;i!|!|li IliiilSI :!ijl!!i|i!||iij|i!iiii!iilliii||j|ifc ^■11: ■I; iP ij fjjj iSiUJiUi WM !li!li ^lili iilii liitii' iiilSiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiii- wm^^ mm liiiiiii iilililfllii! •^iiil ;iii 'iiiiiiiiiiiiiM^^^^^^ "rm -W' THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES iWSOT N^UNrvEfo., ■""^ONV'SOV ]HNms, ^ ■%n-(nv MfORA r:^- M i: ^ih- :1 ..- '^^ ' ik,^ ^ b <«i«<'' l9 -J !P - , ■■■i ^ .^ ' Vr ^s^ ANEW S Y S T E O F M MODERN GEOGRAPHY; O R, A Geooraphical, Hiftorical, and Commercial Grammar; AND PRESENT STATE OF THE SEVERAL KINGDOMS OF THE WORLD, C O N T A I. The Figures, Motions, and Diftances of the 'planets, according to the Newtonian Syftem and the lateft Obfervatlons. II. A general View of the Earth confidered as a Planet ; with feveral ufcful Geographical De- finitions and Problems. III. The grand Divifions of the Globe into Land and W.-iter, Continents and Illands. IV. The Situation and Extent of Empires, King- doms, Stcites, Provinces, and Colonies. v. Their Climates, Air, Soil, vegetable Produc- tions, Metals, Minerals, natural Curiofities, Seas, Rivers, Bays, Capes, Promontories, and Lakes. VI. The Birds and Beads peculiar to each Country. I N I N G VII. Obfervations on the Changes that have been any where obferved upon the Face of Nature fincc the moll early Periods of Hiftory. VIII. The Hiftory and Origin of Nations; their Forms of Government, Religion, Laws, Reve- nues, Taxes, naval and military Strength. IX. The Genius, Manners, Cuftonis, and Habits of the People. X. Their Language, Learning, Arts, Sciences, Manufaflures, and Commerce. XI. The chief Cities, Struftures, Ruins, and artificial Curiofities. XII. The Longitude, Latitude, Bearings, ani Diftances of^principal Places from Loadon. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, I. A Geographical Index, with the Names and Places alphabetically arranged. II. A Tarle of the Coins of all Nations, and their Value in English Money. III. A Chronological Table of remarkable Events from the Creation to the prefent Time. By WILLIAM GUTHRIE, E% The Astronomical Part by James Ferguson, F. R. S. The fourth EDITION, Corrected, with a copious index. LONDON, TRINTED FOR C. DILLY, IN THE POULTRY; AND G. G. J. AND J. ROtlNSON, PATER NOSTER ROW. MDCCLXXXVIII. ADVERTISEMENT. THE original Preface, which follows this Advertifement, fo fully explains the general plan of the Work, that it feems only necef- iary to give fome account of thofe additions and alterations which the fiu£tuation of human affairs renders unavoidable in defcriptions of the world and its inhabitants. Since the firfl; Quarto Editions came from the prefs, the flock of geo- graphical and political knowledge has been much Increafed, by the pub- lication of fome valuable accounts of Travels and Voyages. Thefe have been carefully perufed ; and from them are now added many intereliing particulars. In thofe parts of the Work which explain the origin of nations, and defcribe their religion and manners, the additions are too numerous to be fpecified. The lateft difcoveries and obfervations are blended with the former narrative; and enlargements, equally authentic, have been made refpeding the geographical and hiftorical accounts of each country. That the work might farther merit its dlllinguifhed reputation, the Maps were not only accurately examined, and greatly improved, by the moft eminent artifts, but feven new plates were added, illuftrating ^ th=> 680:^04 ADVERTISEMENT. the alterations refulting from the eftablifhment of the American States^ the difmembermept of Poland, the late acquifitions of Ruffia, and the difcoveries in the Southern Ocean. In this new edition, feveral errors are correded, many redundances are lopped off, and fome additions are inferted. The language has been correded throughout ; and prccifion has been particularly fludied, in conformity to the original defign of a work, intended to exhibit, in a narrow compafs, a clear and comprehenfive defcription of the world. THE THE PREFACE. TO a man fincerely interefted in the welfare of fociety and of his country', it mull be particularly agreeable to refledl on the rapid progrefs, and general diffufion of learning and civility, which, within the prefent age, have taken place in Great Britain. Whatever may be the cafe in fome other kingdoms of Europe, we, in this ifland, may boaft of our fuperiority to thofe illiberal prejudices, which not only cramp tne genius, but four the tem- per of man, and difturb all the agreeable intercourfe of fociety. Among us, learning is no longer confined within the fchools of the philofophers, or the courts of the great ; but, like all the greateft advantages which Heaven has beftowed on mankind, it is become as univerfal as it is ufeful. This generar diffufion of knowledge is one effect of that happy conftitutioa of government, which, towards the clofe of the lafl: century, was confirmed to us, and which conftitutes the peculiar glory of this nation. In other coun- tries, the great body of the people pofTefs little wealth, have little power, and confequently meet with little rcfpeft ; in Great Britain, the people are opulent, have great influence, and claim, of courfe, a proper fliare of attention. To their improvement, therefore, men of letters have lately directed their ftudiesj as the great body of the people, no lefs than the dignified, the learned, or the wealthy few, have an acknowledged title to be amufed and inftruded. Books have been diveiled of the terms of the fchools, reduced from that fize which fuited only the purfes of the rich, and the avocations of the ftudious ; and adapted to perfons of more ordinary fortunes, whofe attachment to other pur- fuits admitted of little leifure for thofe of knowledge. It is to books of this kind, more than to the works of our Bacons, our Lockcs, and our Newtons, that the generality of our countrymen owe that fuperior improvement, which dilliinguilhes tlieai from the lower ranks of men in all other countries. To ppmote and advance this improvement, is the principal defign of our prefent undertaking. No fubjedl appe.as more interefting than that which we have chofen, and none feems capable of being treated in a manner that may render it more generally ufeful. a The vi PREFACE. The knowledge of the world, and of its inhabitants, though not the fub- limeft purfuit of mankind. Is that which moil nearly interefts them, and to which their abilities are beft adapted. And Books of Geography, which de- fcribe the fituation, extent, foil, and produftions of kingdoms ; the genius, manners, religion, government, commerce, fciences, and arts of all the in- habitants upon the earth, promife the_ beft alliftance for attaining this know^ ledge. The Compendium of Geography, now offered to the Public, differs in many particulars from other books on that fubjeft. Befides exhibiting an eafy, diflindt, ind fyflematic account of the theory and praftice of what may be cnlled Natural Geography, the Author has attempted to render the following performance an inftru'flive, though compendious, detail of the general hiftory of the world. The character of nations depends on a combination of many cir- cumftances, which reciprocally afted each other. There is a nearer connec- tion between the learning, the commerce, the government, &c. of a Hate, than moft people feem to apprehend. In a work of this kind, which pretends to include moral or political, as well as natural geography, no one of thofe objefls Ihould pafs unnoticed. The omiiTion of any one of them would, in reality, deprive us of a branch of knowledge, not only interefting in itfelf, but abfolutely neceffary for enabling us to form an adequate and comprehenfive notion of the fubject in general. We have thought it neceiTary, therefore, to add a new article to this work, which comprehends the hillory and prefent ftate of learning in the feveral countries we defcribe, with the chara6ters of fuch pcrfons as have' been moft eminent in the various departments of letters and philofophy. This fubje<5t v^ill, on a little refledion, appear altogether requifite, when we confider the powerful influence of learning upon the manners, govern- ment, and general charafter of nations. Thefe objedts, indeed, till of late, fel- dom found a place in geographical performances ; and, even when occafionally introduced, are by no means handled in an entertaining or inftruflive manner. Neither is this to be altogether imputed to the fault of geographical writers. The greater part of travellers, acting folely under the influence of avarice, the pafTion which firft induced them to quit their native land, were at little pains, and were indeed ill-qualified to colled fuch materials as are proper for gratify- ing curiofity, or affording inftrudion. The geographer, then, who could only employ the materials put into his hands, was not enabled to give us any important information. In the courfe of the prefent century, however, men have begun to travel from different motives. A thirft for knowledge, as well as for gold, has led many into diftant lands. Thefe they have explored with a philofophic attention; and by laying open the internal fprings of adtion, by which the inhabitants of different regions are adluated, exhibit to us a natural I and PREFACE. v« and ftriking piflure of human manners, under the various itages of barbarity and refinement. Without manifeft impropriety, we could not but avail ourfelve^ of their labours, by means of which, we have been enabled to give a more co- pious, and a more perfect detail of what is called Political Geography, than has hitherto appeared. In confidering the prefent ftate of nations, few circumftances are of more im- portance than their mutual intercourfe. This is chiefly brought about by com- merce, the prime mover in the ceconomy of modern ftates, and of which, there- fore, we have never loil fight in the prefent undertaking. We are fenfible, that a reader could not examine the prefent ftate of nations with much enccrtainment or inftrucftion, unlefs he was alfo made acquainted with their ancient fituation, and with the various revolutions and events, by the operation of which they have afiumed their prefent form and appearance. This conftitutes the hiftorical part of our Work ; a department which we have endeavoured to execute in a manner entirely new. Inftead of fatiguing the reader with a dry detail of news-paper occurrences, occurrences no way conne6ted with ^ne another, or with the general plan of the whole, we have mentioned only fuch fafts as are interefl:ing, either in themfelves, or from their relation to objedls of importance. Inftead of a meagre index of incoherent incidents, we have drav/n up a regular and connected epitome of the hif- tory of each country, fuch an epitome as may be read, we hope, with plea- fure and advantage, and which rnay be confidered as a proper introduction to more copious accounts. Having, through the whole of the work, mentioned the ancient names of ' countries, and, in treating of their particular hiftory, fometimes carried our refearches beyond the limits of modern times, we have thought it neceflary, for the fatisfaftion of fuch readers as are unacquainted with clafilcal learnino- to begin our hiftorical Introduflion with the remote ages of antiquity. By inferring an account of the ancient world in a book of geography, we afford an opportunity to the reader, of comparing together not only the manners, government, and arts of different nations, as they now appear, but as they fubfifted in ancient ages j which exhibiting a general map, as it were, of the hiftory of mankind, renders our work more complete than any geographical treatife extant. In the execution of our defign, we have all along endeavoured to obferve order and perfpicuity. Elegance we have facrificed to brevity. Happy to catch the leading features which diftinguifli the charaders of nations, and by a a a few vni PREFACE. few flrokes to hit off, though not completely to finifh, the pidure of mankind, in ancient and naodern times. What has enabled us to comprife fo many fiibjecl.; within the narrow bounds of this work, is the omifllon of many immaterial circumflances, which are recorded in other performances of the fame kind, and of all thofe fabulous accounts or defcripiions, which, to tlie difgrace of the human underftanding, fwell the works of geographers ; though the falfity of them, both from their own nature and the concurring teftimony of the mail enlightened and belt-informed travellers and hiftorians, be long fince detedtd. As to particular parts of the work, we have treated them more or lefs diffufe- ly, in proportion to their importance to us as men, and as fubjefts of Great Britain. Our own country, in both refpedts, deferved the greateft fhare of our attention. Great Britain, though Ihe cannot boaft of a more luxuriant foil or happier climate than many other countries, has advantages of another and fupe- rior kind, which have made her the delight and envy of tiie world : thefe are the equit) of her laws, the freedom of her political conftituiion, and the mo- deration of her religious fyltem. With regard to the Britiljj empire we have therefore been fingularly copious* Next to Great Britain, we have examined moll extenfively the other flates of Europe ; and always m proportion as they prefent us with the largeft field for ufeful reflexion. By comparing together our accounts of the European nations, an important fyftem of praftical knowledge is inculcated j and a thoufand arguments will appear in favour of a free government, religious toleration, and .^n extended, unrellrained commerce. Europe having occupied fo large a part of our volume, Afia next claims our attention ; which, thodgh in feme refpefls the moft famous quarter of the world, offers, when compared to Europe, extremely little for our en- tertainment or inftruftion. In Afia, a ftrong attachment to ancient cuftoms, and the weight of tyranriical power, bear down the aftive genius of the inha- bitants, and prevent that variety in manners and charafler, which diftinguifhes .the European nations. In Africa, the human mind feems degraded below its natural ftate. To dwell long upon the manners of this country, a country immerfed in rudenefs and barbarity, befides that it could afford little inftruction, would be difgufl- ing to every lover of mankind. Add to this, that the inhabitants of Africa, ■deprived of all arts and fcienccs, without which the human mind remains tor- pid PREFACE, IX pid and inactive, difcover no great variety in manners or charafter. A gloomy famenefs almoft every where prevails ; and the trifling diftinftions which are difcovered among them, feem ratlier to arife from an excefs of brutality on the one hand, than from any perceptible approaches towards refinement on the other. But though thefe quarters of the globe are treated lefs extenfively than ■Europe, there is no diftridt of them, however barren or favage, entirely omitted. America, whether confidered as an immenfe continent, inhabited by an endlefs variety of different people, or as a country intimately connefted with Europe by the ties of commerce and government, deferves very particular attention. The bold difcovery, and barbarous conqueft of this New World, and the manners and prejudices of the original inhabitants, are objedts, which, together with the defcription of the country, defervedly occupy no fmall Ihare of this performance. In treating fuch a variety of fubjedts, fome lefs obvious particulars, no doubt, muft efcape our notice. But if our general plan be good, and the outlines and chief figures fketched with truth and judgment, the candour of the learn- ed, we hope, will excufe imperfedions which are unavoidable in a work of this extenfive kind. We cannot, without exceeding the bounds of a Preface, infift upon the other parts of our plan. The fcience of natural geography, for want of proper en- couragement from thofe who are alone capable of giving it, ftill remains in an imperfeft ftate ; and the exad; divifions and extent of countries, for want of geo- metrical furveys, are far from being v;ell afcertained. This confideration has in- duced us to adopt the moft unexceptionable of Templeman's Tables ; which, if they give not an account ftriftly accurate, afford at leaft a general idea of this fubjeft ; which is all indeed that we can attain, until the geographical fcience arrives at greater perfeftion. C O N. O N E N S. INTRODUCTION. PART I. Of Afironomical Geography-. SOLARSyrtem — — Page i Table of the Diameters, Periods, &c. ot the Teveral Planets \\\ the Solar Syftem. 3 Stars and Conftellations — — 5 Copernkan andoiher Syftems — _ 6 Comets — — — ibid. Do6lrine of the Sphere — — 7 Globe __ _ 8 Problems performed by the Globe Gegraphlcal Obl'ervations — Natural DlvKions of the Earth — AVinds and Tides. Maps and Cardinal Points 14 18 — — 21, 22 23 PART II. Of the Origin of Nations, Laws, Govern- ment, and Commerce, 24 PART III. Of the Origin and Progrefs of Reli- 48 g!on. Of the natural and polititical Parts of E U- R O P E. — — — Its Situation, Boundaries, grand Divifions, and Hillory — — Denmark — — Eall and Weft Greenland — — Iceland — — — Norway — — Denmark Proper — — Lapland — — — S' 52 53 54 <;s 60 66 80 Sweden — — • 8j Mufcovy, or tlie Ruffian Empire 100 Scotland, and the Hebrides, Orkney, &rc, 129 England — — 171 Wales __ — _ 362 Ireland — — 36S Me of Man — — 386 — Wight — — 388 Scilly llles — — 3S9 Jerfcy, Guernfey, &c. 389, 390 France — —' 390 United Netherlands, or Holland — 419 Au ft rian and French Netherlands — 429 Germany — — 437 Pruffii — — 467 Bohemia — — 472 Hungary _ — _ — 474 Tranlylvania, Sclavonia, Croatia, and Hun- garian Dalmatia — — 4-3 Poland and Lithuania — 481 Switzerland •— > — 498 Spain — — — J05 Portugal — — 529 Turkey in Europe, the ancient Greece 566 TLukifliiflands in the Levant, being part of ancient Greece ■■ ■ 571 tS' Other European Iflands are defcribed with the countries to which they refpeiftivcly be- long. ASIA. Its Situation, Boundaries, grand Divifious, and Hiftory •^ — Of Turkey in Alia — — Tartary in Alia . China — — ■ — India in s;cneral — — India beyond the Ganges > India within the Ganges, or the Empire of the Great Mogul The Peninfula within the Ganges — . Pcrfia Arabia ' . Indian and Oriental llles belonging to Ada AFRICA. 575 578 596 604 6,s 6zi 627 6^6 641 650 656 CONTENTS. AFRICA. Its Situation, Boundaries, grand Divifions, and Hiftory — — 664 Of Egypt — — 667 The States of Barbary — — 673 Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope 680 African Iflaiids — — 684 AMERICA. Its Difcovery and Hillory — Original Inhabitants ' Situation, Boundaries, and grand Di- vifions ^ r New Britain, and other Countries to- <; \ wards the North-pole jS < Canada — — 15 / Nova Scotia ■ ^ (, New Brunfwick ■ United States of America 690 701 709 715 719 727 ibid. 729 S < CO — — 730 ■ New England New York — — ' New Jerfey — — I'ennfylvania \ _____ ^ Dclawa-e 3 Maryland • — — Virginia — — — North and South Carolina, with Geor- gia . — 740 742 744 748 750 755 N. Amer, . E < a, CO J _ ! S. Amer. General Defcription of the Weft Indies jamaiea and other Itlands in the Weft Indies — — — Spanifli America — — fEall and Weft Florida ' New INIexico, including C.lifornia — Old Mexico, or New Spain — Tena Firma — i'eru Chili — Paraguay, or La Plata Cuba, and Hifpaniola, and other Iflands I in America — — Portuguefe America, Bralil — French America, Cayenne — Martinico, Guadaluupe, and other French Iflands in the Weft Indies — Dutch America, Surinam — St. Kuliatia, and other Dutch Iflands in the Weft Indies — — St. Thomas, and other Danifli Iflands in Ditto — — — New Cilcoveries — — Terra Incognita — — A new geographical Table, alphabetically arranged — - A table of the Coins of all Nations, and their value in Englifli Money A chronological Table of remarkable Events, &c. 792- 79+ 797 799 8o3 802 . 803 804. 816 . 819 850 BireSfms for Phcing the Maps. The World •- — Page i The Sphere — — — 7 Europe — — — 51 Sweden, Denmaik, Norway, aud Finland 53 Ruflia — • . 100 Scotland — — — 129 England — — — 17' Ireland — • — 368 France — — — 390 Seven United Provinces — 419 Auftrian and French Netherlands « 429 Germany and Switzerland — 437 Poland — . — 481 Spain and Portugal " — Italy — — Turkey in Europ? and Hungary Afi.> • Hindoftan — — Africa — ■ Briiifli America — United American States — Well Indies . South America — New Difcoveries, &c, ■ 536 566 575 £04 6.S 664 7 ''5 729 760 782 804 INTRODUCTION. PART I. Of Astronomical Geography. S E C T. I. TH E fcience of GEOGRApny cannot be underftood wjchout confidering the earth as a planet, or as a body moving round another at a confiderable diftance from it. The fcience which treats of the planets, and other hea- venly bodies, is called Astronomy : hence the neceffity of beginning this work with an account of the heavenly bodies. Of thefe, the moil confpicuous is the Sun, the fountain of light and heat to the planets that move round it ; and which, together with the fun, compofe what is called the Solar Syftem. The path in which the planets move round the fun, is called their Orbit ; and it is now proved by aftro- nomers, that there are fix planets which move round the fun, each in its own orbit. The names of thefe, according to their nearnefs to the centre, or middle point of the fun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The two firfl, becaufe they move within the orbit of the earth (being nearer the fun) are called inferior planets, or, perhaps more properly, interior or inner planets ; the three laft, moving witliout the orbit of the eardi, are called /a/j^mr, or, perhaps more properly, exterior or outer planets. If we can form a notion of the ma";ner in which any one of thefe planets, fuppofe the earth, moves round the fun, we can eafdy conceive the manner in which all the reft perform it. We fhall only therefore par- ticularly confider the motion of the earth, leaving that of the others to be colledl- ed from a table, which we fhall deliver, with fuch explanations as may render it intelligible to the meaneft capacity. The earth was long confidered as one extenfive plane. The heavens, in which the fun, moon, and ftars appeared to move daily from eaft to weft, were conceived to be at no great diftance from it, and to be only defigned for the ufe or ornament of our earth : feveral reafons, however, occurred, which rendered this opinion improbable ; and we have now a fufRcient proof of the figure of the earth, from the voyages of many na- vigators who have failed round it, particularly from that of Magellan's fhip, which was the firft that furrounded the globe, failing eaft from a port in Europe in 1519, and returning to the fame, after a voyage of 1124 days, without apparently altering his direttion, any more than a fly would appear to do in moving round a ball of wax. The roundnefs of the earth being eftabliihed, a way was naturally opened for the difcovery of its motion ; for while it was confidered as a plane, mankind had an obfcure notion ot its being fupported, like a fcaffblding, on pillars, though they could not conceive what fupported thefe. But the figure of a globe is much better adapted to motion. This is confirmed bv confidering, that, if the earth did not move round the fun, not only the fun, but all the ftars and planets, muft move round the earth. Now, as philofophers, by reckonings founded on the fureft obfervations, have been able to judge pretty nearly of the diftances of the heavenly bodies from the earth, and from each other, juft as every one that !:nows the firft elements of mathe- B matics 2 INTRODUCTION. matics can meafure the height of a fteeple or any objeft placed on it ; it appeared that if we conceived the heavenly bodies to move round the earth, we muft fuppofe them endowed with amotion or velocity fo immenfe as to exceed all conception: whereas all the appearances in nature may be as well explained by imagining the earth to move round the fun in the fpace of a year, and to turn on its own axis once in the twenty- four hours. To form a conception of thefe two motions of the earth, we may imagine a ball moving on a bowling-green : the ball proceeds forwards upon the green, not by flid- ing along like a plane upon woodj or a flate upon ice, but by turning round its own axis, which is an imaginary line drawn through the centre of the ball, and ending bn its furface in two points called its poles. Conceiving the matter then in this way ; and that the earth, in the fpace of 24 hours, moves from weft to eaft, the inhabitants on the furface, like men on the deck of a fliip, who are infenfible of their own motion, and think that the banks move from them in a contrary direftion, will conceive that the fun and ftars move from eall to weft in the fame time, in which they, with the eanh, move from weft to eaft. This diurnal motion of the earth being once clearly conceived, will enable us to form a notion of its annual motion round the fun ; for as that luminary feems to have a daily motion round our earth, which is really occa^ fioned by the daily motion of the earth round its axis, fo, in the courfe of a year, he feems to have an annual motion in the heavens, and to rife and fet in different points of them, which is really occafioned by the daily motion of the earth in its orbit or path round the fun, which it completes in a year. Now as to the firft of thefe mo- tions we owe the difference of day and night, fo to the lecond we are indebted for the difference in the length of the days and nights, and in the fcafons of the year. Thus much being premifed with regard to the motion of the earth, which the fmalleft reflecflion may lead us to apply to the other planets, we muft obferve, before exhibiting our table, that, befide the fix planets already mentioned, which move round the fun, there are other ten bodies which move round three of thefe, in the fame manner as they do round the fun ; and of thefe our earth has one, called the moon; Jupiter has four, and Saturn has five. Thefe are called moons, from their agreeing with our moon, v/hich was firft attended to : and fometimes they are called J'eicndary planets, becaufe they feem to be attendants of the Earth, Jupiter, and Sa- turn, about which they move, and which are called primary. There are but two obfervations more, neceftary for underftanding the following table. They are thefe : we have already faid that the annual motion of the earth oc- cafioned the diverfity of feafons. But this would not happen, were tJie axis of the earth exa<5lly parallel, or in a line with the axis of it orbit ; becaufe then the fame parts of the earth would be turned towards the fun in every diurnal revolution ; which would deprive mankind of the grateful viciffitudes of the fealbns, ariling from the difFerenee in length of the days and nights. This, therefore, is not the cafe — the axis, of the earth is inclined to the plane of the earth's orbit, which we may conceive by fuppofinga fpindle put through a ball, with one end of it touching the ground ; if we move the ball direftly forwards, while one end of the fpindle continues to touch the ground, and the other points towards fome quarter of the heavens, we may form a notion of the inclination of the earth's axis to its orbit, from the inclination of the fpindle to the ground. The fame obfervation applies to fome of the other planets, as may be lt;en from the tabe. It now remains,, to ccnfulerwhat is meant by the !»ean. Jijtames of the plansts, from die fun. In order to underftand this, we muft learn that the path which a planet defcribcs, were it to be marked out, would not be quite round or circular, but in the fhape of a figure called an ellipfis, which, though rcfcmbling a circle,, is longer than broad. Hence the lame planet is not al-- •ways at the fame diftancc from the fun, and the mean diftance of it is that which is. cxaiflly betwixt its greatcft and Icaft diftancc. Here follows the tablt. A TABLE INTRODUCTION. A TABLE of the Diameters, Periods, Sec. of the feveral Planets in the Solar Syftem. w Mean dillances -.tC a c tr" Names of the planets. §1 from the fun as determined from obferva- tions of the Annual periods round the fun. Diurnal rotation on its axis. 3 0^ M «, p H.n S 5 SB' tranfit of Venus in 1761. 3 S o- • a r d. h. m. Sun 890, oco y. d. h. 25 60 3,818 8' 0' Mercury 3,000 36,841,468 87 23 unknown. 109,699 unknown. unknown. Venus 9'33o 68,891,486 224 17 24 8 80,295 43 7=;" 0' Earih 7'970 91;, 173,000 1 I c 6i!,243 1,042 23° 29' Moon 2,lS0 ditto I 29 12 44 22,790 9 1 2" 10' Mars 5,400 i4;,oi4,i48 1 3ZI 17 24 40 55.^87 S56 o" 0' Jupiter 94,oco 494,990,976 II 314 18 9 s6 29,0^3 21;, 920 0" 0' Saturn 78,000 907,956,130122 167 6. unknown. 22, 101 iniknown. unknown. The reader having obtained an idea of the folar fyftein from this table, and the previous obfervations neceflary for iinderftanding it, mufl next turn his refledion to what are called the fixed Jiars, which comprehend the luminaries that have not been explained. The fixed ftars are diftinguifhed by the naked eye froin the planets, by being lefs bright and luminous, and by continually exhibiting that appearance which we call the twinkling of the ftars. This arifes from their being fo fmall, that the interpofuion of the leaft body, of which there are many conftantly floating in the air, deprives us of the fight of them ; when the interpofed body changes its place, we again fee the ftar, and this fucceilion being perpetual, occafions the twink- ling. But a more remarkable property of tlie fixed ftars, and that fiom which they have obtained their name, is their never changing their fituation, with regard to each other, as the planets, from what we have already faid, muft evidently be always changing their's. The ftars which are neareft to us feem largeft, and are therefore called of the firft magnitude. Thofe of the fecond magnitude appear lefs, being at a greater diftance ; and fo proceeding on to the fixth magnitude, which includes all the fixed ftars that are vifible without a telefcope. As to their number, though in a clear winter's night, without moonftiine, they feem to be innumerable, which is owing to their ftrong fparkling, and our looking at them in a confufcd manner ; yet when the whole firmament is divided, as it has been done by tlie ancients, into fignsand conftellations, the number that can be fecn at a time, by the bare eye, is not above a thoufand. Since the introduftion of telefcopes, indeed, the number of the fixed ftars has been juftly confidered as amazing ; becaufe the greater perfcdion we arrive at in our glailes, the more ftars always appear to us. Mr. i-lamftead, late royal aftronomer at Greenwich, has given us a catalogue of about 3000 ftars, which is the moft complete that has hitherto appeared. The immenfe diftance of the fixed ftars from our earth, and one another, is of all confiderations the moft proper for raif- ing our ideas of the works of God. For notwithftanding the great extent of the earth's orbit or path (which is at leaft 162 millions of miles in diameter) round the fun, the diftance of a fixed ftar is not fenfibly affeifted by it ; fo that the ftar does not appear to be any nearer us when the earth is in that part of its orbit neareft the ftar, than it feemed to be when the earth was at the moft diftant part of its orbit, or 162 millions of miles farther removed from the fame ftar. The ftiir neareft us, and conftantly the largeft in appearance, i^ the dog- ftar, or Sirius. Modern difcovenes make it probable that eachof thele fixed ftars is a fun, having worlds revolving round it, as our fun has the earth and other planets revolving round him. Now the dog-ftar B z appears 4 INTRODUCTION. appeafs 27,000 times lefs than the fun; and as the dillance of the ftars muft be greater in proportion as they feem lefs, mathematicians have computed the diftance of Sirius from us to be two billions and two hundred thoufand millions of miles. The motion of light, therefore, which though fo quick as to be commtonly thought inftantaneous, takes up more time in' travelling from the ftafs to us, than we do in making a Weft-India voyage. A found would not arrive to us from thtnce in 50,000 years ; which, next to light, is confidered as the quickeft body we are ac- quainted with. And a cannon ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles an hour, would not reach us in 700,000 years. The ftars, being at fuch immenfc diftances from die fun, cannot poflibly receive from him fo ftrong a light as they feem to have ; nor any brightnefs fufficient to make them vifible to us ; for the fun's rays muft be fo fcattered and diffipated before they reach fuch remote objefts, that they can never be tranfmitted back to our eyes, fo as to render thele objefts vifible by refleftion. The ftars therefore Ihine with their own native and unborrov/ed iuftre, as the fun does ; and fince each ftar, as well as the fun, is confined to a particular portion of fpace, it is plain that the ftars are of the fame nature with the i'un. It is not probable that the Almighty, who always ads with infinite wifdom,. fliould create fo many glorious funs, fit for fo many important purpofes, and place them at fuch diftances from one another, without proper objefts near enough to be benefited by their influences. Whoever imagines that they were created only to give a faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, muft have a very fuperficial knowledge of aftronomy*, and a mean opinion of the Divine Wifdom : fince, by an- infinitely lefs exertion of creating power, the Deity could have given our earth much more light by one fingle additional moon. Inftead then of one fun and one world only in the univerfe, as the unflvo points in the heavens, which always preferved' the fame fituation. Tlrefe points they termed Geleftial poles, becaufe the heavens feemed to turn round them. In order to imitate thefe motions, they invented what is called the /irtificial Sphere, through the centre of which they drew a wire or iron lod, called an Axis, whofe extremities were fixed to the immoveable points called Poles. They farther obferved, that on the 20th of March, and 23d of September, the circle defcribed by the fun was af an equal diftance from both of the poles. This circle, therefore, muft divide the earth into two equal parts, and on this account was called the Equator or Equaller. It was alfo called the Eqmno£fial Line, becaufe the fun, when moving in it, makes the days and nights of equal length all over the world. Having alfo obferved that from, the puted the heat of the comet that appparcd in the 8?o,0'-o miles in an hour ; an J the fun, as fcen year 1680, when neareft the fun, to be 20 o times from if, appears ico degrees in breadth, confe- hottcr than red-hot iron, and that, being thus quently 40,000 times as large as he appears to us. heated, it muft retain its heat till it comes round The ailonifliing dillance. that this comet runs out again, although its period fhould be more than into empty fpace, naturally fuggells to our imagin- 20,000 years; and it is computed to be only 575. ation, the vaft diftance between our fun and the Is. is believed that there aie at leaft 21 comets be- neareft of the fixed liars, of whole attraftii)ns all longing to our fyflem, moving in all dirciilions j the comets muft keep clear, to return periodically and all thofe which have been obfervexl have moved and go round the fun. Dr. Halley, to whom every through the eiherial regions and the orbits of the part of aftronomy, but this in a particular manner, planets, without fufferiug any fenfible rcliftanee in is highly indebted, has joined his labours to thofe iheir motions, which proves that the planets do not of lir Ifaac Newton on this fubjeft. Our earth move in folid orbs.. Of all the comets, the periods was out of the way, when this comet laft paffed of three only arc known with any degree of cer- near her orbit ; but it requires a more peifeift tainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, knowledge of the motion of the comet, to be able 129, and 575 yeais : that which appeared in 1680 to judge if it will always pafs by us with fo little is the mort remarkable ; its greatell diftance is a- cffeiit ; for it may be obferved, that the comet, in bout I I thoufand 200 millions of miles from the one p.irt of its orbit, approaches very near to the fun, while its leall diftance trom the centre of the orbit of our earth ; fo ihat, in fomc revolutions, it .fun is about 490 thoufand miles ; within Icfs than may approach near enough to have very confider- onc third part of the fun's femidiameter from his able, if not fatal efferts^" upon it. Sec Newton, furface. In that jiart of its orbit, which is neareft Halley, Gregory, Keill, M'Laurixi, Dcrham, Fer- to the fun, it flies with the amazing velocity of gufon, and Whifton. * N. B. In order more clearly to comprehend what followe, the readw may oecafjonally turn lns^e^•e tc th3 figure of the artificial fphsre,. 2lft 9 INTRODUCTION. aift of June to the 2,2d of December, the fun advanced every day towards a cer- tain point, and having arrived there, returned towards tliat from whence he fet out, from the aid of December to the 21ft of- June : they fixed the/e points, which they called Soljlkes, becaufe the direft motion of the fun was flopped at them ; and re- prefented the bounds of the fun's motion, by two circles, which they named 'Tro- pics, becaufe the fun no fooncr arrived there than he turned back. Aftronomers obferving the motion of the fun, found its quantity, at a mean rate, to be nearly a degree (or the 360th part) of a great circle in the heavens, every 24 hours, 'ihis great circle is called the Ecliptic, and it pafies through certain conftellations, diftinguifhed by the names of animals, in a zone called the Zodiac. It touches the tropic of Cancer one one fide, and that of Capricorn on the other, and cuts the equator obliquely. To exprefs this motion, they fuppofed two points in the hea- vens, equally diflant from, and parallel to, this circle, which they called the Poles of the Zodiac, which, turning widi the heavens, by means of their axis, defcribc the tivo polar circles. In the artificial fphere, the equinoftial, the two tropics, and two polar circles, are cut at right angles, by two other circles called Colnres, which ferve to mark the points of the folftices, equinoxes, and poles of the zodiac. The ancients alfo obferved, that when -the fun was in any point of his courfe, the people inhabiting direftly north and fouth, as far as the poles, have noon at the fame time. This gave occafion to imagine a circle pafTing through the poles of the -world, which they called a Meridian, and is immoveable in the artificial fphere, as well as the horizon ; which is another circle reprefenting the bounds betwixt the two hemifpheresj or half fpheixs, viz. that which is above it, and that which is below it. SECT. III. The Dodrineof the Globe naturally follows tliat of the Sphere. BY the Doftrine of the Globe is meant the reprefentation of the difi'erent places and countries of the earth, upon an artificial globe. The manner in which geographers have reprefented the fituation of one place widi regard to another, or to the earth in general, has been by transferring the circles of the fphere to the ar- tificial globe J and this is the only method they could employ. This will be obvi- ous from an example. After that circle in the heavens, which is called the equator, was l^no^vn to aftronomers, there was nothing more eafythan to transfer it to the earth, .by which the fituation of places was determined, according as they lay on one fide of the equator or another. The fame may be obferved of the other circles of the fphere. The reader having obtained an idea of tlie principle upon which the Doc- trine of the Globe is founded, may proceed to confider this dodlrine itfelf, or, in ether words, the defcription of our earth, as rejirefented by the artificial globe. Figure of the Earth.] Though in fpeaking of the earth, along with the other planets, it was fufficient to confider it as a fpherical or globular body ; yet it has been difcovcrcd, that this is not its true figure, and that the earth, though .nearly a fphere or ball, is not perfc6lly fo. This occafioned great difpute between the philofophcrs of the laft age, among whom fir Ifaac Newton, and Cafiini, a French aftronomer, were the heads of two parties. Sir Ifaac demonfiratcd, from mathematical principles, that the earth was an oblate fphere, or that it was flntted at .the poles, and jutted out towards the equator; fo that a line, drawn through the ccntrcof the earth, and pafiing through the poles, which is called a Diameter, would not be fo long as a line drawn through the fame centre, and palling through the ealt and weft points. The French pliiiofopher aiiertcd the contrary. Rut the dilpute was terminated by the Frencii king, in 1736^ who fent out a company of pliilofo- ' phers INTRODUCTION. 9 phers towards the north pole, and likewife towards the equator, in order to inea- lure a degree, or the three hundred and iixtieth partot a great circle in thefe dirtcr- cnt parts ; and from their report, the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton was confinned beyond difpute. Since that time, therefore, the earth has always been confidcred as more flat towards the poles than the equator. The reafon of this figure may be eafily underftood, if the reader comj)rehends what we obferved, with regard to the earth's motion; for if we fix a ball of clay on a fpindle, and whirl it round, we fhall find that it will projeft towards the micWle, and flatten towards the poles. This is exadtly the cafe, witli regard to our earth, only that its axis, rej)refcnted by the fpindle, is imaginary. But thougii the earth be not perfe6Hy fpherical, the diflerence from that figure is fo fmall, that it may be reprefented by a globe, with- out any fenfible error. Circumference and diameter of the earth.] In the table which we have exhibited, the diameter of the globe is given, according to the bell obfervations : fo that its circumference is 25,03^ Engliih miles. This circumference is conceived, for the convcniency of meafuring, to be divided into three hundred and fixty parts or degrees, each degree containing fixty geographical miles, or fixty-nine hnglifh miles and an half. Thefe degrees are in the fame manner conceived to be divided each into fixty minutes. Axis AND POLES OF THE EARTH.] The Axis of the Earth is that imaginary line pafllng through its centre, on which it is luppofed to turn round once in twenty four hours. The extreme points of this line arc called the Poles of the Earth; one in the north, and the other in the fouth, which are exactly under the two points of the heavens called the North and South Poles. The knowlege of thefe poles is of great ufe to the geographer in determining the diflance and fituation of places; for the poles mark the ends of the earth, which is divided in the middle by the equator; fo that the nearer one approaches to the poles, the farther he removes from the equa- tor ; and, in removing from the poles, he approaches the equator. Circles of the globe.] Thefe are commonly divided into the greater and hjfer. A great circle is that whofe plane paflTes through the centre of the earth, and divides it into two equal parts or hemifpheres. A leflrr circle is that which, being parallel to a greater, cannot pafs through the centre of the earth, nor divide it into two equal parts. The greater circles are fix in number, the lefler four. Equator.] The firft great circle we fliall fpeak of is the Equator, which we have had occafion to hint at already. It is called fometimes the EquiriuSlialy the reafon of which we have explained; and by navigators it isalfo called the Line, becaufe, according to their rude notions, they believed it to be a great Line drawn upon tlie fca from eaft to weft, dividing the earth into the northern and fouthern hemifpJieres, and which they were aiftually to pafs in fiuling from the one into the other. The poles of this circle are the fame with thofe of the world. It pafles through the eail and weft points of the world, and, as has been already mentioned, divides it into the northern and fouthern hemifpheres. It is divided into three hundred and fixty degrees, the ufe ot which will loon appear. Horizon.] This great circle is reprefented by a broad circular piece of wood, encomiiafling the globe, and dividing it into the upper and lower hemifpheres. Geographers prope.ly diftinguifl:i the hoiizon into the fenfible and rational. The firft may be conceived to be made by any great plane on the furface of the fca, which feems to divide the heavens into two hemifpheres, the one above, the other below the level of the eartli. This circle determines the rifing or letting of the fun and ftars, in any particidar place; for when they begin to appear above the eaftern edge, we fay they rife, and when they go beneath the weftern, we fay they are fet. It appears then that each place has its own fenfible horizon. The other horizon, called C the la INTRODUCTION. the rut'ional, encompafles the globe, exaftly in the middle. Its poles (that is two points in its axis, each ninety degrees diftant from its plane, as thofe of all circles are) are called the Zenith and Nadir; the firft exadlly above our heads, and the other direftly under our feet. The broad wooden circle, which reprefents it on the globcj has leveral circles drawn upon it: of thefe the inncrmoft is that exhibiting tiie num- ber df degrees of the twelve figns of the Zodiac, viz. thirty to each fign. Next to this, you have the names of thefe figns, with the days of the month, according to the old and new ftyle. Befides thefe, there is a circle reprefenting the thirty-two rhumbs, or points of the mariner's compafs. Meridian.] This circle is repi'efented by the b7-qfs ring, on which the globe hangs and turns. It is divided into three hundred and fixty degrees, and cuts the equator at right angles ; fo that, counting from the equator each way to the poles of the world, it contains four times ninety degrees, and divides the earth into the eaft- ern and weftern hemifpheres. This circle is called tiie meridian, becaufe when the fun comes to the fouth part of it, it is then mid-day, and the fun has its greateft alti- tude for that dav, which is therefore called its meridian altitude. Now as the fun is never in its meridian altitude at two places epjl or welt of one another at the fame time, each of thefe places mufl: have its own meridian. There are commonly marked on the globe twentv-four meridians, one tlirough every fifteen degrees -of the equator. Zodiac] The Zodiac is a broad circle, which cuts the equator obliquely ; iri •which the twelve figns above mentioned are reprefented. In the middle of this cir- cle is fuppcfed the EcUptic, from which the fun never deviates in his annual courfe, and in which he advances thirty degrees every month. The twelve figns are, I. Aries "v — — March 7- Libra ^ — — September 2. Taurus « — — April 8. Scorpio "i — — Oftober 2- Gemini n — — May 9- Sagittarius t — November 4- Cancer ss — — June lO. Capricorn vf — December 5- Leo SI — - J"iy 1 1. Aquarius -'- — January 6. Virgo "E — — Auguft 12. Pifces K — — February. CoLouRES.] If you imagine two great circles pafling both through the poles of the world, and one of them through the equinoftial, points Aries and Libra, and the other through the folflitial, points Cancer and Capricorn, thefe are called the Co- lures, the one the Equinoftia), the ether Solilitial Colure. Thefe divide the ecliptic into four equal parts or quarters, which are denominated according to the points "which thefe pafs through, viz. the four cardinal points, and are the firft points of Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn ; and thefe are all the great circks. Tropics.] If you fuppofetwo circles drawn parallel to the equinoftial, at twen- ty-three degrees thirty minutes difi:ance from it, meafured on the brazen meridian, and one towards the nortli, the other towards the fouth, thefe are called Tropics, be- -caufe the fun appears, when in them, to turn backwards Irom his former courfe. The ■one is called the Tropic of Cancer, the other of Capricorn, becaufe they pafs through thefe points. ' Polar circles.] If two other circles are fuppofed to be drawn at the like di- flance of twenty-three degrees thirty minutes, reckoned on the meridian from the polar points, thefe are called the Polar Circles. The northern is called the Artlic, t)ccr.ufij the north pole is near the conftellation of the Bearj xha foutheru, the /Int- ■arSlic, btcaufe oppofite to the former. And thefe arc the four lefler circles. Be- fides thtife ten circles now defcribed, which are always drawn on the globe, there arc fcveral others, which are only fuppofed to be drawn on it. Thefe will be ex- j..laintd as they become ncceflary, left the reader fhoukl be difgufted with toomnny litfinitions at the fame time, without feeing the purpoie for which they fervc. The main defigii of all ihefb circles h<\x\^ to exJiibit the reljpcdive fuuation of places on tjic £aith. I "N T R O D U C T I O N. jx earth, we Hiall proceed to confider more pailicularly how that is effected by them. It was found eafier to diftinguifh places by the quarters of the earth, in which they lay, than by their diftance from any one point. I'hii's, after it was difcovered, that the equator divided the earth into two parts, called the Northern and Southern he- mifphcres, it was eafy to fee that all places on the globe might be diHiinguiflied, ac- cording as they lay on the north or fouth fide of the equator. Bcfidti, after the four lefler circles we have mentioned came to be known, it was found that the earth, by means of them, might be divided into five portions, and confequently that the places on its furface might be diflinguifhed according as they lay in one or other of thefe portions, which are called Zones, from the Greek word ioiv», which fignifies a gir- dle; being broad fpaces, like fwathes, girding the earth about. That part of the earth between the Tropics was called by the ancients the Torrid Zone, becaufe they conceived, that, being continually expofed to the perpendicular or direft ra)s of the fun, it was rendered uninhabitable, and contained nothing but parched and fandy defarts. This notion, however, has long fince been refuted, it is found that the long nights, great dews, regular rains and breezes, which prevail almoft throughout the torrid zone, render the earth not only habitable, but fo fruitful, that in many places they have two harvefts in a year; all forts of fpices and drugs are almoft folely produced there; and it furniflies more perfeft metals, precious ftones, and pearls, than all the reft of the earth. In fhort, the countries of Africa, Afia, and America, ■which lie under this zone, are in all refpefts the moft fertile and luxuriant upon earth. The two temperate zones are comprized between the tropics and polar circles. They are called temperate, becaufe meeting the rays of the fun obliquely, they en- joy a moderate degree of heat. The two frigid zones lie between the polar circles and the poles, or rather are inclofed within the polar circles. They are called the Frigid, becaufe moft part of the year it is extremely cold there, and every thing is frozen fo long as the fun is under the horizon, or but a little above it. However, thefe zones are not quite uninhabitable, though much lefs fit for living in than the torrid. None of thefe zones are thoroughly difcovered by the Europeans. Our know- ledge of the fcuthern temperate zone is very fcanty : we know little of the northern frigid zone ; and ftill lefs of the fouthern frigid zone. The northern temperate, and torrid zones, are thofe we are beft acquainted with. Climates.] The divifions of the earth into hemifpheres and zones, though it may be of ativantage in letting us know in what quarter of the earth any place lies, is not fufliciently minute for giving us a notion of the diftances between one place and an- other. This, however, is ftill more necelTary ; becaufe it is of more importance to mankind, to know the fituation of places, with regard to one another, than with regard to the earth itfelf. The firft ftep taken for determining this matter, was to divide the earth into what are called Climates. It was obferved, that the day was always twelve hours long on the equator, and that the longeft day increafed in pro- portion as we advanced north or fouth on either fide of it. The ancients therefore determined how far any place was north or fouth of the equator, or what is called the Latitude of the place, from the greateft length of the day from the place. This made them conceive a number of circles parallel to the equator, which bounded the length of the day at different diftances from the equator. And as they called the fpace contained between thefe circles, Climates, becaufe they declined from the equa- tor towards the pole, fo the circles diemfelves maybe called CUmatical parallels. This therefore was a new divifion of the earth, more minute than that of zones, and Itill continues in ufe ; though, as we fhall Ihew, the defign which firft introduced it, may be better anfwered in another way. There are 30 climates between the equator and either pole. In the firft 24, the days incrcafe by half hours ; but m the remaining fix, between the polar circle and the poles, the daysincreafe by months. C 2 This 12 INTRODUCTION. This the reader will be convinced of, when he beconncs acquainted with the ufe of the globe : in the mean time we fhall infert a table which will ferve to fliew in what climate any country lies, fiippofing the length of the day, and the diftance of the place from the equator, to be known. '^jLatitudr, r-\ D. M. P9 h .6 25 23 5° 30 25 36 2S 41 22 4J ^9 49 o« 52 00 54 *7 5° 58 59 6t 62 (•i 6+ 65 6; 66 66 66 66 67 69 73 H 90 37 zq 58 18 25 06 49 21 47 06 20 z8 3' 21 48 37 3° Breadth. D. W. Long. Day H. M. 8 25 8 7 25 6 30 6 8 4 S4 3 32 2 57 2 29 10 52 29 :o 7 57 44 43 32 '9 '4 8 3 30 13 13 '4 14 30 '5 '5 30 16 16 '7 17 18 18 •9 >9 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 ^3 2 + 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 IMoiuh INl'.iitlis Men lbs IMontlis Montlis Months Names ot Countries and rcm:irkable phiccs iituated in every climate north of the Equatoi-. I. Within the firll Climate lie the Gold and Silver Coaft in Africa ; Malacca in the Eall-Indies ; Cayenne and Surinam in Terra Firma, S. America. II. Here lie Abyllinia in Africa ; Siam, Madrafs, and Pondicherrv, in the Eart Indies ; Straits of Darien, between N. and S. America ; Tobago, the Granaries, St. Vincent andBarbadoes iji the W.Indies. III. Contains IMecca in Arabia ; Bombay, part of Bengal, in the Eaft-Indies ; Canton in China ; Mexico, Bay ofCampeachy, in North Ameiic'a ; Jamaica, Hifpaniola, St. Chriflophcrs, Antigua, Martinico, and Guadalupe, in the Weft Indies. IV. Egypt, and the Canary lilands, in Africa ; Delly capital of the Mogul Empire in Afia ; Gult of Mexico, and Eaft Florida, in North America ; the Havanna, in the W^el^ Indies. V. Gibraltar, in Spain ; part of the Mediterranean fta ; theBar- bary coaft, in Africa ; Jerufalem ; Ifpahan capital of Perlia ; Nankin, in China ; California, New Mexico, Well Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas, in North America. VI. Lilbon in Portugal ; Madrid in Spain ; Minorca, Sardinia, and part of Greece, in the Mediterranean ; Afia Minor ; part of the Cafpian Sea ; Samarcand, in Great Tartary ; Pekin in China ; Corea and Japan ; Williamfburgh, in Virginia ; Mary- land, and Philadelphia, in North America. VII. Northern ])rovinces of Spain ; Southern ditto of France ; Turin, Genoa, and Rome, in Italy ; Conilantinoplc, and the Black Sea, in Turkey ; the Cafpian Sea, and part of Tartary ; New York, Bollon In New England, Noith America. VIII. Paris, Vienna capital of Germany ; New-Scotland, New- foundland, and Canada, in North America. IX. London, Flanders, Prague, Drefden ; Cracow in Poland ; fouthern provinces of Rullia ; part of Tartary ; North part of Newfoundland. X. Dublin, York, Holland, Hanover, and Tartary ; Warfaw in Poland ; Labrador, and New South-Wales, in North America. XL Edinburgh, Copenhagen, Mofcow capital of Ruflia. XIL South part of Sweden ; ToboKki capital of Siberia, XIII. Orkney Ifles, Stockholm capital of Sweden. XIV. Bergen in Norway ; Peterfburgh in Ruffia. XV. Hudfon's Straits, North Amciica. X\T. Siberia, and the fouth part of Weft Greenland, XVII. Drontheim, in Norway. XVIII. Part of Finland, in RulTla. XIX. Archangel on the White Sc.i, Rudia. XX. Hecla in Iceland. XXI. Northern \r.uXi of Riiflia and Siberia. XXII. New North Wales, in North ."Vmerica. XXIIL Davis's Straits, in North .America. XXIV. Samoieda. XXV. South part of Lapland. XXVI. Wcft-Grccnland. XXVII. ZcmblaAuftralis. XXVIII. Zcmbcla Korealis. XXIX. Spitzbergen or Eaft Greenland. XXX. Unknown. The INTRODUCTION. 13 The dlftance of places from the cqviacor, or what is called their Latitude, I3 eafily meafurcd on the globe by means of the meridian above dcfcribed ; for we have only to bring the place, whole latitude we would know, to the meridian, where the degree of latitude is marked, and will be exailly over the place. Now this is the manner alluded to, by which the diftance of places from the equator is moft proper- ly diftinguifhed ; but it could not be adopted, until the figure and circumference of the earth were known, after which it was eafy to determine the number of miles in each 360th degree of this circumference, and confequently know the latitude of places. As latitude is reckoned from the equator towards the poles, it is either northern or fouthcrn, and the nearer the poles the greater the latitude ; and no place can have more than 90 degrees of latitude, becaufe the poles, where they terminate, are at that diftance from the equator. Parallels of latitude.] Though every degree of latitude, or more properly through every particular place on the earth, geographers fuppofe a circle to be drav/n, which they call a parallel of latitude. The interfeftioa of this circle, with the meridian of any place, fliews the true fituation of that place. Longitude.] The longitude of a place is its fituation with regard to its meri- dian, and confequently reckoned towards the eaft or weft : in reckoning the lon- gitude there is no particular fpot from which we ought to fet out preferably to an- other ; but, for the advantage of a general rule, the meridian of Ferro, the moft wefterly of the Canary Klands, was confidered as the firft meridian in moft of the globes and maps, and the longitude of places was reckoned to be fo many degrees eaft or weft of the meridian of Ferro. Thefe degrees are inarked on the equator. No place can have more than 180 degreee of longitude, becaufe, the circumference of the globe being 360 degrees, no place can be moved from another above half that diftance ; but many foreign geographers very improperly reckon the longitude quite round the globe. The degrees of longitude are not equal like thofe of lati- tude, but diminifh in proportion as the meridians incline, or their diftance con- trafts in approaching the pole. Hence, in 60 degrees of latitude, a degree of lon- gitude is but half the quantity of a degree on the equator, and fo of the reft. The number of miles contained in a degree of longitude, in each parallel of latituded, are exhibited in the followino- table. A TABLE fhewing the Number of Miles contained in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the Equator. ^- W 1 1 ^ \ ^ U- <-»-. »^ >->H - U , '~^ . . '"^ . . !-< i:; . 1;:: • jj V- 4-' •5^ £ "H — £i ;; -.q 'j= irt bfl"5 s ^ to' 3 ^ rt >:nz s ' ^. tO'C ■^ rt So-S 2; :t tusz « : rt P J >-« - 96 rJ - c 60 73 Gk-; 31 5' ■-.-, 43 46 4' u, - 63 i^ - i 04 4j rt 76 l^'B 1 59 16 57 61 29 4 51 2 i9 94 17 57 30 32 5° 88 47 41 00 6. 28 '7 77 '3 50 3 ?9 92 18 57 04 33 50 32 48 40 1 1; '3 27 24 78 12 48 4 S9 86 11; 56; 73 31 45 74 49 39 36 64 26 33 79 1 1 45 5 5v 77 20 56, li 35 49 '5 SO 38 57 65 2:; 36 !-0 42 6 ^9 67 21 56 00 36 + 8 54 S' 37 7.3 66 ^4 41 81 09 3S 7 ^'9 56 22 5 5 6^, 37 47 92 52 37 00 67 ^3 45 82 o!^i 35 8 59 40 23 55 23 38 47 28 53 t iS 68 22 48 S3 °"l 3^ , 9 5? 20 '4 54| 8t 39 46 62 54 J 5 26 69 2 , S' S4 06 23 10 59 08 2C 54 38 40 41^ 00 55 34 4' 70 10 52 i^5 ^5! 2 1 > 1 ;8 «9 26 54 00 4" 45 1 > 56 33 5 5 71 '9 54 86 04I 18 12 58 6S 2~ 5 3 44 42 44 95 57 3^ ^1 72 S 55 S7 03 14 , n 5*^ 46 2 8 53 CO 43 4? 88 53 3' 79 7 3 1 " 54 83 02 09 '4 5^ 22 29 52 48 44 ■4 3 16 ;9 3-1 90 74 16 5 3 8^ 01 OJ i^" >8 Q 3' s' 96 45 42 ■^3 . 60 ;o CO 75 ^ 5^ 93 00 00 LoNGITCDS 14 INTRODUCTION. LovGiTCJDE AND LATITUDE FOUND.] To find the Longitudc and Latitude of zny place, ve need only bring that place to the brazen meridian, and we lliall find the degi-ee of longirude manced on the equator, and the degree of latitude on the meridian. So that, to find the difference between the latitude or longitude of two jilaces, we have only to compare the degrees of either, thus found, with one another, and the reduftion of thcfe degrees into miles, according to the table above given, and, remembering that every degree of longitude at the equator, and every degree of latitude all over the globe, is equal to 60 geographic miles, or 69 ;- Englifii, we fhall be able to determine the diftance between any places on the globe. Distance of places measured.] The diftances of places which lie in an ob- lique direftion, i. e. neither direflly fouth, north, eaft, nor weft, from one another, may be meafured in a readier way, by extending the compafTes from the one to the other, and then applying them to the equator. For inftance, extend the compaffcs from Guinea in Africa, to Brazil in America, ar^d then apply them to the equator, and you will find th.edilbince to be 25 degrees, which at 60 miles to a degree, makes the diftance 1500 miles. Quadrant of altitude.] In order to fupply the place of the compaffes in this operation, there is commonly a pliant narrow plare of brafs, fcrewed on the brazen meridian, which contains 90 degrees, or one quarter of the circuinference of the globe, by means of which the diftances and bearings of places are meafured with- out the trouble of firft extending the compaffes between them, and then applying the fame to the eqH.iator. This plate is railed the Quadrant of Altitude. Hour circle.] This is a fmall brafs circle fixed on the brazen meridian, divid- ed into 24 hours, and having an index moveable round the axis of the globe. PROBLEMS PERFORMED BY THE GLOBE. p r ^Y HE diameter of an artificial globe being given, to fi,ui its furface in I fquare, and its foUdity tn cubic mcafure. Multiply the diameter by the circumference, which is a great circle dividing the globe into two equal parts, and the produft will give the firft : then multiply the faid produ6l by one fixth of the diameter, and the produdl of that will give the fecond. After the fame manner we may find the furface and folidity of the natural globe, as alfo the whole body of the atmofphere furrounding the fame, provided it be always and every where at the fame height ; for having found the perpendicular height thereof, by that common experiment of the afcent of mercury at the foot and top of a mountain, then double the faid height, and add the fame to the diameter of the earth ; then multiply the whole, as a new diameter by its proper circumference, and from the produft fubtra<5t the folidity of the earth, it will leave that of the atmofphcre. pROB. 2. To reUify the globe. The globe being let upon a true plane, raife the pole according to the given la- titude, then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and if there be any mariner's conipafs upon the pedeftal, let the globe be fo fituated, as that the brazen meridian may ftand due fouth and north, according to the two extremities of the needle, al- lowing their variation. Prob. 3. To find the longitude and latitude of anyplace. For this, fee above. Prob. 4. The longitude and latitude of any place being given, to find that place on the globe. Bring the degree of longitude to the brazen meridian ; reckon upon the fame m - ridian the degree of latitude, whether fouth or north, and make a mark with chalk where the reckoning ends -, the point exactly under the chalk is the place defired. 6 Proe. INTRODUCTION. 15 Prob. 5. The latitude of any place being given, to find all thofe places that have I be fxme latitude. The globe being reftified {ci) according to the latitude of the given place, and that place being brought to the brazen meridian, make a ^"^ '^°** ** mark cxaftly above the fame, and turning the gloVie round, all thofe places pafling under the faid mark have the fame latitude with the given place. Prob. 6. To find the Sun's place in the Ecliptic at uny time. The month and day being given, look for the fame upon the wooden horizon ; and over-againft the day you will find the particular fign and degree in which the Sun is . at that time, which fign and degree being noted on the ecliptic, the fame is the Sun's place, or neaily, at the time defired. Pror. 7. "Tlje month and day being given, as aJfo the particular time of that day, to find thoje places of the globe to which the Sun is in the meridian at that particular time. The pole being elevated according to the latitude of the given place, bring the faid place to the brazen meridian, and fetting the index of the horary circle at the hour of the day, in the given place, turn the globe till the index points at the upper figure of XII, which done, fix the globe at that fituation, and obferve what plaC'CS areexaclly under the upper hcmifphere of the brazen meridian, for thofe are the places defired. Prob. 8. To knozv the length gf the day and night in any place of the earth at any time. Elevate tiie pole (t/) according to the latitude of the given place -, , find the Sun's place in the ecliptic (^Z-) at that time,, which being brought ^f'' ^^^°^- -- to the eaft fide of the horizon, fet the index of the horary circle at noon, or the upper figure XII. and turning the globe about till the aforefaid place of the ecliptic touch the weftern fide of the horizon, look upon the horary circle, and wherefoever the index points, reckon the number of hours between the fame and the upper figure of XII. for that is the length of. the day, the compliment whereof to 24 hours is the lengthof the night>. Prob. 9. To knnzu what o'clock it is by the globe in any part of the wo''lJ, ami at any, time, provided you know the hour of the day zvhere you are at the fame time. Bring the place in which you are to the brazen meridian, the pole being raifed (c) according to the latitude thereof, and let the index of ^°^' ^' ' the horary circle to the hour of the day at that time. Then bring the defired place to the brazen meridian, and the index will point out the prefeat hour at ihat place wherever it is. Prob. 10. A place bein^givenin the Torrid Zone,. to find thofe Izvo days of the year hi uhich the Sitnfioall be vertical to the fame. . Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and mark what degree of latitude is exaftly above it. Move the globe round, and obferve the two points of the ecliptic that pafs through the faid degree of latitude. Search upon the wooden ho- rizon (or by proper tables of the Sun's annual motion) on what days he pafi^eth through the aforefaid points of the ecliptic, for thole are the days required ia which the fun is vertical to the given place. Prob. i i . The month and the day being given, to find by the globe thrfc pdaces of tl^ 'North Frigid Zone, where the fun begins then tofi:ine corijlantly without fe. ting : asxilfo thoji places of the South Frigid Zone, ivhcre he tten begins to be totally ahfent^ The day given (which mull always be one of thofe either between the vernal equi- jnox and the fummer folfticc, cr between the autuinnal equi.nox and winter folilice)., iind (rt) the fun's place in the ecliptic, and mar-king the fame, bring it 10 the brazen meridian, and reckon the like number of degrees from ^°^' ' ■the north pole towards the equator, as there is between the equator and the fun's place la tli£ .ecliptic, feuiiig a marli with chalk where the .reckoning ends. This done, turn i6 INTRODUCTION. the globe round, and all the places pafTing under the faid chalk are thofe in which the fun begins to fliine conftantly without letting upon the given day. F"or folution of the latter part of the problem, let off the lame dillance from the fouth pole upon the brazen meridian towards the equator, as was formerly fet off" from the north ; then marking with chalk, and turning the globe round, all places pafling under the mark are thofe where the fun begins his total difappearance from the given day. Prob. 12. J place being give?! in the Norih Fi'igid ZotiCf to find by the globe what num- ber of days the fun cO'i-ftanlly Jl:ines upon that pUicc, and what days be is ahfent, as alfo the firft and lafl day of his appearance. . Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and obferving its lati- ('} ROE. 2. f^,(^g^^'j elevate the globe accordingly; count the fame number of de- grees upon the meridian f omeach fideof the equator as the place is dillant from the pole; and making marks where the reckonings end, turn the globe, and carefully obfcrvc what two degrees of the ecliptic pafs exactly under the two points marked in the meridian j firft for the northern arch of the circle, namely that comprehended between the two degrees marked, being reduced to time, will give the number of days that the fun conftantly fliines above the horizon of the given place; and the oppofue arch of that circle will give the number of days in which he is totally abfent, and alfo will point out which days thofe are. In the interval he will rile and fet. Prob. 13. The month and day being given, to find thofe places on the globe, to zvhich the fun, zahci on the meridian, fJ:all be vertical on that day. The fun's place in the ecliptic being (<:) found, bring the fame to (l) roe, . ^1^^ brazen meridian, in which make a fmall mark with chalk, exadlly above the fun's place. Which done, turn the globe, and thofe places which have the fun vertical in the meridian will fucceffively pafs under the faid mark. Prob. 14. The month and day being given, to find upon what point of the compafs the fan then rifes and fet s in any pkuc. Elevate the pole according to the- latitude of the defired place, and, finding the fun's place in the ecliptic at die given time, bring the fame to the eaftern fide of the horizon, and you may there clearly fee the point of the compafs upon which he then rifes. By turning the globe till his place coincide with the weftcrn fide of the horizon, you may alfo fee upon that circle the cxadl point of his fetting. Pro^. 15. To knozu by the globe the; length oj the longcjl and fljorttfl days and nights in any pari of the zvorld. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given place, and bring the firft degree of Cancer if in the northern, or Capricorn if in the fouthcrn hemifphcre, to the call: fide of the horizon ; and fetting the index of the horary circle at noon, turn the globe till the fign of Cancer touch the weftern fide of the horizon, and then ob- fcrve upon the hor.ary circle the number of hours between the index and the upper figure of XII. reckoning them according to the motion of the index, for that is the length of the longeft day, the complement whereof is the extent of the llaorteft night. The fhortert day and longeft night are only the rcverfe of the former. Prob. 16. The hour of the day being given in any place, to find thofe places of the earth zvhere it is either noon or midnight, or any other particular hour at the fame time. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and fet the index of the horary cir- cle at the hour of the day in that place. Then tiu-n the globe till the index point at the upper figure of XII. and ubfervc what places are exaiflly under the uj)p.er femicircle of the brazen meridian, for in them it is mid-day at the time given. Which done, turn the globe till the index point at the lower figure of XII. and what places are then in the lower femicircle of the meridian, in tliein it is midnight at fhe given time. After the fame manner we may find t!io!e places that have any a other INTRODUCTION. 1J71 other particular hour at the time given, by moving the globe till the index point at the hour defired, and obfcrving the places then under the brazen meridian. Prob. 17. The dcy Gild hour heing given i to find by the globe that particular place of the earth to which the fun is vertical at that time. The fun's place in the ecliptic (4) being found and brought to the . , ,, brazen meridian, make a mark above the fame with chalk ; then {b) j^j Prob' ,5 find thofe places of the earth in whofe meridian the fun is at that in- ftant, and bring them to the brazen meridian ; which done, obferve narrowly that individual part of the earth which falls exaftly under the aforcfaid mark in the brazen meridian; for that is the particular place to which the fun is vertical at that lime. Prob. 18. Ihe day and hour at any place being given, to find all thofc places where the funis then rifing, or felting, or on the meridian; coiifequently, all thofe plates which are en- lightened at that time, and thofe zvhich are in the dark. This problem cannot be folved by any globe fitted up in the common way, with the hour-circle fixed upon the brafs-meridian j unlefs the fun be on or near fome of the tropics on the given day. But by a globe fitted uj) according to Mr. Jofcph Harris's invention, where the hour-circle lies on the furface of the globe, below the meridian, it may be folved for any day in the year, according to his method ; which is as follows. Having found the place to which the fun is vertical at the given hour, if the place be in the northern hemifpliere, elevate the north pole as many degrees above the horizon, as are equal to the latitude of that place ; if the place be in the fouthern hemifphere, elevate the fouth pole accordingly; and bring the place tO' ■ the brazen meridian. Then, all thofe places which are in the weftern femicir- cle of the horizon have the fun rifing to them at that time; and thofe in the eaftern femicirclc have it fetting : to thofe under the upper femicircle of the brafs meridian, it is noon ; and to thofe under the lower femicircle, it is midnight. All thofe places which are above the horizon, are enlightened by the fun, and have the fun juft as many degrees above them, as they thcmfelves are above the horizon ; and this height may be known, by fixing the quadrant of altitude on the brazen meridian over the place to which the fun is vertical ; and then, laying it over any other place, obferve what number of degrees on the quadrant are intercepted between the laid place and the horizon. In all thofe places that arc i8 degrees below the weftern femicircle of the horizon, the morning twilight is juft beginning; in all thofe that are 18 degrees below the femicircle of tl.c horizon, the evening twilight is ending; and all thofe that are lower than 18 degiees, have dark night. \i any place be brought to the upper femicircle of tlie brazen meridian, and the hour-index be fet to the upper XII. or noon, and then the globe be tui'ned eaftward on its axis; when the place comes to the weftern femicircle of the horizon, the index will fticw the time of fun-rifing at that place ; and when the fame place comes to the eaftern femicircle of the horizon, the index will ^i\z\v the time of fun-fet. To thofe places which do not go under the horizon, the fun fets not on that day ; and to thofe which do not come above it the fun does not rife. Prob. i 9. The -month and day being given, zvith the place of the tncon in the zodiac and her true latitude, to find thereby the exatt hour zvhcn Jhejhall rife and fit, together with her fouthing, or coming to the meridian of the place. The moon's place in the zodiac may be found readily at any time by an almanac ; and her latitude, which is her diftance from the ecliptic, by applying the femicir- cle of pofition to her place in the zodiac. For the folution of the pro- blem («), elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given pkce, («) Proe. 2. and the fund's place in the ecliptic at that time being {b) found and [h) Prob. 6; marked with chalk, as alfo the moon's place at the fame, bring the fun's place to the brazen meridian, and let the index of the horary circle at noon, D then i3 INTRODUCTION. then turn the globe till the moorl's place fucceffively meet with the' eailern and weftern fide of the horizon, as alfo the brazen meridian, and tlie index will point- at thofe times, the particular hours of her rifing, fetting, and fouthi.ng. Prob. 20. Two places being given on tke globe, to find the true d'ljiance betzveen them. Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over both the places, and the number of degrees intercepted between them will be their true diftance from each other, reckoning every degree to be 69^ Englifli miles. Prob. 2 u A place being given on the globe, and its true diftance from afccond place, to find thereby all other places oj the earth of the fame dijtance from the given place. BrincT the given place to the brazen meridian, and elevate the pole according to the latitude of that place j then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and rec- kon upon that quadrant ; the given diftance between the firft and fecond place, provided the fame be under 90 degrees, otherwife you muft ufe the femicircle of po- fition, and marking where the reckoning ends, and moving the quadrant round upon the furface of the globe, all places pafllng under that mark are thofe defired. GEOGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS. 1. The latitude of any place is equal to the elevation of the pole above the ho- rizon of that place, and the elevation of the equator is equal to the complement of the latitude, that is, to what the latitude wants of 90 degrees. 2. Thofe places which lie on the equator, have no latitude, it being there that the latitude begins ; and thofe places which lie on the firft meridian have no longi- tude, it being there that the longitude begins. Confequently, that particular place of the earth where the firft meridian interfefts the equator, has neither longi- tude nor latitude. 3. All places of the earth equally enjoy the benefit of the fun, in refpeft of time,, and are equally deprived of it. 4. All places upon the equator have their days and nights equally long, that is,, 12 hours each, at all times of the year; for although the fun declines alternately, from the equator towards the north and towards the fouth, yet, as the horizon of the equator cuts all the parallels of latitude and declination in halves, the fun muft always continue above the horizon for. one half a diurnal revolution about the earth, and for the other half below it. 5. In all places of the earth between the equator and poles, the days and nights are equally long, viz. 12 hours each, when the fun is in the equinoftial ; for, in- all the elevations of the pole, fhort of 90 degrees (which is the greateft), one half of the equator will be above the horizon, and the other half below it. 6. The days and nights are never of an equal length at any place between the equator and polar circles, but when the fun enters the figns 'r Aries and === Libra; for, in every other part of the ecliptic, the circle of the fun's daily motion is divided' into two unequal parts by the horizon. 7. The nearer any place is to the equator, the Icfs is the difference between thc' length of t]\e days and nights, in that pkice ; and the more remote, the contrary ; the circles which the fun dcfcribes in the heaven every 24 hours, being cut more nearly equal in the foriner cafe, and more unequal in the latter. 3. In all places lying upon any given parallel of latitude, however long or fliort the day and night be at any one of thcfe places, at any time of the year, it is then of the fame length at all the rt^ft; for, in turning the globe round its axis (when rectified' according to the fun's declination), all thefe places will keep equally long above or below the horizon. 9. The fun is vertical twice a year to every place between the tropics; to thofe vinder the tropics, once a year, but never any where elie. For, thtn"e can be no place INTRODUCTION. 19 place between the tropics, but that' there will be two points in the ecliptic, whofe declination from the equator is equal to the latitude of tliat place ; and but one point of the ecliptic which has a declination equal to the latitude of places on the tropic which that point of tlie ecliptic touches ; and as the fun never goes withouC the tropics, he can never be vertical to any place that lies without them. 10. !n all places lying exaftly under the polar circles, the fun, when he is in the neareft tropic, continues 24 hours above the horizon, without fetting ; becaufe no part of that tropic is below their horizon. And when the fun is in the farchclt tropic, he is for the fame length of time without rifmg ; becaufe no part of that tropic is above their horizon. At all other times of the year he rifes and fcts there, as in other places ; becaufe all the circles that can be drawn parallel to the equator, between the tropics, are more or lefs cut by the horizon, as they are farther from, or nearer to, that tropic which is all above the horizon : and when the fun is not in either of the tropics, his diurnal courfe muft be in one or other of thcfe circles. 11. To all places in the northern heniifphere, from the equator to the polar circle, the longeft day and fhorteft night is when the fun is in the northern tropic j and the fliortell day and longeft night is when the i'un is in the foudiern tropic i be- caufe no circle of the fun's daily motion is fo much above the horizon, and fo little below it, as the northern tropic; and none fo little above it, and fo much below it, as the fouthern. In the fouthern hemifphere, the contrary. I J. In all places between the polar circles and poles, tlie fun appears for fome number of days (or rather diurnal revolutions) without fetting ; and at the oppofitc time of the year without rifing ; becaufe fome part of the ecliptic never fets in the former cafe, and as much of the oppofite part never rifes in the latter. And the nearer unto, or the more remote from the pole, thefe places are, the longer or fliorter is the fun's continuing prefence or abfence. 13. If a fliip fets out from any port, and fails round the earth eaftward to the fame port again, let her take what time fhe will to do it in, the people in that fhip, in reckoning their time, will gain one complete day at their return, or count one day more than thofe who refide at the fame port ; becaufe, by going contrary to the fun's diurnal motion, and being forwarder every evening than they were in the morning, their horizon will get fo much the fooner above the fetting fun than if they had kept for a whole day at any particular place. And thus, by cutting off a part proportionable to their own motion, from the length of every day, they will gain a complete day of that fort at their return ; without gaining one moment of abfolute time more than is elapfed during their courfe, to the people at the port. If they fail weftward they will reckon one day lefs than the people do who refide at the faid port ; becaufe, by gradually following the apparent diurnal motion of the fun, they will keep him each particular day fo much longer above their horizon as anfwers to that day's courfe; and thereby they cut off a whole day in reckoning, at their return, without lofing one moment of abfolute time. Hence, if two fhips fliould kt out at the fame time from any port, and fail round the globe, one e.aftward and the other weftward, fo as to meet at the fame port on any day whatever, they will differ two days in reckoning their time, at their return. If they fail twice round the earth, they will differ four days; if thrice, then fix, &c. OF THE NATURAI. DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH. TH E conrtituent parts of the Earth are two, the lau:^ and -water. The partes of the land are continents, iflands, peninfulas, ifthmufes, promontories, capes, coaffs, mountains, &c. This land is divided into two great continents (bcfides the iflands) viz. the eajlern and wejlern continent. The eallern is fubdivided into three D 2 parts. ^ INTRODUCTION. parts, viz. Europe, on the north-weft; ; Afia, on the north-eaft; and Africa (which is joined to Afia by the ifthinus of Suez, 60 miles over), on the foiith. The weitcrn continent confills of North and South America, joined by the ifthmus of Darien, 60 or 70 miles broad. A ccntineui is a large portion of land, containing feveral countries or kingdoms, without any eritire reparation of its parts by water, as Europe. An ijlnnd is a fmaller part of land, furrounded by water, as Great-Britain. K peninjula is a traft of land furrounded by water, except at one narrow neck, by which it joins tlie neigh- bouring continent ; as the Morea in Greece : and that neck of land which fo joins it, is called an ijlhmus ; as the ifthmus of Suez which joins Africa to Afia, and the ifthmus of Darien which joins North and Soudi America. A promontory is a hill, Br point of land, ftretching itfelf into the fea, the end of which is called a cafe j as the cape of Good-Hope. A coaft ovjhore is that part of a country which borders on the fea-fide. Mountains, vallies, woods, deferts, plains, &c. need no defcription. The moft remarkable are taken notice of in the body of this work. The parts of the water are oceans, feas, lakes, ftraits, gulfs, bays, or creeks, rivers, &c. The waters are divided into three extenfive oceans (befides lelTer feas, which are only branches of thefe), viz. the Jtlanticy the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. Tlie Atlantic Ocean divides the eaftern and weftern continents, and is 3000 miles wide. The Pacific divides America from Afia, and is 10,000 miles over. The Indian Ocean lies between the Eaft Indies and Africa, being 3000 miles wide. The ocean is a great and fpacious coUedion of water, without any entire fepara- tion of its parts by land ; as the Atlantic Ocean. Thc/d-a is a fmaller colledion of water, which communicates with the ocean, confined by the land ; as the Medi- terranean and the Red Sea. A lake is a large coUeftion of water, entirely furround- ed by land ; as the lake of Geneva, and the lakes in Canada. A ftrait is a narrow pait'of the fea, reftrained or lying between two ftiores, and opening a paflage out of one fea into another ; as the ftrait of Gibraltar, or that of Magellan. This is fome- times called ^ found ; as the ftrait into the Baltic. A gulf is a part of the fea run- ning up into the land, and furrounded by it, except at the pafiTage whereby it is com- municated with the fea or ocean. Ifagulfbe very large, it is called an inland fea ; a& the Mediterranean ; if it do not go far into the land, it is called a bay, as the Bay of Bifcay : if it be very fmall, a creek, haven, Jiation, or road for fliips, as Milford Haven. Rivers, canals, brooks, &c. need no defcription ; for thefe lefl"er divifions of water like thofc of land, are to be met v/ith in moft countries,- and everyone has a clear idea of what is meant by them. But, in order to ftrengthen the remembrance of the great parts of land and and water we have defcribed, it is proper to obferve,. that there is a ftrong analogy ar refemblance between them. The defcription of a contment refembles that of an ocean. An ifiand encompafled with water refembles a lake encompaflTed with land. A peninfula of land is like a gulf or inland fea. A promontory, or cape of land, is like a bay or creek of fea. And an ifthmus, whereby two lands are joined,, refembles a ftrait, which unites one fea to another. To this defcription of the divifions of the earth, radicr than add an enumeration of the various parts of land and water, which eorrefpond to them, and which the rcadvr will find in the body of the work, we fiiall fubjuin a table, exhibiting the fuperficial content of the whole globe in fquare miles, lixty to a degree, and alio of the feas and unknown parts, the habitable earth, the four quarters or continents ; likcwife of the great empires and principal iftands, which fhall be placed as they are iubordinatc to one another in magnitude. INTRODUCTION. i^ Square Miles. The Globe Seas and unknown Parts Tlie Habitable V\ orld * luuopc — Africa — America _ Ferlian Empire under Darius — Romiin Empire in its utmoll height RulU.m Chinefe — • ' Great Mogul Turkifh ■ rrefent Perfian f Borneo IV:aclig;ifcar Sumatra J;ipaii Great Britain — — -D • Celebes - ^ ^ Manilla ■ ■ • — Iceland — Terra del Fuego — - Mindinuo 1 Cuba — — Ljava — '99»5'2,595 160,522,026 3'~,99o,569 4,41,6,065 10,763,82 ( 9,654,807 14,110,874 1,650,000 1,610,00c 4, 1 6 1,6 S; 1,749,000 1, 1 16,0 o 95^5^.57' 800,000 228,000 168,000 1 20,C0O I 1 fc',oco 72,920 6^,400 5^500 4:', ceo 4. 075 39,200 3,«,4co 38,250! Illands. Hifpaiiiola — Newfoundland Ceylon • Ireland — ^ Formofa — Anian Gilolo "licily — Timor Sardinia — Cyprus • — Jamaica — Flores ■ Cer.im Breton — — S catra — Candia — Porto Rico — Corlica — — Zealand — Majorca — St. Jago — Negropont — IVnerirt" — Gothland — Madeira — St. Michael — Square Miles. 36,00 ^ 271457 17,^0; 1 l,t)O0 10,400 9400 7800 660.. 6300 6000 6-Ou 5»co 4000 36.0 322 3200 2520 1935 1400 1400 130 I 272! 1000 950 920 Ulands. Square Miles. Skye — Lewis — Funen — Yvica — Minorca Rhodes — Cephalonia • Amboyna — Orkney Pomon;: "■cio — — Martinico — Lemnos ■ Corfu — Providence — Man -^ — Bornholm — Wight — Malta — Barbadocs — Zant Antijua — St.Chrlftopher's St. Helena — Guernfey — lerfey — - Bermudas — Rhodes — 900 880 768 625 520 480 420 4c o 3^ + 300 260 220 '9 + 168 160 160 1,0 150 140 1 20 ICO 80 80 50 43 4^ 36 To thefe iflands may be added ihe following, which have lately been dlfcovcred, or more fully explored. The exait dimenlions of them are not :ifcertained ; but they may be arranged in the fol- lowing order, according to their magritide, beginning at the largeft, which is fuppofed to be nearly equal in fi/.c to the whole continent of Europe : New Holland, Otaheite, or King George's Ifland, New Guinea, Fiicndly Illands, ; New Zealand, Marquefas, New Caledonia, Eafter, or Davis's Ifland. New Hebrides, We cannot finifh the doftrine of the earth, without confidering Winds and Tides, from which the changes that happen on its ftirface principally arife. Winds.] The earth is every where furrounded by a fine invifible fluid, which extends to feveral miles above its furface, and is called .-■//>. It is found by experi- ments, that a fmall quantity of air is capable of being expanded, fo as to fill a very large fpace, or to be compreffed into a much fmaller compafs than it ocenpied be- fore. The general caufe of the expanfion of air is heat, the general caufe of its eom- prelTion is cold. Hence if any part of the air oratmofphere receive a greater degree of cold or heat than it had before, its parts will be put in motion, and expanded or comprefled. But when air is put in motion, we call it zi-vW in general ; and a breeze, gale, or ftorm, according to the quicknefs or velocity of that motion. Winds, therefore, which are commonly confidercd as things extremely variable and uncer- tain, depend on a general caufe, and aft with more or lefs uniformity in proportion as the adlion of this caufe is more or lefs conftant. It is fourtd by obferVations- * The number of inhabitants computed at prefent to be in the known world at a medium taken from the beft calculationSj are about 95 3 millions. t -J r iiuropc contains — — , / ] Alia t f J Africa — — J ( America ■ . 153 Million* 500 I ^o 150 \- Total 953 Miltoia^ ITUdc ^a INTRODUCTION. made at fea, that from thirty degrees north latitude to thirty degrees foiithj there Is a conftanteaft wind throughout the year, blowing on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,' and called the ^rade Wina. This is occafioned by the aftion of the fun, which, in moving from eaft to weft, heats, and coniequently expands the air immediately under hini^ by which means a ftream, or tide of air, always accompanies him in his courfe, and occafions a perpetual eaft wind within thefe limits. This gene- ral caufe is modified by a number of particulars, the explication of which would be too tedious and complicated for our prelent plan j which is-to mention fads rather than theories. It is likewifs found, that fome parts of the Indian ocean, which are not more than two hundred leagues from land, there are periodical winds, called Monfoons, which blow half the year one way, and half the year another way. At the change of thefe monfoons, which always happens at the equinoxes, there are terrible ftorms of thunder, lightning, wind, and rain. It is dilcovered alfo, that in the fame lati- tudes, there is another kind of periodical winds, which blow from the land in the night and good part of the morning, and from the fea about noon, till midnight : thefe, however, do not extend above two or three leagues from fhore. Near the coaft of Guinea in Africa, the wind blows always from the weft, fouth-weft or fouth. On the coaft of Peru in South Ameri'ca, the winds blow conftantly from the iouth- weft. Beyond the latitude of thirty north and fouth, the winds, as we daily per- :ceive in Great-Britain, are more variable, though they blow oftener from the weft than any other point. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude, and between the longitude of Cape Vcrd and the eafternmoft of the Cape Verd iftands, there is a traft of fea condemned to perpetual calms, attended with terrible thunder and liglnning, and fuch rains, that this fea has acquired the name of the Rains. Tides.] By the tides are meant that regular motion of the fea, according to which it ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. The doftrlne of ihe Tides remain- ed in obfcurity till Sir Ifaac Newton explained it by his great principle of gravity or attradlion ; for .having demonftrated that there is a principle in all bodies, within the folar fyftem, by which they mutually draw, or attracfl one another, in proportion .to their diftance ; it follows, chat thofe parts of the fea which are immediately below che moon, muft be drawn towards it, and confequently wherever the moon is near- ly vertical, the fea will be raifed, which occafions the flowing of the tide there. A fimi- lar reafon occafions the flowing of the tide likewife in thofe places where the moon is in the nadir, and which muft be diametrically oppofitc to the former -, for, in the bemifphere fartheft from the moon, the parts in the nadir being lefs attrafted by her than the other parts which are nearer to her, gravitate leis towards the earth's center, and confequently muft be higher than the reli. Thofe parts of the earth, on the contrary, where the moon appears on the horizon, or ninety degrees dillant from the zenith and nadir, will have low water ; for as the waters in the zenith and nadir rife at the fame time, the waters in their neighbourhood will prefs towards thofe places, to maintain the equilibrium; to fupply the places of tlicfe, others will move the fame way, and fo on to the places ninety degrees diftant from the zenith and nadir, •where the water will be loweft. By combining this doftrine with the diurnal motion of the earth, we At all be fenfible of the reafon why the tides ebb and flow, twice in twenty-four hours, in every place on tliis globe. The tides are higher than ordinary, twice every month, that is, about the times of new and full moon, and are called Spnu^ Tiiks : for at thefe times the adions of both the fun and moon are united, and draw in the fame ftraight line, and con- fequently the fea moft be more elevated. At the conjunction, or when the fun and moon arc on the lame fide of the earth, they both confpire to raii'e the waters in the zenith, and confequently in the nadir ; and at the oppofition, or when the earth is tiptween the fun and moon, while one occafions high water in the zenith and nadir, the INTRODUCTION. 23^ the other does the fame. The tides are lefs than ordinary twice every month, about thefirft and lait quarters of the moon, and are called Neap tides : for in the quarters the fun raifcs the waters where the moon deprelTcs them, and deprcfTcs where the moon raifes them ; fo that the tides are only occafioned by the difference by which • the aftion of the moon, which is neareft us, prevails over that of the fun. Thefe things would happen uniformly, were the whole furface of the earth covered with water ; but fmce there are a multitude of iflands, and continents, which interrupt the natural courfe of the water, a variety of appearances are to be met with in different places, which cannot be explained without regarding the fituation of fhores, fIrraitSj and other objefts, which have a ihare in producing them. There are frequently ftreams or currents in the Ocean, which fet fhips a great way. beyond their intended courfe. There is a current between Florida and the Bahama Iflands, which always run from north to fouth. A current runs conftantly from the Atlantic, through the flraits of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean. A current fets out of the Baltic fea-, thrc/ugh the Sound or Urait between Sweden and Denmark', into the Hritifh channel ; lb tfiat there ajx' na tides in the Baltic. About finall idands and head-lands in the middle of the ocean, the tides rife very little ; but in fome' bays, and about the mouths of rivers, they rile from 12 to 50 feet. Maps.] A map is the reprefentation of the earth, or a paat of it, on a plane fur- fcice. Maps differ from the globe in the fame manner as a pifture does from a ftatue.. The globe truly reprefents the earth, but a map no more than a. plane fcrface can. reprefent one that is fpherical. But although the earth can never be exhibited exaft-- ly bv one map, yet, by means of feveral, each containing, about ten or twenty de- grees of latitude, the reprefentation will not fall much Ihort of the globe for cxaft- neis ; becaufe fuch maps, if joined together, would form a fpherical convex nearly- as round as the globe. Cardinal points.]. The north is confidered as the upper part of the m.ap; the fouth is at the bottom, oppofite to the north ; the eaft is on the right hand, the face being turned to the north j and the weft on the left hand, oppofite to the eafl. From, the top to the bottom are drawn meridians, or lines of longitude ; and from fide to fide, parallels of latitude. The outermoft of the meridians and parallels are mark- ed with degrees of latitude or longitude, by means of which, and the fcale of miles- commonly placed in the corner of the map, the fituation, diftance, &c. of places, may be found, as on the artificial globe. Thus, to find the diftance of two places,, fuppofe London and Paris, by the map, we have only to meafure the fpace between rhem with the compafres,,or a bit of thread, and to apply this diftance to the fcale of miles, which fhows that London is 210 miles dillant from Paris. If the places lie direflly north or fouth, eaft or weft, from one another, we have only to obfcrve the degrees on the meridian and parallels, and by turning thefe into miles, we obtain the diftance without meafuring. Rivers are defcribed in maps by black lines, and are wider towards the mouth than towards the head or fpring. Mountains are flietched. on maps as on a pifture. Forefts and woods are reprefented by a kind of fhrub ; boo-s. and morafTeSj by ftiades ; fands and fhallows are defcribed by finall dots ; and roads, ufualb' by double lines. Near harbours, the depth of the water is exprefTed by figures reprefenting fathoms. Length of mjles in. different countries.] There is>fcarcely a greater va- riety in any thing than in this fort of meafure ; not only thofe of feparate countries, differ, as the French from the Englifh, but thofe of the fame country vary, in the different provinces, and all commonly from the ftandarcf. Thus the common; Englifii mile differs from the ftatute mile, and the French have three ibrts of.' leagues. We fliall here give the miles of feveral countries compared with the- Englifii by Dr. Halley. The Englifh ftatute mile confifts of 5280 feet, 1760 yards, or S furlongs.- 'She-' 44 INTRODUCTION. The Ruffian vorft is little more than 4 Englifh. The Turkifh, Italian., and old Roman leffcr mile is nearly i Englilh. The Arabian, ancient and modern, is about i^ Englifli. The Scotch and Irifli mile is about i^^ Englifh. The Indian is almoft three Englifli. The Dutch, Spanifh, and Polifli, is about 3^ Englifh. The German is more than 4 Englifh. The Swedidi, Daniili, and Hungarian, is from 5 to 6 Englifli. The French common league is near 3 Englifli, and The Englifli marine league is 3 Englifli miles. PART II. OF THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS, LAWS, GOVERNMENT, AND COMMERCE. HAVING, in the following work, mentioned the ancient names of countries> and even fometimes, in fpeaking of thefe countries, carried our hiflorical re- fearches beyond modern times ; it was thought necefl*ary, in order to prepare the reader for entering upon the particular hifl:ory of each country we defcribe, to place before his eye 2 general view of the hiftory of mankind, from the firfl: ages of the world, to the reformation in religion during the 16th century. By a hiftory of the world, we do not mean a mere lift: of dates, which, when taken by itfelf, is a thing extremely infignificant ; but an account of the moft: interefling and import- ant events which have happened among mankind ; with the caufes which have produced, and the effeds which have followed from them. This wc judge to be a m.atter of high importance in itfelf, and indifpenflbly requifite to the under- ftanding of the prefent ftate of commerce, government, arts, and manners, in any particular country; which may be called commercial and political geography, and which, undoubtedly, conftitutcs the mofl: ufeful branch of that fcience. It appears in general, from the firft chapters in Gcnefis, that the world, before the flood, was extremely populous, that mankind had made confiderable improvement in the arts, and were become extremely vicious both in their fentiments and man- ners. Their wickednefs gave occafion to a memorable cataftrophe, by which tlie T, c r^i -rL whole human race, except Noah and his family, were deftroycd. The Refoje Chlift, ,, ,, ^ ■ ir-ij r ^ r 2- x%. oeluge produced a very great change on the loil and atmolphere or this globe, and gave them a form lefs friendly to the frame and texture of the human body. Hence the abridgment of the life of man, and that formidable train of difeafes which hath ever fince made fuch havock in the world. A curious jiart of hiftory follows that of the deluge, the repeopling of the world, and the rifing of a new generation from the ruins of the former. The me- mory of the three fons of Noah, the firft founders of nations, was long prcfcrved among their feveral defcendants. Japhct continued famous among the weftcni nations, under the celebrated name of Japctus ; the Hebrews paid an equal vene- ration to Shem, who was the founder of their race ; and among the Egyptians, Ham was long revered as a divinity, under the name of Jupitcr-Hammon. It ap- pears that hunting was the principal occupation fome centuries after the deluge. Tlic world teemed with wild beafts ; and the great heroifm of tliofe times confifted in dcftroying them. Hence Nimrod acquired immortal renown; and by the ad- miration which his courage and dexterity excited, was enabled to acquire an fu- P thority over his fellow-creatures, and to found at Babylon the firft mo- 224-.' narchy whofe origin is particularly mentioned in hiftory. Nfot long after, the foondation of Nineveh was laid by AflTurj and in Egypt, i , the INTRODUCTION. 25 thCsfour governments of Thebis, Theri, Memphis, and Tanis, began to aflume fome appearance of form and regularity. That thcfe events fliovild have happened To foon after the deluge, whatever fur{)rife it may have occafioned to the learned fome centuries ago, need not excite the wonder of the prefent age. We have feen, from many inftances, the powerful effects of the principles of population, and how ■fpeedily mankind increafc when the generative faculty lies under no reftraint. The kingdoms of Mexico and Peru weie incoinparably more extenfive than tliofc of Ba- bylon, Nineveh, and Egypt, during this early age ; and yet theic kingdoms are not fuppofed to have exifled tour centuries before the difcovcry of America by Colum- bus. As mankind continued to multiply on the earth, and to feparatc from each other, the tradition concerning the true God was obliterated or obfcured. _, This occafioned the calling of Abraham to be tlie father of a chofcn peo- ^' \ pie. From this peiiod the hillory of ancient nations bt-gins a little to expand itfelf ; and we learn feveral particulars of importance. Mankind had not long been united into focietics before they difcovered an incli- nation too])prcfs and dcllroy one another. Chadcrlaomer king of the Elamites, or Perfians, foon became a robber and a conqueror. His force, however, muft not have been very great, fince, in one of thefe expeditions, Abraham, affillcd only by his houfehold, fet upon him in his retreat, and, after a fierce engagement, recovered all the Ipoil that had been taken. Abraham was foon after obliged by a famine to leave Canaan, the country where God had commanded him to fettle, and to go into Egypt. This journey gives occafion to Mofes to mention fome particulars with regard to the Egyptians, which plainly diicover the characters of an improved and powerful nation. The court of the Egyptian monirch is defcribed in the moft brilliant colours. He is furrounded with a crowd of courtiers, folely occupied in gratifying his pafTions. The particular governments into which tliis country was divided, are now united under one powerful prince; and Ham, who led the colony into Egypt, is become the founder of a mighty empire. We are not, however, to imagine, that all the laws which took place in Egypt, and which have been fo jullly admired tor their wifdom, were the work of this early age. Diodorus Siculus, ii Greek wiiter, mentions many fucceflive princes, who laboured for their eftablifh- ■ ment and perfedion. Pnit in the time of Jacob, two centuries after, the firll piin- ciples of civil order and regular government ieem to have been tolerably underitood a)Uong the Egyptians. The country was divided into feveral dilbnds or feparate de- ])artments ; councils, compofed of experienced and felefl perfons, were eftnbiitlied for tiie management of public affairs ; granaries for preferring corn were erected ; and, in fine, the Egyptians, in this age, enjoyed a commerce far from inconfiderable. Thefe fadts, though of an ancient date, deferve our particular attention. It is from the Egyptians that many of the arts, both of elegance and utility, have been hand- ed down in an uninterrupted chain to the modern nations of Europe. Tlie Egyp- tians communicated their arts to the Greeks ; the Greeks taught the Romans many improvements both in the arts of peace and war; and to the Romans the prefent inhabitants of Europe are indebted for their civility and refinement. The kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh remained feparate for feveral centuries : but we know not even the names of the kings who governed them, till the time of Ninus, the fuccef- forof Alfur, who, fired by the fpirit of conqueft, extends the bounds of his king- dom, adds Babylon to his dominions, and lays the foundation of that monarchy, aflilled by his enterprifing fucceffor Semiramis, which, under tlie name of the Affy- rian empire, kept Afia under the yoke for many ages. Javan, Ton of Japhet, and grand-fon of Noah, is the ftock from whom all the people known by the nam.e of Greeks are defcended. Javan eftabliflied hiir.felf in the illands in the weflern coalt of Afia Minor, from whence it was impodible that fome wanderers Hrould not pafs over into Europe. The kingdom of Sicyon near E Corinth, 26 INTRODUCTION. Corinth, founded by the Pelafgi, is generally fuppofed to have commenced in the year before Chrilt 2090. To thefe firft inhabitants fucceed a colony from Egypt, who, about 2000 years before the Chriftian aera, penetrated into Greece, and, un- der the name of Titans, endeavoured to eftablifh monarchy in this country, and to introduce into it the laws and civil policy of the Egyptians. But the empire of the Titans foon fell afunder ; and the ancient Greeks, who feem at this time to have been as rude and barbarous as any people in the world, again fell back into their lawlefs and favage manner of life. Several colonies, however, foon after pafTed over from Afia into Greece, and by remaining in that country, produced a more confiderable alteration in the manner of its inhabitants. The moft ancient of thefe were the colo- nies of Inachus and Ogyges ; of whom the former fettled in Argos, and the ^'■,_ • latter in Attica. We know very little of Ogyges or his fucceflbrs. Thofe ' ' of Inachus endeavoured to unite the difperfed and wandering Grceeks ; and their endeavoiu's for this purpofe were not altogether imluccefsful. But the hiftory of the Ifraelites is the only one with which we are much acquaint- ed during thofe ages. The train of curious events, which occafioned the fettling of Jacob and his family in that part of Egypt of which Tanis was the capital, are univerfally known. That patriarch died, according to the Septuagint ^ verfion, 1794 years before Chrift, but according to the Hebrew Chronology, ^' only 1689 years, and in the year of the World 2315. This is a remarkable srra with relpeft to the nations of heathen antiquity, and concludes that period of time which the Greeks confidered as altogether unknown, and which they have greatly disfigured by their fabulous narrations. Let us regard this period then in another point of view, and confider what we can learn from the facred writings, with refped: to the arts, manners, and laws of ancient nations. It is a common error among writers on this fubiedl, to confider all the nations of antiquity as being on the fame footing. They find fome nations extremely rude and barbarous, and hence they conclude, that all were in that fituation. They difcover others acquainted v^ith many arts, and hence they infer the wifdom of the firll ages. There appears, however, to have been as much difference between the inhabitants of the ancient world, in point of art and refinement, as between the civilized kingdoms of modern Europe and the Indians in America, or the Negroes on the loafi of Africa. Noah was undoubtedly acquainted with all the arts of the an- tediluvian world : thefe he would communicate to his children, and they again would hand them down to their pofteriry. Thofe nations therefore who fettled ncarefl: the original feat of mankind, and who had the beil opportunities to avail tlicmlelvcs of the knowledge wliich their great ancel1:or was poflelfed of, early formed themfelves into regular focietics, and made improvements in the arts which are mofl fubfervient to human life. Agriculture appears to have been known in the firfl ages of the world. Noah cuUivatetl the vine ; in the time of Jacob, the fig-tree and tlie almond were well known in the land of Canaan ; and the inftru- iiients of hufbandrv, long before the difcoveiy of them in Greece, are often men- tioned in the facred writings. It is hardly to be fuppofed, that the ancient cities, both in Afia and Egypt, whofe foundation, as we have already mentioned, afcends to the remotetl: antiquity, could have been built, unlcfs the culture of the ground had been p-ra£liled at that time. Nations who live by hunting or pallurage only, lead a wandering life, and feldom fix their refidence in cities. Commerce natural- ly follows agriculture: and though we cannot trace the (leps by which it was in- troduced among the ancient nations, we may, from detached palfagcs in ficrcdwnt, afccrtain the progrefs which had been made in it during the patriarchal times. Wc know, from the hiftory of civil fociety, that the commercial intcrcourfe between men muft be prcrry confiderable, before the metals come to be confidered as the medium INTRODUCTION. 27 medium of trade ; and yet this v/as the cafe even in the days of Abraham. It ap- pears, however, from the relations which eftablifh this fadl, that the ule of money had not been of an ancient date -, it had no mark to nfcertain its weight or fincnefs : and in a rontraft for a burying-placc, in exchange for wiiich Abraham gave filvcr the metal is weighed in prefence of all the people. As commerce improved, and bar- gains of this fo/t became more common, this prafticc was laid afidc, and the quan- tity of filver was afcertaincd by a particular mark, wiiich fivcd the trouble of weighing it. But this docs not appear to liave taken place till the time of Jacob the fecond from Abraham. The refilah, of which we read in his time, v/as a piece of money, ftampcd with the figure of a lamb, and of a prccife and ftated value. It appears, from the hiftory of Joieph, that the commerce between different nations was by this time regularly carried on. The IflimaeJites and Midianiles who bought him of his brethren, were travelling merchants, who carried fpices, per- fumes, and other rich commodities, from their own country into -Kgypt. The fame obfervations may be made from the book of Job, who, accoiding to the befl: writers, was a native of Arabia Felix, and alfo a contemporary v/ith Jacob. He fpeaks of the roads of Thema and Saba, i. e. of the caravans which itx. out from thole cities of Arabia. If we retieft, that the commodities of this country were rather the luxuries than the conveniencies of life, we fliall have reafon to conclude that the countr es into which they were fen: for fale, and particularly Egypt, were much improvetl in arts and refinement: fur people do not think of luxuries, until the ufcful arts have made high advancement among them. In fpeaking of commerce, we ought to diftinguilh between the fpecies of it which is carried on by land, or inland commerce, and that which is carried on by fea : which lalt kind of traflic is botli later in its origin, and flower in its proo-refs. Had the defcendants of Noah been left to their own ingenuity, and received no tindlure of the antediluvian knowledge from their wife anceftors, it is improbable that they fliould have ventured on navigating the open feas fo foon as we find they did. That branch of his pofterity, who fettled on the coafts of Palelline, were the firll people of the world among whom navigation was made fubfcrvient to commerce ; they were diftinguifhed by a word, which, in the Hebrew tongue, fignifies tnerchants^ and are the fame nation afterwards known to the Greeks by the name of Phcenicians. Inhabiting a barren and ungrateful foil, they fct themtelves to improve their fituation by cultivating the arts. Commerce was their capital objed: : and, with all the writers of pagan antiquity, they pafs for the inventors of whatever is fubfervient to if. At the time of Abraham they were regarded as a powerful nation ; their maritime commerce is mentioned by Jacob in his lad words to his children: and, if we may believe Herodotus in a matter of fuch remote antiquity, the Phoenicians had by this time navigated the coafts of Greece, and carried oir' the daughter of Inachus. The arts of agriculture, commerce, and navigation, fuppofe the knowledge of fcveral others; aitronomy, for inflance, or a knowkdge of the fituation and revo- lutions of the heavenly bodies, is necellar}' both to agriculture and navigation ; that of working metals to commerce ; and fo of other arts. In fa6t, we find that be- fore the death of Jacob, feveral nations were lo well acquainted with the revolutions of the moon, as to meafure bv them the duration of their year. It had been an uni- verfal cuflom among all the nations of antiquity, as well as the Jews, to divide time into the portion of a week, or feven days : this undoubtedly arofe from the tradition with regard to the origin of the world. It was natural for thole nations who led a pailoral life, or who lived under a ferene lliv, to obferve that the various appear- ances of the moon were completed nearly in four weeks: hence the divifion of a month. Thofe people who lived by agriculture, and who were acquainted witii the divifion of the month, would niiturally remark, that twelve of thefe broufWit back the l^ime temperature of the air, or the fame fcafons ; hence the origin of what E 2 28 INTRODUCTION. is called the lunar year., which has every where taken place in the infancy of fci- cnce. This, together with the obfervation of the fixed ftars, which, as we learn from the book of Job, muft have been very ancient, naturally paved the way for the difcovery of the Jciar year, which at that time would be thought an amazing im- provement in aftronomy. But witli regard to thole branches of knowlege which we have mentioned, it is to be remembered, that they were peculiar to the Egyptians, and a few nations of Afia. Europe offers a frightful ipedacle during this period. Who could believe that the Greeks, who in later ages became thv.* patterns of po- litenefs and every elegant art, were defcended from a lavage race of men, traverfing the woods and wilds, inhabiting the rocks and caverns, a wretched prey to wild ani- mals, and fometimes to one another ? This, however, is no more than what was to be expefted. The defcendants of Noah, who, removed at a great diftance from the plains of Shinar, loft all connciflion with the civiiifed part of mankind. Their pofterity became ftill more ignorant ; and the human mind was at length funk into an abyfs of mifery and wretchednefs. We might naturally expeft, that from the deatli of Jacob, and as we advance forward in time, the hiftory of the great empires of Egypt and AlTyria would emerge from their obfcurity. But this is far from being the cafe : we only get a glimpfe of tlicm, and they difappear entirely for many ages. After the reign of Ni- ■ _■ nius, who fucceeded Semiramis and Niniis in the AiTyrian throne, we find an ^' aftonilliing blank in the hifcory of this empire, for no lefs than eight hundred years. '1 he lilence of ancient hiitory on this fubjcct is commonly attributed to the foftnefs and effeminacy of the fucceffors of Ninus, whole lives afforded no events worthy of narration. Wars and commotions are the great themes of the hiftorian, v/liile the gentle and happy reigns of wife princes pafs unobfervcd and unrecorded. Sefoftris, a prince of wonderful abilities, is fuppofed to have mounted the throne of Egypt after Amenophis, who was fwallowcd up in the Red Sea about the year before Chrift 1492; by his affiduity and attention, the civil and military eftablifliments of the Egyptians received very great improvements. Egypt, in the time of Sefoftris and his imrnediatc fucceffors, was in all probability the moft pov/erful kingdom upon earth, and according to the beft calculation is fuppoied to have contained Twenty-feven millions of inhabitants. But ancient hiftory often excites without gra- tifying our curiofity : for, from the reign of Sefoftris to that of Bocchoris, in the year before Chrift 781, we have little knowledge of even the names of the internie- liiate princes. If we judge, however, from collateral circumftances, the country muft ftill have continued in a very flourilhing condition; for Egypt continued to pour forth her colonies into diftant nations. Athens, that feat of learning and po- litenefs, that fchool for all vi'ho afpire after wifdom, owes its foundation to .' Cecrops, who landed in Greece with an Egyptian colony, and endeavoured ' to civilife the rough manners of the original inhabitants. From the inftitu- rions which Cecrops eftahliflKd among the Athenians, it is eafy to infer in what fituations they muft have lived before his arrival. The laws of marriage, which few nations are fo barbarous as to be altogether unacquainted with, were not known in Greece. Mankind, like rhe beafts of the field, were propagated by accidental ren- counters, and with little knowledge of thofe to whom they owed their generation. Cranaus, who fucceeded Cecrops in the kingdom of Attica, purfued the fame ,' beneficial plan, and endeavoured, by wife inftitutions, to bridle tlie keen pai- 1506. r r 1 1 lions 01 a rude people. Whiift thefe princes ufcd their endeavours for civilifing this corner of Greece, the other kingdoms, into which this cotintry by the natural boundaries of rocks, mountains, and rivers, is divided, and which had been already peopled by colonies fi om Egypt and the Eaft, began to affumc fome appearance of form and regu- ^' larity. Tliis engaged Amphiiftyon, one of thofe uncommon geniufes, who ap- ' pear in the world for the benefit of the age in whiclj they live, and the admira- 2 lion INTRODUCTION. 29 tion of poflerity, to think of fomc expedient by which he might unite in one plan of politics the feveral independent kingdoms of Greece, and thereby deliver thern from thofe intefline divifions, whicli mull render them a prey to one another, or to the firll enemy who might thinlc proper to invade them. Thefe reflet5tions he commu- nicated to the kings, or leaders of the different territories} and by his eloquence and addrefs engaged twelve cities to unite together for their mutual prefcrvation. Two deputies from each of thcfc cities alfembled twice a year at Thermopyls, and formed what, after the name of its founder, v/as called the Amphidlyonic Council. In this afiembly, whatever related to the general intereft of the confederacy was difcuffed, and finally determined. Amphi£lyon likewife, fenfible that thofe political con- nexions are the moll lailing which are ilrcngthened by religion, committed to the Amphi(5lyons the care of the temple at Delpiii, and of the riches which, from the dedications of thofe who confulted the oracle, had been amafled. This affembly, conftituted on fuch folid foundations, was the great fpring of acflion in Greece, while that country prefcrved its independence ; and, by the union which it infpired among the Greeks, enabled them to defend their liberties againfh all the force of the Perfian empire. Confidering the circumflances of the age in wliich it was inftituted, the Amphicly- onic council is perhaps the moll remarkable political eftablifhment which ever took place among mankind. The Greek ftates, who formerly had no cohnedion with one another, except by mutual inroads and hoftilitics, foon began to a6l with con- cert, and to undertake dillant expeditions for the general intereft of the community. The firft of thefe was the obfcure expedition of the Argonauts, in which all Greece appears to have been concerned. The objeiSl of the Argonauts was B. C, to open the commerce of the Euxine fea, and to ellablifh colonies in the ad- " ^' jacent country of Colchis. The ftip Argo, which was the admiral of the fleet, is the only one particularly taken notice of; though we learn from Homer, and other ancient writers, that feveral were employed in this expedition. The fleet of the Argonauts was, from the ignorance of thofe who ccndu6led it, long tofl*ed about on difierent coafl:s. The rocks, at fome diftance from the mouth of the Euxine fea, occafioned great labour: they fent forward a light vefiel, which paffed through, but returned v/ith the lofs of her rudder. This is exprefl'ed in the fabulous language of antiquity, by their fending out a bird which returned v/ith the lofs of its tail, and may give us an idea of the allegorical obfcurity in which the other events of this expedition are involved. The fleet at length arrived at ^on, the capital of Col- chis, after performing a voyage^ v/hich, confidering the condition of the naval art during this age, was not lefs important than the circumnavigation of the world by our modern difcoverers. From this expedition to that againft Troy, which was undertake to recover the f^iir Helena, a queen of Sparta, who had been car- ried off by Paris, fon of the Trojan king, the Greeks mufi; have made a ^" p' wonderful progrcfs in power and opulence: no lefs than twelve hundred '' "^' veffeh were employed in this voyage, each of which, at a medium, contained up- wards of a hundred men. But thefe veffels were but half decked ; and it does not appear that iron entered at ail into their conllruftion. If we add to thefe circum- flances, that the Greeks had not the ufc of the faw, an inflrument fo neceffary to the carpenter, a modern muft form but a mean notion of the ftrength or elegance of this fleer. Having thus confidered the ftate of Greece as a whole, let us examine the cir- cumllances of the particular countries into which it was divided. This is of great importance to our prefent undertaking, 'becaufe it is In this country only that we can trace the origin and progj-efs of government, arts, and manners, which compofe fo great a part of the prefent work. There appears originally to have been a very rem.aric- JO INTRODUCTION. remarkable refcmblance between the political fituation of the difFerent kingdoms of Greece. They were governed each by a king, or rather by a chieftain, who was their leader in time of war, their judge in time ot peace, and who prefided in the ad- min iflration of their religious ceremonies. 1 his prince, however, was far from being abfolute. In each fociety there were a number of other leaders, whofe in- fluence over their particular clans or tribes was not lefs confiderable than that of the king over his immediate followers. Thefe captains were often at war with one an- other, -and fometimes with their fovereign. Such a fituation was in all refpedts ex- tremely unfavourable : each particular ftate was in miniature what the whole country had been before the time of Amphiiflyon. They required the hand of another de- licate painter to fliade the oppolite colours, and to enable them to produce one powerful efteft. The hiftory of Athens affords us an example of the manner in Avhich thefe ftaces, that, for want of union, were weak and infignificant, became, by being cemented together, important and powerful. Thefeus king of Attica, about the year B. C. i2t4, had acquired a great reputation by his exploits of valour and ability. He faw the inconveniences to which his country, from being divided into twelve diilri'fls, was expofed -, and conceived, that by means of the influence which Lis perfonal character, united to the royal authority with which he was invefted, had univeilally procured him, he might be able to remove them. For this purpofe he - endeavoured to maintain, and even to increafe his popularity among the peafants andartifans : he detached, as much as pofTible, the different tribes from the leaders Avho commanded them : he abohfhcd the courts which had been eftablifhed in dif- ferent parts of Attica, and appointed one council-hall common to all the Athenians. Thefeus, however, did not truft folely to the force of political regulations. He call- ed to his aid all the power of religious prejudices ; by ettablifhing common rites of religion to b: performed in Athens, and by inviting thither flrangcrs from all quar- ters, bv the prolpcd of proteftion and privileges, he raifcd this city from an incon- liderabie village to a powerful metropolis. The fplendor of Athens and of Thefeus now totally eclipfcd that of the other villages and their particular leaders. All the power of the ftate was united in one city, and under one Ibvereign. The petty chief- tains, who had formerly occafioned lb much confufion, by being divelted of all in- fluence and confideration, became humble and fubmifTive ; and Attica remained under the peaceable government of a monarch. This is a rude fketch of the origin of the firll monarchy of which we have a dif- tincl account, and may, without much variation, be applied to the other flates of Greece. This country, however, was not deftined to continue long under the go- vernment of kings. A new influence arofe, which in a fhort time proved too power- ful both for the king and the nobles. Thefeus had divided the Athenians into three diftincT: clalfes ; the nobles, the artifans, and the hufbnndmen. In order to abridge the exorbitant power of the nobles, he had beftowed many privileges on the two other ranks of perfons. This pbn of politics was followed by his fucce/l'ors 5 and the lower ranks of the Athenians, partly from the countenance of their fovereign, and partly from the progrefs of arts and manufaftures, which gave them an opportunity of acquiring propert}', became confiderable and independent. Thefe circumflances were attendeti with a remarkable effcift. Upon the death of Codrus, a prince of great merit, in the year R. C. 1070, the Athenians, Ix'come weary of the regal authority, under pretence of finding no one worthy of filling the throne of that mo- narch who had devoted himfclf to death for the fafety of his people, abolifhed the regal jjower, and proclaimed that none but Jupiter fiioukl be king of Athens. This revolution in favour of liberty wasfo much the more remarkable, as »t happen- ed foon after that the jews became unwillirig to remain under the govern- -^ ^- ment of the true God, and defircd a mortal ibvereign, that they miglit be ^''^^* like unto other nations. The INTRODUCTION. 31 The government of Thebes, another of the Grecian ftates, much about the fdine time afTumed the republican form. Near a century before tlic Troj:in war Cad- mus, with a colony from Phoenicia, had founded this city, which from that time liad been governed by kings. But the laft fovereign being overcome in fingle combat, by a neighbouring prince, the Thebans aboliTncd the regal power. Till the days, however, of Pclopidas and I'.paminor.das, a period of fcven hundred years, the Thebans performed nothing worthy of the republican fpirit. Other cities of Greece^ after the example of Thebes and Athens, ereftcd thcmfelves into republics. But the revolutions of Athens and Sparta, two rival ilatcs, which, by means of the fu- periority they acquired, gave the tone to the manners, genius, and politics of the Greeks, defcrve our principal attention. We have feen a tender flioot of liberty fpring up in the city of Athens, upon the deceafe of Codrus, its laft fovereign. This {hoot gradually improved into a vigorous plant ; and it cannot but be pleafanc to obfcrve its progrefs. The Athenians, by abolifliing the name of king, did not entirely fubvert the regal authority : they eftablillied a perpetual magiftratc, wiio, under the name of Archon, was inverted with almoft the fame rights which their king h.id enjoyed. The Athenians, in ti:Tre, became fenfible, that the archonic oHice was too lively an image of royalty for a free ftate. After it had continued, therefore, three hundred and thirty-one years in the family of Codrus, they endeavoured to lefTen its dignity, not by abridging its power, but by iliortening its duration. The firft period alllgned for the continuance of the archonfhip in the fame hands, was three years. But the defire of the Athenians for a more perfect fyftem of freedom than had hitherto been eftabliflied, increafed in proportion to the liberty they enjoyed. Thev again demanded reduc- • "■ tion of the power of their archcns ; and it was at length determined that nine annual magiftrates fhould be appointed for this office. Thefe magiftrates were not only chofen by the people, but accountable to them for their condufl: at the ex- piration of their office. Thefe alterations were too violent not to be attended with, fome dangerous confequences. The Athenians, intoxicated with their freedom, broke out into the moft unruly and licentious behaviour. No written laws had been as yet enadled in Athens ; and it was hardly polTible that the ancient cuftoms of the realm, which were naturally fuppofed to be in part aboliflied by the fucccffive changes in the government, fliould fufficiently reftrain the tumultuary fpirits of the Athenians, in the fiifl. flutter of their independence. This engaged the wifer part of the ftate, who began to prefer any fyftem of government to their prefent anarchy and confufion, to caft their eyes on Draco, a man of an auftere but virtuous difpofition, as the fitteft perfon for compofing a fvftem of law, to bridle the furious and unruly mannersof their countrymen. Draco undertook the office, about the year 62S, but executed it with lb much rigour, that, in the words of an ancient hiftorian, " His laws were written with blood, and not with ink." Death was the indifcriminate pii- nifliment of every oflencc, and the laws of Draco were found to be aremedy worfe than the difeale. Affairs again returned into confufion and diforder, and remained fo till the time of Solon, who died in the year 549. The gentle manners, difinterefted virtue, and wifdom, by which this fage was diftingr.jflied, pointed hirn out as the only charader adapted to the moft important of all offices, the giving laws to a free people. Solon, though this employment was affigned him by the unanimoiis voice of his country, long deliberated whether he ftiould undertake it. At length, the m.-jtives of public utility overcame all confiderations of private cafe, fafety, and reputation, and determined him to enter .an ocean pregnant v^ith a thoufand dangers. Th': firft' ftep of his legiQation was to abolifh all the laws of Draco, excepting thofe relative to murder. The punifhment of this crime could not be too great ; but to confider other oifences as equally criminal, v/as to confound all notions of right and wrong, and to render the law ineftedual, by means of its fcverity. Solon next proceeded tcy -1 INTRODUCTION. to ne'.v-model the political law ; and his eftablilhnients on this head remained among the Athenians, while they prelerved their liberties. He ieems to have fet out with this principle, that a perfeft republic, in which each citizen fliould have an equal political importance, was a fyftem of government, beautiful indtx^d in theory, but not reducible to praftice. He divided the citizens into four clafles, according to the wealth which they poiTefTed, and the pooreft clafs he rendered incapable of any public office. Thev had a voice, however, in the general council of the nation, in which all matters of principal concern were determined in the laft refort. But left this afTemblv, which was com.pofed of all the citizens, fliould, in the words of Plutiirch, like a fliip with too many Hiils, be expofed to the guft of folly, tumult, and dilbrder, he provided for its fafety by the two anchors of the Senate and Areo- pagus. The firft of thefe courts confifted of four hundred perfons, a hundred out ofcachtribeof the Athenians, who prepared all important bufmefs that came before the aflTembly of the people ; the fecond, though but a court of juftice, gained a pro- dio-ious afcendancy in the republic, by the wifdom and gravity of its members, who were not chofen, but after the ftriftefl fcrutiny, and the moft ferious deliberation. Such was the fyftem of government eftabliflied by Solon, which, the nearer we examine it, will afford the more matter for our admiration. Upon the fame plan moft of the other ancient republics v/ere eftabliflied. To infift on all of them, therefore, would neither be entertaining nor inftruftive. But the government of Sparta, or Lacedsemon, had fomething in it fo peculiar, that the great lines of it at leaft ouglit not to be omitted even in a delineation of this fort. Sparta, like the other ftates of Greece, was originally divided into a number of petty principalities, of which each was under the jurifdiction of its own immediate chieftain. Lelex is fliid to be the firft king, about the year B. C. 1516. At length, the two brothers Eurifthenes and Procles, getting pcfleffion of this country, became conjun6t ^- ^' in the royalty ; and, what is extremely fingular, their pofterity, in the direft *'°*' line, continued to rule conjunftly for nine hundred years, ending with Cleomenes, anno 220 before the Chriftian T.ra. The Spartan government, how- ever, did not take that fingular form which renders it fo remarkable, until ^" ^' the time of Lycurgus, the celebrated legiflator. The plan of policy devif- ^^*' ed by Lycurgus agreed with that already defcribed, in comprehending a fenate and affembly of the people, and in general in all thofe eftablifhmcnts which are deemed moft requifite for the fecurity of political independence. It differed from that of Athens, and indeed from all other governments, in having two kings, v/hofe office wastiereditary, though their power was circumfcribed by proper checks and reftraints. But the great charafteriftic oftlie Spartan conftitution arofefrom this, that in all laws, Lycurgus had at leaft as much refpeft to war as to political liberty. With this view, all forts of luxury, all arts of elegance or entertainment, every thing, which had thefmalleft tendency to foftcn the minds of the Spartans, was abfolutely profcribed. They were forbidden the ufc of money, they lived at public tables on the coarfeft fare, the younger were taught to pay the utmoft reverence to the more advanced in years, and all ranks, capable to bear arms, were daily accuftomed to the moft painful excrcifes. To the Spartans alone, war was a relaxation rather than a hardfhi[), and they behaved in it with a fpirit of which hardly anybut a Spartan could even form a conception. In order to fee the effcft of thefe princij^les, and to conncfl under one pomt of viev/ the hiftory of the different quarters of the globe, we muft now caft our eyes on Ada, and obH-rve the events which happened "in thofe great empires, of which we have fo long loil fight. We have already mentioned in what obfcurity the ^ ^- hiftory of gypt is involved, until the reign of Bocchoris. From this ]ie- '^^'' riod, to the diflblution of their government by Cambvfes of Pcrfia, in the year B. C 524, tlic Lgyi^tians are more celebrated for the wifdom of thvir laws and political INTRODUCTION. 33 political inftitutions than for the power of tlieir arms. Several of thefe fecm to have been diftated by the true fpirit of civil wifdom, and were admirably calculated for preferving order and good government in an extenfive kingdom. The great empire of AfTyria likewife, which had fo long difappeared, becomes again an objeft 01 at- tention, and affords the firft inftance we meet with in hiftory, of a kingdom which fell afunder by its own weight, and the effeminate weakncfs of its fovereigns. iSardanapalus, the lall emperor of Affyria, negleding the adminiftration of aflairs, and Ihuttinghimfelf up in his palace with his women and eunuchs, fell into contempt with his fubjedts. The governors of his provinces, to whom, like a weak and in- dolent prince, he had entirely committed the command of his armies, did not fail to lay hold of this oj-)portunity of raifing their own fortune on the ruins of their maf- ter's power. Arbaces governor of iS'Iedia, and Belefis governor o^ Babylon, confpire againft their fovereign, fet fire to his capital, in which Sardana^alus perifhed, B. C. 820, and divide between them his extenfive dominions. Thefe two kingdoms, Ibmctimes united under one prince, and fcmetimes governed each by a particular fovereign, maintained the chier fway of Afia for many years. Phul revived the king- flom of AiTyria anno B. C. 777, and Shalmanefer, one of his fucceffors, pu: an end to the kingdom of Ifrael, and carried the ten tribes captive into Aflyria and Media, B. C. 721. Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, alfo in the year B. C. 5S7, overturned the kingdom of Judah, which had continued in the family of David from the year 1055, and maftered all the countries around him. But in the year 538, Cyrus the Great took Babylon, and reduced this quarter of the world under the Perfian yoke. The manners of this people as brave, hardy, ^' ^' and independent, as well as the government of Cyrus, in all its departments, ^^ ' are elegantly defcribed by Xenoplion, a Grecian philofopher and liiftorian. It is not neceflary, that we fliould enter on the fame detail upon this fubjeft, as with regard to the affairs of the Greeks. We have, in modern times, fufficient example of mo- narchical governments ; but how few are our republics ? But the sera of Cyrus is in one refpeft extremely remarkable, befide delivering the Jews from their captivity, becaufe, with it the hiftory of the great nations of antiquity, which has hitherto en- gaged our attention, may be fuppofed to finifh. Let us confider then the genius of the Affyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians, in arts and fciences ; and if poffible, difcover what progrcfs they had made in thofe acquirements, which are moft fub- fervient to the interefts of fociety. The tafte for the great and magnificent, feems to have been the prevailing cha- radter of thefe nations ; and they principally difplayed it in their works of archi- te6lure. There are no veftiges, however, now remaining, which confirm the tefti- mony of ancient writers, with regard to the great works which adorned Babylon and Nineveh : neither is it clearly determined in what year they were begun or finifhed. There are three pyramids, fiupendous fabrics, ftill remaining in Egypt, at fome leagues diftance from Cairo, and about nine miles from the Nile, which are fuppofed to have been the burying places of the ancient Egyptian kings. The largeft is five hundred feet in height, and two thoufand fix hundred and forty broad each way at bottom. The apex is 13 feet fquare. The fecond ftands on as much ground as the firft, but is forty feet lower. It was a fuperfcition among this people, derived from the earlieft times, that even after death the foul continued in the body as long as it remained uncorrupted. Hence proceeded the cuftom of embalming, or of throwino- into the dead body fuch vegetables as experience had difcovered to be the greateft prefervatives againft putrefa6lion. The pyramids were eredted with the fame view. In them the bodies of the Egyptian kings were concealed. This expedient, toge- ther with embalming, as thefe fuperftitious monarchs conceived, would inevitably fecure a fafe and comfortable retreat for their fouls after death. From what we read of the walls of Babylon, the temple of Belus, and other works of the Eaft, and from what travellers have recorded of the pyramids, it appears that they were really F fuperb 34 INTRODUCTION. fuperb and magnificent ftruftures, buc totally void of elegance. The Orders of architedlure were not yet known, nor even the conftruifling of vaults. The arts, in which thefe nations, next to architedture, principally excelled, were fciilpture and embroidery. As to the fciences, they had all along continued to beftow their principal attention on aftronomy ; but it docs not appear that they made great pro- grefs in explaining the caufes of the phenomena of the univerfe, or in any fpecies of rational and found philofophy. To demonilrate this to an inceliigent reader, it is fufficient to obferve, that according to the teftimony of facred and profane writers, the abfurd reveries of magic and aftrology, which always decreafe in proportion to the advancement of true fcience, were in high efteem among them, during the lateft periods of their government. The countries which they occupied were ex- tremely fruitful, and afforded without much labour all the neceflaries and even luxuries of life. They had long been accuflomed to a civilized and polilhed life in cxreat cities. Thefe circumllances had tainted their manners with effeminacy and corruption, and rendered them an eafy prey to the Perfians, a nation juft emerg- ino- from barbarifm, and of confequence brave and warlike. This was ftill more eafy in the infancy of the military art: when ftrength and courage were the only circumftances which gave the advantage to one nation over another ; when, pro- perly fpeaking, there were no fortified places, which in modern times have been difcovered to have been fo ufeful in flopping the progrefs of a viftorious enemy ; and when the event of a battle commonly decided the fate of an empire. But we mud now turn our attention to other objefts. The hiftory of Perfia, after the reign of Cyrus, who died in the year B. C. 529, offers little, confidered in itfelf, that merits our regard : but when combined with that of Greece, it becomes particularly interefting. The monarchs who fucceeded Cyrus gave an opportunity to the Greeks to exercife thofe virtues which the free- dom of their government had created and confirmed. Sparta remained under the influence of Lycurgus's inftitutions : Athens had juft recovered from the tyranny of the Pififlratidae, a fimily who haci trampled on the laws of Solon, and ufurped the fupreme power. Such was their fituation, when the luft of univerfal ^' ^" empire, which fcldom fails to torment the breafl of tyrants, led Darius (at ^■^' the inftigation of Hippias who had been expelled from Athens, and on ac- count of the Athenians burning the city of Sardis), to fend forth his numerous armies into Greece. But the Perfians were no longer thofe invincible foldiers who, under Cyrus, had conquered Afia. Their minds were enervated by luxury and fervitude. Athens, on the contrary, teemed with great men, whofe minds were animated by the late recovery of their freedom. Miltiades, on tlie plains of Marathon, ^' with ten thoufand Athenians, overcame the Periian army of a hundred thou- '*^°' fand foot, and ten thoufand cavalry. His countrymen, Themiflocles and Ariftides, the firft celebrated for his abilities, the fecond for his virtue, gained the next honours to the general. It does not fall within our plan to mention the events of this war, which, as die nobleft monuments of virtue over force, of courage over numbers, of liberty over fervitude, defcrve to be read at length in ancient writers. Xerxes, the fon of Darius, came in perfon into Greece, -with an army, ■ which, according to Herodotus, amounted to two millions and one hun- ^ * dred thoufand men. This account has been juflly confidered, by fome in- genious modern writers, as incredible. The truth cannot now be afcertained : but that the army of Xerxes was extremely numerous, is the more probable from the great extent of his empire, and from the abi'urd pradice of the caflern nations, of encumbering their camp with a fuperfluous multitude. Whatever the numbers of his army were, he wjs cveiy where defeated, by fea and Land, and cfcaped to Afia in a filhing-boat. Such was the fpirit of the Greeks, and fo well did they know that " wanting virtue, life is pain and woe; that wanting liberty, even virtue mourns, *' and looks around for happinefs in vain." But though the Perfian war concluded glorioufly INTRODUCTION. 35 glorioufly for the Greeks, it is in a great meafiire, to this war that the fubfequent misfortunes of that nation are to be attributed. It was not the battles in which they fuffered the lofs of (o many brave men, but thofe in which they acquired the fpoils of Perfia; it was not their enduring fo many hardfhips in the courfe of the war, but their connexion with the Perfians after tlic conclulion of it, wliich fub- verted the Grecian eftablilliments, and ruined the mod virtuous confcderacv that ever exiftcd upon earth. The Greeks became haughty after their viftories ; de- livered from the common enemy, they begin to quarrel with one another: their quarrels were fomented by Perfian gold, of v/hich they had acquired enough to make them defi.ous of more. J-:lence proceeded the famous Peloponncfian war, in which the Athenians and Lacedasmonians afted as principals, and \ ' drew after them the other ftates of Greece. They continued to weaken "' tJiemfelvcs by thefe inteltine divifions, till Philip king of Macedon (a country till this time little Icnown, but which, by the aftive and crafty genius of this prince, became important and powerful) rendered himfelf the abfolute mafter of Greece, by the battle of Cheronasa. But this conqueft is one of the firft we meet _ with in hifiiory which did not depend on the event of a battle. Philip had ', ^'* laid his fchemes fo deeply, and by bribery, promifes, and intrigues, gained fuch a number of conliderable perfons in the ftates of Greece to his intereft, that another day would have put in his polTefTion what Cheronsa had denied him. The Greeks had loft that virtue which was the bafis of their confederacy. Their po- pular governments ferved only to give a fandlion to their licentioufnefs and cor- ruption. The principal orators, in moft of their ftates, were bribed into the fer- vice of Philip; and all the eloquence of a Demollnenes, aftifted by truth and virtue, v/as unequal to the mean, but more feduftive arts of his opponents, who, by flatter- ing the people, ufed the fureft method of gaining their affe£tions. Philip had propofed to extend the boundaries of his empire beyond the narrow limits of Greece : but he did not long furvive the battle of Cheronzea. Upon his deceafe, his fon Alexander was chofen general againft the Perfians, by all the Gre- cian ftates, except the Athenians and Thebans. Thefe made a feeble effort for ex- piring liberty : but they v/ere obliged to yield to fupcrior force. Secure on the fide of Greece, Alexander fet out on his Perfian expedition, at the head " of thirty thoufand foot, and five tlioufand horfe. The fuccefs of this ar- inv, in conquering the wiiole force of Darius, in three pitched battles, in over- running and fubduing not only the countries then known to the Greeks, but many parts of India, the very names of v;hich had never reached an Eu! oj>ean ear, has been defcribed by many authors both ancient and modern, and conftitures a fingular part of the hiftory of the world. Soon after tliis rapid career of viftory and fuc- cefs, Alexander died at Babylon. His captains, after facrificing all his fa- ' mily to their ambition, divided his dominions among them. This gives rife ■'* to a number of seras and events too complicated for our prefent purpofe, and even too unintercfting. After confidering, tiierefore, the ftare of arts and fciences in Greece, %ve fhall pafs to the Roman aftairs, where the hiftorical dedudion is more fimple and more important. The bare names of illuftrious men, wlio flouriftied in Greece from the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander, would fill a large volume. During this period, all the arts were carried to the higheft pitch of perfection ; and the improvements we have hitherto mentioned were but the dawnings of this glorious day. Though the eaft- ern nations had raifed magnificent and ftupendous ftruftures, the Greeks were the firft people in the world, who, in their works of architecture, added beauty to mag- nificence, and elegance to grandeur. The temples of Jupiter Olympus, and the Ephefian Diana, are the firft monuments of good tafte. They were ereded by the Grecian colonics, who fettled in Afia Minor, before the reign of Cyrus. Phydias, F 2 the ^6 INTRODUCTION. the Athenian, who died in the year B. C. 432, is the firft fculptor whofe works- have been immortal. Zeuxis, Parrhafius, and Timantheus, during the fame age, firft difplayed the power of the pencil, and all the magic of painting. Compofi- tion, in all its various branches, reached a degree of perfedion in the Greek lan- o\iage, of which a modern reader can hardly form an idea. After Hefiod and Ho- mer, who flouriflied 1000 years before the Chriftian sra, the tragic poets iEfchy- lus, Sophocles, and Euripides, were the firft great improvers of poetry. Herodo- tus o-ave fimplicity and elegance to profaic writing. Ifocrates gave it cadence and harmony; but it was left to Thucydides and Demofthenes to difcover the full force of the Greek tongue. It was not, however, in the finer arts alone that the Greeks excelled. Every fpecies of philolbphy was cultivated among them with the utmoft fuccefs. Not to mention the divine Socrates, the virtue of whofe life, and the ex- cellence of whofe philofophy, juftly entitled him to a very high degree of veneration ; his three difciples, Plato, Ariftotle, and Xenophon, may, for ftrength of reafoning, juftnefs of fentiment, and propriety of expreftion, be put on a footing with the writers of any age or country. Experience, indeed, in a long courfe of years, has taught us many fecrets in nature, with which "thefe philofophers were unacquainted, and which no ftrength of genius could reach. But whatever fome empirics in learning may pretend, the moft learned and ingenious men, both in France and England, have acknowledged the fuperiority of the Greek philofophers, and have reckoned themfelves happy in catching their turn of thinking, and manner of exprefllon. The Greeks were not lefs diftinguiftied for their aftive than for their fpeculative talents. It would be endlefs to recount the names of the famous ftatefmen and warriors, and it is impofiible to mention a few without doing injuftice to a greater number. V7ar was firft reduced into a fcience by the Greeks. Their fold iers fought from an affection to their country, and an ardor for glory, and not from a dread ot their fuperiors. We have feen the efFeft of this military virtue in their wars againft: the Perfians : the caufe of it was the wife laws which Amphiftyon, Solon, and Lycur- gus had eftablifned in Greece. But we muft now leave this nation, whofe hiftory, both civil and philofophical, is as important as their territory was inconfiderable, and turn our attention to the Roman affairs, which are more interefting, both on their own account, and from the relation in which they ftand to thofe of modern Europe. The charafter of Romulus, the founder of the Roman ftate, when we view ^- ^' him as the leader of a few lawlefs and wandering banditti, is an objed of ex- "^^' treme infignificance : but when we confider him as the founder of an empire as extenfive as the world, and whofe progrefs and decline have occafioned the two greateft revolutions that ever happened in Europe, we cannot help being interefted in his conduft. His difpofition was extremely martial ; and the political ftate of Italy, divided into a number of fmall but independent diftrifts, afixirded a noble field for the difplay of military talents. Romulus was continually embroiled witli his neighbours ; and war was the only employment by which he and his compa- nions expefted not only to aggrandize themfelves, but even to fubfifl. In the conduit of his wars with the neighbouring people, we may obferve the fame max- ims by which the Romans afterwards became mafters of the world. Inftead of de- ftroying the nations he had fubjefted, he united them to the Roman ftate, whereby Rome acquired a new acceffionof ftrength from every war fhe undertook, and be- came powerful and populous from that circumftance which ruins and depopulates other kingdoms. If the enemies, with which he contended, hatl, by means of the art or arms they employed, any advantage, Romulus immediately adopted that praftice, or the ufe of that weapon, and improved the military fyftem of the Ro- mans by the united experience of all their enemies. We have an example of both thefe maxims, by means of which the Roman ftate arrived at fuch a pitch of gran- deur. INTRODUCTION. 37 dciir, in the war with the Sabines. Romulus having conquered that nation, not only united them to the Romans, but finding their buckler preferable to the Ro- man, intlantly threw afide the latter, and made ufe of the Sabine buckler in fighting againft other flates. Romulus, though principally attached to war, did not negledt the civil policy of his infant kingdom. He inllituted what was called the Senate, a court originally compofcd of a hundred perfons, diftinguiflied for their wifdom and experience. He enafted laws for the adminiftration of jufticc, and for re- ftraining the fierce and unruly paiTions of his followers : and, after a long rei"-n fpent in promoting the civil or military intcrefts of his country, was, ac- cording to the moft probable conjeflure, privately afiaffinated by fome of ^'- ^' the members of that fenate which he himfelf had inftituted. ^'^' The fuccelTors of Romulus were all extraordinary perfonages. Numa, who came next to him, eflablifhcd the religious ceremonies of the Romans, and infpired them with that veneration for an oath, which was ever after the foul of their military dif- cipline. Tullus Hoftilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Prifcus, and Servius Tul- lius, laboured each during his reign for the grandeur of Rome. But Tarquinius Supei-bus, the feventh and laft king, having obtained the crown by the execrable murder of his father-in-law Servius, continued to fupport it by the moft cruel and infamous tyranny. This, together with the infolence of his fon Sextus Tarquinius who, by diflionouring Lucretia, a Roman lady, affronted the whole nation, occa- fioned the expulfion of the Tarquin family, and with it the difTolution of the regal government. As the Romans were continually engaged in war, they ^- ^^ found it necefTary to have fome officer invefted with fupreme authority, ^°^' who might condu61: them to the field, and regulate their military enterprizes. In the room of the kings, therefore, they appointed two annual magiftrates called con- fuls, who v/ithout creating'-the fame jealoufy, iucceeded to all the power of their fovereigns. This revolution was extremely favourable to the Roman grandeur. The confuis, who enjoyed but a temporary power, were defirous of fignalizino- their reign by fome great adion : each vied with thole who had gone before him, and the Romans were daily led out againft fome new enemy. When we add to this that the people, naturally warlike, were infpired to deeds of valour by every confideration which could excite them; that the citizens of Rome were all foldiers, and fouo-ht tor their lands, their children, and their liberties, we need not be furprifed that they Ihould, in the courfe of ibme centuries, extend their power all over Italy. The Romans, now fecure at home, and finding no enemy to contend with, turn their eyes abroad, and meet with a powerful rival in the Carthaginians. This ftatc had been founded or enlarged on the coaft of the Mediterranean, in Africa, fome time before Rome, by a colony of Phoenicians, B. C. 869, and, accordino- to the praiftice of their mother country, they had cultivated commerce and naval greatnefs. Carthage, in this defign, had proved wonderfully fuccefsful. She now com- manded both fides of the Mediterranean. Befides that of Africa, which flie almoft entirely pofTefTed, fhe had extended herfclf on the Spanifli fide, through the Straits, Thus miftrefs of the fea, and of commerce, fhe had feized on the ifiands of Corfica, and Sardinia. Sicily had difficulty to defend itfelf ; and the Romans were too nearly threatened not to take up arms. Hence a luccefTion of hoftUities ^' P' between thefe rival fi;ates, known in hiftory by the name of Punic v/ars, in * ^' which the Carthaginians were an unequal match for the Romans. Carthage was a powerful republic, when Rome v;as an inconfiderable ftate ; bur flie was now be- come corrupt and effeminate, while Rome was in the vigour of her political con- ftitution. Carthage employed mercenaries to carry on her wars ; Rome, as v/e have already mentioned, was compofed of foldiers. The firft war with Carthage lafted twenty-three years, and taught the Romans the art of fighting on the fea^ with which they had been hitherto unacquainted. A Carthaginian veiTel was wreck- ed 58 INTRODUCTION. cd Oil their coaft; they ufed it for a model, in three months fitted out* ■^■g fleet, and the conful Duilius, who fought their firfl naval battle, was vifto- rious. It is not to our purpofe to mention all the tranfaftions ot thefe war* The behaviour of Regulus, the Roman general, may give us an idea of the I'pirit which then animated this people. Being taken prifoner in Africa, he is (tnt back on his parole, to negociate a change of prifoners. He maintains in the fe- ^" 9* nate, the propriety of that law, which cut off from thole who fuffered them- ^^ ' felves to be taken, all hopes of being faved, and returns to a certain death. Neither was Carthage, though corrupted, deficient in great men. Of all the ene- mies the Romans had to contend with, Hannibal was the moft inflexible and dan- gerous. His father Hamilcar had imbibed an extreme hatred againft the Romans, and having fettled the inteftine troubles of his country, he took an early opportu- nity to infpire his fon, though but nine years old, with his own fentiments. For this purpofe he ordered a folemn facrifice to be offered to Jupiter, and leading his fon to the altar, aflinions and of his life, in the year B. C. 6^. In Africa, the Roman .arms met with equal fuccefs. Marius, in conquering Jugurtha, made all fecure in that quarter. Jwen the barbarous nations beyond the Alps began to feel the weight ol the Roman arms- ' ,' Gallia Narbonenfis had been reduced into a province. The Cimbri, Teu- tones, and other northern nations of Europe, broke into this part of the empire. The fame Marius, whofe name was fo terrible in Africa, then made the North of Europe to tremble. The Barbarians, lefs formidable than the !>• ^- Roman legions, retired to their wilds and defarts. But while Rom.e con- quered the world, there fubfiited an eternal war within her walls. This war had fubfiflied from the firll periods of the government. Rome, after the expuliion of her kings, enjoyed but a partial liberty. The defcendaats of the fenators, who were diftinguiflied by the name of Patricians, were invcfted v/ith fo many odious privileges, that the people felt their dependence, and became determined, to Ihake it off-'. A thoufmd difputes on this fubjeft arofe betwixt them and the Patricians, which always terminated in favour of liberty. Thefe difputes, while the Romans prelervcd their virtue, were not attended with any dangerous confequences. The Patricians, who loved thtir country, cheerfully parted with fome of their privileges to fatisfy thepeoplcj and the people^ on the other 40 INTRODUCTION. other Iiand, though they obtained laws, by which they might be admitted to enjoy the firft offices of the ftate, and though they had the power of nomination, always named Patricians. But when the Romans, by the conquefl of foreign nations, became acquainted with all their luxuries and refinements; when they became tainted with the "eifeminacy and corruption of the eaftern courts, and fported with every thing juft and honourable, In order to obtain them, the flate, torn by the faftions between its members, and without virtue on either fide, became a prey to its own children. Hence the bloody feditions of the Gracchi, which paved the way for an inextiiiguiiliable hatied between the nobles and commons, and made it eafy for any turbulent demagogue to put them in adtion againft each other. The love of their country was now no more than a fpecious name ; the better fort were too wealthy and eliminate to llibmit to the rigours of milirary difcipline, and the foldiers> com- pofed of the dregs of the republic, were no longer citizens. They had little refpeft for anv but their commander ; under his baryier they fought, conquered, and plun- dered. He mieht command them to embrue their hands in che bloodof their coun- try. They who knew no country but the camp, and no authority but that of their general, were ever ready to obey him. The multiplicity of the Roman conqueits, however, v/hich required their keeping on foot fevtral armjes at the fame time, re- tarded the fubverfion of the republic. Thefc armies were fo many checks upon each other. Had it not been for tlie foldiers of SyJla, Rome would have furrendered its liberty to the army of Marius. Julius Csfar at lengdi appears. By fubduing the Gauls, he gained his country the mofl; ufeful conqueft it ever made. Pompey, his only rival, is over- 5^* come in the plains of Pharfalia. Csefar appears viftorious almoft at the fame time all over the world : in Fgypt, in Afia, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain : conqueror on all fides, he is acknowleged mafter at Rome, and in tfie \<'hole empire. Brutus and Caffius attempt to give RomiC her li- ^' ^' berty, by ftabbing him in the fenate-houfe. But, though they deliver the '*''■■ Romans from the tyranny of Julius, the republic does not obtain its free- dom. It falls into the hands of Marc Anthony ; Casfar Odtavianus, nephew ^\^' ^^ Julius Cjefar, wrefts it from him by the fea-fight at Aftium, and there is ^ ' no Brutus nor Caffius to put an end to his life. Thofc friends of liberty had killed themfclves in defpair ; and Oftavius, under the name of Auguftus, and title of emperor, remained the undifturbed mailer of the empire. During thefe civil commotions, the Romans flill prcferved the glory of their arms among diflant na- tions ; and, while it was unknown who fliould be mafter at Rome, the Romians were, without difpute, the maftcrs of the world. Their military difcipline and va- lour aboliflied all the remains of the Carthaginian, the Perfian, the (ireek, the Af- fyrian, and Macedonian glory; they were now only a name. No fooner, therefore, was Odaviuseftabli filed on the throne than ambafiadors, from all quarters of the known world, crowd to make their fubmillions. Ethiopia lues for peace ; the Parthians, who had been a formidable enemy, court his friendfliip ; India feeks his alliance ; Pannonia ackr.owleges him ; Germany dreads him ; and the \\^efer receives his l?Avs. Victorious by lea and land, lie fliuts the temple of Janus. The ^ ^' whole earth lives in peace under his power ; and Jefus Chrift comes into the ^* world, four years before the common rera. Having thus traced the progrefs of the Roman government, while it remained a republic, our plan obliges us to fay a few words with regard to the arts, fciences, and manners of that people. During the firll: ages of the republic, the Romans liv- ed in a total negleft, or rather contempt, of all the elegant improvements of life. War, politics, and agriculture, were the only arts they ftudied, becaufe they were the only arts they eflecmed. But, upon the downfall of Carthage, the Romans hav- ing no enemy to dread from abroad, began to talle the fwects of fecurity, and to 6 cultivate INTRODUCTION. 41 cultivate the aits. The progrefs, however, was not gradual, as in the other coun- tries we have defcribed. The conqueft of Greece at once put them in polTeffion of every thing rare, curious, or elegant. Afin, which was the next viftinn, oficred all its ftores ; and the Romans, fpeedily became acquainted with the arts, the luxuries, and the refinements of the EalL Eloquence they had always cultivated as the high road to eminence and preferment. The orations of Cicero are inferior only to thofe of Demollhencs. In poetry Virgil yields only to Homer, whole verfe, like the profe of Demoilhcnes, may be confidered as inimitable. Horace, in his fatlres and epiftles, had the model among the Greeks, and itands to this day unrivalled in that Inecies of writing. In hiilory, the Romans can boail of L,ivy, who pofielles all the natural eafe of Herodotus, and is more defcriptive, more eloquent, and fentimental. Tacitus did not Houriih in the Augullan age, but his works do him the greateft: honour, while they difgrace his country and human nature, whofe corruption and vices he paints in the moft ftriking colours. In philolbphy, if we except the work's of Cicero, and the fyllemof the Greek philofopher Epicurus, defcribed in the nervous poetry of Lucretius, the Romans, during the time of the republic, made not the leaft attempt. In tragedy, they never produced any thing excellent ; and Terence, though remarkable for purity of ftyle, wants the comka vis, or lively vein of humour that diftinguillies the Greek comedians, and which diftinguiflies our Shakfpeare. We now return to our hiftory, and are arrived at an a:ra, v/hich prefents us with a fet of monfters, under the name of emperors, whofe hiftories, a few excepted, dif- grace human nature. Tliey did not indeed abolifli the forms of the Roman repub- lic, though they extingulhed its liberties ; and, while they were praftifing the moil unwarrantable cruelties upon their lubjefts, they themfelves were the ilaves of their foldiers. They made the world tremble, while they in their turn trembled at the arm}'. Rome, from the time of Auguflus, became the moft defpotic empire that ever fubfifted in Europe. To form an idea of their government, we need only recall to our minds the fituation of Turkey at prefent. J t is of no importance, therefore, to confider the character of the emperors, fince they had no power but what arofe from a mercenary flanding army, nor to enter into a detail with regard to the tranf- adions of the court, which were diredted with that caprice, cruelty and corruption, which univerfally prevail under a defpotic government. When it is laid that the Ro- liian republic conquered the world, it is only meant of the civilized part of it, chief- ly in Greece, Carthage, and Afia. A more difficult taflc flill remained for the em- perors, to fubdue the barbarous nations of Europe ; the Germans, the Gauls, the Britons, and even the remote corner of Scotland ; for though thefe countries had been difcovered, they were not efFeftually fubdued by the Roman generals. Thefe nations, though rude and ignorant, were brave and independent. It was rather from the fuperiority of their difcipline than of their courage, that the Romans gain- ed any advantage over them. The Roman wars with the Germans are defcribed by Tacitus, and from his accounts, though a Roman, it is eafy to difcover with what bravery they fought, and with what reluftance they fubmitted to a foreign yoke. From the obftinate refiltance of the Germans, we may judge of the difficulties the Romans met with in fubduing the other nations of Europe. The contefts were ou both fides bloody ; the countries of Europe were fucceffively laid wafte, the inha- bitants periflied in the field, many were carried into flavery, and but a feeble rem- nant fubmitted to the Roman power. This fituation of affairs was extremely un- favourable to the happinefs of mankind. The barbarous nations, indeed, from their intercourfe with the Romans, acquired fome tafte for the arts, fciences, language, and manners of their new mafiers. Thefe, however, were but miferable confola- tions for the lofs ot liberty, for being deprived of the ufeof their arms, for being over- awed by mercenary foldiers kept in pay to reftrain them, and for being delivered over G to 4a INTRODUCTION. ro rapacious governors, who plundered them without mercy. The only circum- ftance which could fupport them under thefe complicated calamities, was the hope of feeing better days. The Roman empire, now ftretched out to fuch an extent, had loft its fpring and force. It contained within itfelf the feeds of diflblution ; and the violent irruption of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarians, haftened its deftruftion. Thefe fierce tribes, who came to take vengeance on the empire, either inhabited the parts of Gcrmanv which had never been fubdued by the Romans, or were fcattered over the vail countries of the north of Europe, and north-weft of Afia, which are now inhabited by the Danes, the Swedes, the Poles, the fubjeds of the Ruffian em- pire, and the Tartars. They were drawn from their native country by that rcftleff- nefs which aftuates the minds of Barbarians, and makes them rove from home in queft of plunder, or new fettlements. The firft invaders met with a powerful re- fiftance from the fuperior difcipline of the Roman legions ; but this, inftead of daunting men of a ftrong and impetuous temper, only roufed them to vengeance. They return to their companions, acquaint them with the unknown conveniences and lu>:uries that abounded in countries better cultivated, or bleifed with a milder climate than their own ; they acquaint them with the battles they had fought, of the friends they had loft, and warm them with refentment againft their opponents. Great bodies of armed men (fays an elegant hiftorian, in defcribing this fcene of de- folation) with their wives and children, and flaves and flocks, iffued forth, like re- gular colonies, in queft of new fettlements. New adventurers followed them. The lands which they deferred were occupied by more remote tribes of Barbarians. Thefe, in their turn, puftied forward into more fertile countries, and, like a torrent con- tinually increafmg, rolled on, and fwept every thing before them. Wherever the Barbarians marched, their route was marked with blood. They ravaged ordeftroy- ed all around them. They made no diftimflion between what was facred, and what was profane. They refpefted no age, or fex, or rank. If a man was called to fix upon the period in the hiftory of the world, during which the condition of the hu- man race was moft calamitous and afflidl:cd, he would, without hefitation, name that wliich elapfed from the death of Theodofius the Great, A. D. 395, to the eftabllfli- ment of the Lombards in Italy, ;^.D. 571. The cotemporary authors, who beheld that fcenc of defolation, labour, and are at a lofs for exprefllons to dcfcribe the hor- ror of it. The fcoitrge of God, the dejlroyer of Ndtions-, are the dreadful epithets by whicli they diftinguiih the moft noted of the barbarous leaders. Conftantine, who was emperor the beginning of the fourth century, and who had embraced Chriftianity, changed the feat of cinpire from Rome to Con- ^' ^' ftantinople. This occalioned a prodigious altcr.ation. The weftern and ^^ ' eaftern provinces were feparated from each other, and governed by different foverei"-ns. The withdrawing the Roman legions from the Rhine and the Danube to the tlaft, threw down the weftern barriers of the empire, and laid it open to the invaders. Rome (now known bv the name of the Weftern Empire., in contradlftlnftion to Conftantinople, which, from its fituation, was called the Eaftern Empire), weak- ened by this divifion, becomes a ])rey to the barbarous nations. Its ancient glory, v.iinty deemed immortal, is effaced, and Odoaccr, a Barbarian chieftain, is ^IfP' f<-*^tcd on the throne of the Cttflirs. Tlicfe irruptions into the empire ^'' ' were gradual and fuccedive. The immenfe fabric of the Roman empire was the work of many ages, and feveral centuries were employed in demolifliing it. Tiie ancient difcipline of the Romans, in military aftairs, was fo e/ficacious» that the remains of it defcended to their fucceflbrs, and muft have proved an over- match for all their enemies, had it not been for the vices of their emperors, and the univerfal INTRODUCTION. 4j iiniverfal corruption of manners among the people. Satiated with the luxuries o'i the known world, the emperors jwere at a lofs to find new provocatives. The moll diftant regions were explored, the ingenuity of mankind was excrcifcd, and the tribute of provinces expended u})on one favourite diih. The tyranny, and the Iiniverfal depravation of manners that prevailed under the emperors, or, as they are called Cajfars, could only be equalled by the barbarity of thole nations who overcame them. Towards the clofe of the fixth century, the Saxons, a German nation, were rhaf- ters of tRe fouthern, and more fertile provinces of Britain ; the Franks another tribe of Germans, of Gaul ; the Goths, ot Spain ; the Goihs and Lombards, of Italy, and the adjacent provinces. Scarcely any vellige of the Roman policy, jurif- prudence, arts, or literature remained. New forms of government, new laws, new manners, new dreiVes, new languages, and new names ot men and countries, were every where introduced. From this period, till the i6rh century, Europe exhibited a picture of moft me- lancholy Gothic barbarity. Literature, fcience, tafte, were words fcarcely in ufe during thefe ages. Perfons of the highelt rank, and in the moft eminent ftations, could not read or write. Many of the clergy did not underftand the breviary which they were obliged daily to recite : fome of them could fcarcely read it. The human mind neglefted, uncultivated, and deprefled, funk into the moft profound ignorance. The fuperior genius of Charlemagne, who, in the beginning of the 9th century, go- verned France and Germany with part of Italy ; and Alfred the Great in England, during the latter part of the fame century, endeavoured todifpel this darkneis, and gave their fubjeds a fhort glimpfe of light. But the ignorance of the age was too powerful for their efforts and inllitutions. The darknefs returned, and even increaf- td ; fo that a ftill greater degree of ignorance and barbarifm prevailed through- out Europe. A new divifion of property gradually introduced a new fpecies of government for- merly unknown ; which fingular inftitution is now diftinguifhed by the name of the Feudal Syjteni. The king, or general, who led the Barbarians to conqueft, parcelled out the lands of the vanquifhcd among his chief officers, binding thofe on whom thev v/ere beftowed to follow his ftandard with a number of men, and to bear arms in his defence. The chief officers imitated the example of the fovereign, and in diftribut- ing portions of their lands among their dependants, annexed the fame condition to the grant. But though this fyltem feemed to be admirably calculated for defence againft a foreign enemy, it degenerated into a fyftem of oppreffion. The ufurpation of the nobles became unbounded and intolerable. They reduced the great body of the people into a ftate of actual fervitudc. They were deprived of the natural and moft unalienable rights of iiumanity. They were Haves fixed to the foil which they cultivated, and together with it were transferred from one proprietor to another, by fale or by conveyance. Every offended baron, or chieftain, buckled on his armour, and fought redrefs at the head of his vaffals. Ilis adverfaries met him in like hoftile array. The kindred and dependants of the aggreffor, as well as of die defender, were involved in the quarrel. They had not even the liberty of remaining neuter*. The monarchs of Europe perceived the encroachments of their nobles with im- patience. In order to create fome power that might counterbalance thofe potent vaffals, who, while they enflaved the people, controlled or gave law to the crown, a plan was adopted of conferring new privileges on towns. Thefe privileges abo- * This Gothic fyftem ftill prevails in Poland : a land, a country renowned for civil and religious remnant of it continued in the Highlands of Scot- liberty, fome relics of thefe Gothic inftitutions are land fo late as the year 1748. And even in Eng- perceivable at this day. ' G 2 lilhed 44 INTRODUCTION. lifhed all marjcs of fervitude ; and the inhabitanrs of towns were formed into cor- porations, or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and magiftrates of their own nomination. The acquilition of liberty made fuch a happy change in the condition of man- kind, as roiifed them from that ftupidity and ina6tion into which they had been funk by the wretchednefs of their former ftate. A fpirit of induftry revived ; commerce became an objed of attention, and began to fiouriOi. Various caufes contributed to revive this fpirit of commerce, and to renew tlie Intercourfc between different nations. Conllantinople, the capital of the eaftern or Greek empire, had efcaped the ravages of the Goths and Vandals, who overthrew that of the Weft. In this city, fome remains of literature and fcience were pre- ferved -. this too, for many ages, was the great emporium of trade, and where fome relifh for the precious commodities and curious manufactures of India was retained. They communicated fome knowledge of thefe to their neighbours in Italy ; and the crufades, which were begun by the Chriftian powers of Europe ■^' ^' with a view to drive the Saracens from Jerufalem, opened a communication ^'^^ ' between Europe and the Eaft. Conftantinople was the general place of rendezvous for the Chriftian armies, in their way to Paleftine, or on their return from thence. Though the objeft of thefe expeditions was conqueft, and not^com- merce, and though the iffue of them proved unfortunate, their commercial effefts were both beneficial and permanent. Soon after the clofe of the holy war, the mariners compafs was invented, ^' ^' which facilitated the communication between remote nations, and brought *^°'' them nearer to each other. The Italian ftates, particularly thofe of Venice and Genoa, began to eftablifli a regular commerce with the Eaft-, and the ports of Egypt, and drew from thence all the rich productions of India. Thefe co!T:mo- dities they difpofed of to great advantage among the other nations of Europe, who> began to acquire fome tafte of elegance, unknown to their prcdeceflTors, ordefpifed by them. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the commerce of Europe was almoft entirely in the hands of the Italians, more commonly known in thole ages by tha nameof L^ombards. Companies, or focieties of Lombard merchants, fettled in every different kingdom ; they became the carriers, the manufacfturers, and the bankers of Europe. One of thefe companies fettled in London ; and from hence the name of Lombard-ftreet was derived. While the Italians in the fouth of Europe cultivated trade with fuch induftry and facccfs, the commercial fpirit awaked in the North towards the middle of the thirteenth century. As the Danes, Swedes, and other nations around the Baltic^ were at that time extremely barbarous, and infefted that fea with their piracies, this obliged the cities of Lubec and Hamburgh, foon after tht-y had begun to open fome- trade with the Italians, to enter into a league of mutual defence. They derived fuch advantages from this union, that other towns acceded to their confederacy ; and, in a Ihort time time, eighty of the moft confiderable cities, fcattered through thofe large countries of Germany and Flanders, which ftrctch from the bottom of the Baltic to Cologne on the Rhine, joined in an alliance, called the Hafifeatic League; which became fo formidable, that its alliance v/as courted, and its enmity was dreaded by the greateft monarchs. The members of this powerful affociation formed the firft fyftematic plan of commerce known in the middle ages, and conduced it by common laws enadlcd in their general affemblies. They fupplied t!ic reft of Europe with naval ftores ; and pitched on different towns, the moft eminent of which was Bruges, ia Flanders, where they eftablinrcil flaplcs, in wifich their commerce was regularly car- j;ied on. Thither the Lombards brought the produ£lions of India, together with the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky, but not Icfs ufc- jful commodities yf the Worth. INTRODUCTION. 45 As Bruges became the centre of communication between the Lombards and Hanfeatic merchants, the Flemings traded with both in that city to fuch extent as well as advantage, as difi'ufcd among them a general habit of induftry, which long rendered Flanders and the adjacent provinces the mofl opulent, the moft populous, and bed cultivated countries in Europe. Struck with the flourifhing ftate of thefe provinces, of which he difcovered the true caufc, Edward III. of England endeavoured to excite a fpirit of in- duftry among his own fubjedts, who, blind to the advantages of their fitu- * ation, and ignorant of the fource from which opulence was deftined to flow into their country, totally negledted commerce, and did not even attempt thofe manufactures, the materials of which they furniflied to foreigners. By alluring Flemilh artifans to fettle in his dominions, as well as by many wife laws for the encouragement and regulation of trade, he gave a beginning to the woollen ma- nufactures of England ; and firlt turned the aftive and enterprifing genius of his people towards thofe arts which have raifcd the Englifh to the firft rank among commercial nations. The Chriilian princes, after their great lofles in the crufades, endeavoured to cultivate the friendfhip of the great khans of Tartary, whofe fame in arms had reached the moft remote corners of Europe and Afia, that they might be fome check upon the Turks, who had been fuch enemies to the Chriftian name ; and who, from a contemptible handful of wanderers, ferving occafionally in the armies of contending princes, had begun to extend their ravages over the fineft countries of Afia. The Chriftian embafTies were managed cliiefly by monks, a wandering profeffion of men, who, impelled by zeal, and undaunted by difficulties and danger, found their way to the remote courts of thefe infidels. The Englifli philofopher Roger Bacon,. was fo indultrious as to collect from their relations, or traditions, many particulars of the Tartars, which are to be found in Purchas's Pilgrim, and other books of travels. The firft regular traveller of the monkifli kin .T^.., . EUROPE. Exclufive of the Britifh ifles, before mentioned, Europe contains the following principal iflands : S3 Iflands In the Noi-ther Ocean Baltic Sea. Mediterranean Sea. Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice. Archipelago, and Levant Seas. 1 Zealand, Funcn, Alfen, Falfter, Lang- land, Laland, Femeren, Mona, Born- Gothland, Aland, Rugen, Ofcl, Dagho, — Ufedom, Wollin, — Ivica ■- » — Majorca — ^ . — Minorca, -—— — Sardinia, - — Sicily, Lufiena, Corfu, Cephalonia, 1 Ionia, Zant, 7 Leucadia, — — — i Candia, Rhodes, Negropont, Lemnos,"N Tenedos, Scyros, INIytclene, Scio, Samos, Patmos, Paros, Cerigo, San- \ torin, &c. being part of ancient and I modern Greece. ^ J Chief Towns. Skalholt, Cvubject lo Denmark, Denmark, — — Sweden. — . — . Ruffia. — -^ Puillia. Ivica, Spain. Majorca, Ditto. Port Mahon Ditto. Baftia, France. Ca'^liaii, King of Sardinia. Palermo, KingofTwoSicilies Vcnics. Turkey, DENMARK. I Shall, according to my plan, begin this account of his Danifli Majefty's domi- nions with the moft northerly fituarons, and divide them into four parts : ift, Eaft and Welt Greenland, Iceland, and the iflands in the Atlantic Ocean j 2d,, Norway J 3d, Denmark Proper; and 4th, his German territories. The dimenfions of thefe countries may be feen in the following table. Denmark. Denmark Proper J Nor < 0011 I 1 North Jutland, th Jutland, r Slefvvick, Zealand, Funen, Falller and -£ ^ < Langland, ^"^ Fc rt -a ■" C3-U-, mcron, Alfen, Mona, ^Bornholm, rn the North Seas, Iceland Iliand, Norway, Danifli. Lapland, Wedphalia, Oldenburg, Lower Saxony, Stormai-, DanifliHolftein. Total Square Miles. 9,600 2,115 '>935 76S 220 50 54 39 ibo 46,000 71,40c 28,400 1260 100: 16^,041 3^ '55 60 27 J I '5 '4 20 435 750 285 6z 52 M rj :j 5- 63 60 32 I 2 8 6 5 185 170 172 32 32 Chief Cities. VVyburg. '.cfwick, Copenhage:;, Odenfec. \ Nikoping^ I Naxkaw. h'orgc. Sonderborge. Stege. Rolicomby. Skalholt. Bergen. Wardhuys. Oldenburg. Gluckft.idt. I?. . Lat. 55"4i Lon^, 12— CO Ihe 54 W E S T G R E E N L A N D. The reader may perceive, that in the preceding table no calculation is made of the dimenfions of Eaft and Weft Greenland ; becaufe they are not yet known, or known very imperfeftly : we fhall proceed to give the lateft accounts of them, and from the beft authorities that have come to our hands. EAST AND WEST GREENLAND, ICELAND, and the ISLANDS IN THE Atlantic Ocean. EASTGREENLAND. TH E moft northerly part of his Danifb majefty's dominions ; or, as others call it, New Greenland, and the country of Spitzbergcn, lies between lo and .i deo-. E. long, and 76 and 80 deg. N. lat. Though it is now claimed by Denmark, it certainly was difcovered by fir Hugh Wilioughby in 1553; and is fuppofed to be a continuation of Old Greenland. It obtaiied the name of Spiizbergen from the height and raggednefs of its rocks. Fcv/ aninials or vegetables are to be found here, and the fifh and fowl are faid to forfake the coaft in winter. The Ruffians of Archangel have formed within the laft 30 years, fettlements for hunting in Itrvcral places of the idand of Spitzbergen. The Aurora Borealis and the nortliern lights reflc(5led from the fnow, enable them to purfue the chace during the long winter's night that reigns in thofc gloomy regions, and they take a great number of fea- Jions which ferve them for food. There is a whale-filhery, chiefl) prolecuted by the Dutch and Britilh veiTels, on its coaft. it likewife contains two harbours ; one called South Haven, and the other Maurice Bay; but the inland parts are un- inhabited. WEST GREENLAND LIES between the meridian of London, and 50. deg. W. long, and between 60 and 76 deg. N. lat. Inhabitants.] By the lateft accounts from the mifTionaries employed for the converfion of the Greenlanders, their whole number does not amount to above 957 ftated inhabitants : Mr. Crantz, however, thinks that the roving fouthlanders of Greenland may amount to about 7000. There is a great refemblance between the afpeft, manners, and drefs of thofe natives, and the Efquimaux Ameficans, from whom they diftcr but littlv, after all the pains which the Danifli and German mif- fionaries have taken to convert and civilize them. They are low in ftature, few exceeding five feet in height, and the generality are not fo tall. The hair of their heads is long, ftraight, and of a black colour ; but they have feUiom any beards, becaufe it is their conflant practice to root them out. They have high brcafts and broad fhoiilders, efpecially the women, who are obliged to carry great burdens from their younger years. I'hey are very light and niir.ble of foot, and can ufe their hands with ikill and dexteriiy. They are not very lively in t'heir tempers, but are oood humoured, friendly, and unconcerned about futurity. Their Uioft agreeable food is the flefh of rein-deer ; but that is now fcarte among them, and their beft provifions are filli, feals, and fca fowl. Their drink is clear water, which ftands in the houfe in a great copper veflel, or in a wooden tub, which is very neatly made by them, ornamented with filh -bones and rings, and provided with a pewter ladle or dipping difii. Tlie men make their hunting and fiflnng iir.plements, and prepare the wood-work of their boats; and the women cover them with Ikins. I'he men hunt and fifh, but when they have tov/ed their booty to land, they trouble them- lelves no farther about it ; nay, it would be accounted beneath their dignity only to draw the feal upon the fliore. The women are the butchers and cooks, and alfo the curriers to diefo the pelts, and make clothes, flioes, and boots, out of tiiem ; fo ICELAND. 55 fo that they are likewife both fhoeniakcrs and taylors. T!ie women alfo build and repair the houfes and tints, fo far as relates to the mafonry, the men doing only the carpenters work. They live in huts during their winter; which is incredibly fevere; but Mr. Crantz, who has given us the lateft: and bc(t accounts of this country, fiys, that in their longeft fumiiier days it is fo hot that the inhabitants are obliged to throw off their fummer garments. The/ have no trade, though they have a moft improveable fifhery upon their coafls ; but they employ all the year either in ftlTaing or hunting, in which they arc very dexterous, particularly in catching and killing feals. CuRiosrriEs.] The taking of whales in the feas of Greenland, among the fields of ice that have been increafing for ages, is one of the greatcft curiofities in nature. Thefe pieces of ice are frequently more than a mile in length, and upwards of lOO feet in thicknefs ; and when tiiey are put in motion by a ftorm, nothing can be more terrible; the Dutch had 13 lliips crudicd to pieces by them in one feafon. There are feveral kinds of whales in Greenland ; ibme white, and others black. The black fort, the grand bay whale, is in mod effeem, on account of his bulk, and the great quantity of fat or blubber he affords. His tongue is about 18 feec> long, inclofed in long pieces of what we call whalebone, which are covered with a kind of hair like horfe-hair; and on each fide of his tongue are 250 pieces of this whalebone. The bones of liis body are as hard as ao- ox's bones, and of no ufe. There are no teeth in his mouth j and he is ufually between 60 and-80 feet long; very thick about rhe head, but grows lefs from thence to the tail. When the feamen fee a whale fpout, the word is immediately given, fall, fall, when every one haftens from the fliip to his boat; fix or eight men being appointed to a boat, and four or five boats ufuaily belong to one fhip. When they come near the whale, the harpooner ftrikes him with his harpoon (a barbed dart), and the monrter, finding himfeif wounded, runs fwiftly down into the deep, and would carry the boat along with him if they did not give him line faft. enough ; and to prevent the wood of the boat taking fire bv the violent rubbing of the rope on the fide of it, one wets it conftantly with a mop. After the whale has run fome hundred fathoms deep, he is forced to come up for air, when he makes fuch a noife with his fpouting, that fome Jiave compared it to the firing of cannon. As foon as he appears on the furface of the water, fome of the harpooners fix another harpoon in him, whereupon he plunges- again into the deep; and when he comes up. a fecond time, they pierce him with fpears in the vital parts till he fpouts out dreams of blood infiead of water, beating the waves with his tail and fins till the fea is all in a foam, the boats continuing to follow him fome leagues, till he has loft his ftrength ; and when he is dying he turns himfeif upon his back, and is drawn on. fliore, or to the fhip, if they be at a diftance from the land. There they cut him in pieces, and by boiling the blubber extraft the oil, if they have conveniencies oa fhore; otherwife they barrel up the pieces, and bring them home. Every fifh is computed to yield between 60 and 100 barrels of oil, of the value of 3I. or 4I. a; barrel. The Dutch and the Englifii are very fuccefsful in this filhery. ICELAND. HIS iiland, which receives its name from the great mafies of ice that are feen.* near ir, lies between 63 and 67 deg. N. lat. and between 11 and 27 deg.. W. long. It extends four hundred miles in length, and an hundred and fixty iiii breadth, containing about 46, coo fquare miles. In April, 1783, the inhabitants of Iceland obferved fomething rifen and flaming in the fea> to the fouth of Grin-- bourg, at eight miles diftant from the rocks des Oifeaux, which afterwards was found to be a new iiland. The fad: is authentic, but its dimenfions and fituation; 9iI9t 5$ ICELAND. are not well afcertained. The information brought by the lad fliip from thence, was, that the iiland was ftill increafing, and that great quantities of fire ilTued from two of its eminences. Population, Inhabitants, Manners, and Customs.] It appears that a Norwegian colony, among which there were many Swedes, fettled in Iceland in the ninth century. They found there inhabitants who were Chriftians, and whom they called Papas. It is fiiid, that the Norwegians alfo found among them Irifii books, bells, and crofiers: and it is conjeftured, that the people who were there, when the Norwegians arrived in the ifland, originally came from England and Ireland. The inhabitants long retained their freedom ; but they were at lalt obliged to fub- mit to the kings of Norway, and afterwards became fubjedt, together with Nor- wav, to the kings of Denmark. They were at firft governed by an admiral, who was fent there every year to make the neceffary regulations : but that mode has now been changed for many years, and a governor appointed, who is ftyled Stift- Jamtmann, and who conftantly refides in the country. The number of the inhabitants of Iceland is computed at about 6l^,coo, which is by no means adequate to the extent of the country. - It has been much more po- pulous in former times, but great numbers have been deflroyed by contagious dif- -eafes. I'he plague carried off many thoufands, from 1402 to 1404. Many parts of Iceland have alfo been de'populated by famine; for though the Icelanders cannot in general be faid ro be in want of necelTary food, yet the country has feveral times been vifited bv great famines. Thefe have been chiefly occafioned by the Green- land floating ice ; which, when it comes in great quantities, prevents the grafs from growing, and puts an entire fl:op to their fifhing. The fm all pox has like- wife been very fatal here; for, in the years 1707 and 1708, that difeafe deflroyed 16,000 peribns. The Icelanders in general are middle-fizedj and well-made, though not very ftrong. They are an honeft, well-intentioned people, moderately indultrious, and very faithful and obliging. Theft is feidom heard of among riiem. They are much inclined to l.ofpitality, and exercife it as far as their poverty will permit. Their chief employment is attending to fifliing, and the care of their cattle. On the coaflis the men employ their time in fifliing both winter and fummer ; and the women prepare the fifh, and few and fpin. The men alfo prepare leather, work at feveral mechanic trades, and fome few work in gold and fiiver. They likev.'jfe manufatlure a coarfe kind of cloth, which they call Wadmal. They have an un- commonly ftrong attachment to their native country, and think thtnifelves no where elfe fo happy. An Icelander, therefore, fcldom fettles in Copenhagen^ though the mofi: advantageous conditions fhould be offered him. Their difpoli- tions are fcrious, and they are m.uch inclined to religion. They never pafs a river, or any other dangerous place, without previoufly taking off their hats, and im- ploring the divine proteftion : and they are always thankful for their prcfervation, when they have palFed the danger. When they meet together, their chief paftiine confifts in reading their hiftory. The mafter of the houfe begins, and the reft continue in their turns when, he is tired. Thev are famous for playing at chefs ; and one of their paftimes confifts in reciting vcrfes. Sometimes a man and woman take one another by the hand, and by turns fing llanzas, which are a kind of dia- logue, and in v;hich the company occafionally join in chorus. The drcfs of the Icelanders is not elegant or ornamental, but it is neat, cleanly, and fuited to the -climaic. On their fingers the women wear feveral gold, fiiver, or brafs rings. The poorer women drefs in the coarfe cloth called Wadmal, and always wear black : thofe who are in better circumftances v.'ear broad cloth, with fiiver ornaments, gilt. The houfes of the Icelanders are generally bad : in foine places they are built of drjft wood, and in o::iiers they are riiifcd of lava, >yith mofs ftufted between the 6 lava. ICELAND. 37 lava. Their roofs are covered with fods laid over rafters, or fometimes over ribs of whales, which are both more durable and more expenfive than wood. They have not even a chimney in their kitchens, but only lay their fuel on the earth, between three ftones; and the fmoke ilTues from a fquarc hole in the roof. Their food principally confifts of dried fifh, four butter, which they confidcr as a great dainty, milk mixed with water and whey, and a little meat. Bread is fo fcarce among them, that there is hardly any peafant who eats it above three or four months in the year. Religion.] The only religion tolerated in Iceland is the Lutheran. The churches on the eaft, fouth, and weft quarters of the ifland, are under the jurif-' di£tion of the bifhop of Skalholt (the capital of the ifland), and thofe of the north quarter are fubjeft to the bifhop of Hoolum. The ifland is divided into 189 parifhes, of which 127 belong to the fee of Skalholt, and 62 to that of Hoolum. All the minifters are natives of Iceland, and receive a yearly falary of four or five hundred rix-dollars from the king, exclufive of what they have from their con- gregations. Language.] The language in Iceland is the fame as that formerly fpoken in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and has been preferved fo pure, than any Ice- lander underftands their moft ancient traditional hiftories. Learning and learned men.] It is frid that poetry formerly flourifhed very much in Iceland ; and we are informed that Egil Skallngrimfon, Kormak Ogmund- fon. Glum Geirfon, and Thorlief Jarlaa were celebrated as great poets. But the art of writing was not much in ufc till after the year 1000 ; though the Runic cha- racters were known in that country before that period, and moft probably brought thither from Norway. After the reception of the Chriftian religion, the Latin charaftcrs were immediately adopted, as the Runic alphabet, which only confifts of fixteen letters, was found infufficient. The firft Icelandic biftiop, Iflcif, founded a fchool at Skalholt j and foon after they founded four other fchools, in which the youth were inftrufted in the Latin tongue, divinity, and fome parts of theoretic philofophy. And from the introduclion of the Chriftian religion here till the year 1264, when Iceland became fubjedt to Norway, it was one of the few countries in Europe, and the only one in the North, wherein the fciences v/cre cultivated and held in eftcem. But this period of time feems to have produced more learned men in Iceland, than any other period fince. It appears from their ancient chronicles, that they fiad confiderable knowledge in morality, philofophy, natural hiftory, and aftro- nomy. Moft of their works were written in the nth, izdi, 13th, and 14th cen- turies ; and fome of them have been printed. Sir Jofeph Banks prefented one hundred and fixty-two Icelandic manufcripts to the Britilli Mufeum. Thar gen- tleman vifited Iceland in 1772, accompanied by Dr. Solander, Dr. Van Troil, and Dr. Lind. Dr. Van Troil, who publiftied an account of tlieir voyage, obferves, that he found more knowledsic amons; the lower clafs in Iceland than is to be met with in moft other places ; that many of them could repeat the works of fome of their poets by heart ; and that a peafant was feklom to be found, who, befides being well inftrufted in the principles of religion, was not alfo acquainted with the hiftory of his own country ; which proceeds from the frequent reading of their tra- ditional hiftories, that being one of their principal amufcments. John Arefon, biftiop of Hoolum, employed John MatthiefTon, a native of Sweden, in eftabliftiing a printing-prefs in Iceland, about the year 1530 ; and the firft book printed by him there was the Breviarium Nidarofienfe. He alfo printed an ecclefiaftical manual, Luther's catechifm, and other books of that kind. The Icelandic code of laws appeared in 1578, and the Icelandic Bible in 1584. A new I privileged ^3 ICELAND. privileged printing-office has lately been eftablifhed at Hrappfcy in this ifland, at which feveral valuable books have been printed. Mountains, volcanoes, and natural curiosities.] Though this ifland is fituated {o fi^r to the north, earthquakes and volcanoes are more known than in many countries in much warmer climates. The former have feveral times laid the country almoft defolate, particularly in the years 1734, 1752, and 1755, when fiery eruptions broke out of the earth, and produced very fatal confequences. Many of the fnowy mountains have alfo gradually become volcanoes. Of thefe burning mountains Heckla is the beft known, efpecially to foreigners. This mountain is fituated in the fouthern part of the ifland, about four miles from the fea-coafl:, and is divided into three points at the top, the higheft of which is that in the middle; and which is computed to be above 5000 feet higher than the fca. It has frequently fent forth flames, and a torrent of burning matter. Its eruptions were particularly dreadful in 1693, when they occafioned terrible devaftiations, the aflies beino^ thrown all round the ifland to the diftance of 180 Englifli miles. The laft eruption of mount Ileckla happened in 1766. It began on the 5th of April, and continued to the 7th of September following. Flames proceeded alfo from ic in December 1771, and in September 1772; but no eruptions of lava. Amongft all the curiofnies in Iceland, notliing is more worthy of attention than the hot fpouting water-fprings v/ith which this ifland abounds. The hot fprings at Aix-la-Chapelle, C^rlibad, Bath, and Switzerland, and feveral others found in Italy, are confldcred as very remaikable : but, excepting in the lafl: mentioned country, the water no where becomes fo hot as to boil ; nor is ic any where known to be thrown Co high, as the hot fpouting wacer-fprings in Iceland. AH thofe water-works that have be'en contrived wi;h fo much art, and at fo enormous an expence, cannot by any means be compared with thefe. The water-works at St. Cloud, which are thought the greateft among all the French water-works, cafl- up a thin column eighty feet into the air: while fome fprings in Iceland fpouc columns of water, of feveral feet in thicknefs, to the height of many fathoms ; and, as many affirm, of feveral hundred feet. Thefe. fprings are of unequal degrees of heat. From fome, the water flows gently as from other fprings, and it is then called a bath : from others, it fpouts boiling v/acer with a great noife, and it is then called a kettle. Though the degree of heat is unequal, yet Dr. Van Troil docs not remember ever to have obferved it under 188 of Fahrenheit's thermometer. At Geyfer, Rceynum, and Laugarvatn, he found it at 212; and in the lafl place, in the ground, at a little hot current of water, 213 degrees. It is common for fome of the fpouting-fprings to ceafe, and others toVife up in their ftead. Frequent earthquakes, and fubcerranean noifes, heartl at the time, caufe great teiror to the people wlio live in the neiglibourhood. In feveral of thefe hot fprings, the inhabitants who live near them, boil their vicftuals, only by hanging a pot into which the flefli is put in cold water, in the water of the fpring. They alfo bathe in the rivulets that run from them, which, by degrees, be- come Juke-wirm, or are cooled by their being mixed with rivulets of cold water. The cows that drink of thefe f{)rings are faid to yield an extraordinary quantity of milk ; and it is cfteemed very v/holefome when drank by tlie iiuman fpecies. The largeft of all the fpouting-fprings in Iceland is called Geyfer. It is about two days journey from Heckla, and not far from Skaiholt. In approaching to- wards it, a noife is heard, like the rufliing of a torrent, precipitating itfelf from flupendous rocks. Tlie water here fpouts feveral times a day, but always by flarts, and after certain intervals. Some travellers have affirmed, that it fpouts to the height of fixty fatlioms. The water is thrown up much liigiier at fome times than at others : when Dr. Van Troil was there, the utmoft height to which it mounted was connputed to be 92 feet. B.ifaltine ICELAND. ^9 Bafaltine pillars are likewife very common in Iceland, which are fuppofed fo have been produced by fubtcrraneous fires. The lower fore of people imagine thefe pillars to have been piled upon one another by giants, who made iifc of fupernatural force to effe6l it. They have generally from three to feven fides, and arc from four to fix feet in thicknefs, and from twelve to fixteen )ards in length, withotit any horizontal divifions. In fome places, they are only feen here and there among the lava in the mountains : but, in fome other places, they extend two or three miles in length without interruption. There are immeiife mafies of ice, by which every year great damage is done to this country, and which affe(5l the climate of it; they arrive commonly with a N, W.orN. N. W. wind from Greenland. The field-ice is of two or three fa- thom.s thicknefs, is feparated by the winds, and lefs dreaded than the rock or mountain- ice, which is often feen fifty and more feet above water, and is at leafl nine times the fame depth belov/ water. Thefe prodigious mafies of ice are fre- quently left in fhonl water, fixed, as it were, to the ground, and in that fl:ate re- main jiiany years undiflblved, chilling all the ambient part of the atmofphere for many miles round. When many fuch lofty and bulky mafies of ice are floating together, the wood that is often drifted along between them is fo much chafed, and prelfcd with fuch violence together, that it takes fire : which circumftance has oc- cafioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames. The ice caufed fo violent a cold in 1753 and 1754, that horfes and fiieep dropped down dead on account of it, as well as for want of food : horfes were obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the fheep to eat of each other's wool. A number of bears arrive'yearly with the ice, which commit great ravages, particularly among the flieep. The Icelanders attempt to deflroy thefe intruders as loon as they get fight of them ; and fometimes they afi^emble together, and drive them back to the ice, with which they often float off" again. For want of fire arms, they are obliged to make ufe of fpears on thefe occafions. The government encourages the natives to deftroy thefe animals, by pa)'ing a premiu;i! of ten dollars for every bear that is killed. Their fi Rundfield, and Dourfield. The reader may confult the table of dimenfions in Den- mark for its extent ; but it is a country fo little known to the reft of Europe, that it is ditTicult to fix its dimenfions with precifion. Climate.] The climate of Norway varies according to its extent, and its pofi- tion towards the fea. At Bergen tlie winter is moderate, and the fea is prafli- cable. The eaftern parts of Norway are commonly covered with fnow; and the cold generally fets in about the middle of Oftober, with intenfe feverity, to the middle of April ; the waters being all the time frozen to a confiderable thicknefs» In 17 19, 7000 Swedes, who were on their march to attack Drontheim, perifhed in the fnow, on the mountains which feparate Sv^^eden from Norway; and their bodies v/ere found in different poftures. But even froft and fnow have their conveniences, as they facilitate the conveyance of goods by land. As to the more northerly parts of this country, called Finmark, the cold' is fo intenfe, that they are but little known. At Bergen, the longeft day conGfis of about 19 hours, and the ftiorteft of about fix. In fummer, the inhabitants can read and write at midnight by the light of the fky ; and in the moft northerly parrs, about midfummer, tiie fun is continually in view. In thofe parts, however, in the middle of v/intcr, there is only a faint glimmering of light at noon for about an hour and a half; owing to the refleftion of the fun's rays on the mountains. Nature, notwithftanding, has been fo kind to the Norwegians, that in the midft of their darknefs the Iky is fo fercne, and the moon and the aurora borealis fo bright, that they can carry on their fifhery, and work at their feveral trades in open air. The air is fo pure in fome of the inland parts, that it has been faid the inhabitants lived fo long as to be tired of life, and caufe themfelves to be tranfported to a lefs fa- lubrious aii-. Sudden thav/s, and Ihow-falls, have, however, fometimes dreadful ef- fects, and deftroy whole villages. Mountains.] Norway contains a chain of unequal mountains running from^ fouth to north : to pafs that of Ilardangcr, a man muft travel about ieventy Eng- lilh miles ; and to pafs others, upwards of fifty. Dofrcfield is counted the higheft mountain in Europe. The rivers and catarafls which interfeft thofe dreadful preci- pices, and that are paflTable only by flight tottering wooden bridges, render travel- ling in this country very terrible and dangerous ; though the government is at the cxpence of providing, at different llages, houfes accommodated with fire, light, and kitchen furniture. Detached from this vaft chain, other immenfe mountains prc- fcnt themfelves all over Norway ; fome of them with refervoirs of water on the top ; and the whole forming a moft furprifing landfcapc. The adivity of the natives, in recovering their Oieep and goats, when penned up, through a falfe ftep, in one of thofc rocks, is wonderful. The owner direds himfclf to be lowered do^n from the top of the mountain, fitting on a crofs ftick, tied to the end of a long; rope ; and when he arrives at the place where the creature ftands, he faftens it to the fame cord, and it is drawn up with himfclf. The caverns that are to be met with in thefe moun- tains, are more wonderful than thofe, perhaps in any other part of the world. One 5 of NORWAY. €i of them, called Dolfteen, was, in 1750, vifited by two clergymen ; who reported, that they proceeded in it till they heard the fea dafhing over their heads ; that the pafTage was as wide and high as an ordinary church, the fides perpendicular, and the roof vaulted : that they defcended a flight of natural flairs ; but when they ar- rived at another, they durft not venture «o proceed, but returned j and that they confumed two candles going and returning. Forests.] The chief wealth of Norway lies in its forefts, which furnifh foreign- ers with mails, beanas, planks, and boards : and ferve befide for all domeftic ufes j particularly the conftruftion of houfes, bridges, fhips, and for charcoal to the foun- deries. The timber growing here are fir and piac, elm, afh, yew, benrced (a very curious wood), birch, beech, oak, eel or alder, juniper, the afpin-tree, the comol or floe-tree, hafel, elder, ebony (under the mountains of Kolen), lime or linden tree, and willows. The funis which Norway receives for timber are very confiderable ; the induftry of the inhabitants is greatly afiifted by the courfe of their rivers, and the fituation of their lakes ; which afford them not only the conveniency of floating down their timber, but of erefting faw-mills, for dividing their large beams into planks and deals. A tenth of all fiiwed timber belongs to his Danifh majefly, and forms no inconilderable part of Iiis revenue. Stones, metals, 7 Norway contains quarries of excellent marble, as well as AND MINERALS. ^ many other kinds of ftones ; and the magnet is found in the iron mines. The amianthus, or afbeflos, is likewifc found here ; as are cryllalSy granates, amethyfts, agate, thunder-fl:ones, and eagle-ltone. Gold found in Nor- way has been coined into ducats. His Danifh majefly is now working, to great ad- vantage, afilver mine at Koningfberg ; other filver mines have been found in differ- ent parts of the country ; and one of the many filver mafTcs that have been difcover- ed, weighing 560 pounds, is to be feen at the royal mufeum at Copenhagen. Lead, copper, and iron mines, are common in this country : one of the copper-mines at- Roraas is tiiought to be the richell in Europe, Norway produces quickfilver, ful- phur, fait, coal, vitriol, alum, and various kinds of loam ; the manufaflures of which bring in a large revenue to the crov/n. Rivers and lak.es.] The rivers and lakes in this country are well flocked with fifli, and navigable for velfels of confiderable burden. The moft extraordinary circumftance attending the lakes is, that fome of them contain floating iflands form- ed by the cohefion of roots of trees and fhrubs ; and, though torn from the main land, bear herbage and trees. In the year 1702, the noble family-feat of Borge, near Fredricftadt, fuddenly funk, with all its towers and battlements, into an abyfs a hundred fathom in depth ; and its fite was inftantly filled with water, which form- ed a lake 300 ells in length, and about half as broad. This melancholy accident,, by which 14 people and 200 head of cattle perifhed, was occafioned by the found- ation being undermined by the waters of a river. Uncommon animals, } All the animals that are natives of Denmark are to FOWLS, AND FISHES. 5 ^c fouud in Norv/ay, with an addition of many more. The wild beafls peculiar to Norway, are the elk, the rein-deer, the hare, the rabbit, the bear, the wolf, the fox, the lynx, the glutton, theleming, tlie ermine, the martin, and the beaver. The elk is a tall, afh-coloured animal, its lliape partaking at once of the horie and the flag ; it is harmlefs, and in winter, Ibcial ; and the fiefh of in tafles like venifon. The hares are fmall ; and are faid to live upon mice in the win- ter time, and to change their colour from brown to white. The Norwegian bears are flrong and fagacious ; they are remarkable for not hurting children ; but their other qualities are in common with the reft of their fpecies in northern countries ; nor can we much credit the extraordinary fpecimens of their fagacity, recorded by the natives. The Norwegian wolves, though fierce, are fliy even of a cow or* goat, unlefs impelled by hunger ; the natives are dexterous in digging traps for thenv 62 NOR W A Y. them, in which they are taken or killed. The lynx, by fome called the goiiries is fmaller than a wolf, but as dangerous : they are of the cat kind, and have claws like tygers ; they dig under ground, and often undermine Iheep-folds, where they make dreadful havock. The fkin of the lynx is beautiful and valuable ; as is that of the black fox. Wliite and red foxes are likewife found in Norway, and partake of the nature of that wily animal in other countries ; they have a particular way cf drawing crabs a(hore, bv dipping their tails in the water, whicli the crab lays hold of. The glutton, otherwife called the erven, or vielfras, refembles a turn-ipit dog ; with a long body, thick legs, fharp claws and teetn : his fur which is variegated, is fo precious, that he is fhot with blunt arrows, to prefcrve the flcin unhurt : he is bold, and fo ravenous, that it is faid he will devour a carcafe larger than himfelf, and unburthens his ftomach by fqueezing himfelf between two clofc-ftanding trees : when t iken, he has been even known to eat Rone and mortar. The ermine is a little creature, remarkable for its fliynefs and cleanlinefs ; and their fur forms a principal part even of royal magnificence. Their is little difference between the martin and a large brown foreft cat, only its head and fnout are fliarper ; it is very fierce, and its bite dangerous. We fhall mention the beaver in treating of North Am.crica. No country produces a greater variety of birds than Norway. The alks build upon rocks ; their numbers often darken the air, and the noife of their wings re- fembles a llorm ; their fize is that of a larye duck, and their fltlh is much eftcem- ed. Many kinds of thrufhes refide in Norwa\ ; with various kinds of pigeons, and feveral forts of beautiful wild ducks. The Norwegian cock-of-the-wood is of a black or dark grey colour ; his eye refembles that of a pheafant ; and he is laid to be the largeftof all eatable birds. Norv/ay produces two kinds of eagles, the land and the fea ; the former is fo ftrong, that it has been known to carry off a child of two years old : the fea, or filh-eagle, is larger than the other; he fubfills on aquatic food' ; and fometimes darts on large fiihes with fuch force, that, being unable to free his talons from their bodies, he is dragged into the water and drowned. Nature feems to have adapted thefe aerial inhabitants for the coaft of Norway ; and induftry has produced a fpecies of mankind peculiarly fitted for making them iirrvice- able to the human race : thefe are the birdmen, or climbers, who are amazingly dex- terous in mounting the ftcepelt rocks, and bringing awav the birds and their eggs : the latter are nutritive food, and are fometimes parboiled in vinegar ; the flefli is eaten by the peafants, who generally relifli it ; while the feathers and down form a profitable comniodity. Even the dogs of the farmers, in the northern diftrifts, are trained up to be aflillants to thefe birdmen in feizing their prey. The Scandinavian lakes and leas are aftonifliingly fruitful in all fifh that are found on the fea-coafls of Europe. Stock-filhi innumerable, which are dried upon the rocks without faking. Some fifhes in thofe feas have their pecularitics. The haac- morcn is a fpecies of fhark, ten fathoms in length, and its liver yields three cafks of train oil. The tuella-flvnder is an excefllvily large turbot, which has been known to cover a man who had fallen over-board, to keep him froru riling. The fcafon for herring-fifhing is announced to filhermen by the fjjouting of water from the v. h:iles (of which feven different fpecies are mentioned), in following the herring Ihoals. The large whale refembles a cod, with fmall eyes, a dark marbled fkin, and white belly : they fpout out the water, which they take in by infpiration, through two holes or openings in the head. They copulate like land-aniiuals, llanding upright in the fea. A young whale, when firft produced, is about nine or ten feet long ; and the feir.alefomctimis brings forth two at a birth. The whale devours inch an incredible number of fmall fifh, that his belly is often reauy to blirft ; in which cafe he makes a mofl: tremendous noife from pain. The fmaller ftfli have their revenge ; fome of them fallen on his back, and inceflantly beat him ; otlicrs, with Iharp horns, or rather NORWAY. 6j rather bones, on their beaks, fwim under his belly, and fometimes rip it up ; fome are provided with long fharp teeth, and tear his flefh. Even the aquatic birds of prey declare war againit him when he comes near the furface of the water ; and he has been known to be fo tortured, that he has beat himfelf to death on the rocks. The coafl: of Isorway may be faid to be the native country of herrings. Innu- merable arc the fhoals that come from under the ice at the north pole ; and about the latitude of Iceland divide themi'elves into three bodies : one of thefe fupply the VVeftern Ifles and coafts of Scotland, another direfts its courfe round theeaftern part of Great Britain down the Channel, and the third enters the Baltic through the Sound. They form great part of the food of the common people j the cod, ling, kabeliau,. and torik-fifhes follow them, and feed upon their fpawn ; and are taken in prodigious numbers in 50 or 60 fathoms water : thefe, cfpeciaJly their roes, and the oil extrafted' from their livers, are exported and fold to great advantage; and above 150,000 peo- ple are maintained by the herring and orher filfiing on the coafl of Norway. The lea-devil is about fix feet in length, and is fo called from its monftrous appear ■ ancc and voracity. The fea-fcorpion is likewife of a hideous form, its head being larger than its whole body, which is about four feet in length j and its bite is faid to be poifonous. The moft feemingly fabulous accounts of the ancients, concernirhg fea-monflers,. are rendered credible by the produdtions of the Norwegian feas ; and the fea-fnake, or ferpent of the ocean, is no longer counted a chimera. In 1756, one of them was fhot by a mafcer of a {hip ; its head refembled that of a horfe ; the mouth v/as large and black, as were the eyes, a white mane hanging from his neck : it floated on the furface of the water, and held its head at leaft two feet out of the fea : be- tween tlie head and neck were feven or eight folds,, which were very thick j and the length of this fnake was more than a hundred yards, fome fay fathoms. They have a remarkable averlion to the Imell of callor ; for which reafon, fhip, boat, and bark maimers provide thcmfelves with quantities of that drug, to prevent being overfct, the ferpent's olfa£lory nerves being remarkably exquifite. The pecu- larities related of this animal would be incredible, were they not attcfted upon oath. I'.gede (a very reputable author) fays, that on the 6th day of July 1734, a large and frightful fea-monlfer raifed itfelf fo high out of the water, tliat its head reached above the main-top-mait of the fhip ; that it had a long fharp Ihout, broad paws, and fpouted water like a whale ; that the body feemed to be covered withfcales >- the fkin vas uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a fnake. The body of this monfler is faid to be as thick as a hogfhead ; the fkin is variegated like a tortoife-fhell ; and his excrement, which floats upon the furfice of the water,,, is. corrofive. The exiilence of the kraken, or korven, is ftrongly aflerted. Its bulk is faid to be a mile and a half in circumference; and when part of it appears above the water, re— fembles a number of fmall iflands and fajid-banks, on which fifhes fport, and fea- wceds grow : upon a farther emerging, a number of pellucid antenna,, each about the height, form, and fize of a moderate maft, appear ; and by their aftion and re— a-ftion he gathers his food, confilting of finall fiflies. When he finks, which he does gradually, a dangerous fwell of the fea fucceeds, and a kind of whirlpool is formed in the water. In 1&80, a young kraken perifhed among the rocks and cliffs of the- parifli of Alfliahong; and his death was attended by fuch a flench, that the channel was impafiable. Without entering into any romantic theories, we may faftly fay, that the exiftence of this frlh accounts for many of the pha^nomena of floating iflands,^ and tranfitory appeaj-ances in the fea, that have hitherto been held as fabulous bv the learned, who could have no idea of fuch an animal. The mer-men and mer-women hold their refidence in the Norwegian feas ; but L cannot credit all that is related concerning them by the natives. The mer man is abouc 64 N O R W A Y. about eight fpans long, and, undoubtedlvj has as much refembJance as an ape has to the human fpecies ; a high forehead, little eyes, a flat nofe, and large mouth, with- out chin or ears, characterize its head ; its arms are Ihort, but without joints or el- bows, and they terminate in members refembling a human hand, but of the paw kind, and the fingers connefted by a membrane : the parts of generation indicate their fexes : though their under parts, which remain in the water, terminate like thofe of fifhes. The females have breafts, at which they fuckle their young ones. Curiosities.] Thofe of Norway are only natural. On the coall:, latitude 67, is that dreadful vortex, or whirlpool, called by navigators the navel of the fea, and by fome Maleftrom, or Moikoeifrom. The ifland Moflcoe, from whence this ftream derives its name, lies between the mountain Hefleggen in Lofoden, and the ifland Ver, which are about one league diftant ; and between the illand and coafl: on each fide, the flream makes its way. Between Mofkoe and Lofoden it is near 400 fathoms deep ; but between Mofkoe and Ver it is fo fliallow as not to afford pafiage for a fmall fhip. When it is flood, the flream runs up the country with a boifterous rapidity; and when it is ebb, returns to the fea with a violence and noife unequalled by the loudeft cataradts. It is heard at the difl:ance df many leagues, and forms a whirlpool of great depth and extent ; fo violent, that if a fliip comes near, it is immediately drawn irrefitlibly into the whirl, and there difappears, being carried down to the bottom in a moment, where it is daiTied to pieces againft the rocks; and juil at the turn of ebb and flood, when the water becomes ftill for about a quarter of an hour, it rifes again in fcattered fragments, fcarcely to be known for the parts of a fhip. When it is agitated by a ftorm, it has reached veflTels at the diftance of more than a Norway mile, where the crews have thought themfelves in perfeft fecurity. Perhaps it is hardly in the power of fancy to conceive a fitua- tion of more horror than that of being thus driven forward by the fudden violence of an impetuous torrent to the vortex of a whirlpool, of which the noife and tur- bulence Hill increafing as it is approached, are an earneft: of quick and inevitable defl:ru£lion ; while the wretched victims, in an agony of defpair and terror, cry out for that help which they know to be impoffible; and fee before them tlie dread- ful abyfs in which they are about to be plunged, and dafhed among the rocks at the bottom. Even whales are frequently carried away; and the moment they feel the force of the Vv'ater, they ftruggle againfl: it, howling and bellowing in a fright- ful manner. The like happens frequently to bears, who attempt to fwim to the ifland to prey upon the fiieep. It was the opinion of Kirclier, that the Maleftrom is a fea-vortex, which attrafls- the flood under the fhore of Norway, and difcharges it again in the gulf of Bothnia: but this opinion is now knovv'n to be erroneous, by the return of the fliattered fragments of wliatever happens to be fucked down by it. The large ftems of firs and pines rife again fo fliivered and fplintered, that the pieces look as if covered with briftles. The whole phsenomena arc the efixds of the violence of the daily ebb and flow, occafioncd by tlie contraftion of the ftream in its courfe between the rocks. Peoplm, language, religion,? The Norwegians are a middling kind of AND CUSTOMS ofNorway. ^ pcoplc, bctwccn the fimplicity of the Green- landers and Icelanders, and the more polillied manners of the Danes. Their reli- gion is Lutheran; and they have bilhops, as thofe of Denmark, without temporal jurifdiftion. Their viceroy, like his mafter, is abfolute; but the farmers and common people in Norway are much lefs opprefled than thofe in Denmark. The Norwegians in general are ftrong, robuft, and brave; but quick in rcfcnt- ing real or fuppofcd injuries. The women arc handfome and courteous ; and the Norwegian forms, both of living, and enjoying property, are mild, and greatly refembling the Saxon anccftors of the prcfent tnglifli. Every inhabit.ant is an ar- tifan, NORWAY. 65 tifan, and fupplics his family in all its neceffaries witli Iiis own manufadlures ; fo that in Norway there are few by profefTion, who are hatters, flioc-inakers, taylors, tanners, weavers, carpenters, fniiths, or joiners. TIk; lowefl: Norwegian peafant is an artiil and a gentleman, and even a poet. They often mix with oat-meal the bark of the fir, made into a kind of flour ; and they are reduced to very extraordi- nary fhifts for fupplying the place of bread, or farinaceous food. The manners of the middling Norwegians form a proper fubjecl of contemplation even to a philo- fopher, as they lead that kind of life which we may fay is furnifhed with plenty ; but they are neither fond of luxury, nor do they dread penury : and this middle ftate prolongs their ages furprifingly. Though their drefs is in many refpefts accom- .modated to their climate, yet, by cuftom, inftcad of guarding againft the incle- mency of the weather, they outbrave it; for they expofr themfclves to cold, without any cover upon their breails or necks. A Norwegian of a hundred years of age is not accounted paft his labour: and in 1733, four couples were married, and danced before his Danifli majclty at Fredcriclhall, whole ages, when joined, exceeded Soo years. The funend ceremonies of the Norwegians contain veftiges of their former pa- gnnifin: the\' play on the violin at the head of tlie coffin, and while the corpfe is carried to the church, which is often done in a boar. In fome places the mourners afk the dead perfon why he died ; whether his wife and neighbours were kind to him, and other fucli queftions ; frequently kneeling down and aflcing forgivenefs, if ever thev had offended the dccealed. Commerce.] We have little to add to this head, different from what will be ob- ferved in our account of Denmark. The duties on their exports, inoft of which have been already recounted, amount to about 100,000 rixdollars a year. Strength amd revenue.] By the beft calculations, Norway can furnifli out 14,000 excellent fe.imen, and above 30,000 brave foldiers, for the ufe of their king. The royal annual revenue from Norw.ay amounts to near 200,000 1. and till his prcfent majefty's acceffion, the army, inllead of being expenfive, added confulerably to his income, by the fubfidies it brought him in from foreign princes. History.] We muft refer to Denmark for this head. The ancient Norwegians certainly were a very brave and powerful people, and the hardieft feamen in the world, it we are to believe their hiftories, they were no Grangers to America lon^- before it was difcovered by Columbus. Many cuftoms of their anceftors are yec difccrnible in Ireland and the north of Scotland, where they made frequent defcents, and fome fettlements, which are generally confounded with thofe of the Danes. From their being the inoft turbulent, they are become now the moft loyal fubiefts in Europe; which we can eafily account for, from the barbarity and tvratlnv of their kings, when a feparate people. Since the union of Calniar, which united NorA-av to Denmark, their hiftory, as well as imerells, are the fame with that of Denmark. K DENMARK 66 . DENMARK. DENMARK * Proper, or JUTLAND, exclufive of the Islands in the Baltic. Extent and Situation. Miles. Degrees. Length 24ot ? between ^ -5+ ^"^ -5^ ^°^^^ latitude. Breadth 114 J i. 8 and 11 Eaft longitude. Boundaries and ? T T is divided on the north from Norway by the Scaggerac DIVISIONS. 5 A ^^^' ^""^ from Sweden on the eaft by the Sound ; on the fouth by Germany and the Baltic ; and the German fea divides it from Great Bri- tain on the weft. Denmark Proper is divided into two parts: the peninfula of Jutland anciently called Cifiibria Cherfonefus, and the iQands at the entrance of the Baltic, mentioned in the table. It is remarkable, that though all thefe together conftitute the king, dom of Denmark, yet not any one of them is feparately called by that name. Co- penhagen, the metropolis, is in the ifland of Zealand. Air, CLIMATE, SOIL, STATE OF AGRICULTURE, &c.] One of the largeft and moft fertile of all the provinces of this kingdom is Jutland, which produces abun- dance of all forts of grain and pafturage, and is a kind of magazine for Norway on all occafions. A great number of fmall cattle are bred in this province, and after- wards tranfported into Holftein, to be fed for the ufe of Hamburgh, Eubec, and" Amfterdam. Jutland is every where interfperfed with hills, and on the calt jide has fine woods of oak, fir, beech, birch, and other trees; but the weft fide being lefs woody, the inhabitants are obliged to ufe turf and heath for fuel. Zealand is for the moft part a fandy foil, but rather fertile in grain and pafturage, and agree- ably variegated with woods and lakes of water. The climate is more temperate here, on account of the vapours from the furrounding fea, than it is in many more foutherly parts of Europe. Spring and autumn are fcafons fcarcely known in Denmark, on account of the fudden tranfitions from cold to heat, and from heat to cold, which diftinguifti the climate of this kingdom. In all the northern pro- vinces of Denmark the winters are very fcvere, fo that the inhabitants often. pafs arms of the fea in fledges upon the ice j and during the winter all their harbours are frozen up. The greateft part of the lands in Denmark and Holftein are fiefs, and the an- cient nobility, by grants which they extorted at different times from the crown, gained fuch a power over the farmers, and thofe who refided upon their eftates, that at leno-th they reduced them to a ftate of extreme flavery ; lb that they were bought and fold with the lands, and were efteemed the property of their lords. Many of the noble landholders in Slefwick and Holftein have the power of life and death. The fituationof the farmers has, indeed, been made fomewhat more agree- able by fome modern cdifts ; but they arc ftill, if fuch an expreflion may be allowed, chained to their farms, and are difpofcd of at the will of their lortls. Wlicn a farmer in Denmark, or in Holftein, happens to be an induftrious man, and is fituatcd upon a poor f;irm, which by great diligence he has laboured to cultivate advantageoufly, as foon as he has performed the toilfome talk, and cxjicfts to reap the profits of what he has fown, his lord, under pretence of taking it into Ids own * See Mallet's Denmark, page i to 18. vol. v. m.ide in moll countries, .ns die rcailcr will ptrceivc \ Meaning where longcrt uiui bro.idell, a me- by lookiiij; on the m.i])s. Jutland, for inllancc, thod which is the piMotiee of other wi iters on is 114 miles where hroadeft, though in fundry the fubjedt. Grc.it allowancei inull theitibrc be other puns it ij not 50. hand. DENMARK. 67 hand, reniovcs Kim from that farm to another of his poor farms, and expefts that he ftiould perform the fame laborious tafk there, without any other emolument than what he Hull think proper to give him. This has been fo long the praflice in this country, that it necelTarily throws tlie greateft damp upon the efforts of induftry, and prevents thofc improvements in agriculture which would otherwife be intro- duced : the confequence of which is, that nine parts in ten of the inhabitants are in a ftate of great poverty. But if the farmers had a fecurity for their property, the lands of Denmark might have been cultivated to much greater advantage than they are at prefent, and a much greater number of people lupported by the produce of agriculture. Animals.] Denmark produces an excellent breed of horfes, both for the faddle and carriage, about 50O0 are fold .innually out of the country, and of their horned cattle 3o,c° o. They have alfo fheep, hogs, and game ; and the lea-coalh are ge- nerally well fupplicd with fifh. Population, manners, and customs.] By a numeration made, in 1759, of his Danifh majefty's fubjcds in his dominions of Denmark, Norway, Holftein, the illands in the "Baltic, and the counties of Oldenburgh and Delmenhorft, in Wcft- phalia; they were faid to amount to 2,444,000 fouls, exclufive of the Icelanders and Greenlanders. The moll: accurate account of the population, is that made under the direftion of the famous Struenfce, by which Jutland numbered 358,136 Denmark Iceland 283,466 Funen i43,c^88 Norway 723,141 IdandsofFerro 4^754 ■"However difproportioned this number may feem to the extent of his Danlfli ma- jefiy's dominions, yet, every thing confidercd, it is greater than could liave been ex- pcded from the uncultivated date of his poileirions. But the trade of Denmark hatk been fo fhackled, and her merchants fo terrified by the defpotifm of her government, that this kingdom is at prefent one of the molt indigent dates in Elurope. Thcfe cir- cumftances prevent Denmark from being fo populous as it might be, if the admi- niftration of government were more mild and equitable, and if proper encourage- ment v/ere given to foreigners, and to thofe who engage in agriculture, and other arts. The emprefs of Rudia, in 1773, ceded to the king of Denmark, that portion of Holftein which defcended to the line of HoUkin-Gottorp, in exchange for Olden- burgh and Delmenhorft, wliich flie gave to the prince of Lubeck^ This exchange is favourable to Denmark, both as to trade and population. The ancient inhabitants of Denmark poiTeflcd a degree of courage which ap^ proached even to ferocity ; btit by a continued feries of tyranny and oppreffion, their national chara6ler is much changed, and from a brave, enterprifing, and war- iii;e people, they are become indolent and timid. They value themfelves extremely upon thofe titles and privileges which they derive from the crOwn, and are exceed- ingly fond of pomp and (hew. They endeavour to imitate the French in their manners, drefs, and even in their gallantry ; though they are naturally the very con- iralt of that natfen. The Danes, like other nortirctn nations, are given to in^ temperance in drinking, and convivial entertainments ^ but, their nobility, who now begin to vlfit tlie other courts of Europe^ are refining from their provincial Iceland 46,201 Duchy of Slefvvick 243,605 Duchy of Holrtein 134,665 Oldenburgh 02,854 Delmonhorft 16,217 Sum Total, 2,017,027 -habits and vices. RiaiGios.] The religion is Lutheran ; and the kingdom is divided into fix diocefes; one in Ze.dand, one in Funen, and four in Jutland; befides four in Nor- way, and two in Iceland. Thefe diocefes are governed by bifliops, whole profef- 4ion is to fuperintend tlie other clergy; nor luvc they any other mark of pre-cmi- K 4 «ency. 68 D E N M A R K. nency than a diRinftlon of their ccrlefiaftical drels, for thc-y have neither cathedral nor ecclefiaitical courts, nor the fnullell concern with civil affairs. 'I'hey are paid by the (late, as all the church-lands were appropriated to the government at the Keformation, Language and lj-akning.] The language of Denmark is a dialed- of the Teutonic; but High Dutch and French aie fpoken at court; and the nobility have lately made great advances in the Lnglilh, wliich is now publicly taught at Copen- hagen as a neceflary part of education. A coinpany of Englifh comedians occa- fionallv vifit that capital, where they find tolerable encouragement. The univcrfity of Copenhagen has funds fur the gratuitous fupp^ort of 328 flu- dents; thefe funds are faid to amount to 300,000 rix-dollars ; but the Danes in general ma.e no great figure in literature; though aftrono.T.y and medicine are hiohly indebted to their Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Eaitholines ; and the round tower and Chrilfian's haven difplay the niechanical genius of a Longomon- lanus; the Danes begin to make lonie promifing attempts in hiftory, poctiy, and the drama; and fever;il of their learned men have lately employed their refearches on the hifcorv and antiquities of the North. Cities and chief buildings.] Copenhagen, which is fituated on the fine iiland of Zealand, was originally a iettlement of failors, and firlt founded by Ibme wandering lifheni'ien in the twelfth century, but is now the metropolis, and makes a maornificent appearance at a dilfance. it is very llrong, and defended by f bur caftles or forts. It contains ten paufh churches, befides nine others, belonging to the Cal- vinilis and other perfuafions, and fbme holpitals. Copenhagen is adoined by loine public and private palaces as they are called. Its fhreets are'] 86 in number; and its inhabitants amount to 100,000. The houfes in the principal flrects are built of brick, and thofe in their lanes chiefly of timber. But the chief glory cf Copenhagen is its harbour, formed by a large canal flowing through the city, which admits of only one fhip to enter a.t a time, but is capable of containing 500. Several of the ftreets have canals, and quays for fhips to lie clofe to the houfes ; and its naval arfenal is faid to exceed that of Venice. The road for the flupping begins about two miles from the town, and is defended by 90 pieces of cannon, as well as the diniculty of the navigation, Tlie public places art! filled with officers either in the land or f(.a fer- vicci and the number of forces is too large for the kingdom. The jiolice of Co- penhagen is extremely regular, and people may walk through the city at m.idniglic with great fafety. indeed, it is ufually as quiet here at eleven o'clock at night as in a country village. Tlie aparrmtnts of the palace at Copenhagen are grand, and the tapefiry in many of them beautiful, particularly the ftory of Either, and an airortment of wild beallb, after the manner of Quida. A colonnade at each extremity forms the flables, which for their extent and beauty are equal to any in Eurojie. Tiie finell; palace belonging to his Danifh majcfty lies about 20 I'nglifli miles from Copenhagen, and is called Fredericfliurg. It is a very large building, moated round Vkirh a triple ditch, and ealculated,.like mofl of the ancient refidences of princes, fordefencc againftan enemy. It was built by Chriftian the IVth. and, accoitling to the architefttne of tlie times, partakes of the Greek and Gothic Ayles. In the front of the grand quadrangle ap- pear Tufcan and Doric pillars, and on the fummit of tlie buildipg are fpires ami. turrets. Some of the rooms are very fplendid, though furnifhed in the antique tafte. The Knights' hall is of great length. The tapeftry rcprefents the wars of Denmark, and the cieling is a molt minute and laboured performance in fculpturc. The chinancy-piece was once entirely covered with plates of filver, richly ornament- ed ; but the Swedes, wlio have often landed here, and even befieged the capital, tore them all away, and rilled tlie palace, notwithflanding its triple moat and for- hiidablc appearance. The late unhapj^y queen Matilda fpent much of her time at this palac finding the nerves of their pov;er thus cut, lubmitted with the beft grace thev could to confirm what had been done. On the 18th of Oftober 1660, the three orders of nobility, clergy, and people, figncd each a fcparate adl ; by which they confented rliac the crown fhould be here- ditary in the royal family, as well in the female as in the male line, and bv which they inverted the king with abfolute power, and gave him the right to regulate the fuccelfion and the regency, in cafe of a minority. This renunciation of their rights, llibfcribed by the firft nobility, is flill preferved as a precious relic amony the archives of the royal family. A relic which perpetuates the memory of tlie humbled infolenceof the nobles, and the hypocrify of the prince, who, to gratify his revenge againft them, perfuaded the people that his only wifhes were to repair a de- cayed ediiice, and then excited tliem to pull it to tlie ground, crufhing themfelves under its ruins. After this extraordinary revolution in die government, the king of Denmark divert- ed the nobility of many of their privileges ; but he took no rrtctliod ro relieve thofe poor people who had been the inftrumentiof inverting him with die fovereign pcwei', but left iliem in tlie flime rtate of flavery in v/hich they were before, and in which they have remained to the prefent age. When the revolution in the reign of Frederick the Third had been efFefted, the king re-united in his perfon all tiie rights of the fovereign power; but as he could not exercifc all by himfelf, he was obliged to entrurt ionie paitoi the executive power to his fubjeCts. The fnpreme court of judicature for the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway is holden in tlic royal palace at Copeniiagcn, of whicii the king is the nominal prefident. What they c:ill theGer- luan jirovinces have likewifc their fupreme tribunal ; v/hich, for the duchy of liolftein is holden at Gluckftadt ; and for the duchy of Slefwick in the. town of that name. As to matters of importance, the king for the moft part decides in his council, the members of which are named and difplaced at his will. It is in this council, chat the lav/s are propoled, dlfcurted, and receive the royal authority ; and that any 7a DENMARK. any great changes or -cftablinimentS are propofed, and approved or rejefted by the king. It is here likewife, or in the cabinet, that he grants privileges, and decides upon the moll important affairs of liis dominions. In this kingdom, as in many others, the king is ftippofed to be prefent to ad- miniller jiiflice in the fiipreme court of his kingdom ; and, therefore, the kings of Denmark not only prcfide nominally in the fovereign court of juftice, but they have a throne eroded in it, towards wliicirthe lawyers always addrefs their difcourfes in pleading, and the judges tiie fame in giving their opinion. Every year the king is prelent at tlie opening of this court, and often gives the judges fuch inflrudtions as he thinks proper. The decifion of thefe judges is final in all civil adlicns ; but no criminal fentence of a capital nature can be carried into execution till it is figneii- by the king. Tliere are many excellent regulations for the adminidration of juflice in Den- «iark ; but it is fo far from being dillributed in an equal and impartial manner, that a poor man can fcarcely ever have jullice againil the nobility, or one who is favoured bv the court. If the laws are fo clearly in favour of tlie former, that the juilges are aPnamed to decide againft them, the latter, through the favour of the minifher, obtains an order from the king to itop ail the law-proceedings, or a difpenfuion from obferving particular laws ; and there the matter ends. The code of laws at jirefcnt eltablnhed in Denmark was pubirfned by Chriflian V. founded upon the code of Valdemar, luid all the other codes fmce publiflied, and is nearly tlie flime with that pub! illied in Norway. Thcfc laws are veryjul!: and clear; and, if they were impartially carried into execution, would be j^rodudive of many beneficial confequences to the people. But as the king can alter the laws, and fupport his minifters and favourites in any afts of violence and injuftice, the people undergo a great degree of oppreffion, and have abundant reafon to /egret the tamenefs and fcr- vility with which their liberties have been ilirrendered into the Iiands of their monarch?. Punishments.] The common method of execution in Denmark is beheading and hanging: in fomc cafe;, as an aggravation of the puniilimcnt, the Ivand is chop- ped off before the other parL of the fentence is executed. For the moft atrocious crimes, fu.h as the murder of a father or mother, hulband or wife, antl robbery upon the highway, tiie malefachor is broken upon the wheel. But capit.il puniPnments arc not common in Denmark : and the other princijial modes of punifhment are brand- ing in the face, whii:)ping, condemnation to the rafp-houfe, to houfe; of correction, and to public labour and imprifonm-nt; all which are varied in duration and ri- gour, according to the nature of the criine. Political and naiural? After the acceffion of his jirefcnt majcfly, his iNTLKtsis of Denmark. ^ court feemed for fomc time to have altered its max- ims. His father, it is true, obfcrved a mod refpeftable ni.utrality during tlie late war ; but never could get dec from French inlluence, notwithftanding his connec- tions witli Great Britain. The fubfidies he received maintained his army; but his famlly-difputes with llufTia concerning Flolllein, and the afcendancy which the French had obtained over the Swedes, not to mention other circumflances, did not fuffer him to a£t that dccifive part in the affairs of Europe, to which he was invited by his fituation ; efpecially about the time when the treaty of Clofter-feven was con- cluded. His prefent Danifh majeftv 's plan feemed, foon after his acceflion, to be that of forming his dominions into a ftate of indejx-ndency, by availing himf.lf of their natural advantages. But fundry events which have fince happened, and the general feebienefs of his adminiflration, have prevented any further expeifbations be- ing formed, that the real welfare of Denmark will be promoted, atlc.iltia any great (Jegrcc, during the prefent reign. VltK lO D E N M A R K. 7c With regard to the external interefts of Denmark, the}'' are certainly befl feciired by cultivating a fricndfliip with the maritime powers. The exports of Denmark enable lier to carry on a very profitable trade with France, Spain, and the Mediter- ranean ; and (he has been particularly courted by the Maiiometan ftates, on account of her naval ftores. Were riie Swedes to regain their military cliarader, and to be commanded by fo entcrprifing a jirince as Charles XII. they probably would endeavour to rcpoflefi themfelves, by arms, of the fine provinces torn from them by Denmark. But tlie greatcll danger that can arife to Denmark from a foreign power is, when the Baltic (^•as has happened more than once) is fo frozen over as to bear not only men but licavy artillery; in which cafe the Swedes have been known to march over great nnnies, and to threaten the conqucft of the kingdom. Revenues. |. His D.uiifh majefly's revenues have three fources : the impofitions he lays upon his own fubjefts ; the duties paid by foreigners ; and his own demefne lands, including confifcations. Wine, fait, tobacco, and provifions of all kinds arc taxed. Paper, corporations, land, houfes, and poll-money, alfo raife a confuierable fum. The expences of fortifications are defrayed by the people : and when the king's daughter Is married, they pay about 100,000 rix-dollars towards her portion. The internal taxes of Denmark are uncertain, becaufe they may be abated or railed at the king's will. Cuiloms, and tolls upon exports and imports, are more certain. The tolls paid by Grangers arife chiefly from foreign ihips that pafs through the Sound into the Baltic, through the narrow ftrait of three miles between Schonen and the iiland of Zealand. Thefe tolls are in proportion to the fize of the fliip and the value of the cargo, exhibited in bills of lading. This tax, which forms a capi- tal part of his Danifh majefty's revenue, has more than once thrown the northern parts of Europe into a flame. It was often difputed by the Engliih and Dutch, being nothing more originally, than a voluntary contribution of the merchants to- wards the expence of light-houfes on the coafl; ; and the Swedes who command the oppofite fide of the pals, for fome time refufed to pay it : but in the treaty of 1720, between Sweden and Denmark, under the guarajitee of his Britannic maiefl;y George I. the Swedes agreed to pay tlie lame rates as are paid by the fubjefts of Great Britain and the Netherlands. The firll treaty relative to it, was by the Em- peror Charles V. on behalf of his fubjeds in the Low Countries. The toll is paid at Klfineur, a town fituated on the Sound, at the entrance of the Baltic lea, and about 20 m.iles diftant from Copenhagen. The whole revenue of Denmark, in- cluding v;hat is received at Eifineur, amounts at prefent to above j, 000, 000 of rix- dollars, or .,ooi,?ool. llerling yearly. The following is a lilt of the king's revenues, exclufive of his piivate eftates. Rix-dollars at 4s. each. Tribute of hard corn, or land tax, - - i, coo, 000 Small taxes, including poll-tax, pound rents, excife, &:c. 950,000 Cufl:om houfe duties, - - ... 154,000 Duties of the Sound, - _ _ _ - 200,000 Duties of Jutland, from fait- pits, - * 27,000 Tythes and Poll-Tax of Norv/ay, . - _ 770,000 Tolls of Bergen, Drontheim, Chrift'anfand, and Chriftiana, 160,000 Other tolls, - - _ . _ 552,000 Revenue from mines - - - _ _ 300,000 Revenue from Slefwick, Holftein, &c. - - 690,000 Carried over - - - 4,8o3,oco Brought 74 DENMARK. Rix-dollar3 at 4s. each. Brought forv/ard - - 4,803,000 Taxes on acorns, and mafl from beech, - 20,000 Toils on the Wefer, - " . " 7>5oo Poft-office, _ _ _ _ 70,000 Farms of Iceland and Ferro . - _ 35,000 Farms of Bornhohn _ - - - 14,800 Oyfter Fiflieryj _ - - 22,000 Stamp Paper _ - - 40,000 Sum total 5,012,300 In Englifh money, 1,002,460 By a lift of the revenue taken in 1730, it then only amounted to^.454,700. Army and navy.] The three laft kings of Denmark, notwithftanding the de- generacy of their people in martial affairs, were very refpettable princes, by the number and difcipline of their troops, which they kept up with great care. The prefent military force of Denmark confifts of near 70,000 men, cavalry and infantry, the greateftpart of which confifts of a militia who receive no pay, but are regiftered on the army lift, and every Sunday exercifed. The regular troops are about 20,000 and moftly foreigners, or officered by foreigners ; for Frederic III. was too refined a politician to truft his fecurity in the hands of thofe he had tricked out of their, liberty. Though this army is extremely burdenfome to the nation, yet it cofts little to the crown : great part of the infantry lie in Norway, where they live upon the boors at free quarter ; and in Denmark the peafantry are obliged to maintain the cavalry in viftuals and lodging, and even to furnifh them with money. The fleet of Denmark is compofed of 36 Ihips of tire line, and 18 frigates ; but many of them being old, and wanting great repairs, they cannot fit out more than 25 ftiips, upon the greateft emergency. This fleet is generally ftationed at Copenhagen, where are the dock-yards, ftore-houfes, and all the materials neceftary for the ufe of the marine. They have near 40,000 regiftered feamen, who cannot quit the kingdom without leave, nor ferve on board a merchant-man without permifllon from the admiralty ; 4000 of thefe are kept in conftant pay and employed in the dock-yards j their pay however, fcarccly amounts to nine fliillings a month, but then they have a fort of uniform, with fomeprovifions and lodgings allowed for thcmfelves and families. Orders of knighthood in Denmark.] Thefe are two; tha.t oi' the EL'pbr.tif,. and oi Danel'urg : the former was inftituted by Chriftian I. and is deemed the moft ho- nourable ; its badge is an elephant furmounted with a caftle, fct in diamonds, and fufpended to a fey-coloured watered ribband ; worn like the George in Englami ; the number of its members, betides the fovereign, are thirty. The badges of the Dane- burg order, which is faid to be of the higheft antiquity, confift of a white ribband. with red edges, worn over the lefc-ftioukler ; from which depends a fmall crofs of diamonds, and an embroidered ftar on tKe breaft of the coat,.furrounded with the. motto, Pielate (5? jujldia. History.} We owe the chief hiftory of Denmark to a very extraordinary ph:r- nomenon ; the revival of the purity of the Latin language in Scandinavia, in the perfon of Saxo-Grammaticus, at a time (the latli century) when it was loft in all other parts of the Europe.in continent. Saxo, like the other hiftorians ol his age,, has adopted, and at the fame time enobled by his ftyle, the abfurdities of remote antiquity. We can howevt r collcft enough from him to conclude, that tlie ancient 1 -Janes, like tiie Gauls, the Scuts, the Iiiih, and other nordiern nations, had their bards. DENMARK. 75 bards, who recounted the military atchievements 0/ their heroes ; and that their firft hiftories were written in verfe. There can be no doubt that tlie Scandinavians or Cimbri, and the Teutones (the inhabitants of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) were Scythians by their original ; but how far the trads of land, called either Scythia * or Gaul, formerly reached, is uncertain. Even the name of the firft Chriftian Danifh king i-s uncertain ; and thofc of tlie people wliom they commanded were fo blended, that it is impoffiblc for the reader to conceive a precife idea of the old Scandinavian iiiftory. This, undoubtedly, was owing to the remains of their Scythian cuftoms, particularly that of removing from one country to another ; and of feveral'nations or fepts joining together in expedi- tions by fea or land ; and the adventurers being denominated after their chief leaders. Thus the terms Danes, Saxons, Jutes or Goths, Germans, and Nonmns were promifcuouny ufed long after the time of Charlemagne. Even the fliort revival of literature, under that prince, throws very little light upon the DaniPn hiftory. All we know is, that the inhabitants of Scandinavia, in their maritime expeditions, went generally under the name of Saxons with foreigners ; that they were bold ad- venturers, rude, fierce, and martial : that fo far back as the year of Chrift 500, they infulted all the fea-coafts of Europe ; that they fettled in Ireland, where they built ftone-houfes ; and that they became mafters of England, and fome part of Scotland ; both which kingdoms ftill retain proofs of their barbarity. When we read the hiftory of Denmark and that of England under the Danifh princes who reigned over both countries, we meet with but a faint refemblance of events; but the Danes, as conquerors, always give themfelves the fuperiority over the Englifti. In the eleventh centuiy under Canute the Great, Denmark may be faid to have been in its zenith of glory, as far as extent of dominion can give fanclion to the expreftion. Few interefting events preceded the )ear 1385, when Margaret mounted that throne; and partly by her addrefs, and partly by hereditary right, fne formed the union of Calmar, anno 1397, by which fhe was acknowledged fovereign of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She held her dignity with fuch firmnefs and cou- rage, that file v/as ftyled the Semiramis of the North. Her fucceflbrs being defti- tuteof her great qualifications, the union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms were in future to be under one fovereign, was difTolved; though Norway continued annexed to Denmark. In 1448, the crown of Denmark fell to Chriftian, count of Oldenburg, from whom the prefent royal family of Denmark is defcended. In 151^, Chriftian II. king of Denmark, one of the moft complete tyrants that modern times have produced, mounted the throne of Denmark; and, having mar- ried the fifter of the emperor Charles V, gave a loofe to his innate cruelty. Being driven out of Sweden, for the bloody mafTacres he committed there, the Danes rebelled againft him likewife ; and he fled, with his wife and children, into the Netherlands. Frederick Duke of Holftein was unanimoufly called to the throne, on the depofition of his cruel nephew, who openly embraced the opinions of Luther, and about the year 1 536, the proteftant religion was eftabliihed in Denmark, by that wife and politic prince Chriftian III. Chriftian IV. of Denmark, in 1629, was chofen for the head of the proteftant league, formed againft the houfe of Auftria; but, though brave in his own perfon, was in danger of lofing his dominions; when he was fucceedcd in that command by * Fy Scythia may be underflood all thofc north- naval c':peditiuns, ravaging the more fouthern cni countries of Europe and Afia, now inhabited and fertile king-doms of Europe ; hence, by fir by the D mcs, Norwegians, Swedes, Ruffians, and William Temple, and other hillorians, they are Tartars, whofe inhabitants overturned and peo- termed ihc Nort/jt-rn Hive, tin: 3It>/irer cf Nations, pled the Roman empire, and continued fo late as tiie Storchovji of Europe. (he 13th century to ill'ue forth in large bodies, and L 2 Guftavus 76 DENMARK. Guftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch having obliged Chriftian, who died in 1648, to lov/er the duties of the Sound, his fon Frederic HI. confented to ac- cept of an annuity of i5o,o;;o florins for the whole. The Dutch, after this, per- fuadcd him to declare war againft Charles Gultavus king of Sweden ; which had almoft cofl him his crown in 165-. Charles ftormed tlie fortrcfs of Fredricftadt ; and in the fucceeding winter he marched his army over the ice to the ifland of Funen, where he furprifed the Danifh troops, took Odenfee and Nyburg, and inarched <.ver the Great Belt to befiege Copenhagen. Cromvyell, who then govern- ed Eno-land under the title of Proteftur, interpofed; and Frederic defended his ca- pital with great magnanimity till the peace of Rofchild ; by which Frederic ceded the provinces of Flalland, lileking, and Sconia, rhe ifland of Bornholm, and Bahus and Drontheim in Norv;ay, to the Sv/edes. Frederic fought to elude thofc fevere terms ; but Charles too'< Cronenburgh, and once more befieged Copenhagen by fta and land. The fteady intrepid conduct of Frederic, under thefe misforcunrs, en- deared him to liis fubjefts ; and the citizens of Coi)C.Thagen made an admirable de- fence till a Dutch fleet arrived in the Baltic, and beat the Swedes. Tiie fortune of war was now eniirely changed in favour of Frederic, who fhewed on every occafion great abilities, both civil and military; and having forced Charles to raife the fiege of Copenhagen, might have carried the war into Sweden, had not the Fnglifli fleet under Montague, ajipeared in the Baltic. This enabled Charles to bcfiege Copen- hao-en a third time ; but France and England oftcring their mediation, a peace was concluded, by which the ifland of Bornholm returned to the Danes; but the ifland of Rugen, Bleking, Halland, and Schoncn, remained with tne Swedes. Though tliis peace did not reitore to Denmark, all fne had loft, yet ihe magn;- nimous behaviour of Frederic, under the moll imminent dangers, and his attention to the fafety of his fubjeds, even preferably to his own, greatly endeared him in their eyes; and he at length became abfolute, in the manner already related. Fie- deric was fucceeded in 1670, by his fon Chrifiian V. who obliged the duke ot Holftein Gottorp to renounce all the advantages he had gained by the treaty of Rofchild. Fie then recovered a number of phu-es in Sconen ; but his army w;;s defeated in the bloody battle of Lunden, by Cliarles XI. of Sweden. Chriltian obftinately continued the war, till he v/as defeated at the battle of Landfcroon : and having almoft cxhaufted his dominions in military operations, and being aban- doned by all his allies, he was forced to fign a treaty, on the terms piefcribed by France, in 1679. Chriftian afterwards became the ally and fubfidiary of Lewis XIV. who was then threatening Europe with chains ; ajid, after a variey of treat- ing and fighting with the Holtfeiners, Hamburghers, and other northern powers, died in 169CJ. lie was fucceeded by Frederic IV. who, like his predeeeirors, main- tained his pretenfions upon Flolftein ; and probably muft have become miaRer of that Duchy, had not the Englifh an.1 Dutch fleets railed the fiege of I'onningen, while the young king of Sweden, Charles XII. who was then no more than fixtecn years of age, landed within eight miles of Copenhagen, to afilfb his brother-in-law the duke of Holftein. Charles probably v/ould have made himfelf mafter of Co- penhagen, hid not his Danifii majefty agreed to the peace of Travendahl, which was entirely in the duke's favour. By another treaty concluded with the States General, Charles obliged hiirifelf to furnifli a body of troops, who were to be paid by the confederates; and afterwards did great fervice againft the French in the wars ot Queen Anne. Notwithllanding tliis peace, Frederic was perpetually engaged in wars with the Swedes, and while Charles XII. was an exile at Bender, he mnde a defeent upon the Swedifh Pomerania; and another, in the year 1712, upon Bremen, and took the city of Stade. Ilis trooiis however, were totally dcftated by the Sv/etles at Gadcibuch, who laid his favourite city of Altena ia aTlies. Frederic revenged himfelf, DENMARK. 77 fcimfclf, by feizing great pai t of the ducal Holftcin, and forcing the Swedifb ge- nenil, count Steinbock, to furrcnder himfclf prifon-r, with all his troops. In the year 17 16, the fucccflcs of Frederic were fo gveat, by talcing Tonningen and Stral- fund, by driving the Swedes out of Norv/ay, and reducing Wifmar in Ponierania, that his allies began to fuf[)ed he was aiming at the ibvercignty of all Scandinavia. Upon the return of Charles of Sweden from his exile, he renewed the war againft Denmark with a mod inibittered fpirit ; but on the death of that prince, who vvas killed at the fiege of Fredericlhall, I'Vederic durft not refufe the offer of his Hritan- nic majefty's mediation between him and the crown of Sweden ; in confequence of which a peace was concluded at Stockholm, v/hich left him in poiTtirion of the duchy of Slefwick. Frederic died in the year 1730, after having two } ears before {ccn hiscapite.! reduced to aflics by an accidental fire. His fon Chriftian Frederic, or Chrillian VI. made no other ufe of his power, and the advantages with v/hich he mounted the throne, than to cultivate peace with all his neighbours, and to pro- mote the happincfs of his fubjeils ; whom he eafcd of many oppreffive taxes. In 17.^5 alter guarantying the Pragmatic Sandlioa *, ChrilVian lent 6000 men to the affi'.lance of the emperor, during the difpute of the fuccellion to the crown of Poland. Though he was pacific, yet he was jealous of his rights, efjiecially over Hamburgh He obliged the Hamburghers to call in the mediation of PrufTu, to abolifn their bank, to admit the coin of Denmark as current, and to pay him a, million of fiver marks. He had, in 1738, a difpute with his Br'.tannic majefty about the litde lordlhip of Steinhorft, which had been mortgaged to the latter by a duke of Fiolftein Lawenburg, and which Chrifrian faid belonged to him. Some blood was fpilt during the conteil: ; in which Chriflian, it is thought, never was in earrvell. It brought on, however, a treaty, in which he availed himfelf of his Britannic maiefry's prediieftion tor his German dominions, who agreed to pay Chrillian a. fubfidy of 70,0001. (terling a year, on condition of Iceeping in readi- nefs 70C0 troops, tor the proteftion of Hanover : this was a giinlld bargain for Denmark. Two years a'ter, he fci7.ed fome Dutch Tnips, for trading without his leave to Iceland ; but the difference was made up by the niediation of Sweden. Chriftian had fo great a pirty in tlut kiirgdora, that it was generally thought he would revive the union of Calmar, by procuring his fon to be declared fucceflbr to his then Sv/edilli mL>je!ly, Some Reps for that purpofe were certainly. taken : but wh.atever Chrittian's views might have been, the defign v/as fruftrated by thejea- loufy of other powers, v,ho could not b^'ar the thoughts of feeing all Scandinavia fubjecl to one family. Chrillian died in 1746,. v/ith the characfler of being the fa- ther of his people- Flis Ion, F'rederic V. in 1743, married th-e princefs Louifa, daughter to his Britannic majefty George II. He improved upon his firther's plan, for the happineis of his people ; but took no concern, except th;'t of a mediator, in the Gennan w.^r. It was by his intervention that the treaty of Clofter-feven was concluded between the late duke of Cumberland, and the French &-enercil Richlieu- Upon the death of his fird: queen, who was mother to his prcfent Danifli majefiy, he married a daughter of the dukeof Brunfwic-Wolfenbuttle ; and died in 1766. Flis fon, Chrillian VII . was born the 29th of January 1 749 ; and married his pre- fent Britannic majefry's youugefl filler, the princefs Carolina-Matilda. This al- J"iance, though it wore at firil a very promifing appearance, had a very unfortunate termination. This is partly attributed to the intrigues of the queen-dowager, mo- ther-in-law to the prellnt king, who has a fon named Frederic, and v/hom flie is re- prefented as dcfirous of raifing to the throne. V\"hen the princefs Carolina-Matilda came to Copenhagen, ihe received her vvith all the appearance of friendfhip and af- • An jigrecinent by wliich the princ- of F.urope of ihe queen of Hungii'-y, d:\u:;htei of the empe-- •engaged lu hipport the lioufc ol Aul'uw in t.ivour ror Ch.irlcs VI, who hud no inulc ifiue. 3 ' fctftion. ^8 DENMARK. feftion, acquainting her with all the king's faults, and at: the fame time telling her, that fhe would take every opportunity, as a mother, to affift her in reclaiming him. By this conduft, Ihe became the depofitaryof all the young queen's fecrets, whilft at the fame time, it is laid, ihe placed people about the king, to keep him conttantly engaged in all kinds of riot or debauchery. When the king v/as upon his travels, the queen-dowager ufed frequently to vifit the young queen ; and, under the mafli of friendfhip and affeftion, told her of the excelfes which the king had fallen into in Holland, England, and France, and perfuaded her not to live with him. But as foon as the king returned, the queen gently reproaching him with his conduft, his mother-in law endeavoured to perfuade the king to give no ear to her counfels, as it was prefumption in a queen of Denmark to direft the king. Matilda now began to difcover the defigns of the queen-dowager, and afterwards \\\\\\ upon good terms v/ith the king. The young queen alfo now alfumed to herfelf the part which the queen-dowager had been complimented with, in the management of pub- lic affairs. This llung the old queen ; and her thoughts were now entirely occu- pied with fchemes of revenge. But her views of this kind at firft appeared the more difficult to carry into execution, becaufe the king had difplaced feveral of her friends who were about the court, who had been increafing the national debt in times of the moft profound peace, and who were rioting on the fpoils of the public. However, flie at length found means to gratify her revenge in a very ample manner, i^bout the end of the year 1770, it was obferved that Brandt and Struenfee were particularly regarded by the king; the former as a favourite, and the latter as a minifler, and that they paid great court to queen Matilda, and were fupported by her. This opened a new fcene of intrigue at Copenhagen: all the difcarded place- men paid their court to the queen-dowager, and fhe became the head of the party. Struenfee and Brandt wanted to make a reform in the adminiftration of the public affairs at once, which fhould have been the work of time ; and thereby made a great number of enemies, among thofe whofe intereft it was that things fliould continue upon the fame footing that they had been for fome time before. After this queen Matilda was delivered of a daughter, but as foon as the queen-dowager law her, ffie, with a malicious fmile, declared that the child had all the features of Struenfee : on which her friends publiffied it among the people, that the queen muff have had an intrigue with Struenfee ; which was corroborated by the queen's often fpeaking with this minifter in public. A great variety of evil reports were now propagated j and it was afferted, that the governing party had formed a defign to fuperfede the king, as being incapable of governing; that the queen was to be declared regent during tlie minority of her fon ; and that Struenfee was to be her prime-miniller. Whatever Struenfee did to reform the abufes of the late miniftry^ was reprefented to the people as fo many attacks upon, and attempts to deftroy, the government of the kingdom. By fuch means the people began to be greatly incenfed againft this minifter: and as he alfo wanted to make a reform in the military, he gave great of- fence to the troops, at the head of which were fome of the creatures of the queen- dowager, who took every opportunity to make their inferior officers believe, that it was the defign of Struenfee to change the whole fyflem of government. It muft be admitted, that this minifter fcems in many refpefts to have adted very impru- dently, and to have been too much under the guidance of his paffions : his principles alfo appear to have been of the libertine kind. Many councils were held between the queen-dowager and her friends, upon the proper meafures to be taken for effeduating their defigns: and it was at length refolvcd, to fur])rife the king in the middle of the night, and foi'ce him immedi- ately to fign an order, which was to be prepared in rcadinefs, for committing the pcrfons before mentioned to fcparate prifons, to accufe them of high-treafon in general, and in particular of a defign to poifon, or dethrone the king; and if that 6 could DENMARK. 79 could not be properly fiipported, by torture or otherwife, to procure witnefres to confirm the report of a criminal commerce between the queen and Struenfee. This was an undertaking of fo hazardous a nature, that the wary count Moltkc, and moft of the queen-dowager's friends excufed themfelves from taking any open and aftive part in tiiis affair. However, the queen-dowager at Lift procured a fufficicnt num- ber of aftive inftrumeais for the execution of her defigns. On the i6th of January, 1772, a mafked ball was given at the court of Denmark. The king had danced at this ball, and afterwards played at quadrille with general Gahler, his lady, and counfellor Struenfee, brotlicr to the count. The queen, after dancing as ufual one country dance with the king, gave her hand to count Scruenfee during the re- mainder of the evening. She retired about two in the morning, and was followed by him and count Brandt. About four the Hime morning, prince Frederic, who had alfo been at the ball, went with the queen-dowager to the king's bed-chamber, accompanied by r^eneral Eichiledt and count Rantzau. They ordered his majefty's valet-de-chambre to awake him, and in the midll of the furprife that this intrufion excited, they informed him, that queen Matilda and the two Struenfees were at that inftant bufy in drawing up an ddl of renunciation of the crown, which they would immediarely compel him to fign : and that the only means to prevent fo imminent a danger, was to fign the orders which they had brought with them, for arrefting the queen and her accomplices. It is faid, that the king was not eafily prevailed upon to fign thefe orders; but at length corrplied. Count Rantzau, and three officers, haitened at that untimely hour to the queen's apartments, and immediately arretted her. She was j)ut into one of the king's coaches, conveyed to the caltle of Cronenburgh, together with the infant princefs, attended by lady Mofcyn, and ef- corted by a party of dragoons. In the mean time, Struenfee and Brandt were alfo feized- in their beds, and imprifoned in the citadel. Struenfee's brother, and moll of the members of the late adminillration, were feized the fame night, to the num- ber of about eighteen, and thrown into confinement. The government after this feemed to be entirely lodged in the hands of the queen-dowager and her fon, afTiIted by thofe who had the principal Ihare in the revolution; while the king appeared to be little more than a pageant, whofe perfon and name it was neceflTary occafionally to make ufe of. All the officers concerned ia the revolution were immediately promoted, and an almoft total change took place in the departments of adminiftra- tion. A new council was appointed, in which prince Frederic prefided, and a com- miffion of eight members, to examine the papers of the prifoners, and to commence a procels agamft them. The fon of queen Matilda, the prince royal, now entered into the fifth year of his age, was put into the care of a laciy of quality, who was ap- pointed governefs, under the fuperintendency of the queen-dowager. Struenfee and Brandt were put in irons, and very rigoroufly treated in priibn ; they both un- dcrv/ent frequent examinations, and at length received fentence of death. They were beheaded on the 28th of Apiil, having their right hands previoufly cut off. 55truenfee at firft abfolutely denied having any criminal intercourie v/ith the queen ; but this he afterwards confeffed ; and though he is faid to have been induced to do this only by the fear of torture, the proofs of his guiit were elteemed notorious, and hisconfeflions full and explicit. Befide, no meafures were adopted by the court of Great Britain to clear up the queen's charafter hi this refpect. But in May, his Britannic majefty fent a fmall fquadron of fhips to convoy that princeis to Germany, and appointed the city of Zell, in his eleiStoral dominions, for the place of her fu- ture refidence.. She died there, of a malignant fever, on the lothof May, 1775. aged 43 years and 10 months. In 1 780, his Danifh majefty acceded to the armed neutrality propofed by the em- prefs of Ruffia. He appears to have fuch a debility of underibmding, as to dif- qiialify him for the proper management of public affairs. Qn the 16th April, i 84, another 8o DENMARK. another court revolution took place. The queen-dowager's friends wc-.-c removed, a new council fanned under the aufpices of the prince royal, fomc of u-v former old members rellorcd to the cabinet, and no regard is to be paid for the iuture to any inftrument, unlefs ligned by the king, and counterfigned by the prince, royal *. • Cliiifiian Vll. vcipning- king- of Denmark and ro)ul of Denmark, born Jan. :?, 1768; Loirif,* Norway, LL. U. and ! .R. S. vr.s born in 1749 ; Augulta, prnicefs roynl, born(iily -ti, 1771 ; ;i.nd in 176' he was married 10 the princcfs Carolina ni.irried to the prince of Slefwick-Holilein, M:iy IVLitilda of Eiig! .nd ; aifd lias ilFuc Frederic, prir.ce 27, 1786. His Damsh M/^jesty's GERMAN DOMINIONS. HOLSTEIN, a duchy of Lov/er Saxony, about 100 miles long and :;) broad, and a fruitful country, was formerly divided between the emprefs of Rufila, the king of Denmark, and the imperial cities of Hamburg and Lubeckj but in 1 773 was formally transferred to the king of Denmark. Kiel is the capital of Ducal HoUlein, and is well buiir, has a harbour, and neat public edifices. The capital of the Danilli Flolrtein is Gluckftadt, a well-built town and fortref;, but in a marlliy fituation on the right of the Elbe, and has fome foreign commerce. Altena, a large, populous, and handfome tov/n, of great traffic, is commodioufly fi- tuated on the Elbe, in the neighbourhood of Hamburg. It was built in that fituation> that it might fhare in the commerce of the foi mer. Being declared a free port, and the ftaple of the Danifli Eafl India Company, the merchants alfo enjoying liberty of con- fcience, great numbers flock to Altena from all parts of the North, and even from Hamburg. The famous city of Hamburg lies, in a geographical fenfe, in Holflein; but is an imperial, free, and Hanfeatic city, lying on the verge of that part of hlolrtein called Stormar. It has the fovereignty of a fmall diltriifl round it, of about ten miles circuit: it is one of the moft flourifhing commercial towns in Europe; and though the kings of Denmark ftill lay claim to certain privileges within its walls, it may be confidered as a well-regulated commonwealth. The number of inhabi- tants are faid to amount to 180,000 ; and it is furniilied with a variety of noble edi- fices, both public and private : it has two fpacious harbours, formed by the river Hbe, which runs through the town, and 84 bridges are thrown over its canals. Hamburg has the good fortune of having been peculiarly favoured in its commerce by Great Britain, with whom it iViU carries on a great trade, l^he Hamburghers maintain twelve companies of foot, and one troop of dr.goons, befides an artillery company. Lubcc, an imperial city, with a good harbour, and once the capital of the Hans Towns, and ftill a rich and populous jilace, is alfo in this duchy, and governed by its own magiftrates. It has 10 parifli chinxhcs befides a large cathedral. Luther- anifm is the eftabliflied religion of the whole duchy. LAPLAND. TH E northern fituation of Lapland, and the divifion of its property, require that 1 flaould treat of it under a thllincft head, and in tlic fame method obfervetl in other countries. Situation, exff.nt, pivision, and namk.] The whole country of Lapland extends, fo far as it is known, from the North Cape in 71 30 N. lat. to the White Sea, under the ariflic circle. Part of Lapland belongs to the Danes, and is included in the government of Wardhuys ; part to the Swedes, which is the moft valuable ; and LAPLAND. 8 1 and fome parts in the eaft, to the Mufcovites or Ruflians. It is needlcfs to point out the fuppofed dimenfions of each. That belonging to tlie Swedes may be feen in the table of dimenfions given in the account of Sweden : but other accounts fay, that it is about loo German miles in length, and 90 in breadth; it comprehends all the country from the Baltic, to the mountains that feparate Norway from Sweden. 1 he Mufcovite part lies toward the eaft, bctwen the lake Enarak and the White Sea, Thofe parts, notwithftanding the rudenefs of tlie country, are divided into fmaller diftricis J generally taking their names from rivers : but, unlef? in the Swe- difh part, which is fubjeft to a prefecl, the Laplanders can be faid to be under no regular government. The Swedifli Lapland, therefore, is the objeft chiefly confi- dered by authors in defcribing this country. It has been generally thought, that the Laplanders are the defcendants of Finlanders driven out of tlieir ov;n country, and that they take their name from Lappes, which fignifies exiles. Climate.] In wiiater it is no unufual thing for their lips to be frozen to the cup in attempting to drink; and in fomc thermometers, fpirits of wine are ct>n- creted into ice : the limbs of the inhabitants very often mortify with cold : drifts of Inow threaten to bury the traveller, and cover the ground four or five feet deep. A thaw fometimes takes place, and then the frolt that fucceeds prefcnts the Lap- lander with a fmooth level of ice, over which he travels with a rein deer in a fledge with inconceivable fwiftnefs. The heats of fummer are exceflive for a fiiort time; and the catara6ls, which daili from the mountains, often prefent to the eye the moft pidlurefque appearances. Mountains, rivers, lakes, and forests." The reader mufi: form in idea a mafs of mountains irregularly crowded together, to give him an idea of Lapland ; they are, however, in fome interfaces, feparated by rivers and lakes, which contain an incredible number of iflands, fome of which form delightful habitations; and are believed by the natives to be the terrcllrial paradife : even rofes and other flowers grow wild on their borders in the fummer; though this is but a fliort gleam of tem- perature, for the climate in general is excefilvely fevere. Dufky forefts, andnoifom.e, unhealthy morafles, and barren plains cover great part of the flat country, fo that nothing can be more uncomfortable than the ftate of the inhabitants. Metals and minerals.] Silver and gold mines, as well as thofe of iron, cop- per, and lead, have been difcovered andwo.'-ked in Lapland to great advantage; beau- tiful cryftals are found here, as are fome amethjils and topazes; alfo various forts of mineral ftones, furprifingly polifhed by the hand of nature; valuable pearls have likewife been fometimes found in the rivers, but never in the feas. Animals, cutadrupeds, birds, fishes, and insects.] We muft refer to our accounts of Denmark and Norway for great part of this article, as its contents are in common with all the three countries. The zibelin, a creature referiibling the marten, is a native of Lapland; and its fkin, whether black or white, is io much clleemed, that it is frequently given as prefents to royal and diftinguiflied perfon- ages. The Lapland hares grow white in the winter; and the country produces a large black cat, which attends the natives in hunting. The moft remarkable of tlie Lapland animals, is the rein-deer; which nature feems to have provided to folace the Laplanders for the privation of the other comforts of life. This animal, the moft uieful perhaps of any in the creation, refemblcs the flag, only it fomewhat droops the head, and the horns projeft forward. All defcribers of this animal have taken notice of the cracking noife that they make when they move their legs, which is attributed to their feparating and afterwards bringing together the divifions of the hoof. The under part is entirely covered with hair, in the fame manner that the claw of the Ptannigan is with feathery briftles, which is almoft the only bird that can endure the rigour of the fame climate. The hoof however is not only thus pro- tefted ; the fame neceffity which obliees the Laplanders to ufe fnow Ihoes, makes ^ M the 84 LAPLAND; the extraordinary width of the rein's hoof to be equally convenient in paffing over fnow, as it prevents their finking too deep, which they continually would, did the weight of their body reft only on a fmall point. This quadruped hath therefore an inftinft to ufe a hoof of fuch a form in ailill more advantageous manner, by feparat- ing it when the foot is to touch the ground fo as to cover a larger furface of fnow. The inftant however the leg of the animal is raifed, the hoof is immediately contraft- ed, and the coUifion of the parts occafions the fnapping which is heard on every motion of the rein. And probably the cracking which they perpetually make, may ferve to keep them together when the weather is remarkably dark. In fum- mer, the rein-deer provide themfelves with leaves and grafs, and in the winter they live upon mofs: they have a wonderful fagacity at finding it out, and when found, they fcrape away the fnov/ that covers it v/ith their i'eet. The fcantinefs of their fare is inconceivable, as is the length of the journies which they can perform without any other fupport. They fix the rein-deer to a kind of fledge, fhaped like a fmall boat, in which the traveller, wellfecured from cold, is laced down, with the reins in one hand, and a kind of bludgeon in the other, to keep the carriage clear of ice and ' fnow. The deer, whole harneffing is very fimple, lets out, and continues the jour- ney with prodigious fpeed ; and is generally fo fafe and tradable, that the driver is at little trouble in direfting him. At night they fearch for their own provender; and their miJk often helps to fupport their mafter. Their inftinft in choofing their road, and directing their courfe, can only be accounted for by their being well acquainted with the country during the fummer months, when they live in woods. Their flefli is a well-tafted food, whether freili or dried : their fkin forms excellent cloathing both for the bed and tlie body : their milk and cheefe are nutritive and plcafant; and their inteftines and tendons fupply their matters with thread and cord- age. When they run about in the fields, they may be fhoc at as other game. But it is fuid, that if one is killed in a flock, the furvivors v/ill gore and trample him to pieces; therefore fingle ftragglers are generally pitched upon. Their ftirprifing fpeetl {for they are laid to run at the race of 200 miles a day) feems to be owing to their impatience to get rid of their incumbrance. None but a Laplander could bear the uneafy pofture in which he is placed, when he is confined in oneof thofe carriages or pulkhas ; or would believe, that, by whifpering the rein deer in the ear, they know the place of their deftinacion- But after all thefe abatements, the natives would have difficulty to fubfift without their rein-deer, which ferve them for (b many purpofes. FfOPLE, CUSTOM'S, AND MANNERS.] The laiTguagc of the Laplanders isof Fin- nifh origin, and comprehends fo many dialefts, that it is with difficulty they under- Hand each other. The greater part have neither writing nor letters among them, but a number of hieroglyphics, which they make ufe of in their Rounes, a fort of tlicks that they call Piiliave, and which ferve them for an almanack. Thcfe hiero- glyphics are alto the marks they ufe inftead of fignatures, even in matters of law* MilTionaries, from the chriftianized parts of Scandinavia, introduced aiiiong them the Chriftian religion; but they can hardly be faid even yet to be Chriftians, though they liave among them fome religious feminaries, inftitutcd by the king of Dcn- m:uk. The majority of the Laplanders pra6tife as grofs fupcrltitions and idola- tries, as are to be found among the moft uninftru^led pagans ; and fa abfurd, that rhey fcarccly defcrve to be mentioned, were it not that the number and oddities of their fuperftitions have induced the northern traders to believe, that they are fkilfiil. in magic and divination. For this piirpofe their magicians make ufe of what they call a drum, made of the hollowed trunk of a fir, pine, or birch-tree, one end of which is covered with a Ikin ; on this they draw, with a kind of red colour, the ftgnres of their own gods, as well as of Jefus Chrift, the apoftles, the fun, moon, fears,, birds, and rivers ; on thefe they pla^e one or two biafs rings, which, wlien xhc- LAPLAND. 8j the drum is beaten with a little hammer, dance over the figures ; and according to their progrefs the forcerer prognofticates. Tlicfc frantic operations are generally performed for gain ; and the northern fhip-ma(ters are fiich dupes to the arts of thefe impoftors, that they often buy from them a magic cord, which contains a num- ber of knots, by opening of whicli, according to the magician's diredions, they gain what wind they want. This is alfoavery common traffic on the banks of the Red Sea, and is managed with great addrefs on the part ot the forcerer, wlio keeps up the price of his knotted talilman. 1"he Laplanders ftill retain the worfliip of many of the Teutonic gods ; but have among them great remains of the druidical inftitu- tions. They believe the tranfmigration of the foul ; and have feftivals fet apart for the worfliip of certain genii, called Juhlcs, who they think inhabit the air, and have great power over human adlons ; but being without form or fubftance, they affign to them neither images nor llatues. Agriculture is not much attended to among the Laplanders. They are chiefly divided into Lapland fifliers, and Laphmd mountaineers. The former always make their habitations on the brink, or in the neighbourhood of fome lake, from whence they draw their fubfillcnce. The others feck their fujjport upon the mountains, and their environs, poflcfling herds of rein-deer more or lefs numerous, which they ufe according to thefeafon, but go generally on foot. They are excellent and induftri- ous herdfmen, and are rich in comparifon of the Lapland fifliers. Some poflefs fix hundred or a thoufind rein-deer, and have often money and plate befides. They mark every rein-deer on the ears, and divide them into clafles; fo that they inftantly perceive whether any one is ftrayed, though they cannot count to fo great a number as that to which their ftock often amounts. Thofe who poflefs but a final! fl:ock, give to every individual a proper name. The Lapland-fifliers, who are alfo called Laplanders of the woods, bccaufe in fummer they dwell upon the borders of the lakes, and in v/inter in the forefts, live by fifliing and hunting, and chufe their fi- tuation by its convenience for either. The greateft part of them, howevc-r, have fome rein-deer. They are a(fi-ive and expert in the chace: and the introdudtion of / fire-arms among them has almofl; entirely aboliflied the ufe of the bow and arrow. Befides looking after their rein-deer, the fifliery, and the chace, the men employ themfelves in the confliruftion of their canoes, which are fmall, light, and compaft. They alfo make fledges, to which they give th« form of a canoe, harnefs for the rein- deer, cups,- bowls, and various other utenfils, which are fometimes neatly carved, and fometimes ornamented with bones, brafs, or horn. The employment of the women confifl;s in making nets for the fifliery, in drying fifli and meat, in milking the rein-deer, in making cheefe, and in tanning hides: but it is underltood to be the bufinefs of the men to look after the kitchen; in v;hich, it is faid, vhe women never interfere. The Laplanders live in huts in the form of tents. A hut is about twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter, and not much above fix feet in height. 