has to be added to those wines which contain 
 over o. 10 of alcohol, and the buyer has to pay only for 
 the alcohol contained in the wine. What we have just 
 said is clearly proven by the following figures, which 
 we borrow from M. Bouchardet : 
 
 One acre of " Gamais," well cultivated, yields 1,689 
 gallons of wine, containing 0.048 of alcohol, or 216 
 gallons of alcohol per acre. 
 
 One acre of u Pinot," well cultivated, will yield 
 528 gallons of wine, containing 0.1062 of alcohol, or 
 56 gallons of alcohol per acre. 
 
 5th. Certain grapes produce wine which remains sweet 
 for the want of ferment ; this defect may be obviated 
 by mixing with them such as produce dry wines. Thus, 
 a too large proportion of the " Grenache" often pro- 
 duces this result, in the South ; if it has too little alco- 
 hol, the defect is corrected by increasing the number of 
 " Pique-Poule " plants, in the South, and of " Pinots " 
 in the North. If the wine contains much lees, and is 
 liable to sour, or turn to vinegar, those descriptions 
 which contain much tannin are mixed with it ; such as 
 the Mourvedre, in rich soils ; the brown " Fourca" in 
 the dry sgils of the South ; the Merlot of the Gironde 
 
60 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 in the West. In the South there are " musts' 9 which 
 ferment badly for want of a sufficient proportion of wa- 
 ter ; this inconvenience is remedied by planting a cer- 
 tain proportion of Aramons, or Terrets. This is the 
 way to correct the defects of wine ; it is better than to 
 add to the " musts" substances which assimilate them- 
 selves badly with that liquid, and which it is difficult to 
 mix in the right proportions to all the elements which 
 compose it. 
 
 6th. The degree of color to give to wine must also 
 be attended to, in choosing the plants, for this exerts 
 considerable influence on the sale of the wine. When 
 they lack color, it is remedied, in the South, by plant- 
 ing the Tirtot, the Mourastel or the Carignan j in the 
 North the " Dyers" are employed. 
 
 yth. From the preceding positions, we conclude that 
 in almost all vineyards several kinds of plants must be 
 united ; but the number ought always to be very lim- 
 ited, and should comprise those only, the admixture of 
 which will produce the results we have here pointed 
 out. In any case, as the " musts " of the different 
 kinds will have to be mixed in the same cask, the plants 
 must be selected in such a way that they will all mature 
 precisely at the same time. If it is sometimes proper 
 to introduce varieties of different dates of maturity, it 
 is when large vineyards are to be planted ; in such cases 
 the different grapes are pressed separately. The plant- 
 ing is done in this way to counterbalance the risks 
 which each variety runs from white frosts, rotting, etc. 
 This also permits the harvesting of the crop to be done 
 gradually, and to have always a sufficient number of 
 laborers at hand. It is for this reason that in the large 
 
Choice of Fines. 6 1 
 
 vineyards of Lower Languedoc, they plant one-third in 
 " Aramons," which belong to the fourth period of ma- 
 turity ; one-third in " Grenache," which belongs to the 
 fifth period, and one-third in " Terret-bourret," which 
 only ripens at the sixth period. 
 
 These are the chief causes which have determined 
 the selections of the various grapes comprising our vine- 
 yards. These selections, sanctioned by long experience, 
 are almost all founded upon common-sense principles, 
 and for this reason, very frequently it is sufficient to im- 
 itate what has already been done in the locality to be 
 planted. It is not that we absolutely condemn the intro- 
 duction of new plants : numerous examples prove the 
 advantage of sometimes introducing new varieties ; but 
 these sorts of naturalizations ought to be attempted with 
 great caution, as a failure might cause heavy loss. 
 
 As a general rule, the transfer of varieties from one 
 country to another succeeds only where the climate, 
 soil, and cultivation, of the country of which the plant 
 is a native, perfectly resemble those of that into which 
 it is to be introduced. And yet this rule is not with- 
 out exception, for certain vineyards of the Northern 
 and Middle districts have been improved by the intro- 
 duction of vines originating in the South, and vice versa: 
 the Northern varieties have given very good results in 
 the South. Therefore, no positive rule can be laid down 
 in this respect ; nevertheless, it will be well, when a 
 new plant is to be introduced, to try it on a small scale, 
 so as to observe how far, and in what manner, it has 
 been affected by the new conditions to which it is ex- 
 posed. 
 
62 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 PLANTS PRODUCING THE BEST WINES. Let us 
 conclude the subject of plants by pointing out those 
 which p'roduce our best wines. 
 
 1st. Burgundy. The best products of Burgundy are : 
 For red wines those of Romanee-Conti, Chambertin, 
 Richbourg, Clos-Saint-Georges, Gorton, Clos-de-Vou- 
 geot, Volnay, Pomard, Nuits. 
 
 These wines are produced chiefly from the black* 
 "Pinot." 
 
 For white wines the best are from Montrachet, 
 Meursault, Chablis, where the white " Pinot" is used. 
 
 2d. Bordelais. The chief crops of this country are : 
 
 For red wines those of Medoc, Chateau-Margeaux, 
 Chateau-Lafitte, Chateau-Latour, Haut Brion, Saint 
 Julien, Saint Estephe, and in the gravelly districts of 
 Bordeaux, those of Talence, Saint Emilion, near Li- 
 bourne. These vineyards are composed, almost ex- 
 clusively of the " Carmenet," " Malbeck," " Merlot," 
 and " Verdot" plants. 
 
 For white wines Chateau-Yquem (Sauterne), Cou- 
 tet (Barsac) Chateau-Carbonnieux (Villeneuve d'Or- 
 non). These wines are the produce of the u Semil- 
 lion," the " Rochalin," and the " Blanquette." 
 
 3d. Champagne. The products of Ay, Sillery, p- 
 ernay, of Versenay, Pierry, Avise, Cramont, are the 
 most celebrated of that country. The plants occupy- 
 ing the first rank here are particularly the " Gray Pi- 
 not," the " White Muscat," and " Black Muscat." 
 
 4th. Banks of the Rhone. The products of Cote 
 Rotie and Condrieu are extensively composed of "Black 
 Serine," and " White Vionnier." 
 
 5th. Drome. The red wine of PErmitage is pro- 
 
Choice of Fines. 63 
 
 duced by the " Big" and " Little Sirah ;" the plants 
 of Marsanne and Roussane yield the white wine of 
 PErmitage. 
 
 6th. H'erault. The wines of Lunel and Frontignan, 
 are produced by the " White Muscat," the " Picar- 
 dan," and the plant of Calabria. 
 
 yth. Upper Rhine. The Rhine wines, and partic- 
 ularly those of Johannisberg, are the products of the 
 big and little " Riesling." 
 
 8th. Eastern Pyrenees. The wines known as Ali- 
 cante, Grenache, Collioure, are of the a Red Gren- 
 ache," the " Alicante," and the " Grignane." The 
 wine of Rivesaltes, is the product of the ct White Mus- 
 cat," " Alexandrian Muscat," and " St. Jacques Mus- 
 cat." 
 
 9th. Ardeche. The wine of St. Peray is from the 
 " Big Roussette," and " Little Roussette." 
 
 loth. Cher. The wine of Pouilly is from the 
 "White Pinot." 
 
 nth. Aude. The Blanquette of Limoux is produced 
 from the " Blanquette." 
 
 1 2th Lower Pyrenees. The red wines of Jurancon 
 are from the following plants : " Pinene," " Mensec," 
 tc Menseing," and "Tannat." The white wines of 
 Jurancon are from the " Refiat," the tc Menseing," the 
 Claverie," the " Aulban" and the " Courtoisie." 
 
 1 3th. 'Jura. The white wines of Chateau-Chalons, 
 the yellow and spirituous wines of Arbois, known also 
 under the name of the straw wines, are produced by the 
 " Sauvagin," or wild plant. 
 
 [The importance of having a variety of grapes in cultiva- 
 tion, is very well argued by our author. Our list of hardy 
 
64 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 American grapes is yet quite small, compared to the very 
 numerous varieties which are cultivated in Europe ; which 
 have probably all been derived from one and the same spe- 
 cies, under cultivation, but have shown a wonderful dispo- 
 sition to sport into distinct varieties. With the different 
 species of grapes in our country, their tendency to variation, 
 and the great attention which has been bestowed upon them, 
 with a view to the production of new varieties, by crossing 
 and hybridizing, we already have quite a respectable assort- 
 ment, and may expect, in a few years, to have very many 
 more presented to the public. 
 
 Up to this time very little has been done in the way of 
 commingling the products of different vines, by our wine- 
 makers. Certain varieties, with very high aroma, have been 
 suggested as valuable, to add to others that are deficient in 
 character, and some few experiments have been made. Thus, 
 the juice of the Diana, with its peculiar feline flavor, has been 
 mixed with some grapes that were deficient or insipid, to 
 dilute this character, and bring it within reasonable bounds. 
 The highly musky juice of the Anna, has been mixed with 
 the rich, but often rather tame, fluid produced by the Dela- 
 ware, and the result was a most delicious product. These, and 
 similar trials, have shown us that good results may follow 
 from the judicious admixtures of some of our grapes, and no 
 doubt future experiments will be attended with happy re- 
 sults. 
 
 Up to this time, our wine-makers have, very properly, taken 
 a great deal of pains in attempting to produce pure wines 
 from all of the grapes they were cultivating, keeping each 
 separate and unmixed, so as to ascertain its peculiar character 
 and merits ; but as the culture is extended, and the number of 
 varieties is increased, we may very properly begin to experi- 
 ment with this class of mixtures, which are perfectly legiti- 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 65 
 
 mate, and are justified by the practice of the best wine- 
 countries. 
 
 The same can not be said of the other class of admixtures : 
 those of foreign ingredients of any kind, which may very 
 properly be called adulterations, which will be considered in 
 another place.] 
 
 V. 
 PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 
 
 *T*HE vine may be propagated from the seeds, from 
 cuttings, by layers, and by grafting ; let us consider 
 under what circumstances the one or the" other of these 
 modes of reproduction must be preferred. 
 
 SEEDS. Seeds can not be used, on a large scale, for 
 planting a vineyard. For, although they may have been 
 gathered from varieties of first-rate quality, and per- 
 fectly adapted to the locality, they will generally pro- 
 duce very inferior plants, and the seedling obtained will 
 always be more or less removed from the parent stock, 
 and approximate nearer to the wild state. But, as it 
 has sometimes happened that seedlings have possessed 
 superior qualities to the original stock, this mode of re- 
 production has been employed, to obtain new varieties 
 still more worthy of cultivation. It is thus that our 
 vineyards and trellises have been gradually improved by 
 the excellent varieties which we now cultivate. This 
 operation, practiced in gardens, or nurseries, is a very 
 slow process, for it will sometimes be eight or ten years 
 before the plants will bear, although it may, it is true, be 
 hastened by laying down the young plants successively j 
 
66 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 or, better still, by grafting some of their shoots on old 
 plants. 
 
 [For the reasons presented by the author, propagation by 
 seedlings, will never be practiced merely for the multipli- 
 cation of plants ; but the number of good varieties thus pro- 
 duced in this country, would make it appear that the tendency 
 to run back to the wild characters was not so great with 
 our vines as with those of the species Fitis vinifera of Europe. 
 Nor are we obliged to wait so long a time for our vines to 
 fruit, since many of our seedlings have given satisfactory evi- 
 dEnce of their promising qualities, or otherwise, in the third 
 year. In a collection of seedlings, a good many may be re- 
 jected the first or second season, if we allow ourselves to be 
 guided by the appearance of the vine and its foliage, and an 
 expert may be safe in depending upon these criteria. 
 
 The late Mr. N. Longworth, of Cincinnati, was a most in- 
 defatigable seed-planter, and he produced a great number of 
 seedling grape-vines, some of which will yet make their mark. 
 His seeds were taken almost at random, from any good grapes. 
 He annually rejected great numbers of plants, which he 
 thought were showing indications of wildness, that induced 
 him to conclude they were worthless. 
 
 Mr. John Fiske Allen, and Mr. E. S. Rogers, of the vicin- 
 ity of Boston ; and Mr. Peter Raabe, of Philadelphia, and 
 others, have made systematic attempts to improve the native 
 grape, by fertilizing with the pollen of choice foreign varieties. 
 Their trials have been attended with more or less success, and 
 many others have been encouraged to take up the subject of 
 cross-fertilization, and to repeat these experiments. A doubt 
 has existed in the minds of some of our most intelligent porn- 
 ologists, whether all the results were really true hybrids, and 
 this is based upon the observation that one set of plants was so 
 decidedly foreign in appearance, while another set should show 
 so little change in the characters of the native parent. This 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 67 
 
 is a matter, however, which it is not proposed to discuss in 
 this place. 
 
 One of the most reliable operators in this line of investi- 
 gation, is the careful experimenter, and accurate observer, 
 Geo. W. Campbell, of Delaware, Ohio ; who is perfectly 
 satisfied that he has succeeded in effecting veritable crosses 
 between several varieties, and that he has even produced hy- 
 brids between the foreign and American species. Mr. Camp- 
 bell has been so good as to communicate some of the results 
 of his experiments to the public, with most interesting details, 
 in papers to the Ohio Pomological Society, and in an elaborate 
 article which may be found in the Report of the Department 
 of Agriculture, at Washington, for the year 1862, p. 209, to 
 which last the reader is particularly referred. In it the sub- 
 ject of hybridizing, cross-breeding, and selection of the seed- 
 lings, is pretty fully discussed. 
 
 Mr. Campbell does not give a very flattering or encouraging 
 view of the prospects of any one who enters this field of in- 
 vestigation, when he says : "that about ten years of further 
 care and culture (after fertilizing the blossoms), will be re- 
 quired before determinate results are reached, and that the 
 chances may be ten, or perhaps a hundred to one, that the 
 product will be of no value. A good deal of enthusiasm, as 
 well as a sanguine temperament, is necessary to enable the hy- 
 bridizer to find much encouragement in his pursuit. He must 
 be, emphatically, one who is willing 
 
 ' To labor and to wait.' " 
 
 Up to this time the most of our leading kinds in cultiva- 
 tion are either natives, or accidental garden seedlings, which 
 are the result of selection merely, and have not been produced 
 by the application of scientific efforts bestowed upon the sub- 
 ject ; so with most of our American seedling fruits, of all kinds.] 
 
 CUTTINGS. Propagation from cuttings is, as regards 
 
68 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the vine, the simplest and most expeditious process ; 
 giving the best results, and is the one most in vogue. 
 The kind of cutting most generally used is that 
 known under the name of u crossette " or u elbow-cut- 
 ting." In some vineyards it is also known as "capon" 
 or " hook." 
 
 The crossette is composed of one shoot, 
 properly so called, [Fig. 5.] that is of the 
 preceding spring's growth ; it must have, 
 at its base, a small portion of wood, of 
 two years' growth, and be, altogether, 
 about sixteen inches in length. The por- 
 tion of old wood left at the end of the 
 shoot forms a sort of hook, and from this 
 has received the name of " crossette." 
 The base, or heel of the shoot, helps 
 FFiG. 5.1 greatly to form the roots. 
 
 In the absence of crossettes, shoots, properly so called, 
 are also used ; that is, shoots without heels, 
 but provided with an eye at each end. [Fig. 6.] 
 These shoots take root as easily as the first, 
 provided the section at the base is made in the 
 middle of the thick part of the joint. 
 
 The two kinds of cuttings just spoken of, 
 are put in nurseries, to make them take root, 
 previous to permanent transplanting. Some- 
 times they are permanently planted, without 
 [Fie. 6.] this preliminary operation. We shall point out 
 the precautions which they require, in this last case, 
 when we treat of the setting out of the vineyard. 
 Let us now show the process of making a nursery for 
 them. 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 69 
 
 NURSERY FOR RAISING CUTTINGS. Preparing the 
 " Crossettes." Crossettes are cut from late in the fall 
 until the end of February. In the northern latitudes 
 adapted to the vine, they must be put into the nursery 
 in March and April only, and in January and February 
 in the South. Until then the wood must be kept from 
 drying. It is well, besides, to hasten the development 
 of their roots. To this end the cuttings are treated as 
 follows : by means of a pruning-knife, the portion of 
 old wood which had been left only to prevent the heel 
 of the crossette from drying, especially when they are 
 for distant transportation, is cut away. The dry ten- 
 drils and grape stalks must also be removed. All the 
 cuttings are then made of one length say about sixteen 
 inches. These crossettes are tied into small bundles, 
 which are then buried in the following manner : one or 
 more trenches are opened, of about fourteen inches 
 wide, and about as deep as the cuttings are long. The 
 bundles of cuttings are placed in these trenches, in an 
 upright position, but upside down. The earth is so 
 placed over them as to form a slanting or shelving bed 
 over each trench. This process, which we have seen 
 practiced by some vine-dressers on the " Aude," gives 
 this result : when about to be transplanted into the 
 nursery, these cuttings are taken up, when the heel of 
 each is found provided with a large, round swelling of 
 cellular tissue, which hastens the growth of the cut- 
 tings by one year. 
 
 [A similar method, but more carefully and judiciously man- 
 aged, has been very successfully introduced, in this country, 
 and has been used by Mr. Wm. Patrick, of Terre Haute, In- 
 diana. The details are given in the American Annual of Horti- 
 
70 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 culture, a beautiful booklet, which has just been issued from 
 the press of Orange Judd & Co., New York. 
 
 The point aimed at is the application of heat to the lower 
 portion of the cuttings, to encourage the formation of the 
 callus, whence the roots are to issue, while the buds that are 
 to form the vine are kept cool and dormant, until the condi- 
 tions are changed, at planting time, by reversing the cuttings. 
 At this time young roots will have made their appearance. 
 The reader is referred to the article. See "Annual" and 
 Gardeners' Monthly. 
 
 It is a very common plan to bury the cuttings as fast as 
 they are made and tied up. They are generally set, butts 
 down, in the trench opened for the purpose ; fine earth is 
 shaken over them, and filled in between the bundles, and the 
 whole is covered from the weather. The bundles are often 
 laid upon their sides, to avoid digging the trenches so deep. 
 Those that go into the market, and these have amounted to 
 millions, some years, are usually stowed in cellars, to keep 
 them from the drying winds, but not covered with soil. 
 They therefore sometimes become quite dry, and when received 
 at the end of their journey, they should be plunged into water, 
 for a short time, before being buried in the fresh soil, which 
 is a necessary preparation for the planting. 
 
 There is a very common prejudice in favor of what are 
 called heel-cuttings, or those that have a portion of the two- 
 year old wood at their base, like those called by our author 
 " crossettes," but we trim the old wood much shorter than 
 he represents in the cut : these are also called " martelles," 
 or hammer-cuttings, from the shape of the old wood. It is 
 thought they root more freely, which is very probable because 
 of the great number of eyes always clustered about the 
 base of the annual shoot. Many of the varieties in culti- 
 vation strike so readily from cuttings, that any piece will grow 
 as welj as the lower portion ; wood that is rather slender and 
 
Propagation of the Fine. 
 
 close-jointed, succeeds better than such as is large, sappy, full 
 of pith, and long-jointed, but, under all circumstances, the 
 shoots used should have been well ripened, and firm. Some 
 sorts are very difficult to grow from cuttings in the cold 
 ground ; these are propagated by layering, or the wood is 
 turned over to the careful manipulation of those who propa- 
 gate grape-vines by the aid of artificial heat and glass.] 
 
 To the same end, it is advisable to peel the cuttings 
 for four inches from their base, so as to lay bare the 
 inner bark. This operation is easily performed when 
 the cuticle has been softened in water, or by the damp- 
 ness of the ground. This removal of the skin hastens 
 and facilitates the sprouting of the roots in the following 
 proportions : if 200 cuttings of the same vine are 
 planted in a straight line, and in the same conditions 
 as to soil and moisture, and 100 of them are peeled, 
 as we have just explained, and each one planted be- 
 tween two cuttings which have not been operated on, 
 the following result will be obtained : while one-third 
 of the unpeeled cuttings fail, the cuttings operated on 
 will only fail four or five per cent., and will be more 
 vigorous by half. 
 
 By laying the cuttings horizontally in the earth, or 
 soaking them some time in water, somewhat analagous 
 effects are obtained, by the softening of the cuticle, but 
 these results are far from being as complete as in the 
 two foregoing processes. 
 
 Nursery Planting. The growth of cuttings must be 
 hastened as much as possible, and, for this reason, in 
 order to form a nursery, a rich, fertile soil, with a good 
 exposure, must be selected. In the fall preceding the 
 planting, it must be broken up and trenched to the 
 
J2 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 depth of sixteen inches. Just before being planted, it 
 must be lightly plowed, so as to level the surface prop- 
 erly ; a line is then stretched across one end of the 
 vineyard, to mark out a trench twelve inches wide, and 
 twelve inches deep. One of the sides of the trench, 
 against which the cuttings are to lean, must incline 
 about forty-five degrees. If the cuttings were placed 
 vertically, they would have to be buried deeper, and 
 their heels being too far from the surface of the ground, 
 would not lake root so well. Cuttings leaning against 
 this inclined plane, have one or two eyes above ground. 
 If they are to remain one year in the nursery, they are 
 planted four inches apart, on the line ; if two years, 
 eight inches apart. The crossettes having thus been 
 placed in this first trench, such manure as may be had 
 that is, old, loose manure, composted is put into the 
 trench, to the depth of six inches. The line is then 
 moved twelve inches from the first trench, if the plants 
 are to remain one year in the nursery, and sixteen 
 inches, if they are to remain two years ; and another 
 trench is then opened, similar and parallel to the first 
 the earth which is dug from it, serves to fill the first ; 
 this done, the earth is pressed down, with the foot, 
 against the first lines of cuttings, so that, being in close 
 contact with the earth to the whole extent planted, they 
 may the more easily absorb the moisture from the 
 ground. The second row is then set like the first one, 
 and so on, with all the rest. It must be borne in mind 
 that, if different vines are to be planted in a nursery, 
 they will have to be grown separately, in order to pre- 
 vent confusion at the time of setting out the young 
 plants permanently in the vineyard. 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 73 
 
 When the nursery is to be of considerable extent, it 
 will be well to divide it into beds four feet six inches, 
 to six feet six inches in width, and separated from each 
 other by alleys one foot six inches wide, running into 
 roads about three feet wide, if the nursery is to be very 
 extensive. The whole operation is finished by a light 
 hoeing of the entire surface of the beds, in order to su- 
 perficially loosen the soil trodden down by the feet. 
 
 Cultivation of the Nursery. About the beginning of 
 May, it will be well to hoe the soil a second time, and, 
 if it be of a dry character, to cover the entire surface 
 of the beds with a layer of straw, or dried leaves, or 
 any such substance, to the depth of two inches, so as 
 to prevent it from caking, under the action of the rain, 
 to oppose the growth of hurtful plants, and, especially, 
 to prevent the earth from drying up during the heats of 
 summer. If the soil is a little clayey, a few hoeings 
 during the season, will produce these results. These 
 dressings may be done by hand, if the nursery is small j 
 if one acre and a half, or more, it will be cheaper to 
 harrow it. In this case, it will be unnecessary to have 
 alleys, and the trenches must be made in the direction 
 of the greatest length of the nursery. If this nursery be 
 located in a southern latitude, it will not be sufficient 
 to hoe and cover up the soil, it will also be necessary 
 to water it, to some extent, in the very hot weather. 
 
 The shoots must be allowed to grow freely during 
 the first summer ; all the pruning or cutting which 
 could be done would only injure the roots. 
 
 In the fall, the young plants will appear as in Figure 
 7. These are called roots. They are sometimes 
 8 
 
74 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 permanently planted at this stage of their growth in 
 
 the South, for instance 
 when a vigorous plant is 
 wanted, and a plantation is 
 to be made in a rich and 
 somewhat clayey soil. But 
 it will be best, in most cases, 
 to await until the second 
 year. In that case, about 
 pruning time, all the young 
 plants are cut as at A [Fig. 
 7], and the small shoot, B, 
 is so cut as to have but one 
 eye at the base. Imme- 
 diately after the trimming, 
 the ground is lightly plowed, 
 and, at the end of April, it 
 [Fie. 7.] One-year old \ s again covered with a new 
 
 Plant. layer of straw, etc. 
 
 It will be well, during the summer, to concentrate 
 all the vigor of the young plant into one single shoot. 
 For that purpose, as soon as the shoots have attained 
 the length of eight inches, they must all be suppressed, 
 except the finest one, the top of which must be pinched 
 off, as soon as it has reached twenty-four inches in 
 hight. About the beginning of August, the buds are 
 again nipped, if necessary, to prevent confusion, and 
 allow the shoots to be well strengthened by the action 
 of the sun. Figure 8 shows the appearance of these 
 two-year old plants in the fall. 
 
 Removal of the Plants from the Nursery. Whatever 
 length of time the cuttings may be left in the nursery, 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 
 
 75 
 
 they ought to be taken up in such a way that none of 
 their roots be mutilated, 
 for these, being thick and 
 fleshy, will not bear the 
 least bruising, which af- 
 terward will cause them 
 to rot completely. To 
 avoid this danger, they 
 must be taken up in this 
 way : at one end of each 
 of the beds, and cross- 
 wise, open a continuous 
 trench, a little deeper 
 than the roots have gone 
 down ; then undermine 
 the earth, little by little, 
 keeping the trench well 
 cleared out all the time. 
 In this way, all the plants 
 may be taken up, without 
 bruising a single root. 
 
 [FlG. 8.] Two-year ott 
 Plant. 
 
 [Certain changes have been introduced into the system of 
 growing cuttings and making plants, which should be noticed 
 in this place. While some vine-planters prefer setting the 
 cuttings at once in the vineyard, where they are to remain 
 permanently, and thus avoid the labor of transplanting, and 
 obviate the check to the plants incident to this operation, 
 there are others who prefer to grow their vines in the nur- 
 sery. All those parties at a distance who are to be supplied 
 with plants, must have them grown one or two years in the 
 nursery, and well rooted. Thus the production of grape 
 plants has become a very important part of the business, and 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 enormous quantities of vines are produced by the nurseryman, 
 and sold to the vine-planter. 
 
 The nursery of long cuttings such as were formerly used 
 almost exclusively, was often made in this way. A mel- 
 low piece of loamy soil having been selected, either fal- 
 low, or, if in clover, so much the better, a trench was opened 
 along one side, as recommended by Mr. Du Breuil. The 
 garden line was stretched, and the bank of freshly dug earth 
 was dressed to it, with the spade, and sloping to the bottom 
 of the trench, which was made some fifteen to eighteen 
 inches deep. -The cuttings were placed along this slope, about 
 three inches apart, and so arranged that the top bud should 
 barely reach the surface. 
 
 The spade was then taken, and a little earth from the un- 
 dug land was cast upon the bases of the cuttings, and firmly 
 trodden, so as to fix them in their places, without disturbing 
 their upper points, however, which should always remain 
 near the line. The digging then proceeded the whole length 
 of the line, as in common preparation of the garden, and the 
 fine soil thrown upon the cuttings, and pressed to them. 
 When a strip of fifteen to eighteen inches width, was thus 
 dug, the line was moved, and set at that distance from 
 its first position, the earth graded to it, and another row 
 planted. 
 
 When completed, the nursery was generally left without 
 further care until the young shoots began to make their ap- 
 pearance, when the crust would require loosening, very care- 
 fully, with a weeding-fork or a rake-hoe. This process is 
 one requiring great delicacy, because the shoots are very ten- 
 der and brittle, and easily destroyed. In some soils which 
 are apt to bake and form a hard crust, it is better, as the rows 
 are planted, to raise a little ridge of soil over the points of 
 the cuttings. This is done before moving the line, by using 
 a fine garden-rake, or by putting on a small quantity of loose 
 
Propagation of the Fine. 77 
 
 compost, or woods' earth, which has been prepared for the 
 purpose, and which will not bake. Such material covers the 
 cuttings, protects them from drying, encourages the starting 
 of the buds, does not form a crust, and shows the cultivator 
 just where to look for his young vines, and it is easily re- 
 moved from the points of the shoots as they commence to 
 push through it to the light and air. 
 
 Long and Short Cuttings. The old rule for the length 
 of cuttings was to make them a practical cubit's length, the 
 measure being taken on the fore-arm and running to the end 
 of the fingers. Where the wood was abundant, and the cut- 
 tings brought a low price, say of from one to, at most, three 
 dollars per thousand, the vine-trimmer could afford to be 
 generous, and it was found that in tying up the bundles of 
 one hundred, this length was very convenient. 
 
 The objection to these long cuttings, particularly for nur- 
 sery planting, and the production of vines for sale, was two- 
 fold. The farmer had greater labor in planting, and also in 
 digging them, and the purchaser had fewer roots than he 
 desired ; indeed, many of the yearling plants were little bet- 
 ter than cuttings, by the time they reached their destination, 
 as the slender roots were often withered and dried up, so as 
 to be unfit for planting. Some cultivators divided their cut- 
 tings in the middle, making two of one, so that they were 
 from eight to ten inches long, and had but three or four eyes 
 to each. By careful treatment in the nursery, and by having 
 the ground well selected, well cultivated, or well mulched, 
 the success that attended these short-cuttings was remarkable, 
 and highly satisfactory, both to the nurseryman and to the 
 vine-planter, as the roots and tops were much longer and 
 more vigorous. This shortening was pushed still further, until 
 but two eyes were used ; but these shorter cuttings only re- 
 quired a little care to guard against the effects of drouth. 
 Some growers went even so far as to propagate from a single 
 
78 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 joint of wood, having the eye at the upper portion, and the 
 lower end cut somewhat slanting, so as to remove the bark 
 and a portion of the wood, and thus to encourage the formation 
 of a larger callus, from which the roots are emitted. Beau- 
 tiful and very well rooted plants, from such cuttings, were 
 exhibited at the meeting of the Lake Shore Society, at Cleve- 
 land, O. 
 
 Single Eyes. The plan almost universally employed by 
 those who now devote themselves to the multiplication of the 
 vine, is to use but a single eye or bud, depending upon arti- 
 ficial means for regulating the temperature, and other attend- 
 ant circumstances, so as to make these as favorable as possible 
 for the development of roots. For this purpose, bottom heat 
 is used, and this is usually produced by a flow of heated 
 water beneath the sand-bed in which the eyes are started. 
 The idea is to induce the roots to grow in the warm, moist 
 sand, while the cooler air above does not encourage the de- 
 velopment of the buds, nor the expansion of the leaves, until 
 after the formation of the roots. When the little plants are 
 fairly under way, they are potted off into good soil, and put 
 through a process of hardening, preparatory to setting them 
 out in the nursery ; or they are pushed, and, from time to 
 time, shifted into larger pots, so as to produce the greatest 
 amount of growth, by keeping the plants in the most favor- 
 able circumstances for their development. These will push 
 out laterals, that are often removed, and used for the propa- 
 gation of plants during the summer. Such are called soft- 
 wood cuttings. Many plants are produced by setting the eyes 
 in boxes, in which they are allowed to remain during the 
 whole period of growth, and these are generally kept under 
 shelter of the glass all summer, or they are hardened off, and 
 exposed toward its close. 
 
 Most of the vines grow from single eyes, by starting them 
 thus with bottom heat, and pointing them off, are set out in 
 
Propagation of the Fine. 79 
 
 the open nursery ground so soon as they are prepared for 
 this exposure by hardening, and when the season has so far 
 advanced that the young plants will not receive a check by 
 by the exposure. The ground should have been well pre- 
 pared by thorough plowing, or by trenching and manuring ; 
 the line is stretched, the pots are carried out, and the planter 
 turns them, ejecting the balls, which he sets with a trowel, in 
 the loose earth, and presses it firmly about them. The line is 
 moved a foot or fifteen inches, and another row is set. The 
 plants are well watered once, and, in a day or two, the surface 
 is loosened with the hoe, to overcome the effects of the 
 tramping of the workmen, and then mulched. 
 
 In the fall, these plants are taken up much in the way 
 recommended in the text, taking care to preserve the roots as 
 perfect as possible ; they are sorted, counted, tied in small 
 bundles, and packed away in sand, moss, or damp saw-dust, 
 and put into a cool cellar, until wanted for shipping or plant- 
 ing ; or they may be heeled-in, out of doors, in a dry and 
 sheltered situation, but the risk of loss, with additional labor 
 requisite for the careful performance of this work, renders the 
 cellar storage very preferable. Unfortunately, these little 
 plants are often trimmed very short, for the sake of their 
 wood, and this has been one of the objections to single eye 
 plants, because they can not be set deeply in planting them 
 out in their stations. 
 
 Objections to Single Eye Plants. From some cause there 
 has arisen a great prejudice against plants produced in the 
 way that has just been alluded to. A great deal of nonsense 
 has been uttered, and the process has been denounced as a 
 " steam manufactory of vines ;" the plants are said to have 
 been forced unnaturally, and to have been "propagated to 
 death," etc. Now it is not worth while to occupy space in 
 repeating what every intelligent person, engaged in the culti- 
 vation of plants, should know : that it is no matter how the 
 
8o Vineyard Culture. 
 
 vine is produced, if it be well developed in leaf, shoots and 
 roots. As has been well said by one of the most extensive 
 vine-planters of our country, "give me a good plant, and I 
 don't care a fig how you have produced it by steam or other- 
 wise." The good plant is what we should demand. 
 
 It must be confessed, however, that we do not always re- 
 ceive good plants, even when we have paid enormous prices 
 for some of the new and fancy kinds ; and it must be ac- 
 knowledged that when these delicate, slender little things have 
 been set out in the open ground of the vineyard, they have, 
 too often, succumbed to the effects of the exposure. A ques- 
 tion arises whether, in a majority of cases, the disasters we 
 have suffered have not been incidental to the faulty character 
 of the variety itself, rather than to the method of its propa- 
 gation. Some kinds of grapes are much more subject to the 
 attacks of mildew than others, and the little plants have not 
 acquired sufficient force in their new stations to resist the 
 malady. 
 
 The next question that arises is, whether we can honestly 
 recommend the extensive planting of such varieties; and with 
 these views some of our most reliable planters, and some of 
 our most intelligent societies, have adopted the principle of 
 not recommending any fruits for general cultivation that have 
 not proved themselves both hardy and healthy, as well as pro- 
 ductive of good fruit.] 
 
 LAYERING. This operation consists in choosing one 
 or more vigorous shoots, on the same stock, from which 
 to make new plants. In March each one is laid down 
 into the earth, to the length of about sixteen inches, 
 and at a depth of five inches, the earth having first been 
 well loosened and manured. The top of the shoot is 
 cut so as to leave about two eyes out of the ground, 
 and the end is fastened to a grape-stake. [Fig. 9] 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 
 
 81 
 
 [FIG. 9 .] 
 
82 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 During the following summer the two reserved eyes 
 shoot out, and, at the same time, each joint of the 
 layer, covered by the soil, produces a whorl of roots. 
 The year following, at planting time, this layer is 
 weaned : that is, it is cut, as at A [Fig. 9] and then 
 taken up with care, to be transplanted elsewhere. 
 These layers then appear as in Figure 10. 
 
 These roots, from layers, can not be used to make a 
 vineyard ; their production is too costly, and it would, 
 besides, b difficult to obtain a sufficient number of 
 them. A certain number of shoots, from the stocks 
 of a neighboring vineyard might, it is true, be used, but 
 experience has proved that this operation greatly weak- 
 ens the stocks. It will, therefore, J>e better to have 
 recourse to rooted plants, or cuttings planted perma- 
 nently, unless it is to replace a few missing vines. 
 Nevertheless, layering is customary in certain vine- 
 yards, either to replace missing stocks, or to renew the 
 whole plantation ; but, in the latter case, it is not one 
 shoot only, but the entire stock, which is laid down in 
 the ground, in order to bring out, at convenient points, 
 one or more shoots. Besides, these layers remain per- 
 manently in their place. This constitutes another ope- 
 ration, called vine-layering, and which we will examine 
 when we come to the planting and keeping up of a 
 vineyard. 
 
 [Here, as in some other practices, Americans think they 
 can improve upon the European methods. Layering is prac- 
 ticed to a considerable extent, in established vineyards, for the 
 sake of filling up gaps that may have been caused by the death 
 of a plant, from any cause. The plan recommended by our 
 author is generally adopted, only that we take care to select 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 83 
 
 a shoot that is long enough to reach to the next regular sta- 
 tion, and we place it rather deeper than he advises. These 
 layers constitute the renewal of the vineyard by provinage. 
 The plants, thus produced, will succeed much better than 
 strangers introduced into the soil that is already fully occu- 
 pied by the roots of the old vines, among which the new 
 comer will stand a poor chance for its life. A good strong 
 layer, made from a fruitful branch, will often produce a mod- 
 erate crop the first year, and make strong canes for the next 
 year's fruitage, besides establishing itself firmly on its own 
 roots, so as to bear a separation from the mother plant, which 
 should not be neglected. 
 
 An enthusiastic grape-grower in Illinois,* having observed 
 that young vineyards often escaped the rot, to which older 
 vines were very subject, proposed a plan of renewing the 
 vineyard by layering one-fourth part of it every year, and re- 
 moving the oldest vines at the same time. The theory was 
 very plausible, but unfortunately we have observed this mal- 
 ady too often upon our newly layered plants, to have any 
 confidence in the proposed remedy. 
 
 As already observed, when speaking of propagation by cut- 
 tings, there are some varieties in cultivation that do not emit 
 roots readily, and therefore are not easily increased by that 
 method. These kinds are generalty multiplied by layering, 
 and we have adopted a method which proves very successful. 
 The long canes of the previous year's growth are trimmed of 
 their laterals, and the tendrils are removed ; they are left as 
 long as the wood is well developed sometimes ten or fifteen 
 feet. At the same time other canes are trimmed in the usual 
 way for the fruiting on stake or trellis. After the ground is 
 well prepared and put into fine tilth, in the spring, a shallow 
 trench, about three inches deep, is opened with the spade, and 
 into this the cane to be layered is introduced, and fastened 
 
 *Dr. Shrceder, of Bloomington, Illinois. 
 
84 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 down with hooked pegs, which keep it firmly in its place. 
 This is done just before the buds burst, but after the sap has 
 begun to flow freely into the canes. By this means the buds 
 all along the vine will have been excited, and in due time 
 they will break, and it is desirable to have them break evenly. 
 The soil near the layer is kept nicely cultivated, and as the 
 shoots grow, they are to be tied up to small stakes provided 
 for the purpose. The cultivation will bring some earth in 
 contact with the layer, and soon cover it ; but this is not 
 enough. Some good soil, or compost, is to be filled in against 
 the shoots", until the old cane is buried about six inches deep. 
 This furnishes a bed of fine soil for the young roots, which 
 will be very abundantly produced, not only from the parent 
 cane, but also from the lower joints of the young upright 
 shoots of the current year's growth. 
 
 Taking up and dividing, is to be done in the fall, so soon as 
 vegetation is entirely arrested. The soil is then in better 
 condition than in the spring, and the roots can be more per- 
 fectly removed than when the ground is wet and heavy, par- 
 ticularly in clayey lands. Great care is needed in taking up 
 the layers : a trench should be opened with the spade on one 
 side, then the earth is to be loosened with a fork, and the 
 fibers carefully preserved, and the whole branch, with its roots 
 undermined, until all be free. The cane is then cut off from 
 the parent vine, and divided, so that each shoot shall make a 
 separate plant. If all has been well, there may be almost as 
 many well rooted layer-plants as there were buds on the cane ; 
 but this is seldom, or never, the case. These new plants are 
 to be assorted and put away for the winter, either in the cel- 
 lar, in sand or moss, or they may be heeled-in upon some 
 warm, dry spot out of doors. 
 
 These layer-plants are in great request among planters, and 
 they command an extra price, for though made up of young 
 wood, they are well furnished with roots, and are sure to 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 85 
 
 grow ; while the shoots are often so well developed, and so 
 long, that they admit of deeper planting than most of those 
 grown from single eyes, and they will often bear fruit the first 
 year of setting them out ; this, however, is not desirable. 
 
 Some of the vine-planters of the lake shore will give double 
 price for layer-plants, and will reject all others if these can 
 be had at that rate. The effects upon the old vines are found 
 to be very injurious, and good cultivators object to the prac- 
 tice on this score.] 
 
 GRAFTING. This operation is sometimes performed 
 in vineyards. It is generally practiced at certain points 
 in the Departments of 1'Herault, Maine and Loire. 
 In the following cases, for instance : there are certain 
 vines which, owing to their extreme vigor, do not bear 
 a full crop before they are ten or twelve years old ; such 
 are the " Muscats," cultivated at Lunel and Frontignan. 
 To hasten the maximum yield of these vines, any other 
 descriptions are planted, provided they are very vigor- 
 ous, and, when two or three years old, they are grafted. 
 The result of this operation will be to reduce their vigor 
 and increase their fruitfulness. Elsewhere, as in cer- 
 tain vineyards of Anjou, the plant adopted, owing to 
 the nature of the soil, possesses insufficient vigor. A 
 hardy variety is then planted, which adapts itself to that 
 soil, and when the vines have attained sufficient size, 
 they are grafted. In short, grafting will always prove 
 an excellent operation when used to replace an inferior 
 plant by a better one ; provided, however, that the plants 
 to be grafted are sufficiently hardy. 
 
 Grafting as practiced in THerault, is simply the cleft 
 graft placed upon the stock, below the surface of the 
 soil. We prefer the way we have seen it performed by 
 
86 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the vine-dressers of Anjou. It is as follows : in the 
 beginning of January choose the scions that are to be 
 grafted ; they ought to have a heel. Bury them in the 
 same way we have indicated for the cuttings, and pro- 
 ceed to graft as soon as the vine begins to bleed. The 
 stocks are then laid bare to the depth of twelve inches, 
 and about twelve inches in width ; cut them on a long 
 bevel, about six inches below the surface of the soil ; 
 then make a vertical slit about one third the length of 
 the upper part of this bevel. The slit may be kept open 
 
 [Fie. ii.] 
 
 with a small wooden wedge. [Fig. u.] The shoot to 
 be grafted is cut so as to have a length of about twelve 
 inches. Notch or slit the plant between two joints, to 
 about the same extent as the slit in the 
 bevel, and so as to cut one-fourth of its 
 diameter. Cut away the bark between 
 the two joints as long as the slit in the 
 stock, and then make a slanting cut 
 upward of about two inches in length. 
 Hook the graft on the stork by forc- 
 [Fic. 12.] ing the splinter, or tongue, into the slit 
 
Propagation of the Vine. 
 
 of the stock, in such a way that on one of the sides the 
 bark may be in the same vertical plane. Bind the 
 parts together with willow bark soaked in water, and 
 cover them up with grafting wax. Lastly, fill up the 
 cavity with the soil which has been dug out, so that the 
 graft may have but one eye above ground. [Fig. 13.] 
 
 [FiG. 13.] Grafting. 
 
 The top of the plant is fastened to a small stake. The 
 union of the cutting with the stock soon takes place ; 
 the bud of the graft shoots out, and a number of roots 
 show themselves on the heel of it, so that it is both a 
 graft and a cutting. From this comes the name of slit- 
 grafted shoot, which we have given to that operation. 
 
 The development of this early shoot is often so 
 rapid, under the influence of this two-fold principle of 
 vegetation, that it may bear fruit the first summer after 
 the operation. 
 
 If the parent stock is somewhat large, two, instead 
 of one graft, may be made one on each side of the 
 slit provided the poorer one is cut away two years 
 later, when the parent stock shall have been perfectly 
 healed up. 
 
 [Grafting the vine has been practiced to a considerable ex- 
 
88 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 tent in our country, but not for the object cited in the text. 
 We graft simply to change an unprofitable vine to a good one, 
 or for the sake of multiplying a new sort, and putting our- 
 selves at once in possession of strong bearing wood of a new 
 or desired variety. In this manner a worthless wild vine may 
 be at once transformed into one that will be profitable with 
 its heavy produce of desirable fruit ; for such a stock will 
 force out strong bearing canes for the next year; and, indeed, 
 there will often be some fruit the first summer of grafting, if 
 the scion have been selected from fruitful wood. 
 
 When the object is simply to multiply vines of any given 
 variety, for home planting, or for sale, small, well rooted 
 plants are often selected yearlings or two-year olds. These 
 may be grafted in the house, by the cleft or splice method, 
 tied or waxed, and the vines can be planted in a nursery, or 
 set at once in their permanent stations. I have had excellent 
 success by using pieces of roots, taken from the wild vines 
 that are to be found in an old, neglected fence-row. The 
 underground stems, and the roots, were cut into lengths of ten 
 to twelve inches, and cleft-grafted, tied, and planted at once. 
 
 The experience of the practice of this operation upon the 
 vine has been exceedingly varied. Some have been perfectly 
 successful, while others have been almost always unfortunate; 
 and those who may have had all their grafts do well one year, 
 have lost them all the next. Some advise grafting very early, 
 and others prefer waiting until the development of the young 
 leaves on the vine, keeping the scions back by preserving them 
 in the ice-house. 
 
 Mr. Fuller, who claims to have been very successful in 
 grafting the vine, recommends doing it in the autumn, or early 
 winter. He excavates the earth, exposing the stock below 
 the surface, and after grafting in the usual cleft method, he 
 protects the graft from the action of the frost, by filling the 
 earth about it, and then covering with an inverted flower-pot, 
 
Propagation of the Fine. 89 
 
 and throwing a mulch of straw, or leaves, over the whole. 
 Under these circumstances, a moderate action among the cell 
 tissues results in the formation of a callus, and in a union with 
 the stock, sd that at the opening of spring, when the cover- 
 ings are removed, the vine is prepared to grow at once. 
 
 A writer in the Gardener's Monthly* has discovered the 
 mystery or rather that there is no mystery at all about it. 
 He says : " cut your scions in the fall, after they are fully ripe, 
 but before they are exposed to any hard freezing. Let the 
 wood be firm, not pithy, well matured, small and short-jointed. 
 These are packed in moss, or saw-dust, and kept in the cellar, 
 free from frost. They are cut in lengths of a foot, and tied 
 in small bundles." 
 
 " Have a short shoe-maker's knife to split the stocks, and a 
 sharp pen-knife to cut the graft ; a small iron wedge to hold 
 open the stock when needed; a wooden mallet and a saw, and 
 you are equipped." 
 
 " Time. He is most successful from the moment the frost 
 has left the ground until the vines bleed February to April, 
 according to the season and locality. The stocks should be 
 strong at least two years old ; as soon as the frost has gone, 
 and the ground has settled, remove the earth from around the 
 vine, four inches deep ; cut off the stock at a smooth place, 
 suitable for grafting, two or three inches below the surface. 
 Graft as fast as cut, to avoid exposure to the air. The top 
 of the stock is cut smooth, and the bark is removed from the 
 side, as low as the graft is inserted, and split, or rather cut, by 
 placing the knife on the side and striking it gently with the 
 mallet, until you split the stock deep enough to insert the graft; 
 but do not split it through to the other side. Insert the 
 wedge to keep it open. Select the scion in proportion to the 
 stock, so that it shall be firm enough to withstand the pres- 
 sure. Cut it long enough for the upper bud to be just above 
 
 *T. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas. 
 
90 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the surface ; make it wedge-shaped ; avoid wounding the pith; 
 remove the bark from the part to be inserted ; see that it fits 
 the split correctly, and matches the stock exactly on either 
 side ; then withdraw the wedge, and if the work is properly 
 done the graft will be held firmly in its place without tying ; 
 use no wax. Press the moist earth closely to the stock and 
 graft, and fill up so as to have one bud above the surface." 
 
 If there be danger of frost, he recommends covering with 
 straw, to prevent its heaving and lifting the graft. After- 
 ward remove the covering, cultivate well ; remove suckers, 
 and tie uprthe young shoot as it grows. 
 
 Mr. Stayman concludes by saying that the conditions of 
 success are good materials, grafting below the surface, within 
 the period mentioned, and doing the work well.] 
 
 CHOICE OF PLANTS FOR PROPAGATION. The choice 
 of plants, of which to make cuttings, layers, or grafts, is 
 a very important point. If taken at random, plants may 
 be selected which have a tendency to degenerate. We 
 have seen, on the stock of the black Pinot, a shoot, all 
 the bunches of which were accidentally white. This 
 shoot, if cut for propagation, would have continued to 
 yield white grapes, and thus constituted a new variety, 
 perhaps better, but more frequently worse, than the one 
 it originated from. In order to avoid degeneracy, which 
 is more common than is usually supposed, it would be 
 well, when propagation is intended, to go over the vine- 
 yard during harvest time. Those plants which bear 
 the earliest and most perfect bunches which, in fact, 
 possess in the highest degree those qualities which dis- 
 tinguish the varieties to be cultivated are then marked, 
 so as to be known again. Those are the plants of 
 which to make cuttings, layers or grafts. By selecting 
 
Propagation of the Fine. 91 
 
 in this manner, the variety chosen will soon be im- 
 proved, by the gradual development of those qualities 
 sought after. 
 
 [SPORTS. A certain amount of variation is frequently ob- 
 served among our plants of culture. These diversities are 
 sometimes so remarkable as to attract attention, particularly 
 when they relate to color, as in the instance above cited, 
 where black was changed to white a remarkable change, 
 truly, and yet similar sports are not unfrequently observed in 
 plants. Sometimes these sports, as they are called, occur in 
 the foliage, in the habit of the plant, or in the fruit alone, 
 and it is found that from the affected branches we may often 
 propagate plants that may have similar qualities, and thus per- 
 petuate the sub-variety. Our author calls it degeneration ; it 
 may also be improvement ; it is simply variation from the 
 original, normal type, and if we observe carefully and select 
 judiciously, we may improve our fruits by taking advantage 
 of these tendencies to variation in the product of the buds, 
 just as well as by selecting superior seedlings, though, in the 
 latter, variation is the rule and not the exception, as here ; at 
 least, such is the case in seedlings of most of our improved 
 fruits of cultivation. In the case of seeds, too, there is a con- 
 stant liability for them to have had a mixed parentage ; and 
 at our will, we may control the pedigree of the seeds pro- 
 duced, which is not the case with the product of buds. Here 
 the close analogy which has been shown to exist between the 
 seeds and the buds ceases. 
 
 The whole subject of sports is one of deep interest to the 
 physiologist and scientific gardener, but practically, we may 
 safely propagate any distinct variety, and expect to find all 
 our plants like the parent.] 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 i 
 
92 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 VI. 
 PLANTING OF A VINEYARD. 
 