'I'hcy cover thern according to the feafon, and the means of the pofl'eflbr; fome with briars, baik of birch, and linen i others with turf, coarfe cloth, or felt, or the old Ikins ot rein- deer. The door is of felt, made like two curtains, which open afunder, A little place furrounded with fl:ones is made in the middle of the iiut tor the fire, over which a chain is fufpended to hang the kettle upon. They are fcarcely able to fl:and upright in their huts, but confta-ntly fit upon their lieels round the fire. At night, they lie down quite naked ; and, to feparate the apartments, they place upright flicks at fmall diftances. They cover tliemfelves with their cloaths, or lie upon them. In winter, they put their nakcil feet into a fur bag. Their houfehold- furniture confifts of iron or copper kettles, wooden cups, bowls, fpoons, and fometimes tin, or even filver bafons : to thefe may be added the implements of fifliing and hunting. That they may not be obliged to carry fuch a number of M 2 things 84 LAPLAND. things with them in their excurfions, they build in the forefts, at certain diftances, little huts, made like pigeon- houfes, and placed upon a pofl:, which is the trunk of a tree, cut ofF at aboLit the height of a fathom or fix foot from the root. In thefe elevated huts they keep their goods and provifionsj and though they are ne- ver Ihut, yet they are never plundered. The rein-deer fupply the Laplanders -with the greateft part of their provifions ; the chace and the fifhery fupply the reft. Their principal dilhes are the flefh of the rein-deer, and puddings made of their blood, by putting it either alone, or mixed with wild berries, into the ftomach of the animal from whence it was taken, in which they cool it for food. But the flefh of the bear is confidered by them as moft delicate meat. They eat every kind of fifh, even the fea-dog ; as well as all forts of wild animals, not excepting birds of prey, and carnivorous animals. Their winter-provifions confift chiefly of flefh and' frlh dried in the open air, which they eat raw. Their common drink is water, fometimes mixed with milk : they make alfo broths and fifli-foups. Brandy is fcarce with them, but they are extremely fond of it. Whenever they are inclined to eat, the head of the family fpreads a mat on the ground ; and then men and women fquat round tliis mat, which is covered with diflies. Every Laplander carries about him a knife, a fpoon, and a little cup for drinking. Each has his portion feparately given him, that no peifon may be injured ; for they are great eaters. Before and after the meal they make a fhort prayer : and, as foon as they have done eating, each gives the other his hand. In the drefs of the Laplanders they ufe no kind of linen. The men wear clofe breeches, reaching down to their fhoes, which are made of untanned fkin, pointed,, and turned up before; and in winter they put a little hay in them. Their doublet is made to fit their fliape, and open at the breaft. Over this, thev wear a clofe coat with narrow fleeves ; the fkirts reach to the knees, and is fattened round them by a leathern girdle, ornamented with plates of tin or brafs. To this girdle they tie their knives, their inftruments for getting fire, their pipes, and the reft of their fmoking apparatus. Their cfothes are made of fur, or leather, or of cloth ; the clofe coat is of cloth or leather, always bordered with fur, or bindings of cioth of different colours. Their caps are edged with fur, pointed at top, and the four feams adorned with lifts of a diftcrent colour from tliat of the cap. The women wear breeches, fhoes, doublets, and clofe coats, in the fame manner as the men ; but their girdle, at which they carry likcnvife the implements for fmoking tobacco, is commonly embroidered v/ith brafs wire. Their clofe coat hath a collar, which comes up higher than that of the men. Befides thefe, they wear handkerchiefs, and little aprons, made of painted cloth, rings on their fingers, and ear-rings, to which they fometimes hang chains of filver, which pafs two orthree times round the neck. They arc often drelTed in caps folded after the manner of turbans. They wear alfo caps fitted to the fliape of the head j and, as they are much addifted to finery, they are all ornamented with the embroidery of brafs wire, or at leaft with lift of different colours. Lapland is but poorly peopled, owing to the general barrennefs of its foil. The number of its iniiabitants may amount to about 60,000. Both men and- women are in general confiderably fhorter than more Ibuthern Europeans. Maupertuis ineafured a woman, who was fuckling her child, whofe height did not exceed four feet two inches and about a half ; they make, however, a much more agreeable ap- pearance than the men, who are often ill-fliaped and ugly, and their heads too large for their bodies. Their women are complaifant, chafte, well-made, and ex- tremely nervous ; v/hich is alfo obfcrvable among the men, although more rarely. It frequently happens, that a Lapland woman will faint away, or even fall into a fit of frenzy, on a fpark of fire flying towards her, an unexpected noife, or the fud- dcn fight of an une.xpeded objeft, though it is in its own nature not in the leaft alarming J SWEDEN, 85 alarming : in fliort, at themoft trifling things imaginable. During thefe paroxyfms of terror, they deal about blows with the firfl; thing that prefents itfelf ; and, on coming to themfelves, are utterly ignorant of all that has pafTed. When a Laplander intends to marry a female, he, or his friends, court her fa- ther with brandy; when, with fome difficulty, he gains admittance to his fair one, he offers her a beaver's tongue, or fome other eatable ; which fhe rejefls before company, but accepts of in private. Cohabitation often precedes marriage ; but every admittance to the fair one is purchafcd by her lover with a bottle of brandy, and this prolongs the courtfhip fometimes for three years. The prieft of the parifh at laft celebrates the nuptials ; bur the bridegroom is obliged to ferve his tather-in- law for four years after. He then carries his wife and her fortune home. Commerce.] Little can be faid of the commecce of the Laplanders. Their exports confift of fifh, rein-deer, furs, bafl-cets, and toys; with fome dried pikes, and cheefes made of rein-deer milk. They receive for thefe, rix-dollars, woollen cloths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, needles, knives, fpirituous liquors, to- bacco, and other neceflTaries. Their mines are generally worked by foreigners, and produce no inconfiderable profit. The Laplanders travel in a caravan, with their families, to the Finland and Norway fairs. The reader may make fome efl.imate of the medium of commerce among them, when he is told, that fifty fquirrel Ikins, or one fox i\<.\n, and a pair of Lapland fhoes, produce one rix dollar; but no compu- tation can be made of the public revenue, the greateft part of which is allottted for the maintenance of the clergy. With regard to the fecurity of their property, few difputes happen ; and their judges have no military to enforce their decrees, the peo- ple having a remarkable averfion to war. SWEDEN. Extent and Situation.- Miles. Degrees, > between < ^ 500. Length 800? u„,^.„„ C 56 and 69 North latitude. Breadth 5003 '^^^^^*^" 2 1° ^"'1 3° ^afl: longitude. Boundaries and 7 fT^ HIS country is bounded by the Baltic Sea, the Sound> DIVISIONS. ^ J, ^"*^ the Categate, or Scaggerac, on the South; by the impafl!able mountains of Norway, on the Weft ; by Danifli or Norwegian Lapland, on the North ; and by Mufcovy,'^on the Eaft. It is divided into feven provinces : I. Sweden Proper. 2. Gothland. 3. Livonia. 4. Ingria. (Thefe two laft: provinces belong now to the Ruftians, having been conquered by Peter the Great, and ceded by pofterior treaties.) 5. Finland. 6. Swedifli Lapland. And 7. The Swedifti iflands. Great abatements muft be made for the lakes, and unimproved parts of Sweden ; which are fo extenfive, that the habitable part is confined to narrow bounds. The following are the dimenfions given us of this kingdom. Sweden 86 SWEDEN. Sweden. Square Miles. 76,83.; Sum total. 228,7,5 W n P 5- Capital Cities. Sweden Proper — — Gothland — — — Schonen — — — 47,900 2,960 76,000 73,000 1000 560 960 3^0 76,83s 150,560 1,320 34.2 253 77 420 395 80 84 47 24 '9+ 160 56 340 "S 23 9 II Stockholm, N. Lat. 59-30. b.. Long. 19—15, Calmar. Lunden. Torne. Uma. Abo. Cajenburg. Wifby. Uarkholin. Stralfund. Bergen. Lapland and I W. Bothnia — ]■ Swtdifli Finland, and ' Eaft Bothnia — Gothland 1, — — Oeland L — — Upper ) Pomerania, P. Saxony^ J Rugen I. Of Sweden Proper, the following are the fubdivifions : Uplandia, Helfingia, Sudermania, Dalecarlia, Weftmania, Medelpedia, Nericia, Angermania, Geftricia, Jemptia. Of Gothland, the following are the fubdivifions : Eaft Gothland, Dalia, Weft Gothland, Schonen, Smaland, Bleking, Wermeland, Halland. Of Swedifh Lapland, the following are the fubdivifions : Thorne Lapmnrk, Pithia Lapmark, Kimi Lapmark, Uma Lapmark, ■ Lula Lapmark, Th€ principal places in Weft Bothnia are Umea, Pitea, and Tornea. Of Finland, the following are the fubdivifions : Eaft Bothnia, Ivyland, Cajania, Travaftia, Savoloxia, Finland Proper. The Swcdifli ifles are Gothland, Oeland, Aland, and Rugen. The face of Sweden is pretty fimilar to thofeof its neighbouring countries; only it has the advantage of navigable rivers. Climate and slasons, / The fiimc may be faid wiih regard to this article. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. \ Summer burfts from winterj and vegetation is more fpeedy than in fouthern climates ; for the fun is here fo hot, as fomctimes to fet forefts on fire. Stoves and warm furs mitigate the cold of winter, which is fo in- tenfe, that the nofcs and extremities of the inhabitants are Ibmctimes mortified ; and in fuch cafes, the beft remedy that has been found out, is rubbing the affcdted part with fnow. The Swedes, fince the days of Charles XII. have been at incre- dible pains to correft the native barrcnnefs of their country, by erecting Colleges of Agriculture, and in fome places ^vith great fuccefs. The foil is much the fame with that of Denmark, and fome pans of Norway, generally very bad, but in fome 5 vallics SWEDEN. 87 valHes fiirprifingly fertile. The Swedes, till of late years, had not induftry fuffi- cient to remedy the one, nor improve the other. The peafants now follow the agriculture of France and England ; and fome late accounts fay, that they raife almoft as mucii grain as maintains the natives. Gotiiland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and beans j and in cafe of deficiency, the people are fupplied from Livonia and the Baltic provinces. In fummer, the fields are verdant, and covered witli flowers, and produce ftrawberries, raflserries, currants, and other fmall fruits. The common people know little of the cultivation of apricots, peaches, nedtarines, and the like high-flavoured fruits ; but melons are brought to great per- feftion in dry feafons. Minerals and metals.] Sweden produces cryftals, amethyfl:s, topazes, por- phyry, lapis-lazuli, agate, cornelian, marble, and other fofTils. The chief wealth of Sweden arifes from her mines of filver, copper, lead, and iron. The laft men- tioned metal employs no fewer than 450 forges, hammering-mills, and fmelting houfes. A kind of a gold mine has likewife been difcovered in Sweden, but fo inconfiderable, that from the year 1741 to 1747, itproduced only 2,398 gold ducats, each valued at 9s. 4d. fl:erling. The firfl: gallery of one filver mine is 100 fathoms below the furface of the earth; the roof is fupported by prodigious oaken beams ; and from thence the miners defcend about 40 fathoms to the lowefl: vein. This mine is faid to produce 20,000 crowns a year. The produft of the copper-mines is uncertain ; but the whole is loaded with great taxes and reduftions to the go- vernment, which has no other refources for the exigencies of the Urate. Thefe fubter- raneous manfions are afl:onifliingly fpac^*^(US, and at the lame time commodious for their inhabitants, fo that they leem to -lorm a hidden world. The water-fdls in Sweden afi-ord excellent convenicncy for turning mills for forges ; and for fome years die exports of Sweden for iron brought in 300,0001. ilerling. Dr. Bufching thinks that they conftituted two-thirds of the national revenue. It mufl: be ob-^ firved, that the extortions of the Swedifli government, and the importation of American b;ir-iron into Bairope, and fome other caufes, have greatly diminilhed this manufa£ture in Sweden ; fo that the Swedes may be obliged to apply them- felves to other branches of trade and improvements, efpecially in agriculture. Anti(vuities and curiosities, I A few leagues from Gottenburg is a hideous^ natural and artificial. S precipice, down v/hich a dreadful cataraft of water ruflies with fuch impetuofity, from the height into fo deep a bed of wa- ter, th.at mafts, and other bodies of timber precipitated down it, difappear,, fome for half an hour, and others for an hour,, before they are recovered : the bottom of this bed has never been found, though founded by lines of feveral hundred fa- thoms. A remarkable flimy lake, which finges things put into it,, has been found In the fouthern part of Gotiiland : and feveral parts of Sweden contain a ftone, which being of a yellow colour, intermixed with feveral ftreaks of white, as if compofcd of gold and filver, aftbrds i'ulphur, vitriol, alum, and minium. The Swedes have a manufcript copy of a tranflation of the Gcfpels into Gothic,, done by a bifliop 1300 years ago. In the arfenaJ at Stockholm is the fkin of the horfe which Guftavus Adolphus rode at the battle of Lutzen, and the cloaths worn by Charles XII. when he was fliot at Fredericfliall. Seas.} Their leas are the Baltic, and the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, which are arms of the Baltic ; and on the wefl: of Sweden are the Categate fea, and the- Sound, a ftrait about four miles over which divides Sweden from Denmark.^ Thefe feas have no tides, and are frozen up ufually four months in the year ; nor £,re diey fo fait as the ocean, never mixing with it, becaufe a current fets always.- out of the Baltic fea into the ocean. Animals, quadrupeds, birds> and fishesJ] Thefe differ little from thofer aiready defcribed in Norway and Denmarkj only the Swedifh. horfes are more fer- viceable- 88 SWEDEN. viceable in war than the German. The Swediih hawks, when carried to France, have been known to revifit their native country; as appears from one that was killed in Finland, with an infcription on a fmall gold plate, fignifying that he belonged to the French king. The fifhes found in the rivers and lakes of Sweden are the fame with thofe in other northern countries, and taken in fuch quantities, that their pikes (particularly) are faked and pickled for exportation. The train-oil of the feals taken in the gulf of Finland, is a confidcrable article of exportation. Inhabitants, manners, and customs.] There is a great diverfity of cha- rafters among the people of Sweden ; and what is peculiarly remarkable, they are known to have had different charafters in different ages. Ac prefcnt, their pea- fants feem to be a heavy plodding race of men, ftrong and hardy ; but without any other ambition than that of fubfdling themfelves and their fiimilies : the mcrcan- tile claflTes are much of the fame calt ; but great application and perfevernnce is difcovered among them all. One could form no idea that the modern Swedes are the defcendants of thofe, who, under Guftavus Adolphus and Charles XII. cairied terror in dieir names through dillant countries, and Ihook the foundations of the greateft empires. The intrigues ot their fenators dragged them to take part in the late war againft Pruffia; yet their behaviour was fpiritlds. The nobility and gentry of Sweden are naturally brave, police, and hofpitable; they have high notions of honour, and are jealous of their national interells. The drefs, exeicifes, and di- verfions of the common people, are almoft the fame with thofe of Denmark : the better fort are infatuated with French modes and faihions. They are not fond of marrying their daughters when young, as^^ey have licde to fpare in their own life- time. The women go to plough, threliT out the corn, row upon the wacer, ferve the bricklayers, carry burdens, and do all the common drudgeries in hulbandry. Religion.] Chriftianity was introduced here in the 9th cencury. Their reli- gion is Lutheran, which was propagated among them by Guftavus Vafa, about the year 1523. The Swedes are furprifingly uniform and unremitting in religious matters; and have fuch an averfion to popery that callracion is che fate of every Roman catholic prieft difcovered in their country. The archbifliop of Upfal has a revenue of about 400 1. a year; and has under him 13 fuffragans, befides fuperin- tendants, with moderate ftipends. No clergyman has the Icaft direction in affairs of ftate; but their morals, and the faniStity of cheir lives, endear them fo much to the people, that the government would repent making them its enemies. Their churches are neat, and often ornamented. A body of ecclefiaftical laws and canons direfl: their religious ceconomy. A converfion to popery, or a long continuance under excommunication, which cannot pafs without the king's permifTion, is punifli- ed by imprilbnment and exile. Language, learning, and learned men.] The Swedifli language is a dia- left of the Teutonic, and refcmbles that of Denmark. The Sv/edil1i nobility and gentry are, in general, more convcrfinc in polite literature than thofe of many other more tiourifiiing Itatcs. They have lately exhibited fome fpecimens of their muni- ficence for the irnj^rovement of literature ; witnefs their fending, at the expence of private pcrfons, that excellent and candid natural philofopher Haflekjuift, into the caflern countries for difcoveries, where he died. This noble fpirit is eminently encouraged by the royal family; and her Swedifli majefly purchafed, ac no incon- fiderable expence for that councrv, all HafTelquilVs collei.T:ion of cnriofities. That able civilian, (hitelinan, and hiltorian Puffendorff', was a native of Sweden ; anil lb was the late celebrated Linnreus, who carried natural philolbphy, in fome branches at leaf!:, particularly botany, to the iiigheft pitch. The pafTion of the famous queen Chrillina for literature, is well known to theiniblic; and (lie may be accounted a genius in many branches of knowledge. B'ven in the midft of the late diftrac- tions of Sweden, the fine arts, particularly drawing, fculpture, and archite£lure, were SWEDEN. 89 were encouraged and protefted. Agricultural learning, botli in theory and prac- tice, is now carried to a confiderable height in that kingdom ; and the ciiaraiter given by fome writers, that the Swedes are fitted only for bodily labour, is in a great incafure owing to their having no opportunity of exerting their talents. Universities.] The principal is thatof Upfal, inftituted near 4C0 years ago, and patronized by feveral fuccefilve monaichs, particularly by the great Guftavus Adolphus, and his daughter queen Chrillina. The ftudents in this univerfity are numerous ; but for the moil part they are extremely indigent, and lodge five or fix together, in very poor hovels. The profefTors in different branches of literature are about twenty-rwo; the largeft of whole falaries does not exceed ijcl. or 140I. per annum, and tliey are in general not half tliat fum. There is another univerfity at Abo, in Finland, but not lb well endowed, nor fo flourifliing, and a third at Lun- den, in Schonen, which is fallen into decay. Every diocefe is provided with a free-fchool, in which boys are qualified for the univerfity f. Manufactures, TRADE, COM- 7 The Swedifli commonalty fubfifl by agri- MERGE, AND CHIEF TOWNS. ^ cuIturc, mining, grazing, hunting, and fifli ing. Their materials for traffic, are bulky and ufeful commodities of mafts, beams, deal-boards, and other ibrts of timber for Shipping; tar, pitch, bark of trees, pot- afh, v/ooden utenfils, hides, flax, hemp, peltry, furs, copper, lead, iron, cordage, and fifh. Even the manufafturing of iron was introduced into Sweden fo late as the 1 6th century; for till diat time they fold their crude ore to the Hanfe towns, and brouglit it back again manufadlured into utenfils. About the middle of the 17th century, by the affiftance of the Dutch and Flemings, they fet up fome manu- factures of glafs, ftarch, tin, woollen, filk, foap, leather-dreffing, and faw-mills. Book-felling was at that time a trade unknown in Sweden. They have fince had fugar-baking, tobacco-plantations, and manufactures of fail-cloth, cotton, fuftian, and other fcuti's ; of linen, alum, and brimftone; paper-mills, and gunpowder-mills ; vaft quantities of copper, brafs, fteel, and iron, are now wrought in Sweden. They have alfo founderies for cannon, forges for fire-arms and anchors, armories, wire and fiatting-mills; mills alfo for fulling, and for boring and (lamping; and of late they have built many fhips for fale. Certain towns in Sweden, 24 in number, are called Staple-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import and export commodities in their own fhips. Thofe towns which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the i"ca, are called land- towns. A third kind are termed mine-towns, as belonging to the mine diflridls. The Swedes, about the year 1752, had greatly increafed their exports, and diminifhed their imports, moil part of which arrive, or are lent off in Swedilli fhips: the Swedes having a navigation-a£t, like that of the Englifli, Thcfe promifing ap- pearances were, however, blafted, by the jealoufies of the Swedifli government. Stockholm is a ftaple-town, and the capital of the kingdom; it flands about 760 miles north-eafl from London, upon fix contiguous iflands, and built upon piles. The caftle, tiiough commodious and covered with copper, has neither ftrength nor beauty ; but accommodates the royal court, and the national courts and colleges. The number of houfe-keepers, wlio pay taxes, are 60,000. The harbour is ipacious and convenient, though difficult of accefs, and this city is furniflied with all the ex- terior ; narks of magnificence, and ereftions for manufaClures and commerce (parti- cularly a national bank, the capital of which is 466,6661. 13s. 4d. flerling), that are common to other great European cities. GovER NMENT.] The government of Sweden has undergone many changes. The Swedes, like me Danes, were originally free, and during the courfe of many cen- ■j- An academy of arts and fciences was fome veral volumes of memoh's, which have been well years lince ellabliflied at Stockholm, and is now in received by the public, a flourifliing condition. They have jiubliflicd fc- N turics 90 SWEDEN. tiiries the crown was e\e6tive; but after various revolutions, Charles XII. who was killed in 171 8, became defpotic. He was fucceeded by his filler Ulrica; who confented to the abolition of defpotifin, and reftored the ftates to their former liberties ; and they, in return, aflbciated her hufband, the landgrave of Hefle-Caflcl, with her in the government. A new model of the conftitution was then drawn up, by which the royal power was brought, perhaps, too low; for the king of Sweden could fcarcely be called by that name, being limited in every exercife of o-overnment, and even in the education of his children. The diet of the flaces ap- pointed the great officers of the kingdom ; and all employments of any value, ec- clefiaiVical, civil, or military, were conferred by the king only with tlie approba- tion of the fenate. The eftates were formed of deputies from the four orders, no- bility, clergy, burghers, and peafants. The reprefentatives of the nobility, which included the gentry, amounted to above 1000, thofe of the clergy to 200, the burghers to about 200, and the peafants to aoo. Each order fat in its own houfe, and had its own fpeaker, and each chofe a fecret committee, for the difpatch of bufinefs. The dates were to be convoked once in three years, in the month of Ja- nuary ; and their colleftive body had greater powers than the parliament of Great Britain; becaufe, the king's prerogative was more bounded. When the ftates were not fitting, the affairs of the public were managed by the kin" and the fenate, which were no other than a committee of the ftates, but chofen in a particular manner ; the nobility, or upper houfe, appointed 24 deputies, the clercry 12, and tlie burghers 12; thefe chofe three perfons, who were to be pre- fented to the king, that he might nominate one out of the three for each vacancy. The peafants had no vote in electing a fenate. Almoft all the executive power was lodged in the fenate, which confifted of 14 members, befides the chief go- vernors of the provinces, the prefident of the chancery, and the grand marlhal. Thofe fenators, during the recefs of the ftates, formed the king's privy council ; but he had no more than a cafting vote in their deliberations. Appeals lay to them froni different courts of iudicature; but each fenator was accountable for his conduft to the ftates. Thus, upon the whole, the government of Sweden might be called republican, for the king's power v/as not lb great as that of a Dutch ftadtholder. The fenate had even a power of impofing upon the king a fub- committee of their jiumber, who were to attend ujion his perfon, and to be a check upon all his proceed- ings, down to the very management of his family. It would be endleis to re- count the numerous fubordinate courts, boards, commifl^ions, and tribunals, which the jealoufy of die Swedes had introduced into the adminiftration of civil, mi- litary, commercial, and other departments. Their officers and minifters, under the notion of making them checks upon one another, were multiplied to an in- convenient degree ; and the operations of government were greatly retarded, if not rendered ineffeftual, by the tedious forms through which they muft pals. But in Auguft 1772, the wliole lyftem of tlie Swediib government was totally changed by the jjrefciit king, in the moll unexpefted manner. Some of the cir- cumftanccs which attended this revolution, will be found at the clofe of our re- view of the hiftory of Sweden. By that event, the Swedes, inftead of having the defefbs of their conftitution reftified, found their king invclled with a degree of authoiity little inferior to that of tiie moft delpotic princes of Europe. By the new form of government, the king is to aflcmble and feparate the ftates when- ever he pleafes ; he is to have the foie difpofal of the army, the navy, finances, and all employments civil and military ; and thougii the king does not openly claim a pow cr ot impofing taxes on all occafions, yet fuc-li as already fubfift arc to be perpetual ; and in cafe of invafion, or preffing necelfity, tlie king may im- pofe fome taxes till the ftates can be aflembled. But of this neceffity he is to be the; SWEDEN. 91 the judge, and the meeting of the ftates depends upon his pleaiurc : and when they are aflembled, they are to deliberate upon nothing but what the king thinks proper to lay before them. It is eafy to difcern, that a government thus confti- tuted, can be little removed from one of the moft defpotic kind. However, the Swedifli nation is flill amufcd with iome flight appearances of a legal and limited government ; for in the new fyilem, which confilb of fifcy-fcvcn articles, a fcnate is appointed, confilling of feventeen members, comprehending the great officers of the crown, and the governor of Pomerania; and they are required to give their advice in all the affairs of the fVate, whenever the king fhall demand it. In that cafe, if the quetlions agitated are of great importance, and the unanimous advice of the fenators fhould be contrary to die opinion of the king, the king, it is faid, fhall follow their advice. But this, it may be obfervcd, is a circumflance that can hardly ever happen, that all the members of a lenate, confitling chiefly of officers of the crown, Ihould give their opinions againfl the king; and in eveiy other cafe the king is to hear their opinions, and then to aft as he thinks proper. There are fome other apparent reRraints of the regal power in the new fy'tem of govern- ment, but they are in reality very inconfiderable. It is faid, that the king cannot eilabliHi any new law, nor abolilh any old one, without the knov/Iedge and confent of the ftates : but the king of Sweden, according to the prefent conftitution, is invefted with lb much authority, power, and influence, that it is hardly to be ex- pefted that any perfon will venture to make an oppofuion to whatever he ihall propoie. Punishments.] The common method of execution in Sweden is beheading and hanging; for murder, the hand of the criminal is firft chopped off, and he is then beheaded and quartered ; women, after beheading, inftead of being quar- tered, are burned. iNo capital punifliment is inflicted without the fentence being confirmed by the king. Every prilbner is at liberty to petition the king, within a month after the trial. The petition cither complains of unjuft condemnation, and in fuch a cafe demands a revifal of the fentence; or elfe prays for pardon, or a mi- tigation ot punilhinent. Malefaftors are never put to death, except for very atro- . clous crimes, fuch as murder, houfebreaking, robbery upon the highwav, or re- peated thefcs. Other crimes, many of which in fome countries are confidered as capital, are chiefly puniflied by whipping, condemnation to live upon bread and water, imprifonment and hard labour, either for life, or for,a ftated time, accord- ing to the nature of the crime. Criminals were tortured to extort confeffion till the reign of the prefent king; but, in 1773, his Swedifh majefty aboliHied this cruel praftice. Political interests of Sv/eden.] In the reign of Guflavus Vafi. a treaty of alliance took place between Sweden and France; and Sweden entered into a fub- fidiary treaty with that crown, in the reign of Guflavus Adolphus. In confequence of thefe treaties, France by degrees acquired an afcendancy in Sweden, which was very pernicious to the interefts of the kingdom. During the reign of Charles the Xlth and Charles the Xllth, Sweden was ficrificed to die intereft of France; and during the laft war with the king of PrufTia, for the fake of a hnall fubfidy from France, the crown of Sweden was forced to contraft a debt of 3,500,0001. which has fince been confiderably augmented: fo that this debt now amounts to near five millions. Some of their wifeft men perceived the mifchievous tendency of their conneftion with France, and endeavoured to put an end to it. But the influence of the French court in Sweden, in confequence of their fubfidies and intrigues, has occafioned confiderable faftions in that kingdom. In 1738, a moft powerful party appeared in the diet in favour of French meafures. The perfons who compofed it went under the denomination of Hats. The objeft they held out to the nation was, the recovery of fome of the dominions yielded to Ruffia ; N 2 and 92 SWEDEN. and confequently the fyftem they were to proceed uporij was to break with that power, and conneft themfelves with France. The party diredtly oppofed to them was headed by count Horn, and thofe who had contributed to eftablifh the new form of government^ which was fettled after the death of Charles XII. Their objeft was peace, and the promotion of the domeftic welfare of the nation. The fyltem, therefore, which they adopted, was to maintain a clofe correfpendence with RulHa, and to avoid all farther connection with France. Thefe were ftyled the Caps. There was befides a third party, called the Hunting Caps, compofed of perfons who were as yet undetermined to which of the other two they would join them- felves. Thefe parties long continued, but the French party generally prevailed. Some efforts were employed by the Englifli court to lelTen or deftroy the French influence in Sweden, and for fome time they were- fuccefsful : but the Hat party again acquired the afcendancy. Thefe parties are now abolillied, in confcquence of the prefent king of Svv-eden having made fuch a total change in the conftitu- tion of government. And as, whatever reafon his fubjecSts may have to complain on account of the power he has aflumed, he is certainly a prince of penetration and abilities, it is probable, that when his own interefts and thofe of his fubjefts do not interfere, he will attend to the advantage of the nation. His fagacity, there is reafon to conclude, will lead him to promote the external political interefts of Sweden ; and he may, perhaps, be contented, to obferve a ftrift neutrality with re- gard both to Denmark and RufTia. Revenue and coin.] The revenue of Sweden, fince the unfortunate wars of Charles XII. and with the Ruffians fince, has been greatly reduced. Livonia, Bre- men, Verden, and other places that kingdom was ftripped off, contained aboi.>t 78,000 fquare miles. Her gold and filver fpecie in the late reign, arofe chiefly from the king's German dominions. Formerly, the crown-lands, poll-money, tithes, mines, and other articles, are faid to have produced a million fterling. The pay- ments that are made in copper, which was till lately the chief medium of com- merce, is extremely inconvenient; fome of thofe pieces being as large as tiles; and a cart or wheelbarrow is often required to carry home a moderate fum. The Swedes, however, have gold ducats, and eight-mark pieces of filver, valued each at 5s. 2d. but thefe are fcarce, and the inhabitants of Sweden have little fpecie in circulation ; large pieces of copper ftamped, and fmall bank notes being almoft their only cii-- culating money. Strength and forces.] No country in the world has produced greater he- toes, or braver troops, than the Swedes; and yet they cannot be faid to maintain, a ftanding army, as their forces confift of a regulated militia. The cavalry is clothed, armed, and maintained, by a rate raifed upon the nobility and gentry, according to their eftates ; and the infantry by the pealants. Each province is ol> li'i-ed to finii its proportion of foldicrs, according to the number of farms it con- tains; every f.irm of 60 or 70I. per annum is charged with a foot-foldier, furnifli- ing him with diet, lodging, and ordinary clothes, and about 20s. a year in money; or elfe a little wooden-houfe is built for him by the farmer, wiio allows him hay and paflurage for a cow, and ploughs and fows land enough to fupply him with bread. When embodied, they are fubjeft to military law, but otherwife to die civil law of the country. It may therefore literally be faid, that every Swedifln ibl- dier has a property in tlie country he defends. This national army is thought to amount to above 40,000 men, and Sweden formerly could have fitted out 40 fliips of the line ; but of late years their Ihips, together with their docks, have been fuf- fered greatly to run to decay. Royal style.] The king's ftyle is king of the Goths and Vandals, great prince of Finland, duke of Schonen, Pomccania, Ice. OaDERrS SWEDEN. c- Orubrs of knighthood.] Thefe are, the order of the North Star, confifting of 24 members ; the order of Vafa; and the order of the Sword; the laft created in 1772. History of Sweden.] The Goths, the ancient inhabitants of this country, joined by the Normans, Danes, Saxons, Vandals, &c. have had the leputation of fubduing the Roman empire, and all the fouthern nations of Europe. 1 fhall not here follow the romances of Swcdifh hiftorians through the early ages, from Magog the great grand-fon of Noah. It is fufficient to fay, that Sweden has as good a claim to be an ancient monarchy, as any we know of. The hiftory of Sweden, and indeed of all the northern nations, even during the firft ages of Chriflianity, is con- fufed, uninterefting, and often doubtful ; but replete with murders, mafTacies, and ravages. That of Sweden is void of confiflency, till about the middle of the four- teenth century, when it aflumes an appearance more regular. At this time, the government of the Swedes was f;ir from being clearly afcertained, or uniformly adminiftered. The crown was eleftive, though in this eleflion the rights of blood were not altogether difregarded. The great lords poireflTed the mofi: confiderable part of the wealth of the kingdom, which confifted chiefly in land ; commerce being unknown or neglefted, and even agriculture in a very rude and imperfeft ftate. The clergy, particularly thofe of a dignified rank, from the great refpeft paid to their charafter among the inhabitants of the North, had acquired an in- fluence in all public afi^airs, and obtained pofl'eflions of what lands had been left unoccupied by the nobility. Thefe ranks of men, enjoying all the property of the llate, formed a council called the Senate, which was mafl:er of all public delibe- rations. This fyftem of government was extremely unfavourable to the national profperity.. The Swedes perifhed in the dilfenfions between their prelates and lay- barons, or between thofe and their fovereign; they were drained of the little riches they poilefled, to fupport the indolent pomp of a few bifliops ; and, what was more fatal, the unlucky fituation of their internal aff^airs expofed them to the inroads and oppreflion of a foreign enemy. The Danes, by their neighbourhood and power, were always able to avail themfelves of the difl^enfions in Sweden, and to iubjeft under a foreign yoke, a country weakened and exhaufted by its domeftic broils. In this deplorable fituation Sweden remained for more than two centuries; fom.etimes under the nominal fubjedlion of its own princes, fometimes united to the kingdom of Denmark, and in either cafe equally oppreflTed and infuked. Magnus Ladeflus, crowned in 1276, was the firft king of Sweden who purfued a regular fyftem to increafe his authority ; and to fuccecd in this, he made the aug- mentation of the revenues of the crown his principal objecSt. He was one of the ableft princes who ever fat on the Swedilh throne j by his addrefs he prevailed upon the convention of eftates to make very extraordinary grants to him for the fupport of his royal dignity. The augmentation of the revenues of the crown, was followed by a proportionable increafe of the regal power ; and, by the fteady and vigoruos exertion of this power, Magnus humbled the haughty fpirit of bis nobles, and created in the reft of the nation a refpeft for the royal dignity, with which they appear before to have been but little acquainted ; he, at the fame time,, by employing his authority in many refpefts for the public good, reconciled his fub- jedts to ad:s of power, which in former monarchs they would have oppofed with the utmoft violence. The fucceflTors of Magnus did not maintain their authority with equal ability ; and feveral revolutions followed, which threw the nation into great diforder and confufion, and the government was for a long time in an un- lettled ftate. In the year 1387, Margaret,,daughter of Valdemar, king of Denmark, and widow of Huguin, king of Norway, reigned in both thefe kingdoms. That princefs, to the ordinary ambition of her fex, added a penetration and enlargement of mind,, which^. 94 SWEDEN. which rendered her capable of conducing the greatefl: and moll: complicated defigns. She found means to reduce by arms, or by intrigue, an immenfe extent of territory ; and became queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, being eleded to this laft in 1394. She^jroiected the union of Calmar, fo famous in the North, by whicli thefe kingdoms were for the future to remain under one fovereign, elefted by each king- dom in us turn, and who fhould divide his refidence between them all. Several re- volutions enfued after the death of Margaret ; and at length Chriltian II. the lalt king of Denmark, who, by virtue of the treaty ot Calmar, was alfo king of Sweden, en- gaged in a fcheme to render himfelf entirely abfolute. The policy by wiiich he at- tempted to effeift this defign, proved the deftrudtion of himfelf, and afforded an op- portunity for changing the face of affairs in Sweden. To eflablifli his authority in that kingdom, he laid a plot for mallacring the principal nobility. This horrid de- lignwas aftually carried into execution, November 8, 1520. Of all thofe who could oppofe tlie defpotic purpoies of Chrirtian, no one remained in Sweden, but Guilavus Vafa, a young prince, defcended of the ancient kings of that country, and who had fignalized his arms againft the king of Denmark. A price was laid on his head. The Danilh foldiers were fent in purfuit of him ; but by his dexterity he eluded all their attempts, and efcaped, under the difguife of a peafant, to the moun- tains of Dalecarlia. This is not the place to relate his dangers and fatigues, how to prevent his difcovery he wrought in the brafs-mines, how he v/as betrayed by thofe in whom he repofed his confidence, and in fine, furmounting a thoufand obftacles, engaged the favage, but warlike inhabitants of Dalecarlia, to undertake his caufe, to oppofe, and to conquer his tyrannical oppreflbr. Sweden, by his means, again acquired independence. Guftavus was at the head of a viftorious army, who admired his valour, and was attached to his pevfon. He was created therefore firft adminiftrator, and afterwards king of Sweden, by the univerfal confent of the whole nation. His circumftances were much more favourable than thofe of any former prince who had pofiefled this dignity. The malTacre of tjie nobles had rid him of thole proud and haughty enemies, who had long been the banc of all regular go- vernment in Sweden. The clergy, were no lefs powerful and dangerous ; but the opinions of Luther, which began at this time to prevail in the North, and the cre- dit which they had acquired among the Swedes, gave him an opportunity of chang- ing the religious fyftem of that country ; and the exercife ot the Roman catholic re- ligion was prohibited in the year i 544, under the fevertft penalties, which have never yet been relaxed. Inllead of aGothic ariftocracy, the moll turbulent of all govern- ments, and, when empoifoned by religious tyranny, of all governments the moll ■wretched, Sweden, in this manner, became a regular monarchy. Some favourable cffefts of this change were foon vifible : arts and manufadures were eftablilhed and improved ; navigation and commerce began to flourifli ; letters and civility were introduced ; and a kingdom, known only by name to the reft of Europe, began to be known by its arms, and to have weight in all public treaties or deliberations. Guftavus died in 1559- Under Eric, who fuccceded his father Guftavus Vafa, the titles of count and ■ baron were introduced into Sweden, and made hereditary. Eric's caufelefs jealoufy of his brothers forced them to take up arms; and the fenate fiding with them, he was depofed in 1566. His brother John fucceedcd him, and entered into a ruin- ous war with Ruiiia. John attempted, by the advice of his queen, to re-cftublifh the catholic religion in Sweden ; but, though he made ftrong efforts for that pur- pofe, and even reconciled himfelf to the pope, he was oppofetl by his brother Charles, and the fcheme proved ineffectual. John's fon Sigifmuiul, was chofen king of Po- land in 1587, upon which he endeavoured again to reftore the Roman catholic reli- gion in his dominions ; but he died in 1593. Charles, SWEDEN. 95 Charles, brother to king John, was chofen adminiftrator of Sweden ; and being a flrenuous proteftant, his nephew Sigifmiind endeavoured to drive him from the adminiftratorfliip, bnt without effcft ; till at lall he and his family were excluded from the fucceffion to the crown, which was conferred upon Charles in 1599. The reign of Charles, through the praftices of Sigifmund, who was a powerful prince, and at the head of a great party both in Sweden and RufTia, was turbulent ; which gave the Danes encouragement to invade Sweden. Their conduft was checked by the great Guftavus Adolphus then a minor, and heir apparent to Sweden. Upon the death of his fiither, in 161 1, he was declared of age by the ftates, though then only in his eighteenth year. Guftavus, foon after his acceffion, found himfelf through the intrigues of the Poles, Ruflians, and Danes, engaged in a war with all his neigh- bours, under infinite difadvantages ; all which he furmounted. He narrowly miffed being mailer of RulTia ; but the Ruffians were fo tenacious of their independency, that his fcheme was baffled. In 1617 he made a peace, under the mediation ot James I. of England, by which he recovered Livonia, and four towns in thepre- fefture of Novogorod, with a fum of money befjdes. The ideas of Guftavus began now to extend. Fie had feen much military fer- vice, and was aflifted by the counfels of La Gardie, one of the beft generals and wifeft ftatefmen of his age. His troops had become the beft difciplined and moft war- like in Europe ; and he carried his ambition farther than hiftorians are willing to acknowledge. The princes of the houfe of Auftriawere early jealous of his enterpriz- ing fpirit, and fupported his ancient implacable enemy Sigifmund, whom Guftavus defeated. In 1627, he formed the ficge of Dantzick, in which he was unfuccefsful ; but the attempt, which was defeated only by the fudden rife of the Viftula, added fo much to his military character, that he was placed at the head of the confederacy for reducing the houfe of Auftria. His life, from that time, was a continued cliain of the moft rapid and wonderful luccelies : after taking Riga, and over-running i-;vonia, he entered Poland, where he was vidlorious ; and from thence in 1630, he landed in Pomerania, drove the Germans out of Mecklenburgh, defeated the famous count Tilly, who was till then thought invincible ; and over-ran Franconia. Upon the defeat and death of Tilly, Walenftein, another Auftrian general, of equal repu- tation, was appointed to command agninft Guftavus. The king was killed upon the plain of Lutzen, 1632, after gaining a battle ; which, had he furvived, wcu.ild probably have put a period to the Auftrian greatnefs. l"he amazing abilities of Guftavus Adolphus, both in the cabinet and the field,, never appeared lb fully as after his death. He left behind him a fet of generals, trained by himfelf, who maintained the glory of the Swedifh army with moft aftonifliing valour and fuccefs. The nam.es of duke Bernard, Bannier, Torftenfon, Wrangel, and others, with their prodigious actions in war, never can be forgotten in the annals of Europe. It is uncertain what courfe Guftavus would have purfued, had his lifi; been prolonged, and his fuccelTes continued ; but there is the ftrongeft reafon to believe, that l:e had in his eye fomewhat more than the relief of the pro- teftants, and the reftoration of the Palatine family. Flis chancellor Oxenftiern, was as confummatea politician as he was a warrior ; and during the minority of his daugh- ter Chriftina, he managed the afFiiirs of Sweden with fuch fuccefs, that fhe in a man- . ner diftated the peace of Weftphalia, 1 648, which brought tiie affairs of Europe into a new fyftem.. Chrifiina was but fix years of age when her father was killed. She received a good education ; but her fine genius took an uncommon, and indeed romantic turn. She invited to her court Defcartes, Salmafius, and other learned men ; to whom ilie was not, however, extremely liberal. She exprefTed a value for Grotius j and fhe was an exccllentjudge of the polite arts : but illiberal, and indelicate in the 5 . choice 9$ SWEDEN. choice of her private favourites. She difcharged all the duties of her high ftation ; and tliough her generals were bafely betrayed by France, fhe continued to fopporc the honour of her crown. Being refolved not to marry, fhe refigned her crown to her coufin Charles Guftavus, fon to the duke of Deux- Fonts, in 1654. Charles had great fuccefs againft the Poles ; he drove their king John Cafimir, into Silefia; and received from them an oath of allegiance, which, with their ufual inconftancy, they broke. He died of a fever in 1660. His fon Charles XT. was not five years of age at his father's death ; and this rendered it necefTary for his guardians to conclude a peace with their neighbours, by which the Swedes gave up the ifland of Bornholm, and Drontheim, in Norway. All differences were accom- modated at the fame time with Ruflia and Holland ; and Sv/eden continued to make a very refpeftable figure in the affairs of Europe. When Charles came to be of age, he received a fubfidy from the French king, Lewis XIV. but perceiving the liberties of Europe to be in danger from that monarch's ambition, he entered into the al- liance with England and Holland againll him. He afterwards joined with France againft the houfe of Aoftria ; but being defeated in Germany at Felem-Bellln, a powerful confederacy was formed againft him. The eleftor of Brandenburg made himlelf mafter of the Swedifli Pomerania ; the bifhop of Munfler over-ran Bremen and Verden, and the Danes took Wil'mar, and feveral places in Schonen. They were afterwards beaten ; and Charles by the treaty of St. Germans, which followed that of Nimeguen in 1678, recovered all he had loft, except fome places in Germany. He then married Ulrica Leonora, the king of Denmark's fifter : but made a very bad ufe of the tranquillity he had regained ; for he enflaved his people, that he might render himfelf defpotic, and his army formidable. The ftates loft all their power ; and Sweden was now reduced to the condition of Denmark. He ordered the brave Patkul, who was at the head of theLivonian deputies, to lofe his head and his right hand, for the boldnefs of his remonftrance in favour of his countrymen, but he fav- ed himfelf by flight ; and Charles became fo powerful, that the conferences for a general peace at Ryfwick, 1697, were opened under his mediation. Charles X.I. died in 1697, and was fucceeded by his minor fon, the famous Charles XII. Thehiftory of no prince is better known than that of this hero. His father's will had fixed the age of his majority to eighteen, but it was fet afide for an earlier date by the management of count Piper, who became his firft minifter. Soon after his acceffion, tlie kings of Denmark and Poland, and the czar of Mufcovy, formed a powerful confederacy againft him, encouraged by the mean opinion they had of his youth and abilities. He oppofed them all; and befieging Copenhagen, he diftated the peace of Travendalil to his Danifli majefty, by which the duke of Hol- ftein was rc-eftablifhed in his dominions. The czar Peter was at this time ravag- ing Ingria, at the head of 80,000 men, and had befieged Narva. The army of Charles did not exceed 20,000 men ; but fuch was his impatience, that he advanced at the head of 8000, entirely routed the main body of the Ruftians, and rnifed the fi-ege. Such were his fuccefles, and fo numerous his prifoners, that the RufTnns at- tributed his adtions to necromancy. Charles from thence marched into Saxony, where his warlike atchievements equalled thofe of Gul^avus Adolphus. He dethron- ed Auguftus king of Poland : but ftained all his laurels, by putting the brave count Patkul to a death equally painful and ignominious. He raifed Stanifluus to the crown of Poland in 1705, and he was courted by all the powers of Europe ; and among others, by the duke of Marlborough, in the name of queen Anne, amidft the full career of her fucccffes againft France. His implacable difpofition, however, was fuch, that he cannot be confidered in a better light than that of an illuftrious madman ; for he loft in the battle of Pultowa, 1709, which he fought in his march to dethrone the czar, more than all he had gained by his viflories. His brave army was SWEDEN. 97 was ruined, and he was forced to take refuge among the Turks at Bender. His ac- tions there, in attempting to defend himfelf with 300 Swedes againll 30,000 Turks, prove him to have been worfe than frantic. The Turks afterwards found it con- venient for their affairs to fet him at Hbcrty. After his return to his dominions, he profecuted his revenge againtt Denmark, till he was killed by a cannon-lhot, at the ficge of Fredericfhall, in Norway, in 1718, when he was no more than tiiirty-fix years of age. It has been fuppofed, that Ciuirlcs was not in reality killed by a (hot from the walls of Fredcricfliall, but that a piftol, from one of thofe about him, gave the decifive blow, which put an end to the life of this celebrated monarch. This opinion is very prevalent in Sweden. And it appears, that the Swedes were tired of a prince, under whom they had loft their richeft provinces, their braveft troops, and their national riches ; and who yet, untamed by adverfity, purfued an unfuccefsful war, nor would ever have liftened to the voice of peace, or confulted the internal tranquillity of his country. Charles XII. was fucceeded by his filler, the princefs Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of HelTe. We have i'ccn in what manner the Swedes recovered their liberties, and given Ibme account of the capitulation figned by the queen and her hufband, when they entered upon the exercife of government. Their firft care was to make a peace with Great Britain. The Swedes, to prevent farther lolTcs by the progrefs of the Ruffian, the Danifli, the Saxon, and other arms, made many facrifices to obtain peace from thofe powers. The French, however, about the year 1730, formed that dangerous party in the kingdom, under the name of the HatSi which not only broke the internal quiet of the kingdom, but led it into a ruinous war with Ruffia. Their Swedifli majefties having no children, it was ne- ceflary to fettle the fucceffion ; efpecially as the duke of Holftein was defcended from the queen's eldeft fifter, and was, at the fame time, the prefumptive heir to the empire of Ruffia. Four competitors appeared ; theduke of Holftein Gottorp, prince Fre- deric of Hefle-Caffel nephew to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke of Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holftein would have carried theclcdion, had he not embraced the Greek religion, that he might mount the throne of Rufiij. The czarina interpofed, and offered to reftore all the conquefts fhe had made from Sweden, excepting a fmall diftriift in Finland, if the Swedes would receive the duke of Flolftein's uncle, thebifliop of Lubec, as their hereditary prince, and fucceilor to their crown This was agreed to ; and a peace was concluded at Abo, under the the mediation of his iiritannic majefty. This peace was fo firmly adhered to by the czarina, that his DaniOi majefty thought proper to drop all the effeds of hisrefent- ment, and to forget the indignity done to his fon. The prince's fuccelTor, Adolphus Frederic, married the princefs Ulrica, fifter to the king of Pruffia ; and entered into the poiTeffion of his new dignii \ in 1751. He was a prince of a mild and gentle temper, much harrafied by the contending Swedifli fadions, and found his fituation extreme- ly troublefome, in confequence of the reftraints and oppofition which he met with from the fenate. He pafTed the greateft part of his reign very difagreeably, and was at length, through the intrigues of the queen, brought over to the French party. He died in February 177 i, and was fucceeded by his fon, Guftavus the "Third, the prefent reigning prince, who pofiefies abilities greatly fuperior to thofe of his father. He was about five and twenty years of age when l;e v/as proclaimed king of Sweden, his underftanding had been much cultivated, he hath an infinuating ad- drefs, and a graceful and commanding elocution. He vv^as at Paris at the time of his father's death, from whence he wrote in the moft gracious terms to the fenate, repeatedly affuring them that he defigned to govern according to the laws. Soon after the death of the late king, an extraordinary diet was called to regulate the af- O fairs 58 S W E D E N. ftirs of tlie government, and to fettle the form of the coronation-oath for the prefent king. Some time after his arrival in Sweden, on the zSth of March, 177:, Wis majdly folemnjy figned and fwore to obferve twenty-four articles, relative to his futvire adminiftracion of government. This was termed a capitulacion ; and among the articles were the following : " The king promifes before God to fupport the go- vernment of the kingdom as then eftabliflied ; to maintain the rights and liberties of the Iktes, the liberties and fecurity of all his fubjecfts, and to reign with gcntle- nefs and equity according to the lav/s of the kingdom, the form of the regency as it was eftablifhed in the year 1720, and confornmble to the prefent aft of capitu- lation. In confequence of the declaration of the Hates, the king fliall regard any perfon, who fliall openly or clandeftinely endeavour to introduce abfolute fovcreignty, as an enem.y of the kingdom, and as a traitor to his country, as every perfon mutl take an oath refpecling this matter before he can take poflcfiion of any employinent. With regard to the affairs of the cabinet and the fenate, the king promifes to follow the regulations of the year 1720 upon that head, which were to be direfted always by a majority of votes, and never to do any thing therein without, and much lefs ao-ainft, their advice. To the end that the council of ftate may be fo much the more convinced of the inviolable defigns of his majefty, and of his fincere love for the o-ood of his people, he declares them to be entirely difengaged from their oath of fidelity, in cafe tnat he wilfully a6ts contrary to his coronation-oath, and to this capitulation. And laftly, the king threatens any perfon with his highell difpleafurc, who fnall be fo inconfiderate as to propofe to him a greater degree of power and fplendor than is marked out in this aCt of capitulation, as his majefty delires on-ly to gain the affcftion of his faithful fubjefts, and to be their poweiful defender againll any attempts which may be made upon their lawful liberties." But fcarcely had the t.ing taken thefe folemn oaths to rule according the eftabliflr- ed form of government, and accep:ed the crown upon thefe conditions, before he formed the plan to govern as he thought proper, regarding thefe only as matters of ceremony. On his firft arrival at Stockholm, lie adopted every iiicthod which could increafe his popularity. Three times a week he regularly gave audience to all who pvefcnted thenifelves. Neither rank, fortune, nor inteieft, were ne- celTary to obtain acctfs to him : it was fufBcient to have been injuved, and to have a legal caufe of complaint to lay before him. He liflened to the meaneft of his fub- jefts with affability, and entered into the minuteft details that concerned them ; he informed himfelf of their private affairs, and feemed to intereft himfelf in their happincfs. This conduCl made him confidered as truly the fatlier of his people, and die Swedes began to idolize him. In the warmth of their gratitude they for- got, that motives of an)biti n might have fome fliare in forming a condu£b which to then appeared to proceed from principles of the pureft benevolence. At tlie fame time that he laboured to render himfelf generally popular, he alfo endeavoured to perfuade the leading men of the kingdom, that he was finccrcly and inviolably attached to the conlViiution of his country, that he was perfeilly fatisfied with the ftiare of power the tonftitution had allotted to him, and he took every opportunity to declare, that he confidered it as his greateft glory to be the firft citizen of a free people. He feemed intent on banifliing corruption, and promoting union ; he de- clared, he would be of no party but that of the nation ; and that he would ever pay the m586 '75 90 PETER3BURCHJ^-Lat.60. I ]i.Long,30- Polotlk. -25. Courland, '!>4'4 Mittaw., Seized from the Turks in 1783. 1 Crim. Tartary, Ruffian Empire in Afia. 8,200 160 '>5 Kaffa. Criftians nnd Idolaters r Mufcovy, Tar- < tary, and Siberia, z, 200,000 3150 IJOO Toboliky. tKalm. Tartary Total - 850,000 2100 750 Aftrachan^ 4,191,685 RulTia has alfo been fubdivided o 15 I 2 :>■ 4 5 6. 7- 8. L 9- Lapland, Samoida, Bellamorenfkey, Mefeen, Dwiivi, Syrianes, Permia, Rubeninfki, Belaefeda. « f 10. Rezan, or Pereflaf, ^11. Belozero, 'g I 12. .Wologda, fiK 13. Jerafiaf,^ ^ 14. Tweer, :H 15. Mofcow, ■ 2 (^16. Belgorod. Mr. Tooke, chaplain to the Britifli faftory at Peterftjurgh, has enumerated the following nations as comprehended in this great empire ; The into thirty-one provinces, viz. f riy. Bulgar, ^Ji 18. Kafan, 19. Tfcheremifli, 20. Little Novogrod, M 21. Don Cofl"acs. 1 '22. Great Novogrod, 23. Ruffian Finland, 24. Kexholm, 25. Kaleria, ^ ^26. Ingria. . f "27. Livonia, p^ 28. Smolenfko, 29. Zernigof, 30. Seeffk, 3 > 31. Ukraine, or country of the UJ Old Coflacs. The Mongouls, The KalmucSj The Tartars, The Samoiedes, The Oftiaks, The Burattians, The Jakutans, The Tungufians, TheVoguls, The Laplanders The Finns, The Lettonlans, The Eftonians, The LiefFs, The Ingrians, The TfcheremifTes, RUSSIA. The Tfchouwafches The Mordvines, The Votiaks, The Terptyaireis, The Tartars of Kafan and Orenburg, The Tartars of Tobolfk, The Tartars of Tomfk, The Nogayan Tartars, The Tartars oP the Ob, The Tfchoiilym Tartars, The Katfchintz Tartars, The Teleutes, The Abinzes., The Biryoufles, Tlie Kurilians, The Kiftim and Toulibert Tartars, The Vergho Tomfkoi Tar- tars, The Sayan Tartars, The Touralinzes, The Bougharians, The Bafchkirians, The Meftfcheraiks, The Barabinzes, The Kirkguifians, The Bcltirians, The Yakoutes, The Kamtfchadales, The CofTacs, and various others; but fome of which muft.be confidered rather as diftind tribes, than as diftintt nations. As to the names of RufTia and Mufcovy, by which this empire is arbitrarily called, they probably are owing to the ancient inhabitants, the Ruffi, or Boruffi, and the river Mofca, upon which the ancient capital Mofcow was built. Climate, soil, productions, vege- Ij In the fouthern parts of Ruffia, or TABLES, MIKES, AND MINERALS, ^ Mul'covy, the longeft day does not ex- ceed fifteen hours and a half ; whereas, in the moft. northern, the fun is feen in fummer two months above the horizon. The reader from this will naturally con- clude, that there is in Mufcovy a great diverfity of foil as well as climate, and that the extremes of both are to be feen and felt in this vaft empire. The feverity of the clin->ate in Rufiia properly fo called, is very great. The cold in St. Peterlburgh, by Fahrenheit's fcale, is, during the months ot December, Janu- ary, and February, ufually from 8 to 15 or 20 degrees below o; that is, from 40 to 52 degrees below the freezing point : though commonly, in the courfe ot the winter, it is for a week or ten days fome degrees lower. It is difficult for an inha- bitant of our temperate climate to have any idea of a cold lo intenfe : when a per- fon walks out in that fevere weather, the cold makes the eyes water, and that water freezing, hangs in little icicles on the eye-lafhes. As the peafants ufually wear their beards, you may fee them hanging at the chin like a folid lump of ice; but, even in that ftate, the beard is found very ufeful in protecting the glands of the throat : and the foldiers, who do not v/ear their beards, are obliged to tie a handkerchief under the chin to fupply their place. All the parts of the face which are expofed,^ are liable to be frozen ; though it has often been obfervcd, that the peifon hia>fclf docs not know when the freezing begins; but is commonly told of it by thofe who meet him, and who call out to him to rub his face with fnow, the ufual way to thaw it. It is alfo remarked, that the part, which has once been frozen, is ever after moft liable to be frozen again. In fome very fevere winters, fparrows, though a hardy fpecies of birds, have been feen quite numbed by the intenfe cold, and unable to fly : and drivers, when fitting on their loaded carriages, have fometimes been found frozen to death in that pofturc. When the thermometer has ftood at 25 de- grees below o, boiling water, thrown up into the air by an engine, fo as to Ipread has fallen down pcrfcdlly dry, formed into ice. A pint bottle of common water was found frozen into a folid piece of ice in an hour and a quarter. A bottle of Itrong ale has alfo been found frozen in an hour and an half: but in this fubltance there was about a tea cup full in the middle unfrozen, which was as ftrong and inflam- n^ablc as brandy or fpirits of wine. But notwithltanding the feverity of the cold in Ruffia RUSSIA. loj Ruffia, the inhabitants have inch various means to guard againft it, that they fufTcr much lefs than might be expc6ted. The houfesof perfons in tolerable circLimfl:an- ces are fo well protcfted, bodi v/ithout doors and within, that they are feldom heard to complain of cold. The method of warming the houfes in Ruffia is by an oven conftrucfted with fcveral dues, and the country abounds with wood, which is the common fuel. Thefe ovens confume a much fmaller quantity of wood than might be imagined, and yet they ferve,at the fame time for the ordinary people to drefs their food. They put a very moderate faggot into them, and fufFer it to burn only till the thickcfc black fm.ok.e is evaporated; they then Ihut dov/n the chimney to retain all the reft of the heat in the chamber ; by this method the chamber keeps its heat 24 hours, and is commonly fo warm that they fit with very little covering, efpecially children, who are ufually in. their fhirts. The windows in the huts of the poor are very fmall, that as little cold may be admitted as poffible : in the houfesof perfons of condition, the v/indows are caulked up againft winter, and common- ly have double glafs frames. They can regulate the warmth in their apart- ments by a thermometer v/ith great exaflnefs, opening or fhutting the flues to in- creafe or diminifli the heat. When the Ruffians go out, they are clothed fo warmly, that they almoft bid defiance to froft and Inow ; and it is obfervable, that the wind is feldom violent in the winter; but when there is much M'ind, the cold is exceed- ingly piercing. One advantage, which the Ruffians derive from the fevcrity of their climate, is, the pr.eferving provifions by the froft. Good houfewives, as foon as the froft fets in for the winter, about the end of Oftober, kill their poultry, and keep them in tubs packed up with a layer of fnow between them, and then take them out for ufe as occafion requires : by which means they fave the nourifliment of the animal for feveral months. Veal frozen at Archangel, and brought to Peterfourghj 830 miles, is cfteemed the fineft they have; nor can it be diftinguifhed at the table from what is frefh killed, being equally juicy. The markets in Peterfcurgh are thus fiipplied in winter with all manner of provifions, at a cheaper rate than v/ould otherwife be poffible ; and it is curious to fee the vaft ftacks of whole hogs, fiieep, fifli, and other animals, which are piled up in the markets for fale. The method of thawing frozen provifions in Ruffia, is by immerging them in cold water : for when the operation of thawing them is efteded by heat, it fcems to occafion a violent fermentation, and almoft a fudden putrefadtion ; but when produced by cold water, the ice feems to be attraded out of the body, and forms a tranfparcnt incruftation round it. If a cabbage, which is thoroughly frozen, be thawed by cold water, it is as frefh as if juft gathered out of the garden ; but if it be thawed by fire or hot water, it be- comes fo rancid and ftrong that it cannot be eaten. The quicknefs of vegetation in Ruffia is pretty much the fame as in Scandinavia, or Sweden and iJenmark. The fnow is the natural manure of Ruffia, where grain grows in plenty, near Poland, and in the warmer provinces. The bulk of the peo- ple, however, are miferably fed; the foil produces incredible numbers of mufhrooms for their fubfiftence ; and in fome places, befides oaks and firs, Ruffia yields rhu- barb, flax, hemp, pafture for cattle, wax, honey, rice, and melons. The boors aie particularly careful in the cultivation of honey, which yields them plenty of methe- glin, their ordinary drink ; they likewife extract a fpirit from rye, which they prefer to brandy. That a great part of Ruffia was populous in former days, is not to Be difputed ; though it is equally certain, that the inhabitants, till lately, wtre little acquainted widi agriculture: and fupplied the place of bread, as fome inhabicaiits of Scandina- via do now, with a kind of faw-duft and a preparation of filh-bones. Peter the Great, and his fuccefTors, down to the prefent emprefs, have been at incredible pains to I04 RUSSIA. to introduce agriculture into their dominions; and though the foil is not every where proper for corn, yet its fertility in fome provinces bids fair to make grain as common in Ruffia as it is in the fourhern countries ot Europe. The eafy commu- nication, by means of rivers, which the inland parts of that empire have with each other, ferve to fupplyone province with thofe produ61s in which another may be de- ficient. As to mines and minerals, they are as plentiful in RufTia, and the people are daily improving in working them. Mountains of rich iron ore are found in fome places, moft of which produce the load-ftone, and yield from 50 to 70 per cent. Rich filver and copper mines are found on the confines of Siberia. Mountains, rivers, forests, > Ruffia is in general a flat, level country, ex- AND FACE OF THE COUNTRY, fccpttoward the north, where lie the Zimnopoi- as mountains, thought to be the famous Montes Riphsei of the ancients, now called the Girdle of the liarth. On the weilern fide of the Dnieper comes in part of the "Carpathian mountains, and between the Black Sea and the Cafpian, Mount Cauca- fus borders a range of vafl plains extending to the fea of Oral. And here we may obferve, that from Peterfburgh to Pekin, one fliall hardly meet with a mountain on the road through Independent Tartary ; and from Peterfburgh to the north part of France, by the road of Dantzick, Hamburg, and Amfterdam, we fcarcely can per- ceive the fmallefl: hill. The moft confiderable rivers are the Wolga, or Volga, running eaft and fouth, which, after traverfing the greateft part of Mofcovy, and winding a courfe of 3000 Englilli miles, difcharges icfelf into the Cafpian fea : it is reckoned the larg-ft, and one of the moft fertile rivers of Europe, produces many kinds of fifti ; and fertilizes, the lands on each fide with trees, fruits, and vegetables, ^n this long courfe there is not one cataraft to interrupt the navigation, Out the nearer it approaches to the mouth, the river multiplies its number of ifles, and divides itfelf into a greater num- ber of arms than any known river in the world : all thcfe arms divide theinf Ives into others ftill lefs, which join and meet again ; fo that the Wolga difcharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea by more than 70 mouths. By means of this noble river, the city of Ivlofcow preferves a communication, not only with all the fouthern parts of Ruffia, but even with Pcrfia, Georgia, Tartary, and other countries bjrdenng on the Cafpian fea. The Don, or Tanais, which divides the eaftern part of Ruffia from Aha, in its courfe towards the eaft, comes fo near the Wolga, that the lare czar intended to have cut a communication between them by means of a canal : all this grand pro- je6l was defeated by the irruptions of the Tartars. This river, exclufive of its wind- ings, difcharges itfelf into tiie Palus Mteotis, or fea of Afoph, about four hundred miles from its rife. The Borifthcnes, or Dnieper, which is likewife one of the Jargeft rivers in Europe, runs througli Litliuania, the country of the Zaporog Cof- facs, and that of the iNagaifch Tartars, and falls into the Euxine, or Black Sea, at Kinbourn, near C^czakow ; it has thirteen cataracfls within a fmall diftance. To thefe may be added the two Dvvinas, one of which empties itfelf nt Riga into the Baltic ; the other has its fouri.e near Uftiaga, and dividing itlelt into tv/o branches near Archangel, there falls into the White Sea. Forcfts abound in thisextenfive country ; and tiie northern and north-eaftern pro- vinces are in a manner defut ; nor can the few inhabitants they contain be called Chriftians rather than Pagans. Animals, quAOkUPEDs, birds, 7 Thefe do not differ greatly from thofe de- FiSH£s, AND iNSKCTS ^ ^crlbcd in the Scandinavian provinccs. The lynx, famous for its piercing eye, is a native of this empire ; it is faiii to be produced chiefly in tlie fir tree forefl.s. The hya.-nas, bears, wolves, foxes, and other creatures already dcfcribcd, afford their furs for clothing the inhabitants ; but the furs of tlie black loxes, and ermine, are more valuable in Ruffia than elfcwhere. The drome- dary RUSSIA. 105 dary and camel were formerly almofl: the only beads of burden known In many parts of Runia. The czar Peter encouraged a breed of large horfes for war and can ittges ; but thofe employed in the ordinary purpofes of life are fmall ; as are dieir cov/s and fheep. We know of few birds in Ruflla, that have not been already defcribed. Tlie fame may be faid of fiflies, only the RuITians are better provided than their neigh- bours with fturgcon, cod, falmon, and beluga: the latter refembles a fturgeon, and is often called the large ilurgeon; it is from twelve to fifteen Ccet in length, anil weighs from 9 to 16 and iS hundred weight; its flcflr is white and delicious. Of the roe of the fturgeon and the beluga, the RufTians make the famous cavear, fo much elleemed for richnefs and flavour, that it is often lent in prefents to crowned heads. In cutting up the belugas, they often find what is called the beluga-llone, concealed in that mafs of glandular fledi which covers the pofterior part of tlie dorfal fpinc, fuj>plying the place of a kidney in filli. When it is taken from the fifli, it is foft and moill, but quickly hardens in tlie air. Irs fize is that of a hen's egg, fliape'fomctimcs oval and fometimes flatted, and commonly fells for a ruble. This ftone is fuppofed by profeflbr Pallas to belong to the genitals of the fifli : it holds a confiderable rank, though with little merit, among the domeflic remedies of the Ruffians, wlio fcrape it, ?.nd, mixed with water, give it in difficult labours, in the difeafes of children, and other diforders. Population, manners, and customs.] Nothing c?.n be more remote from truth, than the accounts we have from autiiors, of the population of this vafl: em- pire ; the whole of which, they think, does not exceed, at mofl:, feven millions. It is furprifing that fuch a miilake fhould have continued fo long, when we confi- dcr the armies brought into the field by the fovereigns of Ruflia, and the bloody wars they maintained in Afia and Europe. Mr. Voltaire produced a lift, taken in 1747, of all the males who paid tlic capitation, or poll-tax, and which amount to fix millions fix hundred and forty-fix thoufand three hundred and ninety. In this number are included boys and old men ; but girls and women are not reckoned, or boys born between the making of one regiftcr of the lands and another. Now, if we only reckon triple the number of heads fubjetl to be taxed, including women and girls, we iliall find near twenty millions of fouls. The new regiller in 1764 contains 8,500,000 iubjeft to the poll-tax; and alate ingenious writer refident fome rime in Ruffia gives the following eftimate : Lower clafs of people paying capitation tax, - - 18,000, coo Conquered provinces, . - - _ . 1,200,000 Noble families, ______ 60,000 Clergy, --_._--_ ioo,coo Military, - -- - - - - - 360,000 Civil, .-_.-_ . _ 30,000 Ukraine, Siberia, CoflTacs, &c. _ - _ . 3,0,000 20,100,000 To thefe muft now be added near a million more by the acquifitions of the Cri- mea, and part of Cuban Tartary ; and at leaft 1,500,000 in the provinces difmem- bered from Poland. As her imperial majeft-y of all the RufTias poflefl"es many of the countries from whence the fwarms of barbarians who overthrew the Roman empire ifllied, there is reafon to believe, that her dominions muft have been better peopled formerly than they are at prefent. Perhaps the introduftion of the fmalhpox and the ve- nereal difeafe may have aflifted in the depopulation ,• and it is likely that the pro- digious Tc6 RUSSIA. dio-ious quantity of ftrong and fpirituous liquors, confumed by the inhabitants of the North, is unfriendly to generation. The RiilTuns, properly To called, are a perfonable people, hardy, vigorous, and patient of labour, efpecially in the field, to an incredible degree. Their com- plexions differ little from thofe of the Englifli ; but the women think that an addition of red heightens their beauty. Their cye-fight feems to be defecftive, oc- cafioned, probably, by the fnow, which for a long time of the year is continually prefent to their eyes. Their officers and Ibldiers always pofiefled a large fliare of paffive valour ; but in the war with the king of Pruffia, they proved as active as ai-,y troops in Europe; and in the late war with the Turks they greatly diftinguifhcd thcmfelves. TTicy aie implicitly fubmiffive to difcipline, let it be ever fo fevere ; they endure hardihips with great patience ; and can content thcmfelves with very hard fare. Before the days of Peter the Great, the Ruffians v/ere barbarous, ignorant, mean, and much addifted to drunkennefs : no Itfs than 4000 brandy fhops have been reckoned in Mofcuw. Not only the common people, but many of the boyars, or nobles, lived in a continual ilateof idlenefs and intoxication ; and the mofl; com})lete objefts of mifery and barbarity appeared in the ilreets, v»'hile the court of Mofcov/ was the molt fplendid of any upon the globe. The czar and the grandees dreiied after the fuperb Afiatic manner ; and their magnificence exceeded every idea that can be conceived from modern examples. The earl of Carlille, in the account of his embaffv, fays, that he could fee nothing but gold and precious ftones in the robes of the czar and his courtiers; and his account is corroborated by travellers who have lately vifited Ruffia. The manufaftures, however, of thofe, and all other luxuries, were carried on by Italians, Germans, and other foreigners. Peter faw the bulk of his fubjects, at his acceHion to the throne, treated little better tlian beafts of burden, to fupport the pomp of the court. He forced his great men to lay afide their lona robes, and drefs in the European maneer; and he even obliged the laity to cut off their beards. The Ruffians, before his time, had few fliips upon their coafts. They had no conveniencies for travelling, no pavements in their ftreets, no places of public diverfion ; and they entertained a contempt for all improvements . of the mind. At prefent, a French or Englifli gentleman may live as comfortably and fociably in Ruffia, as in moft other parts of Europe. Their polite affemblies, fmce the acccffion of the prefent emprcfs, have been put under proper regulations ; and few of tlie ancient ufages remain. Elowever, drunkennefs ftill continues among fome ranks ; and the bulk of the people are uncivilized. The Rufuans were noted for fo llrong an attachment to their native foil, that they feldom vifited foreign parts. This was the confequence of their pride and ignorance; for Ruffian nobility, befidcs thofe v/ho are in a public charadcr, are now found at every court in Europe. Her imperial majerry even intcreRs herfclf in the education of young men of quality in the knowledge of .the world, and fo- reign fervices, particularly-that of the Britifh fleet. n is faid that the Ruffian ladies were formerly as fubmiffi%'e to their luifbands in their families, as the latter are to their fuperiors in the field; and that they thought thcmfelves ill treated if they v.cre not often reminded of their duty by the difcipline of a whip, manufadtured by themfelves, which they prefented to their huibandi on the day of their marriage. Their nuptial ceremonies are peculiar to tlu nfclves ; and formerly confiftcd of fon.c very whimfical rites, many of which are now dif- ufed. Whtn the parents are agreed upon a match, though the parties peihaps have never feen each otiier, the bride is critically examined by a number of females, who are to correct, if poffible, any defefts they find in her perfon. On her wedding- day fhe is crowned v/ith a garland of wormwood ; and after the pricll has tied the nuptial knot, his clerk or fexton throws a handful of hops upon the head of the 3 bride. RUSSIA. 107 bride, wllTiing that flie may prove as fruitful as that plant. She is then led homr, with abundance of coarfc, and indeed indecent ceremonies, which arc now wearing off even among the lowed ranks ; and the barbarous treatment of v/rves by their hul- bands, which extended even to fcourging or broiling them to death, is citlier guarded againft by the huvs of the country, or by particular ftipulaiions in the marriagc-contrafl. Funerals.] The Ruffians entertain many fantafl:ic notions with regard to the {late of departed fouls. After the dead body is tlrefled, a pricil is hired to pray (or his foul, to puriiy it with inccnfe, and to fprinkle it with holy water v/hile it remains above ground, which, among the better fort, it generally does for eight or ten day.s. When the body is carried to the grave, whic'i is done with many gcfliculations of forrow, the pricft produces a ticket, figned I y the bifliop and another clergyman, as the deceafcd's paffport to h.eaven. When this is put into the coffin between the nngers of the corpfe, the company returns to the deceafed's IVoufe, where they drown their forrow in intoxication ; which lafts, among the better fort, with a few intervals, for forty days. During that time, a pried every day fays prayers over the grave of the deccafed; lor though tlie Ruffians do not believe in pui-gatorv, yet they ima"ine that their departed friend may be affiftcd by prayer, in his long journey, to the olace cf his deftination after this life. . . Punishments.] The Ruffians were remarkable for the feverity and Variety of their punilhment?, v.'liich were both inflidcd and endured v/ith a wonderful infenfi- bility. Peter the Great ufed to fuf[>end the robbers upon the Woiga, and other parts of his dominions, by iron hooks fixed to their ribs, on gibbets, where they wiithed themfclves to death. The fingle and double knout have been inflitfted upon ladies*, as well as men of quality. Both of them are excruciating; but in the double knout, the hands are bounvl behind the prifoner's back, and the cord- being fixed to a pulley, lifts him from the ground, with tlie dillocation of both his fhoulders ; and then his b.ick is in a m.anner fcariiied by t!ie executioner, with a- * A particular ai court of the maiirer in which this pun:(hmcnt was ir.flicted upon a Paiffian lady, is given in JNlcnl'- I'AbbJ- Ch ppc ]^'Auieroclur!s jou. nevinto Si!;eria. " WaJ. Li.p'ouchin w. s one of the fincfc women belonging to tiie court of the eiu- prefs Eliialicih, and was iritim.itely conneftcd with a foreii'ii .inihaflhdor, then engaged in a confj i- racy. This lady, therefore, being fufpedted to be conceriicd in the confpiracy, was condcnuicd, by the einprel's Elii^abeth, to uiiJeigo the piinifli- inent of ihc knout. She appeared at the place of execution in a genteel undrels, which contrib'itcd Hill to heighten her beauty. The fweetnefs of h': r countenance, and her vivacity, were fuch as might indicate indifcretion, but not even the fliadow of guilt ; although I have beenaflured by every per- fon of whom I have made enquiry, that (lie was really guilty. Young, lovely, admired, and fought forar the court, of which file was the life and fpi- rit ; inlfead of the number of admirers her beauty ufually drew after hep, flic then faw herfelf fur- rnunded only by executioners. She looked on ihcm with aitoniflnnent, fceming to doubt wh ther f'lch preparations were intended for her. One of the executioners then pulled off a kind of cloak wliich covered her bofom ; her mod-fly taking the alarm, made her ftart back a few licps; file ah'o turnid pale, and bun^ into tears. Hercloiths I. ere foon after I ripjied off, and in. a few moments •fli'i Wi=s quite naked to the waili, cspoild t j the eager lool s of a vaft concourfe of people pro-' fcundly fil-nt. One of the executioners tl:enieiz';d her by bc-th hands, and turning half round, threw her on Lis back, bending forw.irds, fo as to raiie hei a tew inches from the ground: the other exe- cutionerthtn laid ho'd of jier delicate litnbr, uith his rough hands harden; d at the plough, and . with- out any rcuiorfe, udjuf:ed her on the back of his comiianjon, in the propeie-ft pofliire for receiving the punilhnient. Sometimes he laid his large hand brutally upon !ier head, in order to make, her keep it down ; fometimes, like a Initcher going to !la-,' a lamb, he fecmed to foothe her, as foon as lie had fixed her in the inoft favourable attitude. This executioner then took a kind of whip called knour, made of a long (Irap of leather prcjiared for this purpofe ; he then retreated a few lieps, meafuring the requilite diliancewit'i a I'eady eye ; and leap- ing backwards, gave a llroke with liie end or t;)-; whip, (o as to carry away a llip of (kin fron ths neck 10 the bottom of the bick ; then (lri,in8 his feet again'? the giomd, he took- his, aim tor a,- plying a fccond blow parallel to the former ; fo that ill a few moments, all ihi- fliin of her back was cut away in iiiiall flips, nioft of which remained hanging to tlic fliift. Her tongue was cut out im- mediaicly aiier, ay.d file was directly banifred into Siberia, in 17-12, (lie was rcc.dled from bani(h- ment by I'e-er III." P 2 hard io8 RUSSIA. hard thong, cut from a wild afs's fkin. This punifhinent has been lb often fatal, that a furgeon generally attends the patient, to pronounce the moment that it fhould ceafe. It is not always the number of die Itrokes, but the method of applying them, which occafions the death of the criminal j for the executioner can kill him in three or four blows, by ftriking upon the ribs ; though perfons are fometimes recovered, in a few weeks, who have received three hundred ftrokes, moderately inflicted. The boring and cutting out the tongue, are likewife practifcd in Ruilia ; and even the late emprefs Elizabeth, though fhe prohibited capital pflniiliments, was forced to give v/ay to the fuppofed nccelTity of thofe tortures. According to the Ibifc letter of the law, there are nu capital punifhments in Rufii.!, except in the cafe of high treafon : but there is much lefs humanity in it than has been fuppofed ; for there are many felons who die under the knout, and others die of fatigue in their journies to Siberia, and from the hardihips they fufFcr in the mines: fo that there is reafon to believe, that not fewer criminals fuffer death in Ruflla than in thofe countries v.'herein capital punillimcnts are authorifed by the laws. The prohibition of torture does honour to the humanity of the prefent emprefs. Felons, after receiving the knout, and having their cheeks and foreheads marked, are fometimes fentenced for life to the public works at Cronftadt, ViOinei Volofliok, and other places; but the common practice is to fend them into Siberia, where they are condemned for life to the mines at Ncrfhink. There are upon an average froni 1600 to 2000 convifts at thefe mines. The greatell part are confined in barracks, excepting thofe who are married : the latter are permitted to build huts, near the mines, for themfelves and families. Travelling.] Among the many conveniences introduced of late into Ruffia, that of travelling is extremely remarkable, and the cxpence very trifling. Nothing ftrikes, either a reader or a ftranger, more than the facility with which the RuiTians perform the longeft and moft uncomfortable journies. Like their Scandinavian neighbours, they travel in fledges made of the bark of the linden-tree, lined with thick felt, drawn by rein-deer, when the fnow is frozen hard enough to bear them. In the internal parts of Ruffia, horfes draw their Hedges; and the fledge -way, in February, becomes fo well beaten, that they creft a kind of coach upon tlie fledges, in which they may lie at full length, and lb fleep and travel night and day, wrapped up in good furs ; thus they often perform a journey of about 400 miles, fuch as that between Peterfburgand Mofcow, in three days and three nights. Her imperial majefly, in her journies, is drawn in a houfe which contains a bed, a table, chairs, and other conveniences for four people, by 24 poft-horfes; and the houfe itfelf is fixed on a fledge. Different NATIONS 7 -As the prefent fubjedls of the Ruffian empire, in its SUBJECT to Russia, j* moft extenfive fenfe, are the defcendants of many differ- ent people, and inhabit prodigious tracts of country, fb we find among them a vafl variety of charafter and manners ; and the great reformations introduced of late years, as well as the difcoveries made, render former accounts to be but litde depended upon. Many of the Tartars, who inhabit large portions of the liulfiaa dominions, now live in fixed houlcs and villages, cultivate the land, and pay tribute like other fubjefts. Till lately, they v/ere not admitted into the Ruffian armies; but they now make excellent foldiers. Other Ruffian Tartars retain their old wandering lives. Both fides of the Wolga are inhabited by the Tfcheremilfcs and Morduars; a peaceable indultrious jieople. The Bafliirs are likewife fixed inhabitants of the traft that reaches from Kafan to the frontiers of Siberia; and have certain privi- leges, of which they are tenacious. The wandering Kalmucs occupy tlie reft of the tradk to Aftrachauand the frontiers of the Ufbecsi and, in confideration of cer- tain RUSSIA. 109 tain prclents they receive from her imperial majedy, they ferve in her armies with- out pay, but are apt to plunder equally friends and foes. Tlie Cofacs, who lately made a figure in the military hiftory of F-urope, were originally Polifh peafants, and ferved in the Ukraine as a militia againft the Tar- tars. Being opprefTed by their unfeeling lords, a part of them removed to the un- cultivated banks of the Don, or Tanais, and there eftablilhed a colony. They were foon after joined, in 163-;, by tv;o other detachments of their countrymen j and they reduced Afoph, which they were obliged to abandon to the Turks, after laying it in allies. They next put themfclves under the proteftion of the Ruffians, built Circaflca, on an idand in the Don ; and their pofll-fiion.% which confided of thirty-nine towns on both fides iliat river, reached from Ribiia to Afoph, They there lived in a fruitful country, which they took care to cultivate ; and they were To wcdtied to their original cuitoms, that they v.'erc little better tlian nominal fub- jects of the czars, till the time of Peter the Great. Tliey profefTed the Greek re- ligion ; their inclinations were v/arlike, and they occafionally ferved againft the Tartars and Turks on the Palus Maeotis. The internal government of the Coflfacs approaclies very near to the idea we form of that of the ancient Germans, as defcribed by Tacitus. The captains and officers of the nation choofe a chief, whom they call hauptman, and he refides at Circafka ; but this choice is confirmed by the czar ; and the hauptman holds his authority dur- ing life. He acts as a fupcrior over the other tov/ns of the nation, each of which is formed into a feparate commonwealth, governed by its own hetman, who is chofen annually. They ferve in war, in confideration of their enjoying their laws and li- berties. They indeed have feveral times rebelled, for which they fuftered feverely under Peter the Great. But the Ruffian yoke was fo much eaficr than that of the Poles, thar, in 1654, the Coffacs of the Ukraine put themfelves likewife under the proteftion of Ruffia. They complained, however, that their liberties had been invaded ; and in the war between Charles XII. and Peter, their hetman Mazeppa, joined the former ; but he found himfelf unable to fulfil the magnificent pro- miles he had made to Charles. He brought over fome of the Zaparovian Cof- facs, who were fettled about the falls of the river Nicper, but moft of them were tut in pieces. The mien and charafter of the Tartars of Kafan, and of their defcendants are very uniform, and may ferve for the charadferiftic marks of all the Mahometan Tartars in their neighbourhood. Very few of them are tall ; but they are generally ftraight and well-made, have fmall faces, with frefh complexions, and a fprightly and agreeable air. They are haughty and jealous of their honour, and of a very mo- derate capacity. They are fober and frugal, dexterous at mechanical trades, and fond of neatnefs. The Tartarian women are of a wholefome complexion rather than handfome, and of a good conftitution : from their earlieft infancy they are ac- cuftomed to labour, retirement, m.odefty and fubmiffion. The T.irtars of Kafan take great caxe of the education of their children. They habituate their youth ta labour, to fobriety, and to a ftri6l obfervance of the manners of their anceftors. They are taught to read and v/rite, and are inftru<5ted in the Arabic tongue,. and the principles of their religion. Even the fmalleft village has its chapel, fchool, prieft, and fchool-mafter ; though fome of thefe priefts and fchool-mafters are not much fkilled in the Arabic language. The bell Tartarian academies in the Ruffian empire are thofe of Kaian, Tobolfk, and Aftrachan, which are under the diredtion of the Gagouns, or high-priefts. It is not uncommon to find fmall col- leftions of hifiorical anecdotes in manufcript, in the huts of the boors ; and their merchants, befides what thefe little libraries contain, are pretty extenfively acquaint- ed v.'ith the hiftory of their own people^ and that of the cixcmnjacent ftates, with the aati- no R U S S I A. antiquities of each. Such zi choofc lo make aprogrtis in theology, enter themielvcs into the ichools of Bougharia, which are more complete than the others. The Tartar citizens of Kafan, Orenberg, and other governments, carry on com- merce, exercife feveral trades, and have fome manufaftures. Their manner of deal- ing is chiefly by way of barter : coin is very rarely feen among them, and bills of exchange never. Many of them carry on a great deal of bufinefs. At Kafan they prepare what is called in England, Morocco leather. The villages of thefe people comprehend from ten to one hundred i^irms. Thcfe villages were at firft compolcd of troops of wandering fliepherds ; but being drawn gradually clofer together by fucceffive population, they found tiicmfclves under the neceffity of cultivating the earth, and erefting fixed habitations. They never leave their fields fallow ; for which reafon they ufe more manure than the Ruffians. They are much attached to the cultivation of bees ; many of them are perftft mafters of this part of rural ceconomv, and reap great profit from it. IMofl of the vilhlges alfo contain tanners, fhoe-makers, taylors, dyers, fmiths, and carpenters. The laborious females fpin, and make cloth from the fleece of their flocks, and thread fromi hemp of their own cultivation. The moveables of thefe Tartars are, for the mofl: parr, only fuch as arenecef- fary to the real wants of- life. Their catalogue ot kitchen and table furniture is very fliort ; and they have but fev/ utenfils of .agriculture and m.cchanics. A chtfc or two, fome carpets and pieces of felt, mats made of the bark of trees, with which they cover broad benches that they ufc inilead of beds, with a few chairs and tables, are commonly all the furniture to be feen in their houfcs ; though fome of the principal people have ftuficd cufliions and pillows on their ilceping benches. But chairs and tables are only feen in tov.-ns ; and even there, never but in the houfes of fuch as have bufinefs with foreigners. They commonly make four meals a day, at which their bench fcrvcs them for table and chairs ; for on tiiis they place themfelves round the dilhes, each perfon fitting on his heels, after the oriental manner. They m.ake ablutions, and fay prayers, at the beginning and end of all their meals. The Tartars of Kafan, as well as moil of the Mahometan Tar- tars, are very polite, both among one another, and towards ftrangcrs. Old men, who have maintained good charafters, are held in great veneiation among them ; and a grey beard is confidered as naturally entitling a man to refpeft. Tiiey are fond of af]:ing advice ot their old men, who liave aKvays preference and precedence, and are the arbitrators in all difputes. The habitations and manner of living of the Tartar citizens and villages of Aftiaclian are perfectly fimilar with thofc of the Tartars of FCafan. In the city of Allrachan they have a large magazine for goods, built of bricks, and fcvera! iliops upon arches. They carry on an important com- merce with the Armenians, Perfians, Indians, and Bougharians : and their manufic- torics of Morocco leather, cottons, camelots, and filks, are in a. very-thriving ftate. The Fi'/ifis ha^-e a dole refemblance to the i,aplanders, only they are more civiliz- ed, and better informed. 'I hey live in towns and villages, have fchools and aca- demies, and make fome progrefs in the arts and fcicnces. They profefs the Lu- theran faith, and vAe the Chriftian a:ra in their chronology. They carry dn com- merce, and exercife mofl of the common trades. The boors are chiefly employed in agriculture, iiunting, and fifliing. Tb.cy are great eaters, making five meals.a da)', and are immoderatly tond of brandy. 1 hey enjoy a confiderable degree of freedom, as the Ruflian government has continued to them the enjoyment of the privilcn s which they formerly had under the crov/n of Sweden. The Volii'ks a l''innifh race, chiefly inhabit the province of \''iaitk, in the go- vernment of Kafan. This nation was one of thofe who were formerly under the p v-tcction of the Tartars; but, fince it has been iubjcdtcd to Ruflia, it has prefer- red RUSSIA. ,11 red the quiet and fecuricy which agriculture affords, to the ambulatory life of herdf- men and fhepherds, and fixed habitations to their ancient tents. The Votiaks are of a middle ftature, and generally red-haired ; they are honell, peaceable, and hof- pitable ; but fuperftitious, and very credulous. They are afTiduous in rural ceco- nomy, neglefting neither the culture of I)ecs, nor the chacc ; in the latter they ufe indiflerently the bow or fire-arms. In their Icifure hours many of them employ themfelves in making all forts of turnery, fuch as cups, fpoons, and Ihuttlcs ; and others varnilli all kinds of cups and bowls. The women are employed in fewing, in making linen, coarfe cloths, and ornaments of embroidery. Some of th.e Votiaks are Chrifcians, but a grest part of them are heathens and idolaters ; though even thele believe thcdodlrine of a future ftateof rev/ards and punifhments. The Ofriaks, likewife a Finnifli race, arc one of the mofl: numerous nations of Siberia. Hefore they were in fubjeftion to Rufiia, they were governed by princes of their own nation, and their descendants are fall reputed noble. As (hefe people divide themfelves into difix-rent ftocks or tribes, they chufe their chiefs from anion"- the progeny of their ancient rulers, Thefe maintain peace and good order, and iliperintend the payment of the taxes. They are entirely unacquainted with the ufe of letters, and are extremely ignorant ; they can reckon as far as ten, but no farther, as is the cafe with other Finnifh nations. Thefe people have a fmgular cuftom, that the daughter-in-law never uncovers her face in the prefencc of her father-in-law ; ncr is the fon-in-law allowed to appear before the mother-in-law till his wife has had a child, '^"hey are idolaters ; and one of their opinions is, that bears enjoy after death a happinefs at leatl: equal to that which they expeft for themfelves. When- ever they kill one of thefe animals, they fing fongs over him, in which they afk his pardon for" the iniury they have done him. They alfo hang up his fkin, to which they fhew iriany civilities, and pay many compliments, to induce him not to take ven?:eance on them in the world of fpirits. Indeed, it appears that bears are in great eftimation among all the pagan nations of the north, and north-eaft. The Vogouls are rather belov/ the middle llature, have generally black hair, and a fcanty beard. Thev are of a gay difpofition, hone(f, laborious, and acute; but floven- ly and fickle, and inclined to be extremely pafTionate. Their woinen are well m.ade, robuH:, civil, and laborious. They are unacquainted with the ufe of letters, as well as fome of their kindred nations : they do not reckon their time by years, though they mark the months, and name them after the various revolutions of nature which they obferve in their forefts. They dillinguifh themfelves into tribes or races ; and a Vogoul village is commonly compbfed only of one family, whole chief or elder per- forms thefundionsof ftaroftej or magiftrateofthe village : their principal occupation is the chace, in which theydifcovcr much eagernefs and addrefs ; ufing indifcri- ininately fire-arms, the bow, and the fpear. They are alfo flcilful in conti iving traps, fnares, and gins and all the lures of game. The Tjchcmvajches dv/ell along the two fides of the Wolga, in the governments of Nifchnei-Novogorod, Kafan, and Orenberg. They never live in towns, but aflemble in finall villages, and choofe the forefts for their habitations. Thev are very fond of hunting, and procure for that pnrpofe fcrew-barrel mufkets, which they prefer to the bow. One of their marriage ceremonies is, tiiat on the weddino-- ing night, the bride is obliged to pull of]' her hufband's boots. A late writer lays, " Among the Tfchouwafches the luilhand is mai'ter of the houfe ; he orders every- " thing himfelf ; and it is the duty of the vvlfe to obey without reply : a cuftom " calculated to prevent dom>eftic bro'ls. Accordingly quarrels are very uncommon •< in the families of the Tfchouwafches." The Kirguifians have a frank and prepolTcrffing air, fimilar to that which charac- terizes the Tartars of Kafan. I'hey have a iharp, but not a fierce look, and fmaller eyes 112 RUSSIA. eyes than thofe Tartars. They have good natural I'enfe, are affable, andhigli-fpirit- ed ; but fond ot their eafe, and voluptuous. They dwell in portable huts, wander- ing about their delarts in fearch of paCturage for their flocks and herds, which ccn- Ilitue their principal occupation. As their courfes are regulated by neceflity, in fum- mer they traverfe the northern defarts, and in winter the fouthern parts. It is when thej have nothing elfe to do that they follow hunting and fifliing, and agricul- ture is abfolutely unknown to them. Their troops of cattle confift of horfes, camels, cows, goats, and flieep, which fupply them with food and raiment. Camels are oi great fervice to them throughout theirwhole ceconomy, carrying their huts and furni- ture at every change of ftation, which they do to the weight of nine hundred pounds. The Kirguifians drefs in the eaflern manner, but their clothes are for the moft part better than thofe worn by the other Tartars. The decoration of their horfes employs them almofl: as much as that of their perfons ; they having generally elegant laddies, handfome houfings, and ornamented bridles. They are great eaters ; and they alfo fmoke tobacco to excefs. Men, women, and children, all fmoke, and take fnuff: they keep the latter in little horns fallened to their girdles. The great and wealthy live in the fame manner as the reft of the people, and are diftinguiflied only by the numer- ous train that accompanies them in tlieir cavalcades, and the number of huts v/hich kirround their quarters, inhabited by their wives, children, and flaves. The ^ungufians form one of the moll numerous nations of Siberia. They are of a middle ftature, and well made. Their fight and hearing are of a degree of acutenefs and delicacy that is amoft incredible ; but their organs of fmelling and feeling are inferior to ours. They are acquainted with almoft every tree and Itone within the circuit of their perambulations ; snd they can even defcribe a ccurfe of Ibme hundred miles by the configurations of the trees and Hones thev meet with, and can enable others to take the fame route by fuch defcriptions. They alfo dif- cover the trafts of the game by the compreffion of the grafs or mofs. 'I hey learn foreign languages with eafe, are alert on horfeback, good liunters, and dexterous at the bow. The Kalmucs arc a courageous tribe, and numerous ; for the moft part raw- boned and ftout. Their vifage is fo flat that the flcuU of a Kalmuc may eafily be known from others. They have thick lips, a fmall nofc and a fliort chin, their com- plexion a reddifh and yellowiili brown. Their women are of a fimilar fhape with the men, and their fl-cin a wholelbme white and red, they are lively, agreeable, and induilrious. The charader of this tribe is, rough, but lefs diflblute than is com- monly fuppofed. They are mucli attached to their chiefs or mailers, but their active fpirit, and their improvidence and carelelTnefs, make them thievifh and dirry. In their robberies, they ufe m.ore ftratagem than violence, and as they believe in tlie nodurnal wandering of dead men's fpirits, are feldom guilty of murder. They are fuperftitious about good and bad days, and have written laws which are founded on reafon, cuftom, and the will of the prince. Their code is very favourable to females, aiid never looks upon a woman as the author of any crime. Rape and adultery is punifhed with a mul6t of nine head of cattle. Their fpcech is a mon- grel dialed, with many Tartarian words, but their religious books are in the Tan- gut or Tibetan. The fole profellion among them is the breeding of cattle ; they purfue the chace as an amufemcnt; their dwelling is in tents, or yourts of felr, which they call gar, and the Rufiians kibitka, and much refcmblc the Kirguifians. Their clothing is oriental. Some of their women wear a large golden ring in their nollrils. Their principal food is animals tame and wild : even their chiefs v/ill feed upon cattle that ha<'e died of dillemper or age; fo that in every hord the fleflj-markct hath the appearance of a lay-Itall of carrion : they eat likewife the roots and plants of their defarts. They arc great caters, but can endure want for a long RUSSIA. 113 along timewitkout complaint. Both fexes fmoke continually : during the fummer they keep to the north, and in winter to the fouthcrn deferts. They deep upon felt or carpeting, and cover themrelves with the fame. The Kamtjchadales have a lively imagination, a ftrong memory, and a great genius for imitation. Their chief employments are hunting and filhing. Thechacefurniflies them with fables, foxes, and other game. They arc very expert at fifning, and are well acquainted with the proper feafons for it. Their nets are made of the ftamina of nettles. When they are not engaged in hunting and fifliing, they fometimes em- ploy themfclves in building huts, forming different wooden urenfils, cutting wood for fuel and building, and making bows and arrows : but much of their time is pafled in abfolute idlenefs ; for they are naturally extremely indolent. Poverty gives them no concern ; and nothing but the calls of hunger can drive them to the chace. They live in villages, confiiling of a few fmall houles, and fituated in general near fome river. When a village becomes too populous, they feparate and form a new vil- lage. They eat and drink great quantities ; but as what they cat is always cold, their teeth are very tine. Dogs arc their only domeftic animals, and they put a high value upon them. Some of them travel in fmall carriages drawn by dogs ; and a complete Kamtfchadalian equipage, dogs, harnefs, and all, cofts in that country 4I. los. or near twenty rubles. The Kamtfchadales believed the immortality of the foul, before they embraced the Chriltian religion. They are fuperftitious to extravagance ; and extremely fingular in the enjoyments of life, particularly their convivial entertainments. The manners of the Siher'ians were formerly fo barbarous, that Peter the Great thought he could not infliift a greater punilhmenc upon his capital enemies, the Swedes, than by banifhing them to Siberia. The effeft was, that the Swedifh officers and foldiers introduced European ufages and manutaflures into the country, and thereby acquired a comfortable living. In this forlorn region, fo long unknown to Europe, fome new mines have lately been difcovered, which, upon their fiiftopening, have yielded, 45,000 pounds of fine filver, faid to have been obtained with little diffi- culty or expence. But Kamtfchatka is now confidcred as the moft horrid place of exile in the vaft empire of RufTia, and here fome of the greateft criminals are fent. Religion.] The eilablifhed religion of Ruffia is that of the Greek church, the tenets of which are too numerous and complicated to be difculled here. They deny the pope's fupremacy ; and though they difelaim image worfliip, they retain many idolatrous and fuperftitious cuftoms. Their churches are full of piiftures of faints whom they confuier as mediators. They obferve a number of fafts and lents, fo that they live half the year very abftemioully ; an inftitution which is extremely conve- nient for their foil and climate. They have many peculiar notions with regard to the facraments and Trinity. They oblige their biffiops and other ecclefiaftics, but not their fecular pr lefts, to celibacy. Peter the Great ftiewed his profound know- ledge of government in nothing more than in the reformation of his church. He declared himfelf the head of the church ; and preferved the fubordinations oi metro- politans, archbifhops, and biiliops. Their priefts have no fixed income, but depend for fubfiilcnce upon the benevolence of their flocks and hearers. Peter, after efta- blifningthis great political reformation, left his clergy in full poiTeffion of all their idle ceremonies ; nor did he cut off the beards of his clergy ; that impolitic attempt was referved for the late emperor, and greatly contributed to his fatal cataftrophe. Be- fore his time, an incredible number of both fexes were fhut up in convents ; nor has it been found prudent entirely to abolifli thole focieties. Thcfe abufes are now in a great mealure removed ; for no male can becomt a monk till he is turned of thirty ; and no female a nun, till fhe is fifty ; and even then not without permiffion of their fuperlors. The prefent emprefs has annexed the church-lands to the crown, and in return grants penfions to the higher clergy and the monks. Q. The 114 RUSSIA. The conquered provinces retain the exercife of their religion j but foch is the extent of the Ruffian empire, that many of its fubjecis are Mahometans, and more of them no better than Pagans, in Siberia and the uncultivated countries. Many ili-judged attempts have been made to convert them by force, which have only tend- ed to confirm them in their infidelity. On the banks of the river Sarpa, is a flourifhing colony of Moravian brethren, to which the founders have given the name of Sarepta : the beginning of the fettlement was in 1765, with diliinguiflied privileges from the imperial court. Language.] The common language of Ruflia is a mixture of the Poliili and Sclavonian ; their pricfts, and the moft learned of their clergy, make ufe of what is called modern Greek ; and they who know that language in its purity, are at no loJs for underftanding it in its corrupted ftate. The Ruffians have at prefent thirty let- ters, the forms of which have a ftrong refemblance to the old Greek alpihabet. Learning and learned men.] The Ruflians, hitherto, have made but an inconfiderable appearance in the republic of letters ; but the great encouragement given by their fovereigns of late, in the inftitution ot academ.ies, and other literary boards, has produced fufficient proofs, that they are no way deficient as to intel- lecStual abilities. The papers exhibited by them, at their academical meetings, have been favourably received all over Europe ; efpecially thofe that relate to aftro- nomy, the mathematics, and natural philofophy. The fpeeches pronounced by the bifhop of Turer, the metropolitan of Novogorod, the vice-chancellor, and the marllial, at the late opening ot the comniiffion for a new code of laws, are ele- gant and claffical ; and the progrefs which learning has made in that empire fince the beginning of this century, with the fpecimens of literature publiflied at Peterf- burg and Mofcow, is an evidence, that the Ruffians are not unqualified to fliine in the arts and fciences. Many of the Greek and Latin claffics have been tranflated by natives into the Ruffian language. However, the efforts to civilize them did not begin with Peter the Great, but were much older. A fmall glimmering, like the firll day-break, was feen under Czar I wan in the middle of the 16th century. This became more confpicuous under Alexius Michaelowitz : but under Peter it burft forth with the Iplendor of a rifing fun, and hath continued ever fince to afcend towards its meridian. Universities.] Three colleges were founded by Peter the Great at Mofcow ; one for claffiical learning and philofophy, the fecond for mathematics, and the third for navigation and aflronomy. To thcfe he added a difpenlary, which is a magni- ficent building, and under tlie care of fome able German chemills and apothecaries ; who furnifh medicines not only to the army, but all over the kingdom. And within thefe few years, Mr. de Shorealow, high chamberlain to the emprefs Elizabeth, daughter to Peter tlie Great, has founded an univerfity in this city. The prefent emprefs has alfo founded an univerfity at Peterfburg, and invited fome of the mofl learned foreigners in every faculty, who are provided with good falarics; and alfo a miltary academy, where the young nobility and officers fons are taught the art of war. Cities, towns, palaces, 1 PeterAiurg naturally takes the lead in this divi- ANu OTHER BUILDINGS. J fion. It lics at the junAion of the Neva with the lake Ladoga, already mentioned, in latitude 60 ; but the reader may have a better idea of its firuation, by being informed that it Hands on both fides the river Neva, between that lake and the"4Dottom of the Finland gulf. In the year 1703, this city confided of a few fmall filhing huts, on a fpot fo.fwampy, that the grounci was form- ed into nine iflands ; by which its principal quarters are ilill divided. Without entering into a minute defcription of this wonderful city, it is fiifficient to lav, that it extends about fix miles every way j and contains every flrudure lor magnifi- cence, RUSSIA IT5 ccnce, the improvement of the arts, revenue, navigation, war, and commerce, that are to be found in the molt celebrated cities in Europe. But there is a convent which defcrves particuhir notice, in which 440 young ladies are educated at theemprefs's expence ; 200 of them of fuperior rank, and tiie others, daughters of citizens and tradefmen, who, after a certain time allotted to their education, quit the convent with improvements fuitable to their conditions of life, and thofe of the lower clafs are prelented with a fum of money as a dowry if they marry, or to procure to themfclves a proper livelihood. Near to this convent is a Foundling Hofpital, af- fiftant to that noble one ellablilhed at Mofcovv, and where the mother may come to be delivered privately, and then, after the utmoft attention to her, flie leaves the child to the ttate, as a parent more capable of promoting its welfare. As I'eteriburg is the emporium of Ruffia, the number of foreign fhips trading to it in the fummer-time is furprifing. In winter, 3000 one-horl'e Hedges are em- ployed for paflengers in the ftreets. It is fiipiwfed, that there are above 130,000 in- habitants in this city ; and it is ornamented with thirty-five great churches ; for in it almoll every left of the Chriftian religion is tolerated. It alfo contains five palaces, fome of which are fuperb, particularly that which is called the New Summer Palace^ near the Triumphal Port, which is an elegant piece of architeftiire. This magni- ficent city is defended on that fide next the fea by the fortrcfs of Cronftadt ; which, confidering the difficulty and danger of navigating a large naval force through the gulf of Finland, is fufficient to guard it on that fide from the attempts of any enemy. Peterlburg is the capital of the province of Ingria, one of Peter the Great's conquefts from the Swedes. In the neighbourhood of this city are many country-houfes and gardens. The city of Mofcow was formerly the glory of this great empire, and it fiill continues confiderable enough to figure among the capitals of Europe. It ftands on the river from whence it takes its name in lat. 55-45, and about 1414 miles north-eaft ot London ; and tiiough its ftreets are not regular, it prefents a very pifturefque appearance : for it contains fuch a number of gardens, groves, lawns, and ftreams, that it feems rather to be a cultivated country than a citv. The ancient magnificence of this city would be incredible, were it not attefted by the mod unqueftionable authors : but we are to make great allowances for the ftate of the adjacent provinces, which might have made it appear with a greater luftre in a tra- veller's eyes. Bufching fpeaks of it as the largell city in Europe ; but that can be only meant as to the ground it Hands on, computed to be near 26 miles in circum- ference. It is generally agreed, that Mofcow contains 1600 churches and convent?, and forty-three places or fquares. The merchants exchange contains about 6000 fine (hops, which difplay a valt jiarade of commerce, efpecially to and from China. No city exhibits a greater contrail than Mofcow, of magnificence and meannefs in building. The houfes of the inhabitants in general are miferable timber booths ; but their palaces, churches, convents, and other public edifices, are fpacious and lofty. The Kremlin, or grand imperial palace, Is mentioned as one of the moft fuperb ftruflures in the world : it Hands in the interior circle of the city, and con- tains the old imperial palaces, pleafure-Iioufes, and ftables, a vi(5lualling-houfe, the palace which formerly belonged to the patriarch, nine cathedrals, five convents, four parifh churches, the arfenal, with the public colleges, and other offices. All the churches in the Kremlin have beautiful fpires, moft of them gilt, or covered with filver : the archite6lure is in the Gothic tafte ; but the infides of the churclies arc richly ornamented ; and the piftures of the faints are decorated with gold, filver, and precious ftones. Mention is made of the cathedral, which has no fewer than nine towers, covered with copper double gilt, and contains a filver branch with forry- eight lights, faid to weigh 2800 pounds. The fumptuous monuments of tl)e great dukes and czars^ the magazine, the patriarchal palace, the excliequer, and chan- CL2 eery. ii6 RUSSIA. eery, are noble ftrudtures. Tlie jewels and ornaments of an image of the virgin Mary, in Krcinlin church, and its other furniture, can only be equalled by what is fecn at I^oretto in Italy. Mr. Voltaire fays, that Peter who was attentive to every thing, did not ncgleifl: Mofcow at the time he was building Peterfburg ; for he cauled it to be paved, adorned it v/ith noble edifices, and enriched it with nianufadures. The foundling hofpical at Mofcow is an excellent inflitution, and appears to be under very judicious regulations. It was founded by the prefcnt emprefs, and is fupported by voluntary contributions, legacies, and other charitable endowments. It is an immenfe pile of building, of a quadrangular fliape, and contains 3000 foundlings : when the cftablilTiment is completed, it is intended to contain 8too. They are taken great care of ; and at the age of fourteen, they have the liberty of choofing any particular branch of trade ; and for this purpofe there are different fpecies of manufadures eftabliflied in the hofpital. When they have gone through a certain apprenticcfliip, or about the age of twenty, they are allowed the liberty of fetting up for themfelves : a fum of money is beilov/ed upon each foundling for 'that purpofe, and they are permitted to carry on trade in any part of the Ruffian empire. This is a very confiderable privilege in Ruifia, where the peafants are ilayes, and cannot leave their villages without the pcrmiHion of their mailers. Nothing can be faid with certainty as to the population of Mofcow. When lord Carlifie was ambafTador there, in the reign of Charles II. this city was 12 miles in compafs, and the number of houfes were computed at 40,000. Wjicn Voltaire wrote, Mofcow was twenty miles in circumflance, and its inhabitants faid amount to 500,000 ; but it is almoft impoffible to make an eflimate of its prefent population. Curiosities.] This article affords no great entertainment, as Ruffia has but lately been admitted into the rank of civilized nations. She can, however, pro- duce many ftupendous monuments of the public fpirit of her fovereigns ; particu- larly the canals made by Peter the Great, for the benefit of commerce. Siberia is full of old fepulchres of an unknown nation, whofe inftruments and arms were all made of copper. In the cabinet of natural hiftory at Peterfburg, is a rhinoceros dug upon the banks of the river Valui, v/ith his ikin, and the hair upon it perfeft. Tlie Ruffians have a great pafTion for bell-ringing ; and we are told> that the great bell of Mofcow, the largefl in the world, weighs 443,772 pounds weight. It was call in the reign of the emprefs Anne ; but the beam on which it hung, being burnt, it fell, and a large piece is broken out of it ; fo that it lately lay in a manner ufelefs. Mr. Bruce in his late Memoirs, mentions a bell at Mofcow, founded in Czar Koris's time, 19 feet high, 23 in diameter, 64 in circumference, and two in thick- nefs, that weighed 336,000 pounds. The building of Peterfburg, and raifmg it from a few fifhing huts to be a populous and rich city, is perhaps a curiofity hardly to be paralleled fince the credion of the Egyptian pyramids. The fame may be faid of the fortrcfs of Cronfladt, in the neighbourhood of Peterfburg, which is almofl impregnable. This fortrefs and city employed, for fome years, 300,000 men, in layijig its foundations, and driving piles, night and day ; a work which no monarch in Europe (Peter excepted) could have executed. The plan, with a very little alTillance from fome German engineers, was drawn by his own hand. Equally wonderful was the navy which he raifed to his.people, at tiic time when they could hardly be faid to have polTeired a fhip in any part of the globe. \\'hat is more v/onderful than all, he of"tcn wrought in perfon at all thofe amazing works, with the fame alfiduity as if he had been a common labourer. Commerce, and ma- ) In treating of the Ruffian commerce, former accounts RiTiMH FORCK. S are of little lervice., becaufe of its great improvements and variations. I?y the beft and furcil information, the annual exports of RufTui at RUSSIA. 117 at prefent amount to about 2,500,000 rubles; and her imports do not exceed ijyoo.oool. i lb that the balance of trade is yearly 8oo,oool. (lerling in her favour. Ruffi.i's produftions and exports, in general, are many, and very valuable, viz. furs and peltry of various kinds, red leather, linen and thread, iron, copper, fail- cloth, hemp and flax, pitcli and rar, wax, honey, taliow, ifing-glafi, linfeed oil, pot- aui, foap, feathers, train-oil, hog's briftles, mufk, rhubarb, and other drugs; timber, and aifo raw filk from China and Terfia. Her foreign commerce is much increafcd fince her conqucfts from Sweden, efpecially of Livonia and Ingria; and fince the eftablifliing of her nev/ emporium of i'eterfl:)urg; whereby her naval incercourfe with Europe is made much more fliort and eafy. The Ukraine may be called the granaries of the empire ; the belt corn, hemp, flax, honey, and wax, come from this fertile province, and 10,000 horned cattle are annually lent from its partures into Silelia and Saxony. Ruflla carries on a commerce over land, by caravans, to China, chiefly in furs : and dicy bring buck from thence, tea, fdk, cotton, gold, &c. To Bocharia near the river Oxus in Tartary, Ruflla fends her own merchandize, in return for Indian filks, curled lamb-flcins, and ready money ; and alfo from the annual fair at Sa~ marcand ; fiie likewife trades to Perfia by Aftracan, crofs the Cafpian fea, for raw and wrought filk. The emprefs, in i7!34, ilfued an ediift, permitting all foreigners to carry on a free trade by fea and land with the feveral countries bordering on the Euxine, which have been lately annexed to the emjiire. The fame privileges, re- ligious and civil, are allowed to them in the ports ot Cherfon, Scbaltopoles, Thco- dofia (formerly Caffa), in the province of Taurica, as in Peterflnirg. Before the time of Peter the Great, Archangel, which lies upon the White Sea, was the only port of naval communication which Ruflia had with the red of Europe > but it was fubjeft to a long and tempeftuous voyage. They have now 13 ports, Archangel, Peterfburg, Riga, Revel, Perneau, Narva, Wibourg, Frederickfham, Aftracan, and Kola; and the three opened in their new conquefts. This town is about three Englifli miles in length, and one in breadth: built all of wood, ex- cepting the exchange, which isof ftone. Notwithftanding the decreafe of the trade of Archangel, by building Peterfburg, it Itill exports a confiderable quantity of merchandize. Their mafts and timber for the dock-yards come chiefly from ths forefts of Kafan, that border on the province of Afl:racan. The prelcnt (late of their navy, according to a late liil is 36 men of war of the line, 25 frigates, 109 galleys, 10 proams from 50 to 24 guns, two bombs, feven pinks, &c.; 15,000 fliilors are kept in conllant pay and fervice, either on board the fnips, or in the dock yards. The harbour is at Cronftadt, feven leagues from Peterf- burgh, defended on one fide by a fort of four baftions, and on the other, by a battery of 100 pieces of cannon. The canal and large bafon will contain near 600 fail of fhips. Government, laws, and > The Ibvereign of the Ruffian empire is abfolute DISTINCTION OF RANK. 5 and defpotic, and mafter of the lives and proper- ties of all his fubjefts ; who, though they are of the firfl: nobility, or have been highly inllrumental in promoting the welfare of the ftate, may notwithflanding, for the mofl trifling off^ence, or even for no offence at all, be fent to Siberia, or made to drudge for life on the public works, and have all their goods confifcated, when- ever the fovereign or his minifters fhall think proper. When perfons of any rank are baniflied into Siberia, their poflcfiions are confifcated, and a whole family may at once be ruined by the infinuations of an artful courtier. The fecret court of chancery, which v/as a tiibunal compofed of a few miniflers, chofen by the ibve- reign, had the lives and ibrtunes of all families at their mercy. But this court was fupprcflTed by Peter III. The fvfl:em of civil laws at prefent efliabliilied in Rufiia is very imperfe5r, and in m-iny inftances barbarous and unjuit; being an alTcmblage of laws and regulations 2 drawn ,i8 RUSSIA. drawn from moft of the flates of Europe, ill digefted, and in many refpefts not adapted to the genius of the Ruffian nation. The courts of juftice were in general very corrupt, and thofe by whom it was adminiitered extremely ignorant; but the. Emprefs hath lately made fome judicious regulations, and fixed a certain falary to the office of judge, which before depended on the contributions of the unhappy clients, and thus the poor were without hope or remedy. Ic is hoped that the new code of laws, for which fhe hath given inftruttions,will foon be produced, to increafe the people's liberty, fecurity, and felicity. The diftinclions of rank form a confiderable part of the Ruffian conftitution. The late emprclTes took the tide of Autocratix; which implies, that they owed their dignity to no earthly power. Their ancient nobility were divided into knczes or knazevs, boyars, and vaivods. The knezes were fovereigns upon their own eftates, till they were reduced by the czar; but they iliU retain the name. The boyars ■were nobility under the knezes ; and the vaivods were governors of provinces. Thofe titles, however, fo ottcu revived the ideas of their ancient power, that the preient and late emprefics have introduced among their fubjedts the titles of counts and princes, and the other dillinftions of nobility that are common to the reft of ■luuoj)e. RtvENUE AND EXPENcEs.] The revenucs of this mighty em.pire are, at prefent, far fuperior to what they were, even under Peter the Great. The vaft exertions for proitioting induftry, made by his fucceflbrs, efpecially her prefent imperial ma- jefty, have greatly added to their income, which can fcarcely be reckoned at lefs "than 30,000,000 of rubles, or nearly fix millions fterling annually. Thus com- puted : Rubles. Capitation tax, - ----- 8,500,000 Other taxes and duties, _ _ - - _ 7,000,000 Her own eftates, with other dominions taken from the clergy, 6,ooo,ooj Produce of the mines, - - - - - 1,500,000 Monopoly of diftilled liquors, _ - - _ 4,000,000 Monopoly of lalt, _ _ - _ _ 1,800,000 28,800,000 The deficiency of the fum total may be eafily made up by tlic profit arifing frorn (lamp-paper, patents, poft-office, and other articles omitted in the general calcula- tion, befidcs one per cent, every Ruffian merchant is obliged to pay on his yearly capital. When the reader confiders this fum relatively, that is, according to the high va- lue Oi'' money in tliat empire, compared to its low value in Great Britain, he will find it a very confiderable revenue. That it is fo, appears from the vaft armies maintained and paid by the late and prefent em[)refs, in Germany, Poland, and dfewhere, when no part of the monc y returned to Ruffia ; nor do we find that they received any confiderable fubfidy trum the houfes of Bourbon and Auftria, who, indeed, were in no condition to grant them any. The otJier expences, befides the payment of the army and navy of her prefent majeily, tlie number and difcipline of which are at leaft equal to thofe of her greateft prcdcceffiors, is very confide- rable. By the peace eftabliffiment in 1778, the regular troops amounted to about I 30,000 efi^eftive men. The irregular troops are numerous, but confift of liorfe, and of this dcfultory body, the corps of Coffiics are eftcemed the moft excellent. Her court is elegant and magnificent ; her guards and attendants fplenilid ; and the encouragement ftie gives to learning, the improvement of the arts, and ufeful dil- coveries, coft her vaft fiims, exclufive of her ordinary expences of Itate. Some RUSSIA. 119 Some of the RufYian revenues arife from monopolies; which are often neceflary in the infancy of gonmierce. The mod hazartlous enterprifc undertaken by Peter the Great, was his imitating tiie condu6t of Henry the Vlll. of England, in feizing' the revenues of the church. He found perhaps, that policy and necefTity required the greatcfl: part of them fliould be rellored, which was accordingly done; his great aim being to deprive the patriarch of his cxceffive power. The clergy are taxed in Ruffia : but the pecuniary revenues of the crown arife from taxes uoon cftates, bagnios, bees, mills, fiOieries, and other particulars. The RufTian aruiies are raifed at little or no expcnce; and, while in rhcir own country, fubfill chiefly on provifions furnifhed them by the country people, accord- ing to their internal valuation. The pay of a foldier fcarcely amounts to 10 (hil- lings yearly ; in garrifon he receives only five rubles yearly. The pay of a failor and a gunner is a ruble a month, and they are found in provifions when a-fhore. Orders.] The order of St. Andrew, or the blue riband, inftituted by Peter the Great in 1698, to animate his nobles and officers in the wars againft the Turks. He chofe St. Andrew for its patron, becaufe by tradition he was the founder of Chriftianity in the country. The luiights are perfons of the firft rank in the em- pire. The badge is the image of St. Andrew on the crofs enamelled on an imperial eagle. The order of St. Alexander New/ki *, or the red riband, was alfo in- ftituted by Peter the Great, and confirmed by the emprefs Catherine I. in the year 1725 : the cnfign of the order is a crofs pattee enamelled red and edged with gold, the centre enamelled white, and thereon St. Alexander on horfeback. The order of St. Catharine w;is inftituted by Peter the Great, in honour of his emprefs for her afllllance on the Banks of the Pruth. He declared her fovereign of it, and though both fexes were firft admitted, yet it is now appropriated to the fair alone, and perfons of the firft diftinclion in liurope : the badge is a medallion en- riched with diamonds and charged with the image of St. Catharine, pendant to a broad white riband worn fafliwife over the right flioulder : on the left fide of the ftomacher is embroidered a filver ftar of three points, on the centre of which is a crofs. The order of St. George inftituted in i 769, by the prefent emprefs Catharine II. in favour of the military officers in her fervice. The badge is a golden crofs enamelled white, on the centre of which is a medallion with the figure of St. George killing the Dragon : this is worn pendant to a black riband ftriped and edged with yellow, the order is divided into four clafles. The firft is confined to commanders in chief. The order of St. Woledemir was inftituted about Oftober 3d, 1782, by the emprefs in favour of thofe who ferve her in a civil capacity, and nearly on the fame footing v.'ith the order of St. George: there are ten great crofies of it, twenty of the fecond clafs, thirty of the third, and fixty of the fourth, befides a* fifth clafs for thofe who have ferved in a civil employment 35 years, which entitles them to wear it. The order of St. Anne of Flolftein, in men'iory of Anne, daughter of Peter the Great, was introduced into Ruflia by Peter III. and is in the difpofal of the great-duke, as fovereign of Holftein. History.] It is evident, both from ancient hifloryand modern difcoveries, that fome of the moft neglefttd parts of the Ruftian empire at prefent, were formerly rich and poplous The reader who throws his eyes on a general inap of Europe and Afia, may fee the advantages of their fituation, and their communication by rivers vvith the Black Sea, and the richeit provinces in the Roman and Greek em- pires. In latter times, the Afiatic part of Rufiia bordered with Samarcand in Tar- tary, once the capital under Jenghis Kan and Tamerlane, of a far more rich and powerful empire than any mentioned in hiftory ; and nothing is more certain than that the conqueft of Ruftia was among the laft attempts made by the former of * Alexander,_ foa of the grcat-diike Yaro- ivvetlcn with hh own hand, on the banks of the flaf, was of dilliiijjillie. I abilities ; he defeated tiu Neva; fiom whence his ajipellation of Ncw(ki : Tartars, Swedes, i.c. and wounded the k:i)g of he d ed in xi'.i, thofe 1 20 RUSSIA. thole princes. The chronicles of this empire, reach no higher than the 9th cen- tury, but they have vended a tradition, that Kiovia and Novogorod were founded by Kii in the year 430. This Kii is by fome confidered as an ancient prince, while others mention him as a fimple boatman, who ufcd to tranfport goods and pafiengers acrofs the Neiper. For a long time the chief or ruler had the title of grand-duke of PCiow. We cannot, with the fmallell: degree of probability, carry our conjcftures, with regard to the hillory of Ruffia, higher than the introdudlion of Chrirtianity, which happened about the tenth century; when a princefs of this country, called Olha, is faid to have been baptized at Conftantinople, and refufcd the hand of the Greek emperor, John Zimifces, in marriage. This ac- counts for the Ruffians adopting the Greek religion, and part of their alphabet. Phocius the famous Greek patriarch, fent priefl:s to baptize the Ruffians, who were for fome time fubjeft to the fee of Conftantinople ; but the Greek patriarchs after- wards rcficrned all their authority over the Ruffian church; and its bifliops erefted themfelves into patriarchs, who were in a manner independent of the civil pov/er. It is certain, that, till the year 1450, the princes of Ruffia were but very little con- fidered, beino- chiefly fub)ect and tributary to the' Tartars. It was about this time, that lohn, or Iwan Bafilides, conquered the Tartars, and, among others, the duke of Great Novo^^orod ; from whom he is faid to h ive carried jco cart loads of p-old and filver. His profperous reign of above 40 years, gave a newafpeft to Ruffia. His grandfon, the famous John Bafilowitz II. having cleared his country of the intruding Tartars, fubdued the kingdoms of Kafan and Aftracan Tartary, in Afia, and annexed them to the Ruffian dominions. He gave to his fubjefts the firft code of laws, introduced printing and promoted commerce. By his cruelty however, he obliged the inhabitants of fome of his fineft provinces, particularly l^ivonia and Efthonia, to throw theinfelves under the protcftion of the Poles and Swedes. Be- fore the time of this John II. the foverei^n of Ruffia took the title of Welike Knez, " great prince," great lord, or great chief; which the Chriftian nations afterv/ards rendered by that of greu-duke. The title of Tzar, or, as we call it. Czar, was added to th it of the Rufiian fovereigns. Upon the death of John Bafilowitz, the Ruffian fucccffion was filled up by a fet of weak cruel princes; and their territo- ries were torn in pieces by civil wars. In 1597, Boris Godonow, whofe fifter Irene was married to tlie czar Feodor, according to Voltaire, aflaffinated Demctri, or Demetrius, the lawful heir, and ufurped the throne. A young monk took tiie name of Demetrius, pretending to be that prince who had cfca;>ed from his mur- derers ; and with the affiftance of the Poles, and a confiderable partv (which every tyrant has againlt him,) he drove out the ufurper, and feized the crown himfelf. The impofture was difcovered as foon as he came to the fovereignty, becaufe the people were not pleafed with him, and he was murdered. Ifwc except the unjuf- tifiable means by which Boris raifed himfelf to the throne, and his ambition and revenge, he muft bctfteemed an excellent fovereign, and his lofs was fenfibly felt : driven to defpair he fv/allowed poifon in the ninth year of his reign, 1605. Mr. Coxe thinks that the perfon who liyled hinifclf Demetrius was not an impoftor, but the real fon of Ivan II. prefcrved from the affiiffination intended for him, by his mother's Aibftituting anotiier child in his place, and fending him privately to a convent. The public neglect of the Ruffian cuftoms and religious ceremonies after his fucccffion, alienated the })eople's affeftions, and precipitated him from the throne as rapidly as he had afcended it. After a year's reign he was murdered by an infurredion in his own palace, and the leader of it Vaffiii Shuifki was elefted in his room. Ruffiia now became by turns a [)rcy to the Poles and the Swedes ; but was at length delivered by the good fenfc of the boyars, impelled by their defpair, in the year 1613. The independency of Ruffia v/as then on the point of being extin^fuiffied. Ula- diilaus, fon to Sigifmund II. of Poland, had been declared czar ; but the tyranny of the Poles was fuch, that it produced a general rebellion of the Ruffians, who drove RUSSIA. 1.21 drove the Poles out of Mofcow, where they had for feme time defended themfelvcs with unexampled courage. . Philaretes, arciibiniop of Roftow, whofc Wife was def- cended of the ancient fovereigns of RulTi i had been Pent ambafTador to Poland, and there was detained priibncr by Sigifmurrl III. under pretence that his country- men had rebelled again Uladiflaus. The boyars met in a body; and fuch was their veneration for Philaretes and his wife, whom the tyrant had fhut up jn the caftle of Marienburgh, that they eleded their fon, Michael Fiedorowitz, of the houfe of Romanoff, a youth of 16 years of age, to be their luvcreign. The father being exchanged for fome Polifh prifoncrs, returned to RufTia ; and being citated'"patri- arch by his fon, and invcded with the adminiftration of affairs, he governed v/itli great prudence and fucccfs. He defeated the attempts of the I'oles to replace Uladiflaus upon the throne, and likewife the claims of a brother of GuRavus Adol- phus. The claims of the Swedes and Poles upon Ruflia occafioned a war between thofe two people, whicli gave Michael a breathing-time ; and he made ufe of it for the benefit of his fubjeds. Soon after the eleftion of Michael, James I. of En"^- land fent, at his invitation, fir John Meyrick, as his ambaffador to Ru.Tia, upon fone commercial affairs, and to reclaim a certain fum of money which James had ad- vanced to Michael or his predeceffors. The Englifh court, however, was fo ig- norant of the affairs of that country, though a Ruffian company had been efta- bliffied at London, that James was actually unacquainted with the czar's name and title, for he gave him no oth.er denomination than that of great-duke and lord of Ruffia. Three years after, James and Michael became much better acquainted ; and the latter concluded a commercial treaty with England, which ff-ews him to have been not only well acquainted with the interefts of his own fubjefts, but the laws and ufages of nations. He reigned thirty-three years ; and, by his- wifdom and the mildnefs of his charafter, he rellored cafe and tranquillity to his fubjefts. He encouraged them to indullry, and gave them the example of very commendable behaviour in his own perfon. Before we take leave of Michael, it may be proper to mention the mode of the czar's nuptials, which could not be introduced into the mifcellaneous curtoms of their fubjefts, and which are as follow. His czarifli ma- jefty's intention to marry being known, the moft celebrated beauties of his domi- nions were fent for to court, and there entertained. They were vifited by the czar, and the moft magnificent nuptial preparations were made, before the happy lady was declared, by fending her magnificent jewels, and a wedding robe. The reft of the candidates were then difmiffed to their feveral homes, with fuitable prefcnts. The name of the lady's father who pleafed Michael, was Strefchnen; and he was ])loughing his own farm when it was announced to him, that he was father-in-law to the czar. Alexius fucceeded his father Michael, antl was married in the fame manner. He appears to have been a prince of great genius. He recovered Smolenflco, Kiow, and the Ukraine; but was unfortunate in his wars with the Swedes. When the grand fignior, Mahomet IV. haughtily demanded fome poffeffions from him in the Ukraine, his anfwer was, " that he fcorned to fubmit to a Mahometan dog, and " that his fcymitar was as good as the grand fignior's fabre." He promoted aori- culture ; introduced into his empire arts and fciences, of which he was himfelf a lover; publiftied a code of laws, fome of which are ftill ufed in the adminiftration of juftice; and greatly improved his army by improving its difcipline. This he effecfted chiefly by the help of ftrangers, moft of whom were Scotch. He culti- vated a polite correfpondence with the other powers of turojie ; and even with the court of Rome, though he ordered his ambaffadors not to kifs the pope's toe. He fubdued a chief of the Don Coffacs, named Stenko Rafin, who endeavoured to make himfelf king of Aftracan ; and the rebel, with 12,000 of his adherents, v\ere hanged on the high roads. He introduced linen and filk manufaftures into R his 122 RUSSIA. his dominions : and inftead of putting to death, or enllaving his Lithuanian, Polifh, ard Tartar prifoners, he fent them to people the banks of the Wolga and the Kama. Theodore fuccceded his father Alexius in 1667. He was of a gentle difpofition, and weak conftitution ; fond of pomp and magnificence; and in gra- tis ing tiiis propenfity contributed to poliHi his fubjcfts, by the introduction of fo- reign manuvaclures, and articles of elegance, wliich they foon began to adopt and imitate. He delighted much in horfes, and he rendered a real feivice to his coun- try, in the beo-inning and eftablifhing verv fine breeds of them in the Ukraine, and elfewhere. He reigned feven years, and having on his death-bed called his boyars round him, in the prefence of liis brother and filler, Iwan and Sophia, and of Peter, who was afterwards fo celebrated, and who was his half-brother, according to VoltLiire, he faid to them, " Hear my laft fentiments; they are dictated by mv love " for the ftate, and by my afFeflion for my people. The bodily infirmities of Ivvan *' neceffarily muft afleft his mental faculties; he is incapable of ruling a dominion *' like that of Rufila ; he cannot take it amifs, if I recommend to you to fet him afidt, " and to let your approbation fall on Peter, who to a robuft conftitution joins great " ftrength of mind, and marks of a fuperior underftanding." From the mofl. authentic records, it appears, that Peter did not owe his elevation to any declara- tion of Theodore in his'favour, but m.erely to the fuffrages of thofe perfons who alTerted the right of nominating the fucceffor. Peter was chofen, and the govern- ment entrufted to Naralia, his mother. But the party in oppofition vas verv powerful. The Strelitz, or Ruffian regiments of guards, poiTeiTed above 14000 armed votes, and not being fttisfied with their colonels, or the exclufion of the elder brother from the tlirone, they furrounded the palace and infixed on the execution of the Narafliins, the czarina's chief relations. Their excelTes furpafled all dekription. The city of Mofcow underwent a general pillage and maiTacre for three days. At laft, by a compromife between the two parties, iwan and Peter were declared joint- fovereigns, May 18, i6Sa; but as one was judged incapable of governing, and Peter was only ten years old, the adminiftration was vefted in their fifrer, who was of popular manners, and great abilities. However Voltaire and other authors may have blackened Sophia's charaftcr, it is now evident, from Muller and other good authorities, that fiie was a princefs of great merit, and by no means deferving of the reproaches caft upon her : her adminiftration was wife and vigilant, and much to the advantage of her country. She repofed much confidence in prince Bafil Ga- litzin, a conftimmate politician. Peter, as he advanced in years, and encouraged by his mother and her adherents, claimed a fhare in adminiftration, and took his feat in the privy council, Jan. 25, 1688. From this period diftcnfions aroie between them, and the afpiring genius of Peter acquired the afcendancy Under the pretence of a confpiracy againft his life, he arrefted his fiftcr and imprifoned her for life in the nunnery of Dcvitz: flie died in 1 704. Galitzin's life was fpared, but his o^reat eflate was confifcatcd ; and the following curious fentence was pro- nounced as his punifliment. " Thou art commanded by the moft clement czar to " repair V) Karga, a town under the pole, and there to continue the remainder of " thy days. His majefty, out of his extreme goodnefs, allows thee three pence •* per day for thy fubfiftence." He died in prifon at I'ooftork in 171:^. This left Peter v/ith no other competitor, in the year 1689, tiian the mild and eafv Iwan, and upon his deach, which happened :n 1696, Prter reigned alone, ant! cruelly pro- vided for his own futme fecurity, by the execution of above 3000 Strelitz, and at the fame time broke the whole body, and abolilhed their name. It fir exceeds the bounds prefcribcd to this work, to give even a fummary detail of this great prince's aflions. All that is necelf.iry in this place, is to give a general view of his power, and the vaft reformation he introduced into his dominions. Peter, though he had been but very indifferently educated, affociated himklf with 8 Gel mans, RUSSIA. 12;, Germans and Dutch ; with the former for the fake of their manufadures, which he early introduci-d into his dominions ; and with the latter for their (kill in navigation, which he pradifed himfclf. His inclination for the arts was encouraged by his fa- vourite LeFort, a Piedmontefe ; and genera! Gordon, a Scotchman, dilciplined the czar's own regiment, confiltingof 5000 foreigners; while LeFort raifed a regiment of 12,000, among whom he introduced the French and German exercifes of arms, with a view of employing them in curbing the infolcnce of the Strelitz. Peter, after this, began his travels ; leaving his military affairs in the hands of Gordon. He fet out as an attendant upon his own ambafladors ; and his adventures in Holland and Eng- land, and other courts, are too numerous, and too well knov/n to be inferted here. By working as a common Ihip-carpenter at Deptford and Saardam, he completed himfelf in Ihip-building and navigation; and through the excellent difcipline in- troduced among his troops by the foreigners, he not only over-awed or cruflied ail civil infurredions, but all his enemies on this fide of Afia ; and at lad he exterminat- ed, except two feeble regiments, the whole body of the Strelitzes. He rofe gradually through every rank and fervice both by fea and land j and the many defeats which he received, efpecially that from Charles XII. at Narva, feemed only to enlarge his am- bition, and extend his ideas. The battles he loft rendered him a conqueror upon the whole, by adding experience to his courage : and the generous friendlhip he fiiewed to Auguftus king of Poland, both before and after he was dethroned by the king of Sweden, redounds greatly to his honour. He had no regard for rank diftinft from merit; and he in 171 1 married Catharine, a young Lithuanian woman, who had been betrothed to a Swedifh dragoon at Marienburg. General Bauer taking that place in 1701, was fmitten with her, and took her to his hoiiie. She was foon re- moved into the family of tlie prince Menzilcoff, with whom flie lived till 1704, when in the 17th year of her age flie became the miftrefs of Peter, and then his wife ; bccaufe, after a long cohabitation, he found her polTefled of a foul formed to execute his plans, and to affift his councils. Catharine was fo much a ftranger to her own country, that her hufband afterwards difcovered her brother, who fenced as a com- mon foldier in his armies. But military and nava! triumphs, which fucceeded one another after the battle of Pultowa in 1709, with Charles XII. were not the chief glories of Peter's reign. He applied himfclf with equal afTiduity to the culti- vation of commerce, arts, and fciences : and, upon the whole, lie made fuch acqui- fitions of dominion, even in F.urope itleif, that he may be faid at the time of iiis death, which happened in January, 1725, to have been the moft powerful prince of his a^;e, but more feared than beloved by his fubjeds. 1'ei.er the Great was unfortunate in his eldcil fon, wlio was called the Czarov/itz, and who, marrying without his confent, entered, as his father alledged, into fome dangerous practices againft his perfon and government ; for which he was tried and condemned to death. Under a fovereign fo defpotic as Peter v.as, we can fay no- thing as to the juftice of the charge. He publicly treated him with inhuman fe- rocity, and it was undoubtedly his will, that the young prince fhould be found guilty. Ir is faid, that as foon as the fentence of deatli wjs pronounced upon rhe prince, where- in were the following words, " The divine, ccclefullical; civil, and military laws " condemn to dtath, without mercy, all thofe wliofe attempts againft their father and " their fovereign are manifcft," he fell into tlie moft violent convulfions, from •which it wai with the greateft difficulty that he regained a little interval of fenfe, during which he defired his father would come to fee him, when he alked his pardon, and foon after died. But the moft ptobiible opinion is that lie was fecretly executed- in prifon, and that marftial \'\'eyde was the perfon who beheaded him. After this event, in 1724, Peter ordered his wife Catharine to be crowned, with the fame magnificent ceremonies as if ihe had been a Greek emprefs, and this was the princi- pal caufc of her fubfequent elevation. For juft before his death he difcovered a R 2 fecre: 114 ^ RUSSIA. fecret connexion between her and her firft chamberlain Mons. He furprlfed thenn together in an arbour of the garden, when ftriking her with his cane, as well as the page, who would have prevented him from entering the arbour, he retired without uttering a fingie word. But prefently Mons was taken up, and being threatened with the torture, confefled, and was beheaded. The day after the execution Peter con- veyed Catharine in an open carriage under the gallows to which the head of Mons was nailed. It is lliid, that the emprefs without changing colour at this dreadful fight, exclaimed, " What a pity ! that there is fo much corruption among courtiers !" '1 his event was foon followed by Peter's death, who probably haddellined his eldeft daughter Anne to be his fucceflbr, but the fuddennefs of his death prevented it; and Ibaie of the nobles and officers being gained by money, jewels, and promifes, and the two regiments of guards by a largefs, Catharine mounted the Ruffian throne. She was in her perfon under the middle fize, and her abilities have been greatly ex- aggerated : fhe could neither read nor write : her daughter Elizabeth ufually figned her name for her, and particularly to her laft will and teftament. During her ffiort reign, of two years, which may rather be confidered as the reign of MenzikofF, her life was very irregular. An intemperate ufe of tokay wine, joined to a cancer and dropfy haftened herend on the 17th of f.?ay 1727. She was fucceeded by Peter II. a minor, fon to the Czarowitz. Many domeftic revolutions happened in.Ruffia dur- ing the ffiort reign of this prince ; but none was more remarkable than the difgrace and exile of prince MenzikofF, the favourite general in the two late reigns, and efteemed the richefb fubjeft in Europe, the original author of her good fortunes. Peter died of the fmall-pox, in 1730. Notwithftanding the defpotifm of Peter and his wife, the Ruffian fenate and no- bility, upon the death of Peter II. ventured to fee afide the order of fucceffion which they had eftabliflied. The male ilTue of Peter was now extinguiflied; and the duke of Holflein, fon to his eldeft daughter, was by the deftination of the late emprefs, en- titled to the crown : but the Ruffians, for political rcafons, filled their throne with Anne duchefs of Courland, fecond daughter to hvan, Peter's eldeft brother ; though her eldeft iifter the duchefs Mecklenburgh was alive. Her reign was extremely prof- perous ; and though fhe accepted of the crown under limitations that fome thought derogatory to her dignity, yet, by the affillance of the guards, fhe broke them all, iiflerted the prerogative of her anceftors, and punifhed the afpiring Dolgorucki family, who had impofed upon her limitations, with a view, as it is fliid, that they^ themfelves might govern. She raifed her favourite Biron, to the duchy of Cour- land ; and was obliged to give way to many fanguinary meafures and fevere execu- tions on his account. Upon her death, in "1740, John, the fon of her niece the princefs of Mecklenburg, by Anthony Ulric of Bruniwic Wolfenbuttel, was by her will, entitled to the fucceffion : but being no more than two years old, Biron was ap- pointed to be adminiftrator of the empire during his nonage. This deftination was difagreeable to the princefs of Mecklenburgh and her hufband, and unpopular . among the Ruffians. Count Munich was employed by the princefs of Mecklen- burgh to arreil; Biron ; who was tried, and condemned to die, but was fent in exile to Siberia, where he continued till Peter III. recalled him, and Catharine reftored liiin to the duchy of Couiland. The adminiftration of the princefs Anne of Mecklenburgh and lier huftjand w:is, upon many accounts, but particularly tiiat of iier German connexions, difagreeable, not only to the Ruffians, but to other pov^ers of Europe ; and, notwithftanding a profperous war they carried on with the Swedes, the princefs Elizabeth, daughter, by Catharine, to Peter the Great, formed fuch a party, that in one night's time flie was proclaimed emprefs of the Ruffias j and the princefs of Mecklenburgh, her huf- band, and fon, were inade prifoncrs. Elizabeth's RUSSIA. 125 Elizabeth's reign may be faid to have been more glorious than that of any of her predeceflbrs, her father excepted. She abolifhed capital punifhments ; and intro- duced into all civil and military proceedings a moderation, till her time unknown in RuiTia : but at the fame time (he punifhed the counts Munich and Ofterinan, who had the chief management of affairs during the late adminiftration, with exile. Count Munich vns confined at Pelin in Siberia, in a prifon, which by his order was erefted for Biron ; he had a daily allowance of 12s. for I'.imfelf, wife, and a few fervants. After 21 years imprifonment, he was releafcd and reftored to his ancient rank, by Peter III. in 1762, and died in 1765, eighty-three years old. The chief difgrace of her reign, was the punifliment of the countcfTes Beftucheff and Lapu- chin : each received 50 ftrokes of the knout in the open fquare of Peterfburg, their tongues were cut out^ and then banifhed into Siberia. The real crime of the* lafl, was her commenting too freely on the emprefs's amours. Having glorioufly finifhed the war with Sweden, flie replaced the natural order of fuccefiion in her own family, by declaring the duke of Holftein-Gottorp, who was defcended from her eldeft fifter, to be her heir. She gave him the title of grand-duke of Ruffia j and foon after her accefTion to the throne, fhe called him to her court ; where he re- nounced the fucceffion to the crown of Sweden, which undoubtedly belonged to him, embraced the Greek religion, and married a princefs of Anhalt-Zcrbft, by whom he had a fon, who is nov/ heir to the Ruffian empire. Few princes have had a more uninterrupted career of glory than Elizabeth. She was completely vidtori- ous over the Swedes. Her alliance was courted by Great Britain, at the expence of a large fubfidy ; but many political, and fome private reafons, it is faid, deter- mined iier to take part with the houfe of Auftria againfh the kingof Pruffia in 1756. Her arms gave a turn to the fuccefs of the war, notwithflanding that monarch's amazing abilities both in the field and cabinet. Her conqueils were fuch, as por- tended the entire defcruilion of the Pruffran power, v/hich was, perhaps, faved only by her critical death, on Januarv 5, 1762. Elizabeth was fucceeded by Peter III. grand-duke of Ruffia, and duke of Hol- ftein ; a prince whole conduft has been varioufly reprefented. He mounted the throne poffeff.d of an enthufiaftic admiration of his Pruffian majefty's virtues ; to whom he gave peace, and whofe principles and praftices he itemed to have adopted as the directories of his future reign. Several falutary regulations were made dur- ing his fhort reign, and he abolifhed many prerogatives that were oppreffive and tyrannical. But he foon incurred the general odium by his public contempt of the Ruffian manners and religion. He might have furmounted the effedls of many pe- culiarities, unpopular as they were, but he aimed at ecclefiaftical reformations in his dominions, which Peter the Great durfl not attempt ; and that he even ventured to cut off the beards of his clergv. It is alfo alledged, that he had formed a rclblution to dcllroy both his emprefs and her fon, and the advocates of Peter the Third ac- knowledge, that he had refolved to fhut up his wife in a convent, or rather in the Tortrcfsof Schluffelburg, and thentoplace his mirtrefs, the countefs ofVoronzof, upon the throne, if not to change the order of fucceffion. However, the execution of his defigns was prevented by a confpiracv being formed againll him, in which the em- prefs took a very aftive part; and this unfortunate prince fcarcely knew an interval between th'i! lofs of his crov/n and his life, of which he was deprived, while under an ignominious confinement at Robfcha, in July 1762. That hiscondufl with regard lo Pruffia was not the fole caufe of his depofnion, feems evident from the m.eafures of his Aicceffor, who now reigns by the title of Catharine II. That princefs, with re- gard to Pruffia, trod in her hufband's fteps. The moit remarkable domcftic occurrence of her reign hitherto, is the death of prince Iwan, fon to die princefs of Mecklenburg. This young prince, as l^on as he i26 RUSSIA. he came into the world was defigned, though illegally, to wear the imperial crown ofRufTia, after the death of his great aunt, the emprefs Anna Iwanowna ; but by the advancement of the emprefs Elizabeth, he was condemned to lead an obfcure life in the caftle of Schluflclbourg under a ftrcng guard, who had particular orders, that if any pcrfon, or any armed force, was employed in attempting to deliver him, they fhould kill him immediately. He lived quietly in his prifon when the emprefs Catharine II. mounted the throne ; and as the revolution which depofed her huf- band Peter III. had occafioned a flrong ferment in the minds of the people, Catha- rine was apprehenfive that fome attempts might be made in favour of Iwan : fine therefore doubled the guards of this unhappy prince, and particularly entrufted him to the care of two officers, who were devoted to her intereft. However, a lieuten- ■ ant of infantry, who was bornin the Ukraine, undertook, or at leaft pretended fo, to deliver Iwan by force of arms from the fortrefs of Schluflelbourg ; and under this pretence the prince was put to death, the i6th of July, 1764, after an imprifonment of 23 years. The lieutenant who attempted to deliver him was arrefbed, and after- wards beheaded, and his body burnt with the fcaflbld. While this event excited the attention of the Ruffian nation, the flames of civil war broke out with great violence in Poland, wiiich has generally been the cafe when the throne was vacant. And as the internal tranquillity of Poland is a capital objed: with Rulna, the emprefs Catharine lent a body of troops into Poland, and by her influence count Poniatov/flci was raifed to the. throne. She alfo interpofed in order to fecure the rights which the treaty of Olivia had given to the Greek and proteftant fubjecls of Poland. But the umbrage which her imperial majefty 's armies gave to the Roman Catholic Poles, bv their refidence in Poland, increalcd the rage of civil war in that country, and produced confederacies againll all that had been done during the late elcLtion ; which rendered Poland a fcene ot blood and confu- fion. The conduft of Ruffia with regard to Poh-nd, gave fo much offence to tlie Ottoman court, that the Grand Sign'or fent Obreikoff, the Ruflian minifter, to the prifon of the Seven Towers, declared war againit Ruiha, and marched a very nu- merous army to the confines of Ruffia and Pobnd. Hoftilities foon commenced between theie rival and mighty empires. In the months of February and March 1769, Crim Gueray, Khan of thcTartars, at the head of a great body of Tartaj-s, fupported by xo,ooo Sj/ahis, having broken the Ruffian lines of communication, penetrated into the province of iNew Servia, where he committed great ravages, burning many towns and villages, and carrying off fome thoufiuid families captive. In April following, the Grand Vizir, at the head of a great army, began his march from Conflantinople, and proceeded towards the Danube. In the mean time, ])rince Galitzin, who commanded the Rufiian arniv on the bunks of the Neider, thought this a proper time to attempt fomething deeifi ve, befoie the arrival of the great Turk- ilh force in that quarter. He advanced to Ciioczim, where he encamped in light ofa body of 30,000 Turks, commanded bv Caraman Pacha, and intrenched under the cannon of the town. The prince atticked the Turks in their entrenchments early in the morning of the ^cth of April, and, notwithftanding an obllinatc de- fence, and a dreadful lire from the fortrefs, at length beat them out of their trenches, followed them into the fuburbs of Choczim, and their purfuit was only lloj)ped by tlie pallifadoes of the (ortrei's. Soon after, the town was fct on fire by red-liot balls, and a great number of Jews and Chriltians took refuge in the Ruffian camp. From tlicfe fucceffcs of tlie Ruffians, it might have been expeifhed that Choczim would have immediately fallen; but prince Galitzin ll ought proper to retiic, and to repafs the Ncifler, not having liifficient artillery along with him. Indeed, it appears that the Turkifh cavalry hid over-run tlie neighbouring country, burnt foir.c fmai; towns, and tiefiroycd fome Ruffian magaziiics. While RUSSIA. 127 While the Ruffians and Turks were attacking each other in diflfercnt places of their dominions on tlie fide or Europe, the Tartar Afiatic nations, in their different iuterefts, extended the rage of war into another quarter of the globf. On the 9th of May, a bloody engagement was fought between the Kalmucs, and thofe Tar- tars that inhabit the banks of the Cuban, lying between the Black and the Cafpian feas. This engagement continued from two in the afternoon till iun-fet ; when the Kalmucs, by t!ie affillance of fome Rufnan officers, with a detachment of drai?oons and CofTacs, and two pieces of cannon, obtained a complete vi(!^ory, having made a great flaughtcr, as the Kalmucs gave no quarter. On the other hand, the Euro- pean Tartars penetrated into the Ruffian Ukraine on the fide of Backmuth, where they made great devaflations. On the i-th of July, a very obftinate battle was fought, in which the Turks were defeated; the Ruffians immediately inveflcd Chnczim, but the garrifon, beino- numerous, made frequent Tallies, and received great reinforxements from the grand vizir's camp, who was nov/ confiderably advanced on this fide of the Danube. Several aftions enfued, and prince Galitzin was again obliged to retreat and re- pafs the Neifter. It was computed that the ficge of Choczim, and the actions confequent to it, coft the Ruffians above 20,000 men. In the management of this war, the grand vizir iiad aflcd with a degree of prudence, which it has been thought would have proved fatal to the defigns of the Ruffians, if the fame ccndudl had been afterward spurfued. But the army of the vizir was ejttremely licentious, and his caution gave offence to the Janizaries : fo that, in confequence of their clamours, and the weaknefs of their councils that prevailed in the feraglio, he at length became a facri- fice, and Moldovani Ali Pacha, a man of more courage than conduft, was appoint- ed his fucceflbr. During thele tranfaflions, general Romanzow committed great devaftations on- the Tui'ks on the borders of Bender and Oczakow, where he plundered and burnt feveral towns and villages, defeated a Turkifli detachment, and carried off a great booty of cattle. The Tartars alfo committed great ravages in Poland, where they almoft defi:royed the palatinate of Bracklaw, befides doing much mifchief in other places. In the beginning of September, the Ruffian army was again ported on the banks of the Neifter, and defended the paffiige of that river again!!: the Turks, whofe whole army, under the command of the new vizir, was arrived on the oppofite ffiore.. Having laid three br-idges over the Neifter, the Tui kifh arnny, without any pretence of llratagcm or deception, began to pafs the river in the face of the enemy. Prince, Galitzin having perceived this motion early in the morning of the 9th of Septem- ber, immediately attacked thofe troops that had croffed the river in the night, who- confequently could neither choofe their ground, nor have time to extend or form themfelves properly where they were. Notwithftanding thefe extreme difadvan- tages the engagement was very fevere, and continued from feven in the morning, till noon. The Turks fought with gr-eat obfrinacy, but were totally defeat- ed, and obliged to repafs the river with great lofs. It was computed, that about 60,000 Turks crclTcd the river, before and durino; the time of the engage- ,-^ ... - "^ . . , too menr. 1 rmce Galitzin charged at the head ot five columns ot intantry, with fix- ed bayonets, who deflroyed the flower of the Turkifh cavalry. It is faid, that the lofs of the Turks, in this battle, amounted to 7000 men killed upon the fpot^ befides wounded and prifoners, and a great number who were drowned. Though.. the i'l conduit of the vizir had greatly contributed to this capital misfortune,, yet this did not prevent him from engaging in another operation of the fame nature,. He now laid but one bridge over the river, which he had the precaution to cover, with lar.ge batteries of cannon, and prepared to pafs the whole army over. On the 17th of September, eight thoufand Janizaries and four thoufand regular cavalry^ the 128 R U S S I A. the flower of the Ottoman army, pafled over with a large train of artillery, and the reft of the army were in motion to follo.v, when a fuddcn and extraordinary fwell of the waters of the Nciftcr totally deftroyed the bridge. The RufTians lofi no time In making ufe ot this great and unexpetled advantage. A moft defperate engagement enfued ; not only the field of bittle, but the river over which fome tew hundreds of Turks made their efcape by fwimming, was for feverai miles cover- ed with dead bodies. The liufTians took 64 pieces of cannon, and above 150 co- lours and horfe-tails. The Turks immediately broke up their camp, abandoned the ftrong fortrefs of Choczim, with all its ftores and numerous artillery, and re- tired towards the Danube. They were much exalpcrated at the ill condudt of the vizir ; and it was computed that the Turks loft 28,000 of the braveft of their troops within little more than a fortnight ; and that 48,000 more abandoned the army, and totally deferted, in the tumultuous retreat to the Danube. Prince Galitzin placed a garrifon of four regiments in the fortrefs of Choczim, foon after refigned the con)mand of the army to general count Romanzow, and returned to Peterfburg, covered with laurels. The Ruffians carried on the war with fuccefs ; they over-run the great province of Moldavia, and general Elmpt took polleffion of the capital, Jafl)', without op- pofition. And as the Greek natives of this province had always fecretly favoured the Ruffians, they now took this opportunity of their fuccefs, and the abfcnceof the Turks, to declare thcmfelves openly. 1 he Greek inhabitants ot Moldavia, and afterwards thofe of Walachia, acknowledged the emprefs ot Ruffia as their fovereign, and took oaths ot fidelity to her. On the i8th of July, 177c, general Romanzow defeated aTurkifla army, near the river Larga, faid to have amounted to 80,000 men, and commanded by the khan of the Crimea. But on the fecond of Auguft, the fame Ruffian general obtained a ftill greater vidory over another army of the Turks, commanded by a new grand vizir. This army was very numerous, but was totally defeated. It is faid that above 7000 Turks were killed on the field of battle, and that the roads to the Danube were covered with dead bodies j a vaft quantity ot ammunition, 143 pieces ot brafs cannon, and fome thouland carriages loaded with provifions, fell into the hands of the Ruffians. But it was not only by land that the Ruffians carried on the war fuccefsfully againft the Turks. The emprefs fent a confiderable fleet of men of war, Rulfian built, into the Mediterranean, to atl againft the Turks on that fide. And, by means of this fleet, under count Orlop, the Ruffians fpread ruin and dcfolation through the open iflands ot the Archipelago, and the neighbouring detencelefs coalts of Greece and Afia ; the particulars of which will appear in the hiftory of Turkey. It is obfervable, that in this attempt of the Ruffians to arotef!:ant, ac- cording to the difcipline of the church of Scotland ; and their civil inftitutions arc the fame with thofe of the country to which they belong. Nothing certain can be mentioned as to the population of thefc three divifions of iflands. We have the mofl: undoubted evidences of hiflory, that about 400 years ago, they were much more populous than they are now : for the Hebrides themfelves were often known to fend 10,000 fighting men into the field, without prejudice to their agriculture. At prefent, their numbers are faid not to exceed 48,000. The people of the Hebrides are clothed, and live like the Scotch High- landers. They are flmilar in perfons, conftitutions, cultoms, and prejudices ; with this difference, that the more polifhed manners of the Lowlanders are every day gaining ground in the Highlands : jterhaps the defcendants of the ancient Cale- donians, in a few years, will be difcernible only in the Hebrides. Thofe iflands alone retain the ancient ufages of the Celts, as defcribcd by the oldefl: and beft autliors ; with a ftrong tindturc of the feudal conn:5tiit!on. Their fhanachies or Rory-tcllers fupply the place of the ancient bards, fo famous in hiftory ; and are the hifl:orians, or rather the genealogies, as well ai poets, of the nation and family. The chief is likewife artended, when he appears abroad, with his rnufician, who is generally a bag[)iper, and drefTcd in the manner, but, as it is faid, more fumptuoufly than the Englifli minftrels of former times *. Notwithftanding the contempt into which that mufic is fallen, it is almofl; incredible with what care and attention it was cultivated among thefe iflanders fo late as the beginning of the prefent century. They had regular colleges and profeffors, and the ftudents took » See Percy's Reliques of ADcietit Englifti Poetry. S 2 degrees 132 ■ I S L E S OF S C O T L A N D. degrees according to their proficiency. Many of the Celtic rites, Tome of which were too barbarous to be retained, or even mentioned, are now aboliOied. The inhabitants, however, ftill pi-eferve the moft profound refpedt and afFedion for their feveral chieftains, noiwithftanding all the pains that have been taken by the Britilh legiflature to break thofe connexions. The common people are but little better lodged than the Norwegians and Laplanders ; though they certainly fare better, for they have oatmeal, plenty of fifli and fowl, cheefe, butter^milk, and whey ; and alio mutton, beef, goat, kid, and venifon. They indulge them- ft'lves, like their fore-fathers, in a romantic poetical turn, and the agility of both fexes, in the exercifes of the field, and in dancing to their favourite mufic, is remarkable. The reader would not pardon an author who fhould omit that remarkable man- tology, or gift of prophecy, which diflinguiflies the inhabitants of the Hebrides under the name of the Jecond ftgbt. It would be equally abfurd to attempt to dif- provethe realitv of fome inllances of this kind that have been brought by reputable authors, and to admit all that has been faid upon the fubjeft. The adepts of the fccond fio-ht pretepd that they have certain revelations, or rather prefentations, either really or tj^pically, which fwim before their eyes, of certain events that are to happen in the compafs of 24 or 4S hours. Eut, from the befl information, no two of thofe adepts agree as to the manner and forms of thefe revelations, or that they have any fixed m.ethod for interpreting their typical appearances. The truth feems to be, that thofe iflanders, by indulging themlelves in lazy habits, ac- quire vifionary ideas, and overheat their imaginations, till they are prelented v;i:h thofe phantalins, which they miitake for fatidical or prophetic manifeflations. They inftantly begin to prophecy ; and it would be abfurd to fuppofe, that amidft man/ thoutands of predictions, fome did not happen to be fulfilled. Many learned men have been of opinion, that the Hebrides, being the mol\ wefterjy illands planted by the Celts, their language muft remain there in -its 'n-eatell purity. This opinion, though plaufible, is not juftified by experience. Many Celti-c words, as well as cuftoms, are there found j but the intcrcourfe which the Hebrides had with the Danes, Norwegians, and other northern nations, whofe language is mixed with the Sclavonian and Teutonic, which laft has no affinity with the CeltTc, has rendered their language a compound ; fo that it approaches in no degree to the purity of the Celtic, commonly called Erfe, which was fpoken by their neighbours inLochaber and the coafts of Scotland, the undoubted defcendants of the Celts, among whom their language remains more unmixed. The religion profefKd in the Hebrides is chiefiy prefbyterian, as eflablifhed in the church of Scotland ; but popery and ignorance ftill prevail among fome of the iflanders, v;hilfl fuperltitious pradices and cuftoms feern to be almolt grafted in their nature. Soil, mines, and quarries.] The furface of thefe iflands has undergone "■rcat alterations. Many of them„were habitationsof the Druids, whofe temples are Itill vifible ; and thofe temples were furrounded by groves, though little or no timber now grows in the neighbourhood. The flumps of trees are difcernible, as are many vcftiges of buildings erected fince the introduftion of Chriflianity. Experience daily lliews, that if 'the foil of the northern and weftern illands till of late were barren, cold, and uncomfortable, it was owing to their want of culture ; for fuch fpots as arc now cultivated, produce corn and vegetables more than fuf- Hcient for the inhabitants ; and fruit-trees are now brought tamaturity. Tin, lead, and filver mines j marl, Qaic, free-flone, and even quarries of marble, have been found upon thefe iflands. They are not dellitute of fine frcfh water j nor of lakes and ISLESofSCOTLAND. 133 and rivulets that abound with excellent trout. At the fame time it muft be owned, that the prefent face of the foil is ftill bare, and unornamented. Trade and manufactories.] Thefc are all in their infancy in thofe iflands. Their llaple commodities confifl: of fifh, efpecially herrings, which, when properly cured, are equal to thofe of the Dutch. They carry on likewile a confiderable trade in down and feathers ; their (beep afford them wool, which they manufac- ture into coiij-fe cloths ; and the linen manufacflures begin to make feme pro- grefs among them. They carry their black cattle alive to the adjacent parts of Scotland, where they are difpofed of in fale or barter ; as are laro-e Quantities of their mutton, which they fait in the hide. Upon the whole, application and induftry, with feme portion of public encouragement, are only wanting to render ihefe illands not only comfortable for their inhabitants, but ornamental and bene- ficial to their mother-country. Beasts, birds, and fishes.] In the neighbouring countries already defcrib- ed, mention has been made of molT: of the birds and fifties that have been difcovered here ; only it is thought that they contain a fpecies of falcon or hawk, of a more noble and docile nature than any that are to be found elfcwhere. The Shetland ifles are famous for a fmall breed of horfes, which are incredibly aiftive, flrong, and hardy. The coafls of thofe illands, till within thefe 20 years, feeraed, how- ever, to have been created, not for the inhabitants, but for flrangers. The latter furnifh the former with wines, ftrong liquors, fpice, and luxuries of all kinds, for their native commodities, at the gain uf above 100 per cent. But it is to be hoped that this pernicious traffic now draws to an end. Three thoufand bufies have been known to be employed in one year by the Dutch in the herrino- fifhery, befides thofe fitted out by the Hamburghers, Bremeners, and otheT northern ports. Rarities and curiosities,"^ Thefe iflands exhibit many proofs, in their artificial and natural. 5 churches, the velfiges of old forts, and ether buildings both facred and civil, that they were anciently more populous than they are now. The ufe and confcruftion of fomc of thofe works are not eafily accounted for. In a gloomy valley belonging to Hoy, one of the weftern iflands, is a kind of hermitage, cut out of a ftone called a dwarf-ftone, 36 feet long, i3 broad^ and nine thick ; in which is a fquare hole, about two feet high, for an entrance, with a ftone of the fame fize for a door. Within this entrance is the refeinblance of a bed, with a pillow cut out of the ftone, big enough for two men to lie on : at the other end is a couch, and in the middle a hearth, v/ith a hole cut out above for a chimney. It would be endlefs to recount the various veftiges of druidical temples, fome af which muft have required equal labour with the famous Stone- henge near Saliftury. Others fecm to be memorials of particular perfons, or aftions, confifting of one large flone, ftanding upright : fome have been fculp- tured, and others have ferved as fepulchres, and are compofed of ftones ce- mented together. Barrows, as they are called in England, are frequent in thefe iflands ; and the monuments of Danifh and Norwegian fortifications mi^ht lone employ an able antiquary to defcribe. The gigantic bones found in imny bu- rial-places here, give room to believe, that the former inhabitants were of larger fize than the prefent. It is likewife probable, from foir.e ancient remains, particu- larly catacombs, and nine filver fibulae or clafps, found at Stennis, one of'the Ork- neys, that the Romans were well acquainted with thefe parts. The cathedral of Kirkwall, tlie capital of the Crkneya, is a fine Gothic buildino-, dedicated to St. Magnus, but now converted into a parilh church. Its roof is fup- ported by 14 pillars on each fide, and its fteeple, in which is a good ring of bells by 134 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. by four pillars. The three gates of the church are chequered with red and white polilhed itones, embofTed and elegantly fiowered. The Hebrides are itili more diftinguillied than the Orkney or Shetland ifles •for their remains of antiquity ; and it would exceed the bounds allotted to this head, to mention every noted monument found upon them, dedicated to civil, religious, or warlike purpofes. We cannot, however, avoid taking particular notice of the celebrated ifle of lona, called St. Columb-Kill. Not to enter into the hiftory or origin of the religious edifices upon this iQand, it is fufficienc to fay, that it feems to have ferved as a fanftuary for St. Columba, and other holy perfons, whHe Ireland, England, and Scotland were defolated by barbarifm. Jc appears that the northern pagans often landed here, and paid no regard to the fandity of the place. The church of St. Mary, which is built in form of a cathedral, is a beautiful fabric. It contains the bodies of fome Scotch, Irifh, and Norwegian kings, with fome Gaelic infcriptions. The tomb of Columba, who lies buried here, is uninfcribed. The lleeple is large, the copula 21 feet fquare, the doors and win- dows are curioufly carved, and tlie altar is of the fineft marble. Innumerable infcriptions referring to ancient cultoms and ceremonies are difcernible in this ifland ; which gives countenance to the well-known obfervacion, that when learn- ing was nearly extind on the continent of Europe, it found a rei'uge in Scotland, or rather in thefe iflands. The iflands belonging to Scotland contain likewife fome natural curiofities pe- culiar to themfelves : the phafcoli, or Molucca beans, have been found in the Ork ' neys, driven as is fuppofed, from the 'sVcd Indies, by the wefterly winds, which often force afhore many curious fliells and marine produftions, highly efteemed by naturalifts. In the parilh of Harn, a large piece of Itag's horn was found very deep in the earth, by the inhabitants, who were digging tor marl ; and certain bitumin- ous effluvia produce furprifing phssnomena, which the natives believe to be fuper- natural. But fome of the mod artonifliing appearances in nature have remained undefcribed, and, till lately, unobferved, even by the natives. A difcovery re- ferved for the inquifitive genius of fir Jofeph Banks, who, in relating his voy- age through the Hebrides, anno 1772, fays, " \\^e Vv-'ere no fooner arrived than we were rtruck with a fcene of magnificence which exceeded our expeflations, the whole of that end of the iOand (viz. Stalfa, a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth) fupported by ranges of natural pillars, moflly above fifty feet high, Hand- ing in colonnades upon a firm bafis ot rock ; above thefe, the firatum which reaches to the foil or furface of the ifiand, varied in thicknefs as the ifland itfelf formed into hills or vallies ; each hill, which hung over the columns below, com- . pofed an ample jiediment ; fometimes fixty teet in thicknefs from the bafe to the point, and formed, by the floping of the hill on each fide, almolf into the Ihape of thofe ufcd in architeflure. " Compared to this, what arc the cathedrals or palaces built by men ? mere models or play-things. Imitations as diminutive, as his v/orks will always be, when compared to thofe of nature. Where is now the boaft of the archiiedl ! re- gularity, the only part in which he fancied himfelf to exceed his millrefs nature, is here found in perfection ; though \indefcribcd. — Proceeding farther to the N. W. you meet with the higheft ranges of pillars, the magnificent ajipearance of which furpafl"es defcription : here they are bare to their very bafcs, and the ftratum below them is alfo vifible." Sir Jofeph Banks particularifes fundr^ other appearances in this, and a neighbouring ifland, which is wholly compofed of pillars without any ftratum. In fome parts of Staffa, inftead of being placed upright, the pillars were obfcrved to lie on their fides, each forming a fegment of SCOTLAND. 135 of a circle ; but the mofl flriking objeft in this pifturefque fcene is Fingal's Cave, which he defcribcs in the following manner : — " With our nninds full of fuch refledtions, we proceeded along the fhore, treading upon another Giant's Caufeway, every ftone being regularly fornned into a certain number of fides and angles ; till, in a fhort time, we arrived at the mouth of a cave, the moft magni- ficent, I fuppofe, that has ever been defcribed by travellers *. The mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than fuch a fpace, fupported on each fide by ranges of columns, and roofed by the bottoms of thofe which have been broicen ofl'in order to form it ; between the angles of -which, a yellow ftalagticic matter has exuded, v>?hich ferves to define the angles precifely, and at tlie fame time vary the colour, with a great deal of elegance; and to render it ftill more agreeable, the whole is lighted from without; fo that the fartheft extremity is very plainly feen from with- out; and the air within being agitated by the flux and reflux of the tide, is pcrfeftly r,ry and wholefome, free entirely from the damp of vapours witli which natural ca- verns in general abound." Mr. Pennant, who alfo made a voyage to thefe iflands in the fan-'.e year, had a glance of Stafla, in his paflTage from lona to Mull, but was prevented by ftormy weather from approaching it. " On the well," fays he, " appears the beautiful groupe of the Trealhunilli ifles. Neareft lies Stafla, a new Giant's Caufeway, rifing amidft the waves, but with columns of double the height of that in Ireland ; glolTyand refplendent, from the beams of the eaftern fun." — And in the ifle of Sky, a confiderable way northward, he refumes the fubjeft : " We had in view a fine feries of genuine bafaltic columns, refembling the Giant's Caufeway ; the pillars were above twenty feet high, confirting of four, five, and fix angles, but moUly of five. At a finall diftance from thefe, on the flope of a hill, is a tracSt of fome roads en- tirely formed of the tops of feveral feries of columns, even and clofe fet, forming a reticulated furfacc of amazing beauty and curiofity. This is the mofl: northern bafaltes I am acquainted with ; the laft of four in the Britifli dominions, all running from fouth to north, nearly in a meridian; the Giant's Caufeway appears firft ; Stafl^a, &c. fucceeds ; the rock Humbla about twenty leagues t'arther, and finally, thofe columns of Sky r the depth of the ocean, in all probability, conceals the vaft links of this chain." Learning, learned ^tEN, and history.] See Scotland. S C O T L AN D. Extent and Situation. Miles. Degrees. Length 300 ; ij^j^ggj^ 5 54 and 59 North latitude. Breadth 1903 \ land 6 Wefl: longitude. Name.] rT~M-} E Celtc-e or Gauls are fuppofed to have been the original \_ inhabitants of this country. The Scots, a Scythian tribe, invad- ed it about the beginning of the fourth century, and having conqueied the Pkts^ • T he dimenfions of the cave are thus given by fir J. Banks : Feet Feet Length of the cave from the arch wi hoiic 371 At the end ... - - 70 From the pitch of the arch .... jjo Height of an outfide pillar . . . _ ,q Breadth of ditto at the mouth " ■ S3 Of one the N. W. coiner . . . c. At the farther end - - - - 20 Depth of water at the mouth . _ _ jg. Height of the arch at the mouth - - 117 At tfce bottoov - . . _ „ _ ^ Sh/S: 136 SCOTLAND. the territories of both were called Scotland. It is termed, by the Italians, Scotia; by the Spaniards, Efcotia j by the French, Efcofle j and Scotland by the Scots, Germans, and Englifli. Boundaries.] Scotland, which contains an area of 27,794 fquare miles, is bounded on the foiith by England ; and on the north, eaft, and weft, by the Deu- caledonian, German, and Irifh feas, or more properly the Atlantic Ocean. Divisions and subdivisions.] Scotland is divided into the countries fouth of the Frith of Forth, the capital of which, and of all the kingdom, is Edinburgh ; and thofe to the north of the fame river, where the chief town is Aberdeen. This was the ancient national divifion j but fome modern writers, with lefs accuracy, have divided it into Highlands and Lowlands, on account of the different habits, manners, and cuftoms of the inhabitants. Eighteen counties, or fhires, are allotted to the fouthern divifions, and 15 to the northern; and thofe counties are fubdividcd into ilieriffdoms, ftevvartries, and baili- wicks, according to the ancient tenui'es and privileges of the landholders. Shires. !' Sheriffdoms and other fubdivifions. 1. Edinburgh (429*) i Mid-Lothian — — 2. Eladdington (t2i) jEaft-Lothian — — The Merches, and Lau- derdale — — Tiviotdale,Lidfdale, Elk- dale and Eufdale — Ettrick Foreft Tweedale 3- Merfe, ancier Berwick! itly (114) 4- Roxborough 09 5) 5- 6. Selkirk Peebles (19) (4^) 7- Lanerk (388) 8. Dumfries (188) 9- Wigtown (190J \ 10. Kircudbright (100) 11. Air (280) 12. Dumbarton (66) 13. Bute (34) and 14. Caithnefs (105) Clydefdale — — Nithfdale, Annandale j Galloway, Weft Part Galloway, Eaft Part — ■ \ Kyle, Carrick, and Cun- i ningham — — Lenox — — — Bute, Arran, and Caith- nefs — — — Chief Towns, r r Edinburgh, W. Ion. 3. } } N. lat. 56. Muffelburgh, I I Leith, and Dalkeith. 1 r Dunbar, Haddington, and \ I North-Berwick. i I Dunfe, and Lauder. )t Jedburgh, Kelfo, and J t Melrofs. Selkirk. , Peebles. Glafgow, W. long. 4-5. N. lat. 55-52. Hamilton, Lanerk, & Rutherglcn. Dumfries, Annan. H\V'igtown, Stranraer, and Whitehorn. Kircudbright. "I r Air, Kilmarnock, Irwin, } { Maybole, Stewarton, J L and Saltcots. Dumbarton. HRotiifay. Wick,'N. lat. 58-40. and Thurfo, H* * Tlic numbers fhew the proportion of militia county in that kingdom ; but it is now formed into as propofid to l)c raifed in e.ith fliirc, wlicn that a loiv n and county of iiftlf, in a polltic: 1 I j,^j^^ M btrathy and Dornoch. { Fife Part - _ ]\ ^f °^'' Clacmannan, Al- t 1 ( loa, and Kinrofs. T 31. Rofs - X I BamfF and Cullcn. 138 SCOTLAND. Shires. O 1 3 J. Orkney C183) Rofs — (201) ^ Elgin — (145) Sheriffdoms and other fubdivifions. Eafter and \^'efter Rofs, Ifle of Lewis, Loch- broom, Lochcarren, Ardineanach, Red- j.< Chief Towns, Taine, Dingwall, For- trofe, Rofamarkic, and New Kelfo. Elgin and Forres. Kirkwall, W. Ion. 3. N. lat. 59-45- Skalloway, near the IVIe- ridian of London, N. lat. 6i. In all thirty-three fhlres, which choofe thirty reprefentatives to fit in the parlia- ment of Great Britain; Bute and Caithnefs clioofing alternately, as do Nairne and Cromartie, and Clacmannan and Kinrofs. The royal Boroughs which Edinburgh — — i Kirkwall, WicTc, Dornock, Ding- 7 ^ wall, and Tayne — \ Fortrofe, Invernefs, Nairne, and Forres — — • Elgin, Cullen, Bamff, Inverary, ) and Kintore — — 1 /iberdeen, Bcrvie, Montrofe, Aber- ? brothe, and Brechin — J Forfar, Perth, Dundee, Cowper, ? and St. Andrews — S Crail, Kilrenny, Anftruther Eafl: and Weft, and Pittenweem Dyfert, Kirkaldy, Kinghorne, and \ Burnt Ifland — — S choofe reprefentatives are, Innerkythen, Dumfermlin, QiiecnsfciTy,Culrofs, and Stirling Glafgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen, and Dumbarton — Haddington, Dunbar, North-Ber- wick, Lauder, and Jedburgh Selkirk, Peebles, Linlithgow, and Lanerk — — Dumfries, Sanquehar, *Annan, Lochmaban, and Kircudbright Wigtown, New Galloway, Stran- raer, and Whitehorn — A.ir, Irwin, Rothfay, Camnbel- town, and Inverary — } Climate, soil, air, and v/ater.] In the northern parts, day-light, at Mid- fummer, lafls 18 hours and five minutes ; which proportion of day to night is rcvcrfed in winter. The air of Scotland is more temperate than could be expcft- ed in fo northerly a climate. This arifes partly from the variety of its hills, val- lics, rivers, and lakes ; but ftill more, as in England, from the vicinity of the fea, which affords thofe warm breezes, that not only foftcn the natural kecnncfs ot the air, but, by keeping it in perpetual agitation, render it pure and healthful, and prevent thofe epidemic diftcmpcrs that prevail in many other countries. In the neighbourhood of fome high mountains, however, which are generally covered vith fnovv, the air is keen and piercing for about nine months in the year. The foil in general is not fo fertile as that of England ; and in many places lefs fitted for agriculture than for pafture. At the fame time, there arc particular plains and vallies SCOTLAND. ,39 vallics of the mofl: luxuriant fertility. The finer particles of earth, inccfTantly wafhed down from the mountains, and repofited in thefc valHcs, afford them a ftrong vegetative nourifhment : though experience has proved that hortulane pro- dutlions do not come fo foon to maturity in this country as in England. There is, indeed, a great variety of foils in Scotland, the face of which is agreeably diverfi- fiedby an intermixture of natural objefts. The inequalities of the ground, if un- favourable to the labours of the hufbandman, are particularly pleafing to a travel- ler, and afford thofe delightful fituations for country-houfcs, of which many of the Scottiili nobility and gentry have availed therafelves. It is their fituation as much as their magnificence, that occafions the feats of the dukes of Argylc and Athol, of lord Hoptoun, and many others, to fix the attention of every traveller. The water in Scotland, as every^whcrc clfe, depends on the qualities of the foil. Water paffing through a heavy foil is turbid and noxious, but filtrating through fand or gravel, is clear, light and falutary to the ftomach. This laft is commonly the cafe in Scotland. Mountains.] The principal mountains in Scotland are the Gramjiian hills, which run from eafl: to weft, from near Aberdeen to Cowal in Argylefhirc, almofl the whole breadth of the kingdom. Another chain of mountains, called the Pent- land-hills, runs through Lothian and join thofe of Tweedale. A third, called Lammer-Muir, riles near the eaftern coaft, and runs weftward throuo-h the Merfc. Befides thofe continued chains, among which we may reckon the Cheviot or Ti- viot-Hills, on the borders of England, Scotland contains many detached moun- tains, fometimes of great height, which, from their conical figure, have been dilVinguiflied by the Celtic appellation of Laws. Rivers, lakes, and forests.] The largefl; river in Scotland is the Forth, which riles in Monteith near Callcndar, and paffmg Stirling, after a number of beautiful meanders, difcharges itfelf near Edinburgh into that arm of the German fea to which it gives the name of Firth of Forth. Second to the Forth is the Tay, which iffues out of Loch Tay, in Broadalbin, and running fouth-eall, paffes the town of Perth, and falls into the fea at Dundee. The Spey, the moil: ra[)id river in Scotland, ilfucs from a lake of the fame name in Badenoch, and running from fouth-weft to'north-eaft, falls into the fea near lilgin ; as do the rivers Dee and Don, which run from weft to caft, and difem.bogue thcmfelvcs ac Aberdeen. " The Tweed rifes on the borders of Lanerkihire, and after many ferpentine turninp-s, dif- charges itfelf into the fea at Berwick, where it fervcs as a boundary between Scot- land and England, on the eaftern fide. The Clyde is a large river on the weft of Scotland, has its rife in Annandale, runs north-v/ell through the valley of that name, and, after paffing by Lanerk, Hamilton, the city of Glafgow, Renfrew, Dumbarton, and Greenock, falls into the Frith of Clyde, oppofite to the ifie of Bute. Befides thofe capital rivers, Scotland contains many of an inferior fort, well provided with falrnon, trout, and other filhes, which equally enrich and beautify the country. Several of thofe rivers go by the name of EJk, which is the old Celtic name for water. The greatefl: improvement for inland navigation that has been attempted in this part of Great Britain, was undertaken at a very confiderable expcnce, by a fociety of public-fpirited gentlemen,' for joining the rivers Forth and Clyde ; by which a communication has been opened between the eaft and weft fcas,- to the adv;uit-.ige of the whole kingdom. ■ The lakes of Scotland (there called Lochs) are too many to be particularly de- fcribed. Loch Tay, Loch Loinond, Lochnefs, Loch Au, and fome others, prefent us with fuch pifturefque fcenes as are fcarcely equalled in any other coun- try of Europe. Several of thefe lakes are beautifully fringed with woods, and contain- plenty of frefli-water fifties. Tlie Scots fomecimes give the name of a T 2 ' loch I40 SCOTLAND. loch to an arm of the fea j for example. Loch Fyn, which is 60 miles long and four broad, and is famous for its herrings. The Loch of Spinie, near Elgin, is remark- able for fwans and cygnets, which often darken the air with their flights ; ov/ing, as fome think, to the plant olorina, which grows in its waters, with a ilraight ftalk and a duller of feeds at the top. Near Lochnefs is a hill almoft two miles perpendi- cular, on the top of which is a lake of cold frefh water, about 30 fathoms in length, too deep ever yet to be fathomed, and which never freezes ; v/hereas, but 17 miles from thence, the lake Lochanwyn, or Green Lake, is covered with ice all the year round. The ancient province ot Lochaber receives that name from being the mouth of the lochs, by means of which the ancient Caledonians, the genuine de- fcendants of the Celts, were probably enabled to preferve themfelves independent of, and unmixed with the Lowlanders. Befides thefe rivers and lochs, the coafts of Scotland are indented with large, bold, and navigable bays or arms of the fca ; aS' the bay of Glenluce and Wigtoun bay ; fometimes they are called Jriths, as tlie Solway Frith, which feparates Scotland from Enghmd on the well ; the Frith of Forth, Murray Frith, and thofe of Cromarty and Dornoclj. The face of Scotland, even where it is moft uninviting, prcfcnts us with the mofl incontrovertible evidences of its having been formerly over-run with timber. The deepefl moffes, or moraffes, contain large logs of wood ; and their waters being im- pregnated with turpentine have a prelcrving quality, as appears by the human bodies which have been difcovered in thofe moffes. Tiie Sylva Caledonia, or Caledonian Forefb, the remains of which are now thought to be Etrick wood, in the fouth of Scotland, is famous in antiquity for being the retreat of the Caledonian wild boars ; but fuch an animal is not now to be feen. Several woods, however, {till remain ; and many attempts have been made for reducing them into charcoal, for the ufe of furnaces and founderies ; but lying at great diftance from water-carriage, thougli the work fucceeded in the execution, there was little encouragement to continue it. Fir trees grow in great pcrfedion almoft all over Scotland, and form beauti- ful plantations. The Scotch oak is excellent in the Flighlands, where fome woods reach 20 or 30 miles in length, and lour or five in breadth ; but, through the tnconveniency already mentioned, without being of much emolument to the proprietors. Metals and minerals.} Though Scotland cannot now boaft of its gold mines, yet, it is certain, that it formerly afforded a quantity of that metal for its coinage. James V. and his father contrafted with certain Germans for work- ing the mines of Crawford-Moor ; and when that prince married the French king's daughter, a number of covered difhes, filled with coins of Scotch gold, were prefented to the guefts by way of defert. The civil wars and troubles which followed, under his daughter, and in the minority of his grandfon, drove thofe foreigners, the chief of whom was called Cornelius, from their works, which fince that time have never been refumed. Some fmall pieces of gold have been found in thole parts wafhcd down by the floods. It likewiie appears by the public records, that thofe beautiful coins ftruck by James V. called bonnet-pieces, were fabricatctl of gold found in Scotland, as were other medals of the fame metal. Several landholders in Scotland derive a large profit from their lead mines, which are faid to be very rich, and to produce large quantities of filver ; but we know of no fi?ver mines that are worked at prefent. Some copper mines Iiave been found jiear Edinburgh ; and many parts of Scotland, in the eaft, wefl:, and northern coun- ties, produce excellent coal of various kinds, large quantities of which are export- ed. Liine-flonc is here in great plenty, as is free-fl:one ; fo that the houfcs of the better Ibrt are conftiiidcd of good materials. The indolence of the inhabitants of many places in Scotland, where no coal is found, prevented them from fupplying I that SCOTLAND. T41 thnt defefl; by plantations of wood ; and the peat-mofles being in many parts, of the north efpecially, almolt exhaufted, the inhabitants are put to great diRiculty for fuel ; however, the tafte for plantations, of all kinds, that now prevails, will Toon remedy that inconveniency. Lapis lazuli is faid to be dug up in Lanerkfhire ; alum mines have been found in Bamtflhire ; cryital, variegated pebbles, and other tranfparent ftones, which ad- mi: of the fmefi: polilli for feals, are found in various parts ; as are talc, flint, fea- fhells, potters clay, and fullers earth. The ftones which the country people call elf-arrow-heads, and to which they affign a fupernatural origin and ufe, were pro- bably the flint-heads of arrows made ufe of by the Caledonians and ancient Scots. No connrry produces gi^eater plenty of iron-ore, both in mines and ftones, than Scot- land ; of which the proprietors now begin to reap the advantage, in their founde- ries, at Carron, and other metalline manufaftures. Vegetable and animal pro-1 The foil of Scotland may be rendered, in DucTioNS, By SEA and LAND. ] many parts, nearly as fruitful as that of Eng- land. It is even faid, that fome tracts of the low countries at prefcnt exceed in value Englilli ellates of the fame extent, becaufe they are far lefs exhaufted than- thofe of the fouthern parts of the ifland ; and agriculture is now perhaps as well underftood, among many of the Scotch landlords and farmers, as in any part of Europe. Such is the mutability of things, and the influence of commerce, that a very confiderable part of the landed property has lately (perhaps happily for the public) fallen into new hands. The merchants and manufafturers are daily introducing new branches of induftry, and are no lefs attentive to the progrefs ot agriculture, bv which they do their country in particular, and the whole ifland in general, the moil cflential fervice. The adlive genius of thefe people extends even to moors, rocks- and marlhes, which being hitherto reckoned ufelefs, were confequently neglecfted, but are now brought to produce certain fpecies of grain or timber,, for which the foil is beft adapted. The fruits of ikill and induftry are chiefly perceivable in the counties lying upon the river Forth, called the Lothians, v^here, as well as in Angus, the farmers are well fed, well clothed, and comfortably lodged. The revei-fe, how- ever, may be obierved of a very confiderable part of Scotland, which ftill remains in a ftate of nature, and where the landlords, ignorant of their real intcrcft, refufe to grant fuch leafcs as would encourage the tenant to improve the farm. In fuch places, the hufbandman barely exills upon the gleanings of a fcanty farm, feldom exceeding 2C or 30 1. per ann. the cattle are lean and fmall, the houfes mean, and the face of the country exhibits the moft deplorable marks of poverty and oppref- fion. Indeed, from a miftakcn notion of the landed people in general, the greateft: part of the kingdom lies naked and expofed, for want of fuch hedge-rows and plant- ing as are common in England. They confider hedges as ufelefs and cumberlbme, occupying more room than ftone-inclofures, which, except in the Lothians, are ge- nerally low paltry walls, huddled up of loofe ftones, without lime or mortar, and have a bleak and mean appearance. The (oil in general produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, hemp, flax, hay, and pafture. In the fouthern counties, the fineft garden fruits are fiid to fall lictle fliorc of thofe in England ; and the fame may be faid of the common fruits. The un- •ultivated parts of the Highlands abound in various kinds of falubrious and plea- fanttafted berries ; while many extenfive trafts are covered Vvith a ftrong heath. The fea-coaft produces the alga-marina, dulfe or dulifh, in great quantities, and other marine plants, which are eat for nourifliment or pleafure. The fifhes on the coaft of Scotland are much the fame with thofe of the iflands and countries already defcribed ; but the Scotch have improved in their fifneries as 142 SCOTLAND. as much as they have in their manufaftures and agriculture : for focicties have been fornaed, which have carried that branch of national wealth to a perfection tliat never was before known in that country ; and the bill pafied in 1786, bids fair to enable them to emulate the Dutch, in curing, as well as catching, their fifli. In for- mer times, the Scotch fcldom ventured to fiih above a league's diftance from the land J but they now ply in the deep waters as boldly as any of their neighbours. Their falmons, v/hich they can fend more early, when prepared, to the Levant and fouthern markets than the Englifli or Irilh can, are of great fervice to the nation, as the returns are generally made in fpecie, or beneficial commodities. This country contains few or no kinds, either of wild or domeilic animals, that are not common v»ich their neighbours. I'he red-deer and the roe-buck are found in the Higlilands, but their Helh is not comparable to Englifli venifon. Hares, and other animah for game, are here plentiful ; alfo the groufe and heath-cock : the capperkaily, and the ptarmacan, birds of an exquifite liavour, but which are fcarce even in the Highlands, and v/hen difcovered are very iliy. The numbers of black cattle upon the lulls of Scotland towards the Highlands, and flieep that are fed upon the mountains of Tweedale, .and other parts of the fouth, are alnioft in- credible, and formerly brought large fums into the country ; the black cattle cfpe- cially, which, when fattened on the fouthern paftures, have been reckoned fuperior to Englifli beef. This trade is now on its decline, by the increafe of manufafturers, wliofe demand for butcher's meat mufl; Icflen the exportation of cattle into England. Some are of opinion, that a fufficient Hock, by proper methods miay be raifed to fupply both markets, to the great emolument of the nation. P'ormerly the kings of Scotland were at infinite pains to mend the breed of the Scotch horfes, by importing a larger and more generous kind Irom the continent : but, notwithltanding all the care that was taken, it was found that the climate and foil of Scotland were unfavourable to that noble animal, for they diminifhed botli in fize and fpirit ; fo that about the time of the union, tcv/ hori'es, natives of Scot- land, were of mxich value. Great efforts have been made of late to introduce the Encvlifli and foreign breeds, and fuch pains have been taken for providing tlieni with proper food and management, that fuccefs lias ani\vercd the m-oll fanguine expeftations. Population, inhabitants, 7 The population of Scotland is generally fixed MAKNERS, AND CUSTOMS.] 3 at about a million and 3 lialf of fouls. This cal- culation refts merely upon vague conjefture, as no attempt has been m;ule to fup- port even its probability. If we form an ellimate upon any known principle, the inhabitants of Scotland arc far more numerous. It is to be regretted tliat fonie public encouragement has riot been given to bring this matter nearer to a certainty, which might be done bv tlie returns of the clergy from their feveral pariflies. 'I'lie only re- ■ cords at prefent that can be appealed to, are thofe of the army ; and, by the beit in- formation, they make the number of foldiers furniflied by Scotland in the v/ar in 1755, an-.ount to 8o,oco men. We are to obferve, that above 60,000 of thefe were raifed in the iflands and Elighlands, which form by far the leaft populous part of Scotland. It belongs, therefore, to political calculation to compute whether the population of Scotland does not exceed two millions, as no country in the world, exclufive of the army, fends abroad more of its inhabitants. It" we confuit the rnoft ancient and credible hiftories, the population of Scotland, in the thirteenth' century, muft have been exceflfive, as it afforded fo many thoufands to f;ll by the fwoids of the Englifli, without any very fenfible decreafe of the inhabitants. 'I'he people of Scotland are generally raw-boned ; they are lean, but clean limb- ed, and can endure incredible fatigues. Tiieir adventuring fpirit was chiefly owing to their laws of fucceflTion, which invefl:ed the elder brother, as the head of the fa- mily, SCOTLAND. 143 mily, with the inheritance, and left but: a fcanty portion for the other fons. This obliged the latter to feek their fortunes aloroad, though no people have more afFeftion for their native foil. It is true, this difparity of fortune among the ions of one family prevails in England likewifc ; but the refources which younger brothers have in England are numerous, compared to thofc of a country fo narrow, and fo little improved, either by commerce or agriculture, as Scotland was formerly. An intelligent reader may eafily perceive, that family pride, which is not yet en- tirely cxtinguilhicd in Scotland, was owing to the feudal infbitutions which prevail- ed there in all their horrors of barbarity. Their family differences, efpecially the Highh'.nders, familiarized them to blood and flaughter ; and the death of an enemy, however effefted, was always a matter of triumph. Thefe paffions did not live in the breafts of the common people only, but were authorized and cheriflied by their chieftains, many of whom were men who had fcen the world, were converfant in the courts of liurope, mailers of polite literature, and amiable in all the duties of civil and locial lite. Their kings, except feme who were endov/ed with extraordinary virtues, were confidered in no other light than commanders of their army in time of war : for in peace their civil authority was fo little felt, that every clan, or fa- mily, even in the moll civilized part of Sco.land, looked upon its ov.'n chieftain as the fovereign. Thefe ideas were confirmed even by the l.iws, which gave thofe petty tyrants a power of lite and death upon their own eftatcs ; and they generally executed their hafty fentences in four and twenty houi's after the parties v/ere appre- hended. The pride which thofe chieftains had of outvying each other in the numbers of their followers, created perpetual animofities, which feldom or never ended without bloodflied; fo that the common people, whofe beft qualification was a blind devotion to the will of their mailer, and the aggrandifement of his name, lived in a flate of con- tinual hoftility. The late Archibald, duke of Argyle, was the firft chieftain who had the patriotifm to attempt to reform his dependents, and to banifh thofe barbarous ideas. His example has been followed by others ; and there can fcarcely be a doubt, but that a very few years will reconcile the Highlanders to all the milder habits cf fociety. Scotch gentlemen, v/ho formerly piqued themfelves upon their family, or the antiquity of their defcent, were very difagreeable members of focitty ; becaufe forgetting ail the virtues of their anceflors, they imitated them only in their ca- pricious vanity and revenge. Thofe who go abroad, and endeavour by induflry to raife the lownefs of their circumftances, excel in the civil, commercial, and military duties. There is a kind of fimilarity in their perlbnal charafters, and by feeing one Scotchman who acquires a fortune abroad, you fee the whole. They are in general hofpitable, open, communicative, and charitable. They af- fimilace to the manners of the people with whom they live, with more eafe and free- dom than the natives of moft other countries ; and they have a furprifing fiacility in acquiring languages, particularly the French. It remains perhaps a queftion, whether that lettered education, for whicli the Scots were noted by the neighbouring nations, was not of prejudice to their coun- try, while it was of the utmoft fcrvice to many of its natives. Their literature, however flight, rendered them acceptable and agreeable among foreigners ; but at the fame time it drained the nation of that order of men, who are the bell fitted for forming and executing the great plans of commerce and agriculture lor the pub- lic emolument. From what has been fliid, it appears that the ancient modes of living among the Scotch nobility and gentry are as far from being applicable to the prefcnt time, as the foni'xs i44 SCOTLAND. forms of a Roman fenate are to that of a popifli conclave ; and no nation, perhaps, ever underwent fo quick and fo fudden a tranfition of manners. The peafantry have their peculiarities ; their ideas are confined ; but no people can conform their tempers better than tiiey do to their ftations. They are taught from their infancy to bridle their paflions, to behave fubmiffively to their fupcriors, and live within the bounds of the mod rigid ceconomy. Hence they fave their money and their conftitutions, and few inftances of murder, perjury, robbery, and other atrocious vices, occur at prcfent in Scotland. They feldom enter fingly upon anv daring enterprize ; but when they a6t in concert, the fecrecy, fagacity, and re- folution, v/ith which they carry on any defperate undertaking, is not to be parallel- ed ; and their fidelity to one anotlier, under the ftrongefl temptations arifingfrom their poverty, is ftill more extraordinary. Their mobs are m.anaged with all the caution of confpiracies ; witnefs that v/hich put Porteus to death in 1736, in open defiance of lav/ and government, and in the midft of 20,000 people ; and, ■though the agents were well known, and fome of them tried, with a rev/ard of 500]. annexed to their conviftion, yet no evidence could be found fufficient to bring them to punifhment. The fidelity of the Highlanders of both fexes, under a ftill greater temptation, to the young Pretender, after his defeat at Culloden, could fcarcely be believed were it not well attelted. The lower clafs are not fo much accuftomed as the Englifh to convivial enter- tainments ; but when they partake of them, they feem, for that very reafon to enjoy them more completely. One teftimony there is, at once focial and charitable, and that is, the contributions raifed for celebrating the weddings of people of an inferior rank. Tiiofe feftivities partake of the ancient Saturnalia ; but though the com- pany confifts promifcuoufly of the high and the low, the entertainment is as decent as it is jovial. The guefts pay according to their inclination or ability, for wliich they have a wedding dinner and dancing. When the parties happen to be fervants in refpeftable families, the contributions are fo liberal that they often eftablilh the young couple in the v/orld. The inhabitants of thofe parts of Scotland, who live chiefly by pafture, have a natural vein of poetry ; and the beautiful fimplicity of the Scotch tunes is reliflied by all true judges of mufic. Love is generally the fubjeft, and many of the airs have been brought upon the Englifh ftage with variations, under new names, but with this difadvantage, that, though rendered more conformable to the rules of ert, thty are moftly altered for tlie worfe, being ftripped of that original fimj)li- city, which, however irregular, is their moft elfential charafteriflic, fo agreeable to tlie ear, and poffeffingfuch powers over the human breaft. Thofe of a more lively ftrain have had better fortune, being introduced into the army in their native drefs, by the fifes, an inflrument for which they are remarkably well fuited. It has been ridiculoufly fuppofed that Rizzio, tlie unhappy Italian fecretary of Alary queen of Scots, reformed the Scotch mufic. This is a falfehood invented by his country- men, in envy to the Scots. Their finefl tunes exiiled in their church mufic, long be- fore Rizzio's arrival ; nor does it ajipcar that Rizzio, who was cliicfly employed by his mifirefs in foreign difpatches, ever compoled an air during the fhort time he J'ivcd in Scotland; but, were there no other evidences to confute this report, the original ciinraiflerof the mufic is fufficient. The common people retain the folemn decent manner of their anceftors nt burials. When a relation dies, in a town, the parilh beadle is fent round with a palling bell ; hut he flops at certain ulaces, and with a flow melancholy tone announces the name of the party deceafed, and the time of his interment, to which he invites all his coun- trymen. At the hour appointed, if the deceafed was beloved in the place, vail num- bers SCOTLAND. 145 bers attend. Tlie procefTion is fomctimes preceded by the niagiflrates and their of- ficers, and the deccai'ed is carried in his coffin, covered by a velvet pall, with chair- poles, to the grave, where it is interred without farther ceremony than the near- eft relation thanking the company for their attendance. The funerals of the no- bility and gentry are performed in much the fame manner as in England, but without any burial fervice. The Highland funerals were generally preceded by bagpipes, which played certain dirges, called coronachs, v/ere accompanied by the voices both fexes. Dancing is a favourite amufemcnt in this country, but little regard is paid to art or gracefulnefs : tlie whole confiits in agility, and in keeping time to their own. tunes, which they do with great exaftnefs. One of the peculiar diverfions prac- tifed by the gentlemen, is the Goff, which requires an equal degree of art and ftrength : it is played by a bat and a ball ; the latter is fmaller and harder than a cricket ball ; the bat is of a taper conftruiStion, till it terminates in the part whicli ftrikes the ball, which is loaded with lead, and faced with horn. The diverfion it- felf refembles that of the Mall, which was common in England in the middle of the laft century. An expert player will fend the ball an amazing diflance at one flroke ; each party follows his ball- upon an open heath, and he who ftrikes ic- in feweft ftrokcs into a hole, wins the game. Tiie diverfion of Curling is, perhaps,, peculiar to the Scots. It is performed upon ice, with large flat ftones, often from twenty to two hundred pounds weight each, which they hurl from a common ftand to a mark at a certain diftancc ; and whoever is neareft the mark is the vi6tor. Thefe two may be called the ftanding fummer and winter diverfions of Scotland. The. natives are expert at all the other diverfions common in England, cricket excepted,, which the gentlemen confider as too athletic and mechanical. Language and dress.] I })lace thefe two articles under the fame head, be- caufe they had formerly an intimate relation to each other ; both of them being evi- dently Celtic. The Highland plaid is compofcd of a woollen fluff, fometimes very fine, called tartan. This fluff is of various colours, forming flripes which crofs each other at right angles ; and the natives value themfelvcs upon the judicious- arrangement, or what they call fets,. of thofe flripes and colours, which, where fkilfully managed, produce a pleafing effecSl to the eye. Abov« the fhirt, the. Highlander wears a waiftcoat of the fame compofition with the plaid, which com- monly confifts of twelve yards in width, and which they throw over the fhoulder- into very near the form of a Roman toga, as reprefented in ancient ftatues : fome- times it is fattened round the middle with a leatherc belt, fo that part of the plaid' hangs down before and behind like a petticoat, and fupplies the want of breeches. This they call being dreffed in a fhelig, which the Lowlanders call a kilt, and which is, probably the fame word with Celt. Sometimes they wear a kind of petticoat of the fame variegated ftufF, buckled round the waift, and this they term the fhilibeg,. which ieems to be of Milefiarf extraftion. Their ftockings are likewile of rartan, tied below the knee with tartan garters formed into taffels. The poorer people wear upon their feet brogues made of untanned or undrefTed leather ; for their heads a blue fiat cap is ufed, called a bonnet,, of aparticular woollen manufafture. From the belt of the philibeg hung generally their knives, and a dagger, which they called a dirk, and an iron piftol, fometimes of fine workmanfhip, and curiouflv inlaid with filver. The introdudlion of the broad fword of Andrea Ferrara, Ieems to be no earlier than the reign of James III. who invited that excellent workman to Scotland. A large leathern purfe, richly adorned with, filver,. hanging before them, was alwavs part of a Highland chieftain's drefs* The drefs of the Highland women confifted of a petticoat and jerkin, with ftraic iSeeves, trimmed or not trimmed, according to the quality of the wearer ; over thia they wore a plaid, which they either held clofe under their chins with the hand, or U fattened I • 146 S C O T L A N' D. faftened with a buckle of a particular fafliion. On the head they wore a kerchief of fine linen of different forms. The woman's plaid has been but lately difufed in Scotland by the ladies, who wore it in a graceful manner, the drapery falling to- wards the feet in large folds. A curious virtuofo may find a (trong refemblance be- tween the plaids and the variegated and fimbriated draperies of the ancients, tfpecially the Tufcans, who were probably of Celtic original. The attachii^ent of the Highlanders to this drefs, rendered it a bond of union, which often proved dangerous to government. Many efforts were made by the legiflature, after the rebellion in 17 15, to difarm, and oblige them to conform to the Low-country drelTes. The difarming fcheme was the moll: fuccefsful, for when the rebellion in 1745 broke out, the common people had fcarcely any other arms than thofe which they took from the king's troops. Their overthrow at Cullodeii rendered it no difficult matter for the legiflature to force them into a total change of their drefs. Its conveniency, however, for the purpofes of the field, is fo great, that the Highland regiments ftill retain it. Even the common people have of late refumed the ule of it ; and many of the Highland gentlemen' wear it in the fummcr time. The drefs of the higher and middling ranks in the L>ow-countrv, differ little tiom the Engliih ; but many of the pcafantry ftill retain the bonnet, for the cheap- nels and lighcnefs of the wear. The drefs of the women of all ranks is much the fame in both kingdoms, but not fo as to their neatneib, and the cleanlincfs of the female fervants. The language of the Highlanders, efpecially towards Lochabcr and Badenoch, is radically Celtic. The Englifli fpoken by the Scots, notwithftanding its provincial articulations, which are as frequent there as in the more fouthern counties, is written in the lame manner in both kingdoms. The pronunciation of a Scotchman is now improving, and with fome does not differ from the pronunciation of a Londoner, more than that of a Londoner does from an inhabitant of Somerfetfhire, and fome other counties. Punishments.] Thefc are much the fame in Scotland as in England, only that of beheading is performed by an inllrument called the Maiden : the model of which was brought from Halifax in England to Scotland, by the regent earl of Morton, and it was firft ufed for the execution of himfelf. Religion.] Ancient Scottiih hiftorians, with Bede, and other writers, generally agree that Chriftianity was firft taught in Scotland by fome of the difciplcs of St. John the apoftle, who fled to this northern corner to avoid the perfecution of Do- mitian, the Roman emperor ; though it was not publicly profeffcd till the beginning of the third century, when a prince, whom Scottifli hiilorians call Donald the Pirlt, his queen, and fevrral of his nobles, were folemnly baptized. It was farther confimi- ed by emigration from South Britain, during the perfecutions of Aurclius and l.")io- clefian, when it became the cftabliflTed religion of Scotland, under the management of certain learned and pious men, named Culdees, who feem to have been the firft re- gular clergy in Scotland, and were governed by overfeers or bifhops chofen by them- felves, from their own body, and who had no pre-eminence over their brethren. Thus, independent of the church of Rome, Chriftianity feems to have been taught, planted, and confirmed in Scotland, where it ftouriflied in its native fim- plicity, till the arrival of Palladius, a prieft lent by the bifliop of Rome, in the fifth century, who found means to introduce the ceremonies of the Romifli church, which at laft prevailed, and Scotland became involved in that darkncfs which for many ages overfprcad Europe ; though its dependence upon the pope was very llcndcr, when compared to the blind fubjcftion of other countries. The Culdees long rc-tained their original mannirs, 4nd remained a diflinfl order, notwithftanding the opprcffion of the Romifli clergy, lb late as the age of Robert Bruce, SCOTLAND. 147 Bruce, in the I4tli century, v,'hen they difappearcd. The oppofition to popery in this ifland, though it ccafed in Scotland upon the extlndtion of the Culdees, was in the lame age revived in England by John Wickliffe, a man of parts and learning, who was the forerunner in the work of reformation, to John Hufs and Jerome of Prague, as the latter were to Martin Luther and John Calvin. Rut though the doctrines of Wickliffe were nearly the fame with thofe propagated by the Reform- ers in the i6th century, and the age fecmed flrongly difpofed to receive them, af- fairs were not fully ripe for this great revolution ; and the finifliing blow ta popery in England was referved for the age of Henry VIIL Soon after that important evenc took place in England, when learning, arts, and fciences began to revive in Europe, the abfurditics of the Church ot Rome, as well as the profligate lives of her clergv, did not efcape the notice of a free and inquir- ing [)coplc, but gave rife to the Reformation in Scotland. It began in the reign of James V. made great progrcfs under that ol his daughter Mary, and was com- pleted through the preaching of John Knox, who had adopted the doctrines of Calvin, and was the chief reforn^iCr of Scotland. It was natural for his bre- thren to imagine, that upon the abolition of the Roman Catholic religion, they were to lucceed to the revenuesof thatclergy. The great nobility, vvhofe imagin- ations had already ingroilcd theie polfellions did not at firll difcourage this notion ;. but no fooner had Knox fuccceded in his defigns, which, through the fury of the jiiob, dellroyed fome of the iinell ecclefiailical buildings in the world, than the parliament, or rather the nobility, monopolized all the church-livings, and moft fcandalouily left the reformed clergy to live almoft in a ilate of beggary ; nor could all their efforts produce any great alteration in their favour. The great landholders left the doftrine and difcipline of the church to be modelled by the preachers, and they were confirmed by parliament. Succeed- ing events rendered the prefbyterian clergy of great importance to the flate ;. and their revenues have been fo much mended, that though no ftipend there ex- ceeds 150I. ayear, tew tallihort of 60I. and none of 5.0I. If the prefent expenfive mode of living continues in Scotland, the eftablilhed clergy will have many unan- fwerable realons to urge for the increafe of their revenues. The bounds of this work admit not of entering upon the dodlrinal and ceco^ nomical part of the church of Scotland. It is fufficient to fay, that its frrll prin- ciple is a parity of ecclefiaflical authority among all its prcfbyters ; that it agrees in its cenlures with the reformed churches abroad in the chief heads of oppolition to popery j but that it is modelled principally after the Calvinilfical plan effa- blifhed at Geneva. This eftablifhment at various periods, proved lb tyrannical^. by having the power of the greater and Icller excommunicaticm, which were attended by a forfeiture of eftate, and fometimes of life, that the kirk feffionSy and other Ijodies, have been abridged of their dangerous powers over the laity^ That relic of popery, the obliging fornicators of both fexes to fit upon what they tall a repenting-ltool, in the church, and in full view of the congregation,, begins to wear out ; it having been found, that the Scotch women, on account of that penance, were the greateft infanticides in the world. The power of the Scotch clergy is at pretent very moderate, or a: leaft very moderately exercifed ; nor are they ac- countable for the extravagancies of their predecelTors. They have been, ever fince the Revolution, firm adherents to civil liberty, and the houfe of Hanover ; and aift- cd with remarkable intrepidity during the rebellion in 1745. They drefb without clerical robes : but fome of them appear in the pulpit in gowns and bands, after the Geneva form. They make no ufe of fee forms in worfliip, but may freely ufe tlie Lord's Prayer. The rents of the bifhops, fince the abolition of epifcopacy, are- paid to the king, who commonly appropriates them to pious purpofes. A thoufand pounds a year is always fent by his majefty for the ufe of the proteftant fchools> U 2 eredted- 148 SCOTLAND. erefted by aft of parliament in North-Britain, and the Weftern Ifles ; and the Scotch clergy, of late, have planned out funds for the fupport of their widows and orphans. The number of parifhes in Scodand are eight hundred and ninety, where- of thirty-one are collegiate churches, that is, where the cure is ferved by move than one minifter. The higheft ecclefiaftical authority in Scotland is the general aflembly, which may be called' the ecclefiaftical parliament of Scodand. It confifts of commilTioners, fonie of which are laymen, under the title of ruling elders, from pren)yteries, royal burghs, and univerfities. A prefbytery, confifting of under twelve minirttrs, iends two miniliers and one ruling elder : if it contains between twelve and eighteen miniftcrs, it fends three, and one ruling elder : if it contains bctv^een eighteen and twenty-four minifters, it fends four miniliers and two ruling elders : but if the prefbytery has .twenty-four minifters, it fends five miniftcrs and two ruling eldcts. Every royal burgh fends one ruling elder, and Edinburgh tv/o ; whofe eleftion muft he attcfted by the refpeclive kirk-fcflions of their own burghs. Every univerfity fends one commiiTioner. The commiffioncrs are chofen yearly. The ruling elders are often peifons of the firft quality of the country. The king prefides by his commif- fioner (who is always a nobleman) in this aflembly, which meets annually, in May : but he has no voice in their deliberations. The order of dieir proceedings is regular, though the number of members often creates a confufion -, which the moderator, who is chofen by them to be fpeaker, has not fufficient autliority to prevent. Ap- peals are brought from all the other ecclefiaftical courts in Scotland to tiie general aflembly ; and no appeal lies from its determinations in religious matters. Provincial fynods are next in autliority. They are compofed of a number of the adiacent prefbyteries, over whom they have a power ; and there are fifteen of them ■inScotland ; but their ads are reverfible by the general aflembly. Subordinate to the fynods, are prefbyteries, fixty-nine in number, each confifting of feveral contigu- ous parifhes. The minifters of thefe pariihes, with one rulingelder, cliofcn half-yearly out of every kirk-feflion, compofe a prelbytery. Thefe prefbyteries meet in the head town of that divifion; but have nojurifdiciion beyond their own bounds, thoughwith- in thefe they have cognifancc of all ecclefiaftical matters. A chief part of their buli- .nefs is theordinatron of candidates for livings, in which they are regular and folemn. A kirk-feflion is the loweft ecclefiaftical judicatory in Scotland, and its authority idoes not extend beyond its own parifh. The members confift of the minifter, eld- ers, and deacons. The deacons are laymen, and aft much as church-wardens do in Eno^land, by having the fuperintendency of the poor, and taking care of other parochial affairs. The elder, or ruling elder, is a place of great parochial truft, and he is generally a lay perfon of quality or intereft in tlic parilh. I'hcy are fup- pofcd to aft in a kind of co-ordinancy with the minifter, and to he afl!ifting to him in many of his clerical duties, particularly in catechifing, vifiting the fick, and at tiie xommunion-table. The office of minifters, or preaching preft^yters, includes the offices of deacons nnd ruling-elders ; they alone can preach, adm nifterihe facramcnts, catcchife, pro- nounce church ccnfures, ordain deacons and ruling elders, afl^ift at the impofuion of hands upon other miniftersj and moderate or prefide in all ecclefiaftical judicatories. The cfiablifhed religion in Scotland was formerly of a rigid nature, and par- took of all the aufterities of Calvinilni, and of too much of the intolerance of popery : at prefent it is m.ild and gentle ; and the fermons and other theologi- cal writings of many of the modern Scotch divines, are equally diftinguilhcd by _good fenfe and moderation. It is to be wiflied, however, that this moderation was jiot too often interrupted bv the fanaticifm not only of lay feccders, but of regular minifters. Thefe arc induftrious to fix upon the abfiinlities of former divines and jt-ifionaries, and ecclefiaftical ordinances and difcipline, which were fiippofed to be in- SCOTLAND. 149 incompatible with the nature of government. They maintain tlieir own preachers t though Icarcely any two congregations agree either in princi[)le or pradice. A difiVrent fet of difienters in Scotland confifts of the epifcopalians, a few quakers, many papifts, and other fcdlaries, who are denominated from their preachers. Epif- copacy, from the time of theReitoration in 1660, to that of the Revolution in 168S, was the eftabliflied church of Scotland ; and would probably liave continued lb, had not the bifliops who were in general very weak men, and creatures of the duke of York, afterwards James VII. and 11. refufed to recognife king William's title. A Scotch cpifcopalian thus becoming another name for a Jacobite, they received fome checks after the rebellion in 1715 ; but at the breaking out of the rebellion in 1745, they becam.e again numerous, after which the government found means to invalidate the aCls of their clerical order. Their meetings, however, ftill fubfiil, but thinly. The decline of the nonjurors is far from having fuppreffed cpifcop..cy in Scotland : the Englifh bilhops fupply tiiem with clergy qualified according to law, whole chapels are chiefly filled by the Englilli, and fuch Scotch hearers of that pcrfuafion as have places under the government The defeiflion of fome great fa- milies from the caufe of popery, and the extindion of others, have rendered its votaries inconfiderable in Scotland. They are chiefly confined to the northern parts, and the iilands : and though a violent oppofuion has lately been raifed againfl them, they appear to be as quiet and inofl^enfive as protefliant fubjefts. Scotland, during the time of epifcopacy, contained two archbifliopricks, St. An- drews andGlafgow; and twelve biiliopricks, which are Edinburgh, Dunkeld, Aber- deen,. Murray, Brechin, Dumblain, Rofs, Caithnefs, Orkney, Galloway, Argyle, and the Ifles. Learning, and learned men.] For this article we may refer to the literary liiftory of Europe for 1400 years paft. The weftern parts and ifles of Scotland produced St. Patrick, the celebrated apoftle of Ireland ; and many others fince, whofe bare names would make a long article. The writings of Adamnarus, ftill extant, and of fome others, who lived before, and at the time of the Norman in- vafion, afrord fpecimens of their learning. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, moll unqueftionably held a correfpondence by letters with the kings of Scotland, with whom he entered into league ; and employed Scotchmen in planning, fettl- ing, and ruling his favourite univerfities, and other feminaries of learning, in France, Italy, and Germany, it is an undoubted truth, though a feeming para- doxical faift, that Barbour, a Scotch poet, philofopher, and hifl:orian, though prior in time to Chaucer, having fiouriflied in the year 1368, wrote, according to the modern ideas, as pure Englifli as that bard, and his verfificntion is perhaps more harmonious. The deftruclion of the Scotch monuments of learning and anti- quity have rendered their early annals lame, and often fabulous ; but the Latin ftyle of Buchanan's hiflory is to this day the mofl: clafllcal of all modern produc- tions. The letters of the Scotch kings to the neighbouring princes, are incom- parably the fined compofitions of the times in which they were written, and are free from the barbarifms of thofe fent them in anfwer. This has been confidered as a proof, that clafTical learning was more cultivated at the court of Scotland than at any other in Europe. The difcovery of the logarithms, a difcovery v/hich, in point of ingenuity and utility, may vie witli any that has been made in modern times, is the indifputable right of Napier of Merchifi:on. And fince his time, the mathematical fcienccs have b'ien cultivated in Scotland with great fuccefs. Keil, in his phyfico-mathematical works, to the clearnefs of his rcafoning has added the colouring of a poet, which is the more remarkable, not only as the fubjeft is little fufceptible of ornament, but as he wrote in an ancient language. Of all writers on agronomy, Greporv is allowed to be one of the mod ^icrfeft and elegant. Maclaurin, the companion and i_5o SCOTLAND. and the friend of Sir Ifaac Newton, was endowed with all that precifion and force of mind, which rendered him peculiarly fitted for bringing down the ideas of that great man to the level of ordinary apprehenfions, and for diffufing that light through the world, which Newton had confined within the fphere of the learned. His i'reatife on Fluxions is regarded, by the bell judges in Europe, as the clearelt account of the moll refined and fubtiie fpeculations on which the human mind ever exerted itfelf with fuccefs. While Maclaurin purfucd this new career, a geome- trician no lels famous diftinguifhcd himtelf in the almoft deferted tra£t of antiquity. This was the late Dr. Simfon, well known, for his ilUiftration of the ancient geo- metry. His Elements of Euclid, and his Conic Sections, are fufficient to eflablifh the fcicntific reputation of his native country. This, however, does not reft on the characSter of mathematicians and ntlronomers. The fine arts have been called fiflers to denote their affinity. There is the fame connexion between the fciences, parti- cularly thofe which depend on obfervation. Mathematics and phyfics, properly ib called, were in Scotland accompanied by the other branches of lludy to which tiiey are allied. In medicine particularl)', the names of Pitcairn, Arbuthnot, Monro, Whytt, &c. hold a diftinguifhed place. Nor have the Scots been unfuccefsful in cultivating the Belles Lettres. Fo- reigners who inhabit warmer climates, and conceive the northern nations inca- pable of tendernefs and feeling, are aftonifhed at the poetic genius and delicate fenfibility of Thomfon. But of all literary purfuits, that of rendering mankind more virtuous and happy, which is the proper objeft of what is called morals, ought to be regarded with peculiar honour and refpeft. The philofophy of Dr. Hutchefon, not to mention other works more fubtiie and elegant, but lefs convincing and lefs jnflruitive, defervts to be read by all who would know their duty, or who would wifh to praftife it. Next to Locke's Eflay on the Human Underftanding, it is perhaps the belt diiTeftion of the human mind, that hath appeared in modern times; and it is likewife a moft ufeful fupplement to that Effiry. It would be cndlefs to mention all the individuals who have diiiinguiflied themfelves in the various branches of literature ; particularlv as thofe who are alive (fome of them in high citeem for hiftorical compofition) difpute the palm of merit with the dead, and cover their country with laurels. Universities.] The univerfities of Scotland are four, viz. St. Andrews*, founded in 1 411. — Glafgowf, 1454. — Aberdeen :{;, 1477. — And Edinburgh||, 1582. * St. Andrews has a Chancellor, two Principals, and eleven Profcflbrs in- Greek,. Logic, Mathematics, Divinity, Humanity, Moial Philofophy, Civil Hiltory, Medicine. }Jcbic\v, Natur.il Philofophy, Church Hiftory, f Glafgow has a Chancellor, Rcdor, Dean of Faculty, Principal, and fourteen Profcflbrs in (5 reck, Lo};ic, Prai'tical Alirononiy, Medicine, Humanity, Moral Philofophy, Hiftory, Anatomy. Hebrew, Natural Philofophy, Divinity, Oriental Lanqunges, Mathematics, Civil and Scotch T,aw, \ Aberdeen has properly two colleges, viz. King's College, and Marifchal College; King^s College has a Chajict llor, ReClor, Principal, and Icven Profcflors in Creek, Oriental Languages, Divinity, Medicine Humanity, Philofophy, Civil Law, Marifchal College has a Chancellor, Rcftor, Principal, and levcn Profcflbrs in. Greek, Moral Philofophy and Natural Philofophy, Divinity, Oriental Languages, Logic, Mathematics, Medicine. II Edinburgh has a Patron, Principal, and Profeffi)rs in Divinity, Natural Philofophy, Law of Nature and iN a- lull, of Phyfic and Church Hiiloiy,. Maihcmatics, tions. Medicine, (;ieck. Civil Hiftory, Rhetoric, and Belles Pradice of Medicine, Humanity, Natural Hiftory, Lettres, Chemillry, Hebrew, Scotch Law, Botany, Anatomy, Logic, Civil Law, M;ucna Medics, Midwifery. Moral Philofophy, CiTiES, SCOTLAND. is^^i Cities, towns, and other edifices'? Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. ^ naturally claiiiis our firft attention, in this divifion. Its callle, before the ufe of artillery, was deemed impregnable ; and was probably built by the Saxon king Edwin, whofe territories reached to the Frith of Forth, and who gave his name to Edinburgh, as it certainly did not fall into the hands of the Scots till the reign of Indulphus, who lived in the year 95:;. The town was built for the benefit of prote6lion from the caftic, and a more inconvenient fituation for a capital can fcarcely be conceived; the high-ftreet, which is on the ridge of a hill, lying eaft and weft; and the lanes running down its fides, north and fouth. In former times the town was furrounded by water, except towards the call:; fo that when the French landed in Scotland, during the regency of Mary of Guife, they gave it tiie name of Liflebourg. This fituation fuggefted the idea of building very lofty houfes divided into ftories, each of which contains a fuite of rooms, generally large and commodious for the ufe of a familv ; fo that the high-ftreet of Edinburgh, which is chiefly of hewn flone, broad, and well-paved, makes a moft auguit appearance, efpccially as it rifes a full mile in a direct line, and gradual alcent from the palace of Holyrood-houfe on the eaft, and is terminared on the weft by the rude majefty of its caftle, built upon a lofty rock, inacccftible on all fides, except where it joins to the city. The caftle not only' overlooks the city, its environs, gardens, the new town, and a rich neighbouring country, but commands a moft extenfive profpeft of the river Forth, the Ihipping, the oppofice coaft of Fife, and even fome hills, at the diftance of 40 or 50 miles, which border upon the Flighlands. The caftle has fome good apartments, a toler- able train of artillery, a large magazine of arms and ammunition, and contains the regalia, which were depofited here under the moft folemn legal inftrumencs of their never being removed from thence. All that is known at prefent of thofe regalia is contained in the inftrument which was taken at the time of their being depofited, where they are fully defcribed. Facing the caftle, at a mile's diftance, ftands the abbey, or rather palace, of Holy- rood-houfe. The inner quadrangle of this palace, begun by James V. and finifhed by Charles I. is of mjgnificent modern architefture, built according to the plan, and under the direftion of fir William Bruce, a Scotch gentleman of family, and one of the greateft architects of that age. Round the quadrangle runs an arcade, adorned withpilafters; and the infide contains good apartments for the duke of Hamilton, who is hereditary keeper of the palace, and for other noblemen. Its long galleiy con- tains figures, fome of which are from portraits, but all of them painted by modern hands, of the kings of Scotland down to the time of the Revolution. Jan-.es VII. when duke of York, intended to have adorned the neighbourhood of this palace, which is fituate at the bottom of bleak crags and bare niountains. The chapel, belonging to the palace, as it ftood when repaired and ornamented by that prince, is thought to have been a moft elegant piece of Gothic architecture. It had a very lofty roof, and two rooms of ftone galleries fupported by curious pillars. It was the conventual church of the old abbey. Its iniidc was demolifhed and rifled of all its rich ornaments, by the fury of the mob at the Revolution, which even broke into the repofitories of the dead, and difcovered a vault, till that time un- known, which contained the bodies of James V. his firft queen, and Henry Darn- Jey. The walls and roof of this ancient chapel fell down on the 2d and 3d of December, 1768, occalioned by the enormous weight of a new ftone roof, laid over it fome years ago, which the walls were unable to fupport. The hofpital, founded by George Herriot, goldfmith to James VI. ftands to the fouth-weft of the caftle, in a good fituation. It is the fineft and moft regular fpe- cimen which Inigo Jones (who went to Scotland as architeft to queen Anne, wife of king James VI.) has left us of his Gothic manner, and is, upon the whole, a I delightful T52 SCOTLAND. tlelightrul fabric, and adorned with gardens, not inelegantly laid out. It was built for the maintenance and education of poor children belonging to the citizens of Edinburgh, and is under the direftion of the city magilh-ates. /.mong the public edifices of Edinburgh is the college, which claims the privi- leges of an univerfity, founded by king James VI. and by him put under the direClion of the magiftrates, who have the power of chancellor and vice-chancellor. Little can be faid of its buildings, which were calculated for the fober literary manners of thofe days. What is of more importance, it is fupplied with excellent profef- fors in the feveral branches of learning ; and its fchools for every part of the me- dical art are reckoned equal to any in Europe. This college is provided with a. library, founded by Clement Little, which is faid to have been of late greatly aug- v^ientcd ; and a mufeum belonging to it was given by fir Andrew Balfour, a phy- fician. It contains feveral natural, and fome literary curiofities. The magifirates of Edinburgh intend to ereft a new and elegant ilrudure upon the prefent fitua- tion„ as foon as a fund can be formed adequate to the expence. The Parliament-fquare, or, as it is there called, Clofe, was formerly the moft. ornamental part of the city ; it is formed into a quadrangle, part of which confills. of lofty buildings ; and in the middle is a fine equeftrian Itatue of Charles II. The room built by Charles I. for the parliament-houfe, though not ib large, is faid to be better proportioned than Wellminfter-hall ; and its roof, though execut- ed in the fame manner, has been by good judges held to be fuperior. It is now. converted into a court of law, where a fingle judge, called the lord ordinary, pre- fides by rotation ; in a room near it, fit the other judges; and adjoining are the public offices of the law, exchequer, chancery, fhrievalty, and magiftracy of Edin- burgh ; and the valuable library of the lawyers. This equals any thing of the- kind to be found in England, or perhaps in any part of Europe, and was at firft founded and furniihed by lawyers. The numbers of printed books it contains is. amazing ; and the colleftion has been made with tan;e and judgment. It contains, likewife tlie moR valuable manufcript remains of the Scotch hiftory, chartularics, and other papers of antiquity, with a feries of medals. Adjoining to the library is the room where the public records are kept ; but both, though lofty in the roof, are dark- and difmal. It is faid that preparations are now carrying on, for lodging the books.- and papers in rooms better fuited to their importance and value. The High Church of Edinburgh, called that of St. Giles, is a large Gothic building, and its fteeple is furmounted by arches formed into an imperial crown, which has a good efi^eft. The churches, and other edifices of the city, eredled be- fore the union, contain little but what is common to fuch buildings ; but the ex- cellent pavement of the city, which was begun two centuries ago by one Merlin, a Frenchman, deferves particular attention. This pavement has been lately, much improved. Th.e modern edifices in and near Edinburgh, fuch as the exchange, public of- fices, its hofpitals, bridges, and the like, demonftrate the improvement of the tafte of the Scots in their public works. Parallel to the city of Edinburgh, on the north,, the nobility, gentry, and others, have almoft completed a new town, upon a plan, which does, honour to the prefent age. The ftreets and fquares are laid out with regularity, and the houfes are built of (lone,, in an elegant tafte, with all the con- veniences that render thofe of England fo delightful and commodious. The fronts- of fome are fuperbly finiflicd, difplaying at the fame time the judgment of the- builder, and the public fpirit of the proprietors. Between the old and the new town lies a narrow bottom or vale, .which, agreeably to the original plan, was to have been formed intoaflieet of water, bordered by a. terrace walk, and the afcent towards the new town covered with pleafurc gardens,, fluubberics, &c. But this elegant defign has not yet taken place. At the weft,, QJ SCOTLAND. .153 or upper end of this vale, the caftle, a folid rock, not lefs than twenty ftorics high, looks down with awful magnificence. The eaftern extremity is bounded by a ftriking objcft of art, a lofty bridge*, the middle arch being ninety feet high, which joins the new buildings to the city, and renders the defcent on each fide the vale (there being no water in this place) more commodious for carriages. I am the more particular in defcribing this place, that the reader may form fome idea of its pleafant fituation, Handing on an eminence, with a gentle declivity on each fide, in the heart of a rich country ; the view fouthward, that of a romantic city, its more romantic caftle, and diftant hills rifing to an amazing height; while the profpeft northward gives lull fcope to the eye, pleafes the imagination, and fills the mind with fuch ideas as the works of nature alone can infpire. This city maybe confidered, notwithftanding its caftle, and a wall which enclofes it on the fouth fide, of a very modern fabric but in the Roman manner, as an open town ; fo that it would have been impradicable for its inhabitants to have defended it againft the rebels, who took pofTelTion of it in 1745. A certain clafs of readers would think it unpardonable, fliould 1 omit mentioning that Edinburgh contains a playhoufe, which has now the fanftion of an aft of parliament; and that concerts, affemblies, balls, mufic-meetings, and other polite amufements, are as frequent and brilliant here, as in any part of his ma'icfty's dominions, London and Bath excepted. In the new town are feveral handfome and convenient hotels, and the coffee-houfes and taverns in the old town are inuch improved. Edinburgh is governed by a lord provoft, four baillies, a dean of guild, and a treafurer, annually chofen from the common-council. Every company, or incor- porated trade, choofes it own deacon, and here are 14. The lord provoft is colonel of the town-guard, a military inftitution to be found in no part of his majefty's do- minions, but at Edinburgh: they ferve for the city watch, and patrole the ftreets, are ufeful in fupprefiing fmall commotions, and attend the execution of fentences upon delinquents. They are divided into three companies, and wear an uniform ; they are commanded by three officers, under the name of captains. Befides this guard, Edinburgh raifes 16 companies of trained bands, which ferve as militia.. The revenues of the city conlift chiefly of that tax v,'hich is now common in mofl: of the bodies corporate of Scotland, of two Scotch pennies, amounting in the whole to two-thirds of a farthing, laid upon every Scotch pint of ale (containing two Englifli quarts) confumed within the precinfts of the city. This is a judici- ous impoft, as it renders the pooreft people infenfible of the burden. Its product has been fufficient to defray the expence of fupplying the city with ex-cellent water, brought in leaden pipes at the diftance of four miles; of erefting refervoirs, en- larging tlie harbour of Leith, and completing other public works, of great expence ■df\d utility. Leith, though near two miles diftant, may be properly called the harbour of Edinburgh, being under the fame jurifdidtion. It contains the remains of two citadels (if they are not the fame), which were fortified and bravely defended by the French under Mary of Guifc, againft the Englifti, and afterwards repaired by Cromwell. The neighbourhood of Edinburgh is adorned with noble feats, which are increafing; particularly, the earl of Abercorn's, a flrort way from the city, the duke of Buccleugh's houfe at Dalkeith, that of the marquis of Lothian at Newbot- tle, and Hoptoun-houfc, fo called from the earl its owner. About four miles from Edinburgh is'Roflin, noted for a ftately Gothic chapel, counted one of the liioft: • A bridge has been lately erefted tnwards W'iU be pioduCtivc of many advantages, and af- the foutli, which not only connefts the buildings ford a great incieafe of revenue to the city of in that quarter, with the old and new towns, Edinburgh, b.ut admits of an eafy accefs to the country. It X curious' 15-1- SCOTLAND. curious pieces of workmanfliip in Europe ; founded in the year 1440 by William Sr, Clair, prince of Orkney, and duke of Oldenburgh. Glafgow, in the fhire of Lanerk, fituated on a gentle declivity floping towards the river Clyde, 44 miles well of t.dinburgh, is, for population, commerce, and riches, the fecond city of Scotland, and, confidering its fize, the firft perhaps in Europe, as to elegance, regularity, and the materials of its buildings. The ftreet? crofs each other at right anghs, and are broad, ftraighc, well paved, and confe- quently clean. The houfes are in general tour or five ftories high, and many of them towards the centre of the city, are fupported by arcades. Some of the mo- dern built churches are in a good flyle of architefture ; and the catliedral is a Gothic bulldlnor. It contains three churches, one of v/hich Hands above another, and is furniflied with a fine fpire fpringing from a tower ; the whole being reckoned a mailerly fabric. - It was dedicated to St. Mungo or Kentigern, who was bifhop of Glafgow in the 6th century. The cathedral is upwards of 600 years old, antl waspreferved tVom the fury of the rigid Reformers by the refolution of the citizens. The town houi'e is a lofty building, and has noble apartments tor the magillrates. The univerfity is efteemed the befl: built of any in Scotland, is at prefent in a thriv- ing ftate ; and its buildings will be much improved and extended, in confcquence of the liberal donations bequeathed by the late Dr. Hunter. In this city are feveral well-endowed hofj)itals ; it is well fupplied with inns ; and, near the iTioft populous part of the town, where the traders affemble, is a hotel, tavern, anci fpacious cofiee-houfe, named the I'ontine, fupported by fubfcription. It is, per- haps, equal to any thing of the kind, and well calculated for the accommodation of ftrangers and the inhabitants of this commercial city. They have lately built a hand- fome bridge acrofs the river Clyde ; but our bounds do not allow us to parti- cularize that, and the other public-fpirited undertakings of this city carrying on by the inhabitants, who do honour to the benefits arifing from their commerce, both foreign and internal ; which they carry on with amazing fuccefs. In Glafgow are feven churches, and eight or ten meeting-houfes for feflaries of various denomi^ nations. Its inhabitants have been eftimated at 50,000. Aberdeen is the third town in Scotland for improvement and population. It is the capital of a fhire, to which it gives name, and contains two towns. New and Old Aberdeen. The former is the fhire-town, and evidently built for the purpofe of commerce. It is a large well-built city, and has a good quay, or tide-harbour : in it are three churches, and feveral epifcopal meeting-houfes, a confiderable degree of foreign commerce and much Ihipping, a well-frequented univerfity, and above 25,000 inhabitants. Old Aberdeen, near a mile dillant, though almofi: joined to the New,' by means of a long village, has no dependence on the other : it is a mo- derately large market-town, but has no haven. In each of thefc places there is a well-endowed college, both together being termed tiie univerfity of Aberdeen, though independent of each other. There is, at prefent, a profpeifl of their be- ing united. Perth, the capital town of Perthfliirc, lying on the river Tay, trades to Norway and the Baltic : is finely fituated, has an improving linen manufaftory, and lies in. the neighbourhood of one of the moft fertile fpots in Great Britain, called the Carfe of Gowry. Dundee, by the general computation, contains about 20,000 inhabit- ants : it lies near the mouth of tlie river Tay ; is a town of confiderable trade, ex- porting much linen, grain, herrings, and peltry, to foreign parts ; and has three churches. JVlontrofc, Aberbrothick, and Brechin, lie in the fame county of Angus :. The trade of the firft has declined, but tlie manufafturcs of the other two are irj an improving ftate. It may be necefiiliry again to mention, that I write with great uncertainty witli regard to the population of Scotland. Edinburgh certainly contains more than 60,000 SCOTLAND. 155 60,000 fouls, which is the common computation, to wliich I all along conform my- felf : but the influx of people and the increafe of matrimony in proportion to tliat of property, muft create great alterations for the better, and few for the worfc, be- caufe the inhabitants who are difpofed to induftry may always find employment. This uncertainty is the reaion why a particular defcription of Dumfries, Air, Green- ock, Paifley, Stirling, and about 50 other burghs and towns of very conliderablc trade in Scotland, is omitted. The ancient Scots valued themfelves upon trufting to their own valour, and net to fortifications, for the defence of their country. This was a maxim more heroical perhaps than prudent, as they have often experienced. The caftles of lidinburgh, Stirling, and Dumbarton, formerly thought places of great ftrength, could not hold out 48 hours, if befieged by 6000 regular troops, with proper artillery. Fort Wil- liam, which lies in the Well Highlands, is fufficieni to bridle the inhabitants of the neighbourhood ; as are Fort George and Fort Auguftus, in the north and norih-wcll : but none of them can be confidered as defences againft a foreign enemy. It is needlcfs to give a defcription of the edifices that within the courfe of this and the laft century, have been ereded by private perfons in Scotland, becaufe they are fo numerous. It is fufficient to fay, that many of them are equal to fome of the moft fuperb buildings in England and foreign countries : and the reader's furprife at this will ceafe, when he is informed that the genius of no people in the world is more devoted to architetSture than that of the nobility and gentry in Scotland ; and that there is no country in Europe, on account of the cheapnefs of materials, where it can be gratified at fo moderate an expcnce. This may likewife account for the llupendous Gothic cathedrals, and other religious edifices wliich anciently abound- ed in Scotland : but at the time of the Reformation they were moftly demoliflied, by a furious and tumultuous mob, who, in thefe pradtices, received too much countenance from the reforming clergy, exalperated at the long fuffering they h^d endured from the popifh party. Antiqitities AND CURIOSITIES, 7 The Roman, and other antiquities, found NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. \ in Scotland, have furniflied matter for large volumes. The ilations of the Roman legions, their caftclla, their pretentures or walls reaching acrofs the ifland, have been traced with great precifion by antiqua- ries and hiftorians ; fo that without fome frefl-i difcoveries, an account of them could afford no inllruftion to the learned, and but little amufement to the ignorant ; be- caufe at prefent they can be difcovered only by critical eyes. Some mention of the chief, however, may be proper. The courfe of the Roman wall (or, as it is call- ed by the country people, Graham's dyke, from a tradition that a Scottilli v/arrior of that name firft broke over it) between the Clyde and Forth, which was firfl: marked out by Agricola, and completed by Antoninus Pius, is ftill difcernible, as are feveral Roman camps in the neighbourhood *. Agricola's camp, at the bottom of the Grampian hills, is a remain of Roman antiquity. It is fituattd at Ardoch, in * Near the wcftcrn extremity of this wall, at whole without tlcmolilhing it. The tiles are c.f Duntochcr, in Dumhartonfliirc, acoimtryiiKin, iti feven diti'ercin iizes ; the fnialicil: beitjij feven, digging a trench upon the declivity of a h'ill, upon and the lar>;tft twenty-one inches fi^uaie". They which are feen the remains of a Roman fort, turned are from two to three inches in thicknefs, of a up feveral uncommon tilts, which excitinsf the reddifli colour, and in a pcrfedly found condiiion. curiofity of the pealantry in that neighbourhood, The lefler ones compofc fevern'l rows of pillars, it was not long before they broke in upon an entire which form a labyrinth of paflages about <■ igiweeix fubterraneous building, from which they dug out inches fquare ; nnd the larger ti'les brins lai J over a cart load ot thefe materials. A gentleman, found the whole, fcrve as a roof to fuppo t tha ei' th means, _upon_ the iccond day, to Hop all farther above, which is f>und to be two feet in depth, proceedings, in hopes that fome public-fpirtcd per- The building is furrounded by a fubterr.ineous Ions would, by tiiking off the furfacc, explore the wall of hewn flone. X 2 Perth- 156 SCOTLAND. Perthfhire, ami is generally thought to have been the camp occupied byAgricok, before he fought the battle, fo well recorded by Tacitus, with the Caledonian king GalgacuSj who was defoated. Some writers think, that this remain of antiquity at Ardoch was, on account of the numerous Roman coins and infcriptions found near it, a Roman caftellum or fort. It is the moft entire and beft preferved of any Roman antiquity of that kind in North Britain, having nolefs than five rows of ditches and lix rampi^rts on the fouth fide ; and of the four gates which lead into the area, three are very diftinft and plain, viz. the prjetoria, decum.ana, and dextra. The Roman temple, or building in the form of the Pantheon at Rome, or the dome of St. Paul's at London, flood upon the banks of the river Carron, in Stir- ling(hire, but has been lately barbaroully dcmolilbed by a neighbouring Goth, for the purpofe of mending a mill-pond. Its height was tv/enty-two feet, and its ex- ternal circumference at the bafe was eighty-eight feet ; fo that upon the whole it was one of the moll complete Roman antiquities in the world, it is thought to have been built by Agricola, or fomc of his fucceifors, as a temple to the god Terminus, as it llood near the pretcnture which bounded the Roman empire in Britain to the north. Near it are fome artificial conical mounts of earth, which ftill retain the name of Duni-pace, or Duni pacis : which ferve to evince that there was a kind of compromife between the Romans and Caledonians, that the former fhould not extend their empire farther to the northwards. Innumerable are the coins, urns, utenfils, infcriptions, and other remains ot the Romans, that have been found in different parts of Scotland ; fome of them to the north of the wall, where, however, it does not appear that they made any ellabliflimtnt. By the infcriptions found near the wall, the names of the legions that built it, and how far they carried it on, may be learned. The remains of the Roman highways are frequent in the fouthern parts. Daniih camjis and fortifications are difcernible In feveral northern counties, and are known by their fquare figures and difficult fituations. Some houfes of ftupend- ous fabrics remain in Rofs-lliire, but whether they are Danifli, Piftifii, or Scottilh, does not appear. The elevations of two of them are to be feen in Gordon's Itin- erarium Septentrionale. 1 am of opinion that they are Norwegian or Scan- dinavian flruttures, and built about the fifth century to favour the dcfcents of that ])eople upon thofe coafls. Two Pidtifii monuments, of a very extraordinary con- ftruClion, were lately Handing in Scotland ; one of them at Abernethy in Perth- fhire, the other at Brechin in Angus : both of them are columns, hollow in the infide, and without a fl;air-cafc ; that of Brechin is the moft entire, being covered at the top with a fpiral roof of (lone, with three or four windows above the cornice : it confills of fixty regular courfes of hewn freeftone, laid cirularly and regularly, and tapering towards the top *. The vclViges of ereftions by the ancient Scots, are not only curious but inflrudive, as they regard many important events of their hiftory. That people had a rude notion of fculpturc, in which they tranfmitted the adions of their kings and heroes. At a place called Aberlemno, near Brechin, four or five ancient obclilks arc ftill to be Icen, called the Daniih ftoncs of Aberlemno. They were erefted as commemorations of the Scotch victories over that people ; and are adorned with bas-reliefs of men on horfcback, and many emblematical figures and hieroglyphics, now inexplicable. Many other hiftorical monuments of the Scots have been difco- vtrcd, and the obfcurity of their fculptures has encouraged a field of bountllefs and frivolous coujcdtures. It would-be unpardonable, not to mention the ftone near the town of Forres, or Fortrofe, in Murray, which far furpaftes all the others in • If thcfc columns, which fland in tlie ancient dominions of the Pi>fts, be really the work of that na- tion, their architeiSte mull have Lcen cjual to any at that time in iiiiiopc. magnitude. SCOTLAND. 157 inagnitiule, <* and is (fays Mr. Gordon) perhaps one of the mofl: (lately monu- ments of that kind in Europe. It rifcs about 23 feet in height, above ground, and is, as lam credibly informed, no lefs than 12 or 15 feet below; fo that the whole height is at lead ■55 feet, and its breadth near five. It is all one fingle and entire flone ; great variety of figures in relievo are carved thereon, and fome of them ftill diftintfl and vifible ; but the injury of the weather has obfcured thofe to- wards the upper part." Though this monument has been generally looked upoa as Danifli, yet 1 have little doubt of its being Scotch, and that it was erefted in commemoration of the final expulfion of the Danes our of Murray, where they held their lall fettlemcnt in Scotland, ai'ter the defeat they received from Malcolm a few years before the Norman invafion. AtSandwick, in Rofs-fliirc, is a fplcndid ancient obellfk, furroundcd at the bafe with large, well cut flig jtoncs, formed like freps. Both fides of the column are covered with various cnrichmcnls, in well finilhed carved work. The one face prefents a fumptuous crofs, with a figure of St. Andrew on each hand, and fomc uncouth animals and fxovverings underneath. The central divifion on the rcvcrfe, exhibits a variety of curious figures, birds, and animals. The remains of I'.u' ca- thedral of Elgin difplay much grandeur and dignity. The v.cll; door is highly ornamented, there is much elegance in the carvings, and the whole edifice exhibits very elaborate workmanfliip. Among the remains of ancient caftles may be mentioned Kildrumy caflk- in the north of Scotland, formerly a place of great ftrength and magnificence, and often ufed as an afylum to noble families in periods of civil war. Inverurie caftle, the ancient feat of the earl-marefchals of Scotland, is alfo a large and lofty pile, fituat- ed on a Ueep bank of the river ; two high towers bound the front, and, even in their decaying ilate, give the cafile an air of grandeur and antiquity. Rows of venerable trees, inclofing the adjoining garden, add to the effedf of the decayed build- ings. Near the town of Huntley are the ruins of Huntley caftle. On the avenue that leads to it, are two large fquare towers, which had defended the gateway. The caflle feems to be very old, and great part of it is demoliflied ; but there is a malfy building of a more modern date, in which fome of the apartments, and their curious cielings are ftill in tolerable prefervation. They are painted with a great variety of fubjedts, in fmall divifions, in which are contained many emblem- atical figures. Befide thefe remains of Roman, Picflilh, Danifh, and Scotch antiquities, many Druidical monuments and temples are difcernible in the northern parts of Scotland, as well as in the ifles, where we may fuppofe that paganifm took its laft refuge. They are eafily perceived by their circular forms ; Ifut though equally regular, yet none of them are fo ftupendous as the Druidical monuments in South-Britain. There is in Perthfliire a \)arrow which feems to be Britiih ; it exadfly refembles the figure of afhip, with the keel uppermoft. The common people call it Ternay, U'hich fome interpret to be terr^e navis, the fliip of earth. It appears to be of the moft remote antiquity, and perhaps was ereftcd to the memory of fome Britiih prince, who adted as auxiliary to the Romans ; for it lies near Auchterarder, not many miles diftant from the great fcenc of Agricola's operations. The traces of ancient volcanoes are not unfrcquent in Scotland. The hill of Finehaven is one inftance ; and the hill of Bergonium near Dunftaifage caftle, is another, yielding vaft quantities of pumices or fcoria of different kinds, many of which are of the fame fpecies with thofe of the volcanic Iceland. Among other natural curiofities, mention is made of a heap of white ftones, moft of them clear like cryftal, together with great plenty of oyfter and other fea-ftiells, that arc found on the top of a niountain called Skorna Lappich, in Rofs-fhire, twenty miles 15? SCOTLAND, miles diftant fiom the Tea. Slains, in Aberdeenfliire, is faid to te remarkable for a petrifying cave, called the Dropping-cave, v/here water oozing through a fpungy porous rock at the top, quickly confolidates after it drops to the bottom. Other natural curiofities belonging to Scotland have their defcriptions and hiftories : but they generally owe their extraordinary qualities to the credulity of the vulgar. Some caverns in Fifefliire, are probably natural, and of extraordinary dimenfions. Commerce and manufactures.] In thefc refpefts Scotland has, for fome years paft, been in a very improving ftate. Without entering into the difputed point, how far Scotland was benefited by its union with England, it is certain that the expedition of the Scots to take poffefTion of Darien, and to carry on an Eaft and WXt-lndia trade, was founded upon true principles of commerce, and (fo far as it went) executed with a noble fpii'it of cnterprize. The mifcarriage of that fcheme, after receiving the higheft and moft folemn fanflions, is a difgrace to the annals of that reign in which in which it happened. The difguft conceiv- ■ed by the nation on that account made commerce languidi, until Mr. Pelham, after the extinftion of the rebellion in 1745, difcovered the true value of Scotland. All the benefits received by that country, for the relief of the people from their feudal tyranny, were cffefted by that great man. The bounties and encourage- ment granted to the Scots, for the benefit of trade and nianufaclures, during his adminiltration, made them fenfible of their own importance. Mr. Pitt, a fucceed- ing miniller, purfued Mr. PeJham's wife plan : and ju Illy boafted in parliamienr, that he availed himfelf of the courage, good fenfe, and fpiritof the Scots, in carry- ing on the moft extenfive war tliat Great Britain was ever engaged in. Let it be remarked, to the honour of the Britifti government, that the Scots have been fuf- fered to avail themfelves of all the benefits of commerce and manufaftures thev can claim, either in right of their former independency, the treaty of union, or pollerior afts of parliament. This is manifeft from the extenfive trade they lately 'carried on with the Britilh fettlements in America and the Weft Indies, and with all the nations to which the Englifli themfelves trade ; fo that the increafc of their fl:ipping with- in thefe 40 years paft has been very confiderable. The exports of thofe fhips are compofed chiefly of Scotch manufaftures, fiibricated from the produce of the foil, and the induftry of its inhabitants. In exchange they import rice, cotton, fugar, and rum. The fifheries of Scotland are not confined to their own coaft, for they have a great concern in the whale fifliery carried on upon the coaft of Spitfliergen. Their other fiflieries are increafing, their cured filh being preferred by foreigners, and the Englifn planters in America, to thofe of Newfoundland. The bufl(;s, or veffels employed in the great herring filkery on the weftern coafts •of Scotland, are fitted out from the north-weft parts of England, the north of Ire- land, as well as the numerous ports of the Clyde and neighbouring idands. The grand rendezvous is at Campbeltown, a commodious port in Argylclhirc, facing the north of Ireland, where fometimes 300 veflels have been aflembleJ. Thev clear out the 12th of September, and muft return to their different ports by the 13th of Janu- ary. They are alfo under certain regulations rofi)Ccling the number of tons, men, nets, &c. the whole being calculated to promote the bcft of national purpofes, its ftrength, and its commerce. Notwithftanding the political exiftcnce of Great Britain depends upon the number and bravery ot our feamen, this noble iiiHitution Hill labours under many difficulties ; though there is, at prefent, a profped of its being vigoroufty fupportcd. The benefits of thefe fiftierics are perhaps equalled by other manufii(flurcs carry- ing on at land; particularly that of iron at Carron, in Stirlinglhire. Their linen manufaftory is in a fiourifliing ftatc. The thread manufaiT.ure of Scotland is equal to any in the world ; it has been faid, fome years ago, that the exports from Scot- I land SCOTLAND. i5r; land to England, and the Britifli plantations, in linen, cambrics, checks, Ofnabiirgs, inckle, and the like commodities, amounted annually to 400,0001. exclufive of their home confumption ; and there is reafon to believe that the ium is confulerably larger at prefcnt. The Scots are making very promifing efforts for cftcblifning woollen mnnufadures ; and their exports of caps, ftockings, mittens, and other articles of their own wool, begin to be very confiderable. It is true, that they can- not pretend to rival the Englifh in their finer cloths ; but they make fome brocd cloth proper for the wear of people of fafhion in an undrefs, and in quality and fine- nefs equal to what is commonly called Yorkfhire cloth. Among their late im- provements, we are not to forget the progrefs they have made in working the mines, and fmeltingthe ores of their country. The coal trade to England is well known; and of late they have turned even their ftones to account, by their contradl for pav- ing the llrcets of London. The trade carried on by the Scots with England, is chiefly from Leith, and the eaftern ports of the nation ; but Glafgow was the great emporium for the Aineri- can commerce, before the commencement of the late war. The late jundtion of the Forth to tne Clyde will render the benefits of trade mutual to both parts of Scotland. In Ihiort, the more that the feas, the fituation, the foil, harbours, and rivers of this cofintry are known, the better adapted it appears for all the pur- pofes of comm.erce. With regard to other manufactures, fome of them are yet iiv their infancy. The town of Paifley employs an incredible number of hands, in fabricating a particular kind of flowered and ftriped lawns, which are a reafbnablc and elegant wear. Sugar-houfes, glafs-works of every kind, delft-houfes, and- paper-mills are erefted every where. The Scotch carpeting makes neat and laft-- ing furniture; and fome elTiiys have been lately made, with no inconfiderable de- gree of fuccefs, to carry that branch of manufacflure to as great perfection as iri' any part of Europe. There are undoubtedly fome difadvantages under which both the commercial and landed intereft of Scotland lies, from her nobility and great landholders having too fond an attachment for England, and foreign countries, where they fpend their ready money. This is one of the evils ariling to Scotland from the union, which removed the feat of her legiflature to London ; but it is greatly augmented by the refort of volunteer abfentees to that capital. While this partiality fubfifts, the Scots will probably continue to be diftrefled for a currency of fpecie. How far paper can fupply that defeft, depends upon an attention to the balance of trade ; and the evil may, perhaps, be fomewhat prevented, by money remitted from England, for the fupport of government, and for carrying on the manufaftures and works now fet on foot in Scotland. The gentlemen who refide in Scotland have, in fome meafure, abandoned the ufe of French brandy and cla- ret, for port and rum produced in the Britifh plantations; their own malt-liquors are now come nearly to as great pcrfeftion as thofe in England ; and it is faid, that they have lately exported large quantities of their ale ta London, Dublin, and the Plantations. Revenues.] See England. Coins.] In the reign of Edward II. of England, the value and denominations of coins were the fime in Scotland as in England. Towards the reign of James II. a Scotch fhilling anfwered to about an Englifli fix-pence; and about the reign of queen Mary of Scotland, it was not more than an Englifli groat. It continued diminifhing in this manner till after the union of the two crowns under her fon James VI. when the refort of the Scotch nobility and gentry to the Englifh court, cccafioned liich a drain of fpecie from Scotland, that by degrees a Scotch fhilling fell to the value of one twelfth of an Englifh fhilling, and their pennies in propor- tion. A Scotch penny is now very rarely to be found ; and they were fucceeded by i6o SCOTLAND. by bodies, which was double the value of a Scotch penny, and arc ftill current, but daily wearing out. A Scotch halfpenny was called a babie ; fome fay, be- caufe it was firft Itamped with the head of James III. when he was a babe or baby, but perhaps it is only the corruption of two French words has piece, fignifying .-i low piece of money. The fame obfervation made of the Scotch fhilling holds of their pounds or marks; which are not coins, but money of account. In all other refpefts, the currency of money in Scotland and England is the fame ; as very few people now reckon by the Scotch computation. Order of the thistle.] This is a military order, inftituted, as the Scotch writers aflert, by their king Achaius, in the ninth century, upon his making u Jeao-ue with Charlemagne, king of France. It has been frequently negledled, and as often refjmed. It confifts of the fovereign, and 12 companions, who are called Knights of the Thiftle, and have on their enfign this fignificant motto, Nemo me impune lacept. " None flnall fafely provoke me." Laws and Constitution.] The ancient conftitution of government in Scot- land has been applauded, as excellectly adapted to the prefervation of liberty ; flod it is certain, that the power of the king was greatly limited, and that there were many checks in the conftitution, which were well calculated to prevent his airuming or cxercifin,"- a defpotic authority. But the Scottifli conrtitution of governm.eni: was too much of the ariftocratic kind, to afford the common people that equal liberty which they had a right to expeft. The king's authority was fufficiently jeftrained; but the nobles, chieftains, and great landholders, had it too much in their power to opprefs their tenants, and the common people. The ancient kings of Scotland, at their coronation, took the following oath, fontainino- three promifes, viz. " In the name of Clirlft, I promife thefc three fhings to the Chriftian people my fubjedts : Firft, That I (hall give order, and employ my force and afililance, that the church of God, and the Chriftian people, rnay enjoy true peace during our time, under our government. Secondly, I ftiall prohibit and hinder all perlbns, of whatever degree, from violence and injuftice. Thirdly, In all judgments I fliall follow the j)refcriptions of juftice and mercy, to the end that our -clement and merciful God may ftiew mercy unto me, and to you." The parliament of Scotland anciently confifted of all who held any portion of land, however fmall, of the crown, by military fervice. This parliament appointed the times of its own meeting and adjournment, and committees to fuperintend the gdminiftration during the intervals of parliament; it had a controuling power in all matters of government; it appropriated the public money, ordered the keeping .of it, and called for the accounts ; it armed the people, and appointed com- manders ; it named and commiftjoned ambaffadors ; it granted and limited pardons ; it appointed judges and courts of judicature : it named officers of ftate and privy- counfcllors ; it annexed and alienated the revenues of the crown, and reftrained grants by the king. The king of Scotland had no negative voice in parliament ; nor could he declare war, make peace, or conclude any other public bufinefs of importance, without the advice and approbation of parliament. The prerogative of the kincr was lb bounded, that he was not even intriifted with the executive power. And lb late as the minority of James IV. who was contemporary with, and fon-in-law to, Henry VII. of England, the parliament pointed out to him his duty, as the firft fervant of his people ; as appears by the ads Hill extant. The abufe of thefe ariftocratical powers, by the chieftains and great landholders, gave tlie kinri' a very confiderable intereft among the lower ranks; and a piince who had Icnfc and addrefs to retain the affedtions of his people, was g'::neraliy able to ,Jiumblc the moft: over-grown of his fubjedts ; but when, on the other hand, a king of SCOTLAND. i6i of Scotland, like James III. fhewed a dilVefpeft to his parliament, the eventfwas commonly fatal to the crown. The kings of Scotland, notwithftanding this para- mount power in the parliament, found means to weaken and elude its force; and in this they were affilled by their clergy, whofe revenues were immenfe, and who had very little dependence upon the pope, and were always jealous of the power- ful nobility. This was done by eftablifhing a feledl body of members, who were called tbe lords of the articles. I'hey were chofen from the clergy, nobility, knights, and burgefles. The billiops, for inflance, chofe eight peers, and the peers eight biihops ; and thele fifteen chofe eight barons (or knights of the fhire), and eight comniifiioners for burghs ; to wliom were added eight great officers of ftate, the chancellor being prefident of the whole. Their bufinefs was to prepare all qiieftions and bills, and other matters brought into parliament; fo that though the king could give no negative, yet being by his clergy, and the places he had to beitow, always fure of the lords of articles, nothing could come into parliament that could call for his negative. It muft be acknowledged, that this inftitution fcems to have prevailed by ftealth ; nor was it ever brought into any regular lyftem ; even its modes varied ; and the greateft lawyers are ig- norant when it took place. The Scots, however, never loft fight of their original principles : and though Charles I. endeavoured to form thefe lords of the articles into regular machines for his own defpotic purpofes, he found it imprafticable ; and the melancholy confequences are well known. At the Revolution, the Scots gave a frelh inftance hov/ well they underftood the principles of liberty, by omit- ting all pedantic debates about abdication, and the like terms, and voting king James at once to have forfeited his crown; v/hich they conferred on the prince and princefs of Orange. This fpirit of refiftance was the more remarkable, as the people had groaned under the moft infupportable minifterial tyranny ever fince the Reftoration. It is afked. Why did they fubmit to that tyranny ? I he anfwer is, In order to preferve that independency upon England, which Cromwell and his parliament endeavoured to deftroy, by uniting them with England : they therefore chofe to fubmit to a temporary evil ; but they took the firft opportunity to get rid of their oppreflbrs. Scotland, when it was a feparate kingdom, cannot be faid to have had any peers, in the Englifli fenfe of the word. The nobility, who were dukes, marquiffes, earls, and lords, were by the king made hereditary members of parliament; but they formed no diftinft houfe, for they fit in the fame room with the commons, wlio had a deliberate and decifive vote with them in all public matters. A baron, though not a baron of parliament, might fit upon a lord's affize in matters of life and death ; nor was it neceliary for the ainzers, or jury, to be unanimous in their ver- dict. The feudal cuftoins, even at the time of the Reftoration, were fo preva- lent, and the refcue of a great criminal was commonly fo much apprehended, that feldom above two days pafted between the ftntence and the execution. Great uncertainty occurs in the Scotch hiftory, by confounding parliaments with conventions; the difference was, that a parliament could enact laws as well as lay on taxes : a convention, or meeting of the ftates aftembled for the purpofes of taxation only. Before the Union, the kings of Scotland had four great and four lelTer officers of ftate ; the great, were the lord high-chancellor, high-treafurer, privy-fcal, and fecretary ; the four lefTer were, the lords regifter, advocate, trca- iurer-depute, and juftice-clerk. The offices of privy-ieal, regifter, advocate, and juftice-clerk ftill continue; a third fecretary of ftate has occafionally been no- minated by the king for Scottifh affairs, but under the fame denomination as the other two fccretarles. The above ofHcers of ftate fat officially in the Scotch par- liament. Y The i«i SCOTLAND. The offices oT the cfO'jVn were, the high-chamberlain, ronftable, admiral, and marfhal. The officers cf conrtable and marfbal were hereditary. A nobleman h:is ftill a penfion as admiral; and the office of marfhal is exercifed by a knight marfhal. The office of chancellor in Scotland differed little from that in Kngland. The fame may be faid of the lords treaftirer, privy^feal, and fecretary. The lord- regilter was head-clerk, to the iiarliament, convention, Lrealliry, exchequer, and felVion, and keeper of all public records. Though his office was only during the king's pleafure, yet it was very lucrative, by difpofing of his deputation, which lafted during life. He acled as teller to the parliament ; and it was dangerous for any member to difpute his report of the numbers upon a divifion. The lord-ad- vocate's office refembles that of the attorney-general in England, only his powers are far more extenfive ; becaufe, by the Scotch laws, he is the profecutor of all capital crimes before the iufticiary, and likewiie concurs in all purfuits before fo- vereign courts for breaches of the peace; and alfo in all matters civil, wherein the king, or his donator, huth intereft. Two folicitors are named by his mnjefly, by way of alTiftants to the lord-advocate. The office of juftice-clerk, entitles the pof- fefTor to prefide in the criminal court of juftice, when the juftice-general is abfent. The ancient conftitution of Scotland admitted of many other offices both of the crown and Hate ; but they are either now extindl, or too inconfiderablc to be de- fcribed. That of Lyon king at arms, or the rex faecialium, or grand herald of Scotland, is itill in being; and it was formerly a place of great fplendour and importance, infomuch that the fcience of heraldry was preferved there in greater purity than in any other country, except Germany. He was even crowned fo- lemnly in parliament with a golden circle; and his authority, in all armorial affairs might be carried into execution by the civil law. The privy-council of Scotland before the Revolution, had, or afTumed inquifito- rial powers, even that of torture ; but it is now funk in the parliament and privy- council of Great-Britain ; and the civil and criminal caufcs in Scotland arc chiefiy cognizable by two courts of judicature. The firft is, that of tlie college of juftice, which was inftituted by James V. after the model of the French parliament, ro fupply an ambulatory committee of parliament, who took the names of the lords of council and feflion, which the prefent members of the college of juftice ftill retain. This court confifts of a prefident and fourteen ordinary members,^ befides extraordinary ones named by the king, who may fit and vote, but have no falaries, and are not bound to attendance. This court may be called a ftanding jury in all matters of property that lie before them. The civil law is their direflory in all matters that come not within the municipal laws of the kingdom. It has been matter of furprife, that the Scots were fo tenacious of the forms of their courts, and the eflence of their laws, as to refervc them by the articles of the union. This, however, can be eafily accounted for, becaufe thofe laws and forms were eflfential to the polTcfTion of eftates and lands, which in Scotland arc often held by modes incompatible with the laws of England. The lords of council and fefTion a-it likewifc as a court of equity ; but their decrees are (fortunately per- haps for the fubjeft) reverfible by the Britifli 1 loufc of Lords, to which an appeal lies. The fupreme criminal judge was named the Jufticiar, and the court of Jufticiary fucceeded to his power. In its prefent form it was inilituted fo late as the year 1672, when a lord juftice- general, removeable at the king's pleafure, was appointed. This lucrative office ftill cxifts in the pcrlr^n of one of the chief nobility; but the ordinaiy members *)f the court, arc the juftice-clerk and five other judges, who are .always nominated from the lords of feflion. The verdict of a jury condemns or acquits, but with- 1 out S C O T L A N IX 163 out the neceffity of their being unanimous. Twice in tlie year, during the Cprhg and harveft; vacations, the judges of this court hold circuits in certain boro;ighs appointed by flatute. Eefides thefe two great couits of law, the Scots, by the articles of the Union, have a court of exchequer. This court has the fame power, authority, and jurif- didtion, over the revenue of Scotland, as the court of exchequer in England has over the revenues there ; and all matters competent to the court of exchequer of England, are likewife competent to the exchequer of Scotland. The judges of the exchequer in Scotland exercife certain powers which formerly belonged to the treafury, and are ftill verted in that of England. The court of admiralty in Scodand, was, in the reign of Charles II. by aft of parliament, declared to be a fuprcme court, in all caufes competent to its own jurifdiftion; and the lord high-admiral is declared to be the king's lieutenant and juftice-general upon the feas, and in all ports, harbours, and creeks of the fame ; and upon frefh waters and navigable rivers, below the firft bridge, or within flood- mark ; fo that nothing competent to his jurifdidion can be meddled with, in the firlt inftance, but by the lord high-admiral and the judges of his co\irt. Sentences pafled in all inferior courts of admiralty, may be brought again before his court; but no appeal lies from it to the lords of the felTion, or any other judicatory, unlefs in cafes not maritime. Caufes are tried in this court by the civil law, which, in fuch cafes, is likewife the common law of Scotland, as well as by the laws of Oleron, Wifby, and the Hanfe towns, and other maritime praftices and decifions common upon the continent. The place of lord-admiral of Scotland is little more than nominal, but the falary is reckoned worth 1000 1. a year; and the judo-e of the admiralty is commonly a lawyer of diftinftion. The college or faculty of advocates, which anfwers to the Englifh inns of court, may be called the feminary of Scotch lawyers. They are an orderly court, and their forms require great precifion and examination to qualify its candidates for admiffion. Subordinate to them is a body of inferior lawyers, or attorneys, who are named writers to the fignet, becaufe they alone can fubfcribe the writs that pais the fignet ; they likewife have a bye government for their own regulation. The government of the counties of Scotland was formerly vetted in IherifFs and flewards, courts of regality, baron courts, commiffaries, judices of the peace, and coroners. Formerly flieriffdoms were generally hcreditable; but, by a late aift of parliament, they are now all veiled in the crown ; it being enafted, That all high- fheritFs, or ftewards, fliall, in future, be nominated and appointed annually^by his majefly, his heirs and fuccefibis. In regard to the IherifF-deputes, and ftew- ard-deputes, it is enafted, That there fhall only be one in each county, or ftew- artry, who mull: be an advocate, of three years ftanding at lead. For the fpace of feven years, thefe deputies are to be nominated by the king, with fuch continu- ance as his majelty iliall think fit; after which they are to enjoy their offices for life, unlefs guilty of fome offence. Some other regulations have been likev/ile introduced, highly for the credit of the fheriff courts. Stewartries were formerly part of the ancient royal domain ; and the ftewards had much the fame power in them, as the Hieriff had in his countv. Courts of regality of old were held by virtue of a royal jurifdiftlon veiled in the lord, with particular immunities and privileges ; but thefe were fo dano-erous and fo extravagant, that all the Scotch regalities are now diifolved by an a£l of parliament. Baron courts belong to every perfon who holds a barony of the kino-. In civil matters, they extend to caufes not exceeding forty fhillings llerlino- ; and in criminal cafes, to petty aftions of afiault and battery ; but the punilhment is not to exceed twenty flrillings flerling, or fetting the delinquent in the flocks for three Y 2 hours. i64 SCOTLAND. hours, in the day-time. Tliefe courts were, in former days, inverted with the power ot l''e and death, which- they have now loft. The courts of commiflaries in Scotland anfwer to thofe of the Englifli diocefan chancellors, the higheft of which is kept at Julinburgh ; wherein, before four judges, actions are pleaded concerning matters relating to wills and teflaments ; the right of patronage to ecclefiaftical benefices, tythes, divorces, and caufcs of that nature ; but in other parts of the kingdom, there fits but one judge on thcfe caufes. According to the prefent inflitution, juftices of the peace in Scotland exercife the fame powers as thofe in England, In former times their office, though of old ftanding, was infignificant, being cramped by the powers of the great feudal tyrants, who obtained an aft of parliament, that they were not to take cognizance of riots till fifteen days after the fact. The inllitution of coroners is as old as the reign of Malcolm II. the great legiflator of Scotland, who lived before the Nor- man invafion of England. They took cognizance of all breaches of the king's peace; and they were required to have clerks to regifter th- depofitions and matters of fact, as well as verdidts of jurors: the office is now but feldom exercifed. From the above fliort view of the Scotch laws and inflicutions, it is plain that they were radically the fame with thofe of the Englifli. The latter allege, indeed, that the Scots borrowed the contents of their Regiam Majejlatem, the oldeft law- book, from the work of Glanvillc, who was a judge under Henry II. The Scots, on the other hand, fliy, that Glanvillc's work was copied from their Regiam Ma- jejlatan, even with the peculiarities of the latter, which do not now, and never did, cxift in the laws of England. The royal burghs in Scotland form, as it were, a commercial parliament, which meets once a year, confiding of a reprefentative from each burgh, to confult upon the common good of the whole. Their powers are extenfive, and before the Union they made laws relating to fliipping, to mafters and owners of fhips, to mariners and merchants by whom they were freighted ; to manufaftures ; to the curing of falmon, and herrings ; and to the importing and exporting fcveral com- modities. The trade between Scotland and the Netherlands is fubject to their re- gulation : they fix the ftaple-port, which was formerly at Dort, and is now at Gampvere. Their confervator is nominated by the crown, but then their conven- tion regulates iiis power, approves his deputies, and appoints his flilary : fo that, the whole ftaple trade is fubjedted to their management. This is a very fingular inftitution, and proves the attention which the government of Scotland formerly paid to trade. It took its prefent form in the reign of James III. 1487, and had excellent confcquences for the benefit of commerce. Such are the laws and conftiiution of Scotland, as they exift at prefent, in their general view. The conformity between the praftice of the civil law of Scotland, and that in England, is remarkable. The Englifli law reports are of the fame na- ture with the Scotch praftices ; and their afts of federunt anfwer to the Englilh rules of court; the Scottifli wadfets and reverfions, to the Englifli mortgages and de- feafances ; their poinding of goods, after letters of horning, is mucli the fame as the Englifli executions upon outlawries ; and an .appeal againft the king's pardon, in cafes of murder, by the- next of kin to the deceafed, is admitted in Scotland as well as in England. Many other ufages are the fame in both kingdoms. One obfervation proves the fimilarity between the Englifli and Scotch conflitutions, which I believe has been mentioned by no author, iln old times, all the freeholders in Scotland met together in prefence of the king, who was feated on the top of a hillock, which, in the old Scotch conflitutions, is called the Moot, or Mute-hill : here all national afl'airs were tranfaflcd, judgments given, and tlififerences ended. This SCOTLAND. i6j This Moot-hill I apprehend to be of the fame nature as the Saxon Folc-inote, and to fioniiy no more than the hill of meeting. IIisTORy.j Though the writers of ancient Scotch hiftory arc too fond of fyflein and fable, yet is eafy to collcft, from the Roman authors, and other evidences, that Scotland was formerly inhabited by different people. The Caledonians were the lirll inhabitants ; the Pids were Britons, forced north-wards by the Belgic Gauls, above fourfcore years before the defcent of Julius Csefar ; and who fettling in Scot- land were joined by great numbers of their countrymen, driven northwards bv the Romans. The Scots probably were a nation of adventurers from the ancient Scythia, who had ferved in armies on the continent, and, after conquering the other inhabitants, gave their own name to the country. The traft lying fouthward of the Forth, appears to have been inhabited by Saxons, and by the Britons v/ho form- ■ed the kingdom of Alcuith, the capital of which was Dumbarton : but all thefe people, in procefs of time, were fubdued by the Scots. It is unnecelTary to inveftigate the conftitution of Scotland from its fabulous, or even its early ages. It is fufficient to obferve that they feem to have been as tor-- ward as any of their fouthern neighbours in the arts of war and government. It does not appear that the Caledonians, the ancient Celtic inhabitants of Scotland, were attacked by any of the Roman generals before Agricola, anno 79. The name of the prince he fought with was Galdus, by Tacitus named Galgacns ; and the hiftory of that war is not only tranfmitted with great precifion, but corroborated by the remains of the Roman encampments and forts, raifed by Agricola in his march towards Dunkeld, the capital of the Caledonians. The brave (land made by Galdus againft that great general does honour to the valour of both nations ; and the fentiments of the Caledonian, concerning the freedom and independency of his country, appear to have warmed the noble hillorian with the fame generous paffion. It is plain, how- ever, that Tacitus thought it for the honour of Agricola, to conceal fome part of this war ; for though he makes his countrymen viclorious, yet they certainly returned fouthward, to the province of the Horefti, which wasthe county of Fife, without improving their advantage. Galdus, otherwife called Corbred, was, according to the Scotch hiftorians, the 2ift in a lineal defcent from Fergus I. the founder of their monarchy ; and though this genealogy has of late been difputed,. yet nothing can be more certain, from the Roman hiftories, than that the Caledonians, or Scots, v/ere governed by a fuccefTion of brave and wife princes, during the abode of the Romans in Britain. Ihcir re- fiftance obliged Agricola, and after him the emperors Adrian and Severus, to build- two famous pretentures or walls, one betv/een the Frith of Clyde and Forth ; and the other between Tinmouth and the Solway Frith, to defend the Romans from the Caledonians and Scots j and which prove that the independence of the latter was never fubdued. Chriftianity was introduced into Scotland about the year 201 of the Chrillian- sera, by Donald I. The Pidls, who were the defcendants of the ancient Britons, had.- at that time gained a footing in Scotland ; and being often defeated by the ancient inhabitants, they joined with the Romans againft the Scots and Caledonians, who' were of the fame original, and confideied themfelves as one people ; lb that the Scotch monarchy fuffered a fhort cclipfe : but it broke out with more luftre than ever under Fergus II. wlio recovered his crown ; and his fucceflbrs gave many fe- vere overthrows to the Romans and Britons. When the Romans left Britain in 448, the Scots, as appears by Gildas a Britifh-- hiftorian, were a powerful nation, and, in conjunftion with the Pifls, inva-h.J the- Britons ; and having forced the Roman v/alls, drove them to the very fea ; fo that the Britons applied to the Romans for relief : and, in the famous letter, which they. calledi i66 SCOTLAND. called their groans, they tell them, that they had no choice left, but that of being fvvallowed up by the fea, or perifli by the fwords of the barbarians ; for fo ;11 na- tions were called who were not Roman, or under the Roman proteftion. Dongard was then king of Scotland ; and it appears from the oldeft hiltories, even thofe the lead favourable to monarchy, that the fucceffion to the crown of Scotland ftill con- tinued in the family of Fergus, but generally devolved on collaterals ; till the in- conveniences of that mode of fuccefTion were fo much felt, that it fell into difufe, and was at laft fettled in the defcending line. About the year 796, the Scots were governed by Achaius, a prince fo much re- fpefted, that his friendfliip was courted by Charlemagne, and a league was con- cluded between them, which long continued inviolate. No fadl of equal antiquity is better attefted than this league, together with the great fervice performed by the Jearned men of Scotland, in civilizing the dominions of that great conqueror. Tiie Pi(fts ftill remained in Scotland, as a feparate nation, and were powerful enough to make war upon the Scots; who, about the year 843, when Kenneth Mac A] pin was king of Scotland, finally fubdued them ; but not in the favage manner men- tioned by fome hiftorians, by extermination : for he obliged them to incorporate themlelves with their conquerors, by taking their name, and adopting their laws. The fuccefibrs of Kenneth Mac Alpin maintained almoft perpetual wars with the Saxons on the fouthward, and the Danes and other barbarous nations towards the Eaft ; who, being mafters of the fea, harraflfed the Scots by powerful invafions. The latter, however, were more fortunate than the Englifh ; for while the Danes were ereftiiig a monarchy in England, they were everywhere overthrown in Scotland, and at laft driven out of the kingdom. The Saxon and Danifti monarchs, who then governed England, were not more fuccefstul againft the Scots ; who afterted their freedom and independency againft foreign invaders and domeftic ufurpers. The feudal law was introduced among them by Malcolm 11. Malcolm III- commonly called Malcolm Canmore, from two Gaelic words which fignify a large head, was the eighty-fixth king of Scotland, from Fergus I. the fuppofed founder of the monarchy j the forty-feventh from its reftorer, Fergus II. and the twenty-fecond from Kenneth III. who conquered the kingdom of the Pids. Every reader who is acquainted with the tragedy of Macbeth, as written by the in- imitable Shakfpeare, who keeps clofe to the ta£ls delivered by hiftorians, can be no ftranger to the fate of Malcolm's father, and his own hiftory previous to his mounting the throne in 1057. ^^ ^'^^ ^ '^'^^ ^^^ magnanimous prince, not in- ferior to his contemporary the Nonnan conqueror, with whom he was often at war. He married Margaret daughter to Edward, furnamed the Outlaw, fon to Edmund Ironfide king of England. By the death of her brother Edgar Atheling, the Saxon right to the crown of England devolved upon the pofterity of that princefs, who was one of the wifeft and worthieft women of the age ; and her daughter Maud, was married to Henry I. of England. Malcolm, after a glorious reign, was killed, with his fon, treacheroufty, it is faid, .it the fiege of Alnwic, by the befieged. Malcolm III. was fucceedcd by his brother Donald VII. and he was dethroned by Duncan II. whofe legitimacy was difputed. Edgar, the fon of Malcolm III. a wife and valiant prince, alfumed the government ; he was fucceedcd by Alex- ander I. and upon his death, David 1. mounted the throne. Notwithftanding the endeavours of fome hiftorians to conceal what they cannot denv, the glories of this reign, it appears, that David was one of the greateft jirinces of his age, whether we regard him as a man, a warrior, or a legillator. The aftions he per- formed in the fervice of his niece, the emprefs Maud, in her competition with king Stephen for the Englilli crown, give us the highclt idea of his virtues, as they could be rlie rcfult only of duty and principle. To him Henry II. the mightieft: prince SCOTLAND. ,67 prince of h'ts age, ov/ed his crown ; and his pofTeffions in England, joined to the kingdom of Scotland, placed David's power nearly on an equality with that of r'.ngiand, when confined to tlijs ifland. His aftions and the rclbiirces he found in his own courage, piove him to have been a real hero. If he appeared to be too laviih to churchmen, we are to confidcr, that by them only he could hope to civilize his kingdom : and the code of laws drawn up by him do his memory im- mortal lionour. They are laid to have been compiletl under liis infpedtion by learned men, whom he allenvbled from all parts of Europe in his magnificent abbey of Melrofs. He was fucceeded by his grandfon Malcolm IV. and he bv William, furnamed from his valour, the Lion. VV'illiam's ion Alexander II. was fucceeded in 121.9, by Alexander III. who was a good king. He married, firft, Margaret daughter to Henry III. of England, by whom he had Alexander, the prince who married the eul of Flanders' daughter ; David, and Margaret who married Han- gov/an, or, as fome call him, Eric, fon to Magnus IV. king of Norway, who bore to him a daughter named Margaret, commonly called the Maiden of Norv/ay : in whom king Williani's pofterity failed, and the crown of Scotland returned to the defcendants of David earl of Pluntingdon, brother to king Malcolm- IV. and king William. I have entered into this detail, becaufe it is connefted with great events. Upon the death of Alexander III. John Baliol, who was great-grandfon to David earl of Huntingdon, by his elder daughter Margaret, and Robert Bruce, grandfon to the fame earl of Huntington, by his younger daughter Ifabel, became competitors for the crown of Scotland. The laws of fuccefiion, which were not then well eftablifhed in Europe, rendered the cafe very difficult. Both parties were almofl equally matched in intereft ; but after a confufed interregnum of fome years, the great nobility agreed in referring the decifion to Edward I. of England, the moil: ambitious prince of Ills age. He accepted the ofBce of arbiter : but having long had an eye 10 the crown of Scotland, he revived fome obfolete claims of its dependency upon that of England ; and finding that B.diol was difpofed to hold it by that difgracefui tenure, Edward awarded it to him ; but afterwards dethroned, and treated him as a flave. After this, Edward ufed many endeavours to annex the crown of Scotland to his own ; but though they were often defeated, and he for a fhort time made himfelf mal- ter of Scotland, yet the Scots were ready to revolt on every favourable opportunity. Thofe who were fo zealoufly attached to the independence of their country, as to be refolved to hazard every thing, were but few, compared to thofe in the intereil of Edward and Baliol, which was the fame ; and for fome time they were obliged to temporize. Edward availed himfelf of their weaknel's and his own power. He accepted of a formal furrender of the crown of Baliol, to whom he allowed a pen- fion, but detained him in England -, and fent every nobleman in Scotland, whom he in the leaft fufpefted, to different priibns in or near London, He dien forced the Scots to fign inflruments of their fubjeftion to him ; and molt barbaroufly carried off, or deftroyed, all the monuments of their hiftory, aad the evidences of their independency ; and particularly the famous fitidical or prophetic Hone, which is ftill to be {^en in Weftminl^cr-Abbey. Thefe fevere proceedings, while they rendered the Scots fenfible of their fla- very, revived the defire of freedom ; and Edward, finding tneir ipirits were not to be iubdued, affefted to treat them on the foo; of equality with his own lub- jedts, by projedling an union, the chief articles of which have fince taken place between the two kingdoms. The Scotch patriots treated this proje-i5t with dil'lain, and united under the brave William Wallace, the truett hero of his age, ro expel the Englilh. Wallace performed actions that entitle him to eternal renown, in executing i6S SCOTLAND. executing this fcheme. Being, however, no more than a private gentleman, and his popularity daily increafing, the Scotch nobility, among whom was Robert Bruce, the fon of the firft competitor, began to fufpeft that he aimed at the crown, .efpecially after he had defeated the earl of Surry, Edward's viceroy of Scotland, in the battle of Stirling, and had reduced the garrilbns of Berwick and Roxburgh, and was declared by the ftates of Scotland their proteclor. Their jealouly operated fo far, that they formed violent cabals againft the brave Wallace. Edward, upon •this once more invaded Scotland, at the head of the mod numerous and beft dif- ciplined army England had ever feen, for it confifted of 80,000 foot, 3000 horfe- incn completely armed, and 4000 light armed ; attended by a fleet to fupply it with provifions. Thefe, bcfides the troops who joined him in Scotland, formed an irrefiftible body ; Edward was obliged to divide his army, referving the com- mand of 40,000 of his beft troops to himfelf. With thefe he attacked the Scotch .array under Wallace at Falkirk, while their difputes ran fo high, that the brave regent was deferted by Gumming, the moft powerful nobleman in Scotland, and at the head of the beft divifion of his countrymen. Wallace, whofe troops did not exceed 30^000, being thus betrayed, was defeated with great lofs, but made an orderly retreat ; during which he found means to have a conterence with Bruce, and to convince him of his error in joining with Edward. Wallace ftill continued in arms, and performed many gallant actions againft the Englifli, but he was be- trayed and ungeneroufly put to death at London as a traitor; Edward died himfelf, as he was preparing to renew his invafion of Scotland with a ftill more defolating fpirit of ambition, after having deftroyed, according to the beft hiftorians, 100,000 of her inhabitants. Bruce died foon after the battle of Falkirk ; but not before he had infpired his fon, who was a prifoncr at large about the Englifti court, with the glorious refolu- xion of vindicating his own rights, and his country's independency. He efcaped from London, and with his own hand killed Gumming, for his attachment to Ed- ward ; and after collefting a few patriots, among whom were his four brothers, he aflfumed the crown ; but was defeated by the Englifti (who had a great army in Scotland) at the battle of Methven. After this defeat, he fled with one or two friends to the Weftern Ifles of Scotland, where his fatigues and lufferings were as inexpreflible as the courage with which he and his few friends bore them (the lord Douglas efpecially) was incredible. Though his wife and daughter were fent pri- foners to England, where his beft friends, and two of his brothers, were put to death, yet fuch was his perfevering fpirit, that he recovered all Scotland, except the caftle of Stirling, and improved every advantage that was given him by the dillipated con- dudl: of Edward Jl. who at laft raifed an army more numerous and better appointed than that of his father, to make a total conqueft of Scotland. It is faid that it confifted of 100,000 men, though this has been fuppofed an exaggeration : how- ever, it is admitted that the army of Bruce did not exceed 30,000; but all vete- rans, bred up in a dcteftation of tyranny. Edward led his hoft towards Stirling, then befieged by Bruce; who had chofen, with the greateft judgment, a camp near Bannockburn. The chief officers under Edward were, the earls of Gloucefter, Hereford, Pembroke, and Sir Giles Argenton. Thofe under Bruce were, his own brother Sir Edward, who, next to himfelf, was reckoned the beft knight in Scot- land; his nephew Randolf earl of Murray, and the young lord Walter, high-ftew- ard of Scotland. Edv/ard's attack of the Scotch army was exceedingly furious, and required all the courage and firmnefs of Bruce and his friends to refift it, wliich they did fo efi"edually, that they gained one of the moft complete vidories recotdtd in hiftory. The Scotch writers make the lofs of the Englifti to amount .to 50,000 men ; while their own exceeded' not 4000. The flower of the ICnglifli mobility were killed or taken prifoncrs. Their camp, immenfcly rich, and calcu- lated SCOTLAND. 169 lated for the purpofe rather of a triumph than a campaign, fell into the hands of the Scots : and Edward himfelf, with a few followers, were purfued by Douglas to the gates of Berwick, from whence he efcaped in a fifliing-boat. This great and decifive battle happened in the year 1314*. The remainder of Robert's reign was a feries of glorious fuccefles ; and To well did his nobility underftand the principles of civil liberty, and fo unfettered were they by religious confiderations, that, in a letter they fent to the pope, rliey acknow- ledged that chey had fet afide Baliol for debafing the crown by holding it of Eng- land} and that they would do tlie fame by Robert, if he fliould make the like attempt. Robert having thus delivered Scotland, fent his brother Edward to Ireland, at the head of an army, with which he conquered the greateit part of thac kingdom, and was proclaimed its king; but by expofing himfelf too much, he was killed. Robert, before his death, made an advantageous peace with England; and died, in 1328, with the reputation of being the grearcft hero of his age. The glory of the Scots may be faid to have been in its zenith under Robert f. who was fucceeded by his fon David II. He was a virtuous prince^ but his abi- lities, both in war and peace, were eclipfed by his brother-in-law and enemy Ed- ward III. of England, vvliofe fifter he married, Edward, who was as ambitious as any of his predeceflbrs of making the conquell of Scotland, efpoufed the caule of Baliol, fon to Baliol the original competitor. His progrefs was at firfl: amazingly rapid ; and he and Edward defeated the royal party in many bloody battles ; but Baliol was at laft driven our of his ufurped kingdom by the Scotch patriots, David, however, had the misfortune to be taken prifoner by the Englifh at the battle of Durham : and after continuing above eleven years in captivity, he paid 100,000 marks for his ranfom ; and died in peace, without iffiie, in the year 137 1. The crown of Scotland then devolved upon the family of Stuart, by its head, having been married to the daughter of Robert I. The firft king of that name was Robert II. a wife and brave prince. He was fucceeded by his fon Robert III. whofe age and infirmities dii'qualified him from reigning; fo that he was forced to trull: the government to his brother, the duke of Albany, an ambitious prince, who feems to have had an intention to feize the crown. Robert, on this, at- tempted to fend his fecond fon to France; but he was ungeneroufiy intercepted by Henry IV. of England; and after fufFering a long captivity, he was obliged to pay an exorbitant ranfom. During the imprifonment of James in England, the military glory of the Scots was carried to its greateft height in France, where they fupported that tottering monarchy againfl: England, and their generals obtained fome of the firft titles of the kingdom. James, the hrlt of tliat name, upon his return to Scotland, difcovered great talents for government, enafted many wife laws, and was beloved by the people. He had received an excellent education in England during the reigns of Henry IV. and V. where he law the feudal fyftem refined from m.any of the imperfcflions which ftill adhered to it in his. own king- dom ; he determined therefore to abridge the overgrown power of ''the nobles, and to recover fuch lands as had been unjuilly wrefted from the crown during his mi- nority and the preceding reigns : but the execution of tiiefe defigns coll him his life, he being murdered in his bed by fome of the chief nobility in 1437, ^^^ '^'''^ 44th year of his age. A long minority fucceeded; but Jame^ II. promifed to equal the greateft of his anceflors in warlike and civil virtues, when he was killed by the accidental burft- * That the Scots of thole days were better acquainted with Mars than the Mufes, maybe leen t'roin a fcofling ballad, made on this viftory, which begins as follows : Maydens of England fore may ye mourn, What ho! ween'd the king of England, For zour len"UT)ons zou have loli at Bannockburn. So foon to have won all Scotland. With heve a low ! With a ruaiby low I Z ing lyo SCOTLAND. ing of a cinnon, in the thirteenth year of his age, as he was befieging the caftle of Roxburgh, which was defended by the Englilli. Sufpicion, indolence^ im- moderate attachment to females, and many of the errors of a feeble mind, are vi- fible in the conduft of James III. and his turbulent reign was clofed by a rebellioa of tis fubjecls, during which he was flain in battle in 1488, aged thirty-five. His fon, James IV. was tlie moft accomplifned prince of the age : he was na- turally p-encrous aud brave; loved magnificence, delighted in war, and was eager to obtain fame. He encouraged and protected commerce, which greatly increafed in his reign; and the court of James, at the time of his marriage with Henry VII's daughter, was folendid and refpeftable. Even this alliance could not cure him of his faaiily-dlftemper, a predileftion for the French, in whofe caufe he was killed, with the flower of liis nobility, by the Englifh, in the battle of Flodden, anno 1513, and the fortieth year of his age. 'i he minority of his fon, James V. was long and turbulent : and when he grew up, he married two French ladies; the firft a daughter of the king of P'rance, and the latter of the houfe of Guife. He inftiiuted the court of feffion, enacled many falutarylaws, and greatly promoted the induftry of Scotland, particularly the work- ing of the mines. At this time the balance of power was fo equally poifed between the contending princes of Europe, that James's friendfhip was courted by the pope, the emperor, the king of France, and his uncle Henry VIII. of England, from all whom he received magnificent prefents. But James took little fliare in foreign affairs ; he feemed rather to imitate his predeceflbrs in their attempts to humble the nobility; and the doftrines of the reformation beginning to be propa- gated in Scotland, he gave way, at the inftigation of the clergy, to a religious perfccution, though it is generally believed that, had he lived longer, he would have feized all the church-revenues, in imitation of Henry. Having flighted fome friendly overtures made to him by the king of England, and thereby given great umbrage to that prince, a war at length broke out between them. A large army, under the command of the duke of Norfolk, entered Scotland, and ravaged the country north of the Tweed. After this fhort expedition, the Englifli army re- tired to Berwick. Upon its retreat, James fent ten thoufand men to the weftern borders, who entered England at Solway Frith ; and he followed at a fmal! di- ftance, ready to join them. Soon after, he gave great offence to the nobility and the army, by imprudently depriving their general, lord Maxwell, of his commif- fion, and conferring the command on his favourite, Oliver Sinclair, a private gen- tleman. The army were fo much difgufted with this alteration, that they were ready to difband, when a fmall body of Englifli appeared, not exceeding five hun- dred. A panic feized the Scots, who immediately took to (light, fuppofing them- felves to be attacked by the whole Englifh army. The Englifh cavalry, feeing them fly with fuch precipitation, clofely purfued, and flew great numbers, taking- prifoners fcven lords, two hundred gentlemen, and eight hundred foldiers, with twenty-four pieces of ordnance. This difafter fo much affcfted king James, that it threw him into a fit of illnefs, of which he died, on the 14th of December, 1542. His daughter and lucceffor, Mary, was but a few hours old at the time of her father's death. Her beauty, her imprudence, and her misfortunes, are alike fa- mous in hiflory. It is fufficicnt to fay, that during her minority, and while fhe was wife to Francis II. of France, the reformation advanced in Scotland : that be- ing called to the throne of her anceftors while a widow, fhe married her coufin- german, lord Darnley, whofe untimely death hath given rife to much controver- fy. The confequence of her hufband's death, and of her marriage witii Bothwell, who was confidered as his murderer, was an infurredtion of her fubjefts, from whom {he Red into England, where flic was detained a prifoner for eighteen years ; and, afterwards. ENGLAND. lyi afterwards, on motives of ftate policy, beheaded by queen Elizabeth, in 15S7, in the forty-fixth year of her age, Mary's fon, James VI. of Scotland, fiicceeded in right of his blood from Henry VII. upon the death of queen Elizabeth, to the Englilh crown, after fhcwing con- fiderable abilities in the government of Scotland. This union of the two crowns, deftroyed the independency, as it impoveriflied the people of Scotland : for the feat of government being removed to England, their trade was checked, their agri- culture neglctted, and their gentry obliged to feek for bread in other countries. James, after a fplendid, but troublefome reign over his three kingdoms, left them in 1625, ^^ '"'^^ ^"°"' ^^^^ unfortunate Charles I. That prince, by his defpotic prin- ciples and condudr, induced both his Scottifli and his Englifli fubjedts to take up arms againft him : and, indeed, it was in Scotland that the fword was rirft drawn againrt Charles. But when the royal party was totally defeated in England, the king put himfelf into the power of the Scottifh army ; they at firft treated him with re- fpeft, but afterwards delivered him up to the Englifli parliament, on condition of their paying 400,000 pounds to the Scots, vvhich was faid to be due to them for arrears. However, the Scots afterwards made feveral unfuccefsful attempts, to reftore his fon, Charles II. That prince was finally defeated by Cromwell, at the battle of Worceftcr, 1651, after which, to the time of his reftoration, the commonwealth of England, and the proteflor, gave law to Scotland. The ftate of parties in England, at the acccfnon of queen Anne, was fuch, that the Whigs once more had recourfe to the Scots, and offered them their own terms, if they would agree to the Union as it now ftands. It was long before the ma- jority of the Scotch parliament would liften to the propofals ; but at laft, partly from conviftion, and partly through the force of money diftributed among the needy nobility, it was agreed to ; fince which event, the hiflory of Scotland, becomes the Hime with that of England. ENGLAND. Extent and Situation. Miles. Degrees. Length 380 ? between I ^° ^"^ 5^ ^°"^ latitude. Breadth 300 5 "^2 Eaft and 6-20 Weft longitude. Climate and ? ' j ^H E longeft day in the northern parts, contains 17 hours BOUNDARIES, f J_ JO minutcs J and the fliortcft in the fouthem, near S hours. It is bounded on the North, by that part of the ifland called Scotland ; on the I^^aft, by the German Ocean ; on the Weft, by St. George's Channel j and on the South, by the Englifh Channel, which parts it from France, and contains 49,450 I'quare miles. The fituation, by the fea wafliing it on three fides, renders England liable to a great uncertainty of weather ; fo that the inhabitants on part of the" fea-coafts are often vifited by agues and fevers. On the other hand, it prevents the extremes of heat and cold, to which other places, lying in the fame degree of latitude, are fub- jedl ; and it is, on that account, friendly to the longevity of the inhabitants in o-e- neral, efpecially thofe who live on a dry foil. To this fituation likewife we are to afcribe that perpetual verdure for which England is remarkable, occafioned by re- freflijng fliowers and the warm vapours of the fea. Name and divisions ^ Antiquaries are divided with regard to the ecymolocry ANCIENT AND MODERN. ^ of the wotd England; fome derive it from a Celtic word, fignifying a level country j but I prefer thc^ common eymology, of its be- Z 2 ing 172 ENGLAND. ing derived from Anglen, a province now fubjeft to his Danifh majeRy, which poured a great part of the original Saxon adventurers into this ifland. In the tirne of the Romans, tiie whole ifland went by the name of Britannia. The word Brit, ac- cording to JVIr. Camden, fignified painted or ftained ; the ancient inhabitants be- ing famous for painting their bodies : other antiquaries, however, do not agree to this etymology. The weflern trafl: of England, which is almoll feparated from the reft by the rivers Severn and Dee, is called Wales, or the land of ftr angers, be- caufe inhabited by the Belgic Gauls, who were driven thither by the Romans, and were ftrangers to the old natives. When the Romans provinciated England they divided it into 1. Britannia Prima, which contained the fouthern parts of the kingdom. 2. Britannia Sccunda, containing the weftern parts, Wales included. And, •3. Maxima Ca^farienfis, which reached from the Trent as far northward as the •wail of Severus, between Newcaftle and Carlifle, and fometimes as far as that of Adrian in Scotland, between tlie Forth and Clyde. To thefe divifions fome add the Flavia Ca;farienfis, which they fuppofe to con- tain the midland counties. When the Saxons invaded England, about the year 450, and eftabliflied them- felves there, in the year 582, their leaders appropriated, after the manner of the other northern conquerors, the countries which each had been the moft inftrumental in acquiring ; and the whole formed a heptarchy, or political confederacy, confifting of feven kingdoms. In time of war, a chief was chofen from the feven kings by public confent ; fo that the Saxon heptarchy nearly refembled the conftirution of Greece during the heroic ages. Kingdoms erefted by the Saxons, ufually ftyled the Saxon Heptarchy. Kingdoms. Counties. Chief Towns. 1. Kent, Hengift, ended in 823 2. South Saxons, found- ed by Ella in 491, and. g^^^. ended in 600. (^ T- n A 1 r A ,r Norfolk — 3. Eaft Angles, founded ^^^^^^ __ byUffa m 575, and j (.^,^j^^;j _ ended in 793. / With the Me of Ely r Cornwall — I Devon — 4. Weft-Saxons, found- j Dorfet — ed by Cerdic in 5i2,<{ Soraerfet founded byf" in 475, and I Kent r r SufTex — K\ Canterbury. — —If Chic — — \\ Sout hefter thwark. and erided in 1060. Northumberland, Wilts Hants V Berks Lancafter York Durham Cumberland — r Norwich J Bury, St. Edmund's i Cambridge (Ely. r Launcefton Exeter Dorchefter W Bath Salifbury Winchefter Abingdon. 1 fLancafter York Durham Carlille founded by Ida in 574,*^ Weftmoreland — '" 1 Appleby and ended in 792 Northumberland, and Scotland to the Frith of Edinburgh — Newcaftle. King- ENGLAND. 173 Kinpidoms. Counties. ,7 Eait-Saxons, founded f Eflex — by I-Tchcvvin in 527, | Middlefex, and part and endfd in 746, [_ Hertford — f The other part of Hert Glouccfter Hereford Worcefter Warwick Leicefter Rutland Northampton Mercia, founded by I Lincohi Cridda in 582, and; Huntinp;don ford ended in 874. Bedford — Buclcingham — Oxford — Stafford — Derby — Salop — Nottingham — l_Chefter — > Chief Towns^ London. Hertford Glouceftcr Hereford Worcefter Warwick Leicefter Oakham Northampton '■ Lincoln ! Huntingdon ' Bedford Aylelbury Oxford Stafford Derby Shrew fbury Nottingham LCheller.. I have been the more foiicitous to preferve thefe divifions, as they account for different local cuftoms, and many very effential modes of inheritance, which to this day prevail in England, and which took their rife from different Saxon infti- tutions. Since the Norman invafion, England has been divided into counties, a- certain number of which, except Middlefex and Chefhire, are comprehended in fix. circuits, or annual progreffes of the judges, for adminillering juftice to the kibjefts. who are at a diftance from the capital. Thefe circuits are : Circuits. Counties. I. Home Circuit. f Eflex Hertford Kent — >< Hiriy — Suffex — Chief Towns. "Chelmsford, Colchefler, Harwich, Maiden;, Saffron Walden, Bocking, Braintree, and Stratford. Hertford, St. Alban's, Ware, Hitchin, Baidock, Bifhop's-Stortford, Berkhamfted, Hemfted, and Barnet. Maidftone, Canterbury, Chatham, Rochefter, Greenwich, Woolwich, Dover, Deal, Deptford, Feverfl-iam, Dartford, Romney, Sandwich, Sheer- nefs, Tunbridge, Margate, Gravefend, and Mil- ton. Southwark, Kingfton, Guildford, Croydon, Epfom, Richmond, Wanfworth, Batterfea, Putney, Fariv- ham, Godalmin, Bagfliot, Egham, and Darking. Chichefter, Lewes, Rye, Eaft-Grinftead, Haftings, Horfham, Midhurft, Shoreham, Arundel, Win- chelfea, Battel, Brighthelmftone, and Pctworth. Circuits,- 174 Cireuits. 2. Norfolk i Circuit. ENGLAND. Counties. Chief Towns. fBucks 1 f Aylcfbury, Buclvingham, High-Wickham, Great- Marlow, Stony Stratford, and Newport Pagnel. Bedford — Bedford, Ampthill, Woobiirn, Dunftable, Luton, Bigglefwade. Huntington Huntingdon, St. Ives, Kimbolton, Godmanchef- ter, St. Neot's, Ramfey, and Yaxley. Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Royfton, and Wif- bich. Bury, Ipfwich, Sudbury, Leoftoff, part of New- market, Aldborough, Bungay, Southwold, Bran- don, Halefworth, Mildenhall, Beccles, Fram- lingham, Stow-market, Woodbridge, Lavenham, Hadley, Long-Melford, Stratford, and Eafler- j I bergholr. 1^ J Norwich, Thetford, Lynn, and Yarmouth. Cambridge Suffolk >< j_ Norfolk — ' f> .-i Berks — Gloucefler 3. Oxford Circuit. "" Worcefter Monmouth Hereford Salop — Stafford — r Warwick Leicefter Derby — uanoj it. I Nottingham 4. Midland Circu Lincoln — ' Oxiord, Banbury, Chipping-Norton, Pieiiley, Bur- ford, Whitney, Dorchefter, Woodflock, and Tame. ■ Abingdon, Windfor, Reading, Wallingford, New-- ! bury, Hungerford, Maidenhead, Farringdon, W^antage, and Oakingham. Glouccfter, Tewkfbury, Cirencefter, part of Brif- tol, Campden, Scow, Berkeley, Durfley, Leech- dale, Tetbury, Sudbury, W^otton, and Marfh- f") Worcefter, Evefham, Droitwich, Bewdley, Stour- I bridge, Kidderminrter, and Perfhore. I [ Monmouth, Chepllow, Abergavenny, Caerleon, I I and Newport. Hereford, Lemfter, WeObley, Ledbury, Kyneton, and Rofs. Shrewfbury, Ludlow, Bridgnorth, Wenlock, Bi- fhop's Caftle, Whitchurch, Ofweftry, Wem, and Newport. Stafford, Litchfield, Newcafiile under Line, Wol- verhampton, Rugeley, Burton, Utoxerer, and j [ Stone. 1 fWarwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Stratford upon Avon, Tamworth, Aulcefter, Nuneaton, and Atherton. Leicefter, Melton-Mowbray, Afliby-de-la-Zouch, Bofvvorth, and Harborough. Derby, Chellerfield, Wirkfworth, Aflibourne, Bake- . , well, Balfover, and Buxton. Nottingham, Southwell, Newark, F.afl and Wcfl Retford, Mansfield, Tuxford, Workfop, and Blithe. Lincoln, Stamford, Bofton, Grantham, Croyland, Spalding, New 'Sleaford, Great Grimfby, Gainf- borough, Louth, and Horncaftlc. I Circuits. Circuits. 4. Midland Circuit continued. Counties. Rutland — Northampt, ij, Weftern Circuit. Hants Wilts — Dorfet — Somerfet — J L 1 r L 6. Northern Circuit* ENGLAND. 17-5 Chief Towns. Oakham and Uppingham. Northampton, Peterborough, Daverttry, Hlgham- Ferrers, Bracklcy, Oundle, Wellingborough, Thrapfton, Towcellcr, Rockingham, Kettering, and Rothwell. Winchcfier, Southampton, Portfmouth, Andover, Bafingftoke, Chriltchurch, Peterstield, Lyming- ton, Ringwood, Rumfey, Ariesfbrd, and New- port, Yarmouth, and Cowes, in the Ifle of Wight. Salilhurv, Devizes, Marlborough, Malmfbury, Wilton, Chippenham, Calne, Cricklade, Trow- bridge, Bradford, and Warminfter. Dorcheiler, Lime, Sherborn, Shaftibury, Poole,. Blandford, Bridgeport, Weymouth, Melcombe, Wareham, and \V inborn. Bath, Wells, Briftol in part, Taunton, Bridgwater, y^ Ilcheft-er, Minehead, Milbourn-port, Glafton- bury, Wellington, Dulvcrton, Dunfter, Wachet, Yeovil, Somerton, Axbridge, Chard, Bruton, Shepton-Mallet, Cioicomb, and Froome. Devon — Exeter, Plymouth, Barnftaple, Biddeford, Tiver- ton, Honiton, Dartmouth, Taviftock, Topfham, Okehampton, Afliburton, Crediton, Moulton, Torrington, Totnefs, Axminfter, Plympton, and Ilfracomb. Cornwall — Launcefton, Falmouth, Truro, Saltafli, Bodmyn^ St. Ives, Padflow, Tregony, Fowey, Penryn, Kellington, Lefkard, Leftwithiel, Hclfton, Pen- < Durham — Northumb. Lancafler Weftmorl. Cumberland >< [_ zance, and Redruth. 'York — "1 fYork, Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, Rippon, Pon- tefraft, FIull, Richmond, Scarborough, Borough- bridge, Malton, Sheffield, Doncafler, Whitby, Beverly, Northallerton, Burlington, Knarelbo- rough, Barnefley, Sherborn, Bradford, Tadcafler, Skipton, Wetherby, Ripley, Fleydon, Hovvden, Thirft.e, Gilborough, Pickering, and Yarum. Durham, Stockton, Sunderland, Stanhope, Bar- nard-Caftle, Darlington, Hartlepool, and Awk- land. Newcaftle, Tinmouth, North-Shields, Morpeth, Alnwick, and Hexham. Lancafter, Manchefter, Prefton, Liverpool, Wig- an, Warrington, Rochdale, Bury, Ormfkirk, Hawkfhead, and Newton, Appleby, Kendal, Lonfdale, Kirkby-Stephen, Or* ton, Amblefide, Burton, and Milthorpe. Carlifle, Penrith, Cockermouth, Whitehaven, Ra- venglafs, Egremont, Kefwick, Workington, and Jerby. * In the Lent or Spriiisj Affizes, the Northern Circuit extends only to York and Lancader : the affizesat Uiirham, Newcaii'lc, Appleby, and C^irhlle being held o*ly iji ihe Autumn, and diinnguidied by the appellation of the lonq circHit. Middle- 176 ENGLAND. Middlefex is not comprehendeJ ; and ChefhirCj being a county palatine, enjoys municipal laws and privileges. The fame may be faid of Vv'ales, which is divided into four circuits. Circuits- Counties not includ- j >ed in the Circuits. Counties. Middlefex Chefler — Chief Towns. fLoNDON, firft meridian, N. Lat. 51-30. Weft- minfter, Uxbridge, Brentford, Chelfca, High- gate, Hampftead, Kenfington, Hackney, and Hampton-Court. Chefter, Nantwich, Macclesfield, Malpas, North- wich, Middlewich, Sandach, Congleton, Knotf- j i_ ford, Frodifham, and Haulton. >< CrRcuiTs OF WALES. r Flint — " ) Denbigh — [ Montgom. Anglefey — ' Caernarvon Merioneth . Radnor 5outh-Eaft \ Brecon North-Eaft Circuit. North-V/eft Circuit. Circuit. South-Weft Circuit. Glamorgan Pembroke Cardigan Caermarth- Flint, St. Afaph, and HolyvveH. Denbigh, Wrexham, and Rutiien. Montgomery, Llanvylin, and Welchpool. Beaumaris, Holyhead, and Newburgh. Bangor, Conway, Caernarvon, and rullilly. Dolgelly, Bala, and Harlegh. Radnor, Preftean, and Knighton. Brecknock, Built, and Hay. Llandaff, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Neath, and Swan- fey. ■ St. David's, Haverfordwefl, Pembroke, Tenb)-, Fifcard, and Milfordhaven. Cardigan, Aberiftwith, and Llanbadarn-vawer. Caermarthen, Kidwelly, Lanimdovery, Llandilo- bawr, Langharn, and Lanelthy. In E N G L A N D. 40 Counties, which fend up to parliament — — 25 Cities (Ely none, London four) 167 Boroughs, two each — — 5 Boroughs (Abingdon, Banbury, Bewdley, Fligham- ? Ferrars, and Monmouth), one each — 5 2 Univerfities 8 Cinque ports (Haftings, Dover, Sandwich, Komney, ^ Hythc, and their three dependents. Rye, Win- > chelfea, and Seaford, two each — j WALES. 12 Counties — — ■ 1 2 BoroLighs (Pembroke two, Merioneth none^, one each SCOTLAND. 33 Shires 67 Cities and Boroughs So knights. - 50 citizens. 334 burgelTes. 5 burgeffcs. 4 reprefcntatives. 16 barons. 12 knights. 1 2 bursefles. 30 knights. 1 5 burgelTes. Total 558 Befides ENGLAND. ,77- Befides the 52 counties into which England and Wales are divided, there are counties corporate, confifting of certain dilhids, to which the liberties and jurii- didions peculiar to a county have been granted by royal charter. "I'hus the city of London is a county diftinft from Middlclex; the cities of York, Chefter, Briftol, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of Kingfton upon Hull, and Newcaftle upon Tyne, are counties of themfelves, diltinft from thofe in which they lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed, which lies in Scotland, and hath within its jurifdidion a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities are contained: for every borough or city is a town, though every town is not a borough or city. A borough is fo called, becaufe it fends up burgelTes to parliament; and this makes the difference between a village or town, and a borough. Some boroughs arc corporate, and fome not corporate ; and though decayed, as Old Sarum, they ftill fend burgeffes to parliament. A city is a corporate borough, that hath had, or at prefent hath, a bifliop, for if the bifhoprick be dilTolved, yet the city remains. To have fuburbs, proves it to be a city. Soil, air, seasoks, and water.] The foil of England and Wales differs in each county, not fo much from the nature of the ground, though that mufl be ad- mitted to occafion a very confiderable alteration, as from the progrefs which the inhabitants of each county have made in the cultivation of lands and gardens, the draining of marflies, and many other local improvements, which are here carried to a much greater degree ot perfection than they are perhaps in any other part of the world, if we except China. We cannot enter upon particular proofs of thefe improvements. All that can be faid is in general, that if no unkindly feafons hap- pen, England produces corn, not only fufficient to maintain her own inhabitants, but to bring large fums of ready money for her exports. The benefits from thefe exports, have foinetimes tempted the inhabitants to carry out of the kingdom more grain than could be conveniently fpared ; for which reafon, exportations have been properly regulated. No nation exceeds England in the produftion of the gar- den, which have come to fuch perfcdion, that the rareft of foreign fruits have been cultivated here with fuccefs. If any further proof of this fliould be required, let ic be remembered, that London and its neighbourhood, though peopled by 1,000,000 inhabitants, is plentifully fupplied with all kinds of fruits and vegetables, from grounds within a few miles diftance. The plantations of trees round the houfes of noblemen and gentlemen, and even of peafants, are delightful and aftonifhing at the fiime time. Some have obferved a decay of that oak timber which anciently formed the Beets that England put to fea ; but it is fuppofed, with great probability, that great ftorcs are Hill in rcferv-e. As to air, little can be added to what has been already faid concerning the cli- mate *. In many places it is certainly loaded with vapours wafted from the At- lantic ocean ; but thefe are ventilated by winds and ftorms, fo that in this refpeft • The climate of Engl.ind has mor.- advantages « or at leaft of Fiance. He faiil, " He thoiioht than are general!}' allowed it, if we admit the opi- " that was the hell climate where he couldbc nion ot king Charles the Second upon this fub- " abroad in the air with plcafure, or at lead with- jci"% which is corroborated by that of fir William " out trouble or inconvenience, the mort days in Temple: audit maybe obferved, that they were " the year, and the moil hours in the day ;' and both travellers. ' 1 mult needs add one thing " this he thought he could be in Eno-Iand, more ' (fays lir William, in his Mifcellanea, part ii. " than in any country he knew in Europe." And « p. 114. edit. 8vo. 1690.) in fltvoiir of our cli- ' I believe (jdds lir "William) it is true, not only ' mate, which I heard the king fay, and I thought <■ of the hot and the cold, but even amon'j- our « new and right, and truly like a king of England, ' neighbours in France and the Low Countries * that loved and cfteemed his own country. It was ' theinfelves, where the heats or t! e colds and * in reply to fome company that were reviling our ' changes of feafons are lefs treatable (ornioJerate) * -oliinate, and extolling thofe of Italy and Spain, ' than they are with Us.' A a En.<^land 17S ENGLAND. England is to foreigners, and people of delicate conftitutions, rather dKagreeable than unhealthy. It cannot, however, be denied, that the weather is exceffiveljr capricious, and fo unfavourable to certain conftitutions, that many of the inhabi- tants are induced to repair to foreign countries, in hopes of obtaining a renovation bf their health. After what we have obferved in the Englifh air, the reader may form fome idea of its feafons, which are fo uncertain, that tliey admit of no defcription. Spring, fummer, autumn, and winter, fucceed each other, but in what month their diffe- rent appearances take place is very undetermined. The fpring begins fometimes in February, and fometimes in April. In May the f^ce of the country is often co- vered with hoary froft inftead of blofibrns. The beginning of June is fometimes as cold as in the middle of December, yet at other times the thermometer riles in that month as hio-h as it does in Italy. Even Auguft has its viciffitudes of heat and cold, and upon an average September, and next to it 0£lober, are two of the moft agreeable months in the year. The natives fometimes experience all the four fea- fons v/ithin the compafs of one day, cold, temperate, hot, and mild weather.. This inconftancy, however, is not attended with the efFefts that might be na- turally apprehended. A fortnight, or at moft three weeks, generally make up the- difierence with regard to the maturity of the fruits of the earth : and it is hardly ever obferved that the inhabitants fuffer by a hot fummer. Even the greateft ir- reo;ularity, and the moft unfavourable appearances of the feafons, are not, as in: other countries, attended with famine, and very feldom with fcarcity. In fpeaking of water, I do not include rivers, brooks, or lakes ; I mean waters for the common conventencies of life, and thofe that have mineral qualities. The- champaign parts of England are generally ftipplied with excellent fprings and foun- tains; though a difcerning palate may perceive, that they frequently contain fome mineral impregnation. In fome very high lands, the inhabitants are diftrelTed for water, and fupply themfelves by trenches, or digging deep wells. The conftitu- tions of the Englifh, and the difeafes to which they are liable, have rendered them ■ extremely inquihtive after falubrious waters, for the recovery and prefcrvation of their health ; fo that England contains as many mineral wells, of known efficacy,- as perhaps any country in the world. The moft celebrated are the hot baths of Bath and Briftol in Somerfetfhire, and of Buxton and Matlock in Derbylhire ;, the mineral waters of Cheltenham, Tunbridge, Epfom, Harrowgate,. and Scar- borough. Sea water is ufed as commonly as any other for medicinal purpofcs ; and; fo delicate are the tones of the Englifti fibres, that the patients can perceive, botlv in drinking and bathing, a difference between the fea-water of one coart and that of another. Face of the country 7 The induftry of the Englifti fupplies the abfence of AND MOUNTAINS. S thofe favouts which nature has fo laviftily beftowed^ upon fome foreign climates, and in many refpefts even exceeds them. No nation' in the v/orld can equal the cultivated parts of England in be.iutiful fcenes. The va- riety of high-lands and low-lands, the former gently fwelling, and both forming, profpecls furpaffing the piftures of fancy j the corn and meadow ground, the in- termixtures of cnclofures and plantations, the noble feats, cheerful villages, and wcll-ftockcd farms, often rifing in the neighbourhood of populous towns and cities, decorated with the moft vivid colours of nature, are objcdls of which an adequate idea cannot be conveyed by defcription. Tlie moft barren fpots arc not without their verdure; but nothing can better prove the extent of Englifti induftr\-, than obferving that fome of the pleafanteft counties in the kingdom are naturally the moft barren, but rendered fruitful by labour; and, it may be fafely affirmed, that no country in Europe equals England in the beauty of its profpeds, or the opulence ©f its inhabitants. Though ENGLAND. ,75 Though England is full of delightful rifmg-groiinds, and the mofl: enchanting flopes, yec it contains few mountains of great altitude. The mod noted are die Peak in Derbylliire, the Endle in Lancafhire, the Wolds in Yorkfhire, the Cheviot- Jiills on the borders of Scotland, Skiddaw in Cumberland, Malvern in Worccftcr- jfhire, Cotfwold in Glouccllerflrire, the Wrekin in Shropfhire; witii thofe of Pliii* limmon and Snowdon in Wales. In general however, Wales, and the norcliera parts, may be termed mountainous. Rivers and lakes.] The rivers in England add greatly to its beauty, as well as its opulence. The lliaines rifes on the confines of Gioucefterfhire, a little S. W. of Circncefter, and after receiving many ftrtams of other rivers, it palTes to Oxford, then by Abingdon, Wallingford, Reading, Marlow, and Vv'indlbr. From thence to Kingfton, where formerly it met the tide, which, fince the building of Weft- minllcr bridge, is faid to flow no higher than Richmond; then it flows to London, and, after dividing the counties of Kent and Elfex, it widens in its jKOgrefs, till it falls into the feaat the Nore, from whence it is navigable for large fhipvs to London bridge. It was formerly a reproach to England, among foreigners, that fo capital a river fliould have fo few bridges; thofe of London and Kinglton being the only two it had, from the Nore to t^he laft mentioned place. This inconveniency was in fome meafure owing to the dearnefs of materials for building (tone bridges ; but perhaps more to the fondnefs which the Englilli, in former days, had for water- carriage, and the encouragement of navigation. The great increafe of riches, commerce, and inland trade, is now multiplying bridges, and the world cannot parallel for commodioufnefs, archite£lure, and workmanfhip, thofe lately erected at Weftminfler and Black Friars. Batterfea, Putney, Kew, Richmond, Walton, and Hampton-court have now bridges likewife over the Thames, and others are pro- jeiSbing by public-fpirited proprietors of the grounds on both fides. The river IVIed- way, which rifes near Tunbridge, falls into the Thames at Sheernefs, and is navi- gable for the largcft fiiips as far as Chatham. The Severn reckoned the fecond river for importance in England, and the firfl for rapidity, rifes at Plinlimmon-hill in North Wales; becomes navigable at Welch- Pool ; runs eaft to Shrewfbury ; then turning fouth, vifits Bridgenorth, Worceller, and Tewkeibury, where it receives the Upper Avon ; after having pafTed Glou- cefter, it takes a fouth-weft direftion : is near its mouth increaled by the Wye and Uftre, and difcharges itfelf into the Briftol-channel, near King-road j and there lie the great fliips which cannot get up to Brifiol. The Trent rifes in the Moor- lands of Staftbrdlhire, and running fouth-eaft by Newcafile-under-line, divides tliat county into two parts; then turning north-eaft on the confines of Derbyfliire, vifits Nottingham, running the whole length of that county to Lincolnfliire, and being joined by the Oufe, and feveral other rivers towards the mouth, obtains the name of the Humber, falling into the fea fouth-eaft of Hull. The other principal rivers in Elngland are the Oufe (a Gaelic word fignifying water in general), which falls into the Humber, after receiving the water of many other rivers. Another Oufe rifes in Bucks, and falls into the fea near Lynn in Norfolk. The Tine runs from weft to eaft through Northumberland, and falls into the German fea at Tinmouth, below Newcaftle. The Tees runs from wt\\ to call, dividing Durham from Yorkfliire, and falls into the German fea below Stock- ton. The Tweed runs from weft to eaft on the borders of Scotland, and falls into the German feaat Berwick. The Eden runs from fouth to north through Weft- morcland and Cumberland, and pafTing by Carlifle, falls into Solway Frith below that city. Tlie Lower Avon runs weft through Wiltfhire to Bath, and then divid- ing Somerfetfhire from Gloucefterlhire, runs to Briftol, falling into the mouth of the Severn below that city. The Derwent, which runs from eaft to weft through Cum- berland, and palLng by Cockcrmouth; falls into the Irifli fea a little below. The A a 2 Rlbblc, i8o ENGLAND. Ribble, which runs from eall: to wefl: through Lnncafhire, and paffing by Preflon difcharges itfelf into the Irifh Tea. The Merfey, which runs from the fouth- eaft to the north-weft through Chefhire, and then dividing Chefliire from Lanca- iliire, pafles by Liverpool, and falls into the Irifli fea a little below that town ; and file Dee riles in Wales, and divides Flintfhire from Chefhire, falling into the Irifh channel below Chefter. The lakes of England are few; though it is plain from hifloryand antiquity, and indeed, in ibme places from the face of the country, that meres and fens were fre- quent in England, till drained and converted into arable land. The chief lakes remaining, are Soham mere, Wittlefea mere, and Ramfay mere, in the ifle of Ely, in Cambridgcfhire. Thefe meres in a rainy feafon unite, and form a lake of 40 or 50 miles in circumference. The northern counties of Cumberland, Weftmore- land, and Lancailiire contain feveral fmall lakes, which are remarkable for tlieir beauty. The various difpofition of tiieir banks, fometimes cultivated, often covered with wood, or enlivened by herds, the intermixture of hill and dale, rude rocks and green mountains, render the fcenery of this part of England fcarcely inferior to that of Switzerland and Italy. Forests.] The firft Norman kings of England, partly for political purpofes, that they might the more effeftually enllave their new fubjefts, and partly from the wantonneis of power, converted immenfe tracts of ground into forefts, for the benefit of hunting, and thefe were governai by laws peculiar to themfelves : fo that it was neceffary, about the time of pafHng the Magna Charta, to form a code of the foreft-laws; and juftices in eyre, fo called from their fitting in the open air, were appointed to fee them obferved. By degrees thofe trafts were disforcfted ; and the chief foi-efl^s, properly fo called, remaining out of no fewer than 69, are thofe of Windfor, Nev/ Foreft, Dean and Sherwood. Thefe forefts produced for- merly great quantities of excellent oak, elm, afli, and beach, befides walnut-trees^ poplar, maple, and other kinds of wood. In ancient times England contained laro-e forefts of chcfnut trees, which exceeded all other kinds of timber for the pur- pofes of building, as appears from many great houfes ftill ftanding, in which the chefnut beams and roofs remain, frefh and undecayed, though fome of them are above 600 years old. Mi^TALS AND MINERALS.] Among the minerals the tin mines of Cornwall are the principal. They were known to the Greeks and Phoenicians, the latter efpe- cially, fome ages iTcforc the Ciirirtian rera ; and fince the Englifli have manu- factured their tin into plates, and white iron, they are of immenfe benefit to the nation. An ore called mundic is found in the beds of tin, which was very little ref^arded till about So years ago. Sir Gilbert Clark difcovered the art of manu- fafturing it, and it is laid now to bring in 150,0001. a-year, and to equal in goodnefs the beft Spanifh copper, yielding a proportionable quantity of lapis caliminaris for makino- brafs. Thofe tin-works are under jieculiar regulations, by what are c;illed the ftannary laws; and the miners have parliaments and privileges of their own, which are in force- at this time. The number of Cornilli miners are laid to amount to 100,000. Some gold has likewife been difcovered in Cornwall, and the lead is impreo-natcd with filver. The Englifh coined filver is particularly known by rofes, and that of Wales by that prince's cap of feathers. Devonfliire, and other counties of England, produce marble; but the beft kind, which refembles Egyp- tian granite, is excellivcly hard to work. Quarries of free-flone are found in many places. Northumberland and Chefliire yield alum and falt-pits. The Englifb fullers earth is of fuch confequence to the clothing trade, that its exportation is prohibited under fevere penalties. Pit and fea-coal is found in many counties of England: but the city of London, to encourage the nuifery of feamcn, is chiefly fupplled from the pits of Northumberland, ancl the billioprick of Durham. The cargoes N G L A N D. i! I cargoes are Hupped at Newcaftle and Sunderland, and the exportation of coals to other countries is very confiderable. Vegetable AND animal pro- 7 This is fo copious a fubjedl, and fuch ini- DucTiONS BY SEA AND LAND. ) provciTients have been made in gardenino- and agriculture, even fince the bed printed accounts we have fecn, that much muft be left to the reader's own obfervation and experience. Nothing can be laid with any certainty concerning the quantities of wheat, barley, rye, peas, beans, vetches, oats and other grains growing in the kingdom. Excellent inftitutions for the improve- ment of agriculture are now common in England, and their members are fo public- fpirited as to print periodical accounts of their difcoverics ant! experiments, which ferve to fliew that agriculture and gardening may be carried to a much hio-her flats of perfcdlion. Honey and faffron are natives of England. It is almoft needlefs to mention in wliat plenty the n^.olt excellent fruits, apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, neclarines, currants, goofeberries, rafberries, and other hortulan produftions, grow here, and what quantities of cyder, perry, metheo-lin, and the like liquors, are made in fome counties. The cyder of Devon and Herefordfhire when kept, and made of proper apples, and in a particular manner, is by many pre- ferred to French white wine. The Englifli have made the different fruits of the world their own, fometimes by fimple culture, but often by hot beds and other ar- tificial means. The Englilli pine-appleS are delicious and now plentiful. The lame may be faid of other natives of the Eaft and Weft Indies, Perfia,^ and Turkey. The Englilli grapes are plealing to the tafte, but their flavour is not exalted enough for making wine; and indeed wet weather injures the flavour of all the other line fruits raifed here. Our kitchen gardens abound v^ith all forts of greens, roots and fallads. Woad for dying is cultivated in Bucks and Bedfordfhire, as hemp and flax are in other counties. In nothing have the Englifh been more fuccefsful than in the cul- tivation of grafl"es for meliorating the IbiL It belongs to a botanift to recount the various kinds of ufeful and falutary herbs, fhrubs, and roots, that grow in difix;renc parts of England. The foil of Kent, Efl"ex, Surry, and Elampfliire, is moft favour- able to the difficult and tender culture of hops, which now form a confiderable article of trade. With regard to animal productions, I flwll begin with the quadrupeds. The Englilh oxen are large and fat, but Ibme prefer for the table the fmaller breed of the Scotch and the Welch cattle, after grazing in Englifh paftures. The Enflifii horfes are the beft in the world. Incredible have been the pains taken, by all ranks for improving the breedof this favourite and noble animal, and the fuccefs has been anfwerable; for they now unite all the qualities and beauties of Indian, Perfian, A- rabian, Spanifli, and other foreign horfes. The irrefiftible fpirit and weight of the Englifh cavalry, render them fuperior to all others in war : and an Engiilli hunter will perform incredible things in a fox or llag-chace. Thofe which draw equipao-es- on the ftrects of London are often particularly beautiful. The exportation of horfes has become a confiderable article of commerce. The breed of afles and mules be- gin likewife to be improved and encouraged in England. The Englifh Iheep are generally divided into two kinds; thofe that are valuable for their fleece, and thofe that are pro[)er for the table. The former are very laro-e and their fleeces conftitute the original flaple commodity of En^-land. In foire counties the inhabitants are as curious in their breed of rams, as in thofe of their horfes and dogs, and in LincolnOiire particularly, it is not uncommon for one of thofe animals to fell for 50I. It is thought that in England, twelve millions of fleeces are fhorn annually, which, at a medium of 2s. a fleece, makes 1,200 oooL The other kind of fheep which are fed upon the downs, where they have what the farmers call a fhort bite, is little inferior in flavour and fweetnefs to'venifon. The i'82 ENGLAND. The Englilli maftifFs and bull-dogs are faid to be the ftrongefl: and fiercePc of tli« canine fpecies ; but, either from the change of foil, or feeding, they degenerate in foreign climates. James I. of England, by way of experiment, turned out two Englifli bull-dogs upon one of the fierceft lions in the Tower, and they foon conquer- ed him. The maftiff has all the courage of the bull-dog, without its ferocity, and is particularly diftinguilhed for his fidelity and docility. All the different fpecies of dogs that abound in other countries, for the field as well as domeftic ufes, are to be found in England. What is obferved of the degeneracy of the Englifh dogs in foreign countries, is applicable to the Englifli game cocks, which afford much -barbarous diverfion to our fportfmen. The courage of thefe birds is artonifliing, and one of the true breed never leaves the pit alive, without viftory. The pro- prietors and feeders of this animal are extremely curious as to his blood and ■pedigree. Tame fowls are much the fame in England as in other countries j turkles, pea- cocks, common poultry, fuch as cocks, pullers and capons, geefe, fwans, ducks, and tame pigeons. The wild fort are buftards, wild geefe, wild ducks, teal, wigeon, plover, pheafants, partridges, woodcocks, growfe, quail, landrail, fnipe, wood- pigeons, hawks of different kinds, kites, owls, herons, crows, rooks, ravens, mag- pies, jackdaws and jays, blackbirds, rhruflies, nightingales, goldfinches, linnets, larks, and a great variety of fmall birds; Canary birds aho breed in England. The wheat-ear is by many preferred to the 'ortolan, for the delicacy of its flefh and fla- vour, and is peculiar to England. Few countries are better fupplied than England with river and fea-fifh. Her rivers and ponds contain plenty of fiilmon, trout, eels, pike, perch, fmelts, carp, tench, barbie, gudgeons, joach, dace, grey nuillet, bream, plaice, flounders, and craw-fifh, befides a delicate lake filh called char, which is found in fome freili water lakes of Wales and Cumberland, and as fome fay no where elfe. The fea-fifh are cod, mackarel, haddock, whiting, herrings, pilchards, ikaite, foles. The John dory, found towards the weftern coaft, is reckoned a great delicacy, as is the red mullet. Several other fifii are found on the fame coafls. As to fhell- fifh, they are chiefly oyfliers, the propagation of which, upon their proper banks, requires a peculiar culture. Lobfters, crabs, flarimps, and efcallops, one of the moft delicious of fhell-fifhes, cockles, wilks, periwinkles, and mufcles, with many other finall fhell-fifli, abound in the Englifh feas. The whales chiefly vifit the iiorthern coaft ; but great numbers of porpoifes and ibals appear in the channel. The Englifli have been, perhaps, with great jufl:ice, aocufed of not paying jirojier attention to their fifheries. The befl: fifli that comes to the tables of the great in London, are fold by the Dutch to ELnglifli boats, and that indullrious people even take them upon the Englifli coafl:s. Great attention, it is true, has been paid with- in thefe forty years pafl, to this important concern. Many public-fpirited noble- men and gentlemen formed themfelves into a company for carrying on a Britifli fifliery. Large fums were fubfcribed, and paid with unbounded generofity. Bufles and other veflels were built, and the mofl: pleafing profpefts of fuccefs prcfented themfelves to the public. But they were unaccountably difippointed, though it is hard to fay from what caufe; perhaps the price of Englifli labour was too dear for bringing the commodity to the market upon the fame terms as the Dutch. Population, inhabitants, man- 7 The exemption of the Englifli conflitu- NERS, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. S tiou from thc dcfpotic powers exerciffd in foreign nations, not excepting republics, is one great reafon why it is very difficult to afcertain the number of inhabitants in England; and yet it is certain that this might occafionally be done by parliament, without any violation of public liberty, ancl probably foon will take place. With regard to political calculations, they mufl: be very fallible, when applied to England,. Tlie prodigious influx of fo- I reigncrs. ENGLAND. 183 reigriers, the emigrations of natives to the colonies, their return from thence, and the great number of hands employed in fliipping, are matters that render any cal- culation extremely precarious. Upon the v/hole, I am apt to think that England is more populous than the eftimators of her inhabitants are willing to allow. The war with France and Spain before the lafb, annually employed about 200,000 Engliflimen, exclufive of Scots and Irifh by fea and land; and its progrefs carried off, by various im:ans, very near that number. The decay of population was in- deed fenfibly felt, but not fo much as during the wars in queen Anne's reig.'i, though not half of the numbers were then employed in the fca and land fervice. At the finje time, I am not of opinion, that England is at prefent naturally more populous than fhe was in the reign of Charles I. though flie is accidentally fo. The Engliih of former ages were ftrangcrs to the excelFive ufe of fpirituous liquors, and other modes of living dcftru6live of propagation. On the other hand, the: vaft quantities of cultivated lands in England, fince thofe times, it might rea- fonably be prefumed, would be favourable to mankind; but this advantage has been faid to be more than counterbalanced by the pradice of engrofiing farms. I will take the liberty to make another obfervation, v/hich falls within the cognifance of almofl every man, and that is the inc.-edible increafe of foreign names upon- our parifh books, and public lifts, compared to what they were even in the reign of George I. After what has been premifed, it would be prefumptuous to afcertain the number of inhabitants in England and Wales ; but in my opinion, tiiey muft exceed feven millions. Some may fuppofe this to be too large a calculation : and it muft be ad- mitted, that England has been exceedingly drained by the late war. Erom the continual acceffion of Grangers, and other obvious caufes, it is impoffible to efti- mate the population of Eondon according to rules derived from the proportions of births and burials. Befides, at the very gates of this metropolis, 100,000 inba-- bitants are not included within the bills of mortality. Englifhmcn, in their pcrfons, are generally well fizcd, regularly featured, mod commonly fair and florid in their complexions. It is to be prefumed, that the vaft numbers of foreigners intermarried with the natives, have given a caft to their per- fons and complexions different from thofe of their anceftors 150 years ago. The women, in their fliapes, features, and complexions, appear fo graceful and lovelv, that England may be termed the native country of female beauty. But befidc the external graces fo peculiar to the women in England, they are ftill more to be' valued for their prudent behaviour, thorough cleanlinefs, and a tender affedion for their hufbands and children, and all che engaging duties of domeftic life. Of all European nations, the Englifli keep themfelves the moit cleanly. Their nerves are fo delicate, that people of both fexes are fometimes forcibly,, nay mortally affeded by imagination ; infomuch, that before the pradice of inoculation for the' fmall pox took place, it was thought improper to mention that loathfome difeafe by its true name,, in any polite company. This over-fenfibility has been con- fidered as one of the fourccs of thofe fingularities, which fo ftrongly charadlerife the Englifn nation. They fometimes magnify the llighteft appearances into realities, and bring the moft diftant dangers immediately home to themfelves ; and yet when real danger approaches, no people face it with greater refolution, or eonftancy of mind. In fhort, many of the EnglilTi feel, as if it really exilled,, every evil in mind, body, and eftate, which they form in their imagination. At jjarticular intervals, they are fenfible of this abfurdity, and run into a contrary extreme, Rriving to banifti it by diffipation, riot, intemperance, and diverfions. They are fond, for the fame reafon, of convivial affociations ; and when thefe are kept within the bounds of temperance and moderation, they prove the beft ciwes for i84 ENGLAND. for thofe mental evils, which are fo peculiar to tlie Englill-i, that foreigners have pronounced them to be national. The fame obfervations hold with regard to the higher orders of life, which muft be acknowledged to have undergone a remarkable change fince the acceffion of the Houle of Hanover. The Engliih nobility and gentry of great fortunes, now afu- milate their manners to thofe of foreigners, with whom they cultivate a more fre- quent intercourfe than their forefathers did. They do not now travel only as pu- pils, to bring home the vices of the countries they vifit, but they travel for the purpofes of fociety, and at more advanced periods ot life, v/hile their judgments are mature, and their paffions regulated. This has enlarged fociety in England, which foreigners now vifit as commonly as iMigliflimen vifited them, and the cflcfts of this intercourfe become daily more vifible, efpecially as it is not now, as for- merly, confined to one fex. Such of the Engliih noblemen and gentlemen as do not firike into high walks of life, affeft rather what is called a fnug way of living. They underiland, per- haps better than anv people in the world, conveniency in their houfes, gardens, equipages, and eftates, which they fpare no coft to purchafe ; it has, however, been obferved, that this turn renders them lefs communicative than they ought to be : hut, on the other hand, the few connexions they form, are fincere, cheerful, and indiflbluble. The like habits defcend into the lower ranks, and are often dilcern- able among tradefmen. This love of conveniency, may be called the ruling paf- fion of the Englifli, and the ultimate end of all their application, labours, and fatigues. A good ceconomift, with a brifk run of trade, is generally, when turned of 50, in a condition to retire from bufinefs ; that is, either to purchafe an ellate, or to fettle his money in the funds. He then commonly refides in a comfortable houfe in the country, often iiis native county, and expefts to be treated on the footing of a gentleman ; but his ftyle of living is always judicioufly fuitcd to his circumftances. Few people know better than tradefmen, and men of bufinefs in England, how to pay court to their cuftomers and employers. Thofe arts they confider only as the means of acquiring that independence, the pride of which too often leads them into a contrary extreme. This carries them to that petulance, which is {o ofi-'enfive to ftrangers, and though encouraged through the want of education, has its root in the nobleft of principles, badly underftood, I mean that right whicli the laws of England give to every man over his own property. The humanity of the Englifh is difcovered in nothing more than in the fubfcrip- tions for public charities. An Englifhman feels all the pains which a fellow-creature fufil-rs, and poor and mifcrable objefts are relieved in England with a liberality, that may prove injurious to induftry; becaufeit takes Irom the lower ranks the ufual mo- tives of labour, that they may iave Ibmewhat for themfelves and families, againft the days of age or ficknefs. The very people who contribute to thofe colleftions, are aflefled in jiroportion to their property for their parochial poor, who have a legal demand for a maintenance ; and upwards of three millions is fiid to be collected yearly in this country for charitable jnirpofes. The inltitutions of extra-parochial Infirmaries, hofpitals, and the like, arc in fome cafes rcprehenfible. The fums be- llowed on building them, the contraifts made by their governors, and even the elec- tion of phyficians, who thereby acquire credit, which is the fame as profit, often begets heats and cabals, very different from the purpofes of difintereftcd charity, ov.'lng to the attachments and prcpofil'fnons of friends, and even to party confider- ations. Notwithftanding thofe provifions, which would baifilh poverty fiom any other country, the ftrects of London, and the highways of England abound with objects of dillrcfs who beg in defiance of the laws, which render the pradicc ivjcifliable. The ENGLAND. 185 The Englirh, though irafcible, are the moll placable people in the world, and •will often facrifice part of this intereft rather than proceed to extremity. They are eafily prevailed upon to forgive injuries, and they carry this lenity too far, by ac- cepting of profeflions of forrow publiflied in advertifements by thofe who offend them, and who often laugh at the ealinefs of their profecutor.s, for dirmililng them fo gently. The unfufpedling nature of the Englifh and their honeft open manners, efpecially of thofe in the mercantile way, often render them dupes. They liften to the voice of misfortunes in trade, whether real or pretended, delerved or accidental, and generoufly contribute to the relief of the parties, fomctimes even by placing them in a more creditable condition than ever. The loweft of the people are capable of generous aftions ; but they often make an oftentatious dif- play of their own merits, which diminifhes their value. T here is aiiong perfons of all ranks, an unpardonable preference given to wealth, above molt other confi- derations. This ofFenfive failing ariles partly from the people being fo much ad- dicted to trade and commerce, the great objeft of which is gain ; and partly from the democratical part of their conltitution, wiiich makes the pofTelTion of property a qualification for the legiflature, and for almofl every other fpecies of magiltracy, government, honours, and diltinftions. The fame attention to property operates in many other ways among the lower clafles, who think it gives them a right to be rude and difregardful of all about them : nor are the higher orders exempt from the fame failing. The iame prin- ciple often influences their exterior appearances. Noblemen of the firft rank have been {een laying bets with butchers and coblers at horfe-races, and boxing- matches. Gentlemen and merchants of great property are fometimes not be diftinguiflied, either by their drefs or converfation, even from their icrvants ;- and a wager offered to be ftaked in ready money, againft a pennylefs antagonilt, has been often thought a decifive argument in public comi:)any ; but the practice of laying wagers has become much lefs prevalent than it ufed to be. An Englifhman, of education and reading, is the moll accomplifhed gentleman in the world. He is however fliy and referved in his communications, and a man may be in company with him for months, without difcovering that he knows any thing beyond the verge of a farm-yard, or above the capacity of a horfe-jockey. This coldncfs is fo far from being affeded, that it is a part of their natural confti- tution. Learning, and genius, often meet not with fuitable regard even from the firll-rate Englillimen : and it is not unufual for them to throw afide the beft produc- tions of literature, if they are not acquainted with the author. While the Itare- diflinftion of Whig and Tory fubfifted, the heads of each party afftriited to patronize men of literary abilities ; but the pecuniary encouragements given them were but very moderate, and the few who met with preferments in the ftate might have earned them by a competent knowledge of bufinefs, and that jiliability which the dependents in office generally polTefs. We fcarcely have an inflance, even in the munificent reign of Queen Anne, or of her predecelTors, who owed fo much to the prefs, of a man of genius as fuch, being made eafy in his circum- ftanccs. Mr. Addifon had about 300I. a year of the public money, to affift him in his travels ; and Mr. Pope, though a Roman catholic, was offered, but did not accept of, the like penfion from Mr. Craggs, the Whig fecretary of ilate ; and it was remarked, that his Tory friend and companion the earl of Oxford, when fole minilter, did nothing for him, but bewail his misfortune in being a papilt. Indeed, a few men of diftinguiflied literary abilities, as well as fome without, have of late received penfions from the crown ; but from the conduct of fome of them it Ihould fcem, that ftate and party fervices have been expefted in return. The unevennefs of the Englilli in their converfation is very remarkable : fome- times it is delicate, fprightly, and replete with true wit; Ibmetimes it is folid, inge- B b nious, i86 ENGLAND. nious, and argumentative ; fometimes it is cold and phlegmatic in the extreme. In many of their convivial meetings they are noify, and their wit is often offenfive, while the loudefl: are the moft applauded. This is particularly the cafe in large companies ; but in fmaller and more leled: parties, all the pleafures of rational converfation, and agreeable focicty, are enjoyed in England in a very high degree. Courage is a quality that feems to be congenial to the nation. Boys, before they can fpeak, difcover that they know the proper guards in boxing vi'ith their fills ; a quality that perhaps is peculiar to the Englifh, and is feconded by a flrength of arm that few other people can exert. This gives their foldiers an infinite luperi- ority in all battles that are to be decided by the. bayonet fcrewed upon the mufiicr.. Their paflive courage is not lefs confpicuous than their adtive. The Englifh are not remarkable for invention, but for improving the invention of others, and in the mechanical arts, they excel .all other nations. The intcnfe application which an Englifnman gives to a favourite iludy is incredible, it abforbs all his other ideas. This creates the numerous inflanccs of mental abfences that are to be found in the nation. All that I have faid concerning the Englifh, is to be underftood of them in ge- neral ; for it is not to be dllTembled, that every day produces ftrong indications of alterations in their manners. The great fortunes made during the late and the preceding wars, the immenfe acquifitions of territory by the peace of 1763, and above all, the amazing Increafe ol territorial as well as commercial property in the Eafl: Indies, introduces a fpccies of people, who have become rich without ihduflry, and by diminifhing the value of gold ^and filver have created a new fyilem of finances. Time alone can Iheu' the event : hitherto the confequences icem to have been unfavourable, as it has occafioned a fpirit of luxury and gam- ing attended with the moft fatal effeds, and an emulation among merchants and traders to equal, or furpafs, the nobility and the courtiers. The plain frugal manners of men of bufinefs, v>'hich prevailed fo lately as the acceffion of the prelent family to the crown, are now difregarded for taftclefs extravagance in drefsand equipage, and the moft expenfive amuiements and diverfions, not only in the ca- pital, but all over the trading towns of the kingdom. The cuftoms of the Engliih. have, fince the beginning of this century, undergone a confiderable change. Their ancient hofpitality has much decayed ; many of their favourite diverfions are now difufed. Thofe remaining, are operas, dra- matic exhibitions, ridottos, and fometimes mafquerades in or near London ; but •conceits of mufic, and card and dancing aHemblies, are common all over the kingdom. 1 have already mentioned flag and fox hunting and horfc races, of which many Englifhmen are fond even to infatuation. Somewhat, however, may be olTered by way of apology for thofe diverfions : the intenfe application which the IinLrlifh give to bufinefs, their fedcntary lives, and luxurious diet, require excrcife ; and fome think that their excellent breed of horfes is increafed and improved by thofe amufements. Next to horfe-racing, and hunting, cock-fighting, to the re- proach of the nation, is a favourite diverfion among the great as well as the vulgar. Multitudes of both clafles affemblc round the pit at one of thofe matches, and enjoy the pangs and death of the generous animal, every fpedtator being concerned i[i a bet, fometimes of high fums. The athletic diverfion of cricket is lliil kept up in many parts of I'.ngland, and is fometimes pracllfed by people of the highefl rank. Many other pailimes are common in England, fome of them of a very robuft nature, iuch as cudgelling, wrellling, bowls, ikittleSji quoits, and pri- fon-bafe ; not to mention duck-hunting, foot and afs-raccs, dancing, puppct- jhcws, May garhinds, and above all, ringing of bells, a fpecies of mufic which the FJiglifh boaft of having carried to pcrfcflion. The barbarous diverfions of boxing and prize-fighting, which were as frequent in England as the fliews of gladiators E N G L A N t). 187 gladiators in Rome, are now prohibited, though often pradlifcd ; and all places of public divcrfions, except the royal theatres, are under regulations l)y adl of par- liament. Other diverfions, which are common to other countries, fuch as tennis, fives, billiards, cards, fwimming, angling, fowling, courfing, and the like, are familiar to the Englifh. Two kinds, and thofc highly laudable, are perhaps pe- culiar to them, and thefe are rowing and failing. The latter, if not introduced, was patronized and encouraged by his jircfcnt majefty's father, the late prince of • Wales, and may be confidcred as a national improvement. The game atts have taken from the common people a great fund of diverfion, though without anfwer- Irig the purpofes of the rich : for the farmers and country people deilroy the game in their nefts, which they dare not kill with the gun. This monopoly of game, among fo free a people as the Englifh, has been often attacked, and as often defended. Dress.] In the drefs of both fexes, before the prefent reign of George III. they folloived the French ; but that of the military officers partook of the Ger- man, in compranent to his late majefly. The Englifh, at prefent, bid fair to be the diftators of drefs to the French themfelves, at lealT: with regard to elegance, neatnefs, and richncfs of attire. People of quality and fortune, ot both fexes, ap- pear on high occafions, in cloth of gold and filver, the richeft brocades, fattins, filks, and velvets, both flowered and plain, all which are now manufailured at home. The quantities of jewels that appear on public occafions are incredible, cfpecially fince the vaft acquifitions of the Englifli in the Eaft-Indies. The fame nobility, and perfons of diftintlion, on ordinary occafions drefs like creditable citizens, that is, neat, clean, and plain, in the fineft cloth, and the bell of linen. The full drefs of a clergyman confills of his gown, calFock, fcarf, beaver-hat and rofe, all of black ; his undrefs is a dark grey frock, and plain. The phyficians, the formality of whofe drefs, in large tye perukes and fwords, was formerly remark- able if not ridiculous, begin now to drefs like other gentlemen, and men of bufi- ncfs. Few Englifhmen, tradefmen, merchants and lawyers, as well as men of landed property, are without fome paffion for the fports of the field, on which oc- cafions they drefs with remarkable propriety. The people ot England love rather to be neat than fine in their apparel ; and the appearance of an artifan or manufac- turer in holiday times, is commonly an indication of his indufl;ry and morals. Religion.] Eufebius, and other ancient writers, pofitivcly affert, that Chrifii- anity was firft preached in South-Britain by the apoftles and their difciples ; and it is reafonable to fuppofe, that the fuccefs of the Romans paved the way for the triumphs of the gofpel of peace. It is certain alfo, that many of the foldiers and officers in the Roman armies were Chriitians ; and as their legions were repeatedly fentover to England to extend as well as to preferve their conquefts, it is probable that thus Ghriftianity was dilTufed among the natives. If any of the apofdes vifited this country and our heathen anceftors, it was St. Paul, whofe zeal, diligence and fortitude were abundant. But who was the firft preacher, or the precife year and period, the want of records leaves us in doubt ; for the belief of Jofeph of Ari- mathea and St. Peter's preaching the Gofpel in Britain, and Simon Zelotes fuffer- ing martyrdom here, refts on no better foundation than monkiHi legends. \\'c have good authority to fay, that about the year i 50, a great number of perlbns profeU'ed the Chrifl:ian faith, and, according to Archbifliop Uflier, in the year 182, there was a fchool of learning to provide the Britilli churches with proper teachers; and from that period it Ihould feem that Chrillianitv advanced its benign and fa- lut'ary influences among the inhabitants. John Wicklifl:^, an Englifiiman, edu- cated at Oxford in the reign of Edward III. has the honour of being the firft perfon in Europe who publicly called in queftion, and boldly refuted thofe doc- trines which had pafled for certain during fo many ages ; and to him originally it B b 2 is tS8 ENGLAND. is owing that the reformed religion in England, eftablifhed under Henry VIII. is purified from the errors of popery, and ajiproaches nearer to the primitive Chrif- tianity, being equally removed from fuperllition and indecency in its worfhip, and as void of bigotry as of licentioufnefs in its pradtice. The conftitution of the church is epifcopal, and is governed by bifhops, vvhofe benefices were converted by the Norman conqueror, into temporal baronies, in right of which, every bifhop has a feat and vote in the houfe of peers. The benefices of the infelror clergy, are now freehold, but in many places their tithes have been impropriated, i e. con- ferred on the laity. The cEConomy of the church of England has been accufed for the inequality of its livings ; fome of them extending from three hundred to fourteen hundred a year, and many, particularly m Wales, being too fmall to maintain a clergyman, efpecially if he has a family, with any tolerable decency : but this fecms not eafy to be remedied, unlefs the dignified clergy would adopt and fupport the reforming fcheme. The crown, as well as private perfons, has done great things towards the augmentations of poor livings. The dignitaries of the church of England, fuch as deans, prebendaries, and the like^ have generally large incomes ; fome of them exceeding in value thofe of bi- fhopricks, for which reafon the revenues of a rich deanery, or other livings, is often annexed to a poor billioprick. At prefent, the clergy of the church of Eng- land as to temporal matters, are in a moft flourifhing condition, becaufe the value of their tithes increafes with the improvements of lands, which of late have been amazing in England. The fovereigns of England, ever fince the reign of Henry VIII. have been called in public writs, the fupreme heads of the church ; but this title conveys no fpiriiual meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to prevent any ecclefiafiical dificrences ; or in other words, to fubftitue the king in place of the pope before the Reformation, with regard, to temporalities, and the internal oeco- nomy of the church. The kings of England never intermeddle in ecclefiaftical dif- putes, unlefs by preventing the convocation from fitting to agitate them, and arc contented to give a fanCtion to the legal rights of the clergy. The church of England, under this defcription of the monarchical power over it, is governed by two. archbifliops, and twenty-four bifhops, befides the bifhop of Sodor and Man, who, not being poflefled of an Englifh barony, does not fit in the houfe of peers*.. The two archbilhops, are thofe of Canterbury and York, who are both dignified with the addrcfs of " your grace." The former is the firll peer of the • To the following lift, I have fuhjoinedthe fiim each fee is charged in the king's books ; for though' that fum is far from being the real annual value of the fee, yet it alFills in forming a comparative efti-- mate between the revenues of each fee with thofe of another. ARCHBISHOPRICKS. Canterbury, £ 2682 :. 12 : 2 | York, ■ £ i6io : 0:0 B I S H O P R I C K S. London, ■■ zcoo : 0:0 Durham, ■ li>2i : 1:3 Winchellcr, 3124 : 12 : 8 The bifhops of thefe three take precedency of al! others in England, and the others accord- ing to the fenlority of their confccrations. Kly, 2)34 : 18 : 6 I'.ath and Wclb, S.^3 "• • • 3 }[erfford, 768 : 11 : o Kochcdcr, 358 : 4:0 Litchfidd and Coventry, 5 59 : 1 7 : 3 Ci cller, 430 : i : b Worcefler, — — 929 ■•13:3 Chichcllcr, ■ ^17 '• « = 3 St. Afaph,. Salifbury, — Bangor, — — Norwich, — — Glouccfler, . • l.andaff, — _ Ijucoln, — — lirlllol, Carlillc, . Exeter, ■ — — I'cterborough, — — Oxford, St, David's, _ — — .87 : II 8 3«i 131 : 5 16 3 «34 1 1 7 315 894 7 18. 3 '54 14 2 294 : 11 53> : 4 9 500 : 414 . '7 8 3H1 II 426 : 2 i realm. ENGLAND. 189 realm, as well as metropolitan of the Englifli church. He takes precedence next to theroval family, of all dukes and officers of ftate. He is enabled to hold eccle- fiartical courts upon all affairs that were formerly cognifable in the court of Rome, when not repugnant to the law of God, or the king's prerogative. He has the pri- vilege confcquently of granting in certain cafes, licences and ditpenfations, together with the probate of wills, when the party dying is worth upwards of five pounds. Befides h.isown diocefe, he has under him the bifliops of London, Winche(k-r, Ely, 1-incoln, Rocheller, Litchfield and Coventry, Hereford, Worcelter, Bath and Wells, Saliiljury, Exeter, (Jhicheftcr, Norwich, Gloucetler, Oxford, Peterborough, Briilol ; and, in Whales, Sc. Lavid's, Landaff, St. Afaph, and Bangor. The archbifliop of Canterbury has by ihe conftitution and laws of England, fuchex- tenfive powers, that ever fincc the deathof archbilhopLaud, government has thought proper to raife to that dignity men of moderate principles ; and generally men of confidcrable learning and abilities. This praftice has been attended with excellent effects, with regard to the public tranquillity of the church, and confequcntiv of the ilate. The archbilhop of York takes place of all dukes, not of the blood royal, and of all officers of ftate, the lord chancellor excepted. He has In his j^rovince, befides his own diocefe, the biffiopricks of Durham, Carlifle, Cheiler, and Sodor and Man. In Northumberland, he has the power of a palatine, and jurifdidlion in all criminal proceedings. The billiops are addreffed by the appellation of your lordflrips, ftiJed " Right reverend fathers in God," and take the precedence of all temporal barons. They have the privileges of peers, and the bilhopricks of London, Winchefter, Durham, Salifbury, B^ly, and Lincoln, require no additional revenues to fupport their prelates in the rank of noblemen. Englifli bilhops are to examine and ordain priefts and deacons, to confecrate churches and burying-places, and to adminifter the rite of con- firmation. Their jurifdiftion relates to the probation of wills; to grant adminiftra- tion of goods to the heirs of fuch as die inteftate; to take care of perifliable o-oods when no one will adminifter; to collate to benefices; to grant inftitutions to livings; to defend the liberties of the church; and to vific their own diocefes once in three years. Deans, and prebendaries of cathedrals have been already mentioned j but it would perhaps be difficult to affign their utility in the church, farther than to add to the pomp of worfhip, and to make provlfion for clergymen of eminence and merit, but intereft often prevails over merit in the appointment. England contains about fixty archdeacons, whole office is to vifit the churches twiceor thrice every year, but their offices are lefs lucrative than they are honourable. Subordinate to them are tlie ru- ral deans, formerly ftyled arch-prelbyters, who lignify the biffiop's plcafure to his^ clergy, the lower clafs of which confifts of priefts and deacons. The ecclefiaftical government of England is properly fpeaking, lodged in the convocation, which is a national reprcfeniative or iynod, correfponding j:)retty nearly to die ideas we have of a parliament. They are convoked at the fame time v/ith every parliament, and their bufinefa is to confiderof the ftate of the church, and to call thofe to an account who have advanced new opinions, inconiiilent with the dodrines of the church of England. Some high-flying clergymen, during. The remains of many Roman camps are difcernible all over England ; one particularly very little defaced, near Dorchcfter, in DorfcLfliire, where alfo is a Roman aa)phitheatre. Their fituations are generally fo well ehofen, and their fortifications appear to have been fo complete, that there is fonie reafon to believe, that they were the conftant habitations of the Roman foldicrs in England ; though it is certain, from the baths and tefillatcd pavements that have been found in diflerent parts, that their chiet officers or magiftrates liveti in towns or villns. Roman walls have like- wife been found in England ; and, perhaps, upon the borders of Wales, many re- mains of their fortifications and callles are blended with thofe of a later date ; and it is difficult for the moll expert architedb to pronounce that fome halls and courts are not entirely Roman. The private cabinets of noblemen and gendemcn, as well as the public repoiitories, contain a vail number Roman arms, coins, fibula;, and trinkets, which have been found in England ; but the mofl; amazing monu- luent of the Roman power in England, is the pra?tenture, or wall of Sevcrus, com- monly called the Pitts wall, running through Northumberland and Cumberland ; beginning at Tinmouth, and ending at Solway Frith, being about eighty miles in length. The wall at firil: confifled only of Hakes and turf, with a ditch ; but Severus built it with ftone forts, and turrets at proper diftances, fo that each might have a fpeedy communication with the other. This prodigious work, however, was better calculated to ftrike the Scots and Pidls with terror than to give any real fecurity to the Roman poUllTions. In fome places, the wall, the vallum, and the road, are plainly difcernible. A critical account of the Roman antiquities in England is among the defiderata of hiltory. The Saxon antiquities in England confift chiefly in ecclefiaftical edifices, and places of flrength. At Winehelfer is fliewn the round table of king Arthur, with the names of his knights. The antiquity of this table has been difputed by Cam- den, and later writers, perhaps with reafon -, but if it be not Britifh, it certainly is Saxon. The cathedral of Winchefter ferved as the burying-place of feveral Saxon kings, whofe bones were coUedled by bifhop Fox, in fix large wooden chefts. Many monuments of the Saxons prefent themfelves in different parts of the kingdom, though they are often not to be difcerned from the Normanic; and the Britifli Mufeum contains feveral driking original fpecimens of their learning. Many Saxon charters, figned by the king and his nobles, with a plain crofs inftead of their names, are ftill to be met vvith. The writing is neat and legible, and was always performed by a clergyman, who affixed the name and quality of every donor, or witnefs, to his refpedtive crofs. The Danifh eredlions in England are hardly dilecrnible from the Saxon. The form of their camps is round, and they are generally built upon eminences, but their forts are fquare. England is full of Anglo-Normanic monuments, which I chufe to call fo, be- caufe, though the princes under whom they were raifed were of Norman origi- nal, the expences was defrax'ed by Englishmen. York-minfter, and Weltminfter- hall and abbey, are perhaps the fined fpecimens to be found in Europe, of that Gothic manner which i->revailed in building, before the recovery of the Greek and Roman architefture. All the cathedrals, and old churches in the kingdom, are more or Icfs in the fame tafte, if we except St. Paul's. In fliort, thefe eredtions are fo common, that they fcarcely deferve the name of curiofities. It Is uncertain, whether the artificial excavations^ found in fome parts of England, are Britifh, D d Saxon, 202 ENGLAND. Saxon, or Norman, That, under the old caftle of Rycgate in Surry Is very re- markal)le, and feems to have been defigned for fecietin<^ the cattle and eftects of the natives, In time of war and invafion. It contains an oblong fquare hall, round Vvhich runs a bench, cut out of the lame rock, for fitting upon ; and tradition fays, that this was the room in which the barons of England met, during their wars with king John. The rock is foft, and very prafticable ; but it is hard to fay where the excavation, which is continued iu a fquare paffage, about fix feet high, and four wide, terminates. The natural curiofities of England are fo various, that I can teuch upon them only in general. The medicinal waters and fprings which are found in many parts of the countrv, have been analyfed with great accuracy and care by fevcral learn- ed naturalifts, who, as their interefts or inclinations led them, have not been fpar- ing in recommending their falubrious qualities. The moll remarkable of thefe wells have been divided into thole for bathing, and thole for drinking. The chief of the former He in Somerfetlhire and Derbyfhire ; and the Bath and Buxton vva- ters are famous, both for drinking and bathing. Spavvs of the fame kinds are found at Scarborough, and other parts of Yorkflaire ; at Tunbridge in Kent j Epfom and Dulwich in Surry ; and at Adon and Illington in Mlddlefex. There alfoare many remarkable fprings, whereof fome are impregnated with lalt, as that of Droitwich in Vv'orcefierfhire; or fulphur, as the famous well of Wigan in Lanca- Ihire ; or bituminous matter, as that at Pitchford in Shropfhire. Others have a petrifying quality, as that near Lutterworth in Leicefterfhire ; and a dropping \vcll in the weft-riding of Yorkfiiire. And finally, fome ebb and flow, as thofe of the Peak in Derbyihire, and Laywell near Torbay, whole waters rife and fall feveral times in an hour. To thefe we may add that remarkable fountain near Richard's callle in Hcrcfordfliire, commonly called Bonewell, which is generally fuUof fmall bones, like thofe of frogs or fifli, though often cleared out. At An- cliff, near Wigan in Lancafliire, is the famous burning well ; the water is cold, neither has it any fmell ; yet there is fo Itronga vapour of fulphur Iflliing out with the ftream, that upon applying a light to it, the top of the water is covered with a flame, like that of burning Ipirits, which lafts feveral hours, and emits fo fierce a heat that meat may be boiled over it. The fluid itfelf will not burn when taken out of the well *. Derbyfliire is celebrated for many natural curiofities. The Mam Tor, or Mo- ther Tower, is faid to be continually mouldering away, but never diminiflies. The Eldcn Hole, about four miles fro;n the fame place : this rs a chafm In the fide of a mountain, near feven yards wide, and fourteen long, dimlnlfliing in extent within the rock, but of what depth is not known. A plummet once drew 884 yards of line after It, whereof the laft eighty were wet, without finding a bottom. The en- trance of Poole's Hole near Buxton, for feveral paces is very low, but foon opens into a very lofty vault, like the infide of a Gothic cathedral. The height is cer- tainly very great, yet much •fliort of what fome have allerted, who reckon it a quar- ter of a mile perpendicular, though In length it exceeds that dimcnfion : a current of water, which runs along the middle, adds, by its founding ftream, re-echoed on ;ill fides, very much to the aftonlfiiment of all who vlfit this vaft concave. The drops of water which hang from the roof and on the fides have an amufing cffedl ; for they not only rcfleft numberlefs rays from the candles carried by the guides, but, as they are of a petrifying quality, they harden in feveral places into various forms, which, with the help of a ftrong imagination, may pal's for lions, fonts, * This cxtraorJiiwry heat has been found to fiiiec dug from under this well ; at wliic^h time tlic proceed from a vein of coals, which has been uncommon warmth ceafcd, organs. ENGLAND. aoj organs, and the like. The entrance into that natural wonder at Caflleton, which is from its hidcoufncfs named the Devil's Arfe, is wide at firfl, and upwards of thirty feet perpendicular. Several cottagers dwell under it, who fubfift by rope-making and by guiding ftrangers into the cavern, which is crofled by four ftreams of vvajer, and terminates at the diftance of half a mile from the inoiith, in a fubterranean lake. The vault, in fevcral places, makes a noble appearance, and is particularly beautiful by being chequered with various coloured ftoncs. Some fpots of England arc faid to have a petrifying quality. VVe are told, that near Whitby in Yorkfliirearc found certain ftoncs, refemblingthe folds and wreaths of a ferpent ; alfo other ftones of feveral fizes, and fo exadly round, as if artificiallv made for cannon balls, which being broken, commonly contain the likenefs of ferpents, u rcathed in circles, but generally without heads. In fome parts of Gloucefterfliire, (tones are found, refembling cockles, oyftcrs, and other teftace- ous marine animals. Cities, towns, forts, and other ^ This head is fo very extcnfivc, that EDIFICES, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. .^ I Can Only touch upon objcdls that may aflift in giving the reader fome idea of its impor.ance, grandeur, or utilitv. London-)-, the metropolis of the Britifli empire, is the firlt, in this divifion. Ic appears to have been founded between the reigns of Julius Ca:far and Nero, but by whom is uncertain ; tor we are told by Tacitus, that it was a place of great trade in Nero's time, and foon after became the capital of the ifland. London was firft walled about with hewn ftones, and Britifli bricks, by Conftantine the Great, and the walls formed an oblong fquare, in com[)afs about three miles, with feveu principal gates. The fame emperor made it a bilhop's fee ; for it appears that the bifliops of London and York, and another Englifh biihop, were at the council of Aries, in the year 314 : he alio fettled a mint in it, as is plain from fome ot his coins. London, in its large fenfe, including Weftminfter, Southwark, and part of Middlefex, is a city of furprifing extent, of prodigious "wealth, and of the moft extenfive trade. This city, when confidered with all its advantages, is no.v what ancient Rome once was ; the feat of liberty, the encourager of arts, and the ad- miration of the world. London is the centre of trade ; it has an intimate con- nexion with all the counties in the kingdom ; it is the grand mart of the nation, to which all parts fend their commodities, from which thefe commodities are again returned. From hence innumerable carriages b)' land and water are conftantlv employed : and from hence arifes that circulation in the national body, which renders every part healthful and vigorous. Merchants are here as rich as noble- men ; witnefs their loans to government; and there is no place in the world where the llrops of tradefmen make luch an elegant appearance, or are better ftockcd. It is fituated on the banks ot the Thames, a river, which, though not the laroeft, is the richeft and moft commodious for commerce of any in the world ; it bein"- continually fdled with fleets, failing to or from the moft diftant climates ; and its banks extend from London-bridge to Blackwall, almoft one continued magazine of naval ftores, containing three large wet docks, 32 dry docks, and 33 yards for the building of merchant-fhips, befides the places allotted for boats and lighters, iind the king's yards lower down the river for the building men of war. As this f London is fituated in 51° 31' north latitude, Stockholm, Sco north-caft of IMadrid, iizo north- 400 miles foLith ot Kdinburiih, and 270 ioiith-eait welt of Roinc, 8!;o north caft of Lifoan, 1260 of Dublin ; i So miles weft of Amilcrdam, zio north- weft of Conftantinoplc, and 14 14 louth-weft r.ortli-well of i'aris, 50"> fotith-weft of Copcnha- of Mofcow. g-ctt, 600 uorth-vvcft of Vienna, 790 Omth-weft of D d z city 2b4 ENGLAND. city is about fixty miles diflant from the fea, it enjoys by means of this beautiful river, all the benefits of navigation, without the danger of being furprifed by foreign fleets, or of being annoyed by the moift vapours of the fea. It rifes regularly from the water-fide, and extending itfelfon both fides along its banks, reaches a prodigious length from eaft to wefl: in a kind of amphitheatre cowards the north, and is con- tinued for near 20 miles on all fides, in a fucceffion of magnificent villas, and populous villages, the country-feats of gentlemen and tradefmen. The regafd paid by the legiflature to the property of the fubjeft, has hitherto prevented any bounds being fixed for its extenfion. The irregular form of this city makes it difficult to afcertain its extent. How- ever, its length from eaft to weft, is generally allowed to be above feven miles from Hyde-park corner to Poplar, and its breadth in foine places three, in others two ; and in others again not much above half a mile. According to a modern mea- furement, the extent of continued buildings is 35 miles two furlongs and 39 roods. But it is much eafier to form an idea of the magnitude 'of a city fo irregularly built, by the number or the people, who are computed to be above a million; and f'rom the number of edifices devoted to the fervice of religion. Of thefe, befide St. Paul's cathedral, and the collegiate church at Weftminfter, here are 102 parifh churches, and 69 chapels of the eftablifiied religion; 21 French proteftant chapels; 11 chapels belonging to the Germans, Dutch, Danes, &c. 26 independent meetings; 34 prefbyterian meetings; 20 baptift meetings; 19 popifh chapels, and meeting-houfes for the ufe of foreign ambafl^adors, and people of various lefts; and 3 Jews fynagogues. So that there are 305 places devoted to relio-ious worftiip, in the compafs of this vaft pile of buildings, without reckoning the 21 out-parifhes ufually included in the bills of mortality, and a great number of methodift tabernacles. There are alio in and near this city 100 alms-houfes, about 20 hofpitals and infir- maries, 3 colleges, ID public prifons, 15 flefii-markets ; i market for live cattle, 2 other markets more particularly for herbs; and 23 other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c. 15 inns of court, 27 public fquares, befides thofe within fingle buildings, as the Temple, &c. 3 bridges, 49 halls for companies, 8 public fchools, called free- fchools ; and 131 charity-fchools which provide education for 5034 poor children ; 207 inns, 447 taverns, 551 cofFee-houfes, 5975 alehoufes ; 1000 hackney-coaches; 400 ditto chairs; 7000 ftreets, lanes, courts, and alleys, and 150,000 dwelling- houfes, containing, as has been already obferved, above 1,000,000 inhabitants, who, according to a late eftimate, confume annually the following articles of provi- fions. Black cattle — — — — 98,244 Sheep and lambs — , — — — 7^i)^'2-3 Calves — — — — — 1945760 Swine — __ _ _ 186,932 Pigs — — — — — 52,000 Poultry, and wild flow] innumerable Mackarel fold at Billingfgate — — — 14,740,000 Oyfters, bulhels — — — - ^i'SS^ Small boats with cod, haddock, whiting, &c. befides thofe 1 brought by land-carriage, and great quantities of river and > 1^39^ falt-fifli - — - -3 Butter, pounds v^cight, about — — — 16,000,000 Cheefe, ditto, about — — — 20,000,000 Gallons of milk — — — -^ 7,000,000 Barrels E N G L A N D. 205 Barrels of fbrong beer — — — — 1,172,494 Bdrrels of fmall beer — — — — 798,495 Tons of foreign wines — — • — — 30,044 Gallons of runi, brandy, and other diftilled waters, above — 1 1,000,000 Pounds v/eight of candles, above — — — 11,000,000 L^ondon-bridge was firft built of Hone in the reign of Henry II. about the year 1 163, by a tax laid upon wool, which in courfe of time gave rife to the notion that it was built upon wool-packs; from that time it has undergone many alterations nnd improvements, particularly fince the year 1756, v/hcn the houfcs v/cre taken down, and the whole rendered more convenient and beautiful. The pafflige for carriages is 31 feet broad, and 7 feet on each fide for foot pafTengers. It croffes the Thames where it is 915 feet broad, and has 19 arches of about 20 feet vvide each, but the centre one is confiderably larger. Weftminfier bridge is reckoned one of the moft complete and elegant (Iruftures of the kind in the known world. It is built entirely of Hone, and extended over the river at a place where it is 1223 feet broad; v/hich is above 300 feet broader than at London-bridge. On each fide is a fine balluftrade of ftone with places of flielter from the rain. The width of the bridge is 44 feet, having on each fide a fine foot-way for paffengers. It confifts of 14 piers, and 13 large, and two fmall- arches, all femicircular, that in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the reft de- creafing four feet each from the other; fo that the two leaft arches of the 13 great ones, are each 52 feet. It is computed that the value of 40,0001. in ftone, and other materials, is always under water. This magnificent ftrufture was begun- in 1758, and finiihed in 1750, at the cxpeiice of 389,000!. defrayed by the parlia-- ment. Black-friars bridge is not inferior to that of Wef!:minfter in magnificence or wbrk- manfliip ; but the ficuation of the ground on the two fhores obliged the architedl ro employ elliptical arches; which, however, have a very fine effetl. • This bridge was begun in 1760, and finifhed in 1770, at the expence of 152,8401. which has been difcharged by a toll upon the paffengers. It is fituated almoft at an equal di- ftance between thofe of Weftminfter and London, commands a view of the Thames from the latter to Whitehall, and difcovers the majefty of St. Paul's in a very ftriking manner. The cathedral of St. Paul's is the moft capacious, magnificent, and regular Pro- teftan: church in the world. The length within is 500 feet; and its height, from the marble pavement to the crofs, on the top of the cupola, is 340. It is built of Portland ftone, according to the Greek an3 Roman orders, in the form of a crofs, after the model of St. Peter's at Rome, to which in fome refpefls it is fuperior. St. Paul's church is the principal v/ork of fir Chriftopher Wren, and undoubtedly the only work of the fame magnitude that ever was completed by one man. Ke lived to a great age, and finifhed the building 37 years after he laid the firft ftone. It takes up fix acres of ground, though the whole length of this church meafures no more than the width of St. Peter's. The expence of rebuilding it after the fire of London, was defrayed by a duty on coals, and is computed at near a million fl:erling. Weftminfter-abbey, or the collegiate church of W^eftminfter, is a venerable pile of building in the Gothic tafte. It was firft built by Edward the Confeftbr; king Henry III. rebuilt it from the ground, and Henry VII. added a fine chapel to the eaft end of it; this is the repofitory of the deceafed Britifti kings and nobility; and here are alfo monuments erefted to the memory of awny grfat and illuftrious perfonages, com- 2o6 ENGLAND. commanders by fea and land, philofophers, poers, &c. In cbe reign of queen Anne, 4000L a year, out of the coal-duty, was granted by parliament for keeping it in rep?.ir. The infide of the church of St. Stephen's Walbrook is admired for its lighrnefs and elegance, and does honour to the memory of fir Chriilopher Wren. The fame maybe faidofthe lleeplcs of St. Mary-le-Bow, and St. Bride's, which are fuppofed .to be the moO complete in thtir kind of any in Euro[ic, though architedture has laid down no rules for fuch erections.. Few churches in or about London are without fomiC beauty. The fimplicity of the portico in Covent Garden is worthy the purefb ages of ancient architedture. That of St. Martin's in the Fields would be noble and ftriking, could it be feen from a proper point of view. Several of the new churches are built in an elegant tade, and even iome of the chapels have graceful- nefs and proportion to recommend them. The Banqueting houfe at Whitehall is but a fmall part of a fplendid palace defigned by Inigo Jones, for the royal reli- dence, and as if now ftands, under all its difadvantages, its fymmetry and ornaments are in the higheft ftyle and execution-of architedlure. Weflminfter-hall, though on the outfidc it makes no very advantageous appear- ance, is a noble Gothic building, and faid to be the largefl: room in the world, whofe roof is not fupported by pillars, it being 220 feet long, and 70 broad. Its roof is the finefl: ot its kind that can be feen. Here are held the coronation feafts of our kings and queens; alfo the courts of chancery, king's-bench, comm.on-pleas, and exchequer. The monument, erefted at the charge of the city, to perpetuate the m.emory of its being deftroyed by fire, is worthy of notice. This column, which is of tTie Doric order, exceeds all the obeliflcs and pillars of the ancients, it being 202 feet high, with a flair-cafe in the middle to afcend to the balcony, from whence there are other fteps, made for perfons to look out at the top, which is fafhioned like an urn, with a flame ilTuing from it. On the bafe of the monument next the ftreet, the deftruclion of the city, and the relief given to the fufFerers by Charles I.I. and his brother, is emblematically reprefented in bas relief. The north and fouth fides of the bafe have each a Latin infcription, the one defcribing its dreadful dtfo- lation*, and the other its fplendid refurredtion ; and on the eaft fide is an infcription, {hewing when the pillar was begun and finiflied. The charge of erefting this monu- ment, which was begun by fir Chriftopher Wren in 1671, and finifiied by him in 1677, amounted to upwards of 13,0001. 'I"he Royal Exchange, a large and commodious building, is faid to have cofl above 8o,Dool. The terrace in the Adelphi is a very fine piece of architedture, and has laid open one of the fineft profpedts in the world. • Which may be thus leiulered : " In the year Tower by the Th.Tines fide to the Tem]ile church ; of Chiift, ill 1666, Sept. 2. e.ill,\v;inj from hence at and from the noiih-eall along- the wall to Holborn- thc dilance of 20j feet (the height of this column) biidge. To the eOates and fortunes of the citizens a terrible fire broke out aiiout midnight; which, it was mcrcilcis, but to their lives very favourable, driven on by a high wind, not only waficd the that it might in all things rcfemblc the lart con- adjacent parts, but alfo very remote places, with flagration of the world. The dclfruiifion was fud- ■incrediblc crackling and fury. It confumed 8g den, for in a fmall fpace of time the city was feen cliurche?, the city-gates, Cruildhall, many pnUlic mort flouridiing and reduced to nothing. Three 4l''U'^^^"''-'S, hofpitaU, fchools, libraries, a van nuni- days after, when this fat.il fire had balll d all hii- "bcr of (lately edifices, i 3,000 dwelling-houfes, and man counfcls and endtavours, in ihe opinion of all, ^co llreets. Of the 26 wards it utterly dellioycd it fiopijcd, as it were by a command (mm heaven, 15, an I left eight oihers fliattercd and half burnt, and ^yau on every fide cxtinguilhcd." The ryins of the city were 43(j acres, from the AVe ENGLAND. 207 We mlp;ht here give a particular defcriprion of the Tower j, Bank of England, the New Trealury, the Admiralty-office, and the Horfe-guarch at Whitehall, the Manfion-houfc of the lord-mayor, the Cuftom-houfe, Excife-office, India-houfe, and •f In cxaiiiinii!g the curiofitifS of the Tower of LcjiJon, it will be proper to begin with th ifc on the outlide the principal gate ; ihe tirrt thing a Itrangcr ufiially goes to vilit is the wild bealb ; whicli, iVoin their liiiintion, firft prcf-nt thcin- I'clves: tor luivini/ entered the outer gate, and pufled what is called the fpnr-guard, the keeper's houle prcfems itfe If before you, which is known by a paintfd iiun on ti\e wall, and another over the door which 1- ads to their d< ns. By ringing a bell, and paying fix pence each perfon, you n)ay cafily ijain admit ancc. The next place wonhy of obfervation is the Mint, which comprehends ntar one-thiid of the Tower, and cont;i:ns boufcs for all the otiiccrs be- longing to the coinige. On palling the principal gate you fee the White Tower, built by William the Conqueror. This is a large, irregular llor.e building, fituated alinod in the centre, no one hde anfwering to another, Bor any of iti watch towers, of which there are four at the top, built alike. One of thefe towers is now convened into an obfervatory. In the firll Ifory are two noble rootns, one of uhich is a fnia'l armoury for the fca-fcrvice, it havinn; various forts of arms, very curioudy laid up, tor above ic,oco feamen. In the other room are many clofets and prell'es, all filled with warlike engines and inilruments of death. Over this are two other floors, one prin- cipally filled with arms, the other with arms and otlar warlike infiruments, as fpadcs, (hovels, pick- axes, and chevaux de frize. In the upper llory, are kept match, flieep-fkins, tanned hides. Sec. and in a little room, called Julius Ca;far's chapel, are depofited iome records, containing perhaps the ancient uiagcs and culloms of the place. In this building are alio prcferved the models of the new- invented engines of deftruftion, that have from time to time leen prefented to the government. Near the fouth-well angle, of the White-Tower, is the Spanifli armoury, in which are depofited the fpuils of what was vainly called the Invincible Ar- mada ; in order to perpetuate, to latefl poilerity, the memory of that iignal viftory, obtained by the Englifli over the whole naval power of Spain, in the reign of Philip II. You next come to the grand ftore-houfe, a noble building to the northward of the AVhite- Tower, that extends 245 feet in length, and fco in buaJth. It was begun by king James II. who built it to the firft floor ; but it was finiflied by king William III. who ercfted that magnificent room, called the New, or Small armoury, in which that prince, with queen Mary, his confort, dined in great foim, having all the warrant woik- nien and labourers to attend them, dreflcd in white gloves and aprons, the ufual bridges of the order of mafonry. To this noble room jt3U are led by a folding door, adjoining to the eaft-end of the Tower-chapel, which leads to a grand itaircafe of i;o eafy flcps. On the left fide of the uppermoH: landing-place is the workflmp, in which are con- ftantlv employed about 14. fmbilliers, in cleaning, repau-ing, and new-plating the arms. On enter- ing the armoury, you fee what they call a wilder- ness of arms, fo artfully difpofed, that at one v'cw you behold arms for near 8c, -^oo men, all bright, and fit for lervice ; and belidc thole expufcd to view, ihere were, before the late war, iixteen chells Ihut up, each chert hnldins; about icoo mulkets. The arms were originally difpoled by Mr. Harris, who contrived to place them in this beautiful order, both here and iu the guard cham- ber of Hampton-cuurt. He was a common gun- fmith ; but after he had performed this work, which is the admiraion of people of all nations, he was allowed a penfion from the crown for his ingenuity. Upon ihe ground floor, under the fmall armoury, is a large room of equal dimenlions with that, fup- portcd by 20 pillars, all hung round with imple- ments of war. This room, which is 24 feet high, has a paflitge in the middle 16 feet wide. The horfc armoury is a plain brick-building, a little to the eaflward of the White-Towei ; and is an edifice rather convenient than elegant, where the fpeclator is entertained with a reprtfentation of thofe kings and heroes of our own natio:i, with whole gallant anions it is to be fuppofed he is well acquainted ; fome of them equipped and fitting on horf.'back, in the f.ime bright and fliining armour they were ufed to wear when they pei formed thole glorious actions which give them a difiinguiflted place in the Britilh annals. You now come to the line of kings, wnich your conduftor begins by reverling the orJer of chrono- logy ; fo that in foUoiving them we mu:i place tha laft' (inf. In a dark, ftrong ftone-room, about 20 yards to the ea'iward of the grand flore-houfe, or new- armoury, the crown jewels are depofited. I. The imperial crown, v^ith which it is pretended that ' all the kings of England have been crowned fince Edward the Confellor, in lo+o. It is of gold, enriched uith diamonds, rubies, emeralds, fap- phiresand pearls: the cap within is of purple vel- vet, lined with white taffety, turned up with three rows of ermine. They are however millaken in fliewing this as the ancient imperial dia<'em of St. Edward ; for that, with the other moft ancient icgalia of this kingdom, was kept in the arched room in the cloillcrsiu Wellminrter-Abbey, till the civil war ; when, in 1642,' Harry Martin, bv order of the parliament, broke cpen the iron chcd in which it was fecured, took it thence, and ("old it, together with the robes, fword, and fcc|'tre, of St. Edward. However, after t!ie Reftoration, king Charles II. had one made in imitation of it, which is that now fii wn. II. The golden orb, or globe, put into the king's right hand before he is crowni- ed: 203 E N G L A N B. and many other poblic buildings; befides the magnificent edifices raifcd by our nobility; as lord Spencer's houfe, Marlborough -houle, and Buckingham-hoiife in St. James's park; the earlof Cherterfield's houfe near Hyde-park; the Duke of Dqvonfliire's, and the late earl of Bath's, in Piccadilly; lord Shelburne's, in cil ; and bonie in liis left hand with the fceptre in his right, upon his return ii to ^^'ethn^llftcy-Hall after he is crowned. It is ahout fix inches in diu- ■metcr, edged «ith pearl, and enriched with pre- cious lioijes. On the topis an amcthyft, of a vio- let colour, near an inch and an halfin height, fct .with a richcrofs of gold, adorned with diamonds, j>earls, and preciousVioncs. The whole height of "the ball and cvip is ii inches. HI. The golden fceptre, wltlvits crofs fet upon a large an->ah_vft of great value, garniflied round with table diamonds. The handle o! the fceptre is plnin ; but the pum- mel is let round with rubies, emerald , and fmall diamonds. The top rifes into a fcur de Us of tix leaves, all ;Cnilched with precious ftone^, from ,v.'hence iilues a mound or ball, made of the ame- thyft already mentioned. 1 he crofs is quite co- vered, with precious Hones. IV. The fceptre with the dove, the emblem of peace perched on the top of a fmall Jerufalem crofs, finely ornamented with table diamonds and ie«-cls of great value. This emblem was firft ufed by Edward the Con- fcflbr, as appears by his feal ; but the ancient fceptre and dove was fold with the reft of the rega- .lia, and this now in the Tower was made alter tl-.e Reftoration. V. St. Edward's flalF, four feet feven inches and an half in length, and tiiree inches .three quarters in circumference, all of beaten gpld, which is carried before the king at his coronation. VI. The rich crown of Hate, worn by his majelly in parliament ; in which is a large cnicrald fevtn inches round ; a pearl ellccmcd the fmcfl in the world, and a ruby of inefliniable value. VI t. The_ crown belonging to hi. loyal highnefsthe prince of Wales. The king wears his crown on his head while he fits upon the throne ; but that of the prince of Wales is placed befoi'e hini, to fltcw that he is not yet come to it. VIII. The late queen Mary's crown, globe, and fceptre, with the dia- dem flic wore at her coronati(m wiih her Cdnlort liing William III. IX. An ivory fceptre with a dove on the top, made for king James II. 's c^ueen, whofc garniture is gold, and the dove on the top gold, enamelled with white. X. The curtana, or fword of mercy, which has a lilade of thirty-two inches lono-, and near two broad, is without a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the twofwovds of jullice, fpi- ritual and temporal. XI. The golden fpurs, and the armillas, which are bracelets for the wrills. Thcfe, though very antique, arc worn at the coro- nation. XII".' The ampulla, or eagle of gold, finely engraved, which holds the holy oil the kings and us, and half hazardous — It h izardous, and hazardous — For every tool, in u red on goods, inclofcd J in part brick, and pait timber — \ If half hazardous, as toiituation, or kind of / goods — — — j It hazardous — — o o o o O 6 It haznrdous, and half ha7ardous — 3 9 6 % ituation or kind of ) 7 3 4 6 If hazardous, and hazardous — For every jool. inl'urcd on goods, Inclufcd in timber If half hazardous, as to fituation or kind of goods If hazardous If hazardous, and half hazardous — If hazardous, and hazardous — go The premium is double upon any fmn between one and two thoufand, and treble bct.vccn t'.vo and three thoufand pounds. E e a new 210 ENGLAND. a new city arofe on the ruins of the old ; but, though more regular, open, conve- nient, and hcakhful than the former, yet it is ever to be lamented, that the magni- ficent and ufeful plan of the great fir Chriftopher Wren was facriHced to the mean and felfifli views of private property. Views which did irreparable injury to the citizens themfelves, and to the nation in general ; for had the great archited's plan been followed, what has often been afierted muft have been the refult ; the metro- polis of this kingdom would have been the mod elegant city in the univcrfe, and of confequence muft, from the prodigious refort of foreigners of diftinftion and tafte who would have vifited it, have become a fund of riches to this nation. But as the deplorable blindnefs of that age has deprived us of fo valuable an acquificion, it is becom.e abfolutely neceffary that Ibme efforts Ihould be made to render the prc- fent plan in a greater degree anfwerable to the national charader. The plan of London, in its prefent ftate, will in many inftanccs appear to very moderate judges, to be as injudicious a difpofition as can eafily be conceived for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of fo noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient. And the want of regularity and uniformity in the ilreets, and the mean avenues leauing to many of them, are alfo circumftances that greatly leffen the grandeur of its ap- pearance. Many of the churches, and other public buildings, are likewife thruft up in corners in fuch a manner, as might tempt foreigners to believe, that they were defigned to be concealed. The improvements of the city of London for feme 5'^ears pafr, have however been great ; and the new ftreets, which are nu- merous, are in general more fpacious, and built with greater regularity. In the centre of the town, and upon the banks of the Thames was a number of inelegant, ruinous houfes, known by the names of Durham-Yard, the Savoy, and Somerfet-Houfe. The firft, being private property, engaged the notice of the ingenious Adams, who opened the way to a piece of fcenery, which no city in Europe can equal. One the fcite of Durham-Yard was raifed upon arches the pile of the Adelphi,. celebrated for its enchanting profped:, the utility of its wharfs, and its fubterraneous apartments anfwering a variety of purpofes of general benefit. Contiguous to the Adelphi ftands the Savoy, the property of government, hitherto a nuifauce ; and, adjoining to the Savoy, towards the Temple flood Somerfct- Houfe, where, being the property of government alfo, a new pile of buildings for public offices has been erefted ; and here, in a very magnificent edifice, ate ele- gant apartments appropriated for the ufc of the Royal Society, the Royal Aca- demy of Painting and Sculpture, and the Society of Antiquaries. Though a variety of circumftances have hitherto been difadvantageous to the embcllifiment of the metropolis, it muft at the fame time be acknowledged, that a. fpirit of improvement feems univerfal amongft all degrees of people. The very elegant and neceflary method of paving and lighting the ftreets, is felt in the moft fenfiblc manner by all ranks. The roads arc continued for fcveral miles around upon the fame model ;. and, exclufive of lamps regularly placed on each fide, at fliort diftances, are rendered more fccure by watchmen ftatioried within call of each other. Nothin340 49,050 3S0 2', 560 27 -,400 345,000. 34 ^08 105,000 105,000 6 46 7^ 26,^00 38,000 5)2 395. 00 370,500 36 1 2,001s 114,500 30 3:0 531,000 526,000 3i SCO til 1,000 705, 50J 330 3.960 865, TOO 1, 04c, 000 3f ^oi 18,000 68,450 140 1,^80 365,000 305,566 24 240 4 ,000 74,200 2 24 7,000 10 120 9~,ooo 6j,ooo 1,0; S 28,910 3,370,900 3,924,606 lllands in the Atlantic ocean. The Englifli trade with their Weft India iflands confifts chiefly in fugars, rum, cotton, logwood, cocoa, coffee, pimento, ginger, indigD, materials for d"yers, ma- hogany and machined planks, drugs and preferves ; for thefe the exports from England are ofnaburgs, a coarfe kind of linen, with which the Wefl Indians now. clothe their fiaves ; linen of all forts, with broad cloth and kerfies, for the planters, their overfeers and families; filks antl ftulTs for their ladies and houfchold fervants ; hats; red caps for their flavcs of both fexes ; flocking and flioes of all jorts ; gloves and millinery ware, perukes, laces for linen, woollen, and fdks; ftrong beer, Dale' beer, pickles, candles, butter, and cheefe; iron ware, as laws, files, axes, hatchets, chifels, adzes, hoes, mattocs, gouges, planes, augrts, nails ; lead, powder, and fliot ; brafs and copper wares ; toys, coals, and pantiles ; cabinet wares, fnuffs, and in general whatever is raifed or manufaflured in Great Britain; alfo negroes fiom A- frica, and all forts of India goods. The trade of England to the Eafl: Indies conflitutes one of the moft fluperi'dous political, as well as commercial machines, that is to be met with in hifl:oi;y. The trade itfelf is exclufive, and lodged in a company, which has a tempor;!ry monopoly F f of ai8 E N G L A N D. o.f it, in confideration of money advanced to the government. Without entering into the hiftgry of the Ealt India trade, within thefe twenty years pafl, and the com- pany's concerns in that country, it is lufficient to fay, that, befide their fettlements on the coad of India, which they enjoy under certain reftriftions by aft of parlia- ment; tiiey iiave, through the various intt-rnal revolutions which have haf)pened at Indoftan, and the ambition or avarice of their fcrvants and officers, acquired fucU territorial pofTeffions, as renders them the moft formidable commercial republic (for fo it may be called in its piefent fituation) that has been known in the world fince the demolition of Carthjge. Their revenues are only known, and that but imper- feftly, to the direiflors of the company, who aie chofen by the proprietors of the itocic; but it has been publicly affirmed, that they amount annually to above three mil- lions and a half fu-iling. The expences of the company in forts, fleets, and ar- mies, for maintaining ihofe acquifiiions, are certainly very great ; but after thefe are defrayed, the company not onlv cleared a vafl fum, but was able to pay to the go- vernment four, hundred thouland pounds yearly for a certain time, partly by way of indemnification for the expences of the public in protefting the company, and partly as a tacit tribute for thole poffcffions that arc territorial, and not commercial. For many years pall, the company's fervants have enriched themfelves more than the public. Tills company exports to the Eaft Indies all kinds of woollen manufacfture, all forts of hard-ware, lead, bullion, and quickfilver. Their imports confill of gold, diamonds, raw-filks, drugs, tea, pepper, arrack, porcelain or China ware, filt petre for home confumption ; and of wrought filks, muflins, callicoes, cottons, and all the woven manufactures of India, for exportation to foreign countries. I fnall now pro- ceed to a concife view of the Englifh trade to other countries, according to the latcft and moft authentic accounts. To Turkey, England fends in her own bottoms, woollen cloths, tin, lead, and iron, hard-ware, iron utenfils, clocks, watches, verdegris, fpiccs, cochineal, and log- wood. She imports from thence raw-flks, carpets, fkins, dying drugs, cotton, fruits, medicinal drugs, coffee, and fome other articles. Formerly, the balance of this trade was about 500,000). annually, in favour of England. 'J he Englifh trade was afterwards diminiflicd through the praftices of the French; but the Turkey trade at prefent is at a very low ebb with the French as well as the Englifh. England cxjiorts to Italy, woollen goods of various kinds, peltry, leather, lead, tin, fifh, and Eaft India goods; and brings back raw and thrown filk, wines, oil, foap, olives, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, dried fruits, colours, anchovies, and. other articles of luxury ; the balance of this trade in favour of England, is annually about 20o,oool. To Spain, England fends all kinds of woollen goods, leather, tin, lead, fiffi, corn, iron, and brafs manufactures; habcrdafliery wares, aifortmcnts of linen from Germany, and elfewhcre, for the American colonies : and receives in re- turn, wines, oils, dried fruits, oranges, lemons, olives, wools, indigo, cochineal, and other dying drugs, colours, golil and filvcr coin. Portugal formerly was, upon commercial accounts, the favourite ally of Eng- land, whofe fieets and armies have more than once laved her from deflrudtion. Of late, her miniftry have changed their fyftem, and have partly fallen in with the views of the houfe of Bourbon. They have eftablifhed courts, which are incon- fifltnt with the treaties of Portugal and England, and defraud the Englifli mer- chants of great part of their capitals, which they find it impoffible to recover. They have likcwife crcdted two Brazil companies; the one for Marenham and Gran Para, ihc other for Perambuco, greatly to the detriment of the Englifh rights, but to their own national advantage. Before thefe events took placa, the Englifh ENGLAND. 219 Englifh trade to Portugal was highly beneficial. England fcnt to tliat coiintr/ almoft the fame kind of merchandizes as to Spain, and they received in return vaft quantities of wines, with oils, fait, dried and moid fruits, dying drugs, and gold coins. To France, England fends tobacco, lead, tin, fiannels, horns, and fometimes corn; and brings home a much greater value In wines, brandies, brocades, linen, cambrics, lace, velvets, and many other goods. But as there is now a commercial treaty fubfifting between England and France, time only can difcovcr which country will have the advantage. England fends to Flanders, ferges, flannels, tin, lead, fugars, and tobacco ; and receives in return, laces, linen, cambrics, and other articles of luxury, by which England lofcs confiderably upon the balance. To Germany, England fends cloths and fluffs, tin, pewter, fugars, tobacco, and Eaft India merchandize; and brings thence, linen, thread, goat-flcins, tinned places, wines, and many other articles. Before the late war, the balance of this trade was thought to be much to the prejudice of England, but that difadvantage is now lelfened, as moft of the Ger- man princes find it their intcrcil to clothe their armies in Englifh manufadhires. I have already mentioned the trade with Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and RufTia, which formerly was againft England ; but the balance, was lately diminiflied by the great improvements of her American colonics, in raifing hemp, flax, making • pot-afhcs, iron-works, and tallow, all which ufed to be furnifhed to her by the northern powers. The goods exported to Poland, chiefly by the way of Dantzic, are many, and the duties upon them low. Many articles arc fcnt there for which there is no longer any demand in other countries. Poland confumes large quan- tities of our woollen goods, hard-ware, lead, tin, fait, fea-coal, &c. and the ex- port of manufactured tobacco is greater to Poland than to any other country. The balance of trade may be elVimated much in our favour. To Holland, England fends an immenfe quantity of many forts of merchandize, fuch as all kinds of woollen goods, hides, corn, coals, Eaft India and Turkey mer- chandize, tobacco, tar, fugar, rice, ginger, and other American produftions*; ancl makes returns in fine linen, lace, cambrics, thread, tapes, incle, madiler, boards, drugs, whalebone, train-oil, toys, and many other things. The balance is fuppofed to be in favour ot England. The acquifitions which the Englifli made upon the coail of Guinea, particularly their fetflement at Senegal, opened new fources of commerce with Africa. The French, when in pofleflion of Senegal, traded there for gold, flavcs, hides, oftrich feathers, bees wax, millet, ambergris, and above all for that ufeful commodity gum Senegal, which was monopolized by them and the Dutch, and probably will iigaiji, as Senegal is now delivered up to them by the late rreaty of peace. At pre- knt, England fends to the coaft of Guinea, fundry forts of coarfe woollen and linen, iron, pewter, brafs, and hardware manufaiftures, lead-flior, fwords, knives, fire- arms, gun-powder, and glafs manufaftures. And, befides its drawing no mo- ney out ot the kingdom, it lately fupplied the American colonies with negro flaves, amounting in number to above 100,000 annually. The other returns arc in gold- dull, gum, dying and other drugs, red-wood, Guinea grains, and ivory. To Arabia, Perfi.i, China, and other parts of Afia, England fends much foreign filver coin and bullion, and fundry Englifli manufafturcs of woollen goods, and of lead, iron, and brafs; and brings home from thofe remote regions, muflins and cottons of many various kinds, callicoes, raw and wrought filk, chintz ; teas, por- celain, gold-duft, coffee, falt-petre, and many other drugs. And fo great a quan- tity of thofe various merchandizes are re-exported to foreign European nations, as more than compenfates for the filver bullion which England carries out. F f 2 During 220 ENGLAND. During the infancy of commerce with foreign parts, it was judged expedient to grant exclufive charters to particular bodies or corporations of men ; hence the Eaft India, South Sea, Hudfon's Bay, Turkey, Ruffia, and Royal African com- panies ; but the trade to Turkey, Ruffia, and Africa, is now laid open, though the merchant who propofes to trade thither mull become a member of the company, be fubjeft to their laws and regulations, and advance a fmall fum at admiffion, for the purpofcs of fupporting confuls, forts, &c. With regard to the general account of England's foreign balance, the exports have been computed at feven millions fterling, and its imports at five, of which above one million is re-exported : fo that if this calculation be true, I'ngland gains, annually, three millions fl:crling in trade; but this is a point upon which the moft experienced merchants, and ableft calculators, differ. After all that has been faid, it muft be acknowledged, that many exceptions lie to particular eflimates. The improvements at home, in iron, filk, linen, cotton, and other manufaftures, and the imports from America, mull greatly diminifh the Englifli imports from abroad. On the other hand, fome of the other European nations are making vigorous efforts for rivalling the Englifh manufactures. Yet our foreign trade does not amount to one-fixth part of the inland; the annual produce of the natural products and ma- nufaftures of England amounting to above forty-two millions. The gold and fil- ver of England is received from Portugal, Spain, Jamaica, the American colonies, and Africa, but great part of this gold and filver we again export to Holland, and the Eaft Indies ; and it is fuppofed that two-thirds of the foreign traffic of England is carried on in the port of Eondon. Cornwall and Devonfhire fupply tin and lead, and woollen manufaftures are com- mon to almoft all the weftern counties. Dorfetfliire makes cordage for the navy, feeds an incredible number of flreep, and has large lace manufactures. So- merfetfhire, befides furnifhing lead, copper, and lapis calaminaris, has large ma- HufaCtures of bone- lace, ftockings, and caps. Brillol is faid by fome to employ 2.000 maritime veffels of all fizes, coallers as well as fliips employed in foreign voy- ages: it has many very important manufactures; its glais-bottle and drinking-glafs occupying fifteen large houles : its brafs-wire manufadtures are alfo very confi- derable. Manufadtuxes of all kinds (glais, jewellery, clocks, watches, and cut- lery, in particular), are carried on in London and its neighbourhood; the gold and filvcr manufactures of London, through the encouragement given by the court and the nobility, already equal, if they do not exceed, thofe of any country ia Europe.. Colcheltcr is famous for its manufactures of bays and ferges, and alfo Exeter for ferges and long-ells ; and Norwich for its excellent fluffs, camelots, druggets, and ilockings. Birmingham, though no corporation, is one of the krgeft and moft populous tov/ns in England, and carries on an amazing trade ia excellent and ingenious hardware manufactures, particularly inuff and tobacca boxes, buttons, flioe-buckles, and many other lorts of ftecl and brafs wares; it is here, and, in Sheffield, which is famous for cutlery,, that the true genius of Englifh art and induftry is to be feen ; for fuch are their excellent inventions for fabricating, hard wares, that they can afford them for a fourth part of the price at which other nations can furnifh the fame of an inferior kind: the cheapnefs of coals, all ne- ceffaries, and the conveniency of fituation contribute greatly to this. The nortliern counties of England carry on a prodigious trade in the coaifer and Qighter woollen manufactures ; wltnels thofe of Halifax, Leeds, V/akeficld, and Richmond, and, above all, Manchclter; which, by its variety of beautiful cottons, tlimities, tickens, checks, and the like ituffs, is become a large and populous place, though only a village, and its highelt magiitrate a conftable. I might men- tion here ruany other manufacturing towns and places of England, cacii of which is. ENGLAND. 221 is noted for fome particular commodity, but the detail would become too bulky. I mull not however difniifs this head,' without obferving the beautiful porcelain and earthen ware that have of late years been manufatfturecl in difFcrent places of Eng- land, particularly in Worceftcrfhire and Staffordlliire. The Englifli carpets, efpe- cially rhofe of Axminltcr, Wilton, and Kiddtrminfler, though but a late manu- facture, greatly excel in beauty any imported trom Turkey, and are extremely dur- able. Paper, which till very lately was imported in vaft quantities from France and Holland, is now made in every part of the kingdom. The parliament, of late, has given encouragement for reviving the manutacture of falt-pctre, which was firlL attempted in England by fir Walter Raleigh, but was dropt afterwards in favour of the Eait India company : the luccefs of fuch an undertaking would be of immenfe benefit, as well as fccurity to the nation. Aftei- all that has been faid, the feats of manufiidlures, and confequently of trade, in England, are fluiluating ; they will always follow thofe places where living is cheap, and taxes are eafy : for this reafon, they have been obfervcd of late to re- move towards the northern counties, where provifions are in plenty, and the land-tax very low; and, probably, in a few years, the inland navigations, wh.ich are coaipleted in many parts of England, will make great alterations in its internal ftate. A fieri View of the Stocks, or pahlic Funds in England, with an hijloriial Account of the Eafl India, the Bank, and the South Sea Companies, Thefe fubjefts are intimately connefted j and all of them important in the po- litical defcription of England. Money is the ftandard of the value of all the ne- cefTaries and accommodations of life, and paper-money is the reprefentative of that Ilandard to fuch a degree, as to fupply its place, and to anfwer all the purpofes of gold and filver coin. Nothing is neceflary to make this reprefentative of money fupply tiie [>Iace of fpecie, but the credit of that ofRce or company who delivers it ; which credit confifts in the facility afforded by the bank for converting the paper into fpecie. The notes of the bank of England are of the fame value as the current coin, as they may be turned into it whenever the pofTeflbr pleafes. From hence, as notes are a kind of money, the counterfeiting them is punifhed with death, as well as coining. The method of depofiting money in the bank, and exchanging it for notes (though they bear no interefi:), is attended with many convcniencies ; as they are not only fafer than money in the hands of the ov/ner himfelf, but as tlie notes arc more portable, and capable of a much more eafy conveyance : fince a bank note for a very large fum may be fent by the poft, and to prevent theft,, may, without damage, be cut in two, and fent at two feveral times. Or bills, called Bank poft- bills, may be had by application at the bank, which are particularly calculated to prevent fraud,, they being made payable to the order of the perfon who takes- them out, at a certain number of tlays after fight ; which gives an opportunity to ftop bills at the bank, if they fliculd be lolT:, and prevents their- being fo eafily negocialed by ftrangers as common bank-notes are : and whoever confiders the hazard, the cxpence, and trouble, in fending large fums of gold and fdver to and from dillant places, mull alfo regard this as a very important advantage. BefideS' which, another benefit attends them; for if they are deitroyed by time, or other accident, the Bank will, on oath being made of liich accident, and fecuricy beino- given, pay the money to the perfon who was in pofTellion of them.- Bank notes differ from all kinds of ftockin thefe three particulars: i. Ti'iey are always of the lame value; 2, They are paid off without being^ transferred ; and,, 3, Th&/ 222 ENGLAND. 3. They bear no intereft; while Jiocks are a fhare in a company's funds, boiigtiC without any condition of having the principal leturned. By the word Stock was originally meant, a particular fum of money contributed to the eftablifning a f:ind to enable a company to carry on a certain trade, by means of which the perfon became a partner in that trade, and received a iliare in the profit made thereby, in proportion to the money advanced. But this term has been extended farther, to fignify any fum of money which has been lent to the government, on condition of receiving a certain intercil till the money is repaid. As the fecurity both of the government and the public companies is efteemed preferable to that of any private perfon, as ftock is negociable and may always be readily transferred, as the intereft is always punftually paid when due ; fo for th-efe reafons government may commonly borrow money cheaper than individuals. Every fund being raifed for a particular purpofe and limited by parliament to a certain fum, it follows, that vvhen the fund is completed, no more (lock can be boug'-it ; thong!) fhares, already purchafed, may be transferred from one perfon to another. This being the cafe, there is frequently a great difproportion between the original value of the fhares, and what is given for them when transferred ; for if there are inore buyers than fellers, a perfon who is indifferent about felling, will not part with his fliare without a confiderable profit to himfelf ; and on the contrarv, if many are difpofed to fell, and few inclined to buy, the value of fuch lliares will naturally fall in propo«ion to the impatience of thole who want to turn their ftock into fpecie. Thefe obfervations were necelTary to give our readers fome idea of the nature of that unjuilifiable and diflioneft praftice called Stock-jobbing, the myftery of which confifts in nothing more than this : the perfons concerned in that pracfbice, who are denominated Stock-jobbers, make contracts to buy or fell at a certain diftant time, a certain quantity of fome particular ftock ; againft which time they endeavour, according as their contrad: is, either to raife or lower fuch ftock, by Spreading ru- mours, and fictitious ftories, in order to induce people either to fell out in a hurry, and confequently cheap, if they are to deliver ftock ; or to become unwilling to fell it, and confequently to make it dearer, if they are to receive ftock. The perfons who make thefe contracts are not in general pofTefTcd of any real ftock ; and when the time comes that they are to receive or deliver the quaritity they have contracted for, they only pay fuch a fum of money as makes the difference be- tween the price the ftock was at when they made the contract, and the price it hap- pens to be at when the contrail is fulfilled ; and it is no uncommon thing for per- fons not worth lool. to make contrails for the buying or felling ioo,oool. ftock. In the language of Exchange-Ally, the buyer in this cafe is called the Bull, and the feller the Bear ; one is for raifing or toffing up, and the other for lowering or trampling upon the Stock. Befides thefe, there is another fet of men, who, though of a higher rank, may properly come under the fame denomination. Thefe are the great monicd men, who are dealers in ftock, and contraiflors with the government whenever any new money is to be borrowed. Thefe indeed are not ficflitious, but really buyers and fellers of ftock ; but by raifing falfe hopes, or creating groundlefs fears, by pre- tending to buy or fell large quantities of ftock on a fudden, by ufing the foremen- tioned fet of men as their inftruments, and other like pra5'-'^ The clear gain to the Bank therefore is — — — 23,;oo- This holds, provided the company -(hould make no call on the fubfciibcrSjr which they will be very unwilling to do, becaufe it would not- only leficn their- profit, but affed: the public credit in general. The company of the Bank are allowed by government very confiderable funis annually for the management of the annuities paid at their office. They make divi- dends of the profits half-yearly, of which notice is publicly given j when thofe who 230 ENGLAND. who hr.ve occnfion for their money, may readily receive it : but private perfons, if they judge convenient, are permitted to continue their tunds, and lo have their interell added to the principal *. This company is under the direction of a governor, deputy governor, and twenty-four direttors, who are annually eletted by the general court, in the fiime ananneras in the Ealt India company. Thirteen, or more, compofe a court of di- reftors for managing the aftairs ot the company. South Sea company.] During the long v/ar with France in the reign of queen Anne, the payment of the failors of the royal navy being neglefted, they received tickets inftea'd of money, and were frequently obliged, by their necelTities, to fell -thefe tickets to avaricious men at a difcount of 40I. and fometimes 50I. per cent. By this and other means, the debts of the nation unprovided for by parliament, and which amounted to 9,471,3211. fell Into the hands of thefe ufurers. On which Mr. Harlev, at that time chancellor of the Exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, propofed a fcheme to allow the proprietors of thefe debts and deficiencies 61. per .cent, per annum, and to incoiporate them for the purpofe of carrying on a trade to the South Sea ; and they were accordingly incorporated under the title of " the Governor and Company of Merchants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas, and other parts of America, and for encouraging the Fifhery, &c." Though this company feem formed for the fake of commerce, the minlftry never ■thouoht feriouQy, during the courfe of the war, about making any fettlement on the coaft of South America, which was what flattered the expeflations of the people ; nor was it indeed ever carried into execution, or any trade ever under- taken by this company, except the Affiento, in purfuance of the treaty of Utrecht, for furnifhing the Spaniards with Negroes : of which this company was deprived, UDon receivins ioo,ocol. in lieu of all claims upon Spain, by a convention between the courts of Great Britain and Spain, foon after the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, in 1748. Some other funis were lent to the government in the reign of queen Anne, at 6 per cent. In the third of George I. the interell of the whole was reduced to 5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions more to the government at the fame jntereft. By the (fatute of the 6th of George I. it was declared, that they might redeem all or any of the redeemable national debts ; in confideration of which, the company were empowered to augment their capital according to the fums they fhould difcharge : and for enabling them to raife fuch fums for purchafing annui- ties, exchanging for ready money new Exchequer bills, carrying on their trade, &c. they might, by fuch means as they fliould think proper, raife fuch fums of money as in a general court of the company Ihould be judged neceflary. The comj)any were alfo empowered to raife money on the contrafts, bonds, or obligations under their common leal, on the credit of their capital ftock. But if the fub-governor, deputy-governor, or other members of the company, fliould purcliafe lands or revenues of the crown upon account of the corporation, or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch of the revenue, other than fuch part only on which a credit of loan was granted by parliament, fuch fub-governor, or other member of the company, fliould forfeit treble the value of the money fo lent. The fatal South Sea fcheme, tranfafted in the year 1720, was executed upon the lart mentioned ftatute. The company had at firll fet out with good fucccfs, and the value of their ftock, for the firft five years, had rifen fafter than that of any other company; and his majefty, after purchafing io,oool. ftock, had conde- fcended to be their governor. Things were in this fituation, when, taking ad- * X'l- B:uik company is fiippof(.J to have twelve millions of circulatinj; pnpcr. vantage X ENGLAND,- 2ji vantao-e of the above ftatute, the South Sea bubble v/as projeded. The pretence was, to raile a fund for carrying on a trade to the South Sea, and purchafing annul-- ties, &c. paid to tlie other coirij)anics : and prupofals were printed and dillributed, fhewing the advantages of this defign. The fum necelTary for carrying it on, to- getlier with the profits that were to arife from it, were divided into a certain num- ber of fliares, or fubfcriptions, to be purchafcd by perfons difpofed to adventure therein. And the better to carry on the deception, the diredtors engaged to make very large dividends; and aftually declared, that every lool. original Hock would yield 50I. per annum: which occafioned fo great a rife of their llock, that a fliare of lool. was fold for upwards of 800I. This was in the month of July ; but before the end of September it fell to 150L by which multitudes were ruined, and fuch a fcene of diltrefs occafioned, as is fcarcely to be conceived. Hut the confequenccs of ihis infamous fcheme are too well known ; moit of the directors were fcverely fined, to the lofs of nearly all their property; fome of them had no hand in the de- ception, nor gained a farthing by it; but it was agreed, they ought to have oppofed and prevented it. By a ftatuce of the 6th of George II. it was enafted, that from and after the 24th of June 1733, the capital flock of this company, which amounted to 14,651,103!, 8s. id. and the Ihares of the refpeftive proprietors, Ihould be divided into four equal parts; three-fourths of which lliould be converted into a ioint flock, attended with annuities, afier the rate of 4 per cent, until redemption by parliament, and fhouid be' called the New South Sea annuities; and the other fourth part fhouid remain in the company as a trading capital flock, attended with the refidue of the annuities or funds payable at the Exchequer to the company for their whole capital, till redemp- tion ; and attended with the fame fums allowed for the charge of management, with all efiedls, profits of trade, debts, privileges, and advantages, belonging to the South Sea company. That the accomptant of the company fliould, twice every year, at Chrifl:mas and Midfummcr, or within one month after, ftate an account of the company's affairs, which fhouid be laid before the next general court, in order to their declaring a dividend : and all dividends fhouid be made out of the clear pro- fits, and fhouid not exceed what the company might realbnably divide without in- curring any farther debt; provided that the company fliould not at any time di- vide more than 4 per cent, per annum, until their debts were difcharged; and the South-Sea company, and their trading flock, fliould,. exclufively from the nev.- joint Hock of annuities, be liable to all the debts and incumbrances of the company ; and that the company fhouid caufe to be kept, within the city of London, an office and books, in which all transfers of the new annuities fliouid be entered, and fvgned by the party making fuch transfer, or his attorney ; and the perfon to whom fuch transfer fliould be made, or his attorney, fliould underwrite his acceptance; and no- other method of transferring the- annuities fhouid be good in law. This company is under the direftion of a governor, fub-governor, deputy-go-- vernor, and twenty-one directors; but no perlbn is qualified to be governor, his majelly excepted, unlefs fuch governor has, in his own name and right, 5000!. in the trading flock; the fub-governor is to have 4000I. the deputy-governor 30C0]. and a diredtor 2000I. in the fame Hock. In every general court, ev«ry member having in his own name and right 500I. in trading flock, has one vote ; if acooL- two votes; if 3000I. three votes, and if 5000I. four votes. The Eaft India company, the Bank of England, and the South Sea companv, are the only incorporated bodies to which the government is indebtedj except the Million Bank, whofe capital is only one million, conftituted to purchafe the rever- fion of the long Exchequer orders. The intereftof all the debts owing by the government was lately reduced to 3 per cent-excepting only the annuities for the year 175^), the life annuities,, and the ilx- oliequer-' -3i ENGLAND. chequer orders; but the South-Sea company ftill continues to divide 4 percent, on their prefent capital flock ; which tliey are enabled to do from the profits they make on the fums allowed to tf.em for management of the annuities paid at their office, and from the intereft of annuities which are not claimed by the proprietors. As the prices of the different flocks are continually fludluating above and below far, fo when a perfon, who is not acquainted with tranfadions of that nature, reads in the papers the prices of flocks, where Bank flock is marked perhaps 127, India • ditto 134a 134') South Sea ditto 97^, &c. he is to underftand, that icol. of thofe reipeftive flocks fell at fuch a time for thofe feveral fums. In comparing the prices of the different flocks one with another, it mufl be re- ETiembered, that the intereft- due on them from the time of the laft payment, 13 •taken into the current price, and the feller never receives any feparate confidcra- .tion for it, except in the cafe of India bonds, where the interefl due is calculated to r-he day of the fale, and paid by the purchafer, over and above the premium agreed for. But as the interefl on the different ftocks is paid at different times, tlils, if not rightly undertlood, would lead a perfon, not well acquainted with them, into confiderable mifrakes in his computation of their value ; fome alwavs having a quarter's interefl due in them more than others, which makes an appearance of a confiderable difference in the price, when, in reality, there is none at all. Thus, for inftance, old South Sea annuities fell for i^\\. or 85I. 10s. while new South Sea annuities fetch only 84-1, or 84I. 15s. though each of them produce the fame annual fum of 3 per cent. ; but the old annuities have a quarter's interefl more due on them than the new annuities, which amount to 15s. the exact difference. There is, however, one or two caufes that will always make one fpecies of annuities fell fomewhat lower than another, though of the fame real value; one of which is, the annuities making but a f'mall capital, and there not being for that reafon, fo many people at all times ready to buy into it, as into others, where the capital i? larger; becaufe it is aiijirehended that whenever the government pays off the na- tional debt, they will begin with that particular fpecies of annuity, the capital of which is the fmalleft. A flock may likewife be affed:cd by the court of Chancery : for if that court fliould order the money which is under their direaiiiih mo- mcctins; ; and more frciiuently i\jlilf»a-^^cmoic, or narchs hcbl frequent councils of this fort, as ap- the mieting of wife men. It was alfo lly'lcd in La- pears from their rcfpckHvc code s of laws. There tin (ommttiie concilium regni, and fomctimcs com- is alfo no doubt, but thefe great councils were munitas n'gni Ju^liie. We have inftancts of its held regularly under the firllpnncesot the Normiiii meeting to order the aflaiis of tha kingdom,, to line, for in Edward the Third's time, an act of ii.iike nlw lawsand amend the old, fo early as the parliament made in the reign of VVill'iiin the Con- reii'n of In.T kin;; of the We, I Saxons, A. D. 5?^ Y\^'y, , J Daughters of Henry VIII. 1558 Ebzabeth S J , ( Great grandfon of James IV. king of Scotland, by Margaret, daughter of Henry Vil, 1603 James 1. 1 ^^^ ^j.,^ ^f ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ £.,,,.,1,^ j^^ E„gh,nd. 1625 Charles I. fon of James I. Commonwealth, and proteftorate of Cromwell. 1649 Charles II. ) g^^^ of Charles I. i6Ss James II. S I William III. nephew and fon-in-!aw of James II. '*■ J and Mary ) Daughters of James II. in whom ended the Protcflant line of Charles I. for James j-02 .%unc 3 II. upon his abdicating the throne, cai'ricd with him his fuppofcd infant fon (the late Pretender), who was excluded by ai') of parliainent, which fttilcd the fuc- ceffion in the next Proteft.int heirs of James I. TJie furviving ilUie of James, at the time of his death, were a fon and a daughter, viz. Charles, who luccccdcd liim, and the princcfs Elizabeth, who married the Eltftor Palatine, who took ihc title of king of Bohemia, and left a daughter, the princefs So]>hia, who married the duke oi' Brunfwick Lunenburgh, by whom (he had George, cicrtor of H.ui- ovtr, who afccnded the throne, by :u^l of parliament, e.\piefly made in/avour of his mother. T7!4 George I. T \727 George II. fon of George I. ' ^ Houfe of Hanover; 1760 George HI., grandfon of George II. J and ENGLAND. 237 and commons, met in convention upon the fuppofition of this vacancy, both houfes came to this refolution ; " that king James II. having endeavoured to fubvert the conftitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contrafl between king and people ; and by the advice of Jcfuits, and other wicked perfons, having violated the fundamental laws ; and having withdrawn himfelf out of this kingdom, has ab- dicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." Thus ended at once, by this Hidden and unexpefted revolution, the old line of fuccefTion : which from the Norman invafion had lafted above 600 years, and from the uTiion ot the Saxon heptarchy in king Egbert, almoft 900. Though in fome ponits the revolution was not fo perfeft as might have been wifhed, yet from thence a new jera commenced, in which the bounds of preroga- tive and liberty have been better defined, the j)rinciples of government more tho- roughly examined and underftood, and the rights of the fubjeft more explicitly guarded by legal provifions, than in any other [leriod of the Englifli hiitory. It is worthy of obfervation, that the convention avoided with great wifdom the extremes into which the vifionary theories of foine zealous republicans would have led them. They held that tlie mifconduft of king JamiCs amounted to an endeavour to fubvert the conflitution, and not to an a6lual fubverfion, or total diirolution of the govern- ment. They, therefore, very pruilcnily voted it to amount to no more than an ab- dication of the government, and a confequent vacancy of the throne ; whereby the government was allowed to fubfid, though the executive magiftrate was gone : and the kingly office to remain, though James was no longer king. Thus the conflitu- tion was kept entire ; which, upon every found principle of government, muft otherwife have fallen to pieces, had fo principal and conftituent a part as the royal authority been aboliflied, or even fufpended. Hence it is eafy to colledl:, that the title to the crown is at prefent hereditary, though not quite fo abfolutely hereditary as formerly ; and the common fiock or anceltor, from whom the defcent muft be derived, is alfo difierent. Formeily the common flock was king Egbert ; then William the Conqueror ; afterward, in James I's time, the two common flocks united, and fo continued till the vacancy of the throne in 1688 : now it is the princefs Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vefted by the new king and parliament. Formerly the defcent was abfolute, and the crown went to the next heir without any reftriftion,; but now, upon the new fettlement, the inheritance is conditional ; being limited to fuch heirs only, of the body of the princefs Sophia, as are Proteflant members of the church of England,, and are married to none but Proteflants. In this due medium confifts the true conftitutional notion of the right of fuccef- fion to the imperial crown of thefe kingdoms. The extremes, between which it fteers, have been thought each of them to be deftruftive of thofe ends for which focieties were formed, and are kept on foot. Where the magiftrate, upon every fucceffion, is elefted by the people, and may by the exprcfs provifion ot the laws be depofed (if not puniflied) by his fubjefts, this may found like the perfcftion of liberty,- and look well enough when-delineated on paper ; but in praiflice will be ever found extremely difficult. On the other hand, divine indefeafible hereditary right, when joined with the do£lrine of unlimited paffive obedience, is ot all con- ftitutions the moft thoroughly llavifli and dreadful. ^ But wlien fuch an hereditary right, as our laws have created and vefted in the royal ftock, is interwoven with thofe liberties which are equally the inheritance of the fubjecl:, this union wUl form a conflitution, in tiieory the moft beautiful of any, in pra6lice the moil approved, and, in all probability, will prove in duration the moft permanent. This conftitution it is the duty of every Briton to underftand, to revere, and to defend. The 23S • ENGLAND. The principal duties of the king are exprefTed in his oath at the coronatioHj which is adaTiniftered by one of the archbifhops, or bifliops of the reahn, in the prefence of ail the people ; who, on their parts, do reciprocally take the oath of allegiance to the croAH. Tliis coronation oath is conceived in tlie following terms : " The archhijhop, cr hijlcp, Jhall Jay, Will you folemnly promife and fwear, to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto be- longing, according to zne. ftatutes in parliament agreed on, and the jaws and cuf- toms of the fame ? — The king or queen JJjall Jay, I folemnly promife fo to do. " Archbipo;p or bifloof. Will you to your power caufe law and jullice, in mercy, to be exccuteti in all your judgments ? — King or queen. 1 will. " Archbijhop or hijkop. Will you to the utmoft of your power maintain the laws of God, the true profcffion of the gofpej, and the Pioteftant reformed religion clla- biiflied by the law ? And will you prefervc unto the bifhops and clergy of this realm, and to the churches conimitted to their charge, all fuch rights and privileges as by the law do or fhall appertain unto them, or any of them \ — king cr queen. Ail this I promife to do. " After this tie king or queen, laying his or her hand upon the holy gcjpels, JJjallJay, The things which I have here before promifed, 1 will perform and ketp : fo help iTie God. yhid then kijs the book." This is the form of tlie coronation oath, as it is nov/ prefcribcd b^' our laws : and .we may obferve, that in the king's part, in this original contraft, are exprefTed all ihe duties that a monarch can owe to his people ; viz. to govern according to law ; to execute judgment in mercy ; and to maintain the eftabliflied religion. With jefpeft to the latter of thcfe three branches, we may farther remark, that by the act of union, 5 Ann. c. 8. two preceding ftatutes are recited and confirmed ; tlie one of the parliament of Scotland, the other of the parliament of England, which enaft ; -the former, that every king at his fucceflion fliall take and fubfcribe an oath, to preferve the Proteftant religion, and Prefbyterian church-government in Scotland : the latter that, at his coronation, he fhall take and fubfcribe a fimilar oatli, to pre- ferve the fettlcmcniof the church of England within England, Ireland, Wales, and Berwick, and the territories thereunto belonging. The king of Great Britain, notwithflanding the limitations of the power of the crown, is the grcatelt monarch reigning over a free people. His perfon is facred in the eye of the law, which makes it high trealon to imagine or intend his death ; neither can he, in himfelf, be deemed guilty of any crime, the law taking no cogni- zance of his aftions, but only in the perfons of his minifters, if they infringe the laws of the land. As to his power, it is very great, though he has no right to extend fcis prerogative beyond the ancient limits, or the boundaries prefcribed by the con- ftitution ; he can make no new laws, nor raife any new taxes, nor aft in onpofition to .any of the laws -, but he can make war or peace ; fend and receive ambalTadors ; make treaties of league and commerce ; levy armies, and fit out fleets, for the de- fence of his kingdom, the annoyance of his enemies, or the fupprelTjon of rebellions ; grant commifTions to his officers both by fea and land, or revoke them at plealure ; tiifpofc of all magazines, caftles, &e. fummon the parliament to meet, and when met, adjourn, prorogue, or diffolve it atpleafure ; refuie his afTent to any bill, though it had pafTed both houfes ; which, ccnfequently, by fuch a refufal, has no more force than if it had never been moved ; but this is a j)rerogative that the kings of Eng- land have very feldom ventured to exercife. He poflfefles the right of chufing his own council ; of nominating all the great ofKcers of ftate, of the houlhold, and the church ; and in fine, is the fountain of honour, from whoni all degrees of no- Lility and knighthood are derived. Of the i-arli amlnt.] I'ailiaments, or general councils, in fome fliape, are of 3^^ high antiquity as the Saxon governoient in this iiland, and coev.d witli the king- dom ENGLAND. 239 rlom itfelf. Blackftone, in his valuable Commentaries, fays, " it is generally agreed, that in the main the conftitution of parliament as it now Hands, was marked out lb long ago as the 17th (jt king John, A D, 1215, in the great charter granted by that prince ; wherein he promifes to fummon all archbilhops, bifliops, abbots, lords, and greater barons perfonally ; and all other tenants in chief, under the crown by tlie fherifFand bailiffs to meet at a certain place, with forty days notice, to affels aids and fcutages when neccfiary. And this conftitution hath fubfifted, in faft, at lead from the year 1266, 49 Henry III. there being ftill extant writs of that date to fummoii knights, citizens, and burgcifcs to parliament." The parliament is aflembled by the king's writs, and its fitting muft not be inter- mitted above three vears. Its conflituent parts are, the king fitting there in his royal political capacity, and the three eftates of the realm ; the lords fpiritual, the lords temporal (who fit together with the king in one houfe), and the commons, who fit bv ihcmfelves in another. The king and thefe three eltates, together form the great corporation or body politic of the kingdom, of which the king is laid to be (dpiit, frincipium, et finis. For upon their coming together the king meets them, either in periun, or by reprefentation ; without which there can be no beginning of a parliament ; and he alfo has alone the power of dilTolving thei^ai. It is highly necefiary for preferving the balance of thf conllitution, that the exe- cutive power fliould be a branch, though not the wliole, of the legiflature. The ■ciown cannot begin of itfelf any alterations in the prefcnt eilabliflied law ; but it may approve or difapprove of the alterations fuggefted and confented to by the two- houfes. 1 he legiflative therefore cannot abridge the executive power of any rights ■which it now has by law, without its own confent : fince the lav/ muft perpetually ftand as it now does, unlefs all the powers will agree to alter it. And herein con- fifis the true excellence of the Englilh government, that all the parts of it form a mutual check upon each other. In the legiflature, the people are a check upon the nobility, and theniobility a check upon the people ; by tlie mutual privilege of re- jeAing what the other has refolved : while the king is a check upon both, which prefcrves the executive power from encroachments. Tiie lords fpiritual confill: of two archbifhops and twenty-four bifliops. The lords temporal confifl: ot all the peers of the realm, the bifliops not being in ftridnefs held to be fuch, but merely loids of i)arliament. Some of the peers fit by defcent^ as do all ancient peers ; fome by creation, as do all the new-made ones : others, fince the union with Scotland, by eledlion, whicli is the cafe of the fixteen peers, •who reprefent the body of the Scotch nobility. The number of peers^ is indefinite, and may be increafed at will by the power of the crown. A body of nobility is more peculiarly neceflfary in our mixed conftitution, in order to fupport the rights of both the crown and the people, by forming a barrier to with-- Hand the encroachments of both. It creates and prefcrves th?.t gradual fcale of dignity, which proceeds from the peafant to the prince ; rifing like a pyramid from a broad foundation, and diminifhing to a point as it rifes. The nobility therifore are the pillars, which are reared from among the people, more immediately to fup- port the throne : and if that falls, they muft. alfo be buried under its ruins. Ac- cordingly, when in the laft century the commons had determined to extirpate mo- narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs and dangerous^ The commiOns confifl of all fuch men of nny property in he kingdom as have not feats in the houfe of lords ; every one of which has a voice in parliament, either perfonally, or by his reprcfentatives *. la a free flate, every man, w ho is fuppofed a free • This mud be undci flood with fomc limitation, the Talurof -only 403. per anaum, have a rigUt ro 1'hofe who aie pollell'ed of kndellates, though to vote lor raenibeis of parliament ; as huve moll of the- 2i?> ' ENGLAND. :gent, ought to be, in fome meafure, his own governor ; and therefore a biangji at leaft of the legillative power flionld refide in the whole body of the peo- ple. In fo large a ftate as ours, it is very wifely contrived, that tlie people fhould t!o that by their reprefentatives, which it is iniprafticable to perform in perfon : reprefentacives, chofen by a number of minute and leparare diftricLS, wherein all the voters are, or eafily may be, diftinguiflied. 1 he counties are therefore repre- fented by knights, eleifled by the proprietors of lands : the cities and boroughs are reprefented b\' citizens and burgeffcs, chofen by the mercantile part, or fuppofed trading interell: of the nation *. The number of Englifh reprefentatives is 513, and of Scotch 45 ; in all :;t8. And every member, though chofen by one particular' -diflrift, when elected and returned ferves for the whole realm. For the end of his coming thither is not particular, but general ; not merely to/erve his conili:u- ents, but a!fo the commonwealth, and to advife his majefty, as appears from the writ of fummons. Thefe are the conftituent parts of a parliament, the king, the lords fpiritual and temporal, and the commons. Parts, of which each is fo neceflary, that the confenc of all three is required to make any new law that fliould bind the fiibjeft. Whnt- •ever is enacted for law by one, or by two only, of the three, is no itatute ; and to it no regard is due, unlefs in what relates to their own privileges. The pov/er and jurifdiftion of parliament, fays fir Edward Coke, is fo tran- fcendant and abfolute, that it cannot be confined, either for caufes or perfons, within any bounds. It hath fovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, con- firming, enlarging, reilraining, abrogating, repealing, -reviving, and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all poffible denominations, ecclefiaftical or tem- poral, civil, military, maritime, or criminal : this being the place where that ab- folute defpotic power, v;hich muft in all governments refide fomewhere, is entrufied by the conftiti^ition of thefe kingdoms. -All mifchiefs and grievances, operations and remedies, that tranfcend the ordinary courfe of the laws, are within the reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or new-model the fuccefiion to the crown ; as was done in the reign of Henry VIII. and Vv'illiam III. It can alter the eftablifhed religion of the land ; as was done in a variety of inftances, in the reign of king Henry VIII. and his three children, Edward VJ. Mary, and Eliza- beth. It can change and create afrefh even the conftitution of the kingdom, and of parliaments thernfelves ;' as was done by the a£l of union, and the leveral lla- tutes for triennial and fcptennial eleftions. It can do every thing that is not naturally impofilble ; and therefore fome have not fcrupled to call its power by a figure rather too bold, the omnipotence of parliament. But then their poM'cr, how- ever great, was given them in trull, and therefore ought to be employed according to the rules of juftice, and for the promotion of the general welfare of the people. And it is mofc effcntial to the liberties of the kingdom, that fuch members be de- legated to this important trufl:, as are moft eminent for their probity, their forti- thc members of corporations, boroughs, S:c. But * Copy of tlic bribery oath, which is adminif- therc are very large trading towns, and populous tcrcd to every perfon before they poll: " I jilaces, which fend no members to parliament; do fwcar (or, bein;^ one of the people and of thofe towns which do fend members, great called Quakers, do folcmnly afiirni) I have not re- numbers ot the inhabitants have no votes. Many ccivcd or had by mylelf, or any perl'on whatfoevcr thoul'and ptrfons of great perfoual property, have, in trufl for me, or for my ufe and benefit, dire^'ily therefore, no reprelcntatives. Indeed, the in- or indirectly, any fum or Anns o( money, office, equality and detcctivcnefs of the reprefentntion, place or employment, gift or reward, or any jmo- has been juflly conlidcicd as one of tlie grcateft mifc or fecurity for any money, oflice, or employ- imperft-ftions in the Engliflj conllitution. The ment, or gift, in orJer to give my vote at this tluration of parliaments being extended to fcveii elcAion : and that I have not belorc been polled years, has alio been viewed in the f;ime light. at this election, bo help me Gud." J tude. E- N G L A N D. 241 tude, and their knowledge ; for it was a known apophthegm of tlie great -lord treafiirer Biuleigh, " that England could never be ruined but by a parliament :" and, as fir Matthew Hale obfcrves, this being the highell and greatcft court, over which none other can have jurifdicftion in the kingdom, if by any means a mifgovern- ment fhoukl any way fall upon it, the fubjefts of this kingdom are left v/ithout all manner of legal remedy. In order to prevent the mifchiefs that might arife, by placing this extenfive au- thority in hands that are cither incapable, or elfe improper, to manage it, it is provided, that no one fliall fit or vote in either houfe of parliameni: unlefs he be twenty-one years ot age. To prevent innovations in religion and governmcnr, it is enacled that no member fhall vote or fit in either houfe, till he hath, in ti.e pre- fencc of the houfe, taken the oaths of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration ; and fubfcribed and repeated the declaration againll tranfubftantiation, the invocation of faints, and tlie facrifice of the mafs. To prevent dangers that may arife to the kingdom from foreign attachments, connexions, or dependencies, it is enafted, that no alien, born out of the dominions of the crown of Great Biitain, evrn though he be naturalized, fliall be capable of being a member of either hdufe of parliament. Some of the moll; important privileges of the members of either Iioufe are, pri- vilege of fpeech, of perfon, of their domeftics, and of their lands and goods. As to the firfl, privilege of fpeech, it is declared by tlie ftatute of i W. & M. fl:. 2. c. 2. as one of the liberties of the people, " that the freedom of fpeech, and debates, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or queftioned in any court or place out of parliament." And this freedom of fpeech ib particu- larly demanded of the king in peribn, by the fpeaker of the houfe of commons, at the opening of every new parliament. So are the other privileges, of peifou, fervants, lands, and goods. This includes not only pi-ivilege from illegal violence, but alio from legal arrefts, and feizures by procefs from the courts of law To af- fault by violence a member of either houfe, or his menial fervants, is a high con- tempt of parliament, and as fuch punilhed with the utmoft feverity. Neidier caa any member of cither houfe be arretted and taken into cuftody, nor ferved with any procefs of the courts of law ; nor can his menial fervants be arretted j nOr can any entry be made on his lands ; nor can his goods be dittrained or feized^ without a breach pf the privilege of parliament*. The houfe of lords are attended by the judges of the court of king's bench and coinmon pleas, and fuch of the barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the coif, or have been made lerjeants at law ; as likewife by the matters of the court of chancery ; for their advice in point of lav/, and for the greater dignity of their proceedings. The fpeaker of the houfe of lords Is generally the lord chancellor, or lord-keeper of the great feal, which dignities are commonly vetted in the fame perfon. Eicfi peer has a right, when a vote pafles contrary to his fentiments, to enter his dilTent on the lournals of the houfe, with the reafons for fuch diffent ; wiiich is ufually ttyled his proteft. Upon particular occafions thefe protefts have been fo bold as to give offence to the majority of the houfe, and have therefore been expunged from the journals : but this has been thought a violent meafure. The houfe of commons may be properly ttyled the grand inqucft of Great Bri- tain, Impowered to enquire into all national grievances. The peculiar laws and cuftoms of the houfe of commons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the ' This exemption from arrefts for lawful debts, linquiflicd their privilege by aft of parliament in was always confidered by the public as a grievance. 1770; and members of both hoiifes may novv be The lords swd commons therefore generoufly re- fued like other debtors. I i ele(n:ions 242 ENGLAND. elei rcfpltc till Monday.. t By a late acl, murderers are to be executcd- hann- ^54 ■ E N G L A N D, harm to each other, quarrel, and the one kills the other ; in this cafe the- criminal is allowed the benefit of his clergy for the fiift tiaie, and only burnt in the hand. - C a)ice-med'ey is the acciden'-al killing of a man without an evil intent, for which the offender is alio to be burnt in the hand, unlefs the offender was doing an un- lawtul acl ; which laft c'rcumftance makes the punifhment death. Shcflifting and receiving goods knowing them to be Itolen, are punifncJ with hard labour tor a number of years, or burning in the hand. Perjury, or keeping diforderly houfes, are puniilied with the pillory and imprl- •fonrntnt. } etty-latceny, or fmall theft, under the value of twelve pence, is puniflied by ■whipping. 1 ibeling, ufing falfe weights and meafures, and for forcftalling the market, are .commonly puniihed with Handing in the pillory. For ftriking, fo as to draw blood, in the king's court, the criminal is punifhed •.with lofmg his right hand. For ftriking, in Weftminfter-hall,- while the courts of juftice are fitting, the pu- nifhment. is imprifonment for life, and forfeiture of all the offender's eftate. Drunkards, vagabonds, and loofe, idle, diforderly perlbns, are puniihed by being fet in the flocks, or by paying a fine. Of HUSBAND AND WIFE.] The firft private relation of perfons is that of mar- •.riage, which includes the reciprocal rights and duties of hufband and wife ; or, as mod: of our elder law-books call them, baroii ^nd feme. The holinefs of the matri- monial ftate is left entirely to the ecclefiaftical law ; the punifhment, therefore, or annulling, of inccftuous, or other unlcriptural marriages, is the province of J'piritual courts. The firft legal difabilitv Is a prior marriage, or having another hufband or wife living ; in which cafe, befides the penalties confequent upon it as felony, the fecond marriage is to all intents and purpofcs void : polygamy being condemned both by •the law of the New Teflament, and the policy of all prudent flates. The fecond legal difabilitv is want of age. This is fufficient to void all other contrails, on account of the imbecility of judgment in the parties contrafting. Therefore if a boy under fourteen, or a girl under twelve years of age, marries, this marriage is imperfeft ; and, when either of them comes to the age of confent aforefaid» they may difagree, and declare the marriage void, without any divorce or fentcncc in the fpiritual court. This is founded on the civil law. But the canon law pays a greater regard to the conftitution than the age of the parties : for it they are babies admatri»*:nium, it is a good marriage, whatever their age may be. And in our law it is fo far a marriage, that if at the age of confent they agree to continue together, they need not be married again. If the hufband be of years of dil'cretion, and the wife under twelve, when fiic comes to years of difcretion he may dif- agree as well as fhe may ; for in contract the obligation muft be mutual ; both mull be bound, or neither ; and fo it is, vice verja, when the wife is of years of dil'cretion, and the huib.ind under. Another incapacity arifes f'rom want of confent of guardians. By the common law, if the parties themfclves were of age of confent, there wanted no other con- currence to make the marriage valid ; and this was agreeable to the canon law. But by fevcral ftatutes, penalties of lool. are laid on every clergyman, who marries a couple either without publication of banns (which may give notice to parents or guardians), or without a licence ; to obtain which, the confent of parents or guar- dians mufi be fworn to. And it has been lately thought proper to cnadl, that all marriages celebrated by licence (for banns lijppofe notice), where either of tlie par- I ' tics ENGLAND. 2^5 t'fes is under twenty-one (not being a widow, or widower, who are fuppofed free) without the confent of the father, or, if he be not living, of the mother or guard- dians, fliall be abfohitcly void. A provifion is made, as in the civil law, when the mother or guardian is non ccmpos, beyond the fea, or unreafonably froward, to dif- pence with fuch confent at the difcretion of the lord chancellor ; but no provifion is made, in cafe the fatlierfhould Kibour under any mental, or other incap;icity. iMuch may be,' and much has been fiiid, b(Kh for and againft this innovation upon our an- cient laws and conftitution. On the one hand, it prevents the clandelline mar- riages of minors, which are often a great inconvenience to thofe private families wherein they happen. On the other hand, reftraints upon marriages, efpecialiy among the lower clafs, are detrimental to the public, by hindering the increafe of people ; and to religion and morality, by encouraging licentioufnefs and debauchery among the fingle of both fexes, and thereby deitroying one end of fociety and go-- vernment. A fourth incapacity is want of reafon : without a competent fliare of which, as no other, fo neitlu-rcan the matrimonial contrafh be valid. Laftly, the parties muft not only be willing and able to contracf, but aftuully muft contract themfelves in due form of law, to make it a good civil marriage. Verbal contradts are now of no force, to compL-1 a future marriage. Neither is any marriage at prefcnt valid, that is not celebrated in fome parifh-church, or public chapel, unlels by difpenfation from the arrhbifliop of Canterbury, it muft alfo be preceded b\ publication of banns, or by licence from the fpiritual judge. It is held to be alfo eilential to marriage, that it be performed by a perfon in orders : thouo-h- in the times of the civil war, all marriages were performed by the juftices of the peace ; and thcfe marriages Vv-ere declared valid in the fucceeuing reign ; as the mar- riages of (fakers are at prefcnt. As the law now ftands, we may upon the whole coIIclI, that no marriage by the temporal law is void, that is celebrated by a per- fon in orders, — in a parifli church, or public chapel (or elfewhere, by difpenfation) — in purfuance of banns or a licence, — between fingle perfons, — confentino-, — of found mind, — and of the age of twenty-one years ; or of the age of fourteen in male, and twelve in female, with confent of parents or guardians, or without it in cafe of widowhood. There are two kinds of divorce, the one total, the other jiartial. The totaldi- vorce muft be for fome of the canonical caufes of impediment, and thofe exiftino- before the marriage : as confanguinity, affinity, or corporeal imbecility. The iffue- of fuch marriage, as it is thus entirely dilTolved, are baftards. The other kind of divorce is when the marri;ige is juft and lawful, and therefore the law is tender of difiblving it ; but, for fome fupervenient caiife it becomes im- proper, or impofilble, for the parties to live together ; as in the cafe of intolerable ill temper, or adultery, in either of the parties. In this cafe the law allows alimo- ny to the wife (except when for adultery, the parliament grants a total divorce, as has happened frequently of late years), which is that allowance which is made to a wo- man, for her fupport, out of the hufband's eftate ; being fettled at the difcretion of the ecclefiartical judge, on the confideration of all the circumftances of the cafe, and the rank and quality of the parties. Having thus fhewn how marriages may be made, or dilTolved, I come now, laftlv tofpeakof the legal confequcnces of fuch making, or diflblution. By marriage, the hufband and wife are one perfon in law ; that is, the very bcino- or legal exiftence of the woman, is fufpended during the marriage, or atleaft is in- corporated and confolidated into that of the hulTjand : under whofe vvinj, protec- tion, and ccver, Ihe performs every thing, and is therefore called in our Law French, ajcme-i^verii under the protection and influence of her hufoand, her i/aron, or lord; and ic5 E N G L A N D. and her condition, dining her nianiage, is called her coverture. Upon this princi- j)k, of an union of perfon in hulLand and wife, depends aimoll all the legal rights, .duties, and difabilities, that either of them acquire by the marriage. 1 fj)eaK not ar prefl^nt of the rights of property, but of fuch as are merely ferjonal For this reafun a man cannot grant any thing to his wife, or enter into a covenant with her; fur the grant would be to fuppofe her feparateexiftence ; and the covenant with her would be only to covenant with himielf ; and therefore it is generally true, that all compadts mide between hufband and wife, when fingle, are voided by the Inter- jnarriao-e. A woman indeed may be attorney for her hufbanii j for that implies no feparation from, but is rather a reprefentation of, her lord. And a hufband inav alto bequeath any thing to his wife by will ; tor that cannot take efFeft till the co- .verture is deteninned bv his death. The hufband is bound to provide his wife with - neceffaries by law, as much as himfelf ; and if tlie contn:d:s debts for him, lie is obli';ed to pay them ; but for any thing beiides neceffaries, he is not chargeable. ^Ifo if the wife elopes, and lives with another man, the hulband is not chargeable even for necefParies : at leaft, if the perfon who furniOies them is futHcicntly ap- prized of her elopement. If the v/ifc be indebted before marriage, the hufband is bound afterwards to pay the debt ; for he has adopted lier and hercircumftances to- o-ether. If the wife be injured in her peribn or property, ihe can bring no aftion for redrefs, without her hufband's concurrence, and in his name, as well as her own ; neither can fhc be fued, without making the hufband a defendant ; except when the Jiufband has abjured the realm, or is baniflied ; for then he is dead in law. In cri- minal profecutions, it is true, the wife may be indiftcd, and punifhed feparately ; for the union is only a civil union. But, in trials of any fort, they are not allow- ed to be evidences for, or againfl:, each other j partly becaufe it is impofTible their .teftimonv fliould be impartial; but principally becaufe of the union of pexfon. But Vv-here the offence is direiftiy againfl the perfon gf the wife, this rule has been ufually .difpenfed with ; and therefore, in cafe a woman be forcibly taken away, and .married, {he may be a witnefs againfl fuch her hufband, in order to convid him of felony. .In the civil law, the hufband and the wife are confidered as two diftinfl perfons ; and may have feparate eflates, contrafts, debts, and injuries; and therefore, in our ecclcfiallical courts, a woman may fue, and b- fued, without her hufband. Though .our law in general confiders man and wile as one perfon, yet there are fome in- ftances in which the is feparately confidered, as interior to him, and afting by his compulfion. Therefore all deeds executed, and atls done, by her, during her coverture, are void ; except it be a fine, or the like matter of record, in whicli cafe file muft be folely and fecretly examined, to learn if her ad be voluntary. She cannot by v/ill devil'e land to her hufband, unlefs under fpecial circiimtlances ; for, at the time of making it, flie is fuppofed to be under his coercion. And in ibme felonies, and other inferior crimes committed by her, through conllraint of her hufband, the law excufes her; but this extends not to treafon or murder. The hufband alfo (by the old, and likewife by the civil law) might give his wife moderate corrcdlion ; for, as he is to anfwer for her nfifl^ehaviour, the law thought it reafonable to entrull him with this power of rellraining her, by domcfUc .chaftifement, in the fame moderation that a man is allowed to correal his fervants or childien : for whom the maflcr or parent is alto liable in fome cafes to anfwer. .But in tj-.e politer reign of Charles U. this power of correftion began to be doubt- ed ; and a wife may now have fecurity of the peace againfl her hufband ; or, in return, fi hufljand againft his wife; yet the lower rank of people claim and exert their ancient privilege ; and the courts of law will pernfit a hulband .to rellrain a wife of her liberty, in cafe of any grofs mifbchaviour. Thefe ENGLAND. 257 Thefe are the chief legal eflcfls of marriage during the coverture ; upon which we may obferve, that even the difabilities, which the wife lies under, arc for the rnoft part intended for her protedlion and benefit. So great a favourite is the female fex widi the laws of England ! Revenues of the Bri- ? The king's ecclefiaflical revenues confift in, i. The TisH GOVERNMENT. 5 cuftody of the temporalities of vacant bifliopricks ; from which he receives little or no advantage. 2. Corodies and penfions, formerly arifing from allowances of meat, drink, and clothing, due to the king from an ab- bey or monaftery, and which he generally beftowed upon favourite fervants ; and his fending one of his chaplains to be maintained by the bifhop, or to have a pen- fion bellowed upon him till the bifliop promoted him to a benefice. 3. Extra-pa- rochial tithes. 4. The firft fruits and tenths of benefices. At prcfcnt, fuch has been the bounty of the crown to the chutxh, that thofe branches afford little or no revenue. The king's ordinary temporal revenue confifts in, i. The demefne kinds of tlie crown, which at jKefcnt lie in a narrow compafs. 2. The hereditary excife ; being part of the confideration for the purchafe of his feodal profits, anS the prerogative*' of purveyance and pre-emption. 3. An annual fum IfTuing from the duty on wine licences; being the refidue of the fame confideration. 4. His fbrefts. 5. His courts of juftice, &c. The extraordinary grants are ufually called by the fynonymous names of aids, fubfidies, and fupplies; and arc granted by the comm.ons of Great Britain, in par- liament afl^embled : who, when they have voted a fupply to his majefty, and fet- tled the quantum of that fupply, ufually refolve tliemfelves into v/hat is called a committee ot ways and means, to confider of the ways and means of raifing the fupply fo voted. And in this committee, every member (though it is looked upon as the peculiar province of the chancellor of the exchequer) may propofe fuch fcheme of taxation as he thinks will be leafl detrimental to the public The re- folutions of this committee (when approved by a vote of the houfe) are in general deemed final and conclufive ; for, though the fupply cannot be ai^tually raifed upon the fubjedl till direfled by an afl of the whole parliament, yet no monied man will fcruple to advance to the government any quantity of ready cafh, if the pro- pofed terms be advantageous, on the credit of the bare vote of tlie houfe of commons. The annual taxes are, i. The land tax, or the ancient fubfiuy raifed upon a new aflefTment. 2. The malt-tax, being an aimual excife on malt, mum, cyder, and perry. The perpetual taxes are, r. The cuftoms, or tonage and poundage of all mer- chandife exported or imported. 2. The excife dutv, or inland imi)o(ii;ion, on a great vaiiety of commodiiies. 3. The fait duty. 4. The poll-otTice *, or duty for the carriage of letters. 5. The ftvimp-duty on paper, parchment, &c. 6. The duty on houfcs and windows. 7. Tiic tiucy on licences for hackney coaches and chairs. 8. The duty on oflices and penfions, with a variety of new taxes im- pofed in the year ^784. The neat arvnual produce of thefe feveral branches of the revenue, old and new taxes, after all charges of collefting and management paid, is ertimated at eleven millions * From tlie year 164410 i;'44, the annual grofs nmoiiiit of the revenues of ilic Pofi-ofRce Tor amount of this revenue gradually increafed from that year was 4-?2,048l, which, by the art paired ^oocl. to 198,2261. but it fliould be obferved, in the feffions of 1784, Lncreafing- the duty ac- that the grofs amount ot both inland and foreign cording to the diiiancc, and abridging the fraiik- olii^es was that year 235,492!. In 176^, the inj, miiftbe coiilid:rably angmeaiej. I . i flerling 258 E N G L A N D. fterling; with two millions and a quarter raifed at an average, by the land and malt-tax. How thefe immenfe fums are appropriated, is next to be confidered. And this is, firfl and jirincipally, to the payment of the interejl of the national debt. In order to take a clear and comprehenfive view of the nature of this national DKET, it miirt be firft premifed, that after the Revolution, when our new connec- tions with Europe introduced a new fyftem of foreign politics, the expences of the nation, not only in fettling the new eilablifliment, but in maintaining long wars, •as principals, on the continent, for the fecurity of the Dutch barrier, reducing the French monarchy, fettling the Spanini fucceffion, fupporting the houfe of Auftria, maintaining the liberties of the Germanic body, and other purpofes, increafed to an unufual degree : infomuch that it was not thought advifeable to raife all the ex- pences of any one year by taxes to be levied within that year, left the unaccuftomed weight of them Ihould create murmurs among the people. It was therefore the policy of the times, to anticipate the revenues of their pofterity, by borrowing im- menfe fums for the current fcrvice of the ftate, and to lay no more taxes upon the fybjeft than would fuffice to pay the annual intereft of the fums fo borrowed : by this means converting the principal debt into a new fpecies of property, transferrable from one man to another, at any time time and in any quantity. A fyflem which feems to have had its original in the ftate of Florence, A. D. 1344: which go- vernment then owed about 6o,oool. fterling : and being unable to pay it, formed the principal into an aggregate fum,' called metaphorically a mount or bank: the fhares whereof were transferrable like our ftocks. This laid the foundation of what is called the NATIONAL debt: for a few long annuities created in the reign of Charles 11. hardly dcferve that name. And the example then fet, has been fo clofely followed during the long wars in the reign of queen Anne, and fince, that the capital of the funded debt at Midfummer 1775 was 129,860,018]. and the an- nual charge of it amounted to 4,219,2541. 7s. The American war commencing ac this time, and the execrable policy continuing of alienating the finking fund, with the extravagancies in every department of government, and the manner of borrowing the money for fupplies, have confiderably increafed it*. The following was the ftate of the national debt in the year 1783, extra<5ted from the eleventh report of tire commifTioners of the public accounts : I. s.d. ■ •211^363,254 15 4y I unded debt £. s. d. Intereft thereon - - - 7t95''>930 i O 18,856,541 II 4; Unfunded ift of Oftober, 1783 : fifteen millions of this bears intereft now. ^ Intereft thereon . _ - 612,742 o a Charges at the Bank for managing the bufmefs - - - il\A<)\ 13 t Fees at the auditor's office of impreft i9>^74 ^ ^ Some other fees of office - -_ 696 12 ^ ^»7i9»534 9 V • In tTie courfe of the larc w:ir from 1776 to ther a capital of 73,-100,0001. for which the money 1782, 46,550,0001. was aiicied to the 3 fcr centi. advanced wai> only 48 millions. and 26,75C/}cot> to the ^ (ir mnii. making togs- S Since 259 o 279,698,913 9,500,000 3,950,000 900,000 i4,35o>ooo ENGLAND. Since this report tlie funded debt Iiatli increafed to - 232,280,349 o 'I ]ie unfunded debt, meaning all expences, deficiencies, arrears, and outlbuiding debts, for paying the principal or intercil of which no provifion was made by parlia- ment, may be moderately reckoned - - 38,000,000 o o The amount, of Exchequer bills - • - 9,418,564 o o Thus the whole annual charge brought upon the nation by its debts funded and unfunded, ap[)earto be about Peace eftablifhment reckoned at the average annual ex- pence for eleven years preceding the war Income of the civil lid . » _ , Whole expenditure, The produce of the fevcral taxes were originally feparate and diftinft funds; being fecurities for the fums advanced on each feveral tax, and for them only. But at laft it became neceflary, in order to avoid confufion, as they multiplied yearly, to reduce the number of thefe feparate funds, by uniting them together : fuperadding the faith of parliament for the general fecurity of the whole. So that there are now only three capital funds of any account : the aggregate fund ^ the whole produce of which hath been for ibme years about 2,6oo,oool. fer annuin ; the general fund, fo called from fuch union and addition, which for fome vears have amounted to rather more than a million per annum ; and the South Sea fund, beinp- the produce of the taxes appropriated to pay the intereft of fuch part of the national debt as was advanced by that company and its annuitants, the produce of which lately hath been about half a million /i^r ^««a»?. The feparate funds, which were thus united, are become mutual fecurities for each other ; and the whole produce of them, thus aggregated, liable to pay fuch intereft or annuities as were formerly charged upon each diftindt fund ; the fiiith of the legiflature beino- moreover en- gaged to fupplyany cafual deficiencies. The cuftoms, excifes and other taxes, which are to fupport thefe funds, depend- ing on contingencies, upon exports, imports, and confuiiiptions, mult neceflarily be of a very uncertain amount: but they have always been confiderably more than fufficient to anfwer the charge upon them. The furplufTcs therefore of the three great national funds,_the aggregate, general, and South Sea funds, over and above the intereft and annuities charged upon them, are directed by ftatute 3 Georo-e I. c 7. to be carried together, and to attend the difpofition of parlian:ient; and are ufually denominated the finking fund, becaufe originally deftined to fink or reduce the national debt. To this have been fince added many other entire duties, "-ranted in fubiequent years; and the annual intereft of the liims borrowed on their refpedive credits, is charged on, and payable out of the produce of the finking fund. How- ever, the neat furpluITes and favings, after all deduftions paid, amount annually to a very confiderable fum; for, as the intereft on the national debt has been at feveral times reduced (by the confent of the proprietors, who had their option either to lov^er their intereft, or be paid their principal), the favings from the appropriated revenues muft be extremely large. This finking fund is the laft refortof the nation; its only domeftic refource, on which muft chiefly depend all the hopes we can entertain of ever difcharging or moderating our incumbrances. Between the years 1727 and 1732, feveral encroachments were made upon the finking fund; and in the year 1733, half a million was taken from ir, under pre- tence of eafing the landed intereft. The practice of alienating the finkincr fund X- 1 3 ° hath a6o ENGLAND. hath increafed ; and in 1736, it was anticipated and mortgaged, and fubfoqiient adminiilrations tiave broken in upon it, thus converting an excellent expedient for Taving the ls.ingdom, into a i"upplv for the v/orft purpofes. In fome years, the fini^ing fund hath produced from two to three million^; and, if i,2i2,oool of it had been invioably applied to the redemption of the public debts from the year -1733 to the prefent time, one hundred and fixty millions would have been paid oiT, and the n.aion much relieved. Such regulations are, however, made at preient, [1787] and aetually have, in part, taken place, not only for reducing the national debt, but alfo for coUeifting the public taxes, as affords the moft pleafing profpeft to every perfon anxious for the profperity of Great Britain *. Before any part of the aggregate fund i^the furplulTes whereof a.e one of the chief ingredients that form the linking fund) can be applied to diminifli the principal of the public debt, it ilands mortgaged by parliament to raife an annual fum for the maintenance of the king's houfliold and the civil lilt. For this purpoie, in the late reigns, the jiroduce of certain branchrs of the excife and cuftoms, the poft-ofHce, the duty on wine-licences, the revenues of the remaining crown lands, the profits arif- ing from courts of julVice (which articles include all the hereditary revenues of the crown), and alfo a clear annuity of ioo,oocl. in money, were fettled on the king for life, for the fiipport of his majeftv's houfliold, and the honour and dignity of the crown. And, as the amount of thefe feveral branches were uncertain, (though in the laft reign they were computed to have fometimes raifed almoft a million), if they did not rife annually to 8oo,oool. the parliament engaged to make up the de- ficiency. But his prefent majefty having, foon after his acceflion, fpontaneoufly fignified his confent, that his own hereditary revenues might be fo difpofed of, as might beft conduce to the utility and fatisfaftion of the public ; and having ac- cepted the limited fum of 8oo,oool. per annum, for the fupport of his civil lift (and that alfo charged with three life annuities, to the princefs of Wales, the duke of Cumberland, and princefs Amelia, to the amount of 77,0001.), the faid hereditary, and other revenues are now carried into, and made, part of the aggregate fund; and the aggregate fund is ch-^rged with the payment of the whole annuity to the crown, befides annual payments to the dukes of Glouccfter and Cumberland, and the reprefenratives of Arthur Onflow, efq. and the earl of Chatham. Hereby the revenues themfelves, being put under the fame care and management as the other branches of the public patrimony, will j^roduce more, and be better colkfted than heretofore. The civil lift, thus liquidated, together with the millions interefl: of the national debt, and the fums produced from the finking fund, befide the un- certain fums, arifing fiom the annual taxes on land and malt, and others lately im- jjofed, make the clear produce of the taxes, exclufive of the charge of collefting, wh:ch are raifed yearly on the people of this country, amount to upward of fourteen^ millions fterling. O' * Dr. Price's calculation pl:nnly flicvvs that, " In fliort, fo ncccffary is it at ]ircfcnt to cx- " A million borrowed annually tor twenty years, peditf, by every poffible means, the rcdemptioii will pay off, in this lime, 55 millions 3 per cent, of our debts, that, let the fiirpkis which can be ob-> Cock, it difcharsjed at b; 1. in money tor every taineJ tor a finking- fund be what it will, an ad- 10(1. Hock; aiidin forty years more, without any dition to it, by_ annu.d loan?, will be proper, in further aid from loans, ^33 millions (that is, 388 order to give it grater ei^ciency and a better jnillions in all) would be paid off. chance for faving the kingdom. — The incrcafe of " The addition of nineteen yeari to this period taxes which fuch a mcal'uic nuift occalion, would would pay (iff 1000 millions. be fo inconlider.iblc and fo gradual, as_ to be " A I'.irpbis of half a million per annum, made ffarccly perceptible; and, at the fame time, it lip to a million, by borrowing half a million every would manifeit fuch a determined refolution in our year for twenty )cars, would difchargc the fame ruleis to reduce our debts, as might have the fums in the fame periods., happiell inflkience on public credit. The ENGLAND. <.6i I hj A-iK.ui.t ol tlic Cupit;iis at ihc B^nk, Soiit and India Houfss. Corrcftcd to the 5th of ary, 1-87. 1 Sea, Janu- Intereft per annum. When due. When Tranf- ferrablc. Holidays. Bank iU)i.k 1 I,C42,.JOO «9i>544 1 J .^Vp. tfc ioO(it. Tu. 'thii. & Fri. fan. I, 6, i8, 25, 30. c, per cent, navy annuities I7,86v,.;()3 9 10 89.31499 13 i\ 5 ian.&, July. M. W. & Fn. Kch. 2, 24. 4 per t^wt. conf'ols 32,750,000 i,Jio,co: i . Ap. & loOci. Tu W.-Jhu.&Fri March 25; 3 per cent. cv)n (oU ■or>399i69'i 5 I 3,221,991 17 9' ;Jan.&5ju:y. ditto April 23, .•.5. 3 per cent. re.liiccJ 37>?4^.073 lO 4 l,12f',202 4 3, ,- Ap. &1C ud. ditto May I, 29. 3 per cent. 1726 1 ,000,000 30,0C0 5 Jan. & 5 July, Tu. .t lliu. June 4, 11,24,29. Long aiaiuitics 680,375 ditto Tu. W. & Sat. July 25. Short annuities, 1778 and 1779 i 412,500 1 5 Jan. «c 5 July. M. V/. & In. iug. 1,12, 24. Sept. 2, 21, 22, 29. South Sea flock 3,662,734 j i2S,r97 9 I 5 Jan. & s f"ly- M. W. & Fri. Oa. 18,25,26, 28. 3 per iciit. old annuities Ii.9^7>470 2 7| 35 n 6 y 7 7 '^ 6 4 8 3 6 jCornct h. gd. & dr. Enf. ft. g. Enf. or 2d Lt. ft. 1 + It 8 6 5 i^ 4 6 3 8 3 ■Chaplain - - - - 6 8 5 , 6 8 5 ^ 6 f 5 6 8 5 iAdjutarit - - - - 5 ° 4 (' 5 4 6 4 3 4 3 jQuartcr-Mafter ... 8 6 6 6 5 6 4 4 3 4 8 3 « "Surgeon ... 6 4 f' 6 4 6 4 3 4 3 ^Surgeon's Mate . . . - 3 I' 3 3 6 3 ;Urum- Major - • - - 1 (. I {Deputy Marfhal . . . - I 9 Serjeant . . . . - i 9 2 3 I u J 4 I 6 I Corj.oral - ... 7. 2 C 2 ' > 9 I '. 10 I % Drummer - .... 3 2 6 » 3 • 9 I 2 8 I ? Trumpeter ...... 2 8 2 Private Man ... 2 6 2 I q I 5 I 6 *? 6 Allowance rColonel ~t 4 2 2 6 I 2 I 7 6 I 2 c on the J Do. furhautboisf per troop or 2 I 6 Eftablifh- i Captain - f company pient to ^ Agent J 4 4 2 4 ' 1 I 1 I 1 I I 2 r I 2 I : t 6 6 6 New Eflablifliment of the Corp* of Engineers, Oftober ift , «784. Per Day. Per Ann. P« •r Day. Pfr Ann. Ranlc. £. S- D. £. S. D. / . s.b. £■ s. n. Mater General - 000 000 Ten Captains - . 6 1395 Lieutenant General - 000 000 Twenty Lieutenants . c 7 S 1703 6 S Chief Engineer - - 2 4 S03 Ten Second Lieutenants c 4 730 - Five Coloneb, each - 18 1641 10 Corps of luvalids - i 17 s "34 10 J'ive Lieutenant Colonela 15 156S 15 Ten Captains ^ - 0100 jjzjoc 1 Total ^ • io,40i 10 a6+ E N G L A -N D. The Maritime ftate is nearly related to the former ; though much more agree- able to the principles of our free conftitution. The navy of England hath ever beea its greateft defence and ornament ; it is its ancient and natural ftrength ; the float- ing bulwark of the ifland ; from which, however (Irong and powerful, no danger can be apprehended to liberty j and accordingly it has been alTiduoufly cultivated, from the earliell ages. To fuch perfection was our naval reputation arrived in the twelfth century, that the code of maritime laws, which are called the laws of Oleron, and are received by all nations in Europe as the ground of their marine conftitu- tions, was confeflTedly compiled by our king Richard I. at the ifle of Oleron, ori the coaft of Prance, then part of the poflelllons of the crown of England. And yet, fo inferior -were our anceftcws in this j>oint to the prefent age, that, even in the maritime reign of queen Elizabeth, fir Edward Coke thinks it matter of boaft that the royal navy of England confilled of 23 fhips. The prefent condition of our marine is by manyafcribed to the navigation a<5l framed in 1650, which prohibited all fiiips of foreign nations from trading with the Englifli plantations without licence from the council of Irate. In 165 1, the prohibition was extended alfo to the mother- country ; and no goods were fuftered to be imported into England, or any of its dependencies, in any other than Englifh bottoms, or in the fhips of that European nation, of which the merchandife imported -was the genuine growth or manufac- ture. At the Relloration, the former provifions were continued, by ftatute 12 Car. IL c. 18. with this very material improvement, that the mailer, and three- fourths of the mariners, fliall alfo be Englilh fubjefls. The compliii.ent of feamen, in time of peace, hath ufually amounted to i a or ^5,000. In time of war, they have formerly amounted to no lefs than 80,000 men ; and after the commencement of the American war, they amount to above 106,000 men, including marines. The vote of parliament for the fervice of theyear 1784, is for 26,000 feaman, including 4495 marines. This navy is commonly divided into three fquadrons ; namely, the red, white, and blue, which are fo termed from the dificrences of tlieir colours. Each Iqua- dron has its admiral : but the admiral of the red fquadron has the principal com- mand of the whole, and is (lyled vice-admiral of Great Britain. Subjeft to each admiral is alfo a vice and rear-admiral. But tlie fuprcme command of our naval force is, next to the king, in the lords commifuoners of the admiralty. Notwithttaad- ino-our favourable -fituation for a maritime power, it was not until the prodigious arii-.ament fent to fubdue us by Spain, in 1588, that the nation by a vigorous effort, became fully fenfible of its true intcrefl and natural ilrength, which it has fince fo happily cultivated. Many laws have been made for the fupply of the royal navy with feamen ; for their regulation when on board ; and to confer privileges and rewards on them during, and after their fervice. I. For their fupply. The power of imprefTing men, for the fea-fervice, by the king's commifiion, has been a matter of much difputc, and fubmirtcd to with great rclu(5tance ; though it hath very learnedly been fliewn by fir Michael Fuller, that the praftice of impretfing, and granting powers to the admiralty for that piu-pofe, is of very ancient date, and hath been uniformly continued by a regular feries of precedents to the prefent time ; whence he concludes it to be a part of the common law. The difficulty arifes from hence, that no ftatute, or aft of parliament, has ex- prtfbly declared this pov/er to be in the crown, though many of them very llrongly imply it. It has alfo been fuppofed, that a j.raitice fo unfavourable to the liberty of the fubiedt, and to the common principles of juftite and humanity, could not be Iblidly fupported without fome clear, pofitive, and unequivocal law. pjcfidcs this method of imprefling (which, even if legal, is only defenfible from public necelTity ; fuch as an adual rebellion or invafion of the kingdom, to which all ENGLAND. 265 all private confiderations mull: give v/av), the principal trading cities, tind fome- times the government, oftlr bounty-money to Teamen who entt- r voluntarily into his niLijefty's lervice ; and every foreign iVaman Vv'ho, during a war, {hall fcrve two years in any man of war, merchantman, or privateer, is naturalized /£/o/9 Total, — 496 M ra In 265 ENGLAND. I fliall clofe this account of the military and maritime ftrength * of Great Britain^ by obfeiving, that tiiough fea-officers and failors are fubjed to a perpetual adt ofpar- In commiffion 21; of the line, 7 fifties, 36 fiigates, and 105 {loops. When a fliip of war becomes- old. or unlit f .r ffrvlce, the f;imc name is transierred to another, which is built, as it is called, upon her bottom. While a linyle beam of the old fhip remains, the name cannot be changed unLfs by aft of parliament *The Pay of the Officers of the Royal Navy in each Rate. Flag Officers, and the Captains to Flags. per day. Admirals and Commanders in Chief of the Fleet An Admit il — — Vice Admiral • — ■ Rear Admiral — ' _ _ — Firft Captain to the Commander in Chief Second ditto, and Captain to other Admirals i-als { rals I to R. Admirals ( have the pay of fuch Rates ? 3 10 2 10 T K I I '5 — i6 M 6 OFFICERS. FirJ. Captr/in per day I Lieutenant per day o Ma'?kr per month 9 2d mafter and pilots of yachts, each 3/. loj. Mailer's mate 3 Midlhipman 2 Schoolmaller o Captain's Clerk z Quarter-mailer i Quarter-mailer's mate i Boatfwain 4 Boatfivain's mate 1 Yeoman of the Sheets i Coxfwain i Mafter fail-malier 1 Sail-maker's mate i Sail-maker's crew I Gunner 4 Gunner's mate i Yeo. of pov.der room i Quarter Gunner • i Armourer 2 Armourer's mate 1 Gunfmith i Carpenter 4 Carpenter's mate 2 Carpenter's crew I Purfer 4 Steward 1 Steward's mate i Cook 1 Surgeon f ' 5 Surgeon's firft mate 3 ■ fecond mate 2 ■ third mate 2 • fourth and fifth 1 Chaplain J o 3 o o 5 o Second. d. I. o 6 5 o 5 '5 10 o '5 12 12 15 8 S o 15 I? 6 5 10 5 o o 6 o 5 o 5 o o 10 o !0 '9 .5. 16 5 o 8 o Third. o o o o >5 lO 10 15 10 10 15 8 5 10 »5 I ^ 6 o 10 5 10 o 6 10 S o S o o 10 o 10 •9 /. /. s. d. o o 13 6 040 760 16 17 o I 2 s 8 J? 8 S o 12 12 S 17 8 o 16 5 o S o 5 o o )0 o 10 '9 F ourth. I. s. d. 10 4 6 12 , 7 10 13 9 '3 9 '3 9 10 8 2 10 10 8 8 «4 8 5 10 10 10 5 '3 9 8 10 '4 S 10 3 4 8 5 5 ^ 2 10 '9 Fiffh. I. s. d. 080 o 40 628 2 2 10 10 8 6 ■; 8 6 6 12 8 5 S 8 S 5 10 6 '; 12 5 5 5 2 10 SLv/h' 1. s. d. 080 o 4 o 5 o o 2 10 6 5 o 6 6 6 10 8 5 o 6 6 5 10 5 2 o I !0 ' 5 2 I o o o o o o o o o 4 o o o o o One to every four guns J Befidei Oiit. a month from each maitt f EeJ!dcs 3d, a month for (acb man. liament. ^ E N G L A >J p. 0.6^ ,liamenC, which anTwers the annual military a(^, that is paffed for the government of ithe army, yet neither of thofe bodies are exempted from legal jurifdidion in civil or criminal cafes, but in a few inftances of no great moment. The foldiers, particular- ly may be called uj)on by a civil inagiftrate, to enable him to prcfervc the peace againft all attempts to break it. The military officer who commands tiie foldiers on thofe occafions, is to take his direftions fi-om the magiftrate ; and both he and they, if their proceedings are regular, are indemnilied againft all confequences, be they ever fo fatal. But thofe civil magiftrates who underfland the principles of tlie confti- tution, are extremely cautious in calling for the military. Coins.] In Great Britain money is computed by pounds, fnillings, and pence, -twelve pence making a lliilling, and twenty ihillings one pound, which pound is ■only an imaginary coin. The gold pieces confift only of guineas, halves, and quarters: the filver, of crowns, half-crowns, fliillings, fix-pences, groats, and even down to a filver penny, and the copper money only of half-pence and farthings. In a country like England, where the intrinfic value of filver is nearly equal, and in fome coins, crown pieces particularly, fuperior to the nominal, the coinage of filver money is a matter of great confequence ; and yet the prefent ftace of the na- tional currency feems to demand a new coinage of fliillings and fix-pences ; the in- trinlic value of the latter being many of them worn down to half their nominal value. This can only be done by an ai51: of parliament, and by the public lofing the difference betv/een the bullion of the new and the old money. Befides the coins already mentioned, five and two guinea pieces are coined at the Tower of London, but tliey are not generally current; nor is any filver coin that is lower than fix-pence. The coins of the famous Simon, in the time of Cromwell, and in the beginning of Charles II's reign, are remarkable for their beauty. Royal titles, arms, 1 The title of the king of England, is. By the Grace AND ORDERS. JofGod, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith. The defignation of the kings of England was formerly, his or her Grace, or Highnefs, till Henry VIII. to put himfelf on a footing with the emperor Charles V. affiimed that of majefty ; but the old defignation was not aboliflied till towards the end of queen Elizabeth's reign. Since the accefllon of the prefent royal family of Great Britain, anno 17 14, the royal atchievement is marflialled as follows : quarterly, in the firll grand quarter. Mars, three lions fajfant guardant, in pale, Sol, the imperial enfigns of England, impaled, with the royal arms of Scotland, which are, Sol, a lion rampant within a double trejfure flowered, and counterfiowered, with fleurs-de-lis. Mars. The fecond quarter is the royal arms of France, viz. Jupiter, three fleur-de-lis, Sol. The third, the enfigns of Ireland ; which is, Jupiter, an harp, Sol, flringed Luna. And the fourth grand quarter is his prefent majefty 's own coat, viz. Mars, two lions pajfant guardant, Sol, for Brunfwick, impaled with Lunenburgh, vih'ich is. So I, femee of hearts, proper, a lion rampant, Jupiter ; having ancient Saxony, viz. Alars, an hor/e currant Luna, ente (or grafted) inbaje ; and in a fliieldjurtout. Mars, the diadem, or crown of Charlemagne ; the whole, within a garter, as fovereign of that molt noble order of knighthood. The motto of T>ieu et mon Droit, that is, God and my Right, is as old as the reign of Richard I. who aflumed it to ftiew his independency upon all earthly pow- ers. It was afterwards revived by Edward III. when he laid claim to the crown of France. Almoft every king of England had a particular badge or cognifance : fometimes a white hart ; fometimes a fetlock with a falcon, by which it is faid Ed- ward IV. alluded to the infidelity of one of his miftreifes; and fometimes a port- cullis, which was that of the houfe of Lancaller, many of the princes of which M m 2 " . were 268 ENGLAND. were born in the caflle of Beaufort. The white rofe was the bearing of the houfe of York J and that of Lancafter, by way of contradillinftion, adopted the red. The thiftle, which is now part of the royal armorial bearings, belonged to Scotland. The titles of the king's eldeft fon, are, prince of Wales, duke of Cornwall and Rothfay, earl of Chefler, ekdloral prince of Brunfwick and Lunenburg, earl of Carrick, baron of Renfrew, lord of the Illes, great fteward of Scotland, and cap- tain general of the artillery connpany. The order of the Garter, the moft honourable in England, was inftituted by Edward III. January 19, 1344. It confiib of the fovereign who is always the king or queen of England, of 25 companions called Knights of the Garter, who wear a medal of St. George killing the dragon, fiippofed to be tlie titular faint of Eng- land, commonly enamelled on gold, fufpended from a blue riband, which was for- merly worn about their necks, but fmce the latter end of James I. crolles their bo- dies from the ihoulder. The garter, which is of blue velvet, bordered with gold, buckled under the left knee, and gives the name to the order, was defigned as an enfign of unity and combination ; on it is embroidered the words, Horn Joit qui mal y penje, " Evil to him who evil thinks." Authors are divided as to the original of that motto; but it probably alluded to the bad faith of the French king John, Edward's contemporary ; the latter thereby declaring the equity of his own in- tention, and retorting fliame on any who fliould think ill of the enterprize he had engaged in to fupport his right to the ciown of France. This order is fo refpedt- able, that fome of the moft illuftrious foreign princes have been companions of it. It has a prelate, who is the bifhop of Winchefter, and a chancellor, who is the bifliop of Salifbury for the time being. It has likewife a regifter, who is dean of Windfor, and a principal king at arms, called Garter, who office it is to marlhal and manage the folemnities at the inftallation, and fealls of the knights. The place of inftalla- tion is Edward Ill's chapel at Windfor, on which occafion the knights appear in magnificent robes, appropriated to their order, and in their collars of SS. The col- lar and cap and feathers were introduced by Henry VIII. and to the ciofs of the or- der encompafled with the garter worn on the left fide of their coat, Charles II. added a filver ftar of eight points. Knights of the Bath, fo called from their bathing at the time of their creation, sre fuppofed to be inftituted by Henry IV. about the year 1399, but the order feems to be more ancient. For many reigns, they were created at the coronation of a king or queen, or other folemn occafions, and they wear a fcarlet riband hanging from the left fhouldcr, with an enamelled medal the badge of the order, ■i. rofe ifliiing from the dexter fide of a fceptre, and a thiftle from the finifter, between three imperial crowns placed within the motto, ^ria juti^fa in unum, " Three joined in one." This order being difcontinued was, revived by king George I. on the i8th of May, 1725, and the month following eighteen noble- men and as many commoners were inftalled knights of the order, with great cere- mony, at Weftminfter, where the place of inftalment is Henry Vll's chapel. Their robes are fplendid and fliewy, and the number of knigius is undetermined. The biftiop of Rochefter is perpetual dean of the order, which has likewife a regifter and other officers. The origin of the Englifli peerage, or nobility, has been already mentioned. Their titles, and order of dignity, are dukes, marquilles, earls, vifcounts, and lords or baron?. Baronets can fcarcely be faid to belong to an order, having no other badge than a bloody hand in a field, argent, in their arms. They are the only hereditary ho- Rour under the peerage, and would take place even of the knights of the Garter, were ENGLAND. 269 ^ere it not that the latter are always privy counfcllors ; there being no intermediate honour between thein and the parliamentary barons of England. They were infti- tuted by James I. about tlie year 16 15. Their number was then two hundred, and each ])aid about loool. on pretence of reducing and planting tlie province of Ulfler in Ireland : but at prefent their number amounts to 700. A knight is a term ufed almoft in every nation in Europe, and In general fignifics a foldicr ferving on horfcback ; a rank of no mean eftiniation in ancient armies, and entitling the party himfelf to the appellation o( Sir. In the common laws they are called milites or foldiers ; and they are made, by the king laying a iword upon their flioulders, and defiling them to rife by the title of Sir. It is a mark of perfonal regard from the crown, and therefore the title does not defcend to pofterity. Other knighthoods formerly took place in England ; fuch as thofe of bannerels-^ bache- lors, knights of the carper, and the liLe, but they are now difufed.' Indeed in the year 1773, at a review of the royal navy at Portfmouth, the king conferred the ho- nour of Knights Bannerets on two admirals and three captains. They liave no par- ticular badge on their garments, but their arms are painted on a banner placed in the frames of the fupporters. It is fomewhat difficult to account for the origin of the word efquire, which formerly fignificd a pcrfon bearing the arms of a nobleman or knight, and they ■were therefore called armigeri. This title denoted any perfon, who, by his birth or property, was entitled to bear arms ; but it is at prefent applied promifcuoufly to any man who can afford to live in the chara6ler of a gentleman without trade, and even a tradefman, if lie is a juflice of peace, demands the appellation. This de- gree, fo late as in the reign of Henry IV. was an order, and confirmed by the ■king, by putting about the party's neck a collar of SS. and giving him a pair of filverfpurs. Gower the poet, appears from his effigies on his tomb in Southwark, to have been an efquire by creation. Serjeants-at-law, and other ferjeants belong- ing to the king's houfliold, juftices of the peace, do6tors in divinity, law, and phy- fic, take place of other efquires ; and it is remarkable, that all the fons of dukes, marquilfes, earls, vifcounts, and barons, are in the eye of the law no more than efquires, though commonly defigned by noble titles. The appellation of gentle- man, though now confounded with the mean ranks of people, is the root of all Englifli honour ; for every nobleman is prefumed to be a gentleman, though every gentleman is not a nobleman. History.] It is generally agreed, that the firfl inhabitants of Britain were a tribe of the Gauls, or Celtas, that fettled on the oppofite fhore : a fuppofition found- ed upon their evident conformity in language, manners, government, religion, and complexion. When Julius Caefar, about fifty-two years before the birth of Chrif!, meditated the conqueft of Britain, the natives were much connected with the Gauls, and other people of the continent. Caefar wrote the hiftory of his two expeditions, which he pretended were accompanied with vaft difficulties, and attended by fuch ad- vantages over the illanders, that they agreed to pay tribute. It plainly appears, however, from the fubfequent hiftory of Britain, that his viftories were incomplete and indecifive ; nor did the Romans receive the leaf!: advantage from his expedi- tions but a better knowledge of the ifland than they had before. The Britons at that period were governed in the time of war by a political confederacy of which Caffibelan, whole territories lay in Hertfordlhire, and fome of the adjacent counties, was the head : and this form of government long continued among them. In their manner of life, as defcribed by C;^far and the beft authors, they differed little from the rude inhabitants of the northern climates that have been already men- tioned, j -270 ENGLAND. tioned ; they fowed corn, but chiefly fubfifted upon animal food and milk. Their clothing was fkins, and their for-tiftcations beams of wood. They were incredibly dexterous in the management of their chariots ; and they fought with lances, darts, and fwords. Women fometimes led their armies to tiie field, and were recognifed as fovereigns of their particular diflrifts. They favoured a primogeniture or fe- niprity, in their fucceffion to royalty, but {et it afide on the fmalk-ll inconveniency attending it. They painted their bodies with woad, which gave them a bluifli or greenifh caft ; and they are fiid to have had figures of animals, and heavenly bodies on their ficins. In their marriages they were not very delicate, for they formed themfelves into what v/e may call matrimonial clubs. Twelve or fourteen men married as n'.any wives, and each wife was in common to them all, but her children belonged to the original hufband. The Britons lived, during the long reign of Auguftus Casfar, rather as the allies than the tributaries of the Romans ; but the communications between Rome and Great Britain being then extended, the emperor Claudius Cjefar, about forty-two years after the birth of Chrift, undertook an expedition in perfon, in which he feems to have been fuccelbful. Plis conquefts, however, were imj-erfeftj Caradlacus, and Boadicea, though a woman, made noble Hands againll the Romans. The former was taken priloner after a defperate battle, and carried to Rome, where his un- daunted behaviour before Claudius gained him tiie admiration of the viftors, and is celebrated in the hiftories of the times. Boadicea being opprefled in a manner that difgraces the Roman name, and defeated, dildained to furvive the liberties of her country; and Agricola, general to Domitian, after fubduing South Britain, carried his arms northwards, as has been already ken in the hiftory of Scotland, where his fuccciTors had no reafon to boaft of their progrefs, every inch of ground being bravely defended. During the time the Romans remained in this ifland, they erefted thofe walls I have lo often mentioned, to proteft the Britons from the in- vafions of the Caledonians, Scots, and Piifts; and we are told, that the Roman language, learning, and cuftoms, became familiar in Britain. There feems to be no great foundation for this affertion ; and it is more probable, that the Romans confulered Britain chiefly as a nurfery for their armies, on account of the fuperior ftrcngth of body, and courage of the inhabitants. That this was the cafe, appears plainly enough from the defencelefs ftate of the Britons, when the government of Rome recalled .her forces from that ifland. I have already taken notice, that dur- ing the abode of the Romans in Britain, they introduced into it all the luxuries of Italy ; and it is certain, that under them the South Britons were reduced to a ftate of great vafTalage, and that the genius of liberty retreated northwards, where the natives made a brave refiftance againft thofe tyrants of nations. The Roman em- perors and generals while in this ifland, aflifted by the Britons, were frequently employed iii repelling the attacks of the Caledonians and Pidls (the latter are thought to have been the fouthern Britons retired northwards), and they appeared to have had no difficulty in maintaining their authority in the fouthern provinces. Upon the mighty inundations of thofe barbarous nations, which, under the names of Goths and Vandals invaded the Roman empire with infinite numbers, and with danger to Rome itfelf *, the Roman legions were withdrawn out of Bri- tain, with the fl.ower of the Britifli youth, for the defence of the capital and centre of the empire. As the Roman forces dccreafed in Britain, the Scots and Pidls, who had always oppofed the progrefs of the Romans in this ifland, advanced the more boldly into the fouthern parts, carrying, terror and defolation over the * Sec the Iiitrodik'^on. \ whole E N G L A N D. 271 wliol'e country. The effeminated Britons were fo accuftomed to have reco-jrfe to trlie Romans for defence, that they again and again implored their return. But the Romans, at length reduced to extremities at home, and fatigued with dillant expeditions, acquainted the Britons that they muil no longer look to them for protcftion, and exhorted them to arm in their own defence ; and that they mi»ht leave the ifland with a good grace, they afTiPced the Britons in rebuilding with ftone the wall of Severus, between Newcaftle and Carlifle, which they lined with forts and watch-towers ; and having done this good office, took their lafl: farewell of Britain about the year 448, after having betn mafters of the moft fertile parts of it, if we reckon from the invafion of Julius Ctefar, near 500 years. The Scots and Pi6ls finding the ifland finally deferted by the Roman legions, now regarded the whole as their prize, and attacked Severus's wall with redoubled forces, ravaged all before them with a fury peculiar to northern nations in thofe- ages, and which a remembrance of former injuries could not fail to infpire. The poor Britons like a helplefs family, deprived of their parent and protedor, already fubdued by their own fears, had again recourfe to Rome, and fent over their miferable epiftle for relief (ftill upon record), which was addreffcd in thefe words: To Aetius, thrice conjiil : The groans of the Britons -, and after other lamentable com- plaints, faid, That the barbarians drove them to the fea, and the Jea back to the bar- barians J and they bad only the bard choice left of perifhing by the /word or by the waves. But having no hopes given them by the Roman general of any fuccours- from that fide, they began to confider what other nation they might call over to their relief: Gildas, who was himfelf a Briton, defcribes the degeneracy of his countrymen at this time in mournful flrains, and gives foaie confufed hints of their officers, and the names of fome of their kings, particularly one Vortigern, chief of the Danmonii, by whofe advice the Britons ftruck a bargain with two Saxon chiefs Hengift and Horfa, to proteft them from the Scots and Pids. The Saxons were in thofe days mafters of what is now called the Englifh Channel, and their native countries comprehending Scandinavia and the nordiern parts of Germany, bein^ overftocked with inhabitants, they readily accepted the invitation of the Britonsj whom they relieved, by checking the progrefs of the Scots and V\&is, and had the ifland of Thanet allowed them for their refidence. But their own country was fo barren, and the fertile lands of Britain fo alluring, that in a very little time Hen- gift and Horfa began to meditate a fettlement for themfelves : and frefh fuppHes of their countrymen arriving daily, the Saxons foon became formidable to the Britons, whom, after a violent ftruggle of near 150 years, they fubdued, or drove into Wales, where their language and defcendants ftill remain. Literature at this time in England was fo rude, that we know but little of its hifbory. The Saxons were ignorant of letters, and public tranfaftions among the Britons were recorded only by their bards and poets, a fpecies of men whoni"they held in great veneration. Nennius, who feems to have been contemporary with Gildas, mentions indeed a few fafts, but nothing that can be relied on, or that can form a connefted hiftory. We can therefore only mention the names of Merlin, a reputed prince and prophet; Pendragon, the celebrated Arthur, and Thaliellin, whofe works are faid to be extant, with others of Icfs note. After many repeated bloody wars, in which the Britons were fometimes the enemies and fometimes the allies of the Scots and Pifts, the Saxons becan.e mafters of all Eno-- land to the fouth of Adrian's, or rather Severus's wall ; but the Scots and Pitts feem to have been mafters of all the territory to tne north, though they fufFered the Britons, who had been driven into their territories, to be governed bv their own tributary kings 3 an intermixture that has created much confufion ir>.h;dory. I have 272 ENGLAND. I have already given a {ketch of the confticution and government which the Saxons imported into England, and which form by far the moft valuable part of their ancient iiiJlory. Vve have no account of their convcrfion to Chriftianity but fron Popifh writers, who generally endeavour to magnify the merits O; their fu- periors. According to them, L.thelbert king; of Kent, who claimed pre-eminence in the heprarchy, as being dcfcended from Hengift one of the firft invaders, mar- ried the king of France's danghrer, and fhe being a Chiiftian, pope Gregory the Great feized that opj>ortunity to enforce the converfion of her hufband. to Chrifti- anitv, or rather to popcrv. For that purpofe, about the year 596, be fent over to England the famous Aullin, the monk, who probably found no great difficulty in con- verting the king and his people; and alfo Sebert, king of the Eaft Saxons, who v/as baptized, and founded the cathedral of St. Paul in London. The monk then, by his mader's orders, attempted to bring the churches of the Britons in Wales to a conformity with that of Ron.e, particularly as to the celebration of Eafter ; but finding a lT:out refiitance on the part of the bifhops and clergy, he perfuaded his Chrillian converts to maflacre them, which they did to the number of 1200 priefts and monks, and reduced the Britons, who were found in the heptarchy, to a ftate of flavery, which fome think gave rife to the ancient villenage in England. Aullin is accounted the firft archbifhop of Canterbury, and died in 605, as his con- vert Ethelbert did foon aiter. It does not fall within my defign to relate the feparate Iiiftory of each particular nation that formed the heptarchy. It is fufficient to far, that the pope in Auftin's time fupplied England with about 400 monks, and that the popifli clergy took care to keep their kings and laity under the moft deplorable ignorance, but al- v/ays magnifying the power and fandity of his holinefs. Hence it was, that the Anglo-Saxons during their heptarchy, were governed by prieils and monks ; and, as they faw convenient, perfuaded their kings either to flaut ihernfelves up in cloi- fters, or to undertage pilgrimages to Rome, where they finiflied their days : no lefs than thirty Anglo-Saxon kings during the heptarchy, refigned their crowns in that manner, and among them was Ina, king of the Weft Saxons, in other re- fpefts a wife and brave prince. The bounty of thofe Anglo-Saxon kings to the fee of Rome, was therefore unlimited; and Ethelwald, king of Mercia, impofed an annual tax of a penny upon every houfe, which was afterwards known by the name of Peter's pence, becaufe paid on the holiday of St. Peter ad Vinculay Au- guft I ft*. The Anglo-Saxon kings, during the heptarchy, commonly chofe one who was to be the head of their political confederacy, for regulating their concerns, but without any jurifdiftion in the dominion of others. The clergy, we may eafily fuppofc, had great influence on thofe occafions ; and the hiftory of the Saxon heptarchy is little more than that of crimes, treafons, and murders, committed at the inrtigation of priefts and monks. Even their criminal law, as hath been already obfervcd, admitted of a pecuniary compenfation for murder, and regicide itfelf. Under all thofe difadvantages of bigotry and barbarity, the Anglo-Saxons were happier than the nations on the continent ; bei ig free from the invafion of the Saracens, who had created an empire in the Eaft upon the ruins of the Roman, and began to extend their ravages over Spain and Italy. London was then a place • This tax, was impofed at firft for the Aipport name of Romc-Scd, but in proctfs of time tlie of a college at Rome tor the education of l''.ni;li(h pope's claimed it as a tribute due to St. Peter and juutli, lounded by Ina, king of Weflex, under the his fuccejrors, of ENGLAND. 273 of very confiderable trade ; and if we are to believe the Saxon chronicles quoted by Tyrrel, Withred, king of Kent, paid at one time time to Ina, king of Wefifex, a fum in filver equal to 90,000). fterling, in the year 694. England^ therefore, we may fuppofe to have been about this time a refuge for the people of the continent. The venerable but fuperflitious Bede, about the year 74o,comporcd his church hiftory of Britain, from tiie coming in of the Saxons dovm to the year 731. The Saxon Chronicle is one of the oldcft and mod authentic monuments of hiflojy that any nation can produce. Architedlure, fuch as it was, with ftone and glafs-working, was introduced into England j and we read, in 709, of a Northumbrian prelate \\'ho v/as ferved in filver plate. It muft however be owned, that the Saxon coins, v/hlcii are generally of copper, are many of them illegible, and all of them mean. Ale and alehoules are mentioned in the laws of Ina, about the year 728 ; and in this ftate was the Saxon heptarchy in England when, about the year 800, molt ot the Anglo-Saxons tired out with the tyranny of their petty kings, united in call- ing to the government of the heptarchy, Egbert, who was the eldeft remaining branch of the race of Cerdic, one of the Saxon chiefs v/ho firft arrived in Britain. On the fubmiiTion of the Northumbrians, in the year 827, he became king of all England. Charles the Great, othcrwife Charlemagne, \Tas then king of France, and em- peror of Germany ; and I have, in a former part of this work, mentioned the com- mercial treaty betv.een him and OlFa, king of Mcrcia, to whom he fent in a prefenr, a Hungarian fword, a belt, and two filken vcfts. Egbert had been obliged by ftate jeaioufies, to fly to the court of Charles for protedion from the perfecutions of Eadburga daughter of Cffa, wife to Birthric, king of the Weft Saxons. At the court of Charles he acquired the arts both of war and government. His profpfrity excited the envy of the northern nations, who, under the name of Danes then infefted the Teas, and were no ftrangers to the coafis of England; for about the year 833 they made defcents upon Kent and Dorfetftiire, where they defeated Egbert in perfon, and carried off abundance of booty to their fhips. About two years after they landed in Cornwall, and, though they were joined by the Cornilh Britons, they were driven out of England by Egbert, who died in the year 838 at Wincherter, his chief refidence. Egbert w;^s fucceeded by his fon Ethelwolf, who divided his power with his cl- ance as the French king himlelf and the greatell: prince in Chriltendom. In his old age he was unhappy, having ^mbarrafTed him- felf in intrigues with women, particularly the fair Rofamond. His infidelity was Tefented by his queen Eleanor, even to the feducing her Ions, Henry (whom h'n father had unadvifedly caufed to be crowned in his c-wn life-time)j Richard, and John, in repeated rebellions, which affefted their father fo much as to throw him into a fever, and he died at Chinon in France, in the year 1 189, and' 57th of his age. The fum he left in ready money at his death, has perhaps been exasperated but the mofl moderate accounts make it amount to 200,000!. of our noney. During the reign of Henry, corporation charters were eilablifiied all over Eno-- land i by which; as I have already hinted, the power of the barons was greatTy reduced. 28o ENGLAND. reduced. Thofe corporations encouraged trade ; but manufaiflures, efpecially thofe of filk, feem ftill to have been confined to Spain and Italy ; for the fillc coronation robes, made ufe of by young Henry and his queen, coftSyl. los. 4d. in the flierifF of London's account, printed by Mr. Maddox ; a vaft fum in thofe days. Henry introduced the ufe of glafs windows into England, and flonc arches in building. Malmfbury, Henry archdeacon of Huntingdon, and other hiftorians who lived under him, are remarkable for their Latin rtyle, which is often pure and elegant. In this reign, and in thofe barbarous ages, it was a cuftom in London for great numbers, to the amount of a hundred or more, of the fons and relations of eminent citizens, to form themfelves into a licentious confederacy, to break intorich houfes and plunder them, to rob and murder pafiengers, and to commit with impunity all forts of difordcrs. Llenry, about the year 1176, divided England into fix parts, called circuits, appointing judges to go at certain times of the year and hold ajjizey, toadrniniftcr juftice to the people, as is pradtifed at this day. Henry fo far abolilTied the barbarous and abfurd practice of forfeiting fliips which had been wrecked on the coaft, that if one man or animal v/ere alive in the fiij'p, the velTel and goods were reftored to the owners. This prince was alfo the firlt who levied a tax on the moveable or perfonal eftates of his fubjeds, nobles as well as peop)le. Their zeal for the holy wars made them fubmit to this innovation ; and a precedent being once obtained, this taxation beeame in following reigns an ufual method 'of fupplying the neceffities of the crown. It was the pradice of fome kino-s of England to repeat the ceremony of their coronation thrice a year, on afTem.bling the ftates at the three great feflivals. Llenry, after the firft years of his reign, never renewed this ceremony, which was found to be very expenfive and very ufelefs. None of his fucceflbrs ever revived it. Since we are here collcfting fome detached inftances, which fliow the genius of thofe ages, it may not be improper to mention the quarrel between Roger archbifliop of York, and Richard archbifliop of Canterbury. We may judge of the violence of military men and laymen, when ccclefiaftics would proceed to fuch extremities. The pope's legate having fummon- ed an affembly of the clergy at London, and as both the archbifhops pretended to fit on his right hand, this queftion of precedency begot a controverfy between them. The monks and retainers of arclibifnop Richard fell upon Roger in the prefence of the cardinal and of the fynod, threw him on the ground, trampled him under ibor; and fo bruifed him with blov/s, that he v/as taken up lialf dead, and his lile was with difficulty faved from their violence. Richard I. furnamed Cceur de Lion, from his great courage, was the third, but eldeil: furviviiig fon of Henry II. The clergy had found means to gain him over, and for their own ends they pcrfuaded him to make a molt magnificent, but ruinous crufade to the Holy Land, where he took Afcalon, and performed adlions of valour that gave coLmtenanx:e even to the fables of antiquity. After feveral glorious, but fruitlefs campaigns, he made a truce of three years with Saladin emperor of the Saracens ; and in his return to England he was treacheroufly furprifed by the duke of Aufl^ria; who, in 1193, fent him aprifoner to the emperor Henry VI. His ran- fom was fixed by the fordid e .all over the kingdom. Richard upon his return, found his dominions in great diforder, through the pradtiees of his brother John, whom he however pardoned ; and by the invafions of the French, whom he repelled ; but was flain in befieging the caflle of Chalons, in the year 11 99, the 42d of his age, and loth of his reign. The reign of his brother John, who fucceeded him, is infamous in the En<>-- lifli hiftory. He is faid to have put to death Arthur, the eldefl fon of his brother Geoffrey, who had the hereditajy right to the crov.'n. The younf prince's mother, Conftance, complained to Philip the king of France ; who, up- on John's non-appearance at his court as a vaffal, deprived him of Normandy. John notwithflanding, in his wars with the French, Scotch, and Irifh, gave many piaofs of perfonal valour ; but became at laft fo apprehenfive of a French invafion, that he rendered himfelf a tributary to the pope, and laid his crown and regalia at the foot of the legate Pandulph, who kept them for five days. The great barons refente'd his meanncfs, by taking arms ; but he repeated his Ihameful lubmiffions to the pope, and, after experiencing various fortunes of war, was at laft brought lb low, that the barons obliged him, in 1216, to fign the great deed lb well known by the name of Magna Charta. Though this charter is deemed the foundation of Englifb liberty, yet it is in fact no other * It appears however, that Williaiii I. king- of that they did homage for the kincrdom of ScothinJ Scotland, and his lubjccts, conlcnted to ackow- accordinL;h" : but this advaiuage was given up by ledge the king of England and his heirs, to all per- Riciiard I. n.k Lord Lyttclton's Hiftory of Henry petuity, to be their Ibvereigns and liege lords, and II. vol. v. p. 220, 223', 255. 8vo, edit'. O o than 282 ENGLAND. than a renewal of thofe immunities which the barons and their followers had poireired under the Saxon princes, and which they claimed by the charters of Henry I. and Henry II. As the principles of liberty came to be more enlarged, and property to be better fecured, this charter, by various lubfequent adts and explanations, came to be applicable to every Englifh fubjeft, as well as to the barons, knights, and burgeffes. John had fcarcely figned it, when he retradted, and called upon the pope for protection, when the barons withdrew their alle- giance from hini, and transferred it to Lewis, the cldell fon of Philip Auguftus, king of France. This gave umbrage to the pope ; and the barons being appre- henlive left their country Ihould become a province to France, they returned to John's allegiance ; but he was unable to protcft them, till the pope refufed ta confirm the title of Lewis. John died in iai6, in the i8th year of his reign, and the 49th of his age, julf as he had a glimpfe of refuming his authority. Without difputing what hlftorians have faid of his arbitrary, inconftant, and ciucl dil'pofuion, it is evident, from the fame relations, that he had great provo- cations from the clergy and the barons, who in their turns attempted to anni- hilate the regal prerogative^ It is undeniable at the fame time that, under John, the commons of England laid the foundatioii of all the wealth and privileges they now enjoy ; and the commerce of England received a moil furprifing in- creafe. He may be called the father of the privileges of free boroughs, which he eftablifhcd and endowed all over his kingdom ; and it was under him that the ftone bridge, as it ftood fome years ago, was f nilbed acrofs the Thames at Lon- don. The city of London owes fome of her privileges to him. The office of mayor, before his reign, was for life ; but he gave them a charter to chufe a mayor out of their own body, annually, and to cledt their flieriffs and common- council annually, as at prefent. England was in a deplorable (ituationwheu her erown devolved upon Henry IIL the late king's fon, who was- but nine years old. The earl of Pembroke was chofen his guardian ; and the pope taking part with the young prince, the French were defeated and driven out of the kingdom, and their king obliged to renounce all claims upon the crown of England. The regent, earl of Pembroke, who had thus retrieved the independency of his country, died in 121 9^, and the regency de- volved upon the billiop of Winchefter. The French king all this time kept pof- feflion of Normandy ; but at home the power of the pope became exorbitant ; and he lent no fewer than 300 of his rapacious clergy, in the year 1240, to take poflciTion of the beft Englilli benefices, and to load the people with taxes. This evil was increafcd by the marriage of Henry with the daughter of the earl of Pro- vence, a needy prince, whofe poor relations engrollld the bell clLitcs and j)laces. in the kingdotn. 'I'he king was of a foft, pliable difpofition, and had been perfuaded to violate the Great Charter. Indeed he feemed always endeavouring to evade the privilege which he had been compelled to grant and confirm. Aj,\ alfoei- ation of the barons was formed againft him and his government, and a civil war breaking out, Henry feemed to be abandoned by all but his Gafcons and foreign mercenaries. His profufion brought him into incxprcfEblc difficulties ; and the fa- mous Stephen Montfort who had married his filter, and was made earl of Leicelter, being chofen general of the aifociation, the king and his two fons were defeated, and taken prifbncrs at the battle of Lewes, A diiierence happening between Mont- fort and the earl of Gloueclter, a nobleman of great authority, prince Edward, Henry's eldeft fon, obtained his liberty, and alfembling as many as he could of his father's fubjedts, who were jealous of Monttbrt, and weary of the tyranny of the barons, he gave battle to the rebels, whom he defeated at Evetham, Augutl 4, 1265, and killed Montfort. The rcprefentatives of the commons of England, both knights and burgelfes, now formed part of the Engliflv legiflaturc, in a (e- paratc ENGLAND. a8j parate houfc ; and before this reign hiftorlans are not ngreed as to the office or powers of this branch of the parliament. Prince Edward being engaged in a crufadc, Henr}', during his abfence, died in 1272, the 64th year of his age, and 56th of his reign, which was uncomfortable and inglorious ; and yet to the ftrugglcs at that time the people in great nieafure owe the liberties of the prefent day. Dur- ing his reign, the principal cuiloms arofe trom the importation of French and Rhenifli wines, the Engli(h being as yet ftrangers to thole ot Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Interell had in that age amounted to an enormous lieight : there are in- llanccs of 50I. per cent, being paid tor mone\', which tempted the Jews to remain in England, notwithftanding the grievous oppreOions they laboured umler, from the bigotry of the age and Henry's extortions. In 1255, Henry made a frefli demand of 8000 marks from the Jews, and threatened to hang them if they refut- ed compliance. They now loll all patience, and detired leave to remove with their eftedls from the kingdom. But the king replied, " How can I remedy the opprefTion you complain of ? I am myfelf a beggar ; I am delpoiled ; I am itrip- pe-d of all my revenues ; I owe above 200,000 marks ; and it I had faid 300,000 I fliould not exceed the truth ; I am obliged to pay my Ion, prince Edward, 15,000 marks a year ; I have not a farthing, and I muft have money from any hand, from an}' quarter, or b}' any means." King John his father, once demanded 10,000 marks from a Jew at Briftol ; and, on his refufal, ordered one of his teeth to be drawn every day till he fhould content : the Jew loll {even teeth, and then paid the fum required. Trial by ordeal was now entirely dil- uted, and that by dttcl difcouraged. Brafton's famous law treatife was publilli- cd in this reign. Edward returning to England, on the news of his father's death, invited all who held of his crown in capite to his coronation dinner, which confifted (that the reader may have fome idea of the luxury of the times) of 278 bacon hogs, 450 hogs, 440 oxen, 430 llieep, 22,600 hens and capons, and 13 fat goats (fee Rymer's Foedera). Alexander III. king of Scotland was at the folernnity, and on the occation 500 horfes were let loofe, for all that could catch them to keep them. Edward was a brave and politic prince, and being perfeftly well acquainted with the laws, interefts, and conftitution of his kingdom, his regulations and reforma- tions of his laws, have juftly given him the title of the Englifli Jutlinian. He paficd the famous mortmain ad:, whereby all perfons " were rellrained from giving by will or othervoije, their eftatcs to (thole Jo called') religious purpoies, and the fo- cieties that never die, without a licence from the crown." He granted certain pri- vileges to the cinque-ports, which, though now very inconfiderable, were then obliged to attend the king when he went beyond fea, with fifty-feven fhips, each having twenty armed foldiers on board, and to maintain them at their oivn cods for the fpace of fifteen davs. He reduced the Welch to pay him tribute, and annexed its principality to his crown, and was the firft who gave the title of prince of Wales to his eldeft fon. Though he encouraged foreigners to trade with England, vet the aggregate body of every particular nation refiding here, became aniV/erable for the mifdemeanours of every individual pertbn ot their number. He regulated the forms of parliament as thev now (land, with very little variation. Perceiving that the indolence of his fubjedis rendered them a prey to the Jews, who were the great ufurers and money-dealers of the times, he expelled them out of Eng- land, and leized all their immoveable cllates. I have, in the article of Scotland, mentioned the unjutVifiable manner in which he abolifhed the independency of that kingdom; but on the other hand it mutf be ac'cnowledged that he held the balance of power in Europe, and -employed the vail: turns he raifed from his fub- O o 2 jecls. aU ENGLAND. jefls, for the aggrandizement of his crown and people. He had frequent wars abroad, efpecially with France, in which he was not very fuccefsful j and would willingly have abridged the power of the barons and great nobility, had the defign been prafticable. His vail connvftions with the continent were produdive of many benefits to his fubjefls, particularly by the introduftion of reading glaffes and fpedacles ; though they are laid to have been invented in the former reign, by the famous friar Bacon. Windmills wereevecled in England about the fame time, and the rt-guhuion of gold and filver workmanfhip was afcertained by an aflay and mark of the goldfmiths company. Edward was often embroiled with the pope, efpecially upon the affairs of Scotland; and he died in 1307, the 69th year of his age and jfthof his reign, while he was upon a frefli expedition to exterminate that people. He ordered his heart to be fent to the Holy Land, with 32,0001. for the maintenance of what was called the Holy Sefulchre. His fon and fuccefibr Edward II. fhewed early difpofitions for encouraging fa- vourites ; but Gavefton his chief minion, a Gafcon, being baniflied by his father, he mounted the throne with vafl: advantages, both political and perfonal, all which he foon forfeited by his own imprudence. He recalled Gavefton, and load- ed him with honours, and married Ifabella, daughter to the French king, who re- ftored to him part of the territories which hdward I. had loll in France. The ba- rons, however, obliged him once more to banifh his favourite, and to confirm the great charter, while king Robert Bruce recovered all Scotland excepting the caftle of Stirlino-; near to which, at Bannockburn, Edward in perfon received the greateft defeat that England ever fufFered, in 13 14. Gavefton being beheaded by the ba- rons, they fixed upon young Hugh Spencer as a fpy upon the king, but he foon became his favourite. Through his pride, avarice, and ambition, he was baniflied, too-ether with his father, who had been created earl of "Winchefter. The queen, an ambitious and worthlefs woman, perfuaded her hufband to recall the Spencers, •while the common people, from their hatred to the barons, joined the king's ftan- dard, and after defeating them, reftored him to the exercife of all his prerogatives. A cruel ufe was made of thofe fucceffes, and many noble patriots, with their eftates, fell vidlims to the queen's revenge ; but at lall flie became enamoured with Roger Mortimer, who was her prifoner, and had been one of the moft aiflive of the anti-royalift lords. A breach between her and the Spencers foon followed, and, o-oing over to France with her lover, ftie found means to form fuch a party in England, that, returning with Ibnie French troops, ftie put the cldeft Spencer to an icrnominious death, made her hufband prilbner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour of his fon Edward III. then fifteen years of age. Nothing now but the death of Edward II. was wanting to complete her guilt ; and he was moil barbaroufly murdered in Berkeley-caftle, by ruflians, fuppofed to be employed by her and her paramour Mortimer, in the year 1327. It muft however be admitted, that the misfortinics of Edward II. were in a o-reat degree brought upon hinifelf by his imprudence and mifconduft. His go- vernment was fomctimcs extremely arbitrary, and he was too much engrolfed by favourites, who led him into fanguinary meafures. It was alfo a misfortune to him, that he was not a match for Robert Bruce, king of Scotland ; in confequencc of whole military and political abilities, and their own civil contentions, the Englifh loft that kingdom. But it has been allcdged in his favour, that none of his prcde- ceflibrs ccjualled him in his encouragement of commerce, and that he protcded his trading fubjedts with great fpirit againft the Hanfcatic league and the neighbouring jiQwers. Upon an average, the difference of living then and now, feems to be near- ly as 5 or 6 is to I. The Knights Templars were fupprcfled in this reign, owing to their enormous vices. Edward ENGLAND. 285 F.cUvard III. mounted the throne in 1327. He was then under the tuition of his mother, who cohabited with Mortimer; and they endeavoured to keep poflcffion of their power, by executing many popular meaiures, and putting an end to all national differences with Scotland, for which Mortimer was created earl of March. Ed- ward, young as he was, was foon fenfible of their dcfigns. He furprifed them in perfon at the head of a few chofcn friends in the caflle of Nottingham. Mortimer was put to a public death, hanged as a traitor on the common gallows at Tyburn, and the queen herfelf was fhut up in confinement twenty-eight years, to her death. It was not long before Edward found means to quarrel with David king of Scotland, though he had married his filler. David was driven to France by Edward Baliol, who did homage to Edward for Scotland. Upon the death of Charles the Fair, king of France (without iffue), who had fucceeded by virtue of the Salic law, which the French pretended cut oft' all female fuccefTion to that crown, Philip of Valois claimed it, as being the next heir male by fucceflion ; but he was oppofed by Edward, as being the fon of IH^bella, who was fillier to the three lall mentioned kings of France, and firlt in the female luccelTion. The former was preferred ; but the cafe being doubtful, Edward purfued his claim, and invaded France with a powerful army. On this occafion, the vafl difference between the feudal coniiiitutions of France, which were then in full force, and the government of England, more favourable to public liberty, appeared. The F'rench ofiicers knew no fubordination. They and their men were equally undifcipllned and difobedient, though far more numerous than their enemies in the field. The Englifli freemen on the other hand, bavins' now vart property to frght for, which they could call their own, knew its value, and had learned to defend it by providing themfelves with proper armour, and fubmitting to military exercifes, and proper fubordination in the field. The war, on the part of Edward, was therefore a continued fcene of fuccefs and vidtorv. In 1340 he took the title of king of France, ufing it in all public afts, and quar- tered the arms of France with his own, adding this motto Dieu et man droit, " God and my right." At Crelfy, Augufl 26th, 1346, above 100,000 French were de- feated by 30,000 Englifh, chiefly by the valour of the prince of Wales, wdio was but fixteen years of age (his father being no more than thirty-four). The lofs of the French far exceeded the number of the Englifli army, whole lofs confiited of no more than three knights, and one efquire, and about fifty private men. The battle of Poidtiers was tought in 1356, between the prince of Wales and the French king John, but with greatly fuperior advantages of numbers on the part of the French, who were totally defeated, and their king and his favourite fon Phi- lip taken prifoners. It is thought that the number of French killed in this bat- tle, was double that of all the Englifli army; but the modeify and politenefs with which the prince treated his royal prifoners, formed the brightell wreath in his garland. Edward's glories were not confined to France. Having left his queen Philippa, daughter to the earl of Hainault, regent of England, Hie had the good fortune to take prifoner David king of Scotland, who had ventured to invade England about fix weeks after the battle of Crcffy. Thus Edward had the glory to fee two crowned heads his captives at London. Both kings were afterwards ranfomed, David for 100,000 marks, after being eleven years in captivity, and John for three millions of gold crowns ; but John returned to England, and died at the palace of the Savoy. After the treaty of Bretigni, into which Edward III. is faid to have been frightened by a dreadful ftorm, his fortunes declined. He had refigned his French dominions entirely to the prince of Wales, and he funk in the elfeem of his fubjeds at home, on account of his attachment to his mifbefs, one Alice Pierce. 1 The a86 ENGLAND. The prince of Wales, coiVimonly called the Black Prince*, from his wearing that coloured armour, while he was making a glorious campaign in Spain, where he reinftated Peter the Cruel on that throne, was i'eized with a confumptive djforder, which carried him off ni the year 1372. His father did not long lurvive him; for he died, difpirited and obfcure, at Shene in Surry, in the year 1377, the 63th of his age, and 5 ifl of his reign. No prince ever underftood the interefts of Europe better than Edward did, and he was>one of the moft illuftrious kings that fat on the Englifh throne. Bent on the conqueft of France, he gratified the more readily his people in their demands for fecurity to their liberties and properties, but his ambition exhaulted his regal dominions; and h.s fuccellbr, when he mounted the throne, was lefs powerful than Edward in the beginning of his reign. He ha<; the glor\' of inviting over and protecting fullers, dyers, weavers, and other artificers from F'landers, and of eilabJilhing the woollen manufadture among the Englilh, who, till this time, ge- nerally exported the unwrought commodity. The rate of living in his reign fcerns to have been much the fame as in the preceding; and few of the Engliih fliips, even of war, exceeded forty or fifty tons. But, notwithftanding the vafl increafe of property in England, villenage dill continued in the royal, epifcopal, and baronial manors, Hitforians are not agreed, whether Edward made ufe of artillery in his firll invafion of France, but it certainly was well known before his death. The magnificent cafile of Windfor was built by Edward III. and his method ot condutting that work may ferve as a fpecimen of the condition of the people in that age. Infiead of alluring workmen by contrad: and wages, he alfeffed every county in England to fend him lb many mafons, tilers, and carpen- ters, as it he had been levying an army. Soldiers were enlifted only for a fiiort time ; they lived idle all the reft of the year, and commonly all the reft of their lives; one fuccefsful campaign, by pay and plunder, and the ranfom of prifoners, was fiippoled to be a fmall fortune ; which was a great allurement to enlcr into the fervice. Th.e wages of a mafter carpenter was limited through the whole year to three pence a day, a common carpenter to two pence, money of that age. Dr. John Wickliffej a fecular prieft, educated at Oxford, began, in the latter end of this reign, to fpread the doftrines of reformation by his difcourfcs, fermons, and writings J and he made many difciples of all ranks. He was a man of parts, learning, and piety ; and has the honour of being the firft perfon in Europe who publicly called in queftion thofe doftrincs which had p.iflcd for certain during fo many ages. The dodtrines of Wickliffe being derived from his fearch into the fcriptirres, and into Qcclefiaftical anti(piity, were nearly the fame with thofe propagated by the reformers in the fixtcenth century. But though many feemed ilrongly dilpofed to receiv.e them, affairs were not yet fully ripe for this great revolution, which was refe^rved -fo,r a more free and enquiring age, that .abolilhed Romifii fuperftition in this and many other kingdoms of Kurope. He had many fc-iends in the univerfity of Oxford and at court, and was powerfully proteiled againil the jCvil defigns of the pope aaid bifliops, by John of Gaunt duke of Lan- cartcr, one of tjie king's fons, and other great men. His difcipUs were diftinguifhed by the name of Wickiirtitcs or Lollards. Richard II. fon of the Black Prince, was onlv, eleven years of age when he niGunted the throne. The Englifli arms were then unfuccefsful both in France and Scotland ; but the dodhincs of WicklilFc took root under the iniluence of * He was alfotlic firft in Engl.md ihat liaJ the Cornwall ; and ever fiiicc, ihc cUIcft fun of the king title of Dukcf bcin^ created hy his f;ither duke of of EiiLjlaiul is by birth duke of Cornnal). the ENGLAND. 287 the duke of Lancafter, the king's uncle and one of his guardians, and gave en- larged notions of liberty to the villains, and lower ranks of people. The truth is, that agriculture was then in fo flourifhing a flate, that corn, and other vidluals, were fuftered to be tranfported, and the Englifla had fallen upon a way of manu- facturing, for exportation, their leather, horns, and other native commodities j and with regard to the woollen manufactures, they feem from records to have been exceeded by none in Europe. John of Gaunt's foreign connedtions with the crowns of Portugal and Spain were of prejudice to England ; and fo many men v/ere employed in unUiecefsful wars, that the commons of E^ngland, like powder, receiving a fpark of fire, all at once flamed out into rebellion, under the conduift of Ball, a pricO:, Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others, the lowelt of the people. The condaCt of thefe infurgents was very violent, and in many rcfpeifls extreme- ly unjultifiable ; but it cannot be denied, that the common people of England then laboured under many oppreffions, particularly a ^0// /^at, aixl had abundant reafon to be difcontentcd with the government. Richard was not then above fixteen, but he acfted with great fpiritand wifdom. He faced the dorm of the infurgents, at the head of the Londoners, while Wa!-. wortli, the mayor, and Philpot, an alderman, had the courage to put Tyler, the leader of the malcontents to death, in the midft of his adherents. This, with the feafonable behaviour of Richard, quelled the infurreiftlon for that time;, but It broke out with the niofl bloody effeds in other parts of England, ami thouc^h it was fupprefTed by making many examples of feverity among the infurgents, yet the common people never afterwards loll fight of their own importance, till by tlegrces they obtained thofe privileges which they rrow enjoy. Had Richard been a prince of real abilities, he might, after the fuppreffion of thofe infurgents, have eltabliflied the tranquillity of his dominions on a lure foiindation ; but he delivered himfelf up to worthlefs favourites, particularly Michael de la Pole, fon to a mer- chant of London, whom he created earl of Suffolk and lord chancellor, judge Trefillan, and, above all, Robert de Vere earl of Oxford, whom he created marquis* of Dublin and duke of Ireland. They were obnoxious both to the parliament and people, and Richard ftooped in vain to the moft hgnoble meafures to fave them. They were attainted, and condemned to fuffer as traitors. The chief juftice Tre- fdian was hanged at Tyburn, but de la Pole, and the duke of Ireland efcaped abroad, where they died in obfcurity. Richard then alfociated to himfelf a new let of favourites. His people and great lords again took up arms, and being headed by the duke of Gloucelter the king's uncle, they forced Richard once more into terms ; but being infinccre in all his compliances, he was upon the point of becom- ing more defpotic than any king of England had ever been, when he lolt his crown and life by a fudden cataltrophe. A quarrel happened between the duke of Hereford, fon to the duke of Lancafler, and the duke of Norfolk; and Richard banilhed them both, vv'ith particular marks of injuftice to the former, who now became duke of Lancalter by his father's death. Richard carrying over a great army to quell a rebellion in Ireland, a ftrong party was formed in England, the natural refult of Richard's tyrannv, who offered the duke of Lancafter the crown. He landed from France at Ravenfpur in Yorkfliire, and was foon at the head of 60,000 men, all of them Englifli. Richard hurried back to tngland, where his troops refufmg to fight, and his fubjetls, whom he had affecfted to defpife, generally deferring him, he was made prifoner with no more than twenty attendants; and being carried to London, he was depofed in full par- liament, upon a formal charge of tyranny and mifcondudt j and foon after he is * The firft who bare the title of marcj^uis in Ea^lar.d, foppofed 'z88 ENGLAND. fuppofecl to have been ftarved to death in priibn, in the year 1599, the 34th of his age, and the a 3d of his reign. He had no illue by either of his marriages. Though the nobility of England were poUefled ot gr^at power at the time of this revolution, yet we do not find that it abated the influence of the commons. They had the courage to remonrtrate boldly in parliament againft the ufury, which was but too much pracitifed in England, and other abufes of both clergy and laity ; and the deftruftion of the feudal powers foon f' llowed. Henry the Fourth f , fon of John of Gaunt, duke ot Lancaflcr, fourth fon of Fd- ward ill. being fettled on the throne of England, in prejudice to the elder branches of Edward Ill's family, the great nobility were in hopes, that this glaring d-efed: of his title would render him dependent upon them. At firft fome confpiracics were formed againll; him by the dukes of Surry and Exeter, the earls of Glouccfter and Salifbury, and the archbifliop of York ; but he cruflied them by his aftiviry and ileadincfs, and laid a plan for reducing their overgrown power. This was uu- derfbood by the Percy family, the greateft in the north ot England, who com- plained of Henrv having deprived them of fome Scotch prifoners, whom they had taken in battle, and a dangerous rebellion broke out under the old carl of Northumberland, and his fon the tamous Henry Percy, furnamed Hotfpur, but it ended iu the defeat of the rebels, chiefly by the valour of the prince of Wales. With equal good fortune, Henry fuppreflcd the infurrcftions of the Welch, under Owen Glendower; and by his prudent conceffions to his parliament, to the com- mons particularly, he at lalt conquered all oppofition, while, to remedy the defeat of his title, the parliament entailed the crown upon him, and the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten, thereby flrutting out all female fucceflion. The .young duke of Rothfay, heir to the crown of Scotland (afterwards James I. of .that king- dom), falling a prifoner into Henry's hands about this time, was of infinite fer- vire to his government; and before his death, which happened in 1413, in the 46th year of his age, and 13th of his reign, he had the fatisfadtion to fee his fon and fucceflbr, the prince of Wales, difengage himfelf from many youthful follies, which had till then difgraced his conduift. The Englifli marine was now lb greatly increafed, that we find an Englifli vcffcl of 200 tons in the Baltic, and many other fliips ot equal burden, carrying on trade in various parts, particularly with the Hanfe towns. With regard to public li- berty, Henry IV. as I have already hinted, was the firil prince who gave the dit- ferent orders in parliament, cfpecially that ot the commons, their due weight. It is, bowever, a little furpiiling, that learning was at this time at a much lower pafs in England, and all over lun-ope, than it had been 200 years before. Bifliops, •when teilifying fynodal adts, were often forced to do it by proxy in the following terms, viz. " As I cannot read myfelf, N.N. hath fubfcribed for me;" or, " As my Lord biflrop cannot write himfelf, at his rctjuefl I have fubfcribed." By the influence of the court and the intrigues of the clergy, an atb was obtained in the fefl"ions of parliament 1401 for the burning of heretics, occafioned by Ehe great bicreafe of the WicklifTites or Lollards ; and immediately after, one Sawtrce, parifli- prieil of St. Ofiihe, in London, was burnt alive by the king's writ, directed to the fliayor and flieri.ffs of London. 4" The throne l)ciiig now vacant, the duVc ot la/uh; ami the croun-, "iwlh all the incinhrh-, ami the I,antallcr lh'p|)cj forth, and having Cfoflcd him- eipf:n-lcnn!uei ; ah I ihal am ihj'cciuht hy ri^hl h-nc nj ftlf on his f'orclic-.ul and im his hrc'ift, and called //r hluL (in aning a clai.ii in rii;ht of his mother) upon the name of thrill, he pionouncid thefe coning from thf ^lulc kin^ IJewy ll'erdt and ti»-m^e words, which 1 fliuU give in the oiiginal language, thai rijht tkit God of hs grace hath f,nl mr, nxiitb , becaufc of their ringiilarity. hclfe of Icyn, and of my frendt'S, to rccoiicr it ; the In the natnc of Fudhtr, Son, and Hidy Ghoji, I ivhich rcwme was in point to be cndone by default of fienry of l^ncaflcr^ challenge this rcivme of Yng- gevername, and oudojing ofihcgudc Liivci. The ENGLAND. 289 The balance of trade w'uh foreign parts was againfl England at the acccflion of Henry V. in 1413, fo greatly had luxury increafed. The Lollards, or the followers of Wickliffc, were exccfiivcly numerous, and fir John Oldcafllc, lord Cobham having joined them, it was pretended that he had agreed to put himfelf at their head, with a defign to overturn the government ; but this appears to have been a groundlefs accufation, from the bloody zeal of the clergy, though he was pur to death in confequence of it. His only real crime feems to have been, the foirit with which he oppofed the fuperflition of the age, and he was the firft of the nobi- lity who fuffered on account ot religion. Henry was about this time enjjaf^ed in a contefl: with France, which he had many incitements for invading. Lie deniandcd a reftitution of Normandy, and other provinces, that had been ravaged from Encr- land in the preceding reigns; alfo the payment of certain arrears due for king John's ranfom fince the reign of Edward IIL and availing himfelf of the diftracled ftate of that kingdom by the Orleans and Burgundy fadions, he invaded it, rook Har- fleur, and then defeated the French in the battle of Agincourt, which equalled the glory of Crefly and Poicticrs, but exceeded them in its confequences, on account of the vaft number of French princes of the blood, and other great noblemen who were flain. Henry, v.ho was as great a politician as a warrior, made fuch alliances, and divided the French among themfelves fo effedually, that he forced the queen of France, whofc hufband Charles VL was a lunatic, to aorce to his marrying her daughter, the princefs Oatharine, to difinherit the dauphin, and to declare Henry regent of France during her hufband's life, and him and his iflue fucceflbrs to the French monarchy, which muft at this time have been eaerminat- cd, had not the Scots (though their kingftill continued Henry's captive) furnifhed the dauphin with efFedlual fupplies, and preferved the French crown for his head. Henry however made a triumphal entry into Paris, where the dauphin was pro- fcribed ; and after receiving the fealty of the French nobility, he returned to England to levy a force that might crufh the dauphin and his Scotch auxiliaries. Lie probably would have been fuccefsful, had he not died of a pleuritic diforder 1422, the 34th year ot his age, and the loth of his reign. By an authentic and exadl account of the ordinary revenues of the crown during this reign, it appears that they amounted only to 55,7141. a year, vvhich is nearlV the fame with the revenues in Henry IIL's time, and the kings of England had neither become much richer nor poorer in the courfe of 200 years. The ordinary cxpences of the government amounted to 52,507 1. fo that the king had of furplus only 3207 1. for the fupport of his houfchold, for his wardrobe, for the expence of embaffies, and other articles. This fum, though money of the fame denomi- nation then contained thrice as much filver as it does as at prefent, was not nearly fufficient even in time of peace ; and to carry on his wars, this great conqueror was reduced to many miferable fliifts : he borrowed from all quarters ; he pawned his jewels and fomctimes the crown itfelf ; he ran in arrears to his army ; and he was often obliged to ftop in the midft of his career of viiflory, and to grant a truce to the enemy. I mention thefe particulars, that the reader may judge of the fimpli- city and temperance of our predeceffors three centuries ago, when the expences of the greateft king in Europe were fcarcely equal to the penfions of two or three fupcrannuated courlirrs of the prefent age. It required a prince equally able with Henry IV. and V. to confirm the title of the Lancafter houfe to the throne of England. Henry VI. furuamcd of \\^indfor was no more than nine months old,' when, in confequence of the treaty of Tro\'-s' concluded by his father with the French court, he was proclaimed kino- of France' as well as England. He was under the tuition of his two uncles the dukes of Bedford and Gloucefter, both of them princes of great accomplifliments, virtues P P and 290 ENGLAND. and cournQ;e, but unable to preferve their brother's conqnells. Upon the death of Charles VI. the affeiStions of the French for his family revived in the perfon of his fon and fucceiTorj Charles VII. The duke of Bedford, who was regent of France, performed man)' glorious aftlons, and atlaft laid fiege to Orleans, which, if taken, would have completed the conqueft of France. The fiege was raifed by the valour and good condu(^l of the Maid of Orleans, a phenomenon hardly to be paralleled in hiftory, fhe being born of the lowed extraction, ;md bred a cow-keeper, and fomc- times a helper in ftables at public inns. She mufV, notw-ithftanding, have pof- fcffed an amafing fund of fagacity as well as valour. After an unparalleled train of heroic aftions, and placing the crown upon her fovereign's head, {he was taken prifoner by the Englifli in making a fally during the fiege of Compiegne, and burnt alive for a v/itch at Roan, May 30, 1431. The death of the duke of Bedford, and the agreement of the duke of Burgundy, the o-veat ally of the Englifli, with Charles VII. contributed to the entire ruin of the Englifli intereft in France, and the lofs of all their fine provinces in that king- dom, norwithftanding the amazing courage of Talbot the firft earl of Shrev,'fburv> and their other officers. The capital misfortune of England, at this time, was its difunion at home. The duke of Gloucefler loft his authority in the government, and the king married Margaret of Anjou, daughter to the needy king of Sicily ; a woman of a high fpirit, but an implacable difpofition; while the cardinal of Win- chefter, who was the richeft fubjedt in England, if not in Europe, prefided at the head of the treafury, and by his avarice ruined the intereft of his country, both at home and abroad. Next to the cardinal, the duke of York, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, was the m.oft powerful fubjedt in England. He was defeended by the mother's fide from Lionel, an elder fon ot Edward III. and prior in claim to the reigning king, who was defeended from John of Gaunt, Edward's youngefl: fon ; and he affetted to keep up the diftindtion of a white rofe, that of the houfe of Lancafter being red. It is certain that he paid no regard to the parliamentary en- tail of the crown upon the reigning family, and he loft no opportunitv of form- ino- a party to afl^crt his right, but adted at firft with profound difiimulation. The duke of Suffolk was a favourite of the queen, and a profelfed enemy to the duke of York ; but, being impeached in parliament, he was banifhcd for five years, and had his head ftruck oft' on board a fliip, by a common lailar. This was fol- lowed by an infurredtion of 20,000 Kentifh men, headed by one Jack Cade, a man of low condition, who fent to the court a lift of grievances ; but he was de- feated by the valour of the citizens of London. The inglorious management of the Englifh affairs in France, proved advantageous to the duke of York, and, upon his arrival England from Ireland, he found a ftrong party of the nobility his friends ; but being confidcred as the fomenter of Cade's rebellion, he pro- fcfled the moft profound reverence to Henry. The perfons in high power and rejiutation in England, next to the duke of York, were the carl of Saliibury, and his fon the earl of Warwick. The latter had the grcateft land eftateof any fubjedt in England, and his vaft abilities, joined to fome virtues, rendered him equally popular. Both father and fon were lecretly on the fide of York ; and during a fit of illncfs of the king that duke was made jiro- tedtor of the realm. Both fides now prepared for arms, and the king recovering, the queen, with wonderful adtivity, aftembled an army ; but the royalifts were de- feated in the firft battle of St. Alban's, and the king himfelf was taken prifoner. The duke of York was once more declared protcdtor of the kingdom; but it was not long before the queen rcfumed all her influence in the government, and the king, though ills Vicakncls became every day more and more vifible, rccovcrLd all his authariiy. The E N G L A N D« ajji The duke of York upon this threw off the mafk, and, in 1459, openly claimed the crov;n, and the queen was again defeated by the eari of SVarwick, w!io was now called the King-maker. A parliament being aflembled, it was enadted, that Henry fliould pofTefs the throne for life, but that the duke of York fhould fuccecd him, to the exclufion of all Henry's ifflie. The queen alone rejected this compro- mife. She retreated northwards, and the king being ftill a prifoner, fhe pleaded his caufe {o well, that aflembling a frefh army, fhe fought the battle of Wakefield, where the duke of York was defeated and flain in 1.