 A RRANGEMENT OF THE VINES. The three follow- 
 ing plans are adopted, in the planting of a vineyard : 
 
 ist. Mixed Planting. In all vineyards, the vines 
 are, at first, planted in parallel lines, and the stocks at 
 equal distances from one another. But in certain lo- 
 calities, the primitive plants are laid down without or- 
 der, in all directions, so as to multiply them more, and 
 to bring them nearer the required distance from each 
 other ; a confused planting is the result. This is the 
 process adopted in the neighborhood of Paris, in Cham- 
 pagne, in Burgundy, the Jura, etc. 
 
 The following are the motives which have led to the 
 adoption of this method : the expense of planting is 
 smaller than if the number of vines required to plant the 
 whole surface were at once procured. When the stocks 
 are to be replaced, the places of missing plants can be 
 filled up with the layers, without recourse to outside 
 plants. 
 
 This method of replacing is more prompt in its re- 
 sults than a new planting. Lastly and especially, this 
 layering, practiced each year on a considerable portion 
 of the vineyard, renews the vigor of the plants, and in- 
 creases the yield. 
 
 But, apart from the advantages we have just pointed 
 out, irregular planting presents the following serious in- 
 conveniences : the tillage is performed with less rap- 
 idity, and is consequently more expensive than planting 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 93 
 
 in rows. Cultivation frequently bruises the under- 
 ground stems resulting from this mode of propagating. 
 The transportation and distribution of the manure, and 
 the getting out of the trimmings, and of the crop, are 
 also much more expensive than in vineyards planted in 
 rows. In irregularly planted vineyards, the soil is not 
 so well warmed by the sun, the air circulates less freely, 
 and the plants shade one another more than in regularly 
 laid out lines. 
 
 2d. Planting in Close Rows. By this method, the vine- 
 yard planted in rows preserves its shape, whatever may 
 be its age. These rows, being pretty close to one 
 another, occupy the entire extent of the ground in a 
 regular manner. We have just pointed out the advan- 
 tages of these rows over the irregular planting. Thus, 
 all the labor of keeping the vineyard is less expensive, 
 even, than harvesting. The plants have more light, 
 more air, and the soil is better warmed by the sun. 
 Let us add, that for the same extent of ground, and the 
 same number of plants, these last will be less crowded, 
 when in rows, than when irregularly laid out. Lastly, 
 and not least, planting in rows allows the use of wires, 
 instead of stakes, thereby reducing, very materially, the 
 expense of keeping up a vineyard. For this reason, we 
 decidedly prefer that method. 
 
 3d. Planting in Isolated Rows. In certain vine re- 
 gions the vines are planted in isolated rows, separated 
 by spaces, varying from twenty to one hundred feet 
 apart, according to the localities those spaces being de- 
 voted to other agricultural purposes. In the Bordelais, 
 these isolated rows are called "Joualles." It is hoped, 
 by that means, to draw from the soil as much produce 
 
94 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 from the vegetables, as if the rows of vines did not ex- 
 ist, and, from these last to obtain a crop which costs 
 almost nothing ; but it is quite certain that the ground 
 occupied by the vine can not profit other crops, and 
 that the quantity of these last decreases in proportion 
 to the number of rows of vines planted on the same 
 surface. These solitary lines are also known to occupy 
 proportionately more room than if just sufficient space 
 for their proper growth were left between them. The 
 tillage of these vines is less expeditious when they are 
 isolated, than when they occupy the entire ground. 
 Lastly, this tillage is often thwarted or delayed by the 
 other crops planted in the vineyard. For this reason, 
 we think this mode of cultivation offers but little ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 SPACE TO BE LEFT BETWEEN THE STOCKS. This 
 important question depends upon the following consid- 
 erations : 
 
 ist. All varieties of vines do not develop themselves 
 with the same vigor ; therefore, the more vigorous the 
 variety, the larger must be the space between them. 
 
 2d. All other things being equal, the vine grows 
 more vigorously in the South than in the North ; there- 
 fore, the warmer the climate, the larger must be the 
 space between the vines. 
 
 3d. The vine is subject to greater evaporation in the 
 South than in the North, from which, it follows that it 
 requires a larger space in the South than in the North, 
 from which to draw the moisture. 
 
 4th. The earlier the growth, the less vigorous the 
 plant. An isolated plant blooms, and its fruits ripen, 
 later than plants that are crowded together, and are less 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 95 
 
 vigorous ; the first ripe grapes are never gathered on 
 the edges of the vineyard. The old, worn-out vines, 
 and those planted in poor soils, mature earlier than 
 those that are young and well manured. Now, in 
 northern latitudes, the ripening of the grapes being im- 
 perfect, it will be well to reduce their vigor by crowding 
 them more than in the South. 
 
 5th. Nevertheless, this crowding must not be over- 
 done, otherwise the vigor of the plants would not suf- 
 fice properly to nourish the grapes, which would then 
 yield but an inferior wine. It must not, besides, be 
 forgotten that light and air must circulate freely round 
 all the plants, and that the soil must be warmed by the 
 sun. 
 
 6th. In a word, while taking into account all the pre- 
 ceding conditions, such a space must be left between 
 the plants that the tillage of the ground may be done 
 by the plow, whenever the inclination of the surface 
 will permit its use. 
 
 We have now only to point out the limits to be 
 adopted under the preceding circumstances. Unfor- 
 tunately no direct experiment has been made, to solve 
 that important problem. Nevertheless, if we examine 
 all that transpires on the subject, in the general practice 
 of the different vine regions, it will be seen (by the fol- 
 lowing table) that this problem has everywhere been 
 solved conformably to the circumstances just enumer- 
 ated : 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Amount of Space allowed between the Plants in the Prin- 
 cipal Vine Regions. 
 
 LOCALITIES. 
 
 SPACEi BETWEEN 
 THE VINES. 
 
 NO. OF PLANTS 
 TO THE ACRE. 
 
 Chateauneuf-Colurier (Vaucluse).. 
 Saint-Cecile (Vaucluse) 
 
 Ft. Inch. 
 6 6 
 
 5Q 
 
 1,000 
 2.QQ 
 
 Vauvert and Saint Gilles (Gard)... 
 
 5 * 
 So 
 
 ,606 
 
 .74-2 
 
 
 50 
 w 
 
 
 
 So 
 
 
 Medoc .". 
 
 3u 
 
 2 7 c6 
 
 
 2 IO 
 
 5IO7 
 
 
 2 7 
 
 
 
 2 4. 
 
 7 .jog 
 
 Cote d'Or 
 
 2 I 
 
 
 Paris 
 
 2 O 
 
 Q O8l 
 
 
 I II 
 
 1 1 IO2 
 
 
 I 7 
 
 1 6 oio 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 Moselle 
 
 4 
 
 I 2 
 
 70,602 
 
 
 
 
 The above table shows that the mean distance be- 
 tween the plants in the South being eight feet, it de- 
 creases gradually as we advance North, where as many 
 as 30,692 vines are planted to the acre, as is common 
 in certain vineyards of Moselle. Are we to consider 
 these distances, especially those adopted in the north- 
 ern regions, as the best ? We do not think so ; we think 
 that the excessive crowding of the plants has been car- 
 ried too far, and that this system of planting now pre- 
 sents the following objections. 
 
 These plants shade one another mutually, and ren- 
 der insufficient the action of the air, and especially of 
 the sun influences so necessary to an abundant yield 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 97 
 
 and fine quality of the product. This shade also pre- 
 vents the soil from being warmed, and delays the 
 ripening of the grapes. Moreover, the plants thus 
 crowded, mutually starve one another, and they have 
 frequently to be renewed by layering, which increases 
 the expense and injures the quality of the product. 
 The tillage of the ground is more difficult and conse- 
 quently more expensive. The staking also increases 
 the expense considerably. 
 
 Lastly, we must add, that owing to the continual rise 
 in the rate of wages, the plow must be substituted for 
 manual labor wherever the lay of the land will permit 
 its use ; but the system of crowding the vines, adopted 
 in the North, is an obstacle to this improvement. 
 
 On the other hand, too much space must not be left 
 between the plants ; for if, when planted much further 
 apart, they each yield more and more abundantly, it 
 may nevertheless so happen that the product will not be 
 equal, in quantity, to that obtained from a larger num- 
 ber of plants. Besides, too large a space being left be- 
 tween the vines will so increase their growth, that the 
 grapes will ripen badly in the North, and the wines will 
 be of very inferior quality. 
 
 Let us, then, see how nearly we can reconcile these 
 two extremes. The smallest space which will allow 
 the easy working of the plow between the rows of 
 plants is three and a half feet. We have, therefore, no 
 change to suggest on that point, as to the vineyards of 
 the Sjuth. But this is not the case with the northern 
 and middle latitudes adapted to the vine. Nevertheless, 
 by laying out the rows of plants, and the plants in the 
 rows in a certain manner, which we shall point out fur- 
 
98 Vineyard Culture* 
 
 ther on, an average space of at least twenty-six inches 
 between the plants, would be enough to permit the 
 working of the ground by the plow, thus making 10,000 
 plants to the acre. The change which we propose, as 
 to space, would, therefore, only affect the vineyards of 
 northern latitudes. Now, it is precisely in those lati- 
 tudes that the crowding of the plants has been so over- 
 done that the inconveniences arising therefrom begin to 
 cause a reaction in the opposite direction. In the Cote- 
 d' Or, and in Champagne, they have already tried plant- 
 ing further apart, and have obtained a yield as abundant, 
 and of as good quality, as that of more crowded vineyards. 
 Upon the whole, therefore, we advise that an average 
 space of at least twenty-six inches be left between the 
 plants. 
 
 [We may compare ourselves to the South, rather than to 
 the North, in respect to the distance between our vines. Our 
 early plantations were made by Europeans from the northern 
 grape regions, who set their vines very close together, some 
 even three by three feet, on terraced vineyards worked by 
 hand. The spaces were soon increased to four feet each way, 
 and this was gradually widened to five and six, and even 
 greater intervals. The vigor of many of our vines, and their 
 enormous growth, as well as the comparative cheapness of 
 land, and the absolute necessity of using the plow instead of 
 the hoe ; all these circumstances combined, have rendered it 
 necessary for us to plant wider, and a very common distance 
 now is six by eight feet, the wider space being between the 
 rows. Some planters have even gone so far as to set their 
 vines eight feet apart each way. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF Rows OF PLANTS. We have just 
 advised planting in rows, and that an average space of 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 
 
 99 
 
 at least twenty-six inches be left between the plants ; 
 but we must also point out the best way to lay them out 
 relatively to each other. Indeed, several different plans 
 might be adopte4, in order to obtain that results 
 
 In the South, where the plants are set far apart, they 
 may be laid out in quincunxes, as in Figure 14, or in 
 squares, of four only, as in Figure 15. In the quin- 
 cunx, each plant occupies one of the angles of an equi- 
 
 1>C>C><S 
 
 [FiG. 14.] Fines planted [FiG. 15.] Fines planted 
 in quincunxes. in squares. 
 
 lateral triangle [A, Fig. 14]; they are equally distant on 
 all sides. The plow may be used in three different 
 directions. In square planting, each plant occupies 
 the angle of a right-angled triangle [B, Fig. 15] ; they 
 are not equi-distant on all sides, and the plow can only 
 be used in two different directions. Lastly, the most 
 
IOO 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 important difference to be noticed between the two 
 modes of planting; is, that on two surfaces of one acre 
 each the one planted in quincunx, and the other in 
 squares, and the plants the same distance apart in both 
 cases say, for instance, five feet it will take 2,080 
 plants to the acre, planted in quincunx, while the same 
 surface, planted in squares, will only take 1,742. For 
 these reasons, we prefer the quincunx for wide planting. 
 As to the vineyards of the middle and northern re- 
 gions, where the plants are much more crowded to- 
 gether, the quality and probably the quantity of the 
 produce would suffer if the space necessary for the 
 working of the plow were left between the plants. Our 
 advice, therefore, is that the vineyards of the northern 
 and middle regions be divided into two classes : those 
 that are located on hill-sides that are too steep for the 
 working of the plow, and those which can be so culti- 
 vated. 
 
 For the first, the lines must be 
 laid out so as to leave between 
 them the space generally allotted 
 between the plants in that sec- 
 tion of country, provided that this 
 amounts to at least twenty -six 
 inches. The same space must be 
 left between them, setting out the 
 plants of one line opposite the empty 
 spaces on the next line. [Fig. 16.] 
 In vineyards thus laid out, the work 
 
 [Fie. 1 6.] Plant- is done b 7 hand - 
 
 ing in Rows, on This figure represents a regular 
 steep hill-sides. quincunx. 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. IOI 
 
 For vineyards planted on lands which may be culti- 
 vated with the plow, we advise the following combina- 
 tion, which will allow of close planting, while, at the 
 same time, it makes it possible to use the plow over the 
 entire surface of the ground. 
 
 All the lines must be three and a quarter feet apart, 
 and the spaces between the vines varied according 
 to the requirements of the plants, the climate, and 
 the soil. 
 
 Thus, for 5,200 plants to the acre, a space of 30 
 inches must be left between the plants on the lines. 
 For 6,000, - - 26 inches. 
 
 " 7,200, ----- 22 " 
 
 " 8,000, ------ 20 " 
 
 If 10,000 plants are to be set, the following arrange- 
 ment must be made : lay out the lines by twos and 
 twos, with a space of three and a quarter feet between 
 them [A, Fig. 17], and then reserve ? 
 a space of twenty-four inches be- : 
 tween the close lines, B, with a ; 
 
 space of twenty inches between the |OL 
 
 plants on the lines. But in this case, 
 the large alleys, only, can be plowed, 
 that is about two-thirds of the sur- 
 face. A greater number of plants * 
 can not be cultivated with the plow. [Fie. 17.] Plant- 
 In what direction to lay out the ation of lands 
 Rows. We know that the direct ac- which can be cul- 
 tion of the sun on the entire vine and tivated with the 
 the soil which gives it nourishment, plow. 
 affects, in an important degree, the quality and quantity 
 of its produce. It will be well, therefore, when the 
 
IO2 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 spaces between the plants are greater than the spaces 
 between the lines, to lay them out, north and south, so 
 that they will not shade each other at mid-day. Un- 
 fortunately, it is not always possible so to lay them out. 
 The shape of the ground is frequently an obstacle. 
 Suppose it to measure twenty to twenty-five feet wide, 
 by six hundred and fifty or nine hundred and eighty 
 feet long, as is often the case, and that this strip lies 
 east and west, the lines can not then be laid out across 
 so narrow a belt ; the inclination of the soil and its ex- 
 posure, also frequently prevent the execution of this 
 plan. If an abrupt hill-side has a southern exposure, 
 the vines can not be laid out in rows parallel to the de- 
 clivity, except at the risk of soon having the soil torn 
 up and washed down to the base of the hill by the 
 heavy rains, in which case we should be compelled to 
 carry it back. Therefore, the preceding directions 
 must be followed as nearly as possible, at the same time 
 taking into account such obstacles as may present 
 themselves. 
 
 LAST PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. We have ad- 
 vised the uniform breaking up of the entire surface of 
 the ground destined for a vineyard. This work being 
 done before winter, the soil will remain fallow until 
 planting time. It is then lightly plowed to the depth 
 of four or six inches, across the first plowing, and har- 
 rowed so as to level the surface soil and facilitate the 
 planting. 
 
 CHOICE OF PLANTS. Under the head of propagation 
 we have seen that either crossette-cuttings, or roots, 
 may be used for planting a vineyard. We will now show 
 how to choose between the two. 
 
J l M H t 
 " tiNlVf,.,^. 
 
 Planting of a Vineyard*-* 103 
 
 Planting roots is more expensive, 
 
 have advised, two-year old plants are used. These 
 plants must have been raised in the nursery, and the 
 planting of them out permanently is more expensive 
 than setting the crossettes, but their growth is more 
 certain. 
 
 The crossettes cost less, as does also the permanent 
 planting of them ; but many of them, especially in dry 
 soil, fail, necessitating the substitution of others, and 
 thereby increase the expense, and injure the grand result. 
 
 [Many of our largest vineyards have been made by using 
 cuttings instead of plants, and this practice would still prevail 
 were it not for the extremely high price of cuttings of many 
 of the varieties which are now being introduced into the vine- 
 yard. The cutting of four eyes can be made into four good 
 plants, by the methods employed in their propagation ; hence 
 we can no longer afford to compete with the nurserymen, but 
 can do better to purchase our vines than to set our own cut- 
 tings. This will not always continue to be the case, and 
 when there is less demand for the wood we shall revert to the 
 old plan, and the cheaper one, of placing the cutting at once 
 into its permanent station in the vineyard, except in the case 
 of those sorts which do not grow readily under this out-door 
 treatment. 
 
 The advantage of planting the vineyard with cuttings con- 
 sists in the greater cheapness of the stock, and the greater 
 uniformity of the result, as well as in avoiding the check of 
 the plants, incident to transplanting the vines, and disturbing 
 the roots % 
 
 The cuttings should have been prepared by burying them 
 in the soil, so that they may have formed a callus. The 
 ground having been properly prepared and laid out, with a 
 little stake at each point where it is designed to have a vine, 
 
104 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 a workman proceeds to make the necessary excavation. He 
 opens a hole the width of the spade, and the length of the 
 cutting, making it one spit deep. Fine, mellow soil is thrown 
 slanting toward the top, at the stake-end. The planter then 
 follows with his cuttings, in a bucket of puddle-water, to keep 
 them from drying. At each station he takes two cuttings, and 
 lays them so that their bases shall be separated the width of 
 the excavation, but their tops approximate at the stick. Soft 
 earth is thrown upon them, and tramped firmly with the foot, 
 beginning at the base of the cutting. As he approaches the 
 stick, the upper portion is bent into a vertical position at the 
 stake, and pressed firmly into its place. This end of the hole 
 is filled with mellow soil, and the head of the cutting is barely 
 covered, but the further portion is only half filled up, the ob- 
 ject being to secure the warming influence of the sun, to en- 
 courage the starting of the roots. 
 
 If both cuttings grow, one of them may be removed the 
 next spring to fill a gap somewhere else, or the extra vine may 
 be destroyed, by cutting it off below the surface with the 
 pruning-knife, at any time.] 
 
 The conclusion arrived at from the preceding, there- 
 fore, is : that in rich and somewhat moist soils, where 
 the crossettes easily take root, they are preferable, but 
 for dry soils the roots are the best. 
 
 In some localities vine-dressers prefer, in all cases, 
 cuttings to the rooted plants, maintaining that they are 
 always more certain. This is owing, in most cases, to 
 the roots of the plants being very much injured, either 
 by being taken up from the nursery in an improper man- 
 ner, or by their too long exposure to the air ; now, these 
 roots, thus injured, soon rot in the ground, and the 
 plants are then nothing but the fragments of old shoots, 
 from which the new roots grow with much more diffi- 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 105 
 
 culty than on the new wood of the cutting. We, 
 therefore, maintain that the two-year old plants, care- 
 fully taken up from the nursery, and sheltered until 
 planting time, will give better results than the crossettes 
 or cuttings, in dry soil. 
 
 PLANTING. The proper Time. The best time for 
 planting cuttings, or roots, differs in different climates. 
 
 In the northern and central parts of France the op- 
 eration must be performed in the beginning of spring ; 
 if done before the winter there would be danger, on the 
 one hand, of the terminal buds of the cuttings or roots 
 which had not yet commenced growing, being killed by 
 the frost ; and, on the other, of the plants being injured 
 by the excess of moisture contained in the ground dur- 
 ing that season. In the South it is the reverse : the 
 planting must be done before the winter, otherwise, if 
 done in the spring, the hot weather of that season would 
 suffice to kill the young plants before they had time to 
 take root. Besides, it is known that vegetation, in that 
 climate, is not entirely suspended during winter, so that 
 when the spring comes, the young plants have already 
 struck a few roots, which enable them more successful- 
 ly to withstand the dry weather. 
 
 [The question of fall and spring planting is one which each 
 must decide for himself. As above suggested, much will de- 
 pend upon the climate the soil has also much to do with our 
 decision. Newly planted vines or trees, if set in light, dry 
 soils, would do a good deal toward preparing themselves for 
 growth, during mild weather in autumn and winter ; but the 
 same plants, set in wet, heavy, clayey soil, in the autumn, 
 would be very apt to suffer from the effects of water freezing 
 and thawing during the winter, and many would be killed.] 
 
Io6 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Distribution of the Different Varieties in the same Vine- 
 yard. If anything is to be gained by planting several 
 varieties in the same vineyard, it will always be well to 
 keep them separate. It will be easier to give them the 
 particular attention which each one requires, and the 
 most hardy will not injure the weaker varieties. The 
 gathering will also be easier, if the different varieties do 
 not ripen at the same time. 
 
 If the ground to be planted is uneven, and the slopes 
 have different exposures, the latest bearers must, if pos- 
 sible, be placed in the warmest exposure, in order that 
 they may ripen better. 
 
 At what Depth to Plant. The depth to which the 
 cuttings or plants must be set ought to be such as will 
 allow the air to act upon their roots, and, at the same 
 time, such that they will get the proper quantity of 
 moisture. It is evident, therefore, that this must de- 
 pend chiefly on the climate and nature of the soil. In 
 the burning clime of the South, or in light and dry soils, 
 the vine must be planted deeply, to escape the excessive 
 heat of summer. In the North, or in rich, damp soils, 
 it must, on the contrary, be planted more shallow, so as 
 to escape the great moisture, which, by causing it to 
 grow too rapidly, would injure the ripening of its fruit, 
 and diminish the quantity of its produce. For which 
 reason, in the dry soils of the South, plant to the depth 
 of twenty inches ; in the rich soils of the same lati- 
 tudes, twelve inches will be sufficient. In the northern 
 and middle regions, plant at twelve inches if the land 
 is dry, and at eight inches if it is rich and deep. 
 
 Laying out the Lines for Planting. The various ques- 
 tions which precede having been answered, and the soil 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 
 
 I0 7 
 
 prepared in the manner indicated, the rows for planting 
 must be marked out, and, for this purpose, any regular 
 method of laying out may be selected. The following 
 may be adopted it is very easily executed, and gives 
 good results : 
 
 We will suppose that the surface of the ground has 
 been divided into a certain 
 number of parallelograms, 
 by roads previously cut, as 
 directed above. Let us now 
 suppose that Figure 1 8 is 
 one of these parallelograms, 
 and that the vineyard is to 
 be laid out in rows parallel 
 to its length, forty inches in 
 width, and with a space of 
 twenty inches between the 
 plants on the lines. By 
 means of a surveyor's chain [FiG. 18.] 
 
 of sufficient length, the links of which are forty inches 
 long, the end of each line A, is marked out with a 
 stake on the two lines B, of the parallelogram. These 
 stakes being fixed, two or three more in C, are marked 
 out, according to the length of the lines. By means of 
 these stakes and another chain, the place of each plant 
 is then marked out. The links of this second chain 
 must be twenty inches in length. 
 
 If the plan had to be laid out on a surface with an 
 irregular boundary, the largest possible parallelogram 
 would have to be drawn, and the lines then laid out as 
 just described ; it will only be necessary to extend the 
 lines to the boundary. 
 
 M 4 
 
 \ 
 
 " 4 
 
 C ' 
 
 C < 
 
 c Ac 
 
 &G 
 
 C 
 
 iC tC 
 
 i- < 
 
 
 ! 
 * 
 
 A J 
 
 i. 
 
 \ A 
 
io8 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 [The Yankee is again ahead in his calculations. This is 
 the more readily accomplished in the wider planting he has 
 adopted. With good sight-stakes, and a. steady plow- team, he 
 lays off the rows and digs the holes simultaneously, by plow- 
 ing a deep furrow from end to end of the piece to be planted. 
 Then, with a garden-line stretched across these furrows, and 
 a measuring-rod of the proper length, he proceeds to set his 
 pegs in the furrows, at the points where the line crosses them. 
 Some will even do this by the measuring-rod and the eye 
 alone, without the line, and make the stakes range both ways, 
 with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes.] 
 
 Planting. ~- The mode of planting depends upon 
 whether cuttings or roots are to be planted. 
 
 Cuttings are most generally planted by means of the 
 dibble, as follows : A man is provided with a dibble, 
 having a cross-piece, or stirrup, on which the foot is 
 
 [Fie. 19.] Dibble, for 
 Planting Vines. 
 
 [Fie. 20.] Rammer, to ram 
 down the earth and manure 
 around the Cuttings. 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 109 
 
 placed to drive the instrument into the ground, or to 
 stop it at the required depth. Provided with this in- 
 strument, or any other like it, the workman drives it 
 into the ground at each spot to be occupied by a plant, 
 and to the required depth. As to the size of these 
 holes, the poorer the soil the larger they must be. 
 
 Another workman, following the first, introduces into 
 each hole a cutting, prepared in the manner described 
 under the head of "Propagation." 
 
 Whatever may be the natural richness of the soil to 
 be planted, it is always well to supply the cuttings or 
 plants with a certain quantity of manure, when about to 
 be planted permanently, in order to start them. This 
 quantity may vary, according to the poverty or richness 
 of the soil, from one to three quarts. For cuttings, 
 the manure to be introduced into the hole made by the 
 dibble ought to be composed of pulverizable and easily 
 decomposed matter, such as old compost, horse-dung, 
 poudrette, natural guano, ground oil-cakes, etc. These 
 various substances must be mixed with a certain quan- 
 tity of earth, and wood-ashes. 
 
 This manure being prepared, and distributed at dif- 
 ferent places along the roads where the rows terminate, 
 a third workman follows and fills the holes with the 
 manure which he carries, keeping each cutting in the 
 center of the hole. By means of a sort of rammer, 
 like the one represented by Figure 20, a fourth work- 
 man rams the manure well down. It is very important 
 for the cutting to be in close contact with the soil, so 
 that it may absorb its moisture. If there should still 
 be an empty space, after this ramming, the same work- 
 man must fill it with the surrounding earth. 
 
IIO Vineyard Culture. 
 
 When the pulverizable manure of which we have 
 just spoken can not be procured, liquid manures must be 
 snbstituted, and poured into each hole after it has been 
 filled with rich soil, but not rammed. These liquids 
 (one quart to each cutting) may be composed of manure- 
 water, excrements diluted with water, or of any or- 
 ganic matter that is rich in nitrogen, and easily dissolved 
 in water. 
 
 Planting cuttings by means of the dibble, is, however, 
 objectionable in clayey soils. The earth, solidly pressed 
 by the dibble, at the sides of the holes, becomes an ob- 
 stacle to the spreading of the young roots. In such a 
 case it will be better to adopt the mode of planting out 
 roots. 
 
 [I do not think the dibble is used in planting cuttings in any 
 part of this country, and, indeed, it is to be hoped that it may 
 not be, as it is an unphilosophical implement for the purpose. 
 Nor would it be at all suitable in any of our so-called grape- 
 lands, which are generally of stiff clay.] 
 
 In dry and warm soils, where cuttings do not succeed 
 well, rooted plants are used in the following manner : 
 
 The manures required for the planting must first be 
 distributed, here and there, along the roads bordering 
 the rows of vineyards to be planted. 
 
 These manures must be composed, as much as pos- 
 sible, of equal parts of earth and dung. If the soil to 
 be planted is clayey, then silicious, and especially cal- 
 careous earth must be used; but clayey soils must be 
 employed, if the land to be planted is silicious or cal- 
 careous. The mixture must be made some months in 
 advance, by placing the layers of earth and dung in 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. Ill 
 
 strata, in the form of compost. When about to be 
 used, it must be thoroughly mixed. 
 
 Two-year old roots [Fig. 8 ] must be taken up from 
 the nursery, with all the care indicated under the head 
 of " Nursery," and then, to prevent them from being 
 injured by the drying action of the air, proceed as fol- 
 lows : A thick mush of water, clay, and a considerable 
 quantity of well compounded manure, such as horse and 
 cow-dung, guano, excrement, oil-cakes, and other sim- 
 ilar substances, is placed in a tub, by the side of the 
 workman taking up the plants. Another tub is filled 
 with dry wood-ashes. As the vines are dug, the work- 
 man dips four or five at a time, into the liquid manure, 
 and sprinkles them with ashes. This sort of coating 
 of the roots serves to protect them from the action of 
 the air and sun, which are particularly injurious. It 
 also stimulates their growth, and advances their devel- 
 opment one year. 
 
 Thus prepared, they are immediately taken to the 
 planting-ground, laid in small piles, and covered with 
 straw. No more should be prepared than can be 
 planted in one day. 
 
 A workman opens a little trench, about sixteen 
 inches long, in tne line of the row, twelve inches 
 wide, and of the required depth, taking into account 
 the nature of the soil and climate. The bottom of the 
 trench must be an inclined plane, one extremity of 
 which should reach the surface of the ground. 
 
 As the trenches are opened, a workman lays by the 
 side of each from three to five quarts of the compost 
 spoken of, and a child, following him, places a rooted 
 
112 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 plant in each hole. Another workman lifts the plant, 
 spreads over the entire bottom of the trench one-half 
 of the compost, lays down the plant, taking care to 
 spread the roots well ; covers it with the balance of the 
 compost, fills up the hole wifh the earth laid near it, 
 and finishes by ramming the earth well, especially on the 
 two sides of the trench. It is important, in this op- 
 eration, that the greatest portion of the young shoot 
 from the plant should be buried. It is on this young 
 wood that the new roots are formed which are to hasten 
 the development of the vines. This work ended, each 
 trench will appear as in Figure 21. 
 
 [Fie. 21.] Planting the Vine. 
 
 In some localities the planting is done with the plow. 
 The rows having been staked out, as above described, 
 a furrow, sixteen inches wide, and of the required 
 depth, is opened by two cuts of the plow. It is in 
 these furrows that the cuttings are placed at the proper 
 
Planting of a Vineyard. 113 
 
 distances, and with the same care as we have just de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Whatever may have been said to the contrary, pretty 
 straight lines may be made with the plow, and the work 
 may be done more speedily than by opening a separate 
 hole for each plant. 
 
 Planting by Layering. In those localities where the 
 vines are very crowded, as in Champagne, Burgundy, 
 and the neighborhood of Paris, only one-half or one- 
 third of the necessary vines are planted as cuttings, or as 
 roots, and then, when these have acquired sufficient 
 strength to put forth two fine shoots, they proceed as 
 follows : 
 
 Suppose the points A, in Figure 22, to represent 
 the places to be permanently , , 
 occupied by the plants, only the /f ! 
 points B, are first planted, and 
 when each of the vines has two 
 fine shoots, a trench is opened 
 during the winter, occupying the 
 entire triangular space, C, and 
 of the depth of twelve to six- 
 teen inches, according to the 
 moisture of the ground ; a layer 
 
 of earth, mixed with manure, is , 
 
 , r i TFiG. 22.1 Planting 
 
 spread on the bottom of this L , T 
 
 trench, and the two shoots are 
 
 then laid down into it, giving them the direction of the 
 dotted lines, so that they may come out at the points 
 A. A small quantity of compost is placed over them, 
 and the trench is filled up with ordinary earth. This 
 trench, however, must not be entirely filled ; a space 
 10 
 
i ; j | > * r. - 
 
 114 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 of % four to si* inches ought to be left, so that the shoots, 
 not being planted too deep, may take root more easily. 
 The balance of the earth remains on the sides of the 
 trench. It is only in the following year, when the 
 ground is tilled, that it is leveled. If this first layering 
 does not yield the required number of plants, a second 
 one is made. 
 
 This mode of operating reduces the number of roots 
 to be planted, by one-half to two-thirds, but we do not 
 think the saving arising from it compensates for the 
 inconveniences, for, undoubtedly, by this process, a 
 larger quantity of wood is buried, and the numerous 
 roots which shoot from this wood, being very close to- 
 gether, are much more liable to injure one another. 
 By thus multiplying these underground stems, the 
 chances of injuring them by the plow are also increased. 
 Besides, the first saving soon disappears under the 
 necessity of propagation which is always an expensive 
 operation. Lastly, if, on the one hand, there is a sav- 
 ing of plants, on the other there is a greater loss by 
 postponing the maximum yield of the vines for two 
 or three years. Therefore, our advice is, at once to 
 plant as many cuttings or roots as are required for the 
 whole vineyard. 
 
 OPERATIONS SUPPLEMENTAL TO PLANTING. Im- 
 mediately after planting the cuttings or roots, the ex- 
 tremity of the plant protruding from the earth, as at A, 
 Figure 21, is cut with the pruning-knife, so as to leave 
 but one or two eyes above ground. 
 
 In some countries, the cuttings, as soon as planted, 
 are carefully covered up with the earth, and thus left 
 until the beginning of Julv. While the wood is get- 
 
^JVKKS 
 
 // 
 
 Planting of a Vii 
 
 ting ready in the earth, and throwing out a few root 
 the upper portion of it does not dry up, and the buds, 
 when at last exposed to the air, soon develop them- 
 selves. This practice might be used with advantage in 
 the dry soils of the south and middle of France. 
 
 All these operations once completed, a light dressing 
 should be given to the entire surface of the soil, so as 
 to loosen it wherever it has been trodden down by the 
 workmen, and especially to level it well. 
 
 This young plantation requires no other care during 
 the following summer than to be protected from 
 drouth, and from being overrun with weeds. To this 
 end, the ground is plowed or hoed a few times, to the 
 depth of about two or three inches. The lighter the 
 soil and the more southern the locality, the more fre- 
 quent must be the plowings. We explain, further on, 
 under the head of "Annual Cultivation of the Soil of 
 Vineyards," the way to do this plowing. 
 
 Replanting. No matter what may be the care be- 
 stowed on the planting of either cuttings or roots, there 
 will, invariably, be some failures say one per cent, on 
 the roots, and two per cent, on the cuttings. There- 
 fore, substitutes, consisting of roots only, must be pro- 
 vided as soon as possible, that is to say, the following 
 winter. For this purpose, a nursery must be made at 
 the proper time, in order to have the roots ready at the 
 time we have just named. 
 
 As for the planting of the substitutes, it is done as 
 we have already explained. 
 
 [In planting a vineyard, whether with cuttings or with 
 rooted vines, it is always desirable to set all the plants on a 
 
Il6 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 given side of the stakes ; whether this be north or south, east 
 or west, it is immaterial ; but they should all be the same. 
 This systematic order saves time, as it enables us always to 
 look at once to the right place for the young vine, in all our 
 operations among them in the vineyard, and thus we may 
 often avoid injuring them with the hoe, or other implement, 
 we may be using. So, also, in plowing across the rows, as 
 we sometimes wish to do, while vines are young, we may 
 know where to hol$ the plow or cultivator shallow, so as to 
 avoid disturbing the main roots of the vine, which might 
 otherwise be. ruined by the plowshare cutting them off, or 
 tearing them away, as has often occurred with careless work- 
 men.] 
 
 VII. 
 PRUNING THE VINE. 
 
 JECT OF THE OPERATION. If, after being plant- 
 ed, the development of the vine were left to 
 itself, the long, spreading shoots would creep over the 
 surface of the ground, which it would soon cover, in 
 tangled confusion. The tillage of the soil would be- 
 come impossible, and the branches, deprived of the sun, 
 and in contact with the ground, would rot, and yield 
 very poor fruit. 
 
 Besides, the fruit-bearing shoots, springing all the 
 time from the young wood, and thus becoming more 
 and more removed from the parent stock, would be- 
 come less and less vigorous, and would soon end by 
 producing nothing but poor and mean bunches. 
 
 The pruning of the vineyard must have, for its ob- 
 ject, the giving of such a shape to the vines as will 
 
Pruning the Vine. 117 
 
 subject them completely to the action of the sun, facil- 
 itate the tillage of the ground, at all times and over all 
 its surface, and prevent the fruit-bearing wood from 
 being too far removed from the parent stock. 
 
 Let us first consider the best time of year for this 
 work, and the best tools with which to perform it : 
 
 THE PROPER TIME FOR PRUNING THE VlNE. The 
 
 rule to be followed in this respect, and which is as ap- 
 plicable to the grape-vine as to all other kinds of trees 
 and shrubs subject to pruning, is this : prune as soon as 
 possible before the rising of the sap, so that none may 
 have escaped into the extremities of the stems which 
 are to be removed, and thus be wasted. For, if this 
 operation is delayed until the young shoots have grown 
 three or four inches, those of them which are cut will 
 have absorbed the sap, to the injury of those which are 
 reserved, and if this mode of operating is repeated sev- 
 eral years in succession, the plants will be gradually 
 exhausted, whatever may have been said to the con- 
 trary. The pruning being done in the autumn, will 
 allow more time in the spring for the numerous opera- 
 tions to be performed at that season. Besides, early 
 pruning hastens the- development of the buds, and, all 
 other things being otherwise equal, this early pruning is 
 favorable to the early ripening of the crop. 
 
 Unfortunately, this very simple rule has to be modi- 
 fied more or less by the following circumstances : 
 
 1st. In the northern vine regions, the winters are, at 
 at times, so severe that the effects of the heavy frosts 
 are felt by the plants pruned in the autumn, and 
 frequently all the reserved portions of the plants are 
 killed. 
 
Ji8 Vineyard Culture \ 
 
 2d. The result of early pruning, before winter, for 
 instance, is, as we have just said, to develop the growth 
 of the reserved shoots ten or fifteen days earlier than if 
 pruned in the middle of March. The consequence of 
 this is, that in localities exposed to late frosts, this early 
 budding subjects the plants to their injurious influence. 
 
 From this, we conclude that pruning in January and 
 February will be advantageous : 1st in those localities 
 where the winters are mild, and the late frosts are not 
 of frequent occurrence ; 2d for old vines, or for the 
 less hardy varieties, whose strength will be preserved 
 by forcing the sap to feed the reserved shoots exclu- 
 sively. For certain varieties whose overgrowth is in- 
 jurious to the quality and quantity of the product, for 
 those localities where late 'frosts are to be feared, and 
 the winters are severe, the pruning must be done in 
 March, and to the I5th of April. We must say, in 
 addition, that, whatever may be the time chosen, the 
 wood must never be cut when frozen. At such times, 
 pruning tears the wood, instead of cutting it, and the 
 eye below each cut suffers very much. 
 
 [A very extended experience with the vine has induced 
 some of our best cultivators to adopt fall pruning, which they 
 pursue with very good effect. The cuttings are of greater 
 value, and may either be planted at once, or at least they can 
 be stored in suitable cellars and kept in better condition than 
 if left upon the vine, exposed to the inclemency of the 
 winter. 
 
 Those who bury their vines to protect them from frost, will 
 find it a great advantage to have them trimmed first. 
 
 To avoid injury to the last eye on the canes, care should be 
 taken to leave an inch or more of the internode beyond the 
 
Pruning the Vine. 119 
 
 outer bud ; this is a good rule in all winter pruning. The 
 author's remark with regard to cutting when the wood is froz- 
 en, deserves attention. Most of our vine-dressers practice 
 trimming in any mild weather during the winter, whether in 
 February or March ; but after the sap has started, or is about 
 to start, the vine will bleed profusely. This will sometimes 
 occur in mild weather, after fall pruning, also.] 
 
 METHOD OF CUTTING THE SHOOTS AND LARGE 
 STEMS. The wood of the vine being spongy, and the 
 sap very abundant, the shoots must be cut 
 four or six inches above the last of the re- 
 served eyes [Fig. 23] ; for, as the wood 
 dries up to the distance of a few lines be- 
 low the cut, the last eye would /requently rp IG 2 ,-i 
 be destroyed, or would, at least, suffer very Mode of 
 much, if the cut were made immediately Pruning. 
 above that eye. The cut must be made sloping, and on 
 the side opposite to the eye, so that if the plant is in a 
 vertical, or upright position, and the vine begins to bleed, 
 the flow of the sap may not injure the eye. 
 
 The large stems must also be cut in the same man- 
 ner, so that the wounds may heal up more easily. All 
 stems that need removal, should be cut close to the 
 stock, and all such as need to be shortened, must be cut 
 close to the new shoots. Whenever any considerable 
 scars are made on the vine, it will be well to cover them 
 over with grafting wax. If this is not done, they heal 
 up slowly the wood is injured by the action of the air, 
 and the life of the plant is shortened in consequence. 
 
 PRUNING INSTRUMENTS. In the southern and south- 
 western regions, where the wood of the vine is strong 
 and vigorous, a sort of bill is used, the shape of which 
 
120 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 varies in different localities. Figure 24 represents the 
 pruning bill of Medoc. It is about six inches long; its 
 back is sufficiently blunt at B, to allow of its being 
 touched without wounding, while the portion A, is 
 sharp. In other places the bill is of the shape repre- 
 sented by Figure 25. It is about eight inches long, and 
 is cutting at C and D. In the northern portions of the 
 
 [Fie. 24.] Medoc Bill [Fie. 25.] 
 
 fbr Pruning Vines. ing- Bill. 
 
 vine regions, where the plants are smaller, the pruning- 
 knife, Figure 26, is used. Nevertheless, for some years 
 past, the substitution of the pruning-shears [Fig. 27], 
 invented about a century ago, by the Marquis Bertrand 
 dc Molleville, has been attempted. The pruning-shears 
 [Fig. 27] is composed of two limbs crossing each other 
 near the forward part, one of which terminates in a 
 rounded blade, while the extremity of the other forms 
 a hook, with a thick projection, under which the blade 
 slides. The two limbs are kept open by a spring. 
 
Pruning the Vine. ill 
 
 The size of this instrument must depend on the size of 
 the plants to be cut. 
 
 [FiG. 26.] Fine Prun- [FiG. 27.] Vine Prun- 
 
 ing-Knife. ing-Shears. 
 
 The numerous trials which have been made, for the 
 past thirty years, no longer leave any doubt as to 
 the advantage of the pruning-shears over the bill or 
 knife, for vine-pruning. It can be used much more 
 rapidly, and with less fatigue to the laborer. It is ob- 
 jected, it is true, that this instrument bruises the plants 
 somewhat, and that it does not make so neat a cut as 
 the bill or knife ; but if it is very sharp, and the blade 
 sufficiently curved if, in a word, care is taken always 
 to have the dull blade, or hook, above,* this defect will 
 be scarcely perceptible, and will be largely compensated 
 by the rapidity with which the work is done. Besides, 
 the bruising is of little consequence, since it is neces- 
 sary, in all cases, to cut the stems from four-tenths to 
 
 ~*The hook is held above in pruning, that it may not crush the portions 
 left on the vine 5 in making our cuttings with the shears, the implement is 
 held so that the hoolc shall press upon the portion that is rejected. 
 II 
 
122 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 eight-tenths of an inch above the eye to be reserved, 
 and the new pruning is done each year below the point 
 operated on the year previous. 
 
 [The priming-shears have come into almost universal use in 
 this country, where any and all labor-saving implements are 
 at a premium in public estimation. We use the grape- 
 shears for making cuttings, and they are brought into play in 
 all sorts of pruning, for all kinds of shrubbery, where the 
 limbs to be severed are not too large then the saw is needed, 
 and it should always be at hand in trimming an old vineyard, 
 where large,* stumpy branches frequently need removing from 
 the vine-stocks ; often the whole stem must be taken away 
 even to the ground, in order to make room for a new shoot 
 from below. This is particularly the case in old vines trained 
 to stakes in the bow system. Nor should the pruning-knife 
 be neglected ; the cut is certainly smoother and neater than 
 that made by the shears.] 
 
 We have already seen that the object of pruning is 
 either to give shape to the plant, or to insure a proper 
 degree of fruitfulness. Let us examine these two ope- 
 rations separately, first ascertaining what is the best 
 form to give to the plants : 
 
 WHAT FORMS TO GIVE TO THE VINES. The forms 
 given to vines, in vineyards, are very various. They are 
 often justified by local causes, or by the peculiar growth 
 of the varieties cultivated ; but frequently this operation 
 has been purely empirical. Let us, therefore, investi- 
 gate the principles which ought to guide us in this mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Three things require our attention : the use of the 
 parent stock, or frame-work of the plant ; the dimen- 
 sions of this frame ; and its hight above the ground. 
 
Pruning the Vine. 123 
 
 Use of the Parent Stock or Frame of the Plants. The 
 vine could easily be cultivated in the vineyard so as to 
 obtain an abundant yield from it, without annually re- 
 newing the fruit-stems from the same stock. The only 
 thing required for that purpose will be to layer, every 
 year, the wood which produced the fruit-stems, so that 
 the stock would be annually renewed. This is the or- 
 dinary method in most of the Champagne vineyards. 
 But experience has long since shown that this method, 
 while it increases the vigor of the fruit-stems, has a 
 very unfavorable influence on the quality of the grapes, 
 and consequently, on the wine also. The sap must 
 circulate slowly, and gradually, from the roots to the 
 branches, so that it may the better ripen the fruit. The 
 parent stock, being more or less knotty and crooked, 
 intervening between the roots and fruit-stems, produces 
 this result. The sap can circulate through it only at a 
 certain speed, thereby assisting in the perfection, within 
 the tissues of the fruit, of those elements which make 
 good wines. It is for this reason that the older, the 
 longer, and more crooked, the parent stock, the less vig- 
 orous are the shoots, and the better is the product. 
 The younger vines, on the contrary, yield inferior wine. 
 This is easily seen in the first bunches of the young 
 layers. 
 
 What I have just said is enough to show the use of 
 the parent stock, but it must be added, however, that 
 from this parent stock the shoot acquires a degree of 
 development proportionate to its vigor, so as to assist 
 its maturity. 
 
 Proper Dimensions of the Vine. All varieties of grapes 
 do not grow with the same vigor. The most vigorous 
 
1 24 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 require a pretty large frame in order to bear largely 
 such are the "Pauses," and most of the varieties of the 
 South. If too much confined they produce a very large 
 number of shoots, and leaves of prodigious size, but 
 scarcely any fruit. Other varieties must be much more 
 reduced in size, as they will soon be exhausted ; such 
 are the " Pinots," and many of the varieties of north- 
 ern regions. The size of the frame, therefore, must 
 be in proportion to the vigor of the plant. 
 
 [These postulates of our author should be gladly received 
 by the American reader, who will find great advantage from 
 their application, as fundamental principles, in the treatment 
 of some of our vigorous growers that are also unproductive in 
 fruit, as is often the case with the Diana, Union Village, and 
 some others, but especially with the Taylor ; by a proper 
 mode of pruning, adapted to the extreme vigor of these va- 
 rieties, there is no doubt their productiveness might be won- 
 derfully increased. Thus I have seen a combination of long 
 training, and vigorous summer pruning, attended with an 
 enormous crop of grapes, upon some vines of the Taylor and 
 Oporto, and the bunches were unusually large.] 
 
 Higbt of the Plants above Ground. Experience has 
 shown, in all vine regions, that the nearer the grapes 
 are to the ground, without touching it, the earlier and 
 more perfectly do they ripen their fruit. This is owing 
 to the reflection of the sun's rays, which, striking the 
 soil, are thrown back upon the surrounding objects ; 
 moreover, the soil having been warmed during the day, 
 throws off this heat during the night, radiating caloric 
 for the benefit of the nearest objects. From this, we 
 must conclude that the further we are removed from 
 the South, the nearer the ground should our plants be. 
 
Pruning the Fine. 125 
 
 This is, in fact, the general practice, as may be seen by 
 comparing the vineyards of the southern, middle, and 
 northern regions. 
 
 These principles being admitted, let us see what are 
 the principal forms which have been adopted, and as- 
 certain which are best adapted to the vine. 
 
 The various forms now used in the vineyards are all 
 comprised in the three following : 
 
 [FiG. 28, ,] High-trained Fines.'} 
 
 1st. High-trained Fines. This shape is a common 
 one in Italy and Spain, in the southern portion of 
 Dauphiny, in the Bigorre, and in Beam, and can succeed 
 in warm latitudes only. This mode consists in planting 
 trees fourteen to sixteen feet in hight, in rows eighty 
 to ninety feet apart, and the trees twenty-five feet from 
 each other, on level land, and fifteen feet apart on the 
 hills. For this purpose, the maple is used, the wild 
 mulberry, the wild cherry, the plurn-tree, and those of 
 the hardier descriptions generally, and having few leaves. 
 When these trees have taken root, two or three vine- 
 
1 26 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 plants, chosen from the most vigorous varieties, are 
 placed at the foot of each tree. 
 
 They are trained, from year to year, round the tree 
 to where it has been headed off. The principal limbs 
 of these trees, reduced to five or six, and cut parallel to 
 the rows, serve to support the vines, which form gar- 
 lands from one tree to another. [Fig. 28.] 
 
 Sometimes, also, these vines are allowed to develop 
 branches, which, shooting six or ten feet from the 
 ground, are trained at right-angles with the row of 
 trees, and supported on each side with stakes, so as to 
 form continuous arbors. [Fig. 29.] At other times, 
 
 [FiG. 29.] High-trained Fines. 
 
Pruning the Vine. 127 
 
 the crown of the tree is cut in the shape of a round 
 dish, on a stem of six to ten feet high, and supports the 
 vines on its outward surface. 
 
 The yearly pruning tends to renew the young shoots 
 which are to succeed each other in the bearing of 
 the fruit ; to suppress those which deviate from the 
 proper direction, or cause confusion ; and, lastly, to lop 
 off those branches of the support-tree, which, by shad- 
 ing the vine, might retard its growth. 
 
 The objects of this mode of cultivation are the fol- 
 lowing : the necessity of allowing Certain varieties to 
 acquire a large growth, which otherwise would be small 
 bearers ; and especially the hope of drawing from the 
 soil a double crop, by raising the vine-branches suf- 
 ficiently high above ground. 
 
 Of all modes of cultivating the vine, there is none so 
 picturesque or pleasing to the eye, but we must confess, 
 wherever we have studied high-trained vines, in Beam, 
 in Dauphiny, we have invariably noticed the following 
 facts : the grapes, being shaded by the leaves, ripen 
 badly, and this defective ripening is retarded still more 
 by the too great hight of the branches above the ground. 
 It is for this reason that the wine produced by these 
 vines is always very inferior, even in Italy. Besides 
 this, the exhaustion of the soil by the roots of the trees, 
 and the vines, as well as by the shade thrown over its sur- 
 face, is such that other crops which are raised to- 
 gether with them, yield but poor results. Lastly, 
 we have also observed that these high-trained vines are 
 more liable to the Oidium than low vines, and this is the 
 more to be regretted, because it is more difficulty ap- 
 ply the sulphur to them, owing to their great hight, and 
 
128 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the confusion of their branches. And it is owing to 
 these facts, that high-trained vines have proved almost 
 entirely barren for several years past. 
 