^60. It is remarkable, that though the duke of York and his party openly afferted his claim to the crown, they iVill profeffed allegiance to Henry ; but tiic duke of Yoric's fon, afterwards Ldward IV. prepared to revenge his father's death, and ob- tained feveral viftories over the royalifts. The queen, however, advanced towards London, and, defeating the earl of Warwick in the fecond battle of St. Alban'?, delivered her huftand ; but the diforders committed by her northern troops dif- gulled the Londoners fo much, that flie durft not enter London, where the duke of York was received on the 28th of February, 1461, while the queen and her huiband were obliged to retreat northwards. She foon raifed another army, and fought the battle of Towton, the moll bloody perhaps that ever happened in any civil war. After prodigies of valour h^d been performed on both fides, the viftory remained with young king Edward, and near 40,000 men lay dead on the field of battle. Margaret and her hufband were once more obliged to fly to Scotland, where they met with a generous proteftion. This civil war was carried on with uncommon animofity. A'Jargaret was as blood-thirfty as her opponents, and when prifoncrs ot either fide were made, their deaths, efpecially if they were perfons of rank, were deferred only for a few hours. Margaret, by the conceffions fhe made to the Scots, foon raifed a frefli army there, and in the north of England, but met with defeat upon defeat, till at laft her hufband, the unfortunate Henry, was carried prifoner to London. The duke of York, now Edward IV. being crowned on the 29th of June, fell in love with, and privately married Elizabeth, the widow of fir John Gray, though he had fome time before fent the earl of Warwick to demand the king of France's fifter in marriage, in which embafiy he was fuccefsful, and nothing remained but the bringing over the princefs into England. When the fecret of Edward's mar- riage broke out, the haughty earl, deeming himfelf affronted, returned to England inflamed with rage and indignation ; and from being Edward's befl: friend became his mofi: formidable enemy, and gaining over the duke of Clarence, Edward was made prifoner, but efcaping from his confinement, the earl of Warwick, and the French king, Lewis XL declared for the reftoration of Henry, who was replaced on the throne, and Edward narrowly efcaped to Holland. Returning from thence, he advanced to London, under pretence of claiming his dukedom of York ; but being received into the capital, he refumed the exercife of royal authority, made king Henry once more his prifoner, and defeated and killed Warwick, in the bat- tle of Barnet, A few days after, he defeated a frefli anr.y of Lancaftrians, and made queen Margaret prifoner, together with her fon prince Edward, whom Ed- ward's brother, the duke of Gloucefter, murdered in cold blood, as he is faid (but with no great fliew of probability) to have done his father Elenry Vi. then a prifoner in the Tower of London, a few days after, in the year 147 1. Edward being now fet- tled on the throne, was guilty of the utmoft cruelty to all the Lancaflrian party, whom he put to death, wherever he could find them. The great objeft of his vengeance was Henry, earl of Richmond. He was defcended from John Beaufort the eldefl fon of the earl of Somerfet, who was the P p 2 eldefl 2,92 ENGLAND. eldcft Ton of John of Gaunt, by his laft wife Catherine Swineford, but born in adul- tery, during her hufband's life tiine. This difability, however, was afterwards re- moved both by tj-ie pope and by the parliament, and the defcendants of John of Gaunt, by that ladv, as far as could be done, were declared legitimate. The lart lord, John, duke of bomerfet, left a daughter, Margaret, who was married to Ed- mund Tudor, earl of Richmond, fon of the widow of Henry V. by Owen Tudor, a Welfh gentleman whom fhe had condefcendcd to marry; and their {on was Henry, earl of Richmond (afterwards Henry VII.), v.'ho then lived in France, to fecure himfelf from the cruelty of Edward. The reader may fee, from the detail of this important geneaology, that the young earl of Richmond had not the Imallell claim in blood (even fuppofing the illegitimacy of his anceftors had been removed) to the crown of England. In 1474, the kingdom was in a deplorable fituation. The king was immerftd in expenfive and criminal luxuries, in which he was imitated by his great men ;: who, to fupport their extravagancies, became pcnfioners to France. The parlia- ment feemed to aft only as the executioners of Edward's bloody mandates. The belt blood in England was fhed on fcaffolds; and even the duke of Clarence fell a viftim to his brother's jealoufy. Edward, partly to amufe the public, and partly to fupply the vaft expences of his court, pretended fometimes to quarrel, and fome- times to treat with France, but his irregularities occafioned his death (1483), in the twenty-third year of his reign^ and forty-fecond of his age. Notwithftanding the turbulence of the times, the trade and manufactures of England, particularly the woollen, increafcd during the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV.. So early as 1 440, a navigation aft was contrived by the Englifli, as the only means to preferve the benefit of being the fole carriers of their own mer- chandife ; but foreign influence prevented Henry's pafTing the bill for that pur- pofe. The invention of printing, which is generally fuppofed to have been im- ported into England by William Caxton, and which received feme countenance from Edward, is the chief glory of his reign ; but learning in general was then ir> a poor ftate. The lord Tiptoft was its chief patron, and feems to have been the firft Englifh nobleman who cultivated what are now called the belles lettres. The books printed by Caxton are moflly re-tranflations, or compilations from the French or Monkifli Latin ; but it muft be acknowledged, at the fame time, that literature, after this period, made a more rapid and general progrefs au-.ong tha EngliJh than it did in any other European nation. The famous Littleton, judge of the common pleas, and Fortefcue, chancellor of England, flouhllKd at ti\is period. FLdward IV. left two fons by his queen, who had exercifed her power with little prudence, and nobilitated many of her obfcure relations^ Her eldeft fon, Ed- ward V. was' about thirteen; and his uncle the duke of Glouceflei-, taking advan- tage of the queen's want of popularity among the great, men, found means to baf^ardize her iflue, by aft of parliament, under the fcandalous pretext of a pre- contraft between their father and another lady. The duke, at the fame time, was declared guardian of the kingdom, and at laft accepted the crown, which was efltred him by the Londoners; having firfl put to death all the great men whom he thought well affefted to the late king's family. Whether the king and his bro-' ther v^ere murdered in the Tower by his direftion, is doubtful. The mod proba- ble opinion is, that they were clandeftinely fent abroad by his orders, and that the tlder died, but tliat the younger furvived, and was the fame who was well known by the name of Perkin Warbeck. Be this as it will, the Englilh were prepoffelTed fo Itrongly againft Richard, as the murderer of his nephews, that the earl of Richmond v;ho ftill remained in France, carried on a fecret coircfpondencc with the remains of Edward EN GLAND. aqj, Edward IV.'s friends, and by oITering to marry his eldefl daughter, he was encou- raged to invade England at the head of" about 2000 foreign troo]js : but they were foon joined by 7000 Englifh and Welch. A battle between him and Richard, who was at tlie head of 15,000 men, enfued at Bofworth-field, in which Richard af- ter difplaying the moft aftonifhing a<5ls of perfonal valour, was killed, having been firft abandoned by a main divifion of his army, under lord Stanley and Jiis brother in the year 1485. There can fcarcely be a doubt but that the crimes of Richard have been exao-- gerated by hiftorians. He v/as exemplary in his diftributive jullice. He kept a- watchful eye over the great barons, whofe opprefllon he abolifhed, and was a father- to the common people. He founded the fociety of heialds; an inftitution, which, in his time, was found necelfary to prevent difputes among great families. During his reign, fliort as it was, we have repeated inllances of his relieving cities and cor*^ potations that had gone into decay. He was remarkable for the encourarrement of the hardware manufactures, and for preventing their importation into England, no fewer than feventy-two different kinds being prohibited by one aft. He was the firll Englifli king who appointed a conful for the fupcrintendency of Englifh commerce abroad ; one Strozzi being nominated for Pifa, with an income of the fourth part of one per cent, on all goods of Engiiflimen imported to, or exported from thence. Though the att of baiiardy obtained by Richard affefted the daughters as well as the fons of his brother, yet no difputes were raifcd upon the legitimacy of the princefs Elizabeth, eldefl: daughter to Edward iV. and who, as had been before concerted, married Henry of Lancafler earl of Richmond, thereby uniting both houfes,, which happily put an end to the long and bloody wars between the con- tending families of York and Lancafter. Elenry, however, reded his right upon conqueit, and feemed to pay little regard to the advantages of his marriap-e. He was the moft fagacious monarch that had ever reigned in England j but, at the- lame time, the moft jealous of his power ; for he fhut up the earl of Warwick, fon ta the duke of Clarence, brother to Edward IV. a clofe prifoner in thjs Tower, thouoh he was but a boy, and though nothing was alledged againft him but his propinquity to the houfe of York. He was the firfl: who infticuted that guard caWed' T^cme/r which ftill fubfirts, and in imitation of his prcdecellor, he gave an irrecoverable blow to the dangerous privileges afTumed by the barons, in abolilhing liveries and re- tainers, by which every malefactor could fhelter himfelf from the law, on affumino-, a nobleman's livery, and attending his perfon. Some i-ebellions happened in the be- ginning of his reign, but they were eafiiy fuppreffed ; as was the impollure of Lam- bert Simnel, who pretended to be the imprifoned earl of W^arwick : Siinnel was taken prifoner, and after being employed in the king's kitchen, was made one of his falconers. Tlie defpotic court of ftar-chamber owed its original to Henry ; but, at the fame time, it mult be acknowledged, that he pafl'ed many afls, efpecially for- trade and navigation, that were highly for the benefit of his fubjeds. They exprefT- ed their gratitude by the great fupplies and benevolence they afforded him, and, as a finifhing ftroke to the feudal tenures, an ad paffed by which the barons and gentlemen of landed intereft were at liberty to fell and mortgage their lands, with- out fines or licences for the alienation. This, if wc regard its confequences, is perhaps the moft important afl that ever pafled in an Englifh parliament, though its tendency feems only to have been known to the politic king. Luxury, by the increafe of trade, and the difcovery of' America, had broken with irrefiftible force into England, and monied property being chicliy in the hands of the comm.ons, the eftatesof the barons became theirs But without any of their dangerous privileges j and thus the baronial powers were foon extinguifhed, Henry^ , D 294 ENGLAND. Henrv, after encountering and furmounting many difficv:lt!cs "both in Frnnce and Ireland, was acracked in the poffeffion of his throne by a young man, one Per. kin Warbcck, who pretended to be the duke of York, fecond fon to Edward IV. and was acknowledged as fuch by the duchefs of Burgundy, Edward's filkr. We fhall not follow the adventures of this young man, which were various and uncom- mon, but it is certain that many of the Englifh, with the courts of France and Scotland, believed him to be what he pretended. Henry endeavoured to prove the death of Edward V. and his brother, but never did it to the public fatisfaftion ; and thcuoh James IV. of Scotland baniilied I'erkin his dominions, being engaged in a treaty of marriage with Henry's eldeft daughter, yet, by the kind manner in which he entertained and difmilTed him, it is plain that he believed him to be the real duke of York, efpecially as he refufed to deliver up his pcrfon, which he might have done with honour, had he thought him an impollor. Perkin, after various unfortunate adventures, fell into Henry's hands, and was fhut up in the Tower of London, from whence he endeavoured to efcape along with the innocent earl of Warwick, for v,'hich Perkin was hanged, and the earl beheaded. It is faid, that Perl-in made a confeffion of his impoftures before his death ; but if he did, it mio-ht have been extorted from him, either upon the hope of pardon, or the fear of tortare. In 1499, Henry's eldell fon, Arthur prince of Wales, was married to the princefs Catharine of Arragon, daughter to the king and queen of Spain, .and he dying foon after, fuch was Henry's reluflance to refund her great dowry, 200,000 crowns of gold, that he confented to her being married again to his fecond ion, then prince of Wales, on pretence that the firft match had not been confum- mated. Soon after, Henry's eldeft daughter, the princefs Margaret, was fent with a magnificent train to Scotland, where flie was married to James IV. Henry, at the time of his death, which happened in 1509, the ;2d year of his age, and 24th of his reign, was poffefTed of 1,800, oool. llerling, which is equivalent to five millions at prefent ; fo that he may be fuppofed to have been mafter of more ready money nhan all the kings in Europe befides poffefTed, the mines of Peru and Mexico be- ing then only beginning to be worked. He was immoderately fond of replenifhing his coffers, and often tricked his parliament into fubfidies for foreign alliances, which he intended nor to purfue. I have already mentioned the vafl: alteration which happened in the conftitution of England during Henry VII's reign. His exceffive love of money and avarice was the prob ible reafon why he did not become mafter of the Weft Indies, he hav- ing the firft ofter of the difcovery from Columbus, whofe propofals being rejedted bv Henry, that great man applied to the court of Spairt. Henry however made fome amends by encouraging Cabot a Venetian, who difcovered the main land of North- America, in 1498 ; and we may obferve to the praife of this king, that fometimes, in order to promote commerce, he lent to merchants funis of money without'in- tereft, when he knew that their ftock was not fufficient for thofc cnterprizes which •they had in view. From the proportional prices of living, produced by Maddox, Fleetwood, and other writers, agriculture and breeding of cattle muft have been .prodipioudiy advanced before Hcniy's death ; an inftance of this is given in the cafe of lady Anne, fifter to Henry's queen, who had an allowance of 20s. per week, 'for her exhibition, fuftentation, and convenient diet of meat and drink ; alfo, for two gentlewomen, one woman child, one gentleman, one yeoman, and three grooms (in all eight perfons) 51I. lis. 8d. per annum, for their wages, diet, and clothing : and for the maintenance of feven horfes yearly, 16I. 9s. 4d. /. e. for each horfe 2I. 17s. od. ! yearly, money being tlien i I times as weighty as our modern filver coin. Wheat fold that year at -^s. 4d. a quarter, which anfwers to 5s. ot our monev, confcquently it was abcut feven times as cheap as at prefent. f. The ENGLAND. 295 The fine arts were as far advanced in England at' the acccfilon of Henry VIII. 1509, as in any European country, if we except Italy ; and perhaps no prince ever entered with greater advantages than he did on the exercife of royalty. Young, vi- gorous, and rich, unrivalled mailer of the throne, he might have held the balan'ce of power in Europe, had he been careful to improve his advantages. Imagining he ftood not in need of a fuppl/, he improved not Cabot's difcoveries, but fuffered the Eafl: and Weft Indies to be cngroflcd by Portugal and Spain. His vanity engaged him too much in the affairs of the continent, and his flatterers encouraged him to make preparations for the conqueil: of France. Thefe projcGs, and his eftablifhing what is properly called a navy royal, for the permanent defence of the nation (a molt excellent meafure), led him into incredible expences. He was on all occafions the dupe of the emperor Maximilian, the poorefl prince in Europe ; and early in his reign he gave himfelf alfo entirely up to the guidance of the celebrated cardinal- Wolfey, the fon of -a butcher at Ipfwich, but educated at Oxford, and madedean- of Lincoln by Henry VII. While involved in a warwith France, his lieutenant, the earl of Surry, conquered and killed James IV. of Scotland, who had invaded Eng- land ; and Henry became a candidate for the German empire, during its vacancy, but foon refigned his pretenfions to Francis I. of France, and Charles of Auftrin, king of Spain, who was elected in 151 9. Henry's condu6l, in the long and bloody wars between thofe princes, was direfted by Wolfey's views upon the popedom, which he hoped to gain by the intereft of Charles ; but finding himfelf twice de- ceived, he perfuaded his mafter to declare himfelf for Francis, who had been taken prifoiier at the battle of Pavia. Henry, however, continued to be the dupe of both parties, and to pay great part of their expences till at lafl: he was forced to lay vaft burthens upon his fubjetts. Henry continued ail this time the great enemy of the Reformation, and the champion of the popes and the Romifh church. He wrote a book againft Luther, " of the Seven Sacraments," about the year 1521, for which the pope gave him the nii&oi Defender of the Faith, which his fuccelTors retain to this day ; but about the year 15-27, he began to have fome fcruples with regard to the validity of his marriage with his brother's widow. I fhall not fay, how fur on this occafion be might be influenced by fcruples of confcience, or averfion to the queen, or the charms of the famous Anne Boleyn, maid of honour to the queen, whom he married, before he had obtained a divorce from Rome. The difficulties he met with in tliis procels ruined Wolfey,. who died heart-broken at being ftript of his immenfe power and poffefTions. A perplexing, though nice conjuncture of airairs, it is well known, induced Henry at laft to throw off all r(;lation to, or dependence upon, the church of Rome, and to bring about a R-efbrmation ; in which, however, many of the Rornifli errors- and fuperftitions were retained. Henry never could have efFefted this mighty meafure, had it not been for his defpotic difpofition, which broke out on every Gccafion.- Upon a flight fufpicion of his quetn's inconflancy, and after a fham trial, he cut oft' her head in the Tower, and put to death fome of her nearelf rela- tions ;. and in many refpeds he acted in the moft arbitrary manner, his wifhes, how- ever unreafonable, being too readily complied with, in confequence of the fliamefur fervility of his parliaments. The difiblution of the religious houfes, and the im- ,menle wealth that came to Henry, by feizing all the ccclefuiltical property in the kingdom, enabled him to give full fcope to his fanguinary difpofition ; fo that the belt and moft innocent blood of England was (bed on fcaffblds. Among others,, was the aged countefs of Salifbury, defcended immediately from Edward ]V. and; mother to cardinal Pole ; the marquis of Exeter, the lord Montague, and others- of the blood royal, for holding a correfpondence with that cardinaL Hls> .296 ENGLAND. His third wife was Jane Seymour, daughter to a gentleman of fortune and fa- ■:mily ; but fhe died in bringing Edward VI. into the world. His fourth wife was Anne, fifter to the duke of L'leves : he difliiance, was obliged to renounce, or rather to fiifpend her claim. Elizabeth, not contented with this, fent troops and money, v.hich fup- ported the Scoth malcontents, till Mary's unhappy marriage with lord Darnley, and then with Bothwcll, the fuppofed murderer of the former, and her other mif- fortunes, drove her to take refuge in Elizabeth's dominions, where fhe had been often promifed a fafe and an honourable afylum. It is well known how unfaithful Elizabeth was to this profefllon of friendfliip, and that fhe detained the unhappy prifoner eighteen years in England, then brought her to a fham trial, pretending that Mary aimed at the crown, and, v/ithout fufficient proof of her guilt, cut off her head ; an aftion v/hich greatly tarniflied the glories of her reign. As to Elizabeth's affairs with Spain, which formed in faft the main bufinefs of her government, theyexhibitdifferentfcenesofv/onderful events, partly arifing from her own maderly condud, partly from the fagacity of her ftatefmen, and partly irom the intrepidity of her forces by fea and land. The fame Philip, who had been the hufband of her late fifter, upon Elizabeth's acceffion to the throne, offered to marry her, but flie dextroully avoided his addreffes j and by a train of fkiiful negociations between her court and that of France, fhe kept the balance of Europe fo undetermined, that fhe had leifure to unite her people at home, and to eftablifh an excellent internal policy. She fometimes fup- ported the proteftants of France, againft their perfecuting princes ; and fometimes gave the dukes of Anjou and Alengon, brothers of the French king, the ftrongeft affiirances that one or other of them fhould be her hufband ; by which flie kept that court, who dreaded Spain, in fuch good humour v/ith her government, that itfhew- ed no refentment when fhe cut off queen Mary's head. When Philip v/as no longer to be impofed upon by Elizabeth's arts, which had fo long amufed and baffled him, it is well known that he made ufe of the immenfe llims he drew from Peru and Mexico, in equipping the mofl: formidable armament that perhaps had ever been put to fea, and a numerous army of veterans, under the prince of Parma, the befl: captain of that age ; and that he procured a papal bull for abfolving Elizabeth's fubjedts from their allegiance. No reader can be fo unin- formed as to be ignorant of the confequences, that the largenefs of the Spanilh fhips proved difadvantageous to them on the feas where dicy engaged ; that the lord admiral Hov/ard, and the brave fea-ofEcers under him> engaged, beat, and chafed the Spanij'h fleet for fevcral days ; and that the feas ami tempefts finillied the de- ftrudtion which the Englifh arms had begun, and that few of the enemy recovered their ports. Next to the admiral lord Howard of Effingham, fir Francis Drake, captain Hawkins, and captain Frobifhcr, diftinguiflied thcmfelves againfl; this for- midable invafion, in which the Spaniards are faid to have loft Si fliips of war, large and fmall, and 13,500 men. i Elizabeth ENGLAND. 499 Elizabeth had for fome time fupported the revolt of the Hollanders from Philif), and had fent them her favourite, the earl of Leicefter, who afted as her viceroy and general in the Low Countries. Though Leicefler behaved ill, yet her mcafurcs were fo wife, that the Dutch cftabiidied tiieir independency ; and then flie fenc forth her fleets under Drake, Raleigh, the earl of Cumberland, and other gal- lant naval officers, into the Eall and Weft Indies, from whence they brought prodigious treafures. After the death of the earl of Leicefter, the yoting earl of Eflex became Eliza- beth's chief favourite, and commanded the land-forces in a joint expedition widi the lord admiral Howard, in which they took and plundered the city of Cadiz, de- ftroyed the fhips in the harbour, and did other damage to the Spaniards, to the amount of twenty millions of ducats. Elizabeth in her old age grew diftruftful, peevilli, and jealous. Though fhe un- doubtedly loved the earl of Eflex, flie tealed him by her capricioufnefs into the madnefs of taking arms, and then cut off his Jiead. She complained that flie had been betrayed into this fanguinary meafure, and this occafioned a Hnking of her fpirits, which brought her to her grave in 1603, the 70th year of her age, and /1.5th of her reign, having previoufly named her kinfman James VL king of Scot- land, and fon to Mary, for her fucceflxDr. Elizabeth fupported the proteftants in Germany againft the hoiTfe #f Auftria, of which Philip, king of Spain, was the head. She cruflied the papifts in her own do- minions, and made a farther Reformation in the church of England, in which ftate it has remained ever fince. In 1600 the Englifli Eaft India company received its firft formation, and faftories were eftabliflied in China, Japan, India, Amboyna, Java, and Sumatra. Before queen Elizabeth's reign, the kings of England had ufually recourfe to the city of Antwerp for voluntary loans ; and their credit was fo low, that, befides the exorbitant intereft of 10 or 12 per cent, they were obliged to make the city of Lon- don join in the fecurity. The trade to Turkey was begun about 1583 ; and that commerce was immediately confined to a company by queen Elizabeth. Be- fore that time, the Grand Signior had always conceived England to be a depen- dent province of France. About 1590 there were in London four perfons only rated in the fubfidy book fo high as 400I. In 1567 there were found, on enquiry, to be 4851 ftrangers of all nations in London, of whom 3830 were Flemings, and only 58 Scots. As to Elizabeth's internal government, the fuccefl[*es of her reign have difguifed it ; for flie was far from being a friend to perfonal liberty, and fhe was guilty of many ftretches of power againft the moft facred rights of Engliflimen. The fevere ftatutes againft the puritians debarred them from liberty of confcience, and by which many fuffered death, muft be condemned. Before I clofe this fnort ac- count of her reign, I am to obferve, that through the pradlices of the Spaniards with the Irifli Roman catholics, flie found great difficulty to keep that ifland in fubjedlion, and at the time of her death her government there had fallen into L great diforder. We can fcarcely require a ftronger proof that the Englifli began to be tired of Elizabeth than the joy teftified by all ranks at the acceflion of her fucceflxjr, notwithftanding the inveterate animofities between tire two kingdoins. James was far from being deftitute of natural abilities for government ; but he had re- ceived wrong impreflions of the regal office, and too high an opinion of his own dignitv, learning, and political talents. It was his misfortune that he mounted the Englifli throne under a full conviftion that he was entitled to all the unconfti- tutional powers that had been occafionally exercifed by Elizabeth and the houfe of Q.q 2 Tudor i 300 ENGLAND. Tudor ; and which various caufes had prevented the people from oppofing wlili proper vigour. The nation had been wearied and exhaufted by the long and de- llruftive wars between the houfes of Lancafter and York, in the courfe of v/hich the ancient nobility were in a great part cut off ; and the people were inclined to endure much rather than again involve thenifelves in the miferies of civil war. Neither did James make any allowance for the glories of Elizabeth j which, as I have obferved, difguifed her moft arbitrary afts ; and none for the free, liberal fentiments, which the improvement of knowledge and learning had diffufed through England. It is needlefs, perhaps, to point out the vaft increafe of property, through trade and navigation, which enabled the Englifli at the fame time to defend their liberties. James's firft important meafure was an attempt to effed an union be- tween England and Scotland ; but though he failed in this, he (hewed no violent lefentmenc at the difappointment. It was an advantage to him at the beginning of his reign, that the courts of Rome and Spain were thought to be his enemies ; and this opinion was increafed by the difcovery and defeat of the gunpowder treafon*. I have already taken notice, in former parts of this work, of the obligations which commerce and colonization owed to this prince ; and, in faft, he laid the foundations of great national advantages. That his pedantry was ridiculous, can- not be denied ; and it is certain that he had no jult ideas of the Englifli conftitution and liberties, which led him into many abfurd difputes with his parliament : and he and his miniPcers were continually inventing new ways to raife money; as by mono- polies, benevolences, loans, and other illegal methods. Among other expedients, he fold the titles of baron, vifcount, and earl, at a certain price ; made a number of kni"hts of Nova Scotia, each to pay fuch a fum ; and inftituted a new order of knights baronets which was to be hereditary, for which each perfon paid 1095I. His pacilic reign was a feries of theological contefts, in which he lliowed himfclf more the theologian than the prince, and in 1617 he attempted toeftablifli epilco- pacy in Scotland, but the zeal of the people baffled his defign. Without enquiring from what motive his love of peace proceeded, it was eventually produftive of many bleffings to England ; and though his perpetual negociations have given rife x.o much fatire againft his perfon and government, yet they were lefs expenfive and deftru6tive to his people than any wars he could Iiave entered into. He reftored to the Dutch their cautionary towns, upon their diicharging part of the mortgage that * This was a fchcme of thcRonian c-.uliolics to laved till tlic niglit immediately preceding the cut off at one blow the king, lords, and commons, meeting, when a jnftice of peace was fent with- at the meeting of parliament, u hen it was alfu ex- proper attendants, and before toe door of the vault pcfted that the queen, and prince of \\'ales would under the upper hoiife, finding one Fawkcs, who be prefent. The manner of enlilling any new con- had juft finiflied all his preparations, he inime- fpirator was by oath, und adminillcrinji the facra- diately fcized him, and at the fame time difcovered- ment ; and this dreadful fccrct, after being reli- in the vault 36 barrels of powder, which had been oioully kept near 18 months, was happily difco- carefully concealed iindtr faggols and piles of vercd in the fullowing manner : about ten days wood. The match, with every thing proper for before the long wilhed-for meeting of parliament, letting fire to the train, were found in Fawkes's a Roman catholic peer received a letter, which had pocket, whofe countenance befpokc his favage dif- been delivered to his fervant by an unknoAn hand, pofition, and who, after regretting that he had loll carnellly advifmg him to Halt off his attendance the opportunity of dellroying lb many heretic.-;-, on parliament at that time ; but which contained made a lull difcovery ; and the confpirator?, who no kind of explanation. The nobleman, though never exceeded 80 in number, being feized by the lie confidcrcd the letter as u foolifli attempt to country people, conleffed their guilt, atid were frighten and ridicule him, thought proper to lay executed in different parts of Jingland. Notwith- it before the king, who iludying thccontents with ftanding this horrid crime, the big'otcd catholics more attention, began to fufpeft lomc dangerous were fo devoted to (Janiet, a Jefuit, one of the contrivance by gun-powder; and it was jndgcdad- confpirators, that they fancied miracles to be •vifcablc to inlpcff all the v.iul;s below the lioiifes wrought by his blood, and in Spain he was con- «f parliament ; but the fuaicli was purpofel)' dc- fidcrcd as a martyr. was ENGLAND. 301 'was upon them ; but he procured from Spain at tlic Hime tune an acknowledgement of their independency. James gave his daughter, the princcfs Elizabeth, in marriage to the Ele6lor Pala- tine, the moll powerful prcteflant prince in Germany, who foon after afTumed the crown of Bohemia. The memory of James has been much abufctl for his tame be-- haviour, after that prince had lofc his kingdom and clcftoratc by the imperial arms ; but it is to be obfcrved, that he ftrongly oppofed his fon-in-law's alTuming the crown of Buheniia ; that had lie kindled a war to reinflate him in th.u and his ele6toratc, he probably would have flood finglc in the contcft, except the feeble and uncertain afliftance he might have received from the elector's dependents and friends in Ger- many. Nothing, however, is inore certain, than that J;imes furnifned the elecflor with large fums ot money j and that he aftually raifed a regiment of 2200 men, under fir Horace Vere, who carried thcni over to Germany, where the Germans, under the marquis of Anfpach, refuf."d to fecond tliem againP, Spinola the Spanifli general, ajid that theeledlor luirt his own caufe by not giving the biave count Mans-- field the command of his troops inltead of Anfpach. James has been greatly and juflly blamed for his partiality to fivourites. His firit was Robert Carr, a private Scotch gentleman, who was created earl of So- merfet. He married the countefs of Eflex, who had obtained a divorce from her hufoand, and was with her found guilty of poifoning fir Thomas Overbury in the Tower ; but James, contrary, as is laid, to a folemn oath he made, par- doned them both. His next favourite was George Villiers, a private Englifli gentleman, who, upon Somerfet's difgrace, was admitted to an unufual fhare of favour and familiarity with his fovereign. James had at that time formed a fyftem- of policy for attaching himlelf intimately to the court of Spain, that it mioht; affin; him in recovering the Palatinate ; and to this fyflem he had facrificed the brave fir Walter Raleigh, on a charge of having committed hoftilities againft the Spanifii fettlements in the Well Indies. James having loft his eldeft fon Henry' prince of Wales, who had an invincible antipathy to a popifh- match, threw his eyes upon the infanta of Spain, as a proper wife for his fon Charles, who had fuc- ceeded to that principality. Buckingham, who was equally a favourite with the fon as with the father, tell in with the prince's romantic humour, and againft the king's will they travelled in difguife to Spain, where a moft Iblemn farce of courtfiiip was played ; but the prince returned without his bride, and had it not been for the royal partiality in his favour, the earl of Briftol, who was then ambaflador in Spain, would probably have brought the duke of Buckingham to the block. James was all this while perpetually jarring with his parliamicnr, whom he could not perfuade to furnifti money equal to his demands : and at laft he agreed to his' fon's marrying the princefs Henrietta Maria, fifter to Lewis XIII. and daughter to Henry the Great of France. James died before the completion of this match ; and it is thought that had he lived, he would have difcarded Buckingham. His death happened in 1625, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, after a reign over England of twenty-two years. James encouraged and employed that excellent painter fir Peter Paul Rubens, as wdl as Inigo Jones, who reftored the pure tafte of architeflure, and in his reign the poetical genius of England difplayed its greateft luftre, though not much encouraged at court. Mr. Middleton at this time proje6led the convey- ing water into the city from Hertfordfliire by means of pipes which is now called the New River. Charles I. was unfortunate in his marriage with the princefs Elenrietta Maria. He feems at firft to have been but a cold lover ; and he quarrelled with, and fenC back her favourite attendants a few days after her arrival in England. But flie foon acquired a great afcendancy over him ; for Ihe was high-fpirited and artful. She difdained- 302 ENGLAND. difdaine and difliked every thing that was incompatible in government v/ith her Italian and arbitrary education, and was a difagreeable wife, notwithilanding her hulband's condelcenfion and tendernefs. The fpiritof the people had forced the late king into a breach with Spain, and Charles early gave fuch indications of his par- tiality for Buckingham, and his own defpotic temper, that the parliament was re- mifs in furnifhing him with money for carrying on the war. In a fhort tim.e Buck- ingham perfuaded Charles to take tlie part of the French Hugonots. They were fo ill fupported, that Rochelle was reduced to extremity, by which the proteftaivt intereil received an irrecoverable blow in France. The blame of all the public mif- carriages and difgraces was thrown, by the aimed unanim.ous voice of the parlia- ment and people, upon the favourite ; but he Iheltered himfelf from their venge- ance under the royal protection, till he was aifalfinated by one Felton, a fubaltern officer, as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle, which foon after fur- rendered to cardinal Richlieu. The death of the duke of Buckingham, which happened in 1628, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary proceedings, v/hich the Englifh patriots in that enlighten- ed age, juftly confidertd as fo many acts of tyranny. He, without authority of parliament, laid arbitraav impofitions upon trade, which were refufed to be paid by many of the merchants aad members of the houfe of commons. Some of them were imprifoned, and th€ judges were checked for admitting them to bail. The houfe of commons refented thofe proceedings by drawing up a protell, and deny- ing admittance to the gentleman-ufher of the black rod, who came to adjourn them, till it was finifhed. This ferved only to widen the breach, and the king diflblved the parliament t after which he exhibited informations againft nine of die moft eminent m.embers, amiong whom was the great Mr. Selden, who was as much diflinguifhed by his love of liberty, as by his uncommon erudition. They ob- jefted to the jurifdiction of the court, but their plea was over-ruled, and they were lent to prifon during the king's plcafure. Every thing now operated towards the deftrudion of Charles. The commons would vote no iupplies without fome redrefs of the national grievances ; upon which Charles, prefuming on what had been practifed in reigns when the principles of li- berty were imperfedly, or not at all underilood, levied money upon monopolies ot^ fait, foap, and fuch neceffaries, and other obfolete claims, particularly for knight- hood, and raifed various taxes without authority of parliament. His government becoming every day more and more unpopular ; Burton, a divine, Prynne a lawyer, and Baftwick, a phyfician, men of no great eminence or abilities, but warm and re- folute, publifhed feveral pieces which gave offence to the court, and which contain- ed fome fevere ftridures againft the rul'ng clergy. They were profecuted for thefe pieces in the ftar-chamber in a very arbitrary and cruel manner; and puniflied with lb much rigour, as excited an almofl univerfal indignation againft the authors of their fufFerings. Thus was tlie government rendered itill more odious ; and, unfortunate- ly for Charles, he put his confcicnce into the hands of Laud, archhifliop of Canter- bury, who was as great a bigot as himfelf, both in cluirch and itate. Laud advifed him to perfecute the puritans, and in tiie year 1637 to introduce epifcopacy into Scot- land. The Scots upon this formed fecret connections with the dilconrcnted Eng- lifh, and invaded England, in Augull 1640, where Charles was fo ill-ferved by his /)fHcers and his army, that he was forced to agree to an inglorious peace with the Scots; but neither party being fuicere in obferving the terms, and Charles difco- vering that fome of their great men had offered to throw themfelves under the proteftion of the French king, he raifed a frefli army by virtue of his prerogative. All his preparations, however, were bafHed by the Scots, who made themfelves mafters of Ncwcaftle and Durliam ; and being now openly befriended by the houfe of commons, tliey obliged the king to comply with their demands. Charles ENGLAND. 303 Charles did this with fo bad a grace, though he took a jcurney to Scotland for that purpofe, that it did him no fervice j on the contrary, it encouraged tiie com- mons to rife in their demands. He had made Wcntworth, earl of Strafford, a man of great abilities, prcfulcnt of the council of the North, and lord lieutenant of Ire- land ; and he was generally believed to be the firft minifter of ftate. Strafford had been a leading member of the oppofition to the court, but he afterwards, in con- junftion with Laud, exerted himfelf fo vigoroully in carrying the king's defpotic fchemes into execution, that he became an objeft of public deteftation. As lord prefidcnt of the North, as lord-iicutenant of Ireland, and as a miniiler and privy- counlellor in England, he behaved in a very arbitrary manner, and was guilty of many aftions of great injultice and oppreffion. He v/as, in confequence, at length on the 22d of iVIay, 1641, brought to the block, though much againft rhe incli- nations of the king, who was in a manner forced by the parliament and people to fign the warrant for his execution. Archbiflrop Laud was alfo beheaded ; but his- execution did not take place til! a confiderable time after that of Strafford, the loth of January, 1 645. In the fourth year of his reign, Charles had paffed the petition of right into a law,, which was intended by the parliament for the future fecurity of the fubjcdt, Ic enafted, " That no man hereafter be compelled to make or yield any gii't, Joan,, benevolence, tax, or fuch like charge without common confentby aft of parlia- ment ;" but he afterwards violated it in numerous inftances, fo that an almoft uni- verial difcontent at his adminiftration prevailed throughout the nation. A rebellion: alfo broke out in Ireland, on Oftober 23, 1641, where the proteflants, without dif- tinction of age, fex, or condition, to the amount of many thoufands, were maffacred by the papifts ; and great pains were taken to perfuade rhe public that Charles fe- cretly favoured them, out ot hatred to his Englifh fubjefts. The bifhops were ex- pelled the houfe of peers, on account of their conftantly oppofing the defigns and bills of the other houfe ; and the leaders of the Englifli houfe of commons ftill kepc up a correfpondence with the difcontented Scots. Charles went in perfon to the houfe of commons, January 4, 1642, and demanded that lord Kimbolton, Mr, Pym, Mr. Hampden, Mr. HoUis, fir Arthur Hafelrig, and Mr. Stroud, flioukl be apprehended ; but they had previoufly made their efcape. This aft of Charlfs was refenred as high treaibn againft his people, and the commons rejefted all the offers of fatisfaftion he could make them. The city of London took the accufed mem- bers into its proteftion. The train-bands were raifed, and the mobs were fo unruly, that Charles removed from Whitehall to Hampion-court, and from thence into- Yorkfhire, where he raifed an army to face that which the parliament, or rather the houfe of commons, might raife in and about London. Notwithftanding the many afts of tyranny and oppreffion, of which the king and his minifters had been guilty, yet, when the civil war broke out, there were great numbers who repaired to the regal ftandard. Many of the nobility and gentry and the greateft part of the landed intereft were much attached to the crown. T he par- liament, however, took upon themfelves the executive power, and were favoured by mod of the trading towns and corporations ; but their great refource lay in Lon- don. The king's general was the earl of Lindfey, a brave, but not an enterp^ifmcr commander ; but he had great dependence on his nephews, the princes Rupert and Maurice, fons to the eleftor Palatine, by his fifter the princefs Elizabeth. In the beginning of the war, the royal army had the afcendancy, but in the progrefs of ic affairs took, a different turn. The earl of Effex was made general under the par- liament, and the firft battle was fought at Edge-li;ll, in Warwickfhire, the z^d of Oftober, 1642 ; both parties claimed the vidtory, but the parliament was fo much, diftreffed, that they invited the Scots to come to their afiifcancej and they according- ly 304 ENGLAND. ly entered England anew with about 20,000 horfe and foot. Charles attempted to remove the parliament to Oxford, where many members of both houfes met ; but his enemies were Hill fitting at Weftminfter, and continued to carry on the war againll him with great animofity. The independent j^arty, which had fcarcely be- fore been thought of, began now to increafe and to figure at Weftminfter. They were averfe to the prefbyterians, who till then had conducted the war againft the king, nearly as much as to the royalifts ; and fuch v/as their management, under the direction of the famous Oliver Cromwell, that a plan was formed for difmifling the earls of EfTex and Aianchefter, and the heads of the preibyterians, from the parlia- ment's fervice on a fuppofition that they were not tor bringing the war to a fpeedy end, nor for reducing the king too lov/ ; and for promoting Fairfax, who was an excellent officer, but more manageable, though a prclbyterian, and fome independent officers. ]n t'le mean while, the v/ar went on with refentment and lofs on both fides. Two battles were fought at Newbury, one on September 20, 1643, and the other Octo- ber 27, 1644, in which the advantage inclined to the king. He had likewife many other fucceffes ; and having defeated fir William Waller, he purfued the earl of EiTex, who remained ftill in command, into Cornwall, from whence he was obliged toefcape by fea ; but his infantry furrendered prifoners to the royalifts, though his cavalry delivered themfelves by their valour. The firft fatal blow the king's army received, was at Marfton-moor, July 2d, '1644, where, through the imprudence of prince Rupert, the earl of Manchefter de- feated the royal army, of which 4000 were killed, and 1500 taken prifoners. This viftory was owing chiefly to the courage and conduft of Cromwell ; and though it might have been balianced by the fucceftes of Charles in the Weft, yet his whole condu(5t was a firing of miftakes, till at laft his affairs became irretrievable. It is true, many treaties of peace, particulai ly one at Uxbridge, were {tt on foot, and the heads of the prclbyterian party would have agreed to terms that would have little bounded the king's prerogative. They were outwitted, and over-ruled by the in- dependents, who were afiifted by the ftiffnefs, infinccrity, and unamiable behaviour of Charles himfelf. In ftiort, the independents at laft iucceeded, in perfuading the members at Weftminfter, that Charles was not to be trufted, whatever his concef- fions might be. From that moment the affairs of the royalifts became defperate. Sir Thomas Fairfax, whofe father, lord Fairfax, remained in the North, was at the head of the army, v/hich was now new-modelled ; fo that Charles fucceffively loft all his tov;ns and forts, and was defeated by Fairfax and Cromwell, at the decifive battle of Nafeby, June 14, 1645, owing partly, as ufual, to tiie mifconduft of prince Rupert. This battle was followed by frefti misfortunes to Charles, who retired to Oxford, the only place where he thought himfelf fafe. The Scots were then befieging Newark ; and no good undcrftanding fubfifted be- tween them and the Englifh parliamentarians. In this fituation of his affairs, Charles efcaped in difguife from Oxford and came to the Scotch army before Newark, on May 6, 1646, upon a promife of profeftion. The Scots, however, were fo intimi- dated, by the refolutions of the parliament at Weftminfter, that in confidcration of receiving 40c,oool. of their arrears, they put the perfon of Charles into the hands of the parliament's commiffioners, not iufpcding the confeejuences. The preft>yterians were more inclined than ever to make peace with the king, but they were nd'longer mafters, being forced to receive laws fiom the arm}', and the independents. The army now avowed their intentions. They firft by force took Charles out of the hands of the commiffioners, June 4, 1647, and then dreading that a treaty might ftill take place with the king, they ijnprifoncd 41 of the pref- byterian members, voted the houfe of peers to be ufelefs, and that of ihe commons was reduced to 150, moft of thenp officers of the army. In the mean while Charles, who unhappily promilcd himfelf relief from thofo diflenfions, was carried from prifon ENGLAND, 30/; prifon to piifon, and fometimes cajoled by the independents with hopes of deli- verance, but always narrowly watched. Several treaties were fet on foot, but all milcarried ; and he had been imi)rudent enough, afier his effecting an efcape, to put hiinfclf into colonel Hainmoiid's hands, the parliament's governor of the lile of Wight.' A frefh negociation was begun, and almoft finifhed, when the independents, dreuding the general difpofuion of the people for peace, and ilrongly perfuaded of the inlinccrity of the king, once more feized upon hisper- fon, brought him a prifoner to London, carried him before a court of juftice of their own erefting, and, atter an extraordinary trial, his head was cutoff, before his own palace at Whitehall, on the 30ch of January, 1648-9, being the 49Lh year of his age, and 24th of his reign. Charles is allowed to have had many virtues, and fome have fuppofed that af- -fliftion had taught him fo much wifdom and moderation, that had he been reilored to his throne he would have become an excellent prince j but there is abundant reafon to conclude, from his private letters, that he retained his arbitrary prin- ciples to the lad, and that he would again have regulated his conduft by tiiem, if he had been reinltated in power. It is however certain tiiat, notwithftanding the tyrannical nature of his government, his death was e;.cecdingly lamented by great numbers ; and many, in the courfe of the civil war who had been his great o])ponents in parliament, became converts to his caufe, in which they loft their lives and fortunes. We cannot reflcd upon the great lofs of lives, 10 the amount of at leaft 100,000 fighting men, during the fix years of the civil war, without admiring the populouf- nefs of England at that period. Though the hiftory has been minutely related, by writers of all parties, who had the beft opportunities to know the truth, yet we do not find that the lofs of men had any influence upon agriculture or commerce, or the exercifeof the common arts of life, and provifions rather funk than rofe in their value. The furviving children of Charles, were Charles and James, who were fuccef- fively kings of England; Henry, dukeof Gloucetter, who died foon after his brother's reftoration ; the princefs Mary, married to the prince of Orange, and mother to Wil- liam prince of Orange, who was afterv^ards king of England; and the princefs Henrietta Maria, who was married to the duke of Orleans, 'and whofe daughter was married to Viiftor Amadeus duke of Savoy and king of Sardinia. They who brought Charles to the block were men of diflerent perfuafions and principles, but many of them polTefled great abilities for government. They omitted no meafure that could give a perpetual exclufion to kingly power in England ; and it cannot be denied, that, after they erecftcd themfelves into a commonwealth, they did prodigious things for retrieving the glory of England by fea. They were join- ed by many of the prelbyterians, and both parties hated Cromwell and Ireton, though they were forced to employ them in the reduftion of Ireland, and afterwards againlt the Scots, who had received Charles II. as their king. By cutting down thctiniber upon the royal domains, they produced a fleet fuperior to any that had ever been feen in Europe. Their general, Cromwell, invaded Scotland, and though he was there reduced to great difRculties, he totally [defeated the Scots at the battles of Dunbar and Worcefter. The lame commonwealth pafied an aft of navigation ; and declaring war againll the Dutch, who were thought till then invincible at fea, they effeiftually humbled thofe republicans. By this time Ciomwell, who hated fubordination to a parliament, had the ad- drefs to get himlelt declared commander in chief of the Englilh armv. Admiral Blake, and the other Englifa admirals, carried the terror of the Englifli name by fea to all quarters ot the globe ; and Cromwell having now but little employment, began to be afraid that his fervices would be forgotten, for which reafon he went, April 20, 1653, without any ceremony, with about 300 mufquereers, anddillblved R r the 3o6 ENGLAND. the parliament, opprobrloufly driving the members from the houfc. He next an- rihilated the council of ftate, with whom the executive power was lodged, and tranf- ferred the adminiftration of government to about 140 perfons whom he fummoned to Whitehall, on the 4th of July, 1653. The war with Holland, in which the Englifli were again vidtorious, fiill con- tinued. Seven bloody engagements by fea were fought in little more than the compafs of one year ; and in the lart, which was decifive in favour of England, the Dutch lofl their brave admiral Van Tromp. Cromwell all this while wanted to be declared king, but he perceived that he muft encounter unfurmountable dif- ficulties from Fleetwood, and his other friends, if he fhould perfift in that refo- lution. He was, however, declared lord proteSlor o{ the commonwealth of Eng- land ; a title under which he exercifed greater power than had ever been annex- ed to the regal dignity. He next proceeded to new-model the government, and various were the fchemes that were propofed, eftablifhed, and proved abortive. A dcfire to fill his coficrs made him take part with France againft Spain. He lent the former 6000 men, who took Dunkirk, of which he kept pofllllion. Find- ing that his ufurpation gave as much difcontent to his own party, as terror to the royalifts, he had thoughts of renewing the model of the confbitution, and aftually credted a houfe of lords out of his own creatures. No king ever adled, either in En-o-larid or Scotland, more defpotically in fome refpedls than he did, yet no tyrant ever had fewer real friends, and even thofe few threatened to oppofe him, if he fhould take upon him the title of king. Hifliorians, in drawing the charader of Cromwell, have been impofed upon by his amazing fuccefs, and dazzled by the luftre of his fortune ; but when we confult his fccretary Thurloe's, and other ilate papers, the impofition in a great meafure vanifl:ies. After a mod: uncomfortable ufurpation of four years, eight months, and thirteen days, he died on the 3d of September, 1658, in the 60th year of his age. It is ivot to be denied that England acquired much moi*e refped: from foreign powers, between the death of Charles I. and that of Cromwell, than flie had been treated with fince the death of Elizabeth. This was owing to the great men who formed the republic, which Cromwell aboliflicd, and who, as it were, inftantaneouf- ly called forth the naval ftrength of the kingdom. Neither they nor Cromwell had formed any plan of legiflation, and his fafety was owing to the different fenti- ments of government, that prevailed among the heads of the republic. In the year 1656, the charge of the ]7ublic amounted to one million three hundred thou- fand pounds ; of which a million went to the fupport of the navy and army, and the remainder to that of the civil government. In the fame year, Cromwell abo- lifhed all tenures in capile, by knight's fervice, and foccage in chief, and likewife the couits of wards and liveries. Several other grievances, that had been complain- of, during the late reigns, were likewife removed.. Next year the total charge, or public expence of England, amounted to two millions three hundred twenty-fix thoufand nine hundred and eighty-nine pounds. The coUeifions by alfeirmcnts, excife, -and cuftoms, paid into the Exchequer,, amounted to two millions three hundred and fixty-two thoufand pounds, four (hillings. Upon the whole it appears, that England, from the year 1648, to the year 1658,. jncrcafcd greatly in riches and in power. The legal intercft of money was re- cluced from 8 to 6 percent. The famous navigation adl was now planned and efta- blifhed, and afterwards confirmed under Charles II. Monopolies of all kinds were aboliftied, and liberty of confcience to all feds were gr.mted,.to the vaft advantage of population and manufadures, which had fuffcred greatly by Laud's intolerant nieafures. To the above national meliorations, we may add the modefty and fru- gality introduced among the commoji j^Kople, and the citizens in particular, by v/hiciij ENGLAND. 307 wbich they were enabled to augment their capitals. It appears, however, that Cromwell, had he lived, and been firmly fettled in the government, would have broken through the fober maxims of the republieans ; for, fome time before his death, he affeftcd great magnifieence in his perfon, court, and attendants. He maintained the honour of the nation much, and in manv inftances interpofed effec- tually ifi favour of the rrotcllants abroad. Arts and fciences were not much patro- nized, And yet he had the good fortune to find in Cooper an excellent miniature painter, and his coins done by Simon exceed in beauty and workmanlliip any of that age. He certainly did many things worthy of praife, and as his gc-nius and capacity led him to the choice of fit pcrfons for the feveral parts of adminiilration ; fo be paid fome regard to men of learning, and particularly to thofe entrufted with the care of youth at the univerfities. Richard Cromwell, a weak unambitious man, fucceedcd his father in the pro- teftorfliii). He was placed in his dignity By thofe who wanted to make him the tool of their own government ; and he was foon after driven, without the leaft ftruggle or oppofition, into obfcurity. It is in vain for hillorians of any party to afcribe the Reltoration of Charles II. (who, with his mother and brothers, during the ufurpation, had lived abroad on a very precarious fubfiftcnce) to the merits of any particular perfons. The prefbytcrians were very zealous in promoting it, but it was effedled by a general concurrence of the people, who feem to have thought that neither peace nor protetftion were to be obtained, but by refloring the ancient conftitution of monarchy. General Monk, a man of military abilities, but devoid of probity, had the fagacity to obferve this ; and after temporizing in various fhapes, being at the head of the army, he had the principal fhare in refloring Charles II. for this he was created duke of Albemarle, confirmed in the command of the army, and loaded with honours and riches. Charles II, being reftorcd in 1660, in the firft year of his reign feemed to have a real defire to promote his people's happinefs. Upon his confirming the abolition of all the feudal tenures, he received from the parliament a gift of the excife for life ; and in this aft coffee and tea are firfl nientioned. By his long refidence, and that of his friends abroad, he imported into England the culture of many ufeful vegetables ; fuch as that of afparagus, artichokes, cauliflowers, and feveral kinds of beans, peas, and fallads. Under him, Jamaica, which had been conquer- ed by the Englifh under the aufpices of Cromwell, was greatly improved, and made a fugar colony. The Royal Society was inftituted, and many popular ad:s refpedting trade and colonization were pafi!ed. In fhort, Charles knew and culti- vated the true interefts of his kingdom, till he was warped by pleafure, and funk in indolence ; failings that had the fame confequences as defpotifm itlelf. He appear- ed to interefl: himfelf inthe fufferings of his fubjedfs when London was burnt down in 1666 ; and its being rebuilt with greater luftre and conveniences is a proof of the increafe of trade ; but there was no bounds to Charles's love of pleafure, which led him into the moft extravagant expences. He has been feverely cen- fured for felling Dunkirk to the French king to fupply his neceffities, after he had fquandered the immenfe fums granted him by parliament. The price was about 250,0001. flerJing. But even in this his condud: was more defenfible than in his lecret connexions with France, which were of the moft. fcandalous nature, utter- ly repugnant to the welfare of the kingdom, and fuch as mull for ever reiled: in- faai)' on his memory. Among the evidences of his degeneracy as a king may be mentioned his o-Ivino- way to the popular clamour againlt the lord Clarendon, as the chief advifcr of the falc of Dunkirk; .\ man of cxtenfivc knowledge and great abilities, and more ho- Rra neft 3o8 ENGLAND. neft in his intentions than mofl of his other minifters, but whom he facrificed to the fycophants of his pleafurable hours. The firft Dutch war, which began in 1665, was carried on with great refolution and fpirit under the duke of York ; but through Charles's mifapplication of the public money, which had been granted for the war, the Dutch, while a treaty of peace was depending at Breda, found means to infult the royal navy of England, by failing up the Medway as far as Chatham, and deftroyed fevcral fhips of the line. Soon after this, a peace was concluded at Breda between Great Biitain and the States General, for the prefervation of the Spanifh Netherlands ; and Sweden having acceded to the treaty, in 1668, it was called the triple alliance. In 1671, Charles was fo ill advifed as to feize upon the money of the bankers, •which had been lent him at 8 per cent, and to fhut up the Exchequer. This was an indefenfible ftep ; but Charles pretended to juftify it by the neceffity of his af- fairs, being then on the eve of a frefli v/ar with Holland. This was declared in J 6 72, and had almoft proved fatal to that republic, for the Englifh fleet and army adired in conjunftion with thofe of France. The duke of York commanded the Englifh fleet, and difplayed great gallantry in that fiation. The duke of Mon- mouth, the eldeft and favourite natural fon of Charles, commanded 6000 Englifli forces, who joined the French in the Low Countries ; and all Holland muft have fallen into the hands of the French, had it not been for the vanity of their mo- narch Lewis XIV. who was in a hurry to enjoy his triumph in his capital, and fome very unforefeen circumftances. All confidence was now loft between Charles and his parliament, notwithflanding the glory which the Englifh fleet obtained by fea againft the Dutch. The popular clamour at laft obliged Charles to give peace to that republic, in confideration of 200,oool. which was paid him. In fome things Charles adted very defpotically. He complained of the freedom taken with his prerogative in cofFee-houfes, and ordered them to be fhut up, but in a few days after they were opened again. Great rigour and feverity were exer- cifed againft the-preflayterians, and all other nonconformifts to epifcopacv, which was again eftablifhed with a high hand in Scotland as well as England. His par- liament addrefled him, but in vain, to make war with France in the year 1677, for he was entirely devoted to that Crown, and regularly received its money as a penfioner, and hoped through its influence and power to be abfolute. It is not, how- ever, to be denied, that the trade of England was now incredibly increafed, and Charles entered into many vigorous meafures for its proteftion and fupport. Charles's connexions in France gave him no merit in the eyes of his parliament, which grew every day more and more exafperated againft the French and the Pa- pifts ; at the head of whom was the king's eldeft brother, and prefumptive heir of the crown, the duke of York. Charles dreaded the profpcdl of a civil war, and offered any conccflions to avoid it. But many of the members of parliament were bent upon fuch a refolution as afterwards took place, and were fecretly determined that the duke of York fliould never reign. In 167S, the famous Titus Oates, and fome others, opened a plot, charging the papifts with a dcfign to murder the king, and to introduce popery by means of Jcfuits in England, and from St. Omer's.. Thoup-h nothing could be more ridiculous, and more fclf-contradid:ory, than fome parts of their narrative, yet it was fupported with the utn:iort zeal on the part of the parliament. The aged lord Strafford, Coleman, fccretary to the duke of York, with many Jcfuits, and other papifts, were publicly executed on evidences, fiip- pofcd now to have been perjured by thofe who will have the whole plot to be a fidion. The queen herfelf cfcaped with difficulty ; the duke of York was obliged to retire into foreign parts, and Charles, though convinced, it is faid, that the whole z ENGLAND. 309 whole was an impoflure, yielded to the torrent. At laft it fpent its force. The earl of Shaftcfbury, who was at the head of the oppofition, puflied on the total cx- clufion of the duke of York from the throne. He was fcconded by the ill-ad- vifcd duke of Monmouth, and the bill, after palling the commons, mifcarricd in the houfe of peers. All England was again 'in a ilame ; but the king by a well-timed adjournment of the parliament to Oxford, feemed to recover the af- feftions of his people. The duke of York and his party made a fcandalous ufe of their vi which the Englfli took in the affairs of the continent. The infticuticn of the finking fund for diminifhing the national debt, is likewife owing to this period. The value of the northern parts of the kingdom began now to be better under- ftood than formerly, and the ftate of manufaiftures began to fliift. This v/as chief- ly owing to the unequal diflribution of the land-tax, which rendered it di/Ticu'i; for the poor to lubfift in certain counties, which had been forward in givin<.'- in- the true value of their eflates when that tax took place. Sir Robert Walpole was confidered as firft minifter of England when GcorrrQ I, died, and fome differences having happened between him and the prince of Wales it was generally thought, upon the acceffion of the latter to the crown,^ that fir Robert would i>e difplaced. That might have been the cife, could another per- foa 3iS ENGLAND. fon have been found equally capable, as he was to manage the houfe.of commons, and to gratify that predileftion tor Hanover which George II. inherited from his father. No minifter ever under Aood .better the temper of the people of England, and none, perhaps, ever tried it more. 'He filled all places of power, truft, and profit, and almoit the houle of commons itfelf, with his own creatures ; but peace was his darling objed, becaufe he thought that war mufl be fatal to his power. During his loiig adminiltration he never loll a queftion that he was in earneft to carry. The excife fcheme was the firft meafure that gave a Ihock to his power, and even that he could have carried, had he not been afraid of the fpirit of the people without doors, which might Irave either produced an iniurredfion, or endangered his intereft at the next general election. Having compromifed all differences with Spain, he filled all the courts of Europe with cmbaffies and negociations, and the new parliament gratified him with the means of pertorming his engagements He continued and enlarged the fubfidies paid to the German princes tor the fecurity of Hanover, and had even the addrefs to obtain, from time to time, votes of credit for fulfilling his immediate engagements ; and in the mean while, to amufe the public, he permitted enquiries into the llate of the jails, and other matters that did not af- fedt his own power. His pacific fyftem brought him into inconveniences both at home and abroad. It encouraged the Spaniards to continue their depredations upon the Britifh Ihip- ping in the American feas, and the French to treat the Englilli court with info- lence and ncgletV. At home, niany of the great peers thought themfelves flights ed, and they interefted themfelves more than ever they had done in elections. This, together with the difguft of the people at the propofed excife fcheme, and paffing the Gin /l£f, in the year 1736, increafed the minority in the houfe of com- mons to 13O5 fome of whom were as able men and as good fpeakers as ever had fat in parliament, and taking advantage of the increafing complaints againft the Spa- niards, they attacked the minifter vvith great ftrength of argument, and with great eloquence.' In jullice to Walpole, it Ihould be obferved, that he filled the courts of juftice with able and upright judges, nor was he ever known to attempt any per- verfion of the known laws of the kingdom. He was fo far from checking the free- dom of debate, that he bore with equanimity the moft fcurrilous abule that was thrown out to his face. He gave way to one or two profccutions for libels, in com- pliance to his friends, who thought themfelves affeited by them ; but it is certain, that the prefs of England never was more open or free. than during his adminillra- tion. And as to his pacific fyftem, it undoubtedly more than repaid to the nation all that was required to fupport it, by the increafe of her trade and the improve- ment of her manufaftures. With regard to the king's own perfonal concern in public matters, Walpole was rather his minifter than his -favourite ; and his majefty oltcn hinted to him, as Walpole himfelf has been heard to acknowledge, that he was refponfible for all meafures of government. The debates concerning the Spaniih depredations in the Weft Indies, and the proofs that were brought to fupport the complaints of the merchants, made at laft an impreflion even upon many ot Walpole's friends. The heads of the oppofition, in both houfcs of parliament, accviled the minifter of hav- ing, by the treaty of Seville, and other negociations, introduced a branch of the houfe of Bourbon into Italy, and deprcfled the houfe of Auftria, the ancient and natural ally of iMigland. They cxpofed, with invincible force of eloquence and feafoning, the injufticeand difgrace, as well as lofs arifing trom the Spaniih depre- datidns, and the ncceflity of repelling force by force. Sir Robert Hill aiihered to his. pacific fyftem, and conckuled a fliamcful and indefenfiblc compromife under the title of a convention, with the court of Spain, which produced a war with ' llrat nation. I Queen ENGLAND. 3,^ Qiieen Caroline, confort to George II. had been always a firm friend to the mi- nifter ; but: flie died November 20th, i737j when a variance fubfiftcd between the king and his fon, the prince of Wales. The latter complained, that throuo-h Walpole's influence, he was deprived not only of the power but the provifion to which his birth entitled him ; and he put himfelf at the head of the oppofuion with- fo much firmnefs, that it was generally forefeen that Walpole's power was draw- ing to a clofe. Admiral Vernon, who hated the minifler, was lent, in 1739, ^^^^^ * fquadron of fix fliips to the Weft-Indies, where he took and dcmolifhed Porto- Bello ; but being a hot, impracticable man, he mifcarricd in his other attempts, efpecially that upon Carthagena, in which fome thoufands of Britifli lives were Tvantunly thrown away. The oppofition exulted in Vernon's fuccefs, and after- wards imputed his mifcarriages to the miniver's ftarving the war, by with-hold- ing the means for carrying it on. The general election approaching, fo prevalent was the intereft of the prince of Wales in England, and that of the duke of Argyle in Scotland, that a majority was returned to parliament who were no ~ friends to the miniller, and after a few trying diviiions, he retired from the houfe, on the 9th of February 174Z was created earl of Orford, and the nth refigned all his employments.- George II. bore the lofs of his minifter with the greateft equanimity, and evert' conferred titles of honour, and polls of diftindlion, upon the heads of the oppo- fition. By this time, the death of the emperor Charles VI, the danger of the prag- matic fanftion (which meant the lucceffion of his daughter to all the Aufirian domi- nions) through the ambition of France, and many other concurrent caufes, in-- duced George to take the leading part in a continental war. He was encouraged to this by lord Carteret, afterwards earl of Granville, an able, but a headftrong miniller, whom George had made his fecrefary of ftate, and indeed by the voice of the' nation in general. George accordingly put himfelf at the head of his army,, fought and gained the battle of Dettingen, June 16, 1743, and his not fuflering, his general the earl of Stair^ to improve the blow, was thought to proceed from tendernefs for his eleftoral dominions. This partiality created an univerfal flame in England; and a clamour raifed againft his lordfliip's meafures was increafed by the duke of Newcaflle and his brother, lord chancellor Hardwicke, the lord Harring- ton, and other minifters, who refigned, oroffered to refign their places, if lord Carteret ihould retain his influence in the cabinent. His majelly was obliged to give way to what he thought the voice of his people, and he indulged them with aeceptinf the fervices of fome gentlemen who never had been confidered as zealous' friends to the houfe of Hanover. After various removals, Mr. Pelham was placed at the head of the treafury, and appointed chancellor of the exchequer, and confequently was con- fidered as firll: minifter ; or rather the power of the premierlliip was divided be- tween him and his brother the «.!uke of Newcaftle.- Great Britain was then engaged in a very expenfive war both againft the French: and Spaniards, and her enemies fought to avail themfelves of the general difcon-- tent that prevailed in England on account of the king's prediledfion for Hanover.- This naturally fuggcftcd to them the idea of applying to the Preten.ler, who refided at Rome ; and he agreed that his fon Charles, who was a fprightly young man, ihould repair to France, from whence he let fail, and narrowly efcaped, with 3 few followers, in a frigate to the weftern coafts of Scotland, between the iflandsof Mull and Sky, where he difcovered himfelf, affembled his followers, andpublilhed a manifefto exciting the natton to rebellion. It is neceflliry, before we relate the true caufe of this enterprize, to make a lliort retrofj)e<5t to foreign parts. The war of 17 41 proved unfortunate in the V/eft Indies, through the fatal di^ vifions between admiral Vernon and general Wentworch^ who commanded the land tioops 3,. 320 ENGLAND. troops ; and it was thought that above 20,000 Brltifh foldiers and feamen perllli- ed in the unpradllcable attempt on Carthagena, and the inclemency of the air and climate during other idle expeditions. The year 1742, had been fpent in negoci- ations with the courts of Peter/burgh and Berlin, which, though expenfive, proved of little or no fervice to Great Britain ; fo that the vidtorv of Dettingen left the f tench troops in much the fame fituation as before. A difference between the ad- iiiirals Matthews and Leftock had fuffered the Spanifh and French fleets Co efcape out of Toulon with but little lofs ; and foon after, the French, who had before •aif'ed only as allies to the Spaniards, declared war againft Great Britain, who, in hev turn, declared war againft the French. The Dutch, the natural allies of Eng- land, during this war caried on a moft lucrative trade ; nor could they be brought to a(3: againft the French, till the people entered into aflbciations and infurredions againft the government. Their marine was in a miferable condition, and when they at lafl' lent a body of troops to join the Britifli and Aultrian armies, which had been wretchedly commanded for one or two campaigns, they did it with fo bad a grace, that it was plain they intended not to adt in earneft. Wheh the duke of Cumberland took upon himfelf the command of the army, the French, to the great reproach of the allies, were almoft maftcrs of the barrier in the Ne- therlands, and were befieging Tournay. The duke attempted to raife the fiege, but by the coldnefs-of the Auftrians, and the cowardice of the Dutch, whofe go- vernment all along held a fecret correfpondence with France, he loft the battle of Fontenoy, and 7000 of his beft men ; though it is generally allowed that his dif- pofitions were excellent, and both he and his troops behaved with unexampled intrepidity. To counterbalance fuch a train of misfortunes, admiral Anfon return- ed this year to England, with an immefe treafure (about a million fterling) which he had taken from the Spaniards in his voyage round the world ; and commodore Warren, with colonel Pepperel took from the French the important town and fortrefs of Louifbourg, in the iftand of Cape Breton. Such was the ftate of affairs abroad in Auguft 1745, when the Pretender's eldeft fon, at the head of fome Highland followers, furprifed and difarmed a party of the king's troops in the weftern Highlands, and advanced with great rapidity to Perth. The government never fo thoroughly experienced, as it did at that time, the benefit of the public debt for the fupport of the Revohition. The French and the Jacobite party, (for fuch there was at that time in England) had laid a fcheme for dillreffuig the Bank ; but common danger abolifhed all diftinftions, and united them in the defence of one intereft, which was private property. The merchants undertook, in their addrefs to the king, to fuppojt it, by receiving bank-notes in payment. This feafonable ineaAn-e faved the public credit ; but the defeat of the rebels by the duke of Cumberland at Culloden, in the year 1746, did not reftore tranquillity to Europe. Though the prince of Orange, fon-in-lavs to his majefty George II. was, by the credit ,of his majefty, and the fpirit of the people of the United Provinces, raifcd to be their ftadtholdcr, the Dutch never could be brought to adf heartily in the war. Tlie allies were defeated at Val, near Macftricht, and the duke of Cum- berland was in d.'nger of being made prifoner. Bergen-op-zoom was taken in a man- ner that has never, yet been explained. The allies fuffered other difgraces on the continent ; and it now became the general opinion in England, that peace was ne- ceffary to fave the duke and his army from total deftruftion. By this time, how- ever, the French marine and commerce were in danger of being annihilated by the Englifli fleet, under the command of the admirals Anfon, Warren, Flawke, and other gallant officers ; but the Englifh arms were not fo fuccefsful as could have been wiflied, under rear-admiral Bofcawen in the Eaft Indies. In this ftate ot affairs, \hc fucccffes of the French and Englifli, during the war, may be faid to have been balanced, ENGLAND. 321 balanced, and both miniftries turned their thoughts to peace. The queftion is not yet decided which party had greateft rcafon to defire it, the French and Spaniards for the imincnfe lollcs they had fuftaincd by fea, or the allies for the difgraces they had fufTcred by land. The preliminaries for peace were figned in April 174S, a definitive treaty was con- cluded at Aix-la-Chapellc in Oftober, the bafis of which was the reltitution on both fides of all places taken during the war. The number of prizes taken by the Englifli in this war, from its commencement to the figning the preliminaries was 3434 ; .namely, 1249 from the Spaniards, and 2185 from the French : they lofl during the fame time, 3238 ; 1360 being taken by the Spaniards, and 1878 by tlie French. Several of the Ihips taken from the Spaniards v;ere immcnfely rich ; fo that the balance, upon the whole, amounted to alinoft two millions in favour of England. Such is the grofs calculation on both fides ; but tlie confequences plainly proved that the loffes of the French and Spaniards mult have been much greater. The vaft fortunes made by private perfons in England all of a fuddcn, fufRciently fliewed that immenfc fums had not been brought to the public account ; but the greateft proof was, the next year the intereft of the national debt was reduced from four to three and a half per cent, for feven years, after which the whole was to ftand reduced to three per cent. This was the boldeft ftroke of financing ever attempted perhaps in any country, confidently with public faith ; for the creditors of the government, after an inef- fedual oppofition, continued their money in the funds, and a few who fold out even made intereil to have it replaced on the fame fecurity, or were paid off their prin- cipal fums out of the finking fund. This was an a;ra of improvements : Mr. Fel- ham's candour and re6litude of adminiftration leaving him few or no enemies in par- liament, he omitted no opportunity of carrying into execution every fcheme for the improvement of commerce, manufaftures, and the fiflieries ; the benefits of which were felt during the fucceeding v/ar, and are to this day. Every intelligent perfon, however, confidered the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle as no better than an armed ceifa- tion of hollilities. The French employed themfelves in recruiting and repairing their marine, and had formed the defign of feizing the Britifli back fettlements in Ame- rica, and for cutting off all communication betvv'een the Englifii and the native In- dians ; in which cafe our colonies muft have been reduced to a narrow fiip on tlie coafts, without the means of getting fufiftence but from the mother country. For- tunately for Great Britain, they difclofed their intention, by entering upon holli- lities before they had power to fupport them. in the mean while, a new treaty of commerce v/as figned at Madrid, between Great ■ Britain and Spain, by which, in confideration of ioo,oool. the South-Sea company gave up all their future claims to the afiiento contraft, by virtue of which, that com- pany had fupplied the Spanifn Welt-Indies with negroes. In March, 1750, died univerfally lamented, his royal highnefs Frederic prince of Wales. In May, 1751, an aft paffed for regulating the commencement of the year, by which the old ftyle was abolifiied, and the new fiyle efl:ablifhed. This was done by finking eleven days in September 1752, and from that time beginning the year on the firfi of January. In 1753 the famous adt pafied for preventing'clandeftine marriages ; but whether it is for the benefit of the fubjeft, is a point that isflillvery queftionable. The people of England about this time fufiained an irreparable lofs by the death of Mr. Pelham, who was one of the honefteft, vvifeft, and beft minifiers England had ever fcen. The barefaced encroachments of the French, who had built forts on our back fettlements in America, and the difpofitions they made for fending over vaft bodies of veteran troops to fupport thofe encroachmejits, produced a wonderful fpirit in Englandj cfpecially after admiral Bofcawen was ordered with eleven fiiips of the Tt line 322 ENGLAND. line to fait to the banks of Newfoundland, where he took two French men of v/ar, the reft of their fleet efcaping up the river St. Lawrence, by the ftraights of Bclleifle. No fooner was it known that hoililities were begun, than the people of England poured their money into the government's loan, and orders were iffued for making general repnfals in Europe as v/ell as in America ; and that all the French fhips, whether outward or homeward bound, Ihould be flopped and brought into Bricifh ports. Thefe orders were fo effeiflual, that before the end of the year i 75;, above 500 of the richeft French merchant fhips, and above 8,000 of their bett failors %vere brought into the kingdom. This vigorous meafure was followed by farther uiccefs, for about two years after, near 30,000 French feamen were found to be prifoners in England. In July, 1755, general Br.-jddock, wlio had been fent from England to attack the French, and reduce the forts on the Ohio, was defeated and killed, by falling into an ambufcade of the French and Indians near Fort du Quefne ; but major-general Jolmfon defeated a body of French near Crown Point, of whom he killed about looo. The Englifh navy in 1755 confifted of one fhip of no guns, five of 100 guns each, thirteen of 90, eight of 80, five of 74, tv/enty-nine of 70, four of 66, one of 64, thirty-three of 60, three of 54, twenty-eight of 50, four of 44, thirty-five of 40, ' and forty-two of 20 ; four Hoops of war of 18 guns each, two of 16, eleven of 14, thirteen of 12, and one of 10 ; befides a great number of bomb-ketches, fire-fhips, and tenders ; a force fufficient to oppofe the maritime ftrength of all the powers of Europe. Whilft that of the French, even at the end of this year, and including the Ihips then upon the flocks, am.ounted to no more than fix fliips of 80 guns, twenty- one of 7^, one of 72, four of 70, thirty-one of 64, two of 60, fix of 50, and thirty-two frigates. In proportion as the fpirits of the public were elevated by thofe invincible arma- ments, they were funk with an account that the French had landed 11,000 men in Minorca, to attack Fort St. Philip there ; that admiral Byng, who had been fent out with a fquadron at leaft equal to that of the French, had been baffled, if not de- feated, by their admiral Galifiionere, and that at laft Minorca was furrendered by general Blakeney. The Englifli were far more alarmed than they ought to have been at thofe events. The lots of Minorca was more fliameful than detrimental to the kingdom, but the public outcry was fuch, that the king gave up Byng to pub- lic juftice, and he was fhot to death at Portfmouth for not doing all that was in his power againft the enemy. It was about this time that Mr. Pitt was placed, as fecretary of ftate, at the head of the adminiflration. He had been long known as a bold, eloquent, and ener- getic fpcaker, and he foon proved himfelf to be a fpirited minifler. The mif- carriages in the Mediterranean had no confcquence but the lofs of tart St. Philip, which was more than repaired by the vaft luccels of the Englifli privateers, both in Europe and America. The fuccefics of the Englifli in the Eafl Indies, under colonel Clive were extraordinary. He defeated Suraja Dowla, nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa, and placed Jafiier Ally Cavvn in the ancient feat of the nabobs «f thofe provinces. Suraja Dowla, who was in the French interefl, a few days after his being defeated, was taken by the new nabob Jaflier Ally Cawn's Ton, and put to death. This event laid the foundation ot the great extent of riches and territory which the Englifh now poflefs in the Eafl Indies. Vir. Pitt introduced into the cabinet a new fyflem of operations agninfl France, than which nothing could be better calculated to reflore the fpirits of his country- men, and to alarm their enemies. Far from dreading an invafion, he planned aa expedition for carrying the arms of England into Fiance itfelf ; and the defcent was to ENGLAND. 323 to be made at Roclicfort, under general fir John Mordaunt, who was to command the land troops. Nothing could be more promifing than the difpofitions for this expedition. It lailed on the 8th of September, 1757 ; but admiral Hawke brout>ht back the fea and land forces on the 6th of 0as accountable for his condutt, he would no longer remain in a fituation which made him refponfible for meafures that he was not allowed to guide." He, therefore, refigned the feals, and lord Temple alfo gave up the poll which he held in the adminiftration. But the next day, the king fettled a penfion of three thou-, fand pounds a year upon Mr. Pitt, and at the fame time a title was conferred upon his lady and her ilTue ; and the penfion was to be continued for three lives. Thefe advantages and honours had unqueftionably been well deferved by his public fer- vices ; but his cceptance of them greatly leiTened his popularity. A very confi- derable degree of difcontent notwithltanding prevailed in the nation, on account of his removal from power : and it was extremely natural, that the people fhould be- hold, with the utmoft regret, the downfal of a minifter, of whofe abilities and in- tegrity they had the higheft opinion, and in the midft of a war, which he had con- dueled with fo much honour to himfelf and to his cjuntry. The war flill continued to be carried on with vigour after the refignation of Mr. Pitt, and the plans were purfued that he had pievioufly concerted. Lord Egreiriont 'was appointed to fucceed him, as fecretary for the fouthern department. It was at length alfo found indifpenfably neceffary to engage in a war with Spain, the famous family compact among all the different branches of the Bourbon family being now gencilly known ; and accordingly war was declared againlt that kingxiom, on the 4th of January 1762. A refpedable armament was fitted out under admiral Po- cocke, having the earl of Albemarle on board to command the land forces; and the vitals of the Spanifh monarchy were ftruck at, by the reduftion of the Havannah, the (Irongefi: and moft important fort which his catholic majeily held in the Weft Indies, after a fiege of two months and eight days. The capture of the Her- mione, a large Spanifli regiller fhip, bound from Lima to Cadiz, the cargo of which was valued at a million fterling, preceded the birth of the prinrc of "Wales, and the treafure paffed in triumph through Wertminlfer to tlie Bank, the very hour he was born. The lofs of the Havannah, with the fliips and treafures there taken from the Spaniards, was fucceeded by the reduftion of Manilla and the Philippine iflands in the Eall Indies, under general Draper and admiral Cornifh, with the capture of the Trinidad, reckoned worth three millions of dol- lars. To counteraftthofe dreadful blows given to the family compaff, the i'Vench and Spaniards employed their laft refource, which was to quarrel with and invade Portugal, the faithful but feeble ally of Great Britain. Whether this quarrel was real or pretended, is not for me to decide. It certainly embarrafled his Bri- tannic majefty, who was obliged to fend thither armaments both by fea and land. The negociations for peace were now refumed ; and the enemy at lalf offered fuch terms as the Britilh minidry thought admillible. The defeftion of tlie Ruilians • It was oil the 25th of March 1761, tlnit the fccrctarirb of diitc ; :iih1 on the (;th of Odobcr fol- carl of Bute was appointed one of the printipal lowing, Blr. i'itt icfigncd the feals. from ENGLAND. 327 from the confederacy againft the king of PrufTia, and his confequent fiicceiTes, pro- duced a ccflfation of arms in Germany, and in all other quarters ; and on the loth of February 1763, the definitive treaty of peace between his Britannic rnajefty, the king of France, and the king of Spain, was concluded at Paris; and acceded to by the king of Portugal ; March 10, the ratifications were exchanged at Paris. The 22d, the peace was folemnly proclaimed at Weftminller and London ; and the treaty havingon the eighteenth been laid before the parliament, it met the ap- probation of a majority of both houfes. By this treaty, the extenfive province of Canada, with the iflands of Newfound- land, Cape Breton, and St. John, were confirmed to Great Britain ; alfo the two Floridas, containing the whole of the continent of North America, on this fide the MifiifTippi, (except the town of New Orleans, with a fmall diftrift round it,) was furrendered to us by France and Spain, in confideration, of refioring r^j Spain the ifland of Cuba ; and to the French the iflands of Martinico, Gxiadaloupe, Marie- galante, and Defirade ; and in confideration of our granting to the French the two fmall iflands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, on the coalt of INewfoundland, and quit- ting our pretenfions to the neutral ifland of St. Lucia, they yielded to us the iflands of Grenada and the Grenadilles, and quitted their pretenfions to the neutral iflands of St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago. In Africa we retained the fettlement of Senegal, by which we nearly engroflfcd the whole gum trade of that country ; bur •we refl:ored Goree, a fmall ifland of little value. The article that relates to the Eafl; Indies, was didated by the directors of the Englifh company ; which reftores to the French all the places they had at the beginning of the war, on condition that they fliall maintain neither fort nor forces in the province of Bengal. And the city of Ivlanilla was reftored to the Spaniards; but they confirmed to us the liberty of cutt- ing logwood in the bay of Honduras in America. In Europe, iikewife, the French refliored to us the ifland of Minorca, and we reltored to them the ifland of Bclleifle. In Germany, after fix years fpent in marches and countermarches, numerous Ikir- miflies and bloody battles, Great Britain acquired much military fame, but at the expence of 30 millions fterling! As to the objects of that war, it was agreed that a mutual reftitution and oblivion fliould take place, and each party fit down at the end of the war in the fame fituation in which they began it. And peace was re-- ftored between Portugal and Spain, both fides to be upon the fame footing- as before the war. The war, to which a period was now put, was the mofl: brilliant in the Britifii an- nals. No national prejudices, nor party difputes then exifted. The fame truly Britifh fpirit by which the minifler was animated, fired the breafl: of the foldier and feaman. The nation had then arrived at a pitch of wealth unknown to former ages ; and the monied man, pleafed with the afped of the times, confiding in tjie abilities of the minifl:er, and courage of the people, cheerfully opened his puife. The incredible fums of 18, 19, and 22 millions, raifed by a few citizens of London, upon a fhort notice, for the iervice of the years 1759, '7^0, and 1761, was no lefs aflonifliing to Europe, than the luccefs which attended the BritiHi fleets and armies in every quarter of the globe. But the peace, though it received the fan6tion of a majority of both houfes of parliament, was far from giving univerfal fatisfa' North- America," which received the royal aflent on the 22d of March 1765. •Some other regulations were previoufly made, under pretence of preventing fmug- gling in America ; but which in effeft fo crami)ed the trade of the colonies, as to 'i)e prejudicial both to them and to the motiier-country. As foon as It was known jn North America that the Jlamp-a^ was palfed, the whole continent was kindled into ENGLAND. 329 into a flame. As the Americans had hitherto been taxed by their own reprefenta- tives in their provincial alTemblieSj they loudly aflerted, that the Britifli parlia- ment, in which they were not reprefented, had no right to tax them. Indeed, the fame doftrine had been maintained in the Britifli parliament, wiien the ilamp-aft •was under oonfideration. On the other hand, it was contended, that the colonies, ■who had been protefted by Great Britain, ought, in realbn and juftice, to contri- bute towards the expence of the mother-country. ' Thefe children of our own planting,' faid Mr. George Grenville, fpeaking of the Americans, ' nourifhed by our indulgence, until they are grown to a good degree of itrength and opulence, and protedled by our arms, will they grudge to contribute their mite to relieve us from the heavy load of national expence, which we lie under ?' When the (lamp-aft, as printed by royal authority, reached the colonies, it was treated with every mark of indignation and contempt. It was publicly burnt in feveral places, together with the effigies of thofe who were fuppofed to be the nioft adtive in bringing it about. The affembly of Virginia refolved, ' That rlie general aifembl)' of that colony, together with his majelly, or his fubltitute, have, in their reprefentacive capacity, the only exclufive right and power to lay taxes and iinpofitions upon the inhabitants of that colony ; and that every attempt to invell fuch a power in any perfon or perfons wh.itfoever, other than the general aflembly aforefaid, is illegal, unconfticutional, and unjuft, and has a manifeLl tendency to ucftroy Britilh as well as American freedom.' Similar refolves were alfo made in other colonies. The general difcontent which prevailed in America being known ia England, feveral mafters of Ihips refufed to take any Itamps on board for the colonies ; and it foon appeared, that their precaution was well founded ; for fuch as ventured to take them, had abundant reafon to repent it, on their arrival at their deftined ports ; where, to fave their veflels from fire, they were forced to deliver their car- goes of ftamped paper into the hands of the^ enraged multitude, to be treated in the fame ignominious manner in which the aft had been treated ; and other veflels were obliged to tal-ce fhelter under fuch of the king's fnips as happened to be at hand to proteft them. Many perfons who came from England, with commiffions to aft as didributors of the ftamps, were alfo compelled publicly to renounce having any concern in them. Several other afts of violence were likewife committed, with a view of preventing the operations of the ftamp-aft, and afibciations were alfo formed in the different colonies, whereby the people bound themfelves not to import or purchafe any Britifh manufaftures, till that aft Ihould be repealed. The inhabitants of the different colonies alfo eftabliflied com- mittees to correfpond with each other, concerning the general affairs of the whole, and even appointed deputies from thofe committees to meet in Congress at New York. They affembled in that city, in Oftober 1765, and this was the firit con- grefs held on the American continent. Thefe commotions in America occafioned fo great an alarm in England, that the king thought proper to difmifs his miniilers. The marquis of Rockingham was .appointed firft lord of the treafury ; and fome of his lordlhip's friends fucceeded to the vacant places. In Ma.-'ch 1766, an aft was palled for repealing the Ame- rican ftamp-aft. This was countenanced and fupported by the new miniftry j and !Mr. Pitr, though not conpefted with them, yet fpoke with great force in favour of the repeal. He faid of the late miniftry, that ' every capital meafure they had taken was entirely wrong.' He contended that the parliament of Great Britain had no right to tax the colonic. * For the commons of America, reprefented in their feveral afTemblies, have ever been in poflclTion of the exercife of their confti- tutional right, of giving and granting their own money. They would have been U u ilaves 330 ENGLAND. llaves if they had not enjoyed it. At the fame time, this kingdom, as the fiipremc governing and legiflative power, has always bound the colonies by her laws, by her regulations, and reftridlions in trade, in navigation, in manufadliires, — in every ' thing except that of taking their money out of their pockets without their confent.' At the time that the ll;amp aft was repealed, an aft was alfo pafled for fecuring the dependence of the American colonies on Great Britain. But this does not ap- pear then to have given much umbrage to the colonifts ; and the repeal of the itamp-adt occafioned great rejoicings both in America and Great Britain. The marquis of Rockingham and his friends continued in adminiftracion but a fhort time ; though, during their continuance in power, feveral public meafures were adopted, tending to relieve the burthens of the people, and to the fecurity of their liberties. But on the 30th of July 1766, the duke of Grafton was appoint- ed firft lord of the trealury, in the room of the marquis of Rockinghamj the earl of Shelburne, fecretary of ftate, in the room of the duke of Richmond ; Charles Townfhend, chancellor of the exchequer; and Mr. Pitt, now created earl of Chat- ham, was appointed lord-privy-feal ; but that eminent ftatefman's acceptance of a peerage, as it removed him from the houfe of commons, greatly leflened his weight and influence. Indeed, this political arrangement was not of any long continuance, and fundry changes followed. Mr. Charles Townfl:end, who v/as a gentleman of great abilities and eloquence, made for forne time a confiderable figure both in the cabinet and in parliament ; but, on his death, the place of chancellor of the exche- quer was fupplied by lord North, who afterwards became firft lord of the treafury,- and obtained a great afcendancy in the adminiftration. In the year 1768, Mr. Wilkes, who had for a confiderable time refided in France, came over to England, and again became an objeft of public attention. The parliament had juft before been difiolved ; and on his arrival in London, though he ftill lay under the fentence of outlawry, he offered himfelf a candidate to reprefent that city in the enfuing parliament. He was received with loud ac- clamations, and the generality appeared greatly interefled in his favour, but he loll his eleftion ; only 1247 liverymen voted for him-. His want of fuccefj did not difcourage him, for he immediately offered himfelf a candidate for the county of Middlefex. He v/as attended by an amazing number of people to Brent- ibrd, the place of eleftion. The two other condidates had large fortunes, and great conneftions in th? county ; they had reprefented it for feveral years, and v/ere fup- portcd by the whole intercft of the court. Mr. Wilkes, however, being confidered as a man who had been unjuUly and unconfiitutionally perfecuted by the govern- ment, was eledted by a great majority, on the 28th of March. The extreme joy of the populace at this event, occafioned them to commit fome irregularities in the city of London, on the evening of the day of eleftion : and fo great were the ap- prehenfions of the court upon this occafion,. that on the following day oi^ders were given to the "uards on duty at St. James's, to be in readinefs at the beat of drum, to march to fupprefs any riot that might happen. In May following, Mr. WiPKes having voluntarily furrendered himfelf to the court of King's-bench, was com- mitted to the King's-bench prifon. Soon after this, a number of perfons having iificmbled in St. George's fields, near that prifon, in hopes of feeing Mr. Wilkes, fome difordcr enfued, and the foldicrs were rafhly ordered to fire among the mob. Several perfons were killed, and in particular one William Allen, who v/as finglcd out, purfucd by one of the fuldiers, and fiiot near his father's houfe, in a nianncr which the occafion could in no refpeft juilify. This affair made a great noife ; ancf the pains taken by the miniftcr to fupport and vindicate the military, increafed the odium of the tranfadion. On the 8th of June, Mr. Wilkes's outlawry was rc- verfcd, and on the i8ih of the fame month, fentence was pafled on him, that, for the ENGLAND. 23^ the republication of the North Briton, No. 45, he fhoukl pay a fine of five hun- dred pounds, and be imprifoned ten months ; and for pubHfliing the EflTay on Wo- man, that he fhoiild pay the ft;ne firre, and be imprifoned twelve months, to be computed from the expiration of the term of the former imprifonment. He after- wards petitioned the houfe of commons, complaining of the injufticc and illegality of the proceedings againft him ; but the houfe voted, that his complaints were fri- volous and groundlefs. He was alio again expelled, for being the auther of fome prefatory remarks on a letter which he publiflied, written by one of the fecretaries of ftate to the chairman of the quarter-fcffions at Lambeth, in which the fecretarv had recommended to the inagifcrates, previous to the unhappy aft'uir of St. George's fields, calling in the affiftance of the military, and employing them effeHua/fy, if there fliould be occafion. In the vote for his cxpulfion, his former offences, for which he was nov.^ fulFering imprifonment, were complicated with this charge ; and a new writ was ordered to be ififued for the ektiion of a member for the county of Middiefex. The rigour v/ith which Mr. Wilkes was profecuted only ir.creafed his popularity. Before his expuHion, he had been chofen an alderman of London : and on thr 1 6th of February 1769, he was re-elefted at Brentford, member for the county of Middlefex. The return having been made to the houfe, ic was refolvcd, that Mr. Wilkes, having been expelled that feffion, was incapable of being elected a member of that parliament. The late eleclion, therefore, v/as declared void, andanewwric illued for another. He was once more unanimoufly re-ele<5i:ed by the freeliolders, and, the eledion was again declared void by the houfe of commons. After this, a new eleftion being ordered, colonel Luttrel, in order to recommend himfelf to the court, vacated the feat which he already had in parliament, by the acceptance of a nominal place, and declared himfelf a candidate for the county of Middlefex. Though the whole v;eight of court intcrell was thrown into the fcale in this gentle- man's favour, yet a majority of near four to one appeared againft him on the day ofeleftion j the numbers for Wilkes being 1 143, and for Luttrel only 296. Not- withftanding this, two days after the eleftion, it was refolved in the houfe of com- mons, that Mr. Luttrel ought to have been returned a knight of the fhire for the county of Middlefex ; and the deputy- clerk of the crown was ordered to amencT the return, by erafing the name of Mr. Wilkes, and inferring that^f colonel Luttrel. The latter accordingly took his feat in parliament : but this was thought fo grofs a violation of the rights of the eleftors, that it excited a very general difcontent. Petitions, couched in very ftrong terms, were prefented to the throne, from dif- ferent places, complaining of this, and other national grievances. The county of Middlefex, as the moft immediately afFeftcd, took the lead on this occafion, and prefented a petition, in which they complained, ' that their legal and free choice of a rcprefcntative had been re})eatedly rejefted, and the right of eiedion finally taken from them, by the unprecedented feating of a candidate who was ue%-ev chofen by the county.' They alfo faid, that ' iniiead of the ancient and legal civil police, the military were introduced at every opportunity, unneceflarily and unlav/fullyj that the civil magiftracy was rendered contemptible, by the appointment of im- proper and incapable perfons ; and that the civil magiltrates, being tampered with by adminiftration, neglected and refufed to difcharge their duty.' Thefe petitioners likewife addreffed his majefty in the following terms •. ' With great grief and for- row, we have long beheld the endeavours of certain evil-minded perfons, to infufc into your royal mind notions and opinions of the moft pernicious tendency, and who promote and counfel fuch meafures as cannot fail to deftroy that harmony and conf.dence, which fhould ever fubfift between a juft and virtuous prince, and a free and loyal people.' Petitions of a fimilar nature were prefented from the liverv 2 U u - uf 332 ENGLAND. of London, the eleftors of Wcftminfler, from feveral other cities and boroughs,s and about feventeen counties. Thcfe petitions were faid to be figned by upwards of 60,000 electors. Sonne of them were principally confined to the violated right of eleftion, but others were more diffufe ; and Yorkfliire, Weftminfter, and fome others, prayed, in exprefs terms, for a diflblution of parliament, under the idea of its- being venal and corrupt. AddreflTes were, however, procured from fundry other places, of a very different tendency, and breathing nothing but loyalty and at- tachment to the government ; notwithftanding which it was extremely manifeft, that a great fpirit of difcontent prevailed throughout the nation. After the term of Mr. Wilkes's imprifonment was expired, in the year 177 i, he was chofen one n( the flieriffi for London and Middlefex ; and the fame year a re- markable conteft happened between the city of London and the houfe of com- mons. Several printers had been ordered to attend that houfe, being charged with having inferted in their news-papers accounts of the fpeeches of members of parli- ament, contrary to a ftanding order of the houfe. One of thefe printers, who had refufed to attend the fummons of the houfe, was apprehended by a meffenger of the houfe of commons in his own houfe ; whereupon he immediately fent for a conftable, and the mefTenger was carried before the lord mayor at the manfion-houfe, where the aldermen Wilkes and Oliver alfo then were. The deputy ferjeant at arms alfo attended, and demanded, in the name of the fpeaker, that both the mef- fenger and the printer fhould be delivered up to him. This was refufed by the lord- mayor, who aflced, for what crime, and upon what authority, the mefTenger had arrefted the printer ? The mefTenger, anfwered, he had done it by warrant from the fpeaker. It was then afked, if the warrant had been backed by a city magiflrate ? Which being anfwered in the negative, the warrant was demanded, and, after much altercation, j^roduced ; and its invalidity being argued by the printer's counfcl, the three magitlrates prefent difcharged him from confinement. His complaint for an afTault and fiilfe imprifonment being then heard, and the facfts proved and admitted, the mefTenger was afl;ed for bail, which the ferjeant having refufed to give, a war- rant for his commitment to prifon v/as made our, and figned by the lord-mayor and the two aldermen ; but the ferjeant then offered bail, v^'hich was accepted. The confequence of this tranfaftion was, that a few days after, the lord-mayor Crofby and alderman Oliver, members of the houfe of commons, were committed prifoners to the Tower for their fhare in this bufinefs, by the authority of the houfe. ^Ir. Wilkes was chofen m.ember for Middlefex in the fubfequent parliament, and in the year 1783, after the change of lord North's adminiflration, all the declara- tions, orders and refolutions of the houfe of commons refpefting his elciflion for the county of Middlefex, were ordered to-be expunged from the journals of that houfe, " as being fubverfive of the rights of the whole body of eleftors of this kingdom." And it fhould be remembered, that in confequence of his manly and fpirited conteft with the government, general warr.ints were declared to be illegal, and an end was put to fnch v/arrants, and to the unlawful feizure of an Englifh- man's papers by Itate mefTcngers. After the repeal of the flamp-aft, which was received with great joy in America, all things became quiet there : but the fame year an aft was pafTed laying certain duties en paper, glafs, tea, &c. imported into America, to be paid by the colonies for the purpofe of raifing a revenue to the government. About two years after, it was ihougiit proper to repeal thcfe duties, except that on tea ; but as it was not x\x amounl of the duties, but the rfgtt of the parliament of Great Britain to impofe taxes in America, which was the fubjeft of difpute, the repealing the other duties, anfwered no purpofe, while that on tea remained ; which accordingly became a frefli fubjcft of contcfl between the mother-country and the colonics. Other laws had 1 alfo ENGLAND. ^33 aifo been paired in England particularl)s one relating to quartering troops in the colonies, and another for fufpending the legiflativc powers of the aflcmbly of New York, which gave great umbrage in America. Another fcheme which was alfo adopted, of api'ointing the governors and judges in the colonies to be paid by the crown, and not by the provincial ailemblies, as heretofore, occafioned likewifemuch difcontent in America, as it was fuppofed, that this new' regulation uould render the governors and judges wholly dependent on the crown. In order to induce the Eaft India company to become indrumental in enforcing the tea-duty in America, an afl was pafied, by which they v/ere enabled to exj^oit their teas, duty-free, to all places whatfoever. Several lliips were accordingly freighted with teas for the different colonies by the company, who alfo appointed agents there for the difpofal of that commodity. This was confidered by the Ame- ricans as a fcheme calculated merely to circumvent them into a compliance with the revenue law, and thereby pave the way to an unlimited taxation. For it was eadly comprehended, that if the tea was once landed, and in the cuftody of the confignees, no affociations, nor otiier meafures, would be fufficient to prevent its fale and conftimption : and it was not to be fuppofed, that when taxation was eftablifhed in one inftance, it would be reftrained in others. Thefe ideas being generally prevalent in America, it was refolved by the coloniils to prevent the landing of the tea-cargoes amongft them, at whatever hazard. Accordingly,- three fliips laden with tea having arrived in the port of Boflon in December, 1773, a number of armed men, under the difguife of Mohawk Indians, boarded tliefe fliips, and in a few hours difcharged their whole cargoes into the fea, without doing any other damage, or offering any injury to the captains or crews. Some fmaller quantities of tea met afterwards with a fimilar fate at Boflon, and a few other places ; but in general, the commiflioners for the fale of that commodity were obliged to relinquifh their employments, and the m-aflers of the tea-vefTels, from an apprehen- fion of danger, returned again to England with their cargoes. At New York, in- deed, the tea was landed under the cannon of a man of war. But the perfons in the fervice of government there were obliged to confent to its being locked up from ufe. And in South Carolina feme was thrown into the river, as at Bofton, and the refl put into damp warehoufes, where it perifhed. Thefe proceedings in America excited fo much indignation in the government of England, that on the 31ft of March, 1774, an a£l was pafTed for removing the cuftom-houfe officers from the town of Bofton, and fhutting up the port. Another ad w^as foon after pafTed ' for better regulating the government in the province of MalTachufet's Bay.' The defign of this aft was to alter the conflitution of that- pro- vince as it flood upon the charter of king William ; to take the whole executive power out of the hands of the people, and to vefl the nomination of the counfellors, judges, and magiftrates of all kinds, including llieriffs, in the crown, and in fome cafes in the king's governor, and all to be removeable at the pleafure of the crown. Another adl was alfo palTed, which was confidered as highly injurious and uncon- ftitutional, empowering the governor of Maflachufet's Bay to fend perfons accufcd of crimes there to be tried in England for fuch offences. Some time after an aft ■was likewife palled ' for making more effeftual provifion for the govqj-nment of the province of Quebec,' which excited a great alarm both in England and A- merica. By this aft, a legiflative council was to be eflablilhed for all the affairs of the province of Quebec, except taxation, which council was to be appointed by the crown, the ofBce to be held during pleafurej ai^d his majefiy's Canadian Roman catholic fubjefts were entitled to a place in it. The French lav/s, and a trial with- out jury, were alfo eftabliflied in civil cafes, and the Englifli laws, with a trial by jury, in criminal ; and the popilTi clergy were invelkd with a legal right to their tithes 334 ENGLAND, tithes from all who were of their own religion. No affembly of the people, as in other Eritiili colonies, was appointed, it being faid in the aft, that it was then inex- pedient : but the king was to erect fuch courts of criminal, civil, and ecclefiallical jurifdiclion, as he fhould think proper. The boundaries of the province of Quebec were likewife extended by the aO. thoufands of miles at the back of the other colo- nies, whereby, it was faid, a government little better than defpotic was eftablifhed throughout an extenfive country. As to the claufes refpedling the Fopifh clergy in Canada, it was admitted, that it would have been unjuft to have perfecuted them, or to have deprived them of the exercife of their religion ; but it was maintained, that it could not be necelTary that popery fiiould have fuch a legal cftablifhment given it by aBritifh government, as that their priefls fhould have the fame right to claim their ecclefiaftical revenues, as the clergy of the eifabliflied church in Eng- land. It was alfo thought extremely injurious to the Britifh fcttlers in Canada, that, when that province had been conquered by Britifh arms, they fhould be compelled to fubmit to French laws, and be deprived of thofe privileges which they would have enjoyed in other parts of his Majefty's dominions. The meafures of government refpefting America had fo univerfally exafperated the colonifts, that provincial or town-meetings were held in every part of the con- tinent, v/herein they avowed their intenfions of oppofing, in the moft vigorous man- ner, the meafures of adminiftration. Agreements were entered into in the different colonies, whereby the fubfcribers bound thcmfclves in the moft folemn manner, and in the prefence of God, to fufpend all commercial intercourfe with Great Britain, from the lad day of the month of Auguft, 1774^, until the Bofton -port-bill, and the other lare obnoxious laws, were repealed, and the colony of Maffachufet's Bay fullv reftored to its chartered rights. Other tranfadions fucceeded ; and the flame continued to increafe and extend in America, till at length twelve of the colonies, including that whole extent of country which reaches from Nova Scotia to Geor- gia, had appointed deputies to attend a General Congrefs, which was opened at P-hiladelphia, the 5th of September, 1774. They met accordingly, and the num- ber of delegates amounted to fifty-one ; who reprefented the feveral Englifh co- lonies of New Hampfhire (2), Maffachufet's Bay (4), Rhode Ifland and Provi- dence Plantations (2), Connedicut (3), New York (7), New Jerfey (4), Pennfyl- vania (7), the lower counties on Delaware (3), Maryland (4), Virginia (7), North Carolina (3), and South Carolina (5 delegates) ; Georgia afterwards ac- ceded to the confederacy, and fent deputies to the Congrefs. They entered into an afibciation, in which they bound themfclves and their conftituents, not to import into Britifli America, from Great Britain or Ireland, any goods, wares, or mer- chandifc whatfoever, from the firft day of December following ; nor to import any Ealt India tea from any part of the world ; nor to export any merchandife or com- modity whatfoever to Great Britain, Ireland, or the VVefi: Indies, from the loth of September, 1775, unlefs the aft for (lopping the port and blocking up the harbour of Boflon, that for altering the charter and government of the province of Mafla- chufet's Bay, the Qiiebec aft, the afts by which duties were impofcd on any com- modities imix)rted into America, and fome other afts, whicli they enumerated, were repealed. They avowed their allegiance to his Majefty, and their affcftion and regard for their fellow-fubjefts in Great Britain, but afferted the neceffity of their adopting fuch meafures as were calculated to obtain a redrefs of thofe grievances which they laboured under; and which, they faid, " threatened dcllruftion to the lives, liberty, and property of the inhabitants of the colonies." They alfo drew up a petition to the king, in which tlicy enumerated their feve- ral grievances, and folicited his Majclly to grant them peace, liberty, and la-'ety. They likewiic publlflied an addrefs to the people of Great Britain, another to the colonies ENGLAND. 3^5 Colonies in general, and another to the inhabitants of the provinces of Quebec- The concrrefs broke up on the 26th of Odober, having relblved, that another con<^refs fhoiild be held in the fame place, on the icth of May following, unlefs the grievances of which they comjjlained flioiild be redrefled before that time: and they recommended 10 all tlic colonies to choofe deputies as foon as poHlblc, for that purpofc. Shortly after thefe events, fome meafiires were propofed in the parliament of Great Britain, for putting a Hop to the commotions which unhappily fubfifted in America. The earl of Chatham, who had been long in an infirm ftare of health, appeared in the houfe of lords, and exprelTed in the ftrongeft terms his dilappro- bation of the whole fyftem of American politics. He alfo made a motion, for immediately recalling the troops from Boilon. He reprefented this as a matter which fhould be inilantly adopted; urging, that an hour then loll, in allaying the ferment in America, might produce years of calamity. He alledged, that the prefent lunation of the troops rendered them and the Americans continually liable to events, which would cut off the poffibility of a reconciliation ; but that this con- ciliatory meaiiire would be well-timed ; and as a mark of afFeftion and good-will on our fide, would remove all jealoufy and apprchenf.on on the other, and inflan- raneoufly produce the happicll etfcdts to both. His Lordfliip's motion was rcjeded by a large maiority, 6i> againft 18 ; as was alfo a bill which he brought in foon af- ter for fettling the American troubles, by 61 to 32. The methods propofed in the houfe of commons for promoting an accommodation, met alfo with a fimilar fate. The number of his majefty's troops was ordered to be augmented; and an adt was paffed for reflraining the commerce of the New England colonics, and to prohibit their fiihery on the banks of Newfoundland. A motion was, indeed, atterwards made in the houfe of commons, by lord North, firft lord of the trcafury, for fuf- pending the exercife of the right of taxation in America, claimed by the Britifh parliament, in fiich of the colonies as flro^uld, in their general airemblies, raife fuch contributions as were approved of by the king in parliament. This motion was carried, and afterwards communicated to fome of the provincial allemblies : but it was rejected by them as delufive and unfatisfadtory, and only calculated to difunite them. The petition from the congrefs to the king was ordered by his majefty to be laid before the parliament : whereupon Dr. Franklin, and two other American agents, folicitcd to be heard at the bar of the houfe of commons, on behalf of the colonies, in fupport of that petition : but their application was rejected ; it being faid, that the American congrefs was no legal affembly, and that therefore no peti- tion could be received from it by the parliament with propriety. In the mean time, the inhabitants of the American colonies began to prepare for war; they trained and excrcifed their militia with great induftry ; and when advice was received of a proclamation which was iffued in England, to prevent the exportation of arms and ammunition to America, meafures were immediately adopted to remedy the defcdr. And to render thcmfelves as independent as pof- lible of foreigners, for the fupply of thofe articles, mills were eretted, and manu- factories formed, both in Philadelphia and Virginia, for the making ol gun-pow- der ; and encouragement was given in all the colonies, tor the fabrication of arms of every kind. It was on the 19th of April, 1775, that the firfl blood wasdrav.'n. The Ame- ricans having colleAcd fome military llores at the town of Concord in New- England, general Gage, governor of the colony, fent the grenadiers and light infantry of the army, to dellroy them. The detachment confining of about 900 men, embarked in boats at Bofton, and having landed at a place called Phipps's tarm, proceeded with expedition towards Concord, \yhen they arrived at Lex- ington, 3^6 ENGLAND. ington, the}' found a company of militia, of about loo men, mufiered near a meeting-houfe. It was juft before fun-rife when the Britifh troops came in fighr of them ; \vhereupon an officer in the van called out, " Difperfe, you rebels, throw down your arms, and difperfe," the foldiers at the fame time running up with loud huzzas. Some fcattering fhots were firft fired, and immediately fuc- ceedcd by a general difcharge, by which eight of the American militia were killed, and feveral wounded : it was laid by fome of the regulars, that the pro- vincials firfl fired, the contrary v/as teftified upon oath by a number of the Ame- ricans. After this the detachment advanced to Concord, and proceeded to exe- cute their commiffion, by rendering three pieces of cannon unferviceable, burning fome new gun carriages, a number of carriage wheels, and throwing into the river a conliderable quantity of flour, -gunpowder, mufket-balls, and other arti- cles. In the mean time, a fmall body of the militia returned towards the bridge which they had lately pafTed ; and, upon this movement, the light infantry re- ' tired on the Concord fide of the river, and began to pull up the bridge; bur, upon the near approach of the rniiitia, the foldiers immediately fired, and killed two men. The Americans returned the fire, and a fkirmtfh enllied at the bridge, in which the Englifh troops were forced to retreat, having feveral men killed and wounded, and a lieutenant and fome others taken. About this time, the country people began to rife more generally againfb the king's troops, and to attack them on all quarters; fitirm.ifli fucceeded upon fkirmifh ; and a continued, thougii irre- gular fire, v/as fupported through the whole of a long and very hot day. In the march back to Lexington, a diftance of fix miles, the troops were extremely an- noyed, and it is probable, that their whole body would have been cut off, had not general Gage lent lord Percy in the morning to fupport them with fixteen com- panies of foot, and a body of marines, with two pieces of cannon. This powerful reinforcement obliged the provincials for fome time to keep their diftance : but as foon as the king's troops refumed their march, the attacks, as the country peo- ple became more numerous, grew in proportion more violent, and the danger was continually augmenting, until they arrived, about fun-fet, at Charles-Town, from whence they palled over diredly to Bofton, extremely harrafled and fatigued. The lofs of the king's troops amounted to 65 killed, 170 wounded, and about 20 prifon- ers. The Americans were computed not to have loft more than 60, including kill- ed and wounded. Soon after this aftion, numerous bodies of the American militia inverted the town of Bofton, in which general Gage and his troops were. In all the colonies they prepared for war with the utmoft diipatch ; and a flop was almoft every where put to the exportation of provifions. The continental congrefs met at Philadelphia on the 10th of May 1775, as propofed, and foon adopted f^uch meafures as confirmed the people in their refblutions to oppofe the Britifh government to the utmoft. Among their firft afts, were refolutions for the raifing of .an armv, and the cftablifhment of a large paper currency for its payment. They affumed the appellation of " The United Colonies of America," wlio were fecurities for realiz- ing the nominal value of this currency. They alfo ftriftly prohibited the fupplying of the Britifh fift>eries with any kind of provifions, and to render this order the more effeflual, ftopt all exportation to thofe colonics, iftands, and places, which ftill re- tained theii obedience. In the mean time, a body of provincial adventurers, amounting to about 240 men, furprifed the garrifons of Ticonderago and Crown Point. Thefe fortrcffcs were taken without the lofs of a man on either fide: and the provincials found in the forts a confidcrable number of pieces of cannon, bcfidcs mortars^ and fundry kinds of military ftores. However, the force of Great Britain in America was now augmented. ENGLAND. 537 augmented, by the arrival at Bofton from England, of the generals Howe, Bur- goync, and Clinton, with confiderable reinforct-ments. But the continental con- grefs were fo little intimidated by this, that tliey voted, a few days after, that the compaifl between the crown and the people of Maflachufet's Bay was diflblved, by ' tlie violation of the charter of William and Mary; and therefore recommended to the people of that province, to proceed to the eftablifhment of a new government, by elefting a governor, affiftants, and houfe of aflembly, according to the powers contained in their original charter. The town of Bofton had now been for fome time blocked up by tlie provincials : but the poft of Charles-Town, which is feparatcd from Bofton only by a river, had hitherto been negledled by both parties. The Americans at laft thought tliis poft neceflary for them, whether they Ibould chufe to aft on tlie offenfive or dcfcnfive. They accordingly made preparations, and fent a body of men at night to throw up works upon Bunker's hill, a high ground that lies juft within the ifthmus, or neck of land that joins the peninfula to the continent. The party carried on tlieir works with fuch order and filence, that, though the peninfula was furroundcd with fhips of war, they were not heard during the night, and ufed fuch incredible difpatch in the execution, that they had a fnall but ftrong redoubt, confiderable entrench- ments, and a breaft-work, which was in fome parts cannon-proof, far advanced to- wards completion, by the break of day. The fight of -the works was the full notice that alarmed the Lively man of war early in the morning; and her guns called the town, camp, and fleer, to behold a fight which fcemed little lefs than a prodio-y. Upon this difcovery, a heavy and continual fire of cannon, howitzers, and mortaib, was carried on upon the works of the provincials, from the fliips, from floatino- batteries, and from the top of Cop's-hill in Bofton : but the Americans bore thit feverc fire with great finnnefs, and appeared to purfue their bufinefs as if no ene- my had been near. About noon, general Gage caufed a confiderable body of trooi)> to be embarked, under the command of major-general Hovve, and brigadier-gene- ral Pigot, to drive the provincials from their works. This detachment, together v.ith a reinforcement which it afterwards received, amounted in the whole to more than 2000 men. The attack was begun by a moft fevere fire of cannon and howitzers, under which the troops advanced very flowly towards the enemv and halted fcveral times, to aftbrd an opportunity to the artillery to ruin the works and to put the Americans into confufion. The Americans, on their part, fuftajned a fevere and continual fire of fmall arms and artillery with remarkable firmncfs and refolution. They did not return a flior, until the king's forces had approached al- moft to the works, when a moft dreadful fire took place, by which numbers of the Eritifli troops fell, and many of their ofiicers. They were thereupon thro.vn into diforder; but being rallied, and again brought to the charge, they attacked the works of the Americans with fixed bayonets, and forced them in every quarter. Many of the provincials were deftitute of bayonets, and their ammunition is faid to have been expended; howeve>r, a number of them fought defpcrately within the works, from which they were not driven without great difficulty, and they at length retreated fiowly over Charles-Town neck. Charles-Town itfclf, during the acftion was fet on fire in feveral places, and burnt to the ground. This was the firft fcttlemcnt made in the colony, ami was confidered as the mother of Bofton that town owing its birth and nurture 10 emigrants from the former: it contained about 400 houfes,and had a great trade. The lofs of the king's troops in the adlion at Bunker's hill amounted to 226 killed, and more than Soo wounded, includino- many officers. After this aftion, the Americans immediately threw up works upon another hill oppofite to it, on their fide ot Charles-Town neck j fo that the troops were as clofely ^ X invcfted 338 ENGLAND. Jnveflcd in that peninfula as they had been hi Boflon. About tliis t'lrne the :;-n- greis appointed George Wafhington, ei'q. a gentleman of large fortune in Virgi- nia, of great military talents, and who had acquired confiderable experience in the command of different bodies of provincials during the laif war, to be general and commander in chief of all the American forces. They alfo publifhed a declara- tion, in which they ftyled themfclves " the Reprefentatives of the United Colonies of North America," and afligned their reafons for taking up arms. It was written in a very animated ftrain, and contained the foUow-ing pafTage: " In our own na- tive land, in defence of the freedom that is our birth right, and which we ever en- iovtd rill the late violation of it ; ttir the protection of our property, acquired folely by the honeft inuuHry of our forefathers and ourfelves ; againft violence aftually offered, we have taken up arms. We fhall lay them down when hoftilities fhal-l ceafe on the part of the aggrcilors, and all danger of their being renewed fliall be removed, and not before." A fecond petition to the king was alio voted by the congrefs, in which tliey earneflly folicited his majefty to adopt fome method of putting a Hop to the unhappy contefl: between Great Britain and the colonies. This petition was prefented by Mr. I'enn, late governor, and one of the propri- etors of Penfylvania, through the hands of lord Dartmouth, fecretary of flate for the American department ; but Mr. Penn was foon after informed, that no anfwer would be given to it. The rcfufal of the king to give annvcr to this petition, from near three millions of people by their reprefentatives, contributed exceedingly towards farther exafperating the minds of the Americans. An addrefs was now publifhed by the congrefs to the inhabitants of Great Britain, and to the people of Ireland. But as no conciliatory meafures were adopted, hofliiities flill continued ; and an expedition was fet on foot by the Americans againfl Canada, to which they were induced by an extraordinary commifTion given to general Carleton, the governor of Canada ; by which he was empowered to embody and arm the Canadians, to march out of tlie country for the fubjugation of the other colonies, and to proceed everj; to capital punifhments ngainft all thofe whom he fnould deem rebels and oppofers of the laws. The American expedition againft Canada, was chiefly conduced by Kichard Montgomery, an Irifhman, on whom the congrefs conferred the rank of brigadier-general. He firil: made himfelf mailer of Chamblee, a fmall fort, in ■which he found 120 barrels of gunpowder, and other military ftores. He after- wards took the fort of St. John's, in which was a garrifon of about 500 regulars, together with fome Canadian volunteers; and the town of Montreal alfo furrendered to him on the 13th of November, 1775. In the mean time colonel Benedict Ar- nold undertook to inarch v;ith a body of Americans from Bofton to Quebec, by a loute which had hitherto been untried,, and confidcred as imprafcicable. They had thick woods, deep fwamps, difRcurt mountains and precipices alternately to^ encounter ; and were at times obliged to cut their way for miles together through the thickets. After ovcrconfintj; innumerable difliculties, they arrived in Canadi,. •wliere Arnold publilhcd an aildrefs to the people of that province, figned by general Wafhington, in which they were invited to join with the other colonies in an indiffoluble uiiion, and to range themfclves under the ftandard of general liberty. A fimilar publication had before been ifTued by Montgomery. Arnold appeared before Quebec on die 9th of November, and foon after joined Mont- gomery, on whom the chief command of courfc devolved. General Carleton, the governor, employed evefy eflort to repel the aflaiUints., On the 3 ill of December Montgomery attempted to gain polTellion of the jdacc by Uorni, but was killed in the firlt fire from a battery, as advancing in the front of his men : Arnold was alfo dangerouliiy wounded, about 6q of their men were likewife killed and wound- cd^ ENGLAND. .^^ eel, and 300 taken prisoners. The bcfiegcrs immediately quitted their camp, and retired about three miles from the city, and the fiege was for fome months 'con- verted into a blockade. On general Carleton's receiving confiderable reinforce- ments and fupplies of provifions from England, May 1776, Arnold was obliged to make a precipitate retreat; Montreal, Chamblee, and St. John's were re-taken and all Canada recovered by the king's troops. During thefe tranfaftions, the royal army at Bofton was reduced to great dillrefs for want of provifions ; the town was bombarded by the Americans, and general Howe, who now commanded the king's froops, which amounted to upwards of feven thoufand men, was obliged to quit Bofton, and embark for Halifax leav- ing a confiderable quantity of artillery and fome flores behind. The town was evacuated on the 17th of March, 1776, and general Wafliington immediately took poflTeffion of it. On the 4th of July following, the congrefs publifhed a folemn declaration, in which they afllgncd their rcafons for withdrawing their allegiance from the king of Great Britain. In the name, and by the authority of the inha- bitants of the united colonies, they declared that they then were, and of rigiit • ought to be, " Free and Independent States;" that they uere abfolved from all allegiance to the Britifli crown, and that all political connexion between them ami the kingdom of Great Britain was totally diflblved; and alfo that, as free and indc- pendent ftatcs, they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, contraft alliances eftablifh commerce, and do all other ads and things, which independent ftates mav of right do. They likewifepublilhcd articles of confederation and perpetual union between the united colonics, in which they afTumed the title of " the United States of America," and by which each of the colonies contradcd a reciprocal treatv of alliance and friendfhip for their common defence, for the maintenance of their li- berties, and for their general and mutual advantage ; obliging themfelvesto alTiIl each other againfl all violence that might threaten all, or any one of them and to repel, in common, all the attacks that might be levelled againll all, or any one of them, on account of religion, fovereignty, commerce, or under any other pretext vvhatfoever. Each of the colonies refervcd to themfelves alone the'exclufive ri^ht .of regulating their internal government, and of framing laws in all matters notln- cluded in the articles of confederation. Several attempts were made in the Britifli parliament by the duke of Richmond ^.Ir. Burke, Mr. Hartley, Mr. Wilkes, and others, to promote conciliatory mea^ lures: but no fchemes for that purpofe obtained the countenance of the p;overn-. ment. Negociarions were fet on foot for taking large bodies of foreign troops into the pay of Great Britain, and the war continued to be carried on ao-ainfl: the Americans with great ardour. In July 1776, an attempt was made by^commo- dore fir Peter Parker, and lieutenant-general Clinton, upon Charles-town in South Carolina. But this place was fo ably defended by ihe Americans under general Lee, that the Britifli commodore and general were obliged to retire, the kino-'s Ihips having fuftained confiderable lofs, and a tv/enty-cight gun Ihip, which run a-ground, was obliged to be burnt by the officers and feamcn. However, a much more important and fuccefsful attack againft: the Americans was foon after made under the command of general Kowe, then joined with a large body of Hef- (ians, anil a confiderable number of Highlanders, fo that his whole force was now extremely formidable. The fleet was commanded by his brother vice-admiral lord Howe ; and both the general and admiral were invcfted with a ])ouer un- der the title of " Comraiflioners for granting Peace to the Colonies," of grantina- pardons to thole who would lay down their arms. But their offers of this kind were treated by the Americans with contempt. An attack upon the town of New- York feenis to have been expoded by the provincials, and therefore thev had for- X X 2 ' tified 340 ENGLAND. titled It in the beft manner they were able. On Long lil.md, near New York, the Americans had alfo a large body of troops encamped, and fevcral works thrown up. General Howe firil landed on Staten Ifland, where he met with no oppofition ; but early in the' morning of the 22d of Augull, a defcent was made by the Bricilh troops upon r.vong Ifland, and towards noon about fifteen thoufand were landed. They h.-.d greatly the advantage of the Americans, by their fupcrior fkill and difciplinc, and being better provided with artillery, and every kind of military accommoda- tion ; and the American pafles were far from being properly fecured. Some ficirmifhes happened during feverul fucceflive days ; in which the Eritifli troops engaged their enemies with great ardour, and the Americans fuflered exceed- ingly. Finding themfelves fo much overpowered, they at length refolved to quit the ifland, and general Wafnington came over from New York to conduft their retreat, in which he difplayed great ability. In the night of the 29th of July, the American troops were withdrawn from the camp and their different works, and with their baggage, ftores, and part of their artillery, were conveyed to the water -fide, embarked, and palFed over a long ferry to New York, with fuch ex- traordinary filence and order, that the Britifli army did not perceive the leaft mo- tion, and were furprifed in the morning at finding the American lines abandoned, and feeing the lafl of their rear-guard in their boats, and out of danger. The pro- vincials had been fo furrounded by the Britilh troops, and the latter had difplayed fuch fupcrior military fkill, it was a fubjeft of wonder that the greatefi part of the American army fhould be able to efteftuate their retreat. In the different adions previous to their retreat, the lofs of the Americans had been very confiderablc. Upwards of a thoufand of them were taken prifoners, including three generals, three colonels, and many inferior officers ; their number of killed and wounded was computed to be ffill greater; they loft alfo five field-pieces, and a quantity ot ordnance was found in their different redoubts and forts on the ifland ; whilfl: the whole lofs of the Britifli troops did not amount to more than three hundred killed and wounded. But this great fuccefs of the royal army was far from bringing the Americans to fubmiflion. When fome overtures, tending towards a reconciliation, were a few days after made by lord Howe, he was anfwered by a committee from the congrefs, " that the colonies now confidered themfelves as independent fi:ates, and were fet- tling, or had fettled, their government accordingly; and that, therefore a return to the domination of Great Britain was not now to be expected; but they were will- ing to enter into any treaty with Great Britain which might be beneficial to both countries." Soon after this, the Americans abandoned the city of New York to the king's troops, who took pofilffion of it with little oppofnion, and found therein a large quantity of ordnance and military ftores. Some of the provincials afterwards found means to fet fire to the city in fevcral places, and a third pare of it was burnt down. After the furrender of New York, the royal army obtained other confiderable advantages over the Americans : as at the White Plains, taking Fort-Wafhington, with a "arrifon of 2500 men, and Fort Lee with a great quantity of ftores, which lofTes obliged tiic American general to retreat through the Jerfies to the river Dela- v/are, a dirtance of ninety miles. Alfo on the 8th of December, general Clinton, and fir Peter Parker obtained poflefTion of Rho-le-ifland ; and the Britifli troops covered the Jerfies. This was the crifis of American danger. 'I'iieir forts were taken, the time of military ferviee of the grcateft part was expired, and the few that remained witli their officeis were in a dillitute ftate, with a well clothed and dif- ciplincd army purfuing. Had general Howe haftened at that time to Philadelphia, after Wafnington, it hath been maintained, there would have been an end of I die ENGLAND. 341 t1ie contefl. His delay gave time for volunteer reinforcements of gentleman, merch- ant, fanner, tradcfman, and labourer, tojoin general Wafhington, who, in the night of the 25th of December, amidft fnow, ftorms, and ice, widi a fmall detachment, croffed the Delaware, and furprifed a brigade of the Heffian troops at Trenton. He took upwards of 900 of them prifoners, with whom he repaffeJ the river ; hav- ing a!fo taken three (tandards, fix pieces of brafs cannon, and near one thoufan.i Hand of arms. Immediately after tiiis furprife of tht Heffians, and depofiting thcin in fafety, Wafhington recrolTcd the river to refume his former poft at Trenton. TJie Britilh troops colledted in force to attack him, and only waited for the morn- ing ; but the Americans defeated the plan. Wafliington, to difguife his retreat, in the night, ordered a line of fires in front o( his camp. Then moving from the' ground with his baggage and artillery, he, by a circuitous march of eighteen miles, reached Prince-town early in the morning, carried the Briti/li poll at that place, and fet off" with near 300 prifoners on his return to the Delaware, juft as the BritiOi troops at Trenton were under arms and proceeding to attack hiin, fuppofino- him in his former pofition. By thefe two events, accomplilhed with but a fmall force, the Americans deranged all the meafurcs of the Britifli general ; made him draw in his troops to a clofer compafs, to proteft his magazines at Brunfwick ; and by the efforts of their general, they clofed the campaign with advantage, which but a few days before had threatened the country with deftruftion. The Americans had alfo fitted out a great number of privateers, which took many prizes ; and, on the other hand, not a few of the American vefifels fell into the hands of the En^r- lifh, but they were generally of little value. In the month of September 1777, two adlions of fome importance happened be- tween the armies of general Howe and general Wafhington, in both of which the former had the advantage ; and foon after, the city of Philadelphia furrendered to the king's troops. But an expedition, that had for fome time been concerted, of in- vading the northern colonies by the v/ay of Canada, proved extremely unfuccefsful. The command of this expedition had been given to lieutenant-general Burgoync, He (at out from Quebec with an army of near 10,000 men, and a fine train of artillery, and was joined by a confiderable body of the Indians. For fome time he drove the Americans before him, and made himfelf mafler of Ticondera"-o j but at length he encountered fuch difficulties, and was fo vigoroufly oppofed by the Americans under Gates and Arnold, that after two fevere aftions, in which o-reat numbers fell, general Burgoyne and his army of 5.600 men were obliged to lay dov/n their arms Odober 17, 1777 : they were, however, permitted tQ march our of their camp with all ihe honours of war, and were to be allowed to return to Europe, upon condition of their not ferving again during the prelent v/ar. In one of the aftions previous to this convention, brigadier-general Frazer, a very gallant officer, was killed ; and at the time of their furrender, the Britifn army was exceed- ingly reduced in numbers ; and their ftock of provifions was not more than fufH- cient for three days fubfiftence : whilft on the other hand, the American army had been joined by numerous bodies of the militia, who were exafperated at fome late cruelties committed by the Indians in the fervice of Great Britain. About the fame time, fir Henry Clinton and general Vaughan made a fuccefsful expedition againfi; the Americans up the North River; but the Americans comolain- cd, that the Brltifh troops had wantonly fet fire to houfcs and towns, particularlv Efbpus, and carried on the war in amanner not ufual among civilized nations, Thele- devaftations greatly increafcd their averfion to the Britifii government,: which had already taken a deej) root. General Howe foon after returned to England-, and the command of the Britifli army in America devolved upon general Clinton : but it was now found neceflaryto evacuate Philadelphia^ and accordingly Clinton retreated with the- 34^ ENGLAND. the army to New York, in June 1778. The Britifli troops were attacked on their march by the Americans, bvu the retreat was fo ably conducfted, or the Ame- rican general Lee behaved fo ill, that their lofs did not amcunt to 300, killed and wounded. This war with the colonies, the French court feems to have thought a favourable opportunity for lelTening the power of Great Britain. They fupplied the Ame- ricans with arms and ammunition ; fome French ofEcers alfo entered into the Ame- rican fervice ; and on xhe 6th of February, 177S, a treaty of alliance was con- cluded at Paris, between the French king and the Thirteen United Colonies ; and of this treaty it was declared, xhat the effential and direft end was " to maintain effecluaily the liberty, Ibvereignty, and independence, abfolute and unlimited, of the United States of North America, as well in matters of govern- ment as of commerce." The parliament and people of Great Britain now began to be alarmed ; and in June, 1778, the earl of Carlifle, William Eden, and George Johnflone, efqrs. ar- rived at Philadelphia, as commiffioners from his majelly, to fettle the difputes be- tween the mother-country and the colonics. They were inverted with certain powers for this purpofe by att of parliament. But it was now too late : the terms, which, at an earlier period of the contcft would have been accepted v/ith gratitude, •were now rejected with difdain. The congrefs refufed to enter into any treaty with the Britifh commiffioners, unlefs the independcncv of the United States of America were previoufjy acknowledged, or the Britifh Meets and armies withdrawn from America. Neither of thefc re.quifitions being complied with, the war continued to "be carried on with muturd animofity. At the ciofe of the year, Georgia was invaded by the king's troops, the town of Savannah taken, and the wh.ole province- at length reduced. The conduft of France towards Great Britain, in taking part with the revolted colo- nies, occafioned the commencement of hollilities between the two nations, thou^-h without any formal declaration of war on either fide. On the 17th of June, 1778, the Licorne .and La Belle Poule, two French frigates, were taken by admiral Kcppel. Orders were immediately ilfucd bv the French court for making re- prilals on the {hips of Great Britain ; and on the 27th of July, a battle was fought off Breit between the Englifli fleet, under the command of admiral Keppel,and the French fleet, under the command of the count d'Orvilliers. The Engliih fleet con- flflcd of ^o fliips of the line, and the French of 32, befides frigates : they engag- ed for about three hours ; but the aftion was not decifive, no Ihip being taken on either fide, and the French fleet at length retreated into the harbour of Brell. Of ihc Englifh 133 v.-crc killed in the aftion, and 373 wounded ; and the lol's of the French is fuppofcd to have been very great. After the engagement, there was much murmuring throughout the Englifli fleet, becaufe a decifive viiftory had not been obtained over the French ; at lall the blame was thrown upon fir Hugh Pal- lifcr, vice-admiral of the blue, who was charged in a news paper with mifcondutl, and difobedience of orders. Though no regular accufation was brought againil him, he required of admiral Kcp'pcl publicly to vindicate his conducft from the unfavourable reports that were propagated againft him. This the admiral de- clined, which gave rife to fome altercation between them ; and fir Hugh Pallifcr afterwards thought proper to exhibit to the board of admiraltv (of which he hini- felt was a member) articles of accufation againft admiral Kcppel, though, for many months after the adtion, he had continued to adt under him. A mode of conduct fo extraordinary was very generally and fevcrely ccnfured ; but the lords of the admiralty ordered a court-martial to be held for the irial of admiral Kcjiix-l; Soon after, a memorial was prefented to the king by the duke of Bolton, fignccl ENGLAND. 343 V)y twelve admirals, among whom was lord Hawke, remonflrating againft the in- jniticc of holding a court-martial on admiral Keppcl, upon the accufation of an inferior officer, " after forty years of meritorious fervice, and a variety of adtions *' in which he had exerted eminent courage and conducfl, by which the honour " and power of this nation, and the glory of the Britifli flag, had been maintained *' and incrcafed in various parts of the world." When the court-martial was held, admiral Keppel was acquitted in the molf honourable manner ; and fir Hugh Pallifcr's charge againft him was declared by the court to be " malicious and iil- " founded." Sir Hugh Pallifer being afterwards tried by another court-martial, partly compofed from fome of the captains of his own divifion, he likewife was acquitted ; and his difobedience to the admiral's orders was afcribcd to the difabled flate of his fliip. In the Eaft Indies an engagement hapjKncd between fome Englifh fhips of war under the command of fir Edward Vernon, and fome French fhips under the command of Monf. de Tronjolly, on the loth of Auguft, in which the former obliged the latter to retire ; and on the 17th of October following, Pondicherry furrendered to the arms of Great Britain. In the courfe of the lame year, tlie Ifland of St. Lucia, in the Weft Indies, was taken from the French ; who in re- turn made themfclves mafters of Dominica, and the following year they obtained pofleflion of St. Vincent's and Grenada. In September, 1779, the count D'Eftaing arrived at the mouth of the river Savannah, with a large ileet, and a confiderabk body of French troops, to the afliftance of the Americans. After dallying a month,, the French and Americans made an united attack upon the Britiih troops at Savannah, under the command of general Prevoft. But the latter defended thein- ftlves fo well, that the French and Americans were driven off with great lofs,. and D'Eftaing foon after totally abandoned the coaft of America. And at the clofe of the year 1779, feveral French fnips of war, and merchant-fliips, were taken in the Weft Indies, by a fleet under the command of fir Hyde Parker. By the intrigues of the French court, Spain was at length brought to engage in the war againft England, and to alTemble forces to bcfiege Gibraltar, which was defended l>y the garrifon with great vigour. The naval force of Spain was alio added to that of France, now become extrentely formidable, and their com- bined fleets feemed for a time to ride triumphant in the Britifh Channel. So great were their armaments, that the nation was under no inconfiderable apprehenuons- ©fan invafion ; but they did not venture to make an experiment of that kind, and after parading for fome time In the Channel, thought proper to retire to their ©vvn ports. On the 8th of January, 1780, fir George Bridges P^odney, who had a large fleet under his command, captured (even Spanifii. fliips and veiil-ls of w?j- belonging to the royal company of Carraccas, with a number of trading vefTels. under their convoy ; and In a few days after, the fame admiral engaged near Cape St. Vincent, aSpaniihfleet, confiftingof eleven fhlps of the line, and two frigates,, under Don Juan de Langara. Four of the largeft S[)anini fhips were taken, and carried into Gibraltar, and two others driven on fnore, one of which v.as after- wards recovered by the Englifh. A Spanlili 70 gun fliip, with 600 men, was alfo blown up In the acftlon. !n April and May three adlions likewife happened in th*; Weft Indies, between the Englilh fleet under admiral Rodney,, who was now .ar- rived in that part of the world, (having previoully thrown fupplies intoGIbraltar), and the French fleet under the count de Guichen ; but nofhip w-as. taken on either fide. In July following, admiral Geary took twelve valuable French merchant fhips from Port au Prince ; but on the 8th of Auguft, the conxbined fleets of France and Spain took five Englifh I'aft Indlamen, and fifty Englifh merchant ihips, bound for the Weft Indies, which was one of the moft complete naval cajptures ever made,, and a very fevere ftvoke to the commerce of Great Britain. On- 3(4 ENGLAND.. On the 4th of Ma)'-, 1780, lir Henry Clinton made hitnfelf mafter of Charles- town, South Carolina ; and on the i6th of Auguft earl Cornwaliis obtained a very fignal vidtory over general Gates in that province, in which about a thoufand American prifoners were taken, befides fcven pieces of brafs cannon, a number of colours, and their ammunition-waggons. But on the 10th of July, Monf. Ternay, with a fleet confifting of feven fliips of the line, befides frigates, and a large body of French troops, commanded by the count de Rochambcau, arrived at Rhode Ifland, and landed 6000 men there. The American inhabitants congratulated the French general upon his arrival ; and he aflurcd them, that the king, his maflcr, had fent him to the affiftance of his good and faithful allies, the United States of America ; and that the French troops were to aft under the orders of general Wafliington, and would live with the Americans as their brethren. Soon after, major-general Arnold deferted the fervicc of the congrefs, made his efcape to New York, and was appointed a brigadier-general in the royal fervice. His behaviour in the government of Philadelphia had incurred the difpleafure of •the Americans. He v^'as reprimanded by a court-martial, but afterwards taken into fervice in the principal army, with confulerable rank and trulf. His afTeftions however were totally eftranged from the American caufe. Accordingly, when the flrong and important pod of Welt Point with its dependencies, and a wing or ■confiderable 7?i?OT was to be revived, moll; probably, with the old men, or indeed with any men that could be found. They were perfons whom neither pro- mifes could bind, nor principles of honour fecure: they would abandon fifty prin- ciples for the fake of power, and they v.'ould now flrive to ftrengthen themfelves ^ by any means which corruption could procure ; and he expetled to fee in a very fliort time, they would be joined by thofe very men whom that houfe had pre- cipitated from their feats." The duke of Richmond, general Conway, and others, maintained, that there was no deviation in the prefent cabinet from the jirinciplcs on which they had entered into office, and continued to adt with lord Shelburne, till, under his aufpices, the preliminaries for a general peace were fettled. Then, the public beheld Mr. Fox, and even lord John Cavendifh, coalefcing with the old minil1ers,lord North particularly; embracing the very men whom they had driven from their feats, and threatened with impeachments ; and continuing to join with them in reprobating the peace as making too great concefTions to the enemy, that they might ftorm the cabinet, drive lord Shelburne and his friends from it, and feat themfelves and the men they had defpifed, in their places. By the treaty of peace between Great Britain and France *, Great Britain re- flored to France the ifland of Tobago, in the Wed Indies, and the river Senegal m Africa, v/ith its dependencies and the forts on the river ; and gave up a few diflridls in the Eaft Indies, as dependencies on Pondicherry, and Karichal ; it re- , ftored alfo the iflands of St. Lucia, St. Pierre, and Miquelon, and the ifland of Goree, with Pondiclierry, Karical, Mahe, Chandernagore, and the faiftorv of Surat. To prevent difputes about boundaries in the Newfoundland fifhery, it was agreed, that the French line for fifbing fhould begin from Cape St. John on the eaftern fide, and going round by the North, fhould have for its boundary Cape Ray on the Weftern fide ; and Great Britain renounced every claim refpefcing the demo- lition of Dunkirk. France on the other hand was to reftore to Great Britain the iflands of Grenada, and the Grenadines, St. Chriftopher's, St. Vincent, Dominica, Nevis, and Montferrat ; and guarantied Fort James and the river Gambia, agree- ing that the gum trade fhould remain in the fame condition as before the war, 1755. The allies of each ftate in the Eaft Indies were to be invited to accede to the pacification, but if they were averfe to peace, no afiiftance on either fide was to be given to them. By the treaty with Spain Great Britain gave up to that power Eaft Florida, and ceded Weft Florida and Minorca, which Spain had taken during the war. To pre- vent all caufes of complaint and mifunderftanding in future, it was agreed that Britifh fubjefts fhould have the right of cutting and carrying away logv/ood in the diftrid lying between the rivers Wallis or Bellize, and Rio Hondo, takino- the courfe of the laid rivers for unalterable boundaries. Spain agreed to reftore the iflands of Providence, and the Bahamas, to Great Britain, but they had been re- taken before tlie peace was figned. In the treaty with the United Stares of America, the king of Great Britain ac- knowledges New Hampfhire, MaflTachufcts Bay, Rhode Ifland and Providence * Pi-eliminary articles fcttlcJ January ^o, 1783. Planta- ^^z ENGLAND. Plantations, Connefticut, New York, New Jerfey, Pennfylvania, Delaware, Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, Soutli Carolina, and Georgia, to befree,/overeign, and independent fates, and for himfelf, liis heirs and fucceflbrs, relinquifhes all claims to the government, propriety and territorial rights of the fame, and every part tliereof. To prevent difputes in future on the fubjeft of boundaries between thefe ftates and the Britiih provinces, lines were very minutely drawn, which will be noticed in the proper place, as well as delineated on the map of the United States of America : and fome favourable claufes were obtained for the loyalifts. The jiavigation of -the MilTiffippi to remain open to botii parties, as alfo the Newfound- land fifheries. In the treaty with the Dutch, great difficulties arofe, but at length it was ftipu- lated, that Great Britain ihould rcllore Trincomale in the ifland of Ceylon, but tiic French had already taken it, and that the Dutch fhould yield to us the town of Ne- o-apatnam, with its dependencies in the Fail Indies. The terms of the peace were to many, a fubjetl of great regret ; but had the v/ar continued, it would have been necefiary to borrow annually 17 millions and a half, by which a million perannuvi, would have been added to the taxes, and 25 millions at leaft to the capital of tlie public debt, according to the ufual modes of funding. The ceffions made on the part of Great Britain cannot be efteemed worth the ex- pence of but one year's war, efnecially confidering the exhauOed ftate of the country and its revenues, and of the national fpirit, through the rage of parties and the lult of ambition. But no fooner were the preliminary treaties with France and Spain, and the provifional articles with America prefented to parliament, than they m.et with a violent oppofition, and were reprobated as highly injurious to the dignity and JQtereft of the nation. The addrefs of thanks for the peace v/as carried however in the houfe of lords by a majority of 72 to 59, but lofL in the houfe of commons by a majority of 224 to 20 S. The majority of the commons, thus enlifted under the banner oit\\t famous coali- tion leaders, IVlr. Fox and lord North, plainly indicated a minifterial revolution, unlefs the cabinet flvould caU a new parliament. As they did nor, the peace-makers were obliged to withdraw from power. The two gentlemen juft mentioned were made fecretaries of ftate, and the duke of Portland rtrft lord of the Treafury, on April 2, 1783. All plans of reformation in public oliices, and for prefcrving the nation, v/hich lord Shelburne propofed, feemed now to be dropt. Mr. Pitt's mo- tion for correfting the defefts in the reprefentation of parliament, was loft by a ma- jority of 293 to 149 ; and Mr. Sawbridge's motion, that leave be given to bring in a bill for fhortcning the duration of parliaments, was rejefted by 123 to 56. Mr. Pitt alfo propofed a bill for reforming the boards of the Treafury, Admiralty, Ord- nance, Fxcife, Stamps, and other offices, which was of^pofed by Mr. Burke and other iTiembers of adminttration,who had moft ftrenuoufly contended for that meafure be- fore they themfeives had attained lucrative places. This bill was fuffered to pafs' the commons to amufe the public, but was rejefted by the lords, 40 to 24, Every thinof went on juft as the coalition adminiftration plcafed, till Mr. Fox brought into parliament his famous bill for new regulating the government of the Fall India company, and their commercial affairs and territories ; a plan of which bill, its progrefs and fate, are already given in our account of that trading company.* This bill being rcjefted in the houfe of lords, on December 17, by a majority of 19, occafioned a great ferment in the cabinet and in both houfes of parliament. It ■was afTcrtcd in the lower houfe, that his majefty had empowered lord T c ta report the follov/ing melVage, that " tlis majefty will not only confider as not beini; }iij frie/id, every pcrfon who votes for the prefent India bill, but he will look upon * Page 224, & feq. thofe ENGLAND. 353 thofewho fuppoit it, as Jiis eneiiiies ; and if lord T c can find ftionger words to convey his niajefty's wifhcs to that cffeft, he is at liberty to life them." After long debate, the commons refolvcd by a confiderable mnjority, " That it is now necef- fary to declare, that to report any opinion, or pretended opinion, of his majefly, upon any bill, or other proceeding depending in either houfe of parliament, with, a view to influence the votes of the members, is a high crime and mifdemcanour, derogatory to the honour of the crown, a breach of the fundamental privileges of parliament, and fubverfivc of the conflitutlon of this country. *' Rcfolved, that this houfe will, upon Monday morning next, refolve itfelf in- to a committee of the whole houfe, to confider of the (late of the nation. " Rcfolved, that it is neceffary to the moft cfTential intercfts of this kingdom, and peculiarly incumbent on this houfe, to purfuc with unremitting attention the confideration of a fuitable remedy for the abufes which have prevailed in the go- vernment of the Britiih dominions in the Eaft Indies, and that this houfe will confider as an enemy to his country, any perfon who fliall prefume to advife his majerty to prevent, or in any manner to interrupt, the difcharge ot this im- portant duty." Thefe refolutions, with fome words which dropped from Mr. Fox, and lord North, the next day in the houfe of commons, in fuj)port of a motion tor adjourn- ment to the next week, which was thought to be intended merely to protra(ft the bufinefs of parliament, and prevent granting the fupplies, occafioned their dif- miffion from miniftry. A ro}al meifage was lent between 12 and i of the morn- ing of the 19th of December, to defire the two fecretaries to rclign the feals of their office ; and Mr. Pitt fucceeded the duke of Portland as firrt lord of the Trcafury, bringing with him his friends into the rcfpedtive departments, which formed the tenth adminiftration fince his majefty's accelTion. A difTolution of the houfe of commons being now feared by the coalition, they voted and carried an addrefs to the king, to reprefent the dangers which appeared to thcn:i likely to follow from a j)rorogation or diflblution of the parliament in the prefent arduous and critical conjuntlure of public aflairs, and humbly to befeech his majefly to hearken to the advice of his faithful commons, and not to the Jccret adv'ues of pcrfons who may have private intercfts of their own, feparate from the true intercfts of his majefly and the people." The king afTured them, he would not interrupt their meeting by any exercife of his prerogative, either of prorogation or difTolution. Ikfore the houfe adjourned over the holidays, it rc- folved on the 24th of December, " that the lords of the Trcafury ought not to confent or authorize the Eaft India dircftors to accept any more bills, or to a greater amount than 300,000!. unlcl's they fhall be able to prove to parliament, that they have fufhcient means to provide for the payment of them, after they fhall have made their dividend and dilcharged the debt due to government, or unlefs they had the dirciftion of that houfe." This was thought to convey an imputation, as if Mr. Pitt intended to make a bad ufe of the power vefled bv law in the Treafury. As foon as the houfe met, it was fald, that the two great rival parties who had coalefced and forgotten their former difterences and anathemas againft each other, intended to monopolize all the power in the country. On the 12th of January, 1784, the coalition majority, in a committee on the ftate of the nation, refolvcd, " That it is the opinion ot this committee, that tor any perfon or per- fons in his mijefty's Trcalury, or in the Exchequer, or in the Bank of England ; or for any perfons whatfoevcr, employed in the payment of public money, to pay, or diretfl to be paid any fum or fums of money, tor or towards the fupport of Itr- viccs voted in the prefent fefTion of parliament, after the parliament fhall have been Z z prorogued 354. E N U. I- A N D. |irorogu.'tl or diffolveti, if it fliall be prorogued or diiTolved, before any att of par» iiament ftiall have paffed, appropriating the fupplies to fuch fervices, will be ^ hi"-h crime and mifdemeanour, a daring breach of a public truft, derogatory to thq iundamenral privileges of parliament, and fubvcrfive of the conftitution of this i>ountrv. That it alio is the opinion of this committee in the prefent fitviation of lais majeftv's dominions, it is peculiarly neccfiary that there fliould be an a-dmi- Hiltraiion which has the conficLnce of this boitje and the people. And an amendment being propofed to infert after the word " confidence," the words " of the crown,'* it? palfed in the negative. They alio refolved, " That it is the opinion of this com- mittee, that the late changes in his majefty's councils were immediately preceded by dangerous and univerfaf reports that his majefty's facred name had been uncon- ftitutionally abufed to aftett the deliberations of parliament, and that theajipoint- ments made were accompanied by circumdances new and extraordinary, and fuch as do not conciliate or engage the confidence of this houfe." On the i6th of Janu- ary, they carried the following relblution : " That it is the opinion of this com- mittee, it having been declared by this houfe, that in the prefent fituation of his ma- jeftv's dominions, an adminiftration fhould be formed, which pofleffcd the confidence of this houfe, and the public; and the prefent adminiftration being formed under clrcumftances new and extraordinary, fuch as were not calculated to conciliate the atTcdiions, or engage the confidence of the houfe ; and his mi^]cG.\ ' s pre/ent minijers ftill holding high and refponfible offices, after fuch a declaration, is contrary to true coHJiitutional prindfli's, and injurious to his majefty and his people." ■ It was a new dot^rine that the king fliould difcharge thofe who had by no one aft as yet rendered themfclvcs undeferving confidence as minifters, and appoint new ones, out of compliance to one part of the houfe of commons only ; anci it was im- pofiible for him to comply with the refolution, that he ftiould appoint fuch as might have the confidence of that houfe, and of the public ; for the majority of that houfe was compofed of the members of the coalition, ftriving for places and power, and the public, by their numerous addrefles, were, in general, evidently averfe to their condud:, and incenfed at every thing belonging to the appellation of " Co- alition." A diftblution of parliament was the alone poftible method to appoint an adminiftration which had the confidence of the houfe of commons and the public ; fending the members to their conftitucnts for approbation or rejed:ion^ and for frefti credentials. On the 23d of January, Mr. Pitt's Eaft India bill was rejedfed in the houfe of commons, by 222 againft 214 on the fecond reading, without fend- ing it to a committee for difcuffion and amendment, and leave was given for Mr. Fox to prepare and bring in another. Now, forae independent gentlemen (a^ they ftyled themfclvcs) intcrpofed to unite the contending parties, which had tilled parliament and the country with diftraftions ; but their endeavours to forn-^ what they called a firm, efficient, extended, and united adminiftration, prov- ed iinfuccefsful. The leaders of the coalition finding that miniftry were refolved to keep their places, procured a refolution on February 2, " "That it is the opinion of this houfe, that the prefent arduous and critical fituation of public affairs requires the exertion of a iirm, efficient, extended adminiftration, entitled to the confidence of the people, and fuch as may have a tendency to put an end to the unfortunate divifions of this country." 2d. " That !► is the opinion of this houfe that the continuance of the prefent minifters in their ofiice is an objlaclc to the formation of fuch an adminiftration as may enjoy the confidence of this houfe, and tend to put an end to the unfortunate divifions and diftradfions of the country." And the next day it was moved, " That the laid refolutions be humbly laid before his ma- jefty by fuch members of this houfe, as are of his majefty's moft honourable privy council," vjhich was carried by 211 againft 187. At ENGLAND. «5^ At laft, February 4, the lioufe of lords took up the afFair, and particularly ad- verted to the rtfolution of the commons refpefting the ]''all: India bills. It was con- tended, that the houfe of commons had arrogated to itftlf that power which the conftitution had refufed, for it denied to the lords of the Treafury that right which the legiflature in its complete capacity had inverted them with, namely, the power of permitting the Eaft India direftors to accept bills to fuch an amount as the difcretion of the Treafury-board fliould admit. That no one branch of the le- giflature could in any manner Juperfede a fpecific ftatute of the three conftituent parts. That it was an ufurpation in any one branch of the legiflature, the king, lords, or commons, to alfume a power of fufpending or difpenfing with an a(5t of the legiflature ; and that the refolution of the commons afllimed a control, point- ing out a fpecific condu 61'. Accordingly, by a majority of 100 to 53, they refolved, that for any branch of the legiflature to aflume a power to dired: or control an authority vefted in any fet of men by aft of parliament, and to be exercifed by them at their own difcretion, unconftitutional and illegal. They next refolved, that the conltitution vefled in the crown the right of appointing his miniftcrs; and then moved for, and. carried the following addrefs to the king : " We acknow- ledge with great fatisfadlion, the wifdom of our happy confliitution, which places in your majefly's hands the undoubted authority of appointing to all the great offices of executive government. We have the firmeft reliance in your majefly's known wifdom, and paternal goodnefs, that you will be anxious to call into your fervice, men the moft dclerving of the confidence of parliament and the public in general. In this confidence, we beg leave to approach your majefty with our moft earneft afTurances, that we will upon all occafions fupport your majefl:y in the juft exercile of thofe prerogatives which the wifdom of the law has entrulled to your majefty, for the prefervation of our lives and properties, and upon the due and uninterrupted exercife of which, mulT depend the bleffings which the people muft derive from the beft of all forms of government." To which the king replied, " I thank you for this dutiful and loyal addrefs ; and I defire you will reft alTured that I have no objeft in the choice ot miniflers, but to call into my fervice men the mofl: deferving of the confidence of my parliament, and of the public in ge- neral. I cannot too often repeat my aflurances, that my confl:ant ftudy, in the exer- cife of every prerogative cntrufted to me by the confiitution, is to employ it for the welfare of my .people." From thefe proceedings it was evident, that a war would arife between the two houfes, which could only be put an end to by a diflfolution of parliament. The commons exclaimed againft the lords, and proceeded to vindicate themfelves to the public, by the following refolutions : 1. " That this houfe hath not aflumed to Itfelf any right to fufpend the execu- tion of law. 2-.''^" That it is conflitutional, and agreeable to ufage, for the houfe ofcommons to declare their fenfe and opinion rel'pcdting the exercife of every difcretionary . power, which, either by aft of parliament or other wife is vefted in any body of men whatever for the public fervice, 3. " That it is a duty peculiarly incumbent on this houfe, encrufl;ed by the con- ftitution with the fole and feparate grant of public money, to watch over, and, by their timely admonitions and interference, to endeavour to prevent the ralh and precipitate exercife of any power, however vefled, which may be attended with anv danger to public credit, or with heavy loflcs to the revenue, and confequently bur- thenfome upon the people. 4. " That the refolutions of the 24th of December laft, which declared the fenfe and opinion of this houle, " That the commifTioners of the_Treafury ought not to . Z z 2 give -,56 E N G L A N D. give their confent to the acceptance of any bills drawn, or to be drawn from India, until it fhall be made appear to this hoiife that fufficient means can be provided for • the payment of the fame, when they refpedivejy fall due, by a regular application of the clear effeds of the company, after difcharging in their regular courfe the culloms and other fums due to the public, and the current demands upon the com- pany, or until this hoiife fliall othcrwife direft," were conftitutional, founded on a fenfe of duty towards the people of this kingdom, and diftated by a becoming anxiety for the prcfervation of the revenue, and the fupport of public credit. 5. " That if this houfe had in the unfettled ilate of the Eall India company, vhich was and ftill is under the confideration of parliament, in order to form fome provifions for the relief of that Company, and the fecurity of the public, neglect- ed to pafs the faid refolution of the 24th of December, to guard againft a new charge, to a very confidernble amount, being rafhly incurred before any means of anfwering it had been ilated or provided, they would have been jultly and highly ■refponfible to their conllituents lor the increale of thofe evils and difficulties which are too feverely felt. 6. " That this houfe will, with the utmoft moderation, but with the moft' decided firmnefs, maintain inviolably the principles of the conllitution, and will perfevere in rhe diligent and confcientious difcharge of the duties which they owe to their conlli- tuents and to their pofterity, equally folicitous to preferve their own. privileges, and to avoid any encroachments on thofe of either of the other branches of the legiflature." Perfons of the moft diftinguifhed and independent character in the houfe of com- mons, and in the kingdom, now wifhed that a difTolution had taken- place weeks be fore, even at the firlt forming of the coalition. Many laboured for a conciliation between Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox, and their confidential friends ; and lord North, ac length, confented to be left out in the forming a new adminiftration j but the co- alition infifted on Mr. Pitt's refignation as a preliminary, v/ithout which there could be no treaty. This being refufed, a majority of 11 out of 333 members of the- houfe of commons voted the following addrefs to the king: — " That this houfe, imprefied with the moft dutiful fenfe of his majefty's paternal regard for the wel- fare of his people, relies on his majefty's royal wifdom, that he will take luch mea- fores as, by remov'nig any obftacle to the formation of Jmh an adminif ration as this houfe has declared to be reqmftte in the prefent critical and arduous Jlate of public affairs, may tend to give efieft to the wifhts of his faithful commons which have already been) moft humbly reprefented to his majefty." The reply was mild, but in fitvourof his fervants. " Gentlemen, Tarn deeply fenfi- ble how highly it concerns the honour of my crown, and the welfare of my people, which is the objcdt always neartft my heart, that the public affairs fliould be con- duced by a firm, efficient, united, and extended adminiftration, entitled to the confidence of my people, and fuch as may have a tendency to put an end to the unhappy divifions and diftraftions in this country. — Very recent endeavours rtavc already been employed, on my part, to unite ia the public feivlce, on a fair and ecjual footing, thofe whofe joint efforts appear to me moft capable of producing that happy effeft : thefc endeavours have not had the fuccefs I wiflied. 1 fhall be always deiirous of taking every ftep moft conducive to fuch an objeft ; but I can- not fee that it would, in any degree, be atlvanced, by the difmillion of thofe at pre- fent in my fervice. " I obferve, at the ftime time, that there is no charge or complaint fuggeftcd againft my prefent minifters, nor is any one or more of them fpccifically objefled to ; and numbers of my fubjedfs have expreffed to me, in the wanneft manner, their fatisfactlon in the hue changes I have made in my councils. Under thefe circum- ftances, I truft, my faithful commons will not wifh that the ellential offices of exe- cutive ENGLAND. /.y Gtitive government fhould be vacated, until I fee a profpcd: chat fuch a [Am of union as I have called for, and they have pointed out, may be carried into effc(5t." This anfwer brought things to a crifis : the oppofition now talked of withholdineim or binn fignines a pinnacle, or mountain of the firft magnitude, ending in a Iharp or abrupt precipice. The two lalt: are often feen and compounded together in one and the fame range. Ireland, however, when compared with fome other countries, is far from being mountain- ous. The mountains of Mourne and Iveagh, in the county of Down, arc reckon- ed among fome of the highcrt in the kingdom; of which Slku-Denard has been cal- culated at a perpendicular height of 1056 yards. Many other mountains- are found in Ireland, but they contain little or nothing particular, if we except the fabulous hiftoriesthat are annexed to fome of them. Some of thefe mountains contain in their boweh beds of minerals, coals, ftone, flatc and marble, with veins of iron, lead, and copper. Forests.] The chief forefts in Ireland lie in Leiirflcr, the King's and Qicen's counties, and thofe of Wexford and Carlow. In Ulfter there are great forelh, and in the county of Donegall, and in the north part of Tyrone ; alio in the county »f Fermanao-h,. along Lough P^arne, and in the north part of the county of Down,, wherein is fome good timber; and the oak is eftecmed as good as^any of the Eng- lifli growth, and as fit for fliip-building-. MiTALS AND MINERALS.] The mines of Ireland are late difcoveries. SeveraJ. contain filvcr and Icatl, and it is faid that thirty pounds of their lead-ore produce a pound of filvcr; but the richclt filver mine is at Wicklow. A copper and lead niinc have been difcovered at Tipperary : as likewife iron ore, and excellent free- llone for building. Some of the Irilh marble quarries contain a kind of porphyry^ bcino- red ftripcd w ith white. Quarries of fine ilate are found in mofl: of the coun- ties. T'he coals that arc dug at Kilkenny emit very little linoke ; and it contains a cryftalline ftream.which has no fediment. Thofe peculiarities, with the Icrcnity of the air in that place, have given rife to the well-known proverb, That Kilkenny contains fire witliout fmoke, water without mud, and air without fog. Vecetabll and animal produc- I There is little that falls under this head TiONS BY SEA AND LAND. 5 t^hat is peculiar to Ireland, hcrprodiidtions being much the fame as thofe of England and Scotland. Ireland affords excellent lurf and mofs, which arc of vafl. fcrvicc for firing, where wood and coals arc fcarcc. A few IRELAND. ->>, A few wolves were formerly foimd in Ireland ; but they have been long fincc ex- terminated by their wolf-dogs, which are much larger than mailiffs, Ihapcd like greyhounds, yet as gentle and governable as fpaniels. VVhut I have already ob- served about the Irilh exportation of fait provifions, fufficiently evinces the prodi- gious numbers of hogs and fheep, as well as black cattle, bretl in that kingdont. Rabbits are fald to be more pleniitid there than in England. I'he fiih that are caught upon the coails ot Ireland arc likewife in greater plenty than on thofe of England, and fome of them larger and more excelknt in their kind. Population, inhabitants, man- |^ Ireland is faid to contain two millions NERS, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS, i and a half of inhabitants ; but I fufpedt that the calculation is overcharged by near half a million. As It is of great con- fequence to afcertain as nearly as pofFible the numbers of inhabitants of Ireland of both religions, we fhall give them according to the bcft accounts, as they ll;ood in the four provinces in 1733. I'rotelbnt Families. Popifli Families. In Ulfter — — 62,620 38,459 Leinfter — — 25, 23*^ 92142 + IMundci- — — 15,337 . . 106,407 Counaught — — 4,299 44,' 33 Total 105,494 Total 281,423 Which, at five to each fiimilv in the country, and ten for Dublin, and feven for Cprk city, makes in all 2,015,229 fouls. I am apt to think, when we confider, the walte of war by fea and land, and the valt emigrations of the Irifh to England, the Britiih colonies, and other nations, that the above calculation may nearly ferve for the prefent times, though the balance of number is certainly greatly rifen on the fide of Proteftantifm ; but in fome late debates in the Irifli parliament, it has been af- ferted, that the number of i. '.habitants of Ireland amount to three millions. As to the manners of the ancient Irifli, Dr. Lcland obferves, that if we make our enquiries on this lubjetft in Engllfli writers, we find their reprefentations odious and difgulVing: if from writers of their own race, they frequently break out into the moft animated encomiums of their great anceftors. The one can fcarcely allow them any virtue : the other, in their enthufiaflic ardour, can fcarcely difco- ver the leaft imperfection in their laws, government, or manners. The hiflorian of I'.ngland fometimes regards them as the mofl deteflable, and contemptible of the human race. The antiquary of Ireland raifcs them to an illuffrious eminence, above all other European countries. Yet, when we examine their records, v. ith- out regard to legendary tales or poetic fidtions, we find them, even in their moft brilliant periods, advanced only to an imperfeft civilization, a flate which exhibits the moil; ftriking inlfances both of tiie virtues and the vices of humanity. With refpefl to the prefent defendants of the old Irifb, or, as they are termed by the Proteftants, the mere IriJI?, they are generally reprefcntcd as an ignorant, uncivilized, and blundering fort of people. Impatient of abufe and injury, they are implacable and violent in all their affeftions ; but quick of apprehenfion, cour- teous to ftrangers, and patient of hardlhips. Though in thefe refpeds there is, perhaps, little difference between them and the more uninformed part of their neighbours, yet their barbarifms are more eafy to be accounted for from accidental than natural caufes. By far the greateft number of them are Papifls, and it is the intereft of their priefts, wlio govern them with an abfolute fway, to keep them in the moll profound ignorance. They have alfo laboured under many difcourao-e- rnentSj which in their own country have prevented the exertion both of their men- 3 B 2 tal 372 I P E J. AND, till and bodily faculties; but when employed in the ferviceof foreign pninces, they have been diftinguiihed for intrepidity, courage, and fidelity. Many of their fur- n'ames have an O, or Mac, placed before theirij which fignify grandfon and fon ; forn-ierly the O was ufd by their chiefs only, or fuch as piqued themfeives upon the antiquity of their families. Their mufic is the bag-pipe, but their tunes are jienerally of a melancholy ftra-in ; though fome of the lateft airs are lively, and, wiitn fung by an Irifnman, extremely diverting. I'he old Irifn is generally fpoken in the interior parts of the kingdom, where fome of the old uncouth curtoms ftill prevail, particularly their funeral bowlings j but this cuftom m.ay be traced in many countries of the continent. Their cuftom of placing a dead corpfe before their doors, laid out upon tables, having a plate upon the body to excite the charity of pafTcngers, is pra6tifed even in the ikirts of Dublin, though one would wifh to fee it aboiillicd. Their convivial meetings on Sunday afternoon, with dancing to the bacrpipe, and more often quarrelling among themfeives, is otfcnfive to every ll:rano-er. But, as we have already obferved, thefe cuftoms are chiefly confined to the more unpoliflied provinces of the kingdom, particularly Connaught; the com- mon people there having the leaft fenfe of law and government of any in Ireland, while their tyrannical landlords or leafeholders fqueeze the poor v^ithout mer- cy. The common Irifh, in their manner of living, feem to refemble the an- cient Britons, as defcribed by Roman authors, or the prcfent Indian inhabitants of America. Mean huts or cabins built of clay and ftraw, partitioned in the middle by a wall of the fame materials, ferve the double purpofes of accommo- datino- the family, who live and fleep promifcuoufly, having their fires of turf in the middle of the floor, with an opening through the roof for a chimney ; the other being occupied by a cow, or fuch pieces of furniture as are not in immediate ufe. Their wealth confifts of a cow, fometimes a horfc, fome poultry, and a fpot for po- tatoes. Coarfe bread, potatoes, eggs, milk, and fifh, conftitute their food; for how- ever plentifully the fields may be rtocked with cattle, thefe poor natives feldom tafte butcher's meat of any kind. Their children, plump, robuft and hardy, fcarcely know the ufe of cloaths, and are not afiiamed to appear naked on the roads, and gaze upon ftrangers. The Spaniards and French, particularly the latter, have not failed to avail them- feives of the uncomfortable Situation in which the Irifh were at home, by alluring them to enter their fervice; and in this they have hitherto been affifted by priefts- and Jefuits, whofe intereft it was to infufe into the minds of their credulous difci- ples an averfion to. the Britifli government: but we have now the pleafing profped; of a happy reformation among thefe people, in confequence of the late laws paiTed by the parliament of Great Britain in favour of Ireland, as well as from the numerous Eno-lifli proteftant working fchools lately efiabliflied over the kingdom; which infti- tutions will undoubtedly llrike deeper at the root of popery than all the endeavours of the Britllli monarchs to reduce them. The defcendants of the Englifh and Scots, fince the conqucft of Ireland by Henry II. though not the moil ntunerous, form the wealthieft part of the nation. Of thefe are moll; of the nobility, gentry, and principal traders, who inhabit the taftern and northern coafts, where moft of the trade of Ireland is carried on ; efpe- cially Bclfaft, Londonderry, and other parts of the province of Ulfter, which, though the poorell foil, is, next to Dublin and its neighbourhood, the bell cultivated •and mod flourilliing part of the kingdom. Here a colony of Scots, in the reign of James 1. and other Prefbyterians, who fled from perfecution in that country in the i'ucceeding reigns, planted themfeives, and eilablilhed that great fliaplc of Irifii wealth ihe linen manufactory, which they have fince carried on and brought to the utmofl: I perfedion . I Pv E L A N D. ^-^ perfcftion. From this fliort review it appears, that the prefent inhabitants are coni- pofetlof tlireedirtincSt clafles of people; the old Irifh, poor, ignorant, and deprcflcd, wlio inhabit, or rather cxiil, upon the interior or wefiern parts; the defcendants of the Englifli, who inhabit Dublin, Waterford, and Cork, and who gave a new ap- pcaranee to the whole coafl facing England, by the introduflion of arts, commercej fcicncc, and moie liberal and cultivated ideas of tlie true God and primitive Chrif- tianity. Thirdly, emigrants from Scotland in the northern provinces, who, like the others, are fo zealouily attached to their own religion and manner of living, that it will require fome ages before the inhabitants of Ireland are fo thoroughly con^- Iblidateil and blended as to become one people. The gentry, and better ibrt of the Irifh nation in general differ little in language, drels, manners, and cultoms, from thofc of the fame rank in Great Britain, whom they imitate. Their holpitality is well known, but in this they are fometimes fufpected of more oftentation than real fricndfliip. Religion.] The eftablifl-ied religion and ccclefianical difcipline of Ireland is the fame with that of England. Among the bulk of the people in the mod un- cultivated parts, popery, and that too of the moll; abfurd, illiberal kind, is prevalent. The Irifli papills ftill retain their nominal bifhops and dignitaries, who fubfiil: on the voluntary contributions of their votaries. But even the blind fubmifllon of the latter to their clergy, does not prevent Proteftantifm from making a very rapid pro- grefs in the towns and communities. How far it may be the interefl of England, that fome kind of balance between the two religions fhould be kept up, 1 fhall not here enquire. Ireland contains at leaft as many feftaries as England, particu-- larly Pre/byterians, Baptifts, Quakers, and Methodifts, who are all of them con- nived at or tolerated. Great efforts have been made, ever fince the days of James I. in erefting free-fchools for civilifing and converting the Irifh Papilts to Protef- tantifm. The inflitution of the incorporated focicty for promoting Englifh Protcf- tant working-fchools, though of no older date than- 1717, has been amazingly fuccefsful, as have many inllitutions of the fame kind, in introducing induilry and. knowledge among the Irilh. Toward promoting thefe ufeful purpofes, the parlia- ment of Ireland has been uncommonly liberal; but many of its grants have beer. mifmanaged or mifapplied. Archbishoprjcks AND EisHOPRicKS.] The archbifliopx-icks are four ; Armao-h, Dublin, Caflrel, and Tuam. The bifhopricks are eighteen, viz. Clogher, Clonfert,CIoyne, Cork, Derry, Down^ Drumore, Elphin, Kildare, Killala, Kilmore, Killaloe, Leighlin, Limeric, Meath. Offory, Raphoe, and Waterford. Language.] The language of the Iriih is fundamentally the fame with the Britifh and Welch, and a dialeft of the Celtic, which is made ufe of by the Scotch Highlanders, oppofite the Irifh coalts. It is, however, in a great meafure defaced by provincial alterations, but not fo altered as to render the Iriflr, Welch, and Elighlanders, unintelligible to each other. The ufage of the Irifli language oc-- cafions among the common people, who fpeak both that and the Engliili, a dif- agreeable tone in fpeaking, v/hich diffufes itfelf among the vulgar in general, and even among the better fort, who do nof underftand Irifli. It is probable, how- ever, that a few ages hence the latter will be accounted among the de-ad lan- juages. Learning and learned men.] Learning feeras to have been cultivated in- Ireland at a very early period. Mr. O'Halloran fays,, that the Irifh 'appear to * have been, from the moft remote antiquity, a polifhed people, and that with ' propriety they may be called, the Fathers of Letters.' We are even told, than- Egypt received arts and letters from Niulus the Phcenicianj. who is reprcfcnted as-- the- 374 IRELAND. the great anceftor of the Iriih nation. But thefe accounts are confuiered Ly many as fabulous: and it has been obfcrvcd that no literary monuments have yet been difcovercd in Ireland earlier than the introduftion ot Chriftianity into this country ; and that the evidence of any tranfaftions previous to this period, refls entirely on the credit of Chriftian writers, and their colleftions from old pofts, or their tran- fcripts of records deemed to have been made in the times of Paganifm. It is faid, that when St. Patrick* landed in Ireland, he found many holy and learned Chriftian preachers there, whofe votaries were pious and obedient. Camden .obferves, that ' the Irilh fcholars of St. Patrick profited fo notably in Chridianity, * that, in the fuccecding age, Ireland was termed SanHorum Patria. Their monks * fo greatly excelled in learning and piety, that they fent whole flocks of moft * learned men into all parts of Europe, v.ho were the firft founders of Lieuxeu •* abbey, in Burgundy; of the abbey Bobie, in Italy; of Wirtzburgh, in Franco- * nia; St. Gall, in Swirzcrland; and of Malmfbury, Lindisfarran, and many other * monafteries in Britain.' We have aUb the teftimony of Venerable Bede, that about the middle of the feventh century, many nobles, 'and other orders of the \Anglo-Saxons, retired from their own country into Ireland, either for initruftion, or for an opportunity of living in monafteries of ftrictcr difeipline : and that the Scots (as he ftylcs the Irifh) maintained them, taught them, and furnilhed them with books, without fee or reward : ' a moll honourable teftimony,' fays lord l.yttleton, ' not only to the learning, but likewifc to the hoTpitality and bounty of * that nation.' Dr. Lcland remarks, that a conflux ol foreigners to a retired ifland, at a time when Europe was in ignorance and confulion, gave peculiar luflre to this fent of learning: nor is it improbable or furprifing, that feven thoufand Hudcnts ftudied at Armagh, agreeably to the accounts of Irilh writers, though xhe feminaryof Armagh was but one of thofe numerous colleges eredted in Ireland. in modern times, the Irifli have alfo diAinguillied themfelves in the republic of letters.. Archbifhop Uflrer does honour to his country. Dean Switf , v/ho was a na- tive of Ireland, has perhaps never been equalled in the walks of wit, humour, and fatire. The fprlghtlinefs of Farquhar's wit is well known to all lovers of the drama. And among the men of diftinguifhed genius whom Ireland has lately produced, may alfo be particularly mentioned fir Richard Steele, biihop Berkeley, Parnel, Sterne, and Goldlmith. Universities.] Ireland contains but one univcrfity, which is denominated Trinity-college. It confilb of two fquares, in the whole of which are thirty-three buildings, of eight rooms each. Three fides of one of the fcjuares are of brick, and the fourth is a very fuperb librarv, but being built of bad ftone, it is unfor- tunately mouldering away. The infidc is beautiful and commodious, and em- bellifhed with the bufts of feveral ancient and modern worthies. A great part of the books on one fide were colleded by archbifhop Uflier, who was one of the ori- ginal members of this body. The new fcpiare, three fides of which have been lately built, by parliamentary bounty, and from thence called Parliament Square, is of hewn ftone; and rhc front of it, next the city of Dublin, is ornamented with pilafters, feftoons, &c. The provofl's houfe has an elegant little front, entirely of Portland ftone. The chapel is a very mean ftrufture, as is alfo the old hall, wherein college exerciles are performed : but the new hnll, in which the mem- bers of the college dine, is a fair and large room. In their muieum, is a fet of figures in wax, rcprefenting females in every ftate of pregnancy. Tliey are done upon real ft.eletons, and are the labours of almoll the whole life of a French artillr. » It li-.is l)ccn afliimcd, th;it Rt f'.itrick wns a f^ys, that " it ap|:(-:irs from the mod auihtntic rc- •Scotchinan; but Mr. O'Halloian denies this, ami " toitls, that Patrick was from Wales." This IRELAND. 375 This fcminary was fouiKled and endowed by queen Elizabeth ; but llie original foundation confifted only of a provod, three fellows, and three fcholars; which has from time to time, been augmented to twenty-two fellows, fcventy fcholars, and thirty fizcrs. However, the vvhole number of ftudcnts is at prcfent about four hundred; who are ot three dalles, fellow-commoners, penfioners, and fizcrs, or fcrvitors. Of the fellows, feven are called feniors, and the annual income of each of thefe is about feven hundred pounds. The provoftfhip is fuppofcd to be worth three thoufand pounds a year. Trinity-college has a power of conferring degrees of bachelors, matters, and dodtors, in all the arts and faculties. The vifitors are, the chancellor or vice-chancellor, and the archbifhop of Dublin. Antiquities and curiosities 7 I have already mentioned the wolf-dogs in NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ Ireland. The Irilh gof-hawks and ger-falcons arc celebrated for their flia[ie and beauty. The moofe-decr is thought to have been formerly a native ot this illand, their horns being fometimes dug up of fo great a fize, that one pair has been found near eleven feet from the tip ot the right horn, to the tip of the left; but the greateft natural curiofuy in Ireland is the Giant's Cautevvay in the county of Antrim, about eight miles from Colerain, which is thus delcribed by Dr. Pococke, late bifliop of Olfory, a celebrated traveller and anti- quary. He lays, ' that he meafured the uioft wetlerly point at high water, to the dillance of 360 feet from the cliflT; but was told, thar at low \\ater it extended 60 feet farther upon a defcent, till it was loft in the fea. Upon meafuring the eafterii point, he found it 540 feet from the cliff; and faw as much more of it as of the other, where it winds to the eaft, and is like that loft in the water. ' The caufeway is compofed of pillars all of angular fhapes, from three fides ta eight. The eaftern point, where it joins the rock, terminates in a perpendicular cliff', formed by the upright fides of the pillars, fome of which arc thirty-three feec four inches high. Each pillar confifts of feveral joints or ftones, lying one upon another, from fix inches to about one foot in thicknefs; and what is very furprifing, fome of thefe joints are fo convex, that their prominences are nearly quarters of fpheres, round each of which is a ledge, which holds them together with the greateft firmnefs, every ftone being concave on the other fide, and fitting in the exa(5lcft manner the convexity of the upper part of that beneath it. The pillars, are from one to two feet in diameter, and generally confift of about forty joints, moft of which feparate very eafily, and one may walk along upon the tops of the pillars as far as to the edge of the water. ' But this is not the moft fingular part of this extraordinary curiofity, the cliffs themfelvcs being ftill more furpiifing. From the bottom, which is of black ftone, to the height of about fixty feet, they are divided at equal diftances by ftripes of a reddifli ftone, that refen^blcs a cement, about four inches in thicknefs ;. upon this there is another ftratum of the fame black ftone^ with a ftratum five inches thick of the red. Over this is another ftratum ten feet thick, divided in the lame manner ; then a ib-atum of the red ftone twenty feet deep, and above that a ftratum of upright pillars ; above thefe pillars lies another ftratum of black ilone, twenty tcet high ; and, above this again, another ftratum of upright pillars, rifing in lome places to the tops of the cUf!s, in others not To high, and in others again above it, where they are called the chimneys. The t'ace of thefe cliffs ex- tends about three Englifti miles.' The cavities, the romantic profpedts, cataradts, and other plcafing and un- common natural objedts to be met with in Ireland, are too numerous to be called rarities, and feveral pamphlets have been employed in dcfcribing them. As tO' the artificial rarities in Ireland, the chief arc the round Pharos, or ftone tovvers found upon the coafts. and fuppofcd to be built by the Danes and Norwegians in t:heir 376 ' IRELAND. their piratical excuifions, who made ufeof them as fpy-towers or barbicans, light- houfes or beacons. Cities, towns, forts, and other 7 Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is in EDIFICES PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 5 tn^g'"'^'-^'^^ "'""^ populourncfs, the I'ccond city in the Britifli dominions ; much about the fize of Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, and Lvons, and is fuppofcd to contain near 200,000 inhabitants. It is lituated 270 miles north-weil of London, and near fixty m.iles weft from Holy- head in North Wales, the ufual ftation of the paffage vefTels between Great Britain and Ireland. Dublin ftands about ieven miles from the fea, at the bottom of a large audfpacious bay, to which it gis'es nam.?, upon the river Liffey, which divides it almoft into two equal parts, and is banked in through the whole length of the .^itv, on both fides, which forms fpacious and noble quays, where vefTels below the firft bridp-e load and unload before the merchants doors and ware-houfes. A ftran- f^cr, ijpon entering the bay of Dublin, which is about feven miles broad, and in llormy weather extremely dangerous, is agreeably furprifed with the beautiful profpci5t on each fide, and the dlftant view of Wicklow mountains ; but Dublin, from its low fuuationj makes no great appearance. Dublin has greatly increafed within twenty years laft paft, and it is generally fuppofed that 7000 houfes have been added to the city and fuburbs fince the reign of queen Anne. The number of houfes in the year 1777, was 17,151, and there have been many new buildings <;refted fince. In its appearance, this city bears a near refemblance to London. The houfes are of biick ; the old Ilreets are narrow and mean, but the new Iheets iire as elegant as thofe of the metropolis of Great Britain. Sackville-ftreet, which is fomctimes called the Mall, is particularly noble. The houfes are elegant, lofty, and uniformly built, and a gravel walk runs through the whole at an equal diftance from the fides. The river Liffey, though navigable as far as the cuftom-houfc, or centre of the •city, is but fmall, when compared with the Thames at London. Over it are two handfome ftone-bridges, lately built in imitation of that at Weftminfter, and there are three others that have little to recommend them. Formerly the centre of Dub- lin, towards the cullom-houfe, was crowded and inconvenient for commercial pur- pofes ; but of late a new ftreet has been opened, leading from Eflex-bridge to the caflle, where the lord-lieutenant refidcs. A new exchange has likewife been credfcd, an elegant ll;rufture of white ftone, richly embellillied with icmi-columns of the Corinthian order, a cupola, and other ornaments. The barracks are plcafantly fituated on an eminence near the river. They confift of four large courts, in which are generally (luartered four battalions of foot, and one regiment of horfe ; from hence the caftle and city guards are relieved daily. They are faid to be the largcft and completeft building of the kind in Europe, be- ing capable of containing 3000 toot and 1000 horle. 'The linen hall was ercfted at the public expence, and opened in the year 1728, for the reception of fuch linen cloths as were brought to Dublin for falc, for v^'hich there arc convenient apartments. It is entirely under the dircftion of the truflces for the cncouragcrnent of the linen manufaftory of Ireland, who arc •compofed of the lord chancellor, the primate, the archbifhop of Dublin, and the principal part of the nobility and gentry. This national inftitution is produdfive .of great advantages, by preventing many frauds which othcrwife would be com- mitted in a capital branch of trade, by which many thoufands are employed, and the kin:.;dom greatly enriched. Stephen's Green is a moft extenfive fquarc, round which is a gravel walk of near a n\ile. Here genteel company walk in the evenings, and on Sundays at'ter two o'Uock ; :axl in fine weather make a very gay appearance. Many of the houfes round IRELAND, 377 round the green arc very ftalel)', but a want of unifonnily is obfervahle throughoul the whole. Ample amends will be made for this defeft by another fpacious fquare near Stephen's Gtccn, now laid out and jiartly built. The front of Trinicy-coUege, extending above 300 feet, is built of Portland ftone in the fineft tafte. The parliament houfe was begun in 1729, and finilhed in 1739, at the expencc of 40,0001. This luperb pile is, in general, of the Ionic order. The portico is magnificent ; the internal parts have many beauties, and the manner in which the building is lighted, has been much admired. But one of the greateft and moll laudable undertakings that this age can boaft of, is the building a llone-wall about the breadth of a moderate il;rcer, and of a proportionate height, and three miles in length, to confine the channel of the bay, and tofhclter vcffcls in ftorniy weather. The civil government of Dublin is by a lord-mayor, &:c. the fame as in London. Kvery third year, the lord-mayor, and the twenty-four companies, by virtue of an old charter, are obliged to perambulate the city, and its liberties, which they call riding the franchifes. Upon this occafion the citizens vie with each other in fhow and oltentation, which is fomctimcs productive of difagreeablc confequences to many of their families. In Dublin there are two large theatres, that are generally well filled, and which ferve as a kind of nurfcry to thofe in London. In this city are 18 parifh churches, 8 chapels, 3 churches for French, and i for Dutch pro- rcftants, 7 prefbyterian meeting-houfes, i for mcthodifts, 2 for quakers, and 16 Roman catholic chapels. A royal hofpital, like that at Chelfea, for invalids ; a lying-in liolpital, with gardens, built and laid out in the fineft tafte ; an hofpital for lunatics, founded by the famous Dean Swift, who himfelf died a lunatic ; and fundry other hofpitals for patients of every kind. Some of the churches have been lately rebuilt, and others are rebuilding with more tafte. And, indeed, which ever way a ganger turns himfelf in this city, he will perceive mark's of elegance ; and if he extends his views over the whole kingdom, he will conclude that works ot ornament and public utility are no where more encouraged than in Ireland, chiefly through the munificence of parliament. It is, however, matter of furprife, that with all this fpirit of national improve- ment, tecv or no good inns are to be met with in Ireland. Even in the capital, there is not one inn which deferves that name. This may, in fome meafure, be account- ed for by the long, and fometimes dangerous paifage from Chefter and Holyhead to Ireland, which prevents the gentry of England, with their families, from vifit- ing that ifland ; but as it is now propofetl to make turnpike roads to Portpatrick in Scotland, from whence the paifage is fiiort and fafe, the roads of Ireland may by this means become more freeiucnted. Cork is defervedly reckoned the fecond city in Ireland, In magnitude, riches, and commerce. It lies 129 miles fouth-weil of Dublin, and contains above 8500 houfes. Its haven is deep, and flieltered from all ivinds ; but fmall veffels only can come up to the city, which ftands about feven miles up the river Lee. This is the chief port of merchants in the kingdom ; and there is, perhaps, more beef, tallow, and butter, fhipped oftMierc, than in all the other ports of Ireland together. Hence there is a great refort of fiiips to this port, particularly of thole bound from Great Britain to Jamaica, Barbadoes, and all the Caribbec iflands, which put in' here to vidfual and complete their lading. It appears, that in the reign of Ed- ward IV. there were 11 churches in Cork, though there are now only feven, and yec it has ever fince that time been ellcemed a thriving city ; but It muA be obierv- cd, that befide the churches, there are at this time fix miafs-houfes, two dlflentintJ- meeting-houfes, another for (]U2kers,aad a chapel for French proC'.^ftints. Kinfale is a populous and itrong town, with an excclL-nt harbour, and confiderable com- merce and fliipping : and it is, moreover, oeearionally a llation for the royal navv ; for which end this j^wrt is furniflicd wuh proper naval oBiccrs raid llorekeepers. 3 C ■ Water- 3y8 IRELAND. Waterford comes next fo Cork for riches and fhipping, and contains 2561 houfcs. It: is commanded by Duncannon Fort, and on the weft fide of the town is a citadel^ Limericlc is a handfomc, populous, commercial, ftrong city, it lies on both fideS the Shannon, and contains 5257 houfes. Belfaft, is a large fea-port and trading town at the mouth of the Lagen Water, where it falls into Carrickfergus bay. Downpatrick has a flourifliing linen manu- facture. Carrickfergus (or Knocktergus), by fome deemed the capital town of the province, has a good harbour and caftle, but little commerce. Derry (or Londen- derrv, as it is moft vifually called) Hands on Lough-Foyl, is a ftrong, but fmall city, having linen manufatlurcs, with Ibme commerce and ftiipping. This northern parr of Ireland is fituatcd fo near to Scotland, that they are in fight of each other's coafts, Donegal, the county-town of the fame name (otherwife called the county of Tyr- connel), is a place of fome trade ; as is likewife Enniikllling. All which lail men- tioned places, and others lei's confiderable are molt induftrioufly employed in the manufaduring of linen, and linen thread, to the great benefit of the whole king- dom, which, by its vr.ft annual cxportations of linen into England, is enabled to pay for the great annual importations from England into Ireland ; and likewife to render the money conftantly drawn from Ireland into England, by her abfentces,. lefs grievous to her. Thouoh Ireland contains no ftrong places, according to the modern improve- ments in fortification, yet it has feveral forts and garrifons, that ferve as comfort- able finecures to military officers. The chief are Londonderry and Culmore fort, Cork, Limerick, Kinfale, Duncannon, Rofs-Caftle, Dublin, Charlemont, Galway, Carrickfergus, Maryborough, and Athlone. Each of thefe forts is furnifiied with deputy-governors, under various denominations, who have pecuniary provifions ■ from the government. ♦ Commerce and manufactures.] The exports of Ireland are linen-cloth, yarn, lawns, and cambrics, horfes, black cattle, beef, pork, green hides, tan- ned leather, calf fkins dried, tallow, butter, candles, cheefe, ox and cow-horns, ox-hair, horfe-hair, lead, copper-ore, herrings, dried-fifh, rabbit-fkins and fur, otter-fkins, goat-&ins, and falmon ; but it is probable that the exports of Ireland will be greatly increafed by the late laws pafi'cd in favour of the trade of that kino-dom.. It is certain that the Irilh have carried their inland manufactures, even thofe of luxury, to a confiderable height, and that their lord-lieutenants, and their court, have of late greatly encouraged them, and while they are in that govern- ment, make ufe of no other. Commercial institutions.] The Dublin fociety for the encouragement of manufadtures and commerce was incorporated 1750. The linen-hall eredcd at Dublin, is under as juft and nice regulations as any commercial houfe in Europe. Constitution and government.] Ireland was formerly entitled the domi- nion or lordfliip of Ireland, and the king's ftyle was no other than Dominus Hi- bcrnifB, lord of Ireland, till the 33d year of king Henry VIII. when he afi'umed the title of king, which is recognifed by aft of parliament in the fame reign^ B^uc as Eno-land and Scotland arc now one and the fame kingdom, and yet differ in their municipal laws ; fo England and Ireland are dillinift kingdoms, and yet in general agree in their laws.. For after the conqueft of Ireland by king Henry II. the laws ot England were received and fworn to by the Irifli nation, affembled at the coun- cil of Lifmorc. And as Ireland, thus conquered, planted, and governed, continued in a ftatc of dependence, it was thought neceffary that it fiiould conform to, and be ©biigcd by, fuch laws as the fuperior ftatc thought proper to prefcribe. But this ftate of dependence being almoft forgotten, and ready to be difputed by the Iriih nation, it was thought necefl"ary fome years ago, to declare how that matter flood : and therefore, by Itatute 6th of George I. it is declared, " that the king;- IRELAND. 379 kingdom of Ireland ought to be fubordinate to, and dependent upon, the imperial crown of Great Britain, as being infeparably united thereto : and that the king's majcfty, with the conlent of the lords and commons of Great Britain, in parlia- ment, hath power to make laws to bind the people of Ireland." This determina-, tion of the Britifh parliament occafioned much diU'atisfadlion among the Irifh, who at length, feeling their own ilrength by means of their volunteer airociations, and encouraged and favoured by the leveral parties contending for the adminiftration in England, obtained, in the year 1782, a formal repeal of the above Itatute, which was confidered as a renunciation on the part of the parliament of Great Britain of every claim of Icgiflation over Ireland. The conflitution of the Irifh government, as it Hands at prcfent, with regard to diftributive jullice, is nearly the fame with that of England. A chief governor, who generally goes by the name of lord-lieutenant, is lent over from England bv the king, whom he reprefcnts ; but his power is in fome meafure retrained, and in others enlarged, according to the king's pleafure, or the exigency of the times. On his entering upon this honourable office, his letters patent arc publicly read in the council-chamber ; and having taken the ufual oaths before the lord-chancellor, the fword, which is to be carried before him, is delivered into his hands, and he is feated in the chair of Hate, attended by the lord chancellor, the members of the privy-council, the peers and nobles, the king at arms, aferjeant at mace, and othei officers of ftate ; and he never apjiears publicly without being attended by a body of horfe-guards. Hence, with rcfpedl to his authority, his train, and fplcndor, there is no viceroy in Chriftendom that comes nearer to the grandeur and majefty of a king. He has a council com poled of the great officers of the crown ; namely, the chancellor, treafurer, and fuch of the archbifhops, earls, biihops, barons, judges, and gentlemen, as his majefly is pleafed to appoint. The parliament here, as well as in England, is the fupreme court, which is convened by the king's v/rit, and generally fits once every year. It conlifts, as in England, of a houfe of lords and commons. Of the former, many are Engliili or Britifh peers, or commons of Great Britain ; a few are papifls, who cannot fit without being properly qualified ; and the number of commons amount to about three hundred. Since the accefTion of his prefent majefty, Irifli parliaments have been rendered octennial. The repre- fentation of the people in the fenate of Ireland, is in many inftances like that of England, partial, and inadequate. The atts paffed by the houfe of lords and commons are fent to England tor the apjirobation of his majefty and council, which having obtained, they pafs the great fealof England, and are returned. For the regular dilfribution of jullice, there are in Ireland four terms held an- nually for the decifion of caufes ; and four courts of juftice, the chancery, king's- bench, common-pleas, and exchequer. The high flieriffs of the feveral counties were formerly chofen by the people, but are now nominated by the lord-lieutenant. From this general view it appears, that the civil and ecclefiaftical inftitutions are al- moft the fame in Ireland as in England. Revenues.] In Ireland the public revenue arifes from hereditary and temporary duties, of which the king is the tvuftce, for applying it to particular purpofes ; but there is, befidcs this, a private revenue arifing from the ancient demelne lands, from forfeitures for treafon and felony, prifage of wines, iight-houfe duties, and a fmi^l part of the cafual revenue, not granted by puliament ; and in this the crown has the fame unlimited propert)' that a lubjed; has in his own freehold. The extent of that revenue is perhaps a fecret to the public. The revenue of Ireland exceeds i,ooo,oool. and the public expenditure am.ounrs nearly to that fum. In 1784 the national debt was 2,131,6251. chiefly contracted for national improvements. 3 C 2 Coins. 38o IRELAND, Coins.] The coins of Ireland are at prefcnt of the fame denominations and the like fabric with thofe of England, only an Englifh fhilling pafles in Ireland for thirteen pence. What the ancient coins of the Irifia were, is at prefent a matter of mere curioiity and great uncertainty. Military strength.) Ireland now maintains and pays an army of 15,000 men ; and the military force of Ireland has been greatly increafcd by the many volunteer alfociated companies, which have been lately formed in that kingdom. Thofe parts of Ireland that are moft cultivated, contain numbers of inhabitants that have very little fenfe either of divine or human laws, and regular forces are abfolutely neceflary for keeping them in order ; vvitnefs the lace infurreflions of the Whiteboys, and other banditti, inlligated, it is faid, by their priefts. It docs not, however, appear, that the bulk of the Irifli Catholics are fond of a revolution in government, as few or none ot them joined Thurot in his defcent upon Carrick- fcrgus, or took anv part with the Pretender in the laft rebellion. Order of St. Patrick.] This order was inftituted February 5, and the in- ftallation of the firft knights was performed on the 17th of March 1783. It con- lills of the fovereign and fifteen other knights companions. The lord lieutentants of Ireland for the time being officiate as grand malliers of the order, and th.e archbi- Ihop of Armagh is the prelate, the archbilliop cf Dublin the chancellor, and the dean of St. Patrick the regifter of the order. The knights are inflalled in the ca- thedral of St. Patrick, Dublin. Their robes are fplendid, and the badge is three crowns united together on a crofs, with the motto round ^lis Jeparabit, 1783, faftened by an Irilla harp to the crown imperial. A liar of eight points encircles it on the coat. History.] The hiftory of Ireland has been carried to a very remote antiquity, and may, with greater juilice than that of almoft any other country, be diftinguilhed into the legendary and authentic. In the reign of Edward II. an Ulfter prince boall- ed to the pope of an uninterrupted fucceffion of one hundred and ninety-feven kings of Ireland, to the year 1170. Even the more moderate Irilli antiquaries cairy their hiftory up to about 500 years before the Chriftian sera, at which time they aliert, that a colony of Scythians, immediately from Spain, fettled in Ireland, and intro- duced the Phoenician language and letters into that country ; and that however ic might have been peopled flill earlier from Gaul or Britain, yet Heber, Heremon, and Ith, the fons of Milefius, gave a race of kings to the Irifh, diftinguifhed by the names of Gadelians and Scuiis, or Scots. But as our limits will not permit us to en- iar<>-e on the dark and contelfed part of the Irifn hillory, we fhall only cbfervc, that it was about the middle of the fifth century that the great apoftleof Ireland, St.' Pa- trick, was employed in the propagation of Chriftianity in that kingdom, though ChriOian miffionarics had been there long before, by whofe means it had made a confidcrable progrefs among the inhabitants of Ireland. After this period, Ireland was occafionally invaded by the Saxon kings of England ; but in the year 795 and 798 the Danes and Normans, or as they were called, the Eafterlings, invaded the coafts of Ireland, and were the firft who erefted ftone edifices there. The com- mon habitations of the Irifli, till that time, were of hurdles covered with ftraw and rufties, and but very few of folid timber. The natives defended thcmfelves brave- ly ao-ainft the Eafterlings, who built Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, Wexford, ami Cork; but they refided chieHy at Dublin, or in its neighbourhood, which, by tlie old Iiifh, was called Eingal, or the Land of Strangers. The natives, about tlie year <;62, feemed to have called to their afliftance the Anglo-Saxon king Edgar, who had then a confidcrable maritime power ; and this miglit have given occafion for his clergy to call him king of great part of Ireland. It is certain that f)ublin was about that time a flourifliing city, and chat the native Irilh gave the Eafterlings fe- veral IRELAND. 381 veral defeats, though fupported by their countrymen from tlie continent, the Ifle of Man, and the Hebrides. , In tlie twelfth century, Henry the Second of England formed a defign of annerc- ing Ireland to his dominions. He is faid to iiave been induced to this by the provo- cation he had received from fomc of the Irifh chieftains, who had afforded confi- derable afliftance to his enemies. I lis defign was patronifed by the pope, and a fair pretext of attacking Ireland offered abovu the the year 1168. Dennot Mac Mur- rough, king of Lcinfter, and an oppreflive tyrant, quarrelled with all his neigh- bours, and carried ofi" the wife of a petty prince, O'Roirk. A confederacy being formed ag.iinft him, under Roderic O'Connor (wlio it fecms was the paramount king of Ireland) he was driven from his country, and took, refuge at the court of Henry IL who promifed to reftore him, upon taking an oatli of fealty to the crown of England for fiimlelf, and all the petty kings depending on him, who were very numerous. Henry, who was then in France, recommended iVIac Dermot's caufe to the Englifli barons, and particularly to Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, Robert Fitz Stepiicn, and Maurice Fitz Gerald. Thofi; noblemen undertook the cxpedi' tion upon much the lame principles as the Norman and Breton lords did the con- quefl of iingland under William I. and Strongbow was to marry Mac Dermot's daughte/Eva. In 1 169, the adventurers reduced the towns of Wexford and Wa- terforcr; and the next year Strongbow arriving with a llrong reinforcement, his- .marriage was celebrated. The delcendants of the Danes contained llill pofTeiled of Dublin, which, after fome incffedual oppofition made by king O'Connor, v/as taken and plundered by the Englifh fbkliers ; but Mac Turkil, the Danifh king, efcaped to his fnipping. Upon the death of Dermot, Hejjry II. became jealous of earl Strongbow, feized upon his eflate in England and Wales, and recalled his fubjedts from Ireland. The IriflT, about the fame time, to the amount of above 60,000, befieged Dublin, under king O'Connor ; but though all S:rongbow's Irifli friends and allies had now left liim, and the ciiy was reduced to great extremity, he forced the Irifli to raife the fiege with great lofs ; and going over to Englandy he appealed Henry by fwearing fealty to him and his heirs, and refigning into his hand all the Irifh cities and forts he held. During Strongbow's abfence, Mac Turkil returned with a great fleet, at- tempted to retake the city of Dublin, but was killed at the fiege j and in him ended the race of the Eafterling princes in Ireland. In 1 172, Henry II. attended by ^00 knights, 4000 veteran foldiers, and the flower of his nobility, landed near Waterford j and not only all the petty princes of Ireland, except the king of Ulller, but the great kingRodcric O'Connor, fubmitted to Henry, who pretended that O'Connor's lubmifTion included that of Ulfter, and that confequently he was the paramount fovereign of Ireland. Be that as it will, he afFefted to keep a magnificent court, and held a parliament at Dublin, where he par- celled out the eftates in Ireland, as William the Conqueror had done In England, to his Englifh nobility. He then fettled a civil adminiftration at Dublin, as nearly as pofTible to that of England, to which he returned in 1173^ having firfl fettled an Englifh colony from Briliol in Dublin, with all the liberties and free cufloms, fay their charters, which the citizens of Briltol enjoyed. From that time Dublin began to flourifli. Thus the conqueft of Ireland was effeded bv the Englifh, almoft with as much eafe as that of Mexico was by the Spaniards ; and for much the fame realons, the rude and unarmed itate of the natives, and the differences that prevailed among the princes or leaders. Henry gave the title of lord of Ireland to his fon John, who, in 1185, went over^n perfon to Ireland ; but John and his giddy Norman courtiers made a very ill ufe of their power, and rendered themfelves odious to the Irifh, who were other- wife 382 I R E L A N D. wife very v/ell difpofed towards the Englifh. Richard I. was too much taken up with the ciufadcs to pay much regard to the affairs of Ireland ; but king John, after his acceflion, made amends for his behaviour towards the Irifh. He enlarged his father's plan of introducing into Ireland Englifli laws and officers, and he .credled that part of the provinces of Leinftcr and Munfter, which was within the Englifn pale, into twelve counties ; but the defcendants of the ancient princes in other places paid liim no more than a nominal fubjeftion. They governed by their old Brehon lavvS, and exercifed all afts of fovereignty within their OvVn ftates ; and indeed this was pretty much the cafe fo late as the reign of James I. The unfetrled reign of t^enry IlL his wars and captivity, gave the Irifli a very mean opinion of the Englifh government during his reign ; but they fcem to have continued quiet tmdcr his fon Edward L Gavetlon, the famous favourite of Edward II. acquired great credit while he a6ted as lieutenant of Ireland ; but the fuccefles of the Scotch king, Robert Bruce, had almofl: proved fatal to the Englilli intereft, and fuggelkd to the Irifh the idea of transferring their allegiance from the kings of England to Edward Bruce, king Robert's brother. That prince accordingly in- vaded Ireland, wliere he gave repeated defeats to the Englifh governors and armies ; and being fupported by his brother in perfon, he v^as aftually crowned king at Dundalh, and narrowly miffed being mailer of Dublin. The younger Bruce feems to have been violent in the exercife of his fovereignty, and he was at lafl defeated and killed by Bermingham, the Englifh general. Af'cer this Ed- ward II. ruled Ireland with great moderation, and palled feveral excellent afts with regard to that country. But during the minorty of Edward III. the commotions were again renewed in Ireland, and not fupprcH'cd without great lofs and difgrace on the lide of the Eng- lifh. In 1333 a rebellion broke out, in which the Englilh inhabitants had no in- confiderable fhare. A fucceflion of vigorous, brave governors, at laft quieted the infurgents; and about the year 1361, prince Lionel, Ion to Edward III. having married the heirefs of UUler, was fent over to govern Ireland, and, if poffible, to reduce its inhabitants to an entire conformity with the laws of England. In this he made a great progrefs, but did not entirely accomplilh it. It appears, that at this time the Irifn were in a very flourifliing condition, and that one of the o-rcateft grievances they complained of was, that the Englilh lent over men of mean birth to govern them. In 1394, Richard II. finding that the execution of his defpotic Ichcmes in England muil be abortive without farther fupport, paffed over to Ireland with an army of 34,000 men, well armed and appointed. As he made no ufe of force, the Irilh regarded his prelence as a high compliment to their nation, and admired the magnificence of his court. Richard, on the other hand, courted them by all the arts he could employ, and bellowed the honour of kni-rhthood on their chiefs. In fhort, he behaved lb as entirely to win their affec- tions. But in I "^99, after having atlcd in a very delpotic manner in England, he tindertook a frefh expedition into Ireland, to revenge the death of his lord-lieute- nant the earl of March, who had been killed by the wild Irifli. His army again flruck the natives with confternation, and they threw ihemfclves upon his mercy. It was during this expedition, that the duke of Lancafler landed in Isngland; and Richard, upon his return, finding himfelf dclcrted by his Englilh fubjefts on ac- count of his tyranny, and that he could not depend upon the Irilh, furrendercd his crown to his rival. The Irifli, after Richard's deadi, ftill retained a warm aftedion for the houfe of York; and upon the revival of that family's claim to the crown, embraced its caufe, Edward IV. made the earl of Defmond lord-lieutenant of Ireland for his fervices againft tlie Onnond party and otlier adherents of the houfe of Lancaftcr, and lie, was I IRELAND. 38^ was the firft Iriflj chieftain that obtained this honour. Even the acccflion of Henry VII. to the crown of England did not reconcile the Irith to his title as duke of Lancafter; they dierefore readily joined Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be the ckiell fon of Edward IV. but for tliis they paid dear, being defeated in their at- tempt to invade England. This made them fomewhat cautious at firil of joining Perkin Warbeck, who was, however, at laft recognifed asking by the Iriih 5 and in the preceding pages under the hiftory of England, the reader may learn the event of his pretenfions. Henry beliaved with moderation towards his unfortunate partizans, and was contented with requiring the Irifla nobility to take a frefh oath of allegiance vo his government. This lenity had the defired effedt, during the admini- ftration of the two earls of fCildare, the earl of Surry, and the earl of Ormond. Henry Vill. governed Ireland by iupporting its chiefs againfi: each other, but they were tampered with by tlie emperor Charles V. upon which Henry made his natural fon, the duke of Richmond, his lord-lieutenant. This did not prevent the Irifh from breaking out into rebellion in the year 1540, under Fitz Gerald, who had been lord- deputy, and was v/on over by the emperor, but was at laft hanged at Tyburn. Af- ter this, the houfe of Auftria found their account in their quarrels with England, to- form a ftrong party among the Irifh. About the year 1542, James V. king of Scotland, formed fome pretenfions to the crown of Ireland, and was favoured by a ftrong party among the Irifh them- felves. It is hard to fiiy, had he lived, what the conftquence of his claim mio-hc have been. Henry underftood that the Irifh ha 1 a mean opinion of his dignity, as' the kings of England had hitherto aflumed no higher title than that of loids of Ire- land. He therefore took that of king of Ireland,, which had a great effe6l with the native Irifln, who thought that allegiance was not due to a lord; and, to fpeak the truth, it was fomewhat furprifing that this expedient was not thouo-ht of before. It produced a more perfeift fubmifTion of the native Irilli to Henry's government than ever had been known ; and even O'Neil, who pretended to be fcccelTor to the' laft paramount king of Ireland, fwore allegiance to Henry, who created him earl of Tyrone. The pope, however, and the princes of the houfe of Auftria, b)- remittino- mo- ney and fometimes fending over troops to the Iriih, ftill kept up their intereft in that kingdom, and drew from them valt numbers of men to their armies, where they proved as good foldiers as any in Europe. This created inexpreffible difficulties to tlie Englifh government, even in the reign of Edward VI. but it is remarkable, that the Reformation took place in the Englifti part of Ireland with little or no oppofition. The Irifh feem to have been very quiet during the reign of queen Mary; but they proved thorns in the fide of queen Elizabeths The perpetual difputes fhe had with the Roman catholics both at home and abroad, gave her great uneafinefs ; and the pope and the houfe of Auftria alv/ays found new refources againft her in Ireland. The Spaniards poflefled themfelves of Kinfale ; and the rebellions of Tyrone, who baffled and outwitted her favourite general the earl of Ellex,- are related in the Englifh hiftory. The lord-deputy iVlountjoy, who fucceeded Eftex, was the firft Engliiliman who gave a mortal blow to the praftices of the Spaniards in Ireland, by defeating them and the Irifh before Kinfale, and bringing Tyrone prifoner to England ; where he v/as pardoned by queen Elizabeth in 1602. This lenity, fhewn to fuch an offen- der, is a proof of the dreadful apprehenfions Elizabeth had from the popiih intereft in Ireland. James I. confirmed the pofTeffions of the Irifli;'but fuch was the in- fluence of the pope and the Spaniards, that the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and their party planned a new rebellion, and attempted to feize the caftie of Dublin ; but their plot being difcoveredj their chiefs fted beyond fcas. They were not idle abroad,. 384 IRELAND. abroad, for in 1608 they inftigated fir Calim O'DogViarty to a frcfli rebellion, by promifing 'him fpeedy fupplies of men and money from Spain. Sir Calim was killed in the difpute, and his adherents were talicn and executed. The attainders of the Irifli rebels, which pafled in the reigns of James and Elizabeth, vefted in the ciown 511,465 acres, in the feveral counties of Donnegal, Tyrone, Colerain, Fcr- r.una";h, Cavan, and Armagh; and enabled the king to make that protellant plan- tation in the North of Ireland, which now, from the moft rebellious province of tiie kingdom, is the mod quiet and reformed, Thofe prodigious attainders, however juft and neceflary they might be, operated fatally for the Englifli in the reign of Charles I. The Irifli Roman Catholics, in f^^-neral, were influenced by their priefis to hope not only to repofilfs the lands of their foiefithers, but to reilore the popifli religion in Ireland. They therefore en- tered into a deep and deteitable confpiracy for maffacring all the Englifli proteftants in that kingdom. In this they were encouraged by the unhappy difTcnfions that broke out between the king and his parliaments in England and Scotland. Their bloody plan being difcovered by the Englifli government at Dublin, prevented that city from falling into their hands. They, however, partly executed, in 1641, their horrid fcheme of maflTacre ; but authors have not agreed as to the numbers wlio were murdered ; perhaps they have been exaggerated by warm protellant wri- tf-rs, fonie of whom make them amount to an hundred and fifty, or two hundred thoufand. What followed in confequence of this rebellion, and the reduftion of Ireland by Cromwell, who retaliated the cruelties of the Irifli papifls, belongs to the hiltorv of England. It is certain they fmarted fo feverely, that tliey were quiet during the reign of Charles il. His popifli fucceflx)r and brother James 11. even after the Revolution took place, found an afylum in Ireland ; and was encouraged to hoDC, that, by the aflillance of the natives there, he might remount his throne : but he was deceived, and his own pufillanimity co-operated widi his difappointment. He was driven out of Ireland by his fon-in-law, after the battle of the Boyne, liie only victojy that king "V^'illiam ever gained in perfon ; a viftory, however, on which depended the fafety of the protellant religion, and the liberties of the Briti!li empire. Had James bet.'i viftorious, he probably would have been reinftated on the throne, and nothing elfe could be expefted than that being irritated by oppofition, viclo- iious over his enemies, and tree from every reftraint, he would have trampled upon all rights, civil and religious, and purfued more arbitrary defigns than before. The armv of William conhiled of 36,000 men, that of James of 33,000 but advan- tageoufly fituated. But James fought at the head of an undifciplined rabble; and his French auxiliaries were far from from behaving like heroes. The forfeitures that fell to the crown, on account of the Irifli rebellions and the Revolution, are almoll incredible; and had the afts of parliament which gave them away been ftriftly enforced, Ireland mufl: have been peopled with Britifli inhabitants. But many.political reafons occurred for not driving the Irifli to dcfpair. The friends of the Revolution and the protcflant religion were fufliciently gratified out of the forfeited eilates. Too many of the Roman Catholics might have been forced a- abroad ; and it was proper that a due balance fliould be preferved between the Ro- man Catholic and the proteflant interefl:. It was therefore thought prudent to re- lax the reins of government, and not to put the forfeitures too rigoroufly into ex- ecution. The experience of half a century has confirmed the wifdom of the above confiderations. The lenity of the meafures purfued in regard to the Irifli Romaii Catholics, and the great pains taken for the inilruftion of their children, with the progrefs which knowledge and tiie arts made in that countrv, greatly diminiflied the popifli interefl. The fpirit of induflry enabled the Irifli to know their own ftrength and importance; towiirds which eifed fome accidental circumftances concurred. All IRELAND. 385 All her ports were opened for tlie exportation of wool and woollen yarn to any pare of Great Britain; and of lare years, aiSts of parliament were made occafionally for permitting the importation of fait beef, pork, butter, cattle, and tallow, from Ireland to Great Britain. But though fome laws and regulations had occafionally taken place favourable to Ireland, it muft be acknowledged, that the inhabitants of that country laboured under confiderable grievances, in confequence of fundry injudicious reftraints of the parliament of England refpefling their trade. Thefe rellraints iiad injured Ireland without benefiting Great Britain. The Irifli had been prohibited from manufacturing their own wool, in order to favour the woollen manufadiory of Eng- land ; the confequence of which was, that the Irifh wool was fmuggled over into France, and the people of than country were thereby enabled to rival us in our woollen manufacture, and to deprive us of a part of that trade. An embargo had alfo been laid on the exportation of provifions from Ireland, which had been ex- tremely prejudicial to that kingdom. The dillrcires of the Irilh manufatlureis, as well as thofe of Great Britain, had likewife been much increafed by the confc- quences of the American war. Thcfe circumftances occafioned great murmuring in Ireland, and Ibme unfuccefsful attempts were made for the relief of the inhabi- tants of that kingdom in the Britilh parliament. But a large body of the king's troops being withdrawn from Ireland, in order to be employed in the American war, a confiderable number of Irifli gentlemen, firmers, traders, and other perfons, armed and formed thcmfelves into volunteer alTociations, for the defence of Ireland againft foreign invaders. By degrees, thefe volunteer aflbciations became numerous and well-dil'ciplined : and it was foon difcovered, that they were inclined to main- tain their rights at home, as well as to defend thcmfelves againft foreign enemies. When thefe armed aflbciations became numerous and formidable, the Irifli began to ailume an higher tone than that to which they had before been accuftomed ; and it was foon maniielf, that their reinonflrances met with unufual attention, both from their own parliament and from that of Great Britain. The latter, on the nth of May 1779, prefented an addrels to the king, recommending to his majefly's mofl; ferious confideration thediftrefled and impoveriflied ftate of the loyal and well-de- ferving people of Ireland, and defiring him to dlred that there fliould be prepared, and laid before parliament, fuch particulars relative to the trade and manufactures of Great Britain and Ireland, as fliould enable the national wifdom to purfue ef- fectual meafures for promoting the common ftrength, wealth, and commerce of his majefly's fubjeCts in both kingdoms. To this addrefs the king returned a favour- able anfwer : and in Ottober, the fame year, both houfcs of the Irifli parliament alfo prefented addreffes to his majefty, in which they declared, that nothing but granting Ireland a free trade could fave it from ruin. Norwithflanding M'hich, ic being foon after fufpeCted by many of the people of that kingdom, that the mem- bers of their parliament would not exert thcmfelves with vigour in promoting the interefts of the nation, a very daring and numerous mob afiembled before the par- liament-houfe in Dublin, crying out for a free trad^, and a JJjcrt money-bill. They aflaulted the members, and endeavoured to compel them to fwear, that they would fupport the intereft of their country by voting for a fhort money-bill ; and they de- molifhed the houfe of the attorney-general. The tumult at length fubfidcd ; and two Irifli money-bills, for fix months only, were fent over to England, where they paflTed the great feal, and were immediately returned, without any diflljcisficlion be- ing exprefled by government at this limited grant. In the mean tim.e, the members of the oppofition, in the Englifli parliairicnr, very fl:rongly reprefented the necefllty of an immediate attention to the complaints of the people of Ireland, and of a compliaHce with their wifhes. The arguments on 3 ^ 111 is 386 I S L E O F M A N. this fide of the queflion were alfo enforced by the accounts which came from Ire- land, that the volunteer aflbciations in that kingdom amounted to forty thoufand men, unpaid, fclf-appointed, and independent of government. The Britifh mini- ftry appeared for fome time undetermined what part they fliould aft in this impor- tant bufinefs : but the remembrance of the fatal elFefts of rigorous meafures re- fpeding America, and the very critical fituation of Great Britain, at length induced the firrt lord of the treafury to bring in fuch bills as were calculated to afford effec- tual commercial relief to the people of Ireland. Laws were accordingly paffed, by which all thofe adts were repealed, which had prohibited the exportation of woollen manufadures from Ireland, and other a61:s by which the trade of that kingdom to forelo-n countries had been reftraincd: and it was likewife enaded, that a trade be- tween Ireland and the Britifli colonics in America, and the V/eft Indies, and the Britilh iettlements on the coafts of Africa, fiiould be allowed to be carried on in the fame manner, and fubjed to iimilar regulations and rellrictions, with that carried on between Great Britain and the laid colonies and fettlements. Thefe laws in favour of Ireland were received with much joy and exultation in that kingdom : and the Irifh nation being indulged in their requifitions refpefting trade, now began alfo to aim at important contlitutional reformations: and in va- rious counties and cities of Ireland, the righc of the Bririfh parliament to make lav/s v/hich fhould bind that kingdom was denied in public refolutions. By degrees,, the fpirit which had been manifeiled by the Irifh parliament feemed a little to fubfide j and a remarkable inftanceof this was, their agreeing to a perpetual mutiny bill, for the regulation of the irifh army, though that af England had always been paffed, with a true conflitutional caution, only from year to year. This was much ex- claimed againft by fome of the Irifh patriots; and it is indeed not eafy to clear their parliament from the charge of inconfiftency : but this bill was afterwards repealed. By the adt repealing the ftatute of the 6th of George I. they are now fully and completely emancipated from the jurifdickion of the Britifh parliament,, and the political connexion which fo long fubfifted between the two nations is now reduced to this one eircumflance, that both being governed by the fame king, Ire- land is neceffarily liibjeft to the imperial crown of Great Britain. ISLE OF MA N. THE Mona mentioned by Tacitus was not this ifland but the ifle of Angiefea. Some think that Man takes its name from, the Saxon word Mang (or among),, becaufe lying in St. George's Channel, it is almolt at an equal dillance from the kin'^doms of England, Scotland, and Ireland; but Mona Icems to have been a generical name with the ancients for any detached inland. Its length from north to fouth is, rather more than thirty miles, its breadth from eight to fifteen; and the lati- tude of the middle of the ifland is fifty-four degrees fixtecn minutes north. It is fuid, that on a clear day the three Britannic kingdoms may be kan froju this ifland. The air here is wholefome, and the climate, only mailing allowance for the fitua- tion, pretty much the fame as that in the north ot England, from which it does not differ much in other refpefts. The hilly parts are barren, and the champaign fruitful in v/hear, barley, oats, rye,. Oax, hemp, roots, and pulfe. The xidgc of mounuins, v/hich, as it were, divides the. illaiid, botli protcdls and fertilizes tlie vallics, where there is good pafturage. The better forts of inhabitants have good Ijzcabk horfes, and a fjnall kind, which is fwift and hardy ; nor are they troubled 1 with I S I. E OF MA N. 387 with anv noxious animals. The coafls abound with fea-fowl ; and the puffins, ■which breed in rabbic-holes, arc alinoft a Unrip of far, and (.Heemcd very delicious. It is faid, that this ifland abounds with iron, lead, and copper mines, though un- wrouQjht; as are the quarries of marble, flatc, and llone. The llle of Man contains liii«.ntcen parifhes and four towns on the fea-coafts. Caftle-town is the nielropolis ot the illand, and the feat of its government; Peelc, which of late years begins to flourifli ; Douglas has the bcft market and beft trade in the ifland, and is the richeil and moft populous town, on account of its excel- lent harbour, and its fine mole, extending into the fea ; Rarafcy has likcwife acon- fiderable commerce, on account of its ipacious bay,, in which ihips may ride fafc from all winds except the uortL-eail. The reader, by throwing his eyes on the map, may fee how conveniently this ifland is fituatcd for being the itorehoulb of fmugglers, which it was till within thefe few years, to the inexpreffible preju- dice of his majcfty's revenue; and this ncceflarily leads mc to touch upon the hif- tory of the ifland. During the time of the Scandinavian ravers on the feas, whom I have before mentioned, this ifland was their rendezvous, ami their chief force was here col- letled ; from whence they annoyed the Hcbriiles, Great Britain, and Ireland. The kings of Man are often mentioned in hiflory ; and though we have no regular ac- count of their fucceffion, and know but a few of their names, yet they undoubtedly were for fome ages maflers of thole feas. About the year 1263, Alexander II. king of Scotland, a fpiriced prince, having defeated the Danes, laid claim to the fuperiority of Man, and obliged Owen, or John, its king, to acknowledge him as lord paramount. It fecms to have continued, either tributary or in property of the kings of Scotland, till it was reduced by Edu-ard I. and the kings of England, from that time, exercifed the fuperiority over the ifland; though we find it Hill poiTefled by the pofterity of its Danifli princes, in the reign of hdward III. who difpoflefl'ed the laft queen of the ifland, aiui bellowed it on his favourite, Monta- gue, earl of Salifbury. His family-honours and eftate being forfeited, Henry IV. beft:owed Man, and the patronage of the biflioprick, firft upon the Northumberland family, and that being forfeited, upon fir John Stanley, whofe poflerity, the earls of Derby, enjoyed it, till, by failure of heirs male, it devolved upon the duke of Athol, who married the fifter of the lafl; lord Derby. Reafons of ftate rendered it neceflliry for the crown of Great Britain to purchafe the cuftoms and the ifland from the Athol family ; and the bargain was completed by 70,000!. being paid to the duke in 1765. The duke, however, retains his territorial property in the ifland, though the form of its government is altered ; and the king has now the fame rights, powers, and prerogatives, as the duke formerly enjoyed. The inhabi- tants, alfo, retain many of their ancient conftitutions and quftoms. The eftabliflied religion in Man is that of the church of England. The bifliop of Sodor and Man enjoys all the fpiritual rights and pre-eminences of other biflrops, but does not fit in the Britiih houfe of peers ; his fee never having been eredted into an Englifli barony. One of the moft excellent prelates who ever adorned the epifcopal charatter, was Dr. Thomas Wilfon, bilhop of Man, who prcfided over that diocefe upwards of fifty-feven years, and died in the year 17^:5, aged ninety-three. He was eminently diftingu-illicd by his benevolence and hofpiralitr, •and his unremitting attention to the happinefs of the jieople entrufted to his care. He encouraged agriculture, eftabliflied Ichools for the inftruttion of the children of the inhabitants of the ifland, tranflated iome of his devotional pieces into the Mank language, to render them more generally ufcful to them, and founded parochial libraries in every parifli of his diocefe. Cardinal Fleur/ had fo much vene- ration for his character, that, out of regard to him, he obtained an order 3 I^ 2 from 388 I S L E O F W I G H T. from the court of France, that no privateer of that nation fiiould ravage the Ifie of Man. The ecclefiaftical government is well maintained in this ifland, and the livings are comfortable. The language, which is called the Manks, and is fpoken by the common people, is radically Erfe, or Irifli, but wkh a mixture of other languages. Tlie New Teltament and Common Prayer Book have been tranflaied into the Mank language. The natives, who amount :o above 20,000, are inoffcnfive, charitable, and hofpitable. The better fort live in ilone houfes, and the poorer in thatched; and their ordinary bread is made of oatmeal. Their pro- duces for exportation confift of wool, hides, and tallow ; which they exchange with foreign fliipping for commodities they may have occafion for from other parts. Before the ibuth promontory of Man, is a little ifland called the Calf of Man : it is about three miles in circuit, and feparated from Man by a channel about two fur- longs broad. This ifland affords fome curiofities which may amufe an antiquary. They con- fift chiefly of Runic ftpulchral infcriptions and monuments, of ancient brafs dag- gers, and other weapons of that metal, adorned with pure gold, which indicates the fplendor of its ancient poflelTors* ISLE OF W I G l-I T. THIS ifland is oppofite to the coaft of Hampfhire, from which it is fepa- rated by a channel, varying in breadth from two to feven miles : it is con- ^ fidered as part of the county of Southampton, and is within the diocefe of Win- chefter. Its greateft length, extending from eaft to ^^'eft, meafures nearly twenty- three miles; its breadth from north to fouth about thirteen. The air is in gene- ral healthy, particularly the fouthern parts ; the foil is various, but fo great ia its fertility^ that more wheat grows here in one year, than can- be confumed by the inhabitants in eight : and it is fuppofed that its prefent produce, un- der the great improvements of agriculture, and the additional quantity of land lately brought into tillage, has more than kept pace with the increafe of po- pulation. A range of hills, which aflfords fine pailure for flieep, extends from eaft to weft,^ through the middle of the ifland. The interior parts of the ifland,, as well as its extremities, afford a great number of beautiful and pidurefquc profpedls, not only in the pafloral, but alfo in the great and romantic ftyle. Of thefe beauties, the gendemen of the ifland have availed thcmfelves, as well in the- choice of fituation of their Iioufes, as in their other improvements. J^omeflric fowls and poultiy are bred here in great ntJmbers ; the outward-bound fhips and} veflels at Spithead, the Mother-bank, and Gowes,. commonly furnifliing themfclveS' from this ifland. Such is the purity of the air, the fertility of the foil, and the beauty and variety of the landfcapes of this ifland, that it has been called the gaixlen of England ; it has fome very fine gentlemen's fetts; and it is often vifited by parties ot plcafure an account of its delightful fccnes. The ifland is divided into thirty pariflics : and, according to a very accurate cal- culation made in the year 1777, the inhabitants then amounted to eighteen thoufand' and twenty-four, cxclufive of the troops quartered there. Mofl of the farm-iioufes arc built with ftone, and even the cottages appear neat aiid comfortable, having tach its little garden. Tl).a ISLE OF WIGHT, SCILLY, JERSEY, GUERNSEY, &c. 3S9 The town of Newport (lands nearly in the centre of the ifland, of which it may- be confidered as the capital. The river Medina empties itfclf into the channel at Cowes harbour, diftant about five miles, and being navigable up to the quay, is very commodious for trade. The three principal ilrcets of Newport extend from eaft to weft, and are crofltd at right angles by three others, all which are fpacious, clean, and well paved. Carifbrooke caflle, in the Ifle of Wig-lu', has been rendered remakable by the confinement of king Charles I. who, taking refuge here, was detained a prifoner, from November 1647, to September 1648. After the execution of the king, this eallle was converted into a place of confinement for his children ; and his daugh- ter, the princcfs Elizabeth, died in it. There are leveral other forts in this ifland, which were all eredted about the 36th year of the reign of Henry VIII. when many other forts and blockhoufes were built in different parts of the coafts of England.- "^The SCILLY ISLES, anciently- the SILURES, are a clufler of dangerous- rocks, to the number of 140, lying about 30 miles from the Land's End in Corn- wall, of which county they are reckoned a part. By their fituation between the Englifh channel and St. George's channel, they have been the dellrudlion of many fhips and lives. Some of the iflands are well inhabited, and have large and fccure harbours. In the Englifh channel are four iflands fubjedl: to England: thefe are Jerfey, Guernfey, Alderney, and Sark ; which, though they lie much nearer to the coaft of Normandy than to that of England, are within thediocefe of Winchefler. They lie in a clufter in Mount St. Michael's bay, between Cape la Hogue in Normandy, and Cape Frebelle in Brittany, The computed diftance between Jerfey and Sark is four leagues; between that and Guernfey, kven leagues; and between the fame and Al- derney, nine leagues. JERSEY, anciently C/ESAREA, was known to the Romans; and lies farth eft within the bay, in forty-nine degrees feven minutes north latitude, and in the fecond degree twenty-fix minutes wefl longitude, eighteen miles weft of Normandy, and eighty-four miles fouth of Portland. The north fide is inaccelTible through loftv cliffs, the fouth is almoft level with the water ; the higher land, in its midland parr, is well planted, and abounds with orchards, from which is made an incredible quan- tity of excellent cyder. The valiies are fruitful and well cultivated, and contain 'plenty of cattle and fheep. The inhabitants negledl tillage too much, being intent upon the culture of cyder, the improvement of commerce, and particularly the mn- nufatlure of ftockings. l"he honey in Jerfey is remarkably fine : and the ifland- is well fupplied with fifh and wild-fowls, almoft of every kind, forne of bothbein" pe- culiar to the ifland, and very delicious. The ifland is not above twelve miles in length; but the air is Co falubrious, that, in Camden's time, it was faid" there was here no bufinefs for a phyfician. The in- habitants in number are about 20,000, and are divided into twelve pariflies. I he capital town is St. Helier, or Hilary, which contains above /]Oo houfes, has a oood harbour and caftle, and makes a handfome appearance. The property of this ifland belonged formerly to the CarteretSj a Norman family, who have been always attach- ed to the royal intereft, and gave proteftion to Charles II. both wlien king and prince of Wales, at a time when no part of the Britifh dominions durtl recoo-nife him. The language of the inhabitants is French, with which moft of them interming;le Englilli -,go FRANCE. Englifli words. Knit ftockings and caps form their ftaple commodity ; but they carry on a confiderable trade in fifh with Newfoundland, and difpofc of their cargoes in the Mediterranean. The governor is appointed by the crown of England, but the civil adminifcration refts with a bailiff, affifted by tvv^elve jurats. As this ifland is the principal remain of the ducliy of Normandy depending on the kings of l^ngland, it prefervcs the old feudal forms, and particularly the aflembly of ftates, which forms a miniature of the Britifli parliament, as fettled in the time oi Edward I. GUERNSEY is thirteen miles and a half from fouth-weft to north-eaft, and twelve and a half where broadell, eaft and weft; has only ten parilhes, to which there are but eight minikers, four of the parifhes are united, and Alder- ney and Sark, which are appendages of Gucrnfey, having one a-piece. Though this is naturally a finer ifland than that of Jerfey, yet it is far lefs valuable, being poorly cultivated and thinly inhabited. It abounds in cycTer j the inhabi- tants fpeak French : want of firing is the greateft inconveniency that both iilands labour under. The only harbour here is at St. Peter la Port, which is guarded by two forts ; one called the Old-Cafde, and the other Caftle-Cornet. Guernfey is likewife part of the ancient Norman patrimony. ALDERNEY is about -eight miles in compafs, and is by much the jieareft of all thefe iflands to Normandy, from which it is feparated by a narrow ftrait, called the race of Aldcrney, which is a dangerous pafTage in flormy weather, when the two currents meet ; otherwife it is fafe, and has depth of water for the largeft fhips.. This ifland is healthy, and the foil is remarkable for a fine breed of cows. SARK is a fmall ifland depending upon Guernfey ; the inhabitants nre long- lived, and enjoy from nature all the conveniencies of life; their number is about 300. The inhabitants of the three laft-mentioned iflands together, are thought to be about 20,000. The religion of all the four iflands is that of the church of Kngland. FRANCE. HAVING gone over the Britifli ifles, we fliall now return to the continent, beginning with the extenfive and mighty kingdom of France, being the ncarefl to England; though part of Germany and Poland, lies to the northward of France. Situation and Extent. Miles, Degrees. Length 600 ^ |3(.j^pp^ 5 5 weft and 8 Eaft longitude. Breadth 500 J i 42 and 51 North latitude. Boundaries.] It is bounded by the Englifh channel and the Netlierlands, on the North; by Gcrmanyj Switzerland, and Italy, Eaft; by the Mediterranean and the FRANCE. 39 f the Pyrenean mountains^ which dividtf it from Spain, South ; and by the Bav of Bifcay, Weft. Divisions.] This kingdom is divided, and the dimenfions of the fcveral parts ■dilUndly fpecified in the following tabic, by Mr. Templeman. r w "^ Countries Names. Square Miles. 3 n a. Chief Cities. Friince. 2:50 180 Orleannois - i2,950 Orleans. Guienne 12, Sod 216 I20 Bouideaux. GarcoiL',ne 8,800 125 90 Aux, orAugh. Languedoc - '3>i7'f 20 "5 ThoulouCe. Lyonnois I 2,500 '75 130 Lyons. Champagne - 10,000 140 I 10 Rhcinis. Bretagiie 9,100 170 105 Rcnnes. Papifts - S Normandy - I'rovencc 8,200 6,8co 95 85 9^ Rouen. Aix. ■ Burgundy 6,700 150 fc 6 Dijon. ■ Dauphine 5,820 1^7 90, Grenoble. ■ l!le of France 5,200 100 85 Paris j N.Lat.+S I E. Lon. 2- -50. 25. Franche Compte - 4,000 100 6: Befancon. I'icardy 3,650 120 8 -; Amiens. .Roulillon 1,400 50 4+ Perpignan. r Artois 990 63 32 Arras. Netherlands j Hainault Flanders 800 760 57 58 22 22 Valenciennes. Lille 1 Luxemburg - 292 4S i3lThionville. Germany < To the fe is Lorrain 2,503 — Metz. Alface Total to be added the ifland o 2,250 95 butt 3c Stra/burgh.- the 138,687 f Corfica; he city of Avignon, with Venaiffin, wa s in 1774 ceded to the ^ oj e. The kingdom of France has alfo been fubdivided in the following manner : -. ^The Mountains Chatillon 13 o s o I. Bailage of Dole c Dole \ Bcfancon U 2. Bailage of Amont ^ A^efoul \ Salims c 3. Bailage of Aval \ Poligmy I St. Claude Brefte Bourgh O Be u gey Belley o Gex Gex Dombes Proper Trevoux c 3 Montbelliard Montbelliard, fubject to the o U ^ Duke of Wirtemberg E 394 Pro. Parts. Subdiviiions. ^ f Lyonnois Proper ^ < Beajolois ^ ' Foiez "Auvergne Higher Auvergne Lower Bourbonnois ^ Marchc FRANCE. •a Chief Towns. Lyons Beaujeu Feurs Clermont St. Flour Bourbon, Archibald Gueret Port Towns. u c > o Pi fAix j Riez I Senez Aries Marfeilles Toulon Frcjus , Grace ^ Vence Glandeve Sifteron Apt Porcalquir VenaifTirv Carpentras Orange 'Viennois, between the Rhone i Vienne .£ and the Ifere i < Valencionnois Valence on the Rhone 1 Grefavaudan Grenoble on the Ifere "c- .Gapenois Gap .-• ■ Embrunois- Embrun r3 -C Diois Die ■LJ- 3 < The Baronies Buis O St, Paul Tricaftin' .BrianQonois St. Paul iBrianjon 'Guienne Proper Bourdeau* 4-1 Bazadois Bazas u § ■ Agenois A gen c c C/3 CD- ^Rouergue Rhodez fubjedl to the Carpentras i Pope Orange on the Rhone, now fubjeft to France. Iflands— Porquerollos, Porteros, Levant, St. Flonorat, and St. Margarcr. .N.W.. J2' FRANCE. 395 Pro. Parts. Subdivifions. (J o t: a a- a, D fThoulofan I Albigeois J Foix j RoufTillori 1 Lauragais L N arbonne f Beziers Ni lines Cevennes, containing iGevaudan Vivarais Velay Chief Towns. Touloufe Alby Foix Perpignan Lauragais Narbonne Beziers Nifmes, Montpelier Mende Viviers Puy Port Towns, 3 O <; V Armagnac L'Elands ^ Albert I Condomois Guare u 3 :: o •o < O c O Labour, or Bafquets Gafcony Proper Lfterac Cominges o ( Lower Navarre < Soiile w < Kearne y Bigorre ° ..Conlerans Augh, or Aux D'Acq'sj or Dax Albert • Condoin Verdun Bayonne Ay re Mirande Lombes St. Palais Mauleons Pau Tarbe St. Lizir. Name and climate.] France took its name from the Francs, ox Freemen, a German nation, relllefs and enterprifing, who conquered the Gauls, the ancient in- habitants ; and the Roman force not being able to reprefs them, they were permit- ted to fettle in the country by treaty. By its fituation, it is the moll compaft king- don^i perhaps in the world, and well fitted for every purpofe both of power and com- merce ; and lince the beginning of the 15th century, the inhabitants have availed themfelves of many of their natural advantages. The air, particularly that of the interior parts of the kingdom, is, in general, mild and wholefome j but fome late authors think it is not nearly fo falubrious as is pretended ; and it mull be acknow- ledged, that the French have been but too fuccefsful in giving the inhabitants of Great Britain falfe prepoffeffions in favour of their own country. It mull; indeed be owned, that their weather is more clear and fettled than in England. In the northern provinces, however, the winters are more intenfely cold, and the inhabitants not fo well fupplied witii firing, which in France is chiefly of wood. Soil and water.J France is happy in an excellent foil, which produces corn ■wine, oil, and almoll every luxury of life. Some of their fruits have a higher fla- 3 E 2 ^ vour 39^ FRANC E. vour than thofe of England, but neither die paflurage nor tillage are comparable to ours. The heat in many parts parch the ground, and dcftroy the venture, and the ioil barely produces as much rye and chefnuts as ferve to fubfifl: the poor iri- habitants ; but the chief misfortune attending the French foil is, that the inhabi- tants being uncertain of enjoying the full fruits of their labour, do not apply them- lelves fufRcientiy to agriculture*. The French have of late inftituted academies of agriculture, and propofed premiums for its improvements, as in England ; but thofe expedients, hov^ever fuccefsful they may be in particular inftances, can never become of general utility in any but a free country. No nation is better fupplied than France is with wholefome fprings and water ; of which the inhabitants make excellent ufe, by the help of art and engines, for all the conveniences of life. Mountains.] The chief mountains in France, or its borders, are, the Alps,-. which divide France from Italy ; the Pyrenees, which divide France from Spain ; Vauge, which divide Lorrain from Burgundy and Alface ; Mount Jura, which di- vides Franclie Compte from Switzerland ; the Cevenncs, in the province of Lan- guedoc ; and Mount Dor, in the province of Auvcrgne. Rivers and lakes.] France has aoo navigable rivers, the principal of v/hich arc the Loire, the Rhone, the Garonne, and the Seine. The Loire takes its courfe north and north-wert, being with all its windings, from its fource to the fea, com- puted to run about 500 miles. The Rhone Hows on fouth-weft to Lyons, and then runs on due fouth till it falls into the Mediterranean. The Garonne rifes in the Pyrenean mountains, takes it courfe, firfl: north-eaft, and has a communication v/ith the Mediterranean by, means of a canal, the work of Lewis XIV. T. he Seine, foon after its rife, runs to the north- weft, vifiting Troyes, Paris, and Rouen, in its way, and falls into the Englifii channel at Havre. To thefc we may add, the Soane, which falls into the Rhone at Lyons ; the Charente, which rifes near Havre de Grace, and difcharges itfelf into the bay of Bifcay at Rochfort. The Rhine, which rifes in Switzerland, is the eaftern boundary between France and Sermany, and receives the Mofelle and the Sarte in its pafl'age. The Sommc, which runs north-weft through Picardy, and falls into the Englifti channel below Abbeville. The Var, which rifes in the Alps, and runs fouth, dividing France from Italy, and falling into the Mediterranean, weft of Nice. The Adour runs from eaft toweft, through Gafcoigne, and falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne. Thevaft advantage, both in commerce and conveniency, which arifes to France from thofe rivers, is wonderfully improved by the artificial rivers and canals which form the chief glory of the reign of Lewis XIV. That of Languedoc was begun in the year 1666, and completed in 1680 : it was intended for a communication' between the ocean and the Mediterranean, for the fpcedier paffage of the French fleet; but though it was carried on at an immenfe expence, for 100 miles, over hills and valies, and even through a mountain in one place, it has not anfwered the end in view. By the canal of Calais, travellers eafily pafs by water from thence to St. Omer, Graveline, Dunkirk, Ypres, and other places. The canal of Orleans is another noble work, and runs a courfe of eighteen leagues, to the immenfe benefit of the pub-lie and the royal revenue. France abounds with oilier canals of the like kind, whith render her inland navigation inexprefiibly com- modious and beneficial. Few lakes are found in this country. There is one at the top of a hiil near Alegrc, which the vulgar report to be bottomlefs. There is another at Illoire,- in Auvergne ; and one at La Beffc, in which if you throw a ftone, it caufes a noife like thunder. • Jt Is computed tl-at of this txtcivfiv* kiugdoin, only 36 millions of acres are cultirarcd. MiNV- o 3 FRANCE. 507 Wtneral waters AMD") The watcfs of Bareges, which He near the borders REMARKABLE si'RiNos. f of Spuin, iiiuler the P) reneaii mountains, have of late been preferred for falubrity to all others in France. The bell judges think, how- ever, that the cures performed by them, are more owing to their accidental fuc- ccfs, with fomc great peifons, and the drinefs of the air and loil, than to the virtue of the waters. The waters of Sultzbjch in Alface are faid to cure' the palfy, weak nerves, and the ftone. At B-agueiis, not far from Bareges, are fe- veral wholefome minerals and baths, to which people refort, as to the Englifii baths, at fpring and autumn. Forges, in Normandy, is celebrated for its mineral waters ; and thofe of St. Ainand cure the gravel and obfirucflions. It would be cndlefs to enumerate all the other real or pretended mineral wells in France, therefore I mult omit them, as well as many remarkable fprings : but there is one near Aignc in Auvergne, which boils violently, and makes a noifc like water thrown upon lime ; it has little or no talle, yet policlfes a poifonous quality, and- the birds that drink of it die inftantly. MsTALs AND MiNiiRALS.] Langucdoc is faid to contain veins of gold and filver. Alface has mines of filver and copper, but they are too exptnfive to be wrought. Alabafter, black marble, jafper, and coal, are found in many parts of the king dom. Bretagne abounds in mines of iron, copper, tin, and lead. At Lavertiau in Comingcs, there is a mine of chalk. At Berry there is a mine of oker ■which ferves for melting of metals, and for dying, particularly the befl: drab- cloths ; and in the province of Anjou are feveral quarries of fine white flore. Some excellent turquoifes (the only gem that France produces) are found in Languedoc ; and great care is taken to keep the mines of marble and free-Hone open all over the kingdom. Vegetable and animal pro-7 France abounds in excellent roots, and in DucTiONS BY SEA AND LAND. 3 ^H kinds of feafoning and fallads. The pro- vince of Gallenois produces great quantities of falTrcn, 1,600,000 acres arc laid out in vineyards. The wines of Champagne, Burgundy, Gafcony, Bourdeaux, and other provinces of France, are lb well known, that they need only be mentioned. It is fufficient to obferve, that though they differ very fenfibly in their tafte and properties, yet all of them are excellent, particularly thofe of Champagne, Bur- ■ gundy, Bourdeaux, Pontacke, Hermitage, and Frontiniac ; and there are few con- liitutions, be they ever lb valetudinary, to which fome one or other of them is not adapted. Oak, elm, alb, and other timber, common in England, is found in - France ; but it faid, that the internal parts of the kingdom begin to feel the want- of fuel. A great deal of fait is made at Rhee, and about Rochfort, on the coaft of Saintoign. Languedoc produces kali, which, when burnt, makes excellent pot-aflies. The French fornierly were famous for horticulture,- but they are at prefent far inferior to the Englii'li both in the management and difpofi'tion of their gardens. Prunes and capers are produced at Bourdeaux and near Toulon. France contains few animals, either wild or tame, that are not to-be found in England, except wolves. Their horfcs, black cattle, and iheep, are far inferior to the Englifh ; nor is the wool of their Ihcep lb fine. The hair and fkihs oPthe chamois, or mountain goats, are very valuable. We know of no differcncie be- tween the marine productions of France and thofe of England, but that the for- mer is not fo well fervcd, even on the fea-coafts, with fait water fifh. Forests.] The chief forefts of France, are thcfe of Orleans, which contain 14,000 acres of wood of various kinds, oak, elm, afh, he. and the foreft of Fon- tainbleau near as large. Befides thefe, large numbers of woods, fome of them- defcrving the name of forefts, lie in different p.rovinces ,* but too remote from fea- carriage to be of much national utility, Popu- 398 'F RANG E. PopuLATiaK, INHABITANTS, NfANNERs, f According to flic lateft and befl CUSTOMS, AND PiVERSioNs. ") cakulacions, France contains at pre- fent about 2^,000,000 of inhabitants. It was lately fuppofedj by fome Ipeculative men, that the population ot France had for many years been upon the decline : but, upon an accurate inveftigation, the reverfe appeared to be taft ; though this country certainly loft a great number of valuable inhabitants by the revocation of .theedid of Nantes'^-. 'Fhc French, in their pcrfons, are rather lower than their neighbours ; but they are well proportioned and adtive, and, except in the great towns, nlore free than other nations from bodily deformities. The ladies are ce- lebrated more for their fprightly wit than perfonal beauty ; the peafantry in ge- neral, .^re remarkably ordinary, and are beft defcribed by being contrafted with women of the fame rank in Englantl. The nobility and gentry accomplifh thcrn- felves in the academical c\erci(es of dancing, fencing, and riding ; in the prac- tice .of which thev excel all their neighbours in fkill and gracetulnefs. Thev are fond of liunting ; and the gentry have now left oft^ their heavy jack-boots, their huoc war faddlc, and monftrous curb-bridle in that exerciie, and accommodate themfelvcs to the Englilb manner. The land-owners arc as jealous of their game as they are in England, and equally niggardly of it to their inferiors. A few of the French princes of the blood, and nobility, are more magnificent in their palaces and .equipages than an)'. of the Englifh ; but the other ranks of life lofe by the comparifon. The o-cnius and manners of tbe French are wgll known, and have been the fub- jed: of many able pens. A national vanity is their predominant foible ; and they are perhaps the only people who have derived great utility from this weaknefs. It confirms their fenfe of honour, fupports them under misfortunes, and impels them to aftions to which true courage infpires other nations. This charadfer, however, is confpicuous only in the higher and middling ranks, where it pro- duces excellent officers. Hence it has been obferved, with great juftice, of the French and Englifh, that the French officers will lead if their fbldiers will follow, and the Englifh foldiers will follow if their officers will lead. The French af- Icdt freedom and wit ; but fafhionable drefTcs and diverfions engrois too much of their converiation. Their diverfions are much the fame with thole ot the Englifli, but their gallantry is of a very difFcrent complexion. Their attention to the fair degenerates into grofs foppery in the men, and in the ladies it is fbmetimes kept up by admitting of indecent freedoms ; but the feeming levities of both fexes are fcldom attended with that criminality which, to people not ufcd to their manners, they Jeem to indicate ; nor are the husbands lb indifferent, as Itrangers are apt to imagine^ about the condudl of their wives. The French are exefTively credulous and litigious ; but of all people in the world they bear adverfiry and reduction of circumflances with the beft grace ; though in profperity many of them are apt to be iniblent, vain, arbitrary, and imperious,. An old French ofllcer is an enter- taining and inftruCtive companion, and indeed the moil rational Ipccles of all the French gentry. The French are eminently diftinguiflied for their politnefs and good manners, V'hich may be traced, though in different proportions, through every rank, from * 111 the year 1^98, Henry T^^ whn was a Pro- ceeding pcrfccutions, drove that peojiic to Eng- teftaiit, aiiit julHy liyled the lireat, after fijhtiiii; land, Holhind, and other I'rorclbint couiuric\, his waVrl" the crown of Franco, pulifd tlic tainoiis where they 1 ftablilhid the filk inanuiat'hire, to the ediil of N;iDtC3, which fc ured to the prot itaiits grvliicli, vith ihe I've- the FRANCE. 399 the gfentcfl: of the nobility to the loweft mechanic : and it has been remarked as a Very fingular pha-nomenon, that politenefs, which in cvcrv othc-r country is con- fined to people of a certain rank in life, flioukl here pervade every fituation and profcffion. Indeed, the polifhed mildnefs of French manners, the gay and fociablc turn cf the nation, and the affable and eafy coniluct of makers to their icrvants, ■in fome degree fupply the deficiencies, and corrcd the errors of the government, and render the condition of the common people in France, but particularly at Paris, better than in feveral other countries of Europe. The French have been much cenfurcd for infincerity ; but this charge has been carried too far, and the imputation is generally owing to their excefs of civility, -which throws a fufpicious light upon their candour. The French, in private life, have certainly many amiable characters, and a great number of inllances of gencrofity and difinterelt- ednefs may be found amongft them. It is doing the French no more than juflicc to acknowledge, that, as they arc themfclves polite, fo they have given a polifh to the ferocious manners, and even virtues of other nations. They have long poffcfied the lead in tafte, fafhion, and drefs ; and while they communicate their improvements to other nations, thev have of late become ready to adopt thofe of their neighbours. The fuperior orders of men in France are of a very different cad from thofe below them. They fee with indignation the frivoloufnefs of their court ; and however complying they may appear in public, when retired they keep themlelves facred from its tollies. Independent by their rank and fortunes, they think and act for themfelves, T hey are open to conviftion, and examine things to the bottom. They faw during the war before the Lift, the management of their armies, their finances, and fleets^- with filent indignation. The conclufion of the peace of Fontainbleau, and the vifits which they have fince paid to England, have improved their good opi-" nion of that country : the courtiers themfelves have fallen in with it ; and, what fome years ago would have been thought incrdible, people of fafliion in France HOW fludy the Englifh language, and imitate them in their cuftoms, amufements, drefs, and buildings. They imitate and admire our writers ; the names of Bacon, Locke, Newton, Milton, Pope, Addifon, Hume, Robertfon, Richardlbn, and many others of the laft and prefcnt century, are facred among men of letters ; and, to fay the truth, the writings of fuch men have equally contributed, with our mili- tary reputation, to raife the name of Great Britain, and to render our language more univerfal, and even a necelfary ftudy among foreign nobility. The peculi- arities of the French manners are unfavourably, but humoroufl\', defcribed by a late .ingenious writer, who had an extenfive and deep knowledge of mankind. " The natural levity of the French, fays he, is reinforced by the moft prepofterous education, and the example of a giddy people, engaged in the molt frivolous puf- fuits. A Frenchman is by fome prieft or monk taught to read his mother tongue, and to fay his prayers in a language he does not underftand. He learns to dance and to fence by the mafters of thofe fciences. He becomes a complete connoifTeur in drefTmg hair, and in adorning his own perfon, under the hand r;nd inftrucfions of his barber and valet-de-chambre. If he learns to play upofi the flute or the fiddle, he is altogether irrefiftible. But he piques- hlfnlelf upon being polifhed above the natives of any other country by his converfrtion v.-ith the lair fex. In the courfe of this communication^ with which he is indulged from his tender years, he learns like a parrot, by rote, the whole circle of French compliments, v/hich are a fet of phrafes, ridiculous even to a proverb ; and thcfe he throws out indifcri- minately to all women without diftinction, in the exercife of that kind of addrefs •which is here diftinguifhed by the name of gallantry. It is an exercife, by the repe- tition of which he becomes very pert, very familiar, and very impertinent. A French- I man. 400 FRANCE, man, in confequence of his mingling with the females from his infancy, not only beco;iies acquainted witli all their cuftoms and humours, but grows wonderfully alert ill performing a thoufand little oltices, which are overlooked by other men, whofe time hath been Ipent in making more valuable acquifitions. He enters, without ccremonv. .a lady's bed-chamber while fhe is in bed, reaches her whatever flie wantS; airs her ihift, aj-;d helps to put it on. He attends at her toilette, regulates the diftribution of her patches, and advifes where to lay on the paint. If he viQts her when flie is dreiTed, and perceives the leaft impropriety in her coiffure, he infills upon adjufting it with his own hands. If he fees a curl, or even a fingle hair amifs, he produces his comb, his fciffars, and pomatum^ and fets it to riglits with the dexterity of a profefled frizeur. He fquires her to every place fhe vJfits, either an pleafure or bufinefs ; and, by dedicating his whole time to her, , renders himfelf neceflary to her occafions. In Aiort, of all the coxcombs on the face of the earth,, a Fn.nch pciit-7r.aitrc is the moll: impertinent ; and they are all fetits- inaitres, from the marquis who glitters in lace ^nd embroidery, to the gar(o>i barhier (barber's boy) covered with meal, who llruts with his hair in a long queue, and his hat under his arm. " A, Frenchman will fjoner part with his religion than his hair. Even the fol- diers in France wear a long queue ; and this ridiculous foppery has defcended, as I faid before, to the lowell clafs of people. The boy who cleans flioes at the .corner of a flrect, has a tail of this kind hanging down to his rump ; and the iveo-o-ar.who drives an afs, v/ears his hair ra queue, though, perhaps, he has neither ihirt nor breeches. ^' I fliall only mention one cuftom more, which fcems to carry human aftedation to the very fartheft verge of folly and extravagance : that is, the manner in which the faces of the ladies are primed and painted. It is generally fuppofed, that pare of the fair f-x, jn fome other countries, make uie oi fard and vcrmillion for very .different purpofes ; namely, to help a bad or faded complexion, to heighten the .£;races, or conceal the defefts of nature, as well as the ravages of time. 1 fliall not enquire whether it is juft and honell to impofe in this manner on mankind ; if it is not honeft;, it may be allowed to be artful and politic, and fliews at leaft a defire .of being agreeable. But to lay it on, as the fafliion in France prefcribes to all the ladies of condition, who indeed cannot appear without this badge of diflinftion, is to dlfguife themfelves in fuch a manner, as to render them odious and deteflable to every Ipectator who has the leall relifli left for nature and propriety. As for the fard, or whltey with which their necks and fhouldcrs are plaillered, it may be in fome meafure excufable, as their fkins are naturally brown, or fallow ; but the rouge, which is daubed on their faces, froni the chin up to the eyes, without the leafl: art or dexterity, not only deftroys all diftinftion of features, but renders the afpefl really fri'ditful, or at leall conveys nothing but the idea of difguft and averfion. Without thi^ horrible malk, no married lady is admitted at court, or in any polite afTembly j ^'ind it is a mark of dillindlion which none of the lower clafles dare affume." The above pi<^ure of French manners is drawn with wit and fpirit, but the faults and failings of this vivacious people are too much magnified. With all their defccfts, the French have many good qualities, and their country affords a very agreeable re- fidence on account of the great attention they pay to flrangers, and the general tatle for literature which prevails among thofe in the better ranks of life. The French literati have great influence in the gay and diflipated city of Paris. Their opi- nions not only determine the merit of works of tafle and fcience, but they have confiderable weight with rcfpeil to th'- manners and fentiments of people of rank, and of the public in general, and confequently arc n<;Jt without effect in the mca- Xures of government. Dress, FRANCE. 401 Dress.] The Ffench drefs of both fexes is fo well knowti, that it is needicfs to expatiate upon them here ; bur, indeed, their drefs in cities and towns is ib vari- able, that it is next to impoflible to defcribe it. They certainly have more inven- tion in that particular than any of their neighbours, and their conftantly changinty their fafliions is of infinite fcrvice to their manufaflures. Witli regard to the Eng- lifh, they pofTefs one capital fupcriority, which is, that the cloaths of both fexes, and their ornaments, are at Icaft one-third cheaper. When a flrangcr arrives in Paris, he finds it neceflary to fend for the taylor, perruquier, hatter, (hoemalcer, and every other tradefman concerned in the equipment of the human body. He muft even change his buckles, and the form of his ruffles ; and, though at the rifk of his life, fuit his cloaths to the mode of the feafon. For example, though the wear. ther fliould be ever lb cold, he w.uil wear his hahil d'ete, or demi-Jaifan, v.'ithout pre- fuming to put on a warm drefs before the day which fafliion has fixed for that pur- pofe ; and neither old age nor infirmity will excufe a man for wearing his hat upon his head, either at home or abroad. Females are, if poffible, flill more fubje6t to the caprices of fafliion. All their facks and negligees muft be altered and new trimmed. They muft have new caps, new laces, new (hoes, and their hair new cut. They muft have their taffetics for the fummcr, their flowered filks for the fpring and autumn, their fattins and damafks for winter. The men too muft provide themfelves with a camblet fuir trimmed with filver for fpring and autumn, with filk cloaths for fummer, and cloth laced with gold, or velvet for winter ; and he muft wear his bag-wig a la pigeon. This variety of drefs is indifpcnfable for all thofe v;ho pre- tend to any rank above the mere vulgar ; all ranks, from the king downwards, ufe powder ; and even the rabble, according to their abilities, imitate their fupe- riors in the fopperies of fafliion. The common people of the country, however, ftill retain, without any material deviation, the old-faJnioned mode of drefs, the large hat, and moft enormous jack-boots, with fuitable fpurs ; and this contraft is even perceivable a few miles from Paris. In large cities, the clergy, lawyers, phy- ficians, and merchants, generally drefs in black ; and it has been obferved, that the French nation, in their modes of drefs, are in ibme meafure governed by commercial circumftances. Religion.] The religion of France is Roman Catholic, in which tlieir kin.o;s have been fo conftant, that they have obtained the title of Moft Chriftian ; and the }-»ope, in his bull, gives the king of France the title of Eldeft Son of the Church. The Galilean church has more than once attempted to ftiake oft" the yoke of die popes, and made a very great progrefs in the attempt during the reign of Lewis XIV. but it was defeated by the fecret bigotry of that prince, who, v/hile he was bullying the pope, was inwardly trembling under the power of the Jcfuits; an order now univerfally aboliflied. Though the I'rench clergy are more exempt than fome others from the pipal authority, their church confining the pope's power en- tirely to things of an ecclcfiaftical nature, yet they are, in general, great enemies to any thing that looks like, reformation in religion ; and, poflefled as they are of iinmcnfe property, tliere inuft be a tliorough coaliiion in opinion between the king and his pail laments, before any ecclefiaftical reformation can take place ; a profpedl which feems at prefent far diftant. In the fouthern parts of France, the per- fccutions of the proteftants, or, as they are called, Hugonots, who are very nu- merous in thofe provinces, continued till very lately. Since their alliance with America, the proteftants have been more encouraged, and their aflemblies for uor- fliip in many places not difturbcd. In fliort, the common people of France dif- cover no difpofition towards a reformation in religion, which, if ever it takes place, ' muft probably be eftefled by the fpirit of the parliaments. I fliall not enter into the antiquated difputes between the Molinifts and the Tanfenifts, or the different fects 3F of 402 FRANC E. of Qnletifts and Bourignons, and odiers that prevail among the Ronian Catholics ihemfflves, or into the difpures that prevail between the parliainent and clergy about the bull Unigenitus, which advances the pope's power above that oi the crown. The ftate of" religion in France is a llrong proof of the paffive difgofition of the natives, and the bigotry of their kings, who, in complaifancc to the pope, have deprived their kingdom, as already hinted, of fome of its molt ufeful inhabitants. It mult at the fame time be owned, that the Hugonots, while they fubfifted in a man- ner as a feoarate flate within France, Ihewed fome difpofitions not very favourable to that delpotic fyliem of government v/hich is ellablifhed in tl-.e kingdom ; and on fome occalions they did not difplay much moderation in matters of religion ; but, in general, their oppofition to the rulers and court, proceeded from repeated attacks on their liberties, and the perfecut'.ons they fuftered. Archbishopricks, bishopricks, &c.] In the whole kingdom there are 17 archbifhops, 1 13 bilhops, 770 abbies for men, J17 abbies and priories for women, befides a great number of lelfer convents, and 250 commanderies of the order of Malta ; but feveral abbies and nunneries have been lately fupjirefled. The eccle- fiaftics of all forts are computed at near 200,000, and their revenues at about fix millions fterling. The king nominates all archbilhops, bilhops, abbots, and priors, and can tax the clergy without a papal licence or mandate : accordingly, not many years fince, he demanded the twentieth penny of the clergy, and, to afcertain that, required them to deliver in an inventory of their eftates and in- comes ; to avoid which, they voluntarily made an offer of the annual fum of twelve millions of livres, over and above the ufual free gift, which they pay every five years. This demand is often repeated in a time of vvar. The archbifliop of Lyons is count and primate of France. The archbifhop of Sens is primate of France and Germany. The archbifhop of Paris is duke and peer of the realm ; and the archbilhop of Rheims is duke and peer, and legate of the holy fee. Language.] One of the vvifefl: mcafures of Lewis XIV. was his encourage* ment of every propofal that tended to the purity and perfedtion of the French lan- guage. He fucceedcd fo far as to render it the mod: univerfal of all the living tongues ; a circumflance that tended equally to his greatnefs and his glory, for his court and nation thereby became the fcbool of arts, fciences, and politenefs. The French language, at prefent, is chiefly compofed of words radically derived from the Latin, with many German derivatives introduced by the Franks, It is now rather on the decay ; its corner Hones, fixed under Lewis XIV. are as it were loofened ; and in the prefent mode of writing, and expreffing themfelves, the modern F'rench too often abandon that grammatical llandard, which alone can render a language claflical and permanent. As to the properties of the language, it wants the dignity and energy of the Eno-lilh, but is well adapted to the fubjeiils void of elevation or paflion, and well accommodated to dalliance, compliments, and common convcrlation. The Lord's Prayer in French is as follows : N'aire Pcre qui es aux cieux, ton vom kitJanSlifie. Ton rcgtie vienne. 'Ta voloiUe Joit faite en la terre comn:e an del. Donne nous aujourd'hiii noire pain quotidien. Pardonne nous nos offences, comme nous pardon- rons a ceux qui nous ont cffencez. Et ne nous indui point en tentation, jnais nous delivre /« mal : car a toi eft le regne, la fuiffame, ^ la gloire aux ft'ccles desfiecies. Amen. Learning and learn tD men.] The French, like the other nations of Eu- tope, were for many centuries immerfed in barbarity. The firft learning they be- gan to accpiire, was not of that kind which improves the underllanding, corrects the tafie, or regulates the afTeitions. It confilUd in a fubtile and (juibbling logic, which v/as more adapted to pervert than to improve the faculties. But the lludy of FRANCE. 403 of the Greek and Roman writers, which firft arofe in I';aly, clifTufed itlllf among the French, and gave a new turn to their literary purfiiits. This, together with the encouragement which the polite and learned Francis I. gave to all a1en of merit, was extreniel}' beneficial to French literature. During this reign, many learned men appeared in France, who greatly diftinguifhed themlelves by their writings ; among whom were Budeus, Clement Marot, Peter du Chatel, Rabelais, and Peter Ramus. The names of Henry and Robert Stephens are mentioned by every real fcholar with refpedl. It was not, however, till the feventeenth century, that the French began to write with elegance in their own language. The Academic Franfoife was formed for promoting this purpofe ; and though their labours, confidered as a body, were not fo luccefsful as might have been expcdted, fome particular academicians have done great ferviee to letters. In i'a&i, literary co- partnerlhips are feklom very fuccefstul. Ot this we have a remarkable inllancc in the prefent cafe. The academy publiflicd a diftion-iry for improving the French language : it was very generally condemned. Furetieres, a fingle acade- mician, publiflies another : it meets with univerfal approbation. Lewis XIV. was the Auguflus of France. The protection he gave to letters, and the penfions he beftowcd on learned men, both at home and abroad, which, by cal- culation, did not amount to above 12, cool, jier annum, have gained him more glory than all the militnry enterprifes upon which he expended fo many millions. The learned men w ho appeared in France during this reign are too numerous to be nien- tioned. Their tragic poets, Racine and Corneille, have defcrvedly obtained a very high reputation : the firft was dilVmguifned for fkill in moving the paflions ; the fecond for majefty; and both, for the itrength andjullnefs of their painting, the ele- gance of their talle, and the-ir ftrid: adherence to the rules of the drama. Molicre would have exhaulled the -fubj>;d:s of comedy, were they not every where inexauft- ible, and particularly in France. In works of fatire and in criticifm, Boileau, who, was a clofer imitator of the ancients, pofieiTed uncommon merit. But France has not yet })roduced an epic poem that can be mentioned with Milton's ; nor a "Cnius of the lame extenfive and univerfal kind with Shakfpeare, equally fitted for the gay and the ferious, the hunaorous and the fublime. In the eloquence of the pulpit andof tlie bar, the French are greatly our fuperiors : BoHuet, Bourdaloue, Flecheir and Maflillon, have carried pulpit eloquence to a degree of perfecftion which we may approach to, but can hardly be expected ever to furpafs. The genius, how- ever, of their religion and government, is extremely unfavourable to all improve- ments in the moft ufeful branches of philofophy. AH the cflablifliments of Lewis XIV. for the advancement of fcience, were not able to counterbalance the influence of the clergy, whofe interefl it is to limit the enquiries of men in matters of reli- gion and morality ; and the Influence of the court and miniftry, who have an equal intereft in concealing the natural rights of m.inkind, and every found principle of government. The French have not therefore lb many good writers on moral re- ligious, or political fubjcits, as have appeared in Great Britain. But France has produced fome great men who do honour to humanity ; whole career no obftacle could flop, whofe freedom no government, however defpotic, no religion, however fuperftitious, could curb or rellrain. As an hiftorian, De Thou is entitled to the highell: praife : and who is ignorant of Pafcal, or of the archbifliop of Cambray ? Few men have done more ferviee to religion, either by their writings or their lives. As for Montefquieu, he is an honour to human nature : he is the leo-iQator of na- tions ; his works are read in every country and language, and wherever they go they enlighten and invigorate the human mind. And, indeed, fevcral writers have lately appeared in France,, whofe writings breathe fuch fentiments of liberty as arc not very well accommodated to the arbitrary government under which thev J " ~ live ; 404 FRANCE. live ; fentiments whicli daily make progrefs among men of letters, anci perfoES- in the higher ranks oi life, and which may hi time be produdivc of fome im- portant revolution. In thq Belles Lettres and mifcellaneous way, no nation ever produced more agree- able vvrlters; among vi'hom we may place Montaigne, D'Argens, and Voltaire, as the molt confiderable. Before the iminGrtal Newton appeared in England, Defcartes- was the greatel!: philofopher in modern times. He was the firfl: who rpplied algebra to the foiution of geometrical problems, which naturally paved the way to theanalv- tical difcoveries of Newton. Many eminent matiiematicians have flouriilied in the prefenc age, particularly Clairaut, D'Alembert, and Bezout. Since the begin- ning of the prefcnt century, the French have almoft vied with the Englifh in na- tural philofophy. Buffon would deferve to be reckoned among men of fcience,- were he not Itill more remarkable for his eloquence than for his pliilofophy. He is to be regarded as a philoiophical painter of nature ; and, under this view, his- Natural Hiftory is the tirft v/ork of its kind. Their painters, Pouflin, Le Brun, and above all Le Sueur, did honour to the age of Lewis XIV. They have none at prelent to compare with them in the more noble kinds of painting; but Mr. ■ Greufe, for portraits and converfation-pieccs, never perhaps was excelled. Sculp- ture is in general better underftood in France than in molt other countries of Eu- rope. Their trea^tlfes on fhip-builcing and engineering fland unrivalled; but in the practice of both they are outdone by the Englifh. No genius has hitherto equalled Vauban in the theory or pradtice of fortification. The French were long our fuperiors in architecture; though we now bid fair for Eirpafling them in this art. We fhall conclude this head with obferving, that the French have now new- modelled the Encyclopedie, or General Diftionaryof Arts and Sciences, which was drawn up by the molt able mafters in each branch of literature, in 28 volumes in folio (fix of which are copper-plates), under the direction of Meffieurs D'Alembert and Diderot, and is the mod complete collection of human knowJedge we are ac-- quamted with. Universities and public colleges.] Thefe literary inftitutions fuftained a- confiderable lofs by the expulfion of the Jefults, who made the languages, arts, anci fcicnces, their particular ftudy, and taught them all over France ; but as the cxtindion of this body of men will probably lefltn the influence of fuperftition in France, there is reafon to believe that the interefts of real learning and fcience will, upon the whole, be promoted by that event. The univerfities are in number twenty-eight, as follow; Aix, Angiers, Aries, Avignon, Befangon, Bourdeaux, Eouro-es, Caen, Cahors, Dol, Douay, Fleche, Montauban, Montpellicr, Nantes,- Orano;c, Orleans, Paris, Perpignan, Poitiers,: Point Moufon, Richlieu, Rheims, Soiflons, Strafbourg, Touloufe, Tournoife, and Valence. Academies.] There are eight academies in Paris, namely, three literary ones, the French Academy, that of Infcriptions, and that of the Sciences ; one of paint- in" and fculpture, one of archite(5ture, and three for riding the great horfc, and other military exercifes. AuTiQi/iTiES AND CURIOSITIES, ? Fcw countrics, if we except Italy, can boaft" NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ of m.ore valuable remains of antiquity than France. Some of the French antiquities belong to the time of the Celts, and con- fequently, compared to them, tliofe of Rome are modern. Father Mabillon has given us a moft curious account of the fepulchres of their kings, which have been difcovcred fo fiir back as Pharamond; and fome of them, when broke upon, were found to contain ornaments and jewels of value. At Rhcims, and otiier parts of France, are to be feen triumphal "arches; but the moft entire is at Orange, erec'ted on account of the victory ubaincd over the Cimbri and Tcutoncs, by Caius Ma- rius FRANCE. 405 r4iiS and Liiiflamis CatuUis. After Gaul was reduced to a Roman province', the Romans took vaft delight in adorning it with magnificent edifices, both civil and facred; feme of which are more entire than any Co be met with in Italy itfelf. The ruins of an ampliithcatre are to be found in Chalons, and likev/ife at Vienne. Nifines, however, exhibits the mod valuable remains of ancient architedture of any place in France. The famous Pont du Garde was raifed in the Auguftan age by the Roman colony of Nilir.es, to convey a Rrcam of water between two moun- tains for the ufe of that city, and the building is frefh to this day : it confifts of three bridges, or tiers of arches one above another; the height is 174 feet, and the length- extends to 723. Many other ruins of antiquity are found atNifmes; but the chief, are the temple of Diana ; the amphitheatre, which is thought to be the fincft and moft entire of the kind of any in Europe; but above all, the houfe ereftcd by the emperor Adrian, called the Mailon Carree. The architecture and fculptureof this building are fo exquifitely beautiful, that it enchants even the moft ignorant; and it is dill entire, being very little airefted cither by the ravages of time, or the havoc of war. At Paris, in La Rue de la Plarpe, may be {ecn the ri-mains of Thermas, fuppofed to have been built by the emperor Julian, furnamed the Apoftate, about the year 356, after the fame model as the baths of Dioclefian. The remains of this ancient edifice confift of many arches, and within them a large faloon. It is fabricated of a kind of maflic, the compofition of v/hich is not now known, intermixed with fmall fquare pieces of free-ftone and bricks. At Aries in Provence is an obelifli of oriental granite, 52 feet high, and feven feet diameter at the bafe, and all but one ftone. Roman temples and aquedufts are frequent in France. The moft remarkable are in Burgundy and Guienne. The paffage cut through the middle of a rock near Brian^on in Dauphiny, is thought to be a Roman work, if not of greater antiquity. The round buckler of mally filver, taken out of the Rhone in 1665, being twenty inches in diameter, and weighing twenty-one pounds, containing' the ftory of Scipio's continence, is tliought to be coeval with that great general. It would be entllefs to recount the different monuments of antiquity to be found in France, particularly in the cabinets of the curious. Cities and towns.] F"rance contains 400 cities, 1500 tov/ns, and 100,000 villages. Lifle, in French Flanders, is thought to be the moft regular and ftrongeft fortifi- cation in Europe, and was the mafter-piece of the famous Vauban. It is generally garrifoned v/ith above io,oco regulars; and, for its magnificence and elegance, it is called Little Paris. Its manufaiitures of filk, cambric, and camblets, are very confiderable ; and its inhabitants amount tb about 100,000. Every reader is ac- quainted with the hiftory of Dunkirk, which the French were obliged by the treaty "of Utrecht to demolifli, but which, by an article in the laft treaty of peace, may be rebuilt. It has been long a h;irbour for Engl iOi fmugglers. The reft of French Flanders, and its Netherlands, abound with fortified towns, which carry on very gainful manufadfures. Moving fouthward, we come to the Ifle of France; the capital of whith, and of the whole kingdom, is Paris. This city has been fo often defcribcd, it may appear fviperlluous to mention it more particularly, were it not that the vanity of the French has given it a preference which it by no means dekrves, to all the capitals in the world, in every refpciff, not excepting even population. Many of the Engliili have been impofcd upon >n this point ; particularly by the computing from the births and burials within the bills of mortality, which exclude the moft pojuilousparifhes about London. Another miftake lies in computing from births and marriao-cs. The number of diflentcrs of all kinds in and about London, who do not reo-tftcr the 4a6 FRANC E, the births of then' children, is very great; and many of the poorer foit will not sftoid the fmall expence of fuch a regiftration. Another peculiarity exifting \a London is, that moft of the Londoners in afRuent circumftances, when they find thenilelves conkimptive, or othervvife indifpoied, retire into the country, where they are buried, and thereby excluded from the bills of mortalitv. 1 he popula- tion of Paris, therefore, where the regiflers are more exadt and acceiTilile to the poor, and v\here the religion and the police are more uniform and flritl, is far more eafily alcertained than that of London ; and by the beft accounts, it does not exceed ^ or 800,000, which is far iliort of the inhabitants of London and the contiguous parilhcs. Paris is divided into three parts ; the city, the univerfity, and that which was formerly called the Town. The city is old Paris ; the univerfity and the town are the new. Paris contains more works of public munificence than utility. Its palaces are fliewy, and fomc of its ftrcets, fquares, hotels, hofpitals, and churches, fuperbly decorated with a profufion of paintings, tai)eftry, images, and fiatues ; but Paris, notw.ithl\anding its boafted police, is greatly inferior to London in manv of the conveniencies of life, and the folid enjoyments of fociety. "Without entering into more minute difquifitions, Paris, it muft be owned, is the paradifc of fplendor and difllpation. The tapeftry of the Gobelines *is unequalled lor beauty and richnefs. The Louvre is a building that does honour to architec- ture itfeif; and the inftitution of the French academy tar exceeds any thingof the kind in England, or elfew.here. The Tuilleries, the palace ot Orleans, or, as it is called, Luxembourg, where a valuable collection of paintings are lliewn, the royal palace, the king's library, the guild-hall, and the hofpital for the invalids, are lliperb to the higheft degree. 1 he city of Paris is faid to be fifteen miles in cir- cumference. 1 he hotels of the French nobleire at Paris take up a great deal of room with their court-yards and gardens ; and io do their convents and churches. The ftreets are very narrow, and the houfes very high, many of them feven flories, and built of ftone. The river Seine, which runs through the centre of the city, is not half fo large as the Thames at London : it is too far diltant from the fca for. the purpofes of navigation, and furniflicd with boats only for the jnirpofe of pafiing ffom one fide of the river to the other, in places dillant from the bridges. The flreets of Paris are generally crowded, particularly with coaches, which gives that capital the appearance of wealth and grandeur, though in reality there is more iliow than fubliance. The glittering carriages that dazzle the eyes of flrangers are moltly common iiacks, hired by the day or week to the numerous foreigners who vifit that city.; and in truth, the greateft part of the trade of Paris arifes from the confiant fuccefiion of flrangers that arrive daily, from every nation and quarter of tlie "lobe;. This afcendancy over other nations is undoubtedly owing to the reputation qf their language, their politenefs and magnificence, their libraries, and collections qf paintings, that are ojxn to the public ; the cheapnefs of provifions, excellency of the French wines, and above all, the purity of the air and climate in France. With all thefe advantages, Paris, in general, will not bear a comj)arifon with Lon- don, in the more efiential circumflanccs of a thriving foreign and domeftic trade, the cleannefs of their ftreets, elegance of their houfes, efpccially within; the plenty of water, and that of a better quality than the Seine, which it is fiiid difligrees with flrangers, as do likewifc their fmall wines. In the houfes of Paris moft of the floors arc of brick, and have no other kind of dcanning than that of being Iprinkleei • One Cobh-i, a noted dyer at Uheims, was the fiiicc; and licic the great C'llbcrt, about tlie )ear fuft who fettled ill this place, in the reign of Fran- 1667, cllabliflkd that valuable maiuiiaCtory. „cis I. and the houle has retained his name ever with FRANCE. 407 \H'ith water, :ind fwcpt once a day. Thefc brick floors, the ftone ftalrs, the want of wainlcotting in the rooms, and the thick party-walls of Hone, are however, eood prcfervativei. iigainft fire, which feldoin does any damage in this city. Inllead of wainfcotting, the walls are covered with tapeflry or damafk. Their fliops are but poorly Ilored with goods; nor has their government made the provifions that are ever in its power for the comfort of the inferior ranks : its v/hole attention fcemin<>- to be diretted to the conveniency and fplcndour of the great. The fliop-keepcrs and tradefmen, an indolent, loitering people, feldom make their appearance before dinner in any other than a morning drefs, of velvet cap, filk night-gown, and Mo- rocco flippers. There is a remarkable contraft between this clafs of people and thofe of the fame rank in ]-ondon. In Paris, tiie women pack up parcels, enter the orders, and do moll: of the drudgery bufmefs of the fhop, wliile the hufband loiters about, talks of the great, of fafhions and diverfions, the invincible force of their armies, and the fplenilour of the grand monarque. T'he Parifians, however, as well as the nativt-s of France in general, are remarkably temperate in their livings and to be intoxicated with liquor is confidered as infamous. Bread, and all manner of butchers meat and poultry, are extremely good in Paris j the beef is excellent 5 the wine they generally drink, is a very thin kind of Burgundy. The common peo- ple, in the fummer feafon, live chiefly on bread, butter, grapes, and fmall wine. The Parifians fcarccly know the ufe of tea, but they have coffee in plenty. The p^o- lice of Paris is fo well attended to, that quarrels, accidents, or felonies, fcldoin happen ; and ftrangers, from all quarters of the globe, let their appearance be ever fo uncommon, meet with the molt polite treatment. The ftreets are patrolled at night by horfe and foot ; fo judicioufly ftationed, that no offender can efcape their vigilance. They likewife vifit the publicans precifely at the hour of twelve at night, to fee that the company are gone ; for in Paris no liquor can be had after that time. The public roads in France are under the fame excellent regulation, which, with the torture of the rack, prevents robberies in that kingdom ; but for the fame reafon, when robberies do happen, they are always attended with the death of the unfortunate traveller; and indeed this is the general praftice in every country of Europe, Great Britain excepted. The environs of Paris are very pleafant, and contain a number of fine |feats, fmall towns and villages; fome of them, being fcattered on the edges of lofty mountains rifing from the Seine, are. remarkably delightful. The palace of Verfailles, which flands twelve miles from Paris, though maf- nificent and expenfive beyond conception, and adorned with all that art can fur- nilh, is properly a coUeftion of buildings, each of exquifite archited:ure, but nor forming a whole, agreeable to the grand and fublime of that art. The gardens, and water-works (which are fupplied by means of prodigious engines acrofs the Seine at Marli^ about three miles dillancc), are alfonifning proofs of the fertile genius of man, and highly worthy of a Granger's attention. Trianon, Alarli^ St. Germain en Laye, Meudon, and other royal palaces, are laid out with tafle and judgment; each has its peculiar beauties for the entcrtainrntnt and'amufemenr of a luxurious court; but fome of them are in a fhameful condition, both as to repaifs and cleanlinefs. • Brcft is a fmall, but very ftrong town, upon the Englini channel, with a moft fpacious and fine fortified road and harbour, the belt and lafeft in the kingdom ;' vet its entrance is difficulr, by reafon of niany rocks lying under water. At Brcft is a court of admiralty, and academy for fca-affairs, docks, and magizines for all kinds of naval fiorcs, rope-yards, ftore-houfes, 6cc. infomuch that it may now be termed the capital receptacle for the navy-ro\al of France, and it is admirably weir adapted for that end. Lewis 4o8 FRANCE. Lewis XIV, rendered Toulon, from a pitiful village, a fea-pert of great uh- portance. He fortified both the town and harbour, for the reception and protec- tion of the navy-royal. Its old and its new harbour lie contiguous ; and by nneans of a canal, fhips pafs from one to the other, both of them having an outlet into the fpacious outer harbour. Its arfenal, eftabliflied alfo by that king, has a parti- cular ftorehoufe for each ftiip of war, its guns, cordage. Sec. being feparately laid -up. Here are fpacious workfiiops for blackfmiths, joiners, carpenters, lock- fmiths, carvers, &c. Its rope-walk, of ftone, is 320 toifes or fathoms in length, v.ith three arched walks. Its general magazine fupplics whatever may be wanting in the particular ftorehoufes, and contains an immenfe quantity of all kinds of •ftores, difpofcd in the greateft order. Commerce and manufactures.] Next to Henry IV. juftly flyled the Great, -the famous Colbert, minifter to Lev/is XIV. may be called the father of the French commerce and manufaitlures. Under him there was a great appearance that France would make as illuftrious a figure as a trading, as flie did then as a warlike people ; but the truth is, the French do not naturally poflefs that undaunted perfeverance which is neceffary for commerce and colonization, though no people, in theory, underftand them better. It is to be confulcrcd at the fame time, that France, by her fituation, by the turn of her inhabitants for certain manufactures, and the hap- pinefs of her foil, mull be always pofleffcd of great inland and neighbouring trade, which enriches her, and makes her the moll: refpcdlable power upon the continent of Europe. 1 have already enumerated her natural commodities ; to v.'hich may be added, her manufadtures of falt-petre, lilk, embroidery, fiivcr, fluffs, tapeftry, cambrics, lawns, fine laces, firie fcjges and ftuffs, velvets, bro- cades, paper,' brandy, which is diftilled from wine, a prodigious variety of toys, r.nd other articles ; many of which are fmuggled into Great Britain, for which they are paid in ready money. The filk manufadure was introduced into France fo late as the reign of Henrv IV. and in the age of his grandfon Lewis XIV. the city of Tours alone employed ilooo looms, and 800 mills. The city of Lyons then employed 18,000 looms ; but after the impolitic and unjuft revocation of the edid: of Nantes, the cxpulfion of the Protcftants, and the ruinous war maintained by France, they decrcafed to .iOGO ; and their filk manufadure is now rivalled by that of England, where the French Proteftants took refuge, and were happily encouraged. On the other hand, the French v;oollcn cloths and fluffs, more efpecially at Abbeville, are laid to be now little inferior to thofe of England and Holland, affilled by the clandefline im- portation of Englifti and Irifli wool, and workmen from this country. It is a doubtful point whether the crown of France was a lofer by its ceffion of Canada' and part of Louifiana at the late peace. But the mofl valuable part of Hilpaniola in the Well Indies, which flie polfelTcs by the partiality and indolence of Sjiain, is a mofl improveable acquifition, and the mofl valuable of all her foreign colon-ics. In the Wert Indies flie likewile poflcires the mort important fugar iflands of Mar- tinico, Guadaloiipe, St. Lucia, Tobago, St. Bartholomew, Dcfeada, and Mariga- lante. Her poffefTions in North America, are only a fmall trad upon the Miirifiippi. The French pofTefTions in the Fall Indies, are not very confiderable ; though had thei^ o-enius been more turned for commerce than war, they might have cngroiled more territory and revenues than are now in poffeflion of the Knglifh ; but they over-rated both their own power and their courage, and their Eafl India company never did much- At prelent (fays IVTr. Anderfon), ' her land trade to Switzerland and Italy is by way of Lyons — To Germany, through Metz and Stralburgh — To the Netherlands, through Lifle— To Spain (a mott profitabk one), through Ba- vonne atid Perpignan. As for her naval commerce, her ports in the channel, and on . FRANCE. 409 on the wcflcrn ocean, are frequented by all the trading nations in Europe, to the great advantage of France, more efpccially refpedingwhat is carried on with Eng- land, Holland, and Italy. The trade from her Mediterranean ports (more parti- cularly from Marfeillcs) with Turkey and Africa, has long been v<^ry confidcrable. The negro trade from Guinea fupplies her fugar colonies, bcfides the gold, ivory, and drugs got from thence.' In the year 1739, France may be faid to have been in the zenith of her com- merce. Favoured by Spain, and dreaded by moftof the other powers of Europe, her fleets covered the ocean ; but flic truftcdtoo much to her own felf- importance. Cardinal dc Flcury, who then dirtftcd her affi\irs, took no care to protcft her trade by proper naval armaments ; lb that the greater it was, it became the more valuable prey to the Englifli when war broke out. It is, however, the happincfs of France that her wounds are loon doled, and, in confcquence of the late American war» her naval power hath confiderably revived. One great difadvantage to the commerce of France is, that the profefiion of a merchant is not fo honourable as in England and fome other countries, fo that the French nobility think it below them ; which is the reafon that the church, the law, and the armv, are fo full of that order. Public trading companies.] The Bank of France, called the Caiflo D'Efcompte, enjoys conf.derablc credit. There is only one trading com- pany, viz. the Kaft India, the ilock of which amounts to 10,000,000 livres. CuNSTiTUTiON AND GOVERNMENT.] The conftitutiou of France in feudal times, was very unfavourable to monarchy ; but the opprcflions of the great land- holders, by degrees, grew fo irkfome to the fubjcfts, that they preferred the mo- narchical to the arillocratical government. Ariftocracy, however, Hill fubfifted in fome degree to the beginning of the laft century, chiefly through the neceffity which the Hugonots or proteltants were under to have princes of the blood, and men of great quality, for their leaders ; but Kichlicu in the time of Lewis XIII. gave It a mortal blow ; and all the civil difputes in France fince, have been among great men for power and places, and between the kings and their parliaments. There are nov.' in France twelve parliaments. That at Paris is the m^oft confiderabje ; it is pro- perly a fupreme court of juflice and appeal ; and like the other parliaments, alTumes tiie privilege of remonil:rating againft fuch editls of the king as appear prejudicial to the people. But this is a matter of little conftitutional import- ance. Lewis XV. frequently exiled his parliaments, and when thefe afiemblics prove refraftory, the king can go in perfon, and oblige them to regifter his edicts in his prefence. The kingdom of France is divided into thirty governments, over each of which is appointed a king's lieutenant-general, a fupcrlntendant, who pretty much rc- fembles the lord-lieutenants In England, but their executive powers are far more extenfive. Dittributive juftice in France is adminiftered by parliaments, chambers of accounts, courts of aid, prefidial courts, generalities, eleclions, and other courts. The parliament of Paris is divided into ten chambers. The grand cliamber Is ap- propiated chiefly for the trial of peers. The Tournelle Civil judges In all matters of property above the value of icoo llvies. The Tournelle Criminelle receives and decides appeals from inferior courts in criminal calls. Befidcs thefe three capital chambers, there are five of requefts, for receiving the depofitions of wltnelTes, and determining caufes, pretty much In the fame manner as our bills and anfwcrs in chancery and the exchequer. 1 he next court of judicature in France is the chamber of accounts ; where all matters of public finances are examined, treaties of peace and grants regilfered, and the vaffidages due from the royal fiefs are received. The chambers are in number twelve, and held in the cities of Paris, Rouen, Dijon, Nantes, Montpclier, Grenoble, Aix, Pau, Blois, Lille, Aire, and Dole. 3G The 4TO FRANCE. The third court of judicature is the court of aid, where all matters that relate ta the royal revenue, and the railing of money, are determined. The fourth are the prefidial courts, which are compofed of judges for determining matters in appeal from magiftrates of little towns and villages. The next court are the generalities, who proportion the taxes to be raifed in their diftritts, according to the fum that is appointed to be levied. Theylikewife take cognizance of matters relating to the crown-lands, and certain branches of the re- venue, Thefe courts are in number twenty-three, each confiding of twenty-three perfons ; and they are diftributcd over the kingom for the more convenient dif- patch of bufinefs. Subjeft to thefe generalities, are the courts of elections, which fettle the fmaller proportions of taxes that are to be paid by pariilies and inferior dillrifts, and how much each individual in the fame is to pay. This is done by a colledor, who re- turns the aflelTment to the court of generalities. Befides the above courts, the French have intendants of juftice, police, and finances, whofe powers, when pro- perly executed, are of great fervice to the peace of the community. After the reader has been told of the excellency of the climate, and fertility of the foil in France j her numerous manufactures and extenfive commerce, iier great cities, numerous towns, fea-ports, rivers, and canals ; the cheapnefs of provifions, wines, and liquors ; the formidable armies and fleets flie has fent forth, to the terror of Europe; and the natural charadter of her inhabitants, their fprightlinefs and gaiety; he will undoubtedly conclude, that France is the mod powerful nation, and her people the moft opulent and happy in Europe. But this is not the cafe ; for the French refources, by a wrong application, have ofcen proved ruinous to the people. The moft obvious caufes of this, are the ambition and vanity of their kings and leading men, which led them into fchemes of univerfal dominion, the aggran- difement of their name, and the enllaving of Chriftendom. Their v/ars, which they fometimes carried on againft one half of Europe, and in which they were ge- nerally unfortunate, led them into difficulties to which the ordinary revenues were inadequate ; and hence proceeded the arbitrary demands upon the fubjed: under various pretences, in the name of loans, free-gifts,. &c. When thefe failed, other methods, moie defpotic and unwarrantable, luch as raifing and reducing the value of money as it fuited their own purpofes, national bankruptcies, and other griev- ous oppreffions were adopted, which gave the finilhing blow to public credit, and^ ftiook the foundations of trade, commerce, and indullry, the fruits of which no man could call his own. When we confider the motives of thefe wars, a dcfirc to enflave and render miferable the nations around th«m, that man mull be devoid of humaniry, who-fc breaft is not railed with indignation at the bare mention of the blood that has been fpilt, the miferies and dcfolations that have happened, and the numerous places that have fallen a facrifice to their ambition. The evil which their paffions occafion, recoils on their own country, as is vifible in the wretchcd- nefs of the lower ranks, particularly the farmers and peafantry, who pofi'cfs neither the knowledge, the inllruraents, nor the means rcquifite for cultivating their landi to the greatclt advantage. The condition of this clafs ot men is rendered ftill more miferable by the exadlions of the farmers of the revenue, and by the cravings of a numerous clergy, who in their turns are obliged, as well as the laity, to ad- vance the government immertfe fums, under the names of tenths and free-gifts,, exclufive of whichy they are now taxed with a certain fum, to be paid annually. RrA'EKUF.s.] 'It is not eafy to fay any thing certain concerning the revenues of a prince who can command the purfes of all his fubjctts. In 17 16, the whole Ipccie of Frajice,. in gold and filver, was computed to be about feventecn millions Ilec- iing i and though the crown was then doubly a bankrupt, being in debt about 100 niillioiis FRANCE. 4H millions (lerling, or 2000 millions of livrcs, 3'et by laying hold of almoft all the current money in the kingdom, :ind by arbitrarily raifing or lovvcrino- the value of coins, in tour years time the duke regent of France publiflicd a general Hate of the public debts, by which it appeared that the king fcarcely owed ^40 millons of livres. This being done by a national robbery, we can form no idea but that of defpotifm, of the means by which fo great a reduction was effefted. The French court has not fince that time blullied to own, as towards the conclufion of the former war, and alfo in 1769, that their king was bankrupt ; and his minifters have purfued meafures pretty much fimilar to thofe praclifed by the regent, to recruit the royal finances. According to fome late calculations the net revenue amounts to i8,ooo,oool. fterling. The public debt in 1784 amounted to 3400 millions of livres ; and 27 millions and a half were to be appropriated annually to reduce it ; by which means 1264 millions were to be paid in the courfe of 25 years. But this was a mere fpeculation, for new loans have been fince opened every year. Their taxes are raifed by the taille, or land-tax ; the tallion, which the nobility are obliged to pay as well as the commons, is only another land-tax ; by aids, which we call cuftoms on merchandife : by gabels, which is a tax upon fait ; bv a capitation, or poll-tax ; by the tenths of ellates and employments ; by the fale of all offices of juftice ; by confifcations and forfeitures ; and by a tenth, or free-gift of the clergy, exclufive of the annual fum of twelve millions of livres, which that body- has of late advanced to the king. MiLiTARy AND MARINE STRENGTH.] Thctc is uo nation in Europe where the art of v/ar, particularly that part of it relating to gunnery and fortification, is bet- ter underftood than in France. Befides other methods for cultivating it, there is a royal military academy eftabliflied for training up 500 young gentlemen, in the feveral branches of this great art. In time of peace the crown of France maintains about 200,000 men, but at a very fmall comparative expence, the pjy of the common men being little more than two-pence half-penny per day. In a time of war 400,000 have been brought into the field ; but thofe that are raifed from the militia are very indifferent troops. In 1784, the ftanding military force amounted to 212,914. In the reign of Lewis XI V. the French had at one time 100 fliips of the line, which was almoft equal to the marine force of all i^uroiie befides. The French have, however, at fea been generally defeated by the Eno-- lilli. The engagement at La Hogve, which happened in 1692, gave a blow to the French marine which it was long before it recovered. The late king Lewis XV. has more than once made prodigious efforts towards re-eftabliftino- his navy ; but h'.s officers and feamen were fo much inferior to thofe of England, that he Icemed during the war of 1756, to have built fliips of force for the fervice of Great Bri- tain, fo frequent were the captures made by the Englifh. However, after the com- mencement ol holliiities between Great Britain and France, on account of the condui!:t of the latter in afiilling the revolted Ainericaa colonies, it has aopear- ed that the French navy is become more formidable than at any preceding period, their miniftry have exerted their utmolt efforts to eftabliili a powerful marine. The prefent navy of France confifts of about 100 fliips of the line, befides a o-rcat number of frigates. Royal titles, arms, nobility ^ The title affumed by the French kin^ is AND ORDERS. S fimply, king of France and Navarre ; and by way of compliment he is called his Mod Chriftian Majefty. His arms arc three fleurs-de-lis, or, in a field argent, fupported by two angels in the habits of Levites having each of them a banner in his hand, with the fame arms. The motto is Lilianon laborant neque nent. About the year 1349, Hubert, the laft count of Dau- Z G 2 phiny. 4T2 . FRANCE. pliiny, being accidentally the occafion of his fon's death, annexed that county to the crown of France, upon condition that the eldefl fon of France Ihoukl be, for the tinie to come, ftylcd Dauj^hin. The French nobility are of four kinds; firtl, the princes of the blood ; fecondly, dukes and counts, peers of France ; thirdly, th$ ordinary nobility ; fourthly, the nobility lately made, or thofe made in the pre- fcnt reign. The firft prince of the blood is the perfon who (lands next to the crown after the king's fons. The knights of the Holy Ghoft are ranked among the higher nobility ; as are the governors and lieutenants-general of provinces. In France there are three orders ; firft, that " of St. Michael^ inftltuted in 1469 by Lewis XL originally compofld of thirty-fix knights, but afterwards enlarged to a hundred. It is generally conferred on artifts, phyficians, magiftrates, &c. they wear a black watered ribband, faih-ways over the right flioulder, to which is pendant a medallion of the- fame figure, with that defcribed in theordcr of the Holv Ghoft, en- amelled green. Their badge is a golden oval medallion, in which is St. Michael trampling the dragon under his ieet. A perfon mulf be a knight of this order be- fore he can enter into x^az Jecond " of the Holy Ghofl" which was founded in 1579 by Henry III. and is compofed of a hundred perfons, exclufive of the fovereign, ai)d conferred only on princes of the blood, and perfons of the highefl rank. All are to be papifts, and, except the 14 commanders, which confift of Cardinals, Pre- lates, and the officers of the order, are all to prove the nobility of their defcent for above 100 years. The dauphin is received in both orders on the day of his birth. The badge is a filver ftar or crofs of eight points, with a fleur-de-lis at each angle, and a dove, the emblem of the Holy Ghoft, in the centre, embroidered on the left fide of the outer garment as the ftar of our knights of the Garter is, and a fky-blue watered ribband fafh-ways, over the right flioulder, to which is pendent a medal- lion of the figure of the ftar, enamelled white, with fleurs-de-lis, or, at the great angles, having a dove on one fide, and St. Michael with the dragon on the other. Third, the order " of St. Louis," which was inftituted in the year 1693 by Lewis XIV. merely for military merit, and is worn by almoft every officer, and even fub- alterns. The firft clnfs confifls of 40 knights, who are ftylcd Chevaliers .cIh Grand Croix, and they wear a ftar, with the badge on the left fide of their garment : the fecond clafs are 80 in number, flyled Chevaliers Co?nmandri>rs, &c. but have no ftar : the third clafs is unlimited ; they wear the badge at the button-hole of their coat ; the badge is the image of St. Louis in armour, holding in his left hand a crown of thorns, and in his right, a crown of laurel, with the infcrip- tion Ludovicus Magnus inflituit anno 1693 ; on the reverfe, a fword ercdl, the point througli a chnplcr of laurel, bound with a white ribband, enamelled with thiS' motto, Bcllica virtuiis prng the firfl: a£ls of Lewis XVth. was his nominating his preceptor, after- wards cardinal Feury, to be his firft minifter. Though his fyftem was entirely pacific, yet the ficuation ol afftirs in Europe, u[)on the death of the king of Poland in 1734, more than than once embroiled him with the houfe of Auilria. The in- tention of the French king was to replace his farher-in- law, Scaniftans on- the throne of Poland. In this he failed through the interpofition of the Ruffians and Au- 3 H ftrians : 4t8 FRANCE. llfians ; but Staniilaus '^ijoyed the tide of king, and the revenues of Lorrain, during the reaiainder of his life. The conneftion between France and Spain forced the former to become principals in a war with Great Britain ; in the management of which the latter was fo ill feconded by her allies, that it was finifiied by the peace of Aix la Chapelle in 1748. As to the war, which was ended by the peace of Fontainblcau, in 1763, the chief events attending it, lb humiliating to France, have been already mentioned in the hill:ory of England, and therefore need not be re- capitulated here. The prefent king, Lewis XVI. fucceeded his grandfather, Lewis XV. on the 10th of May 1774. Several regulations have taken place, fince his acceiTion, highly favourable to the general interefis of the nation, particularly the fupprefTion of the mufquetaires, and fome other corps, which being adapted more to the parade of gu.^rding the royal perfon than any real military fervice, were fupported at a great expence, v/ithout an adequdte return of benefit to the ilate. But one of the moll: remarkable circumftancci which attended the prefent reign, was the placing of Ivlr. Necker, a Proteftant, and a native of Switzerland, at the head of the French finances, in 1776. Under the direction of this gentleman, a general reform toolc place in France, throughout every department in the revenue. When hoftilities com- menced between France and Great Britain, in confequence of the afliltance afforded by the former to the revolted Britifli colonies, in America, the people of France were not burthened with new taxes for carrying on the war ; but the public revenue was augmented by his ceconomy, improvements, and reformation, that were intro- duced into the management of the finances. At the beginning of the year 1780, in confequence of the reprefentatlons of Mr. Ivecker, a variety of unncceiTary offices in the houlehold of the king and queen were abolifhed ; and fundry other important regulations adopted, for the eaie of the fubjed, and the general benefit of the kingdom. Fie changed the excefs of dif- burfements at leail one million ftcrling, of the year 1776, into an excefs of revenue in the year 171^0, to the amount of 445,0001. But the meafures of Mr. Necker were not calculated to procure him friends at court 5 the vain, the intercfled, and tlie ambitious, naturally became his enemies ; and the king appears not to have pofTefTed fufficient firmnefs of mind to fupport an upright and able minifter. He ■was therefore difplaced, and is laid to have been particularly oppofed by the queen's party. Lewis XVI. king of France and Navarre, was born in i754> fucceeded his grandfather Lewis XV. in 1774, married, 177c, to Maria Antonietra, filler of the emperor of Germany,, born 1755. Their iffuc are Madame Maria Therefa Charlotte, born on the 19th of December 1778 ; and Lewis Jofeph Xavier Francis, dauphin of France, born October 22, 1781. His maiefty's brothers and fillers are, 1. L. Stan. Xavier, count de Provence, born 1755. 2. Charles Philip, count d'Artois, born 1757. 3. Maria Adelaide Clotilda Xaveria, born 1759. 4. Llizabeth Philippa Maria Helena, born 1764. lITue of Lewis XV. now living, are, 1. Maria Adelaide, duchefs of Lorrain and Bar, born 1732-. i. Vicloria Louifa Marie Thertfi, born 1733. v 3. Sophia Philippina Elizabeth Jullinia, born 1734. 4. Louifa Maria, born 1737, who went into a convent of Carmelites, and took the veil in 1770. NETHER- [ <^9 ] NETHERLANDS. TH E feventeen provinces, which are known by the name of the Nether- lands, were formerly part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the circle of Belgium or Burgundy, in the German empire. They obt;dned the general name of Netherlands, Pais-Bas, or Low Countries, from their .fituation in re- fpedt of Germany. Extent, Situation, and Boundaries of the Seventeen Provinces. Miles. Degrees. Length 360 ^ b^^y^e^,^ 5 49 and 54 North lat. Breadth 260 J I 2 and 7 Eaft Ion. They are bounded by the German fea on the North ; by Germany, Eafl ; by Lorrain and France, South ; and by the Britifh channel, Weit. I fhall for the fake of perfpicuity, and to avoid repetition, treat of the fevepteen provinces under two great divifions : firll, the Noriberf!, which contains the feven United Provinces, ufually known by the name of Holland : fecondly, the Southern, containing the Aullrian, and French Netherlands. The United Provinces are, pro- perly fpcaking, eight, viz. Holland, Overyilel, Zealand, Friefland, Utrecht, Groningen, Gelderland, and Zutphen ; but the two latter forming only one fove- reignty, they generally go by the name of the Seven United Provinces. Situation and Extent of the United Provinces. Miles. Length 1 50 ") Breadth nearly ^ betwe the fame. 3 ■1': Degrees. and 54 North lat. 3 and 7 Eaft Ion. The following is the moll fatisHiiflory account we meet with of their geographical ■r :„-!.. K — »u„ "-T — 1 and Other iflands. - livifion, including the Texel r ? 1 Coiintnes Names. Square Miles. Chief Cities. United Province?. 5* Overvirel 1,900 66 5° Deventer Holland ),Soo 84 5- Amster dam in Gelderland 936 5° 40 Nimcguen « Friefland Sio 4+ 34 Leuuatden •^ -^ ZutphcLi 644 37 33 Zutphen a (jronmgcn 540 45 37 Groningen u Utrecht 450 4' 22 Utrecht Zealand 3°i 29 '4 Middleburg l^Texel and other iilandi 113 Total — 1 7' ?46 ^H2 The 420 NETHERLANDS. The fubdivifions of the United Provinces, with their chief towns, have alio been given in the following manner : Prov. Subdiv. Chief Towns, Amfterdam Rotterdam Prov. Subdiv. Chief Towns. Saardam Edam : s Delft Hague Haeriem a "o North Holland. Hoorn Euchufen Alkemaer • Leaden Monckdam J South Hol- Dort Williamftadt w Puermcrent o land. VT 1 I 1 1 hi I 1 i-L kiUi U Naciden Voorn Briel t-H Gorcum 1 Iflemond Helvoetfluys Heufden 13 —1 C us t— ( Goree Overflake Texel VI ie Schellino- Goree Somerdyke Burg Two Villages Five Villages c N o "Walcheren Schowen < Middleburg ] Flufhing 1 Terveer [ Rammekins C Zurickfee I Brewerfhaven Ifeland The Drcnte 5 Daventer 1 Zwoll j Covarden i Otmarfen ID ^ [ Anheirn C c8 N. Beveland Tolen r-. Velew I Loo palace i Hardewicke 1—1 S. Beveland Cats •-1— • c< Duyveland Tergoes Betewe, dim Batavia rJSJimeguen j Skenkenf- f chans ( Bommel • — o Oftergoe Weftergoe 5 Lewarden 2 Dockum 5 Franker m^zd: 1 Harlingen i ° r Zutphen CO O Sevenwolden Sloot 1) C/D Zutphen < Doefburg LGroli . .^ 1 ronin N.E, ollanc Groningen 3 Groningen C Winfchoten O Gelder quarter 5 Gelder 1 Venlo TheOmlands Dam The to wn of Ge der is fubjed to Prufllaj, ^^^'o 1 1 ! and lath been fince 17 1 3. 7. UTRECHT in the Middle. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. On the old channel of the Rhine North of the Old Rhine South of the Old Rhine Utrecht Amerfort Dueftardwyck Air, seasons, soil, and face "^ Thcfe provinces lie oppofite to England, at OF THE COUNTRY. 3 the diftancc of 90 milcs, upon the eaft fide of the Englidi channel, and are only a narrow flip of low fwampy land, lying between the mouths of feveral great rivers, and what the induftry of the inhabitants have gaineci NETHERLANDS. 421 gained from the fea by means of dykes, which they have raifed and ftill fupporc with incredible labour and expence. The air of the United Provinces is therefore foggy and grofs, until it is purified by the froft in winter, when the eafl: wind ufualiy fets in for about four months, and their harbours are frozen up. The nioifture of the air caufes metals to ruil, and wood to mould, more than in any other country, which is the reafon of their perpetually rubbing and fcouring, and the brightnefs and cleanlincfs in their houfcs fo much taken notice of. The foil is unfavourable to vegetation, but, by the indullry of the inhabitants in making canals, it is rendered fit for pafture, and in many places for tillage. Holland, with all its -commercial advantages, is not a dcfirable country to live in, efpecially to foreigners. Here arc no mountains nor rifing grounds, no plantations, purling llreams, or cataracts. The whole face of the country, when viewed from a tower or fteeple, has the ap- pearance of a continued marlhor bog, drained at certain diilances by innumerable ditches ; and many of the canals, which in that country ferve as high-roads, are in the fummer months no better than oflenfive ftagnated waters. Rivers and harbours.] The chief of thefe are the Rhine, one of the largeft and finell rivers in Europe ; the Maefe, the Scheld, and the Vecht. There are many fniall rivers that join thefe, and a prodigious number of canals ; but there are few good harbours- in the United Provinces ; the belt, are thofe of Rotterdam, Helvoetiluys, and Flufliing; that of Amlterdam, though one of the largeft and fafeft in Europe, has a bar at the entrance of it, over which large vefiels cannot pafs without being lightened. Vegetacle and animal pro- 7 The quantity of grain produced here is not DucTioNS BY SEA AND LAND. ^ fufficient lor home confumption ; but by draining their bogs and marfiies they have many excellent meadows,- which fatten lean German and Danifli cattle to a vaft fize ; and they make prodigious quantities of the beft butter and checfe in Europe. Their country produces turf, madder, tobacco, fruit, and iron ; but all the pit-coal and timber uled there, and indeed many of the comforts, and even the necelfaries of life, are imported. They have a good breed of &eep, whole wool is highly valued ; and their horfes and horned cattle are of a larger fize than in any other country in Europe. It is faid, there are fome wild bears and wolves here. Storks build and hatch on their chimnies ; but, being birds of palfi^ge, they leave the country about the middle of Auguft, with their young, and return the February following. Their river-filii is much the fame as ours, but their fea-fifii is generally larger, owing perhaps to their fifning in deeper water. No herrings vifit their coafts ; but thcv have many excellent oylter beds about the iflands of the Texel, producing very large and well-raled oyfl:ers. Population, INHABITANTS, man- 7 The Seven United Provinces are per- NERS, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. 5 haps the beft peopled of any fpot of the fame extent in the world. They contain, according to the belt: accounts, iij cities and towns, 1400 villages and 2,758,632 inhabitants, according to a public account given in 17S5. Befides the twenty-five towns, and the people in what is called the Lands of the Generality, or conquered countries and towns of other parts of the Netherlands. The manners, habits, and even the minds of the Dutch (for fo the inhabitants of the United Provinces are called in general) feem to be formed by their fituation, and toarife from their natural wants. Their country, which is preferved by mounds and dykes, is a perpetual incentive to labour; and the artificial drains with which it is every where interfered, muft be kept in perpetual repair. Even what may be called their natural commodiries, fheir butter and cheefe, are produced by a conltant attention to laborious parts of life. Their principal food they earn out of the fea-by their herring-fi.Tieries ; fcr ^22 NETHERLANDS. for they difpofe of moft of their valuable fiflies to the Englifli, and other nations,' for the lake of gain. The air and temperature of their climate incline them to ])hlcgmatic, flow difpofitions, both of body and mind ; and yet they are irafcible, cfpecially if" heated with liquor. Even their virtues are owing to their coldnefs, with refrard to every objeft that does not immediately concern their own intercfts ; •for in afl other refp'ccts they are quiet neighbours and peaceable fubjedis. Their attention to the conftitution and independency of their country is owing to the ■fame principle; for they were never known to cffcdl a change of government but when thev thought themfelves on the brink of perdition. The valour of the Dutch becomes warm and adlive when they find their intereft ■at ftake ; witnefs their fea wars with England and France. Their boors, though ilow of underftanding, are manageable by fair means. Their fcamen are plain, blunt, but rough, furly, and ill-mannered fort of people, and appear ro be infen- 'fible of public fpirit, and affedlion for each other. Their tradefmen in general are reckoned honcll in their dealings, and very fparing of their words. Smoking to- bacco is pradtifed by old and young of both fexes ; and as they ar^ generally plod- dino- upon wavs and means of getting money, no people arc fo unlbciable. A Dutchman of low rank, when diunk, is guilty of every fpecics of brutality. The Dutch have alio been known to exerclfe the molt dreadful inhumanities for intereft abroad, where thc\ thought themfelves free from difcovery ; but they are in general quiet and inoffenfive in their own country, which exhibits but tew inilances of mur- der, rapine, ca" violence. As to the habitual tippling and drinking charged upon both fexes, it is owing in a great meafure to the nature of their Ibil and climate. In general, all appetites and paffions leem to run lower and cooler here than in moll other countiies, that of avarice excepted. Their tempers are not airy enough for iov, or anv vnnifual ftrains of pleafant humour, nor warm enough for love ; fo that the fofter paihons fecm no natives of this country ; and love itfelf is little better than a mechanical affection, arifing from intereft, conveniency, or habit ; it is talked of fometimcs among the )oung men, but as a thing they have heard of rather than felt, and as a difcourle that becomes them rather than affeds them. ]n whatever relates to the management of pecuniary affairs, the Dutch are cer- tainly the moft expert of any people ; as to the knowledge ot acquiring wealth they unite the no lefs ncceffary fcience of preferving it. It is a kind of general rule for every man to fpcnd lefs than his income, be that what it will ; nor does it often enter into the heads of this fagacious people, that the common courfe of expence fliould equal the revenue ; and when this happens, they think at leaft thev have lived that year to no' jiurpofe ; and the report of it ufed to difcredit a man amono- them, as much as any vicious or prodigal extravagance does in other coun- tries. Uut this rigid frugality is not fo univerlal among the Dutch as it was for- jnerlv ; for a greater degree ot" luxury and extravagance has been introduced among them, as well as the other nations of Europe. Gaming is likewife pradtifed by many of their fafhionablc ladies, and fome of them difcovcr more propcnfity to o-allantry than was known here in former times. No country can vie with Holland in the number of thofc inhabitants, whofe lot, if not riches, is at leaft a comfort- able fuflicicncy ; and among whom fewer failures or bankruptcies occur. Hence, in the midft of a world of taxes and contributions, fuch as no other country expe- riences, they flourifli and grow rich. From this fyftcmatic fpirit of regularity and moderation, joined to the moft obftinate perfeverance, they fucceeded in the ftu- jK-ndous woiics of draining their country of thofe immenfe deluges ot water that Jnad oveiilowed fo large a part of it during many ages, while at the fame time they hrovght under their fubjedlion and command the rivers and fcas that iiirrour.d ihcm, NETHERLANDS. 4:3 iticm, hy dykes of incredible thicknefs and ftrcngdi, and made thorn the principal bulwarks on which they rely for the protection and fafety of their territories againft the danger of an enemy. This they have done by covering thiir frontitrs and cities with innumerable fluices; by means of which, at the niortefl: notice, the mofl ra- pid inundations are let in, and they become in a tew hours inacceffible. From that irugality and perfeverance by which they have been fo much characlerifcd, they were enabled, though labo\iring under the grcateft difficulties, not only to throw off the Spanifh yoke, but to attack that powerful nation in the molt render pa'ts, by feizing her rich galleons, and forming new eltublilliments in Africa, and the Eatt and Weft Indies, at the expence of Spain, and thereby becoming, from a defpicablc province, a mcll powerful and formidable enemy. Equally wontlerful was the growth of their military and marine eftablifaments. During their celebrated con- tention' with Levis XIV. and Charles II. of England, wdien they maintained not lefs than 150, ooj men, and upwards of 80 fliips of the line. But a fpirit of fru- gality being now lefs univerfal among them, the rich traders and mechanics begiii to approximate to the luxuries of the Englifli and French ; and their nobility and high magiftratcsy who have retired from trade, rival thole of any other part of Europe in thei'r table, buildings, furniture, and e(],uipagcs. The diverfions of the Dutch differ not much from thole of the Englifli, who feemed to have borrowed from them the neatnefs of their drinking-booths, ficittie and other grounds, and fmall pieces of water, which form the amufements of the middling ranks, not to mention their hand-organs, and other nuffical inventions. They are the beft flcaters upon the ice in the world. It is amazing to fee the crowds in a hard frofl: upon the ice, and the great dexterity both of men and Women in darting along, or rather flying, with inconceivable velocity. DRE:is.] Their drefs formerly was noted for the large breeches of the men ; and the jerkins, plain mobs, fhort petticoats, and other oddities of the women ; all which, added to the natural thicknefs and clumfinefs of their perfons, gave them a very grotefque appearance. Thefe dreffes now prevail only among the lower ranks, and more particularly amongft the lea-faring people. Religion.] The eltablilEed religion here is the Prelbyterian and Calvinifm ; none but Prefbyterians arc admitted into any oflice or poll in the government, excepting the army ; yet all religious lefts are tolerated, and have their rcfpec- tive meetings or affemblies for public worfliip, among which the Papifts and Jews are very numerous. And, indeed, this country may be confidered as a ftrikino- inftance of the benefits arifing to a nation from univerfal toleration. As every man is allowed to worlhlp God according to the ditftates of his own confcience, perfons of the mofl oppofitc opinions live together in harmony and peace, and undiflurbed by religious quarrels, cultivate their profeflions with fuccels. Language.] The natural language of the United Provinces is Low Dutch, which is a corrupted dialedl of the German ; but the people of fafliion fpeak luig- lifh and French. Their Lord's Prayer runs thus : Oa/e Vader, die in de hemelzyt uiven naam 'xorde geheylight : iivf koniv.gkryk home : uive wille gejchicde gelyck in den hemel zoo 00k op den arden, ons dagelyks brood geef ons heeden, ende vergeeft onje Jchuidcn gelyk ook wy vergeeven onje Jchuldenaaren : ende laals ens niet in verjoeking maer ver- lojs ons van de b oof en. Amen. Learning and learned men.] Erafmus and Grotius, who were both^natives of this country, ftand at the head of modern learning, as Boerhaave does of medicine. Haerkm difputes the invention of printing Vv'ith the Germans, and the magiftratcs keep two copies of a book intitled i'^pe.idum Sahationis, printed by Kofter in 1440; and the mofl elegant editions of the claffics came from the Dutch preffes ot" Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, and other towns. The Dutch 4^4 NETHERLANDS. Dutch have excelled in controvcrfial divinity, which infinuatcd itfelf fo much \--^j the ftate, that before principles of univerfal toleraiion prevailed, it had 'i .A proved fatal to the government ; witnefs the violent difpuces about Arminiau im, free-'.vill, predeftination, and the like. Befides Boerhaave, they have prockiced excellent writers in all branches of medicine. Grsvius and Burmann are ranked amono; their numerous commentators upon the claflics. JNothing is more common than tlieir Latin j)oems and epigranis ; and later times have produced a Van Ha- arcn, vvho is poflefTed of fome poetical abilities, and about the year 1747 publiflied poems in favour of liberty, which v.xre admired as rarities, chiefly btcaufe their author was a Dutchman. In the other departments of literature, the Dutch pub- lications are mechanical, and arifc chiefly from their employments in univerfities, church, or Ilatc. UxiVERSiTibs.] I'hefe are Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Harderwicke, and .Franeker. The univerfity of Leyden, which was founded in 15755 is the largcft and moft ancient in all the United Netherlands. Its library, befides a number of printed books, has two thoufand oriental manufcripts, many of which are in Arabic; and a large fphere adapted to the Copernican fyitem, and moving by clock-work. Here is alfo a phylic-garden, and an anatomical theatre. The univerfity of Utrecht, in the province of the fame name, was changed from a fchool into an univerfity, in 1-636 ; but it has not all the privileges of the other univerfities, being entirely fubjeft to the magillrates of the city. The phyfic- garden here' is very curious ; and for the recreation of the lludcnts, on the call fide of the city juft without the gate, is a beautiful mall, confifting of (even ftraight walks, two thoufand paces in length, regularly planted with limes ; but that in the middle is properly the malL The number of ftudents, one year with another, is feven or eight hundred in each of the univerfities of Leyden and Utrecht : in the other three they are not fo numerous. Thefe feminarics of learning have each three or tour divinity pro- feflbrs, as many of phyfic, and two or three of law; befides others of hiftory, languages, and eloquence, or the l^elles lettres, and others of ]')hilofophy, mathe- matics, the Greek and Roman antiquities, and the Hebrew and Oriental languages. The profeflbrs in the univerfities of Holland are often men of great learning and eminence ; as there is a kind of emulation between the ll:ates of the diifcrcnt pro- vinces, which fliall have the greatcfl: men to adorn their univerfities, and attradl numbers of ftudents from all parts of Europe to enrich their towns : and, there- fore, they are ready to afford very liberal encouragement to able profeflbrs, who are often invited from the univerfities of Germany. The buildings of thefe univerfities are old, and rather mean ; though the fchools of Leyden are better, and more contiguous than the refl. But the want of exter- nal pomp is more than compenfated by the variety of ufeful and folid learning tauslu in thefe feminaries. The profeflbrs wear gowns when they regd leftures, or prefule in public difputations. The ftudents wear no diftinft habits, but are al- moft always in their morning-gowns, in which they attend the colleges; and it is common for them, at Leyden, to walk in this drefs in the ftrccts and mall wiihouc the city. There are abundance of youth, of the j)rineipal nobility and gentry, from moft countries in Europe at thefe feminaries of literature : and as every one may liveas he pleafes, without being obliged to be jnotufe in his cxpences, or fo much as quitting his night gown for weeks or months together, foreignirs ot all ranks and conditions arc to be icnn here. The force of example is ftrikingly ex- hibited at thefe univerfities : for frugality in cxpcncc, order, a compofed behaviour, attention to ftudy, and afliduiiy in all things, being the charafteriftics of the na- tives. N E T H E ,R L A N D S. 425 tives, ftrangers who continue among them, foon adopt their manners and forms of living. And though the ftiidents live as they pleafe, and ftudy as much or as little as they think fit, yet they are in general remarlcable for their fohriety and good man- ners, and the afriduity and iuccels with v/hich they apply tliemlelves to their ftudics. No oaths are impofed, nor any religious tefls ; fo that Roman Catholic parents, and even Jews, fend their childien here, with as little fcruple as Proteftants. ANTiQi'iTiEs AND CURIOSITIES, 7 The prodigious dykes, foiiie of which arc NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ '^lid to bc 17 ells in thicknefs ; mounds, and canals, conllrufted by the Duich, to preferve their country from thole dreadful inundations by which it formerly fuffered fo much, are lUipenduous and hurdly to be equalled. A ftone quarry near Maeflricht, under a hill, is worked into a i^ind of iubterrancous palace, fupported by pillars twenty feet high. The ftadthoufe of Amderdam is perhaps the belt building of that kind in the world : it (lands upon 13,659 large piles, driven into the ground ; and the infide is equally convenient and magnificent. Several mufeums, containing antiquities and curiofitie?, artificial and natural, are to be found in Holland and the other provinces, particularly in the univerfity of Leyden ; fuch as the effigies of a peafant of Ruffia, who fwallowed a knife ten inches in length, and is faid to have lived eight years after it was cut out of his llomach ; but the truth of this items to be doubtful. A fliirt made of the entrails of a man. Two Egvptian mummies, being the bodies of two princes of great antiquity. All the mufcles and tendons of the human body curioully fet up, by profeflbr Stalpert Vander-Weil. Cities, towns, and other edi- 7 Amflerdam, which is built upon piles of FicES, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. ^ wood, is thought to Contain 241,000 people, and to be, next to London, the moft commercial city in the world. Its conveniences for commerce, and the grandeur of its public worlcs, are almoft be- yond deibription. In this, and all other cities of the United Provinces, the beauty of the canals, and walks under trees planted on their borders, are admirable ; but above all, we are ftruck with the neatncfs and cleanlinefs that is every where ob- ferved within doors. This city, however, labours under two great difadvantages ; bad air, and the want of frefh wholefome water, which obliges the inhabitants to preferve the rain water in refervoirs. Rotterdam is next to Amrterdam for com.nerce and wealth : its inhabitants are computed at 56,000. The Hague, though but a village, is the feat of government '.n the United Provinces, and is celebrated for the magnificence and beauty of its buildings, the reforc of foreign amb.iT.uiors and ftrangers ot all diiVmclions who live in it, the abundance and cheapnefs of its provifions, and the politenefs of its inhabitants, who are computed at 40,000. Eeydcn and Utreclit are fine cities, as well as famous for their univerfities. Saar- dam, though a wealthy trading place, is mentioned here as the workiliop v/here Peter the Great of Miifcovy ferved his apprenticefliip to fhip-building, and labour- ed as a common artizan. The upper part of Gelderland is fubjeil to Pruffia, and the capital city Gelder. Inland navigation, canals, and ^^ The ufual way of pafllng from town to MANNER OF TRAVELLING. S town is bv covcicd boats. Called treck- fcuits, which are dragged along the canal by horfes, on a flow uniform trot, fo that pafiengers reach the difierent towns where they are to ftop, precifely at the appointed inftant of time. This method of travelling, though to ftrangers rather dull, is extremely convenient to the inhabitants, and very cheap. By mean--> of thefe canals, an extenfive land commerce is carried on through the whole country, and as they communicate with the Rhine and other large rivers, the productions of the whole earth are conveyed at a fmall expence into various parts of German ^•, and the Auftrian and French Netherlands. A treckfcuit is divided into two dir- 3 1 ferent 426 N E T H'E R L A N D S. ferent apartments, called the roof and the ruim ; the firft for gentlemen, and the other for common people. Near Amfterdam and other large cities, a traveller is delighted with beholding the efFedts of an extenfive and fiourifhing commerce. Here the canals are lined for miles together with elegant, neat country-houfes, feated in the midft of gardens and pleafure-grounds intermixed with figures, biifts, llatues, temples, &c. to the very water's edge. Having no objeCis for amufe- ment beyond the limits of their own gardens, the families in fine weather .fpend much of their time there fm.oking, reading, or viewing the paffengers, to whom they appear complaifant and polite. Commerce and manufactures.] An account of the Dutch commerce would comprehend that of almoft all Europe. There is fcarcely a manufafture that they do not carry on, or a ftate to which they do not trade. In this, they are affilled by the populoufnefs of their country, their induftry and frugality, and above all, by the water-carriage, which, by means of their canals, gives them advantages beyond all other nations. The United Provinces are the grand magazine of Europe ; and goods may be purchafed here fometimes cheaper than in the countries where they grow. Their Eaft India company has had the monopoly of the fine fpices for more than a hundred years, and till the late war with England, was extremely opulent and powerful. Their capital city in India is Batavia, which is faid to exceed in magnificence, opulence and commerce any European iettlement in Afia. Here the viceroys appear in greater fplendor than the ftadtholder ; and Ibme of the Dutch fubjeds in Batavia fcarcely acknowledge any dependence on the mother- country. They have other fettlements in India, but none more pleafant, healthful, or ufeful,. than that on the cape of Good Hope, the grand rendezvous for the fhips of all na- tions, outward or homeward bound. When Lewis XIV. invaded Holland with an- army of 80,000 men, the Dutch made fome difpofuions to fliip themfelves off to their fettlements in India ; fo great v;as their averfion to the French government. Not to mention their herring and whale fifheries, which they have carried off from the native proprietors, they excel at home in numberlefs branches of trade ; fuch as their pottery, tobacco-pipes, delft-ware, finely refined fait ; their oil-mills, and ftarch-manufaftures ; their improvements of the raw linen thread of Germany j their hemp, and fine paper manufactures ; their fine linen and table damafks j their faw- iriills for timber, either for fhipping or houfes, in immcnfe quantities ; their greac fugar-baking ; their vaft woollen, cotton, and filk manufa6tiires ; wax-bleaching;, leather -drefling ; the great quantity of their coin and fpecie, affifted by their banks, efpecially by that of Amderdam 5 their Ealt India trade ;. and their general in- duftry and frugality. Their commerce, however, liath greatly fuffered fince their imprudent rupture with England. Public trading co?ji'anies.] Of thefe, the capital is the Eaft India, incor- porated in 1602, by which formerly the Dutch acquired immenfe wealth, having divided forty per cent, and fometimes fixty, about the year 1660 ; at prefent the dividends are much reduced ; but in a hundred and twenty-four years, tl;c proprie- tors, on an average divided fcmewhat above twenty-four per cent, annually. So- late as tlie year 1760, they divided fifteen per cent, but the Dutch Weft India com- pany, the fame year, divided no more than two and a half per cent. This company was incorporated in 162 j. The bank of Amfterdam is thought to be inexhauftibly rich, and is ufider an excellent direftion : it is faid by fir Wiiiiam Temple, to con- fjin the greateft treakire, either real or imaginary, tiiat is known any where in the v/orid. What may feem a paradox is, tliat this bank is fo far from paying any in- tereft, that the money in it is worth fomcwhat more than current cafli is, in com- mon payments. Mr. Anderfon fup[)ofes, that die cafli, bullion, ajid pawned jewels in this bank, which are kept in the vaults of the ftadchoufc, amount to thirty-fix (though others fay only to thirty) millions ilerling. • i Com- NETHERLANDS. 4x7 Constitution and government.] This is a very intricate article ; for though the United Provinces fubfift in a common confederacy, yet each province has an internal government or conflitution independent of the others : this government is called the Jiaies of that province ; and the delegates from thein form the Jlales ge- veral, in whom the fovcreignty of the whole confederacy is veflcd ; but though a province lliould fend two, or more delegates, yet fuch province has no more than one voice in every refolution ; and before that rcfolution can have the force of a law, it muft be approved of by every province, and by every city and re- public in that province. This formality, in times of great danger and emergency, has been kx. afidc. Every refolution of the dates of a particular province mutt be carried unanimoufly. The council, of flat e confifts likewife of deputies from the feveral provinces : but its conftitution is different from that of the liates-general : it is compofcd of twelve perfons, whereof Guelderland fends two ; Holland, three ; Zealand, two ; Utrecht, two ; Friefland, one 5 Over) flel, one j and Groningen, one. Thefe deputies, however," do not vote provincially, but pcrfonally. Their bufmefs is to prepare cftimates, and v/ays and means for raifing the revenue, as well as other matters that are to be laid before the Ilatcs-general. The dates of the provinces are fly led " Noble and Mighty Lords," but thofe of Holland, " Noble and Moll Mighty Lords," and the Ibtes-general, " High and Mighty Lords," or, " the Lords the States-General of the United Netherlands ;" or, " their High MightineiTes." Su- bordinate to thefe two bodies, is the chamber of accounts, which is likewife com- pofed of provincial deputies, who audit all public accounts. The admiralty forms a feparate board, and the executive part of it is couimitted to five colleges in the three maritime provinces of Holland, Zealand, and Friefland. In Holland, the people have nothing to do either in chufing their reprefentatives or their magidrates. In Amfterdam, which takes the lead in all public deliberations, the mao-iltracy is lodged in thirty-fix fenators, who are chofen for liie ; and every vacancy among them is filled up by the furvivors. The fame fenate alfo elefts the deputies to re- prefent the cities in the province of Holland. I have mentioned the above particulars, becaufe, without a knowledge of them, it is impoflible to underftand the hiftory of the United Provinces, from the death of king William to the year 1747, when the ftadtholdcrfhip was made hereditary in the male and female reprefentatives of the faiiiily of Orange. This office in a manner fuperfeded the conftitution already defcribed. 'I he ftadtholder is prefident of the ftate of every province ; and fuch was his power and influence that before the late difturbances in Flolland, he could change the deputies, magiftrates, and officers, in every province and city. By this he had the moulding of the afTembly of the ftates-general, and polTeiTcd more real power and authority than fomekino-s ; for befides the influence and revenue he derives from the iLidtholderfhip, he has ieveral principalities and large eftates of his own. At different periods the United Provinces have been without a ftadtholder, but thefe periods were ufually very turbulent, and whenever a war broke out, the republic felt the neceffity of re-eda- bliiliing this magiftrate. Notwithftanding the violence and complaints of the partv, ftyling themfelves patriots, it would feem that the office of ftadtholder is efTe'ntial to the conftitution or the United Provinces. The prefent ftadtholder is William V. prince of Orange and NafTau, fon of the late ftadtholder. Though Holland is a republic, yet its government is far from being of the po- ular kind ; nor do the people enjoy that degree of liberty which might at fij-ft view e apprehended. It is indeed, rather an oligarchy than a commonwealth ; for the bulk of the people are not fuffered to have the leaft fliare in any department of go- vernment, not even in the choice of the deputies. It may alfo be obferved; that very 3 I ^ icsv I 42S N E T H E R D A N D S. few perfons in this itate dare fpeal<. their real fentiments freely ; and they are genc^ rally educated in principles fo extremely cautious, that they cannot rclinquiHi thcnr when they enter more into public life. With rcfpeft to the adminiftration of juftice in this country, every province has itS' tribunal, to which, except in criminal eaufes, appeal lies from the petty and county courts ; and it is faid that jufiice is no where diftributed with more impartiality. Revenues.] Tiie govtrnment of the United Provinces, proportion their taxes according to the abilities of each province or city. Thefe taxes confilt of analmoft general excife, a land-tax, poll-tax, and hearth-money ; fo that the public revenue amounts annually to about four millions and a half ilerling. The province of Hol- land pays nearly half of this revenue. The following is the rate at which each of the Seven United Provinces are faid to contribute toward the public expence : Of every million of ducats the Province of Holland contributes 420,000 Zealand • — ■ 130,000 Friefland . 1 70,000 Utrecht . 85,000 Groningen 75,000 Guelderland ■ ■' 70,000 OverylTel 50,000 Of the 420,000 ducats paid by the province of Holland, the city of Amfter» dam furnifhes upwards of 3.20,000. The taxes in thefe provinces are fo heavy,, and fo many, that it. is not without reafon a certain author aflerts, that the only thing which has efcaped taxation there, is the air they breathe. But for the en- couragement of trade, the duties on goods and merchandife are exceedingly low,. Holland before the breach with England, was in a very flourilhing condition, and its inhabitants ilill continue to lend larg,e fums to mod of the powers of Europe The imnienfe fums in the Bridfh funds have made fome people imagine that Hol- land labours under heavy debts ; but the chief reafon is, the ftates only pay two and a half per cent, inrereft for money. Military ani3 marine strength.] The number of land forces in the United Provinces in time of peace, commonly amount to about 40,000 j 25,000 of whom, ferve in garrifons ; many of them are Scots and Swifs j and in time of war, they hire whole regiments of Germans. The chief command of the army is verted in the lladtholder, under whom is the field-niarfhal general. The marine force of the United Provinces ufed to be very great,, and they formerly fitted out very for- midable fleets : but their navy has of late been much neglefted. Their late war with Great Britain obliged them to increafe it ; and they have great relburces for that purpofe. According to the laft accounts, their navy confifts of one fhip' of 76 guns,, three of ;o, four of 68, five of 60, eight of 56, four of 50, five of 44,, nine of 40, and ten of 36, bcfides veiTels of inferior force. But they have many fhips upon the flocks, and their fleet will probably be much augmented, and in future be kept in better order. Order of Teutonic Knights."!. This was one of the moil poweriul as well as ancient orders in Europe,, now divided into two branches ; the firft for Papin:s, and the fecond branch for Proteftants. This branch have a hcufe at Utrecht, where they tranfadt their bufinefs. The nobles of Holland, if they propofc a fon to be a knight,. tntcr his nam.e in the regiflier,^ and pay a large fum of money to the ufe of the jjoor maintained by the order, and the candidate fucceeds in rotation, if he brings with bim proof of his nobility i'or four generations on the fithcr's and motlier's fide. The enfign is a crofs patee, enamelled white, furmounted with another, black ; abo.ve the. crofs is a ball twiilcd, white and black. It is worn pendant to a broad blacii. NETHERLANDS. 429 black watered ribband, which is worn about the neck. The fame crofs is em- broidered on the left breaft of the upper garment of each knight. Arms.] The enfigns armorial of the Seven United Provinces, or the States of Holland, are. Or, a lion, gules, holding with one paw a cutlafs, and with the other' a bundle of icvcn arrows clofe bound together, in allufion to thefeven confederate provinces, with the following motto, Concordia res farves sreJcunL History.] See the Aullrian Netherlands. William V. prince of Orange and NalTau, Hereditary Stadtholder, Captain- General and Admiral of the Seven United Provinces, was born in 174-8^ married in 1767 the princefs Frederica of Pruffia, born 175 1. Their children are, Fre- derica Louifa, born 1770 — William Frederic, Hereditary Prince, born, 1772 — William George, born 1774. The Stadtholder hath one filler, "VVilhelmina Ca- rolina, born i743y married to the prince of NaflTau Wielburgh. AUSTRIAN AND FRENCH NETHERLANDS. Situation and Extent, Mile?. Degrees. Length 200 7 i^ef^.^ej^ f 49 and 52 north latitude. Breadth 200 J \ a and 7 eall longitude. BoiTNDARlES. in France, South As this country belongs to three different powers, the Auftrians, French, and Dutch, we fhall be more particular in dirtinguilhing the provinces and towns be- longing to each ftate. I. Province of BRABANT. .Subdivifions. Chief Towns, t. DutcR Brabant ^Eoifleduc Breda- \ N. I Bcrgcn-op-Zoom \< Grave, N. £.. 1 Lillo ! W. ■ ■ c u 1-N. J [ otecnbergen \ \ f Bruflcls, E. Ion. 4. deg. 6 min. N. far; 50-50.- 2. Auflrian Brabant . >< Louvain ^ Vilvorden >in the middle. I J Landen j a. ANTWERP; and, 3. M A L I N E S, are provinces independent of Bra- bant, though furrounded by it, and fubjecl to the houfe of Auftria. 4. Pro- 43<^ NETHERJLANDS. .4. Province of ,L I M B U RG, S. E. ■CJiJef Towns. r— -Limburg, E. Ion. 6-5. N. lat. 50-jy fiibjeft to Auftria. Maeftricht '"j Dale.n I Fauquemont, or J L Valkenburs fubjeft to the Dutch, 5. Province of LUXEMBURG. Subdivifipns. Chief Towns. , . . T u 7 (Luxemburg, E. Ion. 6-8. N. lat. Auftrian Luxemburg j | 49-45. Trench Luxeniburg \\ l^^^^J^'^^^ I S. E Chief Towns. 6. Province ofNAMUR^ in the middle, fubjed to Auftria. Namur, on the Sambre and Maefe, E. Ion. 4-50. N. lat. 50-30. Charleroy on the Sambre. !l Subdivifions Auftrian Halnault ^ French Halnault — 7. Province of H A I N A U L T. Chief Towns. Mons. E. Ion. 2'23' N. lat;' 50-30. (^ in the Aeth ( middle Enguien ! Valenciennes "1 Bouchain [ , Conde Landrecy f J s.w. Subjed to France Subjed to France 8. Province of CAMBRESIS. HCambray, E. of Arras, E. Ion. 3-15. N. lat. 50-15. Crevecour, S. of. Cambray. 9. Province of A R T O I S. f Arras, S, W. on the Scarpe, E. Ion. 2-5. N. lat. 50-20. St. Omer, E. of Boulogne y^ Aire, S. of St. Omer I I S. Venant, E. of Aire I ! Bethune, S. E. of Aire J (.Terouen, S. of St. Omer. 10. Pro. !^ fi T H E R L A N D S. 431 10. Province of FLANDERS. Subdivifions. ditch Flanders 1 Auftrian Flanders $"rcnch Flanders Chief Towns. Sliiys, N. Axel, N. ■r"lMuirt, N. J (^Sas van Ghent, N. 'Ghent, on the Schcld, E. Ion. 2'3^' N. lat. 51. Bruges 1 Oftend i N. W. near the fea. Newport J >•( Oudenard on the Scheld. Courtray 7 1 t • T-.- / > on the Lis IJiziniide ^ _ Yprcs, N of Lifle j Tournay on the Scheld LMenin on the Lis fLiflc, W. of Tournay [ Dunkirk, on the coaft E. of Calais _____ ! • Douay, W. of Arras I j Mardike, W. of Dunkirk I I Sr. Amand, North of Valenciennes j l^Gravelin, E. of Calais. J 1 Air, soil, and produce.] The air of Brabant, and upon the coaft of Flan- ders, is bad ; that in the interior parts is more healthful, and the feafons more fettled, both in winter and funimer, than they are in England. The foil and its produce are rich, efpecially in corn and fruits. They have abundance of pafture ; and Flanders itfelf has been reckoned the granary of France and Germany, and fometimes of England. The moft barren parts for corn rear far more profitable crops of flax, which is here cultivated to great perfeftion. Upon the whole,, th^ Auftrian Netherlands, by the culture, cominerce, and induftry of the inhabitants, was formerly the richeft and moft beautiful fpot in Europe, whether we regard the variety of its manufaftures, the magnificence and riches of its cities, the pleafant- nefs of its roads and villages, or the fertility of its land. If it has declined in later times, it is owing partly to the negleit of its government, but chiefly to its vicinity to England ^nd Holland ; but it is flill a moft defirable and agreeable country. There are few or no mountains in the Netherlands : Flanders is a fiat country, fcarcely a fingle hill in it. Brabant, and the reft of the provinces, confift of little hills and vallies, woods, inclofed grounds, and champaign fields. Rivers and canals.]. The chief rivers are the Made, Saipbre, Demer, Dyle, Nethe, Geet, Sanne, Ruppel, Scheld, Lis, Scarpe, Deule, and Dender. The grin- cipai canals are thofe of Bruftels, Ghent, and Oitend. Metals and minerals.] Mines of iron, copper, lead, and brimftone, are found in Luxemburgh, and Limburgh, as are fome marble quarries j and in the province of iNanuir there are coal-pits, and a fpccies of bituminous fat earth proper for fuel, with great plenty of foffile nitre. Inhabitants, population, man- } The Flemings (for fo the inhabitants of NERS, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. ^ FlanGets and the Auftrian Low Countries are generally called) are thought to be a heavy, blunt, honeft people; but their manners are fomewhac indelicate. Formerly they were known to fight defperately in 432 N E T H E R L A N D S. in defence of their country ; at prefent they make no great figure. The Auflrian Netherlands are extremely populous; but authors differ as to theu" oumbers. Per- haps we may fix them at a medium at a million and a half. They are ignorant, and fond of religious exhibitions and pageants. Their other diverfions are the fame with thofe of the pcafimts of the neighbouring -countries. Dress and language.] The inhabitants of French Flanders imitate the French i«a both thefe particulars. The Flemings on the frontiers of Holland drefs like the Dutch boors, and their language is the fame ; but the better fort of people fpcak French, and drefs in the fame talle. Religion.] The eftablifhed religion here is the Roman Catholic ; but Pro- teftants, and other lefts, are not molelled. Archbishopricks and bishopricks.] The archbifliopricks are Cambray, Ma- lines or Mechiin; the billiopricks, Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, Arras, Ypres, Tour- ji^y, St. Omer, Namur, and Riiremonde. Learning, learned men, ( Tiie fociety of Jefuits formerly produced the moll: AND ARTISTS. ^ learned men in the Auftrian l_.o\v Countries, in which they had many comfortable fettlements. Works of theology, and the civil and canon law, Latin poems and plays, were their chief prod u<5lions. Strada is an elegant hiftorian and poet. The Flemifh painters and fculptors have great merit, and form a fchool by themfelves. The woiks ot Rubens and Vandyke cannot be fufficiently admired. Fjanfingo, or the Flemi-ngs mode-Is for heails, particularly thofe of .children, have never yet been equalled; and the Flemings formerly en- grofled tapeftry-weaving to themfelves. Universities.] Louvain, Douay, Tournay, and St. Omers. The firll was founded in 14.2&, by John IV. duke of Brabant, and enjoyed great privileges. By a grant of pope Sixtus IV. this univerfity has the privilege of prefenting to all the livings in the Netherlands, which right they enjoy, except in Holland. Antiquities and curiosities, f Some Roman monuments of temples and NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ Other buildings are to be found in thefe pro- vinces. Many curious bells, churches, and the like, ancient and modern, are alfo found here; and the magnificent old edifices of every kind, feen through all their cities, give evidences of their former grandeur. In 1607, fome labourers found 1600 gold coins, and ancient medals of Antoninus Pius, Aurelius, and Lucius Verus. Cities.] This article has employed feveral large volumes, publiflied by different authors, but in times when the Aufirlan Netherlands were far more Hourifling than now. The v/alls of Ghent, formerly the capital of Flanders, and celebrated for its linen a;id yi'oollen manufaftuies, contain the circuit of ten miles ; but the town js now thinly inhabited. Bruges, formerly fo noted for its trade xtnd manufafturcp, but above all for its fine canals, is now dwindled to an inconfiderable place. Ollend is a tolerabl-y convenient harbour for traders; and foon after the rupture between Great Britain and Holland, becanie more opulent and {>opulous. In 178 i it was vifited by the emperor, who granted to it many privileges and franchifes, and the ^ee exercife of the proteftant religion. As to Ypres, it is only a llrong garrifon town. The fame may be faid of Charlcroy and Namur, which lie in the Aufirian Hainault. Louvain, the capital of the Auflrian Brabant, indeaxl of its flourifhing manu- faftories and places of trade, now contains pretty gardens, walks, and arbours. Brulfels retains fomewhat of its ancient manufactures ; and being the refidcnce of the governor or viceroy of the Aullrian Netherlands, it is a populous, lively place. Antwerp, once the emporium of the European continent, is now reduced to be a tapeftry and thrcad-lace fhop, with the houfcs of Ibme bankers, jewellers, and painters NETHERLANDS. ^^3 painters adjoining. One of the firft; exploits of the Dutch, foon after they tlirew eft" the Spanifli yoke, was to ruin at once the commerce of Antwerp, by finking veirels, loaded with Itone, in the mouth of tlic Scheld ; thus fliutting up the en- trance of that river to Ihips of large burden. This was the more cruel, as the people of Antwerp had been their friends and fellow-fiiffVrers in the caufe of liberty, but they forcfaw that the profperity of their own commerce was at ftakc. It may be obfervcd here, that every gentleman's houfe is a caftlc or chateau ; and that there are more ftrong towns in the Netherlands than in all the rell of Eu- rope ; but fince the decline of their trade, by the rife of the Englilh and Dutch, thefe towns are confiderably diminifheti in fize, and wholi; Ureet.s, particularly in Antwerp, are In appearance uninhabited. In the Netherlands, provifions are ex- tremely good and cheap. A ftranger may dine in Bruflels, on fevcn or eight difhes of meat, for lefs than a fliilling Englini. Travelling is faK", reafonable, and dc- lighttul in this luxurious countrw The roads are generally a broad caufeway, and run for fome miles in a Ilraight line, till they terminate with the view of fomc noble buildings. At Caffel, in the French Netherlands, may be fcen thirty-two towns, itfelf being on a hill. > CoM^5ERCE AN'D MANUFACTURES.] The chicf manufaftures of the French and Aullrian Netherlands, are their beautiful linens and laces ; in which, notwith- llanding the boalled improvements of their neighbours, they are yet unrivalled ; particularly in that fpecies called cambrics, from Cambray, the chief place of its manufafture, Thefe manufaftures form the principal article of their commerce. Constitution and government.] The Aullrian Netherlands are Hill con- fidered as a circle of the empire, of which the archducal houfe, as beino- fovereio-n of the whole, is the foie direcTtor and fummoning prince. This circle contributes its Hiare to the imports of the empire, and fends an envoy to the diet, but is not fubjeft to the judicatories of the empire. It is under a governor-general, or reo-ent, appointed by the court of Vienna. The face of an alfemby, or parliament, for each province, is ftiil kept up, and confifts of the clergy, nobility, and deputies of tov/ns, who meet at Bruflels. Each province claims particular privileo-es, but they were of very little effect ; and the governor till of late fcldom found any re- finance to the will of his court. Every province has a particular governor, fubieft to the regent : and caufes are here decided according to the civil and canon law. Revenues.] Thefe rife from the demefne lands and cultoms ; but fo much is the trade of the Aullrian Flanders now reduced, that they are faid not to defray the expence of their government; but by the late reduction of the garrifons, this is now altered. The French Netherlands bring in a confiderable revenue to the crown. MiF.iTARY Strength.] The troops maintained here by the emperor are chicfiy employed in the frontier garrifons. Though, by the barrier treaty, the Auftrians were obliged to maintain three-fifths of thofe garrilbns, and the l}utch two ; vec both of them were mifcrably deficient in their quotas, the whole requiring at le'all 30,000 men, and in the time of war above 10,000 more. But the prefcnt emperor hath demolifhed the fortifications of moil of the places, and rendered the garrifons ufelefs. Arms.] The arms of Flanders are, or, a lion fable, and langued gules. History.] The feventeen provinces, and that part of Germany which lies weft of the Rhine, was called Belgic Gaul, by the Rom.ans. About a century before' the Chriftian .^ra, the Battre removed from Hcfle to the marflry diftrict bounded by the Rhine and the Maefe. They gave the nfftne of Batavia fo their new coun- try. Generous and brave, the Batavians were treated by the Romans with o-reat refpeft, being exempted from tribute, governed by their own laws, and obfiged 3 K only 43# NETHERLANDS. only ro perform military fervices. Upon the decline of the Roman empire, the Goths, and other northern people, polTefled themftlves of thefe provinces firft, as they paiTcd through them in their way to France, and other parts of the empire. Batavia and Piolland became independent on Germany, to which it had been united ur.der one of the grandlbns of Charlemagne, in the beginning of the loth century,- when the fuprtme authority was lodged in the three united powers,, of a Count, the" Nobles, and the Towns. At latt they were i wallowed up by the houfc of Burgun- dy, anno 1433. The emperor Charles V. the heir of that family, transferred them in the vear 1477 ^'^ '•"^ houfe of Auftria, and ranked them as part of the empire,, under tlie title of the Circle of Burgundy. The tyranny of his fon Philip, who fucceeded to the throne of Spain, made the inhabitants attempt to throw off his yoke, v/hich occafioned a general infurredtion. The counts Hoorn and Egmont^ and the prince of Orange, appearing at the head of it, and Luther's reformation gaining ground about the fame time in the Netherlands, his difciplcs were forced by perfecution to join the male-contents. Whereupon king Philip introduced a- kind of inquifition, in order to fupprefs them ; and many thoufands were put to death by that court, befides thofe that periflicd by the fword. Count Hoorn and count Egmont were taken and beheaded ; but the prince of Orange, whom they e- lecled to be their iladtholder, retiring into Holland, that and the adjacent provinces^ entered into a treaty for their mutual defence, at Utrecht, in the year 1579. And though thefe revolters at firft were thought fo defpicable as to be termed BeggarS' by their tyrants, their perfeverance and courage were fuch, under the prince of O- range, and the affiftance afforded them by queen Elizabeth, both in troops and m,o- ney, that they forced the crown of Spain to declare them a free people, in the year 1609 ; and afterwards they were acknowledged by all Europe to be an independent flate,. under the title of The United Provinces. By their fea wars with England,, tinder the Commonwealth, Cromwell, and Charles IL theyjuftly acquired the reputa- tion of a formidable naval power. When the houfe of Auflria, which for fome ages ruled over Germany, Spain,- and part of Italy, with which they afterwards continued to carry on bloody wars, was become no longer formidable; and when the public- jcaloufv was dire£fced againft that of Bourbon, which was favoured by the govern-- ment of Piolland, who had difpofiefled the prince of Orange of the ftadtholderfhip j. t-he fpirit of the people was fuch, that they revived it in the perfon of the prince, who-' was afterwards William IIL king of Great Britain ; and during his reign, and that- ef queen Anne,, they were principals in the grand confederacy againft Lewis XIV.. king of France. Their conduft towards f'ngland in the wars of 1742 and 175'^ hath been dif-- Guficd in the hirtory of that country,, as alfo the occurrences which led to a rupture between, them and theEnglifh in the year 1780. As it was urged, that they refuf- cd to fulfil the treaties which fubfifted between them and Great Bi-itain, fo all the treaties which bound Great Britain to them were declared null and void, as if none had ever exifted. By the war, their trade fuffered confiderably, but Negapatnam,. ill the Eaft Indies, is the only place not reftored to them by the late peace.- The confcquence of their difunion with- England, may however [)rove in the end, injurious,,, if not fatal to them. They have lately fought for a clofer alliance with the court of Verfailles ;. and through t-lie. influence of a confiderable party among them in the French intereft, prefer their union and friendfhip, to that of their old allies, friends, and protectors. Which alliance will be molt for their advantage, and conduce mod to their profperity and exiftence, as High and Mighty States, time will difcover. Probably, to their feparat-ion from Great Britain, may be attributed the recent differences between the butes General and the emperor of Germ.^ny. The demands made NETHERLANDS. 435 made upon them, and the late violation of treaties fubfifting between then->ane Spaniards remained poliefTed of the other ten provinces, or, as they are termed, the Low Countries, until the duke of Marlborough, gcHeralof the allies, gained the memorable victory of Ramillies, in the year 1706. After which, Bruifels, the capital, and great part of thefe provinces, acknowledged Charks VI. afterwards emperor of Germany, for their fovereign; and his daughter, the late emprefs-qucen, remained pofiTcffed of them until the war of 1741, when the French reduced them, except part of the province of Luxcmburgh ; and would have Ifill pofleffed them, but for the exertions of the Dutch, and chiefly of the Engliih in favour of the houfe of Auftria. The places retained by the French, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in the year 1748, may be fcen in the preceding general table of divifions. ' GERMANY. SfTUATIOKT AND ExTP.NT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles.- Length 600 7, r 5 and 19 Eaft long. ? Breadth 520 S ^'^'''^^'^ i 45 and 55 North lar. \ J«'/'3t BoiTNDAKiES.JrTr^HE empire of German-y, properly fo called, is bounded by the X German ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic, on the North ; by Poland and Hungary, including Bohemia, on the Eaff ; by Switzerland and the Alps, which divide it from Italy, on the South ; and by the dominions of Prance and the Low Countries, on the Welt, from which it is fcparated br the Rhine Mofelle, and the Maefe. Grand 438 G E R M A N Y. Grand divisions] The divifions of Germany arc variouflv laid down even by modern writers. I fhall therefore adhere to thofe moll generally received. Ger- many was formerly divided into the Upper, or Southern, and the Lower, or Nor- thern. The emperor Maximilian, predeceflcr and grandfather to the emperor Charles V. divided it into ten great circles ; and the divilion was confirmed in the diet of Nuremburg, in 1552 ; but the circle of Burgundy, or the feventeen pro- vinces of the Low Countries, being now detached from the empire, we are to con- fine ourfelves to nine of thofe divifions, as they now fubfift. Whereof three are in the north, three in the middle, and three in the fouth. Tbe northern circles The circles in the middle The fouthern circles f Upper Saxony < Lower Saxony ( Weftphalia ( Upper Rhine < Lower Rhine ( Franconia ( Auflria ■? Bavaria Swabia :i. Upper SAXONY CmcLE. Pomerania, in North. Divifion$. Subdivifions. , fPrulTian Pomerania, N. E. ISwedifh Pomerania, N. W.. Brandenburg in the r^j^^^^_.j ^,^^^ '"''^^^?!i''?;u! 1^ i Middlemark ■■ 1 Newark, eaft. own eleftor the K. of Pruffia. Saxony, Proper, in the fouth, fub. to it own eledtor. Duchy of Saxony, N Lufatia, marq. eaft Mifnia, marq. fouth. Thuringia, langr, weft — 'Saxe Mcinungcn — Saxe Zeitz Chief Towns. -I r Stettin. E. Ion. 14- ■ N. lat. 53-30 J ^ Stralfund Tstendel } Berlin, Potfdam Francfort, Cuftrin. f Wittenberg \ Bautzen, Gorlitz iDrcfden, E. Ion. 13- 36. N. lat. 51. Meiflen Erfurt 'Meinun£ren O Zeitz Sq. M. 5°} 4820 2991 } Altenburg I r; -§ their refpec Saalfeldt r Schwartftiurg Belchingen Mansfeldt. Hall Naumburg Stolbers 10910 •7500 3620 240 1500 96 210 Princi GERMANY, 439 Dlvifions.- Principality of Biflioprick of Subdivifions»- Anhak, north — Saxe PI all, weft — Voigtland, foiith, fubjeftto the eledor of Saxony ^ , c ( Merfbur440O J 1302 45c> fEmbden, C. or Eaft Frieftand,~l f Embden, an imperial l I fubjecl: to the king of Pruffia I city J North Divificn. 720 Oldenburg, C. j fub. to the 1! Oldenburg ^j Delmenhurft J K, ofDcn. ■ 1 Delmenhurft j Hoye -jfubjed to Han- | 1 Ploye i^Dicpholt i over j t.DiephoIt 624 220 Wea- 440 GERMANY. Divifions. Wcllern Diyifion. Subdivifions. f Munfter B. fub. to its bifhopl Paderborn B. fub. to its bifliop Ofnaburg B. fub. toitsbilhop Lippe C. fub. to its count Minden D. J r u ♦« x>-,,r < T, ru r- Jfub. to Frul. y ^ Raveniberg CI ' WeilphaliaD. fub. to the elec- tor of Cologn Tccklenburg C. ifub. to their Ritberg C. > refpedive l^Schawenburg C. 3 counts, j -Cieves D. fub. to the king of" Pruffia Berg. D. 7 fub. to the eleftor Juliers u Palatine Middle Dlvifion. ■<" Mark C. fubjea to PrufTia l-iege B. iub. to its own bilhop Chief Towns. r Munfter, E. Ion. 10. N. lat. 52, Paderborn Ofnaburg Lippe, Pyrmont Minden Ravenfberg Arenfburg Tccklenburg Ritberg Schawenberg Cieves E. Ion. 5-36. N. lat. 51-40 DufTeldorf ' Juliers, Aix :Sq. M. J3600 800 870 400 595 1444 840 120 } 630 <; < I Ham Bentheim C. fub. to Hanove i Steinfort C. fub. to its count _ ] Liege, E. Ion. 5 N. lat. 30-40 Huy Bentheim .Steinfort 5-56. Kefle 4. Upper RHINE Circle. • Hefle CafTel, landg. N. 1 r CafTcl, E. Ion. 9-2 / \ N. lat. 51-20. Heffe Marpurgh, landg. N. f | Marpurgh ^ Hefle Darmftadt, landg. J L Darmftadt Each of the above fubdivifions are fubjeft to their refpedive landgraves Counties in theWet- teraw, fouth. ! Hefle Homberg Hefle Rhinefeldt Won field "Nafi'au Dillenburgh NaflTau Diets NaflTau Hadamar Nafl!au Kerberg Nafl^au Siegcn Naflliu Idltein Naflau Weilburg NaflTau Wifbaden Naflliu BieUlcid NaiTau Otv/eiler Naflau Ufingen ■) f Homberg \ \ Rhinefeldt J [ Wonfield 'Dillenburg Diets Hadamar Kerberg Siegen '^ Z ^< Idftein ^_ S 6 Weilburg 980 1942 418 1J4 0-7 - 39^ 180 2^ 3 O 1200 8^ o o JW Territory of Frankfort, a fovereign flate County of Erpach, fubjeft to its own count Billioprick of Spire, a fovereign flate — -1 V\"ift')aden Bielfleid Otweiler [Ufingen Frankfort on the Maine, E. Ion. 8-30. N. lat. 50-10. an imperial city Erpach eaft. c Spire on the Rhine an I imperial city 120 245 Duchy GERMANY. 44-1 Divifions. Subdivifions. Duchy of Zwebruggen, or Deuxponts^ fubjeft to the duke of Deuxponts ■ County of Catzenelbogen, fubjcdl to HelTe Caflel *■ Waldec, fub. to its own count Sohns, fub. to its own count Hanau, fub. to HeiTe Caffel Ifenburg, fub. to its own C. "{ Sayn Wied VV'itgenftein Hatz field .Wefterburg Abbey of Fulda, fubjeft to its abbot . — Hirfchfeld, — fubjeit to Heflfe Caflel — Counties of Chief Towns. Sq, M. I Deuxponts in the Palat. 700 Catzenelbogen on the Lhon r Waldec Solms Hanau Ifenburg > <( Sayn Wied Witgenftein Hatzfidd .Wefterburg Fulda Hirfchfeld 368 432 621 5. Lower RHINE Cirlce. Divifions. Chief Towns. Palatinate of the Rhine, on both fides" that river, fubjefl to the Lleftor Palatine. > <^ 'Heidelberg on the Neckar, E. Ion. 8-40. N. lat. 49-20 Philipfburg, Manheim, and Frank- endal on the Rhine. \z6i% Divifions. Subdivifions. Archbifliopricks and Eleftorates of 1 - ■< -5 w > ui Chief Towns, r Cologne, on the Rhine, E. Ion. I 6-40. N. lat. 50-50. <; ° tS S ^ Bonn, on the Rjiine. ' ^ ^'S Mentz, on the Rhine, AfchafFen- burg on the Maine. .Triers, on the Mofelle. Bifhoprlck of Worms, a fo vereign ftate - \ Worms, on the Rhine, an *^ I imperial city. Duchy of Simmeren, fub. to its own duke. Simmeren fRhinegravc^ftcin -] fRhingraveflein Meurs, fubjea to Pruflla I I Mcurs Veldentz, fubjea: to the Elec- ! ,' Veldentz tor Palatine - ■ Cologne Mentz LTriers J 1964 1 1405 1765 Counties of — ■< Spanheim _L,eyningen J Circle. Creutznach _Leyningen. Blfhopricks of • Marqulfates of 6 FRANC'ONIA Divifions. r Wurtfburg,W. 1 rSubjeft to ) Bamberg, N. > < tlidr refp. (Aichftat,S. ■> ^ bifliops. CuUenback, 1 r Sub. to their 1 r north-eafb f { refpeftive > < f ^^ulienback, 1 r — ] north-eafb [ < ^Anfpach, S.J t Subdivifions. Principality of Heneberg, N. — Duchy of Coburg, N. fubjedt to its duke Duchy of Hilburghaufcuj fubjeft to its duke Chief Towns. Wurtfburg Bamberg hflat CuUenback OBan 3 I Aic margraves. Anfpach Chief Towns. Heneberg Coburg Hilburghaufen J 645 1700 500 1000 406 Bur- 442 GERMANY. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. Sq. M. Burgravateof Nuremberg, S.E. an independent ftate | p'e^rbl dn'. ^' " "} ^+^ 5« Mergentheim, S. W. Counties of — S fReineck, W. Bareith, E. fub.to its ownmar. Papenheim, S. f. to its own C. ; Wertheim, W. ^ perial city Territory of the great-mafler of the Teutonic order, i Mero-entheim. Mercrpntheim. S. W. • — i *= 1 fReineck Bareith Papenheim _y Wertheim "• Caffel, middle ' Caflel Scliwartzburg, fubjefl: to its Schwartzburgh ? I own count middle y tHolach, S.W. J LHolach. 7. AUSTRIA Circle. The whole circle belongs to the emperor, as head of the houfe of Auftria. Divifions. Chief Towns. i Vienna,. E. Ion. 16-20. N. lat. 48-20. Lints, Ens, weft. 1B8 120 2io Archduchy of Auftria Proper — ^ Duchies of — ' ■ Stira and Cilley, C" Carinthia Carniola .Goritia County of Tyrol — •^.„ -1 r { Brixen Bjfhopncks ot ^ -prent n Gratz, Cilley, S. E. Glagenfurt, Lavemund, S. E. Laubach, Zerknits, Triefte, St. Veits, S. E. Gorits, S. E. Infpruck -j S. W. on the con- {-3900 Brixen i fines of Italy and] 1300 |7i6o 5C00 30C0 Trait Switzerland.. 2.10 8. Subdivifions, BAVARIA Circle. Chief Towns, Duchy of Bavaria Pro- per on the " Palatinate . 01 oiiv^iua. . n "k ' J J L Danube Freiffingen, fubjcft to its bifhop _ Freiflingen- — Bifhoprick of Paffau, fubjeft to it own bifhop, Paffau, E. of the Danube. Duchy of Neuberg, fubjed to the Eledor j^euberg, W., of the Danube. Palatine — > Archbiflioprick of Saltzburg, fubjed to its 1 s^hzburg, S. E. Hallen.. own arehbilhop — J Q r- jx. ^i,„1 fMunich, E. Ion. 11-32. N. lat.") biibjetttotne 1 ^8-5.Landfhut, Ingoldftat,N. I avaria Pro- eleftor Palatine 1 | '^ Donawert TRatitbon N an ' . Danube. > as fuccefTor to < < ^j/e'^l cT"]^^ >'S00' of Bavaria 1 IfV"'!:, ' Amberg [Sultzbach], N. of the . 240 240' 450 2540 Subdivifions. 9. S W A B I A Circle. Chief Towns. ^ , r„, . /■ u- A ■) Stutgard, E. Ion. Q. N, , ^ Duchy ofWurtembergfubjeft io[ ^^^ ^l^^^ Tubin- 1 9" gen, Hailbron the dukcof Wurtcmberg Stutgard. j! fub. to tlicir own re tive marg N n. or near the Necker .^ r} Baden Baden Marquiiatcs of > g,^ iadcn Durl ^^^j^ ownrefpec-K^^^, J tive marff. C Baden 7 On or near (258 .den DurlachV the Rhine. J 490 Bilhop- 1 33^^ lear 7 25 inc. J 49' 379 I20 GERMANY. ^4-j Subdivifions. Chief Towns. Sq. M. ownbifhop " ^l--^ ^}f> Llcnhom, on or near the 765 Territory of Ulm, a fovereign ftate - ] ^^1^^,^^ ^"^ '^'^ °^'"^''^^^ ^" ^-^P^' | ^Sd Bifhoprick of Conftance, fubjed; to its own ) Conftance on the lake of Con- * bilhop under the Houfe of Auftria i ftance. 3 "^ p_. . iMindelheim -jSubjeil to their rMindelheim, S. of Augfburg. 216 ,.'. " ^" >Furftenberg I rcfpedive -I Furftenberg, S. 788 I les or jHohenzollern J princes LHohenzollern, S. ira Oeting — f Oeting, eaft. i Counties of] Konigfeck — j Konigfeck, fouth-eafl. J •5'^^ '. Hohenrichburg CGemund, North. -, . rO^^^ldburg — 5 WaldburjT.fouth-eafl. Baronies of i y ■ it- i ( Limpurg — ( Lnnpurg, north. rKempten "1 rKempten, on the lller. , .... r] Buchaw / \ Buchaw, S. of the Danube. ADOies or< Li^^j^^^ > ^Uni.hw, on the lake of Coti- (. . J L rtance, imperial cities. r Nordlingen, N. of the Danube. T • 1 • • r • n . ) IVlemmingen, call. Imperial cities, or iovereign itates So . -i 1 xt i t ir ' c ^ Rotvveil, on the Neckar, and C many more. fBhckforeft, N.W.Rhine- 5 „, . r- , 1 j t ^r l Subjeft to the field C. , i Rh'"^^^^'^^ ^"^ LaufFenburg. 480 houfeof Au-J Marquifatc of Burgaw Burgaw, eaft. 650 ftria. TcrritoryofBrifgaWjon thet u -u j r> -r [ Rhine — priburgandBrifac. 380 Name.] Great part of modern Germany lay in ancient Gaul, as I Iiave aheady mentioned ; and the word Germany is modern. Many fanciful derivations have been given of it ; the moft probable is, that it is compounded of Ger, or Gar, and Man i which in the ancient Celtic, fignifies a warlike man. The Germans went by various otiicr names, fuch as Allemanni, Teutones ; which lall: is faid to have been their moft ancient defignation ; and the Germans thcmfclves call their country Teutchland. Climate, seasons, and soil.] The climate of Germany, as in all large trafts of country, differs greatly, not only on account of the fituation, north, ead, fouth, and well:, but according to the improvement of the foil, which has a vaft efFedl on the climate. The molt mild and lettled weather is found in the middle of the country, at an equal diftance from the fea and the Alps. In the north it is fharp ; towards the fouth it is more temperate. The foil of Germany is not improved to the full by culture ; and therefore in many places it is bare and Iterilc, though in others it is furprifinglv fruitful. A'^ri- culture, however, is daily making progrefs. The feafons vary as much as the foil. In the fouth and weltern parts, they are more regular than in thofe that lie near the fea, or that abound with lakes and rivers. The north wind and the eaftern blads are unfavourable to vegetation. Upon the whole, there is no great difference be- tween the feafons of Germany and thofe of Great Britain. Mountains.] The chief mountains ot Germany are the Alps, which divide it frona Italy, arid thofe which feparate Saxony, Bavaria, and Moravia from 3 L 2 Bohe- 444 GERMANY. Bohemia. But many other large trads of mountains arc found in different parts of the empire. Forests.] The vail paffion which the Germans hare for hunting the wild boar has prcferv<-'d more woods and chafes in Germany than in moft other countries. The Hercynian foreft, which in Ca^far's time was nine days journey in length, and fix in breadth, is now cut down in many places, or parcelled out into woods, which go by particular names. The trees are pine, fir, oak, and beech. There is a vaft number of foreils of lefs note in every part of this country ; almofi: every count, baron, or gentleman, having a chafe or park adorned with pleafure houfes, and well flocked with game, particularly deer, of which there are feven or eight forts, plenty of hares, conies, foxes, and boars. They abound fo much alfo with wild fowl, that in many places the peaiants have them, as well as vcnifon, for their ordinay food. Rivers and lakes.] No country can boaft a greater variety of noble rivers than Germany. At their head ftands the Danube or Donaw, fo called from the fwiftnefs of the current. From Vienna to Belgrade in Hungary, it is fo broad, that in the wars between the Turks and Chriftians, fliips of war fometimes engaged on it ; and its conveniency for carriage to all the countries through which it pafles is incon- ceivable. The Danube contains a vaft number of catarads and whirlpools ; its courfe, without reckoning turnings and windings, is computed to be 1620 miles.- The other principal rivers are the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Wefer, and Mofelle. The chief lakes of Germany, not to mention many inferior ones, are thofe of Conftance and Bregentz. Befides thefe, are the Chiemfee, or the lake of Bavaria ;. and the Zirnitzer-fee in the duchy of Carniola, whofe waters often run off and re- turn again in an extraordinary manner. Befides thofe lakes and rivers, in fome of which are found pearls, Germany con- tains large noxious bodies of llanding water, which are next to peftilential, and afflift the neighbouring natives widi many deploi-able diforders. MiNERA LWATERS AND BATHS.] Germany is faid to contain more of thofe than- all Europe befides. All Europe has heard of the Spa waters, and thofe of Seltzer and P'.rmont. Thofe of Aix la ChapcUe are not lefs noted. They arc divided into the Emperor's Bath and the Little Bath, and the fprings of both are fo hot, that they let them cool ten or twelve hours before they ufe them. Each of thofe, and many- other waters have their pariizans in the miedical faculty; and if we are to believe alt they fay, they cure difeafes internal and cutaneous, either by drinking or bathing. The baths and medicinal waters of Ems, Wifbaden, Schwalbach^ and Wildungen, •nre likewife reported to perform their wonders in almoil: all difeafes. The mineral fprings at the laft mentioned place are faid to intoxicate as foon as wine, and thcre^ fore they are inclofcd. Carlftjad and Baden baths have been defcribed and recommend- ed by many great phyficinns, and ufed with great fucceis by many royal perfonages. After all, many arc of opinion, that great part of the falutary virtues afcribcd to thefe waters is owing to the exercifes and amufements of tiie patients.- It is the intereft of the proprietors to provide for both ; and many of the German princes feel the benefit of the many elegant and polite inftitutions for the diverfion of the public. The ncatnefs, cleanlintfs, and conveniency of the places of public refort are inconceivable ; and though at firft they are attended with cxpcncc, yet they more than pay themfclves in a few years by the company which crowd to them from all parts of the w>)rld ; many of whom do not repair thither for health, but for amufemeiit and converfation. Metals and minerals.] Germany abounds in both. Many places in the circle of Auftria, and other parts of Germany, contain mines of filver, quick-filver, copper, tin, iron, lead, fulphur, nitre, and vitriol. Sr.lt-pctrc, fiilt-mines, and lalr- pits are found in Aullria, Bavaria, Silefia, and the Lower Saxony -, as are car- 1 buncles. GERMANY. 4-45 buncles, amcthyfts, jafpcr, nipphlre, agate, rJabafter, fcveral forrs of pearls, tiir- quols ftpnes, and tlie iineft of rubles, which adorn the cabinets of tlie greatelt princes and virtuofi. In Bavaria, Tirol, and Liege, are quarries of curious marble, (late,- chalk, ochre, red lead, alum, ami bitumen ; befides other folTils. In feveral places are dug up llones, which reprcfcnt difFcrcnt animals. M.iny of the German circles furnilh eoal-pits, and the lerra /igiilata o{ Mcntz, with white, yellow, and red veins, is thought to be an antidote againft poifon. Vegetable and animal productions.] Thefe differ in GeYmany very little, if at all, from the countries already defcribtd : but naturalifts are of opinion, thac had the Germans, even before the middle of this century, been acquainted with agriculture, their country would have been the moil fruitful ot any in Europe. Even in its prcfent, what we may call rude ftate, provifions are more cheap and plentiful in Germany than in any other country perhaps in the world ; witnefs the prodigious armies which the moil uncultivated i^art of it maintained during the late war, wliile many of the richeft and moft fertile provinces remained untouched. The Rhenim and the Mofelle wines difier from thofe of other countries in'- a peculiar lightnefs and deterfive qualities, more fovereign in lome difeafes than any medicine. The German wild boar differs in colour from our common hogs, and is four- times as large. Their flefli and the hams made of it are preferred by many, even- to thofe of Weftmoreland, for flavour and grain. The glutton of Germany is faid to be the moft voracious of all animals. Its prey is almoft every thing that has life, which it can matter, efpecilly birds, hares, rabbits, goats, and fawns ; •whom they furprife artfully, and devour greedily. On thefe the glutton feeds fo ravenoufly, that it fidls into a kind of a torpid flate, and not being able to move,, he is killed by the huntfmen ; but though both boars and w'olves will kill him in that condition, they will not eat him. His colour is a beautiful brown, with a faint tinge of red. Germany yields abundance of excellent heav)'horfes ; but their horfes, oxen, and fheep, are nor comparable to thofe of England, probably owing to the want of ikill 'tw feeding and rearing them. Some parts of Germany are remarkable for fine larks, and great variety of finging birds, which are fent to all parts of Europe. Population, inhabitants, manners, 7 As the empire of Germany is a col- cusTOMs, DIVERSIONS AND DRESS. ^ ^cflion of fcparatc ftatcs, each having a different government and police, it hath been difficult to fpeak with precifion as to the number of its inhabitants ; but lately the following eiiimate hath been- formed of them. Moravia — — — i, 100,000 Auftrian Silefia — — — 200,000 High and Low Lufiitia — — — 380,000. Cirde of Auftria — . — — 4,150,000 Bavaria — — * — 1,148,438 Archbiilioprickof Saltzburg — — 250,000 \Yurtemburgl> — — - — c^6^,^^ Baden — — • — 200,000 Auglburgh — • -— — 40,000 Bamberg and ? ■\T- ,/l I ? "~" ""■ ~" 400,000 \^ urtlbourgh ^ ^ ' Nuremberg "*" ~" — 70,000 Juliers and Berg — __, — 260^000 Munfter — ^_ — 130,000 Ofnabuvg — — — 1-16,664. 446 GERMAN Y. The Pruffian Eftates in the Circle of Weftphalia Nafiau, Diilenberg, Siegen, Dietz, and Hadamaa Oldenbourg — — Mayence — — Palatinate of Rhine — — Hefle Caffel and Dramfladt -- Fulda — — Frankfort on the Maine — High Saxony, and Ciicle of Franconia — Swedifli Pomerania — — PriiiTian Pomerania — — Brandenburyh — — «98 — 27i>46r ~ 130,761 — 750,000 — 166,340 — 300,000 — 220,000 — i3>ooo — 100,000 Total 17,166,868 Tl'.is calculation extends only to the principal parts of Germany ; the kingdom of Bohemia will be noticed in the proper place, and when the inferior parts are add- «d, the number in all will amount to 25,000,000. The Germans in their perfons are tali, fair, and flrong built. The ladies have generally fine complexions ; and fome of them, efpecially in Saxony, have greac delicacy of fhape and features. Both men and women affeft rich drelTes, which, in fifliion, are nearly the fame as in France and England. The ladies at the principal courts differ not much in their drefs from the French and tnglifh, only they are not fo fond of paint as the former. At fome courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The female part of the burghers families, in many of the German towns, drefs in a very difl'erent manner, and fome of them inconceiv- ably fantaftic, as may be feen in many prints publiflied in books of travels : but in ihis refpecfl thcyare gradually reforming, and many of them make quite a different appearance in their drefs from what they did thirty or forty years ago. As to the peafantry, and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of Europe, according to their emjiloyments, conveniency, and circumilances. The ftoves made ufe of in Germany are the fame with thofe already mentioned in the northern nations, and are fome- times made portable, fo that tlie ladies carry tiiem to church. In Weftphalia, and jTiany other parts of Germany, they fleep between two feather-beds, with iheets Hitched to them, which by ufe becomes a very comfortable pradtice. The mofl un- happy part of the Germans are the tenants of little needy princes, who fqueczc thcni to keep up their own grandeur ; but in general, the circui^iftances of the common people are more comfortable than thofe of their neighbours. The Germans are naturally a frank, honefl:, hofpitable people, free from artifice and difguife. The higher orders are ridiculouHy proud of titles, anceftry, and fliew. The Germans, in general, are thought to want animation, as tiicir perfons proinifc more vigour and adivity than they commonly extrt, even in the field of battle. GERMAN Y. 447 batile. But when commanded by able generals, efpeclall/ the ItalLms, fuch as Montecuculi and prince Eugene, they have done great things both again fl: the Turks and the French. I'he imperial arms have ieldom made any remarkable figure againft either of thofe two nations, or againft the Swedes or Spaniards, when commanded by German generals. This pofTibly might be owing to the arbitrary obtlinacy of the court of Vienna; for in the two laft wars, the Auflrians exhibited prodigies of military valour and genius. Induftry, application, and perfeverance, are the great charadleriftics of the' German nation, eipecially the mechanical part of it. Their works of art would be incredible, were they not vifible, efpecialiy in watch and clock making, jewelry,, turnery, fculpture, drawing, painting, and certain kinds of architedlure, fome of which I fhall have occafion to mention. The Germans have been charged with intemperance in eating and drinking, and perhaps not unjullly, owing to tiie vaft plenty of their country in wine and provifions of every kind. But thofe praftices feem now to be wearing out. The German nobility are generally men of lb much honour, that a Hiarper in other countries, efpecialiy in England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be' a. German, rather than any other nation. All the fons of noblemen inherit their fathers titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds and genealogifts of that country.. The German hufbands are not quite fo complaifant as thofe of fome other countrie.s to their ladies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the table ; nor indeed do they feem to affeft it, being far from either ambition or loquacity, though they are faid to be fomewhat too fond of gaming. From what has been premifed, it may eafily be conceived, that many of the German nobility, having no other he- reditary eftate than a high-founding title, eafily enter into their armies, and thofe of other fovereigns. Their fondnefs for title is attended Vv'ith many other incon- veniencies. Men of quality think the cultivation of their lands, though it might treble their revenue, below their attention ; and deeining themfelves of a rank fo- fuperior to labourers, difdain being concerned in the improvement of their grounds. The domeftic diverfions of the Germans are the fame as in England; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dancing, and the like. In fummer, people of fafliicn repair to places of public reforr, and drink the waters. As to their field-diverfions, be- fides their favourite one of hunting, they have bull and bear baiting, and the like.. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxurioufly, a great part of their time being, fpent in feafting and caroufing ; and in winter, when the feveral branches of the l3anube are frozen over, and the ground covered with fnow, the ladies take their recre- ation in Hedges of different fhapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, fwans, fcolion-fhells,. &c. Here the lady fits, drefTed in velvet lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces and jewels, having on her head a velvet cap ; and the fledge is drawn by one' horfe, llag, or other creature, let off with plumes of feathers, ribbands, and bells. As this diverfion is taken chiefly in the night time, fervants ride before the fledge' with torches, and a gentleman {landing on the fledge behind guides the horfe. Religion.") This is a copious article, but I fliall confine myfclf to what is nioft neceflary to be known. Before the Reformation introduced by I.uther, the German bifiiops were pofleffed (as indeed many of them are at this day) of prodi- gious power and revenues, and were the tyrants of the emperors as well as the people. Their ignorance was only equalled by iheir fuperilition. The Bohemi- ans were the firft who had an idea of reformation, and made fo glorious a ftand for many years againft the errors of Rome, that they were indulged in the liberty of taking the facrament m both kinds, and other freedoms not tolerated in the Ro- mifh church. This was in a great meafure ov/ing to the celebrated Englifliman^ John Wickliff, who went farther in reforming the real errors of popery than Luther himfcif, though he lived about a century and a half before him. Wickliff wa.a fe- conded 44-8 GERMANY. conded by John Hufs, and Jerome of Prague, who, notwichftanding the empei- or's fafe-condiift, were infamoully burnt at the council of Conftance. The Reformation intro "''-.ced afterwafds by Lurlier*, of which we have fpoken in the Introduction, thou :.-. it flruck at the chief abufes of the church of Rome, was thought in fome points (particularly that of confubftantiation, by which the real body of Chrift, as well ;is the elements of bread and wine, is fuppofed to be taken in the facrament) ro be imperfed. Calyinifm -j', therefore, or the religion of Geneva (as now praCtiled in the church of Scotland^, was introduced into Ger- many, and is the religion profeflTed in the territories of the king of Prufiia, the landgrave of Hefie, and fome other princes, who maintain a parity of orders in the church. Some go fo far as to fay, that the numbers of Proteftants and Papifts in the empire are now almoft equal. Germany, particularly Moravia and the Pala- tinate, as alfo Bohemia, is over-run with feftaries of all kinds j and Jews abound in the empire. At prefent, the modes of worfliip and forms of church govern- ment are by the proteftant German princes confidered in a civil rather than a reli- gious light. The proteftant clergy are learned and exemplary in their deportment, but the popifh ignorant and libertine. Archbishop and bishop-sees.] Thefe are differently reprefented by authors; fome of whom reprefent Vienna as being a fuffragan to the archiepifcopal fee of Saltzburg; and others as being an archbiflioprick, but depending immediately upon the pope. The others are the archbifhop of MentZj who has under him twelve fuffragans; but one of them, the bifhop of Barnburg, is faid to be exempted from his jurifdicflion; — Triers has three fuffragans ; — Cologne has four; — Magdeburg has five; — :Saltzburg has. nine, befides Viennaj — and Bremen three. At different periods fince the Reformation, it has been found expedient, to fa- .tlsfy the claims of temporal j-fl-inces, to fecularife the following bifliop-fees, Bremen, Verden, Magdeburg, Halberftadt, Minden, Lubec and Ofnaburg, which laft goes alternately to the houfes of Bavaria and Hanover, and is at prefent held by his Britannic majefty's fecond fon. Such of thofe fees as were archbifhopricks are now confidered as duchies, ^nd the bifliopricks, as principalities. -Language.] The Teutonic part of the German tongue is an original language, and has no relation to the Celtic. It is called High Dutch, and is the mother- tongue of all Germany; but varies much in its dialed in dif?^erent provinces, La- tin and French are the moil ufcful languages in Germany, when a traveller is ig- norant of High Dutch. The German Pater-No.fter is as follows: Unfer Faier, der du bift im himmel. Geheiliget werd dehi name. Ziikomme dein reich. Dein wille gejchehe, ivie nn himmel aljo aiiih auf erden. Unfer tr.glich brodt gib uns heute. Uiid vcrgib uns wijerjchuld, fJs wir vergehen unjern Jchuldigern. Unde fuhre uns vicht in verjinhung. Sondern er- lofe iins von dem boftn. Den dein is d.is rcich, und die krafft, undJie hgrrlichkeit, en eivigheii. Amen. Learning, learned men, 7 No country has produced a greater variety of AND UNIVERSITIES. S^uthors than Germany, and there is no where a more general tafte for reading, efpccially in the proteftant countries. Printing is encouraged to a fault; almoft every man of letters is an author; they multiply books without number ; thoufands of thefes and difputations are annually pub- • Born in Saxony, in the year 1483, began to of church 4irciprmc, which was foon after cinbra- dilpiuc the doi'trincs of the Romifll church 151 ■> ccd byfeveral nations and l]'A:s, vvho aie now dc- anj died, 1 ;.|6, in the 63d year of his age. nominated I'rcfliytcrians, and Irom their doctrin il + John Calvin W.IS born in, the province of Pi- article:, CaKinilis. He died at Oonova, in the early, in the north of France, anno 1506. IJcii\jj year 1564; and his wiitiiigs make Jiino vokinics obliged to fly from that kingdom, he fettled at in folio. .Geneva, in 1539, where he cllabliflicd anew fonu lifhed J GERMANY. 449 I'llheJ; for no man can be a graduate in their univerfities, who has not publiflKri- vileges ; the latter alfo, in fome parts, as in Franconia, Swabia, and on the Rhine, are generally a free people, or perform only certain ferviccs to their fupe- riors, and pay the taxes j whereas in the marqiiifatc of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Lufatia, Moravia, Bohemia, Aullria, &c. they may jurtly be denominated (laves, though in different degrees. Revf.nuks.] The only revenue falling under this head is that of the emperor, who, as fiich, hath an annual income of about 5 or 6000 pounds fteding, arifino- from fome inconfidevable fiefs in the Black Foreft. The Aullrian revenues are inimenfe, amounting to an hundred millions of florins, about twelve millions fterling, and thofe of Pruffia probably exceed four millions. To behold the magnificence of many of the German courts, a flranger is apt to concei\^e very high ideas of the incomes of their princes j which is owing to tlie high price of money in that country, and con- fequently the low price of provifions and iiianufaftures. Military strength.] During the two laft wars, vej7 little regard was paid in carrying them on, to the ancient German conititutions, the whole management be- ing engroffed by the head of the houfe of Aullria. The eledor of Mentz keeps what is called a matriculation book or regifter, which, among other letters, contains the alTeffments of men and money, which every prince and llate, who are members of the empire, is to advance when the army of the empire takes the field. The con- tributions in money are called Roman months, on account of the monthly afleffinents paid to the empeiors when they vifited Rome. Thofe alleflments, however, are fub- jedl to great mutabilit)'- It is fufficient here to fay, that upon a moderate computation the fecular princes of the empire can bring to the field 379,000 men, and the ec- clefiaftical 74,^00, and all 453,500 ; of thofe the cmperorj as the head of th* houfc of Auftria, is fuppofed to furnifh 90,000. The elector of Mentz may maintain The elector of Triers -, - _ _ The eledor of Cologne - _ . The bifliop of Munfter - - _ . The bifhop of Liege The archbilhop of Saltzburg The billiop of Wurtzburg The bifhop of Bamburg . - _ The biflaop of Paderborn The bifliop of Ofnaburgh The abbot of Fulda The other bifhopricks of the empire The abbies and provoltfliips of the empire Total of the ecclefiaftical princes The emperor, for Hungary for Bohemia, Silefia, and Moravia for Aullria, and other dominions The king-of PrufTia - , - The eleftor of Saxony _ _ _ The eleftor Palatine _ - _ The duke of ^^'irtemburg The landgrave of Hefle CalTel - - - 6000 <3000 6000 8000 8oo3 8000 2000 5000 3000 2500 6000 6000 8 GOO - 74500 30000 30000 30000 40000 25000 I50CO 15000 I sooo N Carried over 200000 4£8- GERMANY. The prince of Baden The eleftor of Hanover The duke of Holllein The duke of Mecklenburg The prince of Anhalc The prhice of Lawnburg The eleilor of Bavaria ' The dukes of Saxony The prince of Nalfau The other princes and Imperial towns The fecular princes The ecclefiaftical princes - Broun;hc forward 20C0O0 lOOOO 30000 12000 15000 6000 6000 30000 1 0000 lOOOO 50000 379000 74500 453500 By this computation, which is far from being exaggerated, it appears that the emperor and empire form the moll powerful government in Europe j and if the. whole force was united, and properly direfted, Germany v.'ould have nothing ta fear from any of its ambitious neighbours. But the different interefts purfued by. the feveral princes of Germany, render the power of the emperor of little confe- quence, except with regard to his own forces, which are indeed very formidable. The army of the prefent emperor was computed, in 1775, to amount to two hun- dred thoufand. Imperial, royal, and other 7 The emperor of Germany pretends to be. TITLES, ARMS, AND ORDERS. 5 ^ucccffor to tiie cmpctors of Rome, and has long, on that account, been admitted to a tacit precedency on all public occafions among the powers of Europe. Anuria is but an archdukedom ; nor has he, as the head of that houfe, a vote in the eleftion of emperor, v/hich is limited to Bohemia, Innumerable are the titles of principalities, dukedoms, baronies, and the like, with which he is vefted as arehduke. The arms of the empire are a black eagle with two heads, hovering with expandedvvings, in a field of gold ; and over the heads of the eagle isfeen the- imperiarl crown.- On the brealt of the eagle is an efcutcheon quarterly of eight, for Hungary, Naples,: Jerufalem, Arragon, Anjou, Geiders, Brabant, and- Barr. Irvvould be^ as ufclefs as difficult to enumerate all the different quartcrings and armorial bearings of the archducal family. Every eletlor, and indeed every iiidejjendent prince of any importance in Germany, claims a right of inftituting orders ; but the emperors pretend that they are not admiffible uolcfs confirmed by them. The emperors of Germany, as well as the kings of Spain, con- fer the order of the Golden fleece, as dcfccnded from the houfe of Burgundy* The - emprefs dowager Eleonora, in 1662 and 1666, created two orders of ladies, or female knights ; and the late emprcfs-queen inftituttd the order of St. Terefa. , Theorderof the " Golden Fkece" was inllituted at Bruges, in. Flanders, on the loth of January 1429, by Philip dulo of Burgundy, o.a the day of his marriage with his third wife. It is fuppofcd that he cHofe the- badge, it being the chief of the ftaple manufadlures of the counti-y. It- at tirlt c-onlitled of thirty knights, including the io- vereign, who were of the firfl faniilies in the Low Countries, and it Hill continues 10 be clafTed with the mofl illuftrious orders of knighthood in Europe. At prefent there are two irranches of it ; of the one, the emperor is fovereign, and the king «f, SpaJt\ of the other ; all muft prove their noble defccnr from the twcllth century. Tiiey GERMAN Y. 459 They ufualiy wear a Golden Fleece, proper, pendent to a broad plain red ribband round their necks ; but on days of ceremony, they wear the collar of the order, which is compofcd ot double ftecls, interwoven with flint l^ones emitting fparks of fire, the whole enamelled with their proper colours, at the end of which hangs on the hreaft a Golden Fleece. The fufils arc joined two and two, as if they were dotible B B's, the cypher of Burgundy, and the flint ftoncs the ancient arms of the fovereigns of that duchy, with their motto, "y/«/ n~ferit quam flamma micet." The motto of the order is " Prclium non vile la'uorum." The Teutonic order owed its origin to fome religious Germans in Jerufalem dur- ing the crufades, who affumed the title of " Teutonic knights, or brethren of the hofjiital of our Lady of the Germans at Jerufalem." They wear a white mantle, and had for their badge a crofs potent, fable. The original badge afligned by the emperor Henry VI. was a crofs potent, black ; John king of Jerufalem added there- to the crofs double potent, gold ; the emperor Frederic II. gave them the imperial eagle, and St. Lewis augmented the badge with feme ot fleurs-de-lis on a chief, blue. Conrade duke of Swabia invited them into Pruflla about the year 1230 : foon after ihey conquered Pruflia for themfelves, and became one of the mofl powerful orders in Europe. By the order dividing againft itfelf, they afterv\ards lofl their power and pofTeffions ; and Albert marquis ot Brandenburg, grand-mafler of the order, on his abjuring popery, abdicated the grand-mafleriliij), lubdued PrufOa, and expelled all the papills who toliowed not his example. The order is now divided into two branches : the protcftant branch, who have a houfe at Utrecht, hath been noticed in our account of orders in the Netherlands — that for papitls, hath a houfe at Mergenheim in Germany, and the members mull take the oath of celibacy. The entign worn by this branch is as above defcribed, worn round the neck pendent to a gold chain. The time of the inltitution of the " Order of the Red Eagle'' is uncertain. The margrave of Barcith is fovereign thereof, and it is generally beftovved on general officers. The badge, is a golden fquare medal enamelled white, on which is an eagle difplayed, red. It is worn pendent to a broad red watered ribband, edged with yel- low, and worn fcarfwife. In the year 1690, John George, eleftor of Saxony, and- Frederick III. elettor of Brandenburg, on terminating their difputes, cftabliflied the " Onler of Sincerity " as a confirmation and leeurity hereafter of their amity. 1 he knights of this order wear a bracelet of gold, on one fide are the names of the two princes with this device, '■'■ Amite fincerc;'" on the other tide are two armed hands, joined together, and placed on two twords, with two palm branches croflcd, with this motto, " Unis pour jamais." John George, duke of Saxe \'^'ciflcnfcls, inflltuted the " Order rf the Ncb!e Faffion" in the year 1704, of which the duke is the fovereign. The badge is a gold medal enamelled white, on which is a ftar of eight points, gold, charged with a crofs, red, furmountedwith an oval, blue, on which are the letters J. G. in a cypher, the whole encircled with thele words, " J'aime rhotmeur qui vient par la vertu." Each knight of the order is to contribute to the maintenance of the maimed or decayed foldiers in the fervice of the ibvereign. In the year 1709, Louile Elizabeth, widow of Philip duke of Saxe Merlburg, revived the " Order cf the Death's Head" firfl- inftituted in 1652, by her father the duke of Wirtemburgh. A prineel's of that houle alone can be Ibvereign of it, and none but women of virtue and merit (birth and fortune not regarded) can be received into it. They are to avoid gaming, theatrical amulcments, and luxuries of all kinds. The badge of the order is a death's head enamelled white, furmounted with a crol's pattee, black : above the crofe pattee, another crofs compofed ot fivejewels, by which it hanes'to a black ribband edged with whitCj and on tli£ ribband thefe words, 'Mementomori," worn at the brcaft. jN2 The 46o GERMAN Y. The great order of Wirtemburgh, is that " of the Chcce" inRItiited in the year 1702, by the then duke, and improved in the year 1719. The badge of the order ii a golden crofs of eight points enamelled, red, in the fpaces between the branches of the crofs is an eagle difplayed, red, and between the points of each traverfe a bugle horn, and in the centre the letter W. and over it a ducal coronet enamelled in proper colours. Jt is worn pendent to a broad fcarkt watered ribband, pafTing. fcarfwife from the left llioulder to the right fide. On the left fide of the coat is i filver ftar embroidered, of the fame figure as the. badge, in the tiiiddle a green circle ■with the motto " /Itmcit'oe, virtutijque fiedus." The teftival ot this order is on St. Hubert's day, he being the patron of iportfmen. In the year 1709, the elector Palatine revived the " Order of Si. Hubert," firft inftituted by a duke of Juliers and Clevesy in memory of a viftory gained by him on St. Hubert's day, in 1447. ^^^ number of counts and barons of the order, who enjoy the memorial lands annexed to it, is limited to twelve, but the number of orinces and private gentlemen is not fixed. All are to prove the nobility of their delccnt for four generations, and on the day of reception are to pay ico ducats to the poor. The eletfor Palatine is grand-mafter of the order. The badge is a crofs of eight points, from the angles ifTue rays, and in the middle of a circle is enamelled /he ilgure of St. Hubert kneeling before a crucifix, placed between the horns of a ftaHIS country is bounded to the North by AND EXTENT. ^ _|_ part of Samogitia ; to the South, by Po- land Proper and Mafovia ; to the Eaft, by part of Lithuania ; and to the Weft, by Polifli Pruffia and the Baltic. Its greateft length is about 160 m.iles, and breadth about 1 12. Name, air, soil, produce, 7 The name of Pruffia is probably derived froni AND RIVERS. ^ ^he Borufli, the ancient inhabitants of the coun- try. The air, upon the whole, is wholefome, and the foil fruitful in corn and other commodities, and affords plenty of pit-coal and fuel. Its animal produdtions are horfes, flieep, deer and game, wild boars and foxes. Its rivers and lakes are well flored with fifhes ; and amber, which is thought to be formed of an oil coagu- lated with vitriol, is found on its coafts towards the Baltic. The woods furnifh the inhabitants with wax, honey, and pitch, befides quantites of pot-aflies. The rivers here fometimes ua damage by inundations ; and the principal are, the Viftula, the Pregel, the Memel or Mammcl, the Palfarge, and the Elbe. Population, INHABITANTS, MANNERS, ■) As Pruffia, fince the beginning of CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. 3 the prefentccntury, has becomc a moft refpeflable power upon the continent of Europe, I'fhall, for the information of my readers, deviate trom my ufual plan, that I may bring before their eyes the Vihole of his Pruffian majefty's territories, which lie fcattercd in other divifions of Ger- many, Poland, Switzerland, and the northern kingdoms, with their names ; all which they will find in the following table. 3O- ^68 P U U S S I A. Proteflants. Countries Names. Square Miles. 3 Crq • Chief Cities. ,> , J Ducal Pruflia To and. ■ ,, , „ .j- ( Royal PrulTia 9.950 260 112 Ko.NiKGSflERG , 54-43 N. Lat. Elbing J 2»'3S E.Lon. 6,400 :i8 104 Brandenburg Up. Saxony. ■' Pomerania ( Swcdiih Pomerania 10,910 215 I 10 Berlin 4,820 150 63 Camin . 2,991 90 48Stetin , o Maudebiirc: Lo. Saxony. | „,iv„,ii,t- ') i35 450 63 42 50 17 Magdeburg Halberdat _ , . ( Gl tz Bohemia. J j^j,^,,-^ 55" 3t! 23 Glatz IC,000 196 92 B'Jindcn 595 42 26 Minden r Ravcnlburg 5-5 38 3 + Ravenftiurg I Lingcn 120 15 1 1 Lingen Weflphalia. ^ Clevcs 6jo 43 21 Cleves ' / Meurs 35 10 6 Meurs (.Mark 9S0 52 43 Ham Eali Friefland 690 46 3-2 Emden Lippe 25 8 4 Lipftadt GuHch 52S 44 2i Gulieh Tecklenburg 3t' 12 6 Tecklenburg ISTetlierlands, Gelder 360 34 23 Gelders Switzerland. Neufchntel Total — 320 3^ 20 Neufchatel 51,281 Befides a great part of Silefia, which the 1: ite ki ng of Pruffia, under various pretences, hath wrefled from Aullria ; availing him felf alfo of the internal troubles in Po- land, he, by virtue of no other right than t lat w liich a powerful armv confers on every tyrant, feizcd upon Thorn, with the count ics on the Villula, the Niefter, and other territories contiguous to his own doininions clofe to the walls of Dantzic. Thefe ac- quilitions may be traced in the map. 1 I fhall here confine myfelf to PrufTia as a kingdom, becaufe his Pruffian majefty's other dominions fall under the dcfcription of the countries where they lie. The inhabitants of this kingdom alone, were, by Dr. Bufching, computed tb amount to 635,998 perfons capable of bearing arms : and if fo (for I greatlv doubt that this computation is exaggerated), it muft then be more populous than is gene- rally imagined. Since the year 1719, it is computed that about 34,000 colonifts ■ have removed thither from France, Switzerland, and Germany ; of which number' 17,000 were Saltsburghers.. Thcie emigrants have built 400 fmall villages, 11 towns, 86 feats,, and 50 new churches ; and have founded 1000 village fehools^ chiefly in that part of the country named Little Lithuania. The manners of the inhabitants differ but little from thofe of the other inhabit- ants of Germany.. The fame may be faid of their cuftoms and diverfions. Religion, schools, 7 The religion of Pruflia is very tolerant. The cfta- AND academies. ^ bliflied religions arc thofe of the Lutherans- and Cal- vinirts,, but chiefly the former ; but papifls, antipoedo-baptifts, and almoft all other lefts,, are here tolerated. The country, as well as the towns, abounds in fchools. An univerfity was founded at Koningfberg in 1544 ; but u'e know of no very remarkably learned men that it has produced. Cities.] The kingdom of Pruflia is divided into the German an-d Lithuanian departments ; the former of which contain a8o pariflies, and the latter 105. Koningfbtrp-,rhc capital of the whole kingdom, feaicd on the river Pregcl, over which it has fcven bridges, is about 84 miles from Dantzic. According to Dr. Bufching, this city js ftyen miles in circumference, and contains 3,5Joo houfes, and P R U S S I A. 469:. and about 60,000 inhabitants. This computation, I doiilit, is a little exaggerated likewife, bccaulc it I'uppofes, at an average, near fixtecn perfons in every houfe. Koningfberg has cver-raade a confiderablc figure in commerce and fliipping, its river being navigable for fliips ; of which 493 foreign ones arrived here in the year 175-2, befides 2y8 coaffcers ; and 373 floats of timber were, in the con:pafs of that year, brought down the Pregel. This city, befides its college or univerfity, which contains 38 profcflbrs, boafts of magnificent palaces, atown-houfc, and exchanoc; not to mention gardens and other cmbellithments. It has agood harbour and citadel, which is called Fredericfburg, and is a regular fquare. Antiquities AND cuRiosiTfES, 7 ^ /^ > bee Germany. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ ■' Commerce and manufactures.] The late king of Pruflla endeavoured to increafe the commerce of his kingdom ; but the defpotic nature of his government was not favourable to trade and manufadfures. The Pruffian manufatfures, how- ever, are not inconfiderable : they confift of glafs, iron-work, paper, gunoowder, copper, and brafs milh ; manufadures of cloth, camblet, linen,, filk, fibckings, and other articles. The inhabitants export variety of naval ftores, amber, linfeed and hempfeed, oatmeal, fifh, mead, tallow, and caviar ; and it is faid that 5oofliips aTe loaded every year with thofe commodities, chiefly from Koningfberg. Constitution and government.] His Pruflian majefty is abfolute throuo-h all his dominions, and he avails himfelf to the full of his power. The govern- ment of this kingdom is by a regency of four chancellors of ftate, viz. i. The' great mailer ; 2. The great burgrave ; 3. The great chancellor ; and, 4. The great marflial. There are alfo fome other councils, and 37 bailiwicks. The ftates • confift, I. Of counfellorsof ftate ; 2. Of deputies from the nobility ; and, 3. From- the commons. Befides thefe inftitution?,-his late majefty ered;ed a board for com- merce and navioation. Revenues.] His Pruflian majefty, by means of the happy fituation of his coun- try, its inland navigation, and his own fkilful political regulations, derives an amazing revenue from this country, which, about a century and a half ago, was the feat of boors and barbarifm. It is faid, that amber alone brings him in 26,000 dollars annually. His other revenues arife from his demefnes, his duties of cuftoms and tolls, and the fubfidies yearly granted by the feveral ftates ; but the exadt fum is not known ; though we may conclude that it is very confiderablc, - from the immenfe charges of the late war. His revenues now, fince the acceflion of Polifti or Royal Pruffia, muft be greatly increafed : exclufive of its fertility, • commerce, and population, its local fituation was of vaft importance, as it lay be- tween his German dominions and his kingdom of Pruflia. By this acquifition. -his dominions are compadl, and his troops may march from Berlin to Koni-ngfberg without interruption. Military strength.] The Pruflian a-i'my, even in time of peace, confifts of- about 180,000 of the beft difciplincd troops in the world ; and, di;ring the laft war, that torce was augmented to 300,000 men. But this great military force, however it may aggrandize the po-^verand importance of the king, is utterly incon^' ■ fiftent with the interefts of the people. The army ft chiefly compofed of provincial regiments ; the whole Pruflian dominions being divided into circles or cantons ; in each ot which, one or more regiments, in proportion to the fize and populoufnefs' of the divifion, have been originally raifcd, and from it the recruits continue to be taken- ; and each particular regiment is always quartered, in the time of peace, near the canton from which its recruits are drawn. Whatever number of fons a peafant may have, they are all liable to-be taken into the fervice e::cept one, who ■ is left to afliil in the management of the farm. The reft wear badges from their- I child-- 470 PRUSSIA. childhood, to mark that they are deftincd to be foldiers, and obliged to enter into the lervice whenever they arecalled upon. But the maintaining fo large an army, in a country naturally fo little equal to it, has occafioned luch a drain from popu- lation, and fuch a withdrawing ot ftrength from the labours of the earth, that the late king endeavoured in fome degree to fave his own peafantry, by drawing as many recruits as he could from other -countries. Thefe foreign recruits remain continually with the regiments in which they are placed ; but the native Prufllans have every year fome months of furlough, during which they return to the houfes of their fathers or brothers, aad work at the buhnefs of the farm, or in any other way they pleafe. Arms, and orders of knighthood.] The royal arms of Pruffia are argent, an eagle difplayed fable, crowned, or, for Pruflia. Azure, the imperial fceptre, or,, for Courland. Argent, an eagle difplayed, gules, with femicircular wreaths, for the marquifaie of Brandenburg. To thefe are added the refpedtive arms of the feveral provinces fubjedt to the Pruffian crown. There are four orders of knighthood ; the order of " Concord" inftituted by Chritlian Erneft, margrave of Brandenburgh, in the year 1660, to dilfinguilh the part he had affed in reltoring peace to many of the princes of Europe. The badge is a gold crofs of eight points, enamelled white ; in the centre a medal bearing two olive branches pafling faltier-wife through two crowns, and circumfcribed with the vord " ConcordcDis." The crofs is furmounted with an eledtoral crown, and is wore pendent to an orange ribband. Frederic HI. eleftor of Brandenburgh, and after- v/ards king of Pruflia, inftituted, in 1685, the order of " GoierofJy." The knights v\Kar a crofs of eight points enamelled blue, having in the centre this motto, " La Generofite," pendent to a blue ribband. The fame prince inftituted the order of the " Blai:'k Eagle" on the day of his coronation at Koningfberg, in the year 1700; the fovereign is always grand-mafter, »4id the number of knights, exclufive of the royal family, is limited to thirty, who muft all be admitted into the order of " Generofity," previous to their receiv- ing this, unlefs they be fovereign princes. The enfign of the order is a gold crofs, of eight points, enamelled blue, having at each angle a fpread eagle, enamelled black, being the arms of Pruffia, and charged in the centre with a cypher of the letters F. R. Each knight commonly wears this pendent to abroad orange ribband (out of refpcdt to the Orange family) worn fafla-wife over the left flioulder, and a filver liar embroidered on the left fide of the coat, whereon is an efcutcheon, con- taining a fpread eagle, holding in one claw a chaplet of laurel, and in the other a thunderbolt, with this motto in gold letters round " Suum cuique." On days of ceremony, the knights wear the badge pendent to a collar, compofed of round pieces of gold, each enamelled with four cyphers of the letters F. R. in the centre of the piece is fet a diamond, and over each cypher a regal crown, intermixed alter- nately with eagles difplayed, enamelled, black, and holding in their claws thunder- bolts of gold. The knights caps are of black veh'ct with white plumes. The order of " Merit" was inftituted by the late king in the year 1740, to re- ward the merit of perfons either in arms or arts, without dillindlion of birth, reli- gion, or country ; the king is ftvcreign, and the number of knights unlimited. The enfign is a crofs of eight points, enamelled blue, and edged with gold, having in the centre a cypher of the letters F. R. and in each angle an eagle difplayed, black, on the two upper points the regal crown of ]*ru(fia ; on the reverfc, the motto " Pour le Merit/:." The badge is worn round the neck, pendent to a black ribband, edged with filver. History.] The ancient hiftory of Pruffia, like that of other kingdoms, is loft in the clouds of fidlion and romance. The inhabitants ap])car to have been a brave and ' PRUSSIA. -471 and warlike people, dcfcenclcd from the Sclavonians, and rcfuftd to fubmlt to the neighbouring princes, who, on pretence of converting them toChrillianit)-, wanted to fubjcd: them to Haver)-. They made a noble Hand againrt the kings of Poland ; one of whom, Bolcllaus IV. was by them defeated and killed in 1 163. They con- tinued independent, and pagans, till the time of the crufades, when the German knights of the Teutonic order, about the year 122 7,, undertook their converfion by the edge of the fword, but upon condition of having, as a reward, the property of the country when conquered. A long fcries of wars followed, in which the inhabi- tants of PrufTia were almoll extirpated by the religious knights, who in the thir- teenth century, after committing thcmoft incredible barbarities, peopled the coun- try with GeVmans. After the vaft wafte of blood, in 1466, a peace was concluded between the knights of the Teutonic order and Cafimlr IV. king of Poland, who had undertaken the caufe of the opprelled people, by which it was agreed, that the part now called Folilh Pruffia fhould continue a free province, under the king's protetlion ; and that the knights and the grand-mafler lliould poflefs the other part, but were to acknowledge themfelves vallals of Pohind. This gave rife to fre/li ' wars, in which th? knights endeavoured, but unfuccefsfully, to throw off their vafTalage to Poland. In 1525, Albert, margrave of Brandenburg, and the laft grand-mafter of the Teutonic orders laid afide the habit of his order, embraced Lutheranifm, and concluded a peace at Cracow, by which the- margrave was ac- knowledged duke of t^ie^afi: part of Pruffia (formerly called, for that reafon, Ducal Pruffia), but to be held as aikf ot Poland, and to defcend to his male heirs ; and" upon failure of his male ilfue^to his brothers and their male heirs. Thus ended the fov-ereignty t)f the Teutonic order in Pruffia, after it had fubfided near 300 years. In 1657, the elcftor Frederic-William of Brandenburg, defervedly called the Great, had Ducal Pruffia confirmed to him ; and by the conventions of Welau and Bromberg, it was freed, by John Cafimir, king of Poland, from vafTalage ; and he and his defcendants were declared independent and fovereign lords of this part of Pruffia, As the proteftant religion had been introduced into this country by the margrave Albert, and the fledfors of Brandenburg were now of that perfuafion, the protef- tant intereft favoured them fo much, that FVederic, the fon of Frederic-William the Great, was raifed to the dignity of king of Pruffiia, in a folemn affi;mbly of the flates, and proclaimed January 18, 1701, and foon after acknov^/ledgcd as fuch by all the powers of Chriftendom. Flis grandfon, the late king of Pruffia, in the memoirs of his family, gives us no higii idea of this firlt king's talents for govern- ment, but expatiates on thofe of his own father, Frederic-William, who fuccecded in 1713. He certainly was a prince of ftrong- natural parts, and performed prodi- gious fervices to his country, but too often at the expence of hurrtanitv, and the magnanimity which ought to adorn a king. At his death, which happened in 1740, he is faid to have left feven millions fterling in his treafury, which enabled his fon, by hh wonderful vidories, and tl.e more -wonderful refources by which he repaired his defeats, to become the admiration of the prefent age. .Fie improv- ed the arts of peace, as well as of war, and diftinguiflied himfelf as a poet, philofopher, and legifiator. Some of the principal tranfa by the: Save on the South, and by Kirlain Aulhia on the Well. The reafon why Hungary, Tranfylvania, Sclavo- nia, and the other nations, fubjeift to the houfe of Auitria in thofe j)arts, contain a furprifing variety of people, differing in name, -language, and manners, is becaufe liberty here made its lad Itaad againft the Roman arms, which by degrees forced tixe remains 4^0 SCLAVONIA, CROATIA, AKD DALMATI A. reiTiains of the different nations they had conquered into thofe quarters. The thick- nefs of the woods, thcirapidity of the rivers, and the ftrength of the country, favour- ed their refinance ; and their defcendants, notwithftanding the power of the Turks, :the Auftrians, the Hungarians, and the Poles, flill retain the fame fpirit ol indepen- dency. Without minding the arrangements made by the fovereigns of Europe, they are quiet under the government that leaves them moft at liberty. That they are generous as well as brave, appears from their attachment to the houfe of Auftria, which, till the laft two wars, never was fenfible of their value.and valour ; info- much that it is well known, that they preferved the pragm.atic fanftion, and kept the imperial crown in that family. The Sclavonians rormerly gave fo much work to the Roman arms, that it is thought the word Jlave took its original from them, on account of the great numbers of them who were carried into bondage, fo late fls the reio-n of Charlemagne. Though Sclavonia yields neither in beauty nor fer- tility to Hungary and Tranfylvania, yet the ravages of war are flill vifible in the face of the country, which lies in a great meafure unimproved. The Sclavonians, from their Ignorance, perhaps, are zealous Roman catholics, though Greeks and Jews are tolerated. Here we meet with two bifliopricks ; that, of Fofega, which is the capital of the country, and Zagrab, which lies on the Drave ; but we know of no univerfities. Effeck is a large and ftrong town, remarkable, as before noticed, for a wooden bridge over the Drave, and adjoining marfhes five miles long, and fifteen paces broad, built by the Turks. Waradin and Peterwaradin are places noted in the wars between the Auftrians and Turks. The inhabitants are compofed of Servians, Radsians, Croats, Walachians, Germans, Hungarians, and a vaft number of other people, whofe names were never known even to the Aultrians themfelves, but from the military muller-rolls, when they ])oured their troops into the field during the two ] aft wars. In 1746, Sclavonia was united to Hungary, and the ftates fend repre- fentatives to the diet of Hungary. Croatia lies between the 15th and 17th degrees of eaft longitude, and the 4;th and 47th of north latitude. It is 80 miles in length, and 70 in breadth, and about 2500 fquare miles. The manners, government, religion, language and cuftoms of the Croats, are fimilar to thofe of the Sclavonians and Tranfylvanians, who are their neighbours. They are excellent irregular troops, and as fuch are famed in modern hiftory, under the name of Pandours, and various other defig- nations. The truth is, the houfe of Auftria finds its intereft in fufFering them, and the neighbouring nations, to live in their own manner. Their towns are blended with each other, there fcarcely being any diftindion of boundaries. Carolftadt is a place of fome note, but Zagrab (already mentioned) is the capital of Croatia. All the foverei^nty exercifedover them by the Auftrians feems to confift in the military . arrangements for bringing them occafionally into the field. A viceroy prefides over Croatia, jointly with Sclavonia, and Hunci;arian Dalmatia : this lies in the upper part of the Adriatic fea, and confifts of five diftrids, in which the in(yft remarkable places are the two foJlowing : Segna, which is a royal fiee town, fortified both by nature and art, and is firuated near the fea, in a bleak, mountainous, and barren foil. The bifhop of this place is a fuffiagan to the archbiOiop of Spolatro. Here are twelve churches, and two convents. The governor refides in the old palace, called the Royal Caftle. 2. Ottofchatz, a frontier fortification on the river Gatzka. That part of the fortrefs where the governor, and the greateft part of the garrifon refide, is furrounded with a wail, and feme towers : but the reft of the buildings, which are mean, are eredled on piles in the water ; fo that one neighbour cannot vifit another without a boat. Near Segna dwell tjie Ufcocs, a people, who being galled by opprcffion, cfcaped out of Dalmatii, from whence they obtained the name of Uicocs, from the word 1 Scoco POLAND, iNCtuDiNG LITHUANIA. 481 Scoco, which fignifies a deferter. They are alfo called fpringers, or leapers, from the agility with which they.leap, rather than walk, along this rugged and mountain- ous country. Some of them live in fcattered houfes, and others in large villages. They are a rough, lavage people, large bodied, courageous, and given to rapine -, but their vifible employment is grazing. They ufe the Walachian language, and in tlieir religious fentiments and mode of worfliip approach neareft to the Greek church ; but fome of them are Roman catholics. A part of Walachia belongs alfo to the emperor, as well as to the Turks, whicli lies to the eaft of Tranfylvania, and its principal towns are Tregonitz, Buchareft, and Severin. POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. BrTadth 680 \ ^"^''^" {46 '""^ ^^ ^^ft.I«"g'^"de. and 57 north latitude. Boundaries.] BEFORE the late extraordinary partition of this country, the kingdom of Poland, with the great duchy of Lithuania annex- ed (part of ancient Sarmatia) was bounded on the North by Livonia, Mufcovy, and the Baltic fea ; on the Eaft, by Mufcovy ; on the South, by Hungary, Turkey, and Little Tartary ; on the Weft, by Germany : and had the form of its government been as perfedt as its fituation was compaft, it might have been one of the moft powerful kingdoms in Europe. Its grand divifions were. r 03 Poland. Square Miles. p 3- Chief Cities. D..„.»fl„ . f Courland, fub- 4»4i4 '74 80 Mi t taw c ( Great part of this dirtri(^ Wilna is now pofleffed by [ R uflia. Lithuania, 64,800 li3 310 Podolia, 29,000 360 120 Kaniinieck 1 Volhinia, 25,000 305 150 Liicko Great Poland, 19,200 208 180 Gnefna Red Ruffia, 25,200 232 185 Lcmburg 7 Now chiefly fubjccl Ciacow J to Aultria. Brelfici Papifts. Little Poland, Polefia, 18,000 14,000 230 186 97 Ma'fovia, 8,400 'S = 90 ,,T { E. Ion. 21-C. \Va.sawJj^,_1^^_^^.5^^ Samogitia, 8, 00 J '55 98 Rafiem Piuflia Royal, f or f,4oo u8 104 Elbing I Now fubjeftto Pruffia Po'ldi Prudla, c LPolachia, Total — 4000 '33 42 Bielh 226,414 Dantzic, Thorn, 'and Elhing, in P nilTia Royal, arc dyled free cities, and were under the prote:tinii of !'oI;ind ; the two 1- »ft have beenfeized by the King of PruiJia, and thcpri-' ed by him. j vileges of the firll greatly abridg 30. NAJfJ 482 POLAND, I N c L u D I N' G L I T H U ii N t A. Name.] It is generally thoughc that Poland takes its name from Polu, or Poltr^ a Sclavonian word, fignifying a country fit for hunting, for which none was formerly more proper, on account of its plains, woods, and game of every kind. Climate.] 'I'he air of Poland is fuch as may be expefted from fo extenfive but level a climate. In the north parts it is cold, but heakhy. The Carpathian moun- tains, whicii feparare Poland from Hungary, are covered with evtrlafting fnow^ •which has been known to fall in the midll of fummer. Upon the whole, however, the climate of Poland is temperate, but the air is ratlier infalubrious by reafon of the numerous woods and' morafles. Soil, produce, and watkrs.] Poland is in general a level country, and the- foil is fertile in corn, as appears from the vaft quantities that are fent from thence down the Viftula, to Dantzic, and wJiich are bought up by the Dutch, and other nations. The paftures of Poland, efpecially in Podolia, are extremely rich. Here are mines of filver, copper, iron, fait, and coals; Lithuania abounds in iron ochre, black agate, feveral fnecies of copper and iron pyrites, and red and grey granite : falfe precious ftones, and marine petrifadlions. The interior parts of Poland con- tain forefts which furnifli timber in fuch great quantities, that it is employed in houfe buildino-, inftead of bricks, Hone, and tiles. Various kinds of fruits and herbs, and feme grapes, are produced in Poland, and are excellent when they meet with culture, but their wine feldom or never comes to perfeftion. Poland produces various kinds of clay fit for pipes and earthen ware. The water of many fprings is boiled into fait. The virtues of a fpring, in the palatinate of Cracow, which increafes and de- creafes with the moon, are laid to be wonderful for the prcfervation of life ; and it is reported, that the neighbouring inhabitants commonly live to loo, and fome of them to 150 years of age. This fj^ring is inflammable, and by applying a torch to it, it flames like the fubtlefl: fpirit of wine. The flame, however, dances on the furface, without heating the water ; and if left unextinguifhed, it communicates it- felf, by fubterraneous conduits, to the roots of trees, in a neighbouring wood, v/hich it confumes ; and about 35 years ago, the flames are faid to have lafted for three years, before they could be entirely extinguiflied. Rivers.] The chief rivers of Polands are, the Viftula or Weyfel, the Neiftcr,. Neiper, or Borifthenes, the Bog, and the Dwina» Lakes.] The chief of the few lakes contained in Poland, is Gopto, in the pala- tinate of Byzefty ; and Birals, or the White Lake, which is faid to dye thofe who vvafli in it of a fwarthy complexion. Vegetable and animal"^ The vegetable produftions of Poland have been PRODUCTIONS. J already mentioned under the article of Soil, though fome are peculiar to itfdf, particularly a kind of manna (if it can be called a ve- getable) which in May and June the inhabitants fweep into fieves with the dew, and it ferves for food, drefTed various ways. A great quantity of yellow amber is fre- quently dug up in Lithuania, in pieces as large as a man's fift, fuppofcd to be th« production of a refinous pine. The forefts of Warfovia, or Mafovia, contain plenty of uri, or buffaloes, whofc flefti the Poles powder, and efteem it an excellent difli. Horfes, wolves, boar?,, the glouton, lynx, elks, and deer, all of them wild, are common in the Polilh fo* refts ; and tliere is a fpecics of wild horfcs and alTes, and wild oxen, that the nobi- lity of the Ukraine, as well as natives, are fond of. A kind of wolf, refcmbling a hart, v/ith fpots on his belly and legs, is found here, and afibrds the beft furs in the country. The flcfh of the Polifh tik forms the moft delicious part of tlicir grcatcft feafts. His body is of the deer-make, but much thicker and longer; the legs high, che feet broad and cloven, the horns large, rough and broad, like a wild goat's. Naturaiifts have obferved, that upon difleding an elk, there was found in its head lome POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA. 48 j fome large flies, with its brains almoft eaten away ; and it is an obfervation fufficient- ly atcefted, that in the large woods and wildernellcs of the North, this poor animal is attacked, towards the winter chiefly, by a larger fort of flies, that, through its ears, attempt to take up their winter quarters in its head. This perfecution is thought to aflxft the elk with the falling-ficknefs, by which me^s it is taken, which would otherwife prove no eafy matter. Poland produces a creature called bohac : it refembles a guinea-pig, but feems to be of the beaver kind. They are noted for digging holes in the ground, v/hirh they enter in Oftober, and do not come out, except occafionally for food, till April : they have feparate apartments for their provifions, lodgings, and their dead; they live together by 10 or 12 in a herd. Wc do not perceive that Poland con- tains any fpecies of birds peculiar to itfelf ; only we are told that the quails there have green legs, and that their flefh is reckoned unwholefome. Lithuania is rich in birds ; among thofe of prey, are the eagle and vulture. The rem'tZy or little ipecies of titmoufe, is frequently found in thole parts, famous for the wonderous ftruclure of its pendent neft, formed in the fliape of a long purfe, with amazing art. Population, inhabitants, manners, 7 Some authors have fuppofed Poland CUSTOMS, and diversions. ^ and Lithuania to contain 14,000,000 of inhabitants : and when we confider that the Poles have no colonies, and fome- times have enjoyed peace for many years together, and that no fewer than 2,000,000 of Jews are laid to inhabit there, perhaps this calculation is not exaggerated. But fincethe partition and difmemberment of the kingdom, the number is only 9,000,000, of which 600,000 are Jews. The provinces taken by RulLa are the largefl:, by the Auftrian the moft populous, and by the Pruflian the moft commercial. The RufTian contain 1,500,000 ; the Aultrian 2,500,000 ; and tlie Pruflian about 860,000, amounting to about 5,000,000 of fouls feparated from their ancient kingdom. The Poles, in their perfons, make a noble appearance ; their complexion is fair, and their fliapes are vvell proportioned. They are brave, honeft, and hofpitable : and their women fprightly, yet modefb, and fubmlflive to their hufbands. Their diverfions are warlike and manly ; vaulting, dancing, and riding the great horfe, hunting, fkaiting, bull and bear beating. They ufually travel on horfeback : a Polifli gentleman vviU not travel a ftone's-throw without his horfe ; and they are fo hardy, that they will fleep upon the ground, without any bed or covering, in frofl and fnow. The Poles never live above ftairs, and their apartments are not united ; the kitchen is on one fide, the ftable on another, the dwelling-houfe on the third, and the gate in the front. They content themfelves with a few fmall beds, and if any lodge at their houfes, they muft carry their bedding with them. When they fit down to dinner or fupper, they have their trumpets and other mufic playing, and a number of gentlemen to wait on them at table, all ferving with the moft profcKind refpeft ; for the nobles, who are poor, frequently find themfelves under the necefllty of ferving them that are rich : but their patron ufually treats them with civility, and permits the eldeft to eat with him at his table, with his cap oif ; and every one of them has his peafant boy to wait on him, maintained by tlie mafler of the family. At an entertainment, the Poles lay neither knives, forks, nor fpoons, but every gueit brings them with him ; and they no fooner fit down to table, than all the doors are fliut, and not opened till the company return home. It is ufual for a nobleman to give his fervant part of his meat, which he eats as he llands be- hind him, and to let him drink out of the fame cup with himfelf : but this is the Icfs extraordinary, if it be confidered that thefe fervants are cfleemed his equals. Bum- pers are much in fafhion, both here and in RuITia ; nor will, they eafily excufe any perfon from pledging them. It would exceed the bounds of this work to defcribe the grandeur and equipages of the Polilh nobility ; and the reader may figure to 3 Q 2 him- 4S4 POLAND, iNCiUDiNG LITHUANIA. himfelf an idea of all that is faftidious, ceremonious, expenfive aad fliewy in life, to have any conception of their way of living. They carry the pomp of their at- ' tendance, when they appear abroad, even to ridicule ; for it is not unufal to fee the lady of a Polifli graixlee, belides a coach and fix, wi:h a great number of fervants, attended by an old gsntleman-ufher, an old gentlewoman for her go- vernante, and a dwarf of each fex to hold up her train ; and if it be night, her coach is furrounded by a great number of flambeaux. The figure of their pomp, however, is proportioned to thrir eftates ; but each perfon goes as far as his in- come can afford. The Poles are divided into nobles, clergy, citizens, and peafants : the peafants are divided into two forts, thofe of the crown, and thofe belonging to individuals. Though Poland has its princes, counts, and barons, yet the whole body of tiie nobility are naturally on a level, except the difference that arifes from the public po'fts they enjoy. Hence all who are of noble birth call one another brothers. They do not value titles of honour, but think -a. gentleman of Poland is the higheft appellation they can enjoy. J hey have many confiderable privileges ; and indeed the boafted Polifh liberty is properly limited to them alone, partly by the indulgence of former kings, but more generally from ancient cuftom aiid prefcription. They have a power of life and death over their tenants and vaflals, pay no taxes, are ful> jeft to none but the king, may chufe whom they will for their king, and lay him under what reilraint they pleafe by \S\t -paSla convents. ; and none but they, and the burghers of fome particular towns, can purchafe lands. In fhorr, they ar« almoft entirely independent, enjoying many other privileges entirely incompatible with a well regulated Hate ; but if they engage in. trade, they forfeit their nobility. Thefe great privileges make the Polifh gentry powerful ; many of them have large terri- tories, and, as we have faid, with a defpotic power over their tenants, whom they cail their fubjedts, and transfer or affign over with the lands, cattle, and furniture. Until Cafimir the Great, the lord could put his peafant to death with impunity-, and when the latter had no children, confidered himfelf as the heir, and feized all his effefts» In 1347, Cafimir prefcribed a fine for the murder of a peafant, and enafted, that in cafe of his deceafe without iflue, his next heir Ihould inherit. But thefe and otlier regulations have proved ineffeftual againft the power and tyranny of the nobles, and have been either abrogated or eluded. Some of them have ef- tates of from five to thirty leagues in extent, and are alfo hereditary fovereigns of cities, with which the king has no concern. One of their nobles poffefl*es above 4000 towns and villages. Some of them can raife 8 or 10,000 men. The houfe of a nobleman is afecure afylum for perfons who liave committed any crime ; for none rnuft prefume to takf them from thence by force. They have their horfe and foot- guards, which are upon duty day and night before their palaces and in their anti- chambers, and march before them when they go abroad. They make an extraordi- nary figure when they come to the diet, fome of them having 5000 guards and at- tendants ; and their debates in the fenate are often determined by the fword. When great men iiave fuits at law, the diet, or other tribunals decide them ; yet tlie execu- tion of the fentence muft be left to the longelt fword, for the juftice of the kingdom is commonly too weak for the grandees. Sometimes they raifc 5 or 6000 men of a fide, plunder and burn one another's cities, and befiege caflles and forts ; for they think it below them to fubmit to the fentence of judges, without a field-batde. As to the peafants, they are born Haves, and have no notion of liberty. If one loid kills the peafant of another, he is not capitally convifted, but only obliged to make reparation, by another peafant equal in value. A nobleman who is defirous of cultivating a piece of land builds a little wooden houfe, in which he fettles a pea- fant and his laniily, giving him a cow, two horfes, a certain number of geefe, hens> POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA. 485 ftcnsj &c. and as much corn as is fufficient to maintain him the firll year, and to improve for his own future fubfiftence and the advantage of his lord. The peafants having no property, all their acquifitions ferve only to enrich their mafter. They are indilpenlably obliged to cultivate the earth ; they are incapable of entering upon any condition of life that might procure them freedom, without ■ the pcrmiffion of their lords j and they are expofcd to the difmal, and frequently fatal effefts of the caprice, cruelty, and barbirity of their tyrannical mafters who opprefs them with impunity; and having, the power of life and property in their hands, too often abufe it in the moil grofs and wanton manner, their wives and daughters being expofed to the molt brutal treatment. One blefling, however attends the wretched' fituation of the Polifli peafants, which is their Infcnfibility^ Born llaves, and accuftomed from their infuv y to liardfhips and fevere labour, tlie generality of them fcarcely entertain an idea of better circumllances and more li- berty. They regard their mafters as a fuperior order of beings, and hardly ever repine at their fevere lot. Cheerful and contented with their condition, they are ready, upon every occafion, to fiicrilice themfclves and their families for their mafter efpecially if the latter takes care to feed them well. Moft of them feem to think that a man can never be very wretched while he has any thing to eat. I have been- t-he more circumftantial in defcribing the manners and prefent ftate of the Poles as they bear a near refemblance, in many particulars, to thofe of Europe in o-eneral during the feudal ages ; but their tyranny over their tenants and vaflals feems to be carried to a much greater height. Lately indeed, a few nobles of enligluened un- derftandings, have ventured to give liberty to their vaflals. The firft who granted this freedom, was Zamoifki, formerly great chancellor, who, in 1760, enfranchifed fix villages in the palatinate of Mafovia, and afterwards on all his eftates. The event hath fhewed the projeft to be no lefs judicious than humane; friendly to the noble's own interefts as well as the happinefs of the peafants, for it appears, that in the diftrifts in which the new arrangement hath been introduced, the population ot the villages is confiderably increafed,. and the revenues of their eftates auo-ment- cd in a triple proportion. Prince Staniflaus, nephew of the king of Poland, hath very lately enfranchifed four villages near Warfaw, and hath not only emancipated his peafants from flaver}', but condefcends to direft their affairs. The inns in this country are long ftables built with boards and covered >7ith ftraw without furniture or windows ; there is a chamber at one end, but none can lodog there, becaufe of flies and other vermin ; lb that ftrangers generally choofe ra- ther to lodge among the horfes. Travellers are obliged to carry provifions with them ; and when foreigners want a fupply, they apply to the lord of the villao-e who forthwith provides them with necelJaries. Dress.] The drefs of the Poles is pretty fingular. They cut the hair of their heads ftiort, and Ihave their beards, leaving only large whilkers. They v/ear a veil which reaches down to the middle of the leg, and a kind of gown over it lined with fur and girded with a fafli, but the fleeves fit as clofe to their arm as a waift- coat. Their breeches are wide, and make but one piece with their ftockin^s. I'hey wear a fur cap or bonnet ; their fhirts are without collar or wriftbands, and tliey wear neither ftock nor neckcloth. Inftead of flioes, they wear Turkey leather boots, with thin foles, and deep iron heels bene like an half moon. They carry a pole-ax, and a fabre or cutlafs, by their fides. When they appear on horfcback they wear over all a {hort cloak, which is commonly covered with furs both within and without. The people of the beft quality wear fables, and others the ikins of tygers, leopards, &c. Some of them have fifty fuits of cloaths, all as rich as pof- fibJe, and v^hich delcend from father to fon. Were 486 POLAND, incluping LITHUANIA. Were it not for our ov/n partiality to fhoit dreflTes, we miift acknowledge that of the Poks to be picturelque and niajeftic. Charles II. of England tl;iought of in- troducing the Polilli drefs into his court, and after his reiloration wore it for two years, chiefly for the encouragement of Englifh broad-clolh j but difcontinued it through his connexions with the Frencli. 'I'he habit of the women comes very near to that of the men, a fimple Polo- raife, or long robe edged with fur; but fome people of falhion, of both fexes, af- fect the French or Engliih modes. As to the peafants, in winter they wear a flieep's- Ikin with the wool inwards, and in fummer a thick coarfe cloth; but as to linen, they wear none. Their boots are the rinds of trees wrapped about their legs, with the thickc r parts to guard the foles of their teet. The women have a watchful eye .over their daughters, and in the diftrift of Samogitia particularly, make them wear little bells before and behind, to give notice where they are, and what they are doing. Religio>:.] The number of Proteftants, confilling of Lutherans and Calvinifts, in the republic of Poland, is very con fiderable; and when thefe are joined to the Greek church, the whole are called Dissidents. At the fame time, the Polifh nobility, and the bulk of the nation, are tenacious of the Roman catholic religion, ■even to enthufiafm. The treaty of Oliva, which was concluded in 1660, and to- lerated the DilTidents, was guaranteed by the principal powers in Europe ; but has lince been fo far difregarded by the Poles, that about the year 1724, they made a public maffacre under the faniftion of law, of the proteftants at Thorn, for which no fatisfaftion has been as yet obtained. The lame may be faid of the other nu- merous provifions made for the proteftion of the Proteftants, who were perfecuted, when Jews, i urks, and infidels of every kind, have been tolerated and encou- raged. The monafteries in Poland are by fome writers faid to be 576, and the nunneries 117, befides 246 feminaries or colleges, and 31 abbeys. The clergy are pofleffed of a very large proportion of the lands and revenues of the kingdom. The Polifli clergy, in general, are illiterate bigots, and the monks are fome of the moft profligate of mankind. They are often feen drunk, and led from taverns, without apprehending any difgrace to their order, or dreading tjie cenfure of their fupe- riors, who require equal indulgence. After what has been faid, the reader cannot be at a lofs to. account for the vaft fway which the popifh clergy have had in Poland at different periods, notwithftanding the treaties and capitulations which have been made in favour of the proteftants and the members of the Greek church. Indeed, it has been chiefly owing to the influence and conduft of the popilh clergy, that xhe peafants in Poland have been reduced to fuch a ftate of wretched flavery. The principles of Socinianifm made a very early and confiderable progrefs in Po- land. However, before Socinus (iame into Poland, it is computed that there were thirty-two congregations in that republic who denied the doftrine of the Trinity. A tranflation of the Bible into the Polifli hinguage was publiflied in 1572; and two years after, under the diredion of the fame pcrfons, tjie catechifm, or confef- fion of the Unitarians, was publiflied at Cracow. The abilities and writings of Socinus greatly contributed to the extcnfive propagation of his opinions; but though the Socinians in Poland have been very nnmerous, they have at difirrent times :becn greatly perfecuted. However, it was refolvcd between the republic and the partitioning powers, that all Uiffidents fliould henceforth enjoy the free exercife of their religion, but continue cxchKlcd from the diet, the fenate, and the permanent council. They are to have churches, but witiiout bells ; alio fchools and femuia- ries of their own, and arecipable of fitting in the inferior courts of jufticc. Arch :;iSHc)i'KicKs and bismoi'Ricks.J Poland contains two archbifliopricks; ,Qni.fna.and Lemburg. The archbiflio^i cf Gnefna, befides being primate, and, I during POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA. 487 during an inter-reign, prince-regent of the kingdom, is always a cardinal. The other bifhops, particularly of Cracow, enjoy great privileges and irwmunities. Languagk.] The PoliOi language is a dialed of the Sclavonic, and is both harfh and unharmonious, on account of the vaft number of conlbnants it employs, fome of their words having no vowels at all. The Lithuanians and Livonians have a language full of corrupted Latin words ; but the Ruffian and German tongues arc underllood in the provinces bordering on thofe countries. Learning and learned men.] Though Copernicus, the great reftorer of the trire^ agronomical fyftem, Vorftuis, and fome other learned men, were natives of Poland, yet its foil is far from being favourable to learning. Latin is fpoken, though incorrectly, by tiie common people in fome provinces. But the contempt which the nobility, who place their chief importance in the privileges of their rank, have ever flicwn for learning, the fervitude of the lower people, and the univerfal fuperllition among all ranks of men, thefe circumftances have wonder- fully retarded, and, notwithlVanding the liberal efforts of his prefent majelty, ftill Gontiniie to retard the progrcfs of letters in this kingdom. However, of late, a taflrc for fcience hath fpread itfelf among the nobles, and begins to be regarded as an accomplifhment. Universities.] The univerfities of Poland are thofe of Cracow, Wilna, and' Pofna or Pofen. The firft confifts of eleven colleges, and has the fuperviforlhip of fourteen grammar-fchools difperfed through the city, the number of Ihidents in 1778, amounted to 600. Wilna was under the fuperinteridance of the Jefuits, but fince their fupprcfiion the king hath eilablifl-ied a committee of education, who- appoint profefTors, and direfl tiieir falaries and ftudies; that of Pofna was rather a Jefuit's college than an univerfity. ANTiQiriTiEs AND CURIOSITIES, 7 The freqiicnt incutfTons of the Tartars, and ' NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ Other barbarous nations, into Poland, proba- bly forced the women fometimes tc leave their children expofed in the woods, where we muft fuppofe they were nurfed by bears and other wild beafts, otherv/ife it is difficult to account for their fubfiftence. It is certain that fuch beino-s have been found in the woods both of Poland and Germany, diverted of almoil; all the properties of humanity but the form.- When taken, they generally went on all fours: but it is faid that fome of them have, by proper management, attained to • the ufe of fpeech. The fait mines of Poland confift of wonderful caverns, feveral hundred yards deep, at the bottom o( which are many intricate windings and labyrinths. Out of thefe are dug four different kinds of falts ; one extremely hard, like cryftal ; an- other fofter, but clearer J a third white, but brittle; thefe are all brackifli, but the fourth is fomewhat frefher. Thefe four kinds are dug in different mines, near the city of Cracow; on one fide of them is a flream of falt-water, and on the. other one of frefh. The revenue arifing from thofe,- and other falt-mines, is very confider- able, and formed part of the royal revenue before feized, by Auffria; the annual average profit of thofe of Wiclitzka, eight miles from Cracow, was about 98,000],. fterling. Out of fome mines at Itza, about 70 miles north-eaft of Cracow, are dug fcveral kinds of earth, which are excellently adapL-jd to the potters' ufe, and fupply all Poland with earthen ware, Untier the mountains adjoining to Kiow, in the de- • fcrts of Podolia, are feveral grottos, where a great number of human bodies are preferved, though buried a vaft number of years fince, being neither fo hard nor fo black as the i'lgyptian mummies. Among them are tv/o princes, in the habits they ufed to weaf. It is thought that this prcTcrving quality is owina^ to the nature • of the foil, which is dry and fandy. Poland can boall of few antiquities, as old ■ Sarmatia was never perfcdly known to the Roaians themfclves.. Its aitilicial rarities ' are' 438 POLAND, I ^7 .c L u D I N G LITHUANIA. are but few, the chief being the gold, filver, and enamelled veflels, prefented by the kings and prelates of Poland, and preferved in the cathedral of Gnefna. Cities, towns, forts, and othep. 7 VVarfaw lies on the Villula, and almoft EDinc£«, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. ^ in the Centre of Poland. It is the royal refidence; and contains many magnificent palaces and other buildings, bcfides churches and convents. It is faid to contain near 70,000 inhabitants, but a great number are foreigners. The ftreets are fpacious but ill paved, and the greateft part of the houfes, particularly the fuburbs, are mean wooden hovels. The city- exhibits a ftrong contrail of wealth and poverty, as doth every part of this unhappy- country. It has little or no commerce. The fame may be faid of Cracow, the an- cient capital ; for we are told, that notwithftanding it lies in the neighbourhood of the rich fait mines, and it is faid to contain fifty churches and convents, its com- merce is inconfiderable. The city (lands in an extenfive plain watered by the Vlf- tula, and with the fuburbs occupy a vafi: fpace of ground, but all togetlier fcarcely contain 16,000 foul*. It isfurrounded with high brick walls, flrengthened with round and fquare towers in the ancient ftyle of fortification, and is garrifoned with 600 Ruffians. Grodno is the principal town in Lithuania, containing ruined pa- laces, falling houfes, and wretched hovels, with about 7000 inhabitants; 1000 of v;hich are Jews, and 3000 are employed in new manufadtures of cloths, camblets, linen, cotton, filk, fluffs, .&c. eflablifhed there by the king in 1776. He hath alfo eflablifhed in this place an academy of phyfic for Lithuania, in which ten flu- , dents are inflrufted for phyfic, and twenty for furgery, all taught and maintained at his own expence. Dantzic is the capital of Polifh Pruflla, and is famous in hiflory on many accounts^ particularly that of its being formerly at the head of the Hanfeatic aflbciation, commonly called the Hanfe-towns. It is fituated on the Viftula, near five miles from the Baltic, and is a large, beautiful, populous city; its houfes generally are five flories high ; and many of its ftreets are planted with chefnut-trees. It has a fine harbour, and is llill a moil eminent commercial city, although it feems to be fomewhat paft its meridian glory, which was probably about the time that the pre- fident de Thou wrote his much efbeemed hiftory, wherein, under the year 1607, he fo highly celebrates its commerce and grandeur. It is a republic, claiming a fmall adjacent territory about -forty miles round it, which were under the protec- tion of the king and the republic of Poland. Its magiftracy, and the majority of its inhabitants, are Lutherans ; although the Romanifts and Calvinifts are equally tolerated in it. It is rich, and has 26 parifhes, with many convents and hofpitals. The inhabitants have been computed to amount to 200,000; but later computa- tions fall very coBfiderably fhort of it; as appears by its annual bill of mortality, exhibited by Dr. Bufching, who tells us, that in the year 1752, there died but 1846 perfons. Its own (hipping is numerous ; but the foreign (liips conllantly re- forting to it are more fo, whereof 1014 arrived there in the year 1752.; in which year alfo 1288 Polifh vefTels came down the Viftula, chiefly laden with corn, for its matchlefs granaries ; from whence that grain is diflributcd to many foreign na- tions: Poland being juflly deenoed the e;rcatell magazine of corn in all Europe, and Dantzic the greateft port for dillribviting it: befides which, Dantzic exports great quantities of naval (lores, and vaft variety of other ai tides. The inhabi- tants of Dantzic have often changed their mafters, and have fometimes been under the protcftion of the Knglifh and Dutch; but generally Iiavc (hewn a great prcdi- Icflion for the kingdom and republic of Polantl, as being Ids likely to rival them in their trade, or abridge them of their immunities, which reach even to the pri- vilege' of coining money. Tliough Itiungly fortified, and poflefTcd of 150 large beats cannon, it could not (land a jcguiur ficgc, being furrounded with eminences. In POLAND, I N c L u JO I N a L I T H U A NM A. 489 In 1734, the inhabitants difcovcred a remarkable attachment and fidelity towards Stanillaiis, king of Poland, no: only when his enemies, the Riiflians, were at their gates, but even in pofTeffion of their city. I'he rcafon why Dantzic, Thorn, and Elbing, have enjoyed privileges, both civil and religious, very different from thofe of the rtft of Poland, is, becaufe not being able to endure the tyranny of the Teutonic knights, they put themfelves under the protcdliion of Poland, referving to themfelves large and ample privileges. This city, as well as that of Thorn, was exempted by the late king of PrufTia from thofe claims which he made on the neighbouring countries ; notwithltanding which, liis Pruflian majefty, foon after, thought proper to feize on the territories belonging to Dantzic, under pretence of their having been formerly part of Polifh Pruffia. He then proceeded to poflefs himfelf of the port-duties belonging to that city, and erefted a cuftom-houfe in the harbour, by mca'ns of which he greatly en- hanced them. To complete the fyftem of opprefllon, cuilom-houfes were erefted at the very gates of Dantzic, fo that no perfons could go in or out of the town without being fearched in the ftrifteft manner. Such is the treatment which Dant- zic has received, though the rights of few cities have been comprehended in fo many general and particular treaties, and guarantied by fo many great powers, and by fuch a long and regular fuccelTion of public ails. The city of Thorn was alfo treated by the king of Pruffia in the fame unjuft and oppreffive manner, and is now added to his dominions. Commerce and MANUFAcruRES.] Some linen and woollen cloths, and hard wares, are manufadured in the interior paj-ts of Poland ; but commerce is entirely confined to the city of Dantzic, and other towns on the Viitula and the Baltic. The exports are corn, hemp, flax, horfes, about 100,000 oxen yearly, peltry timber, honey, and other lefs confiderable articles ; the value of which amounted in 1777, to thirty millions of dollars. The imports confilling in wine and other foreign luxuries, confiderabiy exceeded that fum. Constitution and government.] Whole volumes have been written upon this fubjedh The government differs little from ariltocracy, hence Poland has been called a kingdom and a commonwealth. The king is the head of the republic, and is elefted by the nobility and clergy in the plains of Warfaw. They eleft him on horfebackj and in cafe there Ihould be a refraclory minority, the majority has no con- trol over them, but to cut them in pieces with their fabres; but if the minority are fufficiently ftrong, a civil war enfues. immediately after his eleftion, he ligns the fa5ia cenventa of the kingdom, by which he engages to introduce no foreigners into the army or government ; lb that in faft he is no more than prelident of the lenate which is compofed of the primate, the archbiOiop of Lemburg, fifteen biffiops and 130 laymen, confifting of the great officers of ffate, the Palatines, and Callellans. The diets of Poland are ordinary and extraordinary. Previous to a general diet, cither ordinary or extraordinary, which can fit but fix weeks, there are dietines, or provincial diets, held in different diilrids. l"he king fends them letters containing the heads of the bufinefs that is to be treated of in the "-eneral diet. The gentry of each palatinate may fit in the dictine, and chufe nuncios or deputies, to carry their refolutions to the grand diet. The great diet confifts of the king, fenators, and deputies from provinces and towns, viz. 17S for Poland and Lirhuania, and feventy for Pruffia j and It meets twice a: ^\^arfaw and once at Grodno, by turns, for the conveniency of the Lithuanians, who made this one of the articles of their union with Poland. The king may nominate the great officers of ftate, but they are accountable only to lac fenate; neither can he difplace them when once appointed. When he is ab- 3 ^ fent ^9o POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA, fent from Poland, his place is fupplied by the archbifliop of-Gnefna, and if that fee is vacant, by the bifhop of Plolko, The ten great officers of Itate in ]*oland, who are fenators, are, the two great marflials, one of Poland, the other of Lithuania; the chancellor of the kingdom, and the chancellor of the duchy; the vice-chancellor of the kingdom, and the vice-chancellor otnhc duchy; the great general, the great treafurer of the king- dom, and the treafurer of the dutcliy ; the fub-marlhal, or marfhal of the court of the kinp-dom, and the fub-marilial, or marflial of the court of the duchy. Such are the outlines of this motley conftituiion, which was new-modelled with almoil: every new king, according to the paila ccuventa ■which he is obliged to fign> fo that nothing can be faid of it with certainty, there being lately a total diiTolu- lution of all order in Poland, through the influence of fome of the neighbouring powers, inccrcH-ed to fom.ent anarchy and confuHon in the Polifh councils : and many of the firft nobility l\o not blufli to receive penfions from foreign courts. It mull, however, be acknowledged, tiiat in the imjperfcft fketch 1 Isave exhibited, we can difcern the great outlines of a noble and free government. The precautions taken to limit the king's power, and yet inveil him with an am.ple prerogative, are worthy of a wife people. The inlVitutions of the diet and dictines are fcivourablc to public liberty, as are many other provifions in the republic : but it laboured even in its belt ftate, under incurable difoixlers. The exercife of the liberum veiOi or the tribunicial negative, that is vefted in every mem.ber of a diet or dietine, muft always be deftruclive of order and government. It is founded, however, upon Gothic principles, and that unlimited jurifdiLtion which the great lords, in former ages, ufed to enjoy all over Europe. According to Mr. Coxe, the privilege in queftion is not to be found in any period of the Polifh hiitory antecedent to the rei"-n of John Cafimir. It was under his adminiftration, in the year 1652, when the diet of Warfaw was debating upon tranfadtions of the utmoft importance which required a fpeedy determination, that Sicinfki, Nuncio of Upita in Lithu- ania, cried out, " 1 rtop the proceedings." Having uttered thefe words, he quit- ted the aflembly, and, repairing immediately to the chancellor, protefted, that as many afts had been propofed and carried contrary to the conflirution of the repub- lic, if the diet continued to fit, he fhould confider it as an infringement of the laws. The members were thunderilruck at a proteft of this nature, hitherto unknown. Warm debates took place about the propriety of continuing or diflblving the diet;, at len^-th, however, the venal and difcontented faftion, who fupported the proteft, obtained the majority; and the aiP-mbly broke up in great confufion. The want of fubordination in the executive parrs of the conllitution, and the rendering noble- men independent and unaccountable for their conduft, is a blcrnifh which perhaps may be impradicable to remove, as it can be done only with their own confent. After all ' when we examine the beft accounts of the prefent conftitution of Poland, and compare them with the ancient hiftory of Great Britain, and other European king- doms, we may perceive a wonderful fimilarity between what thefe were formerly,, and what Poland is at prefent. This naturally leads us to infer, that the govern- ment of Poland cannot be othcrwife improved than by the introduiftion of arts, manufadures, and commerce, which would render the common people independ- ent on the nobility, and prevent the latter from having it in their power to annoy their fovereign, and fo maintain thofe unequal privileges which are fo hurtful to the community. If a nobleman of great abilities, and who happened to poflefs an cxtenfive territory within the kingdom, fliould be ekcfired fovereign, he might,, perhaps, by a proper \\k of the prerogatives of difpoling of all places of trult and profit, and of ennobling the plebeians, cftablilh the fucceflion in his own family, P O L A N D,. I V c L r D I N G LITHUANIA. 4yi family, and deliver the Poles from thofe perpetual convjlfions which generally attend eleflive kingdoms. Indeed the partitioning powers, befide diftnembering the befl: provinces of Po- land, proceeded to change and fix the conflitution and government, under pretence of amending it; confirming all its defeds, anti endeavouring to perpetuate the prin- ciples of anarchy and confufion. They infilled upon the ratification of four laws lalt obtained. Firft, " that the crown of Poland Ihall be for ever eled:ive, and all order of fucceffion profcribed:" thus the exclufion of a king's fon .and grandfon, removes the proipv'ft of an hereditary fovereignty, and entails upon the kingdom all the evils infeparable from an elediive monarchy. By the fe- cond, " that foreign candidates to the throne fliall be excluded, and for the future, no perfon can be chofen king of Poland, except a native Pole of noble origin and pofflfling land in the kingdom," the houfe of Saxony and all foreign princes who might be likely to give weight to Poland by their hereditary dominions, and rellore its provinces and liberties, are fet afide. By the third, " the govern- ment of Poland fhall be for ever free, independent, and of a republican form;" the liberum veto, and all the exorbitant privileges of the equeftrian order are con- firmed in their utmofl: latitude. And by the foitrtb, '' a permanent council fliall be eftabliflied, in which the executive power fhall be vetted ;" and in this councilt he equelfrian order, hitherto excluded fi-om the adminiftration of affairs in the interval of diets, fhall be admitted, lb that the prerogatives of the crown are Hill farther di- minifhed : but this change of the conflitution was intended by the partitioning powers to ferve their own purpofes, and give a large fcope to influence and fadion over that part of the kingdom they had not feized. Revenues.] Though the king of Poland is ftinted in the political exercife of his prerogative, yet his revenue is fufficient to maintain him and his houfehold with great fplendor, as he pays no troops, or officers of Hate, nor even his body-guards. The prefent king had 1,000,000 and a half of florins fettled upon him by the com- miffion of ftate ; and the income of his predeceflbrs generally amounted to 140,000!. fterling. The public revenues arofe chiefly from the crown-lands, the falt-mints in the palatinate of Cracow, now in Aultrian Poland, which alone amounted to nearly ioo,oool. fterling; ancient tolls and cultoms, particularly thofe of Elbing and Dantzic, the reni;s of Marienburg, Dirfhau, and Rogenhus, and of the government of Cracow and diftrift of Niepoliomicz. Weftern PrufTia was the greatefl. lofs to Poland, as by the difmemberment of that province, the navigation of the Viftula depends entirely upon the king of Pru.Tii. This was a fatal blow to the trade of Poland, for Pruffia has laid fuch heavy duties on the merchandize palling to Dantzic, as greatly to diminiili the trade of that town, and to transfer a confiderable part of it to Memel and Koninglburgh. By the difmemberment, Poland loll near half her an- nual income. To fupply this deficiency, it became neccfTary to new-model and increafe the taxes. £, Jleil. In 1775, all the impofts amounted to - 3'23,o-i2 o o 'The neat revenue of the king is - - 1^4,500 o o Out of which he only pays his houfehold expences, and menial fervants. It arilcs from his roy;^! demcines, ftarollies, and 74,074!. out of the treafury. Whole revenue - - - 443,938 o o DeduiS: the king's revenue for privy purfe - 19^,300 o o For army, ftate officers, and all other charges - 249,438 o o 3 R- " Military 492 POLAND, Tnclvding LITHUANIA. Military strength.] The innate pride of the Polifh nobility is fuch, that they always appear in the field on horfeback ; and it is faid that Poland can raife ioo,ooCj and Lithuania 70,000 cavalry, and that with eafe; but it mud be under- ftood that fcrvants are included. As 10 their infantry, they are generally hired from Germany, but are foon difmifled, becaulc they mull be maintained by extraordi- nary taxes, of which the Poiiih grandees arc by no means fond. As to the ordi- nary army of the Poles, it confified in 1778, of 12,310 men in Poland, and 7465 in Lithuania. The emprefs of Ruffia maintains in the country 10,000 foldiers, and every garrifon is compofed of RufTians and natives: 1000 of the fonr.er are llationed at Warfaw. Thcfe hold the nobles in fiibjedion, and the king himfelf is little more than a viceroy, while the Ruffian ambaffador regulates the aflVirs of the kingdom under the direflion of his court. The uofpolite confills of all the nobility of the kingdom and their followers, except the ch;incellor, and the ilarofls or governors of frontier places; and they may be called by the king into the field upon extraordinary occafions; but he cannot keep them above fix weeks in arms, neither are they obliged to march above three leagues out of the kingdom. The Polifh huflars are the fineft and inoft fliowy body of cavalry in Europe; next to them are the pancerns; and both thefe bodies wear defenfive armour of coats of mail and iron caps. The relt of their cavalry are armed with mufkets and heavy fcymitars. After all that .has been faid, the Polifh cavalry are extremely inefficient in the field; for though the men are brave, and their horfes excellent, they are llrangers to difcipline; and when drawn out, notwithflanding all the authority their crown-general, their other officers, and even the king hiinfelf, have over them, they are oppreffive and deilrucftive to the court. It is certain, notwithflanding, that the Poles may be rendered excellent troops by difcipline, and that on various occafions, particularly under John Sobiefki, they made as great a figure in arms as any peo- ple in Europe, and proved the bulwark of Chriftendom againft the infidels. It did not fuit the Saxon princes, who fucceeded that hero, to encourage a martial fpirit in the Poles, whom they perpetually overawed with their electoral troops; nor in- deed to introduce any reformation among them, either civil or military; the efi'ecTiS of which conduft have been fince feverely felt in that country. Orders.] The order of the " JVhite Ec.gle" was firft inftituted by Uladiflaus in the year 1325, but revived by Auguflus I. in the year 1705, to attach to him fome of the Polifh nobles who, he feared, were inclined to Staniflaus his competitor ; it was conferred alfo on the czar Peter the Great of Ruffia. The collar is compof- ed of eagles difplayed, and annulets linked together, having pendent to it the badge, which is a crofs of eight points enamelled, gold, bordered white and can- toned with a fmaller crofs, having a bead on each point charged on one fide with an eagle, white difplayed, having over its head an imperial crown, and on the re- verie the king's cypher with this motto, " Pro fide, rege, et lege." The knights commonly wear the badge pendent to a broad blue ribband, worn falh-ways from the right Ihoulder and under the left arm, and a fiar of eight points embroidered in gold and filvcr alternately on the left fide of their coat. The prefent king inftituted the order of " St. Stanijlaus" foon after his eleftion to the crown in 1765. The badge is a gold crofs enamelled red, and on the centre of it is a medallion with the image of St. Staniflaus enamelled in proper colours. It is worn pendent to a red ribband ed>jed with white. The ftar of the order is filver, and in the centre is a cypher of b. A. R. (Staniflaus Auguflus Rex) encircled with the motto " Pre- miando indtat." History.] Poland of old was pofrcfi!ed by the Vandals, who were afterwards partly ex[)elled by the Rufs and Tartars. It was divided into many fmall ilatcs or principalities, each almoft independent of another, though they generally had iomc prince POLAND, I K c L u u I N c LITHUANIA. 493 prince who was paramount oyer the reft. In the year 700, the people through the opprclTion of their petty chiefs, gave the fuprcme command, under the title of duke, to Cracus, the founder of the city of Cracow. His pollerity failing, in tlie year 830, a peafant, one Piaftus, was eleclcd to tlic ducal dignity. He lived to the age of 120 years, and his reign was fo long and aufpicious, that every native Pole who has been fince eleded king is called a Fiaft. From this period, for fome centuries, we have no very certain records of the hillory of Polaml. 1 lie title of duke was retained till the year 990, when Boleflaus affumed the title of king, and conquered Aloravia, Pruffia, and Bohemia, making them tributary to Poland. Boleflaus II. added Red Kuflia to Poland, by marrying the heircfs of that duchy, anno 10159. Ja- gello, who in 1 3S4, mounted the throne, was grand-diike of I.ithuania, and a Pagan i but on his being elefted king of Poland, he not only became a Chriftian, but was at pains to bring over his fubjedts to that religion. He united his hereditary domi- nions to thofe of Poland, which gave fuch influence to his pofterity over the hearts of the Poles, that the crov/n was prcferved in his family until the male line became extinft in Sigifmund r^uguihis, in 1572. At this rime two powerful competitors appeared for the crown of Poland. 1 hele were Henry, duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. king of France, and Maximilian of Auftria. The French intereft pre- vailed ; but Henry had not been four months on the throne of Poland, when- his bro- ther died, and he returned privately to France, which kingdom he governed by the' name of Henry III. The party who had efpoufed Maximilian's intcreil endeavoured once more to revive his pretenfions ; but the majority of the Poles being defirous to chufe a prince who might refide among them, made choice of Stephen Batori prince of Tranfylvania • who, in the beginning of his reign, meeting with fome oppofi- tion from the Auftrian faftion, took the wifeft method to eftablifh himfelf on the throne, by marrying Anne, the fifter of Sigifmund Auguftus, and of the royal houfe of the Jagellons. Stephen produced a great change in the military affairs of the Poles, by eftablifhing a new militia, compofed of the Coflacs, a rough and barbarous race of men, on whom he beftowed the Ukraine. Upon his death, in 1586, the Poles chofe Sigifmund, fon of John king of Sweden, by Catharine fitter of Sigifmund II. for their king. Sigifmund was crowned king of Sweden after his father's death ; but beino- ex- pelled, as we have already feen in the hillory of Sweden, by the Swedes, a lono- war enfued between them and the Poles, and terminated rn favour of the latter. Sigifmund being fecured in the throne of Poland, afpired to that of Ruffia as well as Sweden ; but after long wars, he was defeated in both views. ' He was after- wards engaged in a variety of unfuccefsful wars with the Turks and the Swedes. At laft a truce was concluded under the mediation of France and England ; but the Poles were forced to agree, that the Swedes Ihould keep Elbing, Memel, Bra- nuiberg and Pillau, together with all they had taken in Livonia, In the year 1623, Sigifmund died, and Uladiflaus his fon fucceeded. This prince was fuc- cefsful both againfl the Turks and the Ruflians, and obliged the Swedes to reftore all the Polifh dominions they had taken in PrufTia. His reign, however, was un- fortunate, by his being inltigated, through the avarice of his great men, to en- croach upon the privileges of the CofTacs in the Ukraine. As the war which fol- lowed was carried on againfl the CoflTacs upon ambitious and perfidious principles,, the CofTacs, who are naturally a brave people, became defperate ; and upon the fucceffion of John II. brother to Uladiflaus, the CofTac general Schmielinflci de- feated the Poles in two great battles, and at laft forced them to a difhonourable peace. It appears that, during the courfe of this v/ar, the Polifh nobility behaved like the worll of ruffians, and their conduft being highly condemned by John, they as highly condemned tiie peace he had concluded. While the jealoufy hereby 49+ POLAND, iKciUDiND LITHUANMA, hereby occafioned, continued, the RulTians came to a rupture with the Poles ; and being joined by many of the ColTlics, they, in the year 1654, took Smolenfko. This'was followed by' the taking of Wilna, and other places ; and they committed horrid ravages in Lithuania. Next year, Charles X. of Sweden, after over-run- ninc^ Great "and Little Poland, enl:ered into Polifli PrulTia, all the towns of which received him, except Dantzic. The refiftance made by that city gave the Poles time to re-affemble, and their king, John Cafimir, who had fled into Silefia, was noined by the Tartars, as well as Poles ; fo that the Swedes, who were difperfed throucfh the country, were every where cut in pieces. The Lithuanians, at the fame ume, difowned the allegiance they had been forced to pay Charles, who re- turned to Sv/eden with no more than a handful of his army. Jt v/:is during this ex- pedition, that the Dutch and Englifli proteftcd Dantzic, and the eleftor of Bran- denburg- acquired the fovereignty of Ducal PruiTia, v.'hich had fubmitted to Charles. 1 hus the latter lort Poland, of which he had made an almoft complete conqueft. The treaty of Oliva was begun after the Swedes had been driven out of Cracow and Thorn, by which Royal PruiTia was reftored to the Poles. They were, however, forced to quit all pretenfions to Livonia, and to cede Smolenflio, Kiow, and the duchy of Siveria, to the Ruffians. Durino- thefe tranfaftions, the Polifli nobility grew very uneafy with their king. Some of them were diffatisfied with the conceffions he had made to the CoiTiics, many of whom had thrown off the Polifh yoke ; others taxed him with want of ca- pacity ; and fome with an intention to rule by a mercenary army of Germans. Cafimir, who very poffibly had no fuch intentions, and was fond of retirement and ftudv, finding that cabals and faftions increafed everyday, and' that he himfelf might fall a facrifice to the public difcontent, abdicated his throne, and died abbot of St. Germains in France, having employed his latter days in Latin poetical compofitions, which are far from being defpicable. The moll remote defcendants of the ancient kings ending in John Cafimir, many foreio-n candidates prefented themfelves for the crown of Poland; but the Poles •chofe for their king a private gentleman of litde intereft, and lefs capacity, one Michael Wiefnowilki, becaufe he was defcended from a Piaft. His reign was dif- eraccful to Poland. Large bodies of the Coflacs had put themfelves under the pro- tcflion of the Turks, who conquered all the provinces of Podolia, and took Kami- nieck, till then thought impregnable. The greateft part of Poland was then rava- ged, and the Poles were obliged to [)ay an annual tribute to the fultan. Nothwith- ftandiiiT thofe difgraceful events, the credit of the Polifli arms was in fome meafure maintained byjohn Sobiefki, the crown-general, a brave and adive commander, who had given the Turks feveral defeats. Michael dying in 1673, Sobieflvi was chofen kin"- ; and, in 1676, he was fo fuccefsful againft the infidels, that he forced them to remit the tribute they had impofed upon Poland ; but they kept pofltffion of Kaminieck. In 1683, Sobiefld, though he iiad not been well treated by the houfe of Auftria, was fo public-fpiritcd, as to enter into the league that was formed for the defence of Chriftendom againfl: tiie infidels, and acquired immortal honour, -by oblitung the Turks to raife the fiege of Vienna, and making a terrible flaughter of the enemy ; for all which glorious fervices, and driving the Turks out of Hun- gary, he was ungratefully requited by the emperor Leopold. Sobicflci returning to Poland, continued the war againit the Turks, but unfor- tunately quantled with the fenate, who fufpei'led that he wanted to make the crown ■hereditary in his family. He died, after a glorious reign, in 1696. Po'and fell into great diflradlions upon Sobieflowcrs of Kurope fecmed to acquiefcc in the election of Auguftus. The manner in which he was driven from the tin-one by Charles XII. of Sweden (who procured the advancement of Staniflaus), and afterwards rellorcd by the Czar, Peter the Great, has been already related in the hillory of Sweden. It was not till the year 1712 that Auguilus was fully confirmed on the throne, vvhich he held upon precaiious and difagreeable terms. The Poles were naturally attached to Staniflaus and were per])etually forming confpiracies and plots againll Auguilus, who was obliged to maintain his authority by means of his Saxon gaurds and regiments. In 1725, his natural Ion, prince Maurice, afterwards the famous count Saxe, was chofen duke of Courland ; but Auguilus was not able to maintain him in that dio-nitv againfl the power of Ruflia and the jealoufy of the Poles. Auguflus died, after an. imquict reign, in 1733, having done all he could to infure the fucceflion of Poland to his ion Auguilus II. (or, as he is called by fome. III.) This occaSon- ed a vjdr, in which the French king maintained the intereil of his father-in-lav7 ' Saniflaus, who was adiually re-eledted to the throne by a confiderable partv, of which the prince primate was the head. But Auguflus, entering Poland with a power- ful army of Saxons and RufTians, compelled his rival to retreat into Dantzic, from whence he efcaped with great difliculty into France. I have, in the hiflory of Germany, mentioned the war between Auguflus II. as eleftor of Saxony, or rather as the ally of Ruffia and Aullria, and his late PrufTian majefty. It is lufficient to fay, that though Auguflus was a mild, moderate prince, and did every thino- to fatisfy the Poles, he never could gain their hearts ; and all he obtained from tliem was merely fhelter, when his PrufTian majelly drove him from his capital and eletflo- rate. Auguflus died at Drefden, in 1763, upoJi which count Stanifiaus Poniatow- f1 ought not to alarm him ; that (1 e had ritotics, and diftricts, which the faid > inpdon\ never cnti rtaincd a thouglit of fcizlng a paitcif and duchy ought bv right to po(lcf=, or diil now his doniin on?, nor would cv n fuH'er anv other aitually politis ; and would at all times, and for power to do it." — Fr.)m which, according to the ever, maiiitaiii them in the full and tree enjoy- political creed of princes, we may infer, thai to intnt thereof, againll the attempts of all and every guaraniee the rights, libcriics, an.l revenues of a one who lliciulil at a:iv tim'-, or on any precxt, tiate, means to annihilate thofr lihcities, fei/.c endeavour 10 difpoircfs them of the fan\c." In upon ihofc rights, and appropriate tliofe revenues tlic fame) car did the king of Prullla lign, with to thi ir own ulc. Such is the faith of princes, the his own hand, an afl, wh; rein he declared, " that inllability of human poliiics, and ot human attiiirs ! he had no claims, forjned no pretentions on Poland, I The POLAND, INCLUDING LITHUANIA. 497 The following year, 1772, it appeared, that the king of Pruffia, the emperor and emprefs-queen, and the emprcfs of Ruflln, had entered into an alliance to dif- member the kingdom of Poiand ; though PrufTia was formerly in a vaflal of tliat kingdom, and the title of king of Pruffia was never acknowledged by tlic Poles till 1764. Ruffia in the beginning of the feventeenth century faw its capital and throne pofTeffed by the Poles, while Auftria in 1683 was indebted to a kino- of Poland for the prefcrvation of its metropolis, and almoft for its exigence. The three allied powers, afting in concert, letup their formal pretenfions to the refpec- tive diftrifts which they had alloted for and guaranteed to each other : Polifh or Weftern Pruflla, and fome diftrifts bordering upon Brandenburg, for the king of Pruffia J almoft all the fouth-eall parts of the kingdom bordering upon Hungary, together with the rich falt-works of the crown, for the emprefs-queen of Hungary, and Bohemia * ; and a large dillrid of country about Mohilow, upon the banks of the Dnieper, for the emprels of Ruffia f . But though each of thefe powers pre- tended to have a legal title to the territories which were allotted them refpedlively, and publilhed manifeftos in jullification of the meafures which they had taken, yet as they were confcious that the fallacies by which they fupported their pretenfions were too grofs to impofe upon mankind, they forced the Poles to call a new diet, ' and threatened them, that if they did not confent unanimouflv to fign a treaty for the ceding of thole provinces to them refpeftively, the whole kingdom would be laid under a military execution, and treated as a conquered ftate. In this extremity of dittrefs, feveral of the Polifh nobility protefted againft this violent aft of tyranny, and retired into foreign ftates, chufing rather to live in exile, and to have all their landed property confifcated, than to be the inftruments of bringing their country to utter ruin ; but the king of Poland was prevailed upon to iign this aitt, and his example was followed by many of his fubjeifts. As to the king of Pruffia, his condu6i in Poland was highly tyrannical and op- preffive. In the year 1771, his troops entered into Great Polamd, and carried off from that province, and its neighbourhood, at a moderate computation, 12,000 families. On the 29th of Odober, in the fame year, an edift was publiffied by his Pruffian majefly, commanding every perfon, under the fevereft penalties, and even corporal punifliment, to take in payment for forage, provifions, corn, horfes, &c. the money offered by his troops and commifTaries. This money was either filver, bearing the impreffion of Poland, and exadlly worth one-third of its nominal value, or ducats ftruck in imitation of Dutch ducats, feventeen per cent, inferior to ths real ducats of Holland. With this bafe money he bought up corn and forage enough, not only to fupply his army for two whole years, but to ftock magazines in the country itfclf, where the inhabitants were forced to come and re-purchaf^ corn for their daily fubfiftence at an advanced price, and with good money, his commiiraries refufing to take the fame coin they had paid. At the lowcfl: calcula- tion he gained, by thismafterly and honeft manoeuvre, feven millions of dollars. Having ftripped the country of money and provifions, his next attempt was to thin * The dirtiirt claimed by Auftria, was " all tej with Aurri.i, under the appelLitioii of the that traO:! of land lying on the risjht lide of the kin;jd -ms of (ialicia and LodoniL-ri.i. Viftula, from Siitlia above Sandomir to the niojth f The Rullian ilaims comprife Polifli Livoni.i, of the San, and from thence hy Fra:ie]>ok', Za- that part of the palatinate of Polotik to t'l. ealt of moifc, and Rubicirow, to the B05;: from the Bog the Duna — the palatinates of A'itcpfk, Micillaw, along the frontiers of Red Rullia to Zabras, on and two portioiij of the palatinate of Minfk. the borders of Volhinia and fodolia, and from This traft of land (Polifh Livonia excepted) is Zabras in a ftrait line to the Nieper, where it it- fituated in White Rullia, and includes full one <;i'ives the Sbrytz, taking in a pirt of I'oJolia, third of Lithuania. It is now divided into the and then along ihe boundaries feparating I'odolia, two governments of Polotlk and Jlohilcf. Jiom Moldavia. This counuy is now incorpeja- . 3S It 498 SWITZERLAND. it ftill more of its inhabitants. To people his own dominions, at the expence of Poland, had been his great aim ; for this purpofe he hit upon a new contribution ; every town and village was obliged to furniih a certain number of marriageable girls i the parents lo give as a portion, a feather-bed, four pillows, a cow, two hogs, and three ducats in gold. Some were bound hand and foot, and carried off as criminals. His exaclions from the abbeys, convents, cathedrals, and nobles, were fo heavv, and exceeded at laft their abilities fo much, that the priefls abandoned their cTiurchcs, and the nobles their lands. Thefe exaftions continued with unabated ri- gour, from the year 177 i, to the time the treaty of partition was declared, and pof- leflion taken of the provinces ufurped. The violent dirmcmbermenc and partition of Poland has jufljy been conf.dered aj the firfl great breach in the modern political fyftem of Europe. The furprife of a tov/n, the invafion of an infigniftcanr province, or the eleftionof a prince, who had neither abilities to be feared, no virtues to be loved, would fome years ago have armed one half of Europe, and called forth all the attention of the other. But the deftruftion of a great kingdom, with the confequent difarrangement of power, dominion, and commerce, has been beheld by neutral nations with the moft artonifliing indifference and unconcern. The courts of London) Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, remonllrated againiltheufurpations, but that was all. Poland was forced to fubmit, and the partition was ratified by their diet, held under the bribes and threats of the three powers. In the fenate there was a majority of six, but in the lower houle, the aflembly of nuncios there was but one vote in favour of the meafure, 54againft ^.2- This is a very alarming circumflance, and fhews that a moft import- ant, though not happy change, has taken place in that general fyftem of policy, and arrangement of power and dominion, which had been for fome ages an obiedt of unre-- mitting attention. Our anceftors might, perhaps, on fome occafions, difcover rather more anxiety about preferving the balance of power in Europe than was neceffary : but it has been well remarked, that the idea of confidering Europe as a vaft common- wealth, of thefeveral parts being diftindl and feparate, though politically and com- mercially united, of keeping them independent though unequal in power, and of preventing any one from becoming too powerful for the reft, was great and liberal. It appears to be owing to this fyftem, that this fmall part of the weftern world has acquired fo aftonifhing a fuperiority over the reft of the globe. The fortune and glory of Greece proceeded from a fimilar fyftem of policy, though formed upon a- Irnaller fcale. Both her fortune and glory expired with that fyftem.- Staniflaus Auguftus (late count Foniatowfki) was born in 1732, and crowned king of Poland in 1764. This PHnce, while a private nobleman, relided fome" time in London, and is a ftUow of the Royal Society. SWITZERLAND. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 260 1 u^f„,^^„ S ^ ^"^^ ' " ^^^ longitude. Breadth 100 7 j^ C 6 and 1 1 eaft longitude. 5 between ^ ^^ ^^^ ^g ^^^^^^ latitude. Boundaries.] TT is bounded by Alface and Suabia in Germany, on the North 3. X by the lake of Conftance, Tirol, and Trent, on the Eaft ; by Italy on the South ; and by P'rance, on the Weft, Divi- SWITZERLAND. 499 Divisions.] Switzerland is divided into thirteen cantons, which ftand in point of precedency as follows : i. Zurich; 2. Berne; ■5. Lucerne; 4. Uri ; 5. Schweitz; 6. Underwalden ; 7. Zug ; 8. Claris j 9. Bafil ; 10. Fribourg ; 11, Soleure ; 12. Schaffhaufen ; 13. Appenzel. The beft account we have of the dimenfions and principal towns of each canton is as follows : r w "11 Z?ountrics Names. Square Miles. n n Switzerland. ^.2 II 1 p a. 5* Chief Cities. r Berne 2,34.6 87 Berne Zurich 728 34 33 Zurich Calvinifts. , Schafthaufcii 140 2.? 9 Schaffhaufen Bafil 240 21 18 BASIL. f 47-40. N. lat. I 7-40. E. Lon. L "Lucerne 460 i3 ^? Lucerne Uniierwaldcn 270 23 16 Staniz Uri 612 48 2 1 Ahorf Papiils, ^ Suifle 350 2"' M SuiiTe Fribourg 370 2^ 21 Fribourg Zug 1 12 18 10 Zug ^Soleure 253 %l 24 Soleure, or Solothurn Calvinifts and J Papiils. ; Appenzel 270 ^? 21 Appenzel Claris 257 24 18 Glaris ' Baden ^ Baden Bremgarten l 216 26 12 Bremgarten The fubjeSs Mellint;en Mellingen of the Swit- Rheinthal 40 20 5 Rheineck zeis, Calvi- ^ Thurgau 119 18 II Frowanfield nifts and Pa- Lugano -j Lugano pills. Locarno 1 850 Locarno Mendris ( JZ 30 Mendiii [Maggia J Maggia 7.553 Allies of the Switzers. Calvinifls Countries Names. Square Miles. 100 » cu 3- Chief Cities. Grifons 2,270 62 Coire Subjects of the Grifons, Cai- vlnillsSc Pap. f Chiavanna "i < Bormio and > ( Valteline. } 472 360 42 27 3 + '9 Chiavanna Sondrio r Tockenburg 168 27 8 Liechtenfieg Calvinifts . Geneva 160 M n Geneva 1 Neufchatel 320 32 20 Neufchatel f Valais 1,287 80 3° Sion Papifts ^Bafle ,St. Gall 270 144 '3 20 TO 10 Dclfpsrg St. Gall Mulhaulen, in Alface is alfo u- nitcd to them. Total — 12,884 7 This being a mountainous country, lying J upon the Alps (which form an amphitheatre Air, climate, soil, and face OF THE country. of more than 100 miles) the frofls are confequently bitter in winter, the hills be- ing covered with fnow fometimes all the year long. In fummer the inequality of the foil renders the fame province very unequal in its fcafons ; on one fide of thofe mountains the inhabitants are often reaping, while they arc fowing on another. The 3 S 2 vallies, 50O SWITZERLAND. vallie^, however, are warm and fruitful, and well cultivated, and nothing can be more delightful than the fummer months in this charming country. It is fubjefl to rains and tempefts ; for which reafon public granaries are every where erefted to fup- ply the failure of their crops. The water ot Switzerland is generally excellent, and often defcends from the mountains in large or fmall catarafts which have a de- lightful efieft. There is, perhaps, no country in the world wherein tlie advantageous effefts of unwearied and perlcvcring indullry aie more remarkably confpicuous than in Swit- zerland. In palling over the mountainous parts thereof, the traveller is ftruckwith admiration, to cbferve rocks that were formerly barren, now planted with vines, or abounding with rich paflure ; and to mark the traces of the plough along the fides of Itcep precipices. The inhabitants feem to have furmounted every obftruflion which foil, fituation, and climate had thrown in their way, and to have fpread fertility over various fpots of the country, which nature feemed to have configned to everlafling barrennefs. Other parts of this country are more dreary, confiiling almoft entirely of barren and inaccedible rocks, fome of which are continually- covered with fnow or ice. The vallies between thefe icy and fnowy mountains appear like fo many fmooth frozen lakes, and from them vail: fragments of ice fre- quently fall down into the more fruitful fpots beneath. In fome parts, there is a regular gradation from extreme vvildnefs to high cultivation j in others the tranfi- tions are very abrupt, and very ftriking. Sometimes a continued chain of cultivated mountains, richly clothed with wood, and ftudded all over with hamlets, cottages above the clouds, paftures which appear fufpended in the air, exhibit the moft de- lightlful landfcape that can be conceived j and in other places appear rugged rocks, cataracts, and mountains of a prodigious height, covered with ice and fnow. In Ihort, Switzerland abounds with the moft piflurefque fcenes i and here are to be found fome of the moft fublime exhibitions of nature, in her moft awful and tremendous forms. Rivers and lakes.] The chief rivers are the Rhine, which rifes in the chain of mountains bordering on St. Gothard, the Aar, the Reufs, the Tefin, the Oglio, and the Rhone. The lakes are thofe of Geneva, Conftance, Thun, Lucerne, Zu- rich, Biel, and Brien. Metals and minerals.] The mountains contain mines of iron, cryftal, vir- gin fulphur, and fprings of mineral waters. Vegetable and animal productions.] Switzerland produces fheep and cattle, wine, wheat, barley, oats, rye, flax, and hemp ; plenty of apples, pears, nuts, cherries, plums, and chefnuts ; the parts towards Italy abound in peaches, almonds, figs, citrons, and pomegranates ; and moft of the cantons abound in timber. In fome of the higher and more inaccelTible parts of the Alps are found the bouqueton and the chamois ; whofe activity in fcouring along the fteep and craoray rocks, and in leaping over the precipices, is hardly conceivable. The blood of both thefe animals is of fo hot a nature, that the inhabitants of fome of thele mountains, who are much fubjeft to pleurifies, take a few drops of it, mixed with water, as a remedy for that diforder. The fiefh of the chamois is efteemed very delicious. Among the Alps is likewife found a fpecies of hares, which in fummer is faid to rcfi^mble other hares, but in winter become all over white, fo that they are fcarcely dirtinguifliable among the fnoV\r. But this idea hath lately been ex- plodL-d, nor is it certain whether tlic two fpecies ever copulate together. The white hare leldom (juits his rocky refidence. Here are alio yellow and wiiite foxes, which in winter fometimes come down into the vallies. rort-LATioN, INHABITANTS, MANNERS, 7 According to the bcft accounts, the CL'SroMS, AND DivRRsioNS. ^ ^anions of Switzerland cont.iin about 1,000,000 of inhabitants, who arc .i brave, hardy, 'induftrious people, remarkable for SWITZERLAND. 50T for their fidelity, and their zealous attachment to the liberties of their country. Like the old Romans, they are equally inured to arms and agriculture. A general fimplicity of manners, an open and unaffeded franknels, together with an invincible fpirit of freedom, are their molt diftinguilhing charnfteriltics. They are likewil'e a very enlightened nation ; their common people are far more intelligent than the fame rank of men in molt other Countries ; a tafte for literature is very prevalent among thofe who are in better circumftances, and even among many of inferior condition. On the firft entrance into this country, the traveller cannot but ob- ferve the air of content and f\tisfa(5tion which appears in the countenances of the inhabitants. The cleanlinefs of the houfes, and of the people is peculiarly ftriking ; and in all their manners, behaviour, and drcfs, fome Itrong outlines may be traced, which diitinguifh th s happy peoj)le from the neighbouring nations, wlio labour under the oppreffions of defpotic government. Even the Swifs cottages convev the livelieft image of cleanlinefs, eafe, and fimplicity, and cannot but ftrongly im- prefs upon the obferver a moft pleafing conviction of the peafant's happinefs. In fome of the cantons each cottage has its little territory, confiftinggcnerally ofa field or two of fine paflure ground, and frequently fkirted with trees, and well fupplied with water. Sumptuary laws aie in force in molt parts of Switzerland. Silk, lace, and. feveral other articles of luxury, are totally prohibited in fome of the cantons; and even the head-drcffes of the ladies are regulated. All games of hazard are alfo ftriftly prohibited ; and in other games, the party who lofes abve fix florins, which is about nine fhillings of our money, incurs a confiderable fine. Their diverfions, therefore, are chiefly of the active and warlike kind ; and as their time is not waited in games of chance, many of them employ part of their leifure hours in reading. The youth are diligently trained to all the martial exercifes, fuch as running, wreit- ling, throwing the hammer, and fliooting, both with the crofs-bow and the mulltet. Religion.] Though all the Swifs cantons form but one political republic, yet they are not united in religion, as the reader, in the table prefixed, mayperceive. Thofe differences in religion formerly created many public commotions, which feem now to have fubfided. Zuinglius was the apoftle of proteftantifm in Switzerland. He was a moderate reformer, and differed from Calvin and Luther only in a few fpe- culative points; fo that Calvinifm is faid to be the religion of the proteftant SwilTes- But this mult be undcrftood chiefly with refpeft to the mode of church government; for in fome doftrinal points they are far from being univerfally Calviniitical. Language.] Several languages prevail in Switzerland; but the molt common is German. The Swifl^es who border upon France fpeak a baftard French, as thofe near Italy do a corrupted Latin or Italian. Learning and learned men.] Calvin, whofe name is fo well known in all proteltant countries, inftituted laws for the city of Geneva, which are held in high cfteem by the moft learned of that country. The ingenious and eloquent RoulTcau too, whofe works the prefent age have received with fo much approbation, was a citizen of Geneva. Roufleau gave a force to the French language, which it was thoi'ghc incapable of receiving. M. Bonnet, and MeflT. de Saulfure and de Luc deferve to be mentioned with applaufc ; but Haller, a native ot Bern, as"a poet, aphyfiologift, and a philofopher, was an honour to the age in which he lived. Universities.] The univerfity of Bafil, which was founded in 14159, has a very curious phyfic-gaiden, which contains the choiceft exotics; and adjoining to the library, which contains fome valuable manufcripts, is a inufeum well furnifhed with natural and artificial curiofities, aind with a great number of medals and paint- ings. In tlie cabinets of Erafmus and Amerbach, which alfo belong to this uni- verfity, there are no lefs than twenty original pieces of Holbein; for one of which, repre- 502 SWITZERLAND. rcprefenting a dead Chrift, a thoufand ducats have been offered. The other imi- verfitics, which indeed are commonly only filled colleges, are thofe of jBern, Lau- fanne, and Zurich. ANriQjJiTiES AN'D CURIOSITIES, J Everv diftrift of a canton in this mountain- NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^^ ^'^^ '^^'■'"'^''y P''^^'^"'^* t-hc traveller with a natu- ral cmiofuy ; fometimes in the fhape of wild but beautiful profpeds, interfperfed uith lofty buildings, and wonderful hermitages, efpecially one, two leagues from Friburg. This was formed by the hands of a fingle hermit, who laboured on it for 25 years, and was living in ijsj. It is the greateft curiofity of the kind perhaps in the world, as it contains a chapel, a parlour 28 paces in length, 12 in breadth, and 20 feet in height, a cabinet, a kitchen, a cellar, and other apartments, with the altar, benches, flooring, cieling, all cut out of the rock. At the famous pafs of Pierre Pertuis, the road is carried through a folid rock near 50 feet thick, the height of the arch 26, and its breadth 25. The marcafites, falfe diamonds, and other ilones, found in thefe mountains, are juftly ranked among the natural curi- ofities of the country. The ruins of C^far's wall, which extended 18 miles in length, from Mount Jura to the banks of Lake Leman, are difcernible. Many- monuments of antiquity have been difcovered near the baths of Baden, which were known to the Romans in the time of Tacitus, and at Avanche, in the canton of Bern. Switzerland boafts of many noble religious buildings, particularly a college of Jcfuits,; and many cabinets of valuable manufci-ipts, antiques, and curlofities of »11 kinds. Near Rofiniere, is a famous fpring which rifes in the middle of a natu- ral bafon of 12 fquare feet — the force that adts upon it muft be prodigious; after a great fhovver of rain, it carries up a column of water as thick as a man's thigh, nearly a foot above its furface. Its temperature never varies, its furface is clear as cryflal, and its depth unfathomable ; perhaps it is the end of fome fubterraneous Jake that hath here found an illue for its waters. Cities.] Of thefe the mofl confiderable is die city of Bern, flanding on the •river Aar. This city and canton, it is faid, forms almofl a third of the Helvetic confederacy, and can, upon occafion, fit out 100,000 armed men. All the other cities in Switzerland are excellently well provided with arfenals, bridges, and pub- lic edifice^. Bafil is fituated in a fertile and delightful country, on the banks f/f the Rhine, and the confines of Alface and the empire. It contains two hundred and twenty flreets, and fix market places. The town-houfe, which ftands on the river Birfec, is fupported by very large pillars, and its great hall is finely painted by the celebrated Hans Holbein, who was a native of this city. This iituation of Bdfil is pleafing: the Rhine divides it into the upper and lower town, and it is con- fidered as one of the keys of Switzerland. Baden is famous for its antiquity and baths. Zurich is far lefs confiderable than Bern, but in the arfenal is flicwn the bow of the famous William Tell, and in the library is a manufcript of excellent letters written by the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey, to the judicious reformer Bul- linger, in excellent Latin and German. To prevent a repetition, I fliall here mention the city of Geneva, which is an afTociate of Switzerland, and is under the j^roteflion of the Plelvetic body, but within itfelf is an independent rtate, and republic. The city is mtH built and well fortified, and contains 24,000 inhabitants. It is fituated upon the Rhone where it Hows from the fine lake of Geneva. It is celebrated for the learning of the profcffurs of its univcrfity, and the good government of its colleges, the purity of its air, and the polilcnefs of its inhabitants. By its fituation, jt is a thoroughfare from Germany, France, and Italy, it contains a number of fine manufaeflurcs and artillsj fo diat the protcftants, .efpecially fuch as are of a liberal turn, eftcem ix a moft I SWITZERLAND. co, i-Doil delightful place. But the feninentation of tlieir politics, and particularly the r.ilirpation of the Senate, hath divided the citizens into parties, and the late flriio-- gle of patriciins and plebeians had nearly ruined all. The city is now under the' proteftion of France, or rather its magiftrates, and council, the partizans of arif- tocracy; many of its valuable citizens have accordingly left the place, and foughi refuge and protet!:l:ion in foreign countries. Commerce and M-AHtrFACTuRES.] ThjC producflions of the loom, linen, diir.itv lace, (lockings, handkerchiefs, ribbands, fHk and painted cottons, and gloves, are common in Switzerland, and tlie inhabitants are now beginning, notwithllandin" their iumptuary laws, to fabricate fdks, velvets, and woollen manufidures. Thei? great progrefs in thole manufaftures, and in agriculture, gives them a profpec^ cf being able ibon to make confiderable exports. Constitution and government.] Every canton is abfolute in its own jurif' didon, but thofe of Bern, Zurich, and Lucerne, with their dependencies, are ariltocratical, with a certain mixture of democracy, Bern excepted, Thofe of Uri Schweitz, Underwald, Zug, Glaris, and Appcnzel, are democratical, Bafil^ though it has the appearance of an ariilocracy, rather inclines tO' a democracy. But even thofe ariftocracies and democracies differ in their particular modes of government. However, in all of them the real interefts of the people appear to be much attended to, and they enjoy a degree of happinefs not to be expefted in defpotic govenments. Each canton hath prudently reconciled itfelf to the errors of its neio-hbour and- cemented on the bafis of affeftion, a fyftem of mutual defence. The confederacy, confidered as a republic, comprehends three divifions. The firft are Swifles, properly fo called. The fecond are the Grifons, or the ftates' confederated with the Swifles, for their common protedtion. The third art thofe prefedlures, which, though fubjefl to the other two, by purchafe or otherwife, . preferve each its own particular magiftrates. Every canton forms within itfelf a little republic ; but when any controverfy arifes that may affeft the whole confede- racy, it is referred to the general diet, which fits at Baden, where each canton hav- ing a vote, every queftion is decided by the majority. The general diet confiil: of two deputies from each canton, befides a deputy from the abbot of St. Gall, and the cities of Sr. Gall and Bien. It is obferved by Mr. Coxe, to whom the public are indebted for the beft account of Switzerland that has appeared, that there is no country in which happinefs and content more univerfally prevail amono- the people. For whether the government be ariftocratical, democratical, or mixed, a general fpirit of liberty pervades and aftuates the feveral conftitutions j fo that even the oligarchical ftates (which, of all others, are ufually the moft tyrannical) arc here peculiarly mild ; and the property of the fubjeft is fecurely guarded againft e^ery kind of violation. A harmony is maintained by the concurrence of their mutual felicity ; and their fumptuary laws, and equal divifion of their fortunes* among their children, feem to enfure its continuance. There is no part of Europe which contains, within the fame extent of region, fo many independent common- wealthsj and fuch a variety of different governments, as are collecfted too-ether ia this remarkable and delightful country; and yet, with fuch wifdom was the Helve- tic union compofed, and fo little have the Swifs, of late years, been aftuated by the fpirit of conqucft, that fince the firm and complete eftablifhment of their o-ene- ral confederacy, they have fcarcely ever had occafion to employ their arms a^ainll a foreign enemy; and have had no hoftile commotions among themfelves'^ that were not very foon happily terminated.- Revenues and taxes.] The variety of cantons that confl:ituce the Swifs con- federacy, renders it difficult to -give a precife account of their revenues, Thofe of the 504 ^SWITZERLAND.. the canton of Bern are faid to amount annually to 300,000 crowns^ and thofe of Zurich to 150,000; the other cantons in proportion to their produce and manufac- tures. Whatever is faved, after defraying the neceffary expences of government, is laid up as a common flock; and it has been faid, that the Swifles are pofleffed of 50^,000] . fterling in the" Englifli funds, befides money in other banks. The revenues arife, i. From the profits of the demefne lands; 2. The tenth of the produce of all the lands in the country; 3. Cuftoms and duties on merchandize; 4. The revenues arifing from the fale of lalt, and from a tenth part of the price of all houfes and lands fold in the canton of Bern. JMiLiTARY sTaENGTH.] The internal ftrength of the Swifs cantons, indepen- dent of the militia, confifts of 13,400 men, raifed according to the population and abilities of each. The oeconomy and wifdom with which this force is raifed and employed, are truly admirable, as are the arrangements which are made by the general diet, for keeping up that great body of militia, from which foreign dates and princes are fupplied, fo as to benefit the flate, without any prejudice to its po- pulation. Every burgher, peafant, and fubje6t, is obliged to exercife himfelf in the ufe of arms; appear on the Itated days for fhooting at a mark; furnifh himfelf with proper clothing, accoutrements., powder and ball; and to be always ready for the defence of his country. The Swifs engage in the fervice of foreign princes and ftates, either as guards, or as marching regiments. In the latter cafe, the go- vernment permits the enlifting volunteers, though only for fuch Hates as they are in alliance with, or with whom they have entered into a previous agreement on that article. But no fubjefl: is to be forced into foreign fervice, or even to be enlifted without the concurrence of the magiftracy. History.] The prefent Swifles and Grifons, as has been already mentioned, are the defcendants of the ancient Helvetii, fubdued by Julius Csefar. Their mountainous, uninviting fituation, formed a better fecurity for their liberties, than their forts or armies ; and the fame is the cafe at prefent. They continued long under little better than nominal fubjeftion to the Burgundians and Germans, till about the year 1300, when the emperor Albert I, treated them with fo much rigour, that they petitioned him againft the cruelty of his governors. Hiis fervcd' only to double the hardlhips of the people ; and one of Albert's Aultrian governors, Grcfler, in the wantonnefs of tyranny, fet up a hat upon a pole, to which he ordered the natives to pay as much refpeft as to himfelf. The fjimous Wiliiam Tell, being obferved to pal's frequently v/ichout taking notice of the hat, and being an excellent markfman, the tyrant condemned him to be hanged, unlefs he cleft an apple upon his fon's head, at a certain diftance, with an arrow. Tell cleft the apple ; and Greller aflcing him the meaning of another arrow he faw ftuck in his belt, he bluntly anfwered, that it was intended to his [Grefler's] heart, if he had killed his fon. Tell was immediately feat to prifon ; but making his cfcape, he watched his opportunity, and Ihot the tyrant, and thereby laid the foundations of the Hel- vetic liberty. It appears, however, that before this event, the revolt of the Swilfes from the Auftrian tyranny had been planned by fome noble patriots among them. Their meafurcs were fo juft, and their courfe fo intrepid, that they foon effeded a union of fcveral cantons. Zurich, driven by opprcfTion, fouglit firft: an alliance with Lucerne, Uri, SuifTe, and Underwald, on the principles of mutual defence; and the frequent fucceffcs of their arms againll Albert, duke of Auftria, infcnfibly formed the grand Helvetic union. They firft conquered Glaris and Zug, and admitted them to an equal par- ticipation of their rights. Kerne joined them in 1353; friburg and Sokure 130 years afier; Bafil and ScaiFhaufen in 1501 ; and Appenzel in 15 13 completed the confederacy, SPAIN. 505 confederacy, which repeatedly defeated the united powers of France and German)' ; till by the treaty of Weftphaliu in 1648, their confederacy was declared to be a free and independent ftatc. Neufchatel, fince the year 1707, hadi been under the proteftion of the king of Pruflia, but the inhabitants are free to ferve any prince whatever, and by no means bound to take an aftive part in his wars. The king hath the power of recruiting among them, and of naming a governor, but. the revenue he derives is not above 5000I. yearly, great part of which is laid out on the roads and other public works of the country. With regard to the military character, and great adions of the Swifles, I muft refer the reader to the hiltories of Europe. S N. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 700 I i^g^^ggj^ C 10 and 3 eaft longitude. Breadth 500 5 c.36 and 44 north latitude. Boundaries.] IT is bounded on the Weft by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean; X by the Mediterranean, on the Eaftj by the Bay of Bifcay and the Pyrenean Mountains, which feparate it from France, on the North j and by the ftrait of the fea at Gibraltar, on the South. It is now divided into fourteen diftricSts, befides iflands in the Mediterranean. r CO Countries Names. Square Miles. 05 3 Chief Cities. • Spain 5* S- Caftile, New 27,840 220 180 ,- f N. Lat. 40-30 Madrid {w.Lon.Vi5. Andalufia 16,500 273 •35 Seville Caftile, Old 14,400 '93 140 Burgos Arragoii 13,818 190 lojiSaragofla 123 Badajos Eftremadura 12,600 180 Galicia 1 2,000 165 120 Compoflella ^ Leon 1 1 ,200 167 96, Leon Catalonia 9000 '72 I lo'Barcelona Granada 8100 2CO 45 Granada Valencia 6800 180 7? Valencia Bifcay and Ipufcoa 4760 140 55 Bilboa AlUiria 4''oo 124 55 Oviedo Murcia 3600 87 65 Murcia Upper Navarre 3000 92 45 PampeUma. i s Majorca I. 1400 58 40 Majorca s P Yvica I. 625 37 25 Yvica In the terrai Minorca I. Total — 520 4' 20 Citadella 150,763 The town and fortre fs of Gibr: iltar. fiibjet> to Great Britain, | 3T Spain 50 6 S PAIN, Spain has alfo been fubdivlded in the following manner Title, • Prov. Subdivifion. Title. Chief towns. Confiderable towns. S o Compoftella Mondonedo Archbilhoprick Compoftella * rt Bifhoprick Mondonido — r<. -; tsj "^ -a G ' Lugo Biihoprick Lugo E p o 2 rt .5 o Ortenfe Biflioprick Ortenfc Tuy M ,Tuy Territory u f^-^ 1 J A ft: II Ha ^AHuria de Oviedo de Stantillana Oviedo Stantillana Ph f^ < ' « 3 < Tudela Majorlhip Tudela c Eftella Majorfhip Eftella j^ r— i ^Sanguefa Majorlhip Sanguefa ( 'Burgos Diftrift Burgos t Rioxa Diftrid: Logronno J, o 4—* _o Calahorra Diftria Calahorra « - i5 Soria Diftria Soria cT^ o Ofma Valadolid Diftria Diftria Ofma Valadolid 2 " d p^ o Segovia Diftria Segovia .-f .5 Avila Diihia Avila "S N £ _SigLienfa Diftria Siguenfa Pi rN. of the Tajo Madrid Upon the Tajo Toledo E. of Toledo Cuen^a On the Guadiana Cividad Real I E. of Madrid Alcala de Henan >zi. ^ Frontiers of Valencia Ahnanza N. W. of Madrid Efcurial & N. E. of Madrid Guadalaxara CI N. E. of Madrid Ea Mancha S. Ea Sierra E. On the Guadiana Brihuesia Calatrava |_ Frontiers of V alcncia | Villena Rcquena Kingdom Title. o c O c ["rov. s Subdivifion. PAIN. Title. Chief towns. c o bfl ■ SaragofTa Jaca Huefca Bnlbaftro Taracona Albarafin Teruel Sobarbc Arcbifhopiick Biflioprick Biflioprick: Birtioprick Biflioprick Biflioprick Biflioprick Biflioorick fBarcelonj. Diftrift Urgel Diftria Balaguer Diftria Lerida Diflria t« Tortofa Diflria a 4-> Girone Diitria *o Tarragona Diltria *n Lampredan Diftria Pi Vich Difl:ria Cardonna Diftria # Solfonnai Difl:ria Puycerda Diftria s rt Xucar Diftria Valencia o y to g < Millaros Diftria Villa Her c C3 w > Segura Diana Origuela c o North of the Dour® South of the Douro Saragoffa Jaca Huefca Balbaftro Taracona Albarafin Teruel Ainfa 507 Sonfiderable towns. .5 ri « ■= o u Barcelona Urgel Balaguer Lerida Tortofa Girone Tarragona Rofes Vich Cardonna Sol fo una Puycerda 3 S ■ ^ •-.S'>: ^ H ):=. X OS s^ T3 <; r Leon J Palencia, or Placenia j Toro (. Zamora Aftorgo r Salamanca j Alva ^Cividad Rodrigo U G > 3 On the Guadiana North of the Tajo Between Tajo and Guadiana J Merida i Badajox S Placentia i Coria Truxillo PL, South of the Gaudiana Lenera, or Ellenera 1 On the Tajo ^Oa the Guadiana 5 Alcantara I Med«Iin 3T2 Kin^dorn 5o8 ^ Title. Pror. SPAIN. Subdlvifion. Title. Chief town. G O .2 ! Murcia Lorca Carthagena Diftivd Proper Diltriift Murcia Lorca Carthagena i Connderabl* towns t <^ rt > £ o bO c i5 CJ 'Granada Malaga Almeria Guadix Archbiflioprick Biflioprick Biflioprick Biflioprick. Granada Malaga Almeria Guadix ^ u I— 1 U o c '> o -^ < rri -a Seville ; Jaen i Corduba I Medina Sidonia L Archbifhoprick Biflioprick Biflioprick Duchy Seville Jaen Corduba Medina Sidon ia XI 1 •- . N " O J O C3 So J ANeiENT NAMES AND DIVISIONS.] Spain formerly included Portugal, and' was known to the ancients by the names of Iberia, and Hefperia, as well as Hifpania. It was, about the time of the Punic wars, divided into Citerior and Ulterior -, the Citerior contained the provinces lying north of the river Ebro ; and the Ulterior, which was the largeft part,, comprehended all that lay beyond that river. Climate, soil, and water.] Except during the equinoxial rains, the air of Spain is dry and ierene, but exceflively hot in the fouthern provinces in June^. July, and Auguft. The vaft mountains that run through Spain are, however, very beneficial to the inhabitants, by the refrefliing breezes that come from them in the fouthernmofl; parts j. though thofe towards the north and. north-eafl: are in the winter very cold. The foil of Spain was formerly very fruitful in corn, but the natives have larely fuffered much through their indolence. It produces, in many places, almofl: fpontaneoufly, the richeft and moft delicious fruits that are to be found in France and Italy, oranges, lemons, prunes, citrons, almonds, raifins, and figs. Her wines,- efpecially fack and flierry, are in high requeft amon^ foreigners ; and Ejr. Buf- ching fays, that the inhabitants of Malaga, and the neighbouring country, export yearly, wines and raifins to the amouut of 268,759!. llcrling. Spain indeed offers to the traveller large trafts of unpromifing, becaufe uncultivated ground ; but no country perhaps maintains fuch a number of inhabitants, who neither toil nor work for their food ; fuch are the generous qualities of its foil. Even fugar-canes thrive in Spain ; and it yields faftron, honey, and filk, in_ great abundance. A late writer, Uftariz, a Spaniard, computes the number of fhephcrds in Spain to be 40,000 ; and has given us a moft curious detail of their ceconomy, their changes of paiture at certain times of the year, and many other particulars unknown till lately to the public. Th(;fe fliecp-walks afford the fineit of wool, and are a trcafurc in themfclves. Some of the mountains in Spain, are clothed with rich trees,, fruits, and herbage,, to the tops; and Seville oranges are noted all over the world. Is'o country produces a greater variety of aromatic herbs, which renders the tafl:e of their kids and fiieep exquifitely delicious. The kingdom of Murcia abounds fo much with mulbcrry-tjees, that the produft of its filk amounts to 2oo,oool. a year. Ilpon the whole,, fev; countries in the world owe more than Spain does to nature^ and lefs to indullry. This country is'much infeflcd with locufis ; and Mr. Dillon obfcrves, that in 1754, La Manclixwas covered with them, and the horrors of famine affailed the fruit- SPAIN, 509 fruitfiit provinces of Andalufia, Murcia, and Valencia. Tlie^riiave fometimcs appeared in the air in fuch number as to darken the Iky ; the clear atmofpliere of Spain has become gloomy ; and the fineft fummer day of Efircmadura, been ren- dered more difinal than the winter of Holland. Their fenfe of fmcUing is fo deli- cate, that they can dil'cover a corn fi^ld or a garden, at a confiderable diftance ; which tliey ravage almod in an inftant. Mr. Dillon is of opinion, that the country people, by timely attention and obfervation, might deftroy the eggs of thefe for- midable inledls, ami thereby totally extirpate them. The waters (efpecially thofe that are medicinal) of Spain are little known j biic many falutiferous fprings are found in Granada, Seville, and Cordova. All over Spain the waters are found to have fuch healing qualities, as are outdone by thofe of no country in Europe ; and the inclofing, and encouraging a refort to them, be- comes daily more prevalent. Mountains.] It is next to impoflible to fpecify thefe, they are fo numerous r the chief, and the higheft, are the Pyrenees,, near 200 miles in length, which ex- tend from the bay of Bifcay to the Mediterranean, and divide Spain from France. Over thefe mountains there are only live narrow palTages to France, and the road over the pafs that feparates Rouffillon from Catalonia reflefts great honour on the engineer who planned it. It formerly required the flrength of 30 men to fupport,, and nearly as many oxen to drag up, a carriage, which four horfes now do with eafe. The Canrabrian mountains (as they are called) are a kind of continuation of the Pyrenees, and reach to the Atlantic Ocean, fouth of Cape Finillerre. No Enp-lifh- man ought to be unacquainted with Mount-Calpe, now called the Hill of Gibral- tar, and in former times, one of the Pillars of Hercules ; the other, Mount Abyla,, lying oppofite to it in Africa. Among the mountains in Spain, Montferrat is particularly worthy the attention of the curious traveller; one of the moft fmgular in the world, for fituation, fliape, and compofition. It ftands in a vaft plain, about thirty miles from Barcelona, and nearly in the centre of the principality of Catalonia. It is called by the Cata- lonians Monte-ferrado, or Mount Scie, words which fignify a cut, or fawed moun- tain ; and is fo called from its fingular and extraordinary form : for it is fo broken and divided, and lb crowned with an infinite number of fpiring cones, or pine heads, that it feems, at a diftant view,, to be the work of man j but upon a nearer approach, appears to be evidently the production of the God of nature. It is a fpot fo admirably adapted for retirement and contemplation, that it has, for many ages,. been inhabited only by monks and hermits, whofe firll vow is, never to forfake it. When the mountain is firft feen at a diftance, it has the appearance of an infinite number of rocks cut into conical forms, and built one upon another to a prodio-ious' height *. As it is like no other mountain, fo it ftands quite unconnected with any,, though not very diftant from fome that are very lofty. A convent is ercAed on the mountain, dedicated to our lady of Montferrat, to which pilgrims refort from the forthell parts of Europe. All the poor who come here are fed gratis for three days,i and all the fick received into the hofpital. Sometimes, on particular felHvals, fcven choufand perfons arrive in one day ; but people of condition pay a realbnable price for what they eat. On different parts of the mountain are a number of hermita"-es all of which have their little chapels, ornaments for faying mafi, water-cifterns, and moft of them little gardens. The inhabitant of one of thele little hermitages, which is dedicated to St. Benito, has tlie privilege of making an annual entertainment on a certain day, on which day all the other hermits are invited, when they receive the • Mr. Swinburne eftimates its height at only 3,300 feet, and obferves that the ar.iis cf the convent are, the Virgia Mary futing at the loot of a rock, luilf cut through by a f;nv, facra=> 5IO ^ SPAIN. facrament from the hands of the mountain vicar ; and after divine fcrvice dine ta= gether. They m.eetalfo at this hermitage, on the days of the faints to which their feveral hermitages are dedicated, to fliy mafs, and commune with each other. Buc at other tim.es. they Ijve in a very folitary and reclufe manner, perform various pe- ,nances, and adhere to very rigid rules of abftinence, never eating flefh. Nor are they allowed to keep within their walls either dog, cat, bird, or any living thing, left their attention fhould be withdrawn from heavenly to earthly objefts. The num- ber of profefied monks tliere, is 76, of lay brothers 28, and of finging boys 25, befides phyfician, furgeon, and fervants. Rivers and lakes.] Thefe are the Duero, formerly Durius, which falls into the Atlantic Ocean below Oporto, in Portugal ; the Tajo, or Tagus, which falls into the Atlantic Ocean below Lifbon ; the Guadiana falls into the fame ocean near Cape Finifterre ; as does the Guadalquiver, now Turio, at St. Lucar j and the Ebro, the ancient Iberus, falls into the Mediterranean fea below Tortofa. The river Tinto, the qualities of which are very extraordinary, rifes in Sierra Morena, and empties itfelf into the Mediterranean near Huelva, having the name .of Tinto given it, from the tinge of its waters, which are as yellow as a topaz, hardening the find, and petrifying ip in a moft furprifing manner. If a (lone hap- pens to fall in, and reft upon another, they both become in a year's time perfeftly united and conglutinated. This river withers all the plants on its banks, as well as the roots of trees, which it dies of the fame hue as its waters. No kind of ver- dure will come up where it reaches, nor any fifh live in its ftream. It kills worms in cattle when given them to drink ; but- in general, no animals will drink out of this river, except goats, whofe flcfh neverthelefs has an excellent flavour. Thefe fingular properties continue till other rivulets run into it, and alter its nature : for when it pafies by Niebla, it is not different from other rivers, and falls into the Me- diterranean fcafix leagues lower down. Several lakes in Spain, efpecially that of Beneventa, abound with filhes, par- ticularly excellent trout. The water of a lake near Antiquera is made into fait by the heat of the fun. Bays.]. The chief bays are thofe of Bifcay, Ferrol, Corunna (commonly called the Groyne), Vigo, Cadiz, Gibraltar, Carthagena, Alicant, Akea, Valencia, Rofes, Majorca in that illand, and the harbour of Port-Mahon, .in the ifland of Minorca. The ftiait of Gibralt.ar divides Europe from Africa. Metals and minerals.] Spain abounds in both, and in as great variety, as the other countries of Europe. Cornelian, agate, loadftoncs, jacinths, tnr- quois ftones, quickfilver, cepper, lead, fulphur, alum, calamine, cryftal, marbles of feveral kinds, porphyry, the fineft jafper, and even diamonds, emeralds, and aniethyfts, ate found here. The Spanilh iron, next t6 that of Damafcus, fur- nifhcs the beft arms in the world ; and in former times, brought in a vail revenue to the crown ; the art of working it being here in great perfettion. Even to this day, Spanifh gun barrels, and fwords of Toledo, are highly valued. Amongft the anci- ents, Spain was celebrated for gold and filver mines ; and filver was in fuch plenty, that Strabo, who was contemporary with Auguftus Cxfar, informs us, that when the Cartlia2;inians took po(fclTion of Spain, their domellic and agricultural uteniiis were made of that metal. Thefe mines have now difappcarcd ; but whether by their being cxhauftcd, or through the indolence of the inhabitants in not working them, wc cannot fay ; though the latter cnufe fecms to be the moll probable. Animal raoDUCTioNs? The l^'panifh horfes, efpecially thofe of Andalufia, BY sea and land. ^ are thought to be the handfomcllof any in Europe, and at the fame time very fleet and fcrviceable. The king does all he can to mono])o- lilc the fineft breeds for hrs own ft9,blcs and fervice. Spain furniflus likewil'c mules and S P A I N. cii SWd black cattle j and their wild bulls have fo much ferocity, that their bull-feafts ■were the moft magnificent fpecflacle the court of Spain could exhibit, nor are they now difufed. Wolves are thexhief bcalls of prey that .neller Spn.in, which is well Itored witli game and wild fowl. The Spanifh feas afford excellent lifh of all kinds, cfpecially anchovies, which are here cured in great perfection. Population, inuabitants, mannlrs, T ^pain, fonnerly the moft populous ' CUSTOMS, diversions, AND DRESS. S kingdom in Europe, is now but thinly iiihabired. This is owing partly to tl.e great drains of })eople fciit to Ame- rica, and partly to the indolence of the natives, who arc at no pains to raifefood for their families. Another caufe may be aflrgned, and that is, the valt numbers of ec- clefialtics, of both fexes, who lead a life of celibacy. Some writers Iiave given leveral other caufes, fuch as the wars witli the Moors, and the final expulfion of tliat people, "fi'he prefent inhabitants of this kingdom have been computed &y Feyjoo, a Spanifh writer, to amount to 9,250,000, fo that England is three times as popu-- lous as Spain, confidering its extent. -The perfons of the Spaniards are generally tall, efi)ecially the Caflilians ; their hair and complexions fwarthy, but their countenances are very expreffive. The court of Madrid has of late been at great pains to clear ther upper lips of mufta- choes, and to introduce amortg them the French drefs, inflead of their black cloaks,; fhort jerkin, (Irait breeches, and long Toledo fwords, which drefs is now chiefly confined to the lower ranks. l"he Spaniards, before the acceffion of the houfe of Bourbcm to their throne, afFcfled that antiquated drefs, in hatred and- contempt of the French ; and the government, probably, will find fome difHculty in abolifliing it quite, as the fame fpirlt is far from being extinguiflied. An old Caftilian, or Spaniard, who fees hone above him, thinks himfdf the mo'd im- portant being in nature ; and the fame pride is commonlv communicated to his- delcendants. This is the true reafon why many of them are fo fond of removing - to America, where they can retain all their native importance,, without the danger of feeing a fuperior. ' Ridiculous, however, as this pride is, it is accompanied widi good qualities.- During the moll embittered wars the Spaniards have had with England for near 70 years paft, we know no inftance of their taking advantage (as they might eafily have done), of confifc.:ting the Britifh property on board their galleons and plate fleet, which was equally fecure in time of war as peace. This is the more furprif- ing, as Philip V. was often needy, and his miniflers were far from being fcrupulous ot breaking their good faith with Great Britain. By the beft and moft credible accounts of the late wars, it appears that the Spaniards in America gave the moft humane and noble relief to all Britifh fub- jects who were in diftrefs, and fell into their hands, not only by fupplving them with neceiTaries, but money ; and treating them in the moil hofpituble manner while they remained amongft them. Having faid thus much, we are carefully to diftinguifh between the Spanifh no- bility, gentry, and traders, and their government, which is to be put on the fame footing with the lower ranks of Spaniards, who are as mean and rapacious as thofe of any other country. The kings of Spain of the houfe of Bourbon, have feldom ventured to employ native Spaniards of great famiftes, as their miniilcrs. Thefe are generally French or Italians, but mofl commonly the latter, who rile into poA'cr by the moft infamous arts, and of late times from the mofl abjed ftations. Hence it is that the French kings of Spain, fince their accefuon to that monarchy, have been but very indifferently ferved in the cabinet. Alberoni, v/ho had the greateit genius among them, embroiled his matter with all Europe, till he was driven into exile and difgrace ; and Grimaldi, the laft of their Jtalian rniniflers, hazarded a rebellion in the capital, by his opprelTive and unpopular mealures. The 5t2 . SPAIN. ♦ The common people who live on the coafts, partake of all the bad qualities that are to be found in other nations. They are an afTemblage of Jews, French, Ruf- fians, Irilh adventurers, and Englifh fmugglers ; wjho being unable to live in their own country, mingle with the Spaniards. In time of war, they follow privateering -with great fucctfs ; and when peace returns^ they engage in all illicit prad:ices, and often enter into the Irifh and Walloon guards in tlie Spanilh fervice. There are about 40,000 gypfies, who, befides their trade of fortune-telling, are inn- keepers in the fmall towns and villages. The character of the Spaniards, is thus drawn by Mr. •Swinburne, after his late travels through the country : " The Catalans appear to be tJje mod aflive ftirring fet of men, the beft calculated for bufinefs, travelling, and manufaftures. The Valencians a more fullen, fedaterace, better adapted to the oc- .-"upations of hufbandmen, lefs eager to change place, and of a much more timid, fufpicious caft of mind than the former. The Andalufians feem to be lie greateft talkers and rhodomontndoes of Spain. The Callilians have a manly franknefs, and Icls appearance of cunning and deceit. The New Caftilians are perhaps the leait jnduftrious of the whole nation : the Old Caftilians are laborious, and retain more of the ancient fimplicity of manners j both are of a firm determined fpirit. The Arra- gonefe are a mixture of the Caftilian and Catalan, rather inclining to the former. The Bifcayners are acute and diligent, fiery and impatient of control, more refembling a colony of republicans than the province of an abfolute monarchy; and the Gali- cians are a plodding pains-taking race of mortals, that roam over Spain in fearch of an hardly earned fubfiftence." The beauty of the Spanifh ladies reigns moftly in their novels and romances ; for though it inuft be acknowledged, that Spain produces as fine women as any country in the world, yet beauty is far from forming their general charadcr. In their per- fons they are commonly fmall and flender ; but they are faid to employ vafl: art in fupplying the defefts of nature. If we are to hazard a conje6ture, we might reafon- ably fuppofe that thofe artifices ratiierdiminfli than increafe their beauty, efpecially when they are turned of 25. Their indifcriminate ufc of paint, not only upon their faces, but their necks, arms, and hands, undoubtedly disfigures their complexions, and flirivels their fkin, Jt is at the fame time univerfally allowed, that they have great wit and vivacity. After all I have faid, it is more than probable, that the vafl; pains taken by the governinent of Spain, may at laft eradicate thofe cuftoms and habits among the Spaniards that feem fo ridiculous to foreigners. They are univerfally known to have refined notions and excellent fenfe ; and this, if improved by ftudy and travel- ling, which they now ftand in great need of, would render them fuperior to the French thcmfelves. Their (low, deliberate manner of proceeding, cither in coun- cil or war, has of late years worn off to fuch a degree, that during the two laft wars, they were found to be as quick both in refolving and executing, if not more fo than their enemies. Their fecrecy, conftancy, and patience, have always been deemed exemplary ; and in feveral of their provinces, particularly Galicia, Gra- nada, anti Andalufia, the common people have, for fome time, afllduoufly applied themfelves to agriculture. Among the many good qualities pofTcfled by the Spaniards, their fobriety in eat- ing and drinking is remarkable. Tney frequently breakfnll:, as well as fup in bed ; their brcakfaft is ufually chocolate, tea being very fcldom drank. Their dinner is generally beef, mutton, veal, pork, and bacon, greens, &c. all boiled together. They live much tipon garlic, chives, fallad, and radiflies ; vvhich, according to one of their proverbs, are food for a gentleman. The men drink very little wine ; and the women ufe water or chocolate. Both fexes ufually llecp after dinner, and take the air in the cool of the evening. Dancing is fo much their favourite entertain- nient, diat you may fee a grandmother, mother, and daughter, all hi the fame coun- / try- SPAIN: 513 try-dance. Their theatrical exhibitions are infipid and ridiculous. Gallantry is a ruling paflion in Spain. Jealoufy, fince the accellion of the houfe of Bourbon, has flept in peace. The nightly mufical ferenades of inifti tires by their lovers are ftill in ufe. The fights of the cavaliers, or bull-feafls, are almoit peculiar to thi:, country and Portugal, and make a capita] figure in painting the genius and manners of the Spaniards. On thefe occafions, young gentlemen have an opportunity of fliewing their courage and activity before their mittreffes; and the valour of the cavalier is pro- claimed, honoured, and rewarded, accortiing to the number and fiercenefs of the bulls he has ivilled in thefe encounters. Great pains are ufed in fettling the form and vifeapons of the combat, fo as to give a relief to the gallantry of the cavalier. The diverfion itfelf, which is attended with circumilanccs of great barbarity, is undoubtedly of Moorifh original, and was adopted by the Spaniards when upon good terms with that nation, partly through compLiifance, and partly through rival fhip. There is fcarcely a town in Spain but wliat has a large fquare for the purpofe of exhibiting bull-feafts ; and it is faid that even the pooreft inhabitants of the fmalielt villages will often club together in order to procure a cow or an ox, and fight them riding upon a(les, for want of horfcs. Religion.] The horrors of the Romifli religion, the only one tolerated in Spain, have been greatly leflened, by moderating the penalties of the inquifi- tion, a tribunal difgraceful to human narure ; but though difufed, it is not abro- gated ; only the ecclefiaftics and their officers can carry no fentence into execution without the royal authority : it is llill in force ngainlT: the Moorifh and Jewifh pre- tended converts. The Spaniards, however, embrace and praftife the Roman catho- lic religion with all its abfurdities ; and in this they have been fo fleady, that their king is diflinguiilied by the epithet of Mo_/l Catholic. It appears, however, that the burning zeal which diftinguiflied their anceftors above the rell of the catholic world hath loll much of its adivity, and feems nearly extinguiihed, and the power of the clergy has been much reduced of late years. A royal edift has alfo bten ifiued, to prevent the admiffion of noviciates into the different convents, without fpecial per- miflion, which has a great tendency to reduce the monaftic orders. It is faid that there are now, in the kingdom of Spain, 54,000 friars, 34,000 nuns, and 20,000 lecular clergy, but as little true moral religion as in any country under heaven. Archeishopricks and bishopricks.] In Spain there are eight archbifhopricks and forty-fix bifhopricks. The archbifhop of Toledo is ftyled the Primate of Spain ; he is great chancellor ot Cailile, and hath a revenue of 100, cool, fterlino- per an- num, but the Spaniih court hath now many ways of lefTening the revenues of the church, as by j^enfions, donations to hofpitals, &c. and premiums to the focicties of agriculture. This archbillioprick pays annually 15,000 ducats to the monks of the Efcurial, befides other penfions, and it is aflerted, that there is not a biflioprick in Spain but hath fome body or other quartered upon it, and the fecond rate benefices are believed to be in the fame predicament. Out of the rich canonries and prebends are taken the penfions of the new order of knights of Carlos Tercero. The riches of the Spanifli churches and convents are the unvarying objefts of admiration ro travellers as well as natives : but there is a iamencfs in them all, except that they differ in the degrees of treafure and jewels they contain. Language.] The ground-work of the Spanifli language, like that of the Ita- lian, is Latin; and it might be called a ballard Latin, were it not for the termina- tions, and the exotic words introduced into it by the Moors and Goths, efpecially the former. It is at prefent a moil majeflic and cxprefiive language : and it is re- markable, that foreigners who underftand it the beft, prize it the moft. It makes (Ijut a poor figure even in the bell tranflations ; and Cervantes fpeaks almofl as auk- 2 ^ ■ ward .14 S P A I N. ward Englifli as Shakfpeare docs French. It may, however, be confidered as 9r (landard tongue, having retained its purity tor upwards of 200 years. Tiieir Pater-nofterruns thus; Padre nuefiro, que eft as en el cklo,Ja.vSlificc.dofe el tn ncmhre ; i-enga a ties el tu reyno ; hagaje tu voluntad, ajfien la tierra caoma en el cielo ; el pan ;;«- - c/iro de cada dia da nos le oy ; y -perdona nos tmeftras deiuias ajft eomo nos otros perdona- mos a neuejlrcs deudores ; 'no nos dexes cair en la tentadon, mas libra nos de ma I, porquC tao es le reyno ; y la potencla -, y la gloria per los Jiglos. Amen. Learning and learned men.} Spain has not produced learned men in pro- portion to the excellent capacities of its natives. This detett may, in ibme mea- lure, be owing to their indolence and bigotry, which prevents them from making that progrefs in the polite arts which they otherwife would : but the greateft impe- diment to literature in Spain, is the defpotfc nature of its government. Several old fathers of the church were Spaniards ; and learning owes a great deal to Ifidore, biHiop of Seville, and cardinal Ximenes. Spain has likewife produced fome ex-- eellent phyficians. Such was the gloom of the Auftrian government, that took- place with the emperor Charles V. that the inimitable Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, born at Madrid, in 1549, lilled in a ftation little fuperior to that of a common Ibldier, and died neglcdfed, after fighting bravely for his country at the battle of Lepanto, in which he loft his left hand. His fatire upon knight-errantry, in his adventures of Don Quixote, did as much fervice to his country by curing them of that ridiculous fpint, as it now does honour to his own memory. He was in prifon for debt when he compofcd the firfl part of this hiflory, and is perhaps to be placed at the head of moral and humorous fatirilb. The vifions of Quevedo,. and fome other of his humorous and fatirical pieces, having been tranflated into the Englifli knguage, have rendered that author well known in this country. He was born at Madrid in the year 1570, and was one of the beft writers of his age, excelling equally in verfe and in profe. Befides his merit as a poet^ he was well verfed in the oriental languages, and poffcffed great erudition. His works are comprifed in three volumes, 4to. two of which confift of poetry, and the third of pieces in profe. /\s a poet he excelled both in the ferious and burlefque ftyle, and was happy in a turn of humour fimilar to that which we admired in Butler and Swift. Poetry was cultivated in Spain at an early period. After the Saracens had fettled themfelves in this kingdom,, they introduced into it their own language, religion, and literature ; and the oriental ftyle of poetry very generally prevailed. Before this period, the Spaniards had addicted themfelves much to Roman literature : but Alvaro of Cordova complains, that, iu his time, the Spaniards had lb totally for- gotten the Latin tongue, and given the preference to Arabic, that it was difficult,. even amongft a thoufand people, to find one who could write a Latin letter. The attachnjcnt of many of the inhabitants of Spain .to oriental literature \?as then fo' preatj that they could write Arabic with remarkable purity, and compofc verfes- v^ith as much fluency and elegance as the Arabians themfelves. About this time the Spanifli Jews matle a confiderable figure in literature, which was promoted by matters from Babylon, where they had academies fupported by themfelves. In the year 967, Rabbi Moils,, and his fun Rabbi luioch, having been taken by pirates, were fold as flaves at Cordova, and redeemed by their brethren, who ellablilhed a fchool in that city> of which Rabbi Mofes was appointed the head : that learned Jew was, however, dcfirous of returning back to his own country ; but the Moorilh king of Cordova would not give his confcnt, rejoicing that his Hebrew fubjcdts had nialK'rs of their own religion at home, without being under the nccefiity of receiv- ing them from a foreign univcrfity, and every indulgence was granted them with rclpedt to their worlhip. In 1039, Rabbi Ezechias was put to death at Babylon, and the college, over which he had prefided, was transferred to Cordova, from whence a I luimbcv SPAIN. 5,5 number of Hebrew poets iflucd forth, who have been noticed by various learned writers. The Spanifli Jews had alfo flourifliing fchools at Seville, Granada, and Toledo, and from hence arofe the numerous Hebrew proverbs, and modes of fpcech, that have crept into the Caftilian language, and form a confpicuous part of its phrafeology. To thefe Jews the Spanifh language is indebted for a curious verfion of the Hebrew books of the Old Teftament, which was afterwards printed at Ferara, in 1553, in a Gothic-Spanifli letter. The Spanifli writers alfo^boaft of their Troubadours as high as the twelfth or thir- teenth centuries, the Provencal and Gnlician dialedts being then very prevalent. The marquis of Villena, who died in 1434, was the author of that famous work the Arte de la GayaSciencia, which comprehends a fydem of poetry, rhetoric, and oratory, befides defcribing all the ceremonies of the Troubadours at their public exhibitions. That nobleman was alfo the author of a tranflation of the JEneid of Virgil into Spanifli verfe. Juan de Mena, of Cordova, was alfo much celebrated as a poet in his own tinne : his poems have pafTed through avariety of editions, the firft of which was printed at Saragofla in 13 15. Juan de la Encina was alfo a poet of confiderable merit ; he tranflated fome of the Latin poems into Spanifli, and publiflied a piece on the art of poetry, and other works, which were printed at Sa- ragofla in 1516. Bofcan, Ercilla, Villegas, and other Spanifli poets, alfo obtained great reputation in their own country. But the mofl: diftinguifhed dramatic poet of this nation was Lopez de Vega, who was contemporary with our Shakfpeare. He poflefled an imagination afl:oniflbingly fertile, and wrote with great facility ; but in his dramatic works he difregarded the unities, and adapted his works more to the tafte of the age than to the rules of criticifm. His lyric compofuions, and fuo-i- tive pieces, with his profe eflays, form a coUeftion of fifty volumes, befides his dramatic works, which make twenty-fix volumes more ; exclufive of four hundred fcriptural dramatic pieces, called in Spain Autos Sacramentales. Calderon was alfo a dramatic writer of confiderable note, but many of his plays are very licentious in their tendency. Tofl:atus, a divine, the mofl: voluminous perhaps that ever wrote, w^s a Spa- niard ; but his works have been long diiHnguiflied only by their bulk. Herrera, and fome otTier hiftorians, particularly De Solis, have fliewn great abilities in hif- torj, by inveftigating the antiquities of America, and writing the hiftory of its conqueft by their countrymen. Among the writers who have lately appeared in Spain, Father Feyjoo has been one of the mofl: diftinguiflied. His performances difplay great ingenuity, very extenfive reading and uncommon liberality of fenti- ment, efpecially when his fituation and country are confidcred. Many of his pieces have been tranflated into Englifh, and publiflied in four volumes, 8vo. Don Francifco Perez Bayer, archdeacon of Valencia, and author of a diflertation on the PhcEnician language, may be placed on the firft line of Spanilb literati. Spain has likcwife produced many travellers and voyagers to both the Indies, fome of whom are amufing and inftruclive. Should the Spaniards difengage themfclves from their abfl:rad:ed metaphyfical turn of thinking, and from their prefent tyrannical form of government, they certainly woOld make a capital figure in literature. At prefent, it feems, that the common education of an Englilh gentleman would con- Ifitute a man of learning in Spain, and fliould he underifand Greek, he would be quite a phjenomenon. Some of the Spaniards have diftinguiflied themfelvcs in the polite arts, and not only the cities, but the palaces, efpecially the Efcurial, difcover many ftriking fpe- cimens of their abilities as fculptors and architefts ; Palomino in an elaborate trea- tife on the art of painting, in two volumes, folio, has inferred the lives of two hun- dred and thirty--three painters and fculptors, who flouriflied in Spain from the rime 3 U 2 of Si6 SPAIN. of Ferdinand the Catholic, to the conclufion of the reign of Philip the Fourth*- Among the moft eminent Spanifh painters, were Velalques, Murillo, who is com- monly called the Spanlih Vandyke, Ribeira and Claudio Coello, whole ftyle of- painting was very fimilar to that of Paul Vcronefe. Universities.] In Spain are reckoned 24 univerfities, the chief of which is Salamanca, founded by Alphonfus, ninth king of Leon, in the year 1200. It con- rains 2.1 colleges, foiiie of which are very magnificent. Many of the nobility of Spain fend their fons to be educated here. The reft are, Seville, Granada,. Com- poflella, Toledo, Valadolid, Alcala, Siguenza, Valentia, Lerida, Huefca, Sara- goffa, Tortofa, Offuna, Onata, Candia, Barcelona, Murcla, Taragona, Baeza^. Avila, Oriuela, Oviedo, and Palencia. Antiquities and curiosities, 7 The former of thefe confift chiefly of Ro- ARTiFiciAL AND NATURAL. 5""'^''' ^"^ Mootifli antiquitics. Near Sego- via, a grand aquedudt, eredted by Trajan, extends over a deep valley, between two hills, and is fupported by a double row of 152 arches. Other Roman aquedudls^. theatres, and circi, are to be found at Terrago, and different parts of Spain. A ruinous watch-tower near Cadiz is vulgarly, but erroneoufly, thought to be one of the pillars of Hercules. Near the city of Salamanca are the remains of a Rom^ii way, paved with large flat ftoncs ; it was continued to Merida, and from thence to Seville. At Toledo are the remains of an old Roman theatre, which is now con- verted into a church, faid to be one of the greateft curiofities of antiquity. It is 60a feet in length, 500 in breadth, and of a proportionable height ; the roof, which is amazingly bold and lofty, is fupported by 350 pillars of fine marble, in ten rows, torraing eleven ailes, in which are 366 altars, and 24 gates j every part being en- riched and adorned with the moft noble and coftly ornaments. At Martorel, a large town, where much black lace is manufadlured, is a very high bridge, built in 1768^ out of the ruins of a decayed one that had exilled 1985 years from its ereftion by Hannibal. At the north end is a triumphal arch or gateway, faid to have been raif- ed by that general in honour of his father Hamilcar, It is almoft entire, well pro- portioned and (imple, without any kind of ornament, except a rim or two of hewn ttone. Near Murviedro (once the faithful Saguntum) deftroyed by Hannibal, arc fome Roman remains — as the ruins of the tlieatre, an exaft femicircle about 82 yards diameter,, fome of the galleries are cut out of the rock, and 90CO perfons might attend the exhibitions without inconvenience.. The Moorifh antiquities arc rich and magnificent. Among the moft diftinguifli- ed of thefc is the royal palace of the Alhambra at Granada, which is one of the moft entire,, as well as the moft ftately, of any of the edifices which the Moors crefted in Spain. It was built in 1280, by the fecond Moorifh king of Granada; and, in 149Z, in, the reign of their eighteenth king, was taken by the Spaniards. It js fituaied on a hill,, which is afcended by a road bordered with hedges of dou- ble or imperial myrtles, and rows of elms. On this hill, within the walls of the AlhaiTibia, the emperor Charles V. began a new palace in i ^68, which \vas never finiftied, though the IhcU of it remains. » It is built of yellow ftone ; the outfide forms a Iquare of one htindied and ninety feet. The infide is a grand circular court, with a portico of ilie Tufcan, and a. gallery of the Doric order, each fup- ported by thirty-two columns,, made of as many fingle pieces of marble. The grand entrance is ornamented with columns of jafper, on the pedeftals of which are repre- fcntations of battk's, in marble ba(To relievo. The Alhambra. itfclf is a mafs of many houfes and towers, walled round, and built of large ftones of diflcrcnt dimcn- fions. Almoft all the rooms have ftucco walls and ciclings, fome carved, fome paint- ed, and fome gilt, and covered with various Arabic fcntcnces. Here are feveral luths, the walls, floor, and cieling of which are of white; marble. The gardens abound SPAIN. ir 517 abound with orange and lemon trees, pomegranates and myrtles. At the end of tiie gardens is another palace called Ginaraliph, fitiiate on a more elevated ftation than tlie Alhambra. From the balconies of this palace is one of the fineft prori)e6t:s in Europe, over the whole fertile plain of Grenada, bounded by the fnowy mountains. The Moors to this day regret ihe lofs of Grenada, and ftill offer up prayers to God for the recovery of tlic city. Many other noble monumens, erefted in the MooriOi times,, remain in Spain ; fomc of them in tolerable prefervation, and otliers exhi- biting fupcrb ruins. Among the natural cnriofities, the medicinal fprings, and fome noify lakes, form a principal part ; but we mull; not forget tlie river Gaudiana, v/hich, like the Mole in I'-ngland, runs under ground, and afterwards emerges. The royal cabinet of natural hitiory at Madrid was opened to the public by his majefly's orders in 1775. livery thing in this coileftion is ranged with neatnefs and elegance, and the aparc- nients are opened twice a week for the public, befides being fliewn privately to fl rangers of rank. The mineral part of the cabinet, containing precious ftones, marbles, ores, &c. is very perfect ; but the collection of birds and beafls at prefenc is not large, though it may be expected to improve apace, if care be taken to eet the produdions of the Spanifh American colonies. Here is alfo a curious colleflion ofvafes, bafons, ewers, cups, plates, and ornamental pieces of the finelt agates, amethyfts, rock cryitals, &c. mounted in gold, and enamel, fet with cameos, in- taglios, &c. in an elegant tafte, and of very fine workmanfhip, faid to have been brought from France by Philip V, The cabinet alfo contains fpecimens of Mexi- can and Peruvian vafes and utenfils. In blowing up the rock of Gibraltar, many pieces of bones and teeth have been found incorporated with the (lone, fome of which have been brought to England, and depofited in the Britifli Mufeum. On the weft fide of the mountain is the cave called St. Michael's, eleven hundred and ten feet above the horizon. Many pillars of various fizes, fome of them two feet in diameter, have been formed in it by the droppings of water, which have petrified in falling. The water perpetually drips from the roof, and lornis an infinite number of ftalaftitas, of a whitifh colour, com- pofed of feveral coats or crufts, and which, as well as the pillars, continually in- creafe in bulk, and may probably in time fill the whole cavern. From the fum- niit of the rock, in clear weather, not only the town of Gibraltar may be fecn, but the bay, the Itraits, the towns of St. Roque and Algefiras, and the Aipuxarra mountains, mount Abyla on the African fhore, with its fnowy top, the cities of Geuta, Tangier, and great part of the Barbary coaff.. Chief cities, &c.] Madrid is the capital of Spain, and contains about 300,000 inhabitants. It is furrounded with very lofty mountains, whofe fummits arc frequently covered with inow. It is well paved and lighted, and fome of the ftrcets are fpacious and handfome. The houfes of Madrid are of brick, and are laid out chiefly for fliew, conveniency being little confidered : thus you will pafs through ufually two or three large apartments of no ufe, in order to come at a fmall room at the end where the family fit. The houfes in- general look more like prifons than the habitations of people at their liberty ^ the windows, befides having a balcony,, being grated with iron bars, particularly the lower range, and fometimes all the reit. Separate families generally inhabit the fame houfe, as in Paris and Edinburgh. Foreigners are very much diftrelTed for lodgings at Ma- drid, as the Spaniards arc not fond of taking flrangers into their houfes.- efpeci- aliy if they are not catholics. Its greateft excellency is the cheapnefs of its pro- vifions ; but neither tavern, cofFee-houfe, nor news-paper, except the Madrid Gazette, are to be found in the whole city. The royal palace ftands on an emi- nence, on the weft fide of the city ; it is a fpacious magnificent ftrudure, confift- ing 5i8 • SPAIN. ino- of three courts, and commands a very fine profpeft. Each of the fronts Is 470 feet in length and 100 high, ^nd there is no palace in Europe fitted up with o-reater magnificence; the great audience chamber efpecially, which is 120 feet long, and hung with crimlon velvet richly embroidered with gold ^ ornamented alfo with 12 looking glafles made at St. lldefonfo, each 10 feet high, with 12. tables of the fined Spanifh marbles. The other royal palaces round it are defigned for hunting-feats, or houfes of retirement tor their kings. Some of them contain fine paintings and good ftatues. The chief of thole palaces are the Buen Retire (now ftripped of all its beff pidtures and furniture), Cafa del Campo, Aranjuez, and St. lldefonfo. A late traveller has reprefented the palace of Aranjuez, and its gardens, as ex- tremely delightful. Here is alfo a park many leagues round, cut acrofs in differ- ent parts, by alleys of two, three, and even four miles extent Each of thofe alleys is formed by two double rows of elm-trees. The alleys are wide enough to admit of four coaches abrealT:, and betwixt each double row there is a narrow .channel, through which runs a ftream of water. Between thofe alleys there are thick groves of fmaller trees of various kinds, and thoufands of deer and wild- boars wander at large, befides numbcrlefs hares, rabbits, pheafants, partridges, and other kinds of birds. The river Tagus runs through this place, and divides it into two unequal parts. The central point of this great park is the king's pa- lace, which is partly furrounded by the g.'.rden, and is adorned with fountains and itatues ; it alfo contains a vaft variety of the moll beautiful flowers, both Ameri- can and European. As to the palace of Aranjuez itfelf, it is rather an elegant than a magnificent building. The palace of St. lldefonfo is built of brick, plaiftered, and painted, but no part of the architecture is agreeable. It is two ftories high, and the garden-front has thirty-one windows, and twelve rooms in a fuite. The gardens are on a flope, on the top of which is a great refervoir of water, called here El Mar, the fca, which fupplies the fountains ; this refervoir is furniihed from the torrents which pour down the mountains. The water-works are excellent, and far furpafs thofe at Verfailles. The great entry of the palace is fomewhat fimilar to that of Verfaillcs, and with a large iron pallifade. In the gardens are twcnty-feven fountains : the bafons are of white marble, and the flatues, many of which are excellent, r>re of lead, bronzed and gilt. Thefe gardens are in the formal French ft) Ic, but orna- mented with fixty-one very fine marble ftatues, as large as the life, with twcnty- tio-ht marble vafes, and twentv leaden vafes gilt. The upper part of the palace contains many valuable paintings, and the lower parr antique ftatues, bufts, and balib relievos. The pride of Spain, however, is the Efcurial ; and the natives fay, perhaps, withjuftice, that the building of it coft more than that of any other palace in Europe. The defcription of this palace forms a fizeablc quarto volume, and it is faid, that Philip II. who was its founder, expended u])on it fix millions of ducats. Ir contains a prodigious number of windows, 200 in the weft front, and in the eaft 266, and the apartments are decorated with an aftoniftiing variety of jiaintings, fculpture, tapcftry, ornaments of gold and filvcr, marble, jafper, gems, and other curious ftones. This building, befides its palace, contains a church, large and richly ornamented, a maufolcum, cloifters, a convent, a college, and a library, containing about thirty thoufand volumes, befides large apartments lor all kinds of ariifts and mechanics, noble walks, with extenfive parks and gardens, beauti- fied with Ibuntains and coftly ornaments. The fathej-s that live in the convent are 200, and they have an annual revenue of 12000I. 1 he maufoleum, or burying- placc of the kings and queens of Spain, is called the Pantheon, becaufe it is built S I* A I N. 5Tp.. feoilt upon tlie plan of thnt tcrwple at Rome, as the church to which it belongs is upon the model of St. Peter's. It is 36 feet diameter incrufled with fine marbles. Allowing to the Spaniards their full eftimate of the incredible fums beftowed • on tliis p:Hl:u-Cy and on its furniture, ftatues, paintings, columns, vafcs, and the like decor.itions, which are moft amazingly rich and beautiful, yet we hazard no- thing in faying, that the fabric itfelf difcovers a bad tafle. The conceit of build- ing It in the form of a gridiron, becaufe St. Laurence, to whom it is dedicated, was broiled on fuch an utenfil, and multiplying the fame figure through its prin- cipal ornaments, could have been formed only in the brain of a taftelcfs bigot,, fuch as Philip II. who eredled it to commeniorate the viiftory he obtained over the French (but by the afliftance of the Englifli forces) at St. Quintin, on St. Lau- rence's day; in the year 1557. The apartment where the king refides forms the handle of the gridiron. I'he building is a long fquare of 640 feet by 580. The height to the roof is 60 feet. It has been enriched and adorned by his fuccefforsj but its outfide has a gloomy appearance, and the infide is compofed of different ftrudKircs, fome of which are mafiier pieces of architefture, but forming a dif- agreeable whole. It muft however be confefled, that the pidrures and ftarues that have found aduiiffion here, are excellent in their kind, and fome of them fcarcely to be equalled even in Italy itfelf. Cadiz is the great emporium of Spanifh commerce. It flands on an ifland fc- parated from the continent of Andalufia, without the ftraits of Gibraltar, by a very narrow arm of the fea, over which a fortified bridge is thrown, and joins it to the main land. The entrance into the bay is about 500 fathoms wide, and guarded by two forts called the Puntals. The entrance has never been of late years at- tempted by the Englifh, in their wars with Spain, becaufe of the vaft intereft our " merchants have in the treafures there, which they could not reclaim from the cap- tors. The ftreets are narrow, ill paved', and filth}', and full of rats in the nii-ht.