 In short, we think that if the strips of land occupied 
 by these high-trained vines, were reduced to one single 
 patch, and planted with an equal number of average- 
 sized or low vines, a crop might be obtained which, by 
 its quantity and quality, would yield a larger net cash 
 profit than the one obtained from the high vines, and 
 other crops raised with them. We, therefore, can not 
 recommend this mode of cultivation. 
 
 [In this country, perhaps we have erred in attempting to 
 dwarf and cramp our vigorous native grapes, by forcing them 
 to keep within the narrow limits of our crowded vineyards. 
 This has been obviated in the later plantings of grapes, which 
 have greater space allowed to each vine ; but we still trim se- 
 verely, and think we find our advantage in this practice. 
 
 The opposite plan of long pruning has been pertinaciously 
 preached to us by certain theorists, who claim, among other 
 advantages, that they would escape the rot and mildew, by avoid- 
 ing the system of severe pruning, which they assume to be the 
 leading cause of these disasters in our vineyards, overlooking the 
 fact that some of the wild grapes, which reached the tops of our 
 forest-trees, were affected with the same trouble. Our author 
 informs us that the oidium has destroyed the fruit of these 
 high-trained vines in Italy.] 
 
 2d. Average-sized Vines. In this group, the frame- 
 work of the plants is of such a size that the fruit-bear- 
 ing stems, each year, shoot out at a hight of from 
 fifteen to forty inches from the ground. The frame of 
 the plant must be developed proportionately to the vigor 
 of the variety. This being the proper hight for vigor- 
 
Pruning the Vine. 129 
 
 ous vines and vines of moderate growth, is adapted to 
 the southern regions and intermediate climates. In the 
 North, if the grapes were too far removed from the 
 ground, they would ripen badly. Vines of moderate 
 growth are trained in various shapes. Let us examine 
 the principal ones, and try to improve those which are 
 inconvenient. 
 
 In Languedoc, Roussillon, Provence, where very 
 vigorous varieties are generally grown, the plants have 
 an upright stock, six to twelve inches high, which, at 
 that hight, divides into three or five horns, or arms, six 
 or twelve inches long, spreading like a cup, and meas- 
 uring, at the top, about twenty inches in diameter. 
 It is at the extremity of these horns that the fruit-bear- 
 ing stems shoot each year, at a hight of from sixteen to 
 twenty inches above ground. These vines are not pro- 
 vided with any support, but they are of such varieties as 
 generally have pretty stiff stems. Nevertheless, if the 
 plants are somewhat vigorous, the long shoots which 
 they develop soon overspread the general surface of 
 the ground. Figure 30 represents one of these stocks, 
 fully grown, before pruning. 
 
 By giving this shape to the vines, we save the ex- 
 pense of staking, which is always great ; we also do 
 away, to a considerable extent, with plowing, as the 
 ground is soon overspread with the branches. There- 
 fore, this mode of cultivation has the advantage of not 
 being very expensive ; but, on the other hand, the 
 bunches, being entirely covered up by the leaves, re- 
 ceive the influence of the sun in an insufficient degree, 
 and the soil can not have the requisite tillage both of 
 which circumstances injure the quality of the wine. 
 
130 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Lastly, the plow, which it has been attempted to sub- 
 stitute for manual labor, in that region, can not easily 
 
 be used, owing to the projection of the arms, or horns, 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 of these plants. But, in order to avoid these incon- 
 veniences, it would be necessary to substitute the form 
 of trellis, which we will point out further on. 
 
 But it is a question whether the increased value of 
 the produce arising from this modification, would com- 
 pensate for the additional expense which would be in- 
 
 [FiG. 31.] Moderate-sized Vine, of the Marshes of 
 
 Bordeaux. 
 
 curred. We therefore see nothing to change in this 
 shape, at least, for the varieties producing wines of low 
 price. But for those whose product is of more value, 
 such as the vineyards of Lunelj of Frontignan, of St. 
 
132 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 George, of P Ermitage, of Condrieux, of St. Peray, 
 etc., it will be profitable to substitute the form which 
 we shall describe further on, under the name of " Four- 
 armed Trellis." The fruit, being more exposed to the 
 sun, will be of better quality, and the tillage of the soil 
 will, at all times, be more easy. In the marshy dis- 
 tricts of Bordelais, and on the hills on the right bank 
 of the Garonne, from Bordeaux to Blaye, where the 
 vine grows rapidly, a similar shape is given to the vines, 
 the stock, nevertheless, being a trifle higher and the 
 arms a liule longer, the shoots springing out at thirty 
 or thirty-two inches above the ground. Lastly, and es- 
 pecially, these stocks are each supported by two or 
 three stakes, as shown in Figure 31, illustrating one of 
 these stalks before pruning. The much greater value 
 of the product of these vineyards will compensate for 
 the staking and the extra cultivation given to them. 
 Nevertheless, the following objections may be made to 
 this mode of planting : the bunches, being wrapped up 
 in the shoots fastened to the stakes, do not receive the 
 influence of the sun sufficiently ; the space occupied by 
 each stock is unfavorable to the use of the plow where 
 the form of the ground would otherwise permit its use. 
 Last, and not least, is the extra cost and care of the 
 grape-stakes, which it involves. 
 
 We therefore recommend the substitution of the 
 shape represented in Figure 32, which is a full-grown 
 stock before pruning. 
 
 By this arrangement, the fruit-stems feel the action 
 of the sun on all sides, and the following year's shoots 
 are better formed. Another advantage is that the frame 
 
Pruning the Fine. 
 
 '33 
 
 of the plant thus trellised is narrow, allowing the use of 
 of the plow at all times. 
 
 Lastly, this shape permits the substitution of wire for 
 grape-stakes, which is much less expensive, as will be 
 shown elsewhere. Besides, each plant thus trellised, 
 will bear, at least as many fruit-stems as the old shape ; 
 the same number of vines may be planted on a given 
 surface, and, consequently, the produce will at least be 
 equal in quantity, and certainly of better quality, than 
 on the former plan. 
 
 [FlG. 32.] Four-armed Trellis. 
 
 In the rich vineyards of Medoc, the vines are shaped 
 as in Figure 33. The trunk, rising perpendicularly to 
 a hight of four to six inches, divides into two branches, 
 depressed at an angle of 45 degrees, sixteen inches in 
 length, and producing the fruit-stems of each year on their 
 
'34 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 extremities. These two stems, arched upward, are 
 fastened to a cross-stake, sixteen inches above ground. 
 
 [FiG. 33.] Middle-sized Vine of Medoc. 
 This form seems to us to be a very advantageous one, 
 at least for vines of vigorous growth. We would, 
 nevertheless, advise the use of the cross-stake sixteen 
 inches above the the first [Fig. 34], on which to fasten 
 the shoots, instead of laying them down upon the lower 
 rail, by which many of the bunches are deprived of the 
 action of the sun, by being enveloped in the leaves. 
 
 [FiG. 34.] Two-armed Trellis. 
 The two branches dividing each plant ought always 
 to be of the same size, otherwise the stronger one will 
 soon exhaust the weaker. Now, if the relative care 
 
Pruning the Fine. 
 
 bestowed to maintain an equal growth of these two 
 branches, in vines somewhat vigorous, is compensated 
 by the possibility of extending the fruit-stems, it is not 
 so with weak vines, whose yield must not be forced. 
 We would, therefore, advise the suppression of one of 
 the branches in the last named. By this means the 
 vigor of the fruit-stems will be increased, to the benefit 
 of the produce, and it may then be burdened, more or 
 less, according to the vigor of the stock. Figure 35 
 represents one of these plants before pruning. 
 
 [FiG. 35.] One-armed Trellis. 
 
 In certain localities, on the banks of the Rhone, may 
 be seen a vine shaped like Figure 36, which also be- 
 longs to the medium-sized descriptions, and makes 
 available those small patches of ground, here and there 
 to be found between the bare rocks, on the steep hill- 
 sides of burning climes. Vines thus shaped are termed 
 cones. For this mode of cultivation, circular holes, six 
 and one-half feet in diameter, and twenty-eight inches 
 in depth, are opened ; young vines are planted, sixteen 
 inches apart, and three inches inside the cavity. About 
 
136 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the third year, a stake of some ten feet in length, is 
 driven firmly into the ground, at the foot of each plant, 
 inclined toward the center. The stem of each plant 
 as it grows, is fastened to these stakes. The fruit- 
 stems shoot at sufficient distances on the entire length 
 of these stocks. 
 
 [FiG. 36.] Cone-shaped Fine on the Banks of the Rhone. 
 Although the varieties cultivated in Burgundy are less 
 hardy than most of those of Bordelais, the shape given 
 to their vines places them in the medium-sized class. 
 In fact, the stock which supports the fruit-stem, rises 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 '37 
 
 to a hight of twelve to twenty-four inches, in a more 
 or less inclined direction [Fig. 37]. Each vine is sup- 
 ported by a grape-stake. 
 
 It may be objected to 
 this mode of training, for 
 the less vigorous varieties, 
 such as the " Pinots," that 
 it keeps the grapes too far 
 from the ground, thereby 
 preventing them from prop- 
 erly ripening ; also that by 
 keeping this long stock in 
 too upright a position, the 
 sap, flowing all the time to- 
 ward the top, prevents the 
 shooting of the new stems 
 on the old wood, and the 
 shortening of the stock 
 from time to time. The 
 consequence is, that these 
 stocks, by overgrowing, 
 soon exhaust themselves, 
 and have to be frequently 
 renewed by layering a costly operation, and one always 
 injurious to the quality of the wine. 
 
 We think that the form of Figure 35 is preferable. 
 Besides, in the latter form, the wire may be substituted 
 for the stake. This will reduce the expense, and allow 
 the use of the plow over almost the entire surface of 
 the ground. 
 
 For the more vigorous varieties in the same regions, 
 
 such as the stronger descriptions of Gamais, which are 
 12 
 
 [FiG. 37.] Vine of the 
 Cote d* Or. 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 cultivated in rich soils, and generally undergo the same 
 treatment, there is, besides, this other inconvenience : 
 that, owing to the limited number of fruit-stems, it will 
 not furnish so great a yield as might otherwise be had, 
 and the bunches are badly shaded by being smothered 
 in the leaves. By treating these vines as in Figure 34, 
 a number of shoots might be left on the fruit-stems, 
 proportionate to the vigor of the stocks. 
 
 3d. Low Vines. In low vines the shoots start from 
 the stocks at eight inches, or less, from the ground. 
 This method is particularly adapted to the northern por- 
 tions of the vine regions, where' the less vigorous va- 
 rieties are cultivated, and where the frames of the vines 
 are but slightly developed. The stocks are, besides, 
 sufficiently close to each other to reduce their vigor, 
 which, added to the close prox- 
 imity of the bunches to the 
 soil, favors their ripening. 
 
 In the vineyards in the vicin- 
 ity of Paris, and at many similar 
 points, as regards climate, the 
 stocks are trained on the plan 
 of Figure 38. There, also, it 
 will be profitable to substitute 
 the form illustrated in Figure 
 35. By this means, wires may 
 be substituted for grape-stakes, 
 and the plow for manual labor. 
 In a word, the number of plants 
 on an acre being reduced, with- 
 out diminishing the yield, the 
 bunches will be better warmed, 
 
 [FiG. 38.] Low Vine 
 in the vicinity of Paris. 
 
 by the sun, and the wine improved in quality. 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 '39 
 
 In Champagne, the vines are not provided with stocks, 
 owing to the yearly laying down of the plants ; two 
 fruit-stems shoot from the ground yearly, as is shown in 
 Figure 39, and the stocks are planted irregularly, at less 
 than sixteen inches from one another. We shall de- 
 scribe this mode of cultivation further on. 
 
 [Fio. 39.] Low Vine of Champagne, 
 There will also be a marked advantage in substitut- 
 ing the form of Figure 35. The number of stocks 
 will be reduced two-thirds ; the yield will be the same, 
 
140 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 as experience has already proved in that country ; wires 
 will be substituted for grape-stakes ; it will be possible 
 to use the plow when the lay of the land will allow it ; 
 and the shoots and bunches being better exposed to the 
 sun, will ripen more perfectly. Lastly, the fruit-stems, 
 growing from a stock above ground, and of some age, 
 will yield a wine of better quality. 
 
 [FiG. 40.] Low Vine of F Aunis, before Pruning down- 
 ward view. 
 The vineyards of 
 
 I'Aunis, in lower 
 Charente, have an- 
 other style of low 
 vines. Here the vig- [FiG. 41.] Low Vine of F Aunis, 
 orous sorts are culti- after Pruning side view, 
 
 vated ; the vines are planted in very wide rows, from 
 
Pruning the Fine. 141 
 
 four to six feet apart ; the dressing is done by the 
 plow, and the plants are not provided with any support. 
 The frame is merely a sort of flat head, of five or ten 
 inches in diameter, almost touching the ground [Figs. 
 40 and 41], and is the result of the very short and suc- 
 cessive pruning of the numerous shoots which each 
 year spring from and around this sort of stool. The 
 long and vigorous annual shoots creep over and soon 
 cover the entire space between the stocks. 
 
 This mode of cultivating has the following objec- 
 tions : the grapes, hanging upon the ground, rot in great 
 numbers, and ripen badly, owing to being almost entire- 
 ly excluded from the sun's rays. Secondly, the sul- 
 phuration which is, unfortunately, necessary in this re- 
 gion, can be very imperfectly performed. Thirdly, the 
 stems, which overspread the ground, soon become an 
 obstacle in the way of tillage, which is, therefore, insuf- 
 ficient. 
 
 We would recommend the substitution of those forms 
 of stocks shown in Figure 32 or Figure 35, according 
 to the vigor of the plants. The wires for the training 
 of the vines will, undoubtedly, increase the expense, 
 but this will be much more than compensated by the 
 abundance and quality of the produce, resulting from 
 the absence of rot, the more perfect ripening of the 
 grapes, the possibility of performing efficient sulphur- 
 ation, and, lastly, the more perfect tillage of the soil. 
 
 MODE OF PRUNING IN ORDER TO FORM THE STOCKS. 
 We have just compared the principal forms to which 
 the vines are generally subjected in vineyards, and we 
 have seen that most of them present certain objections 
 which we have tried to remove, either by modifying 
 
142 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 those forms, or substituting others for them. Those 
 we have recommended will answer under most of the 
 circumstances in which vineyards are placed. We 
 must now study the mode of pruning, by which these 
 forms can be given to the plants. 
 
 We have carried the treatment of the vineyard to the 
 end of the first summer after planting. Each of the 
 young plants has from one to three rather slender 
 shoots. They must all be removed except the stoutest, 
 which is cut, leaving two eyes. At the end of this sec- 
 ond year's *growth, each plant is as represented in Fig- 
 ure 42. And now commences the pruning into shape. 
 
 [FlG. 42.} Young Two- [FiG. 43.] Young Three- 
 year old Plant. year old Plant. 
 
 Cup-shaped Vines of the South, without Stakes [Fig. 
 30.] The young vine being, at pruning time, as repre- 
 sented in Figure 42, the finer shoot, A, only, is reserved, 
 and cut at B, leaving two eyes ; the following year, the 
 two finest shoots obtained [Fig. 43], are also cut at A, 
 leaving two eyes j thus, at the end of the following 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 year, we have four principal shoots [Fig. 44] to be con- 
 verted into four arms, or horns. For the less vigorous 
 varieties, this number of arms will be sufficient, and 
 each of the four chosen shoots is cut in A, allowing it 
 
 [FiG. 44.] Young Four-year old Plant. 
 
 about eight inches in length. This pruning gives it, for 
 the following year, the form of Figure 45. The stern 
 A, only, is reserved on each arm, and it is cut in B, above 
 the eye. The same operation is repeated each year. For 
 
 [FiG. 45.] Young Five-year old Plant. 
 
 the more vigorous varieties, two of the original stems 
 are made to fork [A, Fig. 46], so as to raise the num- 
 ber of arms to six. The fruit-stem, reserved. each year 
 at the end of each limb, must always be cut very short. 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Nevertheless, those arms, or horns, grow a little every 
 
 [FiG. 46.] Young Six-Tear old Vine. 
 year. When they begin to outgrow the proper limit, 
 the presence of a shoot [A, Fig. 30] on the old stock 
 
 [FlG. 47.] Four- [FlG. 48.] Four-armed Trellis, 
 armed Trellis, first second Pruning. 
 
 Pruning. 
 
 is taken advantage of, to shorten the arms, which are 
 then cut at B, and the shoot, A, is cut as a fruit-stem. 
 
Pruning the Pine. 
 
 The same process is adopted, in order to shorten any 
 one of the arms which may have become more vigorous 
 than the rest, and threatens to destroy the equilibrium 
 of vegetation, which must be maintained among them. 
 Four-armed Trellis, for Rigorous Varieties, with Stakes 
 [Fig. 32.] This shape is given in the following man- 
 ner : the finest shoot, which is cut in A, above the third 
 eye, is alone reserved on the two-year old plants. 
 [Fig. 47.] The next year, the young plants have 
 the shape of Figure 48. The two lateral shoots, 
 A, are then cut at B, to the length of about twelve 
 inches, and bent down on each side, so as to fasten 
 them to the wire. The middle shoot, C, must then be 
 cut at D, and about six inches below the second wire. 
 This pruning will give, the following year, the shape 
 of Figure 49. On each of the lower arms, the finest 
 
 [Fie. 49.] Four-armed Trellis, third Pruning. 
 
 shoot, A, is preserved to the length of about twelve 
 inches, bending it upon the lower wire, as shown by the 
 
146 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 two dotted lines, B. On the top of the plant, only 
 the two shoots, C, are reserved, and are pruned to the 
 length of about twelve inches, bent down, and their 
 ends fastened to the upper wire. 
 
 Another year's growth gives the shape of Figure 50. 
 The fruit-stem, A, of the previous year, is suppressed 
 from each arm, and cut just above the finest shoot, 
 B, and nearest the old wood. All the other shoots 
 
 [FlG. 50.] Four-armed Trellis, fourth Pruning. 
 
 are also cut away. The new fruit-stems are cut 
 to about twelve inches, bent down and fastened 
 to the wires, as in the previous years. As for 
 the two upper arms, all their shoots are cut away, 
 except the two end ones, C, which are cut to twelve 
 inches in length, and bent down the same as the stems, 
 A, of the year previous. The form is then complete. 
 
Pruning the Vine. 147 
 
 There is nothing more to do each year than to prune it 
 properly in the way I shall point out, under the head of 
 "-Annual Pruning of the Fruit-Stems." 
 
 Whatever may be the mode of pruning these shoots, 
 the arms, on the ends of which they are reserved, 
 grow more or less each year. As soon as any 
 one arm becomes longer than is convenient, it must 
 at once be shortened, taking advantage, for that pur- 
 pose, of a shoot [Fig. 32] on the old wood, previously 
 reserved, to provide for this operation. 
 
 The curved form of these arms always favors the 
 production of these reserved shoots. As it is also im- 
 portant to preserve .an equal degree of vigor between 
 these four arms, any one of them being too vigorous, 
 might be shortened by the process just explained, or 
 the fruit-stem pruned very short. 
 
 Trellis with two Arms, for Plants of Moderate Vigor 
 [Fig. 34.] The shaping of these vines is done in the 
 manner already described, with this difference : that the 
 two inferior arms only, are necessary, as shown in our 
 cut. 
 
 Trellis with a single Arm, for Vines that^ are not Vigor- 
 ous [Fig. 35.] The formation of this single arm is 
 obtained in precisely the same manner as those of 
 which we have just spoken. 
 
 RESTORING BADLY PLANTED OR BADLY FORMED 
 VINES. The system of planting and shaping vines, 
 which we have just described, can be applied, not only 
 to new vineyards, but also to those already planted, and 
 which it is desirable to remodel according to the system 
 just explained. In that case, we must proceed in the 
 following manner : 
 
148 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Pull up one row on the long side of the vineyard. 
 Draw a straight line in the place of the row which has 
 been taken up, and on it, drive stakes, to show the spot 
 to be occupied by each new plant. Choose, on each 
 stock of the next row, a number of shoots equal to the 
 number of plants which are to form the first row ; then 
 cut off from these stocks all the arms, except those 
 bearing the selected shoots. This done, open a trench 
 at the foot of each plant to the depth of twelve or six- 
 teen inches, according to the size of the stock to be 
 buried. This trench is carried to the first row, and to 
 each spot marked by the grape-stakes. The entire 
 stock, as well as the vigorous shoot which has been re- 
 served, is then laid in the trench, and covered up again 
 with the earth. It will be well, also, to throw at the 
 bottom of each trench, and at the point where each 
 shoot springs from the ground, about two quarts of 
 manure, like that previously described for the planting. 
 The first row being completed, a second one is marked 
 out, and the plants of the third row serve to fill it up. 
 This operation is repeated until the opposite side is 
 reached, when the last row is filled up with new roots, 
 not less than two years old. The shoots projecting 
 from the ground must then be cut so as to leave them 
 three or four eyes. 
 
 This general layering is easily enough performed, 
 provided the stocks are not too large. It would be of 
 very difficult execution with the old stocks of the south- 
 ern vineyards. When the stocks are of a proper size 
 the results are immediate. We have seen the operation 
 performed at the Count de la Loyere's, at Savigny, 
 near Beaune, with vines over twenty-five years old, and 
 
Pruning the Vine. 149 
 
 which yielded, the very first summer, more abundantly 
 than any of the best preceding years. 
 
 Nevertheless, there is danger that the general layer- 
 ing may injure, for several years, the quality of the pro- 
 duce of certain vineyards which, like the celebrated 
 products of Burgundy, derive a part of their good qual- 
 ities from the age of the stocks. The evil may be 
 remedied in this way : in those celebrated vineyards, at 
 least one-fifteenth of all the stocks are laid down yearly, 
 choosing the stocks promiscuously. In order to make 
 the change in question, it will be sufficient to lay down 
 an entire row, in the usual proportions, and so on, pro- 
 gressively, beginning on one side of the vineyard. 
 
 ANNUAL PRUNING OF FRUIT-STEMS. All we have 
 said of pruning, until now, relates to the form of the 
 stocks only ; we shall now point out the care which the 
 annual pruning of the fruit-stems requires. Let us first 
 see on what principles this operation must be based. 
 
 Principles on which the Operation must be Eased. 1st. 
 The shoots alone produce blossoms on the vine [Fig. 
 
 so- 
 
 [FiG. 51.] Fruit-Stems. 
 
 2d. The shoots growing out of the stems from the 
 preceding year, are the only ones which produce grapes 
 
150 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 [Fig. 51], The shoots growing from the old wood, as 
 sometimes happens, are invariably barren [Fig. 52]. 
 
 [FiG. 52.] Vine-Shoot on the old Wood. 
 3d. On a real fruit-stem [FiG. 53] the shoots are 
 generally more fruitful as they grow further from the 
 old wood ; thus, the shoots growing out of the eyes A, 
 
 [Fio. 53.] [Fie. 54.] [Fie. 55.] 
 
 Pruning Fruit- Stems. 
 
 will be less productive than those of the eyes B, and 
 those of the eyes C, will bear more than those of the 
 eyes B. 
 
 However, the decrease in the fruitfulness of the 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 shoots on the same fruit-stem, from the top to the base, 
 is more marked in some varieties than in others. It is 
 in the most vigorous varieties that this decrease in fruit- 
 fulness is most marked, and it is for this reason that 
 those varieties must be pruned longer than the others, 
 as regards fruitfulness. 
 
 4th. Each plant can only nourish, properly, a certain 
 number of bunches, proportionate to its vigor. If this 
 number is exceeded, the quality of the wine suffers very 
 materially. 
 
 5th, and Lastly. It will be well to adopt such a mode 
 of pruning the fruit-stems, that each^eaiv the shoots 
 
 R 
 
 UNIVERSITY ( 
 
 [Fie. 56.] [Fio. 57.] [Fie. 58.] 
 
 Pruning Fruit-Stems. 
 
 nearest the old wood (A, Fig. 54), may be reserved for 
 a new fruit-stem. By this means, it will be easier to 
 preserve the shape of the vine to a size proportionate 
 to the soil from which it derives its nourishment ; oth- 
 
152 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 erwise its growth will be seen to languish, and its yield 
 diminish. 
 
 From the preceding facts the following rules may be 
 established : 
 
 ist. The vine ought to be pruned in such a way as 
 to produce, every year, a certain number of shoots, on 
 the two-year old vine [A, Fig. 55]. 
 
 2d. These shoots [B, Fig. 56] might be pruned very 
 long with advantage, as regards the abundance of yield 
 at A, for instance. But this mode of operating would 
 have the following disadvantages : all the eyes of this 
 stem are not developed into shoots, for want of suffi- 
 cient quantity of sap. The eyes A and B, alone, will 
 be developed, and this plant, the following year, will 
 have the appearance of Figure 57. The shoot A, will 
 be reserved as a new fruit-stem, and the balance will be 
 cut away. But the parent stock will thereby be length- 
 ened by B C, and if the same process is used each year 
 the parent stock will soon outgrow the proper limits, 
 and become languid and unproductive. Besides, the 
 bunches being too numerous, will yield nothing but an 
 inferior wine. This inconvenience might be avoided 
 by pruning the plant A [Fig. 56] at C, just above the 
 eye nearest to the base. The next year's plant will be 
 as in Figure 58. The shoot A, being also reserved, 
 and cut at B, the parent-stock will thereby lengthen 
 very little each year, but the shoots, growing so close 
 to the old wood, yield few if any grapes. Here, then, 
 is the practice which has resulted from the preceding 
 observations. 
 
 All the weaker plants, whose shoots at the base are 
 sufficiently vigorous, are cut at two eyes. [D, Fig. 56.] 
 
Pruning the Vine. 
 
 J 53 
 
 The following year, the shoot A [Fig. 59], nearest the 
 base is reserved. For the very vigorous varieties, this 
 pruning with two eyes would yield but a small quantity 
 of grapes. It will be necessary to reserve, each year, 
 three buds at the base of the plant, and then, each year, 
 reserve only the shoot nearest the old wood. This op- 
 eration is repeated each year, and by means of these 
 two modes of pruning, a number of grapes proportion- 
 ate to the vigor of the plant is produced, and the parent 
 
 \ 
 
 [Fie. 59.] [Fie. 60.] 
 
 Pruning Fruit-Stems. 
 
 stock lengthens but slowly. That portion which an- 
 nually bears the fruit-stem is called shoot-stump^ spit^ 
 etc., etc. [in this country, the spur]. 
 
 The following process appears to us better adapted 
 to the less vigorous varieties than the preceding ones ; 
 the fruit-stem, A [Fig. 60], is cut to twenty-four inches 
 in length, and then bent down to the wire in the shape 
 of dotted line, B. This curve favors the growth of the 
 buds, by retaining the sap to their profit. As soon as 
 
154 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the shoots have grown to such a length that the young 
 grapes can be seen, a number of them must be rubbed 
 out. Those nearest the base are reserved with one or 
 two of those having the finest bunches. In the vine- 
 yards of Medoc the same result is obtained, by cutting 
 out the eyes from the shoot. We think, however, that 
 the better way is to remove the shoots the yield is then 
 more certain. 
 
 The following year, the old fruit-stem is cut at A, 
 [Fig. 61,] and the shoot, B, is cut and curved in the 
 
 same way as the past year ; 
 and so on, every year. By 
 this mode of pruning, the 
 stock does not lengthen any 
 more than by the preceding 
 one, and we have the ad- 
 vantage of being able to 
 choose the finest fruit- 
 shoots, and to limit the num- 
 [Fic. 6 1.] Pruning of ber ifl proportion to the 
 
 quantity of grapes they bear, 
 
 Fruit-stems. 
 
 and to the vigor of the plant. 
 
 For varieties of moderate, or of great vigor, the fruit- 
 stems are pruned in the same manner. The length of 
 these shoots varies from ten to fifteen inches, according 
 to the vigor of the variety. A certain number is re- 
 served on each stock, according to its vigor. These 
 long shoots are also curved, as shown in Figure 61. 
 
 The Foregoing Theory put in Practice. We have but 
 little to add to the preceding rules, for their application 
 to the various forms of vines which we have recom- 
 mended. 
 
Supporting the Vine. 155 
 
 For the cup-shaped forms [Fig. 30], the arms, or 
 horns being in sufficient number for the vigor of the 
 plants, the fruit-stem on the extremity of each horn is 
 pruned to three eyes. Nevertheless, for the most vig- 
 orous varieties which are pruned into this shape, and 
 more especially for those, the eyes at the base of which 
 are not very fruitful, one or two long curved shoots are 
 left on the same or the adjoining arm. 
 
 Trellises with one, two, or four arms, according to 
 the vigor of the plants, undergo the same treatment as 
 shown in Figures 32, 34 and 35. The fruit-stems 
 which are curved are cut longer or shorter, according 
 to the usual growth of the variety under cultivation. 
 This must also influence the number of fruit-stems re- 
 served each year at budding-time. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORTING 
 GRAPE-VINES. 
 
 "IVfECESsiTY OF THE OPERATION. The vine is a 
 shrub which nature has provided with tendrils, 
 enabling it to keep itself from the ground, by creeping 
 up the neighboring trees ; it is not, therefore, intended 
 to creep on the ground. If its long shoots are allowed 
 to cover the earth, the quality and quantity of its pro- 
 duct will soon diminish, especially when it is removed 
 from the South. We know, in fact, that grapes require 
 a certain degree of heat, in order to ripen. This heat 
 they derive either from the direct rays of the sun, or by 
 reflection from the surface of the ground, or by radia- 
 
156 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 tion during the night. Now, if the stems creep over, 
 and cover all the surrounding earth, this last can not be 
 warmed ; and the bunches enveloped by the leaves are 
 shaded from the action of the sun. The stocks them- 
 selves, being partly shaded, are imperfectly developed, 
 and yield but a small quantity of produce the following 
 year. The buds, also, being loose, are frequently 
 broken off during the summer, by the violence of the 
 winds. And, lastly, most of the bunches in contact 
 with the soil, rot in wet seasons, and exercise a very 
 injurious ejFect on the quality of the wine. These va- 
 rious obstacles are removed as soon as the trunk and 
 the shoots of the vine are so supported that the soil and 
 the whole plant receive, in a sufficient degree, the ac- 
 tion of the sun's rays. 
 
 In fact, the advantages of staking the vines are so 
 evident in all vine regions, that in France, out of sev- 
 enty-six districts which cultivate the vine, sixty make 
 use of stakes. The sixteen districts which do not use 
 the stakes, almost all belong to the southern region ; 
 and there the only motive for not using them is that of 
 economy, and the little value of the product of the vine. 
 Besides, those varieties are chosen, the wood of which 
 is sufficiently stiff to partially sustain itself. There is 
 no doubt, however, that the quantity and quality of the 
 produce would be materially improved, were those vines 
 provided with stakes. 
 
 VARIOUS MODES OF SUPPORT. Let us look into 
 the various means employed to attain this end, and as- 
 certain the one which gives the best results, with the 
 least expense. 
 
 Self -supported Vines. In order to avoid the expense 
 
Supporting the Vine. 157 
 
 of supports, which is generally pretty heavy, Mr. Mira- 
 mont, a land-owner at Maurecort, near Pontoise, has 
 proposed to tie together the shoots of the plants nearest 
 one another, giving them the form of Figure 62. 
 
 [FiG. 62.] Self-supporting Vines. 
 
 These rows of pyramids are far enough apart to al- 
 low of their easy cultivation. This mode of training 
 vines always leaves the grapes partially shaded from 
 the sun ; besides, it is very probable that these pyramids 
 would soon be thrown down by the wind. 
 
 Vines Supported by Trees. In certain southern re- 
 gions Italy, Beam, Savoy, etc., etc., the annual ex- 
 penditure for grape-stakes is saved by training the vines 
 to trees [Fig. 63]. We have already explained [page 
 127], how injurious this system is to the quality, and 
 even to the quantity of the produce, on a given surface. 
 
 Vines Trained to Grape-Stakes. The support most 
 generally used consists of poles, of various lengths and 
 thickness, which are called grape-stakes. 
 
 These stakes may vary from three and one-half feet 
 to ten feet in length, according to the hight of the 
 
158 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 vines, and eight-tenths of an inch to two inches in 
 thickness, according to their length. They are of hard 
 wood, such as oak, chestnut, locust, etc.; or of white 
 
 [FiG. 63.] Vines Trained to a Tree. 
 wood, such as willow, poplar, etc. They are made 
 more durable by being burnt at one end, to the length 
 of sixteen inches, and the burnt part dipped immedi- 
 ately in hot tar. For the past few years the system of 
 Boucherie has been much used in the preservation of 
 grape-stakes, particularly those made of white wood, 
 which are then almost as lasting as those made of hard 
 wood. M. Baltet, nurseryman at Troyes, performs 
 this operation in the following manner : 
 
 Make a cemented cistern, of a depth proportionate 
 to the length of the stake. Prepare, in this cistern, a 
 solution of sulphate of copper in cold water, in the pro- 
 portion of one pound of sulphate of copper to six gal- 
 lons of water. This salt of copper, placed in small 
 baskets, on the surface of the water, gradually dissolves. 
 The stakes are cut while yet green. Tie them up in 
 
Supporting the Vine. 159 
 
 bundles, and immerse them entirely, for about a fort- 
 night, in this liquid ; then dry them in the shade, still 
 tightly fastened together in bundles, to prevent them 
 from warping. The solution must be renewed from 
 time to time, that it may retain its strength. It is not 
 necessary to bark the stakes. 
 
 In the Department of Maine-et-Loire, where slate 
 quarries abound, this slate is cut in lengths of about 
 four feet and six inches, and two to two and one-half 
 inches in thickness, which are used as grape-stakes, and 
 last indefinitely. The weight of each is from ten to 
 twelve pounds. 
 
 Generally, but one stake is put to each vine (Fig. 
 38). Sometimes, as in certain vineyards in the valley 
 of the Rhone, one single stake is made to serve for three 
 vines. The shoots of the two plants nearest the one 
 having the stake, are all fastened together to that stake, 
 by means of a slip of willow. The three plants have 
 then the appearance of a triangular pyramid. 
 
 Elsewhere, in the marshy district of Bordelais, and 
 in the vineyards on the right bank of the Garonne, from 
 Bordeaux to Blaye, two or three stakes are allowed to 
 each stock (Fig. 31) ; the same in the Departments of 
 Allier, and Puy-de-D6me. But in the last named lo- 
 cality the stakes, made almost entirely of white wood, 
 and pretty pliable, are united together at the top by 
 means of a tie. 
 
 On the rocky slopes of the Rhone, the stocks being 
 planted in small groups, on such small patches of soil 
 as will admit of cultivation, are trained on stakes about 
 ten feet high, and fastened together at the top (Fig. 36). 
 
 The staking of newly planted vines takes place only 
 
i6o 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 after they have taken root, and are about being pruned. 
 The staking is done in the spring, immediately after the 
 last winter-dressing of the soil. The stakes are all 
 pointed, and driven into the earth to the depth of ten 
 to twelve inches, according to the hight of the vine. 
 The stakes are sometimes driven into the ground by 
 
 means of a wooden mal- 
 let, but most generally 
 by main strength, and 
 bearing on them with 
 the weight of the whole 
 body. It is a tedious, 
 expensive, and very la- 
 borious work for the la- 
 borer, to avoid which, 
 and facilitate the work, 
 several tools, such as 
 stake-drivers, etc., have 
 been invented. 
 
 The " driver," repre- 
 sented in Figures 64 and 
 65, was invented by M. 
 Dugay, agricultural im- 
 plement maker, at Ar- 
 genteuil, near Paris. It 
 consists of an iron rod 
 A, provided with a han- 
 dle B, at the top. Inl 
 [Fie. 64.] Mode of using Du- the middle of this rod 
 gay's Stake-Driver. there is a hook C, and 
 
 at its lower extremity a sort of claw, the inside angles 
 of which are cutting ; a stirrup E, projects on the op- 
 
Supporting the Vine. 
 
 161 
 
 posite side to this claw. The instrument is used thus : 
 The vine-dresser places the stake in the hook and the 
 claw, so that the last named is twelve inches above the 
 foot of the stake ; he then places his right foot in the 
 stirrup, holds the stake with the left hand, and with his 
 
 [Fio. 65.] Dugay's "Driver." 
 
 [FiG. 66.] Simon' 
 "Driver." 
 
 right hand presses on the handle. In this manner he 
 bears down upon the stirrup with the weight of his 
 whole body, driving the stake to that point where the 
 claw is fixed. If the stake is not driven far enough, he 
 grasps it anew, and repeats the operation. 
 '4 
 
1 62 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 M. Simon, manufacturer of agricultural implements, 
 at Savigny, near Beaune (Cote d'Or), has invented a 
 stake-driver, which bears some analogy to the preceding. 
 It consists of a vertical iron rod [Fig. 66], eighteen 
 inches in length. This rod has, at its upper end, a 
 wooden handle, five inches long, and at its base, two 
 pieces of iron, A, having teeth like a saw, by means of 
 which the stake is held fast. The lowest part is 
 curved, forming a kind of stirrup about three inches 
 long. The working of this instrument is the same as 
 that of the preceding. 
 
 [Our vine-dressers would not like to depend upon setting 
 their stakes by means of any such apparatus, nor would this 
 kind of labor be at all attractive to them. They would 
 greatly prefer the plan adopted by themselves, which consists 
 in the use of a stout crow-bar thrust into the soft ground, as 
 soon as it has settled from the frosts of winter. With this 
 tool, they work holes for the stakes, which are duly pointed, 
 and thrust into them as far as they will go ; they are after- 
 ward driven home, with a wooden maul or beetle. 
 
 During some winters, the freezing and thawing of the sur- 
 face causes the stakes to rise and become loose ; in this case, 
 it is necessary to drive them early in the spring. The work- 
 man generally carries a high stool, upon which to stand 
 while using the maul to drive the stakes.] 
 
 In almost all regions where they are used, the stakes 
 are removed from the ground every year before winter, 
 and laid here and there in little heaps, kept up from the 
 ground by cross-stakes, as shown in Figure 67. Else- 
 where, in Champagne, for instance, these stakes are put 
 up in stacks, as may be seen in Figure 68. This re- 
 moval of the stakes is to prevent the buried ends from 
 
Supporting the Fine. 
 
 rotting during the winter. The pruning operations and 
 winter dressings given to the ground are also more 
 easily performed. 
 
 [FiG. 67.] Stakes Heaped Together after the Harvest. 
 
 The expense consequent on the staking of the vines 
 is undoubtedly the most considerable of all those in- 
 volved in the cultivation of a vineyard. 
 
 [FiG. 68.] Stakes put up in Stacks. 
 
 In Burgundy, and in the vicinity of Paris, the price 
 of stakes, per thousand, is as follows : 
 
164 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 White wood, per thousand $4 80 
 
 Wood prepared with sulphate of copper 6 20 
 
 Hard wood (oak) 8 oo 
 
 The mean duration of these stakes is as follows : 
 
 Stakes of white wood, 10 years, expense per year $o 48 
 
 " sulphated wood, 15 years, expense per year o 40 
 
 " oak, 20 years, expense per year o 40 
 
 From this, it follows that whatever be the nature of 
 the wood employed, the thousand stakes represent an 
 annual expenditure of about $0.50. Now, in Burgundy, 
 about 9*,2OO plants are set to the acre, and each plant 
 must be provided with a stake. 
 
 We thus have 9,200 stakes to the acre, giving rise to an annual ex- 
 penditure of. $3 68 
 
 To which add, for planting, taking up, and sharpening the stakes, 
 
 for the same extent of surface I 92 
 
 Plus interest, at 5 per cent, on the cost of stakes, for the whole time 
 of their duration, $42.75, which, divided by 15 years, their mean 
 duration, gives, per year 2 85 
 
 Total $8 45 
 
 Therefore, staking the vines in Burgundy, costs 
 $8.45, yearly, per acre. 
 
 In Champagne, this operation gives rise to the fol- 
 lowing expenditure : 
 
 The stakes, per thousand, cost : 
 
 In white wood, per thousand $8 oo 
 
 In oak, " 12 oo 
 
 The mean duration of these stakes, is : 
 
 White wood, 10 years, cost per year $o 80 
 
 Oak, 1 5 years, cost per year o 80 
 
 In Champagne, as we have already stated } about 
 
Supporting the Fine. 165 
 
 24,000 vines are planted to the acre, each provided 
 with a stake. 
 
 These 24,000 vines give rise to an annual expenditure of. $19 20 
 
 Planting, taking up, and sharpening the stakes 2 80 
 
 Interest, at 5 per cent on the first cost of the stakes, while they 
 
 last, $139.92 gives, per year II 66 
 
 $33 66 
 
 The staking of vines in Champagne, therefore, 
 costs about 33.66 per acre, yearly. 
 
 Finally, in the vineyards of the Bordelais districts, 
 and of the hilly tract situated on the right bank of the 
 Garonne, from Bordeaux to Blaye, the staking is not 
 less expensive. The following is the average cost of 
 the stakes, per thousand : 
 
 Pine, 7 feet 6 inches in length, barked $20 oo 
 
 Pine, 7 feet 6 inches in length, not barked 12 OO 
 
 Chestnut, 7 feet 6 inches in length 30 oo 
 
 Pine, 6 feet 6 inches in length, barked 16 oo 
 
 Pine, 6 feet 6 inches in length, not barked 10 oo 
 
 Chestnut, 6 feet 6 inches in length 24 oo 
 
 The average duration of these stakes is : 
 
 Pine, barked, 10 years, yearly cost $2 oo 
 
 Pine*, unbarked, 5 years, yearly cost 2 40 
 
 Chestnut, 15 years, yearly cost a oo 
 
 In the region under notice, about 1,800 vines are 
 planted to the acre, and each is provided with three 
 stakes, on an average. 
 
 These 5,400 stakes give rise to a yearly expenditure of. $10 80 
 
 The stakes remain in the ground until their ends are rotten ; we 
 must, nevertheless, take into account the cost of replacing and 
 
 sharpening the damaged stakes, which, put down at 65 
 
 Interest at 5 per cent, on the cost price of the stakes, while they 
 
 last) $54 yearly cost for ten years 5 4 
 
 $16 85 
 
1 66 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Thus, the staking in this part of Bordelais costs 
 about $16.80 per acre, yearly. 
 
 Fines Supported by Horizontal Laths. In Medoc, as 
 also in the Departments of the Doubs and Upper Saone, 
 the vines are trellised on long laths, supported by stakes. 
 In Medoc, the laths, which are about six feet six inches 
 in length, are fixed sixteen inches above the ground, 
 and maintained by stakes about twenty-four inches in 
 length, and placed at intervals of five feet. [Fig. 
 33.] These laths are made of young pines, obtained 
 from the clearing of waste lands generally covered 
 with young saplings. As for the stakes, they are of 
 locust, also cultivated in thick-set groves, in flinty soils, 
 for the use of vine-dressers ; they are also made of 
 barked pine. 
 
 The annual expenditure arising from this mode of 
 training the vine, may be stated thus : 
 
 One thousand stakes of barked pine $2 oo 
 
 One thousand laths of pine wood 3 oo 
 
 The average duration of the stakes and laths, is : 
 
 The stakes, three years, per year $o 66 
 
 The laths, two years, per year I 50 
 
 7,200 stakes are required to the acre, costing, yearly, 475 
 
 And 1, 800 laths, costing, yearly, 2 70 
 
 7 45 
 
 These stakes and laths thus cost, per acre, yearly $7 45 
 
 Replacing, sharpening, and binding the damaged stakes and laths... I 60 
 
 Interest, at 5 per cent, on the cost price of these stakes, per year, is I oo 
 
 Total $10 05 
 
 This mode of support, then, costs about ten dollars 
 per acre, yearly. The different modes of staking we 
 have just considered, have some serious drawbacks. 
 
Supporting the Vine. 167 
 
 The amount of manual labor, already so inadequate to 
 this branch of cultivation, is considerably increased by 
 the staking and unstaking of the vines. The staking is 
 a fatiguing operation for the laborers. Moreover, the 
 laborers trample down the ground round each plant, and 
 neutralize the effects of the first dressing. The stocks, 
 or the principal roots of the plants, are often mangled by 
 the stake driven at the foot of each ; the hole made by 
 the stake leaves, on its removal in the fall, an easy ac- 
 cess to the winter frosts, which may affect the roots ; 
 the rough and splintered surface of the stakes, more- 
 over, gives shelter to the eggs of certain insects inju- 
 rious to the vine, and especially to those of its most 
 dreaded foe, the Pyralis. These eggs are hatched in 
 the spring, and passing from the stakes on to the buds, 
 the larvae there occasion incalculable mischief. Fur- 
 thermore, the shoots are massed against these stakes, 
 close around the bunches of grapes, and deprive them 
 of the sun's action,which exerts so great an influence on 
 the quality of the produce. The shoots, themselves, 
 thus buried in the leaves, ripen their wood badly, and 
 the produce suffers in quantity. Finally, staking gives 
 rise to a yearly expenditure, amounting, on an average, 
 to $14.50 per acre. 
 
 [The estimates of M. Du Breuil, appear too low, on the 
 one hand, and too high, on the other. The price of his 
 stakes appears high to us, and he assigns a greater durability 
 to them than we should think such kinds of wood were en- 
 titled to. However, we have not tried the removal of these 
 supports, every fall, for the sake of sheltering them from the 
 exposure in winter. That may make a difference. 
 
1 68 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Our stakes are of locust, cedar, or oak, and cost, res- 
 pectively : 
 
 Locust, 7 feet, per thosuand $30 oo 
 
 Cedar, 7 feet, per thousand 50 oo 
 
 Oak, 7 feet, per thousand 2,0 oo 
 
 DRESSING AND POINTING. 
 
 Locust and oak, per thousand $2 oo 
 
 Gedar, per thousand I 50 
 
 Our method of training, when stakes are used, is usually 
 the bow and spur system fruiting on the one, and pro- 
 ducing new canes from the other. And we generally use but 
 one stake to each vine. Some, however, have one stake for 
 the fruit, and another for the canes. 
 
 A modification is suggested by the writer of " My Vine- 
 yard at Lakeview," which consists in having an additional 
 rod, inclined from the base of one stake to the top of the 
 next, where it is secured by a nail, or by an osier. This 
 enables the vine-dresser to avoid crowding the vine on one 
 stake, and obviates the use of the bow ; but the author pro- 
 poses to train the fruit-bearing branch to the upright stake, 
 and to grow the young cane along the inclined one. In this, 
 he is exactly wrong, for the inclination would favor the more 
 even bearing of the branch, while the upright stake would be 
 more suitable for the growth of the renewal cane from the 
 spur. 
 
 Mr. John D. Clarke, Horticultural Manager of the Reform 
 School, near Lancaster, Ohio, trained his vines to vertical 
 stakes ; but to equalize the flow of sap, and distribute the 
 fruit evenly, instead of making the bow, he twisted the vine 
 around the stake, in a coil, or spiral, and secured it firmly. 
 He reports the plan very successful in its results.] 
 
 Training on Wire. These serious drawbacks have 
 long been recognized, and it has been sought to substi- 
 tute other supports for those we have just spoken of. 
 
Supporting the Vine. 
 
 169 
 
 M. de Macheco, land-owner at Brionde (Upper 
 Loire), was one of the first to substitute wires. His meth- 
 od consists in setting on the rows of plants a line of per- 
 manent stakes, six feel high, and ten or twelve feet 
 apart. These stakes have a wire of moderate thickness 
 fastened at the top. A small stake driven in at the 
 foot of each plant supports the shoots until, reaching 
 the wire, they are there fastened, and trained in a hori- 
 zontal direction. This system presents few advantages 
 over the ordinary mode of training. It requires the use 
 of stakes, and the shoots are attached to it in too con- 
 fused a manner. 
 
 Later, in 1845, M. Andre Michaux, correspondent 
 of the Institute, proposed a somewhat analagous system, 
 which is as follows : 
 
 Posts made of hard wood, six feet in length-, and 
 from two to two and a quarter inches thick, are driven 
 into the ground at the distance of sixteen feet from 
 each other, along each row of plants. [Fig. 69.] The 
 first and last are strengthened by means of braces, B. 
 
 [FlG. 69.] Vines Supported by Micbaux's Syste?n. 
 
 Two wires are fixed to the stakes, by means of little 
 hooks driven into their side. These wires are removed 
 '5 
 
170 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 at the end of the fall, every year, by rolling them on a 
 sort of reel [Fig. 70], and they are replaced in the same 
 manner, at the beginning of spring. When the time 
 has arrived for fastening the shoots, they are, first. of 
 all, fixed on the lower wire, after it has been properly 
 stretched, and then to the upper one ; on this second 
 
 wire, the shoots of each 
 plant are divided into 
 two portions : one of 
 these is tied, by a single 
 string, to one-half the 
 shoots of the right-hand 
 plant, the other is sim- 
 ilarly tied to one-half 
 the shoots of the left- 
 hand plant. This sys- 
 tem of support allows 
 of a great reduction in 
 the number of stakes, 
 and the shoots are so 
 
 disposed as to receive 
 [FiG. 7 o.-]-ReeI, for Winding^ fulj action of the 
 
 up the Wires. 
 
 there }s nQ 
 
 means of tightening the wires, and the consequent ne- 
 cessity of removing and replacing them, every year, is 
 expensive. 
 
 [The French Government had so high an appreciation of 
 this improvement and contribution to the advancement of the 
 interests of the vine, that a beautiful gold medal was awarded 
 to him for the invention. F. Andrew Michaux was the 
 great historian of American trees, the author of Sylva Ameri- 
 cana. While engaged, for many years, among the primitive 
 
Supporting the Vine. 
 
 forests of the Ohio valley, he formed some warm attachments 
 for his botanical associates in this city, and, before his death, 
 he presented this medal to the Cincinnati Horticultural So- 
 ciety, by whom it is preserved, as a high testimonial of their 
 esteem of the distinguished donor.] 
 
 M. Collignon d' Ancy, of Metz, seems, to us, to 
 have completely solved this question. Here is a de- 
 scription of the plan he recommends : 
 
 ist. At each extremity of the row of plants, a strong 
 wooden post is placed [A, Fig. 71], four feet eight 
 inches in length, and two inches square ; this is in- 
 clined outwardly, at an angle of forty-five degrees. Two 
 holes are bored through these supports one at ten and 
 a half inches, and another at twenty-six and a half 
 inches above the ground. 
 
 [FiG. 71.] System of Wire Supports. 
 2d. At each extremity of the lines, and at thirty-two 
 inches from the above mentioned supports, a hole is 
 dug, twelve inches wide and sixteen inches in depth ; in 
 this hole a block of stone is placed, about ten inches 
 cube, surrounded by galvanized wire, doubled [E]. To 
 this collar a galvanized connecting rod is fastened, one- 
 half of the length of which should be under ground. 
 The holes are then filled up, and the earth well beaten 
 down. 
 
172 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 3d. On each row, a series of stakes, B, are driven, 
 perfectly in line with those at the extremities. These 
 stakes, four feet six inches in length, and one and a half 
 inches square, should rise twenty-eight inches above the 
 ground. On one side of these posts two hooks are driv- 
 en, the first, ten and one half inches above the ground, 
 the second, sixteen inches above the first. To increase 
 the duration of all these supports, it will be advisable to 
 char and tar the part which is to be driven into the 
 ground, or to saturate them with sulphate of copper. 
 
 4th. The end of a galvanized wire, No. 13, passes 
 through one of the inclined supports, and is then fast- 
 ened to the adjoining hook, D. This wire runs on to 
 the other extremity of the line, hooking on the inter- 
 mediate posts as-it goes. Having been cut to the requi- 
 site length, a stretcher, C, is made to pass over it ; it is 
 then passed through the other inclined support, and 
 fastened to the adjoining hook, and, finally, enclosed 
 within the hooks, by hammering lightly on them. It 
 is then stretched, by means of the stretcher, which is 
 placed about the middle of it. 
 
 [FlG. 72.] Tbiry's Stretcher. 
 
 The second wire is placed in the same way, and so 
 on for all the other rows of 
 plants. 
 
 In order to stretch the wires, 
 a great number of stretchers 
 have been contrived. For 
 [FlG. 73.] Pincer. vineyard purposes we recom- 
 
Supporting the Fine. 173 
 
 mend that recently invented by M. Thiry, and which 
 is represented in Figure 72. It answers all the purposes 
 required of it, and its price is extremely moderate 
 
 [FiG. 74.] Stretcher in Operation. 
 two cents. This stretcher is used in the following 
 manner : The wire being fixed at both extremities, and 
 the stretcher made to slide about half way, the two 
 square ends of the axle of 
 the stretcher are introduced 
 into the holes of the pin- 
 cers, shown in Figure 73. 
 This pincer, made of strong 
 sheet-iron, and having hing- 
 es, costs only six cents. 
 Figure 74 shows the position 
 of the pincers when fixed. [FiG. 75.] Key. 
 
 It is held firmly in this position with the left hand. - 
 With the right hand the key [Fig. 75] is placed on the 
 square end, A, of the axle of the stretcher, and a circu- 
 lar motion is given to the latter, until the wire is suffi- 
 ciently stretched. The stop is made by means of one 
 of the two hooked ends terminating the sides of the 
 stretcher, C. 
 
174 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the system of M. Collignon 
 may be adapted to vines of every locality. Some slight 
 modifications applied to it would suffice for that pur- 
 pose. Thus, for the vineyards nearest the NortTi, the 
 vicinity of Paris, Champagne, and the Moselle region, 
 the wires may be arranged in the way indicated by M. 
 Collignon. For the middle region, and the South, the 
 first wire should be placed sixteen inches above the 
 ground, and the second the same distance from the 
 first [Fig. 34]. For vigorous vines, that are to be trained 
 on four-arms [Fig. 32], three lines of wire should be 
 employed, and there should be an equal distance of 
 sixteen inches between them. 
 
 Let us now compare, as regards expense and results, 
 this mode of training vines on wires, with that of stak- 
 ing. We have seen that the staking of the vineyards 
 of Burgundy costs, yearly, $8.45 per acre. If we sub- 
 ject these vines to the mode of culture pointed out at 
 page 100, and to the system of pruning shown in Fig- 
 ures 31 and 35, and then substitute the wire system for 
 that of stakes, we shall have the following expenditure : 
 
 For a row of plants 325 feet in length, 
 
 A double line of galvanized wire, No. 13; 650 feet long, and 
 weighing eleven pounds, at nine and one-tenth cents per 
 
 pound $l oo 
 
 Two end-posts, made of sulphated wood, at four cents each o 08 
 
 Two stays, wire, and stone block, at six cents each o iz 
 
 Twelve intermediate stakes of sulphated wood, at two cents each, o 24 
 
 Two stretchers, at two cents each o 04 
 
 Hooks o 01 
 
 Setting up o 06 
 
 In all... $i 5 6 
 
Supporting the Vine. 175 
 
 An area of one hectare (equal to two and five-elev- 
 enths acres), having a side of three hundred and twenty- 
 five feet, and planted at the rate of 20,000 plants, laid 
 out as shown at page 100, will admit of one hundred 
 rows of plants. This number of rows multiplied by- 
 one hundred and fifty-six, gives a total expenditure of 
 one hundred and fifty-six dollars per hectare, or sixty- 
 two dollars and forty cents per acre, of which sixteen 
 dollars will be for the stakes. 
 
 The duration of the wires may be reasonably laid down at forty 
 
 years, or $46.40 divided by forty., $l 16 
 
 The duration of the sulphated wood will be at least twenty-five 
 
 years, or sixteen dollars divided by twenty-five o 64 
 
 Interest, at five per cent, on the pVce of the stakes, while they 
 last, will be twenty dollars, which, divided by twenty-five, gives, 
 per year o 8d 
 
 Interest, at five per cent., on the cost of the wires, while they last, 
 
 equal to $92.80, which, divided by forty years, gives 2 32 
 
 in all $4 92 
 
 The same surface, staked, costs 8 45 
 
 Difference...... $3 53 
 
 There is, therefore, by the use of wires, a yearly sav- 
 ing of three dollars and fifty-three cents. 
 
 It must be added that we have supposed the lines of 
 wire to be three hundred and twenty-five feet in length 
 (side of a hectare), but were these lines half as long 
 again, the cost, as far as regards the stays, would be one 
 half less, inasmuch as two only would be required, 
 where four were needed in the former case. 
 
 We have seen that in the vineyards of Champagne, 
 the annual cost of staking is about thirty-three dollars 
 and sixty-six cents per acre. If the mode of culture and 
 pruning shown at pige 100, and Figure 35, be adopted, 
 
176 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 and if the wires be substituted for the stakes, these 
 supports will give rise to the same annual expenditure 
 as in Burgundy ; that is to say, to four dollars and nine- 
 ty-two cents per acre. Now, this sum subtracted from 
 thirty-three dollars and sixty-six cents, the cost of the. 
 staking system, shows the enormous saving of twenty- 
 eight dollars and seventy-four cents per acre. 
 
 In the marshy districts, as well as the slopes of Borde- 
 lais, the staking gives rise to a yearly expenditure of 
 about $16.85 P er acre 
 
 If these vineyards be submitted to the mode of culture and pruning 
 indicated at page 100, and Figure 32, and the wires be em- 
 ployed, the cost will amount to only $4 92 
 
 Add one-half that sum for the third line of wire required by these 
 
 vines z 46 
 
 In all 7 38 
 
 which gives a yearly saving of $9.47 per acre. 
 
 Lastly, the supports employed in Medoc, cost, yearly, 
 $10.00 per acre. Substituting wires for the laths, and 
 setting up a second line, as shown in Figure 34, the 
 yearly expenditure would amount to only $4.92, which 
 gives a yearly saving of $5.08 per acre. 
 
 To sum up : Wires, used instead of stakes, do away 
 with the numerous drawbacks, already pointed out, as 
 arising from the latter. Moreover, these wires allow 
 us to realize a considerable saving say, on an average, 
 $12 per acre, annually. We, therefore, earnestly ad- 
 vise the adoption of this new method. 
 
 [The trellis, in different forms, has been considerably em- 
 ployed in this country. Some of the early vineyards were 
 supplied by the German vine-dressers with a very cheap 
 wooden trellis, consisting of poles tied, or nailed, to stakes 
 
Supporting the Vine. 177 
 
 these were quite low, and in some cases, the vines were al- 
 lowed to cross from one row to another, so as to shade the 
 ground completely ; but generally the close pruning, adopted 
 by the foreign vine-dressers, prevented such a result. Others 
 were made higher, having three poles, or they were made of 
 sawed lath, nailed to the posts ; these last were more neat and 
 more permanent. At length, the Americans introduced wire 
 trellises for the vines, and in many parts of the country, noth- 
 ing else is now used, in large vineyards. The wires are sup- 
 ported upon posts firmly set in the ground ; these are gen- 
 erally placed twenty to twenty-five feet apart. The end-posts 
 must be very firmly braced, by slanting timbers set into the 
 ground. Sometimes, when a wagon-road is made across the 
 rows, for convenience at the vintage, the posts on either side 
 are made very high, and are not only braced, but are also 
 coupled together overhead, by strong wires. When the posts 
 are set at wide intervals, the wires may be supported between 
 them by stakes driven into the ground at suitable distances. 
 The size of the posts will depend upon the cost of material 
 and its character for strength and durability ; if squared, they 
 should not be less than three by three inches. Locust posts, 
 if from four to six inches in diameter, will last a long while. 
 
 To Mr. O. D. Ford, of East Cleveland, Ohio, I am in- 
 debted for the following estimates and data : 
 
 Number of vines per acre, at 
 
 8 by 10 544 
 
 8 by 8 729 
 
 6 by 6 1,210 
 
 Number of posts', per acre, at twenty feet apart : 
 
 10 by 8 231, costing $23 10 
 
 8 by 8 297, costing 29 70 
 
 6 by 6 385, costing..... 38 50 
 
 No. 9 wire, running from nineteen to twenty feet per 
 pound, will require, at : 
 
178 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 10 by 8 per acre, 693 pounds, costing $45 04 
 
 8 by 8 per acre, 911 pounds, costing 59 21 
 
 6 by 6 per acre, 1,151 pounds, costing 74 81 
 
 The number of stakes, per acre, will be double the num- 
 ber of vines, and, at $33.00 per thousand, the expense, per 
 acre, will be : 
 
 At 10 by 8, requires 1,088, costing $38 28 
 
 At 8 by 8, requires 1,458, costing 50 13 
 
 At 6 by 6, requires 2,420, costing 84 70 
 
 On the common plan of using but one stake, the cost of 
 material will be diminished by one half. 
 
 There are different methods of fastening the wires to the 
 posts. Some bore holes through which it is passed, but this 
 is not recommended ; others notch the supports with a wide- 
 set saw, and lay the wires in the cleft, fastening them with 
 small nails. Small staples are used by some, or a wrought- 
 nail is driven in below the wire, and then the nail is bent 
 upward and clinched. Mr. Morse, of Cleveland, drives cut- 
 nails into the posts, and, as he applies the wire, he takes a 
 turn on the nails at every post. 
 
 Mr. T. S. Hubbard, of Fredonia, New York, has his trel- 
 lises fifteen rods long. His posts average three by three 
 inches, and are seven feet long ; they are set twenty-four feet 
 apart. The end-posts are heavier, four by six, and well 
 braced. He uses three wires, placing the first at from four- 
 teen to eighteen inches above the ground ; the second and 
 third, eighteen inches, so that the top of the trellis shall be 
 about four and a half feet high. He uses No. 1 1 wire, which 
 costs eleven cents a pound, and the expense, when the rows 
 are eight feet wide, is $50.00 per acre. 
 
 Dr. Spaulding, of St. Louis, Missouri, uses three wires of 
 No. 9, and makes the trellis five feet high. 
 
 My friend, M. H. Lewis, of Sandusky, Ohio, where the 
 wire trellises are used almost exclusively, has, very kindly, 
 
Supporting the Vine. 179 
 
 examined into this subject, and sends me the following esti- 
 mates, which may be considered reliable : 
 
 " The rows are eight feet wide, and the posts twenty-four 
 feet apart in the rows. The vines are generally set eight by 
 eight feet. At these distances, two hundred and forty-five 
 posts are required per acre. The estimates for wire are the 
 net amount, and allowance must be made for slack, for join- 
 ings, and for attachment to the end-posts. 
 
 No. 9, runs 1 6^ feet to the pound 982 pounds per acre, at 9^0 ... $93 27 
 No. 10, runs 20 feet to the pound 792 pounds per acre, at iojc.. 83 63 
 No. n, runs 25 feet to the pound 634 pounds per acre, at io^c.. 66 57 
 No. 12, runs 33^ feet to the pound 480 pounds per acre, at lie.. 52 80 
 
 Telegraph wires, Nos. 9 and 10, may be had at 7 to / 
 cents, and answer very well." 
 
 Heretofore, we have considered only the horizontal trellis, 
 to which it has been objected that that the wires will sway 
 with the wind ; and, when stretched or broken, by a storm, 
 or with the weight of fruit and foliage of the laden vine, the 
 result is disastrous to the crop. Mr. Fuller gives a plan for 
 a vertical wire trellis that will not be subject to such acci- 
 dents. [See Grape Culturist.~] 
 
 KNOX'S VERTICAL WOODEN TRELLIS. A vertical wooden 
 trellis has been used by Mr. J. Knox, of Pittsburg, Pennsyl- 
 vania, with which he is very well satisfied, though I think it 
 has some objections, as well as many advantages. His vines 
 being planted six feet apart in the rows, a post is set every 
 twelve feet. These stand six feet high ; they are connected 
 by strong boards, four inches wide, which are firmly nailed 
 near the top of the posts, and at about one foot from the 
 ground. Upon these rails, vertical strips are fastened every 
 nine inches ; they are made of inch-plank, sawed about an 
 inch wide, and eight feet long ; this makes the trellis nine 
 feet high, which I consider too much, as it requires the use of a 
 ladder for training, tieing, and trimming. A modification is now 
 
180 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 introduced, by using lath, similar to those prepared for the 
 plasterers, except that they are made six feet long. This 
 makes the trellis lighter, cheaper, and of a more convenient 
 hight seven feet. There is economy, also, in the smaller 
 nails, as four-pennies may be substituted for six-pennies. 
 The lumber for the lath should be well selected. An econom- 
 ical arrangement is also employed in making the posts, by 
 using common hemlock scantling, three by four inches, spiked 
 on to a short piece of locust or cedar, that is set in the 
 ground. 
 
 The expense of this kind of trellis is estimated at $300 per 
 acre, which appears sufficiently high ; much will depend upon 
 the relative cost of materials in different parts of the 
 country.] 
 
 IX. 
 OPERATIONS OTHER THAN PRUNING. 
 
 T AYING DOWN THE PLANTS. In the vineyards of 
 Champagne, the vines, being irregularly planted, 
 are so close that they mutually starve one another, and 
 it becomes necessary, in order to maintain their fruitful- 
 ness, to submit them to the operation which, in that re- 
 gion, is called laying down. Every year, at the time 
 of the winter plowing, each of the plants is laid bare 
 on one side, and is then laid down into this small 
 trench, so as to bury it to the depth of three or four 
 inches, in order that the two finest shoots nearest to the 
 base, A [Fig. 39], may be burled about two inches 
 from where they spring. At the time of pruning, only 
 these two shoots are preserved. The others are cut at 
 B, while on the two shoots, A, only two eyes are re- 
 
Other Operations. 181 
 
 served above ground. In this way the plant, in the 
 following year, will be again composed of four or five 
 shoots [Fig. 39]. The process of laying down is then 
 renewed, and the pruning takes place on. two shoots 
 only. This operation is repeated yearly. If, as often 
 happens, the ground be sloping, the laying down is 
 managed so that the plants shall take the direction of 
 the top of the slope. At the end of thirty years, 
 through this annual laying down, each plant may have 
 an underground layer,C, more than ten feet in length. 
 All the plants being thus directed toward the summit of 
 the ground, there must be confusion toward that point, 
 while the base becomes bare, for which reason it is ad- 
 visable, occasionally to replant at the base and thin out 
 toward the top. 
 
 We have already shown the drawbacks arising from 
 this confused planting, and from the too close proximity 
 of the plants to one another. We have also drawn at- 
 tention to the injurious effect arising from the absence 
 of a parent stock, on the quality of the wine, and we 
 have recommended the substitution of an oblique form, 
 with a single arm, as in Figure 35. With this sort of 
 form, the laying down of the stock is no longer re- 
 quired. 
 
 FASTENING OF THE PLANT, AND BENDING OF THE 
 FRUIT-STEMS. Immediately after the pruning it will 
 be well to fasten the plants firmly to the wires. We 
 should next endeavor to give the corresponding arms 
 the same degree of inclination ; otherwise the lower 
 one would soon become less vigorous than the other. 
 
 It is also at this period that the fruit-stems should be 
 tied. For, by the system of pruning we have recom- 
 
l8a Vineyard Culture. 
 
 mended, it is important that we should be able to ob- 
 tain, every year, a vigorous shoot, at the base of that 
 which has borne fruit the preceding summer [B, Fig. 
 61]. The best means of obtaining this result is to 
 bend the branch [A, Fig. 60], and cause it to take the 
 position of the dotted line B [Fig. 60]. It would even 
 be advisable to make the end of the shoot dip beneath 
 the wire, so as to make it exceed the degree of depression 
 indicated in Figure 60. The consequence then is, that 
 the sap being prevented from following its natural di- 
 rection* acts strongly at the base of the arm, and there 
 develops a vigorous shoot. It will therefore, be un- 
 derstood that this bending of the fructifying stem should 
 begin before the starting of vegetation, otherwise a por- 
 tion of the sap will already have spent its action in the 
 top of the shoot, and there would be less vigor at the 
 base. 
 
 [Bending the bows, in the common mode of vineyard train- 
 ing, with stakes, is a very important affair, and an operation 
 of some delicacy, requiring great care in its performance. 
 The object of using the bow is set forth by the author, in the 
 preceding paragraph, where he speaks of bending the shoots 
 when fastening them to the wires of the trellis. 
 
 But there is danger of performing this work too early in 
 the season ; the canes should be left until the sap has begun 
 to flow, and the buds have become excited ; otherwise, the 
 object of attempting to equalize will be rendered nugatory, 
 and the buds at the end will scarcely develop shoots, while 
 those at the top of the arch may become, as they are always 
 apt to do, the most vigorous, and even act as formidable rivals 
 of those we desire to produce for next year's wood, from the 
 spur. I prefer to wait until the buds are almost ready to 
 burst, before bending the bows ; but, in a large vineyard, it is 
 
Other Operations. 183 
 
 difficult to accomplish the work in time, for the buds push 
 very rapidly, and they are easily broken out, in handling the 
 canes ; therefore, it has been recommended to make the bows 
 as rapidly as possible, securing the end to the stock, but not 
 waiting to attach them to the stakes until they are all bent, 
 when it is an easy matter to secure them in position without 
 breaking off the young shoots. 
 
 In bending the bows, it will be found that the canes, which 
 had been rather brittle and easily broken during the winter, 
 become quite pliant, and somewhat tough, as they are filled 
 with sap. Still, some care is requisite in bending them into 
 the circular shape of the bows. Both hands are used : with 
 one, sieze the cane near its extremity, and slightly twist it 
 before bending, and, while supporting and aiding the flexure 
 with the other hand, let the first be brought around gradually, 
 until the end of the shoot comes to the stock, when it is se- 
 cured to it by a willow tie. 
 
 The mode of using the osier, in this operation, is peculiar, 
 and, though exceedingly simple, it is not easy to describe ; 
 suffice it to say, that the bending, or tieing if you please 
 though it is no tie is done with the thicker en4 of the wil- 
 low, and not with the smaller and more pliant portion, as a 
 novice would expect. The security of this fastening depends 
 upon the spring of the willow, which keeps the loop always 
 upon the stretch. Vines that are well secured in the spring 
 seldom fall away from the stake, even when laden with fruit, 
 and exposed to storms. In the winter-trimming, we find the 
 majority of these ties so little decayed or loosened, that it is 
 necessary to cut them, as the first operation before touching 
 the grape-vine with the knife or shears. 
 
 When we come to secure the bows to the stake, stouter 
 willows are needed ; the end is passed around the bow, and 
 one or two turns are taken, twisting the thicker end about the 
 smaller, before engaging the stake ; this is to prevent its rub- 
 
184 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 bing against the support. The vine is thus secured firmly 
 enough to sustain its weight of foliage and fruit, throughout 
 the summer. At the same time care is taken to have the 
 plane of the bows correspond to the direction of the rows of 
 stakes, otherwise they will project into the spaces, and offer 
 obstructions to the movements of the horse in cultivating, and 
 may be seriously injured by being caught in the single-tree. 
 
 In tieing the vines to the trellis, whether of wire or of 
 wood, the same precaution will be necessary, to twist the 
 willow upon itself, before fastening the vine to its place.] 
 
 The best ties that can be used to fasten the plants 
 against the supports, are willow slips, for which rea- 
 son it will be advisable to reserve, in the neighbor- 
 hood of the vineyard, an area of land sufficient for the 
 cultivation of the requisite quantity of willow. The 
 soil for that purpose should be rich, fertile and rather 
 cool. The willows may be planted quincunx fashion, 
 at the distance of three feet apart. This land must be 
 dressed twice a year a plowing in winter, after the cut- 
 ting of the ( willows, and a second plowing in summer. 
 
 [The willow chiefly applied to this purpose is that known 
 as the golden or yellow, which our botanists tell us is but a 
 variety of the Salix Alba, that has attracted so much attention, 
 within a few years, in the west, as the White Willow. This 
 is the tree which, in some parts of the country, has long been 
 grown for making gun-powder charcoal. 
 
 The yellow willow may be planted along a ditch-bank, 
 though water is not necessary for it. To produce good ties, 
 the trees should be headed back to low pollards. They are 
 cut every year, and the small laterals are taken off, tied up, 
 and kept in a damp cellar until needed. 
 
 Another willow, which has been found very serviceable is 
 the true osier, Salix Viminalis y the purple osier, cultivated for 
 
Other Operations. 185 
 
 the basket-makers. These are cut in any mild weather dur- 
 ing the winter. When the workmen are making the sheaves, 
 the smaller twigs are allowed to fall out of the bundles, and 
 these may then be gathered and stored in a damp cellar or 
 cave, until wanted for tieing the grapes. 
 
 In this operation, the wand is first cast about the wire or 
 stake, the larger end twisted around the smaller two or three 
 times, or the two ends may be twisted together ; the vine is 
 then brought to its place, and the same thing is repeated. 
 There is no real tie made, but after the thick end has been 
 thus twisted around the smaller, it is dextrously inclined to- 
 ward the vine, which prevents it from untwisting itself. The 
 whole operation is very rapidly performed by an expert, and 
 it remains secure for a long time.] 
 
 RUBBING OUT AND PINCHING. This operation con- 
 sists in the removal of all the buds that are not required 
 for the bearing of the present and the following year ; 
 and it is also done for the preservation of the shape of 
 the plant. It will be seen that the nipping of these 
 buds will have the effect of giving to the bunches and 
 the shoots retained, the benefit of all the sap which 
 would otherwise have nourished, to no purpose, those 
 which have been removed. We thus obtain a more 
 abundant harvest, and finer shoots, for the following 
 year. Hence it follows that there would be an advant- 
 age in nipping the buds as soon as possible, while they 
 are but two or three inches in length. But this mode 
 of operation would have a serious drawback : we should 
 be liable to remove the grape-producing shoots, and (o 
 retain those which would yield none. This operation, 
 therefore, should only take place when the young grapes 
 have begun to be visible that is to say, when the 
 
 shoots have obtained a length of six to eight inches. 
 16 
 
1 86 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 At the period we have named, the sap may change its 
 direction, and concentrate its action on the shoots that 
 have been retained, without any effort, or disturbance to 
 the economy of the vine. The shoots assume a bolder 
 development, and perform the functions of those which 
 have been removed. But if the nipping is effected 
 later, when, for instance, the shoots have attained the 
 length of twenty-four to twenty-eight inches, the gen- 
 eral vigor of the plant suffers, and although the shoots 
 that have been preserved seem to increase, still a great 
 quantity of sap has been uselessly absorbed, because 
 the suppressed buds have been taken away before they 
 have entirely developed the organs essential to the life 
 of the plant the new roots and the new alburnum. 
 Moreover, the abrupt change which takes place in the 
 natural direction of the sap, at the very moment when 
 its circulation was most brisk, causes a stoppage of veg- 
 etation, which proves hurtful to all the tissues in course 
 of formation. It is a long time before the sap directs 
 itself toward the shoots which have been preserved, and 
 they then grow less vigorously than if the nipping had 
 been performed earlier. 
 
 Buds to be Suppressed. The disbudding ought to be 
 done from the early stage of the plant's growth ; when 
 they are first pruned, only the finest shoots on each 
 should be allowed to remain. At the time of the sec- 
 ond pruning [Fig. 47], there should be left on the re- 
 served shoot, A, only two or three of the finest buds, 
 according to the form to be given to the plant. 
 
 Later, when the frame is formed, no buds ought to 
 be retained on the old wood, unless it be intended, as 
 at A [Fig. 76], to furnish, by and by, the means of 
 
Other Operations. 
 
 shortening the arms of the plant, when they shall have 
 attained too great a length ; in which case the shoot 
 resulting therefrom is every year pruned to one eye, 
 until the time when the arm of the plant is cut imme- 
 diately above this reserve. It is especially on the fruit- 
 stems that the nipping should be practiced. As we have 
 above explained, these branches are allowed, every year, 
 to grow to a length of about twelve inches ; they are 
 then bent and fastened to the wire. When the shoots 
 have reached a length of about eight inches, they ap- 
 pear as in Figure 76. The shoot B ought to be re- 
 served, in all cases, in order to furnish a new fruit-stem 
 
 [FiG. 76.] Nipping the Buds. 
 
 for the following year. We must then ascertain which 
 of the remaining ones have the finest bunches, and pre- 
 serve a number proportioned to the vigor of the plant. 
 If there are not a sufficient number left we shall lose in 
 the quantity of the yield ; if we leave too many, the 
 berries will be smaller ; there will not be a perceptible 
 increase in the quantity, while the wine will be inferior, 
 and the plant exhausted. In this respect the following 
 rule should be observed : for plants having little vigor 
 the " Pinots" of Burgundy, for instance a single fruit- 
 
1 88 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 stem, C, should be left ; the shoot D may be added if 
 the plant is a little more vigorous. For plants of mod- 
 erate vigor, three fruit-stems may be reserved, as C, D, 
 E. Lastly, if the plants are very vigorous, three or 
 four shoots may be kept, C, D, E, and F. If there 
 are six shoots, as shown in Figure 76, the shoot D is 
 always suppressed. If, as too often happens, one of the 
 fruit-stems should yield shoots without grapes, while 
 the opposite shoot has them, it would be proper to leave 
 a number of shoots on the first equal to that which 
 may be left on the second ; otherwise, the barren arm, 
 on which only the shoot B (for next year) has been left, 
 would immediately become weaker than the other. 
 
 When, unfortunately, all the fruit-stems of a plant 
 are devoid of grapes, it will still be well to preserve some 
 shoots, besides the reserved ones, B ; for if the disbud- 
 ding be carried too far, it has the effect of weakening 
 the plant, by depriving it of the organs necessary for 
 the production of new tissues and roots. 
 
 NIPPING THE BUNCHES. In some vineyards, and 
 more especially in the Jura, where most of the plants 
 produce very long bunches, the nipping of these is usu- 
 al ; that is to say, at the time we have mentioned as 
 that for nipping the shoots, the points of the young 
 bunches are nipped with the nail. This suppression 
 always has the effect of making the berries become one- 
 third larger, and ripen a fortnight earlier. 
 
 FASTENING THE SHOOTS. This operation consists 
 in fastening the shoots to the wires, when they have 
 reached a certain size. This is a very important oper- 
 ation ; its object is to have the bunches and shoots well 
 exposed to the sun ; to keep the bunches from touch- 
 
Other Operations. 189 
 
 ing the ground the dampness of which would cause 
 them to rot ; to prevent the young shoots from being 
 torn from the plants by high winds ; and, finally, to al- 
 low of the summer cultivation of the soil. 
 
 The fastening should be done so soon as the shoots 
 have exceeded by about six inches, the point at which 
 they are to be fastened. They are then about twenty 
 inches long. The operation must be executed so as to 
 place the shoots side by side, in a vertical position, and 
 so as not to confine the leaves in the fastening. 
 
 The ties most usually employed to fasten the shoots 
 are wisps of rye-straw, cut twelve inches long, and 
 softened in water ; rushes, cut green, and dried in the 
 shade ; willow-bark softened in water, etc. 
 
 Of whatever kind the tie may be, it must make a 
 complete turn around the wire before the shoot is fast- 
 ened ; otherwise the shoot might be cut by the tie. 
 
 PINCHING THE SHOOTS. This operation consists in 
 nipping the ends of the buds, when they have exceeded, 
 by about twelve inches, the point at which they are 
 fastened. This nipping is applied to the fruit-stems C, 
 D, E, F, only. The shoots A, B, intended for the 
 next year's pruning, must be excepted. 
 
 The object of nipping the buds is, to diminish the 
 chances of the grapes blighting, and to favor their de- 
 velopment. For the bunches, like the leaves, have 
 the power to draw the sap from the roots. If the leaves 
 are numerous on the shoot, their power of absorption 
 exceeds that of the bunches, and they are apt to fail. 
 If the number of leaves is diminished by pinching, the 
 power of absorption of the bunches is no longer inter- 
 fered with, and they are more fully developed. Be- 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 sides, by diminishing the vigor of the fruit-stems, we 
 favor the growth of the shoots A, B, destined to form 
 the plant the following year. 
 
 CLIPPING THE SHOOTS. The shoots A, B [Fig. 76], 
 which have not been pinched, grow all the more vigor- 
 ously, from the fact that they derive a greater quantity 
 of sap by the shortening of the fruit-stems. They 
 might be left to grow indefinitely, at the risk of over- 
 running the ground, and interfering with the summer 
 A culture to be given to it. It is, there- 
 
 fore, proper to clip them, when they 
 have reached a length of about five 
 feet, and to make this suppression six- 
 teen inches above the wire highest 
 from the shoot B. If we operate on 
 very vigorous plants we may allow 
 the shoot B to reach a length of five 
 feet, and then lay it horizontally on 
 the top wire. 
 
 The nipping applied to the fruit- 
 stems, has almost always the effect of 
 developing false shoots at the angle 
 of the upper leaves [A, Fig. 77]. 
 [FiG. 77.] These false shoots acquire great vig- 
 
 or, and create confusion. It will be advisable to pinch 
 them above the second leaf. 
 
 [This subject of summer pruning appears to be awakening 
 a good deal of discussion among American Grape-Growers. 
 The following Report appears in the May number of the 
 American Journal of Horticulture, an excellent periodical, in 
 which the cultivators of the vine will find much valuable in- 
 
Other Operations. 191 
 
 formation in the course of the year, upon this as well as upon 
 many other branches of Horticulture and rural affairs : 
 
 " SUMMER PRUNING OF THE GRAPE. At the winter meeting 
 of the Lake-shore Grape-Growers' Association, at Cleveland, 
 O., there were present some of the most intelligent men of 
 the country, who are engaged in this interesting branch of cul- 
 tivation. The discussions were directed to the practical ques- 
 tions which are constantly arising in a new line of business ; 
 and were of value to those present, as will appear in the re- 
 port of the society, soon to be published. 
 
 " Among the topics discussed, one of the most important 
 was that of summer pruning. Many of the members were loud 
 in their denunciations of the practice, as it is often pursued in 
 the vineyards, particularly where they are managed by Euro- 
 pean vine-dressers. Some went so far as to say that they pre- 
 ferred to let their vines go without any pruning at all, rather 
 than to have them subjected to such a terrible "summer slaugh- 
 tering " as was occasionally to be seen. They pleaded for 
 the leaves, claiming that they were necessary to elaborate the 
 sap, to perfect the crop of fruit, and to ripen the wood and 
 the roots for the future healthiness of the plant. 
 
 "After a full expression of similar views by these tender- 
 hearted vine-dressers, who adopted the motto " Laissez faire" 
 in regard to summer treatment, a member, who has long had 
 extensive opportunities for practice and observation, in the 
 vineyard, stated that he should advise a middle course, con- 
 sisting of judicious and systematic, but perhaps some would 
 think severe summer pruning, as the best method of directing the 
 sap into the proper channels, and of increasing the production 
 of large leaves, good fruit, and healthy, vigorous shoots, where 
 they were needed for the renewal of the vine. These results 
 he preferred to the extremes that had been alluded to the 
 sacrificing of the growth and foliage, on the one hand, such as 
 has been styled "summer slaughtering;" or, on the other ex- 
 
1 92 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 treme, allowing an indiscriminate and profuse production of 
 shoots and leaves, that must interfere with the perfect devel- 
 opment of the vine, and the proper ripening of the fruit. 
 
 "He claimed that by a proper performance of the different 
 operations which make up the summer pruning of the vine, in 
 our attempts to furnish a renewal of wood, suitable to pro- 
 duce the next crop, these several objects should be kept clearly 
 in view : 
 
 "ist. That we should prune in such a way as to avoid that 
 very common evil, the over-production of fruit. 
 
 "zd. That we should prune so as to provide for the largest 
 development* of the foliage, and for a renewal of the leaves 
 upon the fruit-bearing branches. 
 
 "3d. That we should so direct the growth of the vine as to 
 insure the production of vigorous, healthy canes, to bear the 
 next year's crop. 
 
 "And, lastly. That we might, under certain circumstances, 
 find it necessary to prune, or to train, in such a way as to 
 check the growth by extension, and endeavor to develop the 
 buds on the lower part of the canes that are to be appropri- 
 ated to the production of the next crop. These topics were 
 considered seriatim. 
 
 " The first operation of summer pruning is therefore a 
 process for thinning the fruit, as well as for diminishing the 
 number of shoots ; but it does not follow that there will be 
 any less wood produced ; on the contrary, it will be found, 
 at the end of the season, that there is more available and 
 useful wood, upon a vine that has had this important opera- 
 tion well carried out, than upon one which had been so 
 neglected that all its shoots had been allowed to remain, and 
 contend with one another to their mutual injury. 
 
 " This first process consists in what is called rubbing out. It 
 should be performed early in the season of growth very early 
 so soon as the young shoots have made their appearance, and 
 
Other Operations. 193 
 
 have developed themselves sufficiently to show their little 
 bunches of embryo fruit ; this will be when the largest have 
 grown five or six inches long. It is evident, that if delayed 
 longer, there must be a greater loss to the vine. 
 
 " The vine-dresser removes the weaker shoots by rubbing 
 them off with his thumb. When there are twins he should 
 take away the weaker. Where the joints of the old wood are 
 short, if the buds all break, the branches will be too close ; in 
 this case alternate shoots must be removed ; or, even more 
 than this, so as to leave the first branches not nearer than six 
 inches in many vines ten inches would be still better. If 
 this work be well done, the after-labors of summer pruning 
 will be very much lightened. 
 
 " This process of rubbing out is very useful for correcting 
 the evils of insufficient winter pruning, as the surplus buds 
 may be removed, and the amount of growth reduced to what 
 the plant is capable of sustaining to advantage. A vine which 
 may have been wholly neglected in the winter can still 
 be thoroughly pruned, for all the practical purposes of prun- 
 ing, by thus removing the surplus shoots rubbing them out 
 as they appear. 
 
 " Some vine-dressers depend upon this plan of reducing their 
 crop, instead of severe winter pruning, which is the more di- 
 rect method usually adopted. Sometimes, indeed, it may be 
 advisable to trim the canes long, when there is apprehension 
 that a portion of the buds have been winter-killed. Now 
 if they still break regularly, the excess can thus be reduced to 
 the proper standard. In some vineyards the whole summer 
 pruning is done at once, by the systematic and severe removal 
 of a large portion of the shoots, by rubbing them out, so as to 
 thin the crop, which is afterward left to take care of itself. 
 
 " Certain insects are busily at work at the time of this 
 rubbing out, doing a similar work by eating a portion of the 
 buds ; but we can not depend upon their judgment in the mat- 
 17 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 ter, and should kill the beautiful Ha It lea cbalybea while we 
 are disbudding our vines. 
 
 " The second division of the subject, or pruning to effect 
 the greatest development of the foliage, and to produce new 
 leaves during the season upon the fruit-bearing branches, is 
 accomplished by systematic, judicious, and early pinching-in 
 of the ends of the shoots. This operation should be done as 
 soon as it is seen which are the best and strongest, and be- 
 fore the blossoming of the vine so soon, indeed, as the 
 bunches can be seen. It is often practiced at the same time 
 as the rubbing out at least on the strongest shoots. This 
 pinching is ti very simple matter. It is done with the thumb- 
 nail and the fore-finger ; the point only should be removed 
 sometimes one leaf, sometimes two, or even three, are left 
 beyond the outer cluster of grape-buds ; but to produce the 
 best effect, the former point is advised. 
 
 " It has been observed that an early and close pinching is 
 always followed by a remarkable development of the thrift 
 and size of the foliage ; the leaves attain double the size of 
 those on an 'unpinched shoot, and the aggregate of the evap- 
 orating surface presented by them will be greater than that of 
 all the leaves that would have been produced by the shoot if 
 left alone. But this is not all. At the base or axil of each 
 of these enlarged leaves, the new buds will become very prom- 
 inent, and will soon burst, and produce laterals. These are 
 again pinched, at one or two leaves, and with the same effect, 
 that of enlarging the foliage. We thus have a new crop 
 of these valuable evaporating organs, or lungs, as they have 
 been fancifully called, and at a season when it may be very 
 desirable to the health of the plant that a supply of fresh fo- 
 liage should be on hand, for the older leaves are often injured 
 by storms, by insects, or by accident, and their renewal in this 
 manner will be very opportune. 
 
 " This treatment is very different from the practice of many 
 
Other Operations. 195 
 
 of the European vine-dressers, who attempt to manage the 
 free American vine by subjecting it to extremely harsh meas- 
 ures. They break off the ends of the shoots at the last bunch, 
 after they have made a considerable growth, and thus sacrifice a 
 portion of the energy of the vine. They often defer this trim- 
 ming until after the blossoming season, because of a prejudice 
 that prevents any work being done among the vines during 
 that delightfully fragrant period, when it is a joy to be in the 
 vineyard almost equal to that experienced at the time of the 
 vintage. Not satisfied with this sacrifice of growth, these tar- 
 dy, but now energetic pruners tear out all the laterals that 
 may appear, and thus, when provident arrangements have been 
 made for renewing the foliage, they deprive the vine and its 
 fruit of these valuable resources, and it is no wonder that, with 
 all their efforts to expose their fruit to the burning rays of 
 the sun, they often miserably fell in the desired result of well 
 ripened fruit. 
 
 *' This pinching can not all be done at once. As already 
 observed, its best effects can only be obtained by commencing 
 very early, when only a portion of the shoots will be suffi- 
 ciently developed : these should be pinched. The backward 
 shoots will rapidly advance, and in a few days these must be 
 subjected to the same treatment ; and very soon the laterals on 
 the first will require pinching. In the course of the summer, 
 other laterals will form, which will need shortening for the 
 same purpose of developing the foliage ; but, toward the close 
 of the season, they may be let alone. 
 
 " Thus it will be seen that the vine-pincher has no sinecure 
 office, but that his attentions will be pretty constantly required 
 during the season of growth. 
 
 " Third Trimming to direct the growth of the canes. 
 Pinching off the ends of some of the shoots is a very import- 
 ant part of summer pruning ; but it is one which has been 
 very much abused in practice, and still more so in the criti- 
 
196 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 cisms of those who theoretically condemn the practice. Be- 
 fore proceeding any farther, it is well for us to consider, 
 that, in all pruning of vines, we must remember the necessity 
 of keeping the plant in due shape as to its wood, and that we 
 desire to have this properly distributed. We want the new 
 growth, which goes to form the canes for the next year's fruit- 
 age, formed low down on the stock, and not at the ends, or 
 higher parts of the vine, which would soon give us high, naked 
 stocks, and bare, empty trellises, such as may everywhere be 
 seen striking witnesses of the ignorance of Nature's laws, as 
 illustrated in the treatment of the vine. 
 
 " No intlligent cultivator need be told, that when a vine 
 is tied up to a stake, or trained vertically upon a trellis, the term- 
 inal, or upper buds will break the most vigorously ; and if let 
 alone, and allowed to grow upward, they will maintain their 
 ascendancy throughout the season. This is often at the ex- 
 pense of those starting from a lower point, which were ex- 
 pected and desired to be the stronger, so as to produce the 
 wood for the annual renewal of the vine. The same thing is 
 true of vines trained upon the bow system, especially if the 
 bending has been done too early in the season ; the object of 
 the bow being to distribute the nourishment equally to the 
 different parts of the vine. The bending should not be done 
 till the sap has started toward the upper buds, and they have 
 received an impulse. If they are then brought down to a 
 lower position, they are subordinated ; and other buds at the 
 upper bend become the highest, and thus produce the stronger 
 shoots. In the mean time, those springing from the spur, for 
 renewal-canes, can get the desired start; and the pinching 
 now to be described is intended to favor their growth. In 
 trellis training, for the same reason, the canes should be al- 
 lowed to hang loose, until after the starting of the sap, so that 
 advantage may be taken of the condition of the leading buds, 
 
Other Operations. 197 
 
 and we can subordinate those that are likely to receive too 
 much nourishment. 
 
 " Do what we may, however, whether our vines be trained 
 in one method or another, and despite all our forethought and 
 care and management, the higher shoots will often become 
 leaders, at the expense of those we are endeavoring to pro- 
 duce from the spur, upon the principle of renewing by canes 
 from below, and thus keeping the vine in good shape. Here, 
 then, the pinching becomes an agency of the greatest value to 
 the vine-pruner ; for, by the removal of the tips of these 
 strong shoots, he may succeed in so directing the flow of sap as 
 to develop the growth of those he desires to produce for the 
 future crop, and which are suitably placed upon the vine. 
 
 "It may be objected, and we are all tired of hearing the 
 objection, that we are contending against the natural efforts of 
 the plant, which was only following its own instincts ; and 
 that, therefore, our attempts thus to thwart Nature were un- 
 wise and unphilosophical, and consequently wrong. But we 
 may answer all such objections by telling them that we are 
 treating the civilized vine in a civilized manner, and for the 
 purposes of civilized man. The conditions of the problem 
 are changed. One thing, however, remains the same in the 
 wild and in the cultivated vine : in both cases, the fruit- 
 branches spring from healthy and well matured shoots of last 
 year's growth. In the native forest, the vines clamber over 
 shrubs, and even upon the highest trees, where they can have 
 free exposure to the air and light, and where God's creatures, 
 called the inferior animals for whom, in the bounty of His 
 providence, they were produced can enjoy the fruits of the 
 vine, so lavishly furnished. Intelligent man, not wishing to 
 rival these animals in climbing, and unable to fly with the 
 birds, to gather the clusters, cultivates and improves the fruit 
 for his own use, and trains the vines so that he may reach 
 their luscious bunches. Of course, his treatment of the plants 
 
198 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 is not exactly according to Nature ; and yet, the important 
 facts and principles of the natural habits of the vine are ever 
 borne in mind by the successful cultivator, who will take very 
 good care not to set himself in opposition to them. 
 
 " We now come to the last subdivision of the subject that 
 of summer pruning and training, in order to check the too 
 great extension, or the too late growth of the vine, and for 
 the sake of developing the lower buds, along that part of the 
 cane which will be called upon to produce the fruit-bearing 
 branches. It may be that those who advocate this kind of 
 shortening-in are right. Let us listen to the arguments ad- 
 vanced in its favor. 
 
 " The success of the renewal system, as is generally prac- 
 ticed, whether the vine be trained upon stakes or trellises, al- 
 ways depends upon the suitable development of the renewal- 
 canes, or shoots that are provided for bearing the next crop. 
 To this end, these shoots are encouraged in their growth; 
 they are carefully tied up as they grow ; and they are main- 
 tained in a vertical position, that they may continue to devel- 
 op themselves. All laterals are removed as soon as they ap- 
 pear ; and the tendrils are pinched off, at least so far as the 
 cane is to be retained on the vine, at the winter pruning. At 
 the same time, aspiring shoots in other parts of the vine, are 
 subordinated, by pinching, as already indicated ; or they are 
 checked by their dependent position, caused by the weight of 
 their fruit. 
 
 " With proper care, these canes will reach the top of the 
 stakes or trellis; and, if strong, they will continue to grow, 
 often for several feet, or even yards. What is now to be 
 done with them ? The Europeans we have among us advise 
 to cut them off at this point. Intelligent American vine- 
 dressers prefer to leave them, and carefully train them from 
 stake to stake, or along the top of the trellis, and at last allow 
 them to hang downward : they also let them produce as many 
 
Other Operations. 199 
 
 laterals as their vigor may push out. These modes of treat- 
 ment are diametrically opposite ; and yet there may be good 
 reasons for both. The American, knowing the great vigor of 
 most of the vines he has to deal with, allows them to devel- 
 op themselves, feeling confident that he would commit an 
 injury by attempts to curb their rambling nature too abruptly. 
 He has observed, that where cut off, or broken by a storm at 
 the top of the stakes, the buds which contain the promise of 
 the next year's vintage, are forced to break, and to produce 
 very strong laterals, that blossom out of season : this, he 
 apprehends, will be injurious to the next crop. On these 
 strong canes, he has observed no difficulty arising from the want 
 of development of the lower buds, upon which he confidently 
 relies for his fruit the next year. On the contrary, the Eu- 
 ropean, who has often come from the northern limit of grape- 
 culture, in his own country, has been taught that in such a 
 situation the plants of the sunny South will continue to grow 
 too late in the season, and that, as a consequence, the buds 
 may not be well developed, nor the wood thoroughly ripened, 
 unless he artificially checks this late growth, by heading off 
 the shoots at a certain hight. Under such circumstances, 
 the practice is sound and philosophical ; and it only needs 
 judgment to indicate the proper period for performing the 
 operation. It may be well for us to observe, among our 
 grapes, whether some varieties may not be benefitted by a 
 similar treatment, though it is evident that most kinds are se- 
 riously injured by it. 
 
 "In conclusion, upon this point it may be said, that, with 
 our vigorous American vines, the canes should be cleared of 
 laterals when quite young, and trained to the top of the sup- 
 port ; then trained horizontally for a certain distance, and al- 
 lowed to hang downward. Beyond the top of the stake or 
 trellis, all the laterals should be allowed to grow unrestrained." 
 
2OO Vineyard Culture. 
 
 THINNING THE LEAVES. In the middle and the 
 north of the vine-growing region, the dampness of the 
 soil and atmosphere being greater than in the south, the 
 annual growth of the vine is prolonged, and this pro- 
 longed growth is often hurtful to the proper ripening of 
 the grapes, which commences only from the moment 
 that the growth of the vine has stopped. The bunches 
 then contain all the elements necessary to their perfect 
 ripening, and, no longer receiving any sap, they fully 
 elaborate the fluids which they contain. 
 
 Thinning, the leaves, when practiced carefully, has 
 the effect of stopping the vine's annual growth before 
 the period at which it would otherwise have ceased, and 
 so favors the ripening. This operation is, therefore, 
 very necessary, especially in the north and middle of 
 the wine-growing region, but it must be executed with 
 judgment. If begun too soon, the thinning stops the 
 development of the bunches ; is prejudicial to the vig- 
 or of the plants and to the quality of the produce ; 
 and if performed to too great an extent at one time, it 
 renders the bunches liable to be scorched by the sun. 
 
 This is the proper mode of proceeding : a first or 
 preliminary thinning should take place when the grapes 
 begin to appear transparent, and have reached their full 
 size. Only a few leaves are then removed ; those 
 which protect the bunches from the direct action of the 
 sun are retained. Fifteen or twenty days afterward, 
 the work is completed, by removing a fresh quantity of 
 leaves, allowing only one-third or one-half to remain, 
 according as the plants are more or less vigorous, the 
 climate more or less warm, or as the year has been more 
 or less wet. Those which cover the bunches are then 
 
Other Operations. 2OI 
 
 nipped off in preference to all others. While remov- 
 ing these leaves their stalks are left attached to the 
 shoots, that the bud at that point may suffer less. This 
 thinning has another effect, not less important, namely, 
 that the maturity of the young wood is more complete, 
 and has a great influence on the abundance of product 
 for the next year. 
 
 [In this country no sane man would ever attempt to defoli- 
 ate his vines the second time. The high sanction of author- 
 ity, and European usage, might possibly induce an intelligent 
 American vine-dresser even one who had some knowledge 
 of vegetable physiology to experiment upon the effect of 
 removing the leaves from his grape-vines, but the disastrous 
 consequences which would be sure to follow such treatment 
 would certainly deter him from ever making another attempt 
 of the kind. Leaves are too important in the vegetable econ- 
 omy for us to sacrifice them, and the effect of their removal, 
 in maturing the young wood, would not be satisfactory, but 
 quite otherwise.] 
 
 Mild, overcast weather, rather moist than dry, should 
 be chosen, in order that the shoots, flowers, or grapes 
 laid bare, may not be suddenly exposed to the heat of 
 the sun. 
 
 The different operations we have just spoken of the 
 rubbing out and pinching of the shoots, thinning of the 
 leaves, etc. are very rapidly executed by women. 
 The products of this sort of work such as the shoots 
 and leaves compensate, in a great measure, for the ex- 
 ,pense. The vine-leaves, when dried, afford a very good 
 winter fodder for cows, sheep, goats, and asses. At 
 Mont-Dore, near Lyons, the vine-leaves, slightly fer- 
 mented in cisterns, where they are soaked with a suffi- 
 
2O2 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 cient quantity of water, feed a very large number of 
 goats, whose milk is used in the manufacture of the 
 cheese of Mont-Dore. 
 