- The houfes lofty with flat roofs, and few are v;ithout a turret for a view of the fea,- The population is reckoned at 140,000 inhabitants, of which 12,000 are French, and as many Italians. The cathedral hath been already 50 years building, and the roof is not half finiilied. The environs are exceedingly beautiful. ' Cordova is now an inconfiderable place ; ftreets crooked and dirty, and but few of the public or private buildings confpicuous for their archice^flure. The palaces of the inquifition and of the biihops areextenfive and well iituated. The cathedral was formerly a mofque, divided into feventeen aiks by rows of columns of various marbles, and is very rich in plate ; four of the filver candlefticks coft 850I. a-piece. The revenue of the fee amounts to to 3500I. per ann. but as the.bifnops cannot devife by will, all they die polielicd of, efcheates to the king. Seville, the Julia of the Romans, is, next to Madrid, the largeft eitv in Spain, but is greatly decayed both in riches and population. The fliape is circular, and the walls fecm of Moorifli conftrudtion ; its circumference is five miles and a half.. The fuburb of Triana, is as large as manv towns, and remarkable for its gloomy Gothic caftle, where in 1481, the inquifition was firlt eltabliflied in Spain. Irs manufadlures in wool and filk which formerly amounted to 16,000, are now re- duced to 400, and its great office of commerce to Spanifh America is removed to Cadiz. The cathedral ot Seville is a fine Gothic building, wi^h a curious iteeple or tower, having a moveable figure of a woman at top, called L;i Giralda, which turns round with the wind, and which is referred to in Don Quixote. This f^eeple is reckoned one of the greateft curiofities in Spain, and is higher than St. Paul's in London, but the cathedral, in Mr. Swinburne's opinion, is bv no means equal to York-minfter for lightnefs, elegance, or Gothic delicacy. The firfl clock made in 520 SPAIN. in the kingdom was fet up in tliis cathedral in the year 1400, In the prefence of kino- Henry III. The profpeft of the country round this city, beheld from the fieeple of the cathedral, is extreipely delightful. Barcelona, formerly Barcino, laid to be founded by Hamilcar Barcas, is a large circular trading cic)', containing 15,000 houfes, is fituated in the Mediterranean facincr Minorca, and is faid to be the handfomeft place in Spain ; the houfes are lofty°nd plain, and the ftreets well lighted, and paved. The citadel is ftrong, and the place and inhabitants famous for the fiege they fuftained in 17 14 againll a for- inidable army, when deferred both by England and the Empeor for whom they had taken up arms. The number of inhabitants is fuppofed to be nearly 150,000, and they fupplv Spain with mod of the clothing and arms for the troops. A fingular cuftom prevails among them on the firft of November, the eve of All Souls; they run about from houfe to houfe to eat chefnuts, believing that for every chef- nut thev fwallow, with proper faith and untftion^ they lliall deliver a foul out of .purgatory. Valencia is a large and almofl circular city, with lofty walls. The ftreets are crooked and narrow, and not paved, the houfes ill built and filthy, and moft of the churches tawdry. Prielts, nuns, and friars, of every drefs fwarm in this city, whofe inhabitants are computed at 80,000. Its archbillioprick is one of the beft in Spain, to the amount of 40,000!. llerling a year. Carthagena is a large city, but very few good Ifreets, and fewer remarkable build- ings. 1 he port is very complete, formed by nature in the figure of a heart, and the arfcnal is a fpacious fquare fouth-well of the town, with 40 pieces of cannon tode- fend it towards the fea. M'hen Mr. Swinburne vifited it, in 1775, there were 800 Spanifh criminals, and 600 Barbary Haves working at the pumps to keep the docks dry &;c. and treated with great inhumanity. The crimes tor which the Spaniards were fent there, deferved indeed exemplary punifliments. Granada (lands on two hills, and the ancient place of the Alhambra crowns the double fummit between two rivers,, the Dauro, and the Xenil. The former glories of this city are palled away with its old inhabitants ; the ftreets are now filthy, and the aqueducts crumbled to duft, and its trade loft. Of 50,000 inhabitants, only 18 000 are employed in labour, the furplus is made up of clergy, lawyers, chil- dren and beggars- The amphitheatre, for bull feafts, is built of ftone, and one of the beft ic Spain, and the environs of the city are ftill pleafing and healthful. Bilboa is fituated on the banks of the river Ybaizabal, and is about two leagues from the fea. It contains aboutcight hundred houfes, with a large fquare by the wa- ter fide well fhadcd with pleafant walks, which extend to the outlets, on the banks of the river ; where there are great numbers of houfes and gardens, which form a moQ: pleafing profpeft, particularly in failing up the river : for, befides the beautiful verdure, numerous objedfs open gradually to the eye, and the town ap- nears as an amphitheatre, which enlivens the landfcape, and completes the fcenery. The houfes are folid and lofty, and the ftreets well ]uvcd and level ; and the water is fo conveyed into the ftreets, that they may be walked at plealure ; which renders Bilboa one. of the neateft tovvns in Europe. Malaga is an ancient city, and not lefs remarkable for its opulence and extenfive commerce than for the luxuriance of its foil, yielding in great abundance the moft delicious fruits; whilft its rugged mountains afford thole lufcious grapes, which rive fuch reputation to the Malaga wine, known in England by the name of Moun- tain. The city is large and populous, and of a circular torm, lurrounded with .1 double wall, ftrengthened by ftately towers, and has nine gates. A Moorifli calUc en the point of a rock commands every part of it. The ftreets are narrow, and the moft SPAIN. 521 moft remarkable building in it h a ftupendoiis cathedral, begun by Philip II. faid to be as large as that of St. Paul!s in London. The bifliop's income is i6,,oool. flerling. The city of Salamanca is of a circular form, built on tlirce hills and two vallies, and on every fide furrounded with profpedh of fine houfes, noble fears, gardens, orchards, fields, and diftant villages; and is ancient, large, rich, and populous. There are ten gates tothi^city, and it contains twenty-five cliurches, twenty-five convents of friars, and the fame number of nunneries. The moft beautiful part of this city is the great fquare, built about forty years ago. The houfes arc of three ll:ories,_ and all of equal height and exacl fymmetry, with iron balconies, and a ftone baluftrade on the top of them : the lower part is, arched, which forms a piazza nil round the fquare, which extends two hundred and ninety-three feet on each fide. Over ibmc of the arches are medalfions, with bufis of the kings of Spain, and of fe- veral eminent men, in ftone balTo-relievo, among which are thofe of Ferdinando Cortez, Francis Pizarro, Davila, antl Cii Ruy. In this fquare the bull-fif^hts arc exhibited for three days only, in the month of June. The jiver Tormes runs by this city, and has a bridge over it of twenty-five arches, built by the Romans, ahd yet entire. Toledo is one of the moft .ancient cities in Spain, and during feveral centuries it held the rank of its metropolis. But the neighbourhood of Madrid has by degrees ftripped it of its numerous inhabitants, and it would have been almoft entirely de- ferted but for its cathedral, the income of which being in great part fpcnt here, contributes chiefly to the maintenance of the few thoulands that are left, and aftilb, in fome degree, thofe fmall manufaftures of fword-blades and filk-ftufFs that are crtabliflied in this city. It is now exceedingly ill-builr, poor and mean, and the ftreets very fteep. Burgos was the ancient capital of the kingdom of Caftile, but now in obfcurity. The cathedral is one of the moil: magnificent ftruftures of the Gothic kind in hu- rope: its form is exactly the fame as that of York minfter, and on the eaft- end is an oftagon building exaClly like the chapter houfe at York. Gibraltar, once a celebrated town and fortrefs of Andalufia, is at prefent in pof- feffion of Great Britain. It was taken from the Spaniards by a combined fleet of Englilh and Dutch fliips, under the command of fir George Rooke, in 1704; and after many fruitlefs attempts to recover it, was confirmed to the Englifii by the treaty of Utrecht, in 17 13. Repeated attempts have been fince made to wreft it from England, but wirhoJt fuccefs : the laft war hath made it more fiimous than ever, when it underwent a long fiege againft the united forces of Spain and France by land and (ca, and was gallantly defended by general Elliot and his garrifon, to the great lofs and difgrace of the aflailants : though ir mufl; be granted, the pilace is by nature almoft impregnable. Near 300 pieces of cannon of different bores, and chiefly brafs, which were funk before the port in the floating batteries, have been raifed, and fold, to be diftributed among the garrifon. It is a comniodious port and formed naturally for commanding the pafiage of tiie Straits, or, in other words, the entrance into the Mediterranean and Levant leas. But the road is neither fafc againft an enemy nor ftorms : the bay is about twenty leagues in circumr'erence. The ftraits are 2-; miles long, and 15 broad; through which fets a current from the Atlantic ocean into the Mediterranean. The town was neither large nor beau- tiful, and in the laft fiege was totally deftroyed by the enemies bombs, but, on ac- count of its fortifications, is efteemed the key of Spain, and is always furniilied with a garrifon well provided for its defence. The harbour is formed by a mole, which is well fortified and planted with guns. Gibraltar is acceflible on the land iide only by u narrow pallage between the rock and the iea, but that is walled and 3 ^ fortified 522 S P A I N. fortified botK bv art and natuie, and fo inclofed by high fleep hills, as to be almoft inaccefllble that way. It has but two gates on that fide, and as many towards the fea. Acrofs this ifthmus, the Spaniards have drawn a fortified line, chiefly with a view to hinder thegarrifon of Gibraltar from having any intercourfe with the coun- try behind them : notwithi^anding which they carry on a clandeftine trade, particu- larly in tobacco. The garrifon is, however, confined within very narrow limits; and, as the ground produces fcarcely any thing, all their provifions are brought them either from England, or from Ceuta, on the oppofite coait of Barbary. Formerly Gibraltar was entirely under military government; but that fy Item being produc- tive of abufes, the parliament thought proper to erc(5t it into a body corporate, and the civil power is now lodged in its magillraies. The chief iflands belonging to Spain in Europe, are thofe of Majorca, Tvlinorcav and Yvica. Minorca, was taken by the Englifh in 170S, but retaken by the Spaniards the laft war, and is now become a Spanilh illand again, containing about; 27,000 inhabitants. Notwithltanding the pride and oltentation of the Spaniards, their penury is eafily s^ifcernible, but their wants are few, and their appetites cafily fatisfied. The in- ferior orders, even in the greateft cities, are rniferably lodged, and thofe lodging;? wretchedly furnifhed. Many of the poorer fort, both micn and women, wear nei- ther fhoes nor Itockings, and coarfe bread fteeped in oil and occafionally feafoned with vinegar, is the common food of the country people through feveral provinces. A traveller in Spain mull carry provifions and bedding with him, and if perchance he meets with the appearance of an inn, he muft even cook his vi(fluals, it being beneath the dignity of a Spaniard to perform thefe offices to ftrangers ; but lately fonr.e tolerable inns have been opened by Irifh and FrenchiriCn in cities, and upon the high roads. The pride, indolence, and lazinefs of the Spaniards, are powerful in- ducements to their iriore induftrious neighbours the French, who are to be found jn ail parts of the kingdom ; and here a wonderful contrail dillinguifhes the cha- racter of two neighbouring nations. The Spaniard feldom flirs from home, or puts his hand to work of any kind. He fleeps, goes to mafs, takes his evening walk. While the indullrious Frenchman becomes a thorough domeilic ; he is butcher, eook, and taylor, all in the fame family; he powders the hair, cuts the corns,- wipes the fhoes, and, after making himfelf ufeful in a thoufand different fliapes, he ri. turns to his native country loaded with dollars, and laughs out the remainder of his days at the expence of his proud benefaftor. Commerce and manufactures.} The Spaniards, unhappily for themfelves, make gold and filver the chief branches both of their exports and imjiorts. They import it from America, from whence- they export it toother countries of Europe. Cadiz is the chief esnporium of this commerce. " Hither (fays Mr. Anderfon, in his Hiftorv of Commerce) other European nations lend their mcrchandife, to be fliippcd off in Spanifli bottoms for America, Iheltcrcd (or, as our old Englifl> phrafc has if, coloured) under the names of Spanilh faftors. Thofe foreign na- tions have here their agents and correfpondents, and the confuls of thofe nations make a confiderable figure. Cadiz has been laid to have the fined llorehoufcs and magazines for commerce of any city in Jiurope; and to it the llota and galleons re- gularly import the treafurcs of Spanilh America. The proper Spanilh mcrchandife exported fiom Cadiz to America are of no great value; but the duty on the foreign niercliandife fent thither wolihl yield a great revenue, (and confcijucntly the proiits of merchants and their agents would link), were it not for the many fraudulent praftlces for eluding thofe duties." The manufiftures of Spain are chiefly of filk, wool, copper, and hard-ware. Great eSoits have been made by the government to i>revent the other Eviropean natiofi-j Q SPAIN. 523 nations from reaping the chief advajitage of the American commerce; but thefe- never can be fuccefsful, till a fpiric of induRry is awakened among the natives, Co as to enable tiiem to fupply their American poflcfTions vvitli their o-.vn comanodities and merchandife. Constitution and government.] Spain, from being die moft free, i^ now the moCt defpotic kingdom in Europe ; and the poverty which is fo vifible in moll parts of the country is in a great degree the rcfult of its government, in the admi- nillration of which no proper attention is paid , to the interefts and welfare of die people. The monarchy is hereditary, and females are capable of fucccfflon. It has even been queilioned, whether his catholic majclly may not bequeath his crown, upon his demife, to any branch of the royal family he pleafes. It is at lead cer- tain, that the houfe of Bourbon mounted the throne of Spain in virtue of the lall v/ill of Charles II. The cortes, of Spain which formerly, efpecially in Callile, had greater power and privileges than the parliament of England, are now abolillied j but fome faint remains of their conititution are llill difcernible in the government, diough all of them are ineffectual, and under the control of the king. The privy-council, which is compofed ot a number of noblemen or grandees, nominated by the king, fits only to prepare inatters, and to digell; papers for the cabinet-council or junta, which confifts of the firlt fecretary of ftate, and three or four more named by the king, and in them refides the direction of all the executive part of government. The council of war takes cognifance of military affairs only. The council of Caflile is the higheft lav/ tribunal of the kingdom. The feverai courts of the royal audiences, are thole of Galicia, Seville, Majorca, the Canaries, Saragoffa, Valencia, and Barcelona. Thefe judge primarily in all caufes within 15 miles of their refpective cities or capitals, and receive appeals from inferior jurif- diftions. Befides thefe, there are many fubordinate tribunals, for the police, the finances, and other branches of bufinefs. The government of Spanifli America forms a fyflem apart, and is delegated to viceroys, and other magiftrates, who are in their refpeftive diilrifts almolt abfo- lute. A council for the Indies is etlabliflied in old Spain, and confills of a gover- nor, four fecretaries, and twenty-two counfellors, befides officers. Their decifioa is final in matters relating to America. The members are generally chofen from 4he viceroys and magifl:rates who have ferved in that country. The two great viceroyalties of Peru and Mexico arefo confiderable, that they are feldom trulled to one perfon for more than three years ; and their emoluments are fufficient to make his fortune in that time. The foreign poffeffions of the crown of Spain, befides thofe in America, are the towns of Ceuta, Oran, and Mafulquivir, on the coall of Barbary in Africa ; and the iflands of St. Lazaro, the Philippines, and Ladrones, in Afia. Revenues.] The revenues arifing to the king from Old Spain, yearly amount to 5,ooOjOOol. fterling, fome writers fay eight ; and they form the furefi: fupport of his government. His American income, it is true, is immenfe, but it is generally embezzled or anticipated before it arrives in Old Spain. The king has a fifth of all the filver mines that are worked ; but little of it comes into his coffers. He falls upon means, however, in cafe of a war, or any public emergency, to fequefier great part of the American treafures belonging to his lubjccls, who never complain, becaufe they are always pumflually repaid with interefi. The finances of his pre- fcnt catholic majefly are in excellent order, and on a better footing, both for him- felf and his people, than thofe ot any ol his predeceilcrs. As to the taxes from whence the internal revenues arife, they are various, arbir trary, and fo much dependant on emergencies, that t.hey cannot be iiccurijtejy afceiv 3X2 tainej, 5£4 SPAIN. tained. They fall upon all kinds of goods, hoiifts, lands, timber, and provlfions ;• the clergy and military orders are likewife taxed. Military and marine strexgth.] The land forces of the crown of Spain, ia time of peace, are never fewer than 70,000 ; but, in cafe of war, they amount,, without prejudice to the kingdom, to 110,000. The great dependence of the king, however, is upon his Walloon or foreign guards. His prefent catholic ma- ]ellyhas employed great care and expence to raife a powerful marine ; and his fleet ui Eurojie and America at prefenc exceeds 70 fhius of the line. All along the coaitsol Spain are watch-towers from mile to mile, witii lights and guards at night, lo that from Cadiz to Barcelona, and from Bilboa to Ferrol, the whole kingdom may be foon alarmed in cafe of an invafion. Royal arms, titles, no- ? Spain formerly comprehended twelve kingdoms,. BiLiTV, AND ORDERS. ^ ^11 which, with fcveral others, were by name en- tered into the royal titles, lb that they amounted in all to about 32. This abfurd cullom is ilill occafionally continued, but the king is now generally contented with the title of His Catholic Majefty. The kings of Spain are inaugurated by the delivery of a fword, without being crowned. Their fignature never mentions their name, but I the king. The king's eldeft fon is called prince of Anurias, and his younger children, of both I'exes, are by way of diftinftion called infants, or infantas, diat is children. The armorial bearings of the kings of Spain, like their title, is loaded with the arms of all their kingdoms. It is now a fliield, divided into four quarters, of which the uppcrmoft on the right hand and the lowelt on the left contain a callle, or, with three towers, for Caflile : and in the uppermoft on the left, and the lowell on the rio-hf, are the three lions gules for Leon ;. with three lilies in the centre for Anjou. The general name for thofe Spanifh nobility and gentry, who are unmixed with' theMoorilh blood, is Hidalgo. They are divided into princes, dukes, marquifles, counts, vifcounts, and other inferior titles. Such as are created grandees, may Hand covered before the king, and are treated with princely diftinftions. A gran- dee cannot be apprehended without the king's order ; and cardinals, archbilhops,- ambalTadors, knights of the Golden Fleece, and certain other great dignitaries, both in church and lUte, have the privilege as well as the grandees, to appear covered bt-fore the king. The order of the " Golden Fleece,'^ particularly defcribed before in the orders of Germany, is generally conferred on princes and fovereign dukes ; but the Spanilh branch of it hath many French and Italian nobility : there are no coamanderies or it venues annexed to it. The order of " St. J-ames,^ or St. Jago de Ccmpcjlella, is the richeft of all the orders of Spain. Some attribute its inflitution to Remira, king of Leon, in the year ^37, and others to later princes, as an encouragement to valour in the long wars between the Chriftians and Moors, They were divided into two branches, each iindcr a grand-mailer, but the office of both were given by Pope Alexander VI. to ftie kings of Spain and Portugal, as grand-mailer in their refpedlive dominions. The badge is a crofs of gold enamelled crimfon, edged with gold, and worn round the neck, pendent to a broad ribband, it is charged on the centre with an efcalop- fiiell wiiite. The order is highly ellccmcd in Spain, and only conferred on pcrfons of noble families. The fame may be laid of the order of " Calat-rava" firll in(li- tiited by Sanchio, king of Toledo : it took its name from the caflle of Calatrava, which was taken from the Moors, and here began the order which became very powerful. Their number, influence, and poirellions were fo confiderable as to excite the jcaloufy of the ciown, to which at length their revenues and the office of grand- niall'rr were annt;;ed by pope Innocent Vill. Their batlge is, a crofs fleury, red, worn SPAIN. 525 tS^OM at the breaft, pendent to a broad ribband, the whole differing only in colour from the badge of Alcantara: the ceremonial mantle is of white filk, tied with a cordon and taflels, like thofe of the Garter, and on the left arm a crofs Heury embroidered, gules. The celebrated order of " Alsantara," derived its origin from the order of St. Julian, or of the Pear-tree ; but after Alcantara was taken from the Moors and made the chief feat of the order, they afiumed the name of Knights of the order of Alcantara, and laid afide the old device of a pear-tree. They were fub- jeCt to the order of Calatrava, till the year 141 1, when, by the fanftion of the pope,- they became independent. They chofe their own grand-mafter, and acquired vaft poITeinons ; but, in 1495, pope Alexander VI. conferred the office on king Ferdi- nand of Arragon, and annexed it unalienably to the Spanifh crown. Since that time the kings of Spain have enjoyed the revenues of the grand-mailer, and the com- Mianderies, belonging, to the order. The badge is a gold crofs, fleurv, enamelled- green, and worn pendent to a broad ribband on the breaft. On days of ceremonv, they wear a mantle of red fdk, on the left fide of which is embroidered, in fdver,'a liar of five points. This order is highly eilcemed, and conferred only on perfons of ancient and illullrious families. The order of the " Lady of Mercy, '^ is ftid to have been inllituted by James I. king of Arragon, about the year 1218, on account of a vow made by him to the Tirgin Mary, during his captivity in France, and was defigned for the redemption of captives from the Moors, in which they expended large fums of money. It was at firlt confined to men, but a lady of Barcelona afteiwards got women included in k : the badge, which is common to both, is a fliield per fefs, red and gold ; in chief a crofs pattee, white ; in bafee four pallets red, for Arragon, and the fhield crowned with a ducal coronet. This order polfefTes confiderable revenues in Spain. The order q{ " Monte/a," was inllituted at Valencia, at the clofe of the thirteenth cen- tury, in* the place of the Templars, and enjoyed their poflTeffions. Their chief feat being the town of Moncefa, the opder from thence derived its name, and chofe St. George for patron. About a century afterwards, it was united to the order of St. George of Alfama, by pope Benedift XIII. and ib hath continued ever fince. The badge is a plain red crofs enamelled on gold, worn pendent to a broad red ribband, fa(h wife, and a plain red crofs embroidered on the left breaft of the outer garment. In the year 177 1, the prefent king inflituted after his own name, the order of *' Charles III." in commemoration of the birth of the infant. The bado-e is, a flar of eight points enamelled white, and edged with gold : in the centre of the crofs is the image of the Virgin Mary, veflments white and blue. On the reverfe, the let- ters C. C, with the number III. in the centre, and this motto, Virtut'i & Merita. The order is compofed of four clafTes, the firft clafs are ftyled Grand Crofles, and wear the badge pendent to a ribband, flriped blue and white, over the right Ihoulder, and have a ftar of fdver, widi the badge embroidered on the left i\dc of the coat. The knights of the fecond clafs wear the badge and ribband like the firll, but have no ftar. The third and fourth clalTes wear the badge in the button hole of the coat, pendent to a narrow ftriped ribband. The knights of the third clals have penfions on the revenues of the order, to which none but perlons of noble defcent can belono-. History of Spain.] Spain was probably firft peopled by the Celtse from Gaul, to v/hich it lies contiguous, or from Africa, from which it is only feparated by the narrow llrait of (librahar. The Phoenicians fent colonies thither, and built Cadiz and Malaga. Afterwards, upon the rife of Rome and Carthage, the poftef- fions of this kingdom became an objeft of contention between thofe powerful re- publics ; but at length the Roman arms prevailed, and Spain remained in their pofleftion until the fall ot that empire, wlien it became a prey to the Goths. In the beginning of the fifth century the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani, divided this kingdom among them, but in the year 584, the Goths again became the mailers. 5^6 S P A I N. mafters. Thcfe in their turn, were .invaded by the Saracens, who, about the end of the fevcnth century, had poflcffed themlelves ot" the tineft kingdoms of Aliu and Africa ; and not content with the immenfe regions that formerly compofed great part of the Adyrian, Perfian, and Macedonian empires, crofied the Mediterranean, ra- vaged Spain, and eitablillied themfclves in the fouthcrly provinces of that kingdom. Don Pelago is mentioned as the firft Old Spanifli prince who diftinguifhed liimfelf ac^ainft thcfe iniidels (who were afterwards known by the name of Moors, the greater part of them having come froin Mannrania), and he took the title of king of Afturia about the year 720. His fuccefles animated other Chriftian princes to take -arms likewife, and the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal were for many ages per- •petually embroiled in bloody wars. I'he Moors in Spain were fuperior to all their cotemporaries in arts and arms, and the Abdoulrahman line kept pofTeffion of the throne near 300 years. Learning flouriflicd in Spain, while the reft of Europe was burried in ignorance and barbarity. But the Mooriih princes by degrees waxed weak and effeminate, and their chief minifters proud and iniblent. A feries of civil .wars continued, which at laftoverturn,;d the throne of Cordova, and the race of Ab- doulrahman. Several petty principalities, were formed on the ruins of this empire, ;ind many cities of Spain had each an independent fovereign. Now, every adventurer v/as entitled to the conquefts he made upon the Moors, till Spain was at laft divid- ed into 12 or 14 kingdoms ; and about the year 1095, Henry of Burgundy was de- clared by the king of Leon, count of Portugal ; but his fon Alphonfo, threw off the dependence on Leon, and declared himfelf king, A feries of brave princes gave the Moors repeated overthrows in Spain, till about the year 1492, when all the king- doms, of Spain, Portugal excepted, were united by the marriage of Ferdinand, king of Arragon, and Ifabella the heirefs, and afterwards queen of Caftile, who took Gra- nada, and expelled out of Spain the Moors and Jews, who w^ould not be converts to the Chriftian faith, to the number of 170,000 families. The expullion of the Moors and Jews in a manner depopulated Spain of artifts, labourers, and manufac- turers ; and the difcovery of America not only added to that calamity, but rendered the remaining Spaniards moft deplorably indolent. To complete their misfortunes, Ferdinand and Ifabella introduced the Popiflr inquifition, with all its horrors, into their dominions, as a fafeguard againft the return of the Moors and Jews. Charles V. of the houfe of Auftria, and the emperor of Germany, fucceeded to the throne of Spain, in right of his mother, who was the daughter of Ferdinand and Ifabella, in the year 1516. The cxtenftve poffeiTions of the houfe of Auftria in Europe, Africa, and, above all, America, from whence he drew immenfe treafures, becran to alarm the jcaloufy of neighbouring princes, but could not fatisfy die ambi- tion of Charles ; and we find him conftantly engaged in foreign wars, or with his own proteftant fubjedts, whom he in vain attempted to bring back to the catholic church. He alfo reduced the power of the nobles in Spain, abridged the privileges of the commons, and greatly extended the regal prerogative. At laft, after a lone and turbulent reign, he came to a rcfolution that filled all Europe with afto- niftiment, the v/ithdrawing himfelf entirely from any concern in the aftairs of this world, in order that he might fpend the remainder of his days in retirement and folitudc *. Agree- * Cliarks, of -all his vaft |n:ir, lHons, rcftMvcJ fitiiation latlier than liis former dignity. Ir coii- ilQtbing for hiiiiftlf but an uiinu.il pcnlion ot filinl only of iix rooms, four of ihoin iii the for. 11 lco,coo crowns ; and chofe lor the place of his of fiiars cells, with iiaKeil walls ; aiui the oUier retreat, a vale in Spain, of no great exttnt, wa- two, each tweniy feet fquarc, were hunt; with tercil t'y a finall brook, anil furro'anticd by lifinjj brown cloth, and turn filed in the moft liin|>le iiiart- gioupds, covered with lofiy trees. lie gave lliici ner : they were all level with the groui d, with ordcrF, that the fi) Ic of the building which he a door on one fide mto a gaideii, ol which .Charles, trcdcd .thtre, flioulU be futli as fiiitcii his prcfcnt himfelf had given the plan, and had filled it with various SPAIN. 527 Agree.ibiv to this refolution, he rcfigned S[)ain and the Netherlands, with crreat formality, in the prefence of his principal nobility, to his fon Philip II. but could not prevail on the princes of Germany to elcd him emperor, which dignity thev conferred on Ferdinand, Charles's brother, thereby dividing the dangerous power of the houfe of Auliria into two branches j Spain, with all its polTeflions in Africa and the New World, aUb the Netherlands, and fome Italian ftater., remained with the elder branch, whilit the Empire, Hungary, and Bohemia, fell to the lot of the younger, which they Hill pollcfs, Pl.ilip II. inherited all his father's vices, with few of his good qualities. He was aultere, haughty, immodcr;Uely ambitious, and through his whole life a cruel bigot in the caulis of popery. His marriage with queen Mary of England, an iin- J'eeling bigot like himfelf, his unfuccefsful addrefils to her filler Elizabeth, his re- Jcntinent and unfortunate v;ars with that princefs, his tyranny and profecutions in the Low Countries, the revolt and lofs of the United Provinces, with other particu- lars of his reign, have been already mentioned, in the hiilory of thofe countries. In Portugal he was more fuccefsful. That kingdom, after being governed by a race of wife and brave princes, fell to Sebailian, about the year i 557. Sebailian loll his life and a fine army, in a headllrong, unjuft, and ill-concerted expedition againft the Moors in Africa ; and in the year 1580, Philip united Portugal to his own dominions, though the Braganza family of Portugal aflerted a prior right. By this acquifition Spain became poirelTed of the Portugucfe fettlements in India, fome of which (lie itiil holds. The defcendents of Philip proved to be very weak princes ; but Philip and his father had fo totally ruined the ancient liberties of S^ain, that ihey reigned almolt various plants, which he propofed to cultivate with his own hands. Atter (pending feme time in the city of Ghent in Fhnders, the place of his nati- vity, he fet out for Zealand in Holland, where he prepared to embark fjt Sp.dn, accornp-uiied by his fon, and a numerojs retinue of princes and nobi- lity ; and takirg an afL-itiunate and laft farevvei of Philip and his atiendantf, he fet out, on the i7ih of September 1556, untier convoy of a large fle^t of Spanifli, Fleinifli, and Englifli fiiips. As foon as he landed in Spain, he fell proftrate on the ground ; and confiderini; himfelf liow as dead to the world, he kilfcd the cailh, and faid, " Naked came I out of my mother's womb, and naked I now re- turn to thee, thou comtnon tnctuer of mankind." Some of the Spanifh nobility paid their court to h'm as he p.iil'cj alon;; to the place of his retreat ; but they \\cre fo fe« in number, and their attend- ance was fo negligent, that Charles obfervcd it, and ttlt, for the tint time, that he was no longer a nioa.irch. But he wis moie deeply aff-ifltd with his f'li's ingratitude ; who, forgctcing aheady how !iu:ch he owed to his faihei's bojnrv, obliged him t ■ remain fome nceks on the read, before he paid him the firft tiioiety of that fmiU portion, which. wasal. that he had rclerved of fo many kingdoms, At lall tiie tnoiiey was paid ; and Charles having diftniffed ii great number of his domelHcs, whofe attendace he thought would be fuporfluou!^, he entered into his humble retreat with tivelve do- mclHcs only. Here he buried in fol'.tude, ;uul filence, his grandeur, his ambition, together with all thofe vali projeds which, during half a cen- tury, had alarmed and agitated Europe ; filling «very kingdom in it, by turns, with the terror of his arms, and the dread of being fubjefled to his power. Here h» etijoyed, perhaps, more complete f.uistaL^ion than all his grandeur had ever yielded him. Far from taking any part in the ])olitical tranfaftjons of the princes of Europe, he rellraineil his curiolity even from any enquiry concerning them ; and he feetiied to view the bufy fccne whiclv he had abandoned, with all the contempt and in- diiference ariling frotn his thorough experience of its vanity, as well as frotn the pkafing reflcctiotv of having difenjaged himfelt from its cares. _ New amufeir.ents and new objeLits now occupied his mind ; fometiines he cultivated the plants in bis garden with his oivn hands ; fomctimcs he rode out to the neighbouring uood on a little harfe, the only one that he kepr, attended by a fir.'gle fervar.t on toot. When his infirmities conSned him to his apartment, he cither admitted a few gentlemen v,-ho relided in the neighbourhood, and entertained them familiarly at his table;. or he employed himfelt la ftudying the jninciplcs, and in forming curious works of mechauifm, ot' vvhich he had always beon- remarkably fond. He was panictil-irly curious with regard to th- conllruttion of clocks and watches ; and having found, after repeated tiials, that he could not bring any two of them to go exai'lly a- likc, he icfle.'Ted, it is laid, with a m^xtuic of f.ir- prife and regret, on his own folly, in havinp- be- llowed fo much time and labour on the inoicvaia attetnpt of bringing mankind to a precife unifor- mity, of fentiment"concern-ng the intricate and mv- Iterinus doiSrincs of religion. And here: after f.vo years retirement, he was fciyxd with a fei-er, which Carried him otlj iii the 59th \ car of his age. ■unmolefi> 528 S P A I N. unm&leftcd in their own dominions. Their viceroys, however, were at once fo tyrannical and iniblcnt over the Portuguele, that in the reign of Philip IV. in the year 1640, the nobility of that nation, by a well-condudled conlpiracy, expelled their tyrants, and placed the duke of Brnganza, by the title of John IV^. upon their throne, and ever fince, Portugal has been an independant kingdom. The kings of Spain, of the Auftrian line, failing in the perfon of Charles II. who left no iffue, Philip duke of Anjou, fecond fon to the dauphin of France, and grandfon to Lewis XIV. mounted that throne by virtue of his prcdecciror's will, in the.name of Philip V. anno 1701. After a long and bloody druggie with ■the German branch of the houfe of Aullria., fupportedby England, he was confirm- ed in his dignity, at the conclufion of the war by the .lliameful peace of Utrecht, 1713. And thus Lewis XIV. through a mafterly train of politics (for in his wars to fupport his grandfon, as we have already obferved, he was almoll ruined), ac- complifhed his favourite projeiftof transferring the kingdom of Spain, with all its rich poffefiions in America and the Indies, from the houfe of Auftria to that of his own family of Bourbon. In 1734, Philip invaded Naples, and got that kingdom for his fon Don Carlos, the Sicilians readily acknowledging him for their fovereign, through theoppreffion of the Imperialifts. After a long and turbulent reign, which was difturbed by the ambition of his wife, Elizabeth of Parma, Philip died in 1746, and was fucceeded by his fon Fer- .dinand VI. a mild and pacific prince, who reformed many abufes, and endeavoured to promote the commerce and profperity of his kingdom. In 1759., ^^^ '^^^'^ with- out iffue, through melancholy for the lofs of his wife. Ferdinand was fucceeded by his brother, Charles III. then king of Naples and the two Siciles, now the prefent king of Spain, fon to Philip V. by his wife, the princcfs ot Parma. He was fo warmly attached to the family compad: of the houfe of Bourbon, that two years after his acceffiori, he even hazarded his American dominions to fupport it. War being declared between him and England, the latter took from him the famous port and city of Havannah, in the ifland of Cuba, and thereby rendered her- felf entirely miflrefs of the navigation of the Spanifh plate fleets. Notwithftand- ing the fuccefs.of the Englifh, their miniflry thought proper haftily to conclude a peace, in conlequence of which the Havannah was reftored to Spain. In 177 t, an expedition Vr-as concerted againlf Algiers by the Spanifh miniltry, which had a molt unfucccfsful termination. The troops, which amounted to upwards 24,000, and who were commanded by lieutenant-general Conde de O'Reilly, landed about a league and a half to the taftward of the city of Algiers ; but were difgracefully beaten back, aiid obliged to lake flicker on board their fliips, having 27 oiiicers killed, an,d 191 wounded ; and 501 rank and file killed, and 2088 wounded. In the vears 17B3, and 1784, they renewed their attacks againfl Algiers by fca, but after fpending much ammunition, and lofing many lives, were forced to retire with- out doing that place much injury. When the war bet ween Great Britain and her American colonics had fubfifled lor fomc time, and France had taken part with the latter, the court of Sjiain was alio prevailed upon to comnn.cnce hoflilitics againfl Cireat I>ritain. In particular, the Spaniards clofcly bcfieged Gibraltar, both by lea and land ; it having been always a great mortification to them, that this fortrefs fliould be j)ollefied by the Englifh. Other military and naval operations alio took place between Spain and Great Bri- tain, which have been noticed in the Hiftory of England. tlis prefent catholic maieity has uied much pains to oblige his fubjedts to defifl from their ancient drefs and manners, and carried his endeavours fo far, that it oc- cafioned au infurrcdtion at Madrid, and obliged him to part with his miniller, the marquis of Squillacc ; thereby aiibrding an inllancc of the ncceffity that even dcf- potic princebare under, of paying Ibmc attention to the inclinations of tluirfubjeCts. I Charles PORTUGAL. Szg Cliarles Til. king of Spain, was born in 1716, fucceeded to the throne in 1759 '' and has iffuc by his late queen : 1. Maria-Jofepha, born in 1744. 2. Maria-Louifa, born 1745, married 1765, to the archduke Leopold, of Auflria great-duke of Tufcany, and brother to the prefent emperor of Germany. 3. Philip-Anthony, duke of Calabria, born 1747, declared incajjable of fucceed- ing to the throne, on account of an invincible vveakncfs of undcrftanding. 4. Charles-Anthony, prince of Allurius, born in 1748, married 1765, to Louifa. Maria-Therefa, princcfs of Parma. 5. Ferdinand Anthony, king of Naples, born in 1751, married 1768, to the archduchefs Mary-Cardirc-Louifa, fiftcr to the emperor of Germany. 6. Gabriel-Anthony, born in 1752, grand-prior of the kingdom of Spain. 7. Anthony-Pafcal, born 1755. 8. Francis Xavicr, born 1757. The king's brother, Don Lewis, is a cardinal and archbifliop of Toledo. O R U G A Length 300 Breadth loo Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. between J 37 ^nd 42 north lat. v between < ^' and 10 wefllong. Boundaries.] TT is bounded by Spain on the North and Eafl:, and on the X South and Weft by the Atlantic Ocean, being the moft weft- erly kingdom on the continent of Europe. Ancient names and ? This kingdom was, in the time of the Romans, called DIVISIONS. S Lufitania. The etymology of the modern name fs un- certain. It moft probably is derived from fome noted harbour or port, to which the Gauls (for lb ftrangers are called in the Celtic) rcforted. By the form of the country, it is naturally divided into three parts ; the north, middle, and fouth provinces. The North Divifion. contains The Middle Divifion eontains Provinces. Entre Minho Douro and Tralos Montes Beira 11 The South Divifion contains Eftremadura Entre Tajo Guadiana Alentajo Algarva Chief Towns. Braga Oporto and Viana Miranda and Villa Real. Coin. bra Guarda Caftel Rodrigo iLisBON ^^f'^S^;^- I ? 8-53 W. Ion. LSt. Ubes and Leira. Ebora, or Evora Portalegre, Elvas, Beja Lagos Faro, Tavora, and Silves. Soil, air, and productions.] The foil of Portugal is not in general equal to that of Spain for fertility, efpecially in corn, which they import from other countries. Their fruiis are the fame as in Spain, but nof fo highlv flavoured. 3 Y Th« 530 PORTUGAL. The Portup;uefc wines, when old and genuuie, are cfteeincd to be very friend- ly to the cuiifticutio.i, and fafe to drink*. Portugal contains mines, but they are not \vorked ; variety of gems, marbles, and mlll-llones, and a fine mine of falt-petre, near Lifbon. Their cattle and poultry are but indifferent eating. The air, efpecially about Lifbon, is reckoned fotc and beneficial to confumjitive pa- tients ; it is not lo learching as that of Spain, being refreflied by the fea-breezes. Mountains.] The face of Portugal is mountainous, or rather rocky, for their mountains are generally barren: the chief are thofe which divide Algarva from Alcntcjo ; thofe of Iralos Montes, and the rock of Lifbon, at the mouth of rhe Tagus, Water and rivers.] Though every brook in Portugal is reckoned a river, yet the chief Portuguele rivers are mentioned in Spain, all of them falling into the A.tlantic ocean. The Tagus, or Tajo, was celebrated for its golden land. Portugal contains feveral abforbent lakes and fprings ; fome, particularly one about 45 miles from Lifbon, are medicinal ; and fome hot baths are found in the province of Algarva. Promontories and bays.] The promontories or capes of Portugal are Cape Mondego, near the mouth of the river Mondegoj Cape Roca, at the north en- trance of the river Tajo; Cape Elpithel, at the fouth entrance of the river Tajo; and Cape St. Vinc<:nt, on the fouth-weft point of Algarva. The bays are thofe of Cadoan, or St. Ubes, fouth of Lifbon, and Lagos Bay in Algarva. Animals.] The fea-fifh, on the coall of Portugal, are reckoned excellent j c-n the land, the hogs and kids are tolerable eating. Their mules are fure, and fer- viceable both for draught and carriage; and their horfes, though flight, are lively. Population, inhabitants, man- 7 According to the bell calculation, Po'r- NERS, AND CUSTOMS. jt^ug^l contains near two millions of inha- bitants. By a furvey made in the year 1732, there were in that kingdom 3344 parifhes, and 1,742,230 lay perfons (which is but 522 laity to each paiifh on a medium), befides about 300,000 ecclefiaftics of both fexes. Tht modern Portuguele retain nothing of that adventurous enterprifing fpirit that rendered their forefathers lb illuftrious 300 years ago. Ever iince their con- quell by Spain, they have degenerated in all their virtues ; though fome noble exceptions are llill remaining among them, and no people are lb little' obliged as the Portuguele are to the reports of hiltorians and travellers. Their dege- neracy is evidently owing to the ueaknefs of their monarchy, which renders them inactive, for fear of difobliging their powerful neighbours ; and that inadti- vlty has proved the fource of pride, and other unmanly vices. Treachery has been laid to their charge, as well as ingratitude, and above all, an intemperate pafljon for revenge. They are, if pofTible, more fuperlVitious, and, both in high an Cr3 O U Subdivirions. fSavoy Geneva Chablais Tarantaife Mauriennc [_Fofligny < Montfcrrat .« (u \ Tortonefe ^ «| AleiTandrine ^ I Laumelin •^ r ° I Oneglia Titles. Proper County County Valley Duchy Territory Chief Towns. Chambery, Montmeliaiv Annacy Tonor, or Thonon Mouftriers St. John de Mauricnne Bonneville Cafal, Alby, Aqui Tortona Alexandria Laumella Oneglia The donninions of the King of N A P L E S. SubdivLfions. Lavora Ultra Princip. Citra Princip. Molife Bafilicata Citra Calabria Chief Towns. Naples, Capua, Gaeta Benevento Salerno Bojano Cerenza Cofenza Subdivifions. Ult. Calabria Ult. Abruzzo Citra Abruzzo Capitinate, or Apulia Bari Otranto Subdivifions. !Val de Mazara Val de Uemona Val de Noto Chief Towns. Reggio Aquiia Chieti Manfredonia Lucera Bari Otranto Brundifi Tarenta Chief Towns, Palerina Meflina Catania, Syracufe, Noto. LIPARI ISLANDS, North of Sicily. Lipari, StronabuLo, Rottc, Panaria, Ellcufa. ISLANDS on the West Coast of Italv» Capri, Ifchia, Ponza, Pianofa, &c. The lloufe of AU S T R 1 A polfclTcs the Milanese, the Mantuan arui Tuscany. The fubdivifions and chief towns in thefe territories are, Subdivifions. Titles, Chief Towns, f Milanefe Proper Milan Pavefan Pavia Navarefe N a vara; Comafco Conio Lodcfan Lodi ^Cremoaefc Cremona TuKriny c H Subdivifions. \ Florentina ^ Sieniiefe /Pi fa ITALY. Tides. 539 Chief Towns. Proper Florence Sienna Pifa, Leghorn, Piombino Mantua rt « < Mantua In Tufcany is contained the republic of Lucca, and the principality of MafTa Carara, fubjed; to its own prince ; alfo the coaft del Prefidii, of which the capital is Orbitello, fubjed to the king of Naples. The duke of P A R M A (of the Iloufe of Bourbon) is Sovereio-n of the Duchies of Parma j r Parma Placentia ( Chief Towns, j Placentia Guaftalla J C Guaftalla, Caftiglione, Luzzara. The fubdivifions of the Genoefe territories, with their chief towns, are. Subdivifions. Genoa, Proper Savon a, Vado, Noli, Final, Albenga, Territory Territory Territory Territory Territory Oneglia to Sardinia Chief Towns. Genoa Savona Vado Noli Final Albenga Oneglia Subdivifions. St. Remo, Territory Ventimigila, Territory Monaco, Principality Rapallo, Territory Lavigna Spezia Chief Towns. St. Remo Ventimiglia Monaco Rapallo Lavigna Spezia The Duchy of M O D E N A is fubjeft to its own Duke, and contains Duchies. Chief Towns Modena Modena Mirandola Rhegio Mirandola Rhegio, Borfello, Carpi. The Republic of VEN ICE is fubdivided in the following manner Subdivifions. Venice Paduan Veronefe Brefciano Crcmafco Eergamafco Vinccntino Chief Towns, I Venice Padua Verona Brefcia Crema Bergamo Vincenza Subdivifions. Ros/igno Trevegiano Belluncie Friuli LJdLnefe mr la. part. Chief Towns. Rovigno Trevifo Belluno Aquileia Udia Capo de Iftrla 3 Z 2 The 540 ITALY. The Patriarchate, or the Dominions of the POPE, arc fubdivl^d thusv Subdivifions. Campania of Rome Chief Towns Rome Tivoli Frefcati Oftia ,Albano fViterbo Civita Vecchia St. Peter's Pa-^ Bracciano trimony Subdivifions. Ancona, Marqui. Urbino, Duchy Romania Bolognefe Ferrarefe Chief Towns. {Ancona Loretro C Urbino ^ Pefaro ( Semigalia 5 Ravenna 2 Rimini Bologna Republic of St. Marino 5 Ferrara "l Comachia < St. Marino Caftro . Orvietto 1^ Aquapendente rSpoletto Ombria, or jNarni Spoletto iTerni (.Perugia Ifland of Corsica, fubjefl to the French. Chief towns Baitia and Bonifacio. Ifland of Malta, fubj eft to the Knights. Chief town Valetta.- Soil and air.J The happy foil of Italy produces the comforts and luxuries of life in great abundance ; each diflriift has its peculiar excellency and com- modity ; wines, the moft delicious fruits^ and oil, are the moft general produftions. As much corn grows here as ferves the inhabitants ; and were the ground properly cultivated, the Italians might export it to their neighbours. The Italian chccfcs, particularly thofe called Parmefans, and their native filk, form a principal part of their commerce. There is here a great variety of air : and fome parts of Italy bear melancholy proof of the alterations that accidental caufes make on the face of nature ; for the Campagna di Roma, where the ancient Romans enjoyed the mofl lalubrious air of any place perhaps on the globe, is now almoft peflilential, through the decreafeof inhabitants, which has occafioned a ftagnation of waters, and putrid exhalations. The air of the northern parts, which lie among the Alps or in their neighbourhood, is keen and piercing, the ground being in many places covered with fnow in winter. The Appennincs, which are a ridge ot mountains that lon- gitudinally almoft divide Italy, have great cftctts on its climate ; the countries on the South being warm, thofe on the North mild and temperate. The fea-breczes rt-frefh the kingdom of Naples fo much, that no remarkable inconvcniency of air is found there, notwichftanding its foutheri) fituation. In general, fhe air of Italy m;iy be faid to be dry and pure. Mountain's.] V/c have already mentioned the Alps and Appennines, which form the chief mouutauis of Italy. The famous volcano of Mount Vefuvius lies in the neighbourhood ol Naples. KivF.R.'i AND LAKKsJ Thc rivcts of Italy are the Po, the Var, the Adige, the Trcbia, the Arno, and the Tiber which runs through thc city of Rome. 'I he famous Rubicon forms the fouthern boundary between Italy and the ancient Clfalpine Gaul. 'i'he lakes of Italy are, thc Maggiore, Lugano, Como, Ifco, and Garda, in thc North ; thc Perugia or Thrahmene, Biacciana, Tcrni, and Celano, in thc middle. !AS» ITALY. 541 Seas, gui.fS or bays, capes, 7 Without a knowledge of thcfe, neither the PROMONToiuKS, AND STRAITS, faiicient Koaiaii authors, nor the hiftory nor geography of Italy, can be underflood. The feas of Italy are, the gulfs of Venice, or the Adriatic fea ; the feas of Naples, Tufcany, and Genoa ; the bays or har- bours of Nice, Villa Franca, Oncglia, Final, Savona, Vado, Spezzia, Lucca, Pifa, Leghorn, Piombino, Civita Vccchia, Gaeta, Naples, Salerno, Policaftro Rhegio, CKiilacc, Tarento, Manfredonia, Ravenna, Venice, Triefte, Iflria, and Fiuir.e ; Gape Spartavento, del Alice, Otranto, and Ancona ; and the ftrait of Meiruia, between Italy and Sicily. The gulfs and bays in the Italian iflands are thofe of Fiorenzo, Baflia, Talada, Porto Novo, Cape Corfo, Bonifacio, and Ferro, in Corfica ; and the ftrait of Bo- nifacio, between Corfica and Sardinia, The bays of Cagliari and Oriftagni ; Cape de Sardis, Cavello, Monte Santo, and Polo, in Sardinia. The gulfs of Mef- fina, Melazzo, Palermo, Mazara, Syracufe, and Catania ; cape Faro, Mclazzo, Orlando, Gallo, Trapano, Paflaro, and Aleflia, in Sicily ; and the bays of Porto Feraio, and Porto Longone, in the ifland of Elba. Metals and minerals.] Many places of Italy abound in mineral fprings ; fome hot, fomewarm, and manyof fulphureous, chalybeat, and medicinal qualities. Many of its mountains abound in mines that produce groat quantities of emeralds, jafper, agate, porphyry, lapis lazuli, and other valuable flones. Iron and copper- mines, are found in a tew places ; and a mill for forging and fabricating thtfe metals is eredied near Tivoli, in Naples. Sardinia is laid to contain mines of o-old filver, lead, iron, fulphur, and alum, though they are now neglected ; and curious cryftals and coral are found on the coaft of Corfica. Beautiful marble of all kinds is one of the chief produdtions of Italy. Vegetable and animal pro- 1 Befides the rich vegetable productions DUCTIONS, BY SEA AND LAND. 5" mentioned under the article of foil, Italy- produces citrons, and fuch quantities of chefnuts, cherries, plums, and other fruits, that they are of little value to the proprietors. Population, inhabitants, man- 7 Authors are greatly divided on the head NERS, customs, and DIVERSIONS. J of Italian population. This mav be ow- ing to the partiality which every Italian has for the honour of his own province. The number of the king of Sardinia's fubjefts in Italy is about 2,300,000. The city of Milan itfelf, by the beft accounts, contains 300,000, and the duchy is propor- tionably populous. As to the other provinces of Italy, geographers and travellers have paid very little attention to the numbers of natives that live in the country, and inform us by conjed:ure only of thofe who inhabit the great cities. Some doubts have arifen whether Italy isas populous now as it was in the time of Pliny, when it contained 14,000,000 of inhabitants. I am apt to believe that the prefent inhabitants exceed that number. TheCampagna di Roma, indeed, and fome other of the moft beautiful parts of Italy, are at prefent in a manner defolate ; but we are to confider that the modern Italians are in a great meafure free from the uninter- luitting wars, not to mention the tranfmigration of colonies, wiiich formerly, even down to the lixteenth century, depopulated their country. Add to this, that the j)rinccs and Hates of Italy now encourage agriculture and manufactures of all kinds v.'hich undoubtedly promotes population ; lb that it may not perhaps be extrava- gant, if we affign to Italy 20,000,000 of inhabitants, but fome calculations oreatly exceed that number *. The Italians are generally well proportioned, and have fucn * Mr. Swinburne faiih, that 1111779, the number of inhabitants in the kingdom of Naples, amountt J to 4,249,43©, exclufive of the army and naval eftabliflimcm. mcanine 542 I T A L Y. Kieanlng in their louksj, that they have greatly afllfted the ideas of their painters. Their women are well lliaped, and fprightly. The marriage ties, cfpecially of the hi'^her cliifs, are faid to be of little force. Every wife has been reprefented to have her o-allan: or ciciibeo, wirh whom fhe keeps company, and fometimes cohabits, A-ith very little ceremony, and no offence on either fide. But the reprefentations of iome travellers appear to have been much exaggerated. With regard to the modes of life., the beft quality of a modern Italian is fobriety, and they fubmitvcry patiently to the public government- With great taciturnity they difcover bu: little refleftion. They are rather vindiftive than brave, and more fuperftitious than devout. The iniddlino- ranks are attached to theif native culloms, and icem to have no ideas of improvement. Their fondnefs for greens, fruits, and vegetables of all kinds, con- tributes to their contentment and fatisfaftion ; and an Italian can be luxurious at a very fmall expence. Though perhaps all Italy does not contain many defcendants of the ancient Romans, yet the prefent inhabitants fpeak of themfelves as fuc- ceffors !o the conquerors of the world, and look upon the rell of mankind as their inferiors. The drels of the .Italians is little different from that of the neighbouring coun- tries, and they affed a medium between the French vokatility and the folemnity of the Spaniards. The .Neapolitans frequently drefs in black, in compliment to the Spaniards. It cannot be denied that the Italians excel in the fine arts ; though they make at prefent but a very inconfiderable figure in the fciences. They cultivate and enioy vocal mufic at a very dear rate, by emiafculating their males when young ; to which their mercenary parents agree without ren^.orfe. The Italians, the Venetians efpecially, have very little or no notion of the im- propriety of many cuftoms that are confidered as criminal in other countries. Pa- rents, rather than their fons fliould thiow themfelves away by unfuitable marriage, or contract difeafes by promifcuous amours, hire miftreffes for them, for a month, or a year, or fome determined time ; and concubinage, in many places of Italy, is an avowed licenced trade. The Italian courtezans, or bona rohas, as they are tailed, make a kind of profefiion in all their cities. Maiiquerading and gaming, horfe-races without riders, and converfations or aflemblies, are the chief diverfions of the Italians, except religious exhibitions, in which they are pompous beyond all other nations. A modern writer, defcribing his journey through Italy, gives us a very unfa- vourable piclure of the Italianb, and their manner of living. Give what fcope you pleafe to your fancy, fays he, you will never imagine half the difagreeablenefs that Italian beds, Italian cooks, and Italian nailinefs, offer to an Lnglifliman. At Turin, Milan, Venice, Rome, and j>erhaps two or three other towns, you meet with o-ood accommodations ; but no words can exprefs the wretchednefs of the other inns. No other beds than thofe of flraw, with a matrnfs of flraw, and next to that a dirty fliect, fprinklcd with water, and confequently damp : for a covering, YOU have ;inother flieet as coarfe as the firft, like one of our kitclien jack-towels, with a tlirty coverlet. The bedftead confiRs of four wooden forms or benches : an I'-nL^lilh peer and jieercfs muft lie in this manner, unlefs they carry an upholllerer's fhop with them. 'J'here are, by the bye, no fuch things as curtains ; and in all their inns the walls are bare, and the floor has never once been waflicd firtce it was firfl: l.iid. One of the mofl indelicate cufloms here is, that men, and not women, make the ladies beds, and would do every offi-ce of a maid fervant, if fufi'ered. They never fcour their pewter ; their knives are of the fame colour. In thefe inns thiy make you pay largely, and fend up ten times as much as you can eat. The foup, like wafli, with pieces of liver fwimming in it ; a plate full of brains, fiird in the ihipe of fritters j a difh of livers and gizzards ; a couple of fowls (always killed afcr ITALY. .^3 .iftef your arrival) boiled to rags, without any the IcaU: kind of fauce or lierbagc ; another fowl, juft killed, ftewcci, as they call it ; then two more f'ov/ls, or a turkey roafted to rags. All over Italy, on the roads, the chickens and fowls aie fo ftrincv, you may divide the breaft'into as many filaments as you can a halfpenny-v/orili of thread. Now and then wc get a liitle piece of mutton or veal ; and, generally fpeaking, it is the only eatable morfjl that falls in our way. T!ie bread all the wav is exceedingly bad ; and the butter fo rancid, that it cannot be touched, or even borne within the reach of your fmell. But what is a greater evil to tiavelltrs than any of the above recited, are th'^ infinite number of gnats, bugs, fleas, and lice, which infelt us by day and night. \\"e beg leave to add a Itill more modern defcription of the national charatfler of the Italians, given lately by the abbe Jagemann, member of the Florentine Aca- demy of Agriculture, " Confidering the mildnefs of the climate, the uncommo:i fertility of the foil, the fituation of moll towns and boroughs on hills, the excel- lent fpring-vvater from the Alps and the Appennines, the number of mineral waters and baths, the fpacioufncfs of the ftreets and houfes, the delightful views, the fre^ quent refidence of the Italians on their villas, the fragrancy and healthinefs of the air, the temperate diet, the facility of getting cured of difeafes in the hofpitals, one is inclined to think that the corporeal frame of an Italian, if not enervated in earlv youth, cannot but be ftrong, healthy, and beautiful. The handfomeft perfons of either fex are found in Tufcany. The Italians, in general, are alfo endowed with good fenfe and difcernment ; apt to defpife mere theoretical fpeculations, and to judge by their own feelings and experience : but education is rather neo-kded. The chief part of their religion confifis in an external obfervance and praftice of ec- clefiaftical rites, ceremonies, and injuncflions. An Italian, not enlightened by re- flexion and experience, will fooner commit adultery than eat any flefii-meat on a Friday; but a foreigner, who wilhes to pais for a Roman catholic, needs only to Hick to his window an atteftation, by a phyfician, that his ftate of health recuiir-.; a flefli-meat diet ; and he may, without any rifle eat flefh-meat in Lent. Such ac- teftations may be purchafcd in coffee-houfcs, at Florence. The Italians are very fenfual ; exceedingly fond of mufic ; little addicted to drunkennefs and coarfe jokes ; impatient of delay in their paffions for the fair fex ; jealous of the PVench, but fond of the national characters of the Englifh and the Germans. They llill brearhu; their ancient fpirit of liberty and republicanlfm, and are averfe to monarchical o-o- vernment, to which they were fubjedled by force. Hence, a true born Italian, of^aa independent fortune, feldom courts public employments ; hence their beft o-eniufcs too are little known ; hence alfo their almoft general inclination to fatire, and the bitternefs of their fatires. Hence their general hatred and contempt for the mili-- tary fcrvicc, and for the minifiers and executors of criminal jurifdiction. Their drefs and their whole condudl; prove their fondnefs of liberty and eafe, and their averfion to confliainr, ceremony and compliments. As fo grent a variety of ea-- joymcnts and convenicncies are, for an Italian, fo many neceiTuies of life,, he mull be a rigid a;conomiil ; but thofe mofi: famous for their oeconcmical managemear , are the Florentines and the Genoefe. Hence their habitual cuftom o( enterino- into the mod minute details and calcalations, and of firictly adhering ur rules. Hence their peculhir talents and {kill for commerce, trade, political osconcMny, finances, their avidity for gain, antl their envy at the profperity of other people. Their refcntmeoc iafts only till they have produced a fati^fatlion adequate to a wrong fuftained; rhev are lefs Irafcible than many other nations : but when grofsly injured in their charac-- ter or fortunes, they are capable of every excefs. Of aflaffinations, however abbe Jagemann recoUefts only three inftances in Tufcany, in fifteen years. From then- mutual difuult, an Italian indeed feldom becomes an intiniate friend to anothar Ita- lian ;. 544 I T A L T. lian ; but then their frk'iidfhip proves the more cordial and lafting. No nation is more companionate to the dillrefled, or more ready to ferve ftrangcrs ; yet letters of recommendation ought not to be negleded by travellers." Religion.] The religion of the Italians is Roman-catholic. The inquifition here is little m-ore than a lound ; and perfons of all religions live unmoielted in Italy, piovided no grofs infult is offered to tlufir worfhip. In the Introduftion, we have "iven an account of the rife and ellablifhment of popery in Italy, from whence it .fl)read over all Europe ; likevvife of the caiifes and f} mptoms of its decline. The ccclefiailical povernment of the papacy has employed many volumes in dcfcribing it. The cardinals, who are next in dignity to his holinefs, are feventy : but that number is feldom or never complete : they are appointed by the pope, who takes care to have a majority of Italian cardinals, that the chair may not be removed from Rome, as it was once to Avignon in France, the then pope being a French- man. In promoting foreign prelates to the cardinalfliip, the pope regulates himfelf according to the nomination of the princes who profefs that religion. His chief minider is the cardinal patron, generally his nephew, or .near relation, who im- proves the tim.e of the pope's reign by amaffing what he can. When met in a con- liftiory, the cardinals pretend to control the pope, in matters both fpiritual and temporal, and have been fomietim.es known to prevail. The reign of a pope is feldom of long duration, being generally old men at the time of their eleftion. The conclave is a fcene where the cardinals principally endeavour to difplay their parts, and where many tranfaftions pafs which hardly fhew their inipiration to be from the Holy Ghoft. During the eleftion of a pope in 1721, the animofities ran fo high, that they came to blows with both their hands and feet, and threw the ink- ftandiflies at each other, ^^'e fhall here give an extrad from the creed of pope Pius IV. 1 560, before his elevation to the chair, which contains the principal points wherein the church of Rome differs from the proteftant churches. After declaring his belief in one God, and other heads wherein Chriltians in general are agreed, he proceeds as follows : " I moft firmly admit and embrace the apoftolical and ecclefiaftical traditions, and all other conltitutions of the church of Rome. " I do admit the holy fcriptures in the fame fenfe that holy motlier-church doth, whole bufinefs it is to judge of the true fenfe and interpretation of them i and I will interpret them according to the unanimous confent of the fathers, " I do profefs and believe that there are feven facraments of the law, truly and properly fo called, inftituted by Jefus Chrift our Lord, and neccffary to the jalva- tion of mankind, though not all of them to every one ; namely, b.iptifm, confirm- ation, eucharift, penance, extreme undion, orders, and marriage, and that they do confer grace; and thatofthefe, baptifm, confirmation, and orders, may not be repeat- ed v/itliout facrilege. I do alfo receive and admit the received and approved rites of the catholic church in her folemn adminiltration of the abovefaid facraments. " I do embrace and receive all and every thing that hath been defined and de- clared liy the holy council of Trent * concerning original fin and juifification. " I do alfo profefs that in the mafs there is offered unto God a true, proper, and iiropitiatory facrificc for the quick and the dead ; and that in the molt holy facra- menr of the eucharift there is truly, really, and fubftantially, the body and blood, too^ether with the foul apd divinity, of our X-ord Jefus Chrill ; and that there is a • A convocation of Rnmnn-c:itliolic carjin;ils certain points of fjitli, and to fii|iprefs whal s. To eat flodi and white meats ia Lent, and other fafting days, ics. 6d. That a king or queen fliall enjoy fuch i;-.diilgences', as if they «cnt to Rome, 15 1. For a queen to adopt a child, j;oI. To marry in times prohibited, ;1. (;s. To e.it flefli in times prohil)ltcd, il. ^s. Ni't to be tied to filiin;^ days, il. 4s. For a towii to tike out of a cliuich them (ini:r- derers) th.it ha-ve taken fanifluary therein, 4I.10S. FACULTIES. ' . . To abfolve all de inqucn'.s, ;1. To difpenfe with irregularities, 3I, 4A Arch- •e -$^6 ITALY. Archeishopricks.]. There are thirty-eight archbifhopriclis in Italy, but the fuf- fragans annexed to them are too indefinite and arbitrary for the reader to depend upon, the pope creating or fiippreffing them as he pleales. Language.] The Italian language is remarkable for its fmoothnefs, and the facility with which it enters into rnuiical compofitions. The ground work of it is Tatin, and it is eafily maftered by a good clafiical fcholar, Almoll every ftate in Italy has a different d'ialeft ; and the prodigious pains taken by the literary focieties there, may at laft fix the Italian into a ilandard language. At prefent the Tufcan iiyle and v/ricing is moft in requeft. The Lord's Prayer runs tiius : Padre, noftro, che Jeinel c'lelo, fia favtlijkato il tuo Kome ; il tuo regno venga -, la tiia volunta fiafatia, ft come in cielo coft ancbe in terra; liacil oggi il tiqjlro pane cotidiano ; e rimettici i nojiri dehiti, fueome noi ancora rimet- tiamo a' noJlri debitori ; e nmi inducici in tentaticne, ma liberaci dal rnaligno ; peracch\ tuo e il regno, c la potenza, e la gloria injeinpiterno. Amen. Learning and learnjid men, painters, ) In the Introduftion, we have STATUARIES, ARCHITECTS, AND ARTISTS, j" particularifcd fomc of the great men which ancient Italy produced. In modern times, that is, fince the revival of learnin.'i;, fome Italians have flione in controverfial learning, but they are chiefly cele- brated by bigots of their own perfuafion. The mathematics and natural philofophy owe much to Galileo, Toricelli, Malpighi, Borelli, and feveral other Italians. Strada is an excellent hiftorian ; and the hiftorv of the council of Trent, by the celebrated father Paul, is a flandard work. Guicciardini, Bentivogiio, and Da- vila, have been much commended as hiftorians by their feveral admirers. Machiavel is equally famous as an hiitorian, and as a political writer. His comedies have much merit ; and the liberality of his fentimenrs, for the age in which he lived, is amazing. Among the profe writers in the Italian language, Boccace has been thought one of the moll pure and correft in point of ftyie : he was a very natural painter of life and manners, but his produftions are too licentious. Petrarch, who wrote both in Latin and Italian, revived among the moderns the fpirit and genii^s of ancient literature : but among the Italian poets, Dante, Ariofto, and TalTo, are the mofl diflinguiflicd. There are laid to be upwards of a thoufand comedies in the Italian language, though not many that are exctllent : but Metaftafio has acquired immortal reputation by writing dramatic pieces fet to mufic. Sannazarius, Fracaflo- rlus, Eembo, Vida, and other natives of Italy, have diilinguifhed themfclves by the elegance, correftnefs and fpirit of their Latin poetry, many of their compofitions approaching in fome degree to the claffics rhcmfelves. Socinus, who was fo much diftinguiJhed by his oppofuion to the dofirine of the Trinity, was a native of Italy, 'Ihe Italian painters, fculptors, architedls, and muficians, are unrivalled, not only in their numbers, but their excellencies. The revival of learning, after the fack of Conftantinople by the Turks, revived tafte likcwife, and gave mankind a reliih for truth, and beauty in dcfign and colouring. Raphael, from his own ideas, affilUd by the ancients, ilruck out a new creation by his pencil, and lUU ftands at the head of painting. Michael Angelo Buonarotti excelled at once in painting, fculpture, und archicecfture. The colouring of Titian has perhaps never yet been equalled. Bramante, Bernini, and many other Italians, carried fculpture and architeillurc to an amazing height. Julio Romano, Correggio, Caraccio, Veronefe, and others, are, lis painters, unequalled in their feveral manners. The fame mav be fiiid of Corclli, and other Italians, in mufic. At prelcnt, Italy cannot jullly boalt of any paramount genius in the fine arcs- UN iversitius.] Thofc of Italy are, Rome, Venice, Florence, Mantua, Padua, Parma, Verona, Milan, Pavia, 13ologna, Fcrrara, Pifa, Naples, Sal- erno, and Perufia. Anti- ) I T A I, Y. 547 Antiqi-tities and cubiosities, 7 Italy is the native country -of all that is NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ llupcndous, gicat, or beautiful, either in an- cient or modern times. A library might be filled by delcriptions and delineations of all that is rare and curious in the arts; but the bounds of this work admit not of enlarging upon this fubjeft. We can give but a very brief account of thofe objedts that are moil diltinguiflied either for antiquity or excellence. The amphitheatres claim the firft rank, as a fpecies of the moft ftriking magni- ficence : there are at Rome confiderable remains of that which was ereftcd by Vefpafian, and finifhed by Domitian, called the ColifTeo. Twelve thouland Jewilh captives were employed by Vefpafian in this building ; and it is faid to have been capable of containing eighty-feven thoufand fpeftuors feared, and twenty thou- fand (landing. The architeflure of this amphitheatre is perfectly light, and its proportions are fo jufl, that it does not appear near fo large as it really is. But it has been dripped of all its magnificent pillars and ornaments, at various times, and by various enemies. The Goths, and other barbarians, began its de- ftruftion, and popes and cardinals have endeavoured to complete its ruin. Car- dinal Farnefe, in particular, robbed it of fome fine remains of its marble cornices, friezes, &c. and, with infinite pains and labour, got away what was prafticable of the outfide cafing of marble, which he employed in building the palace of Far- nefe. The amphitheatre of Verona, ercfted by the conful Flaminius, is thoucrht to be the moft entire of any in Italy. There are forty-five rows of fleps carried all round, formed of fine blocks of marble about a foot and a half high each, and above two feet broad. Twenty-two thouland perfons may be feated here at their eafe, allowing one foot and a half for each perion. This amphitheatre is quite per- fedr, and has been lately repaired with the greatell care, at the expence of the inha- bitants. They frequently exhibited in it plays, combats of wild beafts, and other public fpedlacles. The ruins of theatres, and amphitheatres are alfo vifiblc in other places. The triumphal arches of Vefpafian, Septimius Severus, and Conltantine the Great, are ftill Handing, though decayed. The ruins of the baths, palaces and temples, anfwer all the ideas we can form of the Roman grandeur. The Pantheon, which is at prefent converted into a modern church, and which, from its circular figure, is commonly called the Rotunda, is more entire than any other Roman temple now remaining. There are ftill left feveral of the niches which anciently contained the ftatues of the Heathen deities. The outfide of the building is of Tivoli frec- ftone, and within, it is encrufted with marble. The roof of the Pantheon is a round dome, without pillars, the diameter of which is a hundred and forty-four feet ; and though it has no windows, but only a round aperture in the centre of this dome, it is very light in every part. The pavement confifts of large fquare ftones and por- phyry, (loping round towards die centre, where the rain-water, falling down through the aperture on the top of the dome, is conveyed away by a proper drain covered with a ftone full of holes. The colonade in the front, which confifts of fixtecn columns of granite, thirty-feven feet high, exclufive of the pedeftals and capitals, each cut out of a fingle block, and which are of the ("oiinthian order, can hardly be viewed without allonilhment. The entrance of the church is adorned with columns f<3rty-eight feet high, and the architrave is formed of a fingle piece of granite. On the left hand, on entering the portico, is a large antique vafe of Numidian marble ; and in the area before the church is a fountain, with an antique bafon of porphyry. The pillars of Trajan and Antonine, the foriner 175 feet high, and the latter cover- ed with inftruv^ive fculptures, are ftill remaining. A traveller forgets the devaft- ations of the northern barbarians, when he fees the roftrated column eredled by Duillius, in commemoration of tlie firft naval vidory the Romans gained over the Carthaginians ; the llaiue of the wolf giving fuck to Romulus and Remus, with 4 ■'^ ^ vifihle 548 ITALY. vifible ma^ks of tlie flrcke of lightning, mentioned by Cicero ; the very original? brals places containing the laws of the twelve tables j and a thoufand other anti- quities tranfmitted unhurt to the prelcnt times ; not to mention the infinite variety of medals, feals, and engraved ftones which abound in the cabinets of the curious.- Many palaces, all over Italy, are funiifhed with bufts and ftatues fabricated in the times of the republic and the higher empire. TheAppian, Flaminian, and 7£milian roads, the firft 200 miles, the fecond 130, and the thi;d 50 miles in length, are in many places ftill entire j and magnificent ruins of villas, refervoirs, bridges, and the like, prcfent themfelves all over Italy. The fubterraneous conilrviftions of Italy are as lUipendous as thofe above ground ; witnefs the cioacse, and the catacombs, or repofitories for dead bodies, in the neigh- bourhood of Rome and Naples. It is not above 30 years fince, a painter!s appren- tice difcovered the ancient city of Pjeflum or Pofidonium, in the kingdom of N aplej, ftill ilanding ; for fo indifferent are the country people of Italy about objedls of an- tiquity, that it was a new difcovery to the learned. An inexhauflible mine of cu- riofitics are daily dug out of the ruins of Herculaneum, a city lying between Naples and Vefuvius, which in the reign of Nero was almofl deftroyed by an earthquake, and aftcrv/ards, in the firft year of the reign of Titus, overwhelmed by a ffream of the lava of Vefuvius. The melted lava in its courfe filled up the ftreets and houfes in fome places to the height of iixty-eight feet above the tops of the latter, and in others one hundred and ten feet. The lava is now of a confifiency which renders it cxtrem.ely difHcult to be removed or cleared away : it is compofed of bituminous particles, mixed with cinders, minerals, metallics, and vitrified fandy fubftances, which altogether form a clofe and heavy mafs. In the year 1713, upon digging, into thefe parts, fomewhat of this unfortunate city was difcovered, and many anti- quities were dug out ; but the fearch was afterwards difcontinued, till the year 1736, when the king of Naples employed men to dig perpendicularly eighty feec deep, whereupon not only the city made its appearance, butalfo the bed of the river which ran through it. The temple of Jupiter was then brought to light, and the whole of the theatre. In the temple was found a ftatue of gold, and the infcription that decorated the great doors of entrance. In the theatre the fragments of a gilc chariot of bronze, with horfes of the fame metal, likewife gilt : this had been placed over the principal door of entrance. They likewife found among the ruins of this city multitudes of ftatues, bulls, pillar:;, paintings, manufcripts, furni- ture, and various utenfils ; and the fearch is ftill continued. The fb'eets of the town appear to have been quite flraight and regular, and the houfes well built, and-' much alike ; fome of the rooms paved v.'ith mofaic, others with fine marbles, others- again with bricks, three feet long and fix inches thick. It appears that the town v/as not filled up fo unexpcdlcdly with the m.eltcd lava, as to prevent the grcateft part of the inhabitants from cfcaping with many of their richefl cffeds ; for when the excavations were made, there were not more than a dozen flcelctons found, and but little of gold, filver, or precious flones. Th.e town of Pompeia was dellroycd by the fame eruption of mount Vefuvius, which occafioned the deflrudion of Hcrculancun:i ; but it was not difcovered till near forty years after the difcovery of the latter. One flrcet, and a few detached buildings of diis town, have been cleaied : the ftreet is well paved with the fame kind of ftone of which the ancient roads are made, and narrow caufeways are raifed a foot and a half on each fide for the conveniency of foot pafTcngers. The llrett itfelf is not fo broad as the narrovvefl part of the Strand, and is fuppofed to have been inhabited by trades-people. The traces of wheels of carriages are to be feenon the pavement. The houfes arc fmall, but give an idea of neatnefs and con- veniency. The ftucco on the walls is fmooch and "beautiful, and as hard as marble. Sonic I T A L Y. ^,p ?ome of the rooms are ornamented with paintings, mofrly fingle figures, reprcfentinp- ibme animal. Tliey are tolei-ab!y well executed, and on a little water being thrown on them, tlie colours appear furprifingly frefli. Molt of the houfes are built on the fame plan, and have one fmall room from the paflage, which is conjeftured to have been the fhop, with a window to the flrcet^ and a place which feems to have been contrived for fhewing the goods to the greateft advantage. In another part of the town is a rejftangular building, with a colonade towards the court, fomethin<>- in the ftyle of the Royal Exchange at London, but fmallcr. This has every appearance of a barrack and guard- room ; the pillars are of brick, covered with fhining flucco, elegantly fluted ; the fcrawlings and drawings flill vifible on the walls, are fuch as migiit be naturally expedted on the walls of a guard-room, where foldiers are the defigners, and fwords the engraving tools. I'hey confifl: of gladiators fighting, feme with each other, fome with wild beads ; the games of the circus, as chariot races, wreftling, and the like ; a few figm-cs in caricatura, defigned probably by fomc of the foldiers in ridicule of their companions, or perhaps of their olTicers j and there are many names infcribed on various parts of the wall. At a confiderabie diftance from the barrack is a temple of the goddcfs Ifis, the pillars of which arc of of brick, Ituccoed like thofe of the gti-ard-room ; but there is nothing verv magni- ficent in the appearance of this edifice. The beft painrings, hitherto found at Pompeia, are thofe of this temple ; they have been cut out of the walls, and re- moved to POrticio' Few Ikeletons were found in the firects of this town, but a con- fiderabie number in the houfes. With regard to modern curiofities in Italy, they are as bewildered as the remains^ of antiquity. Rome itfelf contains 300 churches, filled with all that is rare in archi- tefture, painting, and fculpture. Each city and town of Italy contains a proportion- able number. The church of St. Peter, at Rome, is the moft aftonilliino-, bold, and regular fabric, that ever perhaps exifted ; and when examined by the rules of art, it may be termed faultlefs. The houfe and chapel of Loretto is rich beyond ima- gination, notvi^ithftanding the ridiculous romance that compofes its hiftory. The natural curiofities of Italy, though remxarkable, are not fo numerous as its artificial. Mount Vefuvius, which is five Italian miles diltant from the city of Naples, and Mount Etna, in Sicily, are remarkable for emitting fire from their tops. The declivity of Mount Vefuvius towards the fea, is every where planted with vines and fruit-trees, and it is equally fertile towards the bottom. The cir- cumjacent plain affords a delightful profpeft, and the air is clear and wholelbme. The South and Weft fides of the mountain form very different views, being, like the top, covered with black cinders and Itones. The height of Mount Vefuvius has been computed to be 3900 feet above the furface of the fea. It. hath been a volcano beyond the reach of hiftory or tradition. An animated defcription of its ravages in the year 79, is given by the younger Pliny, who was a witncfs toV/hat he wrote. From that time to the year 1631, its eruptions were but fmall and mo- derate, however then.it broke out with accumulated fury, and defolated miles around.- In- 1694, was a great eruption, which continued near a month, when burning mat- ter was thrown out with io much force, that fome of it fell at thirty miles diftance, and a vafv quantity of melted minerals, mixed with other matter, ran down like a river for three miles, carrying every thing before it v/hich lay in its way. In 1707, when there was another eruption, fuch quantities of cinders and allies were thrown our, that it was dark at Naples at noon-day. In 1767, a violent eruption happen- ed, which is reckoned to be the twenty-l'eventh from that v/hich dellroyed Hercu- laneum in the time of Titus. In this laft eruption the allies, or rather fmall cin- ders, fliowered dov/n fo faft at Naples, that the people in the ftreet were oblio-ed to ufe umbrellas, or adopt fome other expedient, to guard themltlves againft them. ' The 55° ITALY. The tops'of die hoiifes, and the balconies,^were covered with thefe cinders ; and fhips at lea, tvventy leagues from Naples, were covered with them, to the greac aftonifhment of the failors. An eruption happened alfo in 1766, and another in 1779, which has been particularly defcribed by fir William Hamilton, in the Phi- lofophical 1 ranfaftions. It has been obferved by a modern traveller, that though Mount Vefuvius often fills the neighbouring country with terror, yet as few things in nature are fo abfolutely noxious as not to produce fome good ; even this raging volcano, by its fulphureous and nitrous manure, and the heat of its fubterraneous fires, contributes not a little to the uncommon fertility of the country around it, and to the profufion of fruits and herbage with which it is every where covered. Be- fides, it is fuppofcd that the mountain, being open and aftive, proves lefs hoftile to Naples, than it would be, if its eruptions were to ceafe, and its ftruggles con- fined to its own-bowels, for then might enfue the moft fatal fhocks to the unliable foundation of the whole diftrift of Terra di Lavora*. Mount ^tna is 10,954 feet in height, and has been computed to be 60 miles m circumfejerice. It ftands feparate from all other mountains, its figure is circular, and it terminates in a cone. The lower parts of it are very fruitful in corn and fiio-ar-canes; the middle abounds with woods, olive trees and vines; and the upper part is almoft the whole year covered with fnow. Its fiery eruptions have always rendered it famous: in one of thefe, which happened in 1669, fourteen towns and villao-es were deftroyed, and there have been feveral terrible eruptions fince that time. There is generally an e.irthquake before any great eruption. In 1693, the port-town of Catania was overturned, and 1^,000 people perilhed. Between the lakes Agnano and Puzzuoli, there is a valley called Solfaterra, be- caufe vaft quantities of fulphur are continually torced out of the clifts by fubter- ranean fires. The grotto del Cane is remarkable for its poifonous fleaftTs, and is fo called from their killing dogs that enter it, if forced to remain there. Scorpi- ons, vipers, and ferpents, ai'e laid to be common in Apulia. Amono- the natural curiofitiesof Italy, thofe vaft bodies of fnow and ice, which are called the Glaciers of Savoy, deferve to be particularly mentioned. There are five glaciers, which iaclofe the vale of Chamouny, and are feparated by wild forefts, corn-fields, and rich meadows ; fo that immenfe traits of ice are blended with the hif^hefl: cultivation, and perpetually fucceed to each other, in the moil fingular and ftrikino- vicilTitude. All thefe feveral vailics of ice, which lie chiefly in the hollows of the mountains, and are fome leagues in length, unite together at the foot of Mont Blanc i the highefl; mountain in Europe, and probably of the ancient world. According to the calculations of Mr. de Luc, the height of this mountain, above the level of the fea, is 23 9! French toifes, or 15,303 Knglifh feet. " I am con- vinced," fays Mr. Coxe, " from the fituation of Mont Blanc, from the heights of the mountains around it, from its fuperior elevation above them, and its being feerj at a great diftance from all fides, that it is higher than any mountain in Switzer- land : which, beyond a doubt, is, next to Mont Blanc, the higheft ground in Europe. * Sir William H.imilion, in his nrcnunt of the proportion as the countries were more or lefs diftant rarthquakcs in C;i!al.ria Ultra, and Sicil)-, fr'Mii from this fuppofcd centre of the evil. One cir- Febuiaiy cfh, to MrfV 178-, "ives feveral rciifons cumlhince he j)articul;nly remarked ; if two towns tor hclicving that they were occafio ird by the ope- were fituated a' an equal diltancc from this ccntrr, rxtion of a i.olcajio, the feat of which l.iy deep the one en a hill, the other on the plain, or in a either un.'cf the botiomof the fea, hctwtcn Strom- h ,ltoni, the la'terhad always futlVrcd ijic.itly mc re boli, and ihe co.ll of Calabria, or under the pans by ihc flio. ks of ihc e;irth(iuakes than the form r: of tl>e pi dn toward'. Oppido and Terra Nuova. He a fvillicicnt proof to him ot the caufc coming tioiu p'ainly obfeivcd a !:ji:Klatioii in the damago done to bcnea.h. ilie biiikliugs, as alio in tjic degree ot moru'ii} , iu States ITALY. 551 Statfs of Italy, constitu-? Thus far, of Italy in general j but as the TioN, AND CHiiiF CITIES. ^ Italian ftares are not, like the republics oi Holland, or Switzerland, or the empire of Germany, cemented by a political con- federacy, to whicn every member is accountable, for every Italian ftate has diftinft forms of government, trade, and interfts, I fhall be obliged to take a feparate view of each, to aflift the reader in forming an idea of the whole. The duke of SAVOY, or, as he is now ftyled, king of SARDINIA*, taking his royal title from that ifland7 is a powerful prince in Italy, of which he is called the Janus, or keeper, againft the French. His capital, Turin, is flrongly fortified, and one of the fineft cities in Europe ; but the country of Savoy is mountainous and barren, and its natives are forced to fcek their bread all over the world. They are elleemcd a fimple but very honeft people. The king is fo abfolute, that his revenues confill of what he pleafes to raife upon his fubjefts. His ordinary in- Come, befides his own fiimily provinces, cannot be lefs than 500,000!, fterling, out of which he maintains 15,000 men in time of peace. During a war, he can bring into the field 40,000 men. The aggrandizement of his prefent Sardinian majeliy is chiefly owing to England, to whom, by his fituation, he was efteemed a natural ally, for the prefervation of the balance of power in Europe. Savoy is celebrated for its breed of mules ; and Piedmont raifes large quantities of filk. its wines and liqueurs are likewife highly efteemed. The MILANESE, belonging to the houfe ofAuftria, Is a confiderable ftatc, and formerly gave law to all Italy, when under the government of its own dukes. The fertility and beauty of the country are aimoft incredible. Milan, the capita!, and its citadel, is very ftrong, and furniflied with a magnificent cathedral in the Go- thic tafte, which contains a very rich treafury, confiiling chiefly of ecclefiaftical furniture, compofed of gold, filver, and precious ftones. The revenue of the duchy is above 300,000!. annually, which is fuppofed to maintain an army of 30,000 men. The natives are fond of literary and political affemblies. With all its natural and acquired advantages, the natives of Milan make but few exports ; fo that its revenue, unlefs the court of Vienna fhould purfue fome other fyftem of improvement, cannot be much bettered. The duchy of Mantua, being now in- corporated with it, the province is to take the name of Auftrian Lombardy. The republic of GENOA is vaftly degenerated from its ancient povv^er and opu- lence, though the fpirit of trade ftill continues among its nobility and citizens. Genoa is a fuperb city, and contains feveral magnificent palaces, particularly thofe * Vklor-Amadeus-Vaiia, king of Sardinia 4. Aiina-Maria-Carolina, born December 17, and duke ot Sjvoy, born June 20, 1726; niarri- 1757. cd, April 12, 1750, to Maria-Antonictta-Ferdi- j. Vit^or-Emanuel Cajetau due d'.'Voftc, born nanda, infanta ot Spain; afcended the tlironc on July 24, 1759- the dciith of his father, February zo, 1773. Their b. Maurice-Jofeph-Maria, due de Montferr.'^t, ilivie are born September 12, 1762. 1. Charlcs-Emanuel-Perdinand-Maria, prince 7. Maria Charlotta, born January 17, 1764. of Piedmont, horn May 2^, 17- 1. 8. Charles-Jofcph, due dc Genevois, born 2. Maria-Jofepha-Louifa, born September 2, April 6, 1765. 1753; married to tlie count dc Provence. g. Jofeph-BenedisS, comte de Maurienne, born 3. Maria-Therefa, born January 31, 1756; OiSober 5, 1766. married to the count D'Aitois, of 552 ITALY. of Doiia*, and Duraz-zo. The inhabitants of diftlndlion drefs in black. In a plain if not an uncouth nnanner, perhaps to fave expences. Their chief maniifadtures are velvets, damaflcs, gold and filver tiflfues, and paper. The city of Genoa contains about 150,000 inhabitants (but fome writers greatly diminifli that number), among .whom are m:any rich trading individuals. Jts maritmie power is dwindled down to fix gallies. The chief fafety of this republic confifts in the jealoufy of other Eu- ropean pov/ers, becaufe to any one of them it would be a moft valuable acquifition. The common people are wretched beyond expreffion, as is the foil of its territory. Near the fea fome parts are tolerably well cultivated. The government of Genoa is ariftocratical_, being vefted in the nobility : the chief perfon is called the Doge, or Duke; to which dignity no perfon is promoted till he is fifty years of age. Every two years a new doge is chofen, and the former is incapable during five years of holding the fame poft again. The doge gives audience to ambaflTadors ; all orders of government are ilTued in his name, and he is allawed a body-guard of two hun- dred Germans. VENICE is one of the moft celebrated republics in the worlds on account both of its conflitution and former power. It is compofed of feveral fine provinces on the continent of Italy, fom.e iflcnds in the Adriatic, and parr of Dalmatia. The city of Venice is feared on 72 iflands at the bottom of the north end of the Adri- atic fea, and is feparated from the continent by a marfliy lake of five Italian miles in breadth, too fliallow for large fhips to navigate, which forms its principal llrength. Venice preferves the veftiges of its ancient m;ignificence, but is in every jefpccl degenerated^ except in the paffion which its inhabitants ftill retain for mu- fic and mummery during their carnivals. They feem to have loft their ancient tafte for painting and architefture, and to be returning to Gothicifm. They have had hov.ever lately fome fpirited differences with the court of Rome, and feem to be difpofed to throw off their obedience to its liead. As to the conftitution of the republic, it was originally democratical, the magiftrates being chofen by a general aft'embly of the people, and fo continued for one hundred and fifty years; but va- rious charges afterwards took place ; doges, or dukes, were appointed, who were invefted v>'ith great power, which they often grofsly abufed, and fome of them were afiaffinated by the people. By degrees a body of hereditary legillative no- bility was formed; progreftlve encroachments were made on the rights of the peo- ple, and a complete ariftocracy v/as at length eftabliftied upon the ruins of the ancient popular government. The nobility arc divided into fix clafles, amounting in the whole to 25to, each of whom, v/hen twenty-five years of age, has a right to be a member of the grand council. Thefe eleifl: a doge or chief magilliate, in a p(?- culiar manner by ballot, which is managed by gold and filver bails. The doge is invefted with great ftatc, and with emblems of fupreme authority, but has very little power, and is not permitted to llir fiom the city without the permiffion of the grand-council. The government and laws are managed by different councils of the nobles. The college, otherwife called the feigniory, is the fupreme cabinet council of the ft ate, and alfo the reprefcntative of the republic. This court gives audience, and delivers anfwers, in the name of the republic, to foreign ambalTadors, to the de-r puties of towns and provinces, and to the generals of the army. It alfo receives all rcqucfts and memorials on ftate aftairs, fummonsthe feqatc at pleafure, and arranges * Andrew Bor'a, die Iic:ul of t4i's family, fa- (late, but i\-nifcil it, and gave tn the icople thit J110US tor h':3 militiu-y exploits, and the dtliviier of republican loiin of goveniiiiint which flill Cubfil's : Cieii'ia, was bo n in the tcrritorv of Geno.i, in the he lived to the age of g^, the refuge and filrnd of )cai 14C8.; he Was ofl'cred the foycreignty of the the unfortunate. I - the I T A L Y. 55. the biifinefs to be difcufled in that aflembly. The council of ten takes cognizance of ftatc crimes, and lias the power of fcizing accufed perfons, examining them in prifon, and taking their anfwers in writing, with the evidence againft them. But the tribunal of ftate inquifitors, which confifts only of three members, and which is in the higheft degree defpotic in its manner of proceeding, has the power of de- ciding without appeal, on the lives of every citizen belonging to the ^'enctian ftate; the higheft of the nobility, even the doge himfelf, not being excepted. To thcfe three inquifitors is given the right of employing fpies, and iffuing orders to feize all perfons whole words or actions they think reprehenfible, and af- terwards trying them, and ordering them to be executed, when they think proj)cr. They have keys to every apartment of the ducal palace, and can, whenever thev pleafe, penetrate into the very bed-chamber of the doge, open his cabinet, and examine his papers : and of courfe, they may command acccfs to the houfe of every individual in the ftate. They continue in office only one year, but are not refponfible afterwards for their conduft whilft they were in authority. So much diflruft and jealoufy are difplayed by this government, that the noble Venetians are afraid of hav- ing any intercourie with foreign ambafladors, or with foreigners who vifit them. All the orders of Venetian nobility are drefled in black gowns, large wigs, and caps which they hold in their hands. The ceremony of the doge's marrying the Adriatic once a year, by dropping into it a ring, from his buccntaur or ftate-barge, attended by thole of all the nobility, is the moft i'uperb exhibition in Venice, but not comparable for magnificence to a lord mayor's fhcw. The inhabitants of Ve- nice are faid to amount to 200,000. The grandeur and convenience of the city, particularly the public palaces, the treafury, and the arfenal, are beyond expreffion. Over the fevcral canals of Venice, are laid near 500 bridges, the greateft part of which are ftone. The Venetians ftill have fome manufactures in fcarlet cloth, gold and filver ftufts, and above all, fine looking-glaiTes, which bring in a confiderable revenue to the owners j that of the ftate annually is faid to amount to 8,000,00a of Italian florins, each valued at twenty pence of our money. Out of this are de- frayed the expences of the ftate and the pay of the army, which in the time of peace confifts of 16,000 regular trpops (always commanded by a foreign general j, and 10,000 militia. They keep up a fmall fleet for curbing the irvfolenccs of the pi- ratical ftates of Barbary, and they have among them fome orders of knighthood, the chief of which are thofe of the Stola d' ero, fo called from the robe they wear, which is conferred only on the firft quality, and the military order of St. Mark, of which in the proper place. In ecclefiaftical matters the Venetians have two patriarchs ; the authority of one reaches over all the provinces, but neither of them have much power; and both of them are chofen by the fenate ; and all religious feifts (even the Mahometan and Pagan) except proteftants, are here tolerated in the free exercife of their religion. ■ The Venetians are a lively, ingenious people, extravagantly fontl of public amufements, with an uncommon relifli for humour. They are in general tall and well made ; and many fine manly countenances are met with in the ftreets of Ve- nice, refembling thofe tranfmitted to us by the pencils of Paul Veronefe and Ticinn. The women are of a fine ftyle of countenance, with exprcflive features, and arc of an eafy addrefs. The common people are remarkably fober, obliging to ftranc^^ers and gentle in their intercourfe with each other. As it is very much the cuftoui to go about in mafl'is at Venice, and great liberties are taken during the time of the carnival, an idea has prevailed, that there is much more licentioufnefs of manners here than In other places: but this opinion feems to have been carried too far. Great numbers of ftrangers vific Venice during the carnlvaj,, and eight or nine the- atres arc then open. 4 B The 554 I T A I- Y. The doiialnions of Venice confift of a confiderable part of Dalmatia, of fouf towns in Greece, and of the iflands of Corfu, Pachfu, Antipachfu, Santa Maura, Curzolari, Val di Compare, Cephalonia, and Zante. The Venetian territories ia Italy contain the duchy of Venice, the Paduanefe, the peninfula of Rovigo,. the Veronefe, the territories of Vicenza and Brefcia, the diflridts of Bergamo, Cre- Hi^ifco, and the Marca I'revigiana, with part of the country of Friuli. The fub- jeCts of the Venetian republic are not oppieffed : the fenate has found, that mild treatment and good ulage are the belt policvj and more efFecStual than armies ia j-irevtiuing revolts. The principal city of TUSCANY is Florence, which is now poircffed by a> vouno-cr branch of the houfe of Aurtria, after being long held by the illuftrious. iioufe of Medicis, who made their capital the cabinet of all that is valuable, rich,, and mafl:erly in architefture, literature, and the arts, efpecially thofe of painting and fcvilpture. It is thought to contain above 70,000 inhabitants. The beauties, and riches of the grand duke's palaces have been often defcribed ; but all defcrip- ticn fails Aort of their contents. The celebrated Venus of Medicis is thought ta be the ftandard of tafte in female beauty and proportion. The infcription on its. bafe mentions its being made by Cleomenes an Athenian, the fon of Apollodorus^ It is of white marble, and furrounded by other mafter-pieces of fculpture, fome of which are faid to be the works of Praxiteles, and other Greek mailers. Every corner of this beautiful city, which ftands between mountains covered with olive- trees, vineyards, and delightful villas, and divided by the Arno, is full of wonders. in the arts of painting, ftatuary, and architedture. It is a place of fome ftrcngth^ and contains an archbilhop's fee, and an univerfity. The inhabitants boall of the improvements thev have made in the Italian tongue, by means of their Academia della Crufca ; and feveral other academies are now eflabliflied at Florence. Thoucrh the Florentines affeft great ftate, yet their nobility and gentry drive a re- tail trade in wine, which they fell from their cellar-windows, and fometimes they even hang out a broken flafk, as a fign where it may be bought. They deal, be- lides wine and fruits, in gold and fdver fluffs. Since the acceilion of the archduke Peter Leopold, brother to the prefent emperor, to this duchy, a great reformation has been introduced, both into the government and manufactures, to the great benefit of the finances. It is thought that the great-duchy of Tufcany could bring to the field, upon occafion, jo,ooo fighting men, and that its prefent revenues are above 500,000!. a year. The other principal towns of Tulcany are Pifi, Leghorn^ and Sienna ; the firft and lall are much decayed ; but Leghorn is a very handfome tity, built in the modern taCle, and with fuch regularity that both gates are feea from the market-place. It is well fortified, having two forts towards the lea, be-* fides the citadel. The ramparts afford a very agreeable profpeQ: of the fea, and of many villas on the land fide. Mere all nations, and even the Mahometans, have free acccfs, .nnd may fettle. The number of inhabitants is computed at 50,000,.. among whom are faid to be 15,000 Jews, who live in a particular quarter of the I ity, have a handfome fynagoguc, and, though fubjcft to very heavy impofis, arc in a thriving condition, the grcatctl part of the commerce of this city going througlv. their hands. The inhabitants of LUCCA, a fmall free commonwealth, lying on the Tufcnn fca, in a delightful plain, are the mod induflrious of all the Italians. They have iuiprovtd their country into a bcautiiul garden, fo that though they do not exceed i 10,000, their annual revenue amounts to 8o,oool. fi.erling. Their capital is Lucca, which contains about 40,000 inhabitants, who deal in mercery goods,, wines, and fiuits, efpecially olives. This republic is under the protedlion of the emperor* ITALY. 5^5 emperor. The vicinity of t!ic grand -duchy of Tufcany keeps the people of Lucca conftantly on their guard, in order to prcfervc their freedom ; for in fuch a fitua- tion, an univerlal concord and harmony can alone enable them to ranfmic to pof- terity the bleffings of their darling Liberty, whofe name they bear on their arms and whofe image is not only imprclled on their coin, but alfo on the city o-ares, and all their public buildings. It has been remarked that the inhabitants of this little republic, being in poirenion of freedom, appear with an air of cheerfulnefs and plenty, feldom to be tound among thofe of the neighbouring countries. The republic of St. MARINO is here mentioned as a political curiofity. Its territories confift ot a high craggy mountain, with a few eminences at the bot- tom, and the inhabitants boart of having preferved their liberties, as a republic, for 1300 years. It is under the protection of the pope; and the inoftenfivc manners of the inhabitants, who are not above 7000 in all, with the faiall value of their territory, have preferved its conftitution. The duchy and city of PARMA, together with the duchies of Placenria and Guaftalla, now form one of the mod fiourifliing ftates in Italy. The foils of Parma and Placentia are fertile, and produce the richcft fruits and paf- turages, and contain confulerable manuf iftures of filk. Parma is a bifliop's fee, and has an univerfity ; and fome of its magnificent churches are painted by the famous Correggio. The prefent duke of Parma is a prince of the houfe of Bourbon, and fon to the late Don Philip, the king of Spain's younger brother. This country was, fome years part, the feat of a bloody war between the Auftrians, Spaniards, and Neapolitans. The cities of Parma and Placentia are enriched with magnificent buildings ; but his catholic majcfty, on his acceffion to the throne of Naples, is faid to have carried with him thither the mod remarkable pidtures and moveable curiofities. The duke's court is deemed the politelt of any in Italy and his revenues are faid to exceed ioo,oool. fterling a year, a fum rather exaggerated. The city of Parma is fuppofed to contain 50,000 inhabitants. MANTUA, formerly a rich duchy, bringing to its own dukes 500,000 crowns a year, is now much decayed. The government of it is annexed to that of the Milanefe, in poflelTion of the houfe of Auftria. The capital is one of the ftronoeft fortrelfes in Europe, and contains about 16,000 inhabitants, who boaft that Virgil was a native of their country. By an order of the emperor in 1785, this duchy is incorporated with that of Milan into one province, and is now to be called Au- flrian Lombardy. The duchy of MODENA (formerly Mutina) is ilill governed by its own duke, the head of the houfe of Efte, from whom the family of Brunfwic defccnded. The duke is abfolnte within his own dominions, which are fruitful. The duke is vinder the protedion of the houfe of Auftria, and is a valial of the empire. His dominions are far from being flourishing, though very improvcable, they havino- been alternately wafled by the late belligerent powers iu Italy. The ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, which contains Rome, formerly the ca- pital of the world, lies about the middle of Italy. The bad effects of Popiih ty- ranny, fupcrllitiop, and opprefTion, are here too vifiblc. Thofe fpots which, un- der the mafters of the world, were formed into fo many terreftri.d paradifes fur- rounding their magnificent villas, and enriched with all the luxuries that art and nature could produce, are no.v converted into noxious pcllilential marikes and quag- mires; and the Campagna di Roma, that formerly ^^ontaincd a million ot inhabit- 4 1^ 2 ants 556 ITALY. rnts nffords a fcanty fubfiftcncc to a thoiifand mlfcrable pcafnnts. Nbtwlthftand- ing this, the po})e is a confiderablc temporal prince, and fome fuppofe that his an- nual revenue amounts to above a million flerling, other authors rate them much hio-her. \'\'hen we I'pcak comparatively, the fum of a million fterling is too high a revenue to arife from his territorial poUKllons ; his accidental income, which formerly far exceeded that I'uiw, is now diminiHied by the lupprcfTion of the order of Jeluits, from whom he drew vaft fupplies, and the meafures taken by the popifli powers for preventing the great ecckfiailical ilTues of money to Rome. rVccording to the bcft and lattll accounts, the taxes upon the provifions and lodg- ings furmlhed to foreigners, who fpend immenfe fums in viiiting his dominions, form now the greatell part of his accidental revenues. From what has happened, within thefe tlnrty years paft, there is reafon to believe that the pope's territories will be reduced to the limits which the houfes of Auflria and Bourbon Ihall pleafe to prelcribe. Some late po])es have aimed at the improvem.ent of their territories, but their labours have had no great effed. The dilcouragement of induftry and agriculture fecms to be interwoven in the conftitution ot the papal government, wliich is vefted in pioud, lazy ecclefiaflics. Their indolence, and the fanaticifm of their worfliip, in fed their inferiors, who prefer begging, and impofing upon lirangtrs, to induflry and agriculture, efpecially as they mufl hold their proper- ties by the precarious tenure of the will of their fuperiors. In fhort, the inhabi- tants of many parts of the ccclefiafiical ftate muft perifli through their floth, did net the fertility of their foil fpontaneoufly afford them fubfilfence. However, ic may be proper to make one general remark on Italy, which is, that the poverty and fioth of the lower ranks do not take their rife from their natural difpolirions. This obfervation is not confined to the papal dominions. The Italian princes affeded to be the patrons of all the curious and coftly arts, and each vied with th<: other to make his court the repofitory of tafte and magnificence. This pafiion dif- abled them from laying out money upon works of public utility, or from encou- lagino- the induftry, or relieving the wants of their fubjedfs; and its miferable efFeds are feen in many parts of Italy. The fplcndour and furniture of churches in the prpal dominions are inexpreffible, and partly account for the mifery of the fubjeds^ Modern Rome contains, within its circuit, a vaft number of gardens and vine- yards. 1 have already touched upon its curiofities and antiquities. It ftands upoa the Tybcr, an inconfiderablc river when compared to the Thames, and navigated by fmall boats, barges, and lighters. The caftle of St. Angeio, though its chief fortrefs, would be found robe a place of fmall ftrength, were it regularly befieged^ The city flanding upon the ruins of ancient Rome lies much higher, lb that it is- diflicult to dillinguiih the fevcn hills en which it was originally built. When we ccnfuicr Rome as ic now flancis, there is fome reafon to believe that it equals an- cient Rome itfelf in the magnificence of its ftrudures ; nothing in the old city,, when miilrcfs of the world, could come in competition with St. Peter's church ;. and perhaps many other churches in Rome exceed in beauty of architedlure, and value of materials, utenfils, and furniture, her iiacient temples. The inhabitants. cf Rome, in 17 14, amounted to 143,000. If we eonfider that the fpiritoftra- vellino- is much incrcafed fince that time, we cannot reafonably lunpofe them to- be diminifhed at prcfent. J he Campagna di Roma, which contains Rome, is under the infpedion of his holinefs. in ilie other provinces he governs by legates and vice leeates. He monopolifes all the corn in iiis territories, and has always a fufFicicnt number of troops on foot, under proper otlicers, to keep the provinces in awe. I'opc Clement XiV. wiftly dilclaimed all intention of oppofing any arms 10 the neighbouring princes, but thofe of prayers and fupplications. Next to Rome, Kologna, the capital of the Bolognefe, is the molt confiderabla ■tity in llie cccLefiaflical Hate, and an exception to the indolence of its other inha- bitanis ITALY. 3^7 bitants. The government is under a legate a latere, who is always a cardinal, and changed every three years. The people here live more fociably and comfortably than the other fuhjcfts of the pope ; and perhaps their diftancc of near two hun- dred miles fromRome, has contributed to thdr cafe. The rcll of the ecclcfialtical ilatc contains many towns celebrated in ancient hiftory, and even now exhibitin'r the molt flriking vefliges of their flourifliing ftatc about the beginning of the fix^ teenth century ; but they are at prefcnt little better than defolate, though here and there a luxurious magnificent church and convent may be found, which is fup- ported by the toil and fivcat of the neighbouring peafants. The grandeur of Ferrara, Ravenna, Rimini, Urbino (the native city of the celebrated painter Raphael), Ancoma, and many other ftates and cities, illuf- trious in former rimes, are now to be feen only in their ruins and ancient hiftorv. LoRETTO, on the other hand, an obfcure fpot never thought or heard of in times of antiquity, is now the admiration of the world for the riches it contains, and the prodigious refort to it of pilgrims, and other devotees, from a notion induflri- cufly propagated by the Romifh clergy, that the houfc in which the Virgin Mary is faid to have dwelt at Nazareth, was carried thither through the air by ano-cls, at- tended with many other miraculous circumftances, fuch as that all the trees, on the arrival of the facrcd manfion, bowed with the profoundeit reverence ; and "■reaC care is taken to prevent any bits of the materials of this houfe from being carried to other places, and expofed as relics to the prejudice of Loretto. The i^nage of the Virgin Mary, and of the divine infant, are of cedar, placed in a fmall apart- ment, feparated from the others by a filver balluflrade, which has a gate of the fame metal. It is impoffible to delcribe the gold chains, the rings and jewels emeralds, pearls, and rubies, wherewith this image is or was loaded ; and the an- gels of folid gold, who are here placed on every fide, are equally enriched with the moft precious diamonds. To the fuperflition of Roman catholic princes, Lo- retto is indebted for this mafs of treafure. It has been matter of furprize, that no attempt has yet been made by the Turks or Barbary ftates upon Loretto, efpecially as it is badly fortiiied, and ftands near the fea ; but it is now generally fuppofed, that the real treafure is withdrawn^ and metals and ftones of leYs value fubllituted in its place. The king of NAPLES and SICILY, or, as he is more properly called, the King of the Two Sicilies (the name of Sicily being common to both), is poiTefled ofthebrgeft dominions of any prince in Italy, as they comprehend the ancient countries of Samnium, Campania, Apulia, Magna Grecia, and the ifland of Sicily, containing in all about 32,000 fquare miles. They are Iwunded on all fides by the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, except on the north-eaft, where Niiples terminates on the ecclefiaflical ftate. The Appennine runs through it from North to South, and its furfacc is cftimatcd at 3500 fquare leagues. The nir is hot, and its foil fruitful of every thing produced in Italy. 1 he wines, called Vino Greco and La- chryma Chrifti, arc excellent. The city of Naples, its capital, which is extremely fuperb, and adorned with all the profufion of art and riches, and its neighbourhood . would be one of the molt delightful places in Europe to live in, were it not for their vicinity to the volcano of Vefuvius, which fometimes threatens the city with deltrudtion, and the foil Ixing peftered with infcdts and reptiles,- fome of which are venomous. The houles in Naples are inadequate to the population,.but in o-e- jricral, are five or fix ftories in height, and flat at the top : on which are placed Bumbeif: of flower vafes,or fruit-trees, in boxes of earth, producing a very fay and agreeable eftl-e of St. Maik, delivering a llandard to him. ° About the year 1460, Frederick III. emperor of Germany in'Iituted the order of " St. George," and dedicated it to St. George, tutelar faint and patron of Genoa. The doge is perpetual grand-marter, the badge a plain crol's, enamelled gules, pendent to a gold chain, and wore about their neck-^. The crofs is alfo embroidered on their cloaks. In the year 1561, Cofmo of Medicis, firll grand-duke of Tufcany, inllituted the order of " St. Stephen," in memory of a victory which fecured to him the fovereignty of that province. He and his fuccellors were to be grand-maflers. The knights are allowed to marry, and their two principal con- ventual houfes are at Pifa. It is a religious as well as military order, but the knights of Jullice and the Ecclefiaflics, are obliged to make proof of nobility of four defcents. They wear a red crols with right angles, orled or, on the left fide of their habit, and on their mantle. The order of the " Holy Ghoji," was founded with their chief feat, the hofpital of that name in Rome, by pope Innocent III. about the year i 198. They have a grand- mafler, and profefs obedience, challity, and poverty. Their revenue is ef- timated at 24,000 ducats daily, with which they entertain flrangers, relieve the poor, train up deferted children, &c. Their enfign is a white patriarchial crofs with twelve points fewed on their bread on the left fide of a black mantle. The order of " Jefus Cbrift," inflituted by pope John XXII. was reformed and im- proved by pope Paul V. The reigning pope was to be always fovereign of it, and was defigned as a mark of diilindlion for the popes Italiin nobility, but on account of its frecjuent prollltution hath fallen into difcredit. The orde-r of the " Golden Spur-" is faid, -to have been inflituted by pope Pius IV. 1559, and to have been connected with the order of Pius, inflituted a year afterv/aids, but the badges v>erc different. The knights of Pius are lupprefTed, and all that the knight* of the golden fpur, have prelerved to themfelves, is the title of counts of the facrcd palace^ of the Lateran. The badge is a flar of eight points, white j and between the two bottom points, a fpur, gold. History.] Italy was probably firfl peopled from Greece, as we have mentioned in the IntrotluClion, to which we refer the reader for the ancient hiflorv of this country, which, for many ages gave law to the world. The empire ofCharle^ magne, who died in 814, foon experienced the fame fate with that of Alexander. Under his fucceflbrs it was in afiiort time entirely difmembcicd. His Ion, Lewis the Debonair, fucceeded to his dominions -in France and Germany, while Bernard the grandfon of Charlemagne, reigned over Italy and the adjacent illanjs. But Bernard having loll his life by the cruelty of his uncle, again!! wham be hid 4 C 2 L-vieJ. 564 ITALY. levied war, and Lewis himfelf dying in 840, his dominions were divided among his Tons, Lothario, Lewis, and Charles. Lothario, with the title of emperor, re- tained, Italy, Provence, and the fertile countries fituated between the Saone and the Rhine, Lewis had Germany; and France fell to the fliare of Charles, the youngeft of the three brothers. Shortly after this, Italy was ravaged by different contending tvrants ; but in 964, Otho the Great reunited Italy to the Imperial dominions. Italy afterwards fuflered much by the conteifs between the popes and the emperors ; it was harrafled by wars and internal divifions ; and at length various principalities and ftates were erected under different heads. Savoy and Piedmont, in time, fell to the lot of the counts of Mauriennc, the anceftors of his prefent Sardinian majelfy, whofe father became king of Sardinia, in virtue of the quadruple alliance concluded in 171S. The great-duchy of Tufcany belonged to the emperors of Gcrmanv, who go- verned it by deputies to the year 1240, when the famous diftintlions of the Guelphs, who were the partizans of the pope, and Gibellines, who were in the emperor's intecelf, took place. The popes then perluaded the imperial governors in Tufcany, to put thcmfelves under the protedlion of the church ; but the Floren- tines, in a Ihort time, formed themfelves into a free commonwealth, and bravely defended their liberties againft both parties by turns. Fadlion at lait fhook their freedom ; and the family of Medici, long before they were declared cither prrnces or dukes, in fadl governed Florence, though the rights and privileges of the people fcemed ftill to exift. The Medici, particularly Cofmo, who was defervedly called the Father of his Country, being in the fecret, fliared with the Venetians in the im- menfe profits of the Ealt India trade, before the difcoveries made by the Portu- gucfe. His revenue, in ready money, which exceeded that of any fovereign prince in Europe, enabled his fucceffors to rife to fovereign power ; and pope Pius V. gave one of his defccndants, Cofmo (the great patron of the arts), the title of Great Duke of Tufcany in 1570, vvhich continued in his family to the death of Gaffon de Medicis in 1737, without iffue. The great-duchy was then claimed by the emporer Charles VI. as a fief to the empire, and given to his fon-in-law, the duke of Lorrain, and late emperor, in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which was ceded to France by treaty. Leopold, his fccond Ion, brother to the prefent empe- ror, is now grand -duke, and Tufcany ailbmes a new face. Leghorn, vvhich bc- lonc^s to him, carries on a great trade ; and fevcral iliips of very confulerable force are now ifationcd on the Tufcan coalfs, to prevent the depredations of the Bar- bary rovers and pirates. No country has undergone greater viciffituiles of government than Naples or Sicily, chiefly owing to the intonilancy of the natives which ieems to be incorpo- rated with their air. Chriftians and Saracens by turns conquered it. The Normans under Tancrcd drove out the Saracens, and by their connedlions with the Greeks cllablifficd there, while the refl of Europe was plunged in nionkifli ignorance, a moft refpeftable monarchy flourilliing in arts and arms. About the year 1166, the popes being then all-powerful in Europe, their intrigues broke the fucceffion of Tancred's line, and Naples and Sicily at laft came into the polTeffion of the French ; and the houfe of Anjou, with fome interruptions and tragical revolu- tions, held it till the Spaniards drove them out in 1504, and it was then annexed to the crown of Spain. The government of the S[Miniards under the Auflrian line was fo opprcffive, that it gave rile to the famous revolt, headed by Maffaniello, a young filherman, v^-ith- uut Ihocs or (lockings, in the year 1647. His fuccefs was fo lurprifing, that he obliged the haughty Spaniards to abolifli the opprcffive taxes, and to confirm the 8 liberties ITALY. 565 liberties of the :>eo(>le. Before thefe could be re-cftabllflied perfedly, he turned delirious, through his continual agitiitions of body and mind, and he was put to death at the head of his own mob, Naples and Sicily continued with the Spaniards till the year 1700, when the cxtiniftion of the Auftrian line opened a newfourccof litigation. In 1706, the archduke Charles, afterwards emperor, took pofltffion cf the kingdom. By virtue of various treaties, which had introduced Don Carlos th.' king ot Spain's fon, to the poUefiion of Parma and Placentia, a new war broke out in 1733, between the houfes of Auftria and Bourbon, about the poffelTion of Naples ; and Don Carlos was received into the capital, where he was proclaimed king of both Sicilies : this was followed by a very bloody campaign, wh ich ter- minated in a peace between France and the emperor, towhich the courts of Madrid and Najilcs at firft demurred, but afterwards acceded in 1736, and Don Carlos re- mained king ot Naples. Upon his accefiion to the crown of Spain, in 1759, it being found, by the infpeftion of phyficians, and other trials, that his eldeft fon was by nature incapacitated for reigning, and his fecond being heir apparent to the Spanifh monarchy, he refigned the crown of Naples to his third fon, Ferdinand IV. who married an archduchefs of Auftria. The Milanefe, the faireft portion of Italy, went through feveral hand's ; the Vifcontis were fuceeeded by the Galeazzos and the Sforzas, but fell at laft into the hands of the emperor Charles V. about the year 1525, who gave it to his fon Philip II. king of Spain. It remained with that crown till the French were driven out of Italy, in 1706, by the Imperialifts. They were difpolfefled of it in 1747 • but by the emperor's ceffion of Naples and Sicily to the prefent king of Spain it returned to the houfe of Aultria, who governs it by a viceroy. The duchy of Mantua was formerly governed by the family of Gonzarra, who adhering to France, the territory was forfeited, as a fief of the empire to the houfe of Auftria, which now poffelTes it, the laft duke dying without male ifTue • but Guaftalla was feparated from it in 1748, and made part of the duchy of Parma. The firft duke of Parma was natural fon to pope Paul III. the duchy havino- been annexed to the holy fee, in 1345, by pope Julius II. The defcendants of the houfe of F'arnefe terminated in the late queen dowager of Spain, whofe fon his prefent catholic majefly, obtained that duchy, and his nephew now holds it with the duchy of Placentia. The Venetians were formerly the moft formidable maritime power in Europe. In 1194, they conquered Conftantinople itfelf, and held it for fome time to- gether with great part of the continent of Europe and Afia. They were more than once brought to the brink of deftrudion, by the confederacies formed ao-ainft them among the other powers of Europe, efpecially by the league of Cambray in 1509, but were as often faved by the difunion of the confederates. The difco- very of a pafTage to India, by the Cape of Good Flope gave the firft blow to their greatnefs, as it loft them the Indian trade. By degrees the Turks took from them their moft valuable polfeftlons on the continent ; and fo late as the year 171c, they loft the Morea. The Genoefe, for fome time, difputed the empire of the Mediterranean fea with the Venetians, but were feldom or never able to maintain their own independency by land, being generally protefted, and fometimes .fubjec^ed, by the French and Impe- rialifts. Their doge, or firft magiftrate, ufed to be crowned kin» of Corfica thoush o 566 TURKEY in E U U O T E. •though it does not clearly appear by what title : that ifland is now ceded to the •French by the Genoefe. The fuccefsful effort they made in driving the viftorious AuRrians out of their capital, during the war v/hich was terminated by the-peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 17^8, has few parallels in hillory, and ferves to fliew the -cffefts of defpair under opprefTion. At prefent they are poffefled of rc-venue barely fufncient to preieive the appearance of a fovcreign iiate. The hiftory of the Papacy is conne<51:ed with that of ChriJlendom itfelf. The mofl: folid foundations for its temporal po-ver were hud by the famous Matilda, countefs of Tufcany, and heirefs to the greateft part of Italy, who bequeathed a large portion of her donnnions to the farfious pope Gregory VII. (who, before his accefllon in 1073, was fo well kno'vn by the name of Irlildebrand). It is not to be expected that I am here to enter into a detail of the ignorance of the laity, and the other caufes that operated to the aggrandizement of the papacy, previous to the Reformation. Even fince that aera the iiate of Europe has been fuch, that the popes have had more than onc-e great weight in public affaiis, chiefly through the weaknefs and bigotry of temporal princes, v>ho feem now to be recovering from their religious delufions. The papal power is evidently now at a low ebb. The order of Jefus, v,-ho were -nr)t improperly called its Janizaries, has been deltroyed in France, Spain, Naples, and Portugal ; and is but juft tolerated in other popiih countries. The pope him- fclf is treated by Roman catholic princes with very little more ceremony than is due to him as bilhop of Rome, and poireffcd of a temporal principality. Ihis humiliation, jc is reafonable to believe, will terminate in a total feparation from the holy fee of all its foreign emoluments, which even, iince the beginning of the pre- fent century, were immenfe, and to the reducing his holinefs to the exercife of his ecclefiaflical functions as firft bifhop of Chriflendom. John Angelo Brafchi, horn in 17a 7, was eleftcd pope in 1775, and took upon him the name of Pius VI. TURKEY. The Giand Signior's Dominions are divided into Sq. M. I. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 7 a. TURKKY IN ASIA. 960,060 3. TURKEY IN AFRICA. J ; TURKEY IN EUROPE. Sjtuation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. M. T.cngth 1000 7 1 f 17 and 40 eaft longitude. 7 „ Breadth 900 \ ^^^^^^^ 1 36 and % north latitude. \ ^5^''^° Boundaries.] T) O UN D F,D by Ruffia, Poland, and Sclavonia, on tjie JJ North ; by CircafTia, the Bl ick Sen, the I'ropontis, Helle- fpont, and Archipelago, on the h'aR ; by the Mediterranean, on the South ; by the fame fea, and the Venetii.n and Auftrian lexritorics, on the Weft. I On TURKEY jN EUROPE. Divifions. Siibdivlfions. 'Crim and Little Tartary, and the ancient Tau- rica Chcrfonefus * On tlie north coafl: of tlie Blnck Sea arc the { provinces of" — Eudvjiac Tartary fBcffarabia ( Chief Towns. ' Pre cop Brachileria KalTa 1 Scj. M. 26,200 Korrh of the Danube. are tlie provinces of Oczakow 'Bender Belgorod I2,OCO 8.000 •^ Moldavia, dim Dacia Walachia, another part of the ancient Dacia L J r . •] Bulgaria, the cad part of the ancient Myfia |>zy yi Choczim Falc^in ( 26. Tergovifc 'W^idin Nicopoli Siliftra Scopia Sotith of the Danube are -i Servia, the weft part of X Belgrade j Myfia - - Semendria NilTa I Bofnia, part of the an- Seralo. I * T 1 1 * > • 26,000 10,500 I 7,000 j 22,570 (^ cient Illyricum On the Bofphorus andJ-p • i- t-, rj 1, ,- ^ ^ Komania, ohm Ihrace rlelleipont ' - \ r Macedonia J L ■J f Conftantinople, 1 [jN.L.4i.E.L.29.f J ' Adrianople South of Mount Rhodope or Argentum, the Theflaly, now Janua north part of the an-^ cient Greece 1 r Strymon ContefTa ; ' Salonichi I I Lariffa Achaia and Eceotia, now l 1 Athens Livadia - - I j Thebes J LLepanto 1 On the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice, the- ancient Illyricum Epirus Albania Dalmatia rChimjEra Burtinto Scodra Durazzo Dulcigno >< (_RaguliV republic f Zara Narenza J tRaguf* 8,640 21,20© 18,980 45650 3>420 7.955 6.375 430 In • The Ruffians in 1783, feized on die Crimea, ban which is bounded by the river of that name, the principal part of this divilion, and by a treaty The Turks liave now only the Tartar nations be- figned January 9th, 1784, the Turks ceded it to yond the river Cuban, and from the Black Sea. them with the ifle of Taman, and that part of Cu- f The republic of Ragufa, though reckoned by geo- S6t TURKEY IN EUROPE. Divifians. Subdivifions. fCorinthia Argos Sparta Argos Napoli de Romania Lacedsemon, now Mifitra, on the river Eurotas In the Morea, the an cieiit Peleponnefus,. Olynnpia, where the 'j Olympia, or Longinica, being the fouth divi-'^ Games were held on the river Alpheiis '''' Chief Towffs. Sq. M. Corinth "i fion of Greece, are Arcadia Elis 2ao Modon Coron partas Elis, or Belvidere, on the j . river Peneus. j Soil, air, seasons, and water.] Nature has laviitcd upon the inhabitants of Turkey, all her bleflings in thofe four particulars. The foil, though unim- proved, is luxuriant beyond defcription. The air is lalubrioiis, unlefs when in- fefted from the neighbouring countries. The feafons are regular, and the climate has been celebrated from the remoteft antiquity. The Turks are invited to frequent bathings, by the purity and wholeibmenefs of the water all over their dominions. Mountains.] Thefe are the moft celebrated in the world, and at the fame lime the moft fruitful. Mount Athos lies on a peninlula, running into the Egeaii Sea ; the Mounts Pindus and Olympus, celebrated in Grecian fables, fcparate Theffaly i''rom Epirus. ParnalTus, in Achaia, fo fimous for being confecrated to the Mufes, is well known. Mount Plaemus is likewife often mentioned by the poets ; but moft of the mountains of Greece and Macedon have loft their Greek names, and are now diftinguiftied by barbarous appellations. Sea?.] The Euxine or Black Sea j tiie Palus Mceotis, or Sea of Afoph ; the Sea of Marmora, which feparate Europe from Afia ; the Archipelago ; the Ionian Sea, and the Levant, are fo many evidences that Turkey iw Europe, particularly geo^rnpher; part of Turkey in Europe, Is not under the 1 urkifli govcrnnKiit. It is ;fn arillocia- ticai llatc, furnicti lu-arly after the model of that of Venice. The government is in the hands of the nobility ; and the ehief of the republic, who is ftyUd rcftor, is changed every month, and clec'ted 1 V fcrutiny or lot. During hib (hurt adn>i- iiillration', he lives in the palace, and wears aducal habit. As the Raj;iifan3 are unable to proiert thcmfelve.-, they maU- ufc of iheir wealih to pro- cure ihem protectors, llic ihlef of whoii', tor jnany years u as the jjrand-iijnior. 'Ihey endeavoured alfo to keep upon goful terms with the Venetians, and other neighb.miing ftates. But in the v eari 783, .1 di:piite arofc between them and the king of Na- ples, rclpecling a claim ot right to his appoinlin:; a commander ol the llagufan troops. It was termi- nated by the republic's putting iifelf under that king's pioiciJtion, The city ol Ragul'a is not above two miles in circumference, but it is well bui't, and contauis fome handfonie edifices. The ancieiu Epidaurus was lituated not far froin this city. Tlie Uagufans piotefs the RomiHi religion, butCirccks, Armenians, and Turks, are toU rated. /^Imollall the citizens are traders, and they keep fo watchful an e\ c over their freedom, tliat the gates or the city of Ragufa are allowed to be open only a few hours in the day. 'I'he hingua.;c cliiefly in ufe among the Ragufans is the Selavonian, but il.e greaicll part of them fpeak the Italian. Tlicy have many ir.ding vellcls, and areearricrs in the i\Iedi- tcrancati, lir^ethe Dutch, being cnnllantlv at peace with the piriitictil dates of Barbary. The city of Gravola, :ind Stagno, 30 iniles N. E. ot Raguf.i, are within ihc tei ritories of thi> republic, :i.'ul thci e arc alio five fmall illands belon^jing to it, the prin- cipal ot which is Mclida. that T U II K E Y I j^ E U R O P E. , 5^9 that pan- of it where Conftantinople Rands, of all other co-.nitrlec, had the betl claim to be miltrefs of the world. Straits.] Thofe of the Hellefpont and Bofphoriis are joined to the' fea of Mar- mora, and are remarkable in modern as well as ancient hiftory. RivtRS.] The Danube, the Save, the Neificr, rlie Neiper, and the Don, arc the belt known rivers in this country ; though many others have been celebrated by poets and hilloiians. Lakes.] Thefe arc not extremely remarkable, nor are rhcy mentioned with any great apphuife, either by the ancients or moderns. Tlie Lago di Sentari, lies in Albania. It communicates with the Lago di Plave and the J -ago di Holti. Th>i Stymphalus, i'o famous for its harpies and ravenous birds, lies in the Morea ; and Peneus, from its qualities, is thought to be the lake from which the Styx iffues, con- ceived by the ancients to be the pafTage into hell. Metals and minerals.] Turkey in Europe contains a variety of all forts of mines, and its marbles are elleemed the fineft in the world. Vegetables and productions.] Thefe are excellent all over the Europea.'i Turkey, efpecially when alfilled by the fiiallelt degree of induUry. Befides pot and garden herbs of almofl: every kind, this country produces in great abundince and perfeftion, oranges, lemons, citrons, pomegranates, grapes of an uncommon fwect- nefs, excellent figs, almonds, olives, and cotton. Befides thefe, many dru-^s, not common in other parts of Europe, are produced here. Animals.] The Tlieilalian or Turkifli horics, are excellent both for their beauty and fervice. The black cattle are large, efpecially in Greece. The goats area mod: valuable part of the animal creation to the inhaijitants, for the nutrition they alibrd, both of milk and flefh, and for their hair, called camel-hair, which rc- fembles filk in foftnefs. The large eagles which abound in the neighbourhood of Badadagi, furnifh the beft feathers for arrows for the Turkifli archers, and they fell at an uncommon price. Partridges are very plentiful in Greece ; as are all other kinds of fowls and quadrupeds all over Turkey in Europe ; but the Turks and Mahometans in general are not very fond of animal fooi. )a ANTiciyiTiEs AND CURIOSITIES, ? Almoil every fpot of ground, every river NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ ^nd cvery fountain of Greece prelentsthe tra^ veller with celebrated antiquities. On the ifthmus of Corinth, the ruins of Neptune's temple, and the theatre where the IRhmean games were celebrated, are Hill vifible. Athens, which contains at prefent above 10,000 inhabitants, is a fruitful fource of the moft magnificent ruins in the world, a minute account of which would exceed the limits of this work ; but it will be proper to mention fome of the molt confi- derable. Among the antiquities of this once fuperb city, are the remains of the temple of Minerva, built of white marble, and encompafled with forty-fix fluted columns of the Doric order, forty-two feet high, and feven feet and a half in circum- ference : the architrave is adorned with baflb-relievos, admirably executed, repre- fenting the wars of the Athenians. To the fouth-eaft of Acrojiolis, a citadel which defends the town, are feventeen beautiful columns of the Corinthian order, thouo-ht to be the remains of the emperor Adrian's palace. They are of fine white marble about fifty feet high, including the capitals and bafes. juft without the city Ilands the temple ot Thefeus, furrounded with fluted columns of the Doric order : the portico at the weft end is adorned with the battle of Centaurs, in baflb-relievo ; that at the eafl; end appears to be a continuation of the fime hiftory ; and on the outfide of the porticos, in the fpaccs between the trigliphs, are reprefented the exploits of Thefeus. On the fouth-weft of Athens is a beautiful Itrudture commonly called the Lantern of Demoithenes : this is a fmall round edifice of white marble, the roof of which is fupported by fix fluted columns of the Corinthian order, nine fccr and an 4 ^ half 570 TURKEYinEUROPE. half high j in the fpace between the columns are pannels of marble ; and the whole is covered with a cupola, carved with tiic refcmblance of icales ; and on the frieze are beautifully rcpreiented in relievo the labours of Hercules. Here are alfo to be ieen the temple of the Winds ; the remains of the theatre of Bacchus ; of the mag- nificent aquedufl: of the emperor Adrian ; and of the temples of Olympian Jupiter, and Augulhis. The remains of the temple of the oracle of Apollo arc ftill vifible at Caftri, on the fouth fide of mount ParnafTus, and the marble fteps that defcend to pleafant running water, fuppofed to be the renowned Caftalian fpring, with the niches for ftatues in the rock, are ftill difcernible. The famous caveof Trophonius is ftill a natural curioficy in Lavadia, the old Eoeotia. Mount Athos, \\hich has been already mentioned, and which is commonly called Monte Santo, lies on a peninfula which extends into the ^gean fea, and is indeed a chain of mountains, reaching the whole length of the peninfula, fcven Turkifli miles in length and three in breadth : but it is only a fingle mountain that is properly called Athos. This is fo lofty, that on the top, as the ancients relate, the fun-riftng was beheld four hours fooner than by the inhabitants of the coaft ; and, at the Iblftice, its fliade reached into the Agora or market-place of Myrina, a town in Lemnos, which ifland was dillant eighty-feven miles eaftward. There v, ere twenty-two convents on mount Athos, befides a great number of cells and grottos, with the habitations of no lefs than fix thouland monks and hermits ; though the proper hermits, who live in grottos, are not above twenty ; the other monks are anchorites, or fuch as live in cells. Thefe Greek monks, who call themselves the inhabitants of the holy mountain, are fo fiir from being a fet of flothful people, that, befides their daily ofiices of religion, they cultivate the olive and vineyards, are carpenters, mafons, ftone -cutters, cloth workers, taylors, &c. They alfo live a vciy auftere life ; their ufual food, inftead of flefli, being veget- ables, dried olives, rigs, and other fruit ; onions, cheefe, and on certain days. Lent excepted, fifh. Their falls are many and fevere ; which, with tlie heakhful- Jicls of the air, renders longevity fo common there, that many of them live above an hundred years. It appears from iElian, that anciently the mountain in general,- and particularly the fummit, was accounted very healthy, and conducive to long- life : whence the inhabitants were called IMacrobii, or long-lived. We are farther informed by Philoftratus, in the life of Apollonius, that numbers of philofophers iiftd to retire to this mountain, for the better contemplation of the heavens, and of nature ; and after their example the monks doubtlefs built their cells. Cities.] Conftantinople, the capital of this great empire, is fituated on the European fide of the Bol'phorus. It was built upon the ruins of the ancient By- zantium. by the Roman emperor Conftantine the Great, as a more inviting fitua- tion than Rome for the feat of empire. It became afterwards the capital of the Cjreek empire, and having efcaped the deftruttive rage of the barbarous nations,, ivas the greateft as well as the moft beautiful city in Europe, and the only one during the Gothic ages, in which there remained any image of the ancient elegance in manners and arts. While it remained in the polTefTion of the Greek emperors, ir was the only mart in Europe for the commodities of the Eaft indies. It de- rived great advantages from its being the rendezvous of the cruladers ; and being then in the meridian of its glory, the European writers, in the ages of the crufadcs, {peak of it with aftonifhment. " O what a vail city is Conftantinople (exclaims one when he firft beheld it), and hov/ beatitiful ? How many monafteries arc there in it, and hov/ many palaces built with wontlcrful art ! How many manufa<5i;urers are there in the city amazing to behold I It would be aftonifiiing to relate hov/ it abounds v/ith all the good things, with gold, filvcr, and ftufi^s of various kinds ; for every hour fliips arrive in the port with all things ncceflary for the ufc of nian." I Con- TURKEY IN EUROTE 571 Conftantinoplc is at this clay one of the fifieft cities in the world by its fituation and its port. The profpeft from it is noble. The moft regular pare is the BelJ-flin, inclofed with walls and gates, where the merchants have their Ihops excellently ranged. In another part of the city is the Hippodrome, an oblong fquareof 400 paces by 200, where they exercife on horfeback. The Meidan, or parade is a large fpacious fquare, the general refort of all ranks. On the oppofitc fide of t!ie port arc four towns, but confidered as a part of the fuburbs, their diitance beino- ib fmall, a perfon may eafily be heard on the other fide. They are named Pc-ra' Galata, Pacha, and Tophana. In Per.i, the foreign ainbaffadors and all the Franks or ftrangers refide, not being permitted to live in the city ; Galata alfo is moftlv inhabited by Franks and Jews, and is a j)lace of great trade. The city abounds with .Tntiquitics : the tomb of Conllantine the Qj-eat is dill preferved. The mofque of St. Sophia, once a Chrilli in church, is thought in fome refpefts to exceed in oran- deur of architcdlure St. Peter's at Rome. The city is built in a triano-ular form with the Seraglio ftanding on a point of one of the angles, from whence there i5 a profpeift of the delightt'ii! coaft of the Lefler Afia, whicli is not to be equalled. When we fpeak of the Seraglio, we do not mean the apartments in which the grand ^fignior's women are confined, as is commonly imagined, but the whole inclofure of the Ottoman palace, which might well fuffice for a moderate towft. The wall which furrounds the Seraglio is thirty feet high, haying battlements, embrafures, and towers, in the ftyle of ancient fortifications. There are in it nine gates, but only two of them magnificent; and from one of thefe the Ottoman court takes the name of the Porte, or the Subli-.m Porte, in all public tranfactions and records. The town is furrounded by a high and thick wall with battlements after the Oriental manner and towers, defended by a lined but fliallow ditch, the works of which are double on the land-fide. (The bell authors think that it does not contain above 800,000 in- habitants, three-fourths of whom arefaid to be Greeks and Armenians, and the reft are Jews and Turks. Others fuppofethe inhabitants not to exceed 600,000. The city hath been frequently aflailed by fires, either owing to the narrownefs of the ftreecs and the ftructure of the houfes, or the arts of the Janizaries. In Auo-uft, 1 784, a fire broke out in the quarter lituate towards the harbour, and fpread into other quarters, and about 10,000 houfes (moll: of which had been rebuilt fince the fire in 1782) were confumed. Oppofire to the feraglio, on the Afian fide, and about a mile and a half diftant ticrofs the water, is Scutari, adorned with a royal mofque, and a pleafure houfe of ■the grand fignior. On the brov/ of an adjacent hill is a grand profpeft: in one view are the cities of Conftantinople, Galata, and Pera, the fmall feas of the Bof- j)horus and Propontis, with the adjacent countries on each fliore. As toj^he population, manners, religion, government, revenues, learning, mi- litary ftrength, commerce, and manufaftures of the Turks, thefe feveral heads depending on the fame principles all over the empire, fhall be mentioned under Turkey in Asia. ISLANDS BELONGING TO TURKEY in EUROPE, BEING PART OF AnCIENT GREECE. Shall mention thefe ifiands chiefly for the ufe of fuch readers as are converfant with ancient hiftory, of v/hich they make fo diftinguifiied a part. Negropont, the ancient Eubcea, ftretches from the fouth-eaft to the north-weft and lies on the eallern coalt of Achaia or Livadia. It is 90 miles long, and 25 broad, and contains about 1300 fquare miles. Heie the Turkifli gallies Jie. The tides on 4D2 its 572 T U R K E Y IN E U R O P E. its coafts are irregular ; and the ifland itfelf is very fertile, producing corn, wine, tiuir, and cattle, in fuch abundance, that ail kinds of provifions are entremely cheap. The chief towns in the ifland are, Negropont, called by the Greeks, tgri- pos, fituated on the fouih-wert coaft of the iQand, on the narroweft part of the ftrait ; and Caftcl Rofib, the ancient Caraiftus. Lemnos, or Stalimeke, lies in the northern part of the Egean fea or Archipelago, and is almoft a fquare of 25 miles in length and breadth. Though it produces corn and wine, yet its principal riclies arife trom its nnineral earth, much ufcd in medicine, fometimes called terra Letma or ftgillata, becaufa it is fealed up by the Turks, who receive therefrom a confidcruble renenue. Tenedos is remarkable only for its lying oppofice to old Troy, and irs being mentioned by Virgil as the place to which the Greeks retired, and left the Trojans in a fatal fccurity > it hath a town of the lame name. ScYROs is about 60 miles in circumference, and is remarkable chiefly for the re- mains of antiquity which it contains : about 300 Greek families inhabit it. Lesbos, or Mvtelene, is about 60 miles long, and Is famous for the number of philofophers and poets it produced. The inhabitants were formerly noted for their prodigality. Scio, or Chios, ties about 80 miles weH of Smyrna, and is about 100 miles in circumference. This ifland, though rocky and mountainous, produces excellent wine, but no corn. It is inhabited by 100,000 Greeks, 10,000 Turks, and above 3,000 Latins, It hath 300 churches befides chapels and monafleries ; and a Tur- kifh crarrifon of 1400 men. The inhabitants have manufadures of filk, velver, gold and fllver fluffs. The ifland likewife produces oil and filk, and the lentifk- tree, or maflic, from which rhe government draws its chief revenue. The women of this, and almoft all the other Greek iflands, have in all ages been celebrated for their beauty, and their perfons have been the mofl: perfeft models of fymmetry to- painters ancl ftatuaries. A late learned traveller, Dr. Richard Chandler,, fays,. •* The beautiful Greek girls are rhe moll ftriking ornaments of Scio. Many of thefe were fitting at the doors ;ind windows, twifling cotton or filk, or employed in fpinning and needle-work, and accolled us with familiarity, bidding us welcome, as we paflfed. The ftrcets on Sundays antl holidays are filled with them in groups,- '] hey wear fhort petcicoars, reaching only to their knees, with white filk or cot- ton hofe. Their head-drefs, which is peculiar to the ifland, is a kind of turban,, the linen fowhiie and thin it feenied fiiow. Their flippers are chiefly yellow, witli a knot of red fringe at the heel.. Some wore them faltened with a thong. Their gannents were of filk of various colours ; and their whole appearance fo fantailic and lively, as to afl'ord us much entertainment. The Turks inhabit a feparate auarttr,. and- their women are concealed." Among the poets and hiflorip.ns faid to- be born here, the inhabitants reckon Homer, and ihcw a little fquare houfe, whiclv. they call Homer's fchool. Samos lies oppofite to Ephcfus, on the coaii of tlie Lcfler Afia, about feven- miles from the continent. It is 30 miles long, and 15 broad. This ifland gave birth to Pythagoras, and is inhabited by Greek Chriftians, who are well treated by. the Turks,, their maflers. The mufcadine Samian wine is in high requeft : and tlie iQaf:d alft) produces wool, which they fell to the Frenclii oil, pomcgnt- naces. TURKEY IN EUROPE.' 573 nates, and filk. This iHand is fuppofcd to have been the native countiy of Juno ; and fome travellers tliink that the ruins of her temple, and of the ancient city Samos, are the fineft remains of antiquity in the Levant. To- the foiith of Samos lies Patmos, about 20 miles in circumference, but fo barren and dreary, that it may be called a rock rather tlnm an idand. It has, how- ever, a convenient haven ; and the few Greek monks who are upon the ifland fliew a cave where St. John is fuppofed to have written the Apocalypfe. The Cy GLADES iflands lie like a circle round Delos, the chief of them, which IS fouth of the iflands Mycone and Tirfe, and almoft midway between the conti- nent of Afia and Europe. Thougli Delos is not above fix miles in circumference, it is one of the mod celebrated of all the Grecian illands, as being the birth-place of Apollo and Diana, the magnificent ruins of whofe temples are ftill vifible. This- ifland is almolt deftitute of inhabitants. Paros lies between the iflands of Luxia and Melos. Like all the other Greek ifiands, it contains, the moft ftriking and magniiiccnt ruins of antiquity ; but is chiefly renowned for the beauty and whitenefs of its marble. Cerigo, or Cytkera, lies foivrh-eafl: of the Morea, and is about 50 miles in circumference, but rocky and mountainous, and chiefly remarkable for being the favourite refidence of Venus.- Santorin is one of the moft fouthern iflands in the Archipelago, and was for- merly called Thera. Though feemingly covered with pumice-ftones, yet, through the induftry of the inhabitants, who are about 10,000, it produces barley and v;ine, •with fome wlieat. One third of the people are of the L,atin church, and fubjecft to a popifli bifliop. Near this ifland another arofe of the fame name, from the bottom of the fea, in 1707. At the time of its birth there was an earthquake, attended with moft dreadful lightnings and thunders, and boilings of the fea for fcveral days, fo that when it rofe out of the fea, it was a mere volcano, but the burning foon ceafed. It is about 200 feet above the lea ; and at the time of its firft emero-- ing, was about a mile broad, and five miles in circumference, but it has fince in- creafed. Several other iflands of the Archipelago appear to have had the lik-e or;>- ginal, although the fea in their neighbourhood is fo deep as not to be fathomed. The famous ifland of Rhodes is fituated In the 28th degree of eaft longitude, and ^(^ degrees 20 minutes north latitude, about 20 miles fouth-v/eft of the conti- nent of LeiTer Afia, being about 60 miles long, and 25 broad. This ifland is* healthful and pleafant, abounds in wine, and many of the neceflliries of life; but the inhabitants import their corn from the neighbouring country. Tlie chief tov/n of the fame name, ftands on the fide of a hill fronting the fea, and is three miles in cir- _ cumference, interfperfed with gardens, minarets, churches,, and towers. The har- bour is the Grand Signior's principal arfenal for fliipping, and the place is efteemi- ed among the rtrongeft fortrefles belonging to the Turks. The coloffus of brafs wliicli anciently flood at the mouth of the harbour, was 50 fathom wide, and defervedly accounted one of the wonders of the world : one foot being placed on each fide of the harbour, fliips pafling between its legs; and it held in one hand a light-lioufe for the diredion of mariners. The face of the coloflus represented the J'un, to whom this image was dedicated; and its height was about 1.3:; feet,- The inhabitants of this ifland were formerly mafters of the fea j and the Rhodian law was 574. T U R K E Y I N E U R O ? E. was the diredlory of the Romans in maritime affairs. The knights of St. John of Jerufalem, after lofing Paleftine, took this ifland from the Turks in 1308, but loft It to them in 1522 after a brave defence, and afterwards retired co Malta. Candia, the ancient Crete, is ftill renowned for Its hundred cities, for its be- ing the birth-place of Jupiter, the feat of legiflature to all Greece, and many other rhillorical and political diil:in-oo,<) 700,00c 2 :,ooo "lOO 195, 00 Chief Citi Pobolfk Chyniun ibet Samarcand, and LaflU Peki ng Delhi Siam, IVgij fp.ihuii Mecca Aleppo Jcriilulem Burla or Smyrna 27,600 50,400 55,oco 25,600 23,900 Diarbeck Baudad Erzerum Tcflib Sche Dill, and bt:rir. from London. 2160 N. E 44^0 N. E, 3 7 So E, 2800 E. 4^10 4320 S. K. 20 S. E. 5040 S. E. Hitr. of time from (^on.lon. 4 10 bcf, 8 4 bcf. 5 40 bel, 4 36 bcf. bef Religions. Chrift. & I'ag, Pa^^ans l'ag..ns Pagans 5 16 bef 6 44 bef. 2460 S. E. I3 20 bef 2'i40 S E. 2 t;2 bef 1800 S. E. 12 ::o bef. 1920 S. L. 1 4 40 S. I' ?o6o S. E. 2240 i860 S. E. 1920 E. 2220 E. 2 2i bef 1 4S bef 2 56 bef 4+ bef 3 10 bef. 3 00 bef. Pagans Mah.~&Tag7 Mah & Fas:. Mahometans Mahomet. ms Chrilt.&Mal) Chrilt.&IViaii Mrthomi.-tans 1 Mahomc- > tans^ with Ifoine few Chrillians, J iMahoinetans All the iflands of Afu (except Cyprus, already defcrlbed, in the Levant, belong- ing to the Turks) lie in the Pacific or Eaftern Ocean, and the Indian Seas, of which the principal, where the Europeans trade or have fettlements, are lilands. The J.apanefe ifles — The Ladr jnes — Formofa ■ - Anian - The Philippines — The Molucca, or Clove illes — The Banda, or Nutmeg ilLs — Auiboynil 1 furrounding the f Celebes S Molucca and i Gllolo, &CC. ) Banda illcs I r Borneo The Sunda iflcs i Sumatra — (.Java, &c. The Andaman and Nicobar Illcs Ceylon — — The Maldives _ Honibav • — Towns. feddo, Mcaco — Guam Tai-ouan-fou — Kiontcheow — Mai\illa V'irtoriaFort,Tei nate Lantor — Aniboyna Macaficr Gilolo — — — Borneo, Caytonjee Achen, Bencoolcn Batavia, Bantam — Andaman, Nicobar Candy — — Caridon —^— Sq. M. 138,000 Bombay — — 17,000 1 1,900 '33.700 400 Tratle with dr belong to. Dutch Spain \ China Spain Dutch Dutch Dutch 63,400 jDutch 10,400 Dutch 228,000 I All nations I 29,000 !EiigIi(h and Dutcii 38,250 Dutch All nations Dutch All nations Ensrliih 27.73° The K.urilc ifle?, and thofe in the lea of Kamfchatka, lately difco- vercd by the Rulllans. — — — Kuflia. • Georgia hath lately claimed iiulcpcndence, and put itfelf under the proteiflion nf Ruflia, 4 E TURKEY: [ 578 ] TURKEY 1 N ASIA. Length Breadth 800 Situation and Extent. Miles, Degrees. 1000 ? u„....„^„ S '1 ^"'-' 4^ ^^^ longitude. i 28 and between 45 Sq. Miles, north latitude'.} ^^''^'^ Boundaries.] "OOUNDED by the Black Sea and Circaffia, on the North; J3 by Ferfia, on the Eafi; ; by Arabia and the Levant Sea, on the South; and by the Archipelago., the Hellefpont, and Propontis, which I'epa- rate it from Europe, on the Wdx. Divifions. The eaftern provinces are fi. ' 2. 5- Natolia, or the Leffer Afia,< 2. on the weft. I ^ lo- L4- Subdivifion"'. Eyraca Arabic or ChaJdea Diarbec or Mefopotamia Curdiftan or Aflyria Turcomania or Armenia Georgia, including Mengre- ^ r lia and Lnaretta, and part of > < Circaffia J C Natolia Proper - Amafia Chief Towns. Baflbra and Bagdad. Diarbec, Or fa, and Mouful. Nincveli and Betlis. Erzerum and Van. Teflis, Amarchia, and Gonie. Aladulia Caramania Eaft of the Le- vant Sea. 'Syria, with Paleftine, or the 1 Holy Land HBurfa, Nici, - Smyrna, and Ephefus. \ I Amafia, Trapefond, and Si- J I nope. Ajazzo and Marat. Satalia and Tcraffo. H Aleppo, Antioch, Damafcus, Tyre, Sidon, Tripoli, Scan- deroon, and Jerufalem. Mountains.] Thefe are famous in facred as well as profane writings. The moil remarkable are, Olympus ; Taurus and Anti-taurus ; Caucafus and Ararat ; Lebanon; and Hermon. Rivers.] The lame may be obferved of the rivers, which are the Euphrates; Tioris ; Orontes ; Meander; Sarabat ; Kara; and Jordan. Air and climaie.J Though both are delightful, and naturally falubrious to the human conftitution, yetfuchis the equality with which the Author of nature has dilpenfed his benefits, that Turkey, both in Europe and Afia, is often vifitcd by the plague ; a frightful fcourge of mankind wherever it takes place, but here dou- bly deilruftive, from the native indolence of the Turks, and their fuperllitious be- lief in that kind of predeftination which prevents them from ufing the proper pre- caiifiuns to defend themfelves againft this calamity. Soil akij produce.] As this country contains the moft fertile provinces of Afia, I need fcarcdy inform the reader that it produces all the luxuries of life in the utuiolt abundance, notwithllanding the indolence of its owners. Raw filk, «:orn, wine, oil, honey, fruit of every fpecies, coffee, myrrh, frankincenfe, and odoviferous plants and drugs, are natives here almoft without culture, which is" practifed chiefly by Greek and Armenian Chrillians. The olives, citrons, lemons, oiaugcb, fig.'-, and dates, produced in thcfc provinces, are liighly delicious, and in TURKEY IN EUROPE and ASIA. 579 in fuch plenty, that they fod the inhabitants a mere trifle, and it is fjid, in fome places nothing. Their afj^aragus is often as ]a;ge as a man's leg, and thtir grapes far exceed thofc of other countries in largenefs. In fliort, nature has brought all her produiflions here to the higheft perfc>5lion. Animal productions by ? The fame may be faid of their animals. The SEA AND LAND. 5^ brccd of the Turkifli and Arabian horfes, the lattcT efpecially, are valuable beyond any in the v/orld, and have confiderably improved that of die Englifli. We know of no quadrupeds that are peculiar to thefe coun- tries, but they contain all that are neceflary for the ufe of mankind. Camels are here in much requeft, from their ftrcngth, their agility, and above all, their mO' deration in eating and drinking, which is greater tlian that of any other known ani- mal. Their kids and flieep are exquifite eating, and are faid to furpafs, in flavour and tafte, thofe of Europe ; but tiieir butchers meat in general, beef particularly, is not lb fine. As to birds, they have wild fov;l in vaft perfeftion ; their oftriches are well known by their talliiefs, fwiftnefs in gunning, and ftupidity. The Roman epi- cures prized no fifli, except lampreys, mullets, and oyllers, but thofe that weie found in Afia. Metals and minerals.] This country contains all tlic metals that are to be found in the richeil kingdoms and provinces in Europe ; and its medicinal fbrino-s and baths exceed thofe of any in the known world. Of the TURKS in EUROPE and ASIA. Population, inhabitants, \fAN-7 'T^HE population of this great country NERs, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. ^ X IS by no means equal either to its ex- tent or fertility, nor have the beft geographers been able to afcertain it, becaufe of the uncertainty of its limits. It certainly is not fo great as it was before the Chrif- tian ttra, or even under the Roman emperors; owing to various caufes, and above all to the tyranny under which the natives live, and their polygamy, which is un- doubtedly an enemy to population, as may be evinced from many reafons, and particularly becaufe the Greeks and Armenians, among whom it is not pradtifed, are incomparably more prolific than the Turks, notwithftanding the rigid fubiec- tion in which they are kept by the latter. Tiie plague is another caufe of depopu- lation. Yet, after all, the fubjeds of the TurkiHi empire are computed at 49,000,000. As to the inhabitants, they are generally well made and robuft : when youn^, their complexions are fair, and their faces handfome ; their hair and eves are black or dark brown. The women, when young, are fomctimcs handfome, but they generally look old at thirty. In their demeanour, the Turks are rather hypochon- driac, grave, fedate, an'l paluve ; but when agitated by paffion, f^irious, racing, ungovernable; big with diOlmulation, jealous, fufpicious, and vindictive : in ma*!- ters of religion, tenacious, luperftitious, and morofe. Though the generality feem hardly capable of much benevolence, or even humanity with regard to Jews, Chril- tians, or any who differ from them in religious matters, yet they are hir from be- ing devoid of focial afteftions for thofe of their own religion. Rut inrereft is their ilipreme good, and when that comes in compecition, all ties of religion, confar.- guinity, or friendfhip, are with tlie generality fpeedily diirolved. The morals of the Afiatic Turks are far preferable to thofe of the European. Tiiev are hofnirablc to firangers ; and the vices of avarice and inhumanity reign chiefly amon'-^ their great men. 'I'hey are likewife faid to be charitable to one another, and puntTtual in their dealings. Their charity and public fpirit is moll confpicuous in their building carp.vanferas, or places of entertainment, on road^ that are dellitute of ac- 4 E 2 commoda*ions. 58o TURKEY in EUROPE and ASIA. commodations, for the refrefhment of poor pilgrims or travellers. With the fame laudable view they fearch out the beft fprings, and dig wells, which in thofe coun- tries are a luxury to weary travellers. The Turks fit crufs-legged upon mats, not only at their meals but in company. Their ideas, except what they acquire from opium, are fimple and confined, feldom reaching without the walls of their own houfes ; where liiev fir converfing with their women, drinking coffee, finoking to- bacco, or chewing opium. They have little curioficy to be informed of the Rate of their own or any otht r country. If a viiier, ban:iaw, or other officer, is turned out, or ftrangled, they fay no more on the occafion than that there will be a new vifier or o-ovcrnor, feldom enquiring into the reafon of the difgrace of the former. They are perfed ftrangers to wit and agreeable converfation. They have few printed books, and feldom read any other than the Koran, and the comments upon it. Nothing is negotiated in Turkey without prcfents ; and here juftice may commonly be bought and fold. The Turks dine about eleven o'clock in the forenoon, and they fup at five in the winter, and fix in the fummer, and fupper \$ their principal meal. Among the gredt people, their diflies are ferved up one by one j but they have neither knife nor fork, and they are not permitted by their religion to ufc gold or filver fpoons. Their victuals is always hig^i-feafoned. Rice is the common food of the lower fort, and fometimes it is boiled up with gravy; but their chiet difh is pilau, which is mutton and fowl boiled CO rags, and the rice being boiled quite dry, the foup is high-fea- foned, and poured upon it. They drink water, fhcrbet, and coffee ; and the only de- bauch they know is that of opium, which gives them fenfations refembling thofe of intoxication. Guefts of higher rank fometimes have their beards perfumed by a female flave of the family. They are temperate and fober from a principle of their relio-ion, which forbids them the ufe of wine ; though in j)rivate many of tliem in- dulo-e themfelves in llrong liquors. Their common falutation is by an inclination of the head, and laying their right hand on their bread. They fleep in linen waiilcoats and drawers, upon mattrelTes, and cover themfelves with a quilt. Few or none of the confiderable inhabitants of this vaft empire have any notion of walk- ing or riding either for health or diverfion. The mod religious among them find, however, fufficlent exercife when they conform themfelves to the frequent ablu- tions, prayers, and rites prcfcribed them by Mahomet. Their active diverfions confift in Ihooting at a mark, or tilting it with darts, at which they are very expert. Some of their great men are fond of hunting, and take the field with numerous equipages, which are joined by their inferiors ; but this is often done for political purpofes, that they may know the ftrength of their dependents. Within doors, the chefs or draught-board are the ufual amufements; and if they play at chance games they never bet money, that being prohibited by ilie Koran. Dress.] The men fiiave their heads, leaving a lock on the crown, and wear their beards long. They cover their heads with a turban, and never put it off but wiien diey lleep. Their fliirts aie without collar or wriftband, and over them they throw a long veft, which they tie with a fafli, and over the veil they wear a loofe gown fomewhat iViorter. Their breeches, or drawers, are of a-picce with their llockings ; and inllead of fhoes they wear flippers, which they put off when they enter a temple or houfe. They fuffer no Chriltians, or. other people, to wear while turbans. The drefs of the women differs little from that of the men, only they wear (Htyened caps upon their heads with horns fomething like a mitre, and wear tlicir hair down. When they appear abroad, they are fo mufHcd up as not to be known by their nearclt relations. .Such of the women as are virtuous make no ufe of paint 10 liei|j,hien their beauty, or to difguife their complexion ; but they often unge TURKEY IN EUROPE AND ASIA. 581 tinge their hands and feet with henna^ which gives them a deep yellow. The men make ufe of t;lie fame expedient to colour their beards. Marriages.] Marriages in this country are chiefly ncgociated by the ladies. When the terms are agreed upon, the bride-groom pays down a Turn of money, a licence is taken out from the cadi, or proper magillrate, and the parties are mar- ried. 1 he bargain is celebrated, as in other nations, with uiirth and jolity ; and the money is generally employed in furnifliing the houfe of the young couple. They are not allowed by their law more than four wives, but they may have as many concubines as they can maintain. Accordingly, befides their wives, the wealthy Turks keep a kind of feraglio of women ; but all thefe indulgencies are fomecimes infufficicnt to gratify their unnatural defires. Funerals.] The burials of the Turks are decent. The corpfe is attended by the relations, chanting pafiages from the Koran ; and after being depofited in a mofque (for ib they call their temples), they are buried in a field by the iman or prieft, who pronounces a funeral fermon at the time of the interment. The male jfelations exprefs their forrow by alms and prayers ; the women by decking the tomb on certain days with flowers and green leaves; and in mourning for a hulband they wear a particular head-drels, and leave off all finery for twelve months. Religiont.] 1 he ellabliflied religion is that of the Mahometan, fo called from Mahomet, the author of it j fome account of which the reader will find in the fol- lowing hiftory of Arabia, the n.itive country of that impoltor. The Turks protefs to be of the left of Omar ; but thcfe are fplit into as many fedlaries as their neigh- bours the Chriftians. There is no ordination among their clergy ; any perfon may be a prieft that pleafes to take the habit, and perform the funftions of his order^ and may lay down his office when he pleafes. Their chief prieft, or mufti, enjoys great power in the ftate. Ecclesiastical ikstitutions ? The Turkifh government having formed OF christians. i thefe into part of its finances, they are tole- rated where they are moft profitable ; but the hardfhips impofed upon the Greek church are fuch as mult always difpofe that people to favour any revolution of go- vernment. Conftaniinople, Jerufalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, are patriarch- ates ; and their heads are indulged, according as they pay for their privilege, with a civil as well as an ecclefiaftical authority over their votaries. The fame may be faid of the Neftorian and Armenian patriarchs ; and every great city that can pay for the privilege has its archbiihop or bilhop. All male Chriftians pay alfo a capi- tation tax from feventeen years old to fixty, according to their llations. Language.] The radical languages of this empire are the Sclavonian, which fcems to have been the mother-tongue of the ancient Turks; the Greek modern- ized, but ftill bearing a relation to the old language ; the Arabic and the Syriac, a dialedV of which is ftill fpokcn. A fpecimen of the modern Greek follows in their Pa'ernofter. Fater bemas opios, ijo ees tos ouranous : hagiiJ fihito to onomaJoK : na erti he hajilia fou: to thelema Jon na genetez itzoji en te ge, os is ton ouranon : to i>tJomi hemas doze hemas Jemoren: he ft ch'waje hemos ta cr'imata he men ttzone, k,e bemas fjthorajomen ekiiwus opou : mas adikounk^ men ternes hemais is to firaj'mo, alLi Jojon hemas apo to kaxo. Amen. Learning and learned men.] The Turks till of late profelTed a fovereifQ contempt for our learning; Greece, which was the native country of genius, arts, and fciences, produces at prefent, befides Turks, numerous bands of Chriftiaa bifliops, priffts, and monks, who in general are as ignorant as the Turks themfelveb and are divided into various abfurd fcfts of what they call Chriftianitv. The edu- cation of the Turks feldom extends farther than reading the Turkilh, language and the 532 TURKEY in EUROPE and ASIA. the Koran, and writing a common letter. Some of them iindcrltand aflronomy lb far as to calculate the time of" an eclipfe; but the number of thel'e being very finalJ, they are looked upon as extraordinary perlbns. Antiqijities and curiosities, I Thefe are fo various, that they have fur- NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. ^ nifhcd matter for many voluminous publica- tions, and others are appearing every day. Thefe countries contained all that was rich and magnificent in architefture and fciilpture ; and neither the barbarity of the Turks, nor the depredations they have fuffered from the Europeans, feem to havediminiflied their number. They are more or lefs perfeft, according to the air, foil, or climate, in which they ftand, and all of tiiem bear deplorable marks ofne<^left. Many of the tincft temples are converted into Tuikilb mofques, or Greek churches, and are more disfigured than thofe which remain in ruins, r^midft fuch a plenitude of curiofities, all that can be done here is to fclcd fome of the moil llriking. Balbcc is fituated on a rifing plain, between Tripoli in Syria and Damafcus, at the foot of Mount l.ibanus, and is the Heliopolis of Crelo Syria. Its remains oj^ antiquity difplay, according to the bell: judges, the boldeft plan that ever was at- tempted in architi^Chire. The poicico of the temple of Heliopolis is inexpreiribly fnperb, though disfigured by two Turkifh towers. The hexagonal court be- hind it is now known only by the jnagnificence of its ruins. Their walls were adorned with Corinthian pilaftcrs and ftatues, and it opens into a quadrangu- lar court of tlie fame tafte and grandeur. The great temple to which this leads is now lb ruined, that it is known only by an entablature, fupported only by nine lofty columns, each confifting of three pieces joined together, by iron pins, without ce- ment. Some of thofe pins are a foot long, and a foot in diameter ; and the fordid Turks are daily at work to dcftroy the columns, for the fake of the iron. A fmall temple is llill {landing, with a pedeftal of eight columns in front, and fifteen in flank, and every where richly ornamented with figures in alto relief, exprefiing the heads of o-ods, heroes, and emperors. To the weft of this temple is another, of a circular form, of the Corinthian and Ionic order, but disfigured with Turkifh mofques and houfes. The other parts of this ancient city are proportionably beau- tiful and ftupendous. Various have been the conjeftures concerning the founders of thefe immenfe buildini'-s. 1 he inhabitants of Afia afcribe them to Solomon, but fome make them io modern as the time of Antoninus Pius. Perhaps they are of different seras ; and though that prince and his fuccelTors may liave rebuilt fome j)art of them, yet the boldnefs of their architecture, the beauty of their ornaments, and the ftupendous execution of the whole, feem to fix their foundation to a period before the Chrif^ian a;ra, but without mounting to the ancient times of the Jews or the Phoenicians, who probably knew little of the Greek ft\ le in building and ornamenting. Balbec is at prefent a little city, encompafTed with a wall. The-inhabitants, who are about 5000 in number, chiefly Greeks, live in or near the circular temple, in houfes built out of the ancient ruins. A free-ftone quarry, in the neiglibourhood, furnifhed the ftones for the body of the temple ; and one of the ftones not quite detatched from the bottom of the quarry, is 70 feet lono', 14 bioad, and 14 feet five inches deep, and, reduced to our meallire, is 1135 tons. A coarfe white marble quarry, at a greater diftance, furnifhed the ornamental parts. Palmyra, or, as it was called by the ancients, Tadmor in the Defert, is fituated in the wilds of Arabia Petrjea, about 2.3 deg. N. lat. and 200 miles to tl e fouth- eaft of Aleppo. It is ajiproached through a narrow plain, lined as it were with the 'tmains ot ai>tiquity ; and, opening all at once, t^ eye is prefented with the moft llriking a TURKEY IN EUROPE and ASIA. 583 ftriking objedts that are to be found in the world. The temple of the Sun lies in ruins ; but the acccfs to it is through a vaft number of beautiful Corinthian co- lumns of white marble, the grandeur and beauty of which can only be l AS I A.. ^^^ part of the peninfula, as foon as he appeared in ir ; and all the Greeks that v/ere found in arms, or out of their villages, were inliantly put to death. The Riifllans were now driven back to their ihips ; but about the fame time another KufTiaa fquadron, commanded by admiral Elphinfton, arrived from England, to reinforce count Orlow's armament. The Turkifli fleet aifo appeared, and an obftinate en- gagement was fought in the channel of Scio, which divides that idand from Na- tolia, or the LelTer Afia. The TurkiOi fleet was confiderably fuperior in force, con- filling of fifteen fliips of the line, fruii fixty to ninety guns, bcfides a nu.nber of chebeques and gallies, amounting in the whole to near thyty fail ; the Ruffians had only ten fliips of the line, and five frigates. Some of the fhips engaged with great refolucion, whiltl others on both fides found various caufes for not approachin'o- fuf. ficiently near. But Spiritof, a Ruffian admiral, encountered the cai^rain pacha, in the Sultane of ninety guns, yard-arm and yard-arm ; they both fought with the greateit fury, and at length run fo clofe, that they locked chcmfelves together with grappling-irons and Other tackling. In this fituation, the Ruffians, by chrowino- hand-granades trom the tops, fet the Turkifn Ihip on fire, and as they could not now be difentangled, both fhips were in a iirtle time equally in flames. Thus dreadfully circumllanced, without a poffibility of fuccour, they both at length blew up with a molt terrible explofion. Ihe commanders and principal officers on both fides were moftiy faved ; but the crews w<:re almoll totally loll. The dreadful hts of thcfe fliips, as well as the danger to thofe that were near them, produced a kind of paufe on both fides ; after which the acftion was renev/ed, and continued till ni"-ht, with- out any material adi'antage on tither fide. When it became dark, the Turkifh fleet cut their cables, and run into a bay on the coalt of Natolia : the Ruffians furround- ed them thus clofely pent up, and in the night fome fire-fliips were fuccefsfuly con- veyed among the lurkilh fl^et, by the intrepid behaviour o." lieutenant Duo-dale an Engliihman in the Ruffi.an fervice, who, though abandoned by his crew, himfelf direded the operations of the fire-fliips. The fire took place fo effeftuallv, that in five hours the whole fleet, except one man of war and a few gallies that were towed off by the Ruffians, was totally defiroyed ; after which they entered the har- bour, and bombarded and cannonaded the town, and a caftie th-it protected ir, with fuch fuccefs, that a fliot having blown up the pov/der magazine in the latter, both were reduced to a heap of rubbifh. Thus was there fcarcely a veftio-e, left at nine o'clock, of a town, a caftie, and a fine fleet, which had been all in exiftence at one the fame morning. Some of the principal military tranfadions by land, in the war between Ruffia and Turkey, having been already noticed in our account of the former empire, vve Ihall here only add, that, after a moft unfortunate war on the fide of tlie Turks, peace was at length concluded between them and the Ruffians, on the 2ifl: of July 1774, a few months after the acceliion of the prcfent grand-fignior Achmet IV. The late emperor, Mutlapha III. left a fon, then only in his 13th year ; but as he was too young to manage the reins of government, in the then critical fituation of the Turkifli affairs, Muftapha appointed his brother, the prefent emperor, to fucceed him in the throne : and to this prince, under the firongelt terms of recommendation he confided the care of his infant fon. The perfeverance of the Turks, fupplied by their numerous Afiatic armies, and the implicit lubmiffion to their officers, rather than any excellency in military dif- cipline or courage in war, have been the great fprings of thofe fuccefles which have rendered their empire fo formidable. The extenfion, as well as duration of their empire, may indeed be in fome meafure owing to the military inftitution of the janizaries, a corps originally compofed of the children of fuch Chrillian parents as could not pay their taxes. Thefe being colkfted together, were formed to the ex- 4 G 2 erdfe 59(5 T A R T A R Y IN A S I A. ercife of arms under the eyes of their officers in the Seraglio, They were generally in number about 40,000, long deemed invincible : and they Dill continue the flower of the Turkifh arrr.ies ; but the Ottoman power has been long on the decline. The po-- litical flare of Europe, and the jealoufies that fubfift among its princes, is now the furefl bafis of this empire, and the principal reafon v/hy the finefl provinces in the world are fufFered to remain in the poITefilon of thefe ignorant and haughty uifidels. Abdul Hamed, or Achmet IV. grand-fignior, born 17 10, fucceeded to the throne of Turkey, 21ft January 1774, on the death of his brother -, he hath three fons and three daughters. TARTARY in ASIA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 4000 7 bej^.^en ^ ^^ ^"^ ' 5^ eaft long Breadth 24003 (.30 and 72 norch lat. BoiTNDARiES.] ¥ T would be deceiving the reader to defire him to depend upon J_ the accounts given us by geographers, of the extent, limits, and fituation of thefe vaft regions. Even the emprefs of Ruffia and her miniftry are irrnorant of her precife limits with theXhinefe, the Perfians, and other nations. Tartary, taken in its fulleft extent, is bounded by the Frozen Ocean, on the North ; by the Pacific Ocean, on the Eaft j by China, India, Perfia, and the Cafpian Sea, on the South ; and by Mufcovy, on the Weft. Grand Divifions. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. Sq. M, ^, , n J- -r t Kamtfchatka Tartars } C Kamtfchatka North-eaft divifion { j.^utlkoi Tartars I i Jakutfkoi rBratfki T fBratfki 1 South-eaft divifion ) Thibet and Mogul Tar- [-|J^j^^,f I 985,380 [ "'' JtKudak J ^ , ft J- -r C Samoieda 7 c Mangafia North-weft divifion j ^^.^^^ } { j^^^^- ^. n. :,■ -r \ Circafiian and Aftrachan 1 J Terki South-weft divifion { .j,^^^^,.^ ] | Aflrachan ! Siberia 1 f ToboHk Kalmuc Tartary i } Bokharia 850,000 Ufbeck Tartary. J [Samarcand. 3^9,840 Kamtfchatka Is a great pcninfula, which extends from North to South about fcvcn degrees thirty ii/inutcs. It is divided into four diftridfs, Bolchcrefk, Tit;il- jkaia Krcpoft, Verchnci or Upper Kamtfchatkoi Oftrog, and Nifhnci or Lower Kamtfchatkoi Oftrog. Mountains.] Tlie princijKil mountains are Caucnfus in CircafHa, and the nioi.ntains of Taurus and Ararat fo contiguous to it, that they ajijiear like a con- tinuation of the fame mountain, which crofles all Afia from Mongrclia, to the Indies ; and the mountains of Stolp, in the North. Si AS', TARTAR Y in ASIA. 597 Seas.] Thcfe are the Frozen Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Cafpian Sea. RivKRs.] The principal rivers are, the Wolga, which runs a coiirfe of two tliOLifand miles ; the Ob)', which divides Afia from Europe ; the Tabol, Irtis, Genefa or Jcnfka ; the Burrum pooler, the Lena, and the Argun, which divides the RulTjan and Chincfe empires. Air, climate, soil, 7 The air of this country is very different, by reafon of AND, PRODUCE. ^ its vaft exptcnt from north to fouth ; the northern parts reaching bevond the arctic ]iolar circle, and the fouthern being in the lame latitudes with Spain, France, Italy, and part of Turkey. Nova Zembla, and RulTian Lapland are moft uncomfortable regions ; the earth, which is covered with fnow nine months in the year, being extremely barren, and every where incumbered with unwholelbme marihes, uninhabited mountains, and impenetrable thicknclFes. The climate of Siberia is cold, but the air pure and wholefome ; and Mr. Tookeobferves, that its inhabitants in all probability would live to an extreme old age, if they were not fo much additted to the abufe of fpirit- uous liquors, Siberia produces rye, oats, and barley, almoft to the 6oth degree of northern latitude. Cabbages, radifhes, turnips, and cucumbers, thrive here tolerably well : but fcarcely any other greens. All experiments to bring fruit trees to bear, have hitherto proved vain : but there is reafon to believe that indullry and patience may at length overcome the rudenefs of the climate. Currants and ftrawberries of feveral forts are faid to grow here in as great perfee hairs "by the roots. The beauty of the Circaflian women is a ftaple commodity ; for parents make no fcruple of felling their daughters to recruit the feraglios,. or r^yther IM'/Tifis, of the great men of Turkey and Pcrfia. They are purchafed, when young, by merchants, and taught luch accomplilliments as fuit their capacities, ■to render them more valuable againll the day of fale. Accordin'J to Mr. Bruce, the Circaiiian women arc extremely well fnaped,. with exceeding fine features, fmooth cie^ir comjjlexions, and beautiful black eyes, vv'hich with their black hair hanging in two tiefles, one on each fide the face, give them a moft lovely ajipearance a they wear a black coit on their heads, covered with a fine white cloth tied under the chin. During the fummer they all wear only a fmock of divers colours open lo low before, that one may iee below their navels ; this, v\ith their beautiful faces always uncovered, (contrary to the cullom of moft of the other provinces in thofe parts), their good humour and lively freedom in <:onvcrration, contributes to render thtm very defirable : they have the reputation of being very chafte, although it is an eftablifticd point ot good manners am.ong them, that as foon as anv pcrlon comes to fpeak to the wite, the huiband goes our of the houfe : but whether their continency proceeds trom their own gcnerofity, to recompenee the confidence of their hujbands, or has its foundation only in fame, I jiretcnd not to determine. Their language they have in common with the other neiobouring Tartars, although the chief people among them are alfo not ignorant of the Ruflian ; the apparel of the men of Circalfia is much the fame with that of the Nagayans, only their caps are fomething larger, and their cloaks being like- wife of coarfe cloth or flieep-llrirHip»l pafs tluoufli tlic ridge of the Bootaii mountains, was taken by floiiii, by captain Jou.s in 1773, anil ilictaiiic of this exploit made tlic Ihibe- tiitns Cue tor peace. to T A R T A R Y in A S I A. 6oi to the particular a£lions of men, being too great for them to be able to ofFcnd him, or to do any thing that can be meritorious in his fight. But they alio maintain, that the Supreme Iking has divided the government of the world, and the deltin}- of men, among a great number of fubaitern divinities, under his command and con- trol, but who neverthelefs generally aft according to their own fancies ; and there- fore mankind cannot difpenfe with ufing all the means in their power for obtaining their favour. They likewife fuppofe, that, for the moll part, tliefe inferior deities abominate and punifli premeditated villainy, fraud, and cruelty. They are all firmly perfuaded of a future exigence ; but they have many fnperllirious notions and prac- tices. Among all the Schamanes, women are confidered as beings vaRly inferior to men, and are thought to have been created only for their fenfual pleafure, to people the world, and to look after houlehold affirirs : and in confequence of thele principles, they are treated with much feverity and contempt. Learning.] The reader may be furprifed to find this article in fpeaking of Tartars; yet nothing is more certain than that, under Zingis Khan and Tamerlane, and their early defcendants, Aftrachan and the neighbouring countries were the feats of learning and politenels, as well as empire and magnificence. Modern luxury, be it ever fo fplendid, falls fliort of that of thofe princes ; and fome remains of their tafte in architecture are ilill extant, but in fpots fo defolate that they are almoft inacceflible. I he encouragement of learning was the firlT: care of the prince, and it was generally cultivated by his own relations or principal grandees. They wrote in the Perfian and Arabic tongues ; and their hiftories, many of v;hich are Hill ex- ,tant in manufcript, carry with thein the llrongell: marks of authenticity. Curiosities.] Thefe are comprehended in the remains of the buildings left by the above mentioned great conquerors and their fuccelfors. Remains of ditches and ramparts are frequently met with, which heretofore either furrcunded fmall towns, now quite demoliflied, or defended camps, forts, or caltles, the velliges of which are often to be difcovered. The flabode, or Tartarian fuburb of KafinioF, on the Oha, feems to have been the refidence of fome khan. In the midft of the ruins of that city is a round and elevated tower, called in their language Mifquir, a fort of temple. Here are alfo the remains of the walls of a palace; and in one of thema- farets, or burial places, is a very confiderable maufoleum ; all which edifices are built of hewn ftone and bricks. From an Arabic infcription we learn, that the khan ■Schagali was buried there in the 962d year of the hegira, or the 1520th of the Chriftian fera. Near mount Caucafus are fi:ill very confiderable remains of Mad- fchar, a celebrated city of former times. Near Derbent are numerous tombs covered v/ith cylindrical ftones, exceeding the ufual ftature of men, with Arabic infcriptions. In the environs of Aftrachan the ruins of ancient Allrachan are very vifible ; and the rubbifli and ramparts of another refpecStablc town Hill exift near Tzaritzin, on the left fliore of theWolga. A little below the mouth of tlie Kama, which empties itfelf into the above mentioned river, are many fuperb monuments of the ancient -city Bulgaria, confiding of towers, mofques, houfes, and fepulchres, all built of ftone or brick. The oldeft epitaphs iiave been there more than eleven centuries, and the mcft modern at leall four hundred years. Not far from hence, on the Tfcheremtfcham, a little river that runs into tlie Wolga, are found ruins fomewhac more injured by the depredations of time : they are thofe of Boulymer, an an- cient and very confiderable city of the Bulgarians. The Tartars have creeled upon ■its ruins the fmall town of Bilyairflc. In the fortrefs of Kafui is a monument of the ancient Tartarian kingdom of that name. Irs lofty walls are fo broad, that they fervc at prefent for ramparts : the turrets of which, as well as the old palace of the khan, are built of hewn ftone.: Afceading the river Kalanha, v/e meet with epitaphs, and the llrong ramparts of 4 '^ the 6o2 T A R T A R Y IN A S T A. the old Kafan. Near the Oufa are cemeteries full of innumerable infcriptionSj and' feveral fcpulchral vaults. The ramparts of Sibir, the ancient capital of Tartary, are- flill ken about Tobolfk upon the Iitifcb. The lofty walls of Tontoura appear yet in the Baraba, a little gulf in the river Om ; and near the mouth of the Oural are the ditches of the city Saratfchik. Not to mcniion the great number of other cities- and ruins of Siberia ; and cfpecially all thofe that are to be met with in the defert of Kir^uis, which abounds in the relics ot" opulent cities. Some gold and filver coins have likewifc been found, with Icveral manufcripts neatly written, which have been carried to Peterllnng. In 1720, fays M, Voltaire, in his Hiftory of Peter the Great, there were found in Kalmuc Tartary a fubtcrrancous houfe of Hone, fome urns, lamps, and ear-rings, an equcllrian ftatue, an Oriental prince with a diadem^ on his head, tv;o women feated on tiirones, and a roll of manufcripts, which was- fen: bv IVtcr the Great to the Academy of Infcriptions at Paris, and proved to be in the language of '1 hibet. About So miles from I.alTa is the lake Pake, or Jang- Ib ; of fuch extent, according to the natives, that it requires iS days to walk round it. It the middle of it are ifiands, one of which \s the kdt of ihe Laml/faTurcep^jfi^, or the oreat regenera/e, in whom the Tliibetians think a divine fpirit inhabits as in the Great Lama. Cities and tov/ns.] Of thefe we know little but the names, and that they are in general no better than fixed hordes. They may be faid to be places of abode rather than towns or citicsj for we do not find that they are under any regular go- vernment, or that they can make a defence againll: an enemy. The few places, how- ever, that are mentioned in the preceding divifions of this country, merit notice, Tobolfk and Ailrachan are confiderable cities, the firlT: containing 15,000, and the latter 70,000 inhabitants. Forts, villages, and towns have alfo been lately ereCled in different parts of Siberia, for civilizing the inhabitants, and rendering them obe- dient to the Ruffian government. Tcrki, the capital of Circaffian Tartary, is feated In a fpacious plain on an Ifland formed by the rivers Terki and Buftrow, and is garriloned by 2000 regulars, and 1000 Colfacks. It is well fortified with ramparts and baftions in the modern (lyle, well ftored with cannon, and has always a confiderable garrifon in It, under the €ommand of a governor. The Circaffian prince who refidcs here, is allowed five hundred Ruffians for his guard, but none of his own fubjeCfs are permitted to dwell within any part of the fortifications. Kvcr fince the rcduclion of thofc parts to the obedience of Ruffia, they have put in all places ot flrength, not only Ruffian garrifons and governors, but magifiratcs, and pricfis lor the excrcife of the Chrif- lian reliction ; yet the Circaffian Tartars are governed by their own ]irinccs, lords, and judges, bur thefe adminifter juftice in the name ot the emprefs, and in matters of importance, not without the jM-efence of the Ruffian governors, being all obliged to- take the oath of allegiance to her Imperial majell)'. Tarku is the capital of Dageftan, and contains 3000 houfes, two flories high, platl'ormed at top for walking. The Tartars of this province are numerous, and Mahometans, governed by a lliefkal, whole office is elective. The city of l)cr- bcnt is fituated on the Cafpian fhore, and called the tronticr of Perfia. It Is laid to have been fivft built by Alexander the Great, and that he here received the vifit from the Ania7.onian queen Thakftris. It is now inelofcd with a broad llrong wall, built wuh large lijuare Hones, hard as marble, tVoni the (]uarries in Caucalus. LalTa is a Imall city, but the houfes are of (lone, and arc fpacious and lofty. Commerce and manufactures.] 'I his head niiikts no figure in the hillory of Tartary, thcii: chief traffic eonfifting in cattle, fl the common occalions of life. The miffjonaries, who adapt the European charac- ters, as well as they can, to the expreluon of Chinefe words, have devifed eleven- different, and fome of them very compounded, marks and afpirations, to ilgnify the various modulations, elevations, and depreffions of the voice, which dillinguifli the feveral meanings of the fame monofyllable. The Chinefe oral language beino- thus barren and contra6ted, their literature is comprized in arbitrary charaiters, whicli are amazingly complicated and numerous : according to fome writers they amount to twenty-five thoufand; to thirty or forty thoufand, according to others j but the lateft accounts fay they amount to eighty thouflmd, though he is reckoned a very learned man, who is maftcr of fifteen or twenty thoufand. This languao-e beino-. wholly addrcired to the eye, and having no affinity with the oral, the latter hath ilill continued in its original uncultivated Itate, while the former has received all pol- iible improvements. The Chinefe charafters, Mr. Aftle obferves, which are by length of time be- come fymbolic, were originally imitative ; they ftill partake fo inuch of their ori- ginal hieroglyphic nature, that they do not combine into words like letters or marks for founds ; but we find one mark for a man, another for a horfe, a third for a dog, and in fhoic a feparate aiul diilin>Il mark for each thing which hath a cor- poreal 6o3 CHIN A. poreal forrR. The Chinefc alfo nfe a great number of marks entirely of a fym- bolic nature, to imprels on the eye the conceptions of the mind, which have no corporeal forms, though they do not combine thefe laft marks into words, like marks for founds or letters ; but a feparate mark is made to reprefent or ftand for each idea, and they ufe them in the fame manner as they do their abridged picture- charaCterSj which were originally imitative or hieroglyphic. The Chinefe books begin from the right hand ; their letters are placed in per- pendicular columns, of which there are generally ten in a page. They are read downwards, beginning from the right-hand fide of the paper. Sometimes a title is placed horizonrally, and thisJikevvife read from the right hand. Genius and lf.&rnino. "j The genius of the Chinefe is peculiar to themfelves. Th-ey have no conception of what is beautiful in writing, regular in architedfure, or natural in painting ; and yet in their gardening, and phmning their grounds, they hit upon the true fublime and beautiful. They perform all the operations of arith- metic with prodigious quicknefs, but .differently from the Europeans. Till the latter came among them, they were ignorant of mathematical learning, and all its depending arts. They had no proper apparatus for agronomical obfervations ; and the metaphyfical learning, which exillcd among them, was only known to thei:r jihilofophers ; but even the arts introduced by the Jefuits were of verv Ihort duration, and lafted very little longer tlun the reign of Cang-hi, who was contemporary with our Charles II. nor is it very probable they will ever be re* vived,. It has been generally faid, that they underltood printing before the Euro- peans ; but that can be only applied to block-printing, for the fufile and moveable tvpes were undoubtedly Dutch or German inventions. The Chinefe, however, had almanacks, which were ftamped from plates or blocks, many hundred years before printing was difcovereii in Europe. The difficulty of mattering and retaining fuch a number of arbitrary marks and charafters, as there are in what may be called the Chinefe written language, greatly retards the progrefs of their erudition. But there is no part of the globe where learning is attended with fuch honours and rewards, and where there are more poA'crful inducements to cultivate and purfue it. The literati are reverenced as men of another fpecies, and are the only nobility known in China. If their birth be ever fo mean and low, they become mandarins of the highefl rank, in ])roportion to the extent of their learning. On the other hand, Iiowever exalted their birth may be, they quickly fink into po\erty and obfcurjty, if they negleft thofe ihidies which raifed their fathers. It has been obferved, that there is no nation in the world where tlie firrt honours of the Ifat^ lie fo open to the loweft of the people, and where there is lefs of hereditary grearnefs. The Chinefe range all their works of literature into four clalTes. The firfb is the clafs of Kmg, or-the facred books, v/hich contains the principles of the Chinefe religion, morality, -and government, and fevcral curious and obfcure records, relative to thefe important fubjecfts. Hif- tory forms a clafs apart ; yet, in this firlt clafs, there are placed Ibme hiftorical monuments on account of their relation to religion and government, and among others the 'Tekun-tjicou, a work of Confucius, which contains the annals of twelve ■kings of Low, the native country of that iJluftrious fage. The fecond clafs is that of the .9«, or Chey that is, of hiflory and the hiftorians. The third clr-fs, called 'Tfu, or 7yi', comprehends philofophy and the philofophers, and contains all the ■works of the Chinefe literati, the produdions alio of foreign fefls and religions, which the Chinefe confider only in the light of philofophical opinions, and all books relative to mathematics, allronomy, phyfic, military fcience, the art of divina- nation, agriculture, and the arts and fciences in general. The fourth clafs is called "Toie, ov MiJ^ellaiiieSj and contaijis all the poetical books of the Chinefe, their pieces of CHINA. 609 of eloquence, their foiigs, romances, tragedies, and comedies. The Chincfc li- terati, in all the periods of their monarchy, have apjilied theiiifelves kfs to the finely of nature, and to the refearches of natural philofophy, than to moral inqui- ries, the praftical faience of life, and internal polity and manners. It is faid, that It was not before the dynally of the Song, in the lotli and nth centuries after Chrill, that the Chinefe philofophers formed hypothefes concerning the natural fyftem of the univcrfe, and entered into difculUons of a fcholailic kind, in confe- quence, perhaps, of the intercourfe they had long kept up with the Arabians, who fludied with ardour the works of Ariftotle. And fince the Chinefe have begun to pay fome attention to natural philofophy, their progrefs in it has been much infe- rior to that of the E.uropcans. The invention of gunpowder is jiiftly claimed by the Chinefe, who made ufe of it againft Zingis Khan and Tamerlane. They feem to have known nothing of fmatl fire-arms, and to have been acquainted only with the cannon, which they call the fire-pan. Their indullry in their manufaftures of (luff's, porcelane, japanning, and the like fedentary trades is amazing, and can be equalled only by their labours in the field, in making canals, levelling mountains, raifing gardens, and navigat- ing their junks and boats. ANTiQuiTiiis AND CURIOSITIES.] Fcw natural curiofities prefent themfclves in China, that have not been comprehended under foreign articles. Some vol- canoes, and rivers and lakes of particular qualities, are to be found in different parts of the empire, the volcano of Linefung is laid fometimes to make fo furious a dif- chargc ot fire and aflies, as to occaiion a tempeft in the air ; and Ibme of their lakes are faid to petrify fiflies when put into them. The artificial curiofities of China are ttupendous. The great wall, feparating China from Tartary, to prevent the in- curfions of the Tartars, is fuppofed to extend from 1200 to 1500 miles. It is carried over mountains and valleys, and reaches from the province of Xenfi to the Kang Sea, between the provinces of Peking and Lsenotum. It is in moll places built of brick and mortar, which is fo well tempered, that tJjough it has ftood for 1800 years, it is but little decayed. The beginning of this wall is a large bulwark of ftone raifcd in the lea, in the province of I'etcheli, to the eafl of l-'eking and al- mofl in the fame latitude : it is built like the walls of the capital city of the empire, but much wider, being terraOcd and cafed v/ith bricks, and is from twenty to twenty-five feet high. The Jefuits, who made a map of thefe provinces, often ftretched a line on the top, to meafure the bafis of triangles, and to take diftann points vvith an inftrument. They always found it paved wide enout'h for rive or fix: horfemen to travel a-breall with eafe. Mention has been already made of the pro- digious canals and roads that are cut through this empire. The artificial mountains prefent on their tops, temples, monaiteries, and other edifices. The Chinefe bridges cannot be fufficiently admired. They are built fome- times upon barges ftrongly chained together, ycu fo as to be parted, and to let the vefiels pais that fail up and down the river. Some of them run from mountain to mountain, and confili only of one arch ; that over the river Saffraiiy is 400 cubits long, and 500 high, though a fingle arch, and joins two mountains ; and fome in the interior parts of the empire are faid to be ftill more n:ii])endous. The triumph.il arciies raifed in honour of their great nien, form the next fpecies of artificial curio- fities. Though they are not built in the Greek or Koman llyk of architeclure, yet they arc fuperb and beautiful. They are faid in the whole to be eleven hundred, two hundred of which are particularly magnificent. Their fepulchral monuments make likewife a great figure. Their towers, the models of which arc now fo common in Europe under the name of pagodas, are vail embelliOnmenis io the lace of their country. They feem to be confirudlcd by a ivgiilnr order, and myii 4 I " ^i' 6io - C H I N A^ of them arc finiflied with exquHite carvings and gildings, and oHier ornaments, Tliat at Nanls:ing, which is 200 feet high, and 40 in diameter, is the molt admired. It is called the Porcelanc Tower, becanfc it is lined with Chincfc tiles. Their temples are chiefly remarkable for the fancitul taLle in which they arc built, for their capacioufnefs, their whimfical ovn.imcnts, and tiu: ugliiiels of the idols they contain. The Chinefc are remarkably fond of bells,which give name to one of their principal feflivals. A bell of Peking weighs 120,000 pounds, but its ibund is fiiid to be difagreeable. The hill curiofuy I lliall mention, is their fire-works, which iji China exceed thofe of all other nations. In ihort, every province of China is a Icene of curiofities. Their buildings, except their pagodas, being confined to no order> and iulceptible of all kinds of ornaments, have a wild variety, and a pleafing elegance not void of magnificence, agreeable to the eye and the imagination, and jnefent a diverfity of objeifts not to be found in F'.uropean archixeclure. Chief crtius.] The empire is faid to contain 4400 walled cities ; the chief of which are Peking, Nanking, and Canton. Peking, the capital of the whole empire of China, and the ordinary refidencc of the emperors, is fituate in a very fertile plain, twentv leagues diftant from the great wall. It is an oblong fquare, and is divided into two cities : that which contains the emperor's palace is called the Tartar city, bccaufe the hotifes were given to the Tartars when the prelcnt family came to the throne ; and they vefufing to fufter the Chinefc to inhabit it, forced them to live without the walls, where they in a fliort time built a new city ; which by being ioined to the other, renders the whole of an irregular form, fix leagues in compafs. The walls and gates of Peking are of the furpriling height of fifty cubits, fo that they hide the whole city ; and are fo broad, that centinels are placed upon them on horfeback ; for there are flopes within tjie city of confiderable length, by which horlemen may afcend the walls ; and in feveral places there are houfes built for the guard. The gates, which are nine in number, are nither embellifhed with ftatues, nor carvings, all their beauty confilling in their prodigious height, which at a dillance gives them a noble .-f^jpearance. The arches of the gates are built of marble, and the reft with large bricks, cemented with excellent mortar. Moft of the llrects are built in a direcft line, the largeft are about 120 feet broad, and a league in length. The fliops where they fell filks and Cliina-ware generally take up the whole ilreet, and afTords a very agreeable prol'peft. Each fliop-kceper places before his fliop, on a fmall kind of pedellal, a board about twenty feet high, painted, vamifjieti, and often gilt, on which are written in large charaders the names of the ieveral com- modities he jells. The houfes are poorly built in front, and very low, moft of them having onlv a ground floor, and none exceeding one Itory above it. Of all the buildings in this great city, the moft remarkable is the imperial palace, the gran- deur of which does not confilt lb much in the noblenefs and elegance of the archi- tedure as in the multitude of its buildings, courts, and gardens, all regularly dif- poled : for within the walls are not only the emperor's houfe, but a little town, inhabited by the officers of the court, and a multitude of artificers employed and ke[)t bv the emperor ; but the houlijs of the courtiers and artificers are low and ill contrived. I'". Attirer, a French Jefuit, who was indulged with a fight of the p.ilacc and gardens, fays, that the [jalace is more than three miles in circumference, and that the front of the buiklings lliines with gilding, paint, and varnilh, while the infidc is fet off and fiirnifiied with every thing that is moft beautiful ami (irc- tioiis in China, the Indies, and I'.urope. The gardens of this palace are large trac^ts of ground, in wiiicli are railed, at proper difhmces, artibcial mountains, trom 20 to 60 tect high, which form a number of Imail vallics, plentifully watereil by can.db, which uniting, form lakes and meres. Jleautitul and magnificent barks fail on tliele pieces of water, and the banks arc ornameutcd with ranges of build- ings. CHIN A. 61 1 ingS not any two of which are fuid to have any icll-mblancc to ^:ich other, wliich divcrfity produces a. very plealing effed:. Every valley has its lioiife of pleafiirc, large cnoiigli to lodge one of our greateft lords in Europe with all his retinue : many of thefe houfes are built with cedar brought with a vaft expencc the diftance of 500 leagues. Of tlicfe palaces, or houfes of ])lcafnrc, there are more than 200 in this vaft encloforc. In the middle of a lake, which is near half a league in diameter every way, is a rocky illand, on which is built a palace, con- taining more than a hundred apartments. It has four fronts, and is a very ele- gant and magnificent ftrud:ure. I'lie mountains and hills are covered with trees, particularly fuch as produce beautiful and aromatic flowers ; and the canals are edged with rultic pieces of rock, difpofed with fucji art, as cxa6llv to refemble tlie wildnefs of nature. The city of Peking is computed to contain two millions of inhabitants, though Nanking is faid to exceed it both in extent and populoufnefs. But Canton is the greateft port in China, and the only one much frequented by Europeans. The city wall is about five miles in circumference, with very pleafant walks around it. From the top of ibme adjacent hills, on whieli forts arc built, you have a fine pro- ipeift of the country. It is beautifully interfperfed with mountains, little hilL, and vallies, all green ; and thcfc again pleafantly dlvcrfified with linall towns, villages, high towers, temples, tlie feats of mandarins and other great men, which are watered with delightful lakes, canals, and finall brandies from the river Tai on which are numberlels boats and junks, Jailing different ways through the moll fertile parts ot the country. The city is entered by fcven iron gates, and within-lide of each there is a guard-houfe. The ftreets of Canton are very Itraight, but o-eue- rally narrow, and paved with flag-ftones. There are many prettv buildings in this city, great numbers of triumphal arches, and temples well ftocked with ima"-es. The ftreets of Canton are lb crouded, that it is difficult to walk in them ; yet wo- men of any fafiiion are feldom to be feen, unlefs by chance, w^hen coming out of their chairs. There are great numbers of market-places for fillx, flcfli, poultry, ve- getables, and all kinds of provihons, w hieh are fold very cheap. There are many- private walks about the fkirts of the town, where thofe of the better fort have their houles, which are very little frequented by Europeans, whole bufinefs lies chiefly in the trading parts of the city, where there are only fliops and warehoufes. Few of the Chinefe traders of any fubftance keep their families in the houfe where they do bufinefs, but either in tlie city, in the more remote fuburbs, or farther up in the country. They have all fuch a regard to privacy, that no windows are made to- wards the ftreets, but in fiiops and places of public bufinefs, nor do any of their windows look towards thole of their neighbours. The ftiops of thofe that deal iiv filk are very neat, make a tine fliow, and are ail in one place ; for tradelinen, or dealers in one kind of goods, herd together in the fame ftreet. It is comjnjted that there are in this city, and its fuburbs 1,200,000 people ; and there are often joco trading vefl'els lying in its harbour. Trade ast> manufactures.] China is fo happily fituated, and produces fuch a variety of materials for manufaiftorcs, that it may be faid to be the native land ot mduftry ; but it is an indufty without tafte or elegance, though carried on with vaft art and neatnefs. They make paper of the bark of bamboo, and other trees, as well as of cotton, but not comparable for records, or printing, to tlie European. Their ink, for the ule of drawing, is well known in England, and is faid to be made of oi] and lamp-black. I have alieady mentioned the antiquity of their printino-, ■which they ftill do by cutting their charadters on blocks of wood. Tlie manufajlure ■of tb.at earthen ware generally known by the name of China, was long u fecret in*- Europe, and carried immcnfe funis fiom thence. Though the Chinefe .\fi\c\. to keep 4 I 2 thxit 6i2 CHINA. that manurai5^ure flill a fecret, 'yet it is well known that the principal material is a prepared pulverized earth, and that fcvcral European countries far exceed the Chi- nefe in manufafturing this commodity*. The Chincfe filks are generally plain and flowered gaufes, and they are faid to have been originally fabricated in that country, where the art of rearing filk-worms was firft difcovered. They manufac- ture filks likcwife of a more durable kind, and their cotton, and other ciochs, are fa- mous for furnifning a light warm wear. Their trade, it is well l^nown, is open to all the European nations, with whom they deal for ready money ; for fuch is the pride and avarice of the Chinefe, that they think no manufaftures equal to their own. But it is certain, that fince the difcovery of the porcelane manufaftures, and the vail improvements the Europeans have made in the weaving branches, the Chinefe commerce has been on the decline. CoNSTiTUTioK AND GOVERNMENT.] The Original plan of the Chinefe govern- ment was patriarchal, almoft in the ftrid:ell fenfe of the word. Duty and obedience to the father of each family was recommended and enforced in the mod rigorous manner ; but at the fame time, the emperor was confidered as the father of the whole. His mandarins, or great officers of Hate, were looked upon as his fub- flitutes, and the degrees of fubmiffion which were due from the inferior ranks to the fuperior, were fettled and obferved with the moft fcrupulous precili()n,-and in a man- ner that to us feems highly ridiculous. This fimple claim of obedience required great addrefs and knowledge of human nature to render it effedtual ; and the Chi- nefe legiflators, Confucius particularly, appear to have been men of wonderful abilities. They enveloped their dictates in a number of myftical appearances, fo as to ftrike the people with awe and veneration. The mandarins had modes of fpeak- ing and writing different from thofe of other fubjefts, and the people were taught to believe that their princes partook of divinity, fo that they were feldom feen, and more feldom approached. Though this fyllem prefervcd the 'public tranquillity for a great number of years, yet it had a fundamental defeft that often convulfed, and at lalt proved fatal to the ftate, becaufe the fame attention was not paid to the military as to the civil duties. The Chinefe h.ad paflions like other men, and fometimes a weak or wicked admin iltration drove them into arms, and a revolution eafily fucceeded, which they juftified by faying, that their Ibvcreign had ceafed to be their f^uhcr. Durin"- thofe commotions, one of the [dirties naturally invited their neighbours the Tarta^ to their affidance, who, having conquered the empire, gradually conformed to the Chinefe inllitutions. Befides the great doftrine of patriarchal obedience, the Chinefe had fumptuary laws, and regulations for the expences of all degrees of fubjedts, which were very ufeful in preferving the public tranquillity, and preventing the cfieifts of ambi- tion. By their inllitutions likewiie the mandarins might remonitrate to the em- peror, but in the moft lubmiflive manner, upon the errors of his government, and v/hen he was a virtuous prince, this freedom was often attended with the molt falutaiy effeds. No country in the world is fo well provided with magiftratcs for the difcharge of jviftice, both in civil and criminal matters, as China ; but they are often ineffectual through want of public virtue in the execution. The em- peror IS ftvled, " Holy Son of Heaven y Sole Governor of the Earth, Great Father of " hts Feopk." • The EntjliQi in part'milnr have carried iliis ho|ic that a nianufaiTurc fo s'Tiicially ufeful, wWl biai^L'h to a hr;h decree ot pe't'ci'tion, as appears meet with cncoura^eimiit t.ym cwiy tiiic patriot from the icnimiirious which have be?n received aintng ourfelvcs, ot late fiom ft-veril priii- c;; ot Kurop- ; and we Reli- CHINA. 613 Religion.] This article is nearly conneded with the preceding. Though the ancient Chincfe vvorfhippfd idols, yet their philofophers and IcgiQators IkuI jufler notions of the Deity, and indulged the people in the worfliip of fcnfible objcds, only to make them more fubniilfive to government. The Jefuits made little oppofition to this when they attempted to convert the Chinefe ; and fuffl-red their profelytes to worlliip Tien, pretending that it was no other than the name of God. Tiie truth is, Confucius, and the Chinefe legiilarors, introduced a mofl: excellent fyftem of morals among the people, and endeavoured to fupply the want of juft ideas of a future ftate, by prefcribing to tliem the worihip of inferior deities. Their morality approxlma es to that of Chriilianity ; but as we know little of their religion, only through the Jefuits, we cannot adopt for truth the numerous inftances which they tell us of the conformity of the Chinefe with the Ciiriftian religion. Thofe fathers it muft be owned, were men of great abilities, and made a wonderful progrefs above n century ago in their converfions ; but they miftook the true charaftcr of the em- peror who was their patron ; for he no fooner found that they were in faft afpiring to the diredion of the government, than he expelled them, levelled their churches with the ground, and prohibited the exercife of their religion j fince which time Chrillianity has made no progrefs in China. Revenues.] Thefc are laid by fome to amount to twenty millions fl:erling a year. The taxes colkdted for the ufe of government in rice, and other commodities, are certainly very great, and may be eafily impofed with equality, as an account of every man's family and fubftance is annually enrolled. Military and marine strength.] China is, at this time, a far more power- ful empire than it was before its conquefl: by the eaflern Tartars in 164^. This is ©wing to the confummate policy of Chun-tchi, the firft Tartarian emperor of China, who obliged his hereditary fubjedts to conform themfelves to the Chinefe manners and policy, and the Chinefe to wear the Tartar drefs and arms. The two nations were thereby incorporated. The Chinefe were appointed to all the civil officers of the empire. The emperor made Peking the feat of his government, aad the Tartars quietly fubmitted to a change of their country and condition which was fo much in their favour. This fecurity, however, of the Chinefe from the Tartars, takes from them all military objefts; the Tartar power alone being formidable to that empire. The only danger that threatens it at prefent, is the difule of arms. The Chinefe land army is laid to confiil of five millions of men ; but in thefc are comprehended all who are employed in the colleftion of the revenue, and the prefervation of the canals, the great roads, and the public peace. The imperial guards amount to about 30,003. As to the marine force, it it is compofed chiefly of the junks, al- ready mentioned, and other fmall fhips, that trade coaft-ways, or to the nei^^h- bouring countries. A treatife on the military art, tranflatcd from the Chinefe into the French lan- guage, was publiilied at Paris in 1772, from which it appears that the Chinefe are well verfed in the theory of the art of war : but caution, and care, and circum- fpeiffion, are much recommended to their generals; and one of their maxims is never to fight with enemies either more numerous or better armed than themfelves. History.] The Chinefe pretend to an antiquity beyond all meafure of credi- bility ; and their annals have been carried beyond the period to v/hic!) the fcrin- ture chronology afligns the creation of the world. Poan-Kou is fiid by them :o have been the firft man, and the interval of time betwixt him and the death of the celebrated Confucius, which was in the year before Chrltl, 479, hath been reck- oned from 276,000 to 96,061,740 years. But upon an accurate inveftigation of this 6i4 CHINA. this fubjeft it appears, that all the Chincie hiftorical relations of events prior to the rei"n of the empt- ror YaOj who lived 2057 years before ChrilV, are entirely fabu- lous, compokd in modern times, unfupported by authentic records, and full of contradiftions. It appears alfo, that the origin of the Chinefc empire cannot be placed h!<'-hcr than two or three generations before Yao. But even this is carrying the: enipire of China to a very high antitjuity, and it is certain that the materials for Chinefe hiflory are extremely ample. The grand annals of the empire of China arc < omprehended in 668 volumes, and confift of the pieces that have been compofed by the tribunal or department of hillory, ellablilhed in China for tranfmitting to polle- rity the public events of the empire, and the lives, charaders, and tranfadions of its foverei"ns. It is faid, that all the fiifts, which concern the monarchy fince its foundation, iiavc been depofited in this department, and from age to age have been arrani'cd according to the order of time, under the infpeftion ot government, and with all tiie precautions againlT: illufion or partiality that could be fuggelled. Thefe jMCcautions have been carried fo f:\r, that the hillory of the reign ot each imperial family, has only been publifhed after the extinftion of that family, and was kept a jMofound fecrct during the dynally, that neither fear nor flattery might adulterate the truth. It is allcrted, that many of the Chinefe liii>orians expofed themfelves to exile, and even to death, rather than difguife the defeds and vices ol'the fovereign. But the emperor Chi-hoangti, at whofe command the great wall was built, in the > ear 215 before the Chriftian n:ra, ordered all the hiltorical books and records, which contained the fundamental laws and principles of the ancient government, with the medals, infcriptions, and monuments of antiquity, to be burnt, that they jvijtrht not be employed by the learned to oppofe his authority, and refifl: the chano-es he propofed to introduce into the monarchy. Four hundred literati were ■burnt with their books ; yet this barbarous edift had not its full effecfl ; leveral books were concealed, and efcaped tlie general ruin. After this period, ftridt fearch was made for the ancient books and records that yet remained ; but though much induftry was employed for this purpofe, it appears that the authentic Jiillori- cal fources of the Chinefe, for the times anterior to the year 200 before Chriit, are very few, and that they are ftill in fmaller number for more remote periods. But notwirhftanding the depredations that have been made upon the Chinefe hillory, it is llill immenfely vokiniinous, and has been judged by fomc writers fuperior to that of all other nations. Of the grand annals before mentioned, which amount to 668 volumes, a cojiy is preferved in the library of the French king. A chronological abrido-inent of this great work, in one hundred volumes, was publiflied in the 42d year of the reign of Kang-hi ; that is, in the year 1703. This work is generally- called Kam-m'o, or the abridgment. From thefe materials the abbe Grofier pro- pofed to iniblini at Paris, in the French language, a General Hiftory of China, in 12 volumes, 4to. Some of whicii iiave been printed, and a fmaller work in \i volumes 8vo, by the late Father de iVlailla, miliionary at Peking, liatli been juil publiflu-d. But tlie limits to which our work is confined will not permit us to enlarge' upon fo copious a fubjecl as that of the Chijufe liillorv. It feems, as it the original form of p-oVernment, was monarchical ; and a lucceflion of' excellent j^rinces, and a du- ration of domellic tranquillity, united legiflation with jihilofopliy, and |)roduced their i'"o-hi, whufe hiltory is wrapfied up in rnylleries, rlieir l.i-[,aokum, and above all their Confucius, at once the Solon ami the Socrates of Cliina. Their long ftruggle with the Tartars, which killed feveral centuries, and the violence ot domellic f'adlions, protluccd bloody wars, and many levolutions ; fo, tliat tliough the Chineie empire is hereditary, the imperial fucceffion has been often interrupt- ed. Uinvanls of twenty dynaftics, 01 diflereiit lines and families of fucceflion, arc enumerated in their annals. Neither INDIA l^; cknerat.. 615' Neither the great Zuighjs Klian, nor Tamevlarie, though they often dcTeatec! the Chinefc, could fubiluc their eiiipirc, and ncitlier of them could keep tlie conquelfs they made there. After their invahons were over, the Chinefe went to war with the Manchew Tartars, wliilc an indolent worthelefs emperor, Tfonrching, was upon the throne. In the mean time, a bold rebel, named I-i-cong-tfc, in the piovince of Sc-tchuen, dethroned the emperor, who hanged himfclf, as didmoftof his courtiers and women. (Ju-fan-que) , tiieChinele general, on the frontiers of Tartary, refuted to recognife theufur[>er, and made a peace with Tibngate, or Chun-tchi,'the Man- chew prince, who tlrove the ullirper from the throne, and took pofTefTion of it him- fclf, about the year 1644. The 'I'artar maintained himfelf in his authority, and, as has been already mentioned, wifely incorporated his hereditary fubjedh with the Chinefe, fo that ineffed Tartary became an acquifition to China. He was fucceed- ed by a prince of great natural and acquired abilities, who was the patron of the Jefuits, but knew how to check them when he found them intermeddling with the affairs of his government. About the year 1661, the Chinefe, under this Tartar family, drove the Dutch out of the Wand of Formofa, which the latter had taken from the Portuguefe. In the year 1771, all the Tartars which compofed the nation of the Tour- gouths, left the fettlements which they had under the Ruflian government oa the banks of the Wolga, and the laick, at a fmall diltance from the Cafpian fea, and in a valt body of fifty thoufand families, they palfed through the country of the Hafacks : after a march of eight months, in which they furmounted innumerable difficulties and dangers, they arrived in the plains that lie on the frontier of Carapen, not far from the banks of the river Ily, and offered them- felves as fubjecis to Kien long, emperor of China, who was then in the thirty-fixth year of his reign. He received them gracioully, furnilhetl them with provilions, cloaths, and money, and allotted to each fiimily a portion of land for aoriculturcr and palUu-age. The year following there was a fecond emigration of about thirty thoufand other Tartar families, who alio quitted the fettlements which they en- joyed under the Ruflian government, and fubmitted to the Chinefe fcepter. The emperor caufed the hillory of thefe emigrations to be engraven upon itone, in four different languages. 'o^'"o INDIA IN GENERAL. Situation ano 7 rr^HIS vaft country is fituated between the 6bih and 150UNDAR11-S. 5 - J[ 109th degrees of Kaft longitude, and between i and 40 of North latitude. It is bounded on the North, by the countries of Ufbct; Tartary and Thibet ; on the South, by the Indian Ocean ; on the Eall, by China and the Chinefe fea ; and on die Welt, by Perfu and the Indian Sea. Divisions.] I fliall divide, as others have done, India at large into three great parts ; firfl:, the Peninfula of India beyond the Ganges, called the Farther I'eninlula; fecondly, the main land, or the Mogul's empire; thirdly, the Penin- fula within or on this fide the Ganges; ail of them vail, populous, and extended empires. Eut it is neccllary, in order to fave many repetitions, to premifc an ac- count of fome particulars common to thole numerous nations, which fhall be ex- trae'ted from the molt enlightened of our modern writers, who have vifited the coun- try in the fcr\ice of the Eall India Company. POPULATIOX, 6l5 INDIA IN GENERAL. Population, inhabitants, 7 Mr. Orme comprehends the two latter divi- RELiGiON AND GOVERNMENT. ^ fi^ns Under the title of Indoftan. I'he Ma- hometans (fays he), who are called Moors, of Indoftan, are computed at ten mil- lions, and the Indians at an hundred millions- Above half the empire is fubjed't to rajahs, or kings, who derive their defcent from the old princes of India, and exercife all right of ibvereignty, only paying a tribute to the great mogul, and ob- fervino- the treaties by which their anceftors recognifed his fuperiority. In other re- fpefts^the government of Indoftan is full of wife checks upon the overgrowing -o-reatnefs of any fubjecb; but (as all precautions of that kind depend upon the ad- niiniftration) the indolence and barbarity of the moguls or emperors, and their oreat viceroys, have rendered them fruitlefs. ^ I'he original inhabitants of India are called Gentoos; or, as others call them, Hindoos and the country Hindooftan. They pretend that Brumma, v\ ho was their iccriflator both in politics and religion, was inferior only to God, and that he ex- ifted many thoufimd years before our account of the creation. This Brumma, pro- Ixibly, was fome great and good genius, whofe beneficence, like that of the pagan icoiiUitorSj led his people and their pofterity to pay him divine honours. ThcBra- i-i)?ns (fov fo the Gentoo priefts are called) pretend that he bequeathed to them a book called the Vedam, containing his doftrines and inftitutions ; and that though the original is loft, they are ftill polTcfTed of a facred commentary upon it, called the Shahflah, which is written in the i-hanfcrite, now a dead language, and known onlv to the Bramins, who fludy it, even as our facred fcriptures are written in Greek and Hebrew. But whether that language was originally different from that of the country, or whether it has only now become unintelligible to the people, through that change which is incident to all living languages, is not well known The foundation of Brumma's doflrine confifted in the belief of a Supreme Being, who created a regular gradation of beings, fome fuperior, and fome inferior to man • in the imniortality of the foul, and a future ftate of rewards and punifh- ments which is to confiftofa tranfmigration into different bodies, according to the lives they have led in their pre-exiftent ftate. From this it appears more than probable, that the Pythagorean metempfychofis took its rife in India. The necef- lity of inculcating this fublimc, but otherwife complicated dodfrine, into the lower ranks induced the Bramins, who are by no means unanimous in their doftrines, to have rccourfe to fcnfible reprefentations of the Deity and his attributes j fo that the orio-inal dotitrines of Brumma have degenerated into idolatry, in the worfliip of different animals, and various images, and of the mott hideous figures, delineated or carved. \^'ooden images are placed in all their temples, and on certain feftivals are exhibited in the high-roads and in the ftrects of towns. The human figures with elephants heads which are the objefts of their devotion, have many hands and are enormoufty corpulent. The Hindoos have, from time imancmorial, been divided into four great tribes. The firft and mort noble tribe are tiic Bramins, wlio alone can officiate in the priefthood, like the Jewifh rribc of Levi. They arc not, however, excluded from "overnmenr, trade, or agriculture, though they are ftridlly prohibited from all menial offices by their laws. The fecond ni order is the Sittri tribe, who, accordinf^ to their original inftitution, ought to be all military men ; but they fre- quently follow other profefTions. The tiiird is the tribe of Beife, who are chiefly merchants, bankers, and banias or fliopkccpers. The fourth ttibe is that of Sud- der, who ought to be menial lervants ; and they arc incapable of raifing themfelves to any fuperior rank. If any one of them fliould be excommunicated from any of the four tribes, he and his pofterity are for ever fliut out from the Ibcieiy of every body INDIA IN GC!:;.P.AL. 617 body in the natioiij except that of the Harri cad, wlio arc held in inter detefia- tion by all the other tribes, and are employed only in the meanell and vileft office^. This ciicumftance renders excommunication i'o dreadful, that any Hindoo will fuffer torture, and even death itfelf, rather than deviate from one article of his faith, Befides this divifion into tribes, the Gentoos are alfb fiibdivided into cn^s, or fmaller clafles and tribes ; and it has been computed that tliere are eighty-four of thefe calls, though fome have fuppofed there was a greater number. The order of pre-eminence of all the cafl:s, in a particular city or province, is generally indil- putably decided. The Indian of an inl'erior would think himfelf honoured by adopting the cuftoms of a fuperior call: ; but this lall; would give battle fooner than jiot vindicate its prerogatives : the inferior receives the vi^ituals prepared by a fupe- rior caft with refped, but the fuperior will not partake of a meal which lias been prepared by the hands of an inferior caft. Their marriages are circumfcribed by the fltme barriers as the reft of their intercourles ; and hence, befides the na- tional phyfiognomy, the members of each call preferve an air of llill greater re- femblance to each other. There are fome cads remarkable for their beauty, and others as remarkable for their uglinefs. The moft ftriking features in the charac- ter of the Hindoos, are their ilnierftition, and veneration for the inlfitutions and tenets of their forefathers. In India, the dominion of religion extends to a thoufand particulars, which in other countries are governed either by the civil laws, or by tali.e, cuilom, or fafhion. Drefs, food, the common intercourfcs of life, marriages, profeffions, all are under the jurifditftion of religion. There is fcarcely any thing which is not regulated by fuperftition. It prefcribes rules of conduct in all circumftances and ficuations ; nor is there any thing almoft fo trifling or minute as to be confidered as a matter of indifference. The original governinent of the Hindoos, was in reality an hierarchy ; for among that religious people, the higheil authority was pofTeffed by the priellhood, or the Bramin cafl:. Nor is it in this inllance only, that we find a refemblance between the natives of India and the Jews. Not only were the govern- ments of both nations hierarchical, but in both there was a vafl: varietv of religious obfervances and ceremonies extending to many particulars, which in other countries are matters of choice orof indifference; and both entertained the moft profound ref- peiS and veneration for their anccftors. All the calls acknowledge the Bramins for their priefts, and from them derive their belief of the tranfmigra:ion ; which leads many of them to afflidl themfelveseven at the death of a fly, although occafioned by inadvertence. But the greater number of calls are lefs fcrupulous, and eat, although very fparingly, bothof filh and fleih ; but, like the Jews, not ot all kinds intlifler- ently. The food of the Hindoos is fimple, conOfting chielly of rice, ghee, which is a kind of imperfedt butter, milk, vegetables, and oriental fpices of diilerent kinds, but chiefly what is called in the Eail, cbiUy, and in the Weft, green or Cayenne pep- per. The warrior caft may eat of the flefli of goats, mutton, and poultry. Other fuperior cafts may eat poultry and fiflr ; but the inferior cafts are prohibited from eating flefli or filh of any kind. Their gieatcft luxury confifts in theufeofthe richell fpiceries and- perfumes, of which the great people are very lavifti, and which grow almoft fpontaneoufly in their gardens. They elleeni milk the jiurell of foods, becaufe they think it partakes ot fome of the properties oi tiie nectar of their godo, and becaufc t!iey efteem the cow itfelf almoft like a divinit)'. Their manners are gentle; their happinefs confifts in the folaces of do:neftic life; and they are taught by their religion, that matrimony is an inuifpenfable duty in every man, who do;s not entirely leparate himfelf fro.n the world from a prin- ciple of devotion. 1 heir religion alfo permits them to havefeveral wives ; but they 4 K fcldom 6iS INDIA m central, ffidom have rriore than one : and it has been obferved, that their wives are dif- tino-uiilied by a decency of demeanuor, a folicitude in their families, and a fidelity to their vows, which might do honour to human nature in the moil civilized coun- tries. The amufemmts of the Hindoos confift in going to their pagodas, in afTift- ino- at religious ihews, and in fulfilling a variety of ceremonies prefcribed to them by the Bramins. Their religion feems to forbid them to quit cheirown fiiores*,. nor do they want any thing from abroad. They might, therefore, have lived in nuich tranquillity and happinefs, if others had looked on them with the fame indif- ference with which they regard the reft of the world. The foldiers, are commonly called Raiah-poots, or perlbns defcended from r.-yahs, and refide chiefly in the rorthern provinces, and are generally more fair-complexioned than the people of the fouth. Thefe rajah-poots are a robuft, brave, faithful people, and enter into the ftrvice of thufe who wUl pay them ; but when their leader falls in battle, they think that their engagements to him are finiflied, and they run off the field without any llain upon their reputation. The cuftom of women burning themfelves, upon the death of their hufbands. Hill continues to be praflifed among fome of hio-h calt and condition, though much lefs frequently than formerly, and it is faid, that the Bramins now do not encourage it. One particular clafs of wo- men are allowed to be openly proftituted : thefe are the famous dancing girls. Their attitudes and movements are very eafy, and not ungraceful. Their pcifons are delicately formed, gaudily decorated, and highly perfumed. By the continua- tion of wanton attitudes, they acquire, as they grow warm in the dance, a frantic lafcivioufnefs themfelves, and communicate, by a natural contagion, the nioft vo- lujituous defires to the beholders. The Gentoos are as careful of the cultivation of their lands, and their public works and conveniences, as the Chinefe ; and remarkably honeft and humane : there icarcelv is an inftance of a robbery in all Indoftan, though the diamond mer- chants travel without defenfive weapons. According to a late writer, the Hindoos,, as well as the Perfians, Tartars, and adjoining nations, who have inhabited Indof- tart fince it was invaded by Tamerlane, though of different nations, religions, Itws, and cuftoms, pofftfs neverthelefs, in equal degrees, hofpitality, politenefs, and addrefs- In refinement and e;vfe they are fuperior to any people to the weft- ward of them. In politenefs and addrefs, in gracefulnefs of deportment, and fpecch, an Indian is as much fuperior to a Frenchman of fafhion, as a French- courtier is to a Dutch burgo-mafler of Dort. A Frenchman's eafe is mixed with forward familiarity, with confidence, and fclf-conccit ; but the Hindoos, efpecially thofe of the higher cafts, are in their demeanour eafy and unconftrained, ftill more than even a French courtier, and their eafe and freedom is rcferved, modeft, and refpcittful. I he complexion of the Genteos is black, their hair is long, their perfons arc ftraioht and elegant, their limbs finely proponioncd, their fingers long and taper- ing, their countenances open and pleafant, and their features exhibit the moft de- licate lines ' of beauty in- the females, and in the males a kind of manly foftnefs,^ * The Gentoos are perfiim'ei.', that the U':iteis way th(ii fins. The Ganges, which rifcs in the <>' the three ircat liTeis, Gant;C3, Kiihm, and In- moimtair'.s iou£ idea ftems lo be founded on a principle of eund, y\gia, Delfii, and Lahore. 'I he Kiilna di- poliiy, and iiiieuded to relirain the natives fr(i.'ar vidcs the Carnatic from (]okonda, iuul runs ir.isjrating into diliant countrci : tor it is rem;irk- throuj h llic Viliapoe inio the interior pairs of the .ibte. tl);;t the ficred river? are fo filiiatcd, tliat Dccan. And the Indu';, bounding the Guzarat- li.cre i^ not any part ot India v\herc the inhabi- piovincc.'', ftpaiates Indolhin Ironi the doniinii,a6 iu\u may noi have an opport luity of waCiin;^ a- ofl'crfia. Their INDIA IN GENERAL. C19 Their walk and gair, as well as tluir whole deportment, is in the higheft de»fec graceful. The drefs of the men is a kind of clole-botiied gown, like our women's gowns, and wide trovvfcrs, refcmbling petticoats, reaching down to their flippers. Such of the women as appear in public, have iTiawls over their heads and fhoulders, fliort clofe jackets, and tight drawers which come down to their ancles. Hence the diefs of the men gives them in the eyes of Europeans, an appearance of effe- minacy ; whereas that of the women will appear rather mafculine. Their houies cover much ground, and have fpacious galleries and accommoda- tions of various kinds. The apartments are fmall, and the furniture not very ele- gant, if we except the rich Perfian carpets. The grandeur of their palaces con- fills in baths, perfumes, temples, god-,, and harams. The harams or zenanas, that is, the refidences of the women, are removed irom the front of the houfe, and lighted only from a fquaic fpace in the centre of the whole building. The aoparel of the women is inconceivably rich; they Iiave jev.els on their fingers and 'about their necks, and alfo in their ears and nollrils, with bracelets on their wrifis and arms, and around their ancles. The temples or pagodas of the Gentoos are llupendous but difguftful ftone build- ings, erc6ted in every capital, and under the direcliun of the Bramins. If the Bramins are mafters of any uncommon art or fcieiice, they frec]uently turn it to the purpofes of profit from their ignorant votaries. Mr. Scrafcon lays, that they know how to calculate eclipfes ; and that judicial aftrology is fo prevalent amono- them that half the year is taken up with unlucky days; the head alfrologer being always confiilted in their councils. The Mahometans likewife encourage thofe fuperfti- tions, and look upon all the fruits of the Gentoo indullry as belonging to them- felves. Though the Gentoos are entiiely paifive under all their oppreffions, and by their ftate of exiftence, the pra6lice of their religion, and the fc intinefs of their food, have nothing of that refentment in their nature that animates the reft of man- kind ; yet they are fufceptible of avarice, and fometimes bury their money, and rather than difcover it, put themfclves to death by poifon or otherwile. Tliis prac- tice, which it feeins is not uncommon, accounts for the valt fcarcity of filver that till of late prevailed in Indoltan. The reafons above mentioned account likewife for their being lefs under the in- fluence of their palTions than the inhabitants of other countries. The perpetual ufe of rice, their chief food, gives them but little nourilhment ; and their marry- ing early, the male before lourteen, and their women at ten or eleven years of ao-p, keeps them low and feeble in their perfons. A man is in the decline of life at thirty, and the beauty of the women is on decay at eighteen : at twenty-five they have all the marks of old age. We are not therefore to wonder at their being foon llrangers to all perfonal exertion and vigour of mind ; and whatever may be the caufe, a recent traveller am.ong them obferves, it is certain, that death is regarded with lefs horror in India than in any other country in the world. The oiigin and the end of all things, fay the philofophers of India of the prefent ti.nes, is a va- cuum. A fiate of repofe is the fiate of greaieft perfckftion ; and thi^ is the ftate af- ter which a wife man afpires. Jt is bcttci-, fay the Hindoos, to fit than to walk, and to lleep than to wake; but death is the belt of all. According to the Gentoo Lws, ci-iminals ientenced to death are not to be Itrangled, fulfbcated, or poifoned, but to be cut olf by the f .vord ; becaufe, without an efFufion of blood, malefaftors are fii:)poled to die with all their fins about them ; but the fiiedding oi" their blood, it is thought, expiates their crimes. The Mahomef;'.ns, who, in Indjfian, are called Moors, are of Perfian, Turkifh, Arabic, and otiier extradions. They early began, in the reigns of the caliphs of Bagdad, to invade Indollan. They penetrated as far as Delhi, which thev made 4 K 2 ' cheic glO INDIA IN GENERAL. their capital. They fettled colonies in feveral places, whofe defcendants sre called^ Pytans ; but their Cinpire was overthrown by Tamerlane, who founded the Mogul c-overnment, which flill fubfifts. Thofe princes being llridt Mahometans, received under their proteftion all that profefied the fame religion, and v/ho being a brave, ailive people, counterbalanced the numbers of the natives. They are f lid to have introduced the tlivilion of provinces, over which they appointed foubahs ; and' thofe provinces, each of which mi^ht be flyled an empire, were fubdivided into na^ bobfliips; each nabob being immediately accountable to his foubah, wlio in pro- ccfs of time became alnioll independent on the emperor. The vail: refort of Perfian' and Tartar tribes has likcwife fcrcngthened the Mahometan government -.■ but it is nbfervable, that in two or three generations, the progeny &f all thofe adventurers,- who broivdit norhing with them but their horlcs and their fwords, degenerated into- eaftern indolence and fenfuality. Of all thofe tribes, the Marittas at prefent make the greatefl: figure. They arc a kind of mercenaries, who live on the mountains between Indollan and Perfia. They commonly ferve on horfeback, and, when well commanded, they liave been' known to give law even to thcNcourt of Delhi. 'I hough they are originally Gen- toos, yet they are of bold aftive fpirits, and pay no great refpeft to the principles of tlieir religion. Mr. Scrafton fays, that the Mahometans or Moors are of fo de-- tellable a charafter, that he never knew above two or three cxceprions, and thofe were among the Tartar and Perfian officers of the army. They are void, we are told, of every principle even of their own religion ; and if they have a virtue, it is- an appearance of hofpitaiity, but it is an appearance only ; for v/hile they are drink- ing with, and embracing a friend, they will ftab him to the heart. But it is proba- ble, that thefe reprefentations of their moral depravity are carried beyond the bounds- of truth. The manner of drinking among the Gentoos is remarkable. They religioufly avoid touching the veffel that contains riie liquor Vv-ith their lips, and pour it into their mouthsjliolding the bottle, or other vefiel, at leait at a foot's diftancc. Their idea is, that they would be polluted by ftagnating water. They will drink from a pump, or of any running ftream, but not out of a pool. The people of Indoftan are governed by no written laws ; nor is there a lawyer in the whole empire ; their courts of juftice are dirc6bed by precedents. 1 he Ma- hometan inftitutes prevail only in their great towns and their neighbourhood. The empire is hereditary, and the emperor is heir only to his own officers. All lands go in the hereditary line, and continue in that flate even down to the fubtenants, ■while the lord can pay his taxes, and the latter their rent, both which are immut- ably fixed in the public books of each diflrift. The imperial demefne lands are thoie of the grciit rajah families, which fell to Tamerlane and his fuccelTors. Cer- tain portions of tliem are called jaghire lands, and are bellowed by the crown on the great lords or omrahs, and upon their tleath revert to the emperor ; but the rights even of the fubtenants of diofe lands are indefeafible. Mr. Dalrymple obferves, according to the Gentoo conftitution, land (houfes and' gardens excepted) is not private property, but belongs to the community, in the feveral villages ; each of which are fupplied with their refpedlive public officers, as the headman, to execute jullicc ; the conicopoly, to keep the accounts of the village; the corn-meter, fmith, barber, dodlor, allrologer, &c. The grounds are cultivated by the community, and the j^roduce fliared out in certain proportions to all. One is allotted to the Pagodas and Rramins, one to the government, aiiotiier to the public otllcers, (jnc to the repair of tanks, or refervoirs of water, and the rcfl »liIltibuteJ among the community : but wc urudcrfland that the Mahometan go- vcj-nmenr. INDIA BEVOND THE GaN'GES. 621 vefilment, and the intrufion of Europeans, have introduced fome innovations in this ancient conftitution, particularly, by fanning the circar, or government fhares. Such are the outlines of the government by which this great empire lono- fub- fifted, without alnioft the fembiance of virtue among its great officers, either civil or military. It was fhaken, however, after the overthrow of Mahomet Shah, by Kouli Khan, which was attended by fo great a diminution of the imperial autho- rity, that the foubahs and nabobs became abfolute in tlieir own goyernments. Though they could not alter the fundamental laws of property, yet tliey invented new taxes, which beggared the people, to pay their armies and fuj)port their power ; fo that many ot the people, a few years ago, after being unmercifully plundered by colletlors and tax-mailers, were left to perifh through want. To fiim up the mifery of the inhabitants, thofe foubahs and nabobs, and other Mahometan governors, employ the Gcntoos themfelves, and fome even of the Bramins, as the minifters of their rapacioufnefs and cruelties. Upon the whole, ever fince the in- vafion of Kouli Khan, Indoftan, from being a well regulated government, is be- come a fcene of mere anarchy or flratocracy ; every great man proiefts himfelf in his tyranny by his foldiers, whofe pay far exceeds the natural riches of his govern- ment. As private aflaffinations and other murders are here committed v;ith impu-- nity, the people, who know they can be in no worfe Itate, concern themfelves very little in the revolutions of government. To the above caufes are owino- the late fuccelTes of the Englifh in Indoftan. The reader, from this reprefentation, may perceive, that all the Englilli have acquired in point of territory, has been gained from ufxirpcrs and robbers ; and their pofleffion of it being gaurantied by the prefent lawful emperor, is laid to be founded upon the laws and conftitutions of that country. We are, however, forry to be obliged to remark,, that the conduct of many of the fervants of the Eaft India Company towards the natives has in too many inftances been highly difhonourable to the Englifli name, and totally incon- iiftent with that humanity which was formerly our national charafteriftic. The Peninsula of INDIA beyond the Ganges, called the Farther Peninsula- Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. M>- Length 2000 7 1 ^ f 1 and ']o north lattitude. 7 T> 1 L r b.etween < , " n , • j ? 741, coo Breadth 1000 J t 92. and 109 eaLt longitude. ^ -^ Boundaries.] ^ s S H 1 S peninfula is boundetl by Thibet and China, on the J. North ; by China and the Chinefe fea, on the Eaft ; by the fame fea and the ftraits of Malacca, on the South ; and bv the bay of Bengal and the Hither India, on the Weft. The fpace between Bengal and China is now called the province of Mecklus, and other difirrids, fubjedl to the king of Ava or Burmah. Grand Divifions. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. Sq. M. rAcham T f Camdara T On the north-weft) Ava W Ava [180,000 |_Arracan j (.Arracan. J On 622 INDIA BEYOND THE GaNGES. Grand Diviftons. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. Sq. M. ( Fegu 1 rPegu, E. Ion. 97. N. lat. 17-30 50,000 r^ , r ^ n ) Martaban / \ Marraban On the fouth-weft<' ^-^^ ^ ^ Siam, E. Ion. 1 00-55. N. lat. 14-18. 170,000 (Malacca j [ Malacca, E. Ion. 10 i.N. lat. 2-12. 48,000 STonquin "j 1 Cachao, orKeccio, E. Ion. '105. N. ? ^^^ ^^^ U lat. 21-30. S '' Laos ) ( Lanchang. 59,400 r Cochin China 1 ( Tlioanoa 61,900 •On the routh-cafl J Cambodia U Cambodia l. 1. Chiampa \ [ Fadram S ' 00 Name.] The name of India is taken from the river Indus, which of all others •was beft known to the Perfians. '1 he whole of this peninfula was unknown to tliQ ancients, and is partly lb to the moderns. Air and climate.] Authors difter concerning the air of this country, fome ■preferring that of the fouthern, and fome that of tlie northern parts. It is generally aoreed, that the air of the former is hot and dry, but in fome places moift, and confcquently unhealthy. The climate is fubjeft to hurricanes, lightnings, and in- undations, fo that the people build their houfes upon high pillars to defend them from floods ; and they have no other idea of feafons, but wet and dry. Eafteriy and Wefterly tnonjoons (which is an Indian word) prevail in this country. Mountains.] Thofe run from North to South almoft tiie whole ItTigth of the country ; but the lands near tl>e fca are low, and annually overflowed in the rainy feafon. RivKRs.] The chief are Sanpoo or Burrurapooter, Domea, Mecon, Menan. and Ava, or the great river Nou Kiari. Bays and straits.] The bays of Bengal, Siam, and Cochin China. Theftraits of Malacca and Sincapora. The promontories of Siam, Romana, and Banfac. Soil and product of ths 7 The foil of this peninfula is fruitful in general, DIFFERENT NATIONS. ^ aud produccs all the delicious fruits that are found in other countries contiguous to the Ganges, as well as roots and vegetables, and in Ava, a quantity of falt-petre, and the bell teek timber, or Indian oak, which for jhip-building in warm climates is of much longer duration than any European oak. Teek fhips of 40 years old are not uncommon in the Indian feas. This peninfula abounds likewife in filks, elephants, and quadrupeds, both domeflic and wild, that are common in the Ibuthern kingdoms of Afia. The natives drive a great trade in gold, diamonds, rubies, topazes, amethylls, and other precious Hones. 'I'onquin pro- duces little or no corn or wine, but is the moft healtliful country of all the j^enin- fula. In fome places, efpecially towards the north, the inhabitants have fwcllings in their throats, faid to be owing to the badncfs of their water. Inhabitants, customs, ? The Tonquinefe are excellent mechanics and fair AMD DIVERSIONS. ^ tradcis ; but greatly oppreflTed by their king and great lords. His majefly engrofles the trade, and his fiuTiors fell by retail to the Dutch and .other nations. The Tonquinefe are fond of lacker li0u.y things in the writings of Afiatic authors worthy the attention of literary men. Mr. Dow obferves, that in the Shan- fcrite, or learned lanrguage of the Bramins, which is the grand repofitory cf the reli- gion, philofphy, andhilWy of the Hindoos, there are many hundr-ed volum.es in profe • which 624 INDIA BE VON D THE GaNGES. which treat of the ancient Indians and their hiftory. The fame writer alfo remarks^ that the Shanfcrite records contain accounts of the affairs of Weftern Afia very dif- ferent from thofe given by the Arabians ; and that it is more than probable, that, upon examination, the former will appear to bear the marks of more authenticity, and of greater antiqviity, than the latter. The Arabian writers havs been gene- rally fo much prejudiced againil the Hindoos, tliat tliclr accounts of them are by no means to be relied on. Mr. Dow obferves, that the fmall progrefs, which correftnefs and elegance of fentiment and didion have made in the Eart, did not proceed from a want of en- l Cichao, which is lituated near the centre of the kingdom. The bua's palace is a vafl ftruclure, and has a fine arfcnal. The Englilh have a very flourilliing factory on tfic iiorth-fide of the city, conveniently provided with ftorc-houfes, and oftice- houles, a noble dining room, and handfome apartments for the merchants, fadors, and ofKcers of the company. I'he above is the beft account I have been able to give of tliis vaft pcnlnfujn. Its rarities, confiiling of houfes overlaid witJi gold, and folid idols of the fame nK'tal, adorned with an infuiite number of precious ftoncs and jewels, aie men- tioned by nviny travtllers ; but it is difTiciilt to give them crciiir, when we con- dder the undilciplincd weaknefs of the inhabitants, their fupcrftition, indolence, igno- INDIA WITHIN THE Ganges. 627 ignorance, and native timidity ; which muft render them a prey not only to Eu- ropean adventurers, but to the Tartar conquerors of China. To this we may add, the univerlally admitted pafllon of thofe people for oftentation, and the many difcoveries that have been made by candid travellers, of their difplaying plated or gilded furniture and ornaments, at which they are wonderfully expert, for thole of mafly gold. The pofTcffion of rubies, and other precious Hones of an extraordinary fize, and even of white and party-coloured elephants, convey among thofe credulous people a pre-eminence of rank and royalty, and has fometimes occafioned bloody wars. After all, it muft be acknowledged, that, however dark the accounts we have of thofe kingdoms may be, yet there is fufficient evidence to prove, that they are im- menfely rich in all the treafures of nature ; but that thofe advantages are attended with many natural calamities, fuch as floods, volcanos, earthquakes, tempefts, and above all, rapacious and poifonous animals, which render the pofleffion of life, even for an hour, precarious and uncertain. INDIA within the Ganges, or the Empire of the Great Mogul, Situation and extent -, including the Peninfula weft of the Ganges. :Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 2000 ? , ^^„,^.„ T 7 and 40 north latitude. 7 q Breadth 1500 S ^"^^^" 166 and 92 eaft longitude, f «70.9ic» Boundaries.] rr^HIS empire is bounded by Ufbec Tartary and Thibet, on X the North ; by Thibet and the Bay of Bengal, on the Eaft'; by the Indian Ocean, on the South ; by the fame and Perfia, on the Weft. The mainland being the Mogul empire, or Indoftan, properly fo called. Grand Divifions. Provinces. (■Bengal Proper The north-eaft dlvifion of India, containing the provinces of Bengal, on the mouths of the Ganges, and thofe of the mountains of Naugracut. The north-weft divifion on the frontiers of Perfia,- and on the river of Indus. Naugracut - Jefuat Patna Nccbal Gore LRotas Soret Jeffelmere Tata, or Sinda < Bucknor I Moultan ' Haican ICabul X Chief Towns j-Calcutta Fort William | Hugly [Englifli Decca J Malda, Englifli and Dutch Chatigan Caftlimbazar J "I Naugracut Rajapour Patna Necbal Gore LRotas rjaganal j Jeflelmere 1 Tata >•■< Bucknor j Moultan ' Haican J LCabul 4 L 2 The 628 I H D I A WITHIN THE Ganges, Grand Divifions. Provinces. rCandifh Berar Chitor Ratipor i Navar Gualeor The middle divifion Agra ^ Delhi Lahor, or Pencah Hendowns - Caffimere - Jengapour i^Afmer, or Bando X Chief Towns, 'Medipour Berar Chitor Ratipor Navar Gualeor Agra Delhi, E. Ion. 79, N. lat. 28>. Lahor Hendowns. Caffimere Jengapour LAfmer. The Britidi nation pofTefles in full fovereignty the whole fbubah of Bengal, and the o-eateft part of Bahar. In Orifla, or (Jrixa, only the dillrids of Midnapour^ The whole pofTeffions contain about 150,000 fquare miles, and 10 millions of in- habitants. With their allies an-] tributaries, they now occupy the whole navigable courfe of the Ganges from its entry on the plains to the fea, which, by its winding courfe, is more than 1350 miles. Air and seasons.] The winds in this climate generally blow for fix months from the fouth, and fix from the north. April, May, and the beginning of June, are exceffively hot, but refrefhed by fea breezes ; and in fome dry feafons, the hur- ricanes, which tear up the fands, and let them f^ill in dry fhowers, are exceffively difao-reeable. The Englifh, and confequently the Europeans in general, who arrive at Indoftan, are commonly feized with fome illnefs, fuch as flux or fever, in their different appearances ; but when properly treated, efpecially if the patients are ab« ftemious, they recover, and afterwards prove healthy. Mountains.] The mofi: remarkable mountains are thofe of Caucafus and Nauo-racut, which divide India from Perfia, Ufbec Tartary, and Thibet, and are inhabited by Marattas, Afghans, or Patans, and other people more warlike than the Gentoos. As to the mountains of Balagaut, which run almofl the whole length of India from north to fouch, and cut the peninfula of India in two, they are fo high that they llop the weftern monlbon, the rains beginning fooner on the Malabar eoaft than they do on the coail of Coromandel. Rivers.] Thefe are the Indus and the Ganges, both of them known to the ancients, and held in thehighcll efl:eem, and even veneration, by the modern in- habitants. The Indus is by the natives called Sinde, or Sindeh, and. is formed of about ten principal flreams which defcend from the Peifian and Tartarian moun- tains on the northrcaft and north-weft. From the city of Attock down to Moultan,, it is commonly ftyledthe River Attock ; below Moultan it is often named the Soor, until it dividco itfelf into many channels near Tatta, where the principal brancii takes the name of Mehiaii. Befidcs thofe rivers, many others water this country, as the Bahet or Chelum, (the Hydafpes of Alexander), the Jenau or the ancient Accfines, or Bcah, Serlege, Jumna, and the Rauvec, iormerly the Hydraotes,. on ihe fouth bank of which llands the city of Lahor. Seas, bays, and capes.] Thel'c are the Indian Ocean ; the bay of Bengal ;. the gulf of Cambaya ; the ftraits of Ranianakoel j Capes Comorin and Diu. Inhabitants.] To what v/as faid of their religion and fed;s, we may add, that the fakirs arc a kind of Mahometan mcdicants or beggars, who travel about, prac- cifing INDIA WITHIN THE Ganges. 6zy tifing the grcateft auftericies ; but many of them are impollois. Their number is faid to be 800,000. Another let of medicants are the joghis, who are idolaters, and are fuppofed to be twelve millions in number, but all of them vagabonds, who Jive by amufing the credulous Gentoos with foolifh fidions. The Banians, who are fo called from their affeded innocence of life, ferve as brokers, and profefs the Gentoo religion. The Perfces, or rarfcs, of Indoftan, arc originally the Gaurs, defcribed in Perfia, an induftrious people, particularly in weaving and archi- teifture of every kind. They pretend to be pofTeffed of the works of Zoroafter whom they call by various names, and which fome Europeans think contain many particulars that would throw light upon ancient hiflory both facred and profane. This opinion is countenanced by the few i);ircels of thole books that have been publiihed j but fome are of opinion that the whole is a modern impolture. The Gaurs pay divine adoration to tire, but, it is faid, only as an emblem of the divi- nity, and as his chief agent in the fyftem of the univerfe. They never extinguifli fire. They will Hand four hours by their lamp, putting up their prayers to God, with folded hands, and their eyes turned towards Heaven with great marks of devotion. They utter ejaculatory prayers all day long, and conftantly mix bufinefs, and even common converfiition, with devotion. They have a fuperllitious vene- ration tor cocks and for dogs. They breed great numbers of dogs at their own* houfes, and feed them regularly twice every day with rice and ghee. To all doo^s, whether their own or not, they are very hofpitable. Wherever they fee a doo-, they prefently call him, and offer him food. If you walk abroad with a dog in any of the' Perfee villages, you prefently hear jo ! Jo ! at every turn ; every bodv ilriving to be the firft to entertain your dog. Dogs are alfo facred in all the Turkilh domi- jnions. The dogs on the ifland of Bombay, a few years ago, were many of them mad : whereupon an order was given by the governor, for killing all doo-s without exception. This order being known, the Perfees were greatly alarmed, met together, and entered into a folemn alliance in defence of their dogs, determined to prote£t dieir lives at the rifque of their own. It was therefore thou^rht pru- dent, not to infift on the execution of the decree that had been iffued at^ainft thofe faithful and affeftionate domeftics. The nobility and people of rank delight in hunting with the bow as well as the gun, and often train the leopards to the fports of the field. They affetl fhadv walks and cool fountains, like other people in hot countries. They are fond of tumblers, mountebanks, and jugglers ; of barbarous mulic, both in wind and lirin"- inftru- ments,, and play at cards in their private parties. Their houfes make no appearance, and thofe of the commonalty are poor and mean, and generally thatched, which' j;eiitlers them fubjett to tire ; but the manufacturers chufe to work in the oi^en air ; and the infide of houfes belonging to the principal perfons are commonly neat, com- modious, nay many of them magnificent. Commerce oi- iNcoiXAN.] Befides the particulars already mentioned, the Ma- hometan merchints carry on, in jmiks, a trade with Mecca, in Arabia, from the weftern parts of this emjiire, up the Red Sc?.. The largell of thefe junks, we are told, behdes the cargoes, v/ill carry lyoo Mahometan pilgrims to vifit the tomb of their prophet. At Mecca they meet with AbyQ'^nian, Egyptian, and other traders, to whom they difpofe of their cargoes for gold and filver ; fo that a Mahometan junk returning from this voyage is often worth 20o,oool. Provinces, cities, and other 7 The province of Agra is the larged: in all Btrii-DiNGs, peBLic AND PRIVATE. ^ Indoftan, containing 40 large tov/ns and 340 villages. Agra is the greateft city, and its callle the largelt fortilication in ail the ludies. The Dutch have a fa<5vory there. ..«. ' Tlie • 6-50 INDIA WITHIN THE Ganges. The city of Delhi, which is the capital of that province, is likewife the capital of Indoftan, It is defcribed as a fine city, and contains the imperial palace, which is adorned with great magnificence. Its llables formerly contained 1 2,000 horfes, brought from Arabia, Perfia, and Tartary ; and 500 elephants. When the forage is bOrnt up by the heats of the feafon, thefe horfes] are faid to be fed ill the morning with bread, butter, and fugar, and in the evening with rice-milk properly prepared. Tatta, the capital of Sindia, is a large city ; and it is faid that a plague which happened there in 1699 carried off" above 80,000 of its manufadurers in filk and cotton. It is flill famous for the manufadure of palanquins, a kind of canopied couches, on which the great men all over India, Europeans as well as natives, re- pofe when they appear abroad. They are carried by four men, who will trot along, morning and evening, 40 miles a day; 10 being ufually hired, who carry the palanquin by turns, four at a time. Though a palanquin is dear at firft coft, yet the porters may be hired for nine or ten (hillings a month each, out of which thev maintain themfelves. The Indus, at Tatta, is about a mile broad, and fa- mous for its fine carp. The province of Moultan yields excellent iron and canes ; and the inhabitants, by their fituation, are enabled to deal with the Perfians and Tartars yearly for above 60,000 horfes. The capital is Moultan, about 800 miles, by the courfe of the river, from the fea. The province of Caflimere, being furrounded with mountains, is difficult of accefs, i^ut when entered, it appears to be the paradife of the Indies. It is faid to contain 100,000 villages, to be ftored with cattle and game, without any beafts of prey. The capital (Caffimere) Itands by a large lake ; and both fexes, the wo- men el'pecially, are almoll; as fair as the Europeans, and are faid to be witty, dex- terous, and ingenious. Tlie province and city of Lahor, formerly made a great figure in the Indian hiftory, and is iViU one of tlie largeft and fineft in the Indies, producing the beft fugars of any in Indoftan. Its capital was once about nine miles long, but is now much decayed. Ayud, Varad, Bekar, and Hallabas are inhabited by a hardy race of men, who fecm never to have been conquered, and though they fubmit to the Moguls, live in an eafy, independent ftate. In fome of thofe provinces many of the European fruits, plants, and flowers, thrive, as in their native foil. Bengal, of all the Indian provinces, is perhaps the moll interefting to an Englifh reader. Its natural fituation, (as defcribed by major Rennel, late furveyor-gene- ral in Bengal) is fingularly happy with rcfpedt to fccurity from the attack of fo- reign enemies. On the north and eafl: it^hath no warlike neighbours, and hath more- over a formidable barrier of mountains, rivers, or extenfive waftes towards thofe quarters, fliould an enemy ftarc up. On the fouth is a fea-coaft guarded by flial- lows and impenetrable woods, and with only one port, which is of difficult accefs, in an extent of 300 miles. Only on the weft, can an enemy be apprehended, but there the natural barrier is ftiong, and v/ith its population and refourccs, and the ufual proportion of Britifli troops, Bengal might bid defiance to any part of Indoftan which was inclined to become its enemy. It is cllimated to be the ftore-houfe of the Kaft Indies. Its fertility exceeds that of Egypt after being overflowed by the Nile ; and the produce of its foil confifts of rice, fugar-canes, corn, fefamum, fmall mulberry, and other trees. Its callicoes, filk, falt-pecre, lakka, opium, wax, and civet, go all over the world, and provifions here arc in vaft plenty, and incredibly cheap, cfpccially pullets, ducks, and gcefe. The country is interfered by canals cut out of the Ganges for the benefit of commerce ; and extends near 100 leagues on both fides the Ganges, full of cities, towns, villages, and caftles. The INDIA WITHIN THE Ganges. 631 The principal Englifh fadtory in Bengal is at Culcatta, called Fort William, fituate on the river Hugly, the mofl: vvelkrly branch of the Ganges. The fort itfelf is faid to be irregular, and untenable againft difciplincd troops; but the fer- vants of the Company have provided themfelves with convenient apartments for their own accommodation. As the town itfelf has been long in poflcfHon of the Company, an Englifla civil government, by a mayor and aldermen, was intro- duced into it. This was immediately under the authority of the Company. But in 1773, an aft of parliament, was palled to regulate the affairs of the Eaft India Company, as well in India as in Europe. By this adt the governor-general and four counfellors were inverted with the whole civil and military government of the prefidency of Fort William ; and the ordering, management, and government, of all the territorial acquifitions and revenues in the kingdom of Bengal, Bahar, and Oriffa, fo long as the Company fliould remain poffefTed of them. The gover- nor-general and council were alfo entrufted with the fuperintendance of the pre- fidencies of Madras, Bombay, and Bencoolen. The governor-general and coun- cil to pay obedience to the orders of the court of diredtors, and to correfpond with them. The governor-general and counfe-llors were likewife empowered to eftab- lifh a court of judicature at Fort William ; to confift of a chief juftice, and three other judges, to be named from time to time by his majefty : thefe were to exer- cife all criminal, admiralty, and ecclefraftical jurifdiction ; to be a court of record and a court of oyer and terminer for the town of Culcatta, and fattory of Fort William, and its limits ; and the factories fubordinate thereto. But the eflablifh- ment of this fupreme court appears not to have promoted either the interefts of the Eaft India Company, or the felicity of the people of the country. No proper attention was paid to the manners and cuftoms of the people ; afts of great op- preffion and injuftice were committed; and the fupreme court became a fource of great diffatisfadion, and diforder. For the fublequent regulations refpedting the Eaft India territories and company, we refer to our account of them in the Hiftory of England. In 1756, an unhappy event took place at Calcutta, which is too remarkable to be omitted. The nabob, or foubah, quarrelled with the company, and inverted Calcutta with a large body of black troops. The governor, and Ibme of the principal perfons of the place, threw themfelves, with their chief efFedls, on board the ftiips in the river; they who remained, for fome hours, bravely defended the place J but their ammunition being expended, they furrendered upon terms. The foubah, a capricious, unfeeling tyrant, inftead of obferving the capitulation forced Mr. Holwell, the governor's chief fervant, and 145 Britirti fubjedts, into a little but fecure prilbn, c/lled the Black-hole, a place about eighteen feet fquare, and fliut'up from almoft all communication of free air. Their miferies durino- the night were inexpreflible, and before morning no more than twenty-three were found alive, the reft dying of fuflbcation, which was generally attended with a horrible phrenfy. Among thofe favcd was Mr. Holwell himfelf, who has written a mofl aff'edling accouht of the cataftrophc. The infenfible nabob returned to his capital, after plundering the place, imagining he had rooted the Englirti out of his dominions; but the feafonable arrival of admiral Watfon, and colonel (afterwards lord) Clive, put them once more, with fome difHculty, in poileffion of the place; and the war was foon concluded by the battleof Plafl}, gained bv the colonel :tnd the death of the nabob Suraja Dowla, in whofe place Mhir Jarteir, one 'of his Ge- nerals, and who had previouily figned a fecret treaty with Clive to defcr't his mailer and amply reward the Englifli, was advanced to the foubaliftiip. The capital of Bengal, where the nabob keeps his court, is Muxadabad, or Moorfliedabad : Benares, lying in the fame province, is the Gcntoo univer-ity. goj INDIA WITHIN THE Ganges. and celebrated for its fandVity. This zemindary, which includes alfo the clrcars of Gazypeur and Chunar, conftituteda part of the dominions of Oude till J774, wheh its tribute or quit-rent of 24 lacks was transferred to the Englifli. Chaudcnagore is the principal place poflefTed by the French in Bengal : it lies higher up the river than Calcutta. But though ftrongly fortified, furnifhed with a garrifon of 500 Europeans, and 1200 Indians, and defended by 123 pieces of cannon and three mortars, it was taken by the Englifh admirals Watfon and Po- cocke, and colonel Ciive, and alfo was obliged to furrender in the laft war, butre- flored by the peace. Hugb'j vvhich lies fifty miles to the north of Calcutta, upon the Gano-es, is a place of prodigious trade for the richeft Indian commodities. The Dutch have here a well fortified faftory. The fearch for diamonds is car- ried on by about 10,000 people from Saumelpour, which lies thirty leagues to the north of Hugly, for about fifty miles farther. Dacca is faid to be the largeft city of Bengal, and the tide comes up to its walls. It contains an lingllfii and a Dutch faftory. The other chief towns arc Caffumbazar, Chinchura, Barnagua, and Maldo ; befules a number of other places of lefs note, but all of them rich in the Indian manufadfurcs. We know little concerning the province or foubah of Malva, which lies to the weft of Bengal ; Sindia and Holkar divide the largeft part of it. The capital of •the former is Ougcin, and of Holkar, the city of Indoor. It is as fertile as the .other provinces, aud its chief city is Ratipor. The province of Kandilli included ■that of Berar and part of Orixa, and its capital is Brampur, or Burhanpoor, aflou- rifhing city, and it carries on a vaft trade in chintzes,, callicoes, and embroidered fluffs. Cattack is the capital of Orixa, and lies in the only road between Bengal and the Northern circars, and belongs to the Berar Rajah Moodajee Boofta, whole dominions are very extenfive. Of the five Northern circars, Cicacole, Rajamun- dry, Ellore, and Condapilly are in pofifeffion of the Englifli, and Gunton is in the hands of the Nizam. The above are the provinces belonging to the Mogul's empire to the north of xvhat is properly called the Peninfula Within the Ganges. Thofe that lie to the fouthward fall into the defcription of the peninfula itfelf. History.] The firft invader whofe expedition is authentically recorded of this extenfive and fruitful country was the famous Alexander of Maceclon, and where the fortrcfs of Rotas now ftands on the banks of the Bchatj he is fuppofed to have put in execution his ftratagem for croffing the river, whilft the oppofite ftiore was pofleffed by Porus. Zinghis Khan alfo direfted his force there in the year 1221, and made the emperor to forfakc his capital. The feat of government was, indeed, often changed, fomctimes by necellity and at others by choice, as from Gazna to Delhi, to Lahore, to Agra, and to Canagc. This lafl place was, in the reign of Porus, and long afterwards, the capital of Indoftan, but is now re- duced to 'a middling town, though the ruins are of great extent*'. The next conqueror is Tamerlane, who crofied the Indtvs nearly at the fame place with Alexander, but long before Tamerlane, Mahometan princes had entered, made concjuefts, and cftablifiKd themfclves in India, Vaful, the fixth of the calijihs, named Ommiadcs,'who afccnded the throne in the 708th year of the Chriftian jcra, and in the 90th of the Hegira, made con(iuefls in India : fo that the Koran was introduced very early into this country. Mahmoud, fon of Scbegtcchin, prince of Gazna, the capital of a provii-vce fcparated by mountains from the north- • Siippofi il to be the Paliobothra of the ancients. In tlie 6ih century it conta'uici! 30,000 fl uli'fh l)crtil-uut was fokl. and there were alfo 60,000 inulicians ami fingers, who paid a iici! 30,000 fliops in tax to };ov(.xmnttni. well INDIA WITHIN THE GaNGF.?; ' 6j3 weft parts of India, and fituated near Kandahar, carried the Koran with the fword into Indoftan in the year looo or 1002 of the Chriflian .-rrn. He treated the In-r dians with all the rigour of a conqueror, and all the fury of a zealot, plundering treafures, demolifliing temples, and murdering idolaters. The wealth found by him in Indoftan is reprefentcd as immenfe. The fucceft()rs of this Mahmoud are called the dynafty of the Gaznavides, and maintained themfelves in a great part of the countries which he had conquered in India until the year i 155, or i i i;y, when Kofrou Schah, the 13th and laft prince of the Gaznavide race, was dq^ofed by Kuftain Gauri, who founded the dynafty of the Gaurides, which furnifhed five princes, who poflefled nearly the fame dominions as their predeceftbrs the Gazna- vides. Scheabbedin, the fourth of the Gauride emperors, during the life of his brother and predecefibr Gaiatheddin, conquered the kingdoms of Moultan and Delhi, and drew from thence prodigious treafures. But an Indian, who had been rendered defperate by the pollutions and infults to which he faw his gods and tem- ples expofed, made a vow to aftufTuiate Scheabbedin, and executed it. The race of Gaurides ended in the year 1212, in the perfon of Mahmoud, fucceflbr and nephew to Scheabbedin, who was alfo cut off by aft"aiTins. Several revolutions followed till the time of Tamerlane, whofe troops entered India at the end of the year 1398, defcending more terrible than all its former inundations from the cen- tre of the Indian Caucafus. This invincible barbarian met with no rcfiftance fuf- ficient to juftify, even by the military maxims of Tartars, the cruelties with which he marked his way. But, after an immenfe flaughtcr of human creatures, he at length rendered himfelf lord of an empire which extended from Smyrna to the banks of the Ganges. The hiftory of the fiicceflbrs of Tamerlane, who reigned over Indoftan with lit- tle interruption more than 350 years, has been varioufty reprefented ; but all agree that they were magnificent and defpotic princes, that they committed their pro- vinces, as has been already •^bferved, to rapacious governors, or to their own fons by which their empire was often miferably torn in pieces. It is worthy of obferv- ation, that the provinces of Indoftan have feldom continued under one head during a period of twenty years, from the earlieft hiftory down to the reign of Acbar in the 16th century. Bengal, Guzerar, and other provinces, were in turn indepen- dent, and fometimes the empire of Indoftan was confined within the proper limits of the province itfelf. So that the hiftory of it furniflies an excellent leffon to princes not to grafp at too extenfive dominion*. At length, the famous Aureng- zebe, in the year 1667, though the youngeft among many fons of the reignino- em- peror, after defeating or murdering all his brethren, mounted the throne of Indof- tan, and may be confidered as the real founder and legiflator of the empire. He was a great and politic prince, and the firft who extended his dominion over the Peninfula Within the Ganges, which is at prefent fo well known to the Englifh, He lived fo late as the year 1707, and it is faid that fome of his great officers of ftate were alive in the year 1750. Aurengzebe feems to have left too much power to the governors of his diftant provinces, and to have been too inattentive to pre- vent the effedis of that dreadful defpotifm, which, while in his hands, preferved the tranquillity of his empire ; but when it defcended to his weak indolent fuc- celFors, occafioned its overthrow. In 1713, four of his grandfons difputed the empire, which, after a blood/ ftruggle, fell to the eldeft, Mauzoldin, who took the name of JehanderShah. This "* Some parts of the empire were 1000 miles and Indus, in the year 1774, for thry clofed their d'ft.int from the fe;it of goveniment. The Eng- campaign that ye.ir ut Ljldou'', 1 1 00 miles from lifli con-]ucfts in Lulia met thofc of Tamerlane in Calcutta, a point ccj^uidiilant from the mouths of the Gangcj 4 ^^ prince ■634 INDIA WITHIN THE GaKCES. prince was a flave to his pleafures, and was governed by his miftrefs lb abfolufely, that his great Omrahs conlpired againtl him, and raifed to the throne one of his nephews, who ftruck otf his uncle's head. The new emperor, whole name was Furrukhlir, was governed and at laft enflaved by two brothers of the nameof Seyd, who iifurpcd his power fo ablblutely, that, being afraid to punifh them publicly, he ordered them both to be privately alTiffinated. They difcovered his intention, and dethroned the emperor, in whofe place they raifed a grandlon of Aurengzebe, by his daughter, a youth of feventcen years of age, after imprifoning and ftrangling P'urrukhfir. The voung emperor proved difagrecable to the brothers, and being foon poifoned, they railed to the throne his elder brother, who took the title of Shah Jehan. The rajahs of Indoftan, whole anceftors had entered into ftipulations, or what may be caWed pail a convcnta, when they admitted the Mogul family, took the field againft the two brothers ; but the latter were vidorious, and Shah Jehan was pur in tranquil polieffion of the empire, and died in 1719. He was fucceed- ed bv another prince of the Mogul race, who took the name of Mahommed Shah, and entered into private meafures with his great rajahs for deftroying the Seyds, who were declared enemies by Nizam al Muluck, one of Aurcngzebe's favourite generals. Nizam, it is faid, was privately encouraged by the emperor to declare himfelf againlt the brothers, and to proclaim himfelf foubah of Decan, which be- longed to one of the Seyds, who was affaffmated by the emperor's order. The vouno-er Seyd no fooner underftood what had happened, than he proclaimed the fultan Ibrahim, another of the Mogul princes, emperor. A battle cnfued in 1720, in which the emperor was vidlorious, and is laid to have ufed his conqueil with great moderation, for he remitted Ibrahim to the prifon from whence he had been taken ; and Seyd, being likewife a prifoner, was condemned to perpetual confine- ment ; but the emperor took pofleflion of his vaft riches. Seyd did not long fur- vive his confinement ; and upon his death, the emperor abandoned himfelf to the fame courfe of pleafures that had been fo fatal «o his predeceflbrs. As to Nizam, he became now the great imperial general, ancf was often employed againlt the Marattas, whom he defeated, when they had almoft made themfelves mailers of Agra and Delhi. He was confirmed in his foubahfliip, and was confidered as the hrit fubjett in the empire. Authors are divided as to his motives for inviting Nadir Shah, otherwife Kouli Khan, the Perfian monarch, to invade Indoftan. It is- thought that he had intelligence of a llrong party formed againft him at court ; but the truth perhaps is, that Nizam did not think that Nadir Shah could have fuccefs,, and at firft wanted to make himtelf ufeful by oppofing him. The fuccefs of Nadir Shah is well known, and the immenfe treafure which he carried from Indoftan in 7739. Befidcs thole treafures, he obliged the Mogul to furrender to him all the lands to the weft of the rivers Attock and Synd, comprehending the provinces of Peyflior, Cabul, and Gagna, with many other rich and po[Hilous principalities, the '.\hole of them almoft equal in value to the crown of Perfia itfcU'. This invafion coft the Gentoos 200,000 lives. As to the j->lunder made by Nadir Shah, fome accounts, and thofe ftrongly authenticated, nwke it amount to the incredible fum of two hundred and thirty-one millions ftcrling, as mentioned by the London Gazette of thofe times. I'hc moft luodcrate fay that Nadir's own lliarc amounted to confiderably above feventy millions. Be that as it will, the invafion of Nadir Shah Uiay be confidered as putting a period to the greatncfs of the Mogul empire. Nadir, however, having raifcil all the money he could in i).:lhi, rc-inftated the Mogul, Mahommed Shah, in the fovercignty, and returned into his own countrv. A general defedion of the provinces foon after enftieil ; none being willing to yield obedience to a prince deprived of the power to en- force it. The provinces to the north-weft ol the Indus had been ceded to Nadir Shah, INDIA ViTHii: THE GA>rGLS. 635 Shah, who being aflaffinatcd in 1747, Aclinut Abdalla, his treafurcr, an uni)rin- ciplcd man, but poflllied of great intrepidity, found means, in the general con- fufion occufioned by the tyrant's death, to carry oif three hundred camels loaded with wealth, whereby he was enabled to put himfclf at the head of an army, and march againft Delhi with fitly thoufand horfe. Thus was the wealth, drawn from Delhi, made the means of continuing thofe miferies of war which it had at firft occafioned. In this extremity, prince Ahmed Shah, the Mogul's eldeft Ton, and the vizier, with other leading men, took the field, with eighty thoufand horfe, to oppofc the invader. The war was carried on with various luccefs, and Mahommcd Shah died before its termination. His fon, Ahmed Shah, then mounted the imperial throne at Delhi ; but the empire fell every day more into decay. Abdallah erected an independent kingdom, of which the Indus is the general boundary to the call, and Candahar is the capital. The Marattas, a warlike nation, poflcHing the fouth-wcflern poninfula of India *, had, before the invafion of Nadir Shah, exa&ed a chour, or tribute from theempire, rriiing our of the revenues of the province of Bengal, which being with-held, in confequence of the enfeebled Hate of the empire, the Marattas became clamorous. The empire began to totter to its foundation ; every petty chief, by counterfeiting grants from Delhi, laying claim to jaghires and to diftrivfis. The country was torn to pieces by civil wars, and groaned under every fpccies of domedic confufion. Ahmed Shr^h reigned only fcven years, after which much more diforder and con- fufion prevailed in this country, and the people fuftered great calamities. At pre- fcnt, the imperial dignity of Iiidoflan is verted in Shah AUum or Zadah, who is univerfally acknowledged to be the true heir of the Tamerlane race ; but his power is feeble : the city of Delhi, and a fmall territory round it, is all that is left re- maining to the houfe and heir of Tamerlane, who depends upon the protedtion of the Englifli, whole intereft it is to fupport him, as his grant to the company is the bell: legal guarantee of their poirelfions. It is, however, the intereft of the Eaft India Company, that their governments in India fhould interfere as little as poffible in the domeftic or national quarrels of the country powers, and that they fhould always endeavour to be in a flate of peace and tranquillity with their neigbours. But thefe maxims of found policy they have not adhered to ; their governors and fervants having unneceflin-ily, and fometimes very iniquitoufly, embroiled themfelves with the country powers, and engaged in wars of a very pernicious and indcfenfible nature. The emperor of Indoftan, or Great Mogul (fo called from being defcended from Tamerlane the Mongul, or Mogul Tartar), on his advancement to the throne, alfumes fome grand title ; as. The Conqueror of the IVorld ; the Ornafiieiii of the Throne, &c. but he is never crowned. • Malwa, Berar, Oriffi, Candcilli, and Wii- to the Kiflna fomhwaid, foiming- a tracl of about p mr, tlic priucip.il part ot ^Amcdnagur or Dow- 1 coo niiks long", and 709 wide. This extenlive lat ibad, half ot Guzerat, and a Iniall ])art of country is divided among a number of chiefs, Agimere, Agra, and Allahabad are conipvizcd whofe obedience to the I'aiflnvah, ov Head, is mere- wiiliin their extenlive empire, which extends ly nominal, and they arc ottcn at war among them- ttom fe.i 10 Tea arrofs the widcll part of the pen- lelves, and alfo with their head. Their power inUila, and iront the confmes of A^r.i northward hath been on the decline for the lali twenty years. 4 M a Thi 6^6 The peninsula within the Ganges. Grand Divifions. Provinces. rAladura Tanjore Eafl fide of Bifna- gar, or Carnatic The fouth-eaft coaft of India, fituate on the Bay of Bengal, ufually.^' called the coaft of Co- romandel. 1 h3>550 Chief Towns. Sq. M. -) f Madura 16,400 Tanjore Tranquebar, Danes Negapatnam, Englifli Bifnagar Porta-nova, Dutch Fort St, David, Englifh Pondicherry,7p^^^^j^ Conymere, J Coblon Sadrafpatan, Dutch I St. Thomas, Portuguefe > ^ Fort St. George, or Mad- rafs, E. Ion. 80-32. N. lat. 1 3-1 1. Englifh Pullicate, Dutch Golconda Golconda 62,100 Gani, or Coulor, diamond mines Maflulipatam, Englifh and Dutch Vifagapatam, Englifh Bimlipatan, Dutch Orixa Orixa \^Balafore, Englifh "Wefl fide of Bifna-1 _f Tegapatan, Dutch 1 Anjengo, Englifh gar, or Carnatic Thelbuth-wcftcoafl of India, ufually called < the coaft of Malabar. Cochin, Dutch jEngli fh Callicut, Tellichery Cannonore, Dutch Mangalore, 7 Dutch and Barcelore, 5 Portuguefe Raolconda, diamond mine Decean,orVifiapour ><; gX Pomfgudb Rajapore, French Dabul, Englifh Dundee 7 « > r 01 , >rortuguele bhoule, 3 *= Bombay, ifle and town, Englifh, 1 9-18. N. lat. 73-6 E. Ion. Baifcen, Portuguefe Salfctte, Englifh >83,040 Granii The peninsula within the Ganges. 6j7 Grand Dlvifions. Provinces. Chief Towns, Sq. M. rCambaya, or Guze- rat The fouth-wcft coaft of India, iifually called"! >•< tiie coaft of Malabar 'Damon, Portvigiiefe Surat, E. Ion. 73-25.N. lar. 21-10. Swalle-y Barak, Englifh and Dutch- I Amedabad ! Cambaya i_ J (^Dieu, I'ortuguefe.- Rivers.] The Cattack, or Mahanada, the mouths of which have never been traced ; the Soaneand Nerbudda; the Puddai and Godavery, which lafl: is efleem- ed a facred river ; and the famous Kidna^. a principal branch of which pofTes within 30 miles eaft of Poonahj where it is named Beurah, and alfo efteemed a facred river. Climate, seasons, and produce."] The chain of mountains already men- tioned, running from north to fouth, renders it winter on one fide of this penin- fula, while it is fummer on the other. About the end of June, a fouth-wcft wind begins to blow from the fea, on the coaft of Malabar, which, with continual rains, lafts four months, during which time all is fcrene upon the coaft of Coromandel (the weftern and eaftern coafts being fo denominated.) Towards the end of Oc- tober, the rainy feafon, and the change of the monfoon, begins on the Coromandel coaft, which being dcftitute of good harbours, renders it extremely dangerous for fhips to remain there, during that time; and to this is owing the periodical returns of the Englifti ftiipping to Bombay, upon the Malabar coaft. The air is naturally hot in this peninfula, but is refrelhed by breezes, the wind altering every twelve hours ; that is, from midnight to noon it blows off" the land, when it is intolerably hot, and during the other twelve hours from the fea, which laft proves a great re- frefhment to the inhabitants of the coaft. The produce of the foil is the fame with that of the other parts of the Eaft Indies. The like may be faid of their quadrupeds, fifh, fowl, and noxious creatures and infefts. Inhabitants.] The inhabitants of this parr are more black in complexion than thofe of the other peninfula of India, though lying nearer to the equator, which make fome fufpeft them to be the defcendants of an ancient colony from Ethiopia. The greateft part of them have but a faint notion of any allegiance they owe to the emperor of Indoftan, whofe tribute from hence has been, ever fince the invafion of Shah Nadir, intercepted by their foubahs and nabobs, who now cxercife an independent power in the government ; but befides thofe foubahs, and other im- perial viceroys, many eftates in this peninfula belong to the rajahs,, or lords, who are the defcendants of their old princes, and regard themfelves as independent. on the Mogul, and his authority. Provinces, cities and other build- 7 Erom what has been faid above, iNGS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. ^ "^his peninfula is rather to be divided into great governments, or foubahfliips, than into provinces. One foubah often engrofles feveral provinces, and hxes the feat of his government according to his own conveniency. I fliall fpeak of thofe provinces as belonging to the Malabar, or Coromandel coaft, the two great objefts of Englifh commerce in that country j and firft, of the eaftern, or Coromandel coaft. Madura begins at Cape Comorin, the fouthernmoft point of the peninfula. It is about the bignefs of the kingdom of Portugal, and is faid to have been governed by a fovereign king, who had under him fevcnty tributary princes^ each of them independent fng The peninsula within the Ganges. independent in his own dominions, but pnying him a tax ; now, the cafe is much aiteved, the prince of the country being Scarcely able to protccT: himlllf and his iicopk from the depredations of his neighbours, but by a tribute to buy them o(T: the capital is Tritchinopoly. The chief value ot this kingdom feems to confift in a pearl filliery upon its coaft. Tanjore is a little kingdom, lying to the eail of M«- thira. The foil is fertile, and its prince rich, till plundered by the nabob of Arcot, iind fomc Britifli fubjefts conneGed with him Within it lies the Danifli Eaft; India fettlement of Tranquebar, and the fortrefs of Negapatnam, which was taken from the Dutch the laft war, and confirmed to the Engliih, by the late treaty of peace. The capital city is Tanjore, governed by a rajah under the Englifli proteftion. The Carnatic is bounded on the eaft by the bay of Bengal, on the north by the river Kriibia, which divides it from Golconda ; on the weft by Vifapur, or Vifi- pour, and, on the fouth, by the kingdoms of Meffaur and Tanjore ; being in length, from fouth to north, about 345 miles. If Tanjore, Marrawar, Tritchinopoly, ^Madura, and Tinevelly be included, and they are all appendages of the Carnatic, the length thereof from north to fouth is 570 miles, but no where more than 1 10 wide, and chieflv no more than 80. Tne capital of the Carnatic is Bifnagar, and of our •jilv the Nabob of Arcot, whofe dominions commence on the fouth of the Guntoo cir'car, and extend along the whole coaft; of Coromandcl to Cape Comorin. The country in general is efteemed healthful, fertile, and populous. Within this coun- - try, upon the Coromandel coaft, lies fort St. David's, or Cuddalore, belonging to the Englifli, with a diftridt round it. The fort is ftrong, and of great importance to our trade. Five leagues to the north lies Pondicherry, the emporium of the French in the Eaft Indies, which hath been repeatedly taken by the Englifli, and as often rcftored by the treaties of peace. Fort St. George, better known by the name of Madras, is the capital of the Eng- lifli Eaft India Company's dominions in that part of the Eaft Indies, and is diftant eaftward from London about 4S00 miles. Great complaints had been made of the •fuuation ot this fort ; but no pains have been fpared by the company, in rendering it impregnable to any force that can be brought againft it by the natives. It pro- tefts twotowns, called, from the complexions of their feveral inhabitants, the White and the Black. The White Town is fortified, and contains an Engliih corpora- tion of a mayor and aldermen. Nothing has been omitted to mend the natural bad- nefs of its fituation which feems originally to be owing to the neigbourhood of the diaiviond mines, that are but a week's journey diftant. Thefe mines are under the direction of a Mogul ofliccr, who lets them out by admeafurement, enclofing the contents by pallifadoes ; all diamonds above a certain weight originally be- lon-^ed to the emperor. The difliiiff belonging to Madras, doth not extend much more than forty miles round, and is of little value for its produrt . Eighty thou- fand inhabitants of various nations are faid to be dependent upon Madras ; but its lafctv conffts in the fuperloiity of the l^iglifliby fea. It carries on a confiderablc trade with China, Perfia, and Mocha. The Englifli Eaft India Company, through the diftracflions of the Mogul empire, the entcrprifing fpirit of their military ofticers, and the afriftanec of the Englifh navy, acquired an income in this pcninfula, and in Indoftan, that is fupcrior to the re- venues of many crowned heads, out of which they were to pay 400,0c ol. annually to the government, while fuftercd to enjoy their dominions. How their revenue is colledtid, or from whence it arifes, is bcft known to the company : part of it, how- ever, has been granted in property, and part of it fecured on mortgages, for dif- charging their cxpences in fupporting the intcrcfts of their friends, the emperor, 4nd the rcfpedive foubahs and nabobs they have afl!ifted. The The peninsula within the Ganges. 