 All these labors are more or less practiced in most 
 vineyards, especially those of the North. As for the 
 vineyards of the South in Languedoc, for instance 
 nothing, or next to nothing, is done during the growth 
 of the vine ; and yet, the nipping and clipping of the 
 shoots, and even the thinning of the leaves, performed 
 a little before the vintage, would be as beneficial there 
 as elsewhere. 
 
 [The southern vineyards to which reference is here made, 
 are situated somewhat like our own, as to light and heat in 
 midsummer ; and, from observations made here, upon the 
 effect of summer pruning, with its defoliation, I can not help 
 concluding that this advice of Mr. Du Breuil is of doubtful 
 value. Certainly it can not be applied to our vines, with the 
 prospect of any good results ; on the one hand, it is notori- 
 ous that those vines which retain their foliage the latest even 
 until frost destroys it always ripen their wood to the tips ; 
 while, on the other hand, those that cast their leaves, from 
 any cause, always have a considerable amount of immature 
 wood, that dies in the winter. Of course the late and un- 
 timely efforts at growth, and the attempts made by the vine to 
 restore the foliage that has been removed, by bad trimming, or 
 by mildew, will not be likely to ripen perfectly, and such 
 growths are almost sure to be killed in the winter. 
 
 It may be laid down as an axiom, that if the wood do not 
 ripen perfectly, the fruit also, will be inferior, and often 
 worthless.] 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 203 
 
 ANNUAL CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 HPHE soil which nourishes the vine, like all others on 
 which crops are raised, requires to be exposed to 
 the fertilizing action of atmospheric agents. It must 
 also be preserved from the development, thereon, of 
 weeds. Lastly, it is advisable to guard it, as much as 
 possible, from the action of drought, during the summer. 
 These various results are obtained by means of deep 
 and light plowings. These two operations constitute 
 the annual culture of the soil in vineyards. 
 
 PLOWINGS. Two plowings are generally necessary 
 for a well cultivated vine. One is performed in Feb- 
 ruary or March, after the pruning and fastening of the 
 shoots, when they are provided with supports. The 
 second is effected at the end of spring, as soon as the 
 shoots have reached a length of twenty to twenty-four 
 inches. 
 
 The depth of these plowings ought to be such as not 
 to reach the principal roots of the plants. Neverthe- 
 less, this depth must vary with the climate and nature 
 of the soil. In the South, where the roots penetrate 
 deeper, these plowings may reach the depth of six to 
 eight inches. In the North, they should not exceed 
 four or five inches. 
 
 At the time of the first 'plowing, we must contrive to 
 lay bare the foot of the plants, by throwing the earth 
 into the middle of the space between the two rows. 
 
204 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 It is owing to this mode of operation that the first cul- 
 tivation is styled " plowing bare." Performed in this 
 way, the plowing has a double advantage : the soil be- 
 ing partially turned over, is more easily penetrated by 
 atmospheric agents ; next and this is important it 
 insures the destruction of the rootlets, which are strong- 
 ly developed upon the plant near the surface of the 
 ground, under the influence of the moisture of the fall 
 and winter. Were these rootlets let alone, their active 
 functions would soon diminish the vitality of the deeper 
 ones, and they would languish. But the summer heat 
 soon destroys a large portion of the superficial roots, 
 or, at least, suspends their functions ; moreover, they 
 are often mangled by the action of implements ; the 
 consequence is that the plants suffer greatly ; for the 
 deep roots are no longer in a state effectively to replace 
 those of the surface. The laying bare of the foot of 
 the plants, which we have recommended, has precisely 
 the effect of destroying, year by year, these superficial 
 roots, and compelling the plants to live through their 
 deeper ones. It will occur to every one that this lay- 
 ing bare the roots is necessary everywhere, but that it 
 is all the more indispensable when the soil is exposed to 
 drought. 
 
 The second plowing, which is called " hilling," has 
 the effect of destroying the little ridges formed in the 
 space between the rows, and of leveling the ground by 
 filling up the furrows at the foot of the plants. 
 
 The greater or less quantity of moisture in the soil, 
 at the time of plowing, has a great influence on the 
 success of this operation. If the ground be very dry, 
 the work is more difficult and expensive ; if it be very 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 205 
 
 moist, and of a clayey character, it separates in large 
 lumps, which soon dry, breaking up with difficulty, and 
 leaving the surface in a bad condition for a long time. 
 It is, therefore, advisable to hasten or postpone this op- 
 eration for a few days, in order to seize the favorable 
 moment when the soil, being neither too dry nor too 
 moist, will be loosened and mellowed. Experience has 
 also shown that before beginning the second plowing, 
 it is as well to wait until the late frosts are no longer to 
 be feared ; for, a vine that has been recently worked 
 freezes more easily than one around which the soil has 
 not been stirred. 
 
 In some localities, the working of the soil in vine- 
 yards is not practiced in the manner we have just indi- 
 cated. The plants are hilled-up at the first plowing, 
 and the ground is afterward leveled at the second. As 
 the foot of the plants can perfectly withstand the colds 
 of winter, we think it better to uncover them at the 
 first plowing, in order to reap the benefits arising from 
 such a process as we have indicated above. 
 
 [It is a very common practice in our vineyards, to give 
 them a thorough dressing very early in the season. On the 
 hill-sides, this is done with the heavy two-pronged hoe, sim- 
 ilar to the bidens of Virgil's Georgics, with which the an- 
 cient Romans probably worked their vineyards. In all grounds 
 where the plow can be used, that implement is to be pre- 
 ferred to all others. If the vines have been laid by in die 
 autumn, by throwing a furrow against them on both sides, the 
 first operation is like that recommended by our author, and is 
 performed by running the land-side of the plow close to the 
 vines, which removes the earth thrown there in the autumn, 
 and opens a furrow on each side that admits the warming in- 
 
2O6 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 fluence of the sunshine. Where the vines are planted in 
 squares, and trained to stakes, it is sometimes found desirable, 
 at this working, to plow across the rows, and thus stir the 
 soil between the plants, that was not touched by the plow or 
 cultivator during the summer cultivation. Moreover, in our 
 wide planting, two furrows to a space will not be sufficient to 
 loosen all the soil, but three or four rounds, or more, will be 
 required, beginning in the middle, and gathering a narrow 
 land between two rows. 
 
 As to the time of the first plowing, in the spring, there is 
 a diversity of opinions. Some advise its being done early, 
 to admit the. air and sunshine to the soil, to warm it; while 
 others recommend it being so done, because, they say, the 
 vines will not start so early as on firm ground, and may thus 
 escape the effects of a late forst. Some practical men post- 
 pone the plowing until the first weeds, such as the shepherd's- 
 purse (Capsella bursa pastoris), and others of early habits, have 
 grown up several inches, and are in blossom. Thus, quite a 
 coating of green manure may be turned into the soil, for its 
 melioration, while the tardy vine-dresser has a good plea for 
 his procrastination of the work. 
 
 The danger of frost is no doubt increased by plowing, as 
 the soil is thus placed in a condition to radiate its warmth 
 much more readily than when it was compact and level. It 
 is well known that frosts those of spring, particularly are 
 generally caused by the cooling of the surface, effected by the 
 progress of radiation of the caloric, during clear nights, and, 
 as well established, that this process is more rapid from a 
 freshly plowed surface than from a compact stale furrow.] 
 
 Implements used in forking the Ground. On steep 
 slopes, the working of the ground can only be executed 
 by means of hand-implements ; the plow can not be 
 used. The form of the tools employed in working the 
 ground varies very much, according to the localities. 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 207 
 
 In rich soils, free from pebbles, hoes, like those shown 
 in Figures 82, 83, and 84, are used, or else the spades, 
 represented by Figures 80, and 8 1. In compact, or 
 stony soils, the implements used are forked hoes, Figure 
 78, or triangular ones, such as Figure 79. 
 
 [Fie. 78.] [Fie. 79.] [Fie. go.] [Fie. 81.] 
 Forked Hoe. Triangular Hoe. Spades. 
 
 The cost of this hoeing, executed by hand, varies 
 somewhat, according to the districts. In Champagne, 
 only one hoeing is done, and that by means of the 
 forked hoe. This work costs six dollars per acre. 
 
 In Burgundy, the ground is hoed twice. The first 
 hoeing costs four dollars per acre j the second costs 
 three dollars, or seven dollars for the two. In the 
 marshy district of Bordelais, and the hill-side from Bor- 
 deaux to Blaye, these hoeings are also executed by hand. 
 The first costs five dollars per acre j the second four 
 dollars, or nine dollars for the two. 
 
208 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The working of the ground by hand is, undoubtedly, 
 the best and most perfect, but it is much more expens- 
 ive than that by the plow, and even on the supposition 
 that the expense was the same, it would be advisable 
 to substitute the plow, for the reason that the scarcity 
 of hands is such that this mode of cultivation becomes 
 impossible, even at the cost of the heaviest expenses, 
 
 [Fie. 82.] Hoe. [Fie. 83.] Hoe. [Fie. 84.] 
 
 and also, because the work being done much quicker, 
 it enables us to await the most favorable time for the 
 operation. Unfortunately, the plow can not be used on 
 steep slopes. Let us, therefore, consider the manner 
 of using this implement, in vineyards where its working 
 is not rendered impracticable by too steep a surface. 
 
 A space of at least three feet, between the rows of 
 the plants, is necessary to allow the plow to be used 
 with ease. Under the head of "Planting" we have 
 pointed out the most favorable position to be given to 
 the rows of plants, to facilitate the use of this imple- 
 ment. 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 209 
 
 For the vines of the South, planted at distances of 
 four and one-half feet, and more, and pruned cup-shape, 
 we have advised the planting in quincunxes, which al- 
 lows the plow to be run in every direction, and will 
 admit, on the same extent of surface, a greater number 
 of vines than the planting in squares. 
 
 In vineyards where a space of from sixteen to thirty- 
 six inches is left between the plants, the use of the 
 plow would become impossible, unless there were a 
 marked diminution of the number of plants per acre, 
 and consequently a sacrifice of part of the vintage. - 
 To obviate this difficulty, we have advised the setting 
 of the rows three feet apart, at least, and the plants 
 themselves close enough together to admit at least 
 eight thousand to the acre. When it is wished to ex- 
 ceed this number, we have advised that a space of only 
 twenty-four inches be left between the two rows, on 
 each side of an alley, three feet in width [Fig. 17]. 
 The plants being set at eighteen inches from each other, 
 along the rows, ten thousand plants may be set to the 
 acre, and yet two-thirds of the surface can be worked 
 by the plow. 
 
 A plow intended for the culture of the vine should 
 be so constructed as to fulfill the following conditions : 
 
 1st. That it cut a strip of ground at least sixteen 
 inches wide. 
 
 2d. That it penetrate, if need be, to a depth of six 
 inches. 
 
 3d. That it require only one horse to work it the 
 whole day. 
 
 4th. That it be able to pass between two rows of 
 18 
 
2IO Vineyard Culture. 
 
 plants, having a space between them of not more than 
 three feet. 
 
 The use of the plow, in vineyards, is not a new thing. 
 In the region of the South where the vines are set very 
 far apart, and where the produce less sought after than 
 that of the North had not the means of transit which 
 it now enjoys, there has long been an endeavor to di- 
 minish the cost of cultivation by the use of the plow. 
 For this purpose, the tool shown in Figure 85 has been 
 
 [FiG. 85.] Plow used in Provence. 
 used. It is nothing more than the implement intro- 
 duced into Narbonne by the Romans. This plow, hav- 
 ing no mold-board, only displaces the soil without 
 turning it over ; it therefore does very poor work. 
 
 Nevertheless, this implement is still used, at least on 
 stony soils. It is drawn by one good-sized horse, 
 hitched to it by means of a shaft or thill. 
 
 For vines of the same region, planted in deep ground, 
 plows with mold-boards are preferred. This plow is 
 also hitched by means of a shaft. This allows it to be 
 turned more easily in a small space, at the end of the 
 patch, and the horse is more easily handled. Figure 86 
 represents one of these tools, constructed by M. Lacaze, 
 of Nimes. Nevertheless, a plow with a single handle 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 
 
 211 
 
 is generally preferred, as it is more easily lifted over the 
 plants. 
 
 A land-owner in the neighborhood of Saumur, has 
 invented the following vineyard plow, which also gives 
 
 L I B R A K 
 
 RSITY 
 
 FORNI 
 
 ^Pfe^ 
 
 ..r r- ^'''T ^f' / : 
 >> 
 
 xi, -^y'.R, ' --- ^7fK 
 
 c x '-6v 4 '/ > u',^** //.=.= i' / *il / -' ^/- 
 
 [Fie. 86.] Lacazis Plow. 
 
 very good results. It consists of a triangular plow- 
 share [A, Fig. 87], ten inches long, and six and three- 
 fourths inches wide at the base. The stock is twenty- 
 six inches in length, beginning from the tip of the wing 
 of the plow-share ; it is lined with iron at the lower 
 end. The mold-board, B, is curved ; it is made of 
 
 [FiG. 87.] Vine Plow. 
 
 strong sheet-iron is twenty-four inches long, and only 
 ten inches high is fixed to the rear stanchion by an 
 iron rod, which keeps it opened five and one-half inch- 
 
212 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 es. This stanchion, C, receives the extremity of the 
 beam, in a mortise ; its upper end fits into a conical 
 handle, D, measuring about three-and-a-quarter feet 
 from the point where it is dove-tailed into the thickness 
 of the beam, to its extremity. A second stanchion, 
 placed twelve inches from the first, gives it the addi- 
 tional strength required. The beam E, is not less than 
 ten feet in length. At twelve inches from its extremi- 
 ty it is rounded, and its diameter reduced to two and 
 one-half inches. 
 
 The shafts F [Fig. 88], are kept together by two 
 
 [FiG. SS.~] Shafts. [FiG. 89.] Cross-Pieces. 
 cross-pieces [G, H, Figs. 88 and 89], each having three 
 holes, corresponding with each other, and meant to re- 
 ceive the thin end of the pole, and secure it by means 
 of a pin. According as it is desired to hill-up, or lay 
 bare the foot of the vine, in order that the horse may 
 not be obliged to come too near the plants, the dif- 
 ferent holes sometimes those on the right, and some- 
 times those on the left are made use of. Close to the 
 cross-piece G, two hitching hooks are placed. 
 
 Drawn by a single horse, this plow, owing to its 
 small dimensions, may be used between rows of plants 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. , 213 
 
 only four feet three inches apart ; this plowing is so ef- 
 fectual that but little extra hand-work, with the hoe, is 
 required. But it has the inconvenience of requiring a 
 space between the rows of plants, which is found too 
 great for the vineyards of the northern part of the vine- 
 growing region. 
 
 M. de la Loyere, a large wine-grower at Savigny, 
 near Beaune (Cote-d'-Or), has recently contrived a 
 plow for vine lands, which we ha\ne seen in operation 
 and which gives him very satisfactory results [Fig. 90], 
 
 [Fie. 90.] La Loylris Plow. 
 
 Here is a brief description of it : It is a small plow, 
 made entirely of iron, and having two shares, E. 
 These two shares, with their mold-boards, occupy, 
 together, a width of sixteen inches, and, consequently, 
 plow the same width. A wheel placed in front gives it 
 steadiness. The holes in the vertical rod C, allow the 
 clevis to be raised or lowered, and thus to regulate the 
 depth of plowing ; a regulator D, at the extremity of 
 the pole, also allows the plowing to come as near as 
 possible to the line of plants. The two shares are 
 movable, and may be substituted by a leveler, to lay 
 
214 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 bare the roots of the plants, or a " hiller," to hill them 
 up. 
 
 M. de la Loyere hitches only one horse to this plow, 
 and the implement works perfectly between rows of 
 plants three and one-fourth feet apart. The price of 
 this plow is eighteen dollars j the extra " hiller," and 
 leveler cost eight dollars each. 
 
 M. de la Loyere plows two and one-half acres per 
 day, with his implement. The day's work of the 
 horse and driver, being estimated at one dollar and forty 
 cents, makes an expenditure of two dollars and eighty 
 cents per day for the two winter plowings, or one dol- 
 
 [FiG. 91.] Messaged s Plow. 
 
 lar and twelve cents per acre. But to this must be ad- 
 ded an expenditure of about one dollar and forty-four 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 215 
 
 cents per acre, for the working of the soil between the 
 plants, by manual labor, thus making a total expendi- 
 ture of two dollars and fifty-six cents per acre for the 
 winter dressings. 
 
 M. Messager, a vine-grower at Chanvre, near Joigny 
 (Yonne), has also invented a vine plow, of great sim- 
 plicity, which we have seen performing with the great- 
 est success, at the castle of the Vicomte de la Loyere, 
 near Chalon-sur-Saone. Mr. Messager's plow [Fig. 
 91], is thus constructed : 
 
 The handles, A and B, are of wood. The latter 
 fork outwardly, at their extremity, so as to protect the 
 hands placed on the parts A, from friction against the 
 iron wires ; they are supported by the parts B. The 
 mold-board C, and the share D, are fixed, by means 
 of an iron rod E, which may be removed at will from 
 the two mortises in which it is held by a pin, F. This 
 rod has an elbow, so as to allow the share to be thrown 
 to the right, and to approach as near as possible to the 
 line of plants. The share works on a width, of twelve 
 inches ; a cultivator-prong G, thrown to the left by 
 means of an elbow, stands out four inches to the left 
 of the share, so as to make the cut sixteen inches in 
 breadth, and also to give some steadiness to the plow. 
 A wheel, H, is placed in front, on an iron rod, slightly 
 bent. This wheel, which may be raised or lowered, 
 allows the depth of plowing to be varied at will. An 
 iron rod, I, movable in a vertical direction, receives 
 the draft-chain at its extremity, which is terminated by 
 a regulator, J, that allows of plowing more or less near 
 to the lines of plants. 
 
 Only one horse is hitched to this kind of plow, and 
 
2l6 
 
 Vineyar'd Culture. 
 
 it works perfectly between rows three and one-fourth 
 feet apart. Nevertheless, we think that the mould- 
 board ought to be a little 
 higher, for plowing six inch- 
 es deep. This tool should be 
 used for the first plowing 
 that of " bareing" the roots. 
 It is made to pass along each 
 side of the row of plants. 
 As for the second plowing 
 that of " hilling-up " it 
 is done with the same im- 
 plement, but by replacing 
 the share and its mold- 
 board, by a large double- 
 [FiG. 92.] Large Double share [Fig. 92]. This share 
 Share, for Messaged s Plow, has, at its hinder part, a 
 width of sixteen inches, and can throw up the soil to a 
 depth of five inches. It is fixed to the beam by an iron 
 rod, A, sufficiently elbowed to bear as much as possible 
 on the right side of the plow. The cultivator-prong 
 [G, Fig. 91] not being required for the action of this 
 share, is laid aside. Two cuts of the plow, between 
 the rows of plants, are sufficient to cover the roots 
 again, and to level the ground perfectly. This work is 
 also performed with one horse. The price of this plow, 
 including the large share of which we have spoken, and 
 a "hiller," which can be adapted to it, and which we 
 shall mention again, further on, is twenty dollars. 
 
 M. Messager's plow can easily execute each of these 
 two plowings, over a space of two and one-half acres 
 per day, which will give the same expense as with the 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 21 7 
 
 plow of the Comte de la Loyere. Nevertheless, the 
 greater simplicity of the Messager plow, the possibility 
 of having it repaired anywhere, and the more moderate 
 price, seem to us to entitle it to the preference. 
 
 If these plowings were to be performed in vineyards 
 where the rows are alternately twenty-four and forty 
 inches apart [Fig. 1 7], as we have before explained, for 
 the purpose of setting ten thousand plants to the acre, 
 the cost would be rather more ; for, the plow, in such 
 a case, could only be used over two-thirds of the sur- 
 face. The two plowings, to that extent, will cost sev- 
 enty-five cents. To this we shall have to add the 
 working by hand, over one-third of the acre, the cost 
 of which, at six dollars and seventy-five cents per acre, 
 will be two dollars and twenty-five cents, which will 
 make a total expenditure of three dollars, instead of two 
 dollars and fifty-six cents the cost when the plow alone 
 is employed. 
 
 [These implements show a great improvement upon the 
 antiquated tools of the days of the Romans, but we are vain 
 enough to think that the inventive genius of our countrymen 
 has furnished us with much better machines than any of these 
 which are so highly lauded by Mr. Du Breuil. The superi- 
 ority of the American earth-workers, of various kinds, consists 
 in their greater lightness, strength and finish, as well as their 
 perfect adaptation to the particular office they are intended 
 to perform, whether this be simply stirring the soil, or revers- 
 ing it as in common plowing. For this latter purpose no- 
 thing can exceed the common bar-share plow, with a steel 
 mold-board. 
 
 Though, when closely studied, and considered in a strictly 
 mechanical sense, the turning-plow is a very unphilosophical 
 19 
 
21 8 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 implement, on account of the loss of power by friction on 
 the land-side, and on the sole, still it is justly claimed that a 
 well made plow, with all the joints closely fitted up, is nearly 
 perfect for its special purposes, and it has been correctly as- 
 serted that a high application of mathematics has been exer- 
 cised in the production of the perfect model of this implement. 
 The mold-board is a curved wedge, so constructed as to lift 
 and reverse the soil in the most perfect manner, and at the 
 same time to comminute it completely, if the soil be in a 
 proper condition. 
 
 In looking at these figures, and descriptions, the intelligent 
 reader will be surprised at the cumbrous clumsiness of the 
 implements described, and so favorably spoken of. He will 
 be particularly struck with the length of the beam one of 
 these being twelve feet long for a one horse plow! The 
 mode of attachment by shafts, instead of a short single-tree, 
 will also strike the American farmer as useless. With our 
 short beams, and a well broken animal, guided by a single line, 
 and broken to the word, a good plowman can turn in the mid- 
 dle of the rows, if necessary, or wherever his horse or mule 
 can get around ; but of course this would require more space 
 than the author assigns as his minimum distance between the 
 rows that can be plowed ; we plant our grapes at greater dis- 
 tances in this country. 
 
 A great triumph for American agricultural implements, of 
 all kinds, is anticipated, at the approaching Exposition, at 
 Paris, and it is confidently expected that the plows sent from 
 this country will attract great attention, and accomplish a 
 success in the approaching trials of these implements. The 
 same may be predicted of the cultivators, of various kinds, 
 and of all sorts of earth-workers, which the inventive passion 
 of our people has furnished, for every kind of operation that 
 is to be performed on the farm, in the vineyard, or in the 
 garden. 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 219 
 
 Still we must not shut our eyes to the improvements of 
 others, and Americans are not blind to their own interests, 
 and are not slow to adopt what is really valuable ; so it cannot 
 be doubted that many important suggestions will be made, by 
 coming in contact with the display of the inventions and ap- 
 pliances of other countries, nor that those who visit Paris may 
 bring back with them very much that will prove advantageous 
 to their fellow-countrymen, in this, as in other departments 
 of industry. 
 
 The arrangement of a guard in the handles of Mr. Messa- 
 ger's plow, affords a protection to the workman, the value of 
 which will be appreciated by the vigneron and nurseryman. 
 The regulation of the side-draft is better arranged by our 
 lateral clevis, than by his changeable shafts.] 
 
 The first attempts which were made to substitute the 
 plow for implements worked by hand, led, in some dis- 
 tricts, and more especially in the South, to unfortunate 
 results. The vine has been observed to fail. This 
 has been noticed wherever the plow was substituted for 
 hand-labor which had been executed too lightly. The 
 principal roots of the plants, having, in consequence of 
 such light workings, spread themselves out near the sur- 
 face, the plow has mangled a great number of them. 
 To avoid this misfortune, it will be advisable, with re- 
 gard to vines formerly cultivated by hand, to make the 
 plov/ings very shallow at first, and then to increase their 
 depth, year by year, until they have reached a suitable 
 depth. The plants will thus be compelled gradually to 
 form new roots below that depth. This precaution will 
 be the more necessary with the older vines. 
 
 Comparison between the Cost of Working by Hand and 
 Working with the Plow. We have already seen the 
 
22O Vineyard Culture. 
 
 cost of working by hand, and by the plow : we will 
 now compare the two methods in regard to price. 
 
 The question being decided in favor of the plow, in 
 almost all the vineyards of the South, we will now con- 
 cern ourselves only with those districts where this mode 
 of cultivation is not yet adopted. 
 
 In Champagne, only one dressing is performed, which 
 costs six dollars per acre. 
 
 If the vines are planted in alleys, as we have ex- 
 plained above, and the Messager plow is substituted for 
 hand 'implements, there will be a total expenditure of 
 two dollars and fifty-six cents per acre, for the two 
 plowings, and dressings by hand along the lines. This 
 gives a difference of three dollars and forty-four cents 
 per acre in favor of the plow. 
 
 In Burgundy, the price of the two dressings is six 
 dollars and seventy-five cents per acre. With the plow 
 it would cost two dollars and fifty-six cents : difference 
 in favor of the plow, four dollars and twenty cents per 
 acre. 
 
 In the moorlands (palus) of Bordelais, and on the 
 hills on the right bank of the Garonne, below Bordeaux, 
 the two dressings cost nine dollars per acre. If we em- 
 ploy the Messager plow, we shall have an expenditure 
 of three dollars and twenty cents, owing to the greater 
 depth of plowing. This gives us a difference of five 
 dollars and eighty cents per acre. 
 
 The substitution of the plow for manual labor has the 
 immense advantage of obviating the difficulty arising 
 from the want of hands, and of diminishing the cost of 
 cultivation in a considerable ratio. 
 
 It has been said that the plow is only advantageous 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 221 
 
 in large vineyards, as it is only in such large undertak- 
 ings that the teams can be made use of in other work 
 than that of plowing the vine lands. The objection 
 seems well founded ; nevertheless, we think that this 
 mode of cultivation might be employed in small vine- 
 yards, by contractors, who could easily find employment 
 for their teams, during the interval of the two dressings 
 of the vine. It must also be taken into consideration 
 that this work only requires one horse, and that the 
 vine-grower will seldom be at a loss how to employ it 
 in other work. 
 
 SECOND DRESSINGS. These dressings are of a far 
 more superficial kind than the two plowings already de- 
 scribed. They do not exceed two inches in depth. 
 Their object is chiefly to destroy hurtful weeds. They 
 also prevent the soil from drying to any great depth, 
 during the great heat of summer. 
 
 The number of these dressings must be in proportion 
 to the rapidity with which the soil becomes covered 
 with weeds. They should be more frequent in rather 
 cool soils, in wet years, and in northern regions, than in 
 dry soils, and hot years, or in the climate of the South. 
 At least two of these dressings should be performed each 
 year, in the course of summer. More frequently, only 
 one dressing is given, either through motives of econ- 
 omy, or because, as in vines without props, the shoots, 
 which spread out on every side, do not allow easy ac- 
 cess through the vineyard. 
 
 The principal aim of these dressings being the re- 
 moval of weeds, it follows that their performance is 
 easier and more effectual during warm and dry weather, 
 in order that these weeds, when rooted up by the im- 
 
222 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 plements, may perish more readily. Still, the operation 
 must not be delayed until the soil has become hardened 
 by the heat ; the work would then be more difficult and 
 expensive. 
 
 These dressings are done by means of a small hoe, 
 with a light handle, and resembling, in its form, those 
 shown in Figures 82 and 83. 
 
 The cost of this operation, per acre, is as follows, for 
 the different regions mentioned : 
 
 In Champagne, the four following dressings are given : 
 
 1st. In May or June, $2 oo 
 
 2d. In July a 80 
 
 3d. In the middle of September 3 84 
 
 4th. In winter o 96 
 
 Total $9 60 
 
 In Burgundy, only one dressing is given, costing two 
 dollars and eighty-eight cents per acre. 
 
 In the moorlands of Bordelais, and on the hills on 
 the right side of the Garonne, above Bordeaux, it is 
 most usual to give one dressing, which costs two dollars 
 and sixty-four cents per acre. 
 
 The advantages we have pointed 
 out above, as arising from the sub- 
 stitution of the plow for manual 
 labor, are the same for those lighter 
 dressings as for deep plowing. 
 
 In the region of the South, where 
 only one of these dressings can be 
 [Fie. 93.] given, use is made in some places, 
 
 Triangular Plow- of aUpnd of plow, the share of 
 Share. whicii is replaced by a triangu- 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 223 
 
 lar blade [Fig. 93], the base of which has an expanse 
 of about twenty inches ; this contrivance allows the 
 ground to be worked up to the foot of the plants. 
 
 The Comte de la Loyere, of Savigny, has also con- 
 trived a horse cultivator [Fig. 94], which works well, 
 and does away with the necessity of employing hand 
 implements for this kind of work. 
 
 [FiG. 94.] La Loyere's Horse Cultivator. 
 
 It is made entirely of iron, and provided with five 
 shares, F, and a coulter, D, placed in front. The space 
 between the two side-pieces, to which the shares are 
 fixed, can be widened, so as to vary the breadth of the 
 surface over which it is wanted to operate. The great- 
 est width is thirty-two inches. The wheel, fixed at the 
 front of the beam, is used to vary the depth of the 
 dressing ; the vertical rod, C, allows this wheel to be 
 raised or lowered. 
 
 M. de la Loyere puts only one horse to this imple- 
 ment, and can dress three and three-fourths acres per 
 day, in a vineyard in which the rows are forty inches 
 apart. 
 
224 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The price of this horse cultivator is twenty-six dol- 
 lars. 
 
 This implement, drawn by one horse, sufficing to 
 work an area of three and three-fourths acres per day, 
 and the horse and man costing one dollar and forty 
 cents per day, we have an expenditure of about thirty- 
 five cents per acre for each dressing. 
 
 M. Messager has contrived a large plow-share [Fig. 
 92] to do the light dressings. Of this we have already 
 spoken. It is fixed to his plow [Fig. 91] in the place 
 of the share and mold-board intended for laying bare 
 the roots. This implement, which is of great simplici- 
 ty, is very effective, and only requires one horse. To 
 work the space between two rows of plants, forty inches 
 apart, it has to go over that space twice. From this it 
 follows that two and one half acres may be thus dressed 
 per day, making an expenditure of fifty-six cents per 
 acre, for one dressing. 
 
 This expenditure is a little more than with the horse 
 cultivator of la Loyere ; nevertheless, the simplicity of 
 M. Messager's implement, which we have seen at work, 
 induces us to give it the preference. Moreover, the 
 Comte de la Loyere's cultivator does not work very 
 well on weedy ground. 
 
 The cost of the lighter dressing by the plow, of 
 which we have just spoken, is applicable to vines culti- 
 vated in rows regularly laid out, forty inches apart. 
 But, if the space between the rows is alternately twen- 
 ty-four and forty inches, the cost of this operation will 
 be greater -, for the plow, in such cases, can only be 
 employed over two-thirds of the area ; the cost per 
 acre, for each working, will then stand thus : 
 
Annual Cultivation of the Soil. 225 
 
 Working by the plow, over two-thirds of an acre $o 38 
 
 Working by hand, over one-third of an acre, at two dollars and 
 
 eighty-eight cents per acre o 96 
 
 Total $i 34 
 
 Compartive Cost of Light-Dressing^ by Hand and by the 
 Plow. These figures enable us to compare the light 
 dressings done by hand, and those done by the plow. 
 
 In Champagne, the cultivation costs, altogether, nine 
 dollars and sixty cents per acre. 
 
 The vine being planted in rows, forty inches apart, 
 the use of the plow will give rise to an expenditure of 
 fifty-six cents per acre, for each dressing, as we have 
 shown above. This operation being repeated four 
 times, we have a total expenditure of two dollars and 
 twenty-four cents, instead of nine dollars and sixty 
 cents, and this gives a difference of seven dollars and 
 thirty-six cents. 
 
 In Burgundy, a single dressing is usual, and that costs 
 two dollars and eighty-eight cents per acre. Performed 
 by the plow, this work is done at a cost of fifty-six 
 cents, which is a saving of two dollars and thirty-two 
 cents per acre. This operation might be repeated a 
 second time, and there would still remain a difference 
 of one dollar and seventy-six cents per acre. 
 
 In the moorlands of Bordelais, and on the hills of 
 the right bank of the Garonne, below Bordeaux, only 
 one dressing is usual, which costs two dollars and sixty- 
 four cents per acre. If executed by means of the 
 horse cultivator, the cost will only be fifty-six cents, 
 giving a difference of two dollars and eight cents per 
 acre, and, if two dressings were done, instead of one, 
 
226 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 there would still be a saving of one dollar and fifty-two 
 cents. 
 
 The dressings by the horse cultivator, therefore, 
 greatly diminish the number of hands required, and al- 
 low of considerable saving in the expenditure. 
 
 [No one in this country will question the greater economy 
 of using horse-power, and suitable cultivators ; and, as already 
 stated, when discussing the selection of vineyard sites, the 
 adaptation of the surface to the use of animals, becomes a 
 question of prime importance in the choice of vine lands. 
 Indeed, the. abrupt hill-sides, that require manual labor, are 
 now generally passed by, in favor of hill-tops, that may be 
 tended with the plows, and, in many parts of the country ex- 
 tensive level lands are appropriated to vine planting. 
 
 The difference in expense is greatly in favor of horse- 
 power ; indeed, extensive vineyards would not be planted if 
 they had to be cultivated by human labor. The whole ex- 
 pense is diminished more than one half, and as the cultivation 
 is but one item of expense, -and the manual labors are the 
 same in both cases, the contrast between the expenditure by 
 the hoe and by the plow, could it be presented to the reader, 
 would be very much more striking. 
 
 The author suggests, very properly, that the introduction 
 of the plow into old vineyards that had been cultivated by 
 hand, should be very carefully managed, and that the culture 
 should at first be very shallow, and gradually deepened. One 
 of the serious practical difficulties and objections to the plow, 
 consists in the danger of tearing off a shallow lateral root, of 
 considerable size, which is often attended with a splitting up- 
 ward of the vine-stock, for several inches, which is of course 
 a great injury. This accident may happen with the most 
 careful workman, and the most steady team, but is impossible 
 to avoid it with a fast and spirited horse, to whom the slight 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 227 
 
 resistance offered by the root is only a stimulus to greater 
 efforts. 
 
 To obviate this difficulty, some vine-dressers advocate the 
 practice introduced by the European vignerons, which they 
 call cutting away the " dew-roots." It consists in removing 
 the earth at the base of the vines, and cutting off all the roots 
 that can be found within a few inches of the surface. The 
 avowed object of this kind of root-pruning is very different, 
 and is intended to force the vine to produce, and to depend 
 upon deeper roots, which, it is claimed, are apt to decay and 
 die when the superficial roots are encouraged.] 
 
 XL 
 
 MANURES AND CHEMICAL APPLICA- 
 TIONS FOR VINEYARDS. 
 
 A/T ANURES, properly so-called, are more especially 
 those substances which, applied to the soil, 
 furnish the roots with the nutritive principles necessary 
 for the development of plants. They consist, princi- 
 pally, of organic substances. The chemical applica- 
 tions, composed of mineral substances, have for their 
 chief aim a more or less complete modification of the 
 elementary composition of the soil, so as to render its 
 physical or chemical properties more favorable to vegeta- 
 tion. Let us inquire into these two operations as ap- 
 plied to vineyards. 
 
 MANURES. Their Importance. The vine, like all 
 other plants, in order to develop itself, requires, in the 
 soil, the nutritive principles necessary for its growth. 
 Almost all soils naturally contain a certain quantity of 
 these elements. They are nitrogen, and certain saline 
 
228 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 substances derived from the atmosphere and rain-water. 
 This natural richness of the soil, which is constantly 
 renewed, suffices to insure to the vine a certain produce, 
 as is proved by the vineyards of those localities in which 
 the vine is never manured. Under these conditions, 
 the product is about one hundred and thirty-seven gal- 
 lons per acre. 
 
 Let us now examine whether this yield can be aug- 
 mented by the application of manure, and whether the 
 expense of this manure will be justified by the result. 
 
 According to M. de Gasparin, every pound of nitro- 
 gen, applied to vines in good condition, but which have 
 never been manured, yields about fifteen gallons of 
 wine. One thousand pounds of good farm-yard man- 
 ure, containing four-tenths of nitrogen, will give four 
 pounds, and, consequently, will yield sixty gallons of 
 wine. Putting the cost of the one thousand pounds of 
 manure at $0.90, and the sixty gallons of wine at $9.09, 
 we see that the manure applied to the vine is largely 
 repaid by the product, even supposing that, owing to 
 unfavorable weather, only half the crop mentioned is 
 obtained. 
 
 Are Manures Prejudicial to the Quality of the Wine? 
 This question has been a subject of much controversy, 
 but we think that the parties to the discussion would 
 have agreed much sooner, had both sides been less pos- 
 itive. 
 
 We now subjoin some facts which may throw light 
 on this important question of vine culture. The sug- 
 ary principle, the aroma which we like to find in all 
 fruits, is the result of a special elaboration, within the 
 cellular tissue of fruits, of those fluids that flow to 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 229 
 
 them. It is under the influence of heat, and especially 
 of a bright light, that this elaboration takes place. 
 
 If the tree, or shrub, possesses great vigor, from 
 whatever cause that may arise, the sappy fluids will 
 reach the cellular tissues of the fruit in such abundance 
 that there will be no possibility of their being thoroughly 
 prepared. The watery exhalation which takes place at 
 the surface of the fruit, during its development, will be 
 insufficient to rid it of its superabundant juice. The 
 sugary and aromatic principles will be comparatively 
 scanty, and the fruit of inferior quality. These facts 
 are indisputable ; they occur every day, under the eyes 
 of agriculturists. The fruits of an old tree are all 
 other things being equal much more luscious than those 
 of a young tree growing vigorously. The fruit of a 
 pear-tree, grafted on a free stock, is inferior to that 
 nourished by the roots of the quince-tree. 
 
 Heat and light, as we have already said, play an im- 
 portant part in this question, by affecting the watery 
 evaporation and the elaboration of the sappy juices 
 flowing into the fruit. It is for this reason, that fruits 
 gathered from trees trained against walls with a southern 
 exposure, are better than those developed in a northern 
 one. The grapes ripened under the climate of Paris 
 are less sweet than those of the same descriptions grown 
 under the southern sky. 
 
 Another consequence of excessive vigor, is the delay 
 in the ripening of the fruits. For, the chemical reac- 
 tions which take place in the tissues of fruits, and which 
 influence their ripening, begin to take effect only from 
 the moment the vegetation of the tree is nearly at a 
 stand-still that is to say, at that period when the sappy 
 
230 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 juices flow only in very small quantities into the tissues 
 of the fruit. Now, the excessive vigor of trees has 
 the effect of prolonging the vegetation, and, conse- 
 quently, of retarding the ripening. It is owing to this 
 influence, that, other things being equal, the fruits of 
 trees having little vigor, always ripen sooner than on 
 those of stronger vegetation. It is partly to diminish 
 the vigor of the vines, and to check their development, 
 that the growers of Thomery proceed with the thin- 
 ning of the leaves a process that ought to be more fre- 
 quently adopted in vineyards of the North. 
 
 These injurious effects on the quality of the fruit, 
 arising from the too great vigor of trees, are greater, in 
 proportion as we recede from the South that is to say, 
 as light and heat are less intense. 
 
 All the preceding facts thus show that the vigor of 
 the plants, to whatever cause it may be due, is hurtful 
 to the quality of the product. Now, as manures have 
 no other effect than that of increasing this vigor, it 
 would seem reasonable to admit that the vineyard should 
 be sustained by the natural richness of the soil, and that 
 we should abstain from the application of all manures. 
 We must, however, except the case in which, for want 
 of sufficient nutriment, the soil may have become so 
 poor, and the plant so languid, as to affect the quality 
 of the product. 
 
 This would certainly be a rational conclusion, if, in 
 this culture, quality, only, was looked for ; but quantity 
 is also an object. Now, as we have seen above, the 
 average yield of vines left to the natural richness of the 
 soil is about one hundred and thirty-seven gallons per 
 acre. If we are satisfied with this product in vineyards 
 
Manures and Chemcial Applications. 231 
 
 that, do what we may, can only yield inferior wines, 
 sold at the rate of $0.22 per gallon, we shall have a 
 gross product of $30.15 per acre, which will be quite 
 inadequate to pay the expense of cultivation. In the 
 celebrated growths, this yield would also be considered 
 insufficient. For this reason, the quantity is increased, 
 by means of manures, to about two hundred and thirty- 
 two gallons the acre, in Medoc, and about one hundred 
 and ninety gallons in the more celebrated growths of 
 the hills of Burgundy. It is in the latter vines that 
 the least manure is used, but the pomace of grapes, the 
 fertile soils and the composts that are strewed over 
 them, are, in reality, manures, whatever may be said to 
 the contrary. 
 
 We must conclude, from the foregoing, that if man- 
 ures exercise a hurtful influence on the quality of wine, 
 the manuring of vineyards is, nevertheless, necessary 
 for the sake of increase in quantity ; that this manuring 
 should be abundant, in proportion as the high price 
 of the product compensates for its scantiness ; and, 
 lastly, that all other things being equal, manures may 
 be the more freely used the more we advance toward 
 the South. 
 
 [In the fertile soils of the West, that have been devoted to 
 the planting of the vine, one of the difficulties that has at- 
 tended this branch of culture has arisen from the excessive 
 growth induced by this fertility, which, in some varieties, is 
 attended with poor results in fruit. Hence, we have had 
 little experience with manurial applications, and we are even 
 advised to plant certain sorts on the poorest land.* As a 
 
 * This is the case with the Diana, and some other strong-growing kinds. 
 
232 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 general rule, any good soil, well prepared, is considered good 
 enough for the vine. There are vineyards, however, that 
 have been much benefitted by the applications of manures, 
 and even very strong ones have been applied, without appear- 
 ing to injure the quality of the product. Even in Missouri, 
 it appears that some vignerons have applied manures with ad- 
 vantage. It is generally supposed that barn-yard manure 
 should be composted before being spread. Chemical or arti- 
 ficial manures have been applied, with apparently good effect. 
 Ashes, either directly applied to vines, or as an element of the 
 composts, would appear to be an important application, un- 
 less the soil were unusually rich in potash.] 
 
 NATURE OF MANURES TO BE EMPLOYED. Ac- 
 cording to M. de Gasparin, for every one hundred 
 kilogrammes of grapes, we have the following constit- 
 uents : 
 
 NITROGEN. POTASH. 
 
 64. 50 kil. of wine containing "> -3S \ /: 
 
 T ft f\ft " of rlr v nnmnrp .. .. r> -?o f "3 ft i I *J 
 
 16.66 " of dry pomace 0.30 / ' 0.21 / 
 
 187.00" of dry shoots 0.50 i O- 1 ?! 
 
 123.42" of dry leaves 2.34! 2 0.18 / 
 
 Total 3.14 0.91 
 
 This analysis shows that nitrogen plays a very unim- 
 portant part in the fruitage of the vine, since one hun- 
 dred pounds of grapes only contain 0.30 pounds of that 
 substance. On the other hand, it is found in tolerably 
 large quantities in the shoots, and especially in the 
 leaves. With respect to the salts of potash, the reverse 
 is the case : they are much more abundant in the grapes 
 than in the branches and leaves. We must, therefore, 
 come to the conclusion that nitrogenous manures favor 
 the development of the wood, and that the salts of pot 
 ash will powerfully contribute to the fruit-bearing. 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 233 
 
 Let us inquire what are the manures which best ful- 
 fill these conditions, respectively. 
 
 I. HIGHLY NITROGENOUS MANURES. Well Pre- 
 pared Farm-yard Manure. This manure is certainly 
 one of the best, for it introduces into the soil not only 
 nitrogen, but also a considerable quantity of saline sub- 
 stances, necessary to the development and fructification 
 of the vine. But this manure has the disadvantage of 
 being too powerful, and of introducing into the must 
 too large a quantity of mucilage and free acids, which 
 are prejudicial to the quality of wines of celebrated 
 vintages. Another objection made to it is, that its ef- 
 fect is not sufficiently sustained. And yet, if we except 
 some celebrated vineyards of Burgundy, it is the ma- 
 nure most in use, wherever it can be procured. But 
 this is often a matter of great difficulty ; for the vine- 
 yard produces very little fodder for cattle. It would be 
 well, if a sufficient extent of natural meadows, or else 
 artificial ones, of long duration, could be connected 
 with the vineyard. It is thus that this culture is carried 
 on over a considerable part of Beaujolais. There, an 
 extent of natural meadow nearly equal to that of the 
 vineyard, is set apart for the production of manure. 
 
 The product of these meadows is consumed by cows. 
 The manure yielded by these, their labor and milk, suf- 
 fice to pay for their food, and the straw bought for lit- 
 ter. In the vineyards of Medoc, draught animals, 
 which perform the work in the vineyard, also yield the 
 manure, but, almost everywhere, the forage given them 
 is bought. The waste lands, adjoining these vineyards, 
 furnish the litter. 
 
 Night -Soil) Garbage^ etc. These substances, even 
 20 
 
234 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 more than farm-yard manure, have the drawback of 
 acting unfavorably on the quality of the wine. For 
 this reason the employment of these manures must be 
 avoided in those vineyards where the quality of the 
 product is more an object than the quantity. 
 
 Broken Bones, Fragments of Horns, Wool-Waste. 
 These manures are likewise very rich in nitrogen, and 
 they possess the following advantages over farm-yard 
 manure : they are decomposed much more slowly ; 
 their effect, being far less sudden, lasts much longer; 
 they very gradually yield their elements to the roots of 
 the vine, and their action is prolonged over a period of 
 from five to eight years. 
 
 Woolen rags are now very generally employed in 
 Languedoc. Their use begins to be adopted in the 
 South- West, also. We employ them ourselves, suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 Sea-Weeds. The sea-weeds are employed as man- 
 ures in some vineyards near the ocean, especially in 
 1'Aunis. Although not so rich as farm-yard manure, 
 these substances have a decided, but temporary, effect. 
 They also impart a disagreeable flavor to the wine. 
 
 Composts. These generally consist of alternate layers 
 of dung and earth, piled up together. Some months 
 after their first preparation, the composts are thor- 
 oughly mixed, and again allowed to rest for one or two 
 months ; they are then mixed again, as they are used. 
 If the vineyard is situated on a dry and parched soil, 
 composts which are of an argilo-silicious character are 
 best ; if the soil be clayey, those made with calcareous 
 earths are preferred. To these composts are often 
 added leaves, weeds, sods, etc. This kind of manure, 
 
A,.'^ 
 
 Manures and Chemical Applicanon 
 
 being less rich than that of the farm-yard, isyreer 
 for vineyards of celebrated growths, as it affectWhe ^ 
 quality of the wine in a less degree. It is often used iii 
 Champagne. 
 
 The Slimy-Mud of Rivers and Ponds, or the Sea. 
 These deposits are often very rich in organic matter, 
 in a state of decomposition ; but they contain acid 
 properties which can only be made to disappear by ex- 
 posing them to the air for a year, in a thin layer, on the 
 surface of the ground. They may be employed sooner 
 by mixing them, three months beforehand, with a cer- 
 tain quantity of the refuse lime from the kilns. We 
 except sea-mud, however, which may be used imme- 
 diately. 
 
 Herbaceous Plants. When none of the foregoing 
 manures can be procured, their place may be supplied 
 by herbaceous plants, sowed in the soil of the vineyard. 
 These plants are turned in by means of the plow, at 
 the time when they are about to blossom. But, for 
 this purpose, the vines must be in rows. In the South 
 and South- West, the plants to be employed are the 
 white lupin, in light soils, and the winter horse-bean in 
 clayey lands. In the middle and north of the vine- 
 growing region, recourse may be had to the winter- 
 vetch and rye. This sowing should take place imme- 
 diately after the first winter plowing. 
 
 In some vineyards, on the banks of the Rhone, it is 
 usual to bury, in a fresh state, certain plants which grow 
 abundantly in marshy places, such as reeds, Indian-grass, 
 rushes, sedge, etc. These several vegetable manures 
 are less rich than farm-yard manures, but they have the 
 advantage of being much less expensive. 
 
236 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 II. MANURES RICH IN POTASH. In general, the 
 employment of substances more especially favoring the 
 growth of the plants does not render unnecessary the 
 use of nitrogenous manures. Otherwise, the plants 
 becoming soon exhausted, would only put forth poor 
 and meagre shoots. 
 
 Pomace. This substance, which is very rich in salts 
 of potash, as seen in the foregoing analysis, is in gen- 
 eral use in vineyards, and yields excellent results. 
 
 Wood-Ashes. These ashes, leached, or, better still, 
 used in their natural state, give very good results, as 
 is proved by certain growths of Volnay and Pomard. 
 They may be procured in very large quantities in the 
 neighborhood of moors, and waste and uncultivated 
 lands, by removing the turf from the surface of the soil, 
 and burning it on the spot. There have lately been 
 discovered, in the very center of the city of Lons-le- 
 Saulnier, and in the neighborhood of Poligny, immense 
 deposits of ashes, left from the working of salt-pits, by 
 the Romans. These ashes will prove a mine of wealth 
 for the vineyards of the Jura. 
 
 Woody Plants. All shrubs, especially those which 
 retain their leaves, may be employed to manure the vine, 
 after their young shoots have been trodden down by the 
 horse's feet, or cart-wheels. Of this kind are the rock- 
 roses, heaths, furze, box-wood, hedge-clippings, the 
 juniper tree, young pines, and especially their twigs. 
 These shrubs also contain a great deal of potash. 
 
 QUANTITY OF MANURE TO BE EMPLOYED. It is 
 difficult to state the precise quantity of manure which 
 ought to be applied to the vineyard. That must de- 
 pend, chiefly, upon the degree of vigor it is desired to 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications 237 
 
 impart to the plants. If the quantity of product is the 
 main object aimed at, it is evident that a higher degree 
 of manuring will be requisite than if quality is the prin- 
 cipal end in view. 
 
 The elementary composition of the soil, its natural 
 degree of moisture, and the climate, are so many cir- 
 cumstances affecting the action of the manure, and the 
 quantity that ought to be used. We can, therefore, 
 only give very general directions on this subject. Here 
 are a few : 
 
 In the Department of the Card, three hundred and 
 twenty-four cwts. of manure, per acre, are applied to 
 some vineyards, every four years, or eighty-one cwts. 
 every year. It consists of sheep-manure, having about 
 0.67 per cent, of nitrogen. By means of this manure 
 an average product of nine hundred and fifty gallons per 
 acre is obtained. 
 
 In most of the vineyards of Beaujolais, two hundred 
 and seventy cwts. of manure to the acre are applied 
 every three years, and the result obtained is four hun- 
 dred and seventy-five gallons to the acre. 
 
 In the moorland district of Bordeaux, about two 
 hundred and forty-three cwts. of manure are used on 
 the acre, every three years, or eighty-one cwts. a year, 
 and the produce is an average of four hundred and 
 seventy-five gallons. 
 
 In the Canton of Vaud (Switzerland), five hundred 
 and eighty-five cwts. of manure, every three years, or 
 one hundred and ninety-five cwts. every year, are ap- 
 plied to the acre. This enormous manuring gives an 
 average product of one thousand two hundred and sixty 
 gallons a year. 
 
238 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Lastly, in the vineyards of Languedoc, where woolen 
 rags are used, that description of manure is spread, 
 every five years, in the proportion of eighty-one cwts. 
 to the acre, and the product is eight hundred and forty- 
 four gallons. 
 
 The few examples that we have given show the fact 
 that the abundance of the crop is in direct proportion 
 to the quantity of manure ; but it is highly probable 
 that the quality of the produce is in an inverse ratio 
 to thejquantity of manure. 
 
 How TO APPLY THE MANURE. We have already 
 seen that among the manures adapted to the vine, those 
 which contain much nitrogen favor the development of 
 the wood, while those rich in salts of potash promote 
 fruit-bearing. It is as well to examine whether these 
 two kinds of manure should be employed together or 
 separately ? 
 
 We are of opinion that the formation of the woody 
 structure, and roots of the plants, should be attended to 
 as quickly as possible. With this end in view it will, 
 therefore, be advisable to make free use of nitrogenized 
 manures, shortly after planting. The use of the salts 
 of potash, at this period, would be injurious, by causing 
 premature crops, which would exhaust the young plants. 
 
 When the stocks are established, the two kinds of 
 manure may be employed at the same time. These 
 manures may be applied in two different ways : they 
 may be placed at the foot of each plant, or spread in a 
 straight line, at the bottom of a trench cut along the 
 middle of the space dividing the rows of vines. 
 
 The distribution of the manures by placing them at 
 the foot of each plant, is liable to serious objections, as 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 239 
 
 each of them must be laid bare by means of hand labor, 
 and this is a tedious and expensive work. Moreover, 
 in order that the manures may exert all their power on 
 the development of the plants, they must be placed 
 within reach of the ends of the rootlets, which alone 
 possess the power of absorption. Now, the roots of 
 the vine being very long, and not branching out, the 
 manures ought to be placed at a certain distance from 
 the plants, and not at their foot. The process we have 
 just described is, therefore, faulty. It tends, moreover, 
 to the development of a great number of rootlets at 
 the stems of the plants, and these are hurtful to the 
 action of the principal roots, and are, besides, mangled, 
 either by the action of tools, in working the soil, or 
 damaged by drought. Nevertheless, it is difficult to 
 employ any other method for vines planted in an irreg- 
 ular manner. 
 
 For vines planted in reg- 
 ular rows it will, therefore, 
 be a great advantage to 
 place the manure along the 
 middle of the space, at a 
 mean depth of six inches, 
 in the North, and ten inch- 
 es in the South. This opera- 
 tion should be performed, 
 if possible, toward the end 
 of the autumn ; this ma- 
 nure will decompose dur- [FiG. 95.] " Hiller" 
 ing winter, and will fur- adapted to Messager Plow. 
 nish the roots with their nutritive elements, at the awak- 
 ening of vegetation. 
 
240 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The most economical way of putting this method 
 into practice is to open a sufficiently deep trench, along 
 the middle of each alley separating the rows of plants ; 
 this trench may be expeditiously opened by means of 
 the "hiller" [Fig. 95], constructed by M. Messager, 
 of Chanvre, and may be adapted to his plow, by means 
 of the iron rod A. In order to cut such a furrow deep 
 enough, by means of this " hiller," the two wings of 
 the latter should be drawn toward each other as much 
 as possible, by means of the rack B, so as to offer as 
 little resistance as may be to the horse drawing the 
 plow. M. Messager has given the right side of the 
 share of this ct hiller" a direction parallel to the line of 
 draught, in order that the implement may be more easily 
 maintained in the proper position. This " hiller" will 
 open furrows over a surface of five acres a day. 
 
 When the manure is laid in these furrows, the latter 
 are closed by means of a furrow on each side, with M. 
 Messager's large share [Fig. 92]. In this way three 
 and three-fourths acres may be manured in a day. 
 
 [TOP-DRESSING. It has become a very common custom in 
 this country, to apply the common manures upon the surface 
 top-dressing, as it is called. The apprehensions that were 
 once felt about the wasting of the valuable portions, by such 
 exposure, are not now considered well founded, since the 
 wonderfully absorptive powers of the soil have been discov- 
 ered by the investigations of chemists. There seems to be a 
 peculiar affinity between earth and those volatile compounds, 
 which, escaping from decomposing organic matters, give us an 
 idea of their ammoniacal character by their odors. A very 
 small amount escaping into the atmosphere will be perceived, 
 but the greater portion is at once seized, and firmly held by 
 the soil, until needed by the roots of the plants.] 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 241 
 
 MODIFYING AGENTS. We have said that the part 
 played by these agents consists chiefly in modifying the 
 original composition of the soil, so that it may the more 
 readily lend itself to the full action of manures, and to 
 the profitable influence of atmospheric agents. The 
 application of modifying agents, so useful for herbaceous 
 plants, are no less so for those or a woody nature, and 
 more particularly for the vine. The principal materi- 
 als of this class are the following : 
 
 Chalks. The prolonged cultivation of the vine, in 
 clayey soils, results in developing acid principles hurt- 
 ful to vegetation. The application of chalk modifies 
 this acidity. Moreover, if the ground is rather stiff, 
 chalk has the further effect of loosening the soil and 
 making it more pervious to air and water. 
 
 Chalky marls are usually employed for this purpose. 
 They should be friable just in proportion as the soil to 
 be modified happens to be stiff and clayey. These 
 marls should be used in the proportion of about sixty- 
 six bushels to the acre. The application of marls is 
 also very effective in flinty soils, but the proportion 
 should only be twenty bushels to the acre. 
 
 The marl is spread over the ground at the beginning 
 of winter. It breaks up under the influence of frosts. 
 It is then spread out as evenly as possible, and finally 
 buried, at the first winter plowing. This process may 
 be repeated every twelve or fifteen years. 
 
 [The marls of some parts of our country are a material of 
 great value to agriculture, and they are becoming more and 
 more highly appreciated by the farmers. Those found in New- 
 Jersey and other places in the cretaceous formation, and known 
 as the green-sand marls, are rich in potash, yielding from ten 
 
 21 
 
242 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 to fourteen and one-half per cent, of that material, and there- 
 fore must be valuable applications to the vineyard. Immense 
 quantities of these marls are dug, and shipped to considerable 
 distances, by water and by rail. The deposit is extensive in 
 West Jersey. 
 
 In many places calcareous marls are found, that can not fail 
 to prove useful, if applied as a top-dressing, or used in the 
 preparation of composts. 
 
 Quicklime is a most valuable material to apply as a modi- 
 fier of the soil, and it exerts the happiest effects. This ma- 
 terial enters largely into the improved agriculture of many 
 portions of our country ; even on limestone soils, the appli- 
 cation is found to be of great value, but upon those which arc 
 deficient in calcareous matter, it is of especial utility. The 
 lime is carted into the field, and distributed in piles, where it 
 is allowed to slake by exposure to the moisture of the atmos- 
 phere, which reduces it to a fine powder ; it is then called 
 air-slaked lime (chemically, a hydrate). This powder is 
 spread evenly upon the surface, generally of grass land, and 
 plowed in with a winter fallow. From fifty to two hundred 
 bushels may be applied to the acre. 
 
 One" of the most valuable applications of quicklime, is 
 made by putting it into the compost heap, with any rough 
 materials, such as chips, shavings, or brush, mingled with sods 
 and the soil. These substances are rapidly reduced, under 
 the influence of the lime, to a fine pulverulent mass, that makes 
 excellent manure. Lime should never be added to nitrogen- 
 ous matters, as it causes the elimination and escape of the val- 
 uable ammonia, that is thus lost. 
 
 To fix and retain this important nitrogenous material, an- 
 other salt of lime is used the sulphate, or plaster of Paris, 
 gypsum the action of which is to change the volatile car- 
 bonate of ammonia into the sulphate, while the lime becomes 
 a carbonate ; neither is volatile, and the ammonia is then said 
 
Manures and Chemical Applications. 243 
 
 to be fixed. This salt is soluble; it can be taken up by grow- 
 ing plants, and the elements distributed over their organization. 
 The happy action of even small quantities of plaster of Paris 
 upon vegetation is very surprising, and has not been satis- 
 factorily explained, as the sulphate of lime is very insoluble 
 in water ; but as the soil has been shown to be largely sup- 
 plied with ammoniacal salts, particularly the carbonate of that 
 alkali, and as these substances are known to react upon one 
 another, I have supposed that the result must be owing to 
 these chemical interchanges.] 
 
 Gravelly Sands. Gravelly sands may also be used 
 for stiff clayey soils, but they do not yield such good 
 results as the chalks. They must also be applied in 
 greater quantities, that is to say, at the rate of fourteen 
 hundred cubic feet to the acre. 
 
 Clayey Earths. When the vineyard is situated on a 
 parched, flinty, or chalky soil, the modification of it, by 
 means of clayey soils will also be an excellent plan. 
 But care must be taken not to use clays too stiff for 
 that purpose, as they would not mix readily with the 
 soil. They should be applied in the proportion of 1,400 
 cubic feet to the acre. 
 
 If these chalks, gravelly sands and clayey loams are 
 saturated with nutritive principles, they will prove all 
 the better. Of this kind, are the chalky muds of roads, 
 sea-sands, clayey earths resulting from decomposed sods, 
 but all these will then act both as manures and modi- 
 fiers. 
 
 [The removal of mere earthy matter, as a modifier of the 
 soils we have to cultivate, is attended with so great expense, 
 that such a course of improvement will very seldom be re- 
 sorted to with profit. Moving of earth is one of the most 
 
244 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 expensive operations to be performed upon the farm, and 
 should never be undertaken where it is possible to avoid it ; 
 and yet, in the preparation of our composts, it will be very- 
 well to bear in mind the especial needs of the soils upon 
 which they are to be spread, and to select clays, sands, or 
 other modifying agents, as they may seem to be indicated by 
 the character of the land. With our mobile population, and 
 the comparatively small investment in the tenure of real estate, 
 it is often better to move away from a bad soil to a better one, 
 than to attempt any very expensive process for its melioration.] 
 
 XII. 
 
 MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL OF THE 
 PLANTS. 
 
 A T the age of from fifteen to forty years, according 
 to the kind of plants, the method of pruning, and 
 the more or less favorable circumstances of the locality, 
 the vine crops begin to decrease, and this decrease, 
 slight at first, becomes, at last, considerable. A vine- 
 yard that had produced two hundred gallons, with the 
 same care and the same manures, will yield only from 
 ninety-five to one hundred gallons, when the vines are 
 thirty or forty years old. This state of things is not 
 entirely owing to the exhaustion of the soil; it is chiefly 
 produced by the crooked form of the wood of the vine. 
 The principal branches become too much extended, 
 and every year they are cut in such a way as to form a 
 number of angles, in which the anastomoses of the ves- 
 sels make a labyrinth through which the sap circulates 
 with difficulty. 
 
Maintenance and Renewal. 245 
 
 It is, therefore, advisable to begin renewing the plants 
 when they present signs of exhaustion. The time to 
 be selected for that purpose is indicated by the extent 
 of decrease in the product ; but this diminution may be 
 allowed to go further, if we be inclined to sacrifice 
 quantity to quality. 
 
 For, we know that quality increases in an inverse 
 ratio to the degree of vigor in the plant. Therefore, to 
 renew vineyards in which quality is chiefly sought after, 
 we should wait until such time as the superior quality 
 no longer compensates for the diminished product. On 
 the other hand, in vineyards where quantity is the ob- 
 ject, this renewal should take place as soon as the yield 
 does not give a sufficient profit. 
 
 In a well laid-out and well-kept vineyard, where the 
 different growths are cultivated separately, and in which 
 each plant is situated on a uniform soil, the plants of 
 each of these parts, being placed under the same con- 
 ditions, will, at about the same time, present signs of 
 exhaustion which will necessitate their renewal. This 
 operation may thus be performed at one time over the 
 whole extent of the vineyard. Nevertheless, individual 
 plants may become languid, or disappear long before the 
 rest, owing to some accident such as the bad soil at 
 the point where the roots happen to be, intense frosts, 
 the presence of hurtful insects, diseases, the careless- 
 ness of work-people, etc. In such cases, recourse 
 must be had to partial renewals. Besides, if the whole 
 extent of the vineyard be renewed at one time, all the 
 old plants are replaced by new ones, and this acts very 
 unfavorably on the quality of celebrated growths. In 
 such cases, also, it is better to renew portions of the 
 
246 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 surface, successively beginning here and there, with the 
 most exhausted plants, and continuing the process from 
 year to year. The product of the old plants thus serves 
 to conceal, in part, the inferior quality of wine yielded 
 by the new ones. In Burgundy, about one-twentieth 
 of all the plants is thus renewed every year. 
 
 From what precedes, it is seen that the renewal of 
 the plants is oftener carried into effect in a progressive 
 manner than effected all at once, over the whole sur- 
 face. Be this as it may, the renewal of the plants may 
 be effected by means of the four following operations : 
 
 PROVINAGE. This operation consists in selecting the 
 stock nearest the point where we wish to replace one or 
 more vines by new plants. Care is taken that this stock 
 be vigorous, and provided with two or three fine shoots. 
 A trench is then dug, which, beginning at the foot of 
 the stock, shall take the direction of the point or points 
 to be occupied by the new plants. The width of this 
 trench is about twenty inches, and its depth varies 
 between twelve and sixteen inches, according as the 
 soil is more or less exposed to drought. At the bottom 
 of the trench, spread a layer of compost, about one-and- 
 a-quarter inch in thickness, and the stock, trimmed so 
 that the number of shoots shall be equal to that of the 
 new plants needed, is then laid flat in the bottom of 
 the ditch, and the shoots are placed in the direction of 
 the points where the new plants are to be. One of 
 these shoots [Fig. 96] should be brought back to the 
 point occupied by the parent stock, in order to replace 
 the latter. Figure 96 shows a stock thus laid down in 
 a trench. This work accomplished, and the stock and 
 shoots held in position by means of forks, the trench is 
 
Maintenance and Renewal. 
 
 '47 
 
 half filled with compost ; then, the shoots are cut, so 
 as to leave only two eyes out of the ground. A stake 
 is driven beside each of these shoots ; the surplus earth 
 is left around the trench, which is only filled up at the 
 time of the first winter plowing next year. In this 
 manner, the shoots, being less deeply buried, take root 
 more easily. 
 
 The stock chosen for provinage should belong to the 
 row on which the vacant space exists, and this in order 
 
 [FlG. 96.] Layered Plant. 
 
 that a trench which would obstruct the action of the 
 plow may not may not be left across the interval be- 
 tween the rows. 
 
 Layering is practiced late in the fall in dry soils, and 
 in the spring in clayey ones. In the fall following the 
 layering, and before the trenches are filled up, each of 
 the young plants should be loosened a little, and such 
 of their roots as are nearest to the surface should be cut 
 away so as to encourage them to live through those 
 which are deepest and least exposed to drought. 
 
248 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 This method of renewal and of keeping up the vine- 
 yard, offers the following advantages : 1st. The vacant 
 spaces are very quickly filled up without its being ne- 
 cessary to obtain rooted plants. 2d. A crop is obtained 
 much quicker than from a new plant, for the propa- 
 gated shoots often produce grapes the very first year, or, 
 at the latest, the second year. 
 
 But, with these advantages, layering presents serious 
 drawbacks. 1st. This operation is more expensive 
 than the planting of young rooted vines, since a greater 
 quantity* of earth has to be moved. id. The propa- 
 gated shoots laid down horizontally are less rooted than 
 the young vines obtained by planting ; their roots strike 
 less deeply into the earth > they are more exposed to 
 drought, and the plants obtained from them are less 
 hardy, and do not live so long as those produced by 
 rooted plants or cuttings. 3d. Finally, if this propa- 
 gation is carried on for a certain length of time, the 
 soil gets filled up with an inextricable net-work of 
 roots, which are mutually hurtful, and working the 
 ground can not be done without mangling these creeping 
 and underground stocks, and diminishing the vigor of 
 the plants. 
 
 LAYERING. We have already described this opera- 
 tion, in speaking of the different modes of propagating 
 the vine. It is also employed for the renewal of the 
 plants. A long and vigorous shoot is chosen, growing 
 near the foot of a stock, close to the empty space to be 
 filled up, and on the same line. A trench is then cut, 
 twelve to sixteen inches deep, according as the ground 
 is more or less exposed to drought, and sixteen inches 
 wide. This trench, which must be twenty-four to 
 
Maintenance and Renewal. 249 
 
 thirty-two inches long, extends from the stock to where 
 the new plant is wanted to stand. The shoot is laid 
 down, secured, and covered, as indicated in the article 
 on " Provinage ;" it is then cut, so as to leave two buds 
 above the ground, and fastened to a stake. The trench 
 is not completely rilled up until the end of one year. 
 The layer is weaned that is to say, separated from the 
 parent-stock, at A [Fig. 9], only after two or three 
 years' growth. 
 
 The layering has all the advantages of the previous 
 mode of propagation. It is to be preferred to it, when 
 vigorous shoots are to be found conveniently sit- 
 uated for the operation, because it is more quickly 
 done. The same objections are urged against this 
 method of propagation, and it seriously exhausts the 
 plant furnishing the layer. 
 
 CUTTING-DOWN. This operation consists in cutting 
 the stem of the parent-stock quite close to the ground, 
 and renewing the wood by means of a vigorous shoot, 
 chosen among those which always develop themselves 
 after such treatment. 
 
 This cutting-down is variously performed in different 
 localities. In Lorraine, advantage is taken of a shoot 
 growing at the foot of the plant, and the stem is cut 
 immediately above the point from which this shoot 
 springs, which then serves to renew the plant. 
 
 In certain parts of Saintonge and PAunis, the foot of 
 the parent-stock is slightly laid bare, and the latter is 
 cut down an inch or so below the level of the ground. 
 During the summer following the operation, a certain 
 number of buds appear below the cut, and from these 
 two or three of the most vigorous are preserved. The 
 
250 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 following winter, the most vigorous and lowest one is 
 reserved. The stock is then covered over, so as to 
 bury the base of the shoot which serves as a starting- 
 point for the new plant. This latter mode of cutting- 
 down, having the effect of causing the new stem to 
 spring directly from the ground, is, in our opinion, pref- 
 erable to the first. In any case, it will be advisable, at 
 the time of this cutting-down, to give the ground a good 
 plowing and copious manuring, so that the roots result- 
 ing from these renewals of the stems, may find the 
 nourishing elements necessary for a vigorous develop- 
 ment. 
 
 As to the value of this cutting-down operation, espe- 
 cially the last method, it is certainly to be preferred to 
 provinage and layering, but it will be readily understood 
 that it will only succeed when the plants have not 
 reached the last stage of exhaustion. 
 
 PLANTING. Of all the methods for the care and 
 renewal of the vine, planting is certainly the easiest and 
 most effective when the plant is in 'such a languishing 
 state that the success of its removal becomes doubtful. 
 In this manner plants are obtained whose roots are 
 better distributed in the soil, and they strike deeper. 
 For this reason, they are more hardy, and live longer. 
 All the objections to provinage are also avoided. But 
 this planting must be done with all the care recom- 
 mended in our remarks on the establishment of vine- 
 yards. The renewal of the plants is executed here' 
 and there over the whole extent of surface, and it is 
 necessary to use two-year old plants. 
 
 [It is found, in practice, that replanting an old vineyard 
 with young vines, does not succeed nearly so well as replacing 
 
Maintenance and Renewal. 251 
 
 a dead or sickly vine by layering a healthy shoot from an ad- 
 jacent plant. In planting, the new-comer finds the whole of 
 the soil preoccupied by the roots of the other vines, which 
 ramify through it, in every direction, and therefore the newly- 
 planted vine has to struggle for existence, and seldom attains 
 to a vigorous growth among its fellows, even when aided by 
 the application of rich compost, or other good fertilizing 
 treatment ; and scattered through the vineyard, as such plants 
 necessarily are, they are apt to be overlooked. Whereas, the 
 layers, if made with vigorous and healthy shoots, have the 
 support of the parent-vine, to sustain them until they become 
 fully established ; nor need they be severed from this con- 
 nection until the second year, if there be reason to conclude 
 that they have not sooner become sufficiently rooted. 
 
 Old vine-stocks are often renewed by cutting them off just 
 beneath the surface, and allowing a sucker to take their place, 
 but it is better to have this provided during the previous sum- 
 mer, by leaving a ground-shoot on such a vine. A whole year 
 is thus gained, for these branches are not usually fertile until 
 two years old.] 
 
 In the southern region, as a rule, they wait until the 
 whole of the vineyard has become exhausted, and then 
 the entire surface is renewed by means of a new plant- 
 ing, which is only done four or five years after the old 
 stocks have been pulled up. During this interval, 
 other crops are grown upon the soil. The old roots 
 decay, and the inferior layers of the soil regain their 
 richness, acquiring, by filtration, the nourishing elements 
 they had lost. 
 
 This complete renewal, by planting, may also be ap- 
 plied with advantage to the vineyards of the North, 
 when they have been much neglected, and the greater 
 number of plants show signs of decay. 
 
252 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 When the whole extent of a vineyard is thus re- 
 moved, the cost of pulling up and digging, to extract 
 the large roots, is usually repaid by the wood of the 
 
 [Fie. 97.] Wrench. 
 
 vine. Nevertheless, the work is abridged, and rendered 
 less expensive by using either the wrench, shown in 
 
 [FiG. 98.] Details [FiG. 99.] Crank. 
 
 of Wrench. 
 
 Figures 97 and 98, or the crank, employed in the vine- 
 yards of Saone-et-Loire [Fig. 99]. M. de Gasparin 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 253 
 
 recommends, for the same purpose, a sort of capstan, 
 formed by a wooden axle on two cart-wheels. A rope 
 is fastened to the head of the plant, and is then wound 
 round the capstan, and the plant is pulled up, with all 
 its roots. The work, by this means, costs one-half less 
 than if done by hand. 
 
 [We have had little experience in tearing up old vineyards, 
 and preparing them for replanting with grape-vines, and there- 
 fore can not cite the best practice ; but, upon general principles, 
 it may be said that the vines could as well be grubbed up, the 
 ground plowed in the autumn, and exposed to a winter fallow, 
 to be followed with green crops, such as corn or potatoes, 
 well manured, and then allowed to lie in clover for a year or 
 two before breaking up again, preparatory to replanting with 
 the grape. Most of us would prefer taking a new piece of 
 ground.] 
 
 XIII. 
 
 INCLEMENT WEATHER, DISEASES, HURT- 
 FUL INSECTS. 
 
 A VINEYARD situated on soil, and in a climate 
 adapted to the vine, and properly attended to, would 
 certainly be one of the most productive kinds of farm- 
 ing, if a full crop could be obtained from it every year. 
 Unfortunately, the same uncertainty attends the pro- 
 t duce of the vine as that of other cultivated plants : 
 inclement weather, diseases, and the presence of hurt- 
 ful insects, but too often diminish its quantity, alter its 
 quality, or sometimes destroy it altogether. Let us, 
 
2*54 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 then, see by what means we can fully counteract these 
 evfl influences. 
 
 INCLEMENT WEATHER. The weather most inju- 
 rious to the product of the vineyard, is, unusual cold, 
 damp atmosphere, hail, and excessive heat. 
 
 ist. Gold* A sudden fall of temperature has an in- 
 jurious effect on the vine, according to its degree of in- 
 tensity, and the time of year at which it occurs. 
 
 Early Frosts. If a rather strong frost occurs in the 
 fall, before the vintage, when the grapes are perfectly 
 ripe, no harm happens to the plant, or crop ; the qual- 
 ity of the wine is even improved. But, if the ripening 
 is still imperfect, the grape withers, its ripening ceases, 
 and it soon begins to rot. This accident can only be 
 prevented by the use of mattings, or of the cloths of 
 which we shall speak presently. These early frosts 
 may also prove fatal to the young plants of the year, 
 whose vegetation has begun late ; their buds, which 
 have not had time to mature sufficiently, are sometimes 
 completely ruined, and the young plant does not grow 
 again in the spring. Two-year old plants, carefully set 
 out, will make a sufficiently early and vigorous growth, 
 and this accident will be much less likely to occur. 
 
 Winter Frosts. Although the vine is able to bear a 
 considerable depression of temperature during the sus- 
 pension of its vegetation, it sometimes happens that the 
 severity of the winter frosts is such that the shoots are 
 destroyed, and this effect may even extend to the old 
 wood. There have been winters during which the 
 plants in the vineyards of the middle and northern 
 region were frozen to the very roots. Luckily, these 
 accidents are very rare. It is impossible to foresee 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, 
 
 /,> 
 
 them, and the expense of sheltering the pljtms, agaifts^/^ , 
 them would not, in the greater number of cases, De^fQr^ ^ 
 paid by the results obtained. 
 
 In those parts of southern Russia where vineyards 
 have been established in the Crimea, and the neigh- 
 borhood of Odessa the winters are sufficiently severe 
 to render this accident one of frequent occurrence. 
 The plants are there protected from these intense frosts 
 by being buried every winter in a trench. Of course, 
 such immense labor can not be undertaken over large 
 extents of surface, except in countries where the price 
 of manual labor is very low. 
 
 In the vineyards of the Jura, which are often exposed 
 to this accident, the plants are often protected in this 
 manner : In November the young plants are laid down 
 and buried ; as for the old plants, whose stems are too 
 large to be subjected to this operation, a shoot is kept at 
 the base, which is each year pruned to one eye. It is 
 this shoot which is buried, a little above its junction 
 with the stock. If the cold is sufficiently severe to 
 freeze the old wood, the base is still safe, where it is 
 buried. It is then cut off above this point, and the 
 shoot at the base serves to renew the stock. All the 
 plants are laid bare at the end of February. 
 
 Nevertheless, this is very hard work, and the roots 
 being often broken by the laying down process, the 
 plants suffer in consequence. For this reason, some 
 cultivators prefer the following plan : They think it is 
 enough to shelter the foot of the plant, on the south 
 side, by means of a stone, or handful of brushwood. 
 The snow is thus kept from melting in the sun. Now, 
 it is this partial thawing, which, occurring in February 
 
256 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 causes the plant, under the influence of the next night's 
 cold, to freeze ; this shelter prevents it. 
 
 [In many parts of the United States, it is necessary to bury 
 the vines every winter, and those who pursue this plan, ap- 
 pear to think it a simple matter, not very expensive. It is 
 known that a very slight amount of covering is all that is re- 
 quired to protect the vines from frost. Our author has hap- 
 pily hit the true idea, as we generally understand it, that suc- 
 cessive thawing and freezing is what so hurts plants that are 
 exposed to the rigors of winter. He accordingly recommends 
 a slight shelter, such as a stone or a little brush, which wards 
 off the sun's rays and prevents thawing. It is surprising how 
 slight an amount of shelter is required ; vines cut loose from 
 the stakes and lying upon the ground, rarely suffer, but where 
 there is a continuance of snow the protection is complete. 
 
 With young vines, there is little difficulty in bending down 
 the canes and covering them with soil, but when the stock 
 has grown old and stiff, and is large, it is a stubborn subject to 
 deal with, and can not so readily be bent. It has been proposed 
 to obviate this difficulty by adopting one of the following 
 methods : either to plant the vine and train it, so that the 
 stock shall be inclined to one side, or to branch its arms at a 
 low point, very near the surface of the ground, and to train 
 them in an inclined manner, so that, in either case, they 
 may easily be brought to the surface, to receive their covering 
 of soil for a winter protection. 
 
 The injurious effects of cold are sometimes quite severe at 
 others, very slight. In some cases, the wood appears green 
 and perfect, while the buds are nearly all destroyed, so as to 
 ruin the crop for that season. 
 
 Young vines those recently planted should always be cov- 
 ered with soil in the autumn of the first year's growth, particu- 
 larly in the clayey, heavy soils, else the action of the frost may 
 heave them out, and leave them on the surface, where the 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 257 
 
 roots will be destroyed. It is possible, that in some very 
 loose soils, the frost may destroy the roots of such young 
 vines, without their being heaved and exposed, and the tops 
 will have escaped, and may even push forth their leaves, to 
 wither for want of support from these dead roots. 
 
 Such a result has frequently followed the fall planting of 
 young vines, and the variety has then been condemned as ten- 
 der ; whereas, if they had been carefully protected until spring, 
 and then set out and well tended, they would have become 
 established in the soil, and enabled to resist the damaging ef- 
 fects of frost.] 
 
 When the frost has taken effect on the shoots of the 
 vine, the crop for that year is lost ; for, we know that 
 the new shoots coming on the old wood, seldom, if. 
 ever, bear grapes. It even happens, at times, that a 
 crop is not had until two years after such an accident. 
 The only operation to be performed on the plants at- 
 tacked by winter frosts consists in pruning and renew- 
 ing them a little below the point where they have been 
 frozen. The stock is then re-formed by means of the 
 new shoots. 
 
 Spring Frosts. The late frosts are the most usual foe, 
 and the most to be feared, for the vineyards of the 
 northern and middle region, when the frosts occur at the 
 season of the budding of the vine that is from the I5th 
 of April to the I5th of May. The young shoots are 
 then more or less affected, and the year's crop is de- 
 stroyed. It is true that, sometimes, by the side of the 
 shoot destroyed by frost, we see one or two new shoots 
 with fruit-branches ; but this only occurs when the 
 shoots have been frozen on their first appearance, and 
 have, as yet, absorbed only a very small quantity of sap. 
 22 
 
258 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Be this as it may, the crop thus obtained is far from 
 equaling that which has been destroyed. Moreover, it 
 often happens, if these late frosts are severe enough to 
 destroy all the young shoots of a plant completely, that 
 the vine grows no more, but withers. In this manner, 
 one-tenth of all the plants in the vineyards of the Jura 
 are destroyed annually. 
 
 These late frosts almost invariably proceed from ra- 
 diation during the bright nights at the end of April and 
 beginning of May. They are then called " white 
 frosts." We know that all bodies on the surface of the 
 earth possess a certain degree of heat peculiar to them. 
 When the sky is clear at night, these bodies lose a part 
 of their heat, in the shape of caloric rays, which rise 
 into space. This radiation continuing, these bodies 
 cool gradually, and the fall of temperature they un- 
 dergo, is such, that the atmospheric vapor condenses 
 on their surface. It is this first phenomenon which 
 produces dew. If the cooling of these bodies goes on 
 increasing, the dew covering them congeals, and gives 
 rise to white frosts. 
 
 If the sky be cloudy, there is no dew, and, of course, 
 no white frost, because the caloric rays, radiating from 
 earthly bodies toward the sky, meet the clouds, and are 
 sent back to the ground ; there is an exchange of caloric 
 rays between bodies on the earth and these clouds, but 
 there is no decided cooling. The slightest obstacle in- 
 terposed between woody or grassy plants, and the sky, 
 would therefore suffice to preserve them from the ac- 
 tion of white frosts. 
 
 As may be supposed, these white frosts are the more 
 to be feared when the air is charged with moisture. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 259 
 
 For this reason, frosts are more prevalent in the valleys 
 than on the hills. On a vine-stock, the young shoots 
 nearest the ground, and hence more exposed to cold, 
 freeze more frequently than those at the top. A vine- 
 yard in which the soil has been quite recently stirred, 
 freezes more easily than one in which the surface is 
 hardened j for, in the former case, the evaporation of 
 moisture is more abundant. Dew and white-frosts are 
 not produced when the air is sufficiently in motion to 
 carry away, by evaporation from the surface of bodies, 
 the cold which is there produced by radiation. 
 
 [It is singular that after M. Du Breuil had given so distinct 
 an explanation of the formation of dew and frost, which he 
 very properly attributes to the effects of radiation, he should 
 still be disposed to refer the evils of frost to moisture. And 
 in the case of the freshly-plowed ground, to which ref- 
 erence is made on a previous page, our author attributes its 
 freezing to the presence of increased moisture ; whereas, it 
 is the better surface of radiation, and its increased amount in 
 the plowed ground, that causes the difficulty. The radiation 
 being perfect, the cooling process will go on, whether the 
 soil and air be wet or dry, but if the former be full of moist- 
 ure, and its dew-point be low, the precipitation will be greater, 
 and the dew or frost will be more apparent. 
 
 And so of the effects of a spring frost upon the lower part 
 of a vine-stock being more disastrous than upon the higher 
 shoots, the result is easily explained upon the common prin- 
 ciples of physics. The radiation takes place from the surface, 
 chiefly at the level of the ground, and the air is chilled only 
 as it comes in contact with bodies thus cooled ; the lower 
 portion of the atmosphere must first have its temperature re- 
 duced, and the cooling of the next upper layer must take 
 place very slowly, since the air is a non-conductor, and 
 
260 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 so the higher shoots on a grape-vine may escape when the 
 lower ones will have suffered. The moisture of the air has 
 nothing to do with the cooling and freezing ; indeed, theoret- 
 ically, quite the contrary. The least motion in the air will 
 prevent the occurrence of a frost, because, so soon as a layer 
 of air, in contact with the radiating surface, is cooled, by giv- 
 ing up its heat to that chilled surface, it is borne away by the 
 breeze, and mingled with the great mass of warmer air above 
 it, and its place is occupied with a fresh supply of the warmer 
 fluid. Every one knows the difference in the result of a still 
 and windy night, even when the sky is perfectly clear, and 
 the radiation is going on equally in both cases. 
 
 These views are confirmed by the venerable editor of the 
 Western Ruralist, Lawrence Young, of Louisville, Kentucky, 
 who has long been a successful fruit-grower, and a close ob- 
 server of the influence of meteorological changes upon our 
 crops, and of the mode in which they affect them. 
 
 In an article in the April number of that paper, when dis- 
 cussing the injury to the peach crop of the past winter, he 
 says : 
 
 " The intense cold of our climate comes upon us in one of 
 two ways, either by radiation, on still nights, or is brought 
 to us in winds charged with the frigid temperature of the 
 Rocky Mountains, generally moving in the wake of some rain 
 cloud, and with the velocity of a gale, measuring sixty to 
 ninety miles per hour. In the latter case, the driving force is 
 so much greater than the power of gravity, that in passing 
 over obstructions, such as hills, or dense forests, there is a 
 volume of atmosphere on the lee side of such obstructions, 
 below the cold wind, and undisturbed by it; just as is often 
 seen in a hurricane crossing a valley, the trees will be thrown 
 right and left to the edge of the first hill, and the work of 
 destruction will be renewed as soon as the hurricane crosses 
 the valley, and reaches the opposite hill, but not a tree will 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 261 
 
 be disturbed in the valley between. In cases when cold vis- 
 its us in this way, the earth itself, and all the stratum of air 
 lying between it and the rolling volume are warmer than the 
 wind above. We know this because the thermometer rises as 
 soon as the gale has stopped, but the highest points coming 
 in immediate contact, lose more latent heat, and suffer most 
 with cold. 
 
 " On the other hand, when intense cold is brought about 
 by radiation, it is the crust of the earth, and low grounds 
 which are coldest, and the air in contact with the earth parts 
 with its heat, only by conduction, to restore in part that 
 which the ground has lost by radiation. The hill-tops grow 
 cold also, and rob the air above them of its heat ; but, as the 
 air on the hill-tops parts with its heat, it becomes heavier 
 than the horieontal stratum of air pressing against it at the 
 margin of the hill, and displacing the lighter air, it rolls down 
 the hill-side, continually forming lakes or ponds of cold be- 
 low, while warmer air takes its place upon the hills."] 
 
 It has also been observed that bodies in motion are 
 less liable to freeze than those which are perfectly still. 
 For this reason it is that the wine-growers of Auvergne, 
 who preserve a long shoot on their plants for fructifica- 
 tion, fasten it to the stakes only after the period of the 
 late frosts. These long shoots, put in motion by the 
 slightest breath of air, freeze less easily than those 
 which are fastened immediately after the pruning. 
 
 The action of frosts is more pernicious to plants in 
 proportion as the thawing is more sudden. It would 
 seem that this sudden transition, from a frozen state to 
 a higher temperature, makes a great impression on the 
 tissues. It is for this reason that vineyards situated on 
 hill-sides exposed to the rising sun, suffer more from 
 frost than those exposed to the setting sun. 
 
262 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 At all periods means have been sought to protect 
 vineyards from the effects of the late frosts, and the 
 aim of all the processes employed with this view has 
 been to prevent the radiation of heat. Let us examine 
 the principal ones. 
 
 The vine-dressers of Champagne, who drive in as 
 many as twenty-four thousand stakes per 'acre, attribute 
 to these stakes a certain preservative action against 
 white frosts. It may, indeed, be the fact that these 
 stakes, being so close together, oppose radiation to a cer- 
 tain extent. They may also act in delaying the thaw, 
 by the shade they cast. We must, however, acknowl- 
 edge that this means is very inadequate. Nevertheless, 
 it is with this end in view that the vine-dressers of 
 Champagne hasten to set up the stakes before the late 
 frosts occur. Attempts have also been made to cover 
 the vineyard with a cloud of smoke, which, producing 
 the same effects as natural clouds, might prevent radia- 
 tion. The process is this : At the period when late 
 frosts begin to be apprehended, there are placed around 
 each piece of vineyard, which must not exceed twenty- 
 five acres in extent, heaps of bad litter, bad hay, brush- 
 wood, dried leaves, dandelion roots, etc., which are kept 
 rather damp, and placed at distances of about sixty-five 
 feet apart. This being done, account is taken of the 
 weather. If the wind blows from any direction be- 
 tween north-west and south-east, and the sky be clear, 
 frost is to be apprehended. In this case, early in the 
 morning, before day-light, fire is set to the heaps of 
 brushwood accumulated on that side of the vineyard 
 whence the wind blows. There soon rises a thick 
 smoke, which, being conveyed by the current of air, 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 263 
 
 extends horizontally all over the vineyard. This smoke 
 produces the effect of a cloud, and prevents white frost 
 by opposing radiation. In vineyards exposed to the 
 rising sun it will be advisable to keep up this smoke till 
 about ten o'clock A. M., so as to delay the action of 
 the sun on those plants which may have been attacked. 
 It has been said that white frosts occur only under the 
 influence of a perfect stillness of the atmosphere, and 
 that, under these circumstances, the smoke, rising ver- 
 tically, is unable to prevent them. This objection is 
 true in theory, but it has been exaggerated. It is very 
 seldom, indeed, that the currents of air are insufficient 
 to lay a column of smoke. Be this as it may, we know 
 that this process has given very good results in some 
 vineyards, and even, in Auvergne, in saving the crops of 
 large apple orchards. Besides, this method costs but a 
 trifle, and only requires a little attention during the pe- 
 riod of white frosts. 
 
 ., [This smoking plan is quite feasible, and has been prac- 
 ticed with the happiest results in this country, for the object 
 here recommended. The peach crop sometimes suffers from 
 a late frost, after the blossoms have set, and the fruit has begun 
 to swell, but while the leaves are still too small to afford any 
 protection to the tender germs. Under such circumstances, 
 a sufficient volume of smoke to the windward has saved the 
 whole crop from destruction. 
 
 A fog rising opportunely, has acted in a similar manner, by 
 arresting the radiation, and also by preventing the access of 
 the sun's rays.] 
 
 Some land-owners in Burgundy and Touraine have 
 been benefitted by the use of another process, which is 
 as follows. It consists in putting together the vine- 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 twigs arising from the pruning, so as to make so many 
 little bundles, tied together with a vine-slip. These 
 bundles, about sixteen inches long, and having a diam- 
 eter of about eight inches, are fastened horizontally 
 above each plant, by making them cross each stake. 
 
 This process, which 
 is not more expens- 
 ive than the first, also 
 gives very good re- 
 sults, by almost en- 
 tirely preventing the 
 [Fio. IOO.] Shelter made by effects of radiation. 
 Vine-Twigs. For vines submit- 
 
 ted to the process of pruning we have recommended, it 
 will be sufficient to fasten the bundle of twigs by means 
 of a single tie, on the wire above each of the fruit- 
 stems, as shown in Figure 100 ; or we 
 may, with advantage, use bundles of 
 brushwood of any kind, such as heath- 
 er, fern-leaves, etc., and these will 
 weigh less on the vines. 
 
 Mr. George Perrier, a wine-grower 
 of Ay (Marne), has contrived a plan 
 analogous to the preceding, but which 
 we consider preferable. Twigs of the 
 broom-plant are put together in the 
 shape of a fan, and fixed to the end of 
 a stick, the length of which may vary 
 according to need [Fig. 101]. This 
 [FiG. 101.] is stuck into the ground, so that the 
 Shelter made of fan may take a slanting direction, such 
 the Broom-Plant, as will shelter the plant from the rising 
 
Inclement Weather^ Diseases, Etc. 
 
 265 
 
 sun. These little fans, manufactured during winter, 
 cost little, and will last six years. One of Mr. George 
 Perrier's workmen can set up about eight thousand of 
 them in a day. 
 
 For vines subjected to the method of pruning we 
 have recommended, these shelters may be placed as in 
 Figure 1 02. The wooden handle is notched at A, so 
 that the wire may be let into the notch, and the fan is 
 fastened to the top wire by means of a willow-slip. 
 
 [Fie. 102.] 
 
 The shelters we have just spoken of may generally 
 suffice to protect vineyards from white frosts that 
 is to say, from a fall of temperature not exceeding two 
 degrees below zero (centigrade about twenty-eight de- 
 grees Fahrenheit). Unfortuately, the cold sometimes 
 exceeds this limit, reaching to three or four" degrees 
 below zero (twenty-five degrees Fahrenheit). This fall 
 of temperature is no longer due to night radiations, but 
 arises from currents of air which reach us from the cold 
 regions of the north and north-east. It is not only 
 bodies near the earth that cool down, but all the mass 
 23 
 
266 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 of the atmosphere is subjected to this fall of tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The winter frosts, which occur late, do not act in the 
 same way as the white frosts, and, contrary to what 
 happens in the case of the latter, vines situated at ele- 
 vated points suffer more than those placed in the shel- 
 tered valleys. Exposures to the west, north, and east, 
 are more affected than those to the south. 
 
 The causes producing the late winter frosts being 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 4 
 
 "-,1 
 
 t 
 
 [FiG. 103.] Plantation 
 adapted for Matting, at 
 the rate of 5,200 Vines 
 to the Acre. 
 
 [FiG. 104.] Plantation 
 adapted for Matting, at 
 the rate of 6,OOO Vines 
 to the Acre. 
 
 different from those giving rise to white frosts, the 
 means employed to obviate them should be different. 
 For this purpose, we must have recourse to more ef- 
 fective, and, unfortunately, more expensive shelters. 
 
 Doctor Jules Guyot is the first who has thought of 
 adapting to vineyards, the mats employed in gardens for 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 
 
 267 
 
 the protection of fruit-trees. He has described his 
 method in a book full of useful instructions on vine- 
 culture and wine-making. The method of matting 
 which he recommends leaving, as we think, something 
 to be desired, in the way of solidity and application to 
 our different wine-growing regions, we have thought 
 better to modify it in the following manner. 
 
 [FiG. 105.] Plantation 
 adapted for Matting, at 
 the rate of 7,200 Fines 
 to the Acre. 
 
 1 1 
 
 i t 
 
 [FiG. 106.] Plantation 
 adapted for Matting, at 
 the rate of 8,OOO Vines 
 to the Acre. 
 
 For this purpose, it will be necessary to make a 
 change in the. mode -of planting we formerly recom- 
 mended. Thus, instead of placing all the rows of plants 
 at an equal distance from each other, it will be requisite 
 to leave a space, first, of twenty-four inches between the 
 rows, and then another varying from three feet four 
 inches to four feet six inches, according to the number 
 of vines to be planted on each acre. The space between 
 the plants themselves, along the rows, will have to vary 
 from twenty to thirty inches, according to the number 
 
268 
 
 Vineyard Culture* 
 
 per acre. To exemplify this, we give the following 
 table : 
 
 
 WIDTH OF THE 
 
 WIDTH OF THE 
 
 
 NO. PLANTS 
 
 
 
 DISTANCES BETWEEN 
 
 TO THE ACRE. 
 
 SMALL ALLEYS 
 [B, FIG. 103.] 
 
 LARGER ALLEYS 
 [A, FIG. 103.] 
 
 VINES ALONG THE ROWS. 
 
 5,200 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. 
 
 2 ft. 6 in. 
 
 Fig. 103] 
 
 6,000 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. 
 
 2 ft. 2 in. 
 
 Tig. 104 
 
 7,200 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 4 ft. o in. 
 
 2 ft. o in. 
 
 Tig. 105- 
 
 8,000 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 4 ft. o in. 
 
 I ft. 10 in. 
 
 Fig. 106 
 
 10,000 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 3 ft. 4 in. 
 
 i ft. 8 in. 
 
 Fig. 107] 
 
 The consequence of this change in the manner of 
 planting, will be a slight increase in the annual expense 
 for the cultivation of the ground, since the plow can, in 
 that case, be used only along the larger alleys that is to 
 say, over two-thirds of the surface of the ground, at least. 
 
 The plants submitted to the mode of pruning shown 
 in Figures 32, 34, and 35, are fastened on two or three 
 horizontal wires, according to the hight to be given to 
 the plants. These wires will be fastened and supported 
 by the contrivance shown in Figure 71. 
 
 When the matting is to be applied to the vines, it 
 will be requisite to place one of the two upper wires four 
 inches lower than the other. That one should be made 
 the lower one, which is nearest the quarter whence 
 blow the prevailing winds of the particular region. 
 Thus, Figure 107, showing a cross-section of a double 
 row of plants, and the prevailing winds blowing as in- 
 dicated at by the arrow at A, the wire, B, and its sup- 
 ports, are placed four inches lower than the wire, C. 
 The effect of this will be that the mats, stretched upon 
 the two wires, will offer less resistance to the wind, and 
 
Inclement IVeatber^ Diseases, Etc. 
 
 269 
 
 that the rain falling on them will run off without pene- 
 trating them. The wires being thus placed, it is neces- 
 
 [FiG. 107.] Supports for Plants arranged for receiving 
 
 Mats. 
 
 sary, in order to make the supports firmer, to connect 
 them by means of a cross-piece of sulphated wood, D, 
 laid obliquely from one support to the other. This 
 cross-piece, which must be removed at the same time 
 as the mats, to allow the plow free working-room, is 
 fixed thus : the two ends cut on a bevel [Fig. 107, #], 
 are fastened by the two screws, F. These cross-pieces 
 rest alternately on the 
 top of the longer and 
 shorter supports. Thus, 
 in Figure 107, the cross- 
 piece rests on the top of 
 the higher support, while 
 for the two adjoining 
 supports, the cross-piece 
 will rest on the top of 
 the smaller ones, and so 
 on, all along the line, 
 alternating. [ FlG - IO 7> *! Cross-Pieces, 
 
 for Supports. 
 
270 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The supports being thus set, a mat, E, is placed 
 above them. These mats [Fig. 108], being thirty-two 
 inches wide, overlap each of the two lines of wire by 
 four inches, as they are twenty-four inches apart. The 
 mats are made of rye-straw, kept together by means of 
 four strands of twine. The straw and twine are pre- 
 served from rot by being immersed in a bath of sulphate 
 of copper [Page 158]. The length of these mats is 
 sixty-five feet, and they last about ten years. 
 
 The rows of plants, 
 at alternate distances of 
 twenty-four and forty 
 inches apart, we shall 
 have, over a surface of 
 one acre, the side of 
 which is two hundred 
 [FiG. 108.] Mat for Vine- and eight feet, seventy- 
 yards. eight rows of plants, two 
 
 hundred and eight feet in length. As the mats shelter 
 two rows at once, there will be required eight thousand 
 one hundred and twelve feet of matting to the acre. 
 
 For the manufacture of these mats Dr. Jules Guyot 
 has contrived a machine [Fig. 109], which, as may be 
 seen, is but a weaver's loom, adapted to that purpose. 
 M. Guyot has yielded the right of working this ma- 
 chine to M. Dorleans, who follows this business at a 
 manufactory, situated 37, Rue du Landy, Clichy (Seine). 
 The mats manufactured there are too expensive to be 
 used in vineyards, but if manufactured on the spot, by 
 the vine-growers, they are much cheaper. M. Dor- 
 leans rents out machines for making mats, and gives all 
 the instructions necessary for that purpose, but he re- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 
 
 271 
 
 serves to himself the right of two centimes per lineal 
 metre (forty inches) that is to say, about eight dollars 
 per acre of vines thus sheltered less than a cent a rod. 
 
 [Fie. 109.] Dr. Guyot's Loom. 
 
 The placing of these mats must be done as follows : 
 In fine weather, and as soon as late frosts begin to be 
 
272 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 feared, say in April, the rolled mats [Fig. no], are 
 placed in the roads where the rows 
 of plants terminate ^ two workmen 
 then unroll one of these mats, along 
 the wide alley separating the double 
 line of plants, and, lifting it up, spread 
 it out. Two other workmen, pro- 
 ceeding along each line, fasten this 
 mat to the wires, by means of wil- 
 [FiG. no.] low-slips placed at distances of six 
 Mat Rolled up. and one-half feet. They proceed 
 thus until the mats are spread and fastened. 
 
 These mats should remain until such time as the ber- 
 ries begin to be formed. They are not at all in the 
 way of the needful operations, such as nipping, clipping, 
 and fastening the shoots, applying sulphur, etc. When 
 they are to be removed, cloudy weather is chosen, so 
 that the plants may not suffer too much by the change, 
 taking care, also, that the mats are quite dry. First, the 
 ties fastening them to the wires are cut, then two work- 
 men take hold of the ends of a mat, place it on the 
 ground, and roll it up ; the mats are then put under shel- 
 ter. This process of matting, including the removal and 
 storing, requires about six days* work per acre. 
 