6J9 The company has cxerclfed many rights appropriated to fovereignty ; ftich as thofe of holding foils, coining money, and the like. Thofe jiowers were thought incomitatible with the principles of a commercial fociety, and therefore the Luo-- lifli miniftry and parliament have repeatedly interfereil, and at length have efla- blifhed a board of control at home. It is hoped that, in confequencc of this infti- tution, fuch meafures may be taken with the Eaftern princes and potentates, as may render the acquifitions of the company permanent and national. Without entering into any of the difputes agitated of late, the poffibility of fuch a permanency, and even of extending our influence in India, Is pretty evident. From what has been already faid, it appears that the Gcntoos are for the mod: part entirely paliive in all the revolutions of their government ; and the Moors or Ma- hometans, ignorant and treacherous as they arc, appear to have no violent attach- iiient to any religious principle, and arc abjett enough to live under any form of government. I have already mentioned the kingdom of Golconda, which, befides its diamonds is famous for the cheapnefs of its provifious, and for making white wine of grapes that arc ripe in January. Golconda Is fubjett to a prince, called the Nizam or foubah of the Deccan, who is rich, and can raife 100,000 men. The famous dia- mond mine, Raolconda is in this province. The capital of his dominions is called Bagnagur, or Hyderabad, but the kingdom takes its name from the city of Gol- conda, and comprizes the eaftern part of Dowletabad. Eaft-fouth-eaft of Golconda lies Mafulipatam, where the Englifh and Dutch have faftories. The Engliih have alfo factories at Ganjam and Vifagapatam, on this coafi; ; and the Dutch at Narfi- porc. The province of Orixa, from whence the Englifh company draw fome part of their revenues, lies to the north of Golconda, extending in length from eaft to weft about 550 miles, and in breadth about 240. It is governed chiellv by Moodajee Booilah, and his brother Bembajee, allies to the Marattas. In' this province flands the idolatrous temple of Jagernaut, which they fay is attended by 300 priefls. The idol is an irregular pyramidal black Itone, of about 4 or 500 ib. weight, with two rich diamonds near the top, to reprefent eyes, and the nofe and rnouih painted with vermilion. Major Renneli obferves, that there is a void fpacc between the known parts of Berar, Golconda, OrifTa, and the northern circars, of near 300 miles in length, and 250 in breadth, and that it is not likely to be filled up unlefs a great chano-e takes place in European politics in India. Our pofleflions in the northern circa^rs extend only 70 miles by land, and in fome places not more than 30, which forms a flip of 350 miles in length, bounded towards the continent bv a ridge of moun- tains. Within thefe, and towards Berar is an extenfive trad: of woody and moun- tainous country, v/ith which the adjacent provinces appear to have fcarccly any communication. Though furrounded by people highly civilized, and who abound in uteful manufadures, it is laid, that the few fpecimcns of the miferable inhabitants of this tradt who have appeared in the eircars, ufe no covering but a wilp of flraw. This wild country extends about 160 miles, and the firfl civilized people beyond - them are the Barar Marrartas. The country of the Deccan comprehends feveral large provinces, and fome kino-- doms ; particularly thofe of Baglana, Balagatc, Telenga, and the kingdom of Vifiapour. The truth is, the names, dependencies, and governments of thofe pro- vinces, are extremely unfettlcd ; and (ince their reduction by Aurengzebe, or his father, have been fui)jedl to almoft annual revolutions and aker.ations. Modern geographers are not agreed upon their exaA fituation and extent, but by the afTiilance of major RcnnelTs late memoirs of a map of Indoitan, and his new draw- ings, we have gratified our readers v.ith a new map of the country, v/hich we hope 2 will 6^o The PENINSULA within the Ganges. will be found clear and accurate. The principal to.vns are Aurungabad, and Doltabad, or Dovvl.itabad ; the latter is the ftrongeft place in all Indoftan. Near it lies the tamous paged of Elora, in a plain of about two leagues fquare. The tombs, chapels, temples, pillars, and many thoufand iiguics that furround it, are faid to be cut out of the natural rock, and to furpafs all the other efforts of human art. Telenga lies on the eaft of Golconda, and its capital, Bedcr, contains a garrifon of _:?coo men. The inhabitants of this province fpeak a language pecu- liar to themfelves. Guzerat is a maritime province on tlie gulf of Cambaya, and one of thefineftin India, but inhabited by a fierce rapacious people. It is faid to contain 35 cities. Amedabab is the capital of the province, where there is an Englifh factory, and is faid, in wealth, to vie with the richefl towns in Europe. About 43 Erench leagues diftant lies Surat, where the Englifh have a flourifliing factory. Vifinpour is a large province, the weilern part is called Konkan, which is inter- mingled with the Portuguefe poffefTions. The rajah of Vifiapour is faid to have had a yearly revenue of fix millions fterling, and to have brought into the field 1 50,000 foldiers. The capital is of the fame name, and the country very fruit- ful. The principal places on this coaft are. Daman, Bailaim Trapor, or Tarapor, Chaw], Dandi-Rajahpur, Dabul-Rajahpur, Gheriah, and Vingorla. The Portu- o-uefe have loll: feveral valuable pcfle0ions on this coaft, and thofe which remaia are on the decline. Among the iflands lying upon the fame coaft is that of Bombay, belonging to the EngUlh Eaft India Company, its harbour can conveniently contain looofliips at anchor. The ifiand itfelf is about feven miles in length, and twenty in circumfe- rence ; but its fituation and harbour are its chief recommendations, being deftitute of almoft all the conveniences of life. The town is about a mile long, and poorly built ; and the climate was fatal to Englifh conftitutions, till experience, caution, and temperance taught them prefervatives againft its unwholefomenefs, the bell water there is preferved in tanks, which receive it in the rainy feafons. The fort is a regular quadrangle, and well built of ftone. Many black merchants refide here. This ifland was part of the portion paid with the infanta of Portugal to Charles II. who gave it to the Eaft India Company ; and the ifiand is ftill divided into three Roman-catholic parifiies, inhabited by Portuguefe, and what are called popilh Meftizos and Canarins ; the former being a mixed breed of the natives and Portu- o-uefe, and the other Aborigines of the country. The Englifli have fallen upon methods to render this ifiand and town^ under all their difadvantages, a fafe, if not an agreeable refidenc?. The reader fcarcely needs to be intormed, that the gover- nor and council of Bombay have lucrative ports, as well as theofticers under them. The troops on the ifiand are commanded by Englifii officers ; and the natives, when formed into regular companies, and difciplined, are here, and all over the Eaft Indies called Seapoys. The inhabitants of the ifland amount to near 60,000 of different nations ; each of whom enjoys the pradliee of his religion unmolefted. Here, bcfides Europeans of all countries, you meet with Turks, Perfians, Arabians, Armenians, a mixed race, the vileft of their fpecies, dcfcended from the Portu- guefe, and the outcafts from the Gentoo religion, &c. and alfo caj)tives that arc ilavcs to every other tribe. The Turks that refort to this place on account of trade, are, like the reft of theircountrymen, ftately, grave, and refervcd. The Perfians are more gav, lively, and converfible, but lefs honcft in matters of trade than the fa- turninc Turks. The Arabians are all life and fire, and when they treat with you on any fubjedt, will make you a fine oration in flowing numbers, and a mufical cadence ; but they are the molt difiioneft of all. The Armenians are generally handfomc In their features, mild in tlu'ir tcnipers, and in their nature kind and X bene- The peninsula within the Ganges. 641 beneficent. They arc a kind of Chriftians, and an honour to that fed, beyond many that go from England. Near Bombay are fevcral other iflands, one of which called Elephanta, con- tains the moll: inexplicable antiquity perhaps in the world. A figure of an ele- phant, of the natural fize, cut coarfely in ftone, prefcnts itfclf on the landing- place, near the bottom of a mountain. An eafy Hope then leads to a IlupcnJous temple, hevvii out of the folid rock, eighty or ninety feet long, and forty broad. The roof, which is cut Hat, is fupj^ortcd by regular roA^s of jnllars, about ten feet high, with capitals, rcfembling round cufliions, as if prclfcd by the weight of the incumbent mountain. At the iarther end are three gigantic figures, which have been multiplied by the blind zeal of the Portuguefe. Bcfides the tciT)j)le, are various images, and groupes on each hand cut in the ujnc; one of the latter bearing a rude refcmblance of the judgment of Solomon ; alfo a colonnade, with a door of regular architecture ; but the whole bears no manner of refcmblance to any of the Gentoo works. The ifland and city of Goa, the capital of the Portuguefe fettlements in the Tall; Indies, lies about thirty miles fouth of Vingorla. The ifland is about tvventy- feven miles in comj)ars. It has one of the fineft and bcft fortified ports in the Indies. This was formerly a moft fuberb fettlement, furpafled in bulk or beautv by few of the European cities. It is faid that the revenues of the Jefuits, upon this ifland, equalled thofc of the crown of Portugal. Goa, as well as the rell of the Portu- guefe poHcffions on this coall, are under a viceroy, who ftlll keeps up the remains of the ancient fplendor of the government. The rich peninfula of Salvett is de- pendent on Goa. Sunda lies fouth of the Portuguefe territories, and is governed by a rajah, tributary to the Mogul. Canoree lies about forty miles to the fouth of Goa, and reaches to Calicut. Its foil is famous for producing rice, that fupplies many parts of Europe, and fome of the Indies. The Canorines are faid generally to be governed by a lady, whofe fon has the title of rajah ; and herfubjedts are ac- counted the braveft and moft civilized of any in that peninfula, and remarkably given to commerce. The dominions of Tippoo Saib, fon of Hyder Ally, comprehend generally the provinces of Myfore, Bednore, Zaimbetore, Zanaree, and Dindigal, bcfidcs his acquifition to the northward from the Marrattas : they are at le.iil 400 miles in length, and in the breadth from 290 to 130, lb th^it he hath the largcft fhare in the Peninfula. Though Malabar gives name to the whole fouth -wefl: coaft of the peninfula, vet it is confined at prefent to the country fo called, lying on the weft of Cape Como- rin, and called the Dominions of the Samorin. The Alalabar language, however, is common in theCarnatic ; and the country itfelf is rich and fertile, but peftcred with green adders, whofe poifon is incurable. The moft remarkable places in Malabar are Cranganore, containing a Dutch faftorv and fort; Tellicherrv, where the Englifli have a fmall fettlement, keeping a conftant garrifon of thirty or forty foldiers. Calicut, where the Erench and Portuguefe have fmall faftories, befides various other diftinft territories und cities. Cape Comorln, which is the fouthcrn- moft part ot this peninfula, though not above three leagues in extent, is famous ior uniting in the fame garden the two feafons of the year ; the frees being loaded w ith blolfoms and fruit on one fide, while on the other fide they are ftripped of all their leaves. This furprifing phenomenon is owing to the ridge of mountains fo often mentioned, which travcrfe the whole peninfula from fouth to north. On the oppofite fides of the Cape, the winds are conftantly at variance, blowinp- from the well: on the weft fide, and from the eaft on the caliern fide. 4N Bcfbi-e 64Z P E R S I A, Before I take leave of India, it may be proper to obferve, that in the diftrift of Cochin, within Malabar, nre to be found fomc thoufands of Jews, who pretend to be of the tribe of Manaffeh, and to have records engraven on copper plates in Hebrew cbarafters. They are faid to be fo poor, that many of them embrace the Gentoo rclisjion. Bifcoveries of Jews and their records have likewife been made in China, and other places of Afia, which have occafioned various fpecula- tions among the learned. PERSIA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1 200 ? , C 44 and 70 eafl: longitude. 7 „ t''^"& , ^^^^). between < Z a .1 1 .v a (■ 800.000 Breadth 1 100 5 1^5 and 44 north latitude. 3 ' Boundaries.] TV ^ODERN Perfia is bounded by the mountains of Ararat, or ^ \ji Daghiftan, which divides it from Circaflian Tartary, on the North-Wefl -, by t le Cafpian Sea, which divides it from Ruffia, on the North ; by the river Oxus, which divides it from Ufbec Tartary, on the North-eaft ; by India, on the Eaft ; and by the Indian ocean, and the gulfs of Perfia and Ormus, on the South ; and by Arabia and Turkey, on the WeR. 'I'his kino-dom is divided into the following provinces : on the frontiers of India are Chorafan, jiart of the ancient Hyrcania, including Herat and Efterabad ; Sa- bleuftan, including the ancient Baflriana and Candahor ; and Sigiftan the ancient Dranmana. The fouthern divifion contains Makeran, Kerman, the ancient Ge- droffia, and Farfidan, the ancient Perfia. The fouth-weft divifion, on the frontiers of Turkey, contains the provinces of Chufiftan, the ancient Sufiana, and Irac-Agem, the ancient Parthia. The iiorch-wcfl divifion, lying between the Cafpian Sea and the frontiers of Turkey in Afia, contains the provinces of Aderbeitzen, the ancient Media ; Gangea, Daghiftan, part of the ancient Iberia and Colchis; Ghilan, part of the ancient Myrcania ; Shirvan, and Mazandcran. _ Name.] Perfia according to the poets, derived its name from Perfius, the fon of Tupiter and Danac. Lefs fabulous authors fuppofe it derived from Paras, which jignifies a horfeman, the Perfians, or Parthians, being always celebrated for their skill in horfcmanfliip. Air.] The parts which border upon Caucafus and D.aghiftan, and the moun- tains near the Cafpian Sea, are cold, as lying in the neighbourhood of thofe moun- tains which are commonly covered with fnow. The air in the midland provinces of Perfia is fcvene, pure, and exhilerating, but in tiic fouthern provinces it is hot, and furnctimes communicates noxious blails to the mitlland parts, which are fo often inortal, that the inhabitants fortify their heads with very thick turbans. Sou. AND I'RODUCTtoNS.] Thcfc Vary like the air. The foil is far from being luxuriant towards Tariary and the Cafpian Sea, but with cultivation it might pro- duce abundance of corn and fruits. South of mount Taurus, the fertility of tlie country in corn, fruits, wine, and other luxiuies of life, is fcarcely to be equalled. It produces wine and oil in plenty, fcna, rhubarb, and the finell of drugs. 'Jhi- fruits are delicious, cfpecially their dates, oranges, pillachio nuts, melons, eucuiii- btrr, and gardi.n-lUifi", not to ini:ntion vaft quantities of excellent filk , and ihc gulf P E R S I A. 643 gulf of Baflbra formerly fiirnifliecl great part of Europe and Afia with very fine pcarb . Some parts near Ifpahan produce almoft all the flowers that are valued in Europe ; and from lome of them, the rofcs efpecially, they extract v.atcrs of a falubrious and odorific kind, which form a gainful article in trade. In Ihort, the fruits, vegetables, and flowers of Perfia, are of a moft exalted flavour ; and had the natives the art of horticulture to as great perfection as fome nations in Europe, by tranfplanting, engrafting, and other meliorations, they would add greatly to the natural riches of the country. The Perfian aflafcetida flows from a plant called Hiltot, and turns into a gum. Some of it is white, and fome black ; but the former is fo much valued, that the natives make very rich fauce of it, and fomctimes eat it as a rarity. Mountains.] Thefe are Caucafus and Ararat, v/hich are called the mountains of Daghiftan ; and the vaft collection of mountains called Taurus, and liieir divifions run through the middle of the counrrv from Natolia to India. Rivers.] It has been obferved, that no country, of fo great an extent, has fo few navigable rivers as Perlia. The molt confiderable are thofe of the Kur, an- ciently Cyrus ; and Aras, anciently Araxes, which rifes in or near the mountains of Ararat, and, joining the Cyrus, falls into the Cafpian Sea. Some fmall rivulets falling from the mountains water the country ; but their Itreams are fo inconfidcr- able, that few or none of them can be navigated even with boats. The Oxus can fcarcely be called a Perfian river, though it divides Perfia from Ufbec Tartary. Perfia has the river Indus on the eait, and the Euphrates and Tigris on the weft. Water.] The fcarcity of rivers in Perfia occafions a fcarcity of water, which is fupplied by means of refervoirs, aquedu(5ts, canals, and other ingenious methods. Metals and minerals.] Perfia contains mines of iron, copper, lead, and above all, turquoife flones, which are found in Chorafan. Sulphur, falt-petre, and antimony, are found in the mountains. Quarries of red, white, and black marble, have alfo been difcovered near Taufis. Population, inhabitants, man- ? It is impolTible ta fpeak with any cer- NERS, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. ^ tainty Concerning the population of a Coun- try fo little known as Perfia. If we are to judge by the vaft armies, in modern as well as ancient times, raifcd there, its populoufnefs muft be very great. The Perfians of bothfexes are generally handfome ; the men being fond of Georgian and Circaf- fian women. Their complexions towards the fouth are fonKwhat fwarthy. The men fhave their heads, but the young men fufFer a lock of hair to grow on each fide, and the beard of their chin to reach up to their temples ; but religious people wear long beards. Men of rank and quality wear very magnificent turbans; many of them colt twenty-five pounds, and fewundernineorten. They have a maxim to keep their heads very warm, fo that they never pull off their caps or turbans out of refpedt even to the king. Their drefs is very fimple. Next to their fkin they wearcallico fliirts, over them a veft, which reaches below the knee, girt with a fafh, and over that a loofe garment fomewhat fiiorter. The materials oi' their cloaths, however, are commonly very cxpenfive ; confilting of the richeit furs, filks, muflin, cottons, and the like valuable ftuffs, richly embroidered with gold and filver. Thev wear a kind of loofe boots on their legs, and ilippers on their feet. They are fond of riding, and very expenfive in their equipages. 'I'hcy wear at all times a dagger in their fafii, and linen trowfers. The collars of their fliirts and cloaths arc open ; fo that their drefs upon the whole is far better adapted for the purpofcs both of health and activity than the long flowing robes of tlie Turks. The drefs of the wo- men is not much difi^erent ; their wear, as well as that of the men, is very colli v ; and they are at great pains to heighten their beauty by art, colours, and walbes. 4 N 2 The 644 PERSIA. The Perfians accuflom themfelves to frequent wafhings and ablutions, whlcb are the more neceffary, as they feldom change their linen. In the morning early they druik coffee, about eleven go to dinner, upon fruits, fweetmeats, and milk. Their c^ief meal is at night. They eat at their repafts cakes of rice, and others of wheat flour; and as they efteem it an abomination to cut either bread, or any kind of meat, after it is drefled, thefe cakes are made thin, that they may be eafily broken with the hand ; and their meat, which is generally mutton, or fowls, is fo prepared, that they divide it with their fingers. When every thing is fet in order before them, they eat fart, and without any ceremony. But it is obferved by a late traveller, that when the oldeil man. in the company fpeaks, though he be poor and fet at the lower end of the room, they all give a llrift attention to his •words. They are tempe.'ate, but ufe opium, though not in fuch abundance as the Turks, They are great mailers of ceremony towards their fuperiors,, and po- litely accommodate Europeans who vifit them, with ftools, that they may not be forced to fit crofs- legged. They are fo immoderately fond of tobacco, which they fmoke through a tube fixed in water, fo as to be cool in the mouth, that when it has been prohibited by their princes, they have been known to leave their country rather than be debarred from that enjoyment. The Perfians are naturally fond' of poetry, moral fentences, and hyperbole. Their long wars, and their national revolutions, have mingled the native Perfians with barbarous nations, and are faid to have taught them dilTimulation ; but they are Hill pleafing and plaufible in their behaviour, and in all ages have been remarkable for hofpitality. The Perfians write like the Hebrews, from the right to the left ; are neat in their feals and materials for writing, and wonderfully expeditious in the art. The number of people employed in their manufcripts (for no printing is allowed there) is incre- dible. Their great foible feems to be oilentation in their equipages and drelTes ; nor are they lefs jealous of their women than the Turks, and other eaftern na- tions. They are fond of mufic, and take a pleafure in converfing in large com- panies ; but their chief diverfions are thofe of the field, hunting, hawking, horfe- manfiiip, and the exercife of arms, in all which they are very dexterous. They excel, as their anceftors the Parthians did, in archery. They are fond of rope- dancers, jugglers, and fighting ol wild bealls ; and privately playing at games of chance. Men may marry for life, or for any determined time, in Perfia, as well- as through all Tartary ; and travellers or merchants, who intend to flay fome time in any city, commonly apply to the cadee, or judge, for a wife during the time he propofes to ftay. 1 he cadee, for a flated gratuity, produces a number of girls,, whom he declares to be Iioneft, and free from difeafes ; and he becomes furety for them. A gentleman who lately attended the Ruffian embalfy to Perfia declares,, that, anrsong thoufands, there has not been one inttance of their dilhonelly during. the time agreed upon. Religion.] The Perfians are Mahometans of the fedl of All ; for which reafon' the Turks, who follow the fucceflTion of Omar and Abu-Bekr, call them heretics.. Their religion is, if polTible, in fome things more fantallical and fenfual than that of the Turks ; but in many points It is mingled with fome bramin fupcrflitions. When they are taxed by the Chriilians with drinking ftrong liquors, as many of them do, they anfwer very fenfibly, " You Chriftians whore and get drunk, though- you know you are conim.itting fins, which is the very cafe with us." Having men- tioned the bramins, the comparifon between them and the Perfian gfiebres or ganrs,. who pretend to be die difciples and fuccelTors of the ancient magi, the followers of Zoroalter, might be highly worth a learned difquifition : that both of tlieni hckl originally pure and fimple ideas of a Supreme Being, may be eafily proved -, but the PERSIA. 645 the Indian bramins and paifees accufe the gcurs, who flill worfhip the fire, of having fenfiialized thofe ideas, and introduced an evil principle into the govern- ment of the world. A combuflible ground, about ten miles diftant from Bnku, a city in the north of PeiTia, is the fcenc of the guehes devotions. This ground is im- j)regnatfd with inflammatory fubftances, and contained feveral old little temples ; in one of which the guebres pretend to preferve the facred flame of the univerfal fire, which riles from the end of a large hoUov/ cane ftuck in the ground, refcm- bling a lamp burning with very pure fpirits. The Mahometans are the declared enemies o( i\\c gaiirs, who were baniflied out of Perfia by Shah Abbas. Their fe6t is laid to be numerous, though tolerated in very few places. The lono- wars be- tween the Perfians and the Romans feem early to have driven the ancient Chrifl:ians into Perfia, and the neighbouring countries. Even to this day, many feels are found that evidently haveChriftianity for the ground-work of"their religion. Some of them called Soufl'ees, who are a kind of quietifts, facrifice their paffions to God, and pro- (efs the moral duties. »The Sabean Chriflians have, in their religion, a mixture of Judaifm and Mahomctanifm ; and are numerous towards the Perlian gulf. I have already mentioned the Armenian and Georgian Chriftians, who are very numerous in Perfia. The prelent race of Perfians are laid to be very cool in the doftrincs of Mahomet, owing chiefly to their late wars with the Turks. Language.] It has been difputed among the learned, whether the Arabs had their langiuage from the Perfian ; but this chiefly refl:s on the great intermix- ture of Arabic words in the Perfian language, and the decifion feems to be in fa- vour of the Arabs. The common people elpecially towards the fouthern coafts of the Cafpian Sea, fpeak Turkifli ; and the Arabic probably was introduced into- Perfia under the caliphate, when learning flourifhed in thofe countries. Many of the learned Perfians have written in the Arabic, and people of quality have adopted it as the modilh language, as we do the French. The pure Perfic is laid to be fpoken in the fouthern parts, on the coafl: of the Perfian gulf, and in If- pahan ; but many of the provinces fpeak a barbarous mixture of the Turkilh, Ruflian, and other languages. Their Pater-nofl:er is of the following tenour : Ei Padere ma kih dcr ojmoni ; pac bajched mam tu ; bayayed ■padejcoahi tu ;' Jchzvad chwd- ajle tu hojzjrinaaukih der rj'mon ntz derzemm ; beb mara jmrcuz Jichi kejdf rou% mara ; wadargudjar -Mara konahaji ma zjmiankihma jiiz migjarim ormdn mara ; wador ozma- jifch mineddzzmara ; likln chalas kiin mara ez efeherir. Amen. Learning and learned men.] The Perfians, in ancient times, v/ere famous for both ; and their poets renov/ned all over the P^aft. There is a manufcript at Oxford, containing the lives of a hundred and thirty-five of the fineft Perfian poets. Ferdufi and Sadi were among the mofl: celebrated". The former com- prized the hiftory of Perfia in a feries of epic poems, which employed him for near thirty years, and which are faid by Mr. Jones to be " a glorious monument of Eaftern genius and learning." Sadi was a native of Schiras, and flourifhed in the thirteenth century, and wrote many fine pieces, both in profe and verfe. Shemfeddin was one of the moft eminent lyric poets that Afia lias pro- duced; and Nakhilicb wrote in Perfian a book called the " Tales of a Parrot." not unlike the Decameron of Boccace. Jami was a molt animated and elegant poet, who flourifhed in the middle of the fifteenth century, .ind whofe beautiful compo- fitions, on a great variety of fubjccfts, are preferved at Oxford, in twenty-two vo- lumes. Hariri compoicd in a rich, elegant and liowery dyle, a moral work, in fifty diflTertations, on the changes of fortune, and the various conditions of human life interfperfed with a number of agreeable adventures, and feveral fine pieces of poetry. At prefent, learning is at a very low ebb among the Perfians. Their boafted Ikill in aftronomy is now reduced to a mere fmattering in- that fcisnce, and termi- nates 646 PERSIA. nates in judicial aftrology ; fo that no people in the world are more fuperftitious than the Periians. The learned profeffion in- greatefl efteem amoing them is that of medicine ; which is at perpetual variance wirli a{lrolon;y, becaufe every dofc muft be in the lucky hour fixed by the aflrologer, which often defeats the ends of tiic prefcriprion. It is faid, ho-veveVj that the Perfian phyficians are acute and fa- Gacious. Their drugs are excellent, and they are no flrangers to the practices of Galen and Avicenna. A.dd to this, that the plague is but little known in this country ; as equally rare are many other difeafes that are fatal in other places; fuch as the gout, the ftone, the fmall-pox, confumptions, and apoplexies. The Perfian practice of phyfic is therefore pretty much circunifcribed, and they are very igno- rant in furgery, which is exercifed by barbers, whofe chief occupation is letting blood ; for they truft the healing of green wounds to the excellence of the air, and t^ie good habit of the patient's body, ANTictturiES AND CURIOSITIES, ? The monuments of antiquity in Perfia, are NATCRAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 5 '""o^e Celebrated fot their magnificence and cx- pence, than their beauty or tafte. No more than nineteen columns, which for- merly belonged to the famous palace of Perfepolis, are iiow remaining. Each is about fifteen feet high, and compofed of excellent Parian marble. The ruins of other ancient buildings are found in many parts of Perfia, but void of that elegance and beauty which is difplayed in the Greek architefttire. The tombs of the kings of Perfia are ftupendous works ; being cut out of a rock, and highly ornamented with fculptures. Tlie chief of the modern edifices is a pillar to be feen at Ifpahan, fixty feet high, confilling of the flculls of beafts, erefted by Shah Abbas, after the fupprefTion of a rebellion. Abbas had vowed to ereft fuch a column of human fiiulls; but upon the fubmillion of the rebels, he performed his vow by fubftitucing thofeof brutes, each of the rebels furnifliing one. The baths near Gombroon work fuch cures, that they are efleemed among the natural curiofities of Perfia. The fprings of the famous Naphtha near Baku, are mentioned often in natural hiflory for their furprifing qualities ; but the chief of the natural curiofities in this country, is the burning phenomenon, and its inflammatory- neighbourhood, already mentioned under the article of Religion. HouSFs, CITIES, AND PUBLIC EDIFICES.] The houfes of men of quality in Perfia, are in the fame taflc with thofe of the Afiatic Turks already defcribcd. TJiey are feldom above one Ilory high, built of bricks, with flat roofs for walking on, and thick walls. The hall is arched, the doors are clumfey and narrow, and the rooms have no communication but with the hall ; the kitchens and ofiicc- houfes being built apart. Few of them have chimnies, but a round hole in the middle of the room. Their furniture chiefly confifis of carpets, and their beds are two thick cotton quilts, which ferve them likewifc as coverlids, with carpets under them. Ifpahan or Spahawn, the capital of Perfia, is featcd on a fine plain, within a mile ef the river Zcnderhend, which fupplies it with water. It is faid to be twelve miles in circumference. The ftrcets are narrow and crooked, and the chief amufement of the inhabitants is on the flat roofs of their houfes, where they fpcnd their fum-- mer evenings ; and difl^erent families aflbciare together. The royal fquarc is a third of a mile in length, and about half as much in breadth ; and we are told, that the royal palace, with tlie buildings and gardens belonging to it, is three miles in cir- cumfi-rence. There are in Ifpahan 160 mofques, 1800 caravanferas, 260 publjc baths, a prodigious number of fine fquarcs, rtreets, and jialaces, in which are canals, and trees planted to fliade and better accommodate the people. This capital is faid formerly to have contained 650,000 inhabitants; but was often dej)c)pu]ated by Kouli Khan during his wars, fo that we may eafily fuppofe, that it has loll great z part PERSIA. 647 part of its magnificence. In 1744, when Mr. Hanway was there, it was thought that not above 5000 of its houfes were inhabiccd. Schiras lies about 200 miles to the fouch of Ailrachan. h is an open town, but its ntighbourliood is inexpreifibly rich and beautiful, being laid out for many miles in gardens, the flowers, fruits, and wines of which are incomparable. The vines of Schiras are reckoned the belt of any in Perfia. This town is the capital of Pars, the ancient Pcrfia, and hath a college for the Iludy of eaftern learning. It contains an uncommon number of mofques, and is adorned by many noble buildings, but its ftreets are narrow and inconvenient, and not above ^000 of its houfes are inhabited. The cities of Or- mus and Gombroon, on the narrow part of the Perfian Gtilf, were formerly places of great commerce and importance. The Englifh, and other Europeans, have factories at Gombroon, where they trade with the Perfians, Arabians, Banyans,. Armenians, Turks, and Tartars, who come hither with the caravans which fet ouc from various inland cities of Afia, under the convoy of guards. Mosques and bagnios.] I thought proper to place them hereunder a general head, as their form of building is pretty much the fame all over the Mahoaietan countries. Mofques are religious buildings, fquare, and generally of ftonc ; be- fore the chief gate there is a fquare court, paved with white marble, and low galle- ries round it, whoferoofis fupportcd by marble pillars. Thofe galleries fcrve for places of ablution before the Mahometans go into the mofque. About every mofque there are fix high towers, called minarets, each of which has three little open galleries, one above another. Thefe towers, as well as the mofques, are covered with lead, and adorned with gilding and other ornaments ; and from thence inllead of a bell, the people are c;vlled to prayer by certain officers ap- pointed for that purpofc. No woman is allowed to enter the mofque; nor can a man with his Ihoes or {lockings on. Near moit mofques is a place of entertain- ment for ftrangers during three days ; and the tomb of the founder, with conveni- encies for reading the Koran, and praying. The bagnios in the Mahometan countries are wonderfully well confl:ru'5ted for the purpofc of bathing. Sometimes they are fquare, bur oftener circular, built of white well-polifhed ftone or marble. Each b.ignio contains three rooms ; the firft for drelTing and undrefling; the fecond contains the water, and the third the bath ;. all of them paved with black and white marble. In baching tiie waiter rubs the patient with great vigour, then handles and ftretches his limbs as if he was diflo- cating every bono in the body; all which exercifes are, in thofe inert warm coun-- tries, very conducive to iiealth. In public bagnios, the men bathe from morning to four in the afternoon ; v/hen all inale attendants being removed, the ladies fuc- ceed, and when coming out of the bath difplay their finett cloaths. I might here attempt to defcribe the eaflern feraglios or harams, the women's apartment: ; but from the moft credible accounts, they are contrived .according tO" the tafie and convcniency of the owner, and tlivided into a certain iv.imber of apart- ments, which are feldom or never entered by Grangers; and there is no country where women are fo llriftly guarded as among the great men in Pcrfia. MAi^uFACTURES AND coMMi.RCL.] The Pcrfians equal, if not exceed, all the manufadlurers in the world in filk, woollen, mohair, carpets, and leather. Their works in thefe join fancy, taRe, and elegance, to richnefs, ncatnefs, and fhew ; and yet they are ignorant of painting, and their drawings are very rude. Their dying excels that of Europe. Their filver and gold laces, and threads, are admir- able for preferving their luflre. Their embroideries and horfe furniture are not to be equalled ; nor are they ignorant of the pottery and window-glafs manufac- tures. On the other hand, their carpenters are very indifferent artilh, which is faid to be owing to the fcarcity of timber all over Pcrfia. Their jewellers an.t. gokUimtha. 648 PERSIA. o-oldfmichs are clumfey workmen ; and they are ignorant of lock-making, and the nianuf;i£l:ure of looking glafles. Upon the whole, they lie under inexpreffible dif- advanta^es from the form of their government, which renders them flaves to their kings, who often engrofs either their labour or their profits. The trade of the Perfians, who have little or no fliipping of their own, is carried on in foreign bottoms. That with the Englilh and other nations, by the gulf of Ormus at Gombroon, was the moft gainful they had ; but the perpetual wars in which thev are eno-aged have ruined their commerce. The great fclieme of the Enslifcj in trading with the Perfians through Ruflia, promifcd vaft advantages to both nations, but "it has hitherto anfwered the expeclaiions of neither. Perhaps the court of Peterfburgh is not fond of fuffering the Englifh to eftabliih themfelves upon the Cafpian fea, the navigation of which is now poflefled by the Ruffians ; but nothino- can be Hiid with certainty on that head, till the government of Perfia aflumes a more fettled form. Constitution and government.] Both thefe are extremely precarious, as reftino- in the breaft of a defpotic, and often capricious monarch. The Perfians, however, had fome fundamental rules of government. They excluded from their throne females, but not their male progeny. Blindnefs likewife was a difqualifica- tion for the royal fuccefiion, in other refpefts the king's will was a law for the people. The inftanccs that have been given of the cruelties and inhumanities pradtifed by the Mahometan kings of Perfia, are almoft incredible, efpecially durin"- the two laft centuries. The reafon given to the Chriftian ambafi"adors, by Shah "Abbas, one of tlieir moft celebrated princes, was, that the Perfians were fuch brutes, and fo infenfible by nature, that they could not be governed without the exercife of exemplaiy cruelties. But this was only a wretched and ill-grounded apologv for his own barbarity. The favourites of the prince, female as well as male, are his only counfellorsj and the fmalleft difobedience to their will is at- tended with immediate death. The Perfians have no degrees of nobility, fo that the rcfpedt due to every man, on account of his high flation, expires with himfelf. 'The king has been known to prefer a younger fon to his throne, by putting out the eyes of the elder brother. Revenues. 1 The crown claims one-third of the cattle, corn, and fruits of his fubjefls, and likewife a third of filk and cotton. No rank or condition of Perfians is exempted from fevcre taxations and fervices. The governors of provinces have particular lands alligned to them for maintJining their retinues and troops ; and the crown-lands defray the expetices of the court, king's houfiiold, and great officers of ftate. After faying thus much, the reader cannot doubt that the revenues of the Perfian kings were prodigious ; but nothing can be faid with any certainty in the prefent diftrafted ftate of that country. Even the water that is let into fields and f^ardens is fubjeft to a tax, and foreigners, who are not Mahometans, pay each a ducat a head. Military strength.] This confifted formerly of cavalry, and it is now thought to exceed that of the Turks. Since the beginning of this century, how- everrtheir kings have raited bodies of infantry. The regular troops of botli brought to the field, even under Kouli Khan, did not exceed 60,000 ; bur, according to tlic modern hiftorics of Perfia, tliey are cafily recruited in cafe of a defeat. The Pcrfi.tns have few fortified towns ; nor had they any fliips of war until Kouli Khan built a royal navy ; but fince his death we hear no more of their fleet. Arms anf; titles.] 1 he arms of the Perfian monarch arc a lion rouchnnt looking at the rifing fun. His title is Shah, or the Dijpofn- of K:)t^Jom, feet, cars and who began lis reijn by ordering the eyes of his nofcs, of ihofe near him to he cut oft, their eves to otilv brother to be lut out. He alfo calf from a be plucked out, or their lives to be facriticed, as r. ck his two uncles, v/ho had before been blinded if it were hij pailimc. 4O ARABIA. [ 650 ] R B A. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 1430 1 u.tv...n S 35 and 60 eaft longitude. Breadth 1200 I hetween 5 35 and 60 eaft longitude. 7 S '^^'w^^" 1 1 2 and 30 north lattitude. J Sq.M. 700,000 Boundaries.] T>0UNDED by Turkey on the North ; by the gulfs of Perfia J3 or BafTora, and Ormus, which feparate it from Perfia, on the Eaft ; by the Indian Ocean, South ; and the Red Sea, which divides is from Africa, on the Weft. { Divifions. Subdivifions. 1. Arabia Petrasa, N. W. ' Haggiaz or Mecca 2. Arabia Deferta, in the^ middle. Tehama "Mocha Hadramut 3. Arabia Felix, S. E. -{ Cafleen Segur Oman or Mufcat Jamama j_Bahara - J Chief Towns. HSuEZ, E. Ion. 33-27. N. lat. 29-50. Mecca, E. Ion. 43-30. lat. 21-20. ?■< Siden Medina _Dhafar 'MocHA, E. Ion. 44-4. N. lat. 13-45. Sibit Hadramut >• •< Cafleen Segur Mufcat Jamama LElcalf Name.] It is remarkable that this country has always preferved its ancient name. The word Jral^, it is generally faid, fignifies a robber, or freebooter. 7 he word Saracen^ by which one tribe is called, is faid to fignify both a thief and an inhabitant of the defert, Thefe names juftly belong to the Arabians, for they feldom let any merchandife pafs through the country without extorting fome- thing from the owners. Mountains,] The mountains of Sinai and Horeb, lying in Arabia Petrsea, eaft of the Red-Sea, and thofe called Gabel el Ared, in Arabia Felix, are the moft noted. Rivers, seas, gulfs, and capes.] There are few fountains, fprings, or rivers in this country, except the Euphrates, which wafties the north-eaft limits of it. h is almoft furrounded with leas ; as the Indian Ocean, the Rcd-Sca, the gulfs of Perfia and Ormus. The chief capes or promontories are thofe of Rofal- gate and Muflcdon. Clima-te, air, soil, and produce.] As a confiderable part of this country lies under the Torrid Zone, and the Tropic of Cancer paftes over Arabia Felix, the air is ^xccftivdy dry and hot, and the country is fubjeft to hot noifunous winds, like ARABIA. 6u like tliofe on the oppofitc fiiores of Perfia, which often' pro^T fatal, efpccially to Itrangers. The luil, in fomc parts, is nothing more than imuienil- fands, which, when agitated by the winds, roll like the troubled ocean, and fometimes form iTTOuntains by which whole caravans have been buried or lolb. In thele deferts, the caravans, having no tracks, are guided, as at fca, by a compafs, or bv the liars, for they travel chiefly in the night. Here, fays Dr^ Shaw, are no pailures clothed with flocks, nor vallies Handing thick with corn ; here are no vineyards or olive- yards ; but the whole is a lonefome defolate wiidcrnefs, no otherways diverfified than by plains covered with fand, and mountains that are made up of naked rocks and precipices. Neither is this country, except fometimes at the equinoxes, refrelh- ed with rain ; and the intenfencfs of the cold in the night is almoft equal to that of the heat in the day-time. But the fouthern part of Arabia, defervediy called the Happy, is blefled with an excellent foil, and, in general, is very fertile. There the cultivated lands, which are chiefly about the towns near the fea-coall:, produce balm ofGilead, manna, myrrh, caffia, aloes, frankincenfe, fpikenard, and other valuable gums ; cinnamon, pepper, cardamum, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, figs, and other fruits ; honey and wax in plenty, with a fmall quantity of corn and wine. This country is famous for its coffee and its dates, which lad are found fcarcely any where in fuch perfeftion as here and in Perfia. There are few trees fit for timber in Arabia, and little wood of any kind. Animals.] The molt ufeful animals in Arabia are camels and dromedaries ; they are amazingly fitted by Providence for traverfing the dry and parched deferts of this country, for they are fo formed, that they can throw up the liquor from their flomach into their throat, by which means they can travel fix or eight days without water. The camels ufually carry 8oolb. weight upon their backs, which is not taken off during the whole journey, for they naturally kneel down to reft, and in due time rife with their load. The dromedary is a fmall camel with two bunches on its back, and remarkably fwift. It is an obfervation among the Arabs, that wherever there arc trees, the water is not far off; and when they draw near a pool, their camels will fmell it at a diftance, and fet up their great trot till they come to it. The Arabian horfes are well known in Europe, and have contributed to improve the breed of the Englifli. They are only fit for the faddle, and are admired for their make as much as tor their fwiftnefs and high mettle. The fineft breed is in the kingdom of Sunnaa, in which Mocha isfituated. Inhabitants, manners, ? The Arabians, like moft of the nations of Afia, CUSTOMS, AND dress. ^ ^tc of a middle ftature, thin, and of a fwarthy com- plexion, with black hair and black eyes. They are fwift of foot, excellent horfe- men, and are faid to be in general a brave people, expert at the bow and lance, and, fince they became acquainted with fire-arms, good markfmen. The inliabi- tants of the inland country live in tents, and remove from place to place with their flocks and herds, as they have ever done fince they became a nation. The Arabians in general are fuch thieves, that travellers and pilgrims, who are led thither from all nations through motives of devotion or curiofity, are ftruck with terror on their approaches towards the deferts. Thofe robbers, headed by a captain, traverfe the country in confiderablc troops on horfeback, and affault and plunder the caravans ; and we are told, that fo late as the year 1750, a body of 50,000 Arabians attacked a caravan of merchants and pilgrims returning from Mecca, killed about 60,000 perfons, and plundered it of every thing valuable, though efcorted by a Turkifh army. On the fea-coaft they are mere pirates, and make prize of every vefl'el they can mailer, of whatever nation. The habit of the roving Arabs is a kind of blue fliirt, tied about them with a white fafh or girdle ; and fome of them have a veil of furs or llieep-fkins over it j they alfo wear drawers, and fometimes flippers, but no 4 O 2 llock- 65a ARABIA. llockings ; and have a cap or turban on their head. Many of them go almoft naked ; but, as in the eaftern countries, the women are ib wrapped up, that nothing can be dilcerned but tiieir eyes. Like odier Mahometans, the Arabs eat all manner of flelh, except that of hogs ; and prefer the fledi of camels, as we prefer venifon, to other meat. They take care to drain the blood from the Reih, as the Jews do, and like them refufe fuch fifh as have no fcales. Coffee and tea, water, and fherbet made of oranges, water,-and fugar, is dieir ufual drink : they have no llrong liquors. Religion.] Of this the reader will find an account in the following hiitory of Mahomet their countryman. Many of the wild Arabs are ftill Pagans, but the people in general profefs Mahometaniim. Learning and language.] Though the Arabians in former ages were fa- mous for their learning and fkill in all the liberal arts, there is fcarcely a country at prefent where the people are fo univcrfally ignorant. The vulgar language ufed in the three Arabias is the Arabefk, or corrupt Arabian, which is likewife fpoken, with fome variation of dialeflr, over great parr of the Kail, from Egypt to the court of the Great Mogul. The pure old grammatical Arabic, which is faid to be a a dialefl: of the Hebrew, and by the people of the taft accounted the rlcheft, mod enero-etic, and copious language in the world, is taught in their fchools, as Greek and Latin is among Europeans, and ufed by Mahometans in their worfhip ; for as the Koran was written in this language, they will not fuffer it to be read in any odier : they look upon it to have been the language of Paradife, and think no man can be mafter of it without a miracle, as confifting of feveral millions of words. The books which treat of it fay, they have no fewer than a thoufand terms to exprefs the word camel, and five hundred for that of //o«. In the Temple of Mecca, or fufpended on its walls and gates, are feven Arabian poems, called theMoalakat, a fine fpecimen of Oriental poetry. As to the dramatic paftorals, which have been lately tranflated into Englifh by fir William Jones, the foUov/ino- ftanzas of one of the poems are tranfcribed, as they ferve to gratify literary curiofity, and alfo difplay a lively and entertaining view of the Arabian cuftoms and modes of living. 1. " Defolate are the manfions of the fair, the ftations in Minia, where they refted, and thofe where they fixed their abodes ! Wild are the hills of Goul, and deferred is the fummit of Rijaam. 2. The canabs of Rayaan are deAroyed : the remains of them are laid bare, and fmoothed by the floods, like charafters engraved on the folid rocks. ■>. Dear ruins ! Many a year has been clofed, many a month, holy and unhallow- ed, has elapied hnce I exchanged tender vows with the fair inhabitants. 4. The rainy conftellations of fpring have made their hills green and luxuriant : The drops from the thunder-clouds have drenched them with profufe as well as with gentle fhowers : :;. Showers from every nightly cloud, from every cloud veiling the horizon at day- break, and from every evening cloud, refponfive with hoarfe murmurs. 6. Mere the wild eringo-plants raifc their heads : here the antelopes bring forth their young by the fides of the valley ; and here the oftriches drop their eggs. 7, The largc-eved wild cows He fuckling their young a few days o!d : their young, who will foon become a herd on the plain. S. The torrents have cleared the rubbifli, and difclofed the traces of habitations, as the reeds of a writer nfiore cff^aced letters in a book. 5. Or as the blatk dull, fpriiikled over the varied marks on a fair hand, brings to view, with a brighter tint, the blue ilains of woad. 10. 1 Hood ailiing news of the ruins concerning their lovely habitants ; but what avail my queitions to dreary rocks, v/ho ar.fwcr iheiu only by their echo ? II. In ARABIA. 65^ 11. In the plains, wliich now are naked, a populous city once dwelled : but they decamped at early dawn, and nothing of them remains but the canals, which encircled their tents, and the Thumaam-plants, with which they were re- paired. 1 2. How were thy tender nfFeftions raifed, when the damfels of the tribe departed ; when they hid themfelves in carriages of cotton, like antelopes in their lair • and the tents, as they were ftruck, gave a piercing found I 13. They were concealed in vehicles, whofe fides were well covered with awninss and carpets, with fine-fpun curtains, and piftured veils. 14. A company of maidens were feated in them, with black-eyes and oraceful motions, like the wild heifers of Tuda, or the roes of Weo-era, tenderlv gazing on their young. 15. They haitened their camels, till the fultry vapour gradually dole them from thy fight ; and they feemed to pafs through a vale, wild with tamariflcs, and rough with large ftones, like the valley oi Beijha." The Pater-nofter in the Arabic is as follows : Jbuna elladhi fi-Jamwat ; jetkaddqs efmdc ; tati malaciitac : taouri mafchiatic, cama fi-£'ama ; kedhalec ala lardb aat'mg chohzena kefatna iaum he'taum ; wagfor lena donubena, wachataina, cama nogfor nachna lemen aca doina ; walii tadalhchalna fihajarib -, laken mejjhia me nnejcher'tr. Amen. Chief cities, curiosities, 7 What is called the Defert of Sinni, is a beau- AND ARTS. \{\{\.\\ plain near nine miles long, and above three in breadth; it lies open to the north-eaft, but to the fouthward is clofed by fonie of the lower eminences of Mount Sinai ; and other parts of that mountain make fuch encroachments upon the plain as to divide it in two, each fo capacious as to be fufficient to receive the whole camp of the Ifraelites. From Mount Sinai may be feen Mount Horeb, where Mofes kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law, when he faw the burning bufli. On thofe mountains, are many chapels and cells, poireiTed by the Greek and Latin monks, who, like the religious at Jerufalem, pretend to fliew the very fpot where every miracle or tranfiflion recorded in fcripture hap- pened. The chief cities in Arabia are Mocha, Aden, Mufchat, Suez, and Juddah or Gedda. Mocha is well built, the houfes very lofty, and forts covered with a chinam or Itucco that give a dazzling whitenefs to them. The harbour is femi- circular, the circuit of the wall is two miles, and there are feveral handfome mofques in the city. Suez, the Arfinoe of the ancients, is furrounded by the defert, and but a fliabby ill-built place. The (hips are forced to anchor a league from the town, to which tlie leading channel has only about nine feet water. Juddah is the place of the greatert trade in the Red Sea, for there the commerce between Arabia and Europe meets and is interchanged, the former fending her gums, drugs, coffee, &c. and from Europe come cloths, iron, furs and other articles by the way of Cairo. The revenues of thefe, v^ith the profits of the port are fhared by the grand-fignior and the xerifF of Mecca, to whom this place jointly belongs. Mecca, the capital of all Arabia, and Medina, deferve particular notice. At Mecca, the birth-place of Mahomet, is a mofque {o glorious, that it is generally counted the moll magnificent of any temple in the Turkilh dominions : its lofty roof being raifed in fafhion of a dome, and covered with gold, with two l^eautiful towers at the end, of extraordinary height and architefture, make a delightful ap- pearance, and are confpicuous at a great diilance. The m.ofque hath a hundred gates, with a window over each ; and the whole building within is decorated with the fineft gildings and tapeftry. The number of pilgrims who yearly vifit this place is almoft incredible, every MufTulman being obliged by his religion to come hither once in his life time, or fend a deputy. At Medina, about fifty miles from the Red 654 ARABIA. Red Sea, the city to which Mahomet fled when he was driven out of Mecca, and the place where he was buried, is a ftately mofque, fupported by 400 pillars, and fur- nifhed with 300 filver lamps, which are continually burning. It is called th-e Moji Holy by the Turks, becaule in it is placed the coffin of their prophet Mahomet, covered with cloth of gold, under a canopy of fiivcr tilTue, which the bafhavv of Eo-ypt, by order of the grand-fignior, renews every year. The camel which carrier it derives a fort of fandity from this office, and is never to be ufed in any drudgery afterwards. Over the foot of the coihn is a rich golden crefcent curioufly wrought, and adorned with precious Hones. Thither the pilgrims refort, as to Mecca, but not in fuch numbers. Government.] The inland country of Arabia is under the government of many petty princes, who are ftyled xerifs and imans, both of them including the offices of kin^^ and prieft, in the fame manner as the califs of the Saracens, the fucceflbrs of Mahomet. I'hefe monarchs appear to be abfolute, both in fpirituals and temporals j the fucceffion is hereditary, and they have no other laws than thofe found in the Koran, and the comments upon it. The northern Arabs owe fubjeftion to the Turks, and are governed by baffiaws refiding among them ; but it is certain they receive lar^e gratuities from the grand-fignior for protefting the pilgrims that pafs rhroutrh their country from the robberies of their countrymen. The Arabians have no ftandino- regular militia, but their kings command both the perfons and thepurfe* of their fubjeds, as the necelFity of aflairs require. History.] The hiilory of this country in fome meafure differs from that of all others ; for as the flavery and fubjeftion of other nations make a great part of their hiilory, that of the Arabs is entirely compofcd of their conquells or independence. The Arabs are defcended from Ifhmael, of whofe pofterity it was foretold, that thev fliould be invincible, " have their hands againft every man, and every man's hand ao-ainft theirs." They are at prefent, and have remained from the remoteft ages, during the various conquells of the Greeks, Romans, and Tartars, a con^ vlncing proof of the divinity of this prediction. Toward the north, and the fea- coafts of Arabia, the inhabitants are, indeed, kept in awe by the Turks ; but the wandering tribes in the fouthern and inland parts acknowledge themfelves for fubjefls of no foreign power, and do not fail to harrafs and annoy all flrangers who come into their country. Theconquefts of the Arabs make as wonderful apart of their hiftory, as the independence and freedom which they have ever continued to enjoy. Thefe, as well as their religion, began with one man, whofe charadler forms a very fingular phenomenon in the hiftory of mankind. This was the fa- mous Mahomet, a native of Mecca, a city of that divifion of Arabia which, for the luxuriancy of its foil, and mild temperature of its climate, has ever been efteemed the lovelieft and fweeteft region of the world, and is diftinguifhed by the epithet of Happy. Mahomet was born in the fixth centurv, anno 569, in the reign of Juftinian II. emperor of Conrtantinople. Though delcended of mean parentage, illiterate and poor, he was endowed with a fubtile genius, like thofe of the fame country, and pofielfed a degree ofenterprize and ambition peculiar to hiuifelf, and much beyond his condition. He had been employed, in the early part of his life, by an uncle, Abuteleb, as a faftor, and had occufion, in this capacity, to travel into Syria, Pa- leftinc, and l^gypt. He was afttrwards taken into the fervice of a rich merchant, upon whofe death he married his widow, Cadiga, and by her means came to be pof- fcflcd of great wealth and of a nunu-fous fsinily. During his p.regr'nations into Egypt and the Eall, he had obfcrved the vail variety of feds in religion, whofe haired againll each other was ftrong' and inveterate, while at the f-ime time there were many particulars in which the greater part of them were agreed. He carc- z fully ARABIA. 655 fully laid hold of thefe particulars, by means of which, and by addreffing himfelf to the love of power, riches, and pleafiire, paiTions univerfal annong men, he ex- peded to raife a new fyllem of religion, more general than any wiiich hitherto had been eftabiihed. la this defign he was afiilted by a Sergian monk, whofe libertine difpoGtion had made him forfake his cloifter and profcffion, and engage in the fer- Vice of Cadiga, with whom he remained as a domctlic when Mahomet was taken to her bed. This monk was perfedtly qualified, by his great learning, for fupply- ing the defeats which his mailer, for want of a liberal education, laboured under, and which, in all probability, muft have obftrufted the execution of his defign. It was necefiary, however, that the religion they piopofed to eftablifh fhould have a divine fandlion ; and for this purpofe Mahomet turned a calamity, with which he was affliftcd, to his advantage. He was often fubjett to fits of the epilepfy, a dif- eafe which thofe whom it afflifts are defirous to conceal ; Mahomet gave out there- fore that thefe fits were trances, into which he was miraculoully thrown by God Al- mighty, during which he was inlbuftcd in his will, which he was commanded to publifh to the world. By this ftrange ftory, and by leading a retired, abftemious, and auftere life, he eafily acquired a charafter for fuperior fanftity amono- his acquaintance and neighbours. When he thought himfelf fufficiently fortified by the numbers, and the enthufiafm of his followers, he boldly declared himfelf a prophet, fent by God into the world, not only to teach his will, but to compel mankind to obey it. As we have already mentioned, he did not lay the foundation of his fyftem fo narrow as only to comprehend the natives of his own country. His mind, though rude and enthufialtic, was enlarged by travelling into diftant lands, whofe manners and religion he had made a peculiar ftudy. He propolld that the fyftem he efta- blifhed fhould extend over all the neighboring nations, to whofe doctrines and pre- judices he had taken care to adapt it. Many of the inhabitants of the Eaftern coun- tries were at this time much adidied to the opinions of Arius, who denied that Jefus Chrift was co-equal with God the Father, as is declared in the Athanafian creed. Egypt and Arabia were filled with Jews, who had fled into thefe corners of the world from the perfecution of the emperor Adrian, who threatened the total extinction of that people. The other inhabitants of thofe countries were pagans. Thefe, how- ever, had little attachments to their decayed and derided idolatry ; and, like men whole religious principle is weak, had given themfelves over to pleafure and fcn- fuality, or to the acquifition of riches, to be the better able to indulge in the oratifi- cations of fcnle, which, together with the doftrine of predeftination, compofeJ the fole principles of their religion and philofophy. Mahomet's fyftem was exadtly fuiced to thefe :hree kinds of men. To gratifv the two former, he declared that there was one God, who created the world and governed all things in it ; that he had fent various pirophets into the world to teach his will to mankind, among whom Mofes and Jefus Chrift were the moft eminent ; but the endeavours of thefd had proved incffeftual, and God had therefore now fent his laft and greateft prophet, with a commiflion more ample than what Mofes or Chrift had been entrufted with. He had commanded him not only to publifli his laws, but to fubdue thofe who were unwilling to believe or obey them ; and for this end to eftablifh a kingdom upon earth w:iich ftiould propagate the divine law throughout the world ; that God had defigned utter ruin and deftruftion to thofe who Ihould refufe to fubmit to him J but to his faithful ibilowers, nc had given tlie fpoils and pofllffions of all the earth, as a reward in this life, and had provided for them hereafter a paradife of all fenfual enjoyments, efpecially thofe of lovej that the pleafures of fuch as died in propagating the faith, would be peculiarly intenfe, and vaftly tranfcend thofe of the reft. Thefe, together with the prohibition of drinking ftrong liquors (a re- 5r6 Indian and Oriental Islands. , (a rellraint not very fevere in warm climates), and the dotlrine of predellination, were ihe capital articles of Mahomet's creed. They were no fooner publinied than a vail many of his countrymen embraced them with implicit faith. They were written by the prieft we formerly mentioned, and compofe a book called the ■Koran, or Alcoran, by way of eminence, as we fay the Bible, which means the Book. The perfon of Mahomet, however, was familiar to the inhabitants of Mecca ; fo that the greater part of them were fufficiently convinced of the deceit. The more c;ilif^htened and leading men entered into a defign to cut him off: but ^Mahomet crtttino- notice of their intention, fled from his native city to Medina Tahmachi,'^or the city of the Prophet. The fame of his miracles and doftrine was, according; to cullom, greateft at a, diftance, and the inhabitants of Medina received him with open arms. From this flight, v.'hich happened in the 622d year of Chrifl:, the fifty-fourth year of Mahomet's age, and the tenth of his miniflry, his followers, the Mahometans, compute their time, and the cera is called in Arabic, Hcgira, " the Flight." Mahoinet, by the afliftance of the inhabitants of Medina,, and of others whom his infinuation and addrefs daily attached to him, brought over all his country- men to a belief, or at leafl: to an acquifcence in his doctrines. The fpcedy propagation of his fyftem among the Arabians, was a new argument in its behalf among the inhabitants of Egypt, and the Eait, who were prevjoiifly difpofed to it. Arians, Jews, and Gentiles, all forfook their ancient faith, and became Maho- metans. In a word, the contagion fpread over Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Perfia; and Mahomet, from a deceitful hypocrite, became the moft powerful monarch in his time. He was proclaimed king at Medina in the year 627, and after fubduing part of Arabia and Syria, he died in 632, leaving two branches of his race, both efleemed divine among their fubjcds. Thefe were the caliphs of Perfia and of Egypt, under the lall of which Arabia was included. The former of thefe turned their arms to the Eaft, and made conquefts of many countries. The caliphs of Egypt and Arabia direcled their ravages cowards Europe, and, under the name of Saracens or Moors (which they obtained becaufe they entered EiJrope from Mauritania in Africa, the country of the Moors) reduced moft of Spain, France, Italy, and the iflands in the Mediterranean. In this manner did the fuccefi"ors of that impofler fpread their religion and con- quefts over the greateft part of Afia, Africa, and Europe ; and they ftill give law to a very confidcrable part of mankind. The INDIAN and ORIENTAL ISLANDS. THE JAPAN ISLANDS, Japan or Nipham, Bongo, Tonfa, and Dezima, form together what has been called the empire of JAPAN, and are go- verned by a moft defpotic prince, who is fometimes called emperor and fometim<;s king. They are fituated about 150 miles eaft of China, and extend from the 30th to the 41ft degree of north latitude, and fro n the 130th to the 147th of eaft longitude. The chief town is Jeddo, in the 14' ft degree of eaft longitude, and the 36ihof north latitude. The foil and produftions of the country arc pretty much the fame with thofe of China : and the inhabitants are famous for their lacker ware, known by the name of Japan. The iflands themfelves arc very inacccfliblc, through their high rocks and tempcftuous fcas ; they arc fubjeft to earthquakes and have I'ome volcanos. I have already Indian akd Oriektal Islands. 6o already mentioned the circumflance of the Dutch expelling the Portuguefc from this gainful trade. The Japanefe themfelvcs are the grolTelt of all idolaters, and fo ir- reconcilable to Chridianity, that it is commonly faid the Dutch, who are the only European people with whom they now trade, pretend not to be Chriftiatis, and hu- mour the Japanefe in the moft abfurd fuperftitions. Notwithftanding all this com- pliance, the natives are very fhy and rigorous in all their dealings with tlie Dutch ; and Nagafacci, in the Ifland of Dezima, is the only j)lace where they are fuf- fered to trade. The complexions of the Japanefe are in general yellowifh, althougli fome few, chiefly women, are almoft white. Their narrow eyes, and high eye-brows, are like tliofe of the Chinefe and Tartars; and their nofes are fliort and thick. Their hair is univerfally black ; and fuch a famenefs of faPnion reigns throughout this whole empire, that the head-drefs is the fame from the emperor to the peafanr. The faQiion of their cloaths has alfo remained the fame fiom very high antiquity. They confift of one or more loofe gowns, tied about the middle with a fafli. People of rank have them made of filk, but the lower clals of cotton ftuffs. Women generally wear a greater number oi them than men, and much longer, and have them more ornamented, often with gold or filver flowers woven into the fluff. Their houfes are built with upright pofts, crofTed and wattled with bamboo, plaiftered both without and within, and v/hite-waibed. They generally hare two ilories ; but the uppermoft is low and feldom inhabited. The roofs are covered with pantiles, large and heavy, but neatly maJ.e. The floors are elevated two feet from the ground, and covered with planks, on which mats are laid. They have no furniture in their rooms ; neither tables, chairs, Ilools, benches, cupboards, or even beds. Their cuftom is to fit down on their heels upon the mats, which are always foft and clean. Their vidluals are ferved up to them on a low board, raifed but a few inches from the floor, and one dilh only at a time. Mirrors they have, but never fix them up in their houfes as ornamental furniture : they are made of a compound metal, and ufed only at their toilets. Notwithllanding the feverity of their winters, which obliges them to warm their houfes from November to March, they have neither fire-places nor fboves : inflead of thefe they ufe larg^ copper pots (landing upon legs. Thefe are lined on the infide with loam, on which aflies are laid to fome depth, and charcoal lighted upon them, which feems to be prepared in fome manner which renders the fumes of it not at all dangerous. The firft compliment offered to a llranger, in their houfes, is a dilh of tea, and a pipe of tobacco. Fans are ufed by both fexes equally ; and are, within or without doors, their infeparable companions. The whole nation are naturally cleanly : every houfc whether public or private, has a bath, of which conllant and daily ufe is made by the whole family. Obedience to parents, and refj->eft to fuperiors, are the cha- rafteriftics of this nation. Their falutations and converfations between equals abound alfo with civility and politenefs ; to which children are early accuilomed by the cxa uple of their parents. Their penal laws are very ievere ; but punilbments are Icldom nifli(5led. Perhaps there is no country where fewer crimes againtl fociety are committed. Commerce and manufad:ures flourifli here, though, as thefe people have few wants, they are not carried to the extent which we fee in Luropc. Agri- culture is fo well undciltood, that the whole country, even to the tops of the hills, is cultivated. They trade with no foreigners but the Dutch and Chinefe, and in both cafes with companies of privileg.d merchants. Befidcs the fugars, fpices, .ind manufaclured goods, which the Dutch fend to Japan, they carry thither an- nually upwards of aoo,ooo ileer flcins, and more than 100,000 hides, the greatelt ])art of which they get from Siam, where they pay for them in money. The m-r- chandife they export from thefe iflands both for Bengal and Europe, confilts in 9C00 chelto of copper, each weighing 120 pounds, and from 25 to 30,000 weight 4 P lor 6r8 Indian and Oriental Islands. of camphor. Their profits on imports and exports are valued at 40 or 45 per cent. As the Dutch company do not pay duty in Japan, either on their exports or imports, they fend an annual prefent to the emperor, confifting of cloth, chintz, fuccotas, cottons, ftufFs, and trinkets. The Ladrone Islands, of which the chief town is faid to be Guam, eaft lon- gitude 140, north latitude 14: they are about twelve in number. '1 he people took their nam.e from their pilfering qualities. We know nothing of them worth a particular mention, except that lord Anfon landed upon one of them (Tinian), •where he found great refrelhmcnt for himfelf and his crew. Formosa is likewife an Oriental ifland. It is fuuated to the eafl: of China, near the province of Fo-kien, and is divided into two parts by a chain of mountains, which runs through the middle, beginning at the fouth-coaft, and ending at the •north. This is a very fine iQand, and abounds with all the neceflaries of life. That part of the ifland which lies to the well; of the mountains, belongs to the Chinefe, who confider the inhabitants of the eaftern parts as favages, though they are faid to be a very inoSTcnfive people. The inhabitants of the cultivated parts are the fame with the Chinefe, already defcribed. The Chinefe have likewife made themfclves mailers of fcveral other iflands in thofe feas, of which we fcarcely know the names ; that of Ainan is between fixty and feventy leagues long, and betv,-een fifty and fixty in breadth, and but twelve miles from the province of Canton. The oric'inal inhabitants are a ihy, cowardly people, and live in the moft unwholefome pai-tofthe ifland, the coaft and cultivated parts, which are very valuable, being poffefled by the Chinefe. The Philippines, are fiiidto be 11 00 in number, lying in the Chinefe fea (part of the Pacific Ocean), 300 miles fouth-eafi of China, of which Manilla, or Luconia, the chief, is 400 miles long and 200 broad. The inhabitants confiil of Chinefe. Ethiopians, Malays, Spaniards, Portugucfe, Pintados or painted people, and Meftes, a mixture of all thefe. The property of the iflands belongs to the king of Spain, they having been difcovered by Magellan, and afterwards conquered by the Spaniards in the reign of Philip II. from whom they take their name. Their fitu- •tion is fuch, between the eaftern and weftern continents, that the inhabitants trade with Mexico and Peru as well as with all the iflands and places of the Fall Indies. Two fliips from Acapulco, in Mexico, carry on this commerce for the Spaniards, who make 400 per cent, profit. The country is fruitful in all the neceflaries of life, and beautiful to the eye. Venifon of all kinds, bufi\iloes, hogs, flieep, goats, and a T)articular large fpecies of monkeys, are found here in great plenty. The nefl: of the bird faligan affords that dillblving jelly, which is lb voluptuous a rarity at European tables. Many European fruits and flowers thrive furprifingly in thofe iflands. If a fprig of an orange or lemon tree is planted there, it becomes within the year a fruit-bearing tree ; fo that the verdure and luxuriancy of the foil are al- inoft: incredible. The tree amet fupplies the natives with water ; and there is alfo :i kind of cane, which if cut yields tair water enough for a draught : this abounds in the mountains, where water is moft: wanted. The city of Manilla contains about 3000 inhabitants ; its port is Cavitc, lying at the diftance of three leagues, and defended by tlie caftle of St. Philip. In the year 1762, Manilla v/as reduced by the Englifli under general Draper and admiral Cornilh, who took it by ftorm, and humanely fuflercd the archbilhop, who was the Spsnifh viceroy at ihc fiime time, to ranfom the place for about a million Ucrling. The bargain, however, was ungeneroufly dilbwned by him and the court of Indian and Oriental Islands. 6-9 of Spain, fo that great pare of the ranfom is ftill unpaid. The Spanifh government is fettled tlierc, and the Indian inhabitants pay a capitation tax. The other iflands particularly Mindanao, the largeO; next to Manilla, are governed by petty princes of their o.vn, whom they call fultans. The fultan of Mindanao is a Mahometan. Though thefe iflands are enriched with all the profufion of nature, yet they are fub- jed to molt dreadful earthquakes, thunder, rains, and lightning ; and the foil is pcllered with many noxious and venomous creatures, and even herbs and flowers whofepoifons killalmoliinfl:antancoufly. Some of their mountains are volcanos. The Moluccas, commonly called the Si'ice or Clove Islands. Thefe arc not out of fight of each other, and lie all within the compafs of twenty-five leagues to the fouth of the Philippines, in 125 degrees of ea(l longitude, and between one degree fouth, and two north latitude. They are in number five, viz. Bachian, Machian, Motyr, Ternatc, and Tydore. I'hefe iflands produce neither corn nor rice, fo that the inhabitants live upon a bread made of fagoe. Their chief produce confifts of cloves, mace, and nutmegs, in va(l quantities; which are monopolized by the Dutch with fo much jealoufy, that they deftroy tlie plants left the natives fliould fell the fupcrnumerary fpices to other nations. Thefe iflands, after beino- fubjeft to various powers, are now governed by three kings, fubordinate to the Dutch. Ternate is the largeft of thefe iflands, though no more than thirty miles in circumference. The Dutch have here a fort called Vidoria ,• and another called Fort Orange, in Machian. A.MBOYNA. This ifland, taken in a large fenfe, is one, and the moft confider- able, of the Moluccas, which, in fadt, it commands. It is fituated in the Archi- pelago of St. Lazarus, between the third and fourth degree of fouth latitude, and 120 leagues. to the eathvard of Batavia. Amboyna is about feventy miles in cir- cumference, and defended by a Dutch garrifon of 7 or 800 men, befides fmall forts, which protect their clove plantations. It is well known, that when the Portuo-uefe were driven off this ifland, the trade of it was carried on by the Englifh and Dutch ; and the barbarities of the latter in firft torturing and then murdering the Englifli and thereby engrofling the whole trade, and that of Banda, can never be foro-otten ; but muft be tranfmitted as a memorial of Dutch cruelty at that period, to all poflerity. This tragical event happened in 1622. The Banda, or Nutmeg Islands, are fituate between 127 and 128 decrees eaft longitude, and between four and five fouth latitude, comprehending the iflands of Lantor (the chief town of which is Lantor), Poleron, Rofinging, Pooloway, and Gonapi. The chiefs forts belonging to the Dutch on thefe iflands, are thofe of Revenge and NaflTau. The nutmeg, covered with mace, grows on thefe iflands only, and they are entirely fubjeft to the Dutch. In feveral iflands that lie near Banda and Amboyna, the nutmeg and clove would grow, bccaufe, as naturalills tell us, birds, efpccially doves and pigeons, fwallow the nutmeg and clove whole and void them in the lame ftate ; which is one of the reafons whv the Dutch de- clare war againll; both birds. The great nutmeg harvefl is in June and Augufl:. The ifland of Celebes, or Macassar, is fituate under the equator, between the ifland of Borneo, and the Spice iflands, at the diflance of 160 leagues fi-om Batavia and is 500 miles long, and 200 broad. This ifland, notwithitanding its heat, is rendered habitable by breezes from the north, and periodical rains. Its chief nro- duft is pepper and opium ; and the natives are expert in the ftudy of poifons, with a variety of which nature has furnilhed them. The Dutch have a fortification on 4 P2 this 553 Indian and Oriental Islands. this ifland ; but the internal part of it is governed by three kings, the chief of whom refides in the town of Macaffar. In this, and indeed in ahiioft all the Oriental iflands, the inhabitants live in houfes buik on large pofts, which are acceflible only by ladders, which they pull up in the night-time, for their fe- curity againft venomous animals. They are faid to be hofpitable and faithful, if not provoked. They cany on a large trade with the Chinele ; and if their chiefs were not perpetually at war with each other, they might eafily drive the Dutcli frdm their ifland. Their pore of Jampoden is the moft capacious of any in that part of the world. The Dutch have likewife fortified Gilolo and Ceram, two other fpice iflands lyino- under the equator, and will fink any Ihips that attempt to trafiic in thofe feas. The SuNDA Islands. Thefc are fituated in the Indian Ocean, betv/een 93 and 120 deo-rees of eaft longitude, and between eight degrees north and eight degrees fouth latitude, comprehending the iflands of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bally, Lamboc, Banca, &c. The three firft, from their great extent and importance, require to be feparately defcribed. Borneo is faid to be 800 miles long, and 700 broad, and till latedifcoveries was therefore thought to be the largeft ifland in the world. The inland pare of the coun- try is marfliy and unhealthy ; and the Inhabitants live in towns buik upon floats in the middle of the rivers. The foil produces rice, cotton, canes, pepper, camphor, the tropical fruits, gold, and excellent diamonds. The famous ouran-outang is a native of this country ; it is now found, by Dr. Camper, to have the intermaxil- lary bone, in common with other quadrupeds, befides a bone in its penis : and in manv other particulars to differ from the human form, with which it was long fup- nofed to have fo near a refemblance. The fea-coaft of Borneo is governed by Ma- hometan princes ; the chief port of this ifland is Benjar-Mafieen, and carries on E commerce v.'ith all trading nations. Sumatra has Malacca on the north, Borneo on the eaft, and Java on the fouth- eaft, from which it is divided by the ftraits of Sunda ; it is divided into two equal parts by the equator, extending five degrees, and upwards, north-weft of it, and frve on the fouth-eaft ; and is 1000 miles long, and 100 broad. This ifland produces fo much gold, that is is thought by fome to be the Ophir mentioned in the fcrip- tures ; but Mr. Marfden, in his late hiftory of the ifland, thinks it was unknown to the ancients. The higheft mountain in Sumatra is called Ophir by the Europeans, whofe fummit above the level of the fea is 13,842 feet, exceeding in height the Peak of TenerifFc by 577 feet. The Portuguefe were the firft difcoverers ancl fettlers, but met with difgrace in their attempts againft Acheen. The firft Englifli fleet that made its appearance in this part of the world, and laid the foundation of a commerce that was to eclipfc that of every other European ftate, vifited Acheen in the year i6o'2, under captain Lancaftcr, who carried a letter from queen Klizabeth to the king of that place. The Englifli Eaft India Company have two fcttlcments here, Bencoo't'i, and Eort-Marlborough ; from whence they bring their chief cargoes of pepper. The king of Acheen is the chief of the Mahometan princes who poflrfs the fea-coafls. •The interior parts are governed by Pagan princes, whofe governments are all inde- pendent, and their language and manners are very different. The natm-al produces of Sumatra are pretty much the fame with thofe of the adjacent iflands, but this ifland is furpafled by few in rice, pepper, and camphor, and in the bountiful indul- gence of nature. It is from this country that moft of ihe caflia fent to Europe is pro- Indian and Oriental Islands. 66t produced. The cafila tree grows to fifty or fixty feet, with a fl:em of about two feet diameter, and a beautiful and regular fpreading head. The quantity of pepper pro- duced in tlie Eaft India Coaipany's diftrifts on Sumatra is annually 1200 tons ; of wiiich the greater part comes to Europe, and the reft 'n fent to China. Rain is very frequent here ; foinetimes very heavy, and almoft always attended with thunder and lightning. Earthquakes are not uncommon, and there are feve- ral volcanoes on the ifland. The people who inhabit the coaft are Malays, who came hither from the peninfula of Malacca : but the interior parts are inhabited by a very different people, and who have hitherto had no connection with the Europeahs. Their language and charader differ much from thofe of the Malays ; the latter ufing the Arabic character, as do the Acheenefe. The principal internal lanoiiao-es of the ifland are the Rejang and Batha, containing characters eflcntially differenc from each other. The people between the dillricfts of the Englifh company, and thofe of the Dutch at Palembang, on the other fide the ifland, write on lono- narrow flips of the bark of a tree, with a piece of bamboo. They begin at the bottom and write from the left hand to the right, contrary to the cuftom x)f other eaflern na- tions. Thefe inhabitants of the interior parts of Sumatra are a free people, and live in fmall villages, called doofons, independent of each otlier, and governed each by its o.vn chief. All of them have laws, lome written ones, by which they punifh offenders, and terminate difputes. They have almoft all of them, particularly the women, large fuellings in their necks, fome near as big as a man's head but in general as big as an oftrich's egg, like the goitres of the Alps. That part of this ifland which is called the CalTia country, is well inhabited by a people called Battas, who differ from all the other inhabitants of Sumatra in lancruao-e manner^ and cuftoms. They have no king, but live in villages, independently of each other, and generally at variance. They fortify their villages very fl:rongly with double fences of camphor plank pointed, and placed with their points projeftino- outwards- and between thefe fences they place pieces of baml)oo, hardened by fire, and likewife pointed, which arc concealed by the grafs, but which will run quite throuo-h a man's "foot. Such of their enemies whom thev take prifoners, they put to death and eat and their fkulis they hang up as trophies, in the houfcs where the unmarried men and boys cat and fleep. They .allow of polygamy ; a man may purchafe as many wives as he pleafes ; but Mr. Marfden obferves, it is extremely rare, that an in- ftance occurs of their having more than one, and that only amoiirr a few of their chiefs : but this continence is attributed to their poverty. The orio-inal clothinff of the Sumatrans is the fame with that of the inhabitants of the South-Sea iflands generally ityled Otaheitean cloth. The Buffalo {carboio) conltitutes a principal part of their food, and is the only animal employed in their domeftic labours. The Sumatran pheafant is a bird of uncommon beauty. Within about ninety miles of Sumatra is the ifland of Enganho, which is very little known, on account of the terrible rocks and breakers that entirely furround it. It is inhabited by naked favages, who are tall and well made, and who generally ap- pear armed with lances and clubs, and fpcak a different language from the inhabi- tants of any of the neighbouring iflands. The greateft part of Java belongs to the Dutch, who have here ere died a kind' of commercial monarchy, the capital of which is Batavia, a noble and populous city, lying in the latitude of fix degrees fouth, at the mouth of the river Jncata and furnilhed with one of the finell harbours in the world. The town itfelf is buik in the manner of thofe in Holland, and is abbut a league and a half in circum- ference, with five gates, and lurrounded bj rcgulai- fortifications ; but its fuburbs ars 6(j2 Indian and Oriektal Islands. are faid to be ten times more populous than ici'elf. The government here is a mix- tui-e of Eaflern magnificence and European police, and held by the Dutch governor- qencral of the Indies. When he appeals abroad, he is attended by his guards and oiliceis. The city is as beautiful as it is fuong, and its fine canals, bridges, and avenues, render it a moft agreeable refidence. The defcription of it, its govern- ment, and public edifices, have employed whole volumes. The citadel, where the governor has his palace, commands the town and the fuburbs, which are inhabited by natives of almofl; every nation in the world. The Chinefe refiding in this iflanci are computed at 100,000 j but about 30,000 of that nation were barbaroufly maf- facred, without the fmallefl: offence ever proved upon them, in 1740. '1 his maf- facre was too unprovoked and deteitable to be det ended even by the Dutch, who, when the governor arrived in liurope, lent him back to be tried at Batavia ; but he never has been heard of fincc. A Dutch garrifon of 3000 men condantly re- Jides at Batavia ; and about 13,000 troops are quartered in the illand and the neighbourhood of the city. Then- government is admirably well calculated to pre- vent the Independency either of the civil or military power. The Andaman and Nicobar iflands. Thefe iflands lie at the entrance of the ba)- of Bengal, and furnifh provifions, confuting of trojMcal fruits and other ne- ceflTaries, for die fhips that touch there. Tliey are otherwifc too inconfiderablc to be iiientioned. They are inhabited by a harmlefs, inoilenfive, but idolatrous peopl e. Ceylon. This iiland, though not the largefl, is thought to be by nature die richeft and iinefl in the world. It is fituate in the Indian Ocean, near Cape Coniorin, the fouthern extremity of the Hither Peninfula of India, being feparated from the coafl of Coromandcl by a narrow ilrait, and is 250 miles long and 200 broad. The natives call it, v.ith fome fliew of realbn, the tetreilrial paradil'e j and it pro- jduces, befides excellent fruits of all kinds, long pepper, fine cotton, ivory, filk, tobacco, ebony, mufk, cryftal, falt-petrc, fulphur, lead, iron, fleel, copper ; be- fides cinnair.on, gold, and filver, and all kinds of precious ftones except diamonds. All kinds of fowls and fifli abound here. Every part of the ifland is well wooded and watered ; and befides fome curious animals peculiar to itfelf, it has plenty of cows, buffaloes, goats, hogs, deer, hares, dogs, and other quadrupeds. The Ceylon elephant it preferred to all others, cfpccially if fpotted ; but fcveral noxious animals, fuch asferpents and ants, are likcwife found here. The chiefcommodity of the ifland is its cinnamon, which is by far the beft in all Afia. I'hough its trees grow in great protufion, yet the befl is found in the neighbourhood of Columbo, the chief fettle- ment of the Dutch, and Negambo. The middle of the country is mountainous and woody, fo that the rich and beautiful vallies are left in the poffefTion of ttie Dutch, who have in a manner fhut up the king in his capital city, Candy, which Aands on a mountain in the middle of the ifland, {o that he has fcarcely any com- munication with other nations, or any property in his own dominions. The dc- fccndants of the ancient inhabitants are called CinglalTcs, who, though idolaters, value themfelves upon maintaining their ancient laws and cultoms. They are, in general, a fober inof^enfive people, and are mingled with Moors, Malabars, Portu- guefe, and Dutch. It may be here proper to obferve, that the cinnamon-tree, which is a native of this ill nd, has two, if not three barks, which form the true cinnamon ; the trees of a mi Idling growth and age afxoril the beft ; and the body of the tree, wliich ■when ilrip[)cd is white, lerves for building and other ufes. In 1656, the Dutch Nvcre invited by the nativfs of this delicious ifijnd, to defend them ag;unfl: the Por- tugucfe, whom they expelled, and have monopolized it ever fince to themfelves. Indeed^ Indian and Oriental Islands. 663 Indeed, in January 1782, Trinconoinale, the chief fea-porc of the ifland, was taken by the luiglifh, but foon afterwards retaken by the French, and rcftored to the Dutch by the laft treaty of peace. The Maldives. Thcfc are a vafl: clufter of fmall iflands, or little rocks, juft above the water, lying between the equator and eight degrees north latitude, near Cape Conioiin. They are chiefly refortcd to by the i Hitch, who drive a pro fitable trade with the natives for couries, a kind of fmall fhells, which go, or ra- ther formerly went, for money upon the coafts of Guinea and other parts of Africa. The cocoa of the Maldives is an excellent commodity and medicine : " Of this tree, (fays a well-informed author) they build veflels of twenty or thirty tons j their hulls, malt, fails, rigging, anchors, cables, provifions, and firing, are all from- this ufeful tree." We have already mentioned Bombay on the Malabar coafl:, infpeaking of India, With regard to the language of all the Oriental illands, nothing certain can be faid. Each ifland has a particular tongue ; but the Malayan, Chinefe, Portuguefe, Dutch, and Indian words, are fo frecjuent among thcin, that it is difficult for an: European, who is not very expert in thofe matters, to know the radical language. The fame may be almoft faid of their religion ; for though its original is certainly Pagan, yet it is intermixed with many Mahometan, Jewifli, Chriftian, and other foreign fuperlVitions. The fea which fcparates the fouthern point of the peninfula of Kamfchatka from Japan contains a number of iflands in a pofition from north-north-eaft to foiith- fouth-weft, v/hich are called the Kurile Islands. They are upwards of twenty in number, are all mountainous, and in feveral of them are volcanoes and hot fprings. The principal of thefe illands are inhabited ; but fome of the little ones are entirely defert and unpeopled. They differ much from each other in rcfpeft both to their 'fituation and natural conftitution. The forefts in the more northern ones are com- pofed of lar)X and pines ; thofc to the (buthward produce canes, bamboos, vines, &c. In fome of them are bears and foxes. The fea-otter appears on the coafts of all thefe illands, as well as whales, f("a-horfes, feals, and other amphibious animals. Some of the inhabitants have a great likenefs to the Japanefe in their m.anners, language, and pcrfonal appearance ; others very much refemble the Kanitfcha- dales. The northern ifland, acknowledge the fovcreignty of the empire of Ruf^ fia ; but thole to the fouth pay homage to Japan. The Kurilians difcover much humanity and probity in their conduft, and are courteous and hofpitable j but ad- verfity reiiders them timid, and prompts them to kiicide. They have a particular veneration for old age. They reverence an old man whoever he be, but have an efpecial affeftion for thofe of their refpeiflive families. Their language is agreeable to the ear, and they fpeak and pronounce it flov/ly. The men are employed in hunt- ing, fifhing for fea animals and vifhales, and catching fowls. Their canoes are made of wood that their forefts produce, or that the fea cafts upon their fhores. The wo- men have charge of the kitchen, and make cloaths. In the northern iflands they few, and make different cloths of the thread of nettles. The fouthern iflanders are more refined and poliflied than tbe northern, and carry on a Ibrt of commerce with Japan, whither they export whale-oil, furs, and eagles feathers to fledge arrov/s ■with. In return, they bring Japanefe utenfils of metal and varnifhed wood, ilcilletSj fibres, difitrent ftufFs, ornaments of luxury and parade, tobacco, all Cons oC trinkets, atid fmall wares, A F R I C Av [ 664 3 AFRICA. FRI C A, the third grand divifion of the globe, is generally reprefentcd as _ bearing fome relemblance to the form of a pyramid, the bafe being the northern pare of it, which runs along the fhores of the Mediterranean, and the point or top of the pyramid, the Cape of Good Hope. Africa is a peninfula of a prodigious extent, joined to Afia only by a neck of land, about fixty miles over, between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, ufually called the Ifthmus of Suez, and its ucmoft length from north to fouth, from Cape Bona in the Mediterranean, in 37 deo-rees north, to the Cape of Good Hope in 34-7 fouth latitude, is 4300 miles ; and the broadeft part from Cape Verd, in 17-20 degrees, to Cape Guarda- fui, near the tlraits of BabeUA'Iandel, in 51-20 eaO: longitude, is 3500 miles from eaft to weft. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterrancn Sea, which feparatcs it from Europe j on the eaft by the Ifthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, which divide it from Afia ; on the fouth by the Southern Ocean j and on the weft by the great Atlantic Ocean, which feparaces it from America. As the equator divides this extenftve country almoft in the middle, and the far greateft: part of it is within the tropics, the heat is in many places almoft infupportable to an European ; it being there increafed by the reflecftion of the funs rays from vaft deferts of burning fands. The coafts, however, and banks of rivers, fuch as the Nile, are generally fertile j and moft parts of this region are inhabited, though it it is far from being fo populous as Europe or Afia. From what has been faid, the reader cannot expect to find here a variety of climates. In many parts of Africa, fnow never lalls in the plains : and it feldom lies but on the tops of the higheft moun ■ tains. The natives', in thefe torching regions, would as foon expe6t that marble fhould melt, and flow in liquid ftreams, as that water, by freezing, fliould lofe its flui- dity, be arrefted by the cold, and, ceafing to flow, become like the folid rock. The moft confiderable rivers in Africa, are the IN'iger, which falls into the At- lantic or weftern ocean at Senegal, after a courfe of 2800 miles. It increafes and decreafes as the Nile, iertiiifes the country, and contains grains of gold intermixed ■with its fand. The G imbia and Senegal are only branches ot this river. 1 he Nile, which dividing Egypt into two parts, difcharges itfelf into the Mediterranean, after a prodigious courfe from its fource in Abyffinia. The moft confiderable mountains in Africa are the Atlas, a ridge extending from the weftern ocean, to which it gives the name of Atlantic Ocean, as far as Egypt. It had its name from a king of Mauri- tania, a great lover of aftronomy, who ufed to obferve the ftars from its fummit ; on which account the poets reprefent him as bearing the heavens on his ilioulders. The mountains of the Moon, extending themfelves between Abyfllniaand Monomotapa, are ftill higher than thofe of Atlas. Thofe of Sierra Lcona, or the mountains of the Lions, which divide Nigritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia. Thefe were ftyicd by the ancients the mountains of God, on account of their being fubjedl to thunder and lightning. The Peak of Tenerilfc, which the Durch make their firft meridian, riles about two Ujiles high in the form of a fugar-loaf, and is fituatcd on ?.n ifland of the fame name near the coaft. Tlie moft noted capes, or ])romontories, in diis country, are Ca[-.e Verd, fo calkd, becuife the land is always covered with green trees and i-nolTy ground ; it is the mioll wefterly point of the con- tinent of Africa. The Cape of Good Hope, fo denominated by the Portugucfe, when they firft went round it in i4!;8, and difcovercti the paftage to Afia. It is the louthern extremity of Africa, in the country of the Hoteniots j at prefcnt in the z pof- AFRICA.- 66s fcfTion of the Dutch, and the general rendezvous of (hips of every nation who trade to India, being about halfway from Europe. There is but one flrait in Africa, which is called Babel-Mandcl, and joins the Red Seawitii the Indian ocean. The fituation of Africa for commerce is extremely favourable, ftanding as it were in the centre of the globe, and having thereby a much nearer communication with Europe, Afia, and America, than any of the other quarters has with the reft. That it abounds with gold, we have not only the tefiimony of the Portuguefe, the Dutch, the Englifh, and the French, who have fettlements 6n its coalls, but that of the moft authentic hiflorians. It is, however, the misfortune of Africa, that, though it has 10,000 miles of fea-coafi:, with noble, large, deep rivers, penetrating into the very centre of the country, it fliould be inhabited by barbarous or favage nations. At the mouths of many of its rivers are the moft excellent harbours, deep, fafe, calm, and fheltered from the wind, and capable of being made perfedly fe- cure by fortifications ; but quite dcftitutc of fliipping, .trade, and merchants, even where there is plenty of micrchandife. In ihort Africa, though a full quarter of the globe, ftored v>;ith an inexhauftible treafure, and capable, under proper improve- ments, of producing fo many things delightful, as well as convenient, v/ithin it- illf, feems to be almoft entirely neglefted, not only by the natives, who are quite iinfolicitous of reaping the benefits which Nature has provided for them, but alfo by the more civilized Europeans who are fettled in it, particularly the Portuguefe. Africa once contained feveral kingdoms and ftates, eminent for the liberal arts, for wealth and power, and the moft extenfive commerce. The kingdoms of Egypt and Ethiopia, in particular, were much celebrated ; and the rich and powerful Ttate of Carthage, that once formidable rival to Rome itfelf, extended her commerce to every part of the ancient world ; even the Britifli fhorcs were vifited by her fleets, till Juba, who was king of Mauritania, but tributary to the republic of Carthage, unhappily called in the Romans, who, with the affiftance of the Mauritanians, fub- dued Carthage, and by degrees all the neighbouring kingdoms and ftates. After this, the natives, conftantly plundered, and confequently impoveriftied, by the go- vernors fent from Rome, negledted their trade, and cultivated no more of their lands than might ferve for their fubfittence. Upon the decline ofthe Roman empire, in the fifth century, the north of Africa was over-run by the Vandals, who contributed ftill more to tlie deftruftion of arts and fciences ; and, to add to this country's calamitv, the Saracens made a fudden conqueft of all the coafts of Egypt and Barbary, in the feventh century. Thefe were fucceeded by the Turks ; and both being ofthe Ma- hometan religion, whofe profeflbrs carried defolation with them wherever they came, the ruin of that once flouriftiing part ofthe world was thereby completed. The inhabitants of this contment, with refpeft to religion, may be divided into three forts ; namely, Pagans, Mahometans, and Chriftians. The firft are the moft numerous, poftefting the greateft part ofthe country, from the tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope, and they are generally black. The Mahometans, who are of a tawny complexion, pofTefs Egypt, and almoft all the northern ftiores of Africa, or what is called the Barbary coaft. The people of Abyfnnia, or the Upper Ethiopia, are denominated Chriftians, but retain many Pagan and Jewifti rites. There are alfo fome Jews, on the north of Afiica, v/ho manage all the little trade that part of the country enjoys. There are fcarcely any two nations, or indeed any two of the learned, that agree in the modern divifions of Africa j and for this very rcaibn, that fcarcely any tra- veller has penetrated into the heart of the country ; and confequently we muft ac- knowledge our ignorance of the bounds, and even the names of feveral of the in- land nations, which* may be llill reckoned among the unknown and undifcovered parts of the world ; but, according to the beft accounts and conjed;ures_, Africa may be divided viccording to the following Table. 4 Q^ Nations. 666 AFRICA. N itions. Length Ere„d. -q.Mile;. Chief Cities. Uiif.and lie:ir.;biff. of time from London. 'from Lon Jon, Religious. Aiorocco, ' Tafilet, ice. I 500 4"o 219,40c Fez loSoS. 24 aft. Mahoni. c5 Algieis 480 ICO 143,600 Aic;icrs 920 S. ! 3 \. E. I 18 bef. Terra deNat. 350 184,900 ' s'o Towns * * • TT * # I'a;ans. CafFaria or ) Hottentot ) 660 200,34c yape of Good Hope 5200 S. I 4 bef. Moll ftu- pid Pag. T he principal iflands of Africa lie in the Indian feas and Atlantic Ocean ; of which the followir g belong to, or trade with, the Europeans, and ferve to refrefli their fliippii ig to and from India. I Hands. 6q. iVl. 1 i'ouni. 1 Trade with or belong to Babol Mandcl, at tlic cutn Red Sra — nee of the Uabel M.-indel _'a11 Nations Zoco'ra, in the Indian Occa n — 3,'oc Cal.nifia — — Ditto The Comora lilcs, ditto — — 1 , . 00 fi anna .— 'Ditto M.idagalcar. ditto _ — i6-,ooc St. Au:lin Ditto Maiiriiius, diito — — 1,840 Mauritius — — French Bourbon, ditto - — 2,100 Bourbon — — Ditto S. Helena, in the Atlantic ( 3cca!i — St. Helena Ent^lifli ■\fcenlioii, ditto — Uninhabited St. Matihc.v, ditto — — Ditto St. Thomas, An iboa, Prim ifland, Fcrnandopo ■" [ditto St. Thomas, Anaboa Portuguefe Cape Vcrd IT.ands, ditto — _ 2,000 St. DominL;o — Ditto Oorec, ditto Fort St. Michael French CaniricB, ditto ■ _ Palma,St.Chriilo])hets Spanifh Madiira?, d.ito — — — 1,500 .Santa Cruz, Funi.hal Portugucfe The Azores, or Wcftcrn Ifle. ,lic) uearlyat an cq\ial ciillancef -om > ditto 2,000 Angva, St. Michael Ditto I'.iMropc. Africa, and Amer ica 3 u aving EGYPT. 667 Having given the render fome idea of Africa, in genera!, with the principal king- doms, and their fuppofed dimenfions, we fhall now confider it under thice grand divifions : firfl;, Egypt ; fecondly the rtates of Barbaiy, llretching along the coall of the Mediterranean, from Egypt^in the eaft, to the Atlantic Ocean, weft ; and, laftly, that part of Africa,' between the tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope ; the laft of thefe divifions, indeed, is vaftly greater than the other two ; but the nations, which it contains, are fo little known, and fo barbarous, and, like all barbarous nations, fo fimilar in mod refpeds to eacii other, that they may, with- out impropriety, be thrown under one general head. E G Y T. Situation and ExriiNT. I^Iiles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Lensjtli 6007 L ^ C 20 and 32 north latitude. ■> Breadth 230$ '^'-"^^'e^" 1 28 and 36 eaftlongitude. f ^0,70° Boundaries.] TT is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, North ; by the Red J. Sea, Eaft; by Abvftlnia, or the Upper Ethopia, on the South -, and by the defert of Biuca, and the unknown parts of Africa, Weft. Divifions. Northern divifion contains -1 Subdivifions 1 Lower Egypt. }-{ Southern divifion contains | Upper Egypt Chief Towns. 'Grand Cairo, E. Ion, 32. N.lat. 30. Bulac Alexandria Rofetto l^Damietta } ( Sayd or Thebes i I Cofhar Air.] In April and May the air is hot, and often infcdious ; and the inhabitants are almoft blinded with drifts of fand. Thofe evils are remedied by the rifing and overflowing of the Nile. Soil and produce.] Whoever is in the leaft acquainted with literature, knows that the vaft fertility of Egypt is owing to the annual inundai:ion of the Nile, oc- cafioned by the rains which fall during May, June, and July, in Abyffinia and the ncigbouring countries of Africa. According to Mr. ^'olney, the commencement of the inundation is not entirely afcertained, though the Copies fix it at the 19th of June. At the height of its flood in the Lower Egypt, nothing is to be fccn in the plains, but the tops of forefts and fruit-trees, their towns and villages beino- built upon eminences either natural or artificial. Wlien the river is at its proper heio-ht, the inhabitants celebrate a kind of jubilee, with various feftivities. The banks or •mounds which confine it, are cut by the Turkifli baflia, attended by his grandees ; but, according to captain Norden, who was prefent on the occafion, the fpeClacle is not very magnificent. When the banks are cut^ the water is let into what they call the Chalis, or grand canal, which runs through Cairo, from whence it is dif- 4 0.2 tributed 663 EGYPT. tributed into cuts, for fupplying their fields and gardens. This being done, and the waters beginning to retire, fuch is the fertility of the foil, that the labour of the hulbandman is next to nothing. He throws his wheat and barley into the ground in Odlober and May. He turns his cattle cut to graze in November, and in about fix weeks, nothing can be more charming than the profpeft, which the face of the- country prefents, in rifing corn, vegetables, and verdure of every fort. Oranges, lemons, and fruits, perfume the air. The culture of pulfe, melons, fugar- canes° and other plants, which require moiihire, is fupplied by fmall, but regular cuts from cifterns and refervoirs. Dates, plantanes, grapes, figs, and palm-trees, from which wine is made, are here pknriful. March and April are the harveft months, and produce three crops ; one of lettuces and cucumbers (the latter being the chief food of the inhabitants) one of corn and one of melons. The Egyptian pailuracre is equally prolific, moft of the quadrupeds producing two at a time, and the Iheep four lambs a year. Animals.] Egypt abounds in black cattle ; and it is faid, that the inhabitants- employ every day 20,(!Co oxen in raifing water for their grounds. They have a fine laro-e breed of aff.'s, upon which the Chriilians ride, being infolently de- barred by the Turks from riding on any other bead. The Egyptian horfes are very fine ; they never trot, but walk well, and gallop with great fpeed, turn fliort, ftop in a moment, and are extremely traftable. The hippopotamus, or river- horfe, an amphibious animal, refcmbling an ox in its hinder parts, with the head of a horfe, is common in Upper Egypt. Tygeis, hyenas, camels, antelopes, apes with the head like a dog, and the rat, called ichneumon, are nati'.es of Egypt. The camelion, a little animal fomething refembling a lizard, that changes colour as you ftand to look upon him, is found here as well as in neighbouring coun- tries. The crocodile was formerly thought peculiar to Egypt, but there dees not feem to be any material difference between it and the aligators of India and America. They are both amphibious animals, in the form of a lizard, and grow till they are about twenty feet in length, and have four fhort legs, with large feet armed with claws, and their backs are covered with a kind of impenetrable fcales, like armour. The crocodile waits for his prey in the fedge, and other cover, on the fides of the rivers ; and, pretty much refembling the trunk of an old tree, fometimes furprifes the unwary traveller with his fore paws, or beats him down with his tail. This country produces Ukewife great numbers of eagles, hawks, pelicans, and water-fowls of all kinds. The ibis, a creature (according to Mr. Norden) fome- what refembling a duck, was deified by the ancient Egyptians for its deftroying fcrpents and pefiiferous infefts. They were thought to be peculiar to Egypt, but a fpecies of them is faid to have been lately difcovcred in other parts of Africa. Oflriches are common here, and are (o firong that the Arabs fometimes ride upon their backs. Population, manners, cus-? Egypt, according to Mr. Volney, is inhabit- lOMs, AND DIVERSIONS. ^ cd by fourdiffcrcnt races of people; the Turks ■who f/T/enii to be maftcrs of the country ; the Arabs who were conquered by the Turks ; the Coptes, who are delcendcd from the ancient Egyptians mixed with the Perfians, Greeks, and Romans, who fucccffivcly conquered Egypt ; and the Mam- alouks, who were origmally Circafiijn and Mingrelian flaves, and being the only military force, are the real niaflers of the country. Egypt is at prefent not near fo populous as formerly, and its depopulation is owing to anarchy and defpotifm. The Turks, who refide in Egypt, retain all their Ottoman pride and infolence, -and wear the Tuikifli habit, to diftinguifli themfclves from the Arabs and Coptes, whodrcfs very plain, their chief finery being an upper garment of white linen, and linca EGYPT. 669 linen drawers ; but their ordinary drefs is of blue linen, with a long cloth coat, cither over or under it. 1 he Chrillians and Arabs of the meaner kind content themftlves with a linen or v/oollen wrapper, which they fold, blanket-like, round their body. 1 he Jews wear blue leather flippers, the other natives of their coun- try wear red, and the foreign Chriftians yellow. The drefs of the women is tawdry and unbecoming ; but their clonths are filk, when they can afford it • and luch of them as are not expofcd to the fun, have delicate complexions and features. The Coptes are generally excellent accomptants, and many of them live by teaching the other natives to read and write. Their extrcifes and di- verfions are much the fame as thofe made ufe of in Perfia, and other Afiatic eounrries. All Egypt is over-run with jugglers, fortune-tellers, mountebanks, and travelling flight-of hand men. Religion.] The Turks and Arabs are Mahometans ; the Coptes are Chrif- tians of the feci of Eutyches ; and as fuch, maintain an irreconcileable variance with the other members of the Greek church. Language.] The Coptic is the moil ancient language of Egypt. This was fucceeded by the Greek, about t'le time of Alexander the Great ; and that by the Aiabic, upon the commencement of the califate, when the Arabs difpolleflcd the Greeks of Egypt. The Arabic, or Arabefque, as it is called, is ilijl the current- language, but the Coptic and modern Greek continue to be fpokcn. Learning and learned men.] Though it is fuppofed that the Greeks de- rived all their knowledge from the ancient Egyptians, yet fcarcely a vei^i^e of it remains among their defcendants. This is owing to the bigotry and ignorance of their Mahometan mailers ; but here it is proper to make one obfervation which is- of general ufe. The califs or Saracens who fubdued Egypt, were of three kinds. The firft, who were the immediate fucceflbrs of Mahomet, made war from con- fcience and princi]5le upon all kinds of literature, except the Koran j and hence it was, that when they took poffeffion of Alexandria, which contained the mod magnifi- cent library the world ever beheld, its valuable manufcripts were applied for fome months to cooking their viduals, and warming their baths. The fame fate at- tended upon the other magnificent Egyptian libraries. The califs of the fecond Face were men of tafte and learning, but of a peculiar (train. They bought up all the manufcripts that furvived the general conflagration, relating to ailronomy,. medicine, and fome ufelefs parts of philofophy ; but they had no talle for the Greek arts, fciences, hiflory, or poetry, and learning was confined to their own courts and colleges, without ever finding its way back to Egypt. The lower race of califs, efpecially thofe who called themfelves califs of Egypt, difgraced human nature ; and the Turks have rivetted the chains of barbarous ignorance which they impofed. All the learning therefore poffefied by the modern Egyptians confifts in arith- metical calculations for the difpatch of bufinefs, the jargon of allrologv, a few nollrums in medicine, and fome knowledge of Arabefque or the Mahometan- religion. Curiosities and ANTIQUITIES.] Egypt abounds, more with thefe than per- haps any other part of the world. Its pyramids have beeen often defcribed. They arc eleven in number, and diftant four leagues from Cairo; The bafis of the laro-sH covers eleven acres of ground, and its perpendicular height is 500 feet, but if meafurcd obliquely to the terminating point, 700 (ect.- It contains a room thirtv- four feet long, and feventeen broad, in which is a marble chefl, but without either cover or contents, fuppofed to have been defigned for the tomb of the founder, who according to Herodotus, was Cheops, the Egyptian king, who immediately fucceed- ed Proteus, in the ninth century before Chrift. The mummy pits, fo called for their con- 670 EGYPT. containino- the mummies, or embalmed bodies of the ancient Egyptians, are fubter- raneous vaults of a prodigious extent ; but the art of preparing the mummies is now lofi:. It is faid that fome of the bodies, thus embalmed, are perfeft and diftinfl at this day, though burried 3000 years ago. The labyrinth in Upper Egypt is a curiofity thoucrht to be more wonderful than the pyramids themfelves. It is partly under ground, and cut out of a marble rock confilling of twelve palaces, and looohoufcs,- the intricacies of which occafion its name. The lake Maeris was dug by order of an Egyptian king, to corre6t the irregularities of the Nile, and to communicate with th~ar river, by canals and ditches which Hill fubfifl-, and are evidences of the utility as well as grandeur of the work. Wonderful grottos and excavations, moftly artificial, abound in Egypt. The whole country towards Grand Cairo is a con- tinued fcene of antiquities, of which the oldell: are the moft ftupendous, but the more modern the molt beautiful. Cleopatra's needle, and its fculptures, are admirable. Pompey's pillar is a fine regular column of the Corinthian order, the Ihaft of which is one ftonc, beino- eighty-eight feet nine inches in height, or ten diameters of the co- lumn ; the whole hieght is 1 14 feet, including the capital and pedeftal. The Sphynx, as it is called, is no more than the head and part of the fhoulders of a woman hewn out of the rock, and about thirty feet high, near one of the pyramids. The papyrus is one of the natural curiofuies of Egypt, and ferved the ancients to write upon, but we know not the manner of preparing it. The pith of it is a nourifhing food. The manner of hatching chickens in ovens is common in Egypt, and now praflifed in fome parts of Europe, Cities, towks, and 7 Even a flight review of tiiefe would amount to a large ruBLic EDiFicFS. 5 volumc. In many places, not only temples, but the walls of cities, built before the time of Alexander the Great, are flill entire, and manv of their ornaments, particularly the colouis of their paintings, are as frefli and vivid as when firft laid on, Alexandria, which lies on the Levant coaft, was once the emporium of the world, and by the means of the Red Sea furnilhed Europe and great part of Alia, with the riches of Indi;i. It owes its name to its founder, Alexander the Great. ' It Hands forty miles weft from the Nile, and is a hundred and twenty north-weft of Cairo. It rofe upon the ruins of Tyre and Carthage, and is famous for the light-houfc erefted on the oppofite ifland of Pharos, for the direction of mariners, defervedly eftecmed one of the wonders of the world. The molewhich was built to form a com- munication with the ifland of Pharos is icoo yards in length, and though near 20CO years old, the excellence of its materials has refiftcd, in a great meafure, the violence of winds and waves ever fince. All the parts of the city were magnificent ifi proportion, as appears from their ruins, particularly the cifterns and aqueducts. Many of the materials of the old city, hov/ever, have been employed in building JSitw Alexandria, which at prefent is a very ordinary lea-port, known by the name of Scandetoon. Nothwithftanding the poverty, ignorance, and indolence of the inhabitants, their niofques, bagnios, and the like buildings, erected within thefe ruins, preferve an inexpreffible air of majefty. Rofetta, or Rafchid, llands twenty-five miles to the north-weft of Alexandria, and is recommended for its beautiful fituation, and the dclighiful profpci^s, which com- mand the fine country, or iftand of D^'lta, formed by the Nile, near its mouth. It is Jikewife a place of great trade. The length of the city is two miles, but it is only half a mile broad. In the environs are many country houfes belonging to Chrif- tian merchants, v/iih fine gardens, producing the choiceft fruits of the Eaft. The Mahometan inhabitants are here alfo particularly civil and polite. Cairo, now Mafr, the prefent capital of Egypt, is a large and populous, but a difagreeable rcfidcnce, on accouat of its peftilcntial air^ and narrow Itreets. It is divided EGYPT. 67, divided into two towns, the Old and the New, and defended by an old caftlc, the works of v/hich are faid to be three miles in circumference. This caflle is faid to have been built by Saladinc : at the wtfl end are the remains of very noble apart- ments, fome of which are covered with domes, and adorned with pictures in Mofaic work ; but thefe apartments are now only ufed for weaving embioidery, and pre- J)aring the hangings and coverings annually fcnt to Mecca. The well, called Jofeph's well, is a curious piece of mcchanifm, about 300 feet deep. The memorv of that patriarch is IVill revered in Egypt, where they fliew granaries, and many other works of public utility, that go under his name. They are certainly of vafl: aiitiquity ; but it is very ciueftionable whether they were ereflcd by him. One of his granaries is fliewn in old Cairo, but captain Norden fufpedls it is a Saracen woj-k, nor docs he give us any high idea of the buildings of the city itfelf. On the bank of the Nile, facing Cairo, lies the village of Gize, which is thou'-ht to be the ancient Memphis. 1 wo miles weil, is Bulac, called the port of Cairo. The Chrillisns of Cairo pradife a holy cheat, during the Eafter holidays, by pretendi'nij' that the limbs and bodies of the dead arife from their graves, to which they returr> peaceably. The ftrcets of Cairo are jieflered with the jugglers and fortune-tellers already mentioned. One of their Hivourite exhibitions is their dancing camels, which when young, they place upon a large heated floor : the intenfe heat makes the poor creatures caper, and being plied all the time with the found of a drum, the noife of that inftrumenr fets them a dancing all their lives after. The o:her towns of note in Egypt are Damietta, fuppofed to be the ancient Pe- lufium ; Seyd, on the weft banks of the Nile, 200 miles fouth of Cairo, faid to be the ancient Egyptian Thebes ; and Cofilar, on the weft coaft of the Red Sea. The o-ene-- ral practice of ftrangers, who vifit thofe places, is to hire a Janizary, whofe authority commonly protects them from the infults of the other natives. Suez, formerly a place of great trade, is now a fmall city, and gives name to the ifthmus, that joins Africa with Afia. The children of Ifrael are fuppofed to have marched near this city, when they left Egypt, in their way towards the Red Sea : almoft every objeft and village in this country prefents fome amazing piece of antiquity. The diffi- culties in vifiting it are great ; [o that the accounts we can depend upon are but few, nor do they rdways agree together. Makufactures and commerce.] The Egyptians export prodigious quantities of unmanufacftured as well as prepared flax, thread, cotton, and leather of all forts, callicoes, yellow wax, fal ammoniac, faffron, fugar, fena, and cafTia. They trade with the Arabs for coffee, drugs, fpices, callicoes, and other merchandifes, which are landed at Suez, from whence they fend them to Europe. Several European ftates have confuls refident in Egypt, bur the cufloms of the Turkifh government are managed by Jews. A number of Englifli veiTeis arrive yearly at Alexandria ; fome of which are laden on account of the owners, but molt: of them are hired and employed as carriers to the Jews, Armenians, and Mahometan traders. Constitution and government.] A viceroy is fent to Egypt from the Porte, under the title of the paflia or bailiaw of Cairo, and is one of the greateft officers of the Ottoman empire. But fince the revolution of Ali Bey, the power of the Turks in Egypt is more precarious than in any other province. The republican, or rather the ariftocratical part of the government, confilts of a divan, compofed of twenty- four fangiacks, beys, or lords. The head of them is called the Ikeik be|let, who is chofen by the divan, and confirmed by the palha. Every one of the iano-iacks is arbitrary in his own territory, and exerts fovereign power ; the major part of them refide at Cairo. If the grand fignior's pafha afts in oppofition to the fenfe of the divan, or attempts to violate their privileges, they will not fufFer him to continue in his poft, and the Porte is obliged to fend another, Reve- 672 E G Y P T. Revenues.] Thefe are very inconfiderable, when compared with the natural riches of the country, and the defpotifm of its government. Some fay they amount to a million fterling, but that two-thirds of the whole is fpent in the country. Military strength.] This confifts in theMamalukes, fome bodies of whom are cantoned in the villages to exadl tribute, and fupport authority. The greater part are afTembled at Cairo. They amount to about eight thoufand men, attaclied to the dif- ferent beys, whom they enable to contend with each other, and to let the Turks at defiance. History.] It is generally agreed, that the princes of the line of the Pharoahs fat on the throne of Egypt, in an uninterrupted fucceflion, till Cambyfes, the fecond king of Perfia, conquered the Egyptians 520 years before the birch of Chrilt; and that in the reign of thofe princes, the pyram.ids were raifed ibuftures, which cannot now be viewed without aftonlfiiment. '"^gypt continued a part of the Per- fian empire, till Alexander the Great vanquifhed Darius, when it fell under the dominion of that prmce, who loon after built the celebrated city of Alexandria. The conquefts of Alexander, who died in the prime of life, being feized upon by his generals, the province of Egypt fell to the fhare of Ptolemy, by fome fuppof- :ed to have been a half-brother of Alexander, when it again became an indepen- dent kingdom, about 300 years before Chrift. His fucceffors, who fometimes ex- tended their dominions over great part of Syria, ever after retained the name of Ptolemies, and in that line Egypt continued between two and three hundred years, till the famous Cleopatra, the wife and fuler of Ptolemy Dionyfius, the laft king, afcended the throne. After the death of Cleopatra, who had been miftrefs fuccef- fively to Julius Csfar and Mark Anthony, Egypt became a Roman province, and thus remained till the reign of Omar, the fecond calif of the fucceffors of Mahomet, v/ho expelled the Romans, after it had been in their hands 700 years. The famous library of Alexandria, faid to confift of 700,000 voluines, was col- Icftcd by Ptolemy Philadelphus, fon of the firft Ptolemy ; and the fame prince caufed the Old Teftament to be tranllated into Greek, but whether by feventy-two interpreters, and in the manner commonly related, isjuftly queftioned : this tranf- lation is known by the name of the Septuagint. Omar fubjefted Egypt to the Ma- hometan power, about the year 640, and the califs of Babylon were fovereigns of the country till 870, when the Egyptians fet up a governor of their own called the calif of Cairo. About the time of thecrufades, between the year 11 50 and 1190, Egypt was go- verned by Noreddin, the Saracen fultan of Damafcus, whofe fon, the famous Sala- dinc, proved fo formidable to thole Chrillian adventurers, and retook from them Je- rufalem. He inftituted the military corps of Mamalukes, like the Janizaries of Conftantinople, who, about the year 1242, advanced one of their own officers to the throne, and ever after chofe their prince out of their own body. Egypt, for fome time, made a figure under thofe liluftrious ulurpers, and made a noble fhand againfl; the prevailing power of the Turks, till under Sclim, who, about the year 1517, after giving the Mamalukes fevcral bloody defeats, reduced Egypt to its prc- fcnt llate.of fubjedion. While Selim was fettling the government of Egypt, great numbers of the an- cient inhabitants withdrew into the deferis and plains, under one Zinganeu.s, from ^vhence they attacked the cities and villages of the Nile, and plundered whatever fell in their way. Selim and his officers perceiving that it would be a matter of gre.at difficulty to extirpate thofe marauders, left them at liberty to quit the country, which they did in great numbers, and their pofterity is known all over Europe and Afi.i, by the name of Gipfies. Of late, hov/ever, many of them have incorporated with, and adopted the manners of the people among whom they rcfide. Of late years, a rcv.o- 1 The States of BAR B A R Y. 673 revolution was efFcded in Egypt by Ali Bey, who, from the rank of an Abakan Have, attained the command of the Mamalukes, and rendered himfclf mafter of the Government. But not content with the kingdom of Egypt, he alfo laid claim to Syria, Paleftinc, and tliat part of Arabia which had belonged to the ancient fultans. He marched' at the head of his troops to fupport thefe prirtenfions, and aCiually fubdued fome of the neighbouring provinces both of Arabia and Syria. At the fame time that he was engaged in thefe great enterprizes, he was not lels attentive to the eflablifhingof a regular form of government, and of introducing order into a coun- try that had been long the feat of anarchy and confufion. His views were equally extended to commerce; for which purpofe he gave great encouragement to the Chriflian traders, and took off fome fliameful rellraints and indignities, to v/liich they were fub)e(5lcd in that barbarous country. He ahb wrote a letter to the republic of Venice, with the greateft alTuranccs of his friendfliip, and that their merchants fhould meet with every degree of protedion and fafety. His great defign was faid to be, to make himfclf mailer of the Red Sea ; to open the port of Suez to all na- tions, but particularly to the Europeans, and to rend.-r Egvpc once more the oreat centre of commerce. The condud and views of Ali B.y iliewed an extent of thought and ability that indicated nothing of the barbarian, and befpokea mind equal to the founding of an empire : but lie was not finally fu:cefsful, though ably fupportcd bySheick Daher, and fome other Arabian princes, who warmly efpouied his interefls. He alfo fucceeded in almoft all his enterprizes againfl: the neif^hbour- ing Afiatic governors and bafhas. whom he repeatedly defeated; but he was after- wards deprived of the kingdom of Egypt by the bafe and ungrateful condudof lii? brother-in-law, Mahomed Bey Aboudaab, his troops being totally defeated on the 7th of March 1773, and himfelf wounded and taken prifoner : he died of his woun.is, and was buried at Grand Cairo. Aboudaab afterwards governed Egypt a, " . Belief, and marched into Palelline to fubdue Sheik Daher. After beliaviii:^ v.ich great cruelty to the inhabitants of the places he took, he was found dead in his bc-.l one morning at Acre, fuppofed to be llrangled. Sheik Daher accepted the Pci :\ full amncfty, and trufting to their afuirances, embraced the captain palha's inviiatioa ro dine on board his fliip, when the captain produced his orders, and the brave Daher, Ali Bey's ally, had his head cut off in the 85th year of his age. From that time Egypt has been torn by a civil war, between the adherents of Ali, and other bays or princes, who rofe on his ruins. Of thefe the principal are Morad and Ybra- liim, who having driven their enemies into banilhment, began to quarrel amon"- them- felves. Alternately expelled from Cairo, they finally agreed to a compromife, March, 1785 ; but it is not expeded that their agreement will be lafiing. The States of BARBARY. UNDER this head 1 {hall rank the countries of, i. Morocco and Fez ; 2. Algiers; 3. Tunis; 4. Tripoli and Barca. The empire of Morocco, including Fez, is bounded on the North by the Me- diterranean fea ; on the South, by Tafilet ; and on the Eaft, bv Scgelmeffa and the kingdom of Algiers, being 500 ir.iles in length, and 480 in breadth. Fez, which is now united to Morocco, is about 125 miles in length, and much the fame in breadth. It lies between the kingdom of Algiers 10 the Eaft, and Mo- rocco on the South, and is furrounded in other parts bv the fea. Algiers, formerly a kingdom, is bounded on the Eaft by the kingdom of Tunis, ■on the North by the Mediterranean, on the South by Mount AtJas, and on the Weft 4 R by 674 The States of B A R B A R Y. by the kingdoms of Morocco and Tafilet, According to Dr. Shaw, who refided 12 vears at Alsiers in quality of chaplain to the Britilh factory, and has^ corrected rrany errors of'ancient and modern geographers refpedling the dates of Birbary, this country extends in length 480 miles along the coaft of the Mediterranean, and is between 40 and 100 miles in breadth. Tunis is bounded by the Mediterranean on the Nortli and Eaft ; by the king- do.-ii of Algiers on the Weft ; and by Tripoli, with part of Biledulgerid, on the South ; banp- 220 miles in length from North to South, and 170 in breadth from Ead to V/eft? Tripoli, including Barca, is bounded on the North by the Mediterranean fca ; on the South by the" country of the Beriberies ; on the Weft by the kingdom of Tunis, Biledulgerid, and a territory of the Gadamis ; and on the Eaft by £gypt : extcndin"- about iico miles along tiie lea-coaft ; and the breadth is from 100 to 300 miles. Each capital bears the name of the ftate or kingdom to which it belongs, but the capital of Biledulgerid (the ancient Numitlia) is Dara. This being prem.ifed, I ftiall conftdcr the Barbary ftates as forming (which they really do) a" great political confederacy, however independent each may be as to the exercife of its internal policy ; nor is there a greater difference than happens in difterent provinces of the fame kingdom, in the cuftoms and manners of the in- habitants. Air and seasons.] The air of Morocco is mild, as is that of Algiers, and in- deed of all the other ftates, except in the months of July and Auguft. Soil, vegetable and animal 7 Thefe ftates, under the Roman empire PRODUCTIONS, BY SEA AND LAND. ^ werc juftly denominated the garden of the world J and to have a refidence there, was confidered as the h'gheft ftate of luxury. The produce of their foil formed thofe magazines, which furniflied all Italy, and great part of the Roman empire, with corn, wine, and oil. Though the lands are now uncultivated, through the opprefllon and barbarity of their conftitution, yet they are ftill fertile, not only in the above mentioned commodities, but in dates, fit^s, raifins, almonds, apples, pears, cherries, plums, citrons, lemons, oranges, pomeo-ranates, vvith plenty of roots and herbs in their kitchen gardens. Excellent hemp and flax grow on their plains ; and, by the report of Europeans, who have lived there for fome time, the country abounds with all that can add to the pleafurcs of life ; for their ereat people find means to evade the fobriety prefcribed by tlie Mahometan law, and inake free with excellent wines and fpirits, of tlieir own growth and manufafture. Algiers produces Olt-petre, and great quantities of excellent fait ; and lead and iron have been found in ftveral places of Barbary.^ Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros are to be found in the ftates of Bar- barv ; but their deferts abound with lions, tigers, leopards, hyitnas, and monftrous itrnents. The Barbary horfes were forUierly very valuable, and thought equal to the Arabian. Though their breed is now faid to be decayed, yet Ibme very fine ones are occafionally imported into England. Camels and dromedaries, alfes, mules, and kumrahs, a nioft ferviceable creature, begot by an afs upon a cow, are their beafts of burden. Their cows are but fmall, and barren of milk. Their Ihecp yield but indifferent fleeces, but are very large, as are their goats. Bears, por- cupines, foxes, apes, hares, rabbits, ferrets, weafels, moles, camclcons, and all kinds of reptiles are found here. Befides vermin, fays Dr. Shaw (fpeaking of his travels through Barbary), theapprehcnfions we were under, in fome parts at leaft of this country, of being bitten or ftung by the fcorpion, the viper, or the venomous fpidcr, rarely failed to interrupt our repofc. Partridges and cpiails, eagles, hawks, and all kinds of wild-fowl, are found on this coaft ; and of the fmaller birds, the I cap fa- The States oi' B A K B A R Y. 675 capfa-fpaiTO'v is remarkable for its beauty, and the fweetncfs of its note, which is thought to exceed that of any other bird, but it cannot live out of its own cilinate. , The feas and bays of Barbary abound with the fineft and molt delicious fifli of every kind, and were preferred by the ancients to thofe of Europe. Population, inhabitants, man- 7 Morocco was formerly far more po- NERs, CUSTOMS, AND DIVERSIONS. ^ P"lo"s than it is now, if, as travel- lers fay, its capital contained 10^,000 houfes, whereas at pre fen t it is thought not to contain above 25,000 inhabitants ; nor can we think that the other parts of the country are more populous, if it is true that their king or emperor has SOjCoo liorfe and foot, of foreign negroes, in his armies. The city of Algiers is faid to contain 100,000 Ivlahometans, 15,000 Jews, and 2000 Chriftian Haves ; but no cdimate can be formed as to the populoufnefs of its territory. Some travellers report, that it is inhabited by a friendly hofpitable people, who are very different in their manners and character from thole of the metropolis. Tunis is the mofl polifhed republic of all the Barbary ftates. The capital con- tains 10,000 families, and above 3000 tradefmen's fliops, antl its fuburbs confiPc of 1000 houfes. The Tunifines are indeed exceptions to the otiier ftates of Barbary ; for even the moft civilized of the European governments might improve from their manners. Their diftinftions are well kept up, and proper refpeft is paid to the military, mercantile, and learned profelTions. They cultivate friendOiip with the European ftates ; arts and manufaftures have been lately introduced among them ; :"ind the inhabitants are laid at prefent to be v.'ell acquainted with the various la- bours of the loom. The Tunifine women are exceedingly handfome in their per- fons ; and though the men are fun-burnt, the complexion of the ladies is very delicate, nor are they lefs neat and elegant in their drefs ; but they imjirove the beauty of their eyes by art, particularly the powder of lead-ore, the iame pig- ment, according to the opinion of the learned Dr. Shaw, that Jezebel made ufc of when file is faid (1 Kings, chap. ix. veife 30.) to have painted her face ; the words of the original being, that (lie fet off her eyes with the jiowder of lead-ore. The gentlemen, in general, are fober, orderly, and clean in their perfons, tlieir behavi- our genteel and complaifant, and a wonderful regularity reigns throu'i-h all the ftreets and city. Tripoli was once the richeft, moft populous, and opulent of all the ftates on the coaft ; but it is now much reduced, and the inhabitants, who are faid to amount to between 4. and 500,000, have all the vices of the Algcrines. Their manners are much of a piece v/ith thofe of the Flgvptians already defcrib- ed. The fubjecls of the Barbary ftates, in general fubfifting bv piracy, are allow- ed to be bold intrepid mariners, and v.'iU fight defperatelv when they meet with a prize at fea. They are notwichftanding f.« inferior to the Englifb, and other Euro- p'.-an ftates, both in the conftruclion and management of their ve.Tels. They are,' if we except the Tunifines, void of all arts and literature. The miferv and poverty of the jnhibitants of Morocco, who are not immediately in the emperor's fervice, are beyond all defcription ; but thofe who Inhabit the inland parts of the country are an hofpitable, inoffenfive people ; and indeed it is a general obfervation, that the more diftant the inhabitants of thofe ftates are from the feats of their governmenr, their manners are the more pure. Kotwithftanding their poverty, they have a live- Jinefs abjut them, efpecially thofe who are of the Arabic defccnt, that gives them an air of contentment. The Moors are fuppofed to be the original inhabitants but are now blended with the Arabs, and both are cruelly opprelfcd by a handful of infjlsnt dc;mi."xcring Turksj the refufc of the ftreets of Coafta'ntinbple. *• 4 i-^ '2 Dil£3S. 5^6 The States of B A R B A R Y. Drkss."] T^.e drefs of thefe people is a linen fhirt, over which they tie a filk or cloth veflment with a fafii, and over that a loofe coat. Their drawers are made of linen. The arms and legs of the wearer are bare, but they have flippers oa thelrfeet ; and peifons of condition fometinies wear buflcins. They never move their turban, but pull off their flippers when they attend religious duties, or the perfon of their fovercign. They are fond of ftriped and fancied filks. The drefs of the women is not very different from that of the men, but their drawers are lons/er, and tht v wear a fort of cawl on their heads inftead of a -turban. The chief furniture of their houfcs confifls of carpets and mattrefles, on which they fit and lie. In eating, fheir flovenlincfs is fliocking. They are prohi- bited o-old and filver veflTels ; and their meat, which they fvvallovv by handfuls, is boiled or roafled to rags. Religiok.] All foreigners are here allowed the open proftffion of their re- ligion, but the inhabitants of thefe ftates are Mahometans ; and many fubjects of I^lorocco follow the tenets of one Hamed, a modern fcdlary, and an enemy to the ancient dodrine of the califs. All of them have much refpect for ideots ; whofe protedion in fomc cafes fcreens offenders from punifhment, for the moft notorious crimes. In the main, however, the Moors of Barbary, as the inhabitants of thefe ftates are now promifcuoufly called, (becaufe the Saracens firft entered Europe from Mauritania, the country of the Moors), have adopted the very worft paits of the Mahometan religion, and feem to have retained only as much of it as counte- rances their vices. Adultery in the women is punifhed with death ; but though the men are indulged with a plurality of wives and concubines, they commit the mofl: unnatural crimes with impunity. Language ] As the ftutes of Barbary poffefs thofe countries that formerly went by the name of Mauritania and Numidia, the ancient African language is ftiU fpoken in fome of the inland countries, and even by fome inhabitants of the city of Morocco. In the fea-port towns, and mar-time countries, a baftard kind of Arabic is fpoken ; and fea-faring people are no ftrangers to that medley of living and dead languages, Italian, French, Latin, &c. that is fo well known in all the ports of the Mediterranean, by the name of Lingua Franca. Antiquities and curiosities,? This article is well worth the ftudy of an an- NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 5 ti(]tiary, but the fubjefls of it are difficult of accefs, being fcattercd over a wide extent of country, inhabited by ignorant and inhofpitable barbarians. Some remains of the Mauritanian and N'umidian great- nefs are ftill to be met with, and many ruins of cities which bear evidences of their ancient grandeur and populoulhcfs. A few of the aqueduds of Carthage are faid to be ftill remaining, but no veftige of its walls. The fiune is the fate of Utica, and many other renowned cities of antiquity ; and fo over-run is the country with baibarifm, that their very fcites arc not known, even by their ruins, amphitheatres, and other public buildings, which remain ftill in tolerable prefervation. Befides thofe of ciaffical antiquity, many Saracen monuments, of the moft ftupcndous magnificence, arc likwifc found in this vaft tradf ; thefe were ereded under the calTfs of Bagdad, and the ancient kings of the country, belorc it was fubducd by the Turks, or reduced to its prefen: form of government. Their walls form the prin- cipal fortifications in the country, both inland and maritime. We know of few or no natural curiofities belonging to this country, except its falt-pits, which in fome jilaccs take up an area of fix mile?. Dr. Shaw mentions fprings found here that are fo hot as to boil a large piece of mutton very tender in a quarter of an hour. Cities and public buildings.] Mention has already been made of Morocco, th" cipital of that kingdom, but now almoft in ruins, the court having removed te> Mcquinc7, The States of B A R B A R Y. 677 Mequlnez, a city of Fez, 30 miles diftant, and very populous. Incredible things are recorded of the magnificent palaces in botli cities ; but the common people live inadiity Hovenlymanner. Tlie city of Algiers is not above a mile and a half 'in circuit, though it is com- puted to contain near 1 20,000 iniiabitants, 1 5,-000 houfes, and 107 mofques. Their public baths are large, and handfomely paved with marble. The prolpeft of the country and fea from Algiers is very beautiful, being built on the declivity of a mountain ; but the city, though for ll-veral agco it has braved fome of the o-reateft powers in Chriftendom, could make but a faint defence againft; a regular fiege. The Spaniards attacked it in the year 1775, by land and by Tea, but were repulfed with great lofs, though they had near ao,ooo foot and 2ono horfe, and 47 king's fliips of different rates, and 346 tranfports. In the year 1783 and 84, they alfo renewed their attacks by fea to deftroy the city and gallies, but after ipending a quantity of ammunition, bombs, &:c. were forced to retire without either its capture or extinc- tion. The mole of the harbour is 5 jo paces in length, extending from the conti- nent to a fmall iiland where there is a caflle and large battery. The kingdom of Tunis, which is naturally the fineft of all thefe ftates, contains the remains of many noble cities, fome of thein ftill in good condition. The ca- pital, about 30 miles fouth of old Carthage, has foitifications, and is about three miles in circumference. The houfes are not magnificent, but neat and commo- dious ; as is the public exchange for merchants and their goods ; but, like Al- eiers, it is dirtreffed for want of frefh water. The city of 1 ripoli confifts of an old and new town, the latter beino- the mofl: fiourilhing ; but never can make any confiderable figure, on account oi the incon- veniences attending its lituation, particularly the w.^nt of fweet water. The city of Oran, lying upon this coatt, is about a mile in circumference, and is fortified both by art and nature. It was a place of confiderable trade, and the objeft of many bloody difputes between the Spaniards and the Moors. Conllantina was the ancient Cirta, and one of the fliongell cities of Numidia, being inaccelTible on all fides, except the fouth-wefl:. Befules the above towns and cities, many others, formerly of great renown, lie fcartered up and down this immenfe tract of country. The city of Fez, at prefent the capital of the kingdom fo called, is faid to contain near '.jOO,ooo inhabitants,, belides merchants and foreigners. Its mofques amount to 500 ; one of them mao-^ nificent beyond defcription, and about a mile and a half in circumference. Me- quinez isefteemed the great emporium of all Barbary Sallee was formerly famous lor the piracy of its inhabitant-;. Tangier, fituateti about two miles within the flraits of Gibraltar, was given by the crown of Portugal as part of the dowry of queen C tharine, confort of ChaiKs II. of England. It was intended to be to the Englifh what Gibraltar is now ; ard it muft have been a moft noble acquifuion, had not the miiundenlandings between the king and his parliament occafioned him to blow up its fortification and demolilh its harbour; fo that fVom beino- one of the fineft cities in Africa, it is now little better than a fifhing town. Ceuta, upon the fame flrair, almott oppofite to Gibraltar, is iHil in the hands of the Spaniards, but often, if not always, befieged or blocked up the Moors. Tetuan, which lies within twenty miles of Ceuta, is now but an ordinary town, containing about 800 houfes • bur the inhabitants are faid to be rich> and tolerably civilized in their manners. The provinces of Suz, Tafller, and Gefula, form no part of the ftates of Bar- bary, though the king of Morocco pretends to be their fovereign : nor do .hev con- tain any thing that is particularly curious. Zaara, is a defert country, thinly peopled and nearly deftitute of both water and provifions. Manu- 67l The States of B A R B A R Y. •■ Makufact-jp.es akd commerce.] The lower fubjeds of tlcu- flares know very 'fev/ imaginary wants, and depend partly upon their piracies to be hipplied witii neccf- iary utenfils and manufactures ; fo that their exports confill; chiefly of leather, fine mats, embroidered handkerchief?, fword-knots, and carpets, which are cheaper and foftcr than thofe of Turkey, though not fo good in oiher refpefts. As they leave almoft all their commercial affairs to the Jews and Chr;itians fettled among them, the latter have eifabliflied filk and linen works, whiich fupply the higher ranks of their own fubjcds. They have no fliips thar, properly fpeaking, are employed in commerce ; fo that the French and Englifli carry on tlie'greateft part of their trade. Their exports, befides thofe already mentioned, confrfts in elephants teeth, oftrich feathers, copper, tin, wool, hides, honey, wax, tiates, raifins, olives, almonds, gum- arabic, and fandrar. The inhabit.ints of Morocco are likewife faid to carry on a confiderable trade by caravans to Mecca, Medina, and fome inland parts of Africa, from whence they bring back vail numbers of negroes, who fcrve in their armies, and are flavcs in their houfes and fields. In return for their exports, the Europeans furnini them with timber, artillery of all kinds, gunpowder, and whatever they want, either in their public or private capacities ; the particulars of which are too many to fpecify. The duties paid by the Fnqlifh in rtie ports of Morocco, are but half thofe paid by other Europeans. It is a '>-eneral obfervation, that no nation is fond of trading with thefe ftatcs, not only on account of their capricious defpotifm, but the viUany of their individuals, both natives and Jews, iiiany of whom take all opportunities of cheating, and when detefted are feldom punilhed. It has often been thought furprifing, that the Chrifllan powers fliould fufter their marine to be infulted by thofe barbarians, who take the fhips of all nations with ■whom they are not at peace, or rather, who do not pay them a iubfidy either in money or commodities. We cannot account for this forbearance otherwife than by fup- pofing, firft, that a bicach with them might provoke the Porte, who pretends to be their lord paramount; fccondly, that noChrilVian power would be fond of feeing Algiers, and the rcfl of that coafi, in pofleflion of another ; and, thirdly, that no- thing could be got by a bombardment of an)' of their towns, as the inhabitants would inftantly cany their effetfs to their deferts and mountains, fo that the benefit, refultino- from the conquefl:, mult be tedious and precarious. Constitution and government.] In Morocco, government cannot be faid to exill. The emperors have for fome ages been parties, judges, and even execu- tioners with their own hands, in all criminal matters ; nor is their brutality more incredible than the fubmilTion with which their fubjc-fts bear it. In the abfcncc of the emperor, every military ofiicer has the power of life and death in his hand, and itisfeldorn that they mind the form of a judicial proceeding. Some vefliges, how- ever of the califate government ftill continue j for in pbces where no military of- ficer refides, the mnl'ti or high-prieft is the fountain of all juftice, and under him the cadis, or civil officers, afl as our julVices of the peace. Though tlie cmp(ror of Moiocco is not iaimediately fubjeft to t'le Porte, yet he acknowledges the Grand Si; differences amon-o- the neighbouring Arab princes. Befidcs theie, the dey can bring 2000 Mooriili horfe into the field ; but as tf.ey are enemies to the Turks, they are little truited. Thofe troops are under excellent dilcipliijc, and the deys of all the other Barbary fl-ates keep up a torce in proportion to their ab.lities ; {o that a few years ago they refufed to fend any tribute to the Turkifh emperor, v/no fecms to be facisfied with the iha- dow of obedience whicli they pay him. It is very reaiark..ble, that though the Carthaginians, who inhabited this very coun;ry of Barbary, had greater fleets and a more extenfive comnierce than any other nation, or than all the people upon the face of the earth, when that fiate flouriflicd, the prefent inhabitants have fcarcely any merchant Ihips belongino- to them, or indeed any other tlian what Salice, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoi^fit^ouE for ggo O? THE SLAVE COAST, Sec. for piracy ; which, though increafed fince the laft attack of the Spaniards, are now but few and fmall, and fome years ago did not exceed fix fl-iips from thirty-fix to fifty .ouns. The admiral's fliip belongs to the government ; the otlier captains are ap- pointed by private owners, but fubjeft to military liw. With fuch a contemptible fleet, thefe infidels not only harafs the nations of Europe, but oblige them to pay a kind oftrlbute b)' way of prefents. History.] There perhaps is no problem in hillory fo unaccountable as the de- cline and fall of thefplcndor, power, and glory of the ftatcs of Barbary ; which, when Rome was miftrefs of the world, formed the fairell jewel in the imperial diadem, * It was not till the fevench century that, after thefe ftates had been by turn in pof- fefiion of the Vandals and the Greek emperors, the califs or Saracens of Bagdad conquered them, and from thence became mafters of almofr all Sj)ain, from whence their poilerity was totally driven about the year J 492, when the exiles fettled amorif^ their friends and countryman on t!ie Barbary coalt. This naturally bep-ot a perpetual war between them and the Spaniards, who preffed them fo hard, fhat they called to their affirtance the two famous brothers BarbaroflTa, who were admirals of the Turkifh fleet, and who, after breaking the Spanifli yoke, impofed upon the inhabitants of all thofe flates (excepting Morocco) their own. Some attempts were made by the emperor Charles V. to reduce Algiers and Tunis, but they were unfuccefsful'; and, as already obferved, the inhabitants have in fadt Ihaken off the Turkifh yoke likewife. The emperors or kings of Morocco are the fucccflbrs of thofe fovereigns of that country who were all called xerifts, and whofe powers refembled that of the califate of the Saracens. They have been in general a fet of blooly tyrants ^ though they have had among them fome able princes, particularjy Mulej Moluc, who defeated and killed Don Stbaftian, king of TortugaL Of A F R 1 C Aj from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good-Hope. St'L' the 'Table and Map.. THIS immenfe territory is, comparatively (peaking, very little known, no modern traveller having penetrated into the interior parts, fo that we are iornorant not only of the bounds, but even of the names of feveral inland coun- tries. In many material circumftances, the inhabitants of this extenfive continent agree with each other. If we except the people of Ab) (Tmia, who are tawny, and profcfs a mixture of Chriftianlty, Judaifm, and Paganifm, they are all of a black complexion : in their religion, except on the fea-coafts, -which have been vifited and fettled by ftrangers, they are pagans : and the •form of government is every where monarchical, tov priitces, however, polTefs a very extenfive jurifdiftion ; for as the natives of this part of Africa are grofsly ignorant in all the arts of utility or re- linement, they are little acquainted with. one anotlier ; and generally united in fmall communities, each governed by its ow.n prince. In A byifinia indeed, as well as in .Congo, Loango, and Angola, we are told of powerful monarch.s ; but on exami- nation, it is found that the authority, of thefe princes Aaiids on a precarious footing, each ttibt or feparatc body of their fub)C(fts being under the influence of a jietty chieftain of their own, ftyled Negus, to whole -commands, however contrary to thofe of the NcgaJJja Ne^qfibl, or king of kings, they are always ready to fubmit. I'his indeed inull alv/ays be th.e.cafe auiong rude nations, wlicrc the art 0/ govern- ing, Of the S L a V E C O a S T, &c. 68 1 ing, like all others, is in a very fimple and imperfeifl Rate. In the fuccenion to the throne, force generally prevails over right ; and an uncle, a brother, or other colla- teral relation, is on this account commonly preferred to the defcendants, whether male or female. The fertility of a country fo prodigioufly extenfive, might be fuppofcd more va- rious than we find it is ; in fadi, there is no medium in this part of Africa with regard to the advantages of foil ; it is either perfecftly barren, or extremely fertile : this arifes from ilie intenfe heat of the fun, which, where it meets with fufficient: moifture, produces the utmoft liixuriancy ; and in thofe countries where there are few rivers, reduces the furface of the earth to a barren fand. Of this fort are the countries of Anian and Zaara, which, for want of water, anil confequently of all other necelfaries, are reduced to pcrfeft deferts, as the name of the latter denotes. In thofe countries, on the other hand, where there is plenty of water, and parti- cularly where the rivers overflow the land, part of the year, as in Abydinia, the produftions of nature, both of the animal and vegetable kinds, are found in the higheft perfedion and greateft abundance. The countries of Mandingo, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola, Batua, Truticui, Mononiotapa, Cafati, and Mehene- mugi, are extremely rich in gold and fiiver. The bafer metals likewife are found in thefe and many other parts of Africa. But the perfons of the natives make the mod confiderable article in the produce and trairic of this miferable quarter of the globe. On the Guinea or vveftern coaft, the Englifh trade to James Fort, and other fetrle- ments near and up the river Gambia, where they exchange their woollen and linen nianufatfturcs, their hard ware and f[)irituous liquors, for the perfons of the natives. By the treacy of peace in 1783, the river of Senegal with its dependencies v/ere given up to France. Among the Negroes, a man's wealth confifts in the number of his family, whom he fells like fo many cattle, and often at an inferior price. Gold and ivory, next to the (lave trade, form the principal branches of African commerce. Thefe are carried on from the fame coaft, where the Dutch and French, as well as Englifn, have their fcltlements for thispurpofe. According to Mr. Ramfay, the annual Britilh exports to Africa are eftimated at 500,0001. part of which is annually exchanged with American and other foreign Traders on the coafl. About 50, cool, is returned in ivory, gold duft, gum, &c. The greatert part of the profits of the flave trade is railed on the fugar plantations. If by eftabliflring frftories, and encouraging civilization on the coalt of Africa, and returning fome of our Well Indian (laves to their original country, we tried to make up for our paft treachery to the natives, and inftrutted them in the culture of to- bacco, indigo, cotton, rice, &c. to barter with us for our manuficftures, great would be our profits. For Africa, in its higheft probable Hate of culture, cou'd not polTibly interfere with the llaplc of Britain, to as to hinder an extenfive and mutually advantageous trade from being carried on between the countries. The great difference of climate and foil muft always dlftinguifli the fupplies and wants of each. The Portugucfe are in pofiefiion of the call: and weft coaft of Africa, from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Equator; which immenfe trncl they becaine mafters of by their fucceffive attempts and happy difcovery and navigation of the Cape of Good Hope. From the coaft of Zanguebar, on the eaftern fule, they trade not only for the articles above mentioned, but likewife for feveral others, as fena, aloes, civet, ambergrife, and frankincenfe. The Dutch have fettlements to- wards the fouthern part of the continent, in the country called CafFraria, or the la^id of the Hottentots, particularly Cape Town, which is well fettled, and forti- 4 S ficd i 682 Of THE S L A V E C O A S T, &c. fied ; where their fliips bound for India ufually put in, and trade with the natives for their cattle, in exchange for which they give them fpirituous liquors. We are informed by a late traveller, that the Hottentots live much in the fame manner as the ancient Gauls, mentioned in Crefar's Commentaries ; refiding in different hords or tribes, on the banks of rivers, and near the forefts ; where they form fo many diftind villages and independent republics. By means of the rivers, the country about them is fertile in the produftion of thofe roots and wild fruits on which the Hottentots in a great meafure fubfiil;; and the forelb yield them the like advantages, though thefe only reiemble our flirubberies, their trees being fcldoiti more than fix or fevcn feet high. The Flottentot villages are all circular ; the cab- bins of which they are compofed being covered with ikins, and fo low, that a man mull either ftoop much, or crawl on his knees, to get into them. They ferve, in- deed, chiefly to contain provifions, and their implements of hufbandry ; the owner himfelf never occupying them unlcfs when it rains: at other times, he pafTcs his leifure hours in fleeping at the door of his hut ; where he lies on his belly, and ex- pofes his back to the fun and the weather; waking now and then to amufe him- felf with fmoking a certain ftrong-fcented herb, which in its effcfls refembles tobacco. The employm.ent of the Hottentots is purely paftoral : their principal and almod only occupation being the care of their herds of fheep and kine. Of thefe each vil- lage hath one common herd ; every inhabitant taking it in his turn to be herdfinan. This charge requires many precautions, very different from thofe which are taken by our herdfmen, beafts of prey being much more numerous and fierce in thefouth- ern parts of Africa than in Europe. Lions, indeed, are not very common ; but there are elephants, the rhinoceros, leopards, tygers, and feveral kinds o* wolves, more deftruftive than ours, together with many other furious animals that abound in the foreftsj and occafionally make excurfions towards the Cape, and deftroy the tame cattle. To prevent thefe misfortunes, it is the bufinefs of the herdfman to go, or fend, every day round his diftrift, in order to difcovcr if any beaft of prey be lurking in that quarter. In which cafe, he aflembles the whole village together, and makes his report ; when a party of the ftoutert among them arm themfelves with javelins and poifoned arrows, and follow the perfon who may have difcovered the beaft, to the cave or covert where he is lodged. Here they arrange themfelves in two lines; the herdfman entering the cave, and endeavouring to provoke the beaft to follow him out, where he is inevitably deftroyed. United amon^ themfelves by the bonds of fraternal concord, the inhabitants of the fame village live in con- ftant peace. But they take cruel vengeance on the neighbouring tribes, on the firft infult that is offered them. Thefubjedl of their mutual complaints is generally the Healing of a fheep or cow, and lometimes only a iufpicion ot it; the confcqucnces,. however, are ufually very terrible, when they determine on revenge ; as they take all poffible means, after having made this determination, to make the aggrelTors fvippofe the injury forgotten ; but no fooner do they find tiieir difihniiUuioii Iiath taken effe(^l:, in the ferurity of the enemy, than they fail fuddeniy upon tliem with poifoned weapons, fparing neither age nor fex, but extcrpating at once the whole community. The care of houfliold affairs among the Hottentots belongs to the fennales. The men, indeed, are the butchers, and prepare the meat for drelTing ; but the care of providing the vegetables concerns only the women. Thus the mother of a family i'ets out in a morning, attendeii by fuch of !)er children as arc able to tollow her, and carrying the rcf\ in her arms or on her back. In this manner fhe fcarches the woods and liver fulcs, for roots, pulfe, or fruit; of which having gotten afufficicnt quan- tity. Of the slave COAST, Sec. 63j titf , flic returns, lights a fire on a large flone before the cabbin, and when ths viftuals arc drelTcd, wakes her hulband, who fits down to his meal with the reft of the family. The women are clothed with iheep-lkins, as well as the men; wearing the wool outwards in fummer, and inwards during the winter. They wear one fkin over their flioulders, the ends of it croffing each other before, and leavlno- their neck bare ; another fkin is fallened round their middle, and reaches down to their knees. Thofe of them who are ambitious to pleafe, adorn themfelves with necklaces of fliells : for even in this country the fex have their charms, which they endeavour to heighten by fuch arts as are peculiar to themfelves, and would meet with little fuccefs elfewhere. To this end they greafe their faces, necks, and all the naked parts of their bodies with mutton fuet, in order to make them fhine. They braid alfo or plait their hair, to give themfelves an additional elegance. An Hottentot lady thus bedizened, hath exhauftcd all the arts of her toilet ; and, how- ever unfavourable Nature may have been to her with regard to fhape and ilature, her pride is wonderfully flattered, while the fplendor of her appearance gives her the higheft degree of fatisfaftion. History.] The hiflory of this continent is little known. We learn from the ancients, who failed a confiderable way round the coafl:s, that the inhabitants were .in the fame rude fituation near 2000 years ago in which they are at prefent. This may eitiier be accounted for by fuppofing, that nature has placed fome infuperable barrier between the natives of this divifion of Africa and the inhabitants of Europe ; or that the former, being fo long accuflomed to a favage manner of life, and de- generating from one age to another, at length became hardly capable of making any progrefs in civility orfcience. It is very certain that all the attempts of the Euro- peans, particularly of the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope, have been hitherto incffeftual for making the leafl: impreffion on thefe favage mortals, or giving thein the leaft inclination or even idea of the European manner of life. The Portuguefc are fovereigns of the greatell part of the coafl:, and have a num- ber of black princes their tributaries. There are fome independent princes who have extenfive dominions, particularly the kings of Dahome and Widah, the moft noted of any for the infimous flave trade. Upwards of 200 years have the European nations traded with Africa in human flefli, and encouraged in the Negro countries, wars, mpine, dcfolation, and murder, that the Wefl; India iflands might be fup- plied with that commodity. The annual exportation of poor creatures from Africa hath exceeded 100,000, many of whom are driven a thoufand miles to the fea coal!:, their villages having been furrounded in the night by an armed force, and the inhabitants dragged into perpetual captivity. A fea officer lately vifitcd all the chiefs of the Negroes in our fettlements, from Santa ApoUonia to Athera, an extent of more than 250 miles, and found the police and puniftirnent of all crimes regulated by the flave trade. Thofe who con"iiuit crimes or trefpaO^es againft their laws, are, at the decifion of twelve elders, fold for flaves for the ufe of their government, and the fupport of their chiefs. Thefr, adultery, and murder, are the higheft crimes, and, whenever tliey are dctedled, fubjcd the whole family to flavery. But any individual condemned to flavery for the crime of his relation, may redeem his own perfon, by furnifliing two flaves in his room. Or ■^'hen a man commits one of the above cardinal crimes, all the male part of his fa- mily are forfeited to flavery ; if a woman, the female partis fold. " This trafiic in crimes makes the chiefs vigilant. Nor do our planters, who purchafe them, ufe any pains to infl:ru(5l them in religion, to make them amends for the opprefllon thus exercifed on them. I am lorry to fay they are unnaturally averfe to every thing that tends to it ; yet the Portuguefe, French, and Spaniards, in their fettle- memsj fucceed in their attempts to inltruft them, as much to the advantage of the 4 S 2 commerce. 684 A F R I C A N I S L A N,D S. commerce, as of religion. It is for the fake of Chriftianity, and the advantages sccompanying it, that Englilh flaves embrace every occafion of deferting to the fetclements of thofe nations." It is high time for the legiflatiire to interfere and put an end to this niofl infamous of all trades, fo difgraceful to the Chriftian name, and fo repugnant to the principles of our conRirution. Let the Negroes already m our iflands be properly treated, made free, and encouragement given to their population > meafures that would be attended with no lefs profit than lionour. AFRICAN ISLANDS. OF the African iflands, fome lie in the Eaflern or Indian Ocean, and fome in the Vv^efiern or Atlantic. We fhall begin with thole in the Indian Ocean; the chief of which are Zocotra, Babelmandel, Madagafcar, the Comora Iflands, Bourbon, and Mauritius. See the Map. ZocoTRA. Th's ifland Is fituatcd in eaft Ion. 5^^, north lat. 12, thirty leagues eaft cff Cape Gardefoi, on the continent of Africa: it is eighty miles long, and fifty-four broad, and has two good harbours, where the buroptan fhips ufed for- merly to put in when they loft their paffage to India. It is a populous, plentiful country, yielding moft of the fruits and plants that are ufually found within the tropics, together with frankincenfe, gum-tragacanth, and aloes. The inhabitants are Mahometans, of Arab extraftion, and arc under the government of a prince cr Sheik who is probably tributary to the Pone. Babelmandel. The ifland of Babelmandel gives name to the flrait at the en- trance of the Red Sea, where it is fituated in eaft Ion. 44-30, north lat. 12, about four miles both from the Arabian and AbyfTinian fhores. The AbyfTinians or £- thiopians, and the Arabians, formerly contended with great fury for the poflcffion of this ifland, as it commands the entrance into the South Sea, and preferves a communication with the ocean. This ftrait was formerly the only paffage through v^hich the commodities of India found their way to Europe j but fincc the difcovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the trade by the Red isea is of litde im- portance. The ifland is of fmall value, being a barren, flindy fpot of earth, not live miles round. CoMoRA. Thcfc iflands are, Joanna, Mayotta, Mohilla, Angezeia, and Co- mora; fituated between 41 and 46 eaft Ion. and between 10 and 14 fouth lat. at an equal diftance from Madagafcar and the continent of Africa. Joanna, the chief, and which claims fovereignty over, and exafts tribute from the others ; is about -50 n.iles lung and 15 broad, and affords plenty of provifions, and fuch fruits as are produced between the tropics. Kaft-India fliips, bound to Bombay, ufually toucli here for refrcfliments. The inhabitants are negroes of the Mahometan perfuaficn, and entertain our feamcn with great humanity. Madagascar. This is the largeft of the African iflands, and is fituatcd be- tween 43 and 51 deg. eafi Ion. and between 10 and 26 tbuth lat. 300 milcb foutli- -t-aft of the continent of Africa ; it being near 1000 miles in lengtli fjoiri norih to fouth J and generally between 200 and 3C0 miles broad. The fea rolls with great rapidity. AFRICAN ISLANDS. 685 rapitlity, and is exceeding rough between this ifland and the continent of the Cape ot Good Hope, forming a channel, or pafifage, through which all Euro- l)ean (liips, in their voyage to and from India generally pafs, unlefs prevented by ilorms. Madagafcar 's a pleafint and fcreile country, abounding in fugar, honey, vines, fiuic-trees, vegctablfs, valuable gums, corn, cuttle, fowls, precious Hones, iron, fome Olvtr, copper, Itccl, and tin. It affords an agreeable variety of hills, vallies, woods, and champaign ; watered with numerous rivers, and well ftored with filh. The air is generally temperate, and faid to be very healthy, thouoh in a hoc climate. The inhabitants are of different complexions and religions j Ibme white, fome negroes, fome Mahometans, fome pagans. The whites, and thofc of a tawny coinplcxion who inhabit the coalls, are dtfcended from the Arabs, as is evident from their language, and their religious rites 5 but here are no mofques, temples, nor any dated wordiip, except that they offer facrifices of beafts on par- tictiiar occafions j as when (ick, when they plant yams, or rice, when they hold their aflTeniblies, circuincife their children, declare war, enter into new-builc houfes, or bury their dead. Many of them obferve the Jewifh fabbath, and »ive fome account of the far red hiftory, the creation and fall of man, as alfo of Noah, Abraham, Moles, and David ; from whence it is conjedured that they are dcfcend- ed of Jews who formerly fettled here ; though none knows how or when. This ifland was difcovcred by the Portuguefe, and the French took pofTeffion of it ia 1642 ; but the people dilliking their government, they were driven out in 1651 ; fince which the natives have had the fole pofleflion of the ifland, under a number of petty princes, who make war upon each other for Haves and plunder. Mauritius, or Maurice, was fo called by the Dutch, who firfl touched here in 1598, in honour of prince Maurice their rtadtholder ; but the French, its prefenc matters, have given it the name of the isle of France. It is ficuated in eafl Ion. 56, fouth lat. 2^-, about 400 miles eaft of Madagafcar. It is of an oval form, about 150 miles m circumference, with a fine harbour, capable of holding fifty- large fhips, fecure againft any wind that blows, and 100 fathoms deep at the entrance. The climate is extreir.ely healthy and pleafant. The mountains, of which there are many, and foine lb high that their tops are covered with fnow, produce the beft ebony in the world, befides various other kinds of valuable wood, two of which greatly refcnble ebony in quality ; one red, the other yellow as wax. The ifland is watered with ieveral pleafant rivers well ftockeJ with fiih ; and thoucrh the foil is none of the rnofl fruitful, yields plenty of tobacco, rice, fruit, and feeds a great number of cattle, deer, goats, and fheep. Bourbon. The Ifie of Bourbon is fituated in eaft Ion. 54, fouth lar. 21, about 300 miles c ill; of Madagafc u , and is about 90 miles round. There are many good roads for fhipping round Bourbon, particularly on the north and fouth fides ; but hardly a fingle h.ubour where fhips can ride fecure againft thofe hurricanes which blow during 'he monfoons. Indeed the coaft is ib furrounded with blind rocks, funk a few leer below the water, that coitling along fliore is at all times dan'^er- OU3. On the fouthern extremity is a volcano, which continually throws out flames, fmoke, and (iilphur, with a hideous roaring noife, terrible in the ni»hc to inarineis. The cluiiate here, though extreinely not, is healthy, Ix-ing refrcihed with cooling g^des, that blow morning and evening fron the fea and land : fome- times, however, terrible hurricanes fhake the whole ifland almoft to its founda- tion ; hat generally -vichout any other bad coufequence than frightenino- the inha- bitants. The illand abounds in brooks and Iprings, and in fruits, grafs, and cattle, I w .cti 686 AFRICAN I5LAN D'S. with excellent tobacco (which the French have planted there), aloes, white pepper, ebony, palm, and other kinds of wood, and fruit-trees. Many of the trees yield odoriferous gums and rafins, particularly benzoin of an excellent for: in great plenty. The rivers are well flocked with fifh, the coa.t with land and fea tortoifes, and every part of the country with horned cattle, as well as hogs and goats. Am- bercrris, coral, and the noil beautiful fliclls, are found upon the fhore. The woods are full of turtle doves, paroquets, pigeons, and a great variety of otlier birds, beautiful to the eye and pleafant to the palace. The French firft fettled here in the year 1672, after they were driven from the ifland of Madagalcar. They have now fome confiderable towns in the ifland, with a governor j and here their Eail- India fl-iips touch and take in refrefhments. _ The are a great many more fmall iflands about Madagafcar, and on t!]e ealtcrn coail of Africa, laid down in maps, but no where defcribed. Leaving therefore the eaftern world and the Indies, we now turn round the Cape of Good Hope, which opens to our view the Atlantic, an immenfe ocean, lying between the two grand divifions of the globe, having Europe, Afia, and Africa, or the Old World, on the ealt ; and America, or the New World, on the weft ; towards which divifion we now fteer our courfe, touching in our way at the following iflands upon the African coall, that have not yet been defcribed, viz. St. Helena, Afcenfion, St. Matthew, St. Thomas's, &c. Goree, Cape Verd, the Canary and Madeira iflands. See the Mcp. St. Helena. The firft ifland on this fide the Cape is St. Helena, fituated in weft Ion. 6-4, fouth lat. 16, being 1200 miles weft of the continent of Africa, and 1800 eaft of South America. The ifland is a rock about 21 miles in circumference, very high, and very fteep, and only accefllble at the landing-place, in a fmall valley at the eaft fide of it, which is defended by batteries of guns planted level with the water ; and as the waves are perpetually daftiing on the ftiore, it is generally dif- ficult landing even here. There is no other anchorage about the i-fland but at Cha- pel Valley Bay ; and as the wind always blows from the fouth-eaft, if a (hip over- fhoots the ifland ever fo little, fhe cannot recover it again. The Englifli planta- tions here afford potatoes and yams, with figs, plantains, bananas, grapes, kidney- beans, and Indian corn j of the laft, however, moft part is deftroyed by the rats, which harbour in the rocks, and cannot be deftroyed -, fo that the flour they ufe is almoft wholly imported from England ; and in times of fcarcity tliey generally cat yams and potatoes inftead of bread. Though the ifland appears on every fide a hard barren rock, yet it is agreeably diverfified with hills and plains, adorned with plantations of fruit-trees and garden-ftuff. They have great plenty of hogs, bul- locks, poultry, ducks, geefe, and turkeys, with which they fupply the failors, tak- ing in cxcliange fhirts, drawers, or any light cloths, pieces of callico, filks, muflins, arrack, fugar, &c. St. Helena is faid to have been firft difcovered by the Portuguefe on the feftival of the emprefs Helena, mother of the emperor Conftantine the Great, whofe name it.ftill bears. It docs not appear that the Portuguefe ever planted a colony here : aiid the Englilh Eaft India Company took poftenionof it in 1600, and held it with- out interruption till the year 1673, -when the Dutch took it by furprife. However, the Knglifli, i:nder the command of captain Mundcn, recovered it again within the fpace of a year, and at the fame time took three Dutch Eaft India fliips that lay in the road. There arc about clod fiimilics in the ifland, moft of them dclccnded from Englifli parents. The F-aft India fliips take in water and frcfli provifions here, in their way ho;ne ; but the ifland is fo fmall, and the wind fo much againft them out- ward bound, that they then very feldom,f-*e it. The AFRICAN ISLANDS. 687 The company's affairs are here managed by a governor, deputy-governor, and ftore-keepcr, who have {landing falaries allowed by the company, befidcs a public table well furnilhed, to which all commanders, matters of fhips, and principal paf- fengers are welcome. Ascension. This ifland is fituated in 7 deg. 40 min. fouth lat. 600 miles north weft of St. Helena : it received its name from its being difcovered by the Portuguefe on Afcenfion-day ; and is a mountainous, barren ifland, about 20 miles round, and uninhabited ; but has a fafe, convenient harbour, where the Eaft India Ihips gene- rally touch to furnifh themfclves with turtles or tortoifes, which are very plentiful here, and vaftly large, fome of them weighing above a hundred pounds. 1 he failors going aOiore in tne night-time, frequently turn two or three hundred of them on their backs before morning ; and are fometimes fo cruel, as to turn many more than they ufe, leaving them to die on the fhore. St. Matthew. This is a fmall ifland lying in 6-1 weft Ion. and 1-30 fouth lar, 300 miles to the north-eaft of Afcenfion, and was alfo difcovered by the Portusuefe, who planted and kept pofTefTion of it for fome time ; but afterwards deferting it, this ifland now remains uninhabited, having little to invite other nations to fettle there, except a fmall lake of frcfti water. The four following iftands, viz. St. Thomas, Princes Island, Annaboa, and Ferna\dopo, are fituated in the gulf of Guinea, between Congo and Benin ; all of them were firft difcovered by the Portuguefe, and belong ftill to them ; they furnifh fliipping with frefti water and provifions as they pafs by. And, to the honour of the Portuguefe government, and dilgrace of our Weft India legiflatures, there are 15,000 Vegro Chriftians in St. Thomas', initruded to read and write, who daily at- tend divine worftiip, clean and well clothed. Cape Verd Islands. Thefe iflinds are lb called from a cape of that name on the African coaft, near the river Gambia, over againft which they lie, at the di- ftance of 300 miles, between 23 an I 26 degrees weft Ion and 14 and iH deg. north lat. They were difcovered in the year 1460, by the Portuguefe, and are about 20 in number j but foiiie of tiiem, b.ing onlv barren, uninhabited rocks, are not worth notice. St. Jago, Bravo, Fogo, Mayo, Bonavifta, Sal, St. Nicholas, St. Vincent, Santa Cruz, and St. Antonio, are the moll confiderable, and are fubjcfl to the Portuguefe. The air, generally fpeaking, is very hot, and in fome of them very unwholefome. They are mhabited by Europeans, or the dcfcendants of Euro- pean'^, and negroes. Sr. J igc), where the Portuguefe viceroy refides, is the moft fruitful, beft inhabited, and largeft of them all, being 150 miles in circumference, yet it is mountainous, and has much barren land in ir. Its produce is fugar, cotton, fome wine, Indian corn, cocoa-nuts, oranQes, and other tiopical fruits ; but the plant of moft confe- queni.e is ma-tlder, whicii grows in abundance amoMg the cliffs. Here is plenty of roocs, garden-tluffi, hogs, and poultry, and fome of the prettieft green monkeys, •with bl.ck faces, that are to met with any where. Baya, or Praya (famoiis for an adl;on between an Englifh and French lc]u.ulron the laft war), fitUrited on the eaft fide, has a gc»d port, and i> feldom without fliips, thofe outward bnuml to Guinea or the Eaft Indie--, from England, Holland, and France, often touching here for water and refn fhn.ent .. In ihe iflanl (if Mayo, or May, immenfe quantities of fait are made by the heat of the fun from tne fea-watc!-, which at fpring-tides, is received into a Ibrt-of pan, i^ msd 6SS AFRICAN ISLANDS. formed by a fand-bank, which runs along the coafi: for tv/o or three mile*. Here ihL linglifli drive a confiderable trade for fait, and have commonly a man of war to guard the veflels that come to load with it, which in fome years amout to a hundred or more. The fait coPcs nothing, except for raking it together, wheeling it out of the pond, and carrying it on aflfes to the boats, which is done at a very cheap rate. Several of onr (hips come hither for a freight of afles, which they carry to Barbadoes and other Britilfi plantations. The inhabitants of this ifland, even the o-overnor and prieds, are all negroes, and fpeak the Portuguefc language. 1 he neorro governor cxpctts a fmall prefent from every commander that loads fait, and is pleafed to be invited aboard their fhips. The fea water is fo clear on this coaft, that an Englilh failor, who dropped h.is watch, perceived it at the bottom, though many fathoms deep, and had it brought up by one of the natives, who are, in ge- neral, expert at diving. The iiland of Fogo is remarkable for being a volcano, continually fending up fulphureous exhalations ; and fometimes the flame breaks forth like^^itna, in a ter- rible manner, throwing out pumice (lones that annoy all the parts adjacent. GoREE is fituated within cannon-fliot of Cape Verd, N. lat. 14-43, W. '""• i7-20 and was fo called by the Dutch, from an ifland and town of the fame name in Hol- land. It is a fmall fpot not exceeding two miles in circumference, but its import- ance arifes from its fituation for trade fo near Cape Verd, and it has been therefore a bone of contention between European nations. It was firfi: polfelTcd by the Dutch, from whom, in 1663, it was taken by the Englifh ; but in 1665 it was re-taken by the Dutch, and in 1677 fubdued by the French, in whofe podelfion it remained till the year 1 759, when the Britifli arms were every where triumphant. It was redored to the French at the treaty of peace in 1763. It was retaken by the Englifh in the lafl war but again reftored at the peace of 1783. Canaries. The Canaries, anciently called the Fortunate Iflands, are feven in number, and fituated between 12 and 19 degrees weft Ion. and between 27 and 29 degrees north lat. about 150 miles fouth-weft of Morocco. Their particular names are, Palma, Hiero, Gomera, Teneriffe, Grand Canaria, Fuertuventura, and Langorote. Thefe iflands enjoy a pure, temperate air, and abound in the moft delicious fruits, efpecially grapes, which produce thofe rich wines that obtain the name of the Canary, whereof the greatert part is exported to England, which in time of peace is computed at ten thoufand hogfheads annually. The Canaries abound with thofe little beautiful birds that bear their name, and are now fo com- mon and fo much admired in Europe ; but their wild notes in their native land far excel thofe in a cage or foreign clime. Grand Canary, which communicates its nam.e 10 tlie whole, is about 150 miles an circumference, and fo extremely fertile, as to produce two harvelts in tiie year. Teneriffe, the largeft of thefe iflands next to that of the Grand Canary, in about 1 20 miles round ; a fertile countr)', abounding in corn, wine, and oil ; though it is pretty much encumbered with mountains, particularly the Peak. Captain Glafs obferves, that in coming in with this ifland, in clear weather, the Peak may be cafily difccrned at 120 miles diflancc, and in failing from it at 150. The Peak is an afcent in the form of a fugar-loaf, about fifteen miles in circumference, and ac- cording to the account of Sprat bifliop of Rochefler, publifhed in the Phiofophical Tranfactions, near three miles perpendicular ; but lately afcertained to be only 13,265 feet. This mountain is a volcano, and fometimes throws out luch quan- tities of fulphur and melted ore, as to convert the richeft land:; into barren deferts, 'J hclb iflands were firft difcovered and planted by the Carthaginians ; but the Ro. manj AFRICAN ISLANDS. 689 mans dcftroying tliat flate, put a (loj) to the navigation on the weft coafl of Africa, antl the Canaries lay concealed from the relLof the world, until they were again dif- covered in the year 1405, by the Spaniards, to whom they ftill belong. It is re- mai-kable, that though the natives rcfembled the Africans in their Itature and com- plexion v/hen the Spaniards firft came among them, their language was different from that fpoken on the continent ; they retained none of their cuftoms, were mailers of no fcicnce, and did not know there was any country in the world be- lides their own. Madeiras. The three iflands called the Madeiras, are fituated, according to the author of Anfon's voyage, in a line climate in 32-27 north lat. and iioni 18-30 to i9-,o weft Ion. about 100 miks north of the Canaries, and as many weft of Sal Ice in Morocco. The largcft, from which the reft derive the genera! name of Madeiras, or rather Matttra, on account of its being formerly almoft covered with wood, is about 75 miles long, 60 broad, and 180 in circumference. It is compofcd of one continued hill, of a confidcrable height, extending from eaft to weft ; the declivity of which, on the fouth fide, is cultivated and interf])erf- ed with vineyards ; and in tiie midft of this flope the merchants have fixed their country-feats, which form a very agreeable profpe6l. There is but one confidcr- able town in the whole ifland, which is named Fonchial, featcd oJi the fouth pare of the ifland, at the bottom of a large bay ; towards the fea, it is defended by a high wall, v/ith a battery of cannon, and is the only place where it is poffible for a boat to land ; and even here the beach is covered with large ftones, and a violent furf continually beats upon it. Though this ifland feems to have been known to the ancients, yet it lay con- cealed for many generations, and was at length dii'covered by tlie Portuguefe in 1519 : but others aflTert that it was firil dii'covered by an Englilhman, in the year 13^4. Be that as it may, the Portuguefe took poflTeflion of it, and are ftill almoft the only people who inhabit it. The Portuguefe, at their firft landing, findino- it little better than a thick foreit, rendered the ground capable of cultivation by {tt' t^ng fire to this wood ; and it is now very fertile, producing in great abundance the richeft wine, fugar, the moft delicate fruits, elpecially oranges, lemons, and pomegranates ; together with corn, honey, and wax : it abounds alfo with boars and other wild beafts, and with all forts of fowls, befides numerous groves of cedar trees, and thofe that yield a juice called dragons blood, maftic, and other gums. The jnl-.abitants of this ifie make the belt fweet-meats in the world, and fncceed won- derfully in preferving citrons and oranges, and in making marmalade and perfumed partes, v/hich exceed thofe of Genoa. The fugar they make is extremely beautiful, and llnells naturally of violets. This indeed is faid to be the firft place in the Weft where that manufafture was let on foot, and from thence it was carried to the BraCls in America. The Portuguefe not finding it fo profitable as at firft, have pulled up the greateft part of their fugar canes, and planted vineyards in their ftead, which produce feveral forts of excellent wine, particularly that which bears the name of the ifiand, malmfy, and tent ; of all which the inhabitants make and fell prodigious quantities. No lefs than 20,000 liogflieads of Madeira, it is faid, are yearly exported, the greateft part to the Weft Indies, efpecially to Barbadoes, the Madeira wine not only enduring a hot climate better than any other, but even being improved, when expofed to the fun in barrels, after the bung is taken out. It is fald no venomous animal can live here. Of the two other iflands, one is called Port Santo, which lies at a fmall diftance from Madeira, is about eioht miles in compafs, and extremely fertile. It has verv good harbours, where Ihips 4 T n)ay <^90 AMERICA. may ride with fafety againft all winds, except the fouth-wefl: ; and is frequented by Indiameii ounvard and homeward bound. The otjier ifland is an inoDnfiderablc barren rock. Azores. Leaving the Madeiras, with which we clofe the account of Africa, we continue our courfe weftward through this imnienle ocean, which brings us to the Azores, or, as they are called the Weftern lilands, that are fituated between 2,K and 32 degrees weft Ion. and between 37 and 40 north latitude, yco miles weft of Portuo-al, and as many eall of Newfoundland, lying almoft mid-way between Europe and America. They are nine in number, and are named Santa Maria, St, Miguel or St. Michael, Tercera, St. George, Graciofa, Fayal, Pico, Flores, and Corvo. They were difcovered in the middle of the fifteenth century by Jofhua Vander Berg, a merchant of Bruges in Flanders, who, in a voyage to Lifbon, was by iirefs of v/eather, driven to thofe iflands, which he found deltitute of inhabitants, and called them the Flemifh Iflands. On his arrival at Lifbon, he boafted of this difcovery, on which the Portuguefe fet fail immediately, and took pofTeffion of them, to whom they ftill belong, and were called in general the Azores, from the great number of hawks and falcons found among them. All thefe iflands enjoy a very clear and ferene Iky, with a falubrious air ; but are ex- pofed to violent earthquakes and inundations, from both which they have frequent- ly fuffered much damage. They are, however, extremely fertile in corn, wine, and a variety of fruits ; alfo in cattle, fowl, and fifh. It is faid that no poifonous or noxious animals breed on the Azores, and that if carried thither they will ex- pire in a few hours. St. Michael, which is the largeft, being near 100 miles in circumference, and containino' 50,000 inhabitants, was twice invaded and plundered by the Englifh in the reio-n°of queen Elizabeth. Tercera is the moll important of thefe iflands, on account of its harbour, which is fpacious, and has good anchorage, but is ex- pofed to the fouth-eaft winds. It is generally vifited by homeward bound fleets, from Brafil, Africa, and the Eaft Indies. Its capital town, Angra, contains a ca- thedral and five churches, and is the refidence of the governor of thefe iflands, as- well as the Bifhop. A M; E. R I G. A.^ Its Discovery and- CaNQjjEST, . WE are now to treat of a country of vaft extent and fertility, and which',,, though little cultivated by the hand of Art, owes in many refpeftsmore tO' that of Nature than any. other diviiion of l!ie globe. The particular circumftances- of this country require that we fhould in fome raeafure vary our plan, and, before- defcribino- its prefent Hate, ajford fucli information with. regard to its difcovery, a.s^ is moft neceffary for fatisfying our Readers. Towards the clofe of the 15th century, Venice and Genoa were the only powers^ in Europe who owed their fupport to commerce. An interference of interefts in- fpired a mutual rivalihip ; but in traffic Venice was much fuperior. She engroflcd • the whole commerce of India, then, and indeed always, the moft valuable in the. world ; but hitherto entirely carried on through tife inland parts of Afia, or by the I way d A M E k 1 C A. 691 way of Egypt and the Red Sea. In tliis ftate of affairs, ColumbuSj a native of Genoa, whofe knowledge of the true figurcof the earth, however attained, was much fuperiorto the general notions of the age in which he lived, formed a pro- jeifl of failing to the Indies by a bold and unknown route, and of openiniy to his country a new fourcc of opulence and power. But this propofal of failing v/eft- ward to the Indies was rejeded by the Genoefe as chimerical, and the principles on which it was founded were condemned as abfurd. Stung with dii^appoihtment and indignation, Columbus retired from his countiy, laid his fcheme before the court of France, where his reception was ftill more mortifying, and v/here, ac- cording to the pratlice of that people, he was laughed at and ridiculed. Henry VII. of England v/as his next rcfort ; but tlie cautious politics of that prince were the mod oppofite imaginable to a great but uncertain defign. In Portuo-al, where the fpirit of adventure and difcovery about this lime began to operate, he had. reafon to expcd: better fuccefs. But the Portugucfc contented themfelves with creeping along the coail of Africa, and difcovering one cape after another : they had no notion of venturing boldly into the open fca, and of riflcing the whole ac once. Such repeated difappointments would have broken the fpirit of any mm but Columbus. The expedition required expence, and he had nothing to defray'ir. His mind, however, Uill remained firm ; he became the niore enamoured of his lefign, the more difficulty he found in accomplifliing it, and he was inf])ired with that noble enrhufiafm which always animates an adventurous and original genius. Spain was now his only refource, and there, after eight years attendance, he at length fucceedcd, and chiefly through the intcrefl of queen Ifabella. Columbus fet fail in the year i49'?-j with a fleet of three Ihips, upon the moft adventurous attempt ever undertaken by man, and in tlie fate of which the inhabitants of two worlds were interefted *. In this voyage he had a thoufand difficulties to con- tend with ; the moft llriking was the variation of the compafs, then firfl: obferved and which feemed to threaten that the laws of Nature were altered on an un- known ocean, and the only guide he had left was ready to forfake him. His failors always difcontented, now broke out into open mutiny, threatening to throw him overboard, and infifl:ed on their return. But the firmnefs and addrefs of the com- mander, and much more the difcovery of land, after a voyage of 33 days, put an end to the commotion. It was on the morning of the 12th of Otftober, that Columbus dcfcried an ifland, whofe flat and verdant fields, well ftored with wood and watered with many rivulets, prefented the afped of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta inftantly began the Te Deum, as a hymn of thankfp-ivincr to God, and were joined by thofe of the other fhips, with tears of joy, and tran- fports of congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven was followed by an a6t of juftice to their commander. They threw themfelves at the feet of Columbus, with feelings of fclf-condemnation mingled with reverence, and impLu-ed him to • Dr. Robevtfon obferves, th.it the nrniament vefll-ls, hardly iupC'Ior in burden or force to larj^e of Columbus HMS not fu't.ible either to the dignity boats. This fquadion, if it nicits that n ime, of the n.ition I y which it was equipped, or to the wasviftualled for twelve months, ami had on board importance of the fervi-c for which it was dcliiiicd. ninety men. moll l_v; failors, tofrethtr with a few ]t conliUcd of th'ce vc/Tels. The largeO, a iliip adventurcis who followed thr foriune of Coluni- of no confuler.ible burden, was commanded by bus, and f)megci tlemen of Ifibclhi's court whom Columbus, as admiral, who gave it the nunc of {lie appointed "to accompany him. Thoujh the S.-nta INIaiia, outof rcfpeft for the RleHed Virgin, expence of the uadert:iking- w.is one of the c'ircum- whom he honoured with fingiilar dcvoiion. Of ftances which chiefly alarmed the court of -pain, the fecond, called the Pinti, Martin Pinz.on was and retarded fo long the nesociation with Colum- c,iptain, and his brother Francis pilot. The third, bus, the fum cmplovcd in tilting out this fquadrou iiamcd the Nigna, was under the command of did not exceed tour'thjufand pounds. Yiacent Yanet I'inion. Thefetwo were li^ht 4^2 pirdon ^^ AMERICA. pardon their ignorance, incredulity, and infolence. After this the boats were all manned and armed, and they rowed towards the illand with their colours dirpla3ed, with war-like nniiic and other martial pomp. As they approached the Goaft, they faw it covered v/ith a multitude of people, whom the novelty of the fpeftacle had drawn too-ether, and whofe attitudes and geihires exprefled wonder and aftouifhment at the liranq;e objefls which prefeiued themfelves to their view. Columbus was the firtl European who fet foot in the new world, which he had difcovered. He landed in a rich drefs, and with a naked fword in his hand. His men followed, and kneel- ino- down, they all kifled the ground which they had lb long defired to fee ; and took folemn poflcflion of the country for the crown of Caltilc and Leon. The natives of the country we're at firll fliy througli-fear, but foon became familiar with the Spaniards, and trafficked with them. It was one of the Bahama iflands on which Columbus had landed ; but he foon difcovered, from tlie poverty of the in- habitants, that thefe could not be the Indies he was in queft of In (leering fouth- ■ward, however, he found the illand called Hifpaniola, abounding in all the necef- faries of life, inhabited by a humane and hofpitable people, and what was of ftill Greater confequence, as it infured his favourable reception at home, promifing, from forne famples he received, confiderable quantities of gold. 1 his iiland therefore he propofed to make the centre of his difcoveries ; and having left upon it a few of his companions as the ground -work ot a colony, returned to Spain to procure neceffary reinforcements. The court was then at Barcelona) Columbus travelled thither from Seville, aniidll the acclamations of the people, attended by fomeof the natives, and conveying the gold, the arms, utenfils, and ornaments of the country he had difcovered. This entry into Barcelona was a fpecies of triumph more glorious than that ot conquerors, more uncommon, and more innocent. In this voyage, he had acquired a general know- ledo-e of all the iflands in that great fea which divides North and South America ; but he had no idea that there was an ocean between him and China. Thus were the Weft Indies difcovered by feeking a paffage to the Eall ; and even after the difcovery, ftill conceived to be a part of the eaftern hemifphere. The prefenr fuccefs of Columbus, his former difappointments, and the glory attending lb un- expefted a difcovery, rendered the court of Spain as eager to forward his defigns now, as it had been dilatory before. A fleet of feventeen fail was immediately prepared 3 all the neceffaries for conqucft or difcovery were embarked, and 1500 men, among whom were leveral of high rank and fortune, preparetl to accompany Columbus, nov/ appointed governor with die moft ample authority. It is im- pofllble to determine, whether the genius of this great man in firft conceivmg the idea of thefe difcoveries, or his fagacity in the execution of the plan he had con- ceived, moft deferve our admiration. Inftead of hurrying from fea to fea, and from one ifland to another, which, agreeably to the vulgar ambition of difcoverers, was naturally to be expcded, Columbus, with fuch a field before him, un- able to turn on either hand without finding new objefts ot his curiofity and his pride, determinctl rather to turn to the advantage of the court of Spain the dil- coveries he had already made, than to acquire tor himfelf the unavailing applaufe of vifiting a number of unknown countries, tiom which he reaped no other benefit but the pleafure of feeing them. With this view he made tor Hifpaniola, wheic he eftablilhed a colony, and erefted forts in the moft advantageous grounds for fecuring the dependence of the natives. Having fpent a confulerable tune in this employment, and laboured tor the eftablilhmcnt of this colony with as much zeal and afliduity as if his views had extended no farther, he next proceeded to afccr- tain it e importance of his other difcoveries, and to examine what advantages were nioLt likely to be derived from tlicm. tie ha i already touched at Cuba, which, from AMERICA. coi from Tome fpecimens, fccmcd a rich country ; but whether it was an ifland or a \rA\x of fonic great contincnr, he was altogether uncertain. To afcertain this point was tlic prefent objeft of his attention. In coaltino- alon? the fouthern fliore of Cuba, Columbus was entangled among a multitude of iflands, of which he rcclconed i6o in one day. Thefe illands, which were well inhabited, and abounded in all the neceffaries of life, gave him an opportunity of reflecting on this fertility of nature, where his countrymen expefted nothing but the barren ocean • he called them Jardin de la Rciiia, or the Qi^ieen's Garden, in gratitude to his royal bencfidrefs, who was always uppermoll: in his memory, in the fame voyao--e Jamaica was difcovered. gut to fj many difliculties was Columbus expofed, on an unknown fea, among rocks, fhelves, and lai,ds, that he returned to Hifpaniola without learning any thing more certain with regard to Cuba, the main obiedl of this enterprize. By the firfl: fuccefs of this great man, the public diffidence v/as turned inta admiration ; but by a continuance of the fame fuccefs, their admiration deo-ene rated into envy. His enemies in Spain fet every fpring in motion ao-ainft him,- • and there is feldom difficulty in finding fpeciovis grounds ofaccufuion ao-ainft fuch as are employed in the execution of extenfive and complicated plans. An officer was difpatclied from Spain, fitted by his character to aft the part of a fpy and informer and whofe prefence plainly demonftrated to Columbus the neceffity of returninp- to Europe, for obviating the objeftions or calumny of his enemies. It was not without great difficulty that he was enabled to fet out on a third ex- pedition, flill more famous than any he had hitherto undertaken. He defitrned to lland to the fouthward from the Canaries until he came under the equincftial line and then to proceed directly wcftward, that he might difcover what openino- that might afi"ord to India, or what new iflands, or what continent might reward his la- bour. In this navigation, after being long buried in a thick fog, and fufferino- numberlefs inconveniences from the exceffive heats and rains between the tropics'^ they were at length fivoured by a fnart gale, and went before \t feventeen days to the weftward. At the end of this time, a feaman faw land, which was an ifland on the coaft of Guiana, now called Trinidad. Having palled this illand, and two otheis which lie in the mouth of the great river Oronoque, the admiral was fur- prifed with an appearance he had never feen before : this was the frightful tumuk of the waves, occafioned by a conflift betwixt the tide of the fea, afid the rapid current of that immenfe river. But failing forward, he plainly difcovered that they were in frefli water; and judging rightly that it was improbable anv ifland fiiould fupply fovaft a river, he began to fufpect he had difcovered the continent; but when he left the river, and found that the land continued on to the weftward for a great way, he was convinced ot it. Satisfied witli this difcovery he yielded ro the uncafinefs and diftrefics of his crew, and bore away for Hifpanida. In the courfe of this difcovery, Columbus landed at feveral places, v;here, in a friendlv man- ner, he traded with the inhabitants, and found gold and peai-1 in tolerable plenty. About this time the fpirit of difcovery fpread itfelf widely, and n-)any adventurers all over Europe wiflied to acquire the reputation of Colunibus, without polfcffino- his abilities. The Portu^uefc difcovcreti Brafil, which makes at prefent tlie moft valuable part of their pofleffions : Cabot, a native of Eriftol, difcovered the nonh- eaft coafts, which form the United States ot America'; and Americus Vefpufins a merchant ot Florence, failed to the fouthern continent; and beincr a nian of ad- drefs, had the honour of giving his name to half the globe. But no one is now im- pofed on by th#name ; it is univerfally known that Columbus was the lirlt difcoverer. The being deprived ot the honour of giving name to the new world, was one of the fmallcit niij'.tifkations to which this great man was expofed. For fuch were the ■694 A M E R I C A. the clamours of his enemiesj and the ingratitude of the court of Spain, that after difcovering the coiitinent, and making fettlements in the iflands of America, he was treated like a criminal, and carried over to Europe in irons. When he arrived in Spain, the court began to be afliamed of their ungenerous treatment of this great* man, and orders were inLlantly ilTued to (ct him at liberty. He vindicated his con- duel, in the prefence of the king and queen, in the molT: fiuisfadtory manner, and o-ave ample. evidence of tlie malevolence of his enemies. Ferdinand and Ifabella expreffed their forrow for what had happened, difavowed their knov/ledge of ir, and joined in prom.ifing liim proteclion and future favour. Columbus, however, detained a deep fenfe of the indignity with which he had been treated. The fetters that he had been loaded with were conn:antly hung up in his chamber, and he gave .orders that when he died they Ihould be buried in his grave. But, notwithftand- .ing the ill treatnmenc which he had received, he undertook another vo}'age in -order to make farther difcoveries. He underwent in the courfe of it great fa- .ti<-'iies i and returning to Spain, ended his life al Valladoiid on the zoth of iVIay, i so6, in the 59th year of his age. He had the glory of making the one half of -tlie world known to the other ; a glory fo much the more precious, as it was un- tainted by cruelty or plunder, v.hich disfigured all the exploits of thofe who came after him, and accompliilied the execution of his plan. The fucceeding governors of Cuba and Hifpaniola endeavoured to purchafe the fame advantages by the blood of the natives, which Columbus had obtained by his good fenfe and humanity. Thefe iflands contained mines of gold. The Indians only knew where they were iituate J and the extreme avarice of the Spaniards, too furious to work by the gentle means of perfuafion, hurried them to acfts of the moft fliocking violence and cruelty againit thole unhappy men, who, they believed, concealed from tlicm part of their creafure. The ilaughter once begun, they fet no bounds to their fury ; :in a few yeai's they depopulated Hifpaniola, whicli contained three millions of in- •habitants ; and Cuba, that had about 6co,ooo. Bartholomew de la Cafas, A witnefs of thofe barbarous depopulations, fays, that the Spaniards went out with their dogs to hunt men. The unhappy fa vages, almofl naked and unarmed, were purfued like deer in the forefts, devoured by dogs, killed by gun-fliot, or furprifed and burnt in their habitations. The Spaniards had hitherto only vifited the continent : from what they faw with •their eyes, or learned by report, they conjedured that this part of the new world would aftbrd a dill more valuable conquell, , Fernando Cortcz was difpatched from Cuba with 600 men, 18 horfes, and a fmall number of field-pieces. \Vith this in- confidcrable force, he propofed to I'ubdue the mofl powerful Hate on the continent ■ of America: this was the empire of Mexico ; rich, extenfive, and inhabited by mil- .lions of Indians, paffionately fond of war, and then headed by Montezuma, whofe fame in arms ftruck terror into the neighbouring nations. Never hiltory, to be true, was more improbable and romantic than that of this war, 1 he empire of Mexico, it is faid, had fubfilled for ages : its inhabitants were not ruiie and barbarous ; every thing announced a polifhed and intelligent people. They knew, like the Egyp- tians of old, that the ye.ir confifted nearly of 365 days. Their fuperiority in mili- tary affairs was the objecl of admiration and terror over all the continent ; and their government, founded on the fure bafis of laws combined with religion, feemed to bid defiance to time itfelf. Mexico, the capital of tiie empire, fituate in the mid- •dle of a fpacious lake, was the noblcft monument of American indullry : it com- jnunicated with the continent by immcnfe caufeways, which were carried through the lake. The city was admired for its buiUlings, all of ilone, jts f(]uares and .market-places, the iliops which glittered with gold and filver, and the iumptuous palaces of M(,ntczuma, fome crcded on columns of jafper, and containing what- icvcr .was_mofl rare, curious, cr ufcful. But all the grandeur of this empire couki not AMERICA'. 695 rot defend ic againfl the Spaninrds. Cortez, in his march, met with feeble oppo- fition from the nations along the coaft of Mexico, who were terrified at tlieir firfb appearance: the warlike animals on which the Sjianilh officers were mounted, the artificial thunder which ifTued from their hands, the wooden cailles which had wafted them over the ocean, Itruck a panic into the natives, from which they did not recover till it was too late. Wherever tlie Spaniards marched, they fpared no age or fex, nothing facred or profane. At laft, the inhabitants of Tlafcala, and fome other dates on the coaft, defpairing of being able to oppofe them, entered into their alliance, and joined armies with thofe terrible, and, as they believed, invincible conquerors. Cortez, thus reinforced, marched onward to Mexico j and in his pro- grefs difcovered a volcano of fulphur and faltpetre, whence he could fuppiy him- felf with powder. Montezuma heard of his progrefs, without daring to oppofe it. This fovcreign is reported by the boafling Spaniards, to have commanded 30 vaf- fals, of whom each could appear at the head of ico, 000 combatants, armed with bows and arrows, and yet he durft not refifl a handful of Spaniards aided by a few- Americans, whole allegiance would be fliaken by the firft reverie of fortune. Such ' was the difference between the inhabitants of the two worlds, and luch the effecft of ' the Spanifli viftories, the fime of which always marched before them.- By lending a rich prefent of gold, which only vAetted the SpanifTi avarice,-.. Montezuma hadened the approach of the enemy. No oppofuion is made to their entry into his capital. A palace is fn apart for Cortez and his companions, who are already treated as the mailers of the new world. He had good reafon, how- ever, to dillruil the affefted politenefs of this emperor, urtder which he fufpedlcd fome plot for his^ deftrudlion was concealed ; but he had no pretence for violence ; ■ Montezuma loaded him with kindnef's, and with gold in greater quantities than he demanded, and his palace was furrounded with artillery, the molt fric^htful of all ' engines to the Americans. At laft a circumftance fell out which afforded Cortez ' a pretext for beginning hodilities. In order to fecure a communication by fea, ■> to receive-, the necellary reinforcements, he had erecled a fort, and ler'"t a fmall o-ar- • rifon behind him at Vera Cruz, which has fince become an emporium of commerce between Europe and America. He underftood that the Americans in the neio-h- - bourhood had attacked this garrifon in his abfence, and that a Spaniard was killed in the aflion ; that Montezuma himfelf was privy to this violence, and liad ilTued orders that the head of the fiain Spaniard fhould be carried through his provinces, to deftroy a belief, which then prevailed among them, that the Europeans were immortal. Upon receiving this intelligence, Corte?. went in perfon to the em- peror, attended by a few of his moft experienced officers. Montezuma pleaded in- ■ nocencc, and Cortez Teemed extremely ready to believe him ; though at the fame " time he alledged that the Spaniards in general would never be perfuaded of it, unlefs he returned along with them to their refidence, which would remove all jea- - loufy between the two nations. The fuccefs of this interview diewed the fuperio- - rity of the Euro[)ean addrefs. A powerful monarch, in the midft of his own pa- - lace, and furrounded by his guards, gave himfcif up a ])rifoner, to be difpofed of according to the v/ill of a few gentlemen who came to demand him. Cortex; had now got into his hands an engine, by which every thing might- be accom- plifhed. The Americans had the higheft refpedt, or rather a fuperflitious venera-- tion for their emperor. Cortez, therefore, by keeping him in his power, allowino- him to enjoy every mark of royalty but his freedom, and at the fiime time, from a thorough knowledge of his characfter, being able to flatter all his taftes and paf- ftons, maintained the eafy fovereignty of Mexico, by governing its prince. Did the Mexicans, grown familiar with the Spaniards, begin to abate of their refpeft ? ; Montezuma v/as the firll to teach them more deference. Was there a tumult ex-- cked - 696 A I^I E R I C A. cited throuf^h tlie cruelty or avarice of the Spaniards ? IVlontezuma afcended tlie battlements of his prifon, and harangued his Mexicans into order and fubmiffion. This farce continued a long while : but on one occafion, when Montezuma was fliamefully difgracing his character by jullifying the enemies of his country, a ftone, from an unknown hand (truck him on the temple, whicli in a few days oc- cafioned his death. The Mexicans, now delivered froin this emperor, who co-ope- rated (o ftrongly with tlie Spaniards, elefted anew prince, the famous Guatimozin, who from the beginning difcovered an implacable animofity againft the Spanifh name. Under his conduct the unhappy IMexicans ruflied againll thofe very men, whom a little before they had offered tov/orfliip. The Spaniards, hov/ever, by the dexterous management of Cortez, were too f.rmly cftablifhed to be expelled from ■Mexico. The immenfe tribute which the grandees of this country Iiad agreed to pay to the crown of Spain, amounted to 6oo,oco marks ot pure gold, befides an a- uiazin"- quantity of precious (tones, a fifth part of which being diftributed among the jbldiers, llimuUited their avarice and thtir courage, and made them willing to peridi, rather than p.nrt with ib precious a booty. The Mexicans, however, made noimall efrbrts for ii, dependence j but all their valour, and defpair itfelf, gave way before what they called the Spanlih thunder. Guatimozin and the cmprefs were taken pri- foners. This was the prince who, when he lay ftretched on burning coals, by or- der of one of the receivers of the king of Spain's exchequer, who inflifted the torture to make him difcover in what part of the lake he had throv/n his riches, faid to his high-prieP-, condemned to the fame puni(hmcnt, and who loudly exjirefTed his fenfe of the pains that he endured, " Do you take me to lie on a bed of roli^s ?" The hi"h-prieiT: remained filent, and died in an att of obedience to his fovereign. Cortez, by getting a fecond emperor into his hand, made a complete conqueff of Mexico ; together with which the Cailille D'Oro, Darien, and other provinces,, fell iiito tlie hands of tlie Spaniards. While Cortez and his ibldiers were employed in reducing Mexico, they got in- tsUioence of another great empire, fituate towards tiie equinoctial line, and the tropic of Capricorn, which was faid to abound in gold and filver, and precious Itones, and to be governed by a prince more magnificent than Montezuma. This was the empire of Peru, which extended in length near thirty degrees, and was the only other country in America which defervcd the name of a civilized king- dom. Whether it happened that the Spanifii government had not received certain intelligence concerning Peru, or that, being engaged in a multiplicity of other concerns, they did not chufe to adventure on new cnterpriles ; certain it is, that this cxtenfive country, more important than Mexico itfelf, was reduced by the endeavours, and at the cxpence of three private pcrlbns. The names of thefe \vere, Francis Pizarro, Almagro, and Lucqucs, a wealthy and artful prieft. The two former were natives of Panama, men of doubtful birth, and of low education. Pizarro, the foul of the enterprife, could neither read nor write. They failed over into Spain, and without difFiculty obtained a grant of what they fhould conquer, Pizarro then let out for the conqucit of Peru, with 250 foot, 60 horfe, and 12 fmall pieces of cannon, ch-awn by flaves from the con- quered countries. If we refled: that the Peruvi;;ns naturally entertained the fame prejudices with the Mexicans, in favour of the Spanifh nation, anil were beliile of a charaiftcr flill more foft ami unwarlike, it need not furprlfe us, after what has been Ciid of theconqueit of Mexico, that, with this inconfiderahle force, Pizarro Ihould make a deep imprefhon on the Peruvian empire. There were jiarticular circum- limces likewifc which confpired to alTill; hini, and which as tiny dilcrover fbmewhat of the iiiftory, religion, and ftate of the human mind ip this iiiuncnfc continent, it tjiay npt be improper to relate. Mango AMERICA, 697 Mango Capac was the founder of the Peruvian empire. He was or,c of tliofe uncommon men who, cahn and dii[):!fiionate themlblves, can obferve the pafTi ons of their fcllovv-creatnres, antl turn thcin to their own profit or glory, lie obferved that the peojile of Peru were naturally fuperllitious, and had a particular venera- tion For the fun. He pretended therefore to be defcended from that luminary, whole worlhip lie was lent to L-llubliili, and whofe authority lie was entitled to bear. By this (lory, romantic as it appears, he eafily deceived a credulous people, and brought a large extent of territory under his jurifdiiftion ; a larger ilili he fubdued by liis arms; but both the toice and the deceit he employed for the niotl laudable purpofes. lie united and civilized the diftrelTed and barbarous people ; lie bent them to laws and arts ; he foftencd them by the inllitution of a benevolent reli- gion ; in lliort, there was no part of America where agriculture and the arts were fo afliduoully cultivated, and where the people were of fuch mild and ingenuous manners. A race of princes fucceeded Mango, dillinguiOied by the title of Yncas, and revered by the people as dcfccndants of their great God, tjie Sun. 1 he twelfth of tlicfe was now on the throne, anil named Atabalipa, His fither, Guaiana Capac, had conquered the province of C^iito, which now makes a part of Spanidi Peru. To ieeure himfelf in the pofleflion, he had married the daughter of the na- tural prince of that country; and of this marriage was fprung Atabalipa. His elder brother, named Huefcar, of a different mother, had claimed the fuccclTion to the whole of his father's dominions, not excepting Quito, which devolved on the younger by a double connexion. A civil war had been kmdled on this ac- count, which, after various turns of fortune, and greatly weakening the kingdom, ended in favour of Atabalipa, who detained Huefcar, as a prifoner, in the tower ofCufco, the capital of the Peruvian emjMre. In this feeble and disjointed ftate was the kingdom of Peru when Pizarro advanced to it. The ominous predic- tions of religion, too, as in moft other cafes, joined their force to human calami- ties. Prophecies were recorded, dreams were recollefted, which foretold the fub- jeftion of the empire by unknown perfons, whofe defcription was fuppofed to cor- refpond to the appearance of the Spaniards. In thefe circumllances, Atabalipa, inliead of oppofing the Spaniards, let himfelf to procure their favour. Pizarro, however, whofe temper partook of the meannefs of his education, had no concep- tion of dealing gently with thofe he called Barbarians ; but who, however, thoucrh Icfs acquainted with the cruel art of dellroying their fellow-creatures, were more civilized than himfelf While he was engaged in conference, therefore, with Ata- balipa, his men, as they hail been previoufly inflru«fted, furioufly attacked the guards of that prince, and having butchered 5000 of them, as chey were prefling forward, without regard to their particular fafety, to defend the faered perfon of their monarch, feized Atabalipa himfelf, whom they carried off to the Spanifh quarters. Pizarro, with the fovereign in his hands, might already he deen^ed the mailer of Peru ; for the inhabitants of this country v.'ere as frrongly attached to their emperor, as the Mexicans themfelves. Atabalipa was not long in their hands before he began to treat of his ranlom. On this occafion the ancient ornaments, amafled by a long line of magnificent kings, the hallowed trealures of the moft magnificent temples, were brought out to lave him, who was the fupport of the kingdom and of the religion. While Pizarro was engaged in this negotiation, by ■which he propofcd, without releafing the emperor, to get into his pofleflion an immenfe quantity of his beloved gold, the arrival of Almagro caufed ibme embar- raffment in his affairs. The friendfliip, or rather the external fliew of friendfliip, between thefe men, wa"^ folely founded on the principle of avarice, and a bold en- ter[irifing fpirit, to which nothing appeared too dangerous that might gratify their ruling pafTion. When their incerells; therefore, happened to interfere, it was not to 4 U ' be 698 AMERICA. be thought that any meafures could be kept between them. Pizarro expedted to enjoy the nioft confiderable ihare of the treafure arifing from the emperor's ran- I'oln, becaufe he had the chief merit in acquiring it. Ahnagro infilled on being upon an equal footing; and at length, left the common caufe might fuffer by any rupture between them, this difpofuion was agreed to. The ranfoni was paid with- out delay, a fum exceeding their conception, but not fufficient to gratify their ava- rice. It amounted to 1,500,000!. llerling, and, confidcring the value of money at that time, was prodigious : on the dividend, after deducing a fifth for the king of Spain, and the fliares of the chief commanders and officers, each private foldier had above 20C0I. Englilh money. With fuch fortunes, it was not to be expefl;- ed that a mercenary army would patiently fubmit to the rigours of military dif- cipline. They infilled on being difbanded, tJiat they might enjoy the fruits of their labour in quiet. Pizarro complied with this demand ; fcnfible that avarice would ftill detain many in his family, and that thofe who returned with fuch mao-nificent fortunes, would induce new adventurers to purfue the lame road to wealth. Thefe wife reflexions were abundantly verified ; it was impoffible to fend out better recruiting-officers than thofe who had themfelves fo much profited bv the field ; new foldiers conftantly arrived, and the American armies never want- ed reinforcements. This immenfe ranfom was only a farther reafon for detaining Atabalipa in con- finement, until they difcovered whether he had another treafure to gratify their avarice. But whether they believed he had no more to give, and were unwilling to employ their troops in guarding a prince, from whom they expefled no farther advantao-e, or that Pizarro had conceived an averfion againft the Peruvian empe- ror on account of Ibme inflances of craft and duplicity, which he obferved in his charafter, and which he conceived might prove dangerous to his affairs, it is certain, that by his command Atabalipa was put to death. To juftify this cruel proceeding, a^fham charge was exhibited againft the unhappy prince, in which he was accufed of idolatry, of having many concubines, and other circumftances equally impertinent. The only juft ground of accufation againft him was, that his brother Huefcar had been put to death by his command ; and even this was con- fiderably palliated, becaufe Huefcar had been plotting his deftruftion, that he mi"-ht eftablifh himfelfon the throne. Upon the death of the Ynca, a number of candidates appeared for the throne. The principal nobility let up the full bro- ther of Huefcar ; Pizarro fet up a fon of Atabalipa; and two generals of the Pe- ruvians endeavoured to eftablifli themfelves by the affiftance of the army. Thefe diftraftions, which in another empire would have been extremely hurtful, and even here at another time, were at prefent rather advantageous to the Peruvian affairs. The candidates fought againft each other ; their battles accuftomed thefe harm- lefs people to blood ; and luch is the preference of a fpirit of any kind raifed in a nation to a total lethargy, that in the courfe of thofe quarrels among tiiemfelves, the inhabitants of Peru affumcd fome courage againft the Spaniards, whom they regarded as the ultimate caufe of all their calamities. The lolfes which the Spa- niards met vvith in thefe quarrels, though inconfiderable in themfelves, were ren- dered dangerous, by leftening the opinion of their invincibility, which they were careful to preferve among the inhabitants of the new world. This confideration en"ao-ed Pizarro to conclude a truce; and this interval he employed in laying the founiiations of the famous city Lima, and in fettling the Spaniards in the country. But as foon as a favourable opportunity offered, he renewed the war againft the Indians, and after many difficulties made himfelf mafter of Cufco, the capital of the empire. While he was engaged in thcfc conqucfts, new grants and fup- plies arrived from Spain. Pizarro obtained 200 leagugs along the fea-coaft, to the AMERICA. ' 69 the foutliward of what had been before granted, and Ahnagro 200 leagues to the fouthward of Pizarro's government. This divifion occafioncd a waim difpute be- tween them, each reckoning Cufco within his own diftrift. But the dexterity of Pizarro brought about a reconciliation. He perfuaded his rival, that though the country which really belonged to him, lay to the fouthward of Cufco, it was equally rich and fertile, and might be as eafily conquered as Peru. He offered him his affiftance in the expedition, the fucccfs of which he did not even call in queftion. Almagro, that he might have the honour of fubduing a kingdom for himfelf, liftcned to his advice; and joining as many of Pizarro's troops to his own as he judged neccflary, penetrated, with great danger and difficulty, into Chili ; lofing many of his men as he pafTcd over mountains of an immenfe height, and always covered with fnow. He reduced, however, a very confiderable part of this country. But the Peruvians were now become too much acquainted with war not to take advantage of the divifion of the Spanifh troops. They made an efibrt for regaining their capital, in which, Pizarro being indifpofcd, and Almagro re- moved at a great diftance, they were well nigh fuccefsful. The latter, however, no fooner got notice of the fiege of Cufco, than, relinquifliing all views of dillant conquefls, he returned, to fecure the grand objeft of his former labours. He raifed the fiege with infinite flaughter of the alTailants ; but having obtained pofTef- fion of this city, he was unwilling to give it up to Pizarro, who now approached with an army, and knew of no other enemy but the Peruvians. This dilpute oc- cafioncd a long and bloody ftruggle between them, in which the turns of fortune were various, and the refentment fierce on both fides, becaufe the fate of the van- quifhed was certain death. This was the lot of Almagro, who, in an advanced age, fell a viftim to the fecurity of a rival, in whofe dangers and triumphs he had long {liared, and with whom, from the beginning of the enterprize, he had been intimately conneded. During the courfe of this civil war, m.any Peruvians ferved in the Spanifh armies, and learned, from the praftice of Chriftians, to butcher one another. That blinded nation, however, at lengtli opened their eyes, and took a very remarkable refolution. They favv the ferocity of the Europeans, their unex- tinguifhable refentment arid avarice, and they conjeftured that thefe pafTions would never permit their contefls to fubfide. Let us retire, faid they, from among them, let us fly to our mountains ; they will fpeedily deflroy each other, and then we may return in peace to our former habitations. This refolution was inftantly put in praftice; the Peruvians difperfed, and left the Spaniards in their capital. Had the force on each fide been exaftly equal, this fmgular policy of the natives of Peru might have been attended with fuccefs. But the victory of Pizarro put an end to Almagro 's life, and to the hopes of the Peruvians, who have never fince ventured to make head againft the Spaniards. Pizarro, now fole matler of the field, and of the moft extenfive empire in the world, was ftill urged on, by his ambition, to undertake new entcrprizes. The ibutheni countries of America, into which he had fome time before difpatchcd Almagro, offered the richeft conqueft. Towards this quarter, the mountains of Potofi, com- pofed almoft of entire filvcr, had been difcovered, tlie (hell of wliich onlv remains at prefent. He therefore ibllowed the track of Almagro into Chili, and reduced another part of that country. Orellana, one of his commanders, pafTed the Andes, and failed down to the fnouth of the river of Amazons : an imnienfe navigation, which difcovered a rich and delightful count! v; but as it is mofily fiat, and there- fore not abounding in minerals, the Spaniards then, and ever fincc, negleifted it. Pizarro, meeting with repeated fuccefs, and having no fuperior to control, nor rival to keep him within bounds, now gave loofe reins to the natural ferocity of his 4 U 2 temper. 700 AMERICA. temperj and behaved \s/ith the bafeft tyranny and cruelty againft all who had not concurred in his defigns. This con^udt raifed a confpiracy againft him, to which he fell a lacrlfice in his own palace, and in the city oi" L.ima, which he himfelf had founded. The partifans of old Almagro declared his fon, of the fame name, their viceroy. But the greater part of the nation, though extremely well fatisfied with the fate of Pizarro, did not concur with this declaration. They waited the orders of the emperor Charles V. then king of Spain, who fent over Vaca di Caftro to be their oovernor. This man, by his integrity and wifdom, was admirably well fitted to heal the wounds of the colony, and to place every thing on the molT: ad- vantageous footing, bo:h for it and for the mother-country. By his prudent, ma- nao-ement the mines of La Plata and Potofi, which were formerly a matter of private plunder, became an objed of public utility to the court of Spain. The parties were filenced or cruflied; young Almagro, who would hearken to no terms of accommodation, was put to death ; and a tranquillity, fince the arrival of the Spaniards unknown, was rcftored to Peru. It feems, however, that Di Caftro had not been fufficiently ilcilled in gaining the favour of the Spanifli minillry, by proper bribes or promifes, which in that age a miniftry would expeft from the governor of fo rich a countrv. By their advice, a council was fent over to control Di Caftro, and the colony was again unfettled. The parties, but juft extinguilhed, began to blaze anew; and Gonzalo, the brother of the famous Pizarro, fet himfelf at the head of his brother's partifans, with whom many new malecontents had united. It was now no longer a difpute between governors about the bounds of their jurif- di'ction. Gonzalo Pizarro only paid a nominal fubmiflion to the king. He ftrenwthened daily ; and even went fo far as to behead a governor who was fent over°to curb him. Regained the confidence of the admiral of the Spani{h fleet in the South Seas, by whofe means he propofed to hinder the landing of any troops from Spain -, and he had a view of uniting the inhabitants of Mexico in his revolt. . . Such was tlie Ctu.ation of aftairs,. when tlie court of Spain, fcnfible of their mif- take in not fending into America men whofe charafter and virtue only, and not importunity and cabal, pleaded in their behalf, difpatched v/ith unlimited powers Peter de laGafga, a man differing only from Caftro by being of a mere mild and infinuatino- behaviour, but with the fame love of juftice, the_ fame greatnefs of foul and°the fmie dlfinterefted fpirit. All thofe who had not joined in Pizarro's revo'lt flocked to his ftandard ; many of his friends, charmed with the beha- viour of Gaf^^a, forfook their old connexions; the admiral was gained over by in- finuation, to°return to his duty; and Pizarro himfelf was offered a full indemnity, provided he ftiould return to the allegiance of the Spanifli crown. But fo intoxi- catin"- are the ideas of royalty, that Pizarro was inclined to run every hazard ra- ther tlian fubmit to an officer of Spain. With thofe of his partifins, therefore, wlio ftill continued to. adlicreto his intercft, he determined to venture a battle, in which . he was conciuered and taken prilbner. His execution followed foon after i and thus the brother of him, who conquered Peru for the crown of Spain, fell a facrificc to the fceurity of the Spanilli dominion over that country. The conquell of the great em.pires of Mexico and Peru, is the only part of the- American hiftory which deferves to he treated under the prcfent head. What re- lates to the reduftion of the other parts of the continent, or of tlie illands, if it contains either inftrudlion or entertainment, fhall be treated under tliefe {)articu]ar. countries. We nov/ proceed to examine the manners, government, religion anxl whatever compofes the charafter of the natives of America; and as thcfe are ex- titttu-ly timilar all over this part of the globe, wc fliall fpeak of ihem in general, '5 AMERICA. 7C5I 'in order to fave continual repetitions j poticing, at the fame time, when we enter upon tlie ddcription of the particuLir countries, v/hatcver is peculiar or remarlcable in the inhabitants. Of the Original Inhabitants of AMERICA. TH E difcovery of America has not only opened a new fource of wealth to the bufy and conimerclal part of Europe, but an cxtenfivc field of fpeculation to- the philofopher, who would trace the charafter of man under various forms of focicty, and obferve the movements of the human heart, oi' the operations cf the human underllanding, when untutored by faience, and untainted with cor- ruption. So ftriking. feemed the difparity between the inhabitants of Europe and the natives of America, that fome Ipeculative men have ventured to affirm, that it is impoffiblc they fhould be of the fame fpecies, or derived from one common fource. This conclufion, however, is precipitate and erroneous. The characters of mankind may be infinitely varied according to the different degrees of improve- n:ent at v/hich they are arrived, the manner in which they acquire the necellaries of life, the force of cuftom and habit, and a multiplicity of other circumitances too particular to be mentioned, and too various to be reduced under any o-eneral head. Cut the great outlines of humanity are to be difcovered amono- them all - notwithltanding the various Ihades which- charafterife nations,, and diftinguifh them from each other. When the thirft of gold carried the inhabitants of Europe beyond the Atlantic ■ they found the inhabitants of the New World immerfed in- what they reckoned barbarity,, but which, however, was a (late ofhonell independence and noble fim- plicity. Except the inhabitants of the great empires of Peru ami Mexico, who comparatively fpeaking, were refined nations, the natives of America were unac-- quainted with almoft every European art : even agriculture itfelf, the mofl ufeful of them all, was hardly known, or cultivated very fparingly. The only kind of labour on which they depended for acquiring the nece'lfaries of life, was that of huntino- the" wild animals, which their mountains and forefts fupplied in great abundance. This exercife, which among them is a mart fcrious occupation, gives a flrcno-th and agility to their limbs, unknown among other nations. The fame caufc perhaps- r4;nders their bodies in general, where the rays of the fun are not too violent, un- commonly llraight and well proportioned. Their mufcles are firm and Ilrono- v, their bodies and heads fiatiilh, which is the effeft of art j their- features are reo-ulai"-,. but their countenances fierce, their hair long, black, lank, and as firon^ as that ofahorfc. The colour of their fkin is a reddilh brown, admired amono- them . and heightened by the conltant ufc of bears fat and paint.- The character of the Indians is altogether founded upon their circumftances and way of life. A people' who are conllantly employed in procuring the means of a precarious fubfifience - who live by hunting the wild animals, and who are generally engao-ed'in war with- their neighbours, cannot be fuppofed to enjoy much gaiety of temper, or a hio-h flow of fpirits. I'he Indians, therefore, are in general grave even to iadnefs ; they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to fome nations of Europe, and they defpife it.- Their behaviour to thole about them is regular, modefl:, and refpett-- fuV. ignorant of the arts ofamufement, of which that of faying trifles ao-reeably is- one of the moit confiderablc, they never fpcakbut whenchey have fomcclfing im- Rortaut' ^02 AMERICA. portant to obferve ; and all their aftions, words, and even looks, are attended with Ibme meaning. This is extrenaely natural to men who are almoft continually cncraged in purfuits, which to them are of the higheft importance. Their fubfift- ence depends entirely on what they procure with their hands ; and their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them, may be loft by the fmalleft inattention to the defigns of their enemies. As they have no particular objeft to attach them to one place rather than to another, they fly wherever they expeft to find the neceflaries of life in oreateft abundance. Cities, which are the effcfts of agriculture and arts, they have none. The difTerent tribes or nations are for the fame reafon extremely fmall, when compared with civilifed focieties, in which induftry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united a vafh number of individuals, whom a complicated luxury renders ufeful to each other. Thefe fmall tribes live at an immenfe dift- ance ; they are feparated by a defert frontier, and hid in the bofom of impenetra- ble and almoft boundlefs forefts. There is eftabliilied in each fociety a certain fpecies of government, which over the whole continent of America prevails with exceeding little variation ; becaufe over the whole of this continent the manners and way of life are nearly fimilar and tiniform. Without arts, riches, or luxury, the great inftruments of fubjeftion in nolifhed focieties, an American has no method by which he can render himfelf con- fiderable among his companions, but by a fuperiority in perfonal qualities of body or mind. But as Nature has not been very lavifh in her perfonal diftinftions, where all enjoy the fame education, all are pretty much equal, and will defire to remain fo. Liberty, therefore, is the prevailing pafTion of the Americans j and their o-overnment, under the influence of this fentiment, is better fecured than by the wifeft political regulations. Though free in the fulleft fenfe of the word, they do not defpife all fort of authority ; they are attentive to the voice of wifdom, which ex- perience has conferred on the aged, and they inlift under the banners of the chief, in whofe valour and military addrefs they have learned to repofe their confidence. In every fociety, therefore, there is to be confidered the power of the chief and of the el- ders ; and according as the government inclines more to the one or to the other, it may be reo-arded as monarchical, or as a fpecies of ariftocracy. Among thofe tribes, which are moft engaged in war, the power of the chief is naturally predominant ; becaufe the idea of having a military leader was the firft fource of his fuperiority, and the continual exigencies of the ftate requiring fuch a leader, will continue to fupport, and even to enhance it. His power, however, is rather pcrfuafivc than coercive; he is reverenced as a father rather than feared as a monarch. He has no cruards, no prifons, no officers of juftice, and one aft of ill-judged violence would drive him from the throne. The elders, in the other form of governnT;nr, which may be confidered as an ariftocracy, have no mote power. In fome tribes, indeed there is a kind of hereditary nobility, whofe influence being conftantly auo-mented by time, is more con fiderable. But this fource of power, whicji de- pends chiefly on the imagination, by which we annex to the merit of our contem- poraries that of their forefathers, is too refined to be very common among the na- tives of America. In moft countries, therefore, age alone is fufficient for acquir- in.g refpcdt, influence, and authority. It is age which teaches experience, and ex- pcrincc is the only fource of knowledge among a barbarous people. Among the Indians, bufincfs is condudcd with fuch fimplicity as recalls to thofe acquainted with antiquity, a piSure of the moft early ages. The heads of families meet together in a houl'e or cabin nppoinred for the purpolc. Here the bufincfs is dilculied ; and hero thofe of the nation, diftinguifticd for their clo(iuc-nce or wifdom, have an op[iortuni- ty of difpiaying their talents. Their orators, like thofe of Homer, exprefs them- ielves in a bold, figurative ftyle, ftronger and more exprefTive than refined, or rather Ibftencd AMERICA. 703 foftcned nations can well bear, and with geftures equally violent, but often ex- tremely natural and affedling. When thcbufinefs is over, and they happen to be well provided with food, they appoint a feaft upon the occafion, of which almoft the whole nation partakes. The feaft is accompanied with a fong, in which the real or fabulous exploits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have dances too though, like thofc of the Greeks and Romans, chiefly of the military kind ; and their mufic and dancing accompany every feaft. It often happens, that thofe different tribes or nations, fcattercd as thcv are at great intervals, meet in their excurfions after prey. If there fubfifts no animofity between them, which feldom is the cafe, they behave in the moft friendly and cour- teous manner; but if they happen to be in a ftate of war, or if there has been no previous intercourfe between them, all who are not friends are deemed enemies and they fight with the moft favage fury. War, if we except hunting, is the only employment of the men ; as to every other concern, and even the little agriculture they enjoy, it is left to the women. Their moft common motive for entering into war, when it does not arife from an accidental rencounter or interference, is either to revenge themfelves for the death of fome loft friends, or to acquire prifoners, who may aftift them in their hunt- ing, and whom they adopt into their fociety. Thefe wars are either undertaken by fome private adventurers, or at the inftance of the whole communtiy. In the latter cafe, all the young men, who are difpofed to go out to battle (for no one is compelled contrary to his inclination), give a bit of wood to the chief, as a token of their defign to accompany him ; for every thing among thefe people is tranfadted with a great deal of ceremony and many forms. The chief, who is to condudt them, falls feveral days, during which he converfes with no one, and is particu- larly careful toobfcrve his dreams, which the prefumption natural to ftivages gene- rally renders as favourable as he could dcfire. A variety of other fuperftitions and ceremonies are obferved. One of the moft hideous is fetting the war-kettle on the fire, as an emblem that they are going out to devour their enemies ; which amon<>- fome nations muft formerly have been the cafe, fmce they ftill continue to expreii it in clear terms, and ufe an emblem fignificant of the ancient ufage. Then they difpatch a porcelane, or large fticU to their allies, inviting them to come along, and drink the blood of their enemies. For with the Americans, as with the Greeks of old, " A generous friendfhip no cold medium knows, " But with one love, with one refcntment glows." They think that thofe in their alliance muft not only adopt their enmities, but have their refcntment wound up to the fame pitch with themfelves. And, indeed, no people carry their friendfhips, or their refcntment, fo far as they do 5 and this is what fhould be expe&d from their peculiar circumftances ; for the Americans who live in fmall focieties, who fee few objects and few perfons, become wonder- fully attached to thefe objefts and perfons, and cannot be deprived of them with- out feeling themfelves miierable. Their ideas are too confined to enable them to entertain juft fentiments of humanitv, or univerfal benevolence. But this very circumftance, while it makes them cruel and favage to an incredible degree, to- wards thofe with whom they are at war, adds a new force to their particular friendftiips, and to the common tie which unites the members of the fame tribe or of thofe diflxrent tribes which are in a ftate of alliance. Without attending to this reflection, fomefatSs \ye are going to relate, would excite our wonder without in- forming 704 A Tvl E R 1 C A. fomnlng our reafon, and we would be bewildered in a number of particulars, fceming- ly oppofite to one another, without being lenfible of the general caufe Irom which thev proceed. Having finiAcd all the ceremonies previous to the war, they illue forth with their faces blaci-cened with charcoal, intermixed with Itreaks of Vermillion, which {>-ive them a molt horrid appearance. Then they exchange their cloaths with their friends, and difpofe of all their finery to the women, who accompany them to a con- fulerable diftance to receive thoft; lail tokens of eternal frit-ndfhip. The great (pialities in an Indian war are vigilance and attention, to give and to 3\-oid a firrprilc ; and indeed in thefe they are fuperior to all nations in the world. Accuftomed to continual wandering in the forefts, having their perceptions fiiarpened by keen ncceflitv, and living in every rcfpcft according to nature, their external fenfes have a degree of acutcnefs almoft incredible. They can trace out their enemies, at an immenfe diftance, by the fmoke of their fires, which thev fmcll, and bv the tracls of their feet on the ground, imperceptible to an European eye, butuhich they can count and diilinguilli with the utmoll faci- lity. They can even dilUnguilh the ditferent nations v/ith whom they are acquaint- ed, and can dttevminethe precifc time when they pailtd, where an European could Tiot with all his glafles, dil1:inguifh footfteps at all. Thefe circumftances, how- ever, give them no fuiK-riority, becaufe their enemies are equciUy flcilful. When they go out, therefore, they take care to avoid making ufe of any thing by •which they might run the danger of a difcovery. They light no fire to warm themfclves, or to prepare their viftuals : they lie clofe to the ground all day, and travel only in the night ; and marching along in files, he that doles the rear dilisientJv covers with leaves the tracks of his own feet, and of theirs who pre- ceded him. When they halt to refrdh themfclves, fcouts are fent out to recon- iioitre the country, and beat up every place where they fufpcd: an enemy to lie concealed. In this manner tbey enter unawares the villages of their foes ; and while the flower of the nation are engaged in hunting, maflacre all the children, women, and helplefs old men, or make prifoners of as m^ny as they can manage, or havefVrength enough to be \ifeful to their nation. But when the enemy is ap- jirifed of their delign, and coming on in arms againft them, they throw them- fclves flat on the ground among the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are painted to refcmblc. Then they allow a part to pafs unmolefled, when all at ■once, with a tremendous fliout, rifing up from their ambufii, they pour a ftorm of niuflcet-bullets o;i their foes. The party attacked returns the fame cry. Every one flieltcrs himfdf with a tree, and returns the fire of the adverfe partv, as foon as, they raife themfclves from the ground to give a fecond fire. Thus docs the battle •continue until the one party is fo much weakened as to be incapable of farther re- fiftance. But if the force on each fide continues nearly equal, the fierce Ipirits of the lavages, inflamed by the lofs of their friends, can no longer be rellraincd. They abandon their diftant war, they rufii upon one another with clubs ami hat- chets in their hamls, magnif\ i-ng their own courage, and infulting rhcir enemies with the bittereft reproaches. A cruel combat enfues, death appears in athoufind "hideous forms, w'hich would cotigeal the blood of civilized nations to behold, but which roufc the fury of favages. They trample, they inkilt over the dead botlies, tearing the fcalp from the head, wallowing in their blood like wild beafts, and dbmcfnnes devou-ring their flelb. The flame rages on till it meets with no Tcfilt- •ancc ; then the jM'ifoncrs are lecured, thole unhappv men, whole fate is a thoufind times more tlreadtul than theirs who have died in the iield. 1 he conquerors fet slip a hid(.ou6 howling to lament the friends they have loft. They approach i-n a mclan- 4 AMERICA. 70^ melancholy and fevere gloom to their own village ; a mcfTcngcr is font to announce their arrival, and the women, with frightful flirieks, conic out to mourn their dead brothers or their hulhands. "When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voice to the elders, a circumftantial account of every particularof the expedi- tion. The orator proclaims aloud this account to the people, and as he mentions the names of thofe who have fallen, the ihrieks of the women are redoubled. The men too join in thefe cries, according as each is mod conntftcd with the deceafcd by blood or friendlhip. The laft ceremony is the proclamation of the vidlory • each individual then forgets his private misiwtunes, and joins in the triunjph of his nation j all tears are wiped from their eyes, and, by an unaccountable trahfition they pafs in a moment from the bitterncfs of forrow to a extravagance of joy. But the treatment of the prifoners, whofe fate all this time remains undecided, is what chiefly characfterifcs the favages. We have already mentioned the (Irength of their affedtions or refcntmcnts. United as they are in fmail focieties, conneded within themfelves by the firmcft ties, their friendly affeftions, which glow with the moft intenfe warmth within the walls of their own village, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing for the enemies of their nation ; and their refentment is eafilv extended from the in- dividual who has injured them to all others of the fame tribe. The Drifoners, who have themfelves the fame feelings, know the intentions of their conquerors, and arc prepared for them. The perfon who lias taken the captive attends him to the cot- tage, where, according to the diltribuiion made by the elders, he is to be delivered to fupply the lofs of a citizen. If thofc who receive him have their family weak- ened by war or other accidents, they adopt the captive into the family, of which he becomes a member. But if they have no occalion for him, or their refentment for the lofs of their friends be too high to endure the fight of any connefted with thofe who were concerned in it, they fentence him to death. All thofe who have met with the fame fevere fentence being coUeded, the whole nation is alfembled at the execution, as for fome great folemnity, A fcaffold is ercfted, and the prifoners are tied to the flake, where they commence their death-fong, and prepare for the en- fuing fccne of cruelty with the moft undaunted courage. Their enemies, on the other fide, are determined to put it to the proof, by the mofl: refined and cxquifue tortures. They begin at the extremity of his body, and gradually approach the vital parts. One plucks out his nails by the roots ; another takes a finger in to his mouth, and tears ofF the flcfti with his teeth ; a third thrulls the fin^^er mangled as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red hor, which i)c fmokes like to- bacco ; then they pound his toes and lingers to pieces between two ftones; they pull of!" the fleih from the teeth, and cut circles about his joints, and gaflics in the fiefhy parts of his limbs, which they fear immediately with red-hot irons, cuttinrr, burning, and pinching ihem fuccelTivelv ; they null off this flelh, tluis mangled and roalted, bit by bit, devouring it with greedinefs, and fmearing their faces with the blood in an cnthufiafm of fury. When they have thus torn off the fiefh, they twifl the bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and fnapping them, whiift others are employed in pulling and extending their limbs in every way that can increafe the torment. This continues often five or fix hours ; and fometimes, fuch is the ftrength of the favages, days together. Then they frccjuently unbind him, to give a breathing to their fury, to think what new torments they fliall infiicV, and to rcfrefli the flrengih of the fufferer, who wearied out with variety of torture often fulls into ib prolound a lethargy, that they are obliged to apply the fire to awake him, and renew his fufferings. Ke is again fafiened to theftakc, and aoain they renew their cruelty : they llick him all over with fmall matches of wood. That cafily takes fire, but burn flov^ly; they continually run (harp reeds into every p;;rt 4 X of 7o6 AMERICA. of his body; they cirag out his teeth with pincers, and thrufl out his, eyes ; and and laftly, after having burned his flelh from the bones with flow fires ; after hav- ing fo mangled the body that it is all but one wound ; after having mutilated his face in fuch a manner that it carries nothing human in itj-'after having peeled the iliin from the head, and poured a heap of red hot coals or boiling water on the naked fkuil, they once more unbind the wretch, who, blind, and daggering with pain and weaknefs, affaultcd and pelted upon every fide with clubs and ftones, now up, now down, falling into their fires ar every ftep, reels hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether out ofcompafiion, or weary of cruelty, puts an end to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then put into a kettle, and this atrocious employ- ment is fucceeded by a featl: as atrocious. , The women, forgetting the human as well as the female nature, and transformed into fomething worie than furies, even outdo the men in this fcene of horror ; while the' principal perfons of the country fit round the flake, fmoking and look- in."- on without the Icafl emotion. What is moft extraordinary, the fufferer himfelf, in the little intervals of his' torments, fmokes too, appears unconcerned, and con- Terfes with his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during the whole time of his execution, there fcems a contefl: which fhall exceed, they in infliding the moft horrid pains, or he in enduring them, with a firmnefs and conftancy almofl incredible : not a groan, not a figh, not a diftortion of countenance efcapes him ; he pofTelfes his mind entirely in the midfl: of his torments ; he recounts his own exploits ; he informs them what cruelties he has inflifted upon their coun- trymen, and threatens them with the revenge that will attend his death ; and, though his reproaches exafperate them to maddcfl tranfports of rage and fury, he continues his infults even of their ignorance in the art of tormenting, pointing out himfelf nioreexquifite methods, and more fenfible parts of the body to be afflidf- ed. The women have this parr of courage as well as the men ; and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otherwife, as it would be for any European to fuffer as an Indian. Such is the wonderful power of an early inflitution, and a ferocious thirft of glory. I am brave and intrepid, exclaims the favage in the face of his tor- mentors, I do not fear death, ncr any kind of tortures ; thofe -j:h:> fear than are covjards ; they are iefs than ^vcmen ; life is nothing to thofe that have courage : }miy my enemies he confounded with c'efpair and rage ! Oh ! that 1 could devour them, and drink their blood to the Ufl drop. Thefe circumfiances of cruelty, which fo exceedingly degrade human nature, ought not, however, to be omitted, becaufe they ferve to flrcw,. in the ilrongefl light, to what an inconceivable degree of barbarity the paflions of men may be carried, when kt loofe from the government of reaion, and uninfluenced by the diftates of Chriflanity ; a religion that teaches compafTion to our enemies,' which is neither known nor praftifed in other inflitutions ; and it will make us moro fenfible, than fome appear to be, of the value of commerce, the arts of a civilized life, and the light of literature ; which, if they have abated the force of fome of the natural virtues, by the luxury which attends fhem,. have taken out likcwife the fling of our natural vices, and foftcned the ferociry of the human race. Nothing in the hillory of mankind, as I have already obferved,. forms a ffronger contraft than this cruelty of the lavages towards thofe withvvhom they are at war,, and the warmth of their aflcttion towards their friends, who confill of all thole who live in the fame village, or are in alliance with it : among thefe all things arc ftommon ; and this though it may in part arife from their not poffefiing very diflinft notions of fcparate property, is chiefly to bo attributed to the flrcngth of their attatchment ; becaufe in every thing elfc, with their lives well as their for- tunes, they :u'c ready to ferve tlieir friends. Thtir houfcs, their provifion, even their AMERICA. 707 their young women, are not enough to oblige a gueft. Has any one of thefe fuc- ceeded ill in his hunting ? Has his harveft tailed ? or is his houfe burned ? He feels no other eflcdt of his inistortunes than that it gives him an opportunity to ex- perience the benevolence and regard of his fellow-citizens ; but to the enemies of his country, or to thofe who have privately offended, the American is implacable. He conceals his lentiments, he appears reconciled, until by fome treachery or fur- prife he has an opportunity of executing an horrible revenge. No length of time is fufficicnt to allay his refcntment ; no diftance of place great enough to protett the objed; ; he erodes the lleepetl mountains, he pierces the moft imprafticable forelb, and traverfes the moft hideous bogs and deferts for feveral hundreds of miles ; bearing the inclemency of the feaibns, the fatigue of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and thirll, with patience and chcerlulnefs, in hopes of furprif- ing his enemy, on whom he exercifes the moil flaocking barbarities. The ftrength of friend fjiip among the Indians principally appears in the treat- ment of their dead. When any one of the fociety is cut olF, he is lamented by the whole : on this occafion a thoufand ceremonies are praftifed, denoting the "moft lively forrovv. Of thefe, the moft remarkable, as it difcovers both the height and continuance of their grief, is what they call the feaft of the dead, or the feaft of fouls. The day of this ceremony is appointed by public order ; and no- thing is omitted, that it may be celebrated witli the utmoft pomp and mag- nificence. The neighbouring tribes are invited to be prefent, and to join in the folemnity. At this time, all who have died fince the laft folemn occafion (which is renewed every ten years among fome tribes, and every eight amono- others), are taken aut of their graves : thofe who have been interred at the greateft diftance from the villages arc diligently fought for, and brought to this great rendezvous of carcafles. It is not difficult to conceive the horror of tliis general difmterment. I cannot defcribe it in a more lively manner than it is done by Lafitau, to whom we are in- debted for tlie moft authentic account of thofe nations. Without queftion, fays he, the opening of thefe tombs difplays one of the moft ftriking fccnes that can be conceived ; this humbling portrait of human mifery, in fo many images of death, wherein flic feems to take a pleafure to paint herfelf in a thoufand various fhapes of horror, in the feveral carcalfes, according to the degree in which corruption has prevailed over them, or the manner in which it has attacked them. Some appear dry and withered ; others have a fort of parchmer.t upon their bones ; fome look as if they were baked and fmoked, without any ap- pearance of rottenncfs ; fome are juft turning towards the point of putrefaction ; whilft o'lhcrs are all fwarming with worms, and drowned in corruption. I know- not which ought to ftrike us moft, the horror of fo fliocking a fight, or the tender piety and affldion of thefe poor people towards their departed friends ; for nodiino- deferves our admiration more than that eager dilligence and attention with which they difcharge this melancholy duty ot their tendernefs ; gathering up carefully, even the fmalleft bones ; handling the carcalfes, difgullful as they are with every thing loathlome, cleanling them trom the worms, and carrying them upon their Ihoulders through tirefome journeys of feveral days, without being difcouraged by the offenfivenefs of the fmell, and v/ithout fuffering any other emotions to arife than thofe of regret for having loft perfuns who were lo dear to them in their lives, and fo lamented in their death. They bring them into their cottages, where they prepare a feaft in honour of the dead ; during which their great asftions are celebrated, and all the tender in- tercourfes which took place between them and their friends are pioufly called to mind. The ftrangers, who have come fometimes many hundred luilcs to be pre- 4 ^ i fenc yoS AMERICA. fent on the occafion, join in the tender condolence ; and the women, by frightful' fhricks, deiTiOnftrate that they are pierced with the iharpelt Ibrrow. Then die dead bodies are carried from the cabins for the general reinterment. A great pit is dug in in the ground, and thither, at a certain time, each peribn, attended by his family and friends, marches in folemn fil-encc, bearing the dead body of a fon, a father, or a brotlier. When they are all convened, the dead bodies, or the dufb of thofe which were quite corrupted, are depofucd in the pit : then the torrenc of crrief breaks out anew. Whatever they poifefs moft valuable is interred with the dead. The ftrangers ?,re not wanting in their generofity, and confer thofe prefents which they have brought along v/ith them tor the purpofe. Then all prcfent "o down into the pit, and every one takes a little of the earth, which they afterwards preferve with the moft religious care. The bodies, ranged in order, are covered with entire new iurs, and over thefe with bark, on which they throw ftones, wood and earth. Then taking their laft farewel, they return each to his own cabin. We have mentioned, that in this ceremony the favagcs offer, as prefents to the dead, whatever they value molt highly. This cuftom, which is univerfal among, them, arifes from a rude notion of the immortality of the foul. They believe this doflrinc moft firmly, and it is the principal tenet of their religion. When the foul is feparatcd from the body of their friends, they conceive that it ftill con- tinues to hover around it, and to require and take delight in the fame things with •which it formerly was pleafed. After a certain time, however, it forfakes this dreary manfion, and departs far weftward into the land of fpirits. They have even gone fo far as ta make a diftinction between the inhabitants of the other world ; fome they imagine, particularly thofe who in their life-time have been fortunate in war, pollcfs a high degree of happinefs, have a place for hunting and fifhing, which never fails, and enjoy all fenfual delights, without labouring hard in order to procure them. The fouls of thofe, on the contrary, who happen to be conquered or flain in war, are extremely miferable after death. Their tafte for war, which forms the chief ingredient in their charader, gives a ftrong bias to their religion. ArelTvOui, or the god of battle, is revered as the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke before they go into the field ; and accord- ing as his difpofition is more or lefs favourable to thera, they conclude they will be more or lefs fuccefsful. Some nations worlhip the fun and moon ; among others there are a number of traditions, i-elative to the creation of the world, and the hiftory of the god&i traditions which refemble theGrecian fables, but which are more inconfiftent and infinitely lefs agreeable. But religion is not the prevailing charafter of the Indians ; and except when they have ibme immediate occafion for the alTiftancc of their gods, they pay them no fort of worfliip. Like all rude nations, however, they are ftrongly addicted to fupcrftition. They believe in the exiftence of a num- ber of o-Qod and bad genii or fpirits, who interfere in the affairs of mortals, and pro- duce all our happinefs or mifery. It is from the evil genii, in particular, that our difeafes proceed ; and it is to the good genii we are indebted for a cure. The minifter of the genii are the jugglers, who are alfo the only phyficians among the favages, Thefe jugglers ate fuppofcd to be infpired by the good genii, mod com- monly in their dreams, with the knov/ledge of future events ; they are called in to the af.ilUuice of the fick, and arc fuppofed to be informed by the geiiii whether they will get over the difeafe, and in what manner they mufl be treated. But thele fpirits arc extremely fimple in their fyflem of phyfic, and in almolt every difeafe, diredt the juggler to the fame remedy. The patient is inclofed in a narrow cabin,- in the micift of which is a ftone red hot ; on this they throw water, until he is well foaked with cue warm vapour and his own fwcat. Then they hurr)- him from' the AMERICA. 709 the bagnio, and plunge him fuddcnly into tlie next river. Tiiis coailc method, which dcllroys many lives, often peforms very extraordinary cures. The jug- glers have likewifc the ufe of Ibme fpccifics of wonderful ejfiicacy ; and all the f.ivagcs are dextrous in curing wounds by the application of herbs. But the power of tliele remedies is always attributed to the magical ceremonies with which ihey are adminiftercd. It ihould be obfervcd by the reader> that the paiticulars which luvc juil been mentioned concerning the manners of the Americans, chiefly relate to the inha- bitants of North America. The manners and general characflreriftics of ereat ])art of the original inhabitants of ^oiith America^ were very different. On the firft appearance of the inhabitants of the New World, their dikoverers found' them to be in many particulars very unlike the generality of the people of the ancient heinilphere.- They were different in their features and complexions ; they were not only averfe to toil, but feemed incapnble of it j and when rouled bv force from their native indolence, and compelled to work, they funk under tafk's which the inhabitants of the other continent would have perform.ed with eafe,- This feeblenefs of contlitution feemed almoft univerfd among the inhabitants of South America. The Spaniards were alfo Ihuck- with the fmallnefs of their appetite for food. The conftitutional temperance of the natives far exceeded, in their opinion, theabfiinence of the moll m,ortified hermits ; while, on the other hand, the appetite of the Spaniards appeared to the AmiCricans infatiabiy voracious ; and they affirm-- cd, that one Spaniard devoured more food in a day than was iufficicnt for ten Americans. But though the demands of the native Americans for food were very iparing, \'o limited vv^as their agriculture, that they hardly ralfed what was fuf- ficient for their own confumption.- Many of the inhabitants of South America confined their induftry to rearing a few plants, vv^hich, in a rich and warm climate were eafily trained Co m.aturity ; but if a few Spaniards fettled in any diilrift, fuch' a fmall addition of fupernumerary mouths foon exhaufted their fcanty ftores, and brought on a famine. The inhabitants of South America, compared with thole of North America, are generally more feeble in their frame. Ids vigoroiis in the efforts of their minds, of a gentle, but daltardly fpirit, more enflav<;d bypleafure, and funk in indolence.' A general Defcription- of A iVT E R I C'A. THIS great weftcrn continent, frequently denominated the NF.\rWoRiD"j extends from the 80th degree North, to the 56 degree South latitude ;■ and where its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 136th degree Wefl: lon-- gitude from London ; ftretching between 8 and 9G00' miles in length, and in- its greateft breadth 3690. It fees both hanifpheres, has two fummer-s, and a double winter, and enjoys all the variety of climates which the earth affords,- !t is v/afhed by the two great oceans. To the ealtward it has the Atlantic, which divides it from Europe and Africa. To the weft it has the Pacifkr, or areat South-Sea, by which it is feparated from Afia. By thefe feas it may, and does carry on a direiTt commerce with the other three parts of the world. It is com- pofed of tv/o great' continents, one on the North, the other on the South, which' are joined by the kingdom of Mexico, which forms a fort of ifthnius 1500 miles- long, and in one part, at Darien, fo extremely narrov/, as to niake the com-- municatioiJi y.To AMERICA. munication between the two oceans by no means difficult, being only 60 miles over. In the great gulf, which is formed between the ifthmus and the northcru and fouthern continents, lie a multitude of illands, many of them large, molt ■of them fertile, and denominated the Well Indies, in contradiftinftion to the countries and illands of Afia, beyond the Cape of Good Hope, which are called the Eaft Indies. Before we begin to treat of feparate coun4;nes in their order, we muft, according to juft method, take notice of thof; mountains and rivers, which difdain, as it were, to be confined widfin the limits of particular provinces, and extend over a great part of the continent. For though America in general be not a mountainous country, it has the greatcll mountains in the world*. In South America, the Andes, or Cordiiltras, run from north to foiith along the coaft of the Pacific ocean. They exceed in length any chain of mountains in the other parts of the globe ; extending from the itlhumus of Darien to the ftraits of Magellan, they divide the whole fouthern parts of America, and run a length of 4300 miles. Their height is as remarkable as their length, tor though in part within the torrid zone, ti>ey are conftantly covered v;ith fnov/-)-. In North ^America, which is chief- ly compofed of gcnde afcents, or level plains, we know ot no confiderable moun- tains, except thole towards the pole, and that long ridge v/hich lies on the back of the American States, feparating them from Canada and Louifiana, v/hich we call the Apalachian, or Alligany mountains ; if that may be confidered as a mountain, \vhich upon one fide is extremely lofty, but upon the other is nearly on a level with the reft of the country. America is, without queftion, that part of the globe which is beft watered ; and .that not only for the fupport of life, and all thepurpofes of fertility, but forthe con- venience of trade and the intercourfe of each part with the others. In North Ame- rica, fuch is the wifdom and goodnefs of the Creator of the univerfe, thofe vaft trafts of country, fituated beyond the Apalachian mountains, at an jm.menfe and unknown diftance from the ocean, are watered by inland feas, called the Lakes of .Canada, which not only communicate with each other, but give rife to feveral great ■rivers, particularly the Miffifippi, running from north to fouth till it falls into the gulf of Mexico, after a courfe, including its turnings, of 4500 miles, and receiving in its progrefs the vaft tribute of the Illinois, the Mifrinrp . s , the Ohio, and other great rivers, not inferior to the Rhine, or the Danube ; and on the north, the river St. Laurence, running a contrary courfe from the Miffifippi, till it empties itfelf into the ocean near Newfoundland ; all of them being ahnoft navigable to their heads, lay open the immenfe recefles of this great continent, and afixird fuch an inlet for commerce, as muft produce the greateft advantage, whenever the country ad- jacect fnaU come to be fully inhabited, and by an induftrious and civilized people. The eaftern fide of North America, befides the noble rivers Hudfon, Delaware, Suiirpiciiana, and Potowmack, fujiplics feveral others of great depth, length, and commodious navigation : hence many parts of the fettlements are fo advantageoufly ** Dr Robenfon obfc/vc?, that " the moiin- Ancles may 1 tci-ally be faid to liiJc their hcailo ia tains of .America aix much fii|icrior in height to the clouds ; tlie llornis often roll, and the thiuuicr t-liofc in the other divifions of ihc globe. Even biiills bcloiv th' ir funimi's, which, though ex- thc phiin of Q_iiito, which may be con'iderc.l .as .pofcd to the rays of the fiiu in the centre of the the h.ife of the Andes, is elevated farther above torrid zone, arc covered uith everl.illln;.^ fnows." •the ff;i than the to,) of the i'yrences. This Ihi- -j- Chimbora/.Oi ihe highell of the Andes, is pendoiis .rid^c of the Andes, no Icfs remarkable 20,63^ feet; of ^his about 2.p3 feet lioin t!ic lor extent than elevation, rifcs in different places fumiiiit arc always covered with fn.nv, C irazon ir.ore than one tliird above the I'ike of Tcneriffc, was afctnded by the French allronomcrs, and is tjic highell land in the auciciu hgniilphcrc. The faid to be 15,800 feet high. inter- AMERICA. 711 inteiK'6bed with navigable rivers and creeks, that the planters, wlcliout exaggeration, may be laid to have each a harbour at his dooi-. South America is, if poffiblc, in this refpeft even more fortunate. It fup- plies the two largeft rivers in the world, the river of Amazons, and the Rio cie la Plata, or Plate river. The fird rifrng in Peru, not fur from the South Sea, pafles from Weft to Eaft^ and falls into the ocean between Brafil and Gui- ana, after a courfe of more than 3000 miles, in which it receives a pjodigio'js number of great and navigable rivers. The Rio de la Plata rifes in the heair of the country, and having its ftrength gradually augmented, by an acceffion of many powerful ftreams, difcharges itfclf with fuch vehemence into the fea, as to make its tafte frelh for many leagues from land. Befides thefe, there are other rivers in South America, of which the Oronoque is the moll: con-- fiderable. A country of fuch vaft extent on each fide of the equator, muft neceffarily have n variety of foils as well as climates. It ia a treafury of Nature, producing moft of the metals, minerals, plants, fruits, n'ees, and wood, to be met with in the other parts of the world, and many of them in greater quantities and higher per- fedion. The gold and filver of America have fupplied Europe v.'ith fuch immenfe quantities ofthofc precious metah,, that they are become vaftly more common ,- and proportionably iefs valuable. This country alfo produces diamond?, pearls, emeralds, amethyfts, and other rare ftones, which, by being brought in great quantities into Europe, hav^ alfo fallen in value. To thefe, which are chiefly the production ofSpaniOi America,-.- may be added a great number of other commodities, which, though of left price, are of much greater ufe. Of thefe are the plentiful fupplies of cochineal, indio-o, anatto, logwood, brazil, fuftic, pimento, lignum vit^e, rice, ginger, cocoa, or the chocolate nut, fugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas, red-wood, the balfams of Tolu, Pern, and Chili, that valuable article in medicine the Jefuit's bark, mecho— acan, failafras, farfaparilla, caffia, tamarinds, hides, furs, ambergrife, and a gresj: variety of woods, roots, and plants, to which, before the difcovery of America, we v/ere either entire ftrangersj or forced to buy at an extravagant rate from Afii and Africa, through the hands of the Venetians and Genoefe, who then engroITed^ the trade of the eailern world. This continent has alfo a variety of excellent fioiits, which here grow wild- to great perfeftion ; as pine-apples, pomegranates, citrons, lem.ons, oranges,, malicatons, cherries, pears, apples, figs, grapes, great numbers of culinary,,. medicinal, and other herbs, roots, and plants ; and fo fertile is the foil, thas many exotic produftions are nouriflied in as great perfeftion as in their native- ground. Though the Indians fiill live in the quiet pofieffion of many large traftsj Ame^ rica, fo far as known, is chiefly claimed, and divided into colonies, by three European nations, the Spaniards, Englifln, and Fortuguefe, The Spaniards, as they firft difcovered it, have the largeft and richeft portion, extending from Nev/ Mexico and Louifiana, in North America, to the ftraits of Magellan in the South Sea, excejjt the large province of Brafil, which belongs to Portugal ;. for though the French and Dutch have fome forts upon Surinam and Gtiiana,, they fcarcely deferve to be confideredas proprietors of any part of the fouthern- continent. Next to Spain, the moft confiderable proprietor of America was Great Britain,., who derived her claim to North America, from the firft difcovery of that conti- nent, by Sebaftiaa Cabot, in the name of Henry VII. anno 1497, about fix- years after the difcovery of South America by ColumbiTS, ia the name of the king of Spain;. -712 AMERICA. Spain. This GOimtt-y was in general called Newfoundland, a name vihicli is .now appropriated folcly to an ifland upon its coaft. It was a long time before wc made an attempt to fettle this country. Sir Walter Raleigh, an uncommon genius, and a brave commander, firft (hewed the way by planting a colony in the fouthern part, which he called Virginia, in honour of his miftrcfs queen Elizabeth. The French, indeed, from this period until the conclufion of the late war, laid a claim to, and aftually poiTefied Canada and Louifiana, comprehending all that .-extenfive inland country, reaching from Hudfon's Bay on the nortli, to Mexico, and the gulf of the fame name on the fouth : regions which all Europe could .not people in the courfe of many ages : but no territory, however extenfive, no .empire, however boundlefs, could gratify the ambition of that afpiring nation ; .hence, under the moft folemn treaties, they continued in a ftate of hoftJlity, makinj^ crradual advances upon the back of our fettiements, and rendering their acquifitions more fecure and permanent by a chain of forts, well fupplicd with all the implements of war. At the fame time they laboured inceflantly to gain the friendfhip of the Indians, by various arts, even by intermarriages, and whom they not only trained to the ufe of arms, but infufed into thefe favages the mofl: unfavourable notions of the Euglifli. The Britilh colonies thus hemmed in, and confined Eo a Qip of land along the fea-coaft, by an ambitious and powerful nation, the rivals and the natural enemies of Great Britain, began in 1755 to take the alarm. The Britifh empire in America, yet in its infancy, was threatened witli a total diflblution. Tiie colonies, in their diftrefs, called out aloud to the mother country. The bulwarks, and the thunder of England, were fent to their relief, accompanied v/ith powerful armies, well appointed, and ably commanded. Along ■war fucceeded, v;hich ended glorioufly for Great Britain ; for after much blood was fpilr, and every inch of ground bravely difputed, the French were not only .driven from Canada, and its dependencies, bi.;t obliged to relinquilli all that part .of Louifiana, lying on the eaft fide of the Miffifippi. Thus at an immcnfe expencc, and with the lofs of many brave men, our co- J-onics were preferved, fecured, and extended fo far, as to render it difficult to af- •certain the precifc bounds of our empire in North America, to the noithern and wefiern fides.; for to the northward, it fliould feem that we might have extended our claims quite to the pole itfelf, nor did any nation feem inclined to difpute the .property of this northernmoll country with us. If we had cholen to take our Hand upon the northern extremity, and look towards the fouth, we had a ter- ritory extending in that afpecV, from the Pole to Cape Florida in the gulf of Mexico, North lat 25, and confequently near 4000 miles long, in a dircA line; which was the more valuable, as it included the molt temperate climates of tliis new world, and fuch as are beft fuited to the Britifii conllitutions. But to the wefiward, our boundaries reached to nations unknown even to the native In- dians of Canada. If we might hazard a conjeclure, it is nearly equal to the ex- tent of all Europe. But our flattering profpeCts refpcfting America, have been greatly abridged by the recent contcft between the mother-country and the colo- nics, which, after eight years continuance with a great expencc of trcafure and blood, ended in their difmemberment from the Britifii empire, and in the eflab- liflimcnt of a new Republic, fiyled " The thirteen United States of America." This country is wafiaed by the Atlantic ocean on the eal^, and on the fouth by t!ie gulf of Mexico. We have already taken notice of the river St. Laurence, the MifTifippi, the lakes of Canada, and other great bodies of water, which ferciUze and cnrith its nurthein and weftern boundaiieSj as well as the interior parts. i In AMERICA. 713 In defcribing the fituation, extent, and boundaries of the numerous colonies ■which now compofc that great empire, we have totally rcjcdcd the accounts "iven us by partial French writers, as well as thofe of Salmon and other EnglinTgeo- graphers, if men deferve that name, who liave wandered fo widely from die truth and who feem eitlier unacquainted with the fubjed:, or have been at no pains to confult the latefl: and moil authentic materials. This we thought neceffary to pre- mile, that the reader may be prepared for the following Table, wliich he will find to differ widely from any book of geography Hitherto publilhed, being compofcd from the lateft treaties, and partitions, and the beft maps and drawings j the furelt guides in giving the geography of thefe important provinces. The multitude of iflands, which lie between the two continents of North and South America, are divided among the Spaniards, liiiglifh, and French. The Dutch indeed pofTefs three or four fmall iflands, whicli, in any other hands would be of no confequence : and the Danes have one or two, but they hardly deferve to be named among the proprietors of America, France, is faid to have lately ceded the fmall ifland of St. Bartholomew to Sweden. We fliall now proceed to the parti- tular provinces, beginning, according to our method, with the north. The Grand Divifions of N O R T H AMERICA. Colonies. Length Bre;id. Sq. Miles. ChiefTowns, Dift. and bear from London Belongs to New Britain d^o 750 318,750 Great Britain Piovince of Quebec (100 200 100,000 Quebec Ditto New Scotland J New Brunfw. f 35° 2?0 57,000 Halifax ShcUiuinc Ditto New tngland ^50 1 200 ^7,000 Bollun 2760 VV. United States iNew York 300 ii;o 24,000 New York Ditto New Jerley 160 60 I'j.O Perth Amb .V Ditto Pennfylvani^ 300 240 IS, coo IPhiladelphia Ditto Maryland 140 '3? 12,000 lAnnapolis Ditto Virginia 7^0 240 80,000 |Willinmlburgh Ditto North Carolina ) .'^outh Carolina > Georgia ) 700 380 Ih-denton 110,000 Charles-town Savannah Ditto Ditto Ditto E,".lt Floiida ( Weft Florida ( 500 440 100,000 St. • uouliine Penfacola Spain Ditto Louiliana 1200 64? 516,000 New Orleans 40S0 S.W. Ditto New Mexico and ) Calitornia j 2000 lOCO 600,000 St. Fee St. Juan 4420 S.W. Ditto Ditto Mexico, or New Spain 2000 600 318,000 Mexico ^900 S.W. Ditto 4Y GranJ 7H AMERICA. Grand Divifions of SOUTH AMERICA. Nations. Length Bread. Sq.Miles. Chief Cities. Dift.andbear. from London. Belongs to Terra Firma 1400 1 700 1800 1 600 700,000 I'anania 4650S. W. Spain Peru 970,000 Lima 1:5208. W'. Ditto 1 Amazonia, a very larae country, but little known ti) the Europeans, 1200 L. ij6o B. ( Guiana 780 480 250,000 Surniam Cayenne 3840 S.W. Dutch French Brafil 3500 7C0 940,000 |S. Sebaflian | 6cooS.\V. Portugal Parag. or La I'lata I 500 luco f, 000, 000 Buen Ay res 6040 s.vv. Spain Chili i:!00 1 500 206,000 St. Jago 660:1 S.W. Spain Terra Magclla- 1 nica, or l\ata- > gonia J 14CO 460 325,000 The Spaniards took pofleffion of ir, but did not think it .worth while to fettle there. The principal Islands of NORTH AMERICA belonging to the Europeans are, ^ u Iflands. Length Bread. Square Miles. Chief Tonns. Belongs to * r Newfoundland 1 350 200 35'5oo Placentia Great Britain Cape Breton St. John's 1 10 ^o 4,000 Louilburg Ditto 60 30 500 Chariot! tc lown Ditto ■sj The Bermuda iiles | 20,000 acres 40 St. Gcoige Ditto . The Bahama illcs very numerous Nail'au Ditto .i < 6 e rt a g 'Jamaica 140 60 6,000 Kinglion Ditto Baibadocs 2 1 14 140 Bridgvtown Ditto St. Chrilloplier's 20 7 80 Bafl-.-terrc Ditto Antigua Nevis and Mont- J ferrat J 20 20 ICO St. John's Ditto each of thcfc is 18 circum. Charles-town Plymouth Dtto Dtto Barbuda 20 1 2 60 Ditto Anguilla 30 10 63 Diito Dominica bt. Vincent 28 13 150 Ditto 24 30 18 150 Kingfton Ditto Granada 'S .50 St (icorge's Ditto Cuba 700 90 38,400 Havannah Spain Hifpaniola 4";° .50 49 36,300 "^t. Domingo Potto Kico Do. and France .-i" < I I'orto Rico 100 3,200 Spain c < .s bo c •^ a a *-- Trinidad 90 40 60 24 2,897 St. Jofcjih Ditto Margarita 624 Ditto Murtinico 60 ;0 300 St. Peter's France Guadal()U])e 45 3« 250 Ballc-teric Ditto St. Lucia 23 I 2 9^ !;itto Tobago 3^ 9 So Ditto Sr, Bartholomew ) Dcfc.ida, and > Marigalanta 3 all of thc>m in- coniidcrablc. Dittu " Ditto Ditto St. Fuii'a'ia 2';circiun. The Bay Dutch r)itto Curall'ou 30 I i>. 3)» St. Thomas 1 5 circum. Denmark St. Croix 30 1 10 Bade End Ditto Lately ceded to Sweden liy France. N K W [ 715 1 NEW BRITAIN. Situation and Extent. NEW BRITAIN, or the country lying round Hudfon's Bay, and common- ly called tlie country of the Efquimaux, comprehending Labrador, now North and South \\'ales, is bounded by unknown lands, and frozen feas, about the pole, on the North ; by the Atlantic ocean, on the Ealt ; by the Bay and river of St. Laurence and Canada, on the South ; and by unknown lands on the Weft. Its length is computed at 850 miles, and 750 broad. MoiTNTAiNs.] The tremendous high mountains in this country towards tlie north, their being covered with eternal fnow, and the winds blowing from thence three quarters of the year, occaOon a degree of cold in the winter, over all this country, which is not experienced in any other part of the world in the fame latitude. Rivers, bays^ straits, 7 Thefe arc numerous in this country, and take their AND capes, 5 names generally from the Englifli navigators and commanders by whom they vvcre firfl difcovered ; the principal bay is that of Hudfon, which includes feveral others ; the principal ftraits are thofe of Hudfon Davies, and Relleifle ; and the chief rivers are the Moofe, Severn, Rupert, Nelfon' and Bkck River. Soil and produce.] This country is extremely barren ; to the northward of Hudfon's Bay, even the hardy pine-tree is feen no longer, and the cold womb of the earth is incapable of any better production than fome miferable flirubs. Every kind of Eurojiean feed, which we have committed to the earth, in this inholpitable climate, has hitherto perillied ; but, perhaps, we have not tried the feed of corn from the northern parts of Sweden and Norway, which might be more congenial to the climate. AH this feverlty, and long continuance of winter, and the confequent barrennefs of the earth, is experienced in the latitude of fifty-one -, in the tempe- rate latitude of Cambridge. Animals.] Thefe are the moofe deer, ftags, rein deer, bears, tygers, buffaloes wolves, foxes, beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, fquirrels, ermins, wild cats, and hares. Of the feathered kind they have geefe, buftards, ducks, partrido-es, and all manner of wild fowls. Of filh, there are whales, morfes, feals, cod-fifh, and a white fifh preferable to herrings ; and in their rivers and frefh waters, pike, perch, carp and trout. There have been taken at Port Nelfon, in one feafon, ninety thouland partridges, which are here as large as hens, and twenty-five thouland hares. All the animals of thefe countries are clothed with a clofe, foft, warm fur. In iiimmer there is here, as in other places, a variety in the colours of the feveral animals ; when that feafon is over, which holds only for three m.onths, thev all nffume the livery of winter, and every fort of beafts, and mofi: of their fowls,' are of the colour of the fnow ; every thing animate and inanimate is white. This is a furprifing phenomenon. But what is yet more furprifing, and what is indeed one of the many ftriking things, that draw the mod inattentive to an admiration of the wifdom and goodnefs of Providence, is, that the dogs and cats from England that have been carried into Hudfon's Bay, on the ajiproach of winter, have entirelv changed their appearance, and acquired a much longer, fofter, and thicker coat of hair, than they had originally. 4 Y 2 Eofoi-c 7i6 B R I T I S H A M E R I C A. Before we advance farther in the defcription of America, it may be proper to obferve in general, that all the quadrupeds of this new world are lefs than thofe of tlie old ; even fuch as are carried from hence to breed there, are often found to de- generate, but are never feen to improve. If, with refpccfl tofize, wefliould compare the animsls of the new and the old world, we fliall find the former greatly inferior to the latter. The Afiatic elephant, for inflance, often grows to above fifteen feet hif^h, while the tapurctte, one of the largeO: natives of America, is not bigger than a calf of a year old. The lama, which fome alfo call the American camel, is ftill lefs. Their beafls of prey are quite divefted of that courage, which is fo often fatal to man in Africa or Afia. They have no lions, nor, properly fpeaking, either leopard, or tyger. Travellers, however, have affixed thofe names to fuch ravenous animals, as are there found moft to refemble thofe of the ancient continent. The conjar, the taquar, and the taquaretti among them, are defpicable in comparifon of the tyger, the leopard, and the panther of Afia. The tyger of Bengal has been knowif to meafure fix feet in length, wirhout including the tail ; while the congar, or Am.erican tyger, as fome affeft to call it, feldom exceeds three. All the animals therefore in the fouthern parts of America, are different from thofe in the ibuthern parts of the ancient continent ; nor does there appear to be any common to both, but thofe which, being able to be bear the colds of the Nortli, have travelled from one continent to the other. Thus the bear, the wolf, the rein-deer, the ftag, and the beaver, are known as v/ell in New Britain and Canada as in Ruffia ; while the lion, the leopard, and the tyger, which are natives of the fouth with us, are utterly unknown in Southern America. But if the quadrupeds of America be fmaller than thofe of the ancient continent, they are in much greater abundance -, for it is a rule that obtains through nature, and evidently points out the wifdom of the Author of it, that the fmalleft animals multiply in the greateft proportion. The goat, exported from Europe to Southern America, in a few generations becomes much lefs ; but then it alfo becomes more prolific, and inltead of one kid at a time, or two at the moft, generally produces five, fix, and fometimes more. The wifdom of Providence in making formidable animals unprolific is obvious ; had the ele- phant, the rhinoceros, and the lion, the fame degree of fecundity with the rabbit, or the rat, all the arts of man would foon be unequal to the conteft, and we lliould foon perceive them become the tyrants of thofe \\'ho call themfelves the mailers of the creation. Persons and habits ] The men of this country ftew great ingenuity in their manner of kindling a fire, in clothing themfelves, and in preferving their eyes from the ill etfefts of that glaring white which every where furrounds them, for the greateft part of the year ; in other rcfpefts they are very favage. They are of a tawny complexion, and lead a vagrant life, moving from place to place, fpending their time in hunting and fifhing. In their fliapes and faces they do not refemble the Americans vvho live to the fouthward ; they are much more like the Laplanders and the Samoeids of Europe already defcribcd, from whom they are probably de- fcended. Thefe on the coaft appear to be peaceable and inoffenfive, and are dex- terous in manacling their kiacks or boats. The other Americans feem to be of a Tartar original. DiscoviiRY AND coMMERCK.] The knowlcdgc ofthcfc northern fcas and couH- tties wasowino- to a projeft ftarted in England for the difcovery of a north-weft pdtTage to China and the Eaft Indies, as early as the year 1576. Since then it has been frequently dropped, and as often revived, but never yet completed ; and from the late voyages of difcovery it feems manifeft, that no practicable pafTage cvt-r can be found. Erobiflicr only difcovered the main of New Britain, or Terra de BRITISHAMERICA. 