 During cold and wet years, in which the continued 
 rains of the fall prevent the ripening of the grapes, as 
 we shall explain further on, it will be very beneficial to 
 mat the vines again, at the beginning of September, to 
 protect the grapes from the influence of the rains. 
 These shelters should then be left until harvest. Of 
 course, this second operation must be performed in the 
 same manner as the first. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 273 
 
 The necessity of storing up these mats during the 
 time they are not in use, requires that light sheds should 
 be set up, here and there through the vineyards, to serve 
 that purpose. A mat sixty-five feet long, and thirty- 
 two inches wide, has a diameter of twenty-four inches. 
 There must be about one hundred and fifty feet of this 
 matting to fill up a cubic yard. Therefore, the eight 
 thousand one hundred and twelve feet of matting re- 
 quired to cover an acre, being divided by one hundred 
 and fifty, we see that to shelter the mats of a single 
 acre, requires a shed of the capacity of about fifty-four 
 cubic yards that is to say, having a surface of twenty 
 square yards, and a hight of eight feet. 
 
 Further on we give the yearly cost of matting per 
 acre, and point out the circumstances under which its 
 use will be profitable. 
 
 Summer Colds. It is not necessary that the thermom- 
 eter should fall below the freezing point, for the grow- 
 ing vine to suffer from cold. A marked fall of tem- 
 perature, though insufficient to produce frost, often 
 brings about results quite as bad as frost itself. 
 
 If the temperature falls for a few days at the mo- 
 ment of the first development of the bunches, there 
 will be a suspension in the circulation of the sap, and 
 in the growth of the vine. The elementary buds which 
 the bunches bear will miscarry for want of nourishing 
 juices ; the pedicles bearing these young buds stretch 
 out, and the bunch is transformed into a tendril. Vine- 
 dressers, in such cases, say that the bunches have "run" 
 (blighted). 
 
 [We have become convinced, by long observation, that these 
 sudden depressions of temperature are often disastrous in their 
 
274 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 effects upon our vines, by favoring the dreaded mildew, which 
 destroys the fruit and foliage of some of our favorite varieties. 
 For the purpose of avoiding this disaster, Mr. W. Saunders, 
 the intelligent manager of the propagating gardens at Wash- 
 ington, D. C., long ago suggested a plan for sheltering the 
 vine trellis.* It had often been noticed that vines which 
 were trained against buildings, and sheltered by the wide pro- 
 jecting eaves of the roof, escaped the mildew and rot, when 
 all others suffered from this casualty. Mr. Saunders improved 
 upon this hint by capping his vine trellises with a couple of 
 boards, making a narrow roof above the vines. 
 
 This shelter has been found abundantly satisfactory. Such 
 a covering must act favorably, by arresting, to a considerable 
 extent, the cooling by radiation, and may thus prevent the ef- 
 fects of a spring frost also ; but it is considered a certain pre- 
 ventive of the mildew. The observations and experiments 
 of Mr. Saunders have been verified by many others, in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country. 
 
 The expense of this mode of protecting a vineyard is con- 
 siderable. At the usual distance between the rows, eight feet, 
 there will be five thousand eight hundred and thirty-two feet 
 of trellis per acre ; this will require two boards, of a foot 
 width, to make the roof, or eleven thousand six hundred and 
 sixty-four feet of lumber, which, in its thinnest, cheapest, and 
 least finished condition, at twenty dollars per thousand, must 
 cost two hundred and thirty-three dollars. Besides this, the 
 supports, nails, and labor of setting them up. 
 
 An ingenious patent has been taken out by a man in Illi- 
 nois, for a movable protector, arranged with jointed posts in 
 the trellis, so that the whole apparatus can be let down in the 
 winter posts, wires, vines, roof, and all as a winter protec- 
 tion. Common use precludes any one from patenting Saun- 
 ders' plan, which he has given freely to the world, and its 
 
 *See Patent Office Report for 1861 j page 495. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 275 
 
 combination with hinged posts, though making a very pretty- 
 plaything in the model, would probably be anything else in 
 its practical application in the vineyard, and would be attended 
 with an expense which the inventor wisely keeps in the back- 
 ground ; besides, its liability to get out of order would ren- 
 der it impracticable. Otherwise, its efficiency, both summer 
 and winter, as a protection against mildew, and frost can not 
 be gainsayed. Will it pay ?] 
 
 A little later, when the branches are in bloom, the 
 same fall in temperature may destroy the crop. Vege- 
 tation being suspended at the very moment when the 
 plant has most need of all its vital energy to carry it 
 through fructification, the young ovaries receive that 
 influence but imperfectly, and the berries prove abortive. 
 This is also called "running" (blighting). 
 
 Many means have been tried, to prevent running. 
 The annular incision [Fig. in] recommended by 
 Colonel Bouchote, of Metz, diminishes this hurtful in- 
 fluence to a certain extent. It is performed by remov- 
 ing a ring of bark at the time of blooming, at A, im- 
 mediately below the joint bearing the bunch. This 
 incision, which should not be wider than two-tenths of 
 an inch, is very easily performed, by means of the sap- 
 checker [Fig. 112]. Unfortunately, this is too minute 
 an operation to be performed economically over large 
 surfaces, and has, moreover, been observed to have a 
 deleterious influence on the quality of the wine. 
 
 [It is a common practice among those who attempt to pre- 
 pare choice show fruits for the exhibitions, to pursue a some- 
 what similar course. They ring the bark below certain 
 specimens, knowing that they will thereby be greatly en- 
 larged, and rendered very attractive. It is one of the tricks 
 
276 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 of exhibitors. Sometimes it is effected by strangulating the 
 circulation, by twisting a piece of wire around the twig, and 
 was, no doubt, discovered by the accidental strangulation 
 produced naturally by the clasping of a tendril. Like all 
 other tricks, however, it brings its own punishment ; for, it is 
 found that, though very attractive, from their unusual develop- 
 ment, the grapes are deficient in flavor and richness, and their 
 value depreciates as soon as the interdict, "Hands off," is 
 removed.] 
 
 [FiG. in.] Annular Incision 
 of the Vine. 
 
 [FiG. 112.] Sap- 
 Checker. 
 
 M. Troubat, of Bordeaux, has recently taken out a 
 patent for a process having the same object, and which 
 consists in cutting the shoots immediately above the 
 highest bunch, and doing so as soon as the bunches ap- 
 pear. This process, which yields good results, has 
 already been tried long ago, and at different times. It 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 277 
 
 has been given up, on account of the delay it occasions 
 to the ripening, and also on account of the abundance 
 of false shoots that are developed at the foot of the 
 principal shoots, and which endanger the crop of the 
 following year. 
 
 [This matter has been very fully discussed, under the head 
 of " Summer Pruning," in the editorial notes of a previous 
 page. It is essentially the plan proposed and practiced by 
 Mr. George Husman, of Missouri, and verified by many 
 others. But, as already stated, it is done for a very different 
 purpose the development of enlarged leaves, and the suc- 
 cessive crops of these valuable organs, and, through them, for 
 the improvement of the fruit. 
 
 No delay in the ripening of the berries has been observed 
 to follow the practice ; nor, am I aware that any difficulty has 
 arisen from the development of the false shoots mentioned by 
 our author, to interfere with the crop of the next season. 
 Laterals will often be forced out, on the bearing branches, and 
 so much the better, as we thus obtain new foliage to support 
 the economy of the vine, through the season.] 
 
 Since the employment of sulphur to prevent oidium 
 (of which we shall speak, presently), it has been proved 
 that the application of this substance to the vine, and to 
 most other plants, has the effect of stimulating vegeta- 
 tion in a very high degree, and also that the sulphur, 
 applied at the moment the bunches begin to be formed, 
 prevents the running (blighting). 
 
 But the most efficacious means of preventing the 
 effect of these colds, is the matting we have described, 
 or the cloths we shall mention further on, and which 
 are left standing until the grapes begin to be formed. 
 
 2d. Damp Atmosphere. When the dampness of the 
 
278 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 atmosphere exceeds the limits of its beneficial action, 
 it may become very prejudicial to vineyards. 
 
 Abundant and continuous rains, falling while the 
 vines are in bloom, are injurious to fructification, by 
 cooling the atmosphere and suspending the vegetation 
 of the plants. 
 
 [Another result of continued rains, during the period of 
 inflorescence, appears to have escaped the attention of the 
 careful observer who has prepared this manual. I refer to 
 the injurious effect produced when they occur too profusely 
 at this critical period the washing away of the pollen-grains. 
 This has been observed repeatedly, with different kinds of 
 fiuit, and has sometimes resulted most unfortunately. Only 
 last year, many of the vineyards in Northern Ohio were se- 
 riously injured by this cause.] 
 
 If these rains, which are frequent in summer, be- 
 come almost continuous in September and October, the 
 damage is quite as great. The vegetation of the vine 
 then lasts too long, and the ripening begins too late. 
 The grapes being watery, ripen very imperfectly, and 
 rot before they are completely matured. The result 
 of these circumstances is the production of very inferior 
 wines, as was the case in 1860, in all the vineyards of 
 the northern and middle regions. 
 
 [In our delightful climate of bright sunshine, we do not 
 often have reason to complain of injuries from such a cause, 
 and yet they do sometimes occur, and the excess of rain-fall 
 during the summer months is known to have as serious an effect 
 upon the fruit as a diminution of the mean temperature of the 
 same season. This matter has been very fully set forth by 
 Mr. James S. Lippincott, to whose essays on this subject, the 
 
Inclemen Weather, Diseases, Etc. 279 
 
 reader is referred.* The sad influence of unusual rains upon 
 the crop of 1865, in the grape region of Lake Erie, is well 
 remembered by dealers in table-grapes, for which that section 
 of countiy has become famous. The fruit would not keep as 
 usual, but very quickly became moldy in the boxes, and was 
 unsalable. 
 
 After a dry season, and as the vintage approaches, an occa- 
 sional shower will appear to swell the grapes, and does, no 
 doubt, cause their enlargement, but it is generally conceded 
 that while the bulk of wine may thus be considerably in- 
 creased, its quality will be impoverished in the same ratio. 
 Dry weather is much more desirable, even at an expense of a 
 few gallons per acre, which is more than compensated by the 
 greater richness of the product.] 
 
 The thinning of the leaves, of which we have already 
 spoken, and, more especially, the mats and cloths, are 
 again the only means of preventing the injurious effects 
 of too abundant rains at the beginning of summer and 
 in the fall. For the last, it will be advisable to replace 
 the shelters toward the end of August, and to leave 
 them until harvest, as we have explained above. 
 
 Cost of Matting. As we have shown, the use of 
 matting may exert great influence on the vineyard, since 
 it allows us to protect the latter from late frosts. Un- 
 fortunately it is a very expensive process, and applicable 
 with advantage only to those vines whose produce has 
 a certain value. The following is our estimate of the 
 cost of this process for each acre, per year. 
 
 One hundred yards of matting, thirty-two inches 
 wide, with straw and twine, cost : 
 
 * Report Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C., for 1862; p. 194. 
 
280 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Four hundred and five pounds rye-straw, at six dollars and thirty 
 
 cents per one thousand pounds $2 55 
 
 Four and one-half pounds of twine, at eight cents per pound O 36 
 
 A man's and child's day's work o 80 
 
 Preserving with sulphate of copper 2 oo 
 
 Rent of Machine for this length of mat o 37 
 
 Total $6 08 
 
 Interest of capital, at five per cent o 30 
 
 Grand total $6 38 
 
 We Jiave already seen that it requires about eight 
 thousand one hundred feet of matting to shelter one 
 acre, which, at six dollars and thirty-eight cents the one 
 hundred yards, would give a preliminary expense of 
 one hundred and seventy-two dollars. As these mats 
 will last ten years, the annual expense, per acre, will 
 be seventeen dollars and twenty cents for the mats 
 alone. 
 
 But we must also take into account the building of 
 sheds, in which to store these mats ; and, lastly, the 
 manual labor for placing and removing them. We 
 have already said that the mats necessary for each acre 
 require a shed of fifty-four cubic yards' capacity. This 
 shed will cost about twenty-six dollars, with interest at 
 five per cent. Its duration will be about twenty years, 
 and this gives an annual expenditure of one dollar and 
 thirty cents per acre, each year, for the sheds. 
 
 Supposing these mats to be laid down and removed 
 twice each year, as we have already advised, this will 
 necessitate twenty-four days* labor, at fifty cents, or 
 twelve dollars and sixty cents per acre, including inter- 
 est on capital, at five per cent. 
 
 We must also reckon, in this expenditure, the in- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 281 
 
 crease of cost for yearly cultivation, arising from the 
 particular mode of laying-out the vineyard. This in- 
 crease will be about forty-eight cents for the two winter 
 plowings, and one dollar and sixty cents for the sum- 
 mer plowings. 
 
 The yearly cost of matting, per acre, will then be : 
 
 Mats $17 20 
 
 Sheds for storing the mats I 30 
 
 Manual labor 12 60 
 
 Increase of cost for cultivation of soil 2 08 
 
 Total $33 18 
 
 This is certainly a heavy expenditure, but capital so 
 invested will often give very handsome profits. Nev- 
 ertheless, let us inquire what are the descriptions of 
 vineyards in which the use of matting will be really 
 useful. 
 
 In the Cote-d'Or region, good vineyards of "Pinots" 
 yield an average crop of one hundred and fifty-eight 
 gallons per acre, which, at one dollar and twenty cents 
 the gallon, gives one hundred and eighty-nine dollars 
 and sixty cents. Losses arising from frost and blight 
 are set down at the value of two crops and a half in 
 ten years, or four hundred and seventy-two dollars that 
 is to say, forty-seven dollars and twenty cents a year. 
 The matting only costing about thirty-three dollars, 
 there would be, in using it, a saving of fourteen dollars 
 and twenty cents per acre, yearly. 
 
 In the same region, the Gamais, when well culti- 
 vated, will yield, on an average, six hundred and thirty- 
 three gallons to the acre, which, at twenty-three cents, 
 would make one hundred and forty-five dollars and sixty 
 
 cents. Failures of two and a half crops in ten years, 
 24 
 
282 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 make a loss of thirty-six dollars and forty cents a year. 
 The matting would, in that case, give a yearly saving 
 of only three dollars and forty cents per acre, for Gam- 
 ais grapes, yielding the gross cash product we have 
 mentioned. 
 
 In Champagne (pernay, Ay) the crop amounts to 
 about one hundred and fifty-eight gallons per acre, and 
 the average selling price is sixty cents per gallon, or 
 about ninety-four dollars and eighty cents for the whole 
 product. In that region > the losses through frosts and 
 blight are set down at the value of three crops in ten 
 years, which makes a yearly loss of twenty-eight dollars 
 and forty cents per acre. In that case, unfortunately, 
 the use of mats would not be profitable. 
 
 The vineyards of Medoc give about two hundred 
 and thirty-three gallons to the acre, and the selling price 
 varies, according to the quality, from seventy cents to 
 two dollars per gallon, or an average of one dollar and 
 thirty-five cents, which makes three hundred and four- 
 teen dollars for the gross product, per acre. The loss 
 arising from frosts and blight is estimated at the value 
 of one and a half crops in ten years, making a yearly 
 loss of forty-seven dollars and ten cents per acre. Mat- 
 ting would therefore give, in this case, a saving of four- 
 teen dollars and ten cents per acre. 
 
 Lastly, in the less celebrated vineyards of the moor- 
 lands, and on the hills of Bordelais, on the right bank 
 of the Garonne, between Bordeaux and Blaye, the av- 
 erage crop is five hundred and and twenty-eight gallons 
 to the acre, having a value of about one hundred and 
 sixty dollars. The losses arising from frosts and blight 
 are equivalent to three crops in ten years, or to forty- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 283 
 
 eight dollars yearly, per acre. Matting, in that region, 
 would therefore give a yearly saving of sixteen dol- 
 lars. 
 
 The foregoing examples will be sufficient to point 
 out the importance of matting, and show under what 
 circumstances that operation may be made profitable. 
 
 The use of mats to shelter the vineyard from in- 
 clement weather, presents one drawback, however the 
 weight of these shelters when wet, or covered with 
 snow. This weight strains heavily on the wires sup- 
 porting it. We think the objection might be avoided 
 by substituting for the mats cloths, such as described 
 below, in which case there would be no occasion to 
 modify the system of planting, as is required when mats 
 are used. The cloths should be such as are manufac- 
 tured in Picardy, from the stalk of the thistle, and 
 which are similar to those employed in the papering of 
 apartments. Their texture, however, should be closer, 
 and they should have a width of forty-eight inches. 
 The wires which are to support them ought to be ar- 
 ranged in the same way as for mats. In order that they 
 may be easily stretched on the wires, they should have 
 
 [FiG. 113.] Cloths for Sheltering the Fine. 
 a length of about one hundred and sixty feet, and 
 
284 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 should be provided with wooden cross-pieces. The 
 latter, made of pine wood, and cut by steam, will be 
 eight-tenths of an inch wide, four-tenths of an inch 
 thick, and four feet two inches long. They must be 
 fastened across the cloths at each end, in a seam made 
 for the purpose, and placed along the whole length, at 
 the distance of six feet apart [A, Fig. 113]. After 
 these cloths have been manufactured, it will be as well 
 to steep them in a bath of sulphate of copper, so as to 
 make them more durable. 
 
 These cloths, with a close texture, may now be had 
 at five and one-half cents the lineal yard. Their cost 
 may be ascertained in the following manner, for a length 
 of one hundred yards. 
 
 For a length of one hundred yards there will really be required one 
 hundred and two yards, on account of the fold to receive the 
 
 cross-pieces, which, at five and one-half cents per yard is $5 60 
 
 Fifty cross-pieces, at one-fifth of a cent each o 10 
 
 Fastening the cross-pieces on the cloth o ao 
 
 Steeping in sulphate of copper o 40 
 
 Total 
 
 Interest of capital, at five per cent. 
 
 Grand total $6 60 
 
 All the rows of plants being forty inches apart, there 
 will be required 2,200 yards of cloth, which, at $6.60 
 the 100 yards, would give rise to a preliminary expense 
 of $145.20. The duration of these sulphated cloths 
 will be about fifteen years, which gives a yearly cost of 
 $9.70 per acre, for the cloths alone. 
 
 The sheds intended for the storage of these cloths 
 may be diminished by three-fourths, for the same sur- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 285 
 
 face of ground that is, may contain thirteen and a half 
 cubic yards, instead of fifty-four. They will consequently 
 cost only about $6.50, with interest at five per cent. 
 As they last about twenty years, this will be $0.32 
 yearly, per acre. 
 
 The process of laying down and removing these 
 cloths will be the same as for the mats, and they are to 
 be fastened on the wires in the same way. They should 
 also be laid down and removed twice every year, but 
 as these cloths are more easily transported than the 
 mats, there will be needed only twenty days' labor, in- 
 stead of twenty-four, which, at $0.50 per day, will give 
 an expenditure of $10.50 per acre, including interest at 
 five per cent. 
 
 The use of these cloths will therefore give rise to 
 the following yearly expenditure per acre: 
 
 Cloths $ 9 70 
 
 Sheds, for storing the cloths ~ o 3* 
 
 Manual labor 10 50 
 
 Total $zo 53 
 
 From what precedes, we see that the use of cloths as 
 shelters, instead of mats, would be a saving of $13.50 
 per acre, yearly, at the same time giving results quite 
 as satisfactory. Moreover, the drawback arising from 
 the weight of the mats when they are wet, or covered 
 with snow, would be avoided. Lastly, the much more 
 moderate cost of this system of shelter would make its 
 use practicable in vineyards where the use of mats 
 would yield no profit the vineyards of Champagne, 
 for instance. For these reasons, we think that cloths 
 might be profitably substituted for mats. 
 
286 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 3d. Hall. This scourge is all the more to be 
 dreaded, as it can neither be prevented, nor its effect 
 remedied. A few moments suffice for a locality to be 
 completely ravaged, so great is the violence and rap- 
 idity of its action. Fortunately, it acts, generally, 
 within quite narrow limits. But there are certain lo- 
 calities, which, owing to the situation of mountains in 
 their neighborhood, are much oftener ravaged than 
 others. When hail strikes a vineyard, not only is the 
 actual crop lost, but even that of the following year is 
 endangered, for the buds are so mangled that they can 
 only produce weak and barren wood for the following 
 year's crop. Nevertheless, if this misfortune happens to 
 a vineyard in the beginning of June, we may still hope 
 for a tolerable crop the following year, provided effec- 
 tual means are at once employed. In this connection 
 we can not do better than quote here the answer we 
 addressed, in 1861, to the Departmental Administration 
 of the Aude, by whom we had been requested to state 
 what was best to be done for the vineyards of that re- 
 gion which had just been smitten with hail : 
 
 " If I have properly understood your letter, the vines 
 of the districts ravaged by hail, now consist of stocks 
 bearing the year's shoots, but the latter completely de- 
 prived of leaves and berries, and mangled on one side 
 by hail-stones. 
 
 ct This year's crop is lost : the point now is to save 
 that of next year. This can only be done, provided 
 healthy and vigorous wood is obtained for next winter. 
 
 u If the vines be left in their present state, the little 
 sap that will be drawn into the leafless and mangled 
 vines will cause a few weak and sickly shoots to be de- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 287 
 
 x 
 veloped anew, and the stocks, becoming languid, will 
 
 be a long time ailing, if they do not die altogether. 
 
 " The health of these vines can only be restored by 
 the immediate development of new and vigorous shoots. 
 If, to this end, the mangled shoots be pruned so as to 
 keep on them five or six buds, the sap will cause them 
 all to develop, but that sap being insufficient for all of 
 them, they will only produce shoots too weak to be 
 productive, and this want of vigor will cause the stocks 
 to languish. 
 
 " It is, therefore, advisable to concentrate all the ac- 
 tion of the sap on a smaller number of eyes, and, to 
 that end, to prune immediately, as is done at the winter 
 pruning, with this difference : that we must now prune 
 down only to one eye, instead of two. In fact, only 
 one single shoot is requisite at the winter pruning. 
 
 " Proceeding thus, all the sap will be concentrated 
 on a small number of eyes, which will give rise to vig- 
 orous shoots. The latter will renew the organs requi- 
 site for the maintenance of the annual growth of the 
 plants, which organs had suffered from the destruction 
 of the leaves. The season is not yet so far advanced, 
 but that these new shoots will have time to mature, and 
 we may hope for a tolerable crop next year. 
 
 " In addition to this operation, it will be as well, im- 
 mediately after the pruning, to give the soil a slight 
 dressing, to assist vegetation by preventing drought. It 
 will also be necessary, to prevent oidium from attacking 
 these young sprouts, by applying sulphur as soon as 
 they shall have reached a length of about eight inches. 
 This latter operation, being indispensable for keeping 
 off that disease which acts more violently at the end of 
 
288 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 summer than at the beginning, will also have the effect 
 of greatly increasing the vigor of these new shoots. 
 
 " Such is the process which appears most rational to 
 me, and which I should not hesitate to employ if I had 
 vines mangled by hail, like those of which you speak. 
 It is, no doubt, a pity that the means I indicate involve 
 fresh expenditures, but I think the loss would be still 
 greater if nothing were done, for the stocks would at 
 least be condemned to barrenness for several years." 
 
 If hail struck a vineyard at too advanced a period for 
 us to entertain a hope of seeing the new shoots mature 
 themselves sufficiently before winter, we should have 
 to give up the idea of this short pruning. In that case 
 it would be proper to reduce the length of the shoots 
 only one half. Some new shoots will be obtained, in- 
 tended to keep up vegetation in the stocks until the end 
 of the season. At the winter pruning, the original 
 shoots being better organized than in the former case, 
 since they have been struck later, will be pruned as 
 usual. It will, however, be requisite to prune a little 
 shorter, for the plants will necessarily be less vigorous. 
 
 4th. Heat of the Sun. The heat of the sun may 
 prove hurtful to the products of the vine under the fol- 
 lowing circumstances : In the burning summers of the 
 southern, and even the middle region, when the grapes 
 are laid bare by a premature fall of leaves, the bunches 
 thus suddenly exposed, and struck directly by a burning 
 sun, are often scorched, and they dry up more or less 
 completely. Bunches struck directly by the sun, at a 
 very early stage, recover more readily from this acci- 
 dent, the cuticle of the berries having gradually become 
 used to that influence. Nevertheless, when the ground 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 289 
 
 is much parched by drought, and the vine no longer 
 finds, in the soil, the moisture necessary to repair the 
 losses it experiences, through evaporation, the bunches 
 we have just spoken of may also be scorched. 
 
 [Sunscald is a trouble we do not dread, notwithstanding the 
 great heat of the solar ray in our climate. By judicious sum- 
 mer pruning, and the avoidance of the defoliation practiced 
 in Europe, and with healthy, vigorous vines, that do not mil- 
 dew, and cast their leaves, we rarely sustain any loss from sun- 
 scald. This trouble will follow bad summer pruning, by 
 which the foliage is too freely removed, and will follow the 
 terrible defoliation of the vines caused by mildew, when this 
 occurs early in the season, and it may happen when the vines 
 have been broken down by a storm, or by the parting of the 
 ties with which they were fastened to the stake or trellis. 
 The first and the last are within our control ; we may learn 
 to do our summer pruning more judiciously, and we may be 
 on the alert, promptly to restore the fallen vines, and be care- 
 ful, when raising it, and securing it to its place, so to arrange 
 the foliage as to cover every bunch from the sun. We can 
 not so well manage to prevent the defoliations produced by 
 the mildew, though judicious and persistent sulphuration prom- 
 ises to be effective. In this treatment our author appears to 
 have great confidence, as will appear in those pages where he 
 discusses the subject. Some cultivators have arrived at the 
 conclusion that it is useless to plant such varieties as are sub- 
 ject to the malady, and they confine their attentions exclusive- 
 ly to the culture of those that appear perfectly healthy and 
 hardy. This is a good practice, certainly ; but, unfortunately, 
 some of our very best table-grapes are those most subject to 
 the malady ; we have them, and are unwilling to give them 
 up.] 
 
290 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 To prevent this accident, the thinning of leaves, in 
 the first place, must be practiced with moderation only 
 during very hot years, and when the season is already 
 well advanced, so that the sun has lost part of its pow- 
 er. Besides this, lighter plowings must be executed, to 
 prevent the ground from drying up too much. 
 
 [The closing remark of this section, in which the author 
 advises "lighter plowings to prevent the ground from dry- 
 ing up," is so opposed to the established axioms of our agri- 
 culture, that it should not be allowed to pass without a word 
 of explanation. Had he insisted upon more plowing than 
 usual, under the circumstances indicated, he might have been 
 pardoned for recommending lightly stirring the surface; and 
 this would be sound advice, to plow frequently, even shallow, 
 rather than not to plow, as all experience will show that such 
 treatment will tend to retain the moisture of the soil. Late 
 in the season, however, it is not desirable to stimulate growth, 
 nor to retain moisture in the soil, and most vine-dressers would 
 then lay aside the use of the plow, unless it became necessary 
 for subduing the weeds. 
 
 One of our most successful and intelligent cultivators of the 
 vine, M. Werk, Esq., was so impressed with the importance 
 of keeping his vineyards dry, that he took pains in cultivating 
 the ground, during the early part of the season, to make the 
 spaces between the rows into shallow gutters, to carry off 
 all the rain that might fall upon them, and for the rest of the 
 season he used shallow scraping with the hoe, simply to keep 
 down the weeds, and to make the surface as hard and smooth 
 as possible.] 
 
 DISEASES. The vine is subject to various diseases, 
 of which the following are the principal. 
 
 Jaundice. This disease is characterized by the change 
 of color in the leaves, which pass from green to yellow. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 
 
 291 
 
 This yellow color is owing to a want of tone in the cel- 
 lular tissue of the leaves, which want of tone suspends 
 their functions, and prevents the formation of chloro- 
 phyle, a green matter which imparts its color to the 
 tissues, under the influence of light. The cause of 
 this want of tone in the cellular tissue always proceeds 
 from a diseased state of the roots. It is for this reason 
 that jaundice makes its appearance when the roots are 
 in contact with stagnant dampness, which causes them 
 to rot, and when they are attacked by the larvas of cer- 
 tain insects. To combat this evil, then, we must re- 
 move its causes. 
 
 Red Leaves. This second malady bears a certain 
 analogy to the preceding one. Nevertheless, it differs 
 from it, in the color of the leaves, which assume a more 
 or less deep red tint, as early as the month of July, and 
 
 [FiG. 114.] Leaves Attacked hy Leprosy. 
 finally drop off. This change, which is almost always 
 
292 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 fatal to the plant, is also due to the bad state of the 
 roots. 
 
 Blight. This affection presents the following char- 
 acteristics : the leaves, the young shoots, and even the 
 berries, assume a greyish tint, owing to the cuticle of 
 these parts splitting, and drying up. The growth is 
 completely arrested, and the berries split instead of rip- 
 ening. Vine-dressers refer this alteration either to the 
 cold rains of summer, following warm weather, or to a 
 too abundant crop the year preceding. This disease is 
 made to disappear by fully manuring the plants affected, 
 and making them barren for one year. 
 
 O'idium, or White Leprosy. Of all the diseases at- 
 tacking the vine this is certainly the most to be feared. 
 
 [FlG. 115.] Vine At- [FiG. 116.] Fruit At- 
 tacked by Leprosy. tacked by Leprosy. 
 This affection presents itself under the form of an ef- 
 florescence of a greyish white, first on the leaves 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 293 
 
 [Fig. 114], and the young shoots [Fig. 115], whose de- 
 velopment it suspends, then on the berries themselves, 
 whose growth it arrests. The cuticle of the berries hard- 
 ens and assumes a tawny color ; these berries split [Fig. 
 1 1 6], acquire a bitter taste, and rot before ripening. 
 The leaves and shoots attacked are covered with brown 
 spots, the leaves drop off, and, if the disease be severe, 
 the shoots themselves are disorganized to their very 
 base, so that not only is the crop of that season lost, 
 but also that of the following year, and if the plants be 
 subjected to this scourge for two or three years in suc- 
 cession, they soon perish. 
 
 It was in 1845 tnat oidium was first observed on the vine 
 in England, by Mr. Tucker, a gardener at Margate. Since 
 1849, tn * s Disease has shown itself at several points in 
 the neighborhood of Paris ; first on vines in hot-houses, 
 then on garden trellises, and finally on vineyard plants. 
 It has now, unfortunately, invaded all parts of our terri- 
 tory, acting more intensely in proportion as the vines 
 are situated in a hotter climate, or have a warmer ex- 
 posure. It seems to attack all varieties alike, but it 
 acts with greater force on the most vigorous. [!] 
 
 Opinions are very much divided as to the cause of 
 this serious affection of the vine. Some attribute it 
 entirely to that white efflorescence which has been re- 
 cognized as a little parasitical mushroom of the genus 
 oidium of the numerous family of the mucedince, and to 
 which the specific name " Tuckeri " has been given. 
 Others look upon the presence of this mushroom (which 
 is not called in question) as the result of the disease, 
 and they think it brought about by certain microscopic 
 insects. Finally, others again attribute it to atmos- 
 
294 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 pheric influences analagous to those causing the potato 
 rot. Thus, the cause of the disease remaining still un- 
 determined, it has been difficult to find its remedy. 
 Numerous means have been employed to combat it 
 since its invasion of France in 1849. We shall only 
 speak of the three following processes, which, alone, 
 have yielded satisfactory results. The first consists in 
 the employment of flower of sulphur, sprinkled over all 
 the green parts when they are wet. This process, orig- 
 inally employed by Mr. Kile, an English horticultu- 
 rist of Leyton, was first tried in France in 1849, by M. 
 Marie, a physician of Ecouen. 
 
 All the vine-growers of Thomery employed it on a 
 large scale in 1851. They obtained very good results 
 therefrom, but objected that it caused the sulphur to 
 adhere to the grapes, so as to damage the sale. More- 
 over the necessity of employing water, rendered this 
 process somewhat unadapted to vineyards. 
 
 The second means is that recommended in 1852, by 
 M. Grison, head gardener of the kitchen-garden hot- 
 houses at Versailles. It consists in the employment of 
 hydrosulphate of lime, prepared as follows : One pound 
 of flower of sulphur, and an equal volume of newly- 
 slaked lime, are well mixed together. This mixture, 
 placed in a cast-iron vessel containing five and three- 
 quarter pints of water, is boiled for ten minutes. The 
 liquid is first allowed to clear itself, and is then de- 
 canted. This liquid is a solution of the hyrosulphate 
 of lime, and is kept in a closed vessel, to use as occa- 
 sion requires ; it is then diluted with one hundred times 
 its volume of water, and all the green parts of the vine 
 are wetted with it. This mode of operating, employed 
 
Inclement Weather , Diseases, Etc. 295 
 
 in 1852 by a great number of wine-growers at Thomery, 
 yielded results much less satisfactory than flower of 
 sulphur. 
 
 During the winter of 1852-53, M. Rose-Charmeux, 
 a vine-growing land-owner of Thomery (Seine-ct- 
 Marne) was warming vines under glass, by means of a 
 hot-water apparatus. The idea occurred to him of 
 spreading a trail of flower of sulphur along the cop- 
 per pipes of his apparatus. The heat of boiling 
 water was sufficient to create a sulphurous emanation, 
 which completely prevented the appearance of oiidium. 
 Made sanguine by this discovery, he determined during 
 the summer of 1863 to submit all his open-air trellises 
 to the action of dry sulphur, and he advised the growers 
 in the vicinity to do the same. That year, almost all 
 the trellises of Thomery were subjected to dry sulphu- 
 ration, and the crop was unaffected. 
 
 The excellent effects of this process have been ad- 
 mitted by an official commission, appointed, on our 
 representations, by the Minister of Agriculture, and the 
 report of that commission, inserted in the Moniteur, 
 confirms the claim which M. Rose-Charmeux has to 
 the gratitude of all vine-growers, as the inventor of 
 the only truly practicable and efficacious means of com- 
 bating this terrible scourge. The indications furnished 
 in that report have served as a starting point for all sul- 
 phur operations now applied to our vineyards and trel- 
 lises. 
 
 M. Laforgue, a vine-proprietor of Beziers, was the 
 first to apply it on a large scale. Messrs. Mares, of 
 Montpellier, and Vial, of Beziers, by their writings, 
 
296 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 have powerfully contributed to the adoption of this 
 method in all the regions of the South. 
 
 We now give the main precautions which sulphura- 
 tion requires to produce its beneficial effects. The sul- 
 phur must be uniformly sprinkled, and well distributed, 
 on all the green parts shoots, leaves, and bunches. 
 M. Charmeux perceived, and it has since been proved, 
 that the action of sulphur is all the greater, as it is ap- 
 plied at the first appearance of the disease, and even be- 
 fore, for it is especially a preventive measure. For 
 this reason, it is as well to make a first application of 
 sulphur when the shoots have barely a length of six 
 inches, a second one on the unfolding of the flowers, 
 and a third when the grapes have attained to a third of 
 their size. If an abundant rain should occur shortly 
 after one of these applications, it would have to be im- 
 mediately repeated. For this purpose, fine still weather 
 should be chosen, so that the sulphur may not be blown 
 ofF by the wind. The two first applications of sulphur 
 are made over the whole plant ; the third may be di- 
 rected to the bunches only. 
 
 Certain plants in a vineyard and always the same, 
 be it observed are first attacked by this disease, and 
 may serve as a sort of index to point out the proper 
 time for each application of sulphur. These plants are 
 generally such as are most shaded. 
 
 Since the application of sulphur has become almost 
 an universal operation, the consequence has been an 
 enormous consumption of this material, then a marked 
 increase in its price, and finally its adulteration. It is 
 therefore important that consumers should beware of 
 being cheated on making their purchases. It was at 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 297 
 
 first supposed that sublimated sulphur, or flower of sul- 
 phur, ought to be exclusively used for this opera- 
 tion, but M. Laforgue has discovered that common 
 sulphur, well ground, produced the same effects with 
 the same volume ; of course, as the latter is much 
 cheaper, it should be preferred. 
 
 It has also recently been recommended that certain 
 foreign matters be mixed with the sulphur, such as 
 plaster of Paris and other substances, and this with a 
 view of lessening the expense. But the results ob- 
 tained by these means are not sufficiently conclusive for 
 us to recommend them. 
 
 . [Mr. John E. Mottier, a distinguished and successful vine- 
 dresser, for many years resident of the neighborhood of Cin- 
 cinnati, used air-slaked lime in combination with sulphur. 
 To a portion of his vines he applied the lime alone, and, as 
 he thought, with equally good effect. 
 
 Some persons have claimed that even the fine dust from the 
 roads would be productive of the same results in checking the 
 mildew ; but, unfortunately, the disease has been observed in 
 some situations where the grape-vines are constantly covered 
 with this material.] 
 
 When sulphur began to be employed, means were 
 sought for sprinkling it as quickly and as economically 
 as possible. With this object, two kinds of instru- 
 ments have been employed. First bellows, whereof 
 M. Gontier, a grower of early produce at Montrouge, 
 near Paris, was the first to contrive one for that pur- 
 pose. This bellows was afterward improved by M. 
 Gaffe, of Fontainebleau, following the suggestions of 
 the growers of Thomery. 
 
 We subjoin a description of this instrument. It consists 
 
298 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 first, of an ordinary bellows [A, Fig. 117], to which 
 is adapted the apparatus meant to hold the sulphur. 
 This is made of tin ; consists of an oval box, B, fixed 
 to the end of the nozzle of the bellows, and having 
 three openings. The first [C, Fig. 118] admits the air 
 
 [FlG. 117.] Gaffe's Bellows^ for Sulphurating Fines at- 
 tacked by Oidium. 
 
 expelled by the bellows ; the second, D, allows the sul- 
 phur to be introduced into the box, and is closed with a 
 cork stopper, E ; the third, I, allows the air which has 
 entered the box to escape, taking a certain quantity of 
 sulphur, F, with it. The box is divided inside by two 
 
 [FlG. 1 1 8.] Vertical Section of the Preceding Figure. 
 
 horizontal open partitions. The first one, G, is com- 
 posed of seven iron wires, stretched at distances of 
 four-tenths of an inch from each other, lengthwise in 
 the box. The second, H, is a copper cloth, stretched at 
 four-tenths of an inch below the first partition, and the 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 299 
 
 meshes of which have a width of about four one-hun- 
 dredths of an inch. 
 
 It will now be seen that if sulphur is introduced into 
 the box D [Fig. 118], and the bellows be made to act, 
 the current of air driven through the nozzle, C, will fol- 
 low the direction, H I, and meeting the sulphur running 
 
 FIG. 119.] La VergnSs Bellows. 
 
 through the two partitions, will carry it along, and make 
 it appear at F, in the form of a little cloud, the impal- 
 pable particles of which will deposit themselves in a 
 thin but sufficient layer, on surrounding surfaces. 
 
 [FiG. 1 20.] Section of La Vergne's Bellows. 
 It has been objected to this instrument that it does 
 not work quickly enough, and furthermore, that the 
 weight of sulphur being placed at the front part soon 
 fatigues the operator. For which reason it is now 
 nearly superseded by M. Vergne's bellows, constructed 
 at Bordeaux. 
 
300 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The dimension of this bellows [Figs. 119 and 120], 
 are those of ordinary ones. The top and bottom are 
 made of poplar wood, and terminate in a nozzle, two 
 and three-fourths inches long, the interior of which 
 spreads from the inside outwardly. There is no iron 
 work of any kind, either inside or out. The side- 
 leather is fastened to the top and bottom by small com- 
 mon iron nails. A hole, one and one-half inch in 
 diameter, is made in the top, and is kept closed with a 
 cork stopper, B. There is no valve, the air coming in 
 and going out at the opening of the nozzle. 
 
 L 
 
 [FiG. 121.] La Vergnis Sulphur Bag. 
 The nozzle, A, is regularly curved, and has a diam- 
 eter of one and one-fourth inch ; it is fastened to the 
 end of the bellows by means of two hooks, placed at 
 the side. A copper cloth, with meshes eight one-hun- 
 dredths of an inch apart, is placed in front. The sulphur 
 is introduced into the bellows through the hole B, near 
 the top. The weight of sulphur being near the oper- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 301 
 
 ator's hands, the instrument is not so fatiguing. The 
 workmen who are entrusted with this operation carry 
 with them a small stock of sulphur from five to six 
 pounds in a linen bag, fastened in front of them. 
 This bag [Fig. 121] is thirteen inches wide at the bot- 
 tom, only eight at the top, and eleven inches high. It 
 is provided at one of its lower angles with a conical tin 
 nozzle, C, closed by a cork stopper, and intended to 
 introduce the sulphur into the bellows. The peculiar 
 construction of the nozzle of this bellows allows the 
 jet of sulphur to be sprinkled with ease in all directions 
 up and down, and from side to side. The cost of 
 this instrument, at Bordeaux, is fifty or seventy cents, 
 with the bag. 
 
 Other apparatus have been constructed on the same 
 principles. But it is objected to them, as well as to M. 
 de la Vergne's bellows, that the sulphur comes in con- 
 tact with the leather of the bellows, which very soon 
 destroys it. A manufacturer of Beziers has succeeded 
 in overcoming this objection, while retaining the ad- 
 vantages of M. de la Vergne's bellows. 
 
 [The distinguished vine-grower, G. W. Campbell, of Del- 
 aware, Ohio, has produced an implement for the purpose of 
 dusting his vines, that has some advantages, and may easily be 
 made by any one who desires to use the sulphur, or other dry 
 pulverulent substances, as a remedy against mildew,. 
 
 Mr. Campbell writes that he can not give the expense of 
 this bellows, because he made it himself, and kept no account 
 of the cost of materials, nor of the time spent in its construc- 
 tion. He says he finds it very convenient and effective, and 
 that he can throw a cloud of sulphur and quicklime through 
 
3 2 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 a trellis nearly as fast as he can naturally walk. He sends 
 some drawings, which will make the matter clear. 
 
 [Fie. 122.] G. W. Campbell's Bellows. 
 
 A, reservoir for sulphur, made of tin, soldered upon the 
 
 pipe b, which is also of tin, and made somewhat like the nose 
 
 of a watering-pot, but left open, and flattened at the end, 
 
 leaving a wide space for the escape of sulphur; d, a small 
 
 CL d 
 
 [Fie. 123.] Section of the Preceding Figure. 
 leathern valve, opening into the pipe from the hole c, which 
 closes when air is drawn into the bellows, preventing the ad- 
 mission of sulphur into the air-chamber; a, small holes in 
 the bottom of the reservoir by closing a part with pegs the 
 quantity of-sulphur can be regulated.] 
 
 The two following contrivances have also been made 
 for the application of sulphur. The first is a sort of 
 dredging-box [Fig. 124], invented by M. Laforgue, of 
 Beziers. It consists of a tin cylinder, of a rather con- 
 ical shape, and eight inches in hight. The base, B, 
 
Inclement Weather^ Diseases, Etc. 
 
 33 
 
 which is three and one half inches wide, is slightly con- 
 vex, and pierced with a great number of small holes. 
 A lid, A, two inches in diameter, allows the sulphur to 
 be introduced at the upper part. Inside, a little above 
 the bottom, some crossed wires, C [Fig. 125], serve to 
 pulverize the lumps of sulphur. The objection to this 
 dredging-box is that it does not reduce the sulphur suf- 
 
 [FiG. 124.] Laforguis Dr edging-Box. 
 
 ficiently fine when scattering it, thus necessitating more 
 material for the same surface, and it does not send out 
 the sulphur with so much force as the bellows, so as to 
 sprinkle the plants all over. M. Laforgue has improved 
 his instrument by diminishing the size of the holes, and 
 it has since worked well. 
 
 [FiG. 125.] Section of Preceding Figure. 
 
 Messrs. Ouin and Franc have tried to improve M. 
 Laforgue's dredging-box, by adding a woolen tuft, A 
 [Fig. 124], attached to the bottom, B [Fig. 125], also 
 pierced with a number of holes. The sulphur is thus 
 
34 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 more finely- sprinkled, but the instrument can only be 
 used after the evaporation of the dew, which, other- 
 wise, would soon saturate the tuft and render it unser- 
 viceable. 
 
 We do not think that either of these instruments 
 should be preferred to the other, in all cases. Thus, 
 
 [FiG. 126.] Messrs. Ouin and Franc's Dr edging-Box, 
 with Tuft. 
 
 for the first two applications of sulphur, which are made 
 over the entire plant, bellows should be preferred. But, 
 for the third operation, which is only applied to the 
 bunches, M. Laforgue's dredging-box seems to be bet- 
 
 [FiG.iay.] Section of Preceding Figure. 
 ter adapted. This instrument is held in the right hand, 
 while, with the left, those bunches are laid bare to 
 which sulphur is to be applied. 
 
 One more question remains to be considered, with 
 regard to this important operation and that is the ex- 
 pense it gives rise to, per acre of vineyard. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 305 
 
 The quantity of flower of sulphur to be employed to 
 the acre is, on an average, twenty-seven pounds for the 
 first application, and fifty-four pounds for each of the 
 other two in all, one hundred and thirty-five pounds, 
 which, at two and a quarter cents a pound, make three 
 dollars. 
 
 To distribute the sulphur, requires twelve women's 
 working days, at twenty-two cents, or, altogether, 
 $5.64 per acre. 
 
 Of course the cost of this operation varies according 
 to the price of sulphur and manual labor, and also de- 
 pends upon what kind of weather follows the applica- 
 tion a rain-storm compelling the work to be begun 
 anew. Lastly, that cost will depend upon the mode of 
 pruning the vines the creeping vines of Languedoc 
 requiring more time, and calling for more sulphur than 
 those of Medoc. 
 
 HURTFUL INSECTS. The Fine-Beetle [Fig. 128]. 
 This little beetle, known to vine-growers under the 
 name of "devil," "scribbler," etc., has its elytra of a 
 brownish-red, and the remainder of its body black ; it 
 is to be found on vines from the 
 month of July. This insect, in 
 gnawing the leaves, makes on them 
 those linear impressions that have 
 been compared to written charac- 
 ters [Fig. 127]. When it is present 
 in large numbers, it also attacks 
 the grapes, and dries them up. It 
 is when in the larval stage that [FiG. 128.] 
 
 this beetle is especially injurious. Fine-Beetle. 
 
 It presents itself in the shape of a little elongated worm, 
 26 
 
306 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 first whitish, and afterward assuming a brown color. 
 This larva spends the winter in the ground, and gnaws 
 the roots of the vine ; in the spring it devours the 
 shoots and young leaves. 
 
 M. Paul has lately conceived the following plan to 
 destroy this beetle. Grind oil-cakes in an oil-mill ; 
 spread them over the ground in the proportion of 1,080 
 
 [FlG. 129.] Leaf attacked by the Fine -Beetle ana 
 its Larva. 
 
 pounds to the acre, and plow them in immediately. 
 These oil-cakes must not have been heated beyond 
 eighty degrees, and are made as dry as possible, other- 
 wise the essential oil of mustard, which has the prop- 
 erty of destroying the insects, will have disappeared. 
 The operation, repeated every three years, completely 
 destroys the larvae of this beetle, which live in the 
 ground. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 
 
 37 
 
 Spider-Shaped Beetle [Fig. 130]. The elytra of this 
 beetle are green or blue. It attacks, indifferently, the 
 leaves and young shoots, and, like the insect first de- 
 scribed, it lets itself drop to the ground, as if dead, at 
 the approach of a hand about to seize it. The female 
 lays her eggs in the leaves, which she rolls up [Fig. 
 131], and which may thus be easily recognized, and 
 taken off to burn. ^ ff \ 
 
 ., 
 
 [Fie. 130.] Spidtr-Sbaptd 
 
 Beetle. 
 
 [FiG. iy.]Wn 
 
 rolled up by the Spider 
 Shaped Beetle. 
 
 [FiG. 132.] Blue-Beetle 
 of DunaL 
 
 Blue Beetle of Dunal [Fig. 132]. This small beetle 
 appears about the end of April, and fastens on the 
 young shoots and the bunches, the stalks of which it 
 eats. It pairs about the end of May ; a fortnight later, 
 lays its eggs on the underside of the leaves, and in the 
 last days of June, the larva is hatched a small worm, 
 that eats the leaves. 
 
308 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 No means of destroying these last two insects have, 
 as yet, been found, except hunting them continually. 
 When they are fully developed, a kind of very wide- 
 mouthed tin funnel, ending in a bag, is made use of. The 
 funnel is fitted to the foot of the plant ; the stems are 
 then shaken, and all the insects fall into the bag. This 
 work should be performed early in- the morning. As for 
 the larvae, they are disposed of by removing all the 
 leaves that are rolled up, and burning them. 
 
 [FiG. 133.] Common [FiG. 134.] Larva of 
 
 May-Beetle. the Common May-Beetle. 
 
 Common May-Beetle [Fig. 133]. This insect is very de- 
 structive. The larvae [Fig. 134] are especially feared, as 
 they destroy the roots. They are known to wine-growers 
 by the name of White Worm, Turk, etc. There is no 
 other means of preventing the multiplication of this in- 
 sect, than by destroying it, either in its larval stage, or 
 when fully developed. The larvae should therefore be 
 destroyed, when brought to the surface by the plow. As 
 these remain in the ground for three years, a periodical 
 killing is all that will be required. The beetles, also, 
 should be collected and destroyed. They may be shaken 
 from the trees early in the morning in the early spring. 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 309 
 
 Some animals wage unremitting war against May- 
 beetles : such are the bat, the rook, the owl, and the 
 screech-owl,* all of which devour the fully developed 
 insect, and the mole, which feeds on the larvae. It 
 will, therefore, be advisable not to destroy these ani- 
 mals in localities infested by May-beetles. 
 
 The Vine-Pyralis, also known to vine-dressers by the 
 name of vine-worm. This is, beyond doubt, the insect 
 causing most ravages in vineyards ; it 
 appears twice a year in the shape of a 
 larva, or worm, and is first seen at blos- 
 soming time. At this period, its larva 
 [Fig. 135] devours the leaves and young 
 bunches, which it wraps up in numerous 
 silky threads. It is next seen in the fall, 
 between the berries, which it also covers 
 with silky threads. The larvae pass the 
 winter in silky cocoons, placed under old L ^ r 35-J 
 ragged bark, or in the slits of old stakes. Larva f 
 In April or May, they are transformed * e Y tne ~ 
 into little butterflies, of a yellowish white fyralis. 
 [Fig. 136]. These butterflies lay their eggs in July, 
 on the silky tissue enveloping the 
 grapes. 
 
 The three following plans have 
 been proposed for the destruction 
 of this mischievous insect : ist, the [FiG. 136.] But- 
 careful removal and burning of all terfly of the Py- 
 the bunches inclosed in silky rails. 
 threads, as well as of the rolled-up 
 
 * In this country the skunk eats the beetle, and the crow and blackbird 
 consume the larvae of our May-beetles. 
 
310 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 leaves ; passing the grape-stakes through an oven, during 
 the winter, so as to destroy the eggs or larvae that 
 might be adhering to them, and the removal of old bark 
 and of the moss covering the stem of the plant. These 
 operations will certainly have a very good effect, but 
 they are incomplete, and always leave on the stem 
 some eggs, or larvae, which, owing to the two generations 
 they produce annually, soon infest the vineyard anew. 
 2d. The plan of scalding the plants with boiling water, 
 has been tried with success. This operation, suggested 
 by M. Raclet, of Romaneche, is employed in some 
 vineyards, and particularly in Beaujolais, where, by its 
 means, the pyralis, that had made great ravages during 
 several years has been got rid of. The process is as 
 follows : 
 
 Immediately after the pruning, and before vegetation 
 has set in, when there is neither frost, wind, nor 
 rain, a workman, provided with a tin pot, holding 
 one quart, and having a long, tapering spout [Fig. 137], 
 pours boiling water over the old wood of the plant, so 
 so as to wet all the surface of each stem. Care must 
 be taken to avoid wetting the young shoots with this 
 water, as it would destroy them. This scalding suffices 
 to kill the larvae and eggs deposited in the cavities of 
 the bark. We borrow from the Journal of Practical 
 Agriculture, the cut of the boiler intended to heat the 
 water [Fig. 138]. This apparatus consists of a chim- 
 ney, or heating cylinder, F F, rising from the fire- 
 place E, and forming the interior walls of the boiler. 
 The exterior walls of the vessel, A, B, C, are twelve 
 and three-quarter inches in diameter at C, and ten 
 inches in diameter at A. The fire-place curved, and 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 
 
 3 ir 
 
 [Fie. 137.] 
 Scalding the 
 Stocks. 
 
 for 
 Grape- 
 
 This apparatus 
 
 spreading out fourteen and a half inches at C, rises 
 thirty-two inches, to B. D 
 is the funnel for filling the 
 vessel; G, the steam-valve; 
 II, two stop-cocks, for boil- 
 ing water ; HH, two hooks, 
 through which two stakes 
 are slipped, to carry the ap- 
 paratus ; J is the fire-grate. 
 The grate and hooks are of 
 iron ; all the rest is made of copper, 
 is heated with coke. 
 Every quart of boil- 
 ing water taken out 
 is replaced by its 
 equivalent of cold 
 water. The water 
 does not cease boil- 
 ing, and keeps four 
 men at work. Two 
 thousand vines can 
 be scalded in a day. 
 
 This mode of op- 
 erating gives very 
 good results, but, in 
 order that the suc- 
 cess may be entire, 
 the stakes must also 
 be scalded, or passed 
 through an oven. [FiG. 138.] Furnace, for Boiling 
 
 3d. M. George Water in the Vineyard. 
 
 Perrier, a wine-grower at Ay (Marne), has employed 
 
3 I2 
 
 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 sulphurous acid with great success, for the destruction 
 of the pyralis. This is his process : 
 
 For Stakes. These being stacked up here and there 
 in the vineyard, during winter, as shown in Figure 68, 
 he covers each with a kind of wooden bell [Fig. 139], 
 having two iron handles. Before placing this bell over 
 the stakes, a vessel full of sulphur is placed close beside 
 them, on the ground ; fire is applied to it, and the bell 
 is put over all, care being taken to keep a little earth 
 round the base of the bell, to prevent the admission of 
 external air. The fire continues to burn until the air 
 
 exhausted of its oxy- 
 
 is 
 
 gen, and this produces sul- 
 phurous acid gas, which 
 kills off the larvae and eggs 
 lodged in the seams of the 
 stakes. In the space of 
 about two hours, the de- 
 sired effect is produced, 
 and the bell may be re- 
 [FiG. 139.] W^ooden Bell, moved and placed on an- 
 for Sulphurating the Stakes, other stack. 
 
 For the Plants. M. Perrier begins immediately after 
 the pruning, before the stakes are placed, and before 
 there is any sign that vegetation has commenced. It is 
 also proper to begin before laying down the plants 
 an operation usual in Champagne as described on 
 page 1 80. Were this not done, the eggs and larvae of 
 the pyralis might be buried, which would not hinder 
 them from being developed. When the time for op- 
 erating has arrived, a piece of tile, on which is laid a 
 sulphurated wick, is placed at the foot of each vine ; the 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 313 
 
 match is lighted, and each plant is covered with an iron 
 bell [Fig. 140], which must be perfectly air-tight, and 
 of sufficient dimensions to inclose the plants, without 
 crowding them. These bells are 
 slightly pressed into the ground, to 
 prevent the entrance of air at the bot- 
 tom. The effect is then the same as 
 that produced on the stakes. In or- 
 der that the operation may go on rap- 
 idly enough, it would be advisable to 
 have about one hundred of these small L IG * r *J 
 bells, so that when the last has been Iron Eell ^f or 
 laid down, sufficient time may have Sulphurating 
 elapsed say two hours since the 
 placing of the first, which should then be transferred to 
 another plant, and so on with the rest, throughout the 
 extent of the vineyard. Of course, the dimensions of 
 these bells must necessarily vary with that of the plants, 
 and the length of sulphurated wick to be used should 
 proportioned to the size of the bells. It will always be 
 better to put too much than too little. M. George 
 Perrier estimates the cost of this process, both for stakes 
 and plants, at $14.40 per acre. But it must not be for- 
 gotten that in that part of Champagne there are 24,000 
 plants to the acre. It is true that these plants are re- 
 duced to very small dimensions, as we have shown, fur- 
 ther back. 
 
 [We have an insect in the United States, which is very 
 similar to the May-beetle of Europe, and called by the same 
 popular names, but by the entomologists it is named the Lacb- 
 nosterna fusca. It appears, in the winged state, early in May 
 and is often quite injurious to many of our cultivated fruits, 
 27 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 but I do not know that it has been found to damage the vine. 
 The larva is the common white grub, and as it remains a 
 long while in the ground in this form, and is quite a voracious 
 feeder, it is often very destructive ; though I am not aware of 
 its ever having been detected eating the roots of the grape- 
 vine, its appetite for similar vegetation renders it an unwel- 
 come visitant. The remedies and the natural enemies are 
 similar to those given by the author. 
 
 Pelidmta punctata, is the name of a much larger beetle, 
 which feeds upon the grape-leaves in midsummer, and con- 
 sumes considerable quantities of the foliage. I have not 
 learned its history in the larval condition, but suppose the 
 grub may also prefer to feed upon the vine, and if so, it will 
 destroy the roots. 
 
 The perfect insect is to be found in the day-time, among 
 the leaves, where it may easily be caught, and should be 
 destroyed. It may be known by its large size; the wing-covers 
 are shining, of a dull yellow, marked by three black dots on 
 the outer side of each, and one on each side of the thorax. 
 
 The Rose-Beetle (Macrodactylus subspinosa) is often very in- 
 jurious to the grape-vine, sometimes destroying the crop by 
 cutting off the bunches, as well as eating the foliage in May 
 and June. 
 
 In its perfect state, this insect is exceedingly voracious to 
 many of our cultivated plants. Though each individual be 
 quite small about half an inch long their immense numbers 
 cause serious destruction of vegetation, and they continue to 
 feed for about a month. The rose-beetle is .33 of an inch 
 long, is of a dull, rather pale buff yellow. The claws are large 
 and black. Their eggs are deposited in the ground, where 
 they hatch in about twenty days, and the grubs feed upon 
 roots, until fall, when they descend into the ground to hyber- 
 nate, and emerge the next season as beetles. 
 
 The Rose-Chaffer has many natural enemies among preda- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 315 
 
 ceous insects, but we must depend upon human agencies for 
 their destruction ; hopeless as the task may appear, they must 
 be gathered and destroyed by hand if we would save our crops 
 where they abound. They are sluggish, and easily caught, 
 when they may be destroyed by throwing into hot water. 
 The appearance of this insect is often quite local, being abun- 
 dant in one neighborhood, and rarely seen in others. 
 
 The Haltica chalybea, or Grape-vine Flea-Beetle, is a very 
 annoying insect in some vineyards. Though quite small, be- 
 ing only o.i 6 of an inch in length, it is voracious, and eats 
 into the buds and young shoots as they swell and begin to 
 push. This beetle is oval, shiny, deep greenish-blue, or deep 
 green, or purple. The name " chalybea," is intended to 
 describe this varying, steel-blue color. 
 
 The insect spends the winter in the ground near the foot 
 of the vine, feeding upon the roots. This beetle is referred 
 to in vol. II, page 60, of the Practical Entomologist, which 
 every vine-dresser should read ; and in vol. I, page 40, is a 
 description by J. Kirkpatrick, of Cleveland, Ohio, in which 
 neighborhood the haltica is quite troublesome. With regard 
 to the larval condition of these insects, he says, that " the 
 eggs are laid upon the leaves in May ; when hatched, they 
 feed upon the upper surface. They soon arrive at their full 
 growth, when they are about three-eighths of an inch long, 
 light-brown, with eight rows of black spots above, those of 
 the two dorsal being confluent ; head and feet black ; antennae 
 very short; on each of the spots on the back there is a single 
 hair, and from the breathing apertures, two. * * * 
 When in motion, it brings its body up with a jerk. About 
 the first of June, it enters the ground, and changes to a pupa, 
 emerging from it in about fourteen days, as a perfect insect. 
 There are several broods in the season. ***** 
 
 It is difficult to capture the perfect insects, although much 
 may be done during cool weather, by careful hand-picking. 
 
316 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 The larae are rather tenacious of life. When not numerous, 
 the most certain method of shortening their days, is to pick 
 off the infested leaves, and to burn them ; but this can not be 
 done when they are very numerous. I would recommend 
 syringing with lime, or very strong soap-suds whale-oil soap 
 is the best. Dusting newly air-slaked lime on the leaves, when 
 dry, will probably have a good effect." 
 
 In the lake-shore vine-region, of Ohio, a curculio species 
 unknown has been found, affecting the shoots of the current 
 year's growth. The egg is deposited at some time during the 
 summer. A mark similar to that found upon the plum is seen 
 on the bark of an internode ; on cutting open the wood, a 
 small worm is found, unless it has changed to the beetle, when 
 it escapes through a small, round hole. My attention was 
 directed to this insect by Charles Carpenter, of Kelley's Isl- 
 and, who may be called the pioneer grape-grower of that 
 favored region. 
 
 The grub being yet a study for entomologists, and com- 
 paratively little known, I have not been able to identify this 
 species. It will probably be spread, by transporting cuttings 
 and vines. 
 
 The common curculio, Conotracbelus nenuphar (Herbert), 
 is accused of depositing its eggs in the grape, as in other 
 smooth-skinned fruits. This is doubted by many observers ; 
 and, forsooth, the little Turk has sins enough to answer for 
 without having this laid to his charge. 
 
 In the next order the Ortboptera we find the tree crickets, 
 some of which deposit their eggs in the vine shoots that 
 are marked with a roughish raised line between the joints ; if 
 cut or broken, the fibers will be found pierced and torn to the 
 pith, and a double row of yellowish eggs may be seen. These 
 insects were formerly supposed to be vegetable feeders, but 
 from an article in the Practical Entomologist for February, 1 867, 
 it appears that one species, at least, may prove to be a valu- 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 317 
 
 able friend to the grape-grower, as it is stated that the fa- 
 vorite food of the tree-cricket, (Ecanthus niveus, was aphides, 
 particularly those from the pear and the grape. This, the 
 Editor well observes, is an important fact. The observer, 
 by the by, is a lady, living in Port Byron, 111. Her first 
 observations of this insect eating the aphides, are recorded in 
 Vol. I, p. 126, of the same periodical. 
 
 The order Hemiptera, the true bugs, furnishes us a vast 
 number of injurious insects. Here we find the scale insects, 
 or bark-lice, and the aphides, or plant-lice. 
 
 Of the former subdivision, Dr. Fitch mentions a bark-louse 
 found on grape-vines, in June ; believed to be the Lecanium 
 vitiSy of Linnaeus. It is hemispherical and brown. A cot- 
 tony substance was extruded from beneath the shell until July, 
 when minute insects crept out, and scattered over the bark, 
 upon which they fixed themselves. 
 
 It is believed that this insect is not very common ; I have 
 not seen it myself, but it should be watched for and destroyed 
 before it can increase. 
 
 The history of the Aphides, and their wonderful procrea- 
 tive powers should be familiar to every one who has to do with 
 vegetation, since almost every kind of leafy plant has one or 
 more species, peculiar to itself. The insects, individually, 
 are very small, but their numbers are almost beyond calcula- 
 tion. They live by suction only, and draw the vital fluids 
 from the plants, which suffer exceedingly from their attacks. 
 Fortunately, these creatures have insect enemies that keep 
 them in check. Among these are the Aphis-Lions, or larvae 
 of the Golden-eyed and Lace-wing flies, belonging to the 
 order Neuroptera, and the CoccinelidaE, or Lady-birds, belong- 
 ing to the Beetles, Coleoptera. 
 
 The grape has its peculiar Aphis, called Aphis vitis (?) which 
 is described by Mr. Glover, in the Patent Office Report for 
 1854, p. 79. It is found on the ends of young shoots, during 
 
318 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 the summer. The insects are black. Another vine-leaf 
 aphis called Pemphigus viti folia, by Dr. Fitch causes an 
 excrescence to appear on the upper sides of the leaves of some 
 kinds of grape. 
 
 In the same order, we find one of the most numerous and 
 troublesome enemies of the grape-vine. It is that which is 
 commonly but erroneously called the Thrips which belongs 
 to another group. This insect, which is familiar to every 
 vine-dresser, is the Tettigonia (^Erytbroneura} vitis, of Harris, 
 described and exemplified before the Cincinnati Horticultural 
 Society, as such, in 1865, by the appropriate committee, who 
 begged that it should no longer be called " Thrips," nor Thrip. 
 
 The instructive and amusing, as well as learned editor of 
 the Practical Entomologist, has given a thorough exposition of 
 these insects, in the February number of this year (1867), to 
 which the reader is referred. His illustrations are distinct, 
 and enable any one to identify the insect. The editor, Mr. 
 B. D. Walsh, mentions seven distinct species, that feed upon 
 the grape-vine, in North America. 
 
 These creatures are so numerous by September, that when 
 the leaves are disturbed, and they fly and leap out into the 
 air, it seems filled with little specks, for they are quite small. 
 They appear to affect certain varieties of grape more than 
 others. Some of those with thin foliage have their leaves 
 almost entirely destroyed by them, while those with thick, 
 substantial leaves, somewhat pubescent on the underside, will 
 entirely escape their ravages, though growing close beside them 
 in the same vineyard. Concord and Hartford will escape, 
 while the Delaware and Clinton suffer. 
 
 The next order of insects is a very large one, embracing a 
 great many that are destructive to the vine. The single spe- 
 cies mentioned by M. Du Breuil, as the Pyralis, I have not 
 been able to identify, from the limited number of books at my 
 command. It may be introduced into our own country one 
 
Inclement Weather^ Diseases , Etc. 319 
 
 of these days, and require the expensive and tedious treatment 
 recommended in the text; but, in the meantime, we have in- 
 sect foes enough of our own, among the Lepidoptera alone, to 
 occupy us in their study and destruction for, with all insects, 
 it is highly important that we study their habits and become 
 familiar with their ways, in order that we may successfully 
 combat them. Nor should we ever forget that we have hosts 
 of friends among these creatures, in the cannibal tribes that 
 preserve the balance of power in the great scheme of creation 
 of this world. 
 
 This order the Lepidoptera embraces the butterflies, 
 sphinges, and moths, with their caterpillars ; some of each 
 of these divisions are injurious. The moths are most destruc- 
 tive and numerous. A few of the most troublesome, only, 
 will be mentioned. 
 
 The Fall Web- Worm (Hypbantria textor), is nearly om- 
 niverous, and is often found enveloping a branch of the vine 
 with its ugly silken web, while the gregarious worms are feed- 
 ing upon the leaves. The remedy is to break these off, and 
 destroy them, and it is satisfactory to know that we mav kill 
 from two to three hundred of these caterpillars at one opera- 
 tion. The eggs are deposited on the underside of a leaf, but 
 do not attract attention. Soon afterward, the watchful eye 
 of the vine-dresser may observe two leaves, attached together 
 by silken webs. Within this shelter, the young worms are 
 feeding, and may easily be destroyed by the thumb and finger, 
 if taken in time. They grow to about an inch in length, when 
 they are clothed with whitish hairs ; the head and feet are 
 black, and they have a blackish stripe along the back, and an- 
 other beneath. The perfect moth is white, 1.25 to 1.35 inch 
 in width. (Vide Harris* Report, p. 358.) 
 
 The Tortrices, or Leaf-Rollers, are a family of moths, the 
 pupae of some of which are quite troublesome in the vineyard. 
 The moths are generally small, prettily marked, and fly only 
 in the evening. Prominent among these, in our Western 
 
320 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 vineyards is the Desmia maculalis, or Spotted-Winged Sable, 
 better known to the vine-dresser as the Leaf-Folder. This 
 beautiful little moth scatters her eggs which hatch upon the 
 leaves into a very active, slender, green worm. 
 
 This caterpillar secretes itself, by rolling a leaf upon itself, 
 so as to make a tube of about half an inch diameter, in which 
 it feeds. This fold of the leaf is retained securely by strong 
 bands of beautiful white silk. 
 
 These insects begin to appear in June, and continue, through- 
 out the season, to disfigure our vines. They form the pupae 
 within these rolled leaves. They can best be attacked while in 
 the larval condition, but great dexteriy is required to secure these 
 active little caterpillars, which will quickly escape at either 
 end of the pipe in which they live. They are smooth and 
 shiny, of a pale-green, and move by wriggling to the open 
 end of their shelter, when they drop to the ground and es- 
 cape, so that many of the rolled leaves will appear empty. 
 Some of the warblers are very fond of these caterpillars. 
 
 Pteropborus perisceidactylus, or the Gartered Grape- Vine 
 Plume, is described by Dr. Fitch, in the " New York Agricul- 
 tural Transactions," and in his <( Report," p. 1 39. He says it is 
 a pale-green worm, half an inch long, which feeds upon the 
 foliage of the grape-vine, after fastening several together with 
 silken threads, so as to form a hollow ball. 
 
 The Obis Myron, described as the Chcerocampa Pampinatrix 
 by Harris, and often called the Vine-Dresser, is quite trouble- 
 some in some vineyards. It eats the leaves, and cuts off the 
 bunches of grapes. 
 
 The moth emerges from the ground in June, and lays her 
 eggs upon the leaves. The caterpillar is a pale-green, freck- 
 led with pale-yellow dots ; it becomes a pale, dusky olive 
 when fully grown, and is 2.25 inches in length. 
 
 The Procris Americana, or the American Forester, is found 
 to be quite troublesome on some vines. The worm is small, 
 and feeds in groups of twenty or more, keeping closely side 
 
Inclement Weather ^ Diseases, Etc. 321 
 
 by side. At first they leave a skeleton of the leaf, but as 
 they grow larger, they consume all but the largest veins. 
 They are yellowish, semi-transparent, and at full size are .60 
 inch long. The perfect insect is a small moth blue-black, 
 with a bright orange neck. 
 
 The Alypia octo-maculata, or the Eight-Spotted Forrester, 
 is a light blue caterpillar, 1.25 inch long. In July the worms 
 leave the vine, and spin their cocoons on the ground ; the 
 moth is black, its shanks orange ; each of the fore-wings has 
 large, yellow spots, the hind- wings have white ones. The 
 width of the insect is I to 1.50 inch. It appears in May. 
 
 Among the Sphinges there are some that attack the vine, and 
 as they are large and voracious, their depredations are to be 
 dreaded. The Pbilampelus satellita, and the P. Acbemon, 
 literally the vine-lovers, the Satellite and Achemon Sphinges, 
 are large, green worms, that feed upon the vine. They may 
 be found after midsummer, before they descend into the 
 ground to become pupae. These caterpillars were very abund- 
 ant in New York last summer (1866). 
 
 A tribe of sphinges is called the ^GERIANS, from the well- 
 known peach-tree borer, JEgeria exitiosa. If this is dreaded 
 by the orchardist, how much more its larger cousin, which in- 
 fests the grape-vine. The jEgeria polist&formis is mentioned 
 by Mr. Glover, in the Patent Office Report for 1854, p. 80. 
 
 It is said to be very troublesome in North Carolina, attack- 
 ing all vines except the Scuppernong variety. This insect has 
 attracted very little notice among our western vine-dressers, 
 because, as it works under cover, it has escaped observation, 
 but it is feared that it will increase, and become a serious en- 
 emy. Some specimens of the caterpillar, and the vines it had 
 consumed, were brought to the Cincinnati Horticultural So- 
 ciety by Mr. McWilliams, in 1865, when the natural history 
 of the insect was investigated, and reported on. 
 
 The eggs are laid near the base of the vine stock, and, 
 
322 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 when hatched, the larvae bore into the bark and wood, de- 
 scending into the roots, and consuming the substance so 
 that the vine sickens and dies, or breaks off. The full grown 
 worms measure from an inch to an inch and three-quarters in 
 length ; they are thick-bodied and whitish. They form a 
 pod or chrysalis similar to that of the peach-tree borer, and 
 from this comes the perfect moth, which is of a dark brown 
 color, tinged with orange, and banded with bright yellow on 
 the edge of the second ring of the body. The fore-wings 
 are dusky, and the hind ones transparent. 
 
 The only remedy known is constant inspection of the 
 vines, and an examination of their roots when there is any 
 appearance of disease, and to destroy the. worms when found. 
 
 Of the Hymenoptera, there are some insects that seriously 
 attack the fruit of the vine. Wasps, hornets, and bees, are 
 all of them accused of taking a part in this, and certain gall- 
 flies, breed upon the foliage of some varieties of the grape, 
 producing unpleasant excrescences upon the leaves, 
 v A new enemy to the vine is described by Samuel H. Scud- 
 der, in the March number of the American Journal of Horti- 
 culture, page 154. It appears to be a genuine white ant, 
 and is said to devour the substance of the roots, excavat- 
 ing the woody fibers, and sometimes leaving only the shell ; 
 of course this must be very injurious to the plants. Whether 
 this insect be native, or have been introduced, is not set 
 forth by the writer, but he has adopted the name Termes 
 Jlavipes (of Kollar), who supposed it to have been introduced 
 into Germany from Brazil. He considers it the same insect 
 described by Mr. Haldeman as the Termes frontalis. Mr. 
 Scudder says that the head is large, and the body pale or 
 whitish, by which it may be distinguished from our common 
 ants. 
 
 In the proceedings of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, 
 there has been quite a discussion as to the ravages committed 
 
Inclement Weather, Diseases, Etc. 323 
 
 by the bees, and a paper was prepared by Mr. George Gra- 
 ham, the President, in which was embodied all that is known 
 as to the injuries committed by that insect. From this it ap- 
 pears that after the hornets and wasps had punctured the skin, 
 the bees followed and abstracted the fluids, leaving only the 
 dry husk. Certain it is that a prejudice prevails among our 
 vine-dressers against this useful and industrious insect, and 
 many declare war upon the bees. 
 
 There is a slug, the larvae of the Selandria vitis, which is 
 found upon the leaves of the grape-vine in July. They feed 
 in companies of a dozen or more, eating the upper surface, 
 and injuring the foliage. At present, these insects are not 
 numerous in pur vineyards, but they may increase, and then 
 will deface the foliage as badly as their congeners do the 
 orchards of cherry and pear-trees. 
 
 Various remedies have been suggested, such as dusting with 
 lime and other dry and acrid substances, and syringing with 
 soap-suds and petroleum, as recommended, by Mr. Parkman, 
 for the rose-slug. To a gallon of soft-soap, he adds two- 
 thirds of a pint of petroleum, mixing thoroughly ; he then 
 dissolves this mixture in half a barrel of water, and applies 
 with a syringe. But after all, it will be best to exercise 
 watchful care and observation of the first approaches of this 
 and all other insects that are injurious, and then a little per- 
 severing labor, in the way of hand-picking, will enable us to 
 keep them in check. 
 
 In making up these remarks upon the insect depredators of 
 the vineyard, I have had recourse to various authors, but have 
 chiefly extracted from my own compilation, the chapter on 
 "Insects," in the volume of American Pomology* just published, 
 where credit is given to the different authorities. Many of 
 the statements have been personally verified by myself, and 
 
 * American Pomology : The Apple. Orange Judd & Co., New York. 
 
324 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 that compendium has been revised by my kind friend, E. T. 
 Cresson, of Philadelphia, an eminent entomologist. 
 
 It is hoped that this very condensed account of these pests 
 may serve as a guide to direct the vine-dresser to investi- 
 gate, and to study the habits of these very interesting crea- 
 tures, so as to enable him more successfully to combat them. 
 
 Every one should study the insects for himself, and become 
 acquainted with their wonderful ways. The student will be 
 delighted with their curious instincts, and he will soon see 
 abundant evidence of the design of the Creator in this depart- 
 ment of His universe. The beautiful checks and balances 
 that make up the harmonies of nature, will soon attract his 
 attention, and he will be delighted to find that among insects, 
 despised though they be, there are many that are constantly 
 working in aid of man, and doing more, by checking the in- 
 crease of those that are injurious, than he, with all his boasted 
 powers, could effect. 
 
 And now, before leaving this branch of the subject, let your 
 friend urge upon every one of the readers of these pages, to 
 subscribe to the monthly publication so often referred to 
 the Practical Entomologist.*^ 
 
 Slugs, Snails. Besides insects we must also mention 
 snails, as they do considerable damage by devouring the 
 young shoots in the spring, so as not to leave a single 
 one. At this period they cover the stakes, and the 
 stems of the plants ; it is advisable then, to have them 
 collected by women and children. In some localities 
 a certain price is agreed upon for each measure of slugs 
 collected. It has struck us that the sulphur process, 
 employed to prevent oi'dium, tended, in a great meas- 
 ure, to do away with the slugs. 
 
 * E. T. Cresson, Philadelphia. Fifty cents a year. One Dollar for the 
 two years, from the beginning. 
 
Vintage. 325 
 
 XIV. 
 VINTAGE. 
 
 /^RAPE-GATHERING terminates the series of 
 annual operations involved in the culture of the 
 vineyard. The first question, then, to be settled, is 
 the degree of ripeness the crop ought to have. 
 
 DEGREE OF RIPENESS OF THE GRAPES. It is al- 
 ways an advantage, the quality of the wine being the 
 chief object, to allow the grapes to attain their highest 
 degree of ripeness. This condition is indicated by the 
 combination of the following signs : 
 
 1. The ends of the stems turn from green to brown. 
 
 2. The bunch hangs down. 
 
 3. The berry loses all its toughness ; its pellicle be- 
 comes thin and transparent. 
 
 4. The berries come off with ease. 
 
 5. The juice of the grape is pleasant, sweet, thick, 
 and sticky. 
 
 6. The seeds are free from any glutinous substance. 
 All other things being equal, however, dark grapes 
 
 offer these signs sooner than white ones. 
 
 There are circumstances owing to which the grape- 
 gathering should precede these signs; on the other hand, 
 there are others which require that it should follow at 
 a long interval. 
 
 Thus, in several localities in the north of France, the 
 grape seldom reaches the degree of ripeness we have 
 just indicated ; nevertheless, the crop must be gathered, 
 
326 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 otherwise it will rot through the wet fall weather. In 
 such localities the gathering should be done when it is 
 seen that the grapes no longer derive benefit from the 
 stock. Grapes intended for the manufacture of spark- 
 ling wines should also be gathered before they fully 
 ripen. The same holds good for the white grapes of 
 the South, intended for the manufacture of dry wines. 
 On the contrary, very alcoholic wines may be ob- 
 tained by allowing the grapes to remain a long while on 
 the plant. It is thus that at Rivesaltes, and in the 
 isles of Candia and Cyprus, the grape is allowed to 
 shrivel before it is cut. The same is done with regard 
 to the alcoholic wines of Spain. Those of Arbois and 
 
 Chateau-Chalon in Franche-Comte are obtained from 
 
 
 
 grapes which are not gathered till December. At Con- 
 drieux the vintage takes place in November. On the 
 hill-sides of Saumur the white grapes are not cut until 
 their pellicle shows some sign of decay. 
 
 [A very common error, often committed in this country, 
 is the premature harvesting of the crop. Grapes should 
 never be gathered until perfectly ripe, if it be possible to 
 avoid it. Up to that period there are changes going on with- 
 in the economy of the fruit that tend greatly to its improve- 
 ment ; these consist in the transformation of the elements 
 into sugar; this is attended by the diminution of the acids, 
 particularly those which are injurious to the wine. The 
 more complete ripening of the grape also results in the evap- 
 oration of a portion of the watery fluids. The amount of 
 wine produced to the acre may be diminished, but a corres- 
 ponding improvement in the quality will be observed.] 
 
 Formerly, the vintage time was everywhere fixed by 
 ordinances. That custom has been preserved in most 
 
Mintage. 327 
 
 districts, but it has lately been abolished in some, as 
 affecting the liberty of the individual without any real 
 benefit to the country. These vintage ordinances take 
 away every excuse for robbery, but they have great 
 drawbacks, especially in districts where the vine is cul- 
 tivated on a small scale. The red growths, for in- 
 stance, ripen sooner than the white ; young and vigor- 
 ous vines, and vines recently manured, ripen later than 
 old vines, and such as grow in poor soils. Grapes of 
 the same kind will often be seen rotting in the low 
 grounds when they are not yet ripe on the hill-sides. 
 It is thus impossible to satisfy all demands, and it is 
 sometimes difficult to silence some great private inter- 
 ests in the presence of the less eloquent ones of the 
 mass of small growers. 
 
 When the vintage time has arrived, a succession of 
 fine days must be taken advantage of, and the work 
 should not be begun until after the sun has evaporated 
 the dew. The bunches have then lost their supera- 
 bundant moisture, and the wine will be of superior 
 quality. 
 
 In vineyards where the quality of the wine is an es- 
 pecial object, the vintage is made at two or three differ- 
 ent times. At the first operation, tfre finest and ripest 
 bunches are collected, and from these a first-class wine 
 is obtained ; another gathering gives a wine of second 
 quality, and lastly, the inferior bunches are collected, 
 and yield a wine of third quality. 
 
 RECEPTACLES EMPLOYED IN MAKING THE VINT- 
 AGE. There are two kinds of receptacles required in 
 collecting and transporting the vintage. 
 
 1st. 'Vintagers' Baskets and Buckets. These receptacles 
 
Vineyard Culture. 
 
 vary greatly in form, according to localities, but they 
 should not hold more than fifteen quarts, that the vint- 
 agers may easily carry them from vine to vine, and they 
 must be perfectly water-tight, so that the juice of the 
 
 [FlG. 141.] Vintage-Basket [FlG. 142.] Vintage 
 of Bordelais. Tub of Bordelais. 
 
 riper grapes may not be lost, in the district of Bor- 
 deaux, these baskets are made of wood, and have one 
 of the two shapes shown in Figures 141 and 142. 
 
 [FlG. 144.] Side view 
 FlG. 143.] Vintage Tub of Dors,er^ used in the 
 
 of Bordelais. Vineyards of the Jura. 
 
 2d. Tubs, Dorsers, Etc. These names are given to 
 another kind of receptacle, intended to receive the 
 grapes from the baskets, to be then taken directly 
 to the wine-press. The shape of these also varies 
 
Vintage. 
 
 according to localities ; they should be water-tight, like 
 the baskets. They should all have the same capacity, 
 so that the quantity of the crop may at once be ascer- 
 tained from the number of tubs brought into the wine- 
 press. If the distance between the vineyard and the 
 wine-press is trifling, these tubs are borne on the head, 
 in which case they hold twenty-five quarts, and have 
 the shape shown in Figure 143. At times, they have 
 the shape of a dorser of the same capacity. This dor- 
 ser, which has two arm-straps [Figures 144 and 145], 
 has a cushion, which prevents the bearer being bruised 
 
 [Fie. 145.] Front [Fie. 146.] Large T.'ub, 
 view of Dorser used drawn by Horse, for the 
 
 in the Jura. Carriage of Grapes. 
 
 by the pressure of the vessel. When the distance from 
 the vineyard to the wine-press is too great, and the 
 vineyard is intersected by roads, rendering that mode of 
 transportation feasible, the grapes are transferred by 
 means of horses. The capacity of the dorsers is then 
 fifty quarts, and they have an oval form [Fig. 146] 
 28 
 
330 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 Two tubs are fastened to a horse's back, by means of 
 the saddle, B, and the handle, A. 
 
 Finally, if the distance from the vineyard to the 
 wine-press is very great say from three-quarters to one 
 and a half mile it will be advantageous to employ some 
 vehicle, provided it can pass freely over the roads in the 
 vineyard. On this vehicle should be placed tubs hold- 
 ing twenty-six gallons, each, and having an oval form, 
 to allow of their being packed closely in the vehicle, 
 and two handles, so that they may be easily loaded and 
 unloaded. 
 
 These different receptacles are inspected with care ; 
 some days before the vintage ; they are coopered, and 
 then they are soaked, so as to become perfectly water- 
 tight. 
 
 VINTAGERS. Four squads of workmen are requisite 
 for the grape-gathering. 
 
 1st. Cutters. This is the most nunferous squad, and 
 the one intrusted with the least fatiguing work, that of 
 removing the grapes from the vines. For this reason, 
 women, children, and old men are employed on it. 
 Each cutter should be provided with a vintager's basket 
 and a pruning-knife, or shears, to cut the grapes. The 
 shears are preferable, as, in cutting the bunch, one is 
 less liable to break off and lose the berries. When the 
 cutters begin 'work, each places himself at one end of a 
 line of plants in regular succession, and proceeds to the 
 other extremity ; from thence they begin on another 
 series of lines, nearest to the last, and work in the op- 
 posite direction. The number of cutters should be such 
 that the produce of one day's gathering may suffice for 
 one pressing, that being the only way to obtain a 
 
Vintage. 33^ 
 
 uniform fermentation. A squad of twenty cutters can 
 gather about 1,056 gallons of grapes per day; there 
 may be more, if the grapes are abundant, and less, of 
 course, if the same quantity of produce is spread over 
 a larger surface. 
 
 2d. Basket-Carriers. These bring empty baskets to 
 the cutters, and empty the full ones into the tubs. It 
 is also their duty to see that the cutters leave no bunches 
 behind, and that all the berries which may have fallen 
 to the ground be carefully picked up. One basket- 
 carrier can wait upon five cutters. 
 
 3d. Porters, or Tub-Carriers. The task of these work- 
 men is to carry the tubs on their heads or backs, to the 
 wine-press, and bring them back empty ; or they drive 
 the horses or vehicle, if the distance be great. We 
 can not lay down positively what should be the number 
 of these porters that must depend upon the distance to 
 be gone over so that the cutters and basket-carriers 
 may not have to wait their return. 
 
 4th. Superintendents of Vintage. The duty of these 
 is to superintend the entire work ; to see that the cut- 
 ters may not have to wait for empty baskets, and that 
 the basket-carriers may always have porters ready to 
 attend to them. One superintendent may attend to 
 twenty cutters and four basket-carriers. 
 
 PICKING AND CLEANING THE GRAPES. The cut- 
 ters, as they fill their baskets, should take care that 
 along with the grapes they allow no foreign substances, 
 such as leaves, shoots, etc., to enter into the baskets. 
 These things, if introduced into the vat, always hurt 
 the quality of the wine. In districts where the utmost 
 care is bestowed on the process of wine-making, sorting 
 
332 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 and cleaning the grapes must be attended to. Such 
 bunches, or portions of bunches as are not sufficiently 
 ripe, or are affected in any way, by rot, scorching, etc., 
 are put aside. This picking may be done in three dif- 
 ferent ways : sometimes the cutters are intrusted with 
 the duty, in which case they are provided with scissors, 
 which serve, also, for cutting the grapes. They throw 
 into a basket, set for that purpose between two cutters, 
 the refuse we have just spoken of, which is afterward 
 consigned to a tub, also set apart for that purpose. 
 Sometintes this picking is done by a woman, at the 
 time when the baskets are emptied into the tubs. Last- 
 ly, this work is often done at the wine-press, as the tubs 
 are brought in, and just before the grapes are crushed. 
 There the work can be done more completely, and con- 
 veniently. The refuse of these pickings often serves 
 for making wine-cider for the vine-dressers. 
 
 XV. 
 
 DIFFERENT MODES OF WORKING A 
 VINEYARD. 
 
 A VINEYARD may be worked by means of the 
 three different methods applicable to all landed 
 property, that is to say, renting, letting out on shares, and 
 working by the proprietor himself. 
 
 RENTING. Renting is undoubtedly the way of ob- 
 taining the revenue of a vineyard with the least care 
 and trouble to the owner. Nevertheless, it would be a 
 great mistake to suppose that this species of contract 
 releases the owner from the care of overlooking his 
 
Modes of Working a Vineyard. 333 
 
 vineyard. The fact is, the farmer and the proprietor 
 have opposite interests ; the first wishes to draw from 
 the soil all that can possibly be obtained from it, even 
 at the expense of the stock of the vineyard, so that he 
 leaves it depreciated in value. The owner, on the 
 other hand, not only wishes to see his property remain 
 unaltered, but rather enhanced in value. 
 
 The terms of the contract must be so arranged as to 
 reconcile these rival interests, and the proprietor's ac- 
 tive superintendence is needed, to see that they are ful- 
 filled ; but do what he may, the owner is the party 
 whose interests most usually suffer. The difficulties 
 of renting become much more serious with large vine- 
 yards. First, this particular culture, to be really profit- 
 able, requires a very large working capital. Frosts, the 
 rot, the bad quality of the produce arising from deficient 
 ripeness, oidium, hurtful insects, hail, etc., are, from 
 their frequent recurrence, so many causes of this being 
 an uncertain crop. A good and abundant crop scarcely 
 occurs once in four years, sufficient to pay the cost of 
 cultivation which must have been carried on during the 
 years of failure. These circumstances compel the farm- 
 er to demand a long lease, as otherwise he would run 
 the risk of not making up for bad years by a sufficient 
 number of good crops. But these long leases are with 
 difficulty consented to by the proprietors, who are there- 
 by hindered, for a long series of years, from freely dis- 
 posing of their lands. Finally, supposing one to be 
 willing to lease out his property for so long a period, 
 and supposing him to have found a farmer having a cap- 
 ital adequate to the undertaking, there will still remain 
 the difficulty of protecting the vineyard from the rapacity 
 
334 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 of the farmer during the latter years of his lease. By 
 cutting down the necessary expenses of cultivation, 
 and forcing the produce of the plants beyond bounds, 
 the farmer may leave the vineyard in such a state that 
 several years will be required to restore it to its original 
 healthy condition, and even, in some cases, require it 
 to be renewed by an entirely new planting. These 
 abuses, it is true, the owner may try to prevent by 
 the clauses of the lease, but the details of this partic- 
 ular culture are even less easily regulated than those of 
 other branches of agriculture, so that such clauses 
 would, in most cases, prove of no force, and their rigid 
 execution would give rise to contests which would be 
 perpetually renewed between the owner and the farm- 
 er. In short, the drawbacks we have just pointed out, 
 as attending the system of renting vineyards, are so se- 
 rious that this method of working them is seldom re- 
 sorted to. 
 
 LETTING OUT ON SHARES. This system of work- 
 ing is a species of partnership between the owner of 
 the vineyerd, and the person cultivating it. The owner 
 furnishes the land, and a greater or less number of the 
 cattle, implements, seeds, etc. The lessee furnishes his 
 labor and the balance of cattle, implements, etc., re- 
 quisite in the working of the vineyard. For the rest, 
 the proportion in which the owner and the lessee con- 
 tribute the cattle, implements, etc., is very variable, ac- 
 cording to the locality. There are certain poor districts 
 in which the lessee only furnishes his labor. The pro- 
 duct of the working is then divided between the owner 
 and the cultivator, in proportion to the contributions of 
 each. 
 
Modes of Working a Vineyard. 335 
 
 Although the working of vineyards on shares is not 
 very common, it is yet more in use than renting. But 
 it has also its objections. In the first place, the owner 
 has not full liberty to apply those modes of cultivation 
 he may deem advisable to introduce into his vineyard ; 
 he must obtain the consent of his lessee, who, on his 
 side, may apprehend that his interests will suffer through 
 such innovations. This consent is all the more neces- 
 sary if, as usually happens, these innovations demand an 
 increased expenditure, and the owner wishes to levy on 
 the products the interest of the capital employed. Again, 
 when through any of the accidents we have enumerated, 
 the crop of the vineyard is destroyed, during one, or 
 several consecutive years, and the lessee has not man- 
 aged to create a reserve fund for himself, the owner is 
 obliged to make him advances of money which he has 
 often great difficulty in recovering. This mode of 
 working, moreover, has one of the drawbacks we have 
 indicated as attending that of renting, when the farm- 
 er's lease is about to expire. It is the lessee's interest 
 to extract from the vineyard the greatest amount of 
 product possible, and that without regard to the dura- 
 tion of the plants ; and so, some time before the expira- 
 tion of the contract binding him to the proprietor, he may 
 so prune the plants as to increase their yield, but, at the 
 same time, cause their complete exhaustion. Lastly, 
 this system requires the frequent presence of the own- 
 er, who ought constantly to overlook the work, and see 
 that it is properly executed, and who, at all events, 
 should be present at the gathering, in order to divide 
 the produce. 
 
336 Vineyard Culture. 
 
 WORKING OF THE VINEYARD BY THE PROPRIETOR. 
 The working of the vineyard by the proprietor, is, un- 
 questionably, the most rational proceeding, when he has 
 the information necessary for the proper direction of such 
 culture, and possesses the capital requisite for the ad- 
 vances it demands. He is at full liberty to adopt the 
 innovations he may think really beneficial, and he avoids 
 all the drawbacks attendant on the two modes of work- 
 ing described above. But his presence is now more 
 than ever necessary to superintend the execution of all 
 the labor j for, as he is the only person to derive a profit 
 from this culture, no one has a direct interest to help 
 him in its judicious management. Now, this is a task 
 which many proprietors will hesitate to undertake. It 
 entails upon them the necessity of living almost en- 
 tirely in the country, with their families, and of giving 
 up, in a great measure, those social relations to which 
 they have been accustomed. Nevertheless, the man- 
 agement of a vineyard is far less complicated than that 
 of any other kind of farming on a large scale. The 
 chief improvements of which the vineyard is susceptible 
 having been made under the owner's eye, and the order 
 and mode of executing the annual operations having 
 been properly settled, the owner's presence will be less 
 necessary. He may employ a steward, who can direct 
 the work, and who may receive the owner's instructions 
 relative to any especial operations. It is in this man- 
 ner that the greater number of the large vineyards of 
 Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne, and Languedoc, are 
 administered. 
 
 Work Done by the Piece or Day. As to the manner 
 of having the work in vineyards performed, it may be 
 
Modes of Working a Vineyard. 337 
 
 either by the piece or by the day. These two systems 
 have advantages and disadvantages, as in other agricul- 
 tural labors. Work by the piece proceeds more rapidly, 
 but its execution is often faulty ; work by the day is 
 generally better done, but it proceeds more slowly. It 
 will be advisable to have recourse to these two systems, 
 and applying them to the work best adapted to each. 
 Thus, all operations which can be easily directed, such 
 as plowing the land, carriage, distribution, and application 
 of manures, should be done by the piece. But all opera- 
 tions directly applied to the plants, such as pruning, sul- 
 phurating, fastening, nipping, and harvesting, should be 
 done by the day. It will, however, be advisable, In 
 either case, to ascertain beforehand, by a preliminary 
 trial, the quantity of work which can be done in one 
 day, so as to enable the proprietor to give the jobbers 
 no more than their due, and to direct the industry of 
 the day-laborers. 
 
 THE END, 
 
 29 
 
PUBLISHED BT ROBERT CLARKE & CO. 
 
 A NEW EDITION 
 
 OF 
 
 The Principles and Practice 
 
 OF 
 
 LAND DRAINAGE; 
 
 Embracing a brief History of Underdrawing: 
 
 A detailed examination of its Operation and Advantages-, 
 
 A description of various kinds of Drains , with 
 
 Practical Directions for their Construction ; 
 
 The Manufacture of Drain Tile, etc. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY NEARLY 100 ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 By JOHN H. KLIPPART, 
 
 "Wheat Plant;" Corresponding Secretary of 
 Board of Agriculture, etc. 
 
 2nd Edition, i Vol. 1 2mo., Cloth, Price, $1.75. 
 
 Author of the "Wheat Plant;" Corresponding Secretary of the Ohio State 
 Board of Agriculture, etc. 
 
 Within the last few years the subject of Drainage has been 
 thoroughly studied, and its importance and advantages practi- 
 cally demonstrated by the Agriculturists of Europe, and par- 
 ticularly of Great Britain ; while in this country it has re- 
 ceived but little attention from farmers generally ; so little, 
 indeed, that when occasionally intelligent men undertake the 
 thorough drainage of their farms, they usually get credit from 
 their do-as-my-father-did neighbors, of burying their money 
 with their tiles. The resulting improved appearance of their 
 tarms, and the increased quantity and superior quality of their 
 
Klipparfs Land Drainage. 
 
 crops, however, soon convince even the least observant of the 
 profit of burying money in this way. No doubt much money 
 may be and has been expended fruitlessly in ill applied drain- 
 age. The subject must be understood, both in theory and 
 application, before any of the great practical results which 
 have been attained, can be secured by every one who under- 
 takes the drainage of his farm. The purpose of this work is 
 to supply that information, in a plain, practical way, easily 
 understood by any intelligent farmer. It tells him the prop- 
 erties of his soil, and how it is affected by drainage; what 
 kind of land needs drainage, when and why it will pay. 
 Some of the advantages of underdraining are summed up and 
 thoroughly explained under the following heads: 
 
 1. It removes stagnant waters from the surface. 
 
 2. It removes surplus waters from under the surface. 
 
 3. It lengthens the working season. 
 4.. It deepens the soil. 
 
 5. It warms the undersoil. 
 
 6. It equalizes the temperature of the soil during the sea- 
 son of growth. 
 
 7. It carries down soluble substances to the roots of the 
 plants. 
 
 8. It prevents " freezing oat," "heaving out," or "win- 
 ter killing." 
 
 9. It prevents injury from drouth. 
 
 10. It improves the quantity and quality of crop; it in- 
 creases the effect of manures. 
 
 11. It prevents rust in wheat and rot in potatoes. 
 These advantages are not suppositions, but are proved by 
 
 the actual experience of intelligent men, which is given in 
 detail. 
 
 In the second part of the book are given practical direc- 
 tions for the location, cutting, and laying of the various kinds 
 of drains, according to the position and quality of the land; 
 
Klippart's Land Drainage. 
 
 modes of preventing and removing obstructions in drains; 
 descriptions of the tools, the various improved plows, and 
 other inventions used in the operations; and of the several 
 kinds of tile, their respective advantages, and minute direc- 
 tions for their manufacture, including the selection and work- 
 ing of the materials, molding, drying and baking of the tile, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 The whole is illustrated with nearly a hundred engravings 
 of sections of drains, tile, implements, etc. 
 
 The work is thorough and comprehensive, and supplies 
 the farmer with all the information which he must possess 
 before he can intelligently and profitably commence opera- 
 tions. It ought to be in the hands of every farmer in the 
 country. 
 
 It is handsomely printed and well bound in cloth. 
 
 NOTICES OF THE WORK. 
 
 From the North-Western Farmer^ Indianapolis. 
 
 In answer to a query from a subscriber, on the subject of 
 drainage, the editor says: 
 
 "Underdraining is a pet theme with us. We advise our subscribers to get 
 a copy of John H. Klippart's work on Land-Drainage, which is undoubt- 
 edly the most comprehensive and reliable work, on the subject extant. The 
 Publishers, Robert Clarke & Co., of Cincinnati, have just issued a new and 
 improved edition of the book, which anticipates and answers every question 
 our subscriber has, or can well raise, on the subject of drainage, and no 
 farmer can well afford to be without a copy." 
 
 From the Boston Cultivator. 
 
 "This is a very comprehensive work, in regard to the history and advan- 
 tages of drainage, and will be found highly useful to most of our farmers. 
 We recommend this book as worthy the attention of all farmers, who are 
 interested in the subject of land-drainage." 
 
KUppart's Land Drainage. 
 
 From the Chicago Farmers' Advocate. 
 
 "We hail with pleasure the appearance of this work. The author who, 
 by the way, is one of the most distinguished agriculturists of the West has 
 taken great pains, to show the cost and comparative value of different kinds 
 of drains, open, mole, tile, brush, etc., etc., and their effect on the 
 different kinds of grain, roots, etc. We advise the Farmers of the 
 West to procure the above work, and in perusing its pages, they will 
 gain what years of experience alone can give." 
 
 From the New England Farmer. 
 
 "This is an excellent work upon the subject of drainage, written by a 
 person conversant with the subject, and who was willing to go so far 
 into details, as to give the reasons why withdrawing water from the soil, 
 tends to make the soil deeper and warmer, and more moist in a dry time, 
 than an undrained soil. It is written in a plain, candid manner, and 
 cannot fail to be of essential service, to those who will read and practice 
 its precepts. The subject is one of great importance to our farmers, and 
 demands of them more attention, than it has yet received." 
 
 From the Illinois Farmer. 
 
 "We have given this work a pretty thorough perusal, and must say 
 that we are highly pleased with it. It is eminently practical, and well 
 adapted to the soils of the West. No nurseryman, gardener, or farmer, 
 can afford to do without it; certainly no man having unimproved land 
 worth twenty dollars an acre, should attempt its improvement, without 
 its aid." 
 
 Price $1.75 
 
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