717 de Labrador, and thofe flraits to which he has given his name. In 1585, John Davis failed from Portfmouth and viewed that and the more northerly coaih, but he feems never to have entered the bay. Hudfon made three voyages on the fame adventure, the firft in 1607, the fecond in i5o8, and his third and la!l in 1610. This bold and judicious navigator entered the ftraits that lead into this new Mediterranean, the bay known by his name, coafled a great part of it, and pene- trated to eighty degrees and a half, into the heart of the frozen zone. His ardour for the difcovery not being abated by the difficulties he ftruggled with in this em- pire of winter, he llaid here until the enfuing fynng, and prepared, in the begin- ning of 16 11, to purfue his difcoveries ; but his crew, who futFered equal hard- fhips, without the fame fpirit to fupport them, mutinied, feized upon him and feven of thofe who were moft faithful to him, and committed them to the fury of the icy feas, in an open boat. Hudfon and his companions were either fwallowed up by the waves, or, gaining the inhofpitablecoail, were deftroyed by the favao-es • but the fhip and the red of the men returned home. ° Other attempts towards a difcovery were made in 161 2 and 1667 ; and a patent for planting the country, with a charter for a company, was obtained in the year 1670. In 1746 captain Ellis wintered as far north as 57 degrees and a half, and captain Chriflopher attempted farther difcoveries in 1761. But befules thefe voy- ages, which fatisfy us that we mud not look for a paffage on this fide of the lati- tude 67 degrees North, we are indebted to the Hudfon's Bay Company for a jour- ney by land ; which throws much additional light on this matter, by aftbrdino- what may be called demonftration, how much farther North, at leaft in fome parts of their voyage, fliips mu.T; go, before they can pafs from one fide of America to the other. Tlie northern Indians, who come down to the Company's faftories to trade had brought to the knowledge of our people a river, which, on account of much copper being found near it, had obtained the name of the Copper-mine river. The Company, being defirous of examining into this matter with precifion, dire6ted Mr, Hearne, a young gentleman in their fervice, and who having been brought up for the navy and ferved in it the war before lall, was extremely well qualified for the purpofe, to proceed over land, under the convoy of thofe Indians, for that river • which he had orders to furvey, if poflible, quite down to its exit into the fea to make obfervations for fixing the latitudes and longitudes j and to bring home maps and drawings, both of it and the countries through which he Ihould pafs. Accordingly Mr. Hearne fet out from Prince of Wales's Fort, on Churchill river latitude 58" 47 I' North, and longitude 94*' 7 »' Weflfrom Greenwich, on the 7th of December, 1770. Mr. Hearne on the 13th of June reached the Copper-mine ri- ver, and found it all the way, even to its exit into the fea, incumbered with fhoals and falls, and emptying itfelf into It over a dry flat of the fhore, the tide beinw then out, which feemed, by the edges of the ice, to rife about 12 or 14 feet. Thfs rife on account of the falls, carries the fea but a very fmall way within the river's mouth* fo that tiie water in It had not the lead brackilb tade. Mr. Hearne is, neverthelefs' fure that it empties itfelf into the fea, or a branch of it, by the quantity of whale- bone and feal llins which the Efquimaux had at their tents; and alfo by the num- laer of feals which he faw upon the ice. The fea, at the river's mouth, was full of idands and flioals, as far as he could fee, by the adidance of a pocket telefcope ; and the ice was not yet (July 17th) broken up, but thawed away only for about three quarters of a mile from the Ibore, and for a little way round the iflands and flioals. But he had the mod extenfive view of the fea when he was about ei^ht miles up the river, from which dation the extreme pares of it bore N. W. b \V and N. E. Bjr 7i8 B R I T I S H A M E R I C A. By the time Mr. Hearne had finifhed his furvey of the river, which was about one o'clock in the n-iorningon the i8th, there came on a very thick fog and driz- zling rain ; and as he had found the river and fea, in every refpedt unlikely to be of any iitility, he thought it unneceilary to v/ait for fair weather, to determine the latitude more cxaftly by obfervation ; but by the extraordinary care he took in obfervingthe courfcs and diftances, walked from Congccathawhachaga, where he had two very good obfcrvations, he thinks the latitude may be depended on within 20' at the iitmoil. ]t appears from the map which Mr. Hearne conftrutted of this fingular journey, that the mouth of the Copper-mine river lies in latitude 72" N. and longitude 23'-' W, from Churcliill river ; that is, about i 1 9'^ W. of Greenwich. Mr. Hearne's journey back from the Copper-mine river to Churchill lafted till June 30th, 1772 j fo that he was abfent almolt a year and feven months. The unparalleled hardlhips he fuf- fcred, and the effential fervice he performed, have met with a fuitable reward from his mafters. He has been fevcral years governor of Prince of Wales's Fort, on Churchill river, v/here he was taken prifoner by the French in 1782 ; and, laft fum- mer, he returned to his ftation. The confequences refulting from this extenfive difcovery are obvious. We now fee that the continent of North America flretches from Hudfon's Bay, fo far to the North-Well:, that Mr. Hearne travelled near 1300 miles before he arrived at the fea; and that the whole of his track to the northward of 61*^ of North latitude, lay near 600 miles due Welt of the weilern coaft of Hudfon's Bay, at the fame time that his Indian guides were well aware of a vaft track of land, fcretching farther, in the fame diredlion. Futile, therefore, are the arguments of thofe, who, about 40 years ago, Oickled fo much for a North-weft paffage through Hudfon's Bay. Though the adventurers failed in the original purpofe for which they navigated this bay, their projedl, even in its failure, has been of great advantage to this coun- try. The vaft countries which furround Hudfon's Bay, as we have already obferved, abound with animals, whofe fur and fl<.ins are excellent. In 1670, a charter was "ranted to a company, which does not confilt of above nine or ten perfons, for the exclufive trade to this bay, and they have a£led under it ever fince with great benefit to themf:lves. 1 he company employ four flii])s, and 130 feamen. They have feveral forts, viz I'rince of Wales's fort, Churchill river, Nelfon, New Severn, and Albany, which itand on the welt fide of the bay, and are garrifoned by 186 men. The French in IMay 1782, took and deftroyed thefe forts, and the fettlements, &c. valued at 500,000 1. They export comiv.odities to the value of 16,000 I. and bring home returns to the value of 29,340 1. which yield to the revenue 3,734!. This includes the fifliery in Hudfon's Bay. This commerce, fmall as it is, affords immenfe profits to the coinpany, and even fome advantages to Great Britain in general ; for the commodities we exchange with the Indians for their fkins and furs, arc all manufiftuied in Britain ; and as the Indians are not very nice in their choice, fuch things are fent, of which we have the greatcit plenty, and which, in the mer- cantile phrafe, are drugs with us. Though the workmanfliip too happens to be in many refpeds fo deficient, that no civilized people would take it off our hands, it may be admired among the Indians. On the other hand, the fls.ins and furs we bring fiom Hudfon's Bay, enter largely into our manufaftures, and afford us materials for trading with many nations of Europe, to great advantage. Thefe circumltances tend to prove inconteltibly the immenfe benefit that would redound to Great Britain, by throwing open the trade to Hutifon's B.iy, fince even in its prefent retrained ftate it is fo advantageous. This company, it is probable, do not find their trade fo advantageous now as it was before we got pofieffion of Canada. The only attcmjit made to trade with Labrador, has been directed towards the filhcry, the annual produce of wiiicli exceeds 49,000!. CANADA, C 719 ] CANADA, or the P R o V I N c E o F Qjj e b e c. Situation and extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq Miles. Length 600) Kp„„^,„ 5 ^^ ^"^ 81 weft lonmtiide. 7 Breadth 200 i ^^^'''^"' l45and52 northlalitude.5 '°°'°°°- EouNDARiES.] /~p\HE French comprehended under the name of Canada, a very X large territory, taking into theirclaim part of Nova Scotia, New England, and New York, ontheEaft; and, to the Weft, extending it as far as the Pacific Ocean. That part, however, which they had been able to cultivate, and which bore the face of a colony, lay chiefly upon the banks of the river St. Lau- rence, and the numerous fmall rivers falling into that ftream. This beino- reduced by the Britifti arms in the war of 1756 was formed into a Britifti colony, called the Province of Quebec, which is now bounded by New Britain and Hudfon's Bay on the North and Eaft j by Nova Scotia, New England, and New York on the South, and by unknown lands on the Weft. Air and climate.] The climate of this extenfive province is not very dif- ferent from the colonies mentioned above ; the winters are lonp- and ftvere ■ but like moft of thofe American tracts that do not lie too far to the northward the fummers are very hot and exceedingly pleafant. Son. AND PRODUCE.] The foil is in general very good, producing wheat, barley, rye, with many other forts of grains, fruits, and vegetables; tobacco in particular, thrives well and is much cultivated, l^he ifle of Orleans near Quebec and the lands upon the river St. Laurence and other rivers, are remarkable for fertility. The meadow-grounds in Canada, which are well watered, yield excel- lent grafs, and breed vatl numbers of great and fmall cattle. As we are now en- tering upon the cultivated provinces of Britiih America, and as Canada is upon the back of the United States, and contains almoft all the different fpecies of wood and animals that are found in thefe colonies, we (hall, to avoid repetitions, fpeak of them here at fome length. Timber and plants.] The uncultivated parts of North America contain the greateft forefts in the v/orld. They are a continued wood, not planted by the hands of men, and in all appearance as old as the world itfelf. Nothing is more marr- nificent to the fight; the trees lofe themfelves in the clouds; and'there is fuch°a prodigious variety of fpecies, that even among thofe perfons who have taken moft pains to know them, there is not one perhaps that knows half the number. The province we are defcribing products, amongft others, two forts of pines, the white and the red ; four forts of firs ; two forts of cedar, and oak, the white and the red ; the male and female maple ; three forts of alh-trees, the free the mungrel, and the baftard ; three forts of walnut-trees, the hard, the fofr, and the fmooth; valt numbers of beech-trees, and white wood; white and red elms and poplars. The Indians hollow the red elms into canoes, fome of which, made out of one piece, will contain twenty perfons ; others are made of the bark, the different pieces of which they few together with the inner rind, and daub over the feams with pitch, or ratiier a bituminous matter refembling pitch, to prevent their ' leaking; and the ribs of thefe canoes are made of boughs of trees. About No- vember the bears and wild cats take up their habitations' in the hollow elms, and remain 720 BRITISHAMERICA. remain there till April. Here are alfo found cherry-trees, plum-trees, the vinegar- tree, the fruit of which, infufed in water, produces vinegar; an aquatic plant, called alaco, the fruit of which may be made into a confeftion ; the white thorn ; the cotton tree, on the top of which grow feveral tufts of flowers, which, when fhaken in the morning, before the dew falls off, produce honey, that may be boiled up into fugar, the feed being a pod, containing a very fine kind of cotton; the fun-plant, which refembles a marigold, and grows to the height of feven or eight feet ; Turkey corn ; French beans ; gourds, melons, capillaire, and the hop-plant. Metals and minerals.] Near Quebec is a fine lead mine, and in fome of the mountains, we are told, lilver has been found, though we have not heard any great advantage made of it as yet. This country alfo abounds with coals. Rivers.] The rivers branching through this country are very numerous, and many of them large, bold, and deep. The principal are, the Outtauais, St. John's, Seguinay, Defprairies, and Trois Rivieres, but they are all fwallowed up by the river St. Laurence. This river iffues from the lake Ontario, and, taking its courfe north-caft, wafnes Montreal, where it receives the Outtauais, and forms many fertile illands. It continues the fame courfe, and meets the tide upwards of 400 miles from the fea, where it is navigable for large veflfels ; and below Quebec, 320 miles from the fea, it becomes broad, and fo deep, that ihips of the line con- tributed, in the lall war, to reduce that capital. After receiving in its progrefs innumerable ftreams, this great river falls into the ocean at Cape Rofieres, where it is 90 miles broad, and where the cold is intenfe, and the fea boillerous. In its progrefs it forms a variety of bays, harbours, and iflands, many of them fruitful, and extremely pleafant. Lakes.] The great river St. Laurence is that only upon which the French (now fubjefts of Great Britain) have fettlements of any note ; but if we look for- ward into futurity it is not improbable that Canada, and thofe vaft regions to the weft, will be enabled of themfeives to carry on a confiderable trade upon the lakes. Here are five lakes, far exceeding any in the other parts of the world ; thefe are the Ontario, which is not lefs than 200 leagues in circumference ; Erie, or Ofwego, longer but not fo broad, is about the fame extent. That of the Huron fpreads greatly in width, and is in circumference not lefs than 300, as is that of Michigan, though, like the lake Erie, it is rather long and com- paratively narrow. But the lake Superior, which contains feveral large iflands, is 500 leagues in circuit. All of thefe are navigable by any veiTels, and they all communicate with one another, except that the paffage between Erie and On- tario is interrupted by a ftupcndous fall or cataraft, which is called the Falls of Niao-ara. The water here is about half a mile wide, where the rock crofies it, not in a direft line, but in the forin of a half moon. When it comes to the per- pendicular fall, which is 150 feet, no words can exprcfs the confternation of tra- vellers at feeing fo great a body of water falling, or rather violently thrown, from fo crreat a height, upon the rocks below ; from which it again rebounds to a very great height, appearing as white as fnow, being all converted into foam, through thofe violent agitations. The noife of this fall is often heard at the diftance of 15 miles, and foiuetimes much farther. The vapour arifmg from the fall may lomelimes be fecn at a great diftance, appearing like a cloud, or pillar of fmoke, and in the appearance of a rainbow, whenever the fun and the pofition of the tra- veller favours. Many beafts and fowls here lofe their lives, by attempting to fwim, or crofs the ftream in the rapids above the fall, and arc found dafhed in pieces below ; and fomctimcs the Indians through cartlellhefs or druiikennefs, have met with the fame fate ; and perhaps no place in the world is frequented by 2 fuch BRITISH A M E R I C A. 721 fuch a number of cngles as are invited hither by tlie carnage of deer, elks, bears, &CC. on which they feed. The river St. Laurence, as wc have already obfervcd, is the outltt of thefc lakes ; by this they difcharge themfelves into the ocean. The French, when in pofllirion of tlie province, built forts at th; fevcral flraits, by which, thefe lakes coninnuiicate \vitli eacli other, as v.'ell ns where While the French had pofTenion of Canada, both tlic city and ifland of Montreal belonged to private proprietors, who had im- proved them fo well, that the whole ifland was become a molt delightful fpot, and produced every thing that could adminitler to the conveniences of life. The city forms an oblong fquare, divided by regular and well-formed ftreets ; and when taken by the Englifh, the houfes were built in a very handfome manner ; and every houfe might be fecn at one view from the harbour, or from the fouthernnnoll fide of the river, as the hill on the fuic of which the town ftands falls gradually to the water. This place is furrounded by a wall and a dry ditch ; and its fortifications have been much improved by the Englifh. Montreal is nearly as large as Quebec; but fincc it fell into the hands of the Englifli it hath fufFered much by fires. GovERVMEN' r.] Refore the late war, the French lived in afRuence, being free from all taxes, and having full liberty to hunt, fifh, fell timber, and to fow and plant as much land, as they could cultivate. By the capitulation granted to the French, when this country was reduced, both individuals and communities were entitled to all their rights and privileges. It was enadted by parliament in the year 1774, that it fliould be lawful for his majefty, his heirs, and fucccflbrs, by warrant under his or their fignet or fign manual, and with the advice of the privy-council, to confiitute and appoint a council for the affairs of the province of Quebec, to confilT: of fuch perfons refident there, noc exceeding twenty-three, nor lefs than feventeen, as his majefty, his heirs, and fuc- ccfibrs, fhall be pleafed to appoint ; and upon the death, removal, or abfence of any of the members of the faid council, in like manner to conftitute andappoinc Others to fuccecd them. And this council, fo appointed and nominated, or the majority of them, are vefted with power and authority to make ordinances for the peace, welfiire, and good government of the piovince, v/ith the confent of the go- " v-ernor, or in his abfence of the lieutenant-governor, or commander in chief for the time being. The council, however, are not impowered to lay taxes, except for the purpofe of making roads, reparation of public buildings, orfiich local conveniencies. By this art, all matters of controverfy relative to property and civil rights are to be determined by the French laws of Canada ; but the criijiinal law of England is to have force in the province. The inhabitants of Canada are alfo allowed by this aft not only to proftfs the Komifh religion, but the Popifli clergy are invefted with a right to claim their accuftomeddues from thofe of the fame religion. This art, however equitable and laudable, occafioned a great alarm both inEngland andAmerica,and appears to havecontributed much towards fpreading a fpirit &f dn- affertion to the Britifh government in the colonies. '1 he city of London petitioned' againft the bll before it received the royal afient ; declaring, that they apprehended ij to be entirely fubvcrfive of the great fundaincntal principles of the Britifh confti- tution, as well as of the authority of various folemii arts of the Icgiflature.- • And' ia one of the ]ictitions of the American congrefs to the king, they complained, - that by the Quebec art, " the limits of that province were extended, the Englifn laws abolifhed, and the French laws reftored, \^hereby great numbers of Britifli fi-ee- mcti were fubjcrted to the latter ; and that an abfolute government, and the Roman catliolic religion, were alfo eftablifhed by that art, throughout thofe vaft re- gions, that border on the wefterly and northerly boundaries of the free Protellant • Englifh fettlements." ' Trade and commerce.] By expelling the French from the back of our then fettlements, we fecured them from the dinger of being molefted or attacked by an artive and formidable enemy, and enabled our people to attend, with proper fpirit and induftry, to agriculcure, and the improvements of that country. While tLe important conquelt of Canada removed a r\va\ power from that part of North Ainericaj ,26 BRITISH AMERICA. America, it put us in the fole pofleflion of the fur and peltry trade, the ufe and importance of which are well known to the manufadiirers of Great Britain. The nature of the climate, feverely cold in winter, and the people manufaduring nothi.no-, fhews what Canada principally wants from Europe, wine, or rather rum, cloths, chiefly coarfe linen, and wrought iron. The Indian trade requires rum, tobacco, a fort of dufil blankets, guns, powder, balls, and flints, kettles, hatchets, toys, and trinkets of all kinds. While this country was poflefled by the French, the Indians fopplied them with peltry; and the French had traders, who, in the manner of the original inhabitants, traverfed the vaft lakes and rivers in canoes, with incredible indullry and patience, .carryino- their goods into the remocelt parts of America, and among nations en- tirely unknown to us. Thefe again brought the market home to them, as the in- ,dians were thereby habituated to trade with tiicm. For this purpofe, people from all parts, even from the dillance of looo miles, csme to the French fair at Mon- treal, which began in June, and fomecimes lalled three months. On this occxfion, many folemnitics were obfei ved, guards were placed, and the governor attended to prcfcrve order, in fnch a concourfe, and with fo great a variety of fuvage nations. But fometimes great diforder and tumults happened ; and the Indians, being fond of brandy, frequently gave for a dram all they were poffdletl of. It is remarkable, that many of thefe nations adlually palled by our fettlement of Albany in New Yoik, and travelled 250 miles farther to Montreal, though they might have pur- chafed the goods cheaper at the former. So much did the French exceed us in the arts of winning the aflettions of thefe favages ! Since we became poflcfled of Canada, our trade with that country is computed to employ about 60 (hips and loco feamen. Their exports, at an average of three vears, in fkins, furs., ginfeng, fnake-root, capillaire, and wheat, amount to 105,500!. Their imports from Great Britain, in a variety of articles, are com- puted at nearly the fame fum. It is unneceiTliry to make any remarks on the value and importance of this trade, which not only fupplies us with unmanufadturcd ma- terials, indifpenfibly neceflary in many articles of our commerce, but alfo takes in exchan'''-e the rnanufattures of our own country, or the production of our other fettlements in the Eaft and Weft Indies. But whatever attention be paid to the trade and peopling of Canada, it will ,be impofTible to overcome certain inconveniences, proceeding from natural caufes ; I mean the feverity of the winter, which is fo excefiive from December to Mpril, that the grcateft rivers are frozen over, and the fnow lies commonly from four to fix feet deep on the ground, even in thafe parts of the country which are three deo-rees fouth of London, and in the temperate latitude of Paris. Another incon- venience arifes from the falls in the river St. Laurence, below Montreal, which render it difficult for very large fliips to penetrate to that emporium of inland commerce ; but vcficls from 300 to 400 tons arrive there annually. Our commu- nication therefore with Canadi, and the immcnfe regions beyond it, will always be interrupted during the winter feafon, until roads are formed, that can be tra- velled with fafety. For it may be here obfcrved, that the Indians often cominence hoflilities againft us, without any provocation, and commit the molt horrid ravages. But when at laft their barbatities have routed the Itrength of our people, they are not afhamtd to beg a peace '. they know we always grant it readily ; they promife it (hall endure as long as the fun and moon ; and then all is quiet till fomc incident, too often CO operating with ill ufage received from our traders, gives them a freih opportunity of renewing their cjrueltieii. 1 NOVA ( 727 ) NOVA SCOTIA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles.- Length 350 I ,....,„„_ S 43 ^nd 49 north latitude. ■) Breadrli 250 S ^^^"^^" ^60 ami 67 eaft longitude. J 57^oco. Boundaries.] "OOUNDED by the River St. Laurence on the North} by the X3 gulf of St. Laurence, and the Atlantic ocean, Eaft ; by the: fame ocean, Soutli ; and by Canada and New England, Weft. In the year 1784,- this province was divided into tzvo governments. The province and government, now ftyled New Brunsv/ick is bounded on the weftward of the mouth of the river St. Croix, by that river to its fource, and by a line drawn due north from thence to the iouthern boundary of the province of Quebec, to the northward by that boundar/ as far as the wcllern extremity of the Bay de Chaleurs, to the eaRward by the faid bay to the gulf of St. Laurence to the bay called Bay Verte, to the fouth by a line in the centre of the Bay of Fundy, from the river St. Croix to the mouth of the Mufquat River, and the faid river to its fource, and from thence by a due eaft line acrofs the illhmus into the Bav Verte, to join the eaftern lot above defcribed,. including all iflands within fix leao-ues of the coaft. Rivers.] The river of St. Laurence forms the northern boundary. The rivers RifgoJche and Nipifiguit run from weft to eaft, and fall into the bay of Sr. Laurence. The rivers of St. John, PaiTamagnadi, Penobfcot, and St. Croix which runs from north to fouth, fall into Fundy Bay, or the lea a little to the eaftward of it. Seas, bays, and capes.] The feas adjoining to it are, the Atlantic ocean, Fundy Bay, and the gulf of St. Laurence. The lelfer bays are, Chenip-to and Green Bay upon the ifthmus, which joins the north part of Nova Scotia to the'fouth ; and the Bay of Chaleurs on the north-eaft ; the bay of Chedibuflo on the fouth- eaft : the bay of the Iflands, the ports of Bart, Chebufto, Profper, Sr. Margaret, La Heve, port Maltois, port Rofignol, port Vert, and port Joly, on the Jbuth ; port La Tour, on the fouth-eaft ; port Sr. Mary, Annapolis, and Minas on the- fouth fide of Fundy Bay, and port Rofeway now the moft poi)ulous of ail. The chief capes are. Cape Portage, Ecoumenac, Tourmentin, Cape Port and Epis, on the eaft. Cape Fogcri, and Cape Canceau, on the fouth-eaft.- Cape Blanco, Cape Vtrt, C;ipe Theodore, Cape Dore, Cape La Heve, and Cape Ne- gro, on the fouth. Cape Sable, and Cape Fourche, on the Ibuth-weft. Lakes.] The lakes- are very numerous, but have not yet received particular names. Climate.] 7 his country, though within the temperate zone, is wrapt up in the gloom of a fog during great part of the year, and for four 6r five months it is intenfely cold. But though the cold in winter and the heat in fummer are great, they come on graduallv, fo as to prepare the bodv for endurino- both. ' "^ Soil and prodctce.] Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, was, till lately, almoft a continued forcft ; and agriculture, though attempted by the Englifn fettlers, .has hitherto made little progrcfs. In moft parts tiie foil is thin and barren,, the corn 728 BRITISH A M E Pv I C A. corn It produces, of a flirivelled kind like rye, and the graft Intermixed with a cold Ipungy mols. However, it is not uniformly bad; there are tracts in the jieninfuba to the fouthward, which do not yield to the bed land in New England ; and, in general, the foil is adapted to the produce of hemp and flax. The tim- ber is extreuiely proper for fliip-building, and produces pitch and t.ir. Flattering accounts have been given of the iniprovcmcnts making in the new fcttlements and rti.e bay of Fundv. A great quantity of land hath been cleared- which abounds in timber, and lliip-loads of excellent malls and fpars have been lliipped for England. Animals.] This country is not deficient in the animal produfl:ions of the neighbouring provinces, particularly deer, beavers, and otters. Wildfowl, and .all manner ot game, and many kinds of European fowls and quadrupeds, have, from tim.e to time been brought into it, and thrive well. At the clofe of March, the filh begin to fpawn, when they enter the rivers in fuch flioals as are incredible. Her- -rin"-s come up in April, and the Iturgeon and ialinon in May. But the mofl: valu- able appendage of New Scotland, is the Cape Sable coafl, along which is one con- tinued range of cod-iifliing banks, and excellent harbours. History, settlement, chief? Notwithftanding the forbidding appearance TOWNS, A^■D COMMERCE. ^ of this countiy, it was here that fome of the ■firft European fcttlements were made. The fiift grant of lands in it was given by James 1. to his fecretary fir William Alexander, from whom it had the name of Kova Scotij, or New Scotland. Since then, it has frequently changed hands, from one private proprietor to another, and from the French to the Engliih nation backward and forward. It was not confirmed to the Englifli till the peace of .Utrecht, and tlieir defign in acquiring it docs not fcein to have fo much arifen ■from any profped: of direft profit to be obtained by it, as from an apprehenfion that the French, by poilefling this province, might have had it in their power to annoy our other fettlemenls. Upon this principle, 3000 families were tranfported in 1749, at the charge of the government, into this country. The town they erefted is called Halifax, from the earl of that name, to whofe wifdom and care we owe this fettlemcnt. The town of Halifax ftands upon Chebudto Bay, very com- modiouily fituate for the fifliery, and has a communication with mod parts of the province, either by land carriage, the fea, or navigable rivers, with a fine harbour, where a fmall fquadron of fhips of war lies during the winter, and in fum- mcr puts to fea, under the command of a commodore, for the proteftion of the filhery, and to fee that the articles of the peace, jelating thereto, duly obferved by the French. The town has an entrenchment, and is ftrengthcncd with forts of timber. Three regiments of nicn arc ftationcd in it, to proteft the inha- bitants from the Indians, whofe rcfcntment, however excited or fomented, has been found implacable againft the Englifh. The number of inhabitants is faid to be 15 or 16,000, who live very comfortably by the trade they carry on in furs and .naval Rorcs, by their fifhecics, and by fupplying the wants of the governor and the garrifon already mentioned. The other towns of lefs note are 7\nnapolis Royal, which ftands on the eaft fide of the bay of Fundy, and though but a fmall wretched place, was formerly thg ca- pital of the province. It has one of the fincil harbours in America, capable of con- taining a thoufand vcffels at anchor, in the utmoft fecurity. This place is alio pro- tedlcd by a fort and garrifon. St. John's is a new fettlemcnt at the mouth of the river of that name, that falls into the bay of Fundy on the well fide. Since the con- clufion of the Am-crican war, the emigration of loyalilh to this province from the United States, hath been very great. By them new towns have been raifcd, but particularly at Port Rofeway, where Is now a city named Shclbhriic, which extends .two UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 729 two miles on the water fide, and one mile back, with wide ftreets croffinp each other at right angles. It is f;ud to have above 9000 inhabitants, exclufivc of what is ftyled the Black Town (containing 1200 free blacks, who ferved on the roy- al fide during the war), which ftands about a mile from Shelburne, and feparatcd from it by a fmall frcfli-watcr river. The harbour here is dee[), capacious and f •- cure, and the tide hath a great rife and fall. Such of the loyalifts as apply for lands have in proportion to the property they pofielled before the troubles in America commenced, allowing forfuch as have large families to provide for. And it is faid that the new appointeil governor of New Brunfv/ick has it in his inftrusftions to " grant, without fee or reward, to fuch reduced officers as ferved in provincial corjfs during the late war in North America, and /hall pcrfonally apply for the lame, the following quantities of lands, fubjcifb at the expiration of ten vears to the fame quit rents as other lands are fubjeft in the province of Nova Scotia as alfo fubjed: to the fame conditions of cultivation and improvement. To every perfon having the rank of a field officer, three thoufand acres ; to every captain two thou- fand acres ; and to every fubaltern one thoufand acres." The reduced officers of the navv are entitled to land in the fanic proportion. The exports from Great Britain to this country confiil: chiefly of woollen and linen cloth, and other neceiraries for wear, of fifliing tackle, and ricrging for ffiips. The amount of our exports, at an average of three years, before the new fettle- ments, was about 26,500 1. The only articles we can get in exchange arc timber and the produce of the fiflicry, which, at a like average, amounts to 38,000 1. But the inhabitants begin now to eredl faw-mills, and to fupply the Weft India iflands with lumber of every kind, as well as with the produce of the fifhery, u'hich will be a profitable article to both countries. The whole population of Nova Scotia and the ifiands adjoining was eflimated at 50,000, but that number is now greatly increafed. UNITED STATE SoF AMERICA. OF the rife, progrefs, and mod remarkable events of the war between Great Britain and her American colonies, abetted by France, which at length termi- naced in the etlablifliment of the " United States of America," we have already given an account, in our view of the principal tranfacflions in the hiftory of Great Britain. It was on the ^th of July, 1 776, that the congrefs publiflted a folemn declaration, iii which they affigned their reafons for withdrawing their allegiance from the king of Great Britain. In the name, and by the authority, of the inhabitants of the united colonies of New Hampfhire, MaflTachufct's Bay, Rhode Illand, and Providence Plan- tations, Connedicut, New York, New Jerfey, Pennfylvania, Delaware, Maryland Virginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, they declared, that they then were, and of right ought to be. Free and Independent States ; and that, as fuch, they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, con trad: alliances, cftabliJh commerce, and do all other ads which independent ftates may of rio-ht do. They alfo publiflied articles of confederation, and perpetual union, between the colonies, in which they affumed the title of "The United States of America-" and by which each of the colonies contrafted a reciprocal treaty of alliance and friend- flfip for their common defence, for the maintenance of their liberties, and for their general and mutual advantage ; obliging themfclves to affiil each other ao-ainlt all 5 "• violence 730 UNIT ED ST ATE S op A MER I C A. violence that might threaten them, and to repel, in comnnon, all the attacks that might be levelled agaift them, on account of religion, fovereignty, commerce, or under any other pretext whatfoever. , Each of the colonies referved to themfelvcs alone, the exclufive right of regulating their internal government, and of framing laws on all matters not included in the articles of confederation. But for the jnore convenient management of the general interefts of the United States, it was clctcrmined, that delegates fliould be annually appointed in fuch man- ner as the legiflature of each ftate fnould diredt, to meet in congrefs on the fiift Monday of November of every year, with a power referved to each ftate to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to fend others in their ftead, for the remainder ot the year. No ftate is to be reprefented in congrefs by lefs than two, nor. more than feven members ; and no perfon is capable of bein<>- a delegate for more than three years, in any term of fix years ; nor is any perfon be- ing a delegate, capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or any other for his benefit, ftiall receive any falary, fees, or emolument of any kind. In determining queftions in the United States, in congrefs ailembled, each ftate is to have one vote. Every ftate is to abide by the determinations of the United States in congrefs aflembled, on all queftions which are fubmitted to them by the con- federation. The articles of confederation are to be inviolably obferved by every ftate, and the union is to be perpetual ; nor is any alteration, at any time hereafter, to be made in any ol them, unlefs fuch alteration be agreed to in a congrefs of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by their feveral legiflatures. It was on the joth of January, 1778, that the French king concluded a treaty of amity and commerce with the thirteen United Colonies of America, as independent ftates. Holland acknowledged them as fuch April 19th, 1782 ; and on the 30th of November, 1782, provifional articles were figned at Paris, by the Britilh anti Ame- rican comnliflloners, in which his Britannic majefty acknowledged the thirteen coloniestobe Free, Sovereign, and Independent States; and thefe articles were after- wards ratified by a definitive treaty. Sweden acknowledged them as fuch February, 5th, 1783 ; Denmark, the 25th February i Spain, in March, and Rufilia, in July According to the report oi the committee appointed tor that purpofe, the Ferei'^n Debt of the United States incu'rjcd by the late v>'ar for obtaining their indcj)endence, amounted to 7,885,085 dollars, and the jDiJ/«^/?/f Debt 10 34,115,290; total, at 4s. 6d. each, equal to 9,450,0841. fterling, the intercft of which at 6 fer ceJ. is 567,005!. NEW ENGLAND. Situation akd extent. Miles. Degrees, Sq. Miles. Length 5507 K„f^„„,. 541 and 49 north latitude. 7 „ Breadth 200 S ""^^'^" ^ 67 and 74 weft longittide. S ^' ,000. Boundaries.] T)0UNDED on the North-haft by Nova Scotia; on the X3 Weft, by Canada ; on the South, by New York ; and 011 the Eaft' by the Atlantic. Divifions. UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 731*' Divifions. Provinces. Chief towns. The northern divifion, 1 ^^^^ Hampfhire I \ Portfmouth. or government 3 ^ J 4 The middle divifion J Maffachufet's Colony } { ^° w^^L^" ^;"' ^^'^5' The fouth divifion Rhode Ifland, 8cc. Newport. rri n. J- -r f r- xv . M New London. 1 he welt divuion i Connecticut ( ] H rf I Rivers.] Their rivers arc, i. Connedicut ; 1. Thames; 3. Patuxent ; 4. Merimac ; 5. Pifcataway ; 6. Saco; 7. Cafco; 8. Kinebeque; and 0. Pcnobfcot, or Pentagonct. Bays and capes.] The moft remarkable bays and harbours arc thofe formed by Plymouth., Rhode Ilknd, and Providence Plantations; Monument-lJay; Weft- Harbour, formed by the bending of Cape-Cod ; Bofton harbour ; Pifcataway ; and Cafco-Bay. The chief capes are, Cape-Cod, Marble-Head, Cape-Anne, Cape-Netic, Cape- Porpus, Capc-1'^lizabcth, and Cape-Small-Point. Air and climate.] New England, though fituate almoft ten degrees nearer the fun than the mother-country, has an earlier winter, which continues longer, and is more fevere. The fummer again is extremely hot, and much beyond any thing known in Europe, in the fame latitude. The clear and ferene temperature of the flcy, however, makes- amends for the extremity of heat and cold, and ren- ders the climate of this country preferable to moft of the American provinces. The winds are very boifterous in the winter feafon, and naturalifts afcribe the early approach, the length and feverity of the winter, to the large frefh-water lakes lying on the norih-weft of New England, which being frozen over feveral months, occafion thofe piercing winds, which prove fo fatal to mariners on this coaft. The fun rifes at Bofton, on the longefl: day, at 26 minutes after four in the morning, and fets at 34 minutes after feven in the evening ; and on the fliorteft day, it rifes at 35 minutes after feven in the morning, and fets at 27 minutes after four in the afternoon : thus their longeft; day is about fifteen hours, and the fhorteft about nine. Soil and produce.] We have already obferved, that the lands lying on the caftcrn fhore of America arc low, and in fome parts fwampv, but farther back- they rife into hills. In New England, towards the north-eaft, the lands become rocky and mountainous. The foil here is various, but beft as you approach the fouthward. Round iMaifachufet's bay the foil is black, and faid to be as rich as in any part of England ; and here the firft planters found the grals above a yard high. The uplands are lefs fruitful, being for the mofi part a mixture of fand and gravel, inclining to clay. The low grounds abound in meadows and pafture land. The E,uio]iean grains have not been cultivated here with much fuccefs ; the wheat is fubjeft to be blafted ; the barley is a hungry grain, and the oats are lean and chaftV. But the Indian corn flouriilies in high perfeftion, and makes the general food of the lower fort of people. They likewife malt and brew it into a beer, which is not contemptible. However, the common table-drink is cyder and fpruce beer : the latter is made of the tops of the fpruce fir, with the addition of a fmall quantity of molafles. They likewife raifc in New England a large quantity of hemp and flax. •The fruits of Old England come to great perfection here, 5 A 2 particularly 732 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. particularly peaches and apples. Seven or eight hundred fine peaches may be found on one tree, and a fingle apple-tree has produced feven barrels of cyder in- one feafon. But New England is chiefly diflinguifhed for the variety and value of its timber, as oak, alh, pine, fir, cedar, elm, cyprefs, beech, walnut, chefnur, hazel, faffa- fras, fumach, and other woods ufcd in dying or tanning leather, carpenters work, and Ihip-building. The oaks here are faid to be inferior tothofe of Lngland ; but the firs are of an amazing bulk. They draw from their trees confiderable quanti- ties of pitch, tar, rehn, turpentine, gums, and balm ; and the foil produces hemp and flax. A fliip may here be built and rigged out with the produce of their forefts i and indeed fliip-building forms a confiderable branch of their trade. Metals. 1 Rich iron mines, of a mofl; excellent kind and temper, have been difcovered in New England, which, if improved, may become very beneficial to the inhabitants. Animals.] The animals of this country furnifli many articles of New^ England commerce. All kinds of European cattle thrive here, and multiply exceedingly; the horfcs of New England are hardy, mettlefome, and ferviceable, but fmallcr than ours, though larger than the Welch. They have few fheep ; and the wool, thouo-h of a ftaple fufficiently long, is not near fo fine as that of England. Here are alio elks, deer, hares, rabbits, fquirrels, beavers, otters, monkies, minks, martens, racoons, fabbs, bears, wolves, which are only a kind of wild dogs, foxes, ounces, and a variety of other tame and wild quadrupeds. But one ot the molt fingvdar animals, of this and the neighbouring countries, is the mofe or moofe deer, of which there are two forts ; the common light grey moofe, which rcfem- bles the ordinary deer ; thefe herd fometimcs thirty together : and the large black moofe, whofe body is about the fize of a bull ; his neck refembles a flag's, and his flefli is extremely grateful. The horns, when full grown, are about four or five feet from the head to the tip, and have flioots or branches to each horn, which generally fprcad about fix feet. When this animal goes through a thicket, or un- der the boughs o-f a tree, he lays his horns back on his neck, to- place them out (>f his way : and thcfe prodigious horns are fhcd every year. This animal does not fpring or rife in going, like a deer; but a large on«, in his conmTon walk, has been feen to ftep over a gate five feet high. When unhaiboared, he will run a courfe of twenty or thirty miles before he takes to bay; but when chafed, he- generally takes to the water. There is hardly any where greater plenty of fowls, as turkeys, gcefe, partridges,, ducks, widgeons, dappers, fwans, heathcoeks, herons, florks, bhick birds, all forts of barn-door fowl, vafl flights of pigeons, which come and go at certain fca- lons of the year, cormorants, ravens, crows, &c. The reptiles are rsttL'fufikcs, frogs, and to;ids, which fwarm in the unckared parts of thcfe countries,, \\herc, with the owls,, they make a mofl: hideous noifc in the tummer evenings. The feas round New England, as well as its rivers, abound with fifh, and even: whales of fcveral kinds, fuch as the whalebone whale, the fpermaceti whale,, which \i.clds ambergris, the fin-backed whale,, the fcrag whale, and the bunch whale, of which they take great numbers, and fend befidcs fome fliips every year to fiili for whales In Grecnlaml, and as far as Falkland iflands. A terrible creature, called the whalc-killcr, from io. to- 30 feet long, with ftrong teeth and jaws, perfccutes the whale in thel'c feas; but, afraid of his monflrous ftrcngth,.. ihcy ieldom attack a iu!l grown whale,, or indeed a young one, but in companies. ■often or twelve. At the mouth of the river Penobfcot, there is a maekrcl filhcry ;. they likcwife fdh for cod iu winter, which Uvcy dry in the frott. POPULATIOK^ UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 733 Population, inhabitants, and ? There is not one of the colonies which FACE OF THE COUNTRY. 5^ Can be Compared in the abundance of people, the number ol confiderabfc and trading towns, and the manufaflurcs that are carried on in them, to New England. The molt populous and flourifhing parts of the mother-country hardly make a better appearance than the culti- vaicd parts of this province, which reach above 60 miles back. There are here many gentlemen of confiderable landed eftates ; but the greateft part of the people is compofed of a fubflantial yeomanry, who cukivate their own freeholds, with- out a dependence upon any but Providence and their own induftry. Thefe freeholds generally pafs to their children in the way of gavelkind : which keeps them trom ever emerging out of their original happy mediocrity. In no part of the world are the ordinary fort fo independent, or poffefs more of the con- veniencies of life ; they are ufed from their infmcy to the exercife of arms ; and before the conteft with the mother-country, they had a militia, which was by no means contemptible ; but their military ftrcngtti is now much more con- fiderable. The population of the four provinces, of which New England is comprized, was proportioned by Douglas, fome years part, as follows : But in 1783 Maffichufct's bay - - - - 200,000 — 350,000 Connefticut - - - - - 100,000 — 206^006 Rhode Ifland - _ - - 30,000 — i50,40O' New Hampfhirc _ - - - 24,000-— ^2,200 Thus the number fince his rime has fo greatly increafed, that, the four provinces- now contain nearly 700,000 fouls, including a fmall number of negroes and- Indians. Connedicut is fiid, in proportion to its extent, to exceed every ftate of Anie- rica ip populoufnefs and plenty. The men, in general, throughout the province, are robult, ftout, and tall. The greateft care is taken of the limbs and bodies of infants, which are kept ftraight by means of a board ; a praftice learnt cf the In- dian women, who abhor all crooked people ; fo that deformity is- here a raritv. The women arc tair^ handfonie, and reieivcd in their manners and behaviour. Religion.] The church of England, in this part of America, is far from bein<>- in a (lourifliing condition ; in feveral places, the number of auditors do not amount to twelve perfons. In the year 1768, the four provinces contained upwards of 700 religious aifeaiblies ; of which 36 only obferved the forms of the church of Ens- land. Every particular fociety among them is independent of all other ecclefiaflica! jurifdiftion ; nor does there lie any appeal from their pLinifliments or cenfuref?. The rainifteis of Bollon depend entirely on the generofity of their hearers for fupport -, a voluntary contribution being made for them, by the congregation, every time divine fcrvice is celebrated. It is not long fince they fufFer-ed any member of the church of England to have a Ihare in the magifcracy, or to be eleft'ed a member of the Commons, or houfe of Reprefentatives. Their laws againft quakers were for- merly v/cry fevere, that feet giving the ftrft fectlers and government great uneafi- ntfs and dilturbance. Calvinifm, from the principles of the'firlt fettlers, hr.th been- very prevalent in New England, many of the inhabitants alfo- formerly obferved the fabbath with a kind of Jtwifn rigour ; but their bigotry of late hath been- much diminillKfd. Since their indcpcndcnccj there is noone'eltablilhed- religion in the province, but every fedl is allowed the free exercifc of its own. TheConnecfticuc province hath alfo provid^-d abilliop for the Kpifcopalians among tlyem, bv fendin<^' oue'of their number to Scotland to be ordained by the- nonjurino- bifhons of die' tp'il'copal church in chat kingdom> which- ceremony vy-as perfornied- at A-berdeen. Ckisf' 734 U N I T E D S T A T E S oi- A M E R I C A. Chief TOWNS.] Bofton, the capital of New England, ftands on a penlnfula at the bottom of Maffachufet's bay, about nine miles from its mouth. At the entrance of this bay are feveral rocks, which appear above water, and upwards of a dozen fmall iflands, fome of which are inhabited. There is but one fafe channel to ap- proach the harbour, and that fo narrow, that two fliips can fcarcely fail through abreaft ; but within the harbour there is room for 500 fail to lie at anchor, in a good depth of water. On one of the iflands of the bay llands Fort William, the moil regular fortrefs in all the plantations. This cafiie is defended by 100 guns, twenty of which lie on a platform level with tlie water, fo that it is fcarcely poiiible for an .enemy to pafs the caftle. To prevent furprife, they have a guard placed on one of the rocks, at two leagues diftance, from whence thty m.ake fjgnals to the caftle, v-fhcn any fhips come near it. There is alio a battery of guns at each end of the town. At the bottom of the bay is a noble pier, near 2000 feet in length ; along which, on the north fide, exti-'nds a row of warehoufes for the merchants, and to this pier, fnips of the greateft buiden may come and unload, without the help of boats. The greateft pa;t of the town lies round the harbour, in the fhape of a half moon; the country bcyond-ic rifing gradually, and affording a delightful profpe. provided there were anv on whole inllruftions he attended ; otherwife it might bo j)aid towards the fupport of the teacher or teachers of the pari{h or precinft in which the faid monies fhould be raifed. That every denomination of Chriflians, demeaning themfelves peaceably, and as good fubjcftsof the commonv/eaUh, fhould be equally protcftcd by the law : and that no fubordination of any fe<5t or deno- mination to another, fhould ever be eftablillied. It was likcwife declared, that as all power refided originally in the people, and v/as derived from them, the feveral magilVates and officers of government, vefled with authority, wliether legislative, executive, or judicial, are their fubflitutcs and agents, and are at all times accountable to them. That no fubjedt ihould be ar- lefted, imprifoncd, dcfpoikcl, or deprived of his property, immunities, or privi- kpes, put out of the protedion of the law, exiled or deprived of his life, liberty, or eftate, but by the judgment of his peers,, or the law of the land. That the Icgiflature fhould not make any law, fiibjedting any perlbn to a capital or infamous punifhment, except for the govtrnnu-nt of the army or navy, without trial by jury. That the liberty of the prefs is effential to the fecurity of freedom in a ftatG ; and that it ought nor, therefore, to be reLlraincd in that commonwealth. That the people have u riglit to keep, and to bear arms, for the common defence ; biit U NITED ST ATES OF AM ERl C A. 739 but thnt as in times of peace armies are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be maintained without the confent of the legiflature ; and th;u the military power fhould always be held in an exact fubordination to the civil authority, and be go- verned by it. It was likewife enadled, that the department of Icgiflation fliouid be formed by- two branches, a fenate, and a houfe of reprefentatives ; each of which fliould have a negative on the other. That the fenators, and the members of the houfe of re- prefentatives, fhould be eledtcd annually ; and that every male perfon, being twenty- one years of age, or upwards, who had rcfided in any particular town in the com- monwealth for the fpace of one year, and having a freehold eflate v/ithin the faid town, of the annual income of three pounds, or any eftate of the value of fixty pounds, have a right to vote for fenators and icjiref^ntativcs of the diflricft of which he was an inhabitant. The fenators are forty, chofen in this proportion ; county of Suffolk 6, Ellex 6, Middiefex 5, HampnTire4, I'lyniouth 3, Barnllable i, Brirtol 3, York. 1, Duke's and Nantucket i, U'orccfter 5, Cumberland i, Lin- coln I, Berkfliire 1. The houie of reprefentatives is chofen alfo in certain pro- portions, and paid by the conilituent body, it was likewife enaflcd, that there fhould be a fupremc executive magiilrate, wiio fhould be ilyled, the governor of the commonwealth of MaiTachufets, and alfo a lieutenant governor, both of whom fhould be chofen annually, by die whole body of eleftors in the commonv.'ealth, and affirted by nine counfellors, chofen by ballot, out of the fenate. The fecre- tary, treafurer, receiver-general, notaries public, and naval officers, are chofen annually by the fenators and reprefentatives. The judiciary power to be fepten- nial, and the delegates to congrefs fliall be annually elefted by and out of the fe- nate and houfe of reprefentatives, or general court. The governor has a negative on bills fcnt to him for aflent from the general court, but has no control on their choice of officers. The ftate of Rhode Ifland continues to admit their original charter as the rule of their government, it containing an ample grant of all powers legifla- tive, executive, and judicial. New Hampfliire and Connecflicut have not yet finally eflablilhed their forms of government, but have chiefiy adopted that of Ma(Tachufcts-Bay. It is worthy of notice that during the war with Great Britain, an afl was pafTed, on the 4th of May 17^0, by the council and houfe of reprefentatives of Maila- chufets Bay, for incorporating and eftablifhing a fociety for the cultivation and pro- motion of the arts' and fciences. It is entitled, " The American Academy of Arts and Sciences :" the firfT: members were named in the aft j and they were never to be more than two hundred, nor lefs than forty. It was declared in the aft, that the end and defign of the inlHtution of the faid academy, was to promote and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of the natural hiflory of the coun- try ; and to determine the ufcs to which its various natural produftions might be applied ; to promote and encourage medicinal difcovcries ; mathematical dil- quiiitions ; philolophical inquiries and experiments ; aftronomical, meteorological, and geographical obfcrvations ; and improvements in agriculture, arts, manufac- tures, and commerce: and, in fliort, to cultivate every art and fcience, which might tend to advance the intereft, honour, dignity, and happinefs, of a free, independent, and virtuous people. 5 B a NEW r 740 3 x\ E W Y O R K. Situation avd extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq, Miles, T eno-rh -loo 7 ■ ? 4° ^"^ 4^^ norrh latitude. 7 j^ciii^ui j^u I hetween < 1 T- n, ■ j V 24,000. Breadth 1505 i 72 and 76 vvetUongrtude. j ^' Boundaries.] "]V T E W Y O R K is bounded on the South and South-weft, by Hudfon's and Delaware rivers, which divide it from New Counties. f* New York — { Albany < — Ulfter — Duchefs — - } Orange — Weft-Chefter King's — — — Queen's — ■ Suffolk — Richmond — — — Terfey and Pennfylvajiia ; on the Eaft and North-eaft, by New England and the Atlantic Ocean ; and on rhe North -weft, by Canada. This province, including the Ifland of New York, Long Iftand, and Staten Iftand, is divided into the ten following counties r Chief Towns. TVT -tr S 40-40 N. lat. New York < ^ ^ .^j , I 74-00 W. lon.- Albany None Orange Weft-Chefter None Jamaica ^ Southampton > Long Ifland, Richmond, 3 Rivers.] The principal of thefe are Hudfon's and the Mohawk ; the former abounds with excellent harbours, and is well ftored with great variety of fifh : on this the cities of New York and Albany are fituated. On the Mohawk is a large cataradl, called the Cohoes, the water of which is faid to fall 70 feet perpendicular, where the river is a quarter of a mile in breadth. Capes.] Thefe are Cape May on the Eaft entrance of Delaware river ; Sandy- Hook, near the entrance of Raritan river ; and Montock Pomt, at the eaft end of Long Ifland. Climate, soil, and produce.] This province,, lying to the South of New England, enjoys a more happy temperature of climate. The air is very healthy, and agrees well v/tth all conllitutions. The face of the country, refembling that of the other Americart colonies, is low^ flat, and marlhy towards the fca. As you recede from the coaft, the eye is entertained with the gradual iwelling of hills, which become large in proportion as } ou advance into the country. The foil is ex- tremely fertile, producing v.'heat, rye, Iiulian corn, oats, barley, flax,, and fruits, in prcat abundance and jicrfeiftion. The tinibcr is much the fame v/ith that of Ncv England. A great deal of iron is found here. Cities, population, and coMMtRCF..] The city of New York ftands on the Soulh-wcftcndof York-Ifland, which is twelve miles long, and near three in bieadth, extremely well fituated for trade, at the mouth of Hudfon's river, where it is three miles broad, and proves a noble conveyance from Albany, ami many other inland to'.vns towards Canada, and the lakes. The city is in length above a m.ile, and its mean U N I T E D S T A T E S or A M E R I C A. 741 mean breadth a quarter of a mile. The city and harbour arc defended by a fort and battery ; in the fort is a fpacious manfion-houfe for the ufe of the governor. Many of the houfcs are very elegant; and the city, though irregularly built, af- fords a line profpeft. In the )'car 1776, when the king's troops took it, fome in- cendiaries attempted to deftroy it by fire, and one fourth part of it was burnt down. A great part of the inhabitants, now computed about 15,000, are dcfccnded from the Dutch families, who remained here after the furjenderof the New Netherlands to the Englifh, and the whole province is fuppofed to contain 200,000. The better fort are rich and hofpitable, and the lower ranks are eafy in their circumftances ; at leaft this was the cafe before the commencement of the civil war ; and both clafles arc endowed with a generous and liberal turn of mind, which renders their fo- ciety and convcrfation very agreeable. The commerce of this province does not materially differ from that of New Eng-- land. The commodities in which they trade are wheat, flour, barley, oats, beef, and other kinds of animal food. Their markets are the fame with thofe which the New Englanders ufe ; and they have a fliare in the log-v/ood trade, and that which is carried on v/ith the Spanifh and French plantations. They uicd to take almoft the fame commodities from England with the inhabitants of Bofton. At an average of three years, their exports were faid to amount to 526,0001. and their imports i'roni Great Britain to 531,0001. Religion and learning.] All religious denominations, except Jews atid Papifcs, enjoyed equal privileges here, as there is no eftabliflied church, unlefs the eighth article of capitulation made on the furrender of the place (" The Dutch fhall enjoy the liberty of their confciences in divine worfliipand church difcipline"), may- be termed an eftablifhment. Judaifm was tolerated, but popery was not. The inhabitants of the province confill: chiefly of Dutch, Englifli, and Scotch prefbyteri- ans, German Calviniils, Lutherans, quakcrs, baptifts, &c. who have their refpeftive houfes- cf worfnip.. The Dutch prefbyterians being in fubordination to the Claffis of Amfterdam, ufed to fend all their youth, who are intended for the miniftry, ro Holland for ordination, as the epifcopalians do theirs to Englrnd *. But by the late conftitution of New York fince its independence, it is ordained, that the free cxercife and enjoyment of religious profcfiion and worfhip, without difcrimination or preference,, fhall /or ever be allowed within that flate to all mankind. - A college was eredled in New York, by adl of parliament, about the year 1755 ; but as the afTembly was at that time divided into parties, it was formed on a contract- ed plan, and has for that reafcn never met with the encouragement which might naturally be expedlcd. History and covernM-ent.] The Swedes and Dutch were the firft Europeans • v;ho formed fettlements on this part of the American coaft. The tradl claimed by rhefe two nations, extended from the 38th to the 41ft degree of latitude, and was • called the New Netherlands. It continued in their hands till the tliiie of Charles- II. who gained it by right of conquetl in 1664, and it was confirmed to the Englifh by the treaty of Breda, 1667. The New Nether-lands were not long in our j^wlTeflion, before they were divided into different provinces.- New York * In the year 1740, the number of places for public wo fliip in the city of NewYork ftood as follows : D-Jtch Prelbyterwns 3 Englifli dirto . 2 Scotch ditto ■ ■ 1 EpilVopaUans » ■ ■ ■ ■ -; French refugees ■ -— i Quikcis ■■ ' — ' ' 1 Baptiils . I r.Ior.ivi:ins __^ j German Calvinills . 2 Liitlicrans . j Mcttiodi'lls , evvs- took 742 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. took that name from the king's brother, James, duke of York, to whom the kino- granted it, with full powers of government, by letters patent, dated March /o, i6d4. On James's acceffion to the throne, the right to New York became veiled in the crown, fincc which time it became a royal government. The king ap- pointed the governor and council ; and the people, once in feven years, elected their reprefentatives to ferve in general aflemblics. Thefe three branches of the leo-illature (anlwering to thole of Great Britain), had power to make any lawb not repugnant to thofe of Englartd ; but, to render them valid, the royal aflent was .required. By the conftitution of the flate of New York, eftabliflied in 1777, the fupremc Jeo-iflative power was veiled in two feparate and diftinft bodies of men ; the one to be'called " The AfiTembly of the States of New York," to confifl of 70 members annually chofen by ballot ; and the other, " The Senate of the State of New York"; to conlift of 24 for four years, who together are to form the legiflature, and to meet once at Icafl, in every year, for the difpatch of bufinefs. The fupremc executive power is to be veiled in a governor, who is to continue in office three years, affiil- ed by four counfellors ch.ofen by and from the fenate. Every male inhabitant of full age, who fliall poflefs afreehold of the value of twenty pounds, or have rented a tene- ment of the yearly value of forty fnillings, and riiail have paid taxes to the flate for fix months preceding the day of election, is entitled to vote for members of the alfcmbly,; but thofe who vote for the governor, and the members of the fenate, are to be poireffed of freeholds of the value of one hundred pounds. The dele.. rates to the conorefs, the judges, &c. are to be chofen by ballot of the fenate and alfembly. E R S E Y. NEW J Situation and extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 160 I !,„„„„»„ 5 39 and 4-^ north latitude. Breadth Boundaries.] 60 I between k 74 and 76 weft longitude Sq. Miles. > 10,000. NE W J E R S E Y is bounded on the Weft and Soiith-wcft by Delaware river and Bay ; on the South-eaft and Eaft, by the Atlantic Ocean ; and by the Sound which fcparates Staten Ifland from the con- tinent, and Hudfon's river, on the North. Divifions. Eaft Divifion contains Weft Divifion contains Counties. fMiddlefex ! Monmouth ^ Elfex i .Somerfet L Bergen 'Burlington Gloucefter Salem I Cumberland ■^ Cape May Hunterdon Morris ^Suflex Chief Towns. fPerth-Amboy and New-Brunfwick i None >< Elizabeth and Newark i i None J L Bergen -) fBuRL I Glouc Salem . J Hopewell j I None I Trenton INGTON 5 X'iler I 40- S N. : 75-0 W. at. Ion. Mor [None j I iviorris RiVERS.J UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 743 River s.} Thcfe are the Delaware, Raritan, and Paffliick, on the latter of which is a remarkable cataradt ; the height of the rock from which the water falls is faicl to be about 70 feet perpendicular, and the river there 80 yards broad. Climate, soil, and produce.] The climate is' nnuch the fame with that of New-York ; the foil is various, at leaft one-fourth parr of the province is barren fandy land, producing pines and cedars; the other parts in general are good, and produce wheat, barley, rye, Indian corn, &c. in great perfedtion. History, government, population, ^ New Jerfey is part of that vaft" CHIEF TOY^Ms, AMD COMMERCE. i' traft of land, which we have ob- ferved was given by king Charles II. to- his brother, James duke of York: he fold it to Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret (from which it received its prefent' name, becauf; Sir George had cllates in the iiland of Jeriey), and they again fold it toother?, v/ho in the ye.ar 1702 made a furrender of the powers of government to queen Anne, which flie accepted : after which it became a royal governinent. By an account publifhed in 1765, the number of inhabitants appears to have been about I GO, coo, but the number is fuppofed to have increafed fince to 130,000. Perth-Amboy and Burlington were the feats- of government ;• mod frequently the latter, which is pleafantly lituated on the fine river Delaware, within twenty miles of i'hiladelphia. The former is among the bed ports on the continent'; and the harbour is lafe, and capacious enough to contain many large fhips. Both have been lately made free ports for 25 years. This province has no foreign trade wortk mentioning, owing to its vicinity to the large trailing cities of New York and Philadelphia, by which it is fupplied with merchandifes of all kinds, and makes returns for them in lumber, wheat, flour, &c. In Bergen county is a very valu^ ble copper mine. By the new charter of rights eflablif^ied by the provincial congrefs, July 2, 1776,- the government of New Jerfey is now veiled in a governor, legiflative council, and general affembly. The members of the legiflative council are to be freehold- ers, and' worth at leaft onethoufand pounds real and pcrfonal eftate ; and the mem- bers of the general affembly to be worth five hundred pounds. All inhabitants worth fifty pounds are entitled to vote lor reprefcntatives in council and affembly, and for all other public officers. The eledtions of the governor, legiflative council, and general afiembly, arc to be annual ; the govern"or and lieutenant-governor to be chofen out and by the general affembly and council. The judges of the fupreme court are chofen for feven years, and the officers of the executive power for five years. Religion and learning.] The former ftate of rtligion' here may- be (e'en' by the following liftof the houfi.b for public worfhip throughout the province, which- was made in 1765 by a member ot the council tor the province*. According to' the prefcnt conilitution of this prosince, all perfons are allowed to worfli'rp God in- that manner that is mofl: agreeable to their own confciences ; nor is an) pcrfon- ©bliged to pay titheSj- taxes, or any other rates, for the purpofe of building or re- pairing any other church or churches, or for the maintenance of any miniftcr or- miniftry, contrary to w-hathe believes to lie right, or has deliberately or voluntarily engaged himfelf to perform. There is to be no ellabliflimeni of any one religious ■ fedt in this province, in preference to another ; and no protefiant inhabitants are to • • Englifh and Scotch Pi-elby.terians 57 Moravians i .- i , Qual-crs _____ ^g Sepiuatili . . | Dutch prefbytcrians - ■ 22 Roj^crcens ■ - > .. ; Epilcop. lians 2i ___ BaptUb - — ' ■ 2 3 In. all i^z- Lutherans — — ■ 7 be 744 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. be denied the enjoyment of any civil right, merely on account of their religioui principles. A college was eftabliflied at the town of Princeton, by governor Belcher, in 1746, which has a power of conferring the fame degrees as Oxford or Cambridge. There was generally, before the war between Great Britain and the colonies, be- vtween 80 and 100 ftudents here, who came from all parts of the continent, fomc .even from the extremities of it. The damages it fuftained during the late war, arc computed at 5000 U PENNSYLVANIA and DELAWARE. Situation and extent. Miles. Degrees. Length 300^ i^^^^^,^^„ Breadth 240 V. between < 74. and 81 weft longitude. 39 and 44 north latitude. Sq. Miles. 15,000 } {Boundaries.] Tl OUNDED by the country of the Iroquois, or Five Na- J3 tions, on the North ; by Delaware river, which divides it from the Jerfeys, on the Eaft ; and by Maryland, on the South and Weft ; and -.contains the following counties. Counties. Philadelphia Chief Towns. N. lat. 40. W. Ion. 75-20 ■Chefter — Bucks — Berks — Northampton Lancafter — York — Cumberland Bedford, a country weftward of the mountains upon the Ohio, purchafed ffom Philadelphia, Chefter Newtown Reading Eafton Lancafter York Carlifte the Indians in 1768, by Mr. Penn, and eftabliihed, in 1771, Scfides the above there are the three following Counties. New.caftle Kent and Suftex Chief Towns. Newcaftie if Newcal on Delaware < Dover (_ Lcwcs; which formed in fome mcafure adiftind government, having an aiTcmbly ef tlieir own, though the fame governor with the province of Pennfylvania : but is now diftindt, and called the " Delaware State," having a prcfidenr, council, andhoufc of aflembly. The prefident is chofcn out of the general aftembiy by ballot, and the executive power lodged in him and a privy-council of two of the legiftativc I council UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 1\S council of nine, and two of the houfe of aflembly^, which confifts of 21 reprefenta- tives, fcvenfor each county. The judges and other officers of iUite, civil and mi- litary, arc chofcn by the prefident and general affembly. RjvERs.] The rivers are Delaware, which is navigable more than 200 miles above Philadelphia. Sufquchanna and Schuylkill are alfo navigable a confider- able way up the country. Thcfe rivers, with the numerous bays and creeks in Delaware bay, capable of containing the largeft fleets, render this province ad- mirably fuited to carry on an inland and foreign trade. Climate, air, soil, and? The face of the country, air, foil, and produce, FACE OF THE COUNTRY. j '1° "tit materially differ from thofe of New York. If there be any difference, it is in favour of this province. The air is fwect and clear. The winters continue from December till March, and are fo extremely cold and fevere, that the river Delaware, though very broad, is often frozen over. The months of July, Auguft, and September, are almoll intolerably hot, but the country is refrcihcd by frequent cold breezes. It may be remarked in general, that in all parts of the Britifh plantations, from New York to the fouthern extre- mity, the woods are full of wild vines of three or four fpecics, all different from thofe we have in Europe. But, whether from fome fjuit in their nature, or in the climate, or the foil where they grow, or, what is much more probable, from a fault in the planters, they have not yet produced any wine that deferves to be men- tioned, though the Indians from them make a fort of wine, with which they regale thenifelves. It may alfo be obferved of the timber of thefe colonics, that towards the fouth it is not fo good for Ihipping, as that of the more northern provinces. The farther fouthward you go, the timber becomes lefs compaifl, and rives eafily ; which property, as it renders it lefs ferviceable for fhips, makes it more ufeful for ftaves. History, government, settlement, po-7 This countrv, under the name puLATioN, CHIEF TOWNS, AND coMMERCK. C of the New Netherlands, was orio-inally poffelled by the Dutch and Swedes. When thefe nations, however, were expelled from NewYoikby the Engliffi, admiral P-nn, who, in conjuniflion with Venables, had conquered the ifland of Jamaica (under the aufpices of Cromwell), being in favour with Charles II. obtained the promife of a grant of this country from that monarch. Upon the admiral's death, his fon_, the celebrated quaker, availed himfelf of this promife, and, after much court lolicitation, obtained the performance of it. Though as an author and a divine, Mr. Penn be little kno>.vn but to thofe of his own perfuafion, his reputation in a charafter no lefs refpeiflable is univerfal among all civilized nations. The circumftances of the times engaged vaft numbers to follow him into his new fettlemcnt, to avoid the perfecutions to which the quakers, like other fedlaries, were then expofed ; but it was to his own wifdom and ability they are indebted for that charter of privileges, which placed this colony on fo refpedlable a footing. Civil and religious liberty, in the utmoft latitude, was laid down by that great man, as the foundation of all his inffitutions. Chrillians of all denominations might not only live unmolefted, but have a Ihare in the government ot the colony. No laws can be made but by the confent of the inhabitants. Even matters of benevolence, to which the laws of few nations have extended, were by Penn fubjcfted to regulations. The affairs of widows and orphans were to be inquired into by a court conftituted for that purpofe. The caufes between man and man were not to be fubjedled to the delay and chicanery of the law, but decided by wife and honcft arbitrators. His bene- volence and generofity extended alfo to the Intlian nations : !nft:ead of taking imiuediate advantage of his patent, he purchafed of thefe people the lands he had obtained by his giant, judging that the original property, and eldeff: right, was 5 C veiled 746 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. vefted in them, William Penn, had he been a native of Greece, would have had his ftatue placed next to thofe of Solon and Lyciirgus. His laws, founded on the folid bafis of equit}^, ftill maintain their force ; and as a proof of their effeds, it is only neceffary to mention that land was lately granted at twelve pounds an hundred acres, with a quit-rent of four Ihillings refcrved ; whereas the terms on which it was formerly granted, were at twenty pounds the thoufand acres, with one fliilling quit-rent for every hundred. Near Philadelphia, before the •commencement of the war with the mother-country, land rented at twenty iliil- lings the acre, and even at feveral miles diftance from that city, fold at twenty years purchafe. In lome years, more people tranfported themfelves Into Pennfylvania than into all the other fettlemcnts together. In fhort, this province has incrcafed greatly from the time of its firft eltabiifhment. Upon the principal rivers, fettlemcnts are made, and the country has been cultivated 150 miles above Philadelphia. The prefent number of inhabitants are eftimated at 320,000. The people are hardy, induftrious, and moft of them fubflantial, though but few of the landed people can be confidered as rich ; but before the commencement of the civil war, they were all well lodged, well fed, and, for their condition, well clad : and this at the more eafy rate, as the inferior people manufactured moft of their own wear, both linens and woollens. This province contains many very confiderable towns, fuch as German-Town, Chefter, Oxford, Radnor, all which, in any other colony, would deferve being taken notice of more particularly. But here the city of Philadelphia, containing upwards 30,000 inhabitants, beautiful beyond any city in America, and in re- gularity fcarcely equalled by any in Europe, totally eclipfes thereft. It was built after the plan of the famous Penn, the founder and legiflator of this colony. It is fituated 100 miles from the fea, between two navigable rivers, the Delaware, above a mile in breadth, on the north, and the Schuylkill, on the fouth. It is intended that every quarter of the city, fhould form a fquare of eight acres, and that in the middle a fquare of ten acres, furroundcd by the town-houfe, and other public buildings. The high ftreet is 100 feet wide, and runs the whole breadth of the town : parallel to it run nineteen other ftreets, which are crofied by eight more at right angles, all of them 30 feet wide, and communicating with canals, from the two, rivers, which contribute not only to beauty but wholefomenefs. According to the original plan, every man in pofleffion of looo acres in theprovince, had his houfe cither in one of the fronts, facing the rivers, or in the High Street, running from the middle of one front to the middle of the other. Every owner of 3000 acres, be- Tidcs the above mentioned privilege, was entitled to have an acre of ground in the front of the houfe, and all others might have half an acre for gardens and courtyards. The proprietor's feat, which is tlij:: ufuad place of the governor's refidence, and is ^about a mile above the town, is the firft private building, both for magnificence and fituation, in all Kritilh America. The barracks for the troops, the market, and •other public buildings, are proportionably grand. The quays are fpacious and finci ^nd the principal quay is 200 feet wide. There were in this city a great number of very wealthy merchants ; which is no way furprifing, when we confider the great trade which it carried on with the Englidi, Spanifti, French, and Dutch colonies in America j with the Azores, the •Canaries, and the Madeira iflands ; with Great Britain and Ireland ; with Spain, Portugal, a4Kl Holland. Bcfides the Indian trade, and the quantity of grain, provifions, and all kinds of the produce of this province, which is brought down the livers upon which this city is fo commodiouOy fuuated, the Germans, who are fettled in tl.c interior parts of this province, employ feveral hundjxd waggons. UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 747 drawn each by four horfes, in bringing the produfl: of their farms to this marker. In the year 1749, 303 vefTcls entered inwards at this port, and 291 cleared outwards. The commodities formerly exported into Pennfylvania, at an average of tliree years, amounted to the value of 6ii,oool. Thofe exported to Great Britain and otlier markets, befides timber, lliips built for fale, copper ore, and iron in pigs and bars, confiiled of grain, flour, and many forts of animal food ; and at an average of three years, were calculated at 705,500!. But fuch was the fpirit of adventuring in trade, after the conclufion of the late war, the duty in Philadelphia upon imported goods of 2^ per cent, ad valoreniy produced from the firfl: of March 1784, to the firfl: of December 132,000!. ; which, fuppofing that their value was not under rated, nor any fmuggled to fave the duty, makes their value amount to 3,i68,oool. There is an academy eflablifhed at Philadelphia, which has been greatly encou- raged by contributions trom England and Scotland, and which, before the civil war broke out, bid fair to become a bright feminary of learning. It was at Philadelphia that the general congrefs of America met in September 1774; and their meetings continued to be chiefly held there, till the king's troops made themfelves mailers of that city, on the 26th of September 1777. I^ut in June 1778, the Britifli troops retreated to New York, and Philadelphia again be- came the refidence of the congrefs. In 1776, the reprefentatives of the freemen of Pennfylvania met in a general convention at Philadelphia, and agreed upon the plan of a new conftitution of government for that colony. They determined, that the commonwealth, or fl:are of Pennfylvania, fliould be governed hereafter by an aflembly of the reprefenta- tives of the freemen, and a prefident and council. That the fupreme lecriflative po'-'cr fliould be vefled in the houfe of reprefentatives. That the fuprenie executive power fliould be vefted in the prefident and council of twelve. That every freeman of twenty-one years of age, having refided in Pennfylvania one year before the day of eleftion for reprefentatives, and paid public taxes during that time, fliould enjoy the right of an eledtor ; and that the fons of freeholders, of twenty-one years of age, fliould be entitled to vote, although they had not paid taxes. That the houfe of repre- fentatives fliould conflft: of perfons mofl: noted for wifdom and virtue, to be chofen by the freemen of every city and county of this commonwealth refpeftively. And that no perfon fliould be eledtcd, unlefs he had refided in the city or county for which he fliould be chofen two years before the eledion j and that no member while he continued fuch, fliould hold any other office, except in the militia. That no per- fon fliould be capable of being elefted a member to ferve in the houfe of repre- fentatives more than four years in feven. That the members fliould be chofen an- nually by ballotj and fliould be ftyled, " '1 he general aflTembly of reprefentatives of the freemen of Pennfylvania," and fliould have power to choofe their jpeaker, the treafurer of the ftate, and their other officers to prepare bills and enaft them into laws, to redrefs grievances, impeach fl:ate criminals, and have all other powers ne- ceflliry for the legiflature of a free fl:ate or commonwealth. That delegates to repre- fent Pennfylvania in a congrefs fliould be annually chofen by ballot, in the general aflTembly of reprefentatives. That the fupreme executive council of this fl:ate fliould confift of twelve perfons to be chofen by the freemen of Philadelphia, and the feveral counties of Pennfyl- vania. That a prefident, and vice-prefident, of this council, fliould be chofen annually. That the prefident, and in his abfence the vice prefident, with the coun- cil, five of whom are to be a quorum, fliould have power to appoint judo-es, naval 5 ^ ^ officers,. 748 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. officers, judge of the admiraltyj atorney-general, and other officers civil and mi- litary. That the prefident fhall be commander in chief of the forces of the ftate, but fliall not command in perfon, except advifed thereto by the council, and then only fo long as they fhall approve. That all trials fhall be by jury ; and that free- dom of fpeech, and of the prefs, fhall not be reflrained. That all perfons in public offices fliould declare their belief in one God, the creator, and governor of the univerfe, the rewarder of the good, and the puniflier of the wicked ; and alfo ac- knowledge the Scriptures of the Old and New Teftament to be given by divine infpiracion. A variety of other particulars were contained in this plan of govern- ment, particularly that the freemen, and their fbns, fhould be trained and armed for the public defence, under fuch regulations, rellriiftions, and exceptions, as the ge- neral affembly fhould by law direft, preferving always to the people the right of choofing their colonel, and all commiffioned officers under that rank. Two per- fons alfo are to be chofen by balloc every year for each county and city by the free- men to be called " the Council of Cenfors," who are to examine into the conduci of the legiflative and executive powers. MARYLAND. Miles. Length 1 40 I Breadth 135 [ Situation and Extent. Degrees. Sq. Miles. u . ^ 7S and 80 weft longitude. 7 between < '•^ , i 1 ?. j >- 12,000. i37 and 40 north latitude 3 i^'-'u. T) O U N D ED by Pennfylvania, on the North ; by another Boundaries.] _ part of Pennfylvania, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the Eaft ; by Virginia, on the South ; and by the Apalachian mountains, on the Weil. Maryland is divided into two pans by the bay of Chefapeak, viz. i . The eaftern and 2. The weftern divifion. Divifions. The eaft divifion con^ tains the counties of The weft divifion con- tains Counties. 'Worcefter Somerfet Dorfet — < Talbot Cecil — Queen Anne's .Kent — f St. Mary's I Charles — I Prince George ! Calvert ; Arundel - Harford Baltimore Frederic Chief Towns. • 1 fPrincefs Anne Snow Hill • ! . Dorfet, or Dorchefter • > < Oxford I I Queen's Town ■ J LCherter St. Mary's Brirtol Mafterkout 1 , Abington ' ^ Annapolis, W. Ion. 76-50. N. lac. 29- Baltimore. •J L Rivers. UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 749 Rivers.] This country is indented with a vaft number of navigable creeks and rivers. The chief arc Patowmac, Pocomoac, Patuxent, Cheptonk, Severn, and Saffafras. Face of the country, air, 7 In thefe particulars this province has no- soiL, AND PRODUCE. ^ thing rcmarkablc by which it may be diftin- guifhed from thofe already defcribed. The hills in the inland country are of fo cafy afcent, that they rather feem an artificial than a natural production. The vaft number of rivers diffufes fertility through the foil, that is admirably adapted to the rearing of tobacco, which is the Itaple commodity of that country, and hemp, Indian corn and grain, which they now begin to cultivate in preference to tobacco. Population and commerce.] The number of inhabitants have of late years greatly increafed, and are fuppofed to be about 220,700. The commerce of Maryland depends on the fame principles with that of Virginia, and is fo clofely connetted with it, that any feparation of them would rather confufe than inflruft. It will be confidered therefore under that head. History and government.] It fecms as if all the provinces of North America were planted from motives of religion. Maryland, like thofe we have formerly defcribed, owes its fettlement to religious confiderarions. As the neigh- bouring dillridls, however, were peopled by protellants, and even fectaries, Mar)'- land was originally planted by Roman-catholics. This fedt, towards the clofe of Charles the Firft's reign, was the objedt of great hatred to the bulk of the Eng- lifli nation ; and the laws in force againft the Roman-cathalics were executed with great feverity. This in part arofe from an opinion, that the court was too favour- ably difpofed towards this form of religion. It is certain, that many marks of fa- vour were conferred on the Roman-catholics. Lord Baltimore was one of the moft eminent, one in greatefl favour with the court, and on that account mofh odious to the generality of Englifhmen. This nobleman, in 1632, obtained a grant from Charles of that country which formerly was confidered as a part of Virginia, but was now called Maryland, in honour of queen Henrietta Mary, daughter to Henry IV. and fpoufe to king Charles. The year following, about 200 popifh families, fome of confidcrable dillinition, embarked with lord Baltimore, to enter into polfeflion of this new territory. Thefe fcttlers, who had that liberality and good breeding which diftinguifhes gentlemen of every religion, bought their land at an eafy price from the native Indians ; they even lived with them for fome time in the fame city ; and the fame harmony continued to fubfift between the two nations, until the Indians were impofed on by the malicious infinuations of fome planters in Virginia, who envied the profperity of this popilh colony, and inflamed the Indians againil them by ill-grounded reports. The colony, however, was not wanting to its own fafety on this occafion. Though they continued their friendly intercourfe with the natives, they took care to erett a fort, and to ufe every other precaution for their defence againft fudden. hollilities ; thcdefeat of this attempt gave new fpringto the attivity of this planta- tion ; which was likewife receiving frequent reinforcements from England of thofe who found themfelves in danger by the approaching revolution. But during the proteftorfhip of Cromwell, every thing was overturned in Maryland. Baltimore was deprived of his rights ; and a new governor, appointed by theProtedtor, fubfti- tuted in his room. At the Reftoration, however, the property of this province reverted to its natural polleflbr. Baltimore was rcinrtated in his rights, ar-d fully difcovered how well he defcrved that favour. He ellabliflied a perfedt toleration iu all religious matters : the colony increafed and flourilhed, and diflcnters of all deaomi- ;5o UNITEDSTATES OF AMERICA. denominations, allured by the profpedl of gain, flocked into Maryland. But the tyrannical government of James II. again deprived this noble family of their pof- Icflion, acquired by royal bounty, and improved by much care and expence. At the Revolution, lord Baltimore was again reftored to all the profits of the government, though not to the right of governing, which could not con- fiflently be conferred on a Roman-catholic. But after the family changed their religion, they obtained the power as well as the intereflr. The government of this country exadlly refembled that in Virginia, except that the governor was ap- pointed by the proprietor, and only confirmed by the crown. The cuftoms too were referved to the crown, and the officers belonged to them were independent of the government of the province. At length, ast he proteftants became far more numerous, they excluded the papifts from all offices of truft and power, and even adopted the penal laws of England againft them. The church of England was by law eftabliihed here, and the clergy were paid in tobacco : a tax for this purpofe was annually levied, and every male white perfon above the age of fix- teen was obliged to pay 40 lb. of tobacco, (or if he railed no tobacco, he mull take an oath that he did not, and pay the value in calh) ; diflcnting clergy were not exempted. But fince the civil war, by the declaration of rights and the conftitution agreed to in the convention of delegates at Annapolis, Augull 14, 1776, the legillature is now to confift of two diftindt branches, the fenate and the houfe of delegates ; the latter to be annually chofen, viva voce, by the freeholders in each county, viz. St. Mary's, Charles, Calvert, Prince-George, Anne-Arun- del, Baltimore, Frederick, Harford, Cecil, Kent, Queen-Anne, Talbot, Dorfet, Caroline, ^omerfet, and Worcefler, four delegates each, and the city of Annapolis and Baltimore-town two each ; delegates for the fenate to be elefted in like manner every five years, two for each county, out of whom are to be chofen fifteen fenators, by ballot, i. e. nine for the Weftern fliore and fix for the Eaftern. The executive power is veiled in a governor and council of five, chofen annually by the joint ballot of the general aflcmbly, who appoint the chancellor, judges, field- officers, &c. but the flrerifi^s and juftices of the peace are chofen by the free- holders in each county. All freemen above twenty-one years of age, having a free- hold of fifty acres, or property to the value of thirty pounds, have a right of fuf- frage in the election of delegates. All perfons appointed to any office of profit or rruft, are to fubfcribe a declaration of their beliet in the Chrillian religion. In 1782, a college was founded at Chefter-town in this province, under the name of Washington College, in honour of General Wafliington. VIRGINIA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Lcnpth 750? . , ^75 and 90 weft longitude. 7 „ Breadth 240 I ^''"^''" \ 36 and 40 north latitude. } S'^'^^^' Boundaries.] T)0LJNDED by the river Potowmac, which divides it from X3 Maryland, on the North-eaft ; by the Atlantic Ocean, on the Eaft ; by Carolina, on the South ; and the river Miffifippi, on the Well. It may be divided into four parts, viz. The North ; the Middle ; the South j and the Eaftern divifion. a Divifions. UNITED STATES of AMERICA. 75* Divifions. The north divlfion con- tains The middle divifion con- j tains The fouth divifion con- tains. Counties. Northumberland Lancafl-iire — Weftmoreland Richmond — Stafford — Eflex Middlefex Glouceller — King and Qiieen King William New Kent Elizabeth Warwick — York - PrincefsAnne — ri6. Norfolk — 17. Nanfamund — Ifle of Wight Surry — Prince George Charles — Henrico — >< —J — 1 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. James — — Pariflies. Wincomoca Chrift-Church St. Paul's Earn ham Chrift-Church Abingdon Stratton St. John's St. Peter's Elizabeth's Denby York Lynnhaven fElizabeth Chutakuk Newport Southwark Wayanoke V <;■ Weftover ■ Briftol James town Williamsburg, 37-12 N.lat. 76-48 The eaftern divifion be- f tween Chefapeak bay^ 24. Acotnac — — and the ocean (. J L Weft long. il < Acomac. Capes, bays, and rivers.] In failing to Virginia or Maryland, you pafs a ftrait between two points of land, called the Capes of Virginia, which opens a paflage into the bay of Chefapeak, one of the largeft and fafeft in the world ; for it enters the country near 300 miles from the fouth to the north, is about 18 miles broad for a confiderable way, and feven where it is narroweft, the water in nioft places being nine fathoms deep. This bay, through its whole extent, receives a vaft number of navigable rivers from the fides of both Maryland and Virginia. FrOm the latter, befides others of lefs note, it receives James River, York River, the Rappahannock, and the Potowmac : thefe are not only navigable for large fhips into the heart of the country, but liave fo many creeks, and receives fuch a num- ber of fmailer navigable rivers, that Virginia is unqueftionably the country in the world of the moft convenient navigation. It has been obferved, and the ob- fervation is not exaggerr.ted, that every planter has a river at his door. To the weftward of the province, is the Ohio, a large river, which after a long courfe falls into the MilTiffippi, Fa.c£ of the country.] The whole face of this country is fo extremely low xov/ards the fea, that you are very near the ftiore, before you can difcover land from the r.iaft-head. The lofty trees, v;hich cover the foil, gradually rife as it were from the ocean, and afford an enchanting profpeft. You travel 100 miles into the country, without meeting with a hills which is nothing uncommon on this extenfive coaft of America. / 752 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Air and climate.] In fummer the heats here are excefTive, though not with- out refrefhing breezes from the fea. The weather is changeable, and the changes fudden and violent. To a warm day there fometimes I'ucceeds fuch an intenfe cold in the evening, as to freeze over the largeft rivers. The air and fcafons here depend very much upon the wind, as to heat and cold, drynefs and moifture. In winter they have a fine clear air, and dry, which renders it very pleafant. Their fpring is about a month earlier than in England ; in April they have frequent rains ; in May and June, the heat increafes ; and the fummer is much like ours, being refrcfhed with gentle breezes from the fea, that rife about nine o'clock, and decreafe and increafe as the fun rifes or falls. In July and Au- gult thefe breezes ceafe, and the air becomes ftagnant, and violently hot ; in Sep- tember the weather generally changes, when they have heavy and frequent rains, which occafion all the train of difeafes incident to a moift climate, particularly agues and intermitting fevers. They have frequently thunder and lightning, but it rarely does any mifchief. Soil and produce.] Towards the fea-fhore, and the banks of the rivers, the foil of Virginia confifts of a dark rich mould, which, without manure, returns plen- tifully whatever is committed to it. At a diltance from the water there is a lightnefs and fandinefs in the foil, which, however, is of a generous nature, and, helped by a kindly fun, yields corn and tobacco in abundance. From what has been faid of the foil and climate, it is eafy to infer the variety and perfe ^j I Q r between -i ' , ^ 1 1 ? i > 110,000. Breadth 3S0 i i 30 and 37 north latitude. J >'- w. Boundaries.] 13 O U N D ED by Virginia on the North ; by the Atlantic J3 Ocean on the Eait ; by tlie river St. John, wiiich feparatcs George from Florida, on the South ; and by the MiffifTippi, on the Weft. Dlvifions. North Carolina contains^ the counties of ntains] Counties. Albcmar'e — Bath, and Clarendon part "Clarendon Craven Berkeley *> Colleton in part The middle divifion, or South Carolina, con^ tains the counties of LGranville r Richmond I Effingham Chatham The South divifion con-; Camden rains only Georgia 1 Wilkes I Glynn I Burke - ^Liberty Towns. Newburn Edenton W'ilmington St. James Chrift-Church Charles-town, W. Ion. 79-12. N. lat. 32-45. Port-Royal. Savannah, N. lat. 31-55. Y/. long. 80-20. Sunbury Frederics Purilburglv. J L RivKRS.] Thefe are the Roanoke, or Albemarle river ; Pamtico ; Neus ; Cape Fear, or Clarendon river ; Pcdee ; Santee ; Savannah ; Alatamaha, or George river, and S». Mary's, which divide Georgia from Florida : all which rivers rife in the Apalachian mountains, and, running eaft, fall into the Atlantic ocean. The back parts are watered by the Cherokces, Yafous, Mobile, Hpalachi- cola, the Pearl river, and many other noble ftrcams which fall into the Miffifllppi or the gvilf of Mexico. cD Seas, 756 UNITE DSTATES OP AMERICA. Seas, bays, and capes.} The only fea bordering on this country is that of the Atlantic ocean ; which is fo (hallow near the coaft, that a fhip of any great burthen cannot approach it^ except in fome few places. There has not yet been fouad one good harbour in North Carolina ; the beft are thofe of Roanoke, at the mouth of Albemarle River, Pamtico, and Cape Fear. In South Carolina, there are the harbours of Winyaw or George-Town, Charles-town, and Port-Royal. In Georgia, the mouths of the rivers Savannah and Alatamaha form good harbours. The moft remarkable promontories, are. Cape Hatteras, in 35 degrees odd minutes north latitude. Cape Fear to the fouth of it, and Cape Carteret ftill i'ajther foMth. Climate and air.J There is not any confiderable difference between the cli- mate of thefe countries. In general it agrees with that of Virginia ; but, where they difi'er, it is much to the advantage ot Carolina. The fummers, indeed, are of a more intenfe heat than in Virginia, but the winters are milder and flrorter. The climate of Carolina, like all American weather, is fubjett to fudden tranfitions, from heat to cold, and from cold to heat. The winters are feldom fevere enough to freeze any confiderable water, affefting only the mornings and evenings ; the frofts have never RifHcient ftrength to refill; the noon-day fun ; fo that many tender plants which do not ftand the winter of Virginia, flourifli in Carolina, for they have oranges in great plcKty near Charles-Town, and excellent in their kinds, both fweet and four. Soil, produce, and face 7 In this refpeft, too, there is a confiderable coin- OF THE cotTNTRY. ^ cidcncc bctwccn thefe countrics and Virginia : the Carollnas, however, in the fertility of nature, iiave the advantage ; but Georgia hath not fo good a foil as the other provinces. The whole country is covered with trees,, except where our planters have cleared it. The trees are almoft the fame in every re- fpcft with thofe produced in Virginia ; and by the different fpecles of thefe, the quality of the foil is eafily knov.'n. 1 he land in Carolina is eafily cleared, as there is little or no underwood, and the forcits moftly confiff of tall trees ar a confider- able dillance. Thofe grounds which bear the oak, the walnut, and the hickory, are extremely fertile ; they are of a dark fand intermixed with loam ; and as all their bnd abounds with nitre, it is a long time before it is exhaufted ; for here they never ufe any manure. The pine barren is the woril of all ; this is an almoft per- fed white fand : yet It bears the pine tree, and fome other ufeful plants, yielding, food profit in pitch, tar and turpentine.. When this fpecies of lautl is cleared, for two or three years together it produces very good crops of Indian corn and peafe ;. and, wh;;n it lies low, and is flooded,, it even anlwers for rice. But what is mod fortunate for this province is,, that this worff part of its land is favourable to a fpecies- (Aas divided into two diftricfs, and two feparare governments. This happened in 1-28, and from that time, peace being reltored in the internal governnKnt, as well as with the Cherokees and other Indian tribes thefe provinces began to breathe ; and their trade advanced with wonderful The fettlemcnt of Georgia was projefted in 1732, when feveral public- fpiritcd - noblemen and oihers, from compaflion to the poor of thefe kingdoms, fubfcribed a confiderable km, which, with io,ocol. from tbe government, was given to iirovide ncceffp'-ics for fuch poor nerfons as were vsiilmg to tranfport themfelvcs }-.to this province, and ro fubmit to the regulations impoied on them. In procefs of time, newiums were raifed, and new inhabitants lent over. Before the year 1752, I, pwards of .1000 perfons were fettled in this province. It was nut, however, to .be exppded that the inhabitants of Georgia, removed as they were at a great ,difl:ance from their benetatfors, and from the check and control of thofe who had fi natural influence over them, would fnbmit to ihe magiftr;ites ajipointed to go- vern them. Many of the regulations, too, by which they were bound, were very improper in themklves, and deprived the Georgians of privileges which their neighbours enjoyed, and which, as they increafed in numbers and opulence, they thought it hard that they Ihould be deprived of. From thefe corrupt fources'arofe all the bad humours which tore to pieces this conftitution ot government. Dif- I'enfions of all kinds fprung up, and the colony was on the brink of deflruflion, when, in 175-., the government took it under their immediate care, removed their partioulaj- grievances, and placed Georgia on the lame footing with the Carolinas. The method of fettling in Carolina, and indeed in other provinces of Britiih America, was to pitch upon a void fpace of ground, and either to purchafe it at the r.-te of lol. for icoo acres, and one fhilling quit-rent for every 100 acres ; or othcrvvife., to pay a penny an acre quit-rent yearly to the proprietors, without pur- -chafe-moncv : the former method is the moll: common, and the tenure a freehold. 'J he people of Carolina live in the fame eafy, plentiful, and luxurious manner with the Virginians already defcribed. Poverty is here almoft an entire (banger ; .and the planters arc the mod hofpitable people that are to be met with to all flrangcrs, and efpccially to fuch as by accident or mistortunes are rendered inca- pable to provide for themfelvcs. The only place in cither of the Carolinas worthy of notice is Charles-Town, the metropolis, in South Carolina, which for fize, beauty, and trade, may be con- fidcred as .one of the firil in America. It is admirably fituated at the confluence of t\vo navigable rivers, one of which is navigable for flrips 20 miles above the town, and for boats and large canoes near 40. The harbour is good in every rcfped:, but that of a bar, which hinders vellcls of more tiian 200 tons burthen, loaded, from entering. The town is regularly and pretty llrongly fortified by naiure and arc; the ftreets are well cut; the houfes arc large and well built; fome of them arc of brick, and others of wood, but all of them hamlfome and elegiint, and rent is ex- tremely high. The ftreets arc wide and flraight, interfering each other at right angles ; thofe running eaft and weft extend about a mile from one river to the other. Jt contains about icpo houjcs, and was the feat of the governor, and the place of meeting UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 759 meeting of the alTembly. Its neighbourhood is beautiful beyond dcfcription. Several handlome equipages are kept here. The phrnters and merchants are rich and well bred; and before the war between Great Btitain and the colonics, the people were fliewy and expenfive in their drefs and way of living ; fp that every thing confpired to make this by much the livelieft, and })orue(l place, as well as the richvil, in all America. It ought aifoto be oblerved, lor the honour of the people of Carolina, that when, in common with the other colonies, they refolved ao-ainft the ulii of certain luxuries, and even necelfaries of lile ; thofe articles which improve the mind, enlarge the underftanding, and corredt the tafte, were excepted : the importation ot books was ];crmitted as formerly. North and South Carolin.'. Joined with the other colonies in their revolt ao-alnft Great Britain; and in 1780, Charles-Town being beficgcd by the King's troops,- furrendered on capitulation, with 6000 men in arms prifoners, on the 1 ith of May in that year, after the fiege had continued feven weeks. As South-Carolina has met with infinitely more attention than the nei^hbourino- provinces, the commerce of this country alone employed 140 fliips, while that of the other two did not employ 60. Ifs exports to Great Britain of native commodi- ties, on an average of three years, amounted to more than 395,0001. annual va- lue; and its imports to 365,000!. The exports of North-Carolina were comput-- cd at about 70,0001. and its im[>orts 18,000 1. The trade of Georgia is likcwife in its infancy ; the export amounted to little more than 74,000!. and the imoorts ■to '.) 9,000 1. The trade between Carolina and the Weft-Indies was the fame in all rs in the (late, every two years, in certain proportions ; the iormcr of 23 and the latter of 202 members. The executive power is that of a governor, lieutenant-governor, and .ei"ht privy-counfellors, elctted out of the general aflembly by joint ballot every •two years, who alfo choofe delegates to congrefs annually. Juftices of the peace, fheriffs, and other judicial, military, and revenue olHccrs, are nominated by the aflembly and commifTioned by the governor. The conilitution agreed to in convention for Georgia, February 5, 1777, is, the 3eo-inative, executive, and judiciary departments fliall be tliRindt and feparatc bodies. The legiflative toconlift of reprefcntativcs elccfed by the freemen and freeholders ■annually, by ballot, in each county, viz. Wilkes, Richmond, Burke, Effingham, Chatham, ten members each ; Liberty fourteen ; Glynn and Camden one each ; the town of S-vannah four, and Sunbury two. Thefe 72 reprefentatives to confti- lute the houfe of aflembly, out of whom are chofen, by ballot, the governor and ex- .ecutive council of two from each of the firft fix counties ; and alfo the delegates to congrefs, annually. The fubordinate officers of the ftate are appointed by the re- fpetlive bodies, and the feveral courts they depend on. WEST INDIES v^ « WE have already obferved, that between the two continents of America, lie a multitude of iflands, which we call the Well: Indies, and which, fuch as are worth cultivation, now belong to five European powers, Great Britain, Spain, France, Holland, and Denmark. As the climate antl feafons of thefe iflands dif- fer widely from thofe of Europe, we fhall, to avoid repetitions, fpeak of them in general, as well as mention fonie other particulars peculiar to the \'\'eft Indies. Tiie climate in all our Weft India iflands is nearly the fame, allowing tor thofe accidental differences which the..fevcral fituations and qualities of the lands them- felves produce. As they lie within the tropics, and the fun never recedes farther from any of them than about 30 degrees to the fouth, they are continually fubjedcd to the extreme of an heat, which would be intolerable, if the trade-wind, rifing gra- dually as the fun gathers ftrength, did not blow in upon them from the fea, and re- frefli the air in fuch a manner as to enable the inliabitants to attend their concerns even under the meridian fun. On the other hand, as the night advances, a breeze begins to be perceived, which blows finartly from the land, as it were from the centre, towards the fea, to all points of the compafs at once. By the lame remarkable Providence in the difpofing of things, it iS;. that when the I'un has made a great progrcis towards the tropic of Cancer, and becomes in a manner vcfcical, he draws after him luch a vaft body of clouds, us fliield tlicm from W E 5 T I N D I E S. 761 Ill's dircft beams ; and difiblving into rain, cool the air, and rerrefti the country, tiiii lly with tlie long dioviglit, which commonly reigns from the beginning of Jar»r- ary to the latter end of May. The rains in the Weft Indies are far more violent than with us. Our heavieft rains are but dews comi^arativcly. T'.ey are rather floods of water, poured from t-he clouds with a prodigious imiietuofity ; the rivers rife in a tnoment ; new rivers tuul lakes are formed, and in a Il-;ort time all the low country is under water*. Hence it is, that the rivers which have their fource within the tropics, fwell and overflow their banks at a certain feaion : but fo millaken were the ancients in their idea of the torrid zone, that they imagined it to be dried and fcorched up with a continual and fervent heat, and to be for that reafon uninliabitable .; when in reality, fome of the largeft rivers of the wojdd have their courfe within its Hmits and the moiflure is often one of the greatefl: inconveniences of the climate. The rains make the only diftinftion of feafons in the Well Indies ; the trees arc green the whole year round ; they have no cold, no frofts, no fnovvs and but rarely fome hail ; the llorms of hail are, however, very violent when they happen and the hailftones very great and heavy. Whether it be owing to this moiflure which alone docs not feem to be a fufiicient caufe, or to a greater quantity of a fulphureous acid, which predominates in the air, metals of all kinds that are fubjeft to the action of fuch caufes, ruft and canker in a very fliort time ; and this caufe, perhaps as much as the iieat itfelf, contributes to make the climate of the W>ll Indies unfriendly and unpleafant to European contlitutions. It is in the rainy fcafon (principally in the month of Auguft, more rarely in July and September) that they are aiJaulted by hurricanes ; the mofl: terrible calamity to which they are fubjeft from the climate j this defl:roys, at a ftroke, the labours of many years, and proflrates the moft exalted hopes of the planter, and often iuft at the moment when he thinks himfelf out of the rtach of fortune. It is a fudden and violent ftorm of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, attended with a furious fwelling of the feas, and fometimes with an earthq-uake ; in fliort, with every cir- cumllance, which the elements can aflcmble, that is terrible and dtftrudtive. FirlT t-liey fee as the prelude to the enfuing havock, whole fields of fugar-canes whirl- into the air, and fcattered ov-er the face of the country. The ftrongeft trees of the foreft are torn up by the roots, and driven about like llubble ; their wind-mills are fwept away in a moment ; their ^itenfils, the fixtures, the ponderous copper boilers and flills of feveral hundred weight, are wrenched from the ground, and battered to pieces ; their houfes yield no protedrion ; the roofs are torn off at one blaft • whiill the rain, which in an hour riles five feet, ruflies in upon them with an irrc- laftible violence. The hurricanes come on either in the quarters, or at the full change of the moon. If it comes at full moon, the flcy is very turbulent ; the fun more red than at other times ; a dead calm prevails, and the hills are clear of ail thofe clouds and uiifl:s whkh ufually hover about them. In the clefts of the earth, and the wells you hear a hollow rumbling found, like the rufhing of a great wind. At nio-ht the liars feem much larger than ufual, and furrounded with a fort of burs ; the'^north- wefl: flcy has a black and menacing look ; the fea emits a llrong fmell, and rifes into vail waves, often without any wind ; the wind itfelf nowVorlakes its ufual Heady eafterly llreani, and fliifts about to the well from whence it fometimes blows with intermiffions, violently and irregularly for about two hours at a time. The moon hcrfclf ib furrounded with a great bur, and fometimes the fun has the fame an- * See Wufci'j Journey acr^is the Illhmus of Darien. 5 -^ ' f earance* 762 W E S T I N D I E S. pearance. Thefe are figns which the Indians of thcfe iflands taught our planters, by ivhich they can prognollicate the approach of a hurricane. The grand ftaple commodity of the Weft Indies is fugar ; a commodity not at all known to the Greeks and Romans, though it was made in China in very early times, from whence we had the firft knowledge of it j but the Portugueie were the firft who cultivated it in America, and brought it into requeft, as one of the materials of a very univerfal luxury in Europe. It is not fettled whether the cane, from which this fubftance is extrafted, be a native of America, or brought thither to their colony of Brafil, by the Portuguefe, from India and the coaft of Africa; but, however that matter may be, in the beginning they made the moft, as they ftill do the beft, fugars which come to market in this part of the world. The juice within the fiigar-cane is the moft lively, elegant and leaft cloying fweet in nature ; and which, fucked raw, has proved extremely nutritive and wholefome. From the molafies rum is diftilled, and from the fcummings of the fugar a meaner fpirit is procured. Rum finds its market in North America, where it is confumcd by the inhabitants, or employed in the African trade, or diftributed from thence to the fiftiery of Newfoundland, and other parts, befides what comes to Great Britain and Ireland. However, a very great quantity of molafies is taken off raw, and carried to New England to be diftilled there. The tops of the canes, and the leaves which grow upon the joints, make very good provender for their cattle, and the re- fufe of the cane, after grinding, ferves for fire j fo that no part of this excellent plant is without its ufe. They compute that, when things are well managed, the rum and molafles pay the charges of the plantation, and the fugars are clear gain. However, by the particulars we have feen, and by others which we may cafily imagine, the expences of a plantation in the Weft Indies are very great, and the profits at the firft view precarious ; for the chargeable articles of the wind-mill, the boiling, cooling, and oiftilling houfes, and the buying and fubfifting a fuitable number of flaves and cattle, will not fufi'er any man to begin a fugar plantation of any confequence, not to mention the purchafe of the land, which is very high, under a capital of at leaft: 5000I. Neither is the life of a planter, if he means to acquire a fortune, a life of idlenefs and luxury ; at all times he muft keep a watchful eye upon his over- feers, and even overfce himfelf occafionally. But at the boiling feafon, if he is properly attentive to his affairs, no way of life can be more laborious, and more dangerous to the health ; from a conftant attendance day and night, in the extreme \inited heats of the climate, and fo many fiery furnaces ; add to this, the loflcs by hurricanes, earthquakes, and bad feafons ; and then confider when the fugars are in the cafk, that he quits the hazard of a planter, to engage in the hazards of a merchant, and fliips his produce at his own rilk. Notwithftanding all this, there are no parts of the world, in which great eftates are made in fo ftiort a time, from the produce of the earth, as in the Weft Indies, The produce of a few good feafons generally provides againft the ill efi^eiits of the worft, as the planter is fure of a fpeedy and profitable market for his produce, which has a readier fale than perhaps any other commodity in the world. Large plantations are generally under the care of a manager, or chief overfeer, who has commonly a falary of 150!. a year, with overfeers under him in propor- tion to the greatncfs of the plantation, one to about 30 negroes, with a fahry of about 40I, Such plantations too have a furgeon at a fixed fiiary, employed to take care of the negroes which belong to it. But the courfe which is the leaft trouble- fome to the owner of the eftate is, to let the land, with all the works, and the ftock of cattle and Haves, to a teiuint, who gives fecurity for the payment of the rent, and the keeping up repairs and ftock. The eftate is generally eftimated to fuch a tenant W E S T I N D I E S. 763 tenant at half the neat produce of the befl: years ; fuch tenants, if induftrious and frugal men, foon make good eftates for themfelves. The negroes in the plantations are fubfifled at a very eafy rate. This is o-enerally by alotting to each family of them a fmall portion of land, and allowing them two days in the week, Saturday and Sunday, to cultivate it : ibme are fubfifted in this manner, but others find their negroes a certain portion of Guinea or Indian corn, and to fome a fait herring, or a fmall portion of bacon or fait pork, a day. All the reft of the charge confifts in a cap, a fhirt, a pair of breeches, and a blanket ; and the profit of their labour yield 10 or 12I. annually. The price of men negroes upon their firft arrival is from 30 to 3 61. women and grown boys 50s. lefs ; but fuch negro families as are acquainted with the bufinefs of the ifland generally bring above 40I. upon an average one with another ; and there are inftance of a fingle negro man expert in bufinefs bringing 150 guineas ; and the wealth of a planter is generally computed from the number of flaves he poflTclTes. To particularife the commodities proper for the Weft India market, would be to enumerate all the neceflfaries, conveniences, and luxuries of lifej for they have nothing of their own but cotton, coffee, tropical fruits, fpices, and the commodities already mentioned. Traders there make a very large profit upon all they fell ; but from the nume- rous (hipping conftantly arriving from Europe, and a continual fucceflion of new adventurers, each of whom carry out more or lefs as a venture, the Weft India market is frequently overftocked j money muft be raifed, and goods are fome- times fold at prime coft or under. But thofe who can afford to ftore their goods, and wait for a better market, acquire fortunes equal to any of the planters. All kinds of handicraftfmen, efpecially carpenters, bricklayers, braziers, and coopers, get very great encouragement. But it is the misfortune of the Weft: Indies, that phyficians and furgeons even outdo the planter and merchant, in ac- cumulating riches. Before the late war, there were allowed to be in our Weft Indies at leaft 230,000 negro flaves ; and, upon the higheft calculation, the whites therein did not amount to 90,000 fouls. This difproportion between the freemen and negroes, which grows more vifible every day, fome writers have endeavoured to account for, by alleging, that the enterprifing fpirit, which the novelty of the objeft, and various concurrent caufes, had produced in the laft century, has decayed very much. That the difpofition of the Weft Indians themfelves, who, for cheapness choofe to do every thing by negroes which can poffibly be done by them, contri- butes greatly to the fmall number of whites of the lower ftation. Such indeed is the powerful influence of avarice, that though the whites are kept in conftant terror of infurreftions and plots, many families employ 25 or 30 negroes as menial fervants, who are infinitely the moft dangerous of the flaves, and in cafe of any infurreftion, have it more in their power to ftrike a fudden and fatal blow : and the cruelty with which the negroes are often treated, gives the white inhabitants too much reafon for their apprehenfions. The firft obfervation that has been mentioned, in order to account for the pre- fent difproportion between the freemen and the negroes in the Weft Indies, we think is not well founded ; that enterprifing fpirit which firft led Britons out to difcovery, and colonization, ftill animates in a very confiderable degree the people of this nation ; but the field has been lately more ample and enlarged, and emi- grants have had greater fcope whereon to range. Befides the vaft continent of North America, which takes in fuch a variety of climates, and difcovers fuch a richnefs of foil ; the Eaft Indies, an inexhauftible mine of riches, have in fome de- gree drawn the attention of mankind from that of the Weft. Here is an ample field for all adventurous fpirits, who difdaining an idle life at home, and ambitious of 5 E 2 becom- y(54 British American Islands. becoming ufcful to themfelves, th eir coniieflions, or commumty, boldly venture into the immenfe regions of this Eaftern world, THE iflands of the Weft Indies lie in the form of a bow, or femicirt:le, ftretcli- incr from north to fouth from the coaft of Florida, to the River Oronoque, in tl->e main continent of South America. Some call them the Caribbees, from the firft inhabitants ; though this is a term that moft geographers confine to the Leeward Iflands.- Sailors ditlinguifli them into the Windward and Leeward Iflands, with regard to the ufual courfes of fhips, from Old Spain, or the Canaries, to Carthage- na°or New Spain and Portobello. The geographical tables and maps diftinguilli thfm into the Great and Little Antilles. JAMAICA.] The fir.1 that'we come to belonging to Great Britain, and alfo the moft important, after leaving Florida, is Jamaica, which lies between the 75th and 70th deforces of weft longitude from Loudon, and betwceni7 and 18 north latitude. F>om theeaft and weft it is in length about 140 miles, and in the middle about 60 in breadth, growing lefs towards each end, in the form of an egg. It lies near 4500 miles fouth-weft of England. This ifland is interfefted by a ridge of fteep rocks tumbled by the frequent earthquakes in a ftupendous manner upon one another. Thefe rocks, though cor?- tainino- no foil on their furface, are covered with a great variety of beautiful trees, flouriftiing in a perpetual fpring ; being nouriflied by the rains, which often fall, or the mifts which continually brood on the mountains. From the rocks iftue a vaft number of fmall rivers of pure wholefome water, which tumble down in cata- radts, and together with the ftupendous height of the mountains, and the bright verdure of the trees through which they flow, form a moft delightful landfcape. On each fide of thcfe chain of mountains are ridges of lower ones, which diminifti as they remove from it. On thefe cofiee grows in great plenty. The vallies or plains between thefe ridges, are level beyond what is ordinary in moft other coun- tries, and the foil is prodigioufly fertile. The longeft day in fummer is about thirteen hours, and the fhorteft in winter about eleven ; but the moft ufual divifions of the feafon in the Weft Indies are into the dry and wet fealbns. The air of this ifland, is in many places, excefllvely hot, and unfavourable to European conftitutions ; but the cold fea-breezes, which fet in every morning at ten o'clock, render the heat more tolerable : and the air upon the high grounds is temperate, pure, and cooling. It lightens alnioft every night, but without much thunder, which when it happens is very terrible, and the lightning in thefe ftorms frequently does great damage. During the months of May and Oiftober, the rains are extremely violent, and continue fometimes for a fortnight together. In the plains are found feveraJ lalt fountains ; and in the mountains, not far from Spanifti Town» is a hot bach, of great medicinal virtues. It gives relief in the dry belly- acli, which, except tlie bilious and yellow fever, is the moft terrible endemial diftemper in Jamaica. Suo-ar is the grcateft and molt valuable produdion of this ifland. Cocoa was formerly cultivated in it to great extent. It produces alfo ginger, and tl;e pimento, or, as it is called, Jamaica pej^per ; the wild cinnamon-tree,, whofe bark is fo ufcful in medicine ; the manchineel, whofe fruit, though uncommonly delightful to the eye, contains one of the worft poifons in nature ; the maho<2a:iy, in fuch v\i with our cabinet-makers, and of the moft valuable quality; but this wood begins to wear out, and of late is very dear. Excellent cedars, of a large fize, .r.id durable j the cabbage-tree remarkable for the hardnefs of its wood, which when dry is incor- ruptiblcj and liardly yields to any kind of tool ; the palma allbrding oil, much 3, tftiem- British American IsianDs. jS'^ efteemed by the favages, both in food and medicine ; the foap-tree, whofe berries anfwer all purpofcs of wafliing ; the mangrove and olive bark, ufeful to tanners ; the fuftic and redwootl for dying ; and lately the logwood. The inciigo plant was formcrjy much cultivated ; and the cotton-tree is ftill fo. No fort of European grain grows here ; they have only maize, or Indian corn, Guinea corn, peas of va- rious kinds, but none of them refembling ours, with variety of roots. Fruits are produced in great abundance ; citrons, Seville and China oranges, common and I'weet lemons, limes, fliadocks, pomegranates, mamees, fourfops, papas, pine-apples, cullard-apples, tar-apples, prickly pears,, allicada pears, melons,pompions, guavas, and feveral kinds of berries ; alfo garden fluffs in great plenty, and good. The cattle bred on this idand are but few ; their beef is tough and lean ; the mutton and lamb are tolerable ; they have great plenty of hogs ; many plantations have hundreds of them, and their flefli is exceedingly fweet and delicate. Their horfes are fmall^ mettlefome and hardy, and often fell for ^o or 40I. fterling. Jamaica likewife fup- plies the apotliecary with guaiacuni, farfaparilla, china, caffia, and tamarinds. Among the animals are the land and fea turtle, and the alligator. Here are o-reat variety of fowl, wild and tame,, and in particular more parrots than in any of the other illandsj befides parroquets, pelicans, fnipes, teal, Guinea hens, geefe, ducks^ and turkies ; the humming-bird, and many others. The rivers and bays abound •with fiili. The mountains breed numberlefs adders, and other noxious animals, as the fens and marflies do the guana and gallewafp, but thefe laft are not venomous. Among the infefts are the ciror, or chegoe, which eat into the nervous and mem- branous parts of the fleili of the negroes, and the white people are fometimes in- fefted with them. Thefe infefts get into any part of the body, but chiefly the legs and feet, v/here they breed in great numbers, and fhut themfelves up in a bag. As foon as the perfon feels them, which is not perhaps till a week after they have been in the body, they pick them out with a needle, or the point of a penknife, takino- care to deftroy the bag entirely, that none of the breed, which are like nits, may bfi left behind. They fometimes get into the toes, and eat the flefh to the very bone. This ifland was originally a part of the Spanifh empire in America. Several dcfccnts had been made upon it by the Englifh, prior to 1656 ; but it was not till that year that Jam.aica was reduced under our dominion. Cromwell had fitted out a fquadron, under Penn and Venables, to reduce the Spanifh ifland of Hifpaniola, but there this fquadron w^as unfuccefsful. The commanders, of thei." own accord, to atone for this misfortune, mads a defcent on Jamaica, and havino-- carried the capital, St. Jago, foon compelled the whole ifland to furrender. Ever fjnce it has been fubjeft to the Englifh, and the government of it is one of the richeft places, next to that of Ireland, in the difpolal of the crown, the flandin^ falary being 2,500!.. per annum, and the afTembly commonly voting the governor as much more ; which, with the other perquifites, make it on the whole little in-, fcrior to io,oool. per annum. We have already obferved, that the government of all the American iilands is- the fame, namely, that kind which we have formei-Iy defcribed under rhe name of a royal government.. There religion too is univerfaliy of tire church of England ; though they have no bifhop, the bifhop of London's commifTary being the chief religious magiitrate in thofe parts.. About the beginning of this century^ it was compvited, that the number of v/hite.^- in Jamaica amounted to 60,000, and that of the negroes to.i?.o,ooo. It appears- at prefeat that Jamaica is rather on the decline, as is the number of inhabitant?,, the whites not exceeding 25,000, and the blacks 90,000. Befides thefe^ a number, of fugitive negroes have formed a fort of colony among the Blue Mou.itainSj in- , , " dc- 776 British American Islands. dependent of the whites, with whom they make treaties, and to whom they fend back run-away flaves. Indigo was once much cultivated in Jamaica, and enriched the ifland to fuch a degree, that in the parifli ofVere, where this drug was chiefly cultivated, there were no lefs than 300 gentlemen's coaches ; a number perhaps the whole ifland exceeds not at this day. The Jamaicans were undoubtedly very numerous,'until reduced by earthquakes, and by terrible epidemical difeafes, which treading on the heels of the former calamities, fwept away vafl: multitudes. Among the caufes of their decline, the Wefl: Indians complain of being deprived of the mofl beneficial part of their trade, the carrying of negroes and dry goods to the Spanifli coaft ; of the low value of their produce, which they afcribe to the great improvements the French make in their fugar colonies, owing to the comparative fmallnefs of their duties j of the trade carried on from Ireland and the northern colonies to the French and Dutch iflands, where they pay no duties, and are fupplied with goods at an eafier rate. Some of thefe complaints have been heard, and feme remedies applied ; others remain unredreflfed. Both the logwood trade, and the contraband, have been the fubjefl of much contention, and the caufe of a war between Great Britain and the Spanifh nation. The former vve always avowed, and claimed as our right, and at the peace of 1763, it was confirmed to us, the latter was permitted ; becaufe we thought, and very jufl:ly, that if tlie Spaniards found themfelves aggrieved by any contraband trade, it lay upon them, and not upon us, to put a flop to it, by their guarda coftas, which cruife in thofe feas, purpofely to feize and confifcate fuch vef- fels and cargoes as are found in this trade. In this manner did the Britifli court argue, till the politics of this nation, in compliance with the court of Spain, thought proper to fend Englifli cruifers to the American coaft:, efitdtually to crufh that lucrative trade, of which the whole body of Britifli fubjefts in America loudly complained, as it put a flop to the principal channel which hitherto enabled them to remit fo largely to Great Britain. Port Royal was formerly the capital of Jamaica. It flood upon the point of a narrow neck of land, which, towards the fea, formed parr of the border of a very fine harbour of its own name. The conveniency of this harbour, which was capable of containing a thoufand fail of large fhips, and of fuch depth as to allow them to load and unload at the greatefl; eafe, weighed fo much with the inhabit- ants, that they chofe to build their capital on this fpot, though the place was a hot dry fand, and produced none of the neceflfaries of life, not even frefli water. But the advantage of its harbour, and the refort of pirates, made it a place of great confideration. Thefe pirates were called Buccaneers ; they fought with an incon- fiderate bravery, and then fpent their fortune in this capital with as inconfiderate difl!ipation. About the beginning of the year 1692, no place, for its fize, could be compared to this town for trade, wealth, and an entire corruption of manners. In the month of June, in this year, an earthquake, which fliook the whole ifland to the foundations, totally overwhelmed this city, fo as to leave, in one quarter, not even tlie fmallefl: veftige remaining. In two minutes, the earth opened and fwallowed up nine tenths of the houfes, and two thoufand people, the water guflied out from the openings of the earth, and tumbled the people on heaps j but fomc of them had the good fortune to catch hold of beams and rafters of houfes, and were afterwards faved by boats. Several fliips were cafl; away in the harbour ; and the Swan frigate, which lay in the dock to careen, was carried over the the tops of finking houfes, and did not overfet, but afforded a retreat to fome hundreds of people, who faved their lives upon her. An officer, who was in the town at this time, fays, the earth opened and fhut very quick, in fome places, and he faw fe- 6 veral British American IstANDS. 767 veral people fink down to the middle, and others appeared with then- heads jufl above ground, and were fqueezed to death. At Savannah, above a thoufand acres were funk, with the houfes and people in them ; the place appearing for fome time like a lake, was afterwards dried up, but no houfes were feen. In fome parts, mountains were fplit ; and at one place a plantation was removed to the dirtance of a mile. They again rebuilt the city j but, ten years after it was deflroy- ed by a great fire. The extraordinary convenience of the harbour tempted them to build it once more ; and once more, in 1722, it was laid in rubbifh by a hurri- cane, the moft terrrible on record. Such repeated calamities feemed to mark out this place as a devoted fpot ; the inhabitants therefore refolved to forfake it for ever, and to refide at the oppofite bay, where they built Kingfton, which is lately become the capital of the ifland. It confifts of upwards of one thoufand houfes, many of them handfomely built, and in the tafte of thefe iflands, as well as the neighbouring continent, one ftory high, with porticoes, and every conveniency for a comfortable habitation in that climate. Not far from Kingfton, ftands St. Jago de la Vega, or Spanifh town, which though at prefent inferior to Kingfton, was once the the capital of Jamaica, and is ftill the feat of government, and the place where the courts of juftice are held. On the third of Oi^tober, 1780, a dreadful hurricane almoft overwhelmed the little fea-port-town of Savannah-la-Mer, and part of the adjacent country. Very few houfes were left Handing, and a great number of people were killed. Much damage was alfo done, and many lives loft, in other parts of the iQand, The whole produtt ot the ifland may be reduced to thefe heads. Firft, fugars, of which they exported in 1753, twenty thoufand three hundred and fifteen hogf- heads, fome of them a tun in weight ; which cannot be worth lefs in England than 424,7251. Moft of this goes to London, Briftol, andGlafgow, and fome part of it to North America, in return for the beef, pork, cheefe^ corn, peas, ftaves, planks, pitch, and tar, which they have from thence. Second, rum, of which they export about four thoufand puncheons. The rum of this ifland is generally efteemed the beft, and is the moft ufed in Great Britain. Third, molafles, in which they made a great part of their returns for New England, where there are vaft diftilleries. All thefe are the produce of the grand ftaple the fugar cane. According to the late teftimony of a refpedable planter in Jamaica, that ifland hath 280,000 acres in canes, of which 210,000 are commonly cut, and make from 68 to 70,000 tons of fugar, and 4,200,000 gallons of rum. Fourth, cotton, of which they fend out two thoufand bags. The indigo, formerly much cultivated, is nowinconfiderablej but fome cocoa and coffee are exported, with a confiderable quantity of pepper, gin- ger, drugs for dyers and apothecaries, fweet-meats, mahogany, and manchineel planks. But fome of the moft confiderable articles of their trade are with the Spanifli continent of New Spain and Terra Firma ; for in the former they cut great quantities of logwood, and both in the former and latter they carry on a very pro- fitable trade in negroes, and all kinds of European goods. And even in time of war with Spain, this trade between Jamaica and the Spanifti Main goes on, which it will be impoftible for Spain entirely to flop, while it is fo profitable to the Bri- tifti merchant, and while the Spanifh ofiicers, from the higheft to the loweft, fhew fo great a refpeft to prefents properly made. Upon the whole, many of the people of Jamaica, whilft they appear to live in fuch a ftate of luxury, as in moft other places leads to beggary, acquire great fortunes Their equipages, their cloaths, their furniture, their tables, all bear the tokens of the greateftwealdi and profufion. On Sundays, or court time, gentlemen wear wigs, and appear very gay in coats of fflk, and vefts trimmed with filver. At other times they generally wear only thread fl.ockings, linen drawers, a veft, a Holland cap, and a hat upon it. Men fer- ^8 BiiiTisH American Islands. fervants wear a coarfe linen frock, with buttons at the neck and hands, long trow- fers of the fame, and a check Hiirt. The negroes, except thofc who attend gentle- men, who have them dreffed in their own livery, have once a year Olnaburghs, and a blanket for clothing, with a cap or handkerchief for the head. The morning ' habit of the ladies is a loofe night-gown, carelefsly wrapped about them : before ' dinner they put off their difhabille, and appear with a good grace in all the ad- -vantage of a rich and becoming drefs. The common drink of perfons in affluent circumftances is Madeira wine mixed ■with water. Ale and claret are extravagantly dear j and Lx^ndon porter fells for a fiiilling per bottle. But the general drink, efpecially among thofe of an inferior rank, is rum-punch, which thry call Kill-Dcvil, becaufe, being frequently drank to ex- cefs, it licats the blood, and brings on fevers, which in a few hours fends them to the grave, efpecially thofe who are juft come to the illand, which is the reafon that fb many die here upon their firft arrival. Englifli money is feldom feen here, the current coin being entirely SpaniHi. There is no place where filver is fo plentiful, or has a quicker circulation. You -^iS.c ^ 2 ^ ^"^ 3° nonh latitude. S OQ. Boundaries.] "TJOUNDED by New Mexico, or Granada, on the North j J3 by the gulf of Mexico, on the North-eaft j by Terra Firnia, on the South-eafl: ; and by the Pacific Ocean, on the South-welt, containing three audiences. Audiences. Provinces. Chief Towns. ri. Guadalajarra Guadalajarra 2, Zacatecas Zacatecas 3. New Bifcay St. Barbara I. G A L I CI A. ' 4. Cinolea Cinolea 5. Culiacan Culiacan 6. Charmctlaii Charmetlan ,7. Xalifco Xalifco. ir. MEX- SPANISH AMERICA. Audiences. Provinces. Chief Towns. 779 2. 3- II. MEXICO. K 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. L9- Mexico Mechoacan Panuco Tlafcala Guaxaca Tobafco Jucatan Chiapa Soconufco. i { Mexico, W. Ion. 100-5. N. lat, 19-54. Acapulco Mechoacan Tampice Tlafcala Vera Cruz Guaxaca Tobafco Cainpeachy Chiapa Soconufco. fi. Verapaz ! 1. Guatimala III. GUATIMALA. \ 3' Honduras } 4. Ivicaraeua j 5. Coda Rica L6. Veragua Verapaz Guatimala * Valiadolid Leon Nycoya Santa Fe. PjAYS.] On the north fea are the gulfs or bays of Mexico, Campeachy, Vera Cruz, and Honduras j in the Pacific Ocean, or South-Sea, are the bays Micoyaand Amapalla, Acapulco and Salinas. Capes.] Thefe are cape Sardo, cape St. Martin, cape Cornducedo, cape Catoche, cape Honduras, cape Cameron, and cape Gracias Dios, in the North Sea. Cape Marques, cape Spirito Sanfto, cape Corientes, cape Gallero, cape Blanco cape Burica, cape Prucreos, and cape Mala, in the South-Sea. Winds.] In the gulf of Mexico, and the adjacent fcas, there are flrono- north winds from Oftober to March, about the full and change of the moon. Trade- winds prevail every where at a diftance from land, within the tropics. Near the conft, in the South-Sea, they have periodical winds, viz. Monfoons, and fea and land breezes, as in Afia. Soil and climate.] Mexico, lying for the moft part within the torrid zone, is excefTively hot, and on the eaflern coatl, where the land is low, is marfhy, and conftantly flooded in the rainy feafons ; it is likewife extremely unwholefomei The inland country, however, affumes a better afpedt, and the air is of a milder tem- perature ; on the weftern fide the land Is not folowas on the eaftern, much better in quality, and full of plantations. The foil of Mexico in general has much variety, and would not refufe any fort of grain, did the induftry of the inhabitants correfpond with their natural advantages. Produce.] Mexico, like all the tropical countries, is rather more abundant in fruits than in grain. Pine-apples, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, fio-s, and cocoa-nuts are here in the greateft plenty and perfedtion. Mexico produces alfo a prodigious quantity of fugar, efpecially towards the gulf of Mexico, and the province of Guaxaca and Guatimala, lb that here are more fugar mills than in any * Thiscity was fwallovved up by an earthquake on the 7th of June, 1773, when eight thoufand fami- lies inftantly perifhed. New Guatimala is built at fome diftance, and is well inhabited. 5G2 Other ygo S P A N I S H A M E R I C A. other part of Spanifti America. Cedar trees and logwood flourifh much about the bays of Campeachy and Honduras. The Maho tree alfo which hath a bark with , ftrono- fibres, which they twift and make ropes of. They have alfo a tree, which is called light-wood, being as light as a cork, of which they make floats to carry their merchandife on the fea-coafts. But what is confidered as the chief glory of the country, and what firfl induced the Spaniards to form fettlements upon it, are the mines of gold and filver. The chief mines of gold are in Veragua and New Granada, bordering upon Daricn and Terra Firma. Thofe of filver, which are much more rich, as well as numerous, are found in feveral parts, but in none lb much as in the province of Mexico. The mines of both kinds are always found in the moft barren and mountainous part of the country ; nature making amends in one refpedl for her defefts in another. The working of the gold and filver mines depends on the fame principles. When the ere is du.? out, compounded of feveral heterogeneous fubftances, mixed with the precious metals, it is broken into fmall pieces by a mill, and afterwards wafhed, by which means it is difengaged from the earth, and other foft bodies which clung to it. Then it is mixed with mercury, which, of all fubftances, has the llrongeft at- traction for gold, and likewife a ftronger attradion for filver than the other fub- ftances which are united with it in the ore. By means of the mercury, therefore, the gold and filver are firft feparated from the heterogeneous muter, and then by {training and evaporation, they are difunited from the mercury itfelf. The other articles next in importance to gold and filver are the cochineal and cocoa. After much difpute concerning the nature of the former, it fcems at laft agreed, that it is of the animal kind, and of the fpecies of the gall infefts. It ad- heres to the plant called opuntia, and fucks the juice of the fruit, which is of a crimfon colour. It is from this juice that the cochineal derives its value, which confills in dying all forts of the fineft fcarlet, crimfon, and purple. It is alfo ufcd in medicine as a fudorific, and as a cordial ; and it is computed that the Spaniards annually export no lefs than nine hundred thoufands pounds weight of this commodity to anlwer the purpofes of medicine and dying. The cocoa, of which chocolate is m.ade, is the next confiderable article in the natural hif- tory and commerce of Mexico. It grows on a tree of a middling fize, which bears a pod about the fize and fliape of a cucumber, containing the cocoa. The Spanifli commerce in this article is immenfe ; and fuch is the internal confump- tion, as well as the external demand for it, that a finall garden of cocoas is faid to produce to the owner twenty ihoufand crowns a year. At home it makes a princi- pal part of their diet, and is found wholefome, nutritious, and fuitable to the cli- mate. 1 his country likewife produces filk, but not in fuch abundance as to make any remarkable part of its export. Cotton is here in great abundance, and on ac- count of its lightnefs is the common wear of the inhabitants. Population, inhabitants, I We fhall place thefe heads under one point of GOVERNMENT AND MANNERS. 5 view, bccaufc the reader vnll foon be fenfible they are very nearly connected. We have already defcribed the original inha- bitants of Mexico, and the conquefl: of that country by the Spaniards. The prefent inhabitants may be divided into Whites, Indians, and Negroes. The Whites are either born in Old Spain, or they are Creoles, i. e. natives of Spanifli America. The former are chiefly employed in government or trade, and have nearly the fame charatter with the Spaniards in Europe ; only a fiill more con- fidcrable portion of pride ; for they confider themfelves entitled to great diftinc- tion as natives of Europe, and look upon the other inhabitants as many degrees beneath them. The Creoles have all the bad qualities of the Spaniards, fioiti whom they are defccnded, without that courage, firmnefs, and patience, which make SPANISH AMERICA. 781 make tlie praife-worthy part of the Spanilli charafler. Naturally weak and ef- feminate, they dedicate the greateft part of their lives to loitering, and inaftivc pleafurcs. Luxurious without variety or elegance, and cxpenfivc with great pa- rade, and little convenience, their general charafter is no more than a grave and fpecious infignificance. From idlenefs and conllitution their whole bufinefs is amour and intrigue ; and their ladies of confequence are not at all dillinguifli- ed for their chaftity or domeftic virtues. The Indians, who, notwithftanding the devaftations of the fiift invaders, remain in great numbers, are become, by con- tinual oppreffion and indignity, a dejedled, timorous, and mifcrable race of mortals. The blacks here, like all thofe in other parts of the world, are ftub- born, hardy, and as well adapted for tiie grofs flavery they endure as any human creatures can be. Such is the general charader of tlie inhabitants, not only in Mexico, but the greateft part of Spanifli America. The civil government is adminiftered by tri- bunals, called Audiences, which bear a refemblance to the parliaments in France. In thefe courts the viceroy of the king of Spain prefides. His employment is the greateft: trufl and power which his Catholic majelly has in his difpofal, and is per- haps the richeft government entrufted to any fubjecl in the world. The greatnefs of the viceroy's office is diminifned by the fliortncfs of its duration. For, as jealoufy is the leading feature of Spanifh politics, in whatever regards America, no officer is allowed to maintain his power for more than three years, which no doubt may have a good elFedl in fecuring the authority of the crown of Spain, but is attended with unhappy confequences to the miferable inhabitants, who become a prey to every new governor. The clergy are extremely numerous in Mexico, and it has been computed, that pricfts, monks, and nuns of all orders, make upwards of a fifth of all ihe white inhabitants, both here and in the other parts of Spanifli Ame- rica. It is impoffible indeed to find a richer field, or one more peculiarlv adapt- ed to the purpofes of ecclefiallics. The people are fuperllitious, ignorant, rich, lazy, and licentious : with fuch materials to work upon, it is not remarkable that the church fliould enjoy one fourth of the revenues of the whole kingdom. It is more furpiifing that it has not one half. Commerce, cities, and shipping.] The trade of Mexico confifls of three great branches, which extend over the world. It carries on a traffic with Europe, by La Vera Cruz, fituated on the gulf of Mexico ; with the Eaft Indies, by Aca- pulco on the South-Sea j and with South America by the fame port. Thefe two fea-ports, Vera Cruz and Acapulco, are excellently adapted to the commercial purpofes to which they were applied. It is by means of the former that Mexico pours her wealth over the whole world ; and receives in return the numberiefs luxuries and neceilaries, which Europe affords to her, and which the indolence of her inhabitants will never permit them to acquire for themfelves. To this port the fleet from Cadiz, called the Flota, confifling of three men of war, as a convoy, and 14 large merchant fliips, annually arrive about the beginning of November. Its cargo confifis of every commodity and manufatfture of Europe, and there are few nations but have more concern in it than tlie Spaniards, who fend out little more than wine and oil. The profit of thefe, with the freight and commiffion to the merchants, and duty to the king, are the only advantages which Spain derives from her American commerce. When all the goods are landed and difpofed of at La Vera Cruz, the fieet takes in the plate, precious ftones, and other commodities for Europe. Some time in May they are ready to depart. From La Vera Cruz they fail to the Havanna, in the ifle of Cuba, which is the rendezvous where they meet the galeons, another fleet which carries on the trade of Terra Firma, by Cartha- gena. 782 SPANISHAMERICA. o-ena, and of Peru by Panama and Porto Bello. When all are coilcded and pro- vided with a convov neceflary for their fafety, they fteer for Old Spain. Acapulco is the fea-port, by which the communication is kept up betu'een the differ-;;: parts of the Spanifli empire in^America, and the Eaft Indies. About the mowch of December, the great galeon, attended by a large fhip as a convoy, annually arrives here. 1 he cargoes of thefe fhips, for the convoy, though in an underhand manner, likewife carries goods, confilts of all the rich commodities and manufactures of the Eaft. At the fame time the annual Ihip from Lima, the capital of Peru, comes in, and is computed to bring not lefs than two millions of pieces of eight in filver, befides quickfilver and other valuable commodities to be laid out in the purchafe of the galeons cargoes. Several other fhips, from different parts of Chili and Peru, meet upon the fame occafion. A great fair, in which the commodities of all parts of the world are bartered for one another, lafts thirty days. 'I he galeon then prepares for her voyage, loaded with filver and fuch European goods as have been thought neceffary. The Spaniards, though this trade be carried on entirely through their hands, and in the very- heart of their dominions, are comparatively but fmall gainers by it. For as they allow the Dutch, Great Britain, and other commercial ftates, to furnifh the greater part of the cargo of the flota, fo the Spanifh inhabitants of the Philip- pines, tainted with the fame indolence which ruined their European anccftors, permit the Chinefe merchants to furnifli the greater part of the cargo of the ga- leon. Notwithftanding what has been faid of Vera Cruz, and Acapulco, the city of Mexico, the capital of the empire, ought to be confidered as the centre of coumicrce in this part of the world ; for here the principal merchants refide, and the greateft part of the bufinefs is negociatcd. The Eaft India goods from Aca- pulco, and the European from Vera Cruz, alfo pafs through this city. Hither all the gold and filver come to be coined, here the king's fifth is depofited, and here are wrought all thofe utenfils and ornaments in plate which are every year fent into Europe. The city itfelf breathes the air of the higheft magnificence, and according to the beft accounts contains about So,ooo inhabitants. SPANISH DOMINIONS in SOUTH AMERICA. TERRA FIRM A, or CASTILE DEL ORG. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1400 7 , C 60 and 82 weft longitude. 1 Breadth 700 S ^"'^''" ithe equator, and 12 north latitude. \/°°>°oo. Boundaries.] T) O U N D E D by the North Sea (part of the Atlantic ocean), O on the North ; by the fame fea and Surinam, on the Eaft ; by the country of the Amazons and Peru, on the South j and by the Pacific Occin and New Spain, on the Weft. Divifions. SPANISH AMERICA. 783 Divifions. Subdivifions. Chief Towns. ■i. Terra Firma Proper,1 fPorto Bcllo or Darien — [ I Panama, W. Ion. 80-21. I J N. lac. 8-47. 2. Carthagena — l 1 Carthagena The nortli dlvifion con- •' 3. St. Martha — \ I St. Martha tains the provinces of; 4. Rio de la Hacha — M Rio de la Hacha 5. Venezuela 6. Comana • 7. New Andalufia, or Paria — — . Venezuela Comana St. Thonnas L The fouth divifion con- \ i. New Granada tains the provinces oft 2. Popayan \l: I ( Santa Fe de Bagota i c Popayan. Rivers, Bays, capes, &c.] The Ifthmus of Darien, or Terra Firma Proper, joins North and South America. A line drawn from Porto Bello in the North, to Panama on the South Sea, or rather a little weft of thefe two towns, is the proper limit between North and South America, and here the Ifthmus, or neck of land, is only 60 miles over. The principal rivers are the Rio Grande, Darien, Chagre, and the Oronoque. The principal bays in Terra Firma are, the bay of Panama, and the bay of St. Michael's in the South-Sea; the bay of Porto Bello, the gulf of Darien, Sin'a bay, Carthagena bay and harbour, the gulf of Venezuela, the bay of Maracaibo, the gulf of Tricfto, the bay of Guaria, the bay of Curiaco, and the gulf of Paria, or Andalufia, in the North-Sea. The chief capes are, Samblas point, Point Canoa, Cape del Agua, Swart point. Cape de Vela, Cape Conquibacoa, Cape Cabclo, Cape Blanco, Cape Galera, Cape Three Points, and Cape NafTau ; all on the north fhore of Terra Firma. Climate.] The climate here, particularly in the nordiern divifions, is ex- tremely hot ; and it was found by Ulloa, that the heat of the warmeft day in Paris is continual at Carthagena ; the exceffive heats raife the vapour of the lea, which is precipitated in fuch rains as fetm to threaten a general dehio-e. Great part of the country, therefore, is alm.oft continually flooded; and this, too-ether with the exceftive heat, lo impregnates the air with vapours, that in many provinces, particularly about Popayan and Porto Bello, it is extremely unwholefome. Soil and produce.] The foil of this country, like that of the greater part of South America, is wonderfully rich and fruitful. It is impoHible to view, without admiration, the perpetual verdure of the woods, the luxuriancy of the plains, and the towering height ctf the mountains. This, however, only applies to the inland country, for the coafts are generally barren fand, and incapable of bearing any fpecies of grain. The trees, moft remarkable for their dimenfions, are the caobo, the cedar, the maria, and balfam tree. The manchineel tree is parricularlv re- markable. It bears a fruit refembling an apple, but v/hich, under this fpecious appearance, contains the moft fubtile poifon, againft which common oil is found to be the beft antidote. The malignity of this tree is fuch, that if a perfon only fleeps under it, he finds his body all fwelled, and racked with the fevereft tortures. The beafts, from inftinft alone, avoid it. The Habella de Cartliagena is the fruit of a fpecies of willow, and contains a kernel refembling an almond, but lels. white, and extremely bitter. This kernel is found to be an excellen; and never- failing remedy for the bite of the moft venomous vipers and fcrpents, wnich are very frequent 784 SPANISHAMERICA. frequent all over this country. There were formerly in Terra Firma rich mines of goUt which are now in a great meafure exhaufled. The filver, iron, and copper mines have been fince opened ; and the inhabitants find emeralds, fapphires, and other precious ftones. Animals.] In treating of North America we have taken notice of many of the animals that are found in the fouthern parts. Among thofe peculiar to the South, the moft remarkable is the floth, or, as it is called by way of derifion, the Swift Peter. It bears a refemblance to an ordinary monkey in fhape and fize, but is of a moft wretched appearance, with its bare hams and feet, and its Ikin all over corrugated. He ftands in no need of either chain or hutch, never llirring un- lefs compelled by hunger; and he is faid to be feveral minutes in moving one of his legs, nor will blows make him mend his pace. When he moves, every effort is attended with fuch a plaintive, and at the fame time, fo difagreeable a cry, as at once produces pity and difgufl. In this cry confills the whole defence of this wretched animal. For on the firll hoftile approach it is natural for him to be in motion, which is always accompanied with difguftful howling, fo that his purfuer flies much more fpeedily in his turn, to be be\ ond the reach of this horrid noife. When this animal finds no wild fruits on the ground, he looks out with a great deal of pains for a tree well loaded, which he afcends with a world of uneafinefs, moving, and crying, and flopping by turns. At length having mounted, he plucks off all the fruit, and throws it on the ground, to fave himfelf fuch another troublefome journey ; and rather than be fatigued with coming down the tree, he gathers himfclf in a bunch, and with a fhrick drops to the ground. The monkeys in thefe countries are very numerous ; they keep together 20 or jo in company, rambling over the woods, leaping from tree to tree, and if they meet with a fingle perfon, he is in danger of being torn to pieces by them j at leaft they chatter, and make a frightful noife, throwing things at him ; they hang themfelves ■by the tail, on the boughs, and feem to threaten him all the way he paffes j but where two or tliree people are together, they ufually fcamper away. Natives.] Befides the Indians in this country, who fall under our generalK^e- fcription of the Americans, there is another fpecies of a fair complexion, delicate habit, and of a fmaller ftature than the ordinary Indians. Their difpofitions too are more foft and effeminate; but what principally diftinguifhes them is their large weak blue eyes, which, unable to bear the light of the fun, feebeft by moon-light, and from which they are called Moon-eyed Indians. Inhabitants, commerce, 7 We have already mentioned how this country AND CHIEF TOWNS. ^ ^^^^ '"to the haiids of the Spaniards. The in- habitants therefore do not materially differ from thofe of Mexico. To what we have already obfervcd, therefore, it is only neceffary to add, that the original in- habitants of Spain are varioufly interinixcd with the negroes and Indians. Thefe intermixtures form different gradations, which are carefully diflinguiflied from each other, becaufc every perfon expeds to be regarded, in proportion as a greater fharc of the Spanifli blood runs in his veins. The firit diftindlion, arifing from the intermarriage of the whites with the negroes, is that of the mulattoes, •which is well known. Next to thefe arc the Tercerones, produced from a white and mulatto. From the intermarriage with thefe and the whites, arife the Quar- terones, who, though dill nearer the former, are difgraccd witli a tint of the ne- gro blood. But the produce of thefe and the whites are the Quinteroncs, who, it is laid, are not to be diftinguiflied from the real Spaniards, but by being of a ftill fiirer complexion. The lame gradations are formed in a contrary order, by the intermixture of the mulattoes and the negroes, and bcfides thefe, tliere area thoufand SPANISHAMERICA. 785 ttioufand others, hardly diftinguifhable by the natives themfelvcs. The commerce df this country is chiefly carried on from the ports of Panama, Carthagena, and Porto Bcllo ; which are three of the mod confiderable cities in Spanifh America. In them are held the annual fairs for American, Indian, and European commodi- ties. Among the natural merchandife of Terra Firma, the pearls found on the coaft, particularly in the bay of Panama, are not the leaft confiderable. The fifh- ing for thefe, employs a great number of negro flaves, who have arrived at wonder- ful dexterity in this occupation. They are fometimes, however, devoured by fifh particularly the Iharks, while they dive to the bottom, or are crushed againft the Ihelves of the rocks. The government of Terra Firma is on the fame footing with that of Mexico. *!•• PERU. Situation awd Extent, Miles. Degrees. Sq. Milei. u^f „«»., S '^he equator and 25 fouth latitude. 7 between | ^^ J^ ^ ^ ^^^ longitude. f 97o.ooo Length i8oo7 Breadth 600 ^ BovNDARiES.] "OOUNDED by Terra Firma, on the North; by the Ande»> X3 Eafti by Chili, South j and by the Pacific Ocoan, Weft. Divifions. Provinces, Chief Towns. , The North divifion | Quito — -^?{^'ta C 1 C Lima, 76-49. W. Ion. The Middle divifion < Lima, or Los Reyes w «2-i i S. lat. (. J I Cufco, and Callao The South divifion ^ Los Charcos ^\\ PoJco Seas, bays, and harbours.] The only fea which borders on Peru is the Pacific Ocean, or South-Sea. The principal bays and harbours are Payta, Mala- brigo, Cuanchaco, Cofma, Vermeio, Guara> Callao the port town to Lima, Ylo, and Arica. Rivers.] There is a river whofe waters are as red as blood. The rivers Gra- nada, or Cagdalena, Oronoque, Amazon, and Plate, rife in the Andes, befides many others which fall into the Pacific Ocean, between the equator and eight degrees S. lat* Petrifyixg watkRs.] There are fonie waters, which, in their courfe, cover whatever they touch or pafs over, with Clone ; and here are fountains of liquid matter called Coppey, relembling pitch and tar, and ufed by the feamen for the lame purpoles. Soil and climate.] Though Peru lies within the torrid zone, yet havin? on one fide the South-Sea, and on the other the great ridge of the Andes, it is not fo Itillcd with heat as the other tropical countries. The flcy too, which is gene- rally cloudy, fhields them from the direft rays of the fun; but what is extremely S H lingulari 785 SPANISHAMERICA. fingular, it never rains in Peru. The defedt, however, is fufficiently fupplied by a foft kindly dew, which falls gradually every night on the ground, and fo refrefhes the plants and grafs, as to produce in many places the greateft fertility. Along the fea-coaft, Peru is generally a dry barren fand, except near the banks of rivers, where it is extremely fertile, as are all the low lands in the inland country. Animal, vegetable, and 7 There are many gold mines in the northern MINERAL PRODUCTIONS, f part, not fat from Lima. Silver too is produced in great abundance in various provinces ; but the old mines are continually decay- ing, and new ones continually opening. The towns Ihift with the mines. That of Potoli which is now much exhaufled, once contained 90,000 fouls, Spaniards and Indians, of which the latter were fix to one. The northern part of Peru pro- duces wine in great plenty. Wool is another article of its produce, and is no lefs remarkable for its finenefs than for the animals on which it grows ; thcfe they call Lamas and Vicunnas. The Lama has a fmall head, refembling that of a horfe and a flieep at the fame time. It is about the (Tze of a flag, its upper lip is cleft like that of a hare, through which, when enraged, it fpits a kind of ve- nomous juice, which inflames the part it falls on. The flefh of the Lama is a- greeable and falutary, and the animal is not only ufeful in affording wool and food, btrt alfo as a beaft of burden. It can endure amazing fatigue, and will travel over the fteepeft mountains with a burden of 60 or 70 pounds. It feeds very fparingly, and never drinks. The Vicunna is fmaller and fwifter than the Lama, and produces wool ftill finer in quality. In the Vicunna is found the Be- zoar ftone, regarded as a fpecific againft poifons. The next great article is the Peruvian bark, known better by the name of Jefuits bark. The tree which pro- duces this invaluable drug, grows principally in the mountainous parts of Peru,, and particularly in the province of Quito. The beft bark is always produced in the high and rocky grounds : the tree which bears it, is about the fize of a cherry tree, and produces a kind of fruit, refembling the almond. But it is only the bark which has thofe excellent qualities that render it fo ufeful in intermitting fevers, and other diforders, lo which daily experience extends the application of it. Guinea pepper, or Cayenne pepper, as we call it, is produced in the greateft abundance in the vale of Arica, a diftridt in the fouthern parts of Peru, from whence it is annually exported, to the value of 600,000 crowns. Peru is likewife the only part of South America which produces quick-filver ; an article of im- inenfe value, confidering the various purpoles to which it is applied, and efpeci- ally the purification of gold and filver.. The principal mine is at a place called Guancavelica, difcaveredin 1567, where it is found in a whitifh mafs refembling brick ill burned. This fubftance is volatilifed l)y fire, and received in fleam bv a combination of glafs vcflels, where it condenfcs by means of a little water at the bottom of each veflel, and forms a pure heavy liquid. Manufactures, trade, and cities.]. We join thefe articles, becaufe of their intimate connexion ; for, except in the cities wc fliall defcribe, there is no commerce worth mentioning. Lima is the capital of Peru ; its fituation, in the middle of a fpacious and delightful valley,, was fixed upon by the famous Pi- zarro, as the mofl proper for a city, which he cxpefted would prcfcrve his me- mory. It is fo well watered by the river Rimac, that the inhabitants, like thofc of London, command a flream, each for his own ufc. There are many very mag- nificent ftruttures, jrarticularly chinches, in this city ; though the houfes in ge- neral are built of flight materials, the equality of the climate, and want of rain, rendering ftunc houfes unnecellary ; and befides it is found, that thefe are more apt SPANISH AMERICA; 787 apt to fuffer by fliocks of the earth, which are frequent and dreadful all over this province. Lima is about two leagues from the fea, extends in length two miles, and in breadth one and a quarter. It contains about 60,000 inhabitants, of whom the whites amount to a fixth part. One remarkable fad; is fufficicnt to dcmon- ftrate the wealth of the city. When the viceroy, the duke de la Palada, made his entry into Lima in 1682, the inhabitants to do him honour, caufed the flreets to be paved with ingots of filver, amounting, it is faid, to feventecn millions fterling. AH travellers fpeak with amazement of the decorations of the churches with gold, filver, and precious ftoncs, which load and ornament even the walls. The merchants of Lima may be faid to deal with all the quarters of the world, and that both on their own accounts, and as fadtors for others. Here all the pro- ducts of the fouthern provinces are conveyed, in order to be exchanged at the harbour of Limn, for fuch articles as the inhabitants of Peru ftand in need of; the fleet from Europe, and the Eaft Indies, land at the fame harbour, and the commodities of Afia, Europe, and America, are bartered for each other. What there is no immediate vent tor, the merchants of Lima purchafe on their own accounts, and lay up in warehoufes, knowing that they muft foon find an outlet for them, fince by one channel or other they have a communication with almoft fevery commercial nation. But all the wealth of the inhabitants, all the beauty of the fituation, and fertility of the climate of Lima, are not fufficient to com- pcnfate for one difafter which always threatens, and has fometimes adlually be- fallen them. In the year 1747, a moft tremendous earthquake laid three-fourths of this city level with the ground, and entirely demolilbed Callao, the port-town belonging to it. Never was any dellrudtion more terrible or complete, not more than one of three thoufand inhabitants being left to record this dreadful calamity, and he by an accident the mod extraordinary. — This man, who happened to be on a fort which over-looked the harbour, perceived in one minute the inhabi- tants running from their houfes in the utmolT: terror and confufion ; the fea, as is ufual on fuch occafions, receding to a confiderable diftancc, returned in moun- tainous waves, and buried the inhabitants for ever in its bofom ; but the fame wave which deftroyed the town drove a little boat to the place where the man Hood, into which he threw himfelf and was faved. Cufco, the ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, has already been taken no- tice of. As it lies in the mountainous country, and at a diflance from the fea, it has been long on the decline. But it is flill a very confiderable place, and con- tains above 40,000 inhabitants, three parts Indians, and very induitrious in ma- nufatluring baize, cotton, and leather. They have alfo, both here and in Qui- to, a particular tafLe for painting; and their produftions in this way, fome of which have been admired in Italy, are difperfed all over South America. Quito is next to Lima in populoulnefs, if not fuperior to it. It is like Cufco, an inland citv, and having no mines in its neighbourhood, is chiefly famous for its manu- faftures of cotton, wool, and flax, which fupply the confumption over all the kingdom of Peru. Inhabitants, manners, and 1 It would be in vain to pretend faying any GOVERNMENT. > thing dccifivc with regard to the number of inhabitants of Peru. The Spaniards themfelves are remarkably filent on this head. It has been guclfed by fome writers, that in all Spanifh America there are about three millions of Spaniards and Creoles of different colours ; and un- doubtedly the number of Indians is much greater ; though neither in any refpeift proportionable to the wealth, fertility, and extent of the countr)'. The manneri of the inhabitants do not remarkably differ over the whole Spanifli dominions. 5 H 2 Pride 788 SPANISH AMERICA. Pride and lazinels nre the two predominant pafiions. It is faid by the mofl au- thentic travellers, that the manners of Old Spain have degenerated in its colo- nies. The Creoles, and all the other defcendents of the Spaniards, according to the above diftindtions, are guilty of many mean and pilfering vices, which a true- born Caftilian regards with deteftation. This, no doubt, in part arifes from the contempt in which all but the real natives of Spain are held in the Indies, man- kind generally behaving according to the treatment they meet with from others. In Lima the Spanifh pride has made the greateft defcents ; and many of the firil nobility are employed in commerce. It is in this city that the viceroy relides, whofe authority extends over all Pern, except Quito, which has lately been de- tached from it. The viceroy is as abfolute as the King of Spain ; but as his ter- ritories are fo extenfive, it is necefiary that he fhould part with a fliare of his au- thoritv to the feveral audiences or courts eftablifhed over the kingdom. There is a treafury court cftablifhed at Lima, for receiving the fifth of the produce of the mines, and certain taxes paid by the Indians, which belong to the king of Spain. CHILI. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length i.oo 7 ^^^^^^^^ j 25 and 45 fouth latitude. | Breadth 500 J Z 65 and 85 weft longitude, i ' ,000. Boundaries.] TJ OUNDED by Peru, on the North; by La Plata, on thd X3 Eaft ; by Patagonia, on the South ; and the Pacific O-^ eean, on the Weft. Divifions. Provinces. Chief towns. St, Jago, W. Ion. 77, S. lat, 34. Bald i via. Imperial. ^ Vnd'es''^ ^'^' °^ '^' { ^"^'°' "' ^"'^° " } 1 2'- •^"'^" ^^ Frontiers. %'nder'^ ^"^^ ""^ '^'^ ^^'^' ^'°^'' - V Chil Lakes.] The principal lakes arc thofe of Tagatagua near St. Jago, and that of Paren. Bcfides which they have feveral fak-v/ater lakes, that have a commu- nication with the fea, part of the year. In ftormy weather the fea forces a way- through them, and leaves them full of fifh ; but in the hot feafon the water con- geals, leaving a cruft of fine white fait a foot thick. Seas, rivers, bays, and harbours.] The only fea that borders upon Chili, is that of the Pacific Ocean on the weft. The principal rivers are, the Salado, or Salt River, Guafco, Cac^uimbo, Bohio, and the Baldivia, fcarcely navigable but at their mouths ; they fall into the Pacific Ocean. The principal bays, or harbours, arc Copiapo, Cotpiimbo, Govanadore, Val»- parilb. S P A N I SH A M E R I C A. ySg parifo, lata, Conception, Santa Maria, La Moucha, Baldivia, Brevver's-havcn, and Caftro. Climate, soil, and produce.] In thcfe Chili differs but little from Peru • and tlic difference is to its advantage. There is indeed no part of the world more favoured than this is, with refpeft to the gifts of Nature. For here, not only the tropical fruits, but all fpecies of grain, of which a confiderable part is ex- ported, come to great perfection. Their animal productions are the fame with thofe of Peru ; and they have gold almoll in every river, fuppofed to be wafhed down from the hills. Inhabitants.] This country is very thinly inhabited. The original natives are ftill in a great meafure unconqucred and uncivilized ; and leading a wandering life, attentive to no objedt but /heir prefervation from the Spanifh yoke, are in a very unfavourable condition with refped: to population. However, there have lately been fome formidable infurredtions againll the Spaniards, by the natives of Chili, which greatly alarmed the Spanifh court. Cities.] Thcfe are Coquimbo, Valparaifo, La Conception, and Saint Jago, the capital of the ftate, and the feat of empire. But the commandant is fubordi- nate to the Viceroy of Peru. Commerce.] The foreign commerce of Chili was entirely confined to Peru, Panama, and fome parts of Mexico. To the former they exported annually corn fufficient for 60,000 men. Their other exports were hemp, which is raifed in no other part of the South-Seas ; hides, tallow, and falted provifions ; they received in return the commodities of Europe and the Eaft Indies, which were brought ta the port of Callao, but fince the year 1778 all the ports of the mother country are allowed to trade freely to Chili. PARAGUAY. OR LA PLATA. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1500? r_,„^^„ C 12 and 37 fouth latitude. 7 Breadth 1000^ ^"'^''" i 50 and 7^veftIonsitude. T ^°°°'°°° Boundari LIES.] "OOUNDED by Amazonia, on the North; by Brafil, Eaft; by |j Patagonia, on the South; and by Peru and Chili, Weft. Eaft divifion contains Divlfions. - Provinces. Chief Towns. 'Paraguay — — "irAffumption Parana — — M St. Anne Guaira — — f" "j Cividad Real ^Uragua — — j [ Loys Royes r Tucuman — ■ — ] f ^'■* J^g° South divifion < Rio de la Plata — i I Buenos Ayres, W. Ian. i. J l 57-54- S. lat. 34-35. Bays and lakes.] The principal bay i^ that at the mouth of the river La Plata, on which ftands the capital city of Buenos Ayres ; and Cape St, Antonio, at 790 S P A N I S H A M E R I C A. at the entrance of that bay, is the only promontory. This country abounds with lakes, one of which Caracoroes, is loo miles long. Rivers.] This country, befides an infinite number of fmall rivers, is watered by three principal ones, the Paragua, Uragua, and Parana, which, united near the fea, form the famous Rio de la Plata, or Plate River, and which annually overflow their banks ; and, on their recefs, leave them enriched with a flime, that produces the greateft plenty of whatever is committed to it. Air, soil, and produce.] This vaft traft is far from being wholly fubdued or planted by the Spaniards. There are many parts in a great degree unknown to them, or to any other people of Europe. The principal province of which we have any knowledge, is that which is called Rio de la Plata, towards the mouth of the above mentioned rivers. 1 his province, with all the adjacent parts, is one continu- ed plain for feveral hundred miles, extremely fertile, and produces cotton in great quantities ; tobacco, and the valuable herb called Paraguay, with a variety of fruits, and the prodigious rich pailures, in which are bred fuch herds of cattle, that it is Jfaid the hides^of the beafts are all that is properly bought, the carcafe being in a manner given into the bargain. A horfe fome time ago might be bought for a dollar ; and the ufual price of a bullock, chofen out of a herd of two or three Jiundrcd, was only four rials. But, contrary to the general nature of America, this country is deftituce of woods. The air is remarkably fweet and ferene, and the waters of La Plata are equally pure and wholefome. First settlement, chief i The Spaniards firll: difcovered this country, by ciTV, AND COMMERCE. ^ failing up the tivcr La Plata in 1515, and found- ed the town of Buenos Ayres, fo called on account of the excellence of the air, on the fouth fide of the river, fifty leagues within its mouth, where it is feven leagues broad. This is one of the moft confiderable towns in South America, and the only place of traffic to the fouthward of Brafil. Here we meet with the merchants of Europe and Peru, but not with a regular fleet as in other parts of South America j two, or at moft three, regifter fhips being their only means of intercourfe with Euro[)e. Their returns are very valuable, confifting chiefly of the gold and filver of Chili and Peru, fugar, and hides. Thofe who have carried on a contraband trade to this city, have found it more advantageous than any other. The benefit of this contraband is now wholly in the hands of the Portuguefe, who keep magazines for that pu.rpofe ie .Brafil. The trade of Paraguay, and the manners of the people, are much the fame with thofe of the reft of the Spanifli colonies in South America, fo that nothing farther need be faid on thofe articles. But we cannot quit this country without tncntioning that extraordinary fpecies of commonwealth, which the Jefuits erefled in the interior parts, and concern- ing which thefe crafty priefts have endeavoured to keep all ftrangers in the dark. About the middle of the laft century, thofe fathers reprcfcntcd to the court of Spain, that their want of fucccfs in their miffions was owing to the fcandal which the immorality of the Spaniards never failed to give, n-.id to the hatred which their infolent behaviour caufed in the Indians. They infinuated that, were it not for thofe obflacles, the empire of the Gofpel might, by their labours, have been extend- ed into the moft unknown parts of America ; and that all thofe countries might be fubdued to his Catholic majefty's obedience, without expence, and without force. This rcmonftrance met with fuccefs ; the fphcre of their labours was marked our ; and the governors of the adjacent provinces had orders, not to interfere, nor to fbf- fcr any Spaniards to enter into this pale, without licences from the fathers. They, on their part, agreed to pay a certain capitation tax, in proportion to their flock ; and to fend a certain number to the king's works wheneverthey fliould be demanded, and the millions Ihould become populous enough to fupply them. On Spanish Islands i it Ameiica.' 791 On thefe terms the Jcfuits gladly entered upon the fcene of adlion, and opened their fpiritual campaign. They began by gathering together about 50 wandering families, whom they perfuaded to fettle ; and they united them into a little town- fliip. This was the flight foundation upon which they built a fuperftrufture whichr has amazed the world, and added much power, at the fame time that it occafion- ed much envy againft their fociety. For when they had made this beginning, they laboured with fuch indefatigable pains, and fuch maflerly policy, that, by degrees, they mollified the minds of the moft favage nations ; fixed the moft rambling, and fubdued thofc to their government who had long difdained to fubmit to the arms of the Spaniards and Portuguefe. They prevailed upon thoufands of various difperfed tribes to embrace their religion, and thefe foon induced others to fol- low their example, magnifying the peace and tranquillity they enjoyed under the direction of the Fatliers. Our limits do not permit us to trace with precifion all the fteps which were taken in the accomplifhment of fo extraordinary a conqueft over the bodies and minds of men. _ The Jefuits left nothing undone that could confirm their fubjeftion, or that could increafe their number j and it is faid that above 340,000 familes lived in obe- dience and exprefled an awe, bordering upon adoration, yet procured without any violence or conftraint : that the Indians were inftruded in the military art^- and could raife 60,000 men well armed : that they lived in towns ; were regularly clad y laboured in agriculture, exercifed manu failures ; fome even afpired to the elegant arts ; and that nothing could equal their fubmiffion to authority, except their con- tentment under it. Some writers have treated the charader of thele Jefuits with great feverity ; accufing them of ambition, pride, and of wantonly abufing their power by caufing not only perfons of both fexes, but even the magiftrates, who were always cholen from among the Indians, to be corredfed before them with ftripes, and by fufFering perfons of the higheft diftindlion, within their jurifdicTions,- to kifs the hem of their garments, as the greateft honour. The priefts themfelves poflelled large property, all manufadures were theirs, th€ natural produce of the country was brought to them, and the treafures annually remitted to the fuperior of the order, feemed to evince that zeal for religion was not the only motive for forming thefe miffions. The Fathers would not permit any of the inhabitants of Peru,, whether Spaniards, Meftizos, or even Indians, to come within their milTions in Paraguay. In the year 1757, when part of this territory was ceded by Spain to the crown of Portugal in e5«:hange for Saint Sacrament, to make tlie Ura^-ua the boundary of their pofleffions, the Jefuits refufed to comply with this divifion, or to fuffer themfelves to be transferred from one hand to another, like cattle, without their own confcnt. We were informed by the Spanifh Gazette, that the Indians a<5tually took up arms ; but notwithftanding the exaflnefs of their difcipline, they ■were eafily, and with confiderable Oaughter, defeated by the European troops, who v/erefentto quell them ; and in 1767, the Jefuits were removed from America, by royal authority, and their late fubjeds were put upon the fame footing with the reft of the inhabitants of the country. Spanish Islands in America. CUBA.] The ifland of Cuba is fituated between 19 and 23 degrees north laf. and between 74 and 87 degrees weft Ion. 100 miles to the fouth of Cape Florida, and 75 ncirtli of Jamaica, and is near 700 miles in length, andgenerally about 70 miles in breadth. A chain of Kills runs through the middle of the ifla.T:d froai I 791 Spanish Islands in America. from eaft to weft ; but the land near the fea is level and flooded in the rainy feafon, when the fun is vertical. This noble ifland is fuppofed to have the beft foil, for fo large a country, of any in America. It produces all the commodities known in the Weft Indies, particularly ginger, long-pepper, and other fpices, caffia, fiftula, muftic, and aloes. It alfo produces tobacco and fugar ; but from the want of hands, and the lazinefs of the Spaniards, not in luch quantities as might be ex- pefted. It is faid that its exports do not equal in quantity thofe of our fmall illand of Antigua. The courfe of the rivers is too ftiort to be of any confequence 5 but there arc feveral good harbours, which belong to the principal towns, as that of St. Jago, facing Jamaica, ftrongly fituated and well fortified, but neither populous nor rich. That of the Havannah, facing Florida, which is the capital of Cuba, and a place of great ftrength and importance, containing about 2000 houfes, with a great number of convents and churches. It was taicen, however, by the courage and per- feverance of the Englifti troops in the year 1762, but reftored in the fubfequent treaty of peace. Befides thefe, there is likewife Cumberland harbour, and that of Santa Cruz, a confiderable town thirty miles eaft of the Havannah. HisPANioLA, or St. Domingo.] This ifland was at flrft poflefl'ed by the Spa- niards alone ; but by far the moft confiderable part is now in the hands of the French. However, as the Spaniards were the original poflTeflbrs, and ftill continue to have a fliare in it, Hifpaniola is commonly regarded at a Spanifli ifland. It is fituated between the 17th and 21ft degrees north lat. and 67th and 74th of weft Ion. lying in the middle betrwcen Cuba and Porto-Rico, and is 450 miles long, and 150 broad. When Hifpaniola was firft difcovered by Columbus, the number of its inhabitants was computed to be at leaft one million. But fuch waa the cruelty of the Spaniards, and to fo infamous a height did they carry their op- prefTion of the poor natives, that they were reduced to fixty thouland in the fpace of fifteen years. The face of the ifland prefents an agreeL»ble variety of hills, val- lies, woods, and rivers ; and the foil is allowed to be extremely fertile, producing fugar, cotton, indigo, tobacco, maize, and caflTava root. The European cattle have fo much multiplied here, that they run wild in the woods, and, as in South Ame- rica, are hunted for the hides and tallow only. The moft barren part of the rocks contain filver and gold. The mines, however, are not now worked. The north- weft parts, which are in poflfefllon of the French, confift of large fruitful plains, which produce the articles already mentioned in vaft abundance. The moft ancient town in this ifland, and in all the New World, built by Europeans, is St. Do- mingo. It was founded by Bartliolomew Columbus, brother to the admiral, in 1504, who gave it that name in honour of his father Dominic, and by which the whole ifland is fometimes named, efpecially by the French. It is fituated on a fpacious liarboiir, and is a large, well-built city, inhabited, like the other Spanifli towns, by a mixture of Europeans, Creoles, mulattoes, mcftizoes, and negroes. The French towns are. Cape St. Francois, the capital, which is neither walled nor paled in, and is faid to have only two batteries, one at the entrance of the har- bour, and the other before the town. It contains about 8000 whites and blacks. Lcogane, though inferior in point of fize is a good port, a place of confiderable trade, and the feat of the French government. They have two other towns con- fiderable for their trade. Petit Guaves, and Port Louis. It is Computed that the exports of the French, from the above mentioned places are not lefs in value than 1,200,0 ool. They likewife carry on a contraband trade with the Spaniards, which is much to their advantage, as they exchange Frencli manufa*.1urcs for Spanifh dollars. PoUTO- Spanish Islands in America. yo-j Porto-Rico.] Situated between 64 and 67 degrees weft Ion. and in 18 degrees nortli lat. lying between Hifpaniola and St. Chrillopher's, is 100 miles long, and 40 broad. The foil is beautifully diverfified with woods, vallies, and plains ; and extremely fertile, producing the fame fruits as the other iflands. It is well water- ed with fprings and rivers ; but the ifland is iinhealthful in the rainy feafons. It was on account of the gold that the Spaniards fettled here ; but there is no longer any confiderable quantity of this metal found in it. Porto-Rico, the capital town, ftands in a little ifland on the north fide, form- ing a capacious harbour, and joined to the chief ifland by a caufey, and de- fended by forts and batteries, which render the town almoft inaccefTible. It was, however, taken by fir Francis Drake, and afterwards by the earl of Cumberland. It is better inhabited than moft of the Spanifh towns, becaufe it is the centre of the contraband trade carried on by the Englilh and French with the king of Spain's fubjefts. Virgin Islands.] Situated at the eaft end of Porto Rico, areexti *mely fmall. Trinidad.] Situated between 59 and 62 degrees weft Ion. and in 10 degrees north lat. lies between the ifland of Tobago and the Spanifli Main -, from which it is feparated by the ftraits of Paria. It is about 90 miles long, and 60 broad ; and is an iinhealthful, but fruitful foil, producing fugar, fine tobacco, indigo, ginger, variety of fruit, fome cotton trees, and Indian corn. It was taken by fir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, and by the French in 1676, who plundered the ifland, and extorted money from the inhabitants. Margaretta.] Situate in 64 degrees weft Ion. and 11-30 north lat. feparated from the northern coaft of New Andalufia, in Terra Firma, by a ftrait of 24 miles, is about 40 miles in length, and 24 in breadth ; and being always verdant, affords a moft agreeable profpeft. The ifland abounds in pafture, in maize, and fruit ; but there is a fcarcity of wood and water. There was once a pearl fifhery on its coaft, which is now difcontinued. There are many other fmall iflands in thofe feas, which the Spaniards have neglect- ed. We fliall therefore proceed round Cape Horn into the South Seas, where the firft Spanifh ifland of any importance is Chiloe, on the coaft of Chili, which has a governor, and Ibme harbours well fortified. JiTAN Fernandes.] Lying in 83 degrees weft Ion. and 23 fouth lat. 300 miles weft of Chili. This ifland is uninhabited ; but having fome good harbours, it is found extremely convenient for the Englifh cruifers to touch at and water; and here they would be in no danger of difcovery, unlefs their motions were made known to the Spaniards by our good friends at Brafil. This ifland is famous for having given rife to the celebrated romance of Robinfon Crufoe. It feems one Alexander Sel- kirk, a Scotfman, was left afliore in this folitary place by his captain, where he lived fome years, until he was difcovered by captain Woodes Rogers, in 1709 ; when taken up he had forgotten his native language, and could fcarcely be underftood, feeming to fpeak his words by halves. He was drefled in goat's fkins, would drink nothing but water, and it was fome time before he could relifh the fhip's vi6luals. During his abode in this ifland, he had killed 500 goats, which he caught by run- ning them down ; and he marked as many more on the car, which he let go. Some of thefe were caught, 2° years after, by lord Anfon's people. Selkirk, upon his return to England, was advifcd to publifh an account of his life and adventures in his little kingdom. He is faid to have put his papers into the hands of Daniel Defoe, to prepare them for publication. But that writer, by the help of thofe papers, and a lively fancy, transformed Alexander Selkirk into Robinfon Crufoe, and returned Selkirk his papers again ; fo that the latter derived 5 I M 794 PORTUGUESE AMERICA. no advantage from them. They were probably too indigefted for publication, and Defoe perhaps derived little from them, but thofe hints which gave rife to his owa celebrated performance. The other iflands that are worth mentioning are, the Gallipago ides, fituated 400 miles weft of Peru, under the equator -, and thofc in the bay of Panama, called the King's or Pearl Iflands. PORTUGUESE AMERICA. CONTAINIKG BRASIL. Situation and Extent. Miles. Degrees. _ Sq. Miles. I pncrth isoo 7 . f the equator and a 5 fouth latitude. ") Lengiu ^3ean merchants, may direfl ; but by annual fleets, which fail at fl:ated times from Portugal, and compofe three flotas, bound to as many ports in Brafil ^ namely, to Pcrnambuco, in the northern part ; to Rio Janeiro, at the fouthern ex- rreruity ; and to the Bay of All-Saints, in the middle. In this lartis the capital, which is called St. Salvador, and fometimes the city of Bahia, and where all the fleets rendezvous on their return to Portugal. This city i I - com- 796 PORTUGUESE AMERICA. commands a noble, fpacious, and commodious harbour. It is built upon a high and fleep rock, having the fea upon one fide, and a lake forming a crefcent, in- verting it almoft wholly fo as nearly to join the lea, on the other. The fituation makes it in a manner impregnable by nature ; and they have befides added to it very ftrong fortifications. It is populous, magniiicent, and beyond comparifon the moft gay and opulent city in all Brafil. The trade of Brafil is very great, and increafes every year ; which is the lefs furprifing, as the Portuguefe have opportunities of fupplying themfelves with flaves for their feveral works, at a much cheaper rate than any otiier European power that has fettlements in America ; they being the only Europeans who have citablifhed colonies in Africa, and from hence they import between 40 and 50,000 negroes annually, all of which go into the amount of the cargo of the Brafil fleets for Europe. Of the diamonds there is fuppofed to be returned to Europe to the value of 130,000!. This, v;ith the fugar, the tobacco, the hides, the valuable drugs for medicine and manufaftures, may give fome idea of the importance of this trade, not only to Portugal, but to all the trading powers of Europe. The chief commodities the European Ihips carry thither in return, are not the fiftieth part the produce of Portugal ; they confift of woollen goods, of all kinds, from England, France, and Holland ; the linens and laces of Holland, France, and Germany : the filks of France and Italy ; filk and thread (lockings, hats, lead, tin, pewrer, iron, copper, and all forts of utenfils wrought in thefe metals, from Eng- land ; as well as fait fifh, beef, flour, and cheefe. Oil they have from Spain ; wine, with fome fruit, is nearly all they are fupplied with from Portugal. England is at prefent moft interefted in the trade of Portugal, both for home conlumption and the ufe of the Brafils. However, the French have become very dangerous rivals to us in this, as in many other branches of trade. Brafil is a very wealthy and flourlfiiing fettlement. ' Their export of fugar, within 40 years, is grown much greater than it was, though anciently it made al- moft the whole of their exportable produce, and they were without rivals in the trade. Their tobacco is remarkably good, though not raifed in fuch large quan- tities as in the American colonies. The northern and fouthern parts of Brafil abound with horned cattle : thefe are hunted for their hides only, of which no lefs than 20,000 are fent annually to Europe. The Portuguefe had been long in poflTefTion of Brafil before they difcovered the treafures of gold and diamonds, which have fince made it fo valuable. Their fleets rendezvous in the bay of All-Saints, to the amount of 100 fail of large fhips, in May or June, and carry to Europe a cargo little inferior in value to the treafures of the Sjianifh fiota and galeons. The gold alone, great part of which is coined in America, amounts to near four millions fterling ; but part of this is is brought from their colonies in Africa, together with ebony, and ivory. History and government.^ This country was firft difcovered bv Americus Vefpufio, in 1498, but the Portuguefe did not plant it till 1549, when they fixed themfelves at the Bay of All-Saints, and founded the city of St. Salvador. They met with fome interruption at firfl: from the court of Spain, who confidercd the whole continent of South America as belonging to them. However, the affair was at length made up by treaty ; and it was agreed that the Portuguefe fliould poflefs all the country lying between the two great rivers Amazon and Plata, which they ftill enjoy. The French alfo made fome attempts to plant colonies on this coaft, but were driven from thence by the Portuguefe, who remained withoutarival till the year 1580, when Don Sebaftian, the king of Portugal, loft his life and army, in an ex- pedition againft the Moors in Africa, in confequence of which difafter, Portugal loft iis independence, and was abforbed in the Spanifli empire. The FRENCHAMERICA. 797 The Dutch foon after this, having thrown ofF the Spanifh yoke, and not fatis- fied with fiippbrting their independency by a fiiccefsful defenfive war, and flufhed with the juvenile ardor of a growing commonwealth, they purfued the Spaniards into the remoteft rccefles of their extcnfive territories, and grew rich, powerful and terrible, by the fpoils of their former maftcrs. I'hey particularly attacked the poflefTions of the Portuguefe ; they took almoft all their fortrefTes in the haft In- dies, and then turned their arms upon Brafil, where they took fevcn of the captain- fliips or provinces j and would have fubdued the whole colony, had not their career been ftopt by the archbifhop, at the head of his monks, and a few fcattcted forces. About the year 1 654, the Dutch were entirely driven out of Brafil ; but their Wclt- India company ftiU continuing their pretenfions to this country, and haraffino- the Portuguefe at fea, the latter agreed, in 166 1, to pay the Dutch eight tuns of °o\(.\, torelinquifh their intereft in that country, which'was accepted ; and the Portuguefe have remained in peaceable poffeflion of all Brafil from that time, till about the end of 1762, when the Spanifh governor of Buenos Ay res, hearing -of a war between Portugal and Spain, took, after a month's fiege, the Portuguefe frontier fortrefs called St. Sacrament ; but, by the treaty of peace, it was rellored. FRENCH AMERICA. THE pofTeffions and claims of the French before the war of 1756, as appears by their maps, confifted of almoft tlie whole continent of North America • which vaft country they divided into two great provinces, the northern of which they called Canada, comprehending a much greater extent than the Britifh pro- vince of that name, fince it included a great part of the provinces of New York, New England, and Nova Scotia. The fouthern province they called Louifiana, in which they included a part of Carolina. This diftribution, and the military difpofitions which the French made to fupport it, formed the principal caufe of the war between Great Britain and France, in the year 1756, the iifue of which is well known. While the French were rearing their infant colonies, and with the moft fanguine hopes forming vaft defigns of an extenfive empire, one wrono- ilep in their politics loft them the whole, for by commencing hoftilities many year's too foon, they were driven from Canada, and forced to yield to Great Britain, all that fine country of Louifiana eaftward of the Miiliffippi. At the treaty of peace however, they were allowed to keep pofiieffion of the weftern banks of that river and the fmall town of New Orleans, near the mouth of it ; which territories in 1769, they ceded to Spain, for reafons unknown to the public. The French, therefore, from being one of the greateft European powers in that quarter, and to the American colonies a very dangerous neighbour and rival, have now loft all footing in North America i but on the fouthern continent they have.- ftill a fettlement which is called Cayenne, or E c^u i n o c t i a l France,. T is fituated between the equator and fifth degree of north latitude, and __ between the 50th and 55th of weft longitude. It extends 240 miles alono- the coaft of Guiana, and near 300 miles within land ; bounded by Surinam, on the North ; by the Atlantic Ocean, Eaft ; by Amazonia, South ; and by Guiana, Weft. The chief town is Caen. . All '7^j^8 French American Inlands. All the coad is very low, but within land there are fine hills very proper for ittrlcments ; the French have, hov/ever, not yet extended tlieai Co far as they might ; but they raile the fame commodities which they have from the Weft India illands, and in no inconfiderable quantity. I'hey have alio taken pofitfiion of the ifiand of Cayenne, on this coall, at the mouth of the river of that name, which is about 45 miles in circumference. The iHand is very unhealthy ; but having fonie good harbours, the French have here fome fcttlements, which raife fugar . and coffee. Trench Islands in America. THE French were among the'laft nations who made fettlements in the M'ejfl Indies ; but they made ample amends by the vigour with which they pur- fued them, and by that chain of judicious and admirable meafures which they ufed in drawing fram them every advantage that the nature of the climate affords ; and in contending againft the difficulties which it threw in their way. They are lenfible that as the mother country is ultimately to receive all the be- ijefit of their labours and acquifitions, the profperity of their plantations mult be derived from the attention with which they are regarded at home. For thisreafon, the plantations are particularly under the care and infpeftion of the council of • commerce, a board compofcd of twelve of the mofl confiderable officers of the crown, affifted by the deputies of all the confiderable trading towns and cities in France, who are chofen from the richeft and moft intelligent of their traders, and allowed a handfome falary for their attendance at Paris, from the funds of their Tcfpeftive cities. This council fits once a week, when the deputies propofe plans for redreffmg ever)' grievance of trade, for raifing the branches that are fallen, far extcndino- new ones, and, in fine, for every thing that may improve the work- er promote the vent, of their manufaftures. When they are all fatisfied of the ufefulnels of any regulation, they propofe it to the royal council, where their re- port is always received with particular attention. An edid to enforce it accord- ino-lv iffues ; and is executed with a punftuality that diftinguflies their government. °rhe internal government of their colonies is entrufted to a governor, an inten- • dant, and a royal council. The governor is inverted with a great deal of power ; which, however, on the fule of the crown, is checked by the intendant, who has the care of the king's rights, and whatever relates to the revenue : and on the fide of piie people, it is checked by the royal council, whofe office it is to fee that the people are not opprefied by one, nor defrauded by the other : and they are all checked by the conftant and jealous eye v/hich the government at home keeps over them ; the officers of all the ports of France being charged, under the feverelt penalties, to interrogate all captains of fliips coming from the colonies, what re- ception they met with at the ports to which they failed ? how juftice was adminif- tered to them ? what charges they were made liable to, and of v,hat kinds? That the colonics may be as little burthencd as poffible, and that the governor may have lefs temptation to ftir up troubkfome intrigues, or favour factions in his government, his falary is paid by the crown: he has no pcrquifitcs, and is Itridtly forbiddai to carry on any trade, or to have any plantations in the iflands cr on the continent; or any intereft whatever, in goods or lands, within his go- .vcrnmcnt, except the houfe he lives in, and a garden lor his convenience and re- rreation. All the other officers are paid by the crown, out of the revenues of the /nother country. The fortifications are built and repaired, and the foldiers paid, out of the fame funds. In general, their colonies pay no taxes; but whciij uj)on •any French American Islands. 799 any extraordinary emergency, taxes are railed, they are always very moderate* The duties upon the export of their produce at the Weft India iflands, or at its import into France, are next to nothing ; in both places hardly making two per cent. The commodities lent to the iflands pay no duties at all. Their other re- gulations, refpcfting the judges of the admiralty, law-fuits, recovery of debts lenity to fuch as have fuffercd by earthquakes, hurricanes, or bad feafons the peopling their colonies, number of whites to be employed by the planters 'and lallly, the management of negroes, cannot be fufEciently admired ; and mi^ht be imitated with great advantage by their neighbours. '^ We have already mentioned the French colony upon the Spanifh ifland of Hif- paniola, or St. Domingo, as the the moft important and valuable of all their fo- reign fettlements, and which they poflefs through the indolence of the Spaniards on that ifland, or the j)artiality of their court to the French nation. We Ihall next proceed to the iflands of which the French have the fole poflx;flion, begin- ning with the large and important one of Martinico.] Which is fituated between 14 and 15 degrees of north lat. and in 61 degrees weft Ion. lying about 40 leagues north-weft of Barbadoes, is about 60 miles in length, and half as much in breadth. The inland part of it is hilly and pours out on every fide, a number of agreeable and ufeful rivers, which a- dorn and enrich this ifland in a high degree. The produce of the foil is fugar cotton, indigo, ginger, and fuch fruits as are found in the neighbouring iflands! But fugar is here, as in all the Weft India iflands, the principal commodity, of which they export a confiderable quantity annually. Martinico is the refidence of the governor of the French iflands in thofe feas. Its bays and harbours are numerous, fate, and commodious ; and fo well fortified, that they often bade defiance to the Englifli, till the war of 1756, when the Britifli arms being triumphant in every quarter of the globe, this ifland was added to the Brit fliem? pire, but it was given back at the treaty of peace. Guadalupe.] So called by Columbus, from the refemblance of its moimtain's to thofe of that name in Spain, is fituated in 16 degrees north lat. and in 62 weft Ion. about 30 leagues north of Martinico, and almoft as much fouth of Antigua j being 45 miles long, and 38 broad. It is divided into two parts by a fmall arm' of the lea, or rather a narrow channel, through which no fliips can venture • but the inhabitants pafs it in a ferry-boat. Its foil is equally fertile with that of Martinico, producing fugar, cotton, indigo, ginger, &c. This ifland is in a flourifhing condition, and its exports of fugar almoft incredible. Like Marti- nico, it was formerly attacked by the Englilh, who gave up the attempt ; but in 1759, ^^ ^''^^ reduced by the Britifli arms, and was given back at the peace o*^ 1763- St. Lucta.] Situated in x^ deg, north lat. and m 61 dcg. weft Ion. So miles rorth-weft of Barbadoes, is 2.^ miles in length, and 12 in breadth. It received its name from being difcovered on the day dedicated to the virgin martyr St. Lu- cia. The Englifli firft fettled here in 1637. From that time they met with va- rious misfortunes from the natives and French ; at length it was agreed on be- tween the latter and the Englifli, that St. Lucia, with Dominica and St. Vip.cent^ fhould remain neutral. But the French, before the war of 1756 broke out be- gan to fettle thefe iflands ; which by the treaty of peace were yielded up ro Great Britain, and this ifland to France. The foil of St. Lucia, in the vallics is ex- trcmeU' Soo D U T C H A M E R I C A. tremely rich. It produces excellent timber, and abounds with pleafant rivers, and well fituated harbsurs ; and is now declared a free port under certain reftric- tions. The Englilh made themfelves mafters of it in 1778 ; but it was reftored again to the French in 1783. Tobago.] This ifland is fituated 11 degrees odd minutes, north lat. 120 miles Ibuth of Barbadoes, and about the fame dillance from the Spanifli Mtin. It is about 32 miles in length, and nine in breadth. The climate here is not fo hoc as might be expefted fo near the equator; and it is faid that it lies out of thecourfe of thofe hurricanes, that have fometimes proved fo fatal to the other ^Veft India iflands. It has a fruitful foil, capable of producing fugar, and indeed every thing elfe that is railed in the Weft Indies, with the addition (if we may believe the Dutch) of the cinnamon, nutmeg, and gum copal. It is well watered with nu- merous fprings ; and its bays and creeks are fo difpofed as to be very commodious for all kind of Ihipping. The value and importance of this ifland appears from the expenfive and formidable armaments fent thither by European powers in fup- port of their different claims It feems to have been chiefly poflTefl^ed by the Dutch, who defended their pretenfions againft both England and France with the moft obftinate perfeverance. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, it was declared neutral ; though, by the treaty of peace in 1763, it was yielded up to Great Britain ; but in June 178 1, it was taken by the French, and ceded to them by the treaty of 1783. St. Bartholomew, Deseada, 7 Are three fmall iflands lying in the AND Mariegalante. i neighbourhood of Antigua and St. Chrifto- pher's ; are of no great confequence to the French, except in time of war, when 'they give flicker to an incredible number of privateers, which greatly annoy our Weft India trade. It would therefore be good policy in Great Britain, upon the breaking out of a war with France, immediately to take pofleflion of thefe iflands, which would feem to be a matter of no great difiiculty, as they have been frequently reduced, and as frequently reftored. St. Bartholomew is now to be confidered as belonging to the crown of Sweden, being ceded to it by France, 1785. The fmall iflands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, fituated near Newfound- land, belonging to France, have been already mentioned with that ifland. DUTCH AMERICA. Containing SURINAM, on the Continent of South America. FTER the Dutch had been difpoflTefled of Brafil in the manner we have feen; A and after they had been entirely removed out of North America, they were obliged to confole themfelves with their rich pofleflions in the Eaft Indies, and to fit down content in tiie Wtft with Surinam; a country once pofltfled by the I'^ng- lifli, but of no great value whilft we had ir, and which we ceded to them in ex- change for New York ; v.ith two or three fmall and barren iflands in the north fca, not far from the Spanifli Main. 6 Dutch DUTCH AMERICA. 8oi Dutch Guiana, is fituate between five and fcvcn degrees north laf. extending loo miles along the coaft from the mouth of the river Oronoque, north, to the river Maroni, or French Guiana, fouth. The climate of this country is generally reckoned unvv-holcfomc ; and a confiderable part of the coaft is lov/, and covered v.ith water. The chief fcttlement is Surinam, a town built on a river of the fame Jiamc ; and the Dutch have extended their plantations 30 leagues above the mouth of tl'.is river. This is one of the richeft and molt valuable colonics belon^ino- to the United Provinces; but it is in a lefs profperous fituation than it was fome years fincc, owing, among other caiifes, to the wars with the fugitive negroes, whom the Dutch treated with great barbarity, and who are become fo nuinerous, having increafed from year to year, that they have formed a kind of colony in woods ai- moft inaccefiible, along the rivers of Surinam, Saramaca, and Copenamc, and are becomic very formidable enemies to their former mafters. Under the command of eledtivc chiefs they have cultivated lands for their fubfiftence, and make fre- quent incurfions into the neighbouring plantations. The chief trade of Surinam confiUs in fugar, a great deal of cotton, cofFee of an excellent kind, tobacco, flax, ilcins, and fome valuable dying drugs. The North American colonies bring hi- ther horfes, live cattle, and provifions ; and take home a large quantity of mo- iaffes. Connecflcd with Surinam, w-e {hall mention the two Dutch colonics of Demerary and IfTequibo on the Spanifli Main, which furrendered to the Englifli in the year 1 78 1, and were reprefented as a very valuable acquifition, which v/ould procluce more revenue to the crown than all the EritiHi Weil: India iflands united. But the report was either not believed or flighted, for thefe places were left defencelefs and foon retaken by a French frigate. Dr. Bancroft obferves, that the inhabitants of Dutch Guiana, are either whites^ blacks, or the reddifh brown aboriginal natives of America. The promifcuous in- tcrcourfe of thefe different people, has likewife generated feveral intermediate cafts, whofc colours immutably depend on their degreeofconfanguinity to either Whites, Indians, or Negroes. Thefe are divided into Mulattoes, Tercerones, Quarterones, and Quintcrones, v/ith feveral intermediate fiibdivifions, proceeding from their re- trogade intercourfe. There are fo great a number of birds, of various fpecles and remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, in Guiana, that feveral perfons in this colony have employed themfelves advantngeoufly, with their flaves and depen- dents, in killing^and preferving birds for the cabinets of naturalifts in diftcrent parts of Europe. The torporific eel is found in the rivers of Guiana, which, when touched either by the hand, or by a rod of iron, gold, filver, copper, or by a ftick of fome particular kinds of heavy American wood, communicates a fliOck refem- bling that of eleiftricity. There are an iinmenfe number and variety of fnakes in this country, which form one of its principal inconveniences. A fnake v/as killed fome years fince, on a plantation which had belonged to Peter Amyatt, efq. which >vas upwards of thirty-three feet in length, and in the largeil; place, near the mid- dle, was thiee feet in circumference. It had a broad head, large prominent eyes, and a very wide mouth, in wliich was a double row of teeth. Among the animals of Dutch Guiana, is the Laubba, which is peculiar to this country. It is a iinall amphibious creature, about the fize of a pig four months old, covered with fine fhort hair; and its fiefh, by the Europeans who refide here, is preferred to all other kinds of meat. Du TCH A K g^j Dutch American Islands, Dutch Islands in America. St. Eustatius,7.QITUATED in 17° -9' N. lat. 6j<' lo' W. Ion. and three OR EusTATiA. iO leagues north-weft of St. Chriftopher's, is only a moun- tain, about 29 miles in compafs, rifing out of the fea, like a pyramid, and ahnoft round. But, though fo fmali, and inconveniently laid out by nature, the induftry of the Dutch have made it turn to very good account; and it is faid to contain 1:000 whites, and i ^,000 negroes. The fides of the mountain are difpofed in very pretty fettlements ; but they have neither fprings nor rivers. They raife here fugat and tobacco ; and this ifland, as well as Curafiou, is engaged in the Spanifh con- traband trade; and both places generally profited by their neutrality. But when hoftilities v.'ere' commenced by Great Britain againft Holland, admiral Rodney and General Vaucrhan v/ere fent with a confiderable land and fea force againft St. Eu- ftatius, which being incapable of defence, furrendered at difcretion, on the 3d of February 1781. The private property of the inhabitants was confifcatcd, with a degree of rigour very uncommon among; civilized nations, and very inconfiftent with the humanity and generofity by which the Englifli nation ufed to be cha- raderifed. The reafon affigned was, that the inhabitants of St. Euftatius had affifted the revolted colonies with naval and other ftores. But on the 27th of November, the fame year, St. Euftatius was retaken by the French, under the command of the marquis de Bouille, though their force confifted of only three frigates and fome fmall craft, and about 300 men. CuRASSOu.] Situated in 12 degrees north lat. 9 or ro leagues from the conti- nent of Terra Firma, is 30 miles long, and 10 broad. The iOand is not only bar- ren, and dependent upon the rains for its water, but the harbour is naturally one of the worft in America: yet the Dutch have entirely remedied that defed; they have upon this harbour one of the largeft, and atthe lame time the moft elegant and cleanly town in the Weft Indies. The public buildings are numerous and handfome ; the private houfes commodious ; and the magazines large, convenient, and well filled. AU kind of labour is here performed by engines ; fome of them fo well contrived, that fhips are at once lifted into the dock. Though this ifland is naturally barren, the induftry of the Dutch has brought it to produce a confider- able quantity both of tobacco and fugar; it has befides, good fak-works, for the produce of which there is a brifk demand from the Englilh iftands, and the colo- nies on the continent. But what renders this ifland of moft advantage to the Dutch is the contraband trade v;hich is carried on between the inhabitants and the Spaniards, and their harbour being the rendezvous to all nations in time of war. The Dutch ftiips from Europe touch here for intelligence, or pilots, and then proceed to the Spanifti coafts for trade, which they force v/ith a ftrong hand, it being very difficult for the Spanifli guarda-coftas to take thefe veffcls ; for they are not only ftout fliips, with a number of guns, but are manned v/ith large crews of chofen feamen, deeply intcreftcd in the faCety of the vefTel and the fuccefs of the voyage. They have each a fliare in the cargo, proportioned to tlieir refpeflive ranks and fupplicd by the merchants upon credit, and at prime coft. This ani- mates them with uncommon courage, and they fight bravely, becaufe every man, fights in defence of his own i)roperty. Befides this, there is a conftant intercourfe between this ifland and the Spanifli continent. Curaflbu has numerous warehoufes, always full of the commodities of Europe and the Eaft Indies. Here are all forts of woollen and linen cloth, laces, filks, ribands, iron ucenfils, naval .ind military ftores, brandy, the fpices of the Mo- kccasj ar.d the calicoes of India, white and paintetL Ilither the Dutch Weft In- dia,. Danish American Islands. 803 dia, which is alfo their African Company, annually bring three or four cargoes of flaves ; anci to this mart the Spaniards themfelves come in fmall vefTels, and carry ofF not only the beft of the negroes, at a very high prix:^, but great quantities of all the above forts of goods ; and the feller has this advantage, chat the refufe of warehoufes and mercers fhops, and every thing that is grovvn unfafhionable and vnfaleable in Europe, go off here extremely well; every thing being fufficiently re- commended by its being European. The Spaniards pay in gold and filver, coined or in bars, cocoa, vanilla, jefuits bark, cochineal, and other valuable commodi- ties. The trade of CuraiTou, even in times of peace, is faid to be annually worth to the Dutch no lefs than 500,000 1. but in time of war, the profit is dill greater, for then it becomes the common emporium of the Well Indies : it affords a retreat to Ihips of all nations, and at the fame time refufes none of them arms and ammunition. The- intercourfe with Spain being then interrupted, the Spanifh colonies have fcarcely any other market from whence they can be well fupplied either with flaves or goods. The Frencli come thitiier to buy the beef, pork, corn, flour, and lum- ber, which are brought from the continent of North America, or exported from Ireland ; fo that, whether in peace or in war, the trade of this ifland flourifhes ex- tremely. The trade of all the Dutch American fettlements was originally carried on by the Weft India company alone : at prefent, fuch of the fliips as go upon that trade, pay two and a half per cent, for their licences : the company, however, referve to themfelves the v/hole of what is carried on between Africa and the American iflands. Bonaire and Aruba ai-e iuconfiderable in themfelves, and fliould be re- garded as appendages to CuraflTou, for which they are chiefly employed in raifing cattle and other provifions. The fmall iflands of Saba and St. Martin's, fituated at no great diflance from St. Euftatius, were both captured by Admiral Rodney, and General Vaughan, at the time when Euftatius furrendered to the arms of Great Britain, but where afterwards retaken by the French. Danish Ilands in America. St. Thomas.] /t N inconfiderablc member of the -Caribbees, fituated in 64 £%_ degrees weft Ion. and 18 nordi lat. about 15 miles in cir- cumference, and has a fafe and commodious harbour. St. Croix, or Santa Cruz.] Another fmall and unhealthy ifland, lying a- bout five leagues eaft of St. Thomas, ten or twelve leagues in length, and three or four where it is broadeft, Thcfe iflands, fo long as they remained in the hands of the Danifli Weft India Company, were ill managed, and of little confcqucncc ; bur that wife and benevolent prince, the late king of Denmark, bought up the Company's ftock, and laid the trade open ; and fince that time the ifland of St. Thomas, as well as this, has been fo greatly improved, that it is faid to produce upwards of 3000 hogflieads of fugar of 1000 weight each, and other of the Wert India commodities in tolerable plenty. In time of v/ar, privateers bring in their prizes here for falej and a great many vefl!els trade from hence along the Spanifli Main, and return with money in fpecie or bars, and valuable merchandife. As to Santa Cruz, from a perfcft deferr a few years fince, it is beginning to be planted fuccefsfully ; feveral perfons from the Englifh iflands, fome of them of con- fiderable property have gone to fvttle tliere, and have received very great encou- ragement. 5X2 NEW ( So4 ) NEW DISCOVERIES. UR knowledge of the globe has been confiderably augmented by the late dif- .,^_^ coveries of the Ruffians, and llill more by thofe that have been made by Bri- tifh navigators in the prefent reign, which have been numerous and important:, and of thefe difcoveries we fliall therefor^ here give a compendious account. N O P. T H E Pv N ARCHIPELAGO. THIS confrfrs of feveral groups of in:ind3, lying between the eadern coaft of Kimtfchatka and the wertern coaft of the continent of America *. Mr. MuUer divides thefe iilands into four principal groups, the two firft of which are ftyled the Aleutian iflands. The firft group, which is called by fome of the ifiandcrs Safignan, comprehends, i. Beering's Ifland. 2. Copper liland. 3. Otma. 4. Samyra, or Shemiya. 5. Anakta. The fecond group is called Khao, and comprizes eight iOandSj viz. i. Immak, 1. Kiflo, 3. Tchetchia, 4. Ava, 5. Kavia, 6. Tfchangulak, 7. Ulagama, 8. Amtfchidga. The third ge- neral name is Negho, and comprehends the iflands known to the Ruffians under the name of Andreanofffki Oftrova : fixtecn of which are mentioned under the fol- lowing names : I. Amatkinak ; 2. Ulak; 3. Unalga ; 4. Navotfiia ; 5. Uliga ; 6. Anagin; 7. Kagulak; 8. lllalk, or Illak ; 9. Takavanga, upon which is a vol . cano; 10. Kanaga, which has alfo a volcano; 11. Leg; 12. Sketfhuna ; 13. Ta- galoon; 14. Goreloi; 15. Otcho ; 16. Amla. The fourth group is called Kava- lang, and comprehends fixteen iflands; which are called by the Ruffians Lyffie OJlrova, or x\\t Fox Iflands y and which are named, i. Amuchta; 2. Tfchigamaj 3. Tfchegula; 4. Uniftra; f.Ulaga; 6. Tauagulana; 7. Kagamin; 8. Kigalga ; 9. Skelmaga; 10. Umnak; 11. Agun-Alaflika ; 12. Unimga; 13. Uligan; i^. Anturo-LeifTume ; 15. Semidit; 16. Senagak. Some of thefe iflands are only inhabited occafionally, and for fome months ira the year, and others are very thinly peopled ; but others have a great number of inhabitants, who conftantly refide in them. Copper lOand receives its name from the copper v/hich the fea throws upon its coafts. The inhabitants of thefe iflands are, in general, of a fliort ftature, with fl:rong and robult limbs, but free and fup- ple. They have lank black hair, and little beard, fiattifli faces, and fair fkins. They are for the moft part well made, and of flrong conflitutions, fuitable to the boifterous climate of their ifles. Tlie inhabitants of the A! utian ifles live upon roots which grow wild^ and fca-animals. They do not employ thcmfelves in catchin"- fifh, though the rivers abound with all kinds of falmon, and the fea with turbot.. Their cloaths are made of the fkins of birds, and of fea-otters. • Mr. Coxe obfcrvcs, that, " the firR projcd ant difcoveries were m.iile by thefe individual?, at for making dif(.-overics in that tempclhious .ica, their own private col!, than had hitherto been cf- which lies b;twcen Katntfchatka and Aineiicn, fortcd by all the effoils ot the ciov/n. The iuvef- was conceived and planned .liy Peter I.'' Voy- ligation of ufclul knowledjjc has alfo been gieatly. apes with that view were accordingly iindei- eiicouraj^cd by the prelent emprefs of Ruilia ; and trtken at the expeme of the crown : but when it the molt diflant p;irts cf her vail dominions, and waa difcovcied, that the iflmds in that fcaabuunil- othei- countries and iilai\ds, h.ivc been explored, fd With valuable furs, private merchants immcdi- at her cxpence, by pcrfons of abilities and leara- atcly eng.i'ijvd with ardour in finiilai expeditions ; inp, in confequencc ot which confidcrablc difco- and, within a jjcriod. of ten years, more import- vcrics have been made. 3 The N E W D I S C O V E R I E S. 805 The Fox iflands are fo called from the great number of black, grey and red foxes with whicli they abound. The drefs of the inhabitants confifls of a cap and a fur coat, which reaches down to the knee. Some of them wear common caps of a party-coloured bird Ikin, upon which they leave part of the wings and tail. On the fore-part of their hunting and filliing-caps, they place ci fmall board like a fkreen, adorned with the jaw-bones ot fca-bcars, and ornamented with glafs beads, which they receive in barter from the Rufllins. At their fciiivals and dancing- parties they ufe a much more Ihewy fort of caps. They feed upon the flcfliof all forts of fca-animais, and generally eat it raw. But if at any time they chofe to drefs their victuals, they make ufe of a hollow ftonc ; having placed the fifli or flelh therein, they cover it with another, and clofe the interilices with lime or clay. They then lay it horizontally upon two ftoncs, and light a fire inuler it. The provifions, intended for keeping are dried without fait in the open air. Their wea- pons confift of bows, arrows, and darts, and for defence they ufe wooden fliields. The mod perfedt equality reigns among thefe iflanders. They have neither chiefs nor fupcriors, neither laws nor punilhments. Theylive together in families, and focieties of feveral families united, which form what they call a race, who, in cafe of an attack, or defence, mutually help and fupport each other. The inha- bitants of the fame ifland always protend to be of the fame race ; and every perfon looks upon this ifland as a poiTeflion, the property of which is common to all the individuals of the fame fociety. Feafts are very common among them, and more l)articularly when the inhabitants of one ifland are vifitcd by thole of the others. The men of the village meet their guefts beating drums, and preceded by the women, who fing and dance. At the conclufion of the dance, the hofls ferve up their beft provifions, and invite their guefts to partake of the feaft. They feed their children when very young with the coarfcft .lelh, and for the moft part raw. If an infant cries, the mother immediately carries it to the fea-fide, and, whether it be fummer or winter, holds it naked in the water until it is quiet. This cuftom isfo far from doing the children'any harm, that it hardens them againft the cold and they accordingly go barefooted through the winter without theleaft inconve- nience. They feldom heat their dwellings ; but, when they are defirous of farm- ing themfclves, they light a bundle of hay, and ftand over it ; or elfe they fet fire to train oil, which they pour into a hollow ftone. They have a good fhare of plain natural fenfe, but are rather {low of underftanding. They kem cold and indif- ferent in moft of their aftions ; but let an injury, or even a fufpicion only roufe them from this phlegmatic ftate, and they become inflexible and furious, tak- ing the moft violent revenge, without regard to confequenccs. The leaft'afBic- tion prompts them to fuicide, the apprehenfion of even an uncertain evil often leads them to defpair, and they put an end to their days with great apparent in- fenfibility. The IVI a r q^u esas Islands' AR'E five in number, firll difcovered by Quires in 1395 ' ^''^'^ ^-helr fituntior. better afcertained by captain Cooke in 1774. St. Dominica is the largeft'!^ about J 6 leagues in circuit. The inhabitants, their language, manners, and cloth' ing with the vegetable produclions, are nearly the fame as at the Society Iftes. OTAHEITE, [ 8o6 ] OTAHEITE, or King George's Island. THIS ifland wasdifcovered by captain Wallis, in tli2 Dolphin *, on the 19th of June, 1767. It is fituated between the 17th degree 28 minutes, and the 17th degree ^;i minutes, fouth latitude; and between the 14.9th degree 11 minutes, and the 149th degree 59 minutes, well: longitude. It confifts of two peninfulas, of a fomewhat circular form, joined by an ifthmus, and is furroundcd by a reef of coral rocks, which form feveral excellent bays and harbours, where there is room and depth of water for almoft any number of the largeft fhips. The face of the country is very extraordinary, for a border of low land almoft entirely furrounds each pcninfula, and behind this border the land rifes in ridges that run up into the middle of thefe dlvifions, and thefe form mountains that may be fcen at fixty leagues diftancc. The foil, except upon the very tops of the ridges, is remarkably rich and fertile, watered by a great number of rivulets, and covered with fruit-trees of varioHS kinds, forming the moft delightiul groves. The border of low land that lies between the ridges and the fea, is in few places more than a mile and a half broad, and this, together with fome of the vallies, are the only parts that are in- habited. Captain Wallis made fome flay at this ifland-; and it was afterwards vi- fited again by captain Cooke in the Endeavour, in April, 1769. That commander was accompanied by Mr. now fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander; and thofe gcn- * The Dolphin wns fcnt out, under tlie com- . ir.and of captain Wallis, with the Swallow, com- manded by captain Carteret, at the expcnce of the IMtifli s:ovcrn)nent, in Auguft 1766, in order to juake dilcoverics in the fo'.ithern hemifphere. Thefe veflcls piocccded toge'htr, till they came within fight of the. South Sea, at the weftern en- trance of the fliait of Magellan, and from thence •returned by different routes to England. On the rth of June 1767, ca;:tain Wallis difcovered an inland, about four miles lorg, and three wide, to which he gave the name oipyhitfun Ifland, it being difcovcicd on Wliitfun-evc. Its latitude is 19" 26' S. and its longitude, 1 37'"' 56' W. The next day he difcovered another ifland, to which he qave the name of ^»ce>i Cbarlotlis IJland. The Jnhal.itMnis of this ifland, captain Wallis fays, were of a middle flafjrc, and dark complexion, ■with long black ha'r, which hung loofe over their flioulders. The men were well made, and the women handfotnc. 'I'hcir. clothing was a kind of coarfe cloth or matting, which w.is faftcncd about thiir middle, and feemtd capable of bciiig brought up round their flioiilders. This ifland is about fix miles long, and one mile wide, :ind lies in latitude 19° 18' S. latitude 138° V W. In the fpacc of n few dnys after, he nlfo difcovered fcverd other fmall iflands, to whiji he gave the names of Eg- vionl Ifioiil, Glouccfter IJland, Ciimherland Ifland, yriiice IKilliam Henrys If.and, and Ofnahurgh IJland. On the 19th of the farne month lie difcovered .the ifland of Otaheite ; and after he had ()iiitted that ifland, he difcovered, on the sSili of July 176-, another illand about fix miles long, which lie called Sir Charles Sounders' I/land; and on the 30th of the fame month, ano'hcr about ten miles long, and four broad, which he caWeA. Lord Hoxve' s Ifland. After having difcovered fome other fmall iflands, one of which «as named Jf^alli's Ifland, he arrived at Batavia on the 30th -of November, at the Cape of Good Hope on the 4th of February 1768, and hi j fliip anchored fafely in the Downs on the 20th of May following. C;iiitain Carteret, in the Swallow, after he had p.irtcd with captain \^'allis, in the Dolphin, having pafl'ed through the llrait of Magellan, and made ionic flay at the ifland of Mafafuero, he difcovered, on the 2d of July 1767, an ifland about five miles in circumference, to which he gave the name of Piteairn's I/land. It lies in latitude 2; ° 2' S. lon- gitude 133" 21' W. and about athoufand leagues to the e iflward of the continent of America. The nth of the fame month he difcovered another fmall ifland, to which he gave the name of the BiP;op of Ofnahurgh' s Ifland. The next day, -fce difcoveied two other fmall iflands, which he called the Duhc of Gloinrflcr's Ijlands. The foUowin" month he difcovered a clullei of fmall iflands, to which he gave the name oi^ecnCharlotte'sIflands, and al'b three others, which he named Goivcr's Illand, S'lnpfons Ifland, and Carteret's Ifland. On the 24th of the fame month, he difcovered Sir Charles Hardy's IJland, which lies in lat. 4* 50' S. and the next day Winchelfea's Ifland, which is diliaut about ten leagues, in the dirertion of S. by E. He aftenvards difcovered feveral other iflands, and then proceeded round the Cape of Good Hojic to England, where he arrived in March 1769. tlcmen. N E W D I S C O V E R I E S. 2^7 tlemcn, together with the captain, made a very accurate furvey of the ifland. He again vifitcd it in 1773 and 1777. Some parts of the illand of Otaheite are very populous : and captain Cook v/as of opinion,that the number of inhabitantson the whole Ifland amounted to 204 000 including women and children. They arc of a clear olive complexion ; the' men arc tall, flrong, well-limbed, and finely fhaped ; the women are of an inferior fize but handfome, and very amorous, and indeed generally fomewhat licentious' fize, are of an oblong fqunrc, about 24 feet long, and eleven wide, with a flielvinf roof fupportcd on three rows of polls, parallel to each other, one row on each fide'' and one in the middle. The utmoft height within it is about nine feet and the eaves on each fide reach to within about three feet and a half from the o-round. All the reft is open, no part being enclofed with a wall. The roof is thatched with palm-leaves, and the floor covered Ibme inches deep with foft hay, over which they lay mats ; and upon thefe they fit in the day, and fleep in the night.. They have no tools among them made of metal ; and thofe they ufe are made o'f ftonc or fome kind of bones. The inhabitants of Otaheite are remarkable for thcir cleanlinefs ; for both men and women conftantly wafh their whole bodies- in run- ning water three times every day. Their language is foft and melodious. There were no tame animals on the illand but hogs, dogs, and poultry, and dve only wild animals are tropical birds, paroquets, pigeons, ducks, a few other birds rats, and a very few ferpents. The fea, however, fupplies the inhabitants with a great variety of the moft excellent fifli, and by the kindnefs of the Englifli and the Spaniards they have now bulls and cows, flieep, goats, a horfe and mare, c^eefe ducks, peacocks, and turkeys, and alfo cats. ' *^ ' In other countries, the men cut their hair fliort, and the women pride themfelves on its length ; but here the women always cut itftort round their ears, and the men (except the filhers, wlio arealmoft continually in the water) lufFer it tofpread over their fhoulders, or tie it up in a bunch on the top. They have the cuflom of dif- Golouring the fkin, by pricking it with a fmall inftrun:ient, the teeth of which are dipped into a mixture of a kind of lamp-black, and this is called tattowino-. This is performed upon the youth of both fexes, when they are about twelve or four- teen years of age, on feveral parts of the body, and in various figures. Their principal manuvafture is their cloth, of which there are three kinds made of the bark of three different trees. The fined and whiteft is made of the Chinefe paper mulberry tree ; and this is chiefly worn by the principal people. Another con- fiderablc manufafture is matting, fome of which is finer, and in every refpect bet- ter than any we have in Europe. The coarfer fort ferves them to fiecp upon, and the finer to wear in u-et weather. They are likewife very dexterous in makino-'wicker- work : their bafkets are of a thoufand difi'erent jiatterns, and many of ^hcm ex- ceedingly neat. The inhabitants of Otaheite believe in one Supreme Deitv but at the fame time acknowledge a variety of fubordinate Deities r they offer up' their pra-,, ers without the \ik of idols, and believe the cxiftence of the foul in a feparate ftate,. where there are two fituations, of different degrees of hajjpinefs. Amo'no- thefe people a fubordination is eftabliflied, which fomewhat rcfembles the early ftate of the European nations, under the feudal fyftem. If a general attack hap- pens to be made upon the ifland, every diflrritt is obliged to furnifhits proportion offoldiers for the common defence. Their v/eapons are fiings, which they ufe with great dexterity,, and clubs of about fix or feven feet long^ and made of a hard lieavy 3o8 N E W D I S C O V E R ! E S. heavy wood. They have a great number of boats, many of which are conftrufled for warlike operations. Otaheite is faid to be able to fend out 1720 war canoes, and 68,000 fighting men. Eimeo, Mataia or Ofnaburgh Ifland, and Tethuroa are confidered as iflands de- pendent on Otaheite ; the culloms of the inhabitants of the two former nearly •asreeins with the Otaheitans. The society ISLANDS. OF the feveral iflands fo called in honour of the Royal Society, wbich were difcovered by captain Cooke*, in the year 1769, the principal are, .HuAHEiNE, Ulitea, Otaha, and Bolasola. EIuaheine is about 31 leaguco to * At the clofe of the 7631-1767, it was refolved 'by the Roy:il Society, that it would be proper to fend peifous into fonie part of the South Sea, to obferve a tranfit of the phmet Venus over the Sun's , diik, which, acjording to allronomical calculation, would happen in the year 1769 : and that the iflar.ds called iSIarquefas de Mendoza, or tl;ole of Rotterdam, cr Amllerdam, were the properell places then known for making- fuch obfervation. :In confequence of thef; refob.itions, it was recom- mended to his niajefty, in a memoiial from the So- . ciety, dated February, 176S, that he would be plc.-ifed to order fuch an obfervation to h: made ; upon which his Majcfij fignificd to the Lords Com- milFioners of the Admiralty h s plcafure, that a •iliipihould be provided to carry fuch obfervcrs as the focivty fliould think fit to the .-.outh Seas ; and accordingly a bark of the three hundred and fcvcnty tons was prepared for that purpofe. It was n;imed the Endeavour, and commanded b\- captain James Cook, who wis foon alter, by the Royal Society, appyinte.l w th Mr. Charles Green, a gentleman who had been long affillant to Dr. Kradlcy, at the Royal Obfcrvatory at Greenwich, to obfcrvc the tranlit. But while this veil'el was getting ready for her expedition, captain V\'ailis -returr.ed ; and it having been reioinniended to him by lord Morton, when he went out, to fix en a proper place for this alb onomical obfervation, he, by letter, dated on board the Dolphin, the iSth of May tjbi, the day before he landed at llaiiings, mi-nlioned I'ort Royal harbour, in the ill inp two fhips, in order to make farther difcoveries in the foutherix heaiifpherc. Accordingly tlx Refohuion and the Adventure were appointed for that purpofe ; the firlf was commanded by captain Cooko, and the latter by captain Tobias Fuineaux. They failed ficnn Plymouth Sound, on the 13th of [uly 1772, and on the 2cth of the fame month arrived at the iiland of Madeira. From thence they proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope ; and in February 1773, arrived at New Zealand, having fought in vain for a louthcrn continent. In that month the Refolution and the Adventure Aparatcd, in confe- quence of a thick fog, but thcf joined company again in Qj.ieon Charlotte's fo.uid, on the i.Sth of May following. In Augull, they aviived at Oia- hei'c ; and in Scptrmb:;r they dilcovered Hervcy's ifland. On the 2d of Orlober, thev came to Mid- dlcburgh, one of the Friendly Illands ; ^nd about the clutc of the month, the Rtf lution and tlic Adventure were Icpuated, and did not join com- pany any more, t. aptain Cook", howeer, pro- ceeded in the Refolution, in order to make difco- veries in the fauthcrn polar regions, but was flopp- ed in his progrefs by the ice, in the latitude of 71 degrees 10 muuites fouth ; longitude 106 degrees S4mi- NEW DISCOVERIES. 809 to the north-weft of Otaheite, and its produdlions are exa6lly the fame, but it appc'-us to be a month forwarder. The inhabitants fecm to be larger made, and more flout, than thofe of Otaheite. Mr. Banks meafured one of the men, and found him to be fix feet three inches and a half high ; yet they are fo indolent, that he could not perfuade one of them to go up the hills with him j for they faid, if they were to attempt it, the fatigue would kill them. The women are fairer than thofe of Otaheite, and both fexes appear lefs timid and lefs curious ; though in their drefs, language, and almoft every other circumftance, they arc the fame. Their houfcs are neat, and they have boat-iioufes that are remarkaby large. UUiea is about feven or eight leagues to the fouth-weft of Huaheine, and is a much larger ifland, but appears neither fo fertile nor fo populous. The principal refrcfii- ments to be procured here are plantains, cocoa-nuts, yams, and fowls ; but the two laft are rather fcarce. Otaha is divided from Ulitea by a ftrait, that, in the narroweft part, is not above two miles broad. This ifland affords two good har- bours, and its produce is of the fame kind as that of the other idands. About four leagues to the north-weft of Otaha lies Bolabola, which is furrounded by a reef of rocks, and fevcral fmall iflands, all which are no more than eight leagues in com- pafs. To thefe iflands, and thofe of Marua, which lie about fourteen miles weftward of Bolabola, containing fix in all, captain Cook gave the name of Society Iflands. 'Tahocyamanoo, or Saunders's Ifland, may be here mentioned alfo, being fubjeft to Huaheine. 54 minutes weft. He then proceeded to Eafter Iliund, where he arrived in March J 774, as he did alfo in the fame month at the Marqucfas Jliands. He afterwards difcovered four iflands, which he namtd Pallifcr's iflands, and again lieer- ed for Otaheite, where he arrived on the ziA of April, and made foine ftay, and alfo vifited the neighbouring illes. In Auguft, he came to the New Hebrides, fome ofwhicliwcre firft difcovered by him. After leaving thefe iflands, he fleered to the fouthvvard a few days, and difcovered New Cale- donia. Having furveyed the fouth-weft coaft of this ifland, captain Cook fleered again for New Zea- land, in order to refrelh his crew, and put his fliip into a condition to encounter the dangers attending the navigatioa in the high fouthern latitudes. Di- refting his courfe to the fouth and caft, after leav- ing New Zealand, till he arrived in the latitude of ^5 degrees 6 minutes fouth, longitude 138 de- grees 56 minutes weft, without meeting with any continent, captain Cook gave up all hopes of dif- coveriiig any in this ocean ; and therefore came to a relolution to fteer diiectly for the weft entrance of the ftraiis of Magellan, with a siew of coalling and furveying the nttermoftor fouth-fide of Terra del Fuego. Keeping accordingly in latitude from 53 to 55, and fteering nearly eaft, he arrived oft' the weflern mouth of the ftruits of Magellan, without meeting with any thing remarkable in this new route. In January 1775, he difcovered a large and dreaty ifland, to which he gave the name of South Georgia. He afterwards difcovered vaiious capes and elevated fnow-clad co.ifts, to the moft fouthern part of which he gave the name of the Southern Thulc, as being the neareft land to that pole, which has yet been difcoveied. In Fe- bruaiy, he dilcovered Saridn-ich Linul, and feve- ral iflands covered with fnovv. He then proceeded round the Cape of Good Hope to England, where he arrived on the 30th July, 1^75. Captain Fur- neaux had returned to England, in the Adven- ture, a year before, having proceeded home round the Cape of Good Hope, without making any re- markable difcovery. Ten of his n.en, a boat's crew, had been murdered and eaten by fome of the lavages of New Zealand ; fo that this voyage af- forded a melancholy proof that cannibals really ex- ift ; and, indeed, in the courfe of thefe voyag;s of difcovery, other evidence appeared of this fadt. Asto capt.Cook, in the courfe of his voyage in the Reiblution, he had made the circuit of the fouthern ocean, in a high latitude, and had traverfed it in fuch a manner, as to leave not the Icart room for believing theexiftenceof a fouthern continent, un- lefs it were near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. It c'eferves alio to be remembered, in honour of that able commander, that, with a com- pany of an hundred and eighteen men, he per- formed this voyage of three years and eighteen days, throughout all the cliir.a'tes, from fiity-two degrees north, to feveuty-one degrees fouth, with the lofs of only one man by flcknefs ; and this ap- pears in a coniiderable degree, to have arifen from the great humanity of the commander, and hla uncommon care and attention to ; dopt every me- thod for preferving the health of his men. 5 L OHETEROA, [ 8io 3 O H E T E R O A. THIS ifland is fitiiated in the latitude of 22 deg. 27 min. fouth, and in the longitude of 150 dcg. 47 min. weft from Greenwich. It is ttiirteen miles in circuit, and rather high than low, but neither fo populous nor fertile as fome of the other iflands in thefe feas. The inhabitants are lufty, and well made, but are rather browner than thofe of Otaheite. Their principal weapons are long lances made of etoa-wood, which is very hard, and fome of them are near twenty feet long. THE FRIENDLY ISLANDS. THESE iflands were fo named by captain Cook in the year 1773, on account of the friendfhip which appeared to fubfift among the inhabitants, and from their courteous behaviour to ftrangers. Abel Janfen Tafman, an eminent Dutch navigator, firft touched here in 1643, and gave names to the principal iflands. Captain Cook laborioufly explored the whole duller, which he found to confift of more than fixty. The three iflands which Tafman faw, he named New Amfter- dam, Rotterdam, and Middleburg. The firft is the largeft, and extends abouc 21 miles from eaft to v/eft, and about 13 from north to fouth. Thefe iflands are inhabited by a race of Indians, who cultivate the earth with great induftry. The ifland of Amfterdam is interfered by ftraight and pleafant roads, with fruit-trees on each fide, which provide fliade from the fcorching heat of the fun. The chief iflands are Annamooka, Tangataboo (the refidence of the fovereign and the chiefs), Lefooga, and Eooa. Lefooga is about {even miles long and in fome places not above two or three broad. It is in many refpefts fuperior to Annamooka. The plantations are both more numerous and more extenfive ; and inclofed by fences which, running parallel to each other, form fine fpacious public roads, which would appear beautiful in countries where rural convenience have been carried to the greateft' perfeftion. They are, in general, highly cultivated, and, well-ltocked with the feveral roots and fruits which thefe iflands produce, and captain Cook endeavoured to add to their number by planting Indian corn, and the feeds of melons, pumkins, and the like. Eooa, when viewed from the (hip at anchor, formed one of the moft beautiful piof- peds in nature ; and very different from the others of the Friendly Ifles ; which being low and perfeftly level, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees which cover them : whereas here, the land rifing gently to a confidcrable height, prefents us with an extenfive profpeft, with groves of trees interfperfed at irregular di- ftances, in beautiful diforder; the reft is covered with grafs, except near the Ihores, where it is entirely covered with fruit and foreft trees ; amongft which are the habitations of the natives. In order to have a view of as great a part of the ifland as poflible, captain Cooke and fome of his officers walked up to the higheft point of the ifland. From this place they had a view of almoft the whole,. which confided of beautiful meadows of prodigious extent, adorned with tufts of trees, and intermixed with plantations. " While I was furveying this delightful profpeft," fays captain Cook, " I could not help flattering myfelf with the pleafing idea that fome future navigator may, from the fame ftation, behold rhefe meadows ftoeked with cattle, brought to thefe iflands by the fliips of Eng- Jandj NEWDISCOVERIES. 8n land ; and that the completion of this fingle benevolent purpofe, independent of all other confiderations, would fufficiently mark to pofterity, that our voyages had not been ufelefs to the general interefts of humanity. 1 he next morning," fays our benevolent commander, " I planted a pine-apple, and fowed the feeds of me- lons, and other vegetables, in Taoofa's plantation. I had indeed fome encourage- ment to flatter myfelf that my endeavours of this kind alfo would not be fruitlefs ; as I had this day a difli of turnips ferved up at my dinner, which was the produce of feeds I left here in my former voyage." We are informed that the bulk of the people of thefe iflands are fatisfied with one wife ; but the chiefs have commonly feveral women, though it ap- peared as if one only was looked on as miftrefs of the family. Though female chaftity was frail enough in fome, it is highly probable that conjugal fidelity is feldom violated j as it does not appear that more than one inllance of it was known to our voyagers ; and in that, the man's life, who was the caufe of it, paid the forfeit for his crime. Nor were thofe of the better fort, who were unmarried, more liberal of their favours ; thofe who were, being obvioully proitirutes by profeffion. When they are afflided with any diforder whi<;h they deem dangerous, they cut off a joint of one of their litde fingers ; fondly believing that the Deity will accept of that, as a fort of facrifice, efficacious enough to procure the recovery of their health. It was fuppofed from fome circumflances, that though they believe in a future ftate, they have no notion of future rewards or punifhments for the things done here. They believe in a Supreme Being j but they believe alfo in a number of inferior ones ; for every ifland has its peculiar god> as every Eu- ropean nation has its peculiar faint. Captain Cook thinks he can pronounce that they do not worlhip any thing which is the work of their own hands, or any vifible part of the creation. They make no offering of hogs, dogs, or fruit, to the Otooa, as at Otaheite ; but it is abfolutely certain that even this mild, humane, and beneficent people ufe human facri^ces. The government, as far as our people could learn, appears to approach nearly to the feudal fyftem, formerly eftablifhed all over Europe. When any perfon of confequence dies, his body is vvaflied and deco- rated by fome woman, or women, who are appointed on the occafion ; and tliefe women are not, according to their cuftoms, to touch any food with their hands for ma- ny months afterwards; and it is remarkable, that the length of the time they are thus profcribed, is the greater in proportion to the rank of the chief whom they had wafhed. Their great men are fond of a fingular piece of luxury ; which is to have women fit befide them all night, and beat on different parts of their body until they go to lleep j after which they relax a little of their labour, unlefs they ap- pear likely to awake j in which cafe they redouble their drumming until they are again fall afleep. NEW ZEALAND. THIS country was firfl difcovered by Tafman, the Dutch navigator, in the year 1642, who gave it the name of Statea Land, though it had been generally diftinguifhed, in our maps and charts, by the name of New Zealand, and was fuppofed to be part of a fouthern continent : but it is now known, from the late difcoveries of captain Cook, who failed round it, to confifb of two large iflands, divided from each other by a Ikait four or five leagues broad. They are fituated between the latitudes of 34 and 48 degrees fouth, and between the longitudes of 5 L 2 166 8i2 N E W D I S C O V E R I E S. 166 and 180 degrees eaft from Greenwich, One of thefe iflands is for the mofl: part mountainous, rather barren, and but thinly inhabited ; but the other is much more fertile, and of a better appearance. In the opinion of fir Jofeph Banks, and of Dr. Solander, every kind of European fruits, grain, and plants would flourifti here in the utmoft luxuriance. From the vegetables found here, it is fuppofed that the winters are milder than thofe of England, and the fummers not hotter, though more equably warm ; fo that it is imagined, that if this country was fettled by people from Europe, they would with moderate induftry, be foon fupplied, not only v/ith the neceflaries, but the luxuries of life, in great abundance. Here are forefts of vaft extent, filled with very large timber trees ; and near four hundred plants were found here than had not been defcribed by the naturalifts. The inha- bitants of New Zealand are ftout and robuft, and equal in ftature to the largefl; Europeans. Their colour in general is brown, but in few deeper than that of a Spaniard who has been expofed to the fun, and in many not fo deep ; and both fexes have o-ood features. Their drefs is very uncouth, and they mark their bo- dies in a manner fimilar to the inhabitants of Otaheite, which is called tattow- incr. Their principal v/eapons are lances, darts, and a kind of battle-axes ; and they have o-enerally fhewn themfelves very hoftile to the Europeans who have vifited them. As to their religious principles, they believe that the fouls of fuch as are killed in battle, and their fiefh afterwards eaten by the enemy, are doomed to per- petual fire ; while the fouls of thofe who die a natural death, or whofe bodies are preferved from fuch ignominious treatment, afcend to the habitations of the gods. The common method of difpofing of their dead is by interment in the earth j but if thev have more of their flaughtered enemies than they can eat, they throv/ them into the fea. They have no fuch things as morals, or other places of public worfhip ; nor do they ever afiemble together with this view : but they have priefls ■who alone addrefs the Deity in prayer for the profperity of their temporal afluiirs, fuch as an enterprife againft a hoftile tribe, a fifhing party, or the like.. Polygamy is allowed ; and it is not uncommon for a man to have two or three wives. THE NEW HEBRIDES, THIS name was given by Capt. Cook to a clufter of iflands, the mofl: north- erly of which was feen by Quiros, the Spanifh navigator, in 1606, and bf him named Tierra del Efpiritu Santo. From that time, till Bougainville's voyage in 1768, and Capt. Cook's voyage in the Endeavour, in 1769, this land was fuppofed to be part of a great fouthern continent, called Terra Jujlralis incognita. But when Capt. Cook had failed round New Zealand, and along the eafl:ern coafl of New Holland, this opinion was fully confuted. On his next voyage, in the Rofolution» he refolved to explore thofe parts accurately -, and accordingly, in 1774, befides af- certaining the extent and fituation of thefe iflands, he difcovered feveral in the group, which were before unknown. The New Hebrides are fituated betv/cen the latitudes of 14 deg. 29 min. and 0.0 deg. 4 min. foutli; and between 166 deg. 41 min. and 170 deg. 21 min. eaft longitude. They confift of the following iflands, fome of which have received names from the different European navigators, and. other retain the names which they bear among the natives, viz. Tierra del Efpiritu Santo, MallicoUo, Sr. Bartholomew, Ifle of Lepers, Aurora, Whitfuntide, Ambrym, Iramer, NEWDISCOVERIES. 813 Immer, Appeee, Three Hills, Sandwicli, Montagu, Hinchinbrook, Shepherd, Eorromanga, Irronan, Annacom, and Tanna. Not far diftant from the New Hebrides, and fouth-weftward of them lies New Caledonia, a very large ifland, firll difcovered by Ciipt. Cook, in 1774. It is about eighty-feven leagues long, but its breadth is not confiderable, nor any where exceeds ten leagues. It is inhabited by a race of ftout, tall, well-proportioned In- dians, of a fwarthy or dark chefnut brown. A few leagues dittant are two fmall illands called the lilands of Pines, and Botany Ifland. NEW HOLLAND. THIS country is greater than any other that does not bear the name of a con- tinent, extending from the eleventh to the thirty-eighth degree of fouth la- titude ; and the length of the eal1; and north-eaft coaft, along which Capt. Cook failed, reduced to a Itraight line, is no lefs than twenty-fcven degrees, which a- mount to near two thoufand miles. The country is rather barren than fertile • yet in many places the rifing grounds are chequered by woods and lawns, and in many places the plains and vallies are covered with herbage. The iniiabitants who are not numerous, are naked favages, of a middle ftature, extremely aftive, and their fkins of a chocolate colour, but their features are not difagreeable. Their food is chiefly ti!h, birds of various kinds, yams, fruit, and the flelh of a fin"-ular quadruped called the Kangaroo. Their weapons are fpears or lances ofdiiFerenc kinds, which they throw with great force aud dexterity. They alfo ufe fhields or targets of an oblong form, made of the bark of a tree. New Guinea, till the late difcoveries, was thought to be the north-coaft of an extenfive continent, and to be joined to New Holland ; but Capr. Cook difco Vered a ftrait between them, which runs north-eaft, through which he failed. Thus it was found to be a long narrow ifland, extending north-eaft, from the fecond degree of fouth latitude to the twelfth, and from one hundred and thirty- one to one hundred and fifty degrees eaft longitude; but in one part it does not appear to be above fifty miles broad. The country confifts of a mixture of very high hills and vallies, interfperfed with groves of cocoa-nut trees, plaintains, bread- fruit, and moft of the trees, flarubs, and plants, that are found in the other South- Sea iflands. It affords from the fea a variety of delightful profpe6ls. The inha- bitants make nearly the fame appearance as the New Hollanders on the other fide the ftraits. To the north of New Guinea is New Britain, which is fituated in the 4th de- gree of fouth latitude, and 152 deg. 19 min. eaft longitude from Greenwich. Ic was fuppofed to be part of an imaginary continent till Capt. Dampier found it to be an ifland, and failed through a ftrait which divides it from New Guinea, Capt. Carteret, in his voyage round the world, in 1767, found that it was of much lefs extent than it was till then imagined to be, by failing through another ftrait to the north, which feparates it from a long ifland, to which he gave the name of New Ireland. There are many high hills in New Britain, and it abounds with large and ftately trees. To the eaftward of New Britain, and in both the above ftraits, are many iflands, moft of which are faid to be extremely fertile, and to a- bound with plantains and cocoa-nut trees. New Ireland extends in length, from the north-eaft to the fouth-caft, about two hundred and feventy miles, but is in general very narrow. It abounds with a variety 8i4 N E W D I S C O V E R I E S. variety of trees and plants, and with many pigeons, parrots, rooks, and other birds. The inhabitants are black, and Wiwliy-headed, like the negroes of Guinea, but have not their flat nofes and thick lips. North-weftward of New Ireland a clufter of Iflands was feen by Capt. Carteret, lying very near each other, and fup- pofed to coniift of twenty or thirty in number. Ont of thefe, which is of very con- fiderable extent, was named New Hanover i and the reft of the clufter received the name of the Admiralty Islands. Sandwich Islands. BESIDES the voyages of difcovery already mentioned, another voyage was performed by Capt. Cook and Capt. Clerke, in the Refolution and Difcovery, during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1779, in fearch of a north-weft paflage between the continents of Afia and America. After they had arrived at the Cape of Good Hope, they proceeded from thence to New Holland : in this courfe they difcovered two iflands, which Capt. Cook called Prince Edward's Ifles. The largeft about 15 leagues in circuit is in lat. 46-53 fouth. Ion. 37-46 : the other a- bout 9 leagues in circuit, lat. 46-40 and long 3S-8, E. both barren and almoft co- vered with fnow. From thence they failed to New Zealand, and afterwards vifited the Friendly and the Society Ifles. In January 1777, they arrived at the Sandwich ifles, which are twelve in number, and are iltuated between 22 deg. 15 min. and 18 deg. 53 min. N. latitude. The air of thefe iflands is in general falubrious, and many of the vegetable produdlions are the fame with thofe of the Society and Friendly Ifles. The inhabitants are of a middle fize, ftout and well-made, and their com- plexion in general a brown olive. O'why'hee is in circumference about 300 Eng- lifh miles, and the number of inhabitants is computed at 150,000. The others are large and well peopled ; for their names we refer to our map. The natives are defcribed as of a mild and friendly temper and carriage, and in hofpitality to ftrangers not exceeded by the inhabitants of the Friendly Ifles. On the 7th of Fe- bruary, being nearly in lat. 44. deg. 33 min. north, and Ion. 235 deg. 36 min. eaft, they faw part of the American continent, bearing north-eaft. Capt, Cook aft^Twards difcovered King George's Sound, which is fituated on the north-weft coaft of America, and is extenflve : that part of it where the fliips under his command anchored, is in lat. 49 deg. 36 min. north, and Ion. 233 deg. 28 min. eaft. The whole found is furrounded by high land, which in fome places ajipears very broken and rugged, and is in general covered with wood to the very top. They found the inhabitants here rather below the middle fize, and their com-- plexions approaching to a copper colour. On the 12th of May, they difcovered Sandwich Sound, in lat. 59 deg. 54 min. north. The harbour in which the fliips anchored, appeared to be almoft furrounded with high land, which was covered with fnow ; and here they were vifited by fome of the Americans in their canoes. They afterwards proceeded to the ifland of Unalafchka, and after their depar- ture from thence ftill continued to trace the coaft. They arrived on the 20th of Auguft 1778, in lat. 70 deg. 54 min. Ion. 194 deg. 55 min. wliere they found thcmfelves almoft furrounded with ice, and the farther they proceeded to the caft- n-ard, the clofer the ice became comp.ad:ed. They continued labouring among the ice till the 25th, when a ftorm came on, which made it dangerous for them to proceed ; and a confukation was therefore held on board the Refolution, as foon as tlie violence of the gale abated, when it was refolved, that as this pafTage 6 'was N E V7 D I S C O V E R I E S. 815 was i.mpradticable for any iifeful purpofe of navigation, which was the great ob- jedt of the voyage, it fhould be profccuted no farther; and efpecially on account of the condition the fliips were in, the approach of winter, and their great diftance from any known place of refrefhment. The voyage, indeed, afforded fufficient evidence, that no practicable paflage exitls between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans towards the North ; and this voyage alfo afcertained the wellern boundaries of the great continent of America. On their return it unfortunately happened, that the celebrated and able navigator, Capt. Cook, was killed in an affray with the natives, by an atft of fudden refentment and fear, rather than from a bad difpofition, on the ifland of O'why'hee, the Jargcft of the Sandwich ifles, on the 14th of February 1779 : ^"*^ '""^ death was univerfally regretted, not only in Great Britain, but alfo in other parts of Europe, by thofe to whom his merits and public fervices were known. In his laft voyage he had explored the coaft of America, from 42 deo-. 27 min. to 70 deg. 40 min. 57 fee. north. After the death of Capt. Cook, the con- mand devolved on Capt. Gierke, who died at fea on his return to the fouthward on the 22d day of Auguft 1779. The two fliips returned home by the Gape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of Oftober 17S0, anchored at the Norc. We cannot conclude this article, without infcrting the following charafter of Capt. Cook, to perpetuate the memory and fervices of fo excellent a navigator and commander. Perhaps no fcicnce ever received greater additions from the labours of a fingle man, than geography has done froni thofe of Capt. Cook. In his firll voyage to the South Seas, he difcovered the Society Idands ; determined the infularity of New Zealand : difcovered the flraits which feparate the two illands, and are called after his name; and made a complete furvey of both. He afterwards explored the Eaftern coaft of New Holland, hitherto unknown ; an extent of twenty-feven de- grees of latitude, or upwards of two thoufand miles. In his fecond expedition, he refolved the great problem of a fouthern continent, having traverfed that hemifphere between the latitude of 40*^ and 70", in fuch a manner as not to leave a poifibility of its exiftence, unlefs near the pole, and out of the reach of navigation. During this voyage he difcovered New Caledonia,, the largeft ifland in the Southern Pacific, except New Zealand ; the ifland of Georgia ; and an unknown coaft, which he named Sandwich Land, the 'Thiile of the Southern hemifphere ; and having twice vifited the tropical feas, he fettled the iituations of the old, and made feveral new difcoveries. But the laft voyage is diftinguiflied above all the reft by the extent and import- ance of its difcoveries. Befides feveral fmaller illands in the Southern Pacific, he difcovered, to the North of the Equinoxial Line, the group called the Sandwich. Iflands, which, from their fituatlon and produftions, bid fairer for becoming an objeft of confequence in the fyftem of European navigation, than any other difco- very in the South-Sea. He afterwards explored what had hitherto remained un- known of the Weftern coaft of America, from the latitude of 43" to 70° North, - containing an extent of 3,500 miles, afcertained the proximity of the two great continents of Afia and America; paffed the ttraits between them, and furveyed the coaft on each fide, to fuch a height of northern latitude, as to deraonftrate the impradticability of a paflage, in that hemifphere, from the Atlantic into the Pa- cific ocean, either by an Eaftern or a Weftern courfe. In ftiort, if we except the Sea of Amur, and the Japanefe Archipelago, which ftill remain imperfedtly known.: to Europeans, he has completed the hydrography of the habitable globe. A5^ Si€ N E W D I S C O V E R I E S. As a navigator his fervices were perhaps not lefs fpleudid, certainly not lefs Important and meritorious. The method which he difcovered, and fo fuccefs- fully purfiied, of preferving the health of feamen, forms a new aera in navigation, and will traniinit his name to future ages, among the friends and benefaftors of mankind. Thole who are converfant with naval hiftory need not be told at how dear a rate the advantages which are fought, through the medium of long voyages at fea, had hitherto been purchafed. That dreadful diforder which is peculiar to their fervice, and whofe ravages have marked the tracks of difcoverers with cir- cumftances almoft too fliocking to relate, muft, without exercifing an unwarrant- able tyranny over the lives of our feamen, have proved an infuperable obftacle to the profecution of fuch enterprizes. It was referved for Capt. Cook to fliew the world, by repeated trials, that voyages might be protradted to the unufual length of three or even four years, in unknown regions, and under every change and ri- gour of the climate, not only without atfefting the health, but even without di- minifliing the probability of life, in the fmallell degree. Having pointed out the numerous and important advantages which have arifen, and may arife from thefe voyages, both to the difcoverers and difcovered ; the learned editor of the lafl voyage, enquires into the origin of the inhabitants who people this myriad of illands that are fcattered over the great Pacific Ocean, and proves, by incontrovertible arguments, founded on the affinity of their language, manners, and cull:oms, that they have all originally, fprung from one common Hock, and that ftock is the Afiatic nation called Mulayans. He alfo traces an- other of the large families of the earth, but whofe lot has fallen in far lefs hofpit- able climes : we mean the Efquimaux ; known hitherto only on thecoafts of Green- land, Labradore, and Hudfon's Bay; and who differ in feveral charafteriilic marks from the inland inhabitants of North America. Mr, Hearne, as our readers have already feen, traced this unhappy tribe farther back toward that part of the globe from whicli, no doubt, they had originally migrated ; but it was referved for Capt, Cook to ihew that it is the fame race which peoples the bays and iflands on the Weft coail: of North America, and that they are extended over a fpace of at leaft 1500 leagues from eaft to weft, and from the latitude of 60°, to the la- titude of 72*^ north. TERRA-INCOGNITA, or unknown Countries. ^10TW1THSTANDING the amazing difcoveries of navigators, and the ^ progrefs made in geography, fince the firfl voyage of Columbus, anno 1492, there ftill remain fomc countries, cither abfolutcly unknown, or very fu- ^crficially furveyed. In AFRICA. OF this quarter of the globe the moderns are acquainted with the fea-coafls only, and thefe very imperfcftly ; the internal parts being unexplored, nor have we any fatisfadlory accounts of their inhabitants, their producftions, or their trade. It is well known, however, that the rivers of Africa bring down large quantities T E R R A-I N C O G N I T A. 817 quantities of gold, and it is equally certain that the ancients drew prodigious riches from a country blclTed with a variety of climates, fome of them the fineft in the world. I N A M E R I C A. IN North America, towards the pole, arc Labrador, or New Britain, New North and South Wales, New Denmark, Sec. very little known. The inha- bitants, like thofc of Nova Zembla, Greenland, Groenland, and the northern parts of Siberia, are few, and thefe favagc ; low in llature, and of an ugly ap- pearance. They live upon the raw flefh of whales, bears, foxes, &c. and go muffled up in fkins, the hairy fides next their bodies. In thefe inhofpjtable re- gions, their nights (as may be feen in the table of climates in the Introduftion), are from one to fix montfis, and the earth bound up in impenetrable fnow ; fo that the miferable inhabitants live under ground great part of the )'car. Again, when the fun makes his appearance, they have a day of equal length. All that vaft tradl on the back of the Britifli fettlements, from Canada and the lakes to the Pacific Ocean, which walhes America on the wefi:, is altogether un- known to us, no European having ever travelled thither. From the climate and fituation of the country, it is fuppofed to be fruitful ; it is inhabited by innume- rable tribes of Indians, many of whom ufed to refort to the great fair of Mon- treal, even from the dillance of 1000 miles, when that city was in the hands of the French. In South America, the country of Guiana, extending from the equator to the eighth degree of north latitude, and bounded by the river Oronoque on the north, and the Amazons on the fouth, is unknown, except a flip along the coafl, where the French at Cayenne, and the Dutch at Surinam, have made fome fettlements ; which, from the unhcalthfulnefs of the climate, almofl: under the equator, and other caufes, can hardly be extended any confiderable way back. The country of Amazonia is fo called from the great river of that name, which rifes in Quito, in 76 degrees W. Ion. and difcharges itfelf into the Atlantic Ocean: it is computed, that with all its turnings and windings it runs near 5000 miles, and is generally two or three leagues broad : 500 leagues from the mouth it is 30 fathoms deep, and near 100 rivers fall into it on the North and the South. The country has never been thoroughly explored, though it is fituated between the European colonies of Peru and Brafil, and every where acceflible by the means of that great river and its branches. Some attempts have been made by the Spa- niards and Portuguefe ; but always attended with vaft difficulties, fo that few of the adventurers ever returned back; and no gold being found in the country as they expefted, no European nation has hitherto made any fettlcment there. Patagonia, at the fouthern extremity of America, is fometimes defcribed as part of Chili : but as neither the Spaniards, nor any other European nation, have any colonies there, it is almoft unknown, and is generally reprefented as a barren, in- hofpitable country. Some of the inhabitants are certainly very tall, to 6^ and 7 feet high, but others, and the greater part, are of a moderate and comm'on fea- ture. Here, in 52^ degrees fouth lat. we fall in with the fl:raits of Magellan, having Patagonia on the north, and the iflands of Terra del Fueo-o on the fouth. Thefe Straits extend from eafl: fo weft 110 leagues, but the breadth in fome places falls Ihort of one. They were firft difcovered by Magellan, or 5 M Magelhaens, gi5 TERRA-INCOGNITA. Magelhaens, a Portuguefe, in the fervice of Spain, who failed through them in the year 1520, and thereby difcovered a paffage from the Atlantic to the Pacific or Southern Ocean. He has been fince confidered as the firft navigator that failed round the world, but having loft his life in a fkirmifh with fonie In- dians before the Ihips returned to Europe, the honour of being the firft circum- navigator has been difputed in favour of the brave fir Francis Drake, who, in 1574, paffed the fame. Strait in his way to India, from which he returned to Eu- rope by the Cape of Good Hope. In 1616, La Maire, a Dutchman, keeping to the fouthward of thefe Straits, difcovered in lat. 547 another paflage, fince known by the name of the Straits La Maire, and this paffage, which has been generally preferred by fuceeding navigators, is called doubling Cape Horn, The author of Anfon's voyage, however, from fatal experience, advifes mariners to keep clear of thefe ftraits and iflands, by running down to 61 or 62 deg. fouth lat. before they attempt to fet their face weftward, towards the South Seas ; but the extreme long nights, and the intenfe cold in thofe latitudes, render that paffage praftic- able only in the months of January and February, which is there the middle of fummer. A NEW ANEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Containing the Names and Situations of the chief Cities, Towns, Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, and othei" remarkable Places, in the known World. Colle€ted from the mofl authentic Charts, Maps, and Obfervations. Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. garter. A Bbeville, Picardy, Aberdeen, Abcrdcenfhire, Abo, Acapiilco, Achem, Adrianople, Adriatic fea, or Gulf of Ven. Adventure (Ifle) Pacific Finland, Mexico, Sumatra, Romania, Between Agde, A gen, St. Agnes flights) Agra, Air, Aix, Albany, Alby, Aleppo, Alexandretta, Alexandria, Algiers, Amboyna, Ambrym Ifle, Amiens, Amsterdam, Amfterdam, Ancona, Angra, Antigua (St. John's Town) Antioch, Antwerp, Apas (Kle) Archangel, Archipelago, Afcenfion Ifle,- Aftracp.n, Athens, St. Augullin, AvA, Lnnguedoc, Guieiine, Scillies, Agra, Airfliire, Provence, New York, Languedoc, Syria, Syria, L,ower Egypt, Algiers, Amboyna Ifle, South lile of France, Holland, Ifle, March of An- cona, Tercera Ifle, Antigua Ifle, Syria, Brabant, Pacific Dwin:i, IflandsofGreece, Aftracan, Achaia, Madagafcar, Avn, France, Scotland, Sweden, North Eafl: Indies, Turkey, Italy and Turkey, Ocean, France, FVance, Atlantic ocean, Eaft India, Scotland, France, North France, Turkey, Turkey, Turkey, Barbary, Fall India, Pacific Ocean, France, Netherlands, Pacific ocean, Italy, Atlantic ocean, Cai'ib. iz 34-37W. Clermont, Auvergne, France, Europe, 45-46 N. 3-10 E. Colmar, Alface, France, Europe, 48-04 N. 7-27 E. Cologne, Elec. of Co- logne, Swabia, Germany, Europe, 50-55 N. 7-10 E. Conftance, Germany, Europe, 47-37 N. 9-12 E. Constanti- Romania, Turkey, - Europe, 41-01 N. 28-58 E. nople, COPENHAOKV, Zealand Ifle, Denmark> Europe, 55-40 N. 1 2-40 E. Corinth, Morca, Turkey, Europe, 37-30 N. 23-00 E. Cork, Munfler, Ireland, J ''u rope, 51-53 N. S-23W. Coventry, Warwickfliirc, I'.ngland, F,uroi)e, 52-25 N. 1-25W. Cowes, Iflc of Wight, t ngland. Eurojic, 50-46 N. 1-1 4W. Cracow, Little Poland, Poi.ind, I'Airope, 50-10 N. 19-55 E. Crcmfmuiirtcr, Arcli-duchy of Auflria, Germany, Europe, 4^-03 N. 14-12 E. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Cummin, Me, Curaflbu, CurafTou Ifle, Cufco, Peru, DAcca, Bengal, Damafcus, Syria, Daiitzic, Dax, Delft, Delhi, Derbent, Derby, Derry, Dieppe, Dieu, Dijon, Dilbingen, Dol, Dominique, Dover, Dresden, Dreux, Dublin, Dumbarton, Dumfries, Dunbar, Dundee, Dungenefs, Dunkirk, Durham, PollQi PrulTia, Gafcony, Holland, Delhi, Daghiflan, Derbyfhire, Ulfter, Normandy, Guzerat, Burgundy, Suabia, Bretagne,, Windward Iflands, Kent, Saxony, Orleannois, Leinfter, Dumbarton- fliire, Dumfriesdilre, Haddington, Forfar, Kent, Flanders, Durham, EAoowelfle, Pacific Eafterine, Pacific Eaftern Ocean, bctw. the N. W. Edinburgh, Edyftone, Elbing, Embden, Enatum Ifle, Enebrun, Englifli Chan- nel, Ephefus, Erramanga Ifie, Erzerum, Ethiopian Sea, Edinburgh- fliire, Eng. Channel, Pruffia, Weftaphalia, Pacific Daaphine, between, Natolia, Pacific Turcomania, Coaft of Countries. North Pacific Ocean, Weft India South Eaft India, Turkey, Poland, France, Netherlands, Eaft India, Perfia, England, Ireland, France, Ealt India, France, German)', France, Weft India, England, Germany, France, Ireland, Scotland, Scotland, Scotland, Scotland, England, Netherlands, England, Ocean, Ocean, of N. Amer. and Scotland, England, Poland, Germany, Ocean, France, England and France, Turkey, Ocean, garter. Afia, America, America, Afia, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Lat. D. M. 31-40 N. 11-56 N. 12-25 s. 23-30 N. 33-15 N. 54-22 N. 43-42 N. 52-06 N. 29-00 N. 41-41 N. 52-58 N. 54-52 N. 49-55 N. 21-37 N. 47-19 N. 48-30 N. 48-33 N. 15-18 N. 51-07 N. 51-00 N. 48-44 N. 53-21 N. 55-44 N. Europe, 55.08 Europe, 55-38 Europe, 56-26 Europe, 50-52 Europe, 51-02 Europe, 54-48 Afia, 21-24 America, 27-06 N. E. of Afia, N, Europe, 55-57 N. N. N. N. N. N. S. S. 823 Long. D. AL 121-09 E' 68-2oW- 70-ooW. 89-20 E. 37-20 E. 18-38 E. 0-5SW. 4-05 E. 76-30 E. 50-30 E. 1-30W. 7-40W. 0-59 E. 69-30 E. 4-57 E. 10-19 ^• 1-41W. 61-22W. 1-13E. ^l-i(-> E. I -1 6 E. 6-0 1 W. 4-20W. 3-25W. 2-2 5 W. 2-48W. 1-04 E. 2 27 E. 1-25W. 174-25W. 1 09-41 W. . Pacific ocean. N. 3-07W. Turke)', Guinea, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, Afia, Africa, 50-08 N. 54-15 N. 53-25 N. ao-io S. 44-34 N. Atlantic 38-01 N. 18-46 S. 4-19W. 20-00 E. 7-10 E. 169-59 ^' 6-34 E. Ocean. 27-30 E. 169-23 E. 39-56 N. 42-05 E. Atlantic Ocean. 824 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Evereux, Normandy, Eiiftatia Town, Carib. fea, Exeter, Devonfliire, FAlkirk, Sterling, Falmouth, Cornwall, Fayal Town, Azores, Ferdinand Na- ronka, Ferrara, Ferrarefe, Ferro (Town) Canaries, Ferrol, Galicia, Fez, Fez, Florence, Tulcany, Flores, Azores, St. Flour, Auvergne, Fort St. David, Coromandel, France (Ifle of) Indian Francfort on the Franconia, Main, Frawenburgh, Countries. garter. Fuego Ifle, Funchal, Furneaiixifle, GAP, Geneva, Genoa, Genes, St. George's Ifle, St. George's Fort, St. George Town, Ghent, Gibraltar, Glafgovv, Gloucefler, Goa, Goat Ifle, Gombroon, Gomera Ifle, Good Hope Town, Goree, Gottenburg, Gottcngcn, Granville, Gratiofa, Polifli Cape Verd, Madeira, Pacific Dauphine, Geneva, Genoa, Savoy, Azores, Coromandel, Bermudas, Flanders, Andalufia, Lanerkfliire, Gloucefter- fliire, Malabar, Indian Farfiftan, Canaries, Hottentots, Atlantic Gothland, Hanover, Normandy, Azores, France, Weft India, England, Scotland, England, Atlantic Ocean, Brafil, Italy, _ Atlantic Ocean, Spain, Morocco, Italy, Atlantic Ocean, France, Eaft India, Ocean, Germany, PrufTia, Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Ocean, France, Switzerland, Italy, Italy, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, N. Amer. Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, South A- merica. Europe, Africa, Europe, Africa, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Africa, Europe, Europe, Africa, Africa, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Lat. D. M. 49-01 N. 17-29 N. 50-44 N. 55-58 N. 50-08 N. 38-32 N. 3-se s. 44-54 N. 27-47 N. 43-30 N. 33-30 N. 43-46 N. 39-34 N. 45-01 N. 12-05 N. 20-09 S- 49-55 N. 54-22 N. 14-56 N. 32-37 N. 17-11 S. 44-33 N. 46-12 N. 44-25 N. 44-25 N. 38-39 N. Long. D. M. 1-13 E. 63-05W. 3-29W. 3-48W. 4-57W. 28-36W. 32-43W. n-41 E. 17-40W. 8-40W. 6-ooW. 11-07 E. 30-5 1 W. 3-10 E. 80-55 E. 57-33 fe"- 8-40 E. 20-12 E. 24-23W. 17-oiW. 1 43-0 1 W. 6-09 E. 6-05 E. 8-30 E. 8-40 E. 27-55W. Eafl: India, Afia, 13-04 N. 80-33 E. Atlantic Ocean, North A- 32-45 N. merica. Netherlands, Europe, 51-03 N. Spain, Europe, 36-05 N. Scotland, Europe, 55-51 N. England, Europe, 5 1-05 N. Eafl: India, Afia, Ocean, Afia, I'crfia, Afia, Athuitic Ocean, Africa, CalTres, Africa, 15-31 N. 27-30 N. 28-05 N. ZS-5S S. Ocean, Africa, 14-40 N. Sweden, Europe, 57-42 N, Germany, Europe, 51-31 N. France, Europe, ^48-50 N. Atlantic Ocean, Europe, 39-02 N. 63-30W. 3-48 E. 5-17W. 4-10W. 2-i6\V. 73-50 E. 120-07 E. 74-20 E. 17-03W. 18-2S E. 17-20W. 11-43 E. 9-5« E. 1-32W. 27-53W. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABJLE. 825 Names of Places. Provhues. Couturies. garter. Gr;itz, Gravclines, Greenock, Gryphifwald, Guddaloupc, Stiria, Fr. Flanders, Renfrewlhirc, Pomerania, Carribbean Guam, Ladrone liles, Gulf of Both- Coaft of nia, of Cali- between fornia, of Fin- between land, ■ of St, Coall of Laurence, of Mex- Coaft of ICO, of Ormus, between ofPerfia, between 'tiJ of Ve- nice, HAerlem, Hague, Hambiirc Halifax, Halifax, Hanover, Haftings, Havannah, Havre de Grace, La Hecfe, St. Helena, (Ja. Town,) Hellefpont, Hernofand, Hereford, Hervey's Ifle, Hoai-Naghan, La Hogue, Cape, Hood's Ifle, Hoogftraten, Howe's Ifle, Huaheine Ifle, between Holland, Holland, Holftein, Yorklliire, Nova Scotia, Saxony, Si) flex, Cuba, Germany, Netherlands, Scotland, Germany, Sea, Eaft India, Sweden, California, and Mexico, Sweden and Ruflia, New Scotland, Mexico, Perfia and Ara- bia, Perfia and Ara- bia, Italy and Tur- key, Netherlands, Netherlands, Germany, England, North Germany, England, Ifland, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, North A- nierica, Afia, Europe, North A- merica, Europe, North A- merica, North A- rrjerica, Afia, Lat. D. M. 47-04 N. 50-59 N. 55-52 N. 54-04 N. 15-59 N. Long. n. M. 15-29 E. 2-13 E, 4-2iiW. 13-43 E. 6i-54\V. Afia, 14-00 N. 140-30 E. Baltic Sea. Pacific Ocean. Baltic Sea. Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic Ocean. Indian Ocean. Indian Ocean, Europe, Mediterranea Sea, Normandy, France, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Europe, North A- merica, Europe, 52-20 N, 52-04 N. 53-34 N. 53-45 N. 44-40 N, 52-32 N. 50-52 N. 23-11 N. 4-10 E. 4-22 E. 9-53 E. 1-52W. 63-15W. 9-35 E. 4-06 K. 82-13W. 49-29 N. o-io E. D. Flanders, South Mediterranean and Black Sea, W. Bothnia, Flerefordfliire, South Kian-Nan, Normandy, South Brabant, South South Netherlands, Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, Europe and Afia, Sweden, England, Pacific Ocean, China, France, Pacific Ocean, Netherlands, Pacific Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, Europe, 51-25 N. 62-3SN. 52-06 N. 19-17 S. 33-34 N. 49-44 N. Afia, 9-26 S, Europe, 51-24 N. Afia, Z6-45 S. Afia, 16-44 S. 5N 4-50 E, 5-44V^\ 17-5SE. 2-3 8 W. 158-43W. 118-54 E. 1-51W, 1 38-47 W. 4-52 E. 1 54.0 1 W. i5i-oiW. 826 A Nantes of Places. Hudfon's Bay, Hull, JAkutflcoi, Janeiro (Rio), Jaffy, Java Head, Jeddo, Jerufalem, Immer Ifle, Indian Ocean, Ingoldftadt, Invernefs, NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Provinces. Cor.ft of Yorklhire, Siberia, Moldavia, Java Ifle, Japan Ifle, PaleftinCj South Bavaria, Invernefsfliire, Sr.John'sTown, Antigua, St.John'sTown, Newfoundland, North St. Jofeph's California, Mexico, Countries. Labrador, England, Ruffia, Brafil, Turkey, Eafl India, Eaft India, Turkey, Pacific Ocean, Coafl of India, Germany, Scotland, Leeward Ifles, garter. Lat. Long. D. M. D. M. North A- N. Atlantic Ocean, nierica, 53-45 N. 62-01 N. 22-54 S. Irirti Sea, between Great Britain and Ireland, Irraname Ifle, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, inamabad, Bengal, Eafl India, Afia, Ifle of Pines, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Ispahan, Irac Agem, Perfia, Afia, lilhmus of Suez joins Africa to Afia, . of Corinth, joins the Morea to Greece, Europe .^ , of Panama, joins North and South America. of Malacca, joins Malacca to Farther India, Afia Europe, Afia, South A- merica, Europe, Afia, Afia, Afia, Afia, Afia, Europe, Europe, N. Amer America, North A- merica, Europe, Atlantic Ocean. o • 1 2W. 129-52 E. 42-38W. 47-08 N. 6-49 S. 36-20 N. 31-55 N. 19-16 S. 48-45 N. 57-33 N. 17-04 N. 47-32 N. 23-0; N. 27-34 E. 106-55 ^- 139-00 E. 169-51 E. 11-27 E. 4-02W. 62-04 E. 52-2 1 W. 109-37W. Ivica Ifle, Mediterr. Sea, Judda, Arabia Felix, Juthia, Siam, KAmtfchatka Siberia, Kedgere, Bengal, Kelfo, Kilmarnock, Kingfale, Kingston, Kiow, Kola, Koningfberg, Aguna, L Lahor, Lancafter, Landau, Landfcroon, Laufannc, Leeds, Roxborough- fliire, Airfhire, Munfler, Jamaica,. Ukraine, Lapland, Pruflia, TencrifFe, Lahor, Lancafliire, A 1 face, Schonen, Canton of VniKl, Yorkihirc, Italy, Arabia, * Eafl India, RufTia, Eafl: India, Scotland, Scotland, Ireland, Well Indies, Ruffia, Ruffia, Poland, Canaries, Eafl: India, England, France, Sweden, Switzerland, England, Europe, Afia, Afia, Afia, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, 19-31 S. 22-20 N. 22-38 S. 32-25 N. 38-50 N. 21-29 N. 14-18 N. 57-10 N. 21-48 N. 55-38 N. 55-38 N. 51-32 N. 18-15 N. 50-30 N. 68-52 N. 54-43 N. 28-28 N. 32-40 N. 54-05 N. 49-1 1 N. SS-S^ N. 46-31 N. 170-26 E. 91-50 E» 167-43 E. 52-55 E.. I '40 E. 49-27 E. 100-55 E* 163-00 E. 88-55 E. 2- 1 2W. 4-3 oW. 8--20W. 76-38W, 31-12 E. 33-13 E. 21-35 E» 16-13W. 75-30 E. ^■Si E. 8-02 E. 12-51 E. 6-50 E. Europe, 53-48 N. i-zjW- A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. Lcicefler, Leipfic, Lei til, Leper's Ifland, Leikard, Lefparre, Levant fea, Leyden, Liege, Lima, Limerick, Limoges, Lincoln, Linlithgow, Lintz, Lifbon, Lifle, Litchfield, Lizard Point, London, Londonderry, Loretto, Louifburgh, Lou vain, Louveau, Lubec, St. Lucia Ille, Lunden, Luneville, Luxenoburg, Lyons, MAcao, MacalTar, Madeira Funchal, Madrafe, Madrid, Magdalena Ifle, Mahon, Port, Majorca, Malacca, MaJines, Leicefterfhire, England, Saxony, Germany, Edinburghfhire, Scotland, S. Pacific Cornwall, Guienne, Coaft of Holland, Bifliopric of Liege, Peru, Limerickfhlre, Limoges, Lincolnfhire, Linlithgow- fhire, Auftria, Eftremadura, French Fland- ers, StafFordfhire, Cornwal], Middlefex, Londonderry, Pope's Terri- tory, Cape Breton I fie, Auftrian Bra- bant, Siam, Holftein, Ocean, England, France, Syria, Netherlands, Netherlands, South Ireland, France, England, Scotland, Germany, Portugal, Netherlands, Englandj England, England, Ireland, Italy, North garter. Europe, Europe, Europe, Ana, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Lat. D. M. 52-38 N. 51-19 N. S^-S^ N. 15-23 S. 50-26 N. 45-18 N. Mediterranean 52-10 N. 4 827 Long. D. M. 1-03W. 12-25 E. 3-00W. 168-0^ E. 4-36W. o 52W. fea. z E. 50-37 N. 5-40 E. 12-01 S. 52-35 N. 45-49 N. SS-'^S N. 55-56 N. Europe, 48-16 N, Europe, 38-42 N. Europe, 50-37 N. 76-44W. 8-48W. 1-20 E. 0-27W. 3-30W. 13-57 E. 9-04W. 3-09 E. Europe, 52-43 N. 1-04W. Europe, 49-57 N. 5-10W. Europe, 51-31 N.iftMeridian Europe, 50-00 N. 7-40 W. Europe, 43-15 N. 14-15 E. America, 45-53 N. 59-48W. Netherlands, Europe, 50-53 N. 4-49 E. 12-42 N, 100-56 E, Eafl: India, Germany, Windward Ifles, Weft Indies, Gothland, Lorrain, Luxemburg, Lyons, Canton, Celebes Ifle, Atlantic Coromandel, New Caftile, South Minorca, Ifle, Malacca, Brabant, Sweden, France, Netherlands, France, China, Eaft India, Ocean, Eaft India, Spain, Pacific Ocean, Mediterr. fea, Mediterr. fea, Eaft India, Netherlands, Afia, Europe, N. Ame- rica, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, Africa, Afia, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, N 2 54-00 N 13-24 N. 55-41 N. 48-35 N. 49-37 N. 45-45 N. 22-12 N. 5-09 S, 32-37 N. 13-04 N. 40-25 N. 10-25 S' 39-50 N. 39-35 N. 02-12 N. 51-01 N, 1 1 -40 E. 60-46W. 13-26 E. 6-35 E. 6-16 E, 4-54 E. I '9-53 E. 17-01W. So-33 E. 3-20 E. 138-44W. i-53 E. 2-34 E 102-10 E. 4-33 E. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Coutitrks, garter. Malllcola (Ille) St. Maloes, Malta IHe, Manilla, Mantua, Maregalante Ifle Marieilles, St. Martha, St. Martin's Iflc, Martinico Ifle, St. Mary's lile, St. Mary's Town, Mafkelyne Ifles, Mauritius, Maurua Ille, Mayence, Mayo Ille, Meaux, Mecca, Medina, Mediter. fea, Mequinez, Messina, Mergni, Mexico, Miatea Ille, St. Michael's Ille, Middleburg Ifle, Milan, Milford Haven, Mocha, MODENA, Montreal, Montpelier, Montague Ifle, Montrolc, Montferrat Iflc, Morocco, Moscow, M'lnich, Munfter, NAnnir, Nancy, Nanjjafachi, South Bretagne, Mediterran&an Luconia Phil- lip. Ifles, Mantua, Atlantic Provence, St. Martha, Caribbean Ifles, Caribbean Ifles, Scilly Ifles, A zores. South Indian South Lower Rhine, Cape Verd, Champagne, Arabia Felix, Arabia Felix, Between Fez, Sicily Ifland, Siam, Mexico, South Azores, South Milanefe, Pembrokelhire, Arabia Felix, Modena, Canada, Languedoc, South Forfar, Caribbean Ifles, Morocco, Mofcow, Bavaria, Weflphalla, Namur, Lorrain, Japan, Pacific Ocean, Afia, France, Europe, Sea, Africa, Eart India, Afia, Italy, Europe, Ocean, S. Amer. France, Europe, Terra Firma, America, Weft Indies, America, Weft Indies, America, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Lat. Long. D. M. D. M. 16-15 N. 167-44 E. 48-3« N. 1-53W. 35-54 N. 14-J3^. 14-36 N. 120-5S E. 45-20 N. 10-47 E. 15-55 N. 61-06W. 43-17 N. 5-27 E. 11-26 N. 73-59W. 1 8-04 N. 62-57W. 14-44 N. 61-16W, 49-57 N. 6-3 8\V. 36-56 N. 25-04W. Pacific Ocean, Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Germany, Atlantic Ocean, France, Arabia, Arabia, Europe and Barbary, Italy, Eaft India, North Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Afia, Africa, Afia, Europe, Africa, Europe, Afia, Afia, Africa, Africa, Europe, Afia, America, Afia, Europe, 16-32 S. 20-09 S. 16-25 S. 49-54 N. 15-10 N. 48-57 N. 21-45 N. 25-00 N. Atlantic 34-30 N. 38-30 N. 12-12 N. 19-54 N. 17-52 S. 37-47 N. 168-04 E, 57-34 E. 152-37 E. 8-25 E. 23-ooW.. 2-57 E. 41-00 E. .?9-53 ^' Ocean. 6-00 E. 15-40 E. 9S-13 E. 1 00-00 W. 14S-01W. 25-37W. Pacific Ocean, Afia, 21-20 S. 1 74-29 W. Italy, Wales, Arabia, Italy, North France, Pacific Ocean, Scotland, Weft India, Barbary, Ruffia,' Germany, Germany, Netherlands, France, N. Pacific Ocean, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, America, Europe, Afia, Europe, America, Africa, Europe, 1 Europe, luiropc, Europe, Europe, Afia, 45-25 N. 51-45 N. 13-40 N. 44-34 N. 45-35 N. 43-36 N. 17-26 S, 56-34 N. 16-47 N. 30-32 N. 55-45 ^''• 48-09 N. 52-00 N. 50-28 N. 48-41 N. 32-32 N. 9-30 E. 5-15W. 43-50 E. 11-17 E. 73-iiW. 3-37 E. 168-36 E. 2-20W. 62-1 2W. 6-ioW. 37-50 E. 11-35 E. 7-10 E. 4-49 E. 6-16 E. 128-51 E. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces Nanking, N antes, Naples, Narva, New York, Newcaftle, Newport, Nice, St. Nicholas Mole, Nieuport, Nineveh, Ningpo, Norfolk Me, Noriton, North Cape, Northampton, Norwich, Nuremberg, Nottingham, Kiangan, Bretagn,", Naples, Livonia, New York, Northumber- land, Rhode I (land. Piedmont, Hifpaniola^ Flanders, Curdiftan,. Chckiang, South Pcnnfylvania, Wardhus, Northampton- fliire, Norfolk, Franconia, Nottingham- fhire. Countries. Cliiiia,. France, Italy, RuHia, North England, North Italy, Welt Indies, Netherlands, Turkey, China, Pacific Ocean, North Lapland, England, England, Germany, England, ^larter. Lat. D. M. Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, 32-00 N. 47-13 N. 40-50 N. 59-00 N. /^Chocfkoi, \_J Ohevahoa Siberia,. Rudia, Afia, 1 South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Me, Ohitahoo Me, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Oleron Me, Saintonge, France, Europe, Olinde, Brafil, South America, Olmutz, Moravia, Bohemia, Europe, Olympia, Greece, Turkey, Europe, St. Omcr's, Flanders, Netherlands, Europe, Onateayo Me, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Oporto, Duoro, Portugal, Europe, Oran, Algiers, Barbary, Africa, Orenburg, Tartary, RufTia, Afia, L'Orient, Port Bretagne, France, Europe, Orleans, Orleannois, France, Europe, Orleans, New Louifiana, North America, Ormus, Ormicos Ifle, Perfia, Afia, Orotava, TenerifFe, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, Orfk, Tartary, RulTia, Afia, Ofnaburg-Ifle, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Oftend, Flanders, Netherlands, Europe, Otaheite, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Owhyee, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, Oxford Obfer- Oxfordfliire, England, Europe, vatory. 1 America, 40-40 N, Europe, 55-03 N, America, 41-35 N. Europe, 43-41 N. America, 19-49 N, Europe, 51-07 N. Afia, 36-00 N. Afia, 29-57 N. Afia, 29-01 S. America, 40-09 N, Europe, 71-10 N. Europe, 52-15 N. Europe, 52-40 N. Europe, 49-27 N. Europe, 5.3-00 N. 59-20 N. 9 40 S. 9-55 S. 46-02 N. 8-13 S, 49-30 N. 37-30 N. 50-44 N. 9-5S S. 41-10 N. 36-30 N. 51-46 N. 47-45 N. 47-54 N. 29-57 N, 26-50 N. 28-23 N. 51-12 N. 17-52 S. 51-13 N. 17-29 S. 22-10 S. 51-45 N. 829 Long. D. M. 118-30 E. 1-28W. 14-18 E. 27-35 K- 74-ooW. 1-2+W. 71-06W. 7-22 li, 73-24W. z-50 E. 45-00 E. 120-23 E. 168-15 E- 75-1 «W. 26-02 E. 0-55W. 1-25 E, II -1 2 E, 1-06W, 143-17 E. 133-56W. 1 39-0 1 W. 1-20W. 35-ooW. 16-45 E. 22-00 E. 2-19 E. i8-46W. i^ 8-22W, 0-05 E. 55-14 E. 3-20W, 1-59 E, 89.53W. 57-00 E. 16-19W. 58-37 E, 14S-01 E. 3-00 E. 1 49-35 w. 199-00 E. i-ioW. Sjo A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. ^tarter. Lat. D. M. Long. D. M. T^AcificorOri Jf'^ental Ocean - Between Afia and America, , Padua, Paduano, Italy, Europe, 45-22 N. T2-00 E. Paifley, Renfrewftiire, Scotland, Europe, 55-^'i N. 4-08W, Palermo, Sicily Ifle, Italy, Europe, 38-30 N. 13-43 E. Pallifer's Ifles, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, 15-38 S. 1 46-25 W. Palina IQe, Canaries, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, .23-36 N. 17-45^^'- Palmerfton's South Pacific Ocean, Afia, 18-00 S. 1 6 2-5 2 W. We, Palmyra, Syria, Turkey, Afia, 33-00 N. 39-00 E. Panama, Darien, Terra Firma, S. Amer. 8-47 N. 80-16W. Paoom ifle. South Pacific Ocean, Afia, 16-30 S. 16S-33 E. Paris, (Obferv. ) Ifle of France, France, Europe, 48-50 N. 2-25 E. Parma, J Parmafan, Italy, Europe, 44-45 N. 10-51 E. Patna, Bengal, Eali India, Afia, 25-45 N. 83-00 E. Patrixfiord,' Iceland, N.Atlan. Ocean , Europe, 65-35 N. 14-05W. Pau, Beam, France, Europe, 43-15 N. 0-Q4W. St. Paul's ine. South (Indian Ocean, Africa, 37-51 s. 77-53 E- •Pegu, Pegu, EaftJndia, Afia, 17-00 N. 97-00 E. Peking, Petchi-li, China, Afia, 39-54 N. 116-29 E. •Pembroke, Pern brokefh ire. Wales, Europe, 51-45 N. 4-50W. Pensacola, Weft Florida, North America, 30-22 N. 87-2oW^ Penzance, Corn-wall, England, Europe, 50-08 N. 6-ooW. Perigueu:?, Guienne, France, Europe, 45-11 N. 0-48 E. .Perinaldi, Genoa, -Italy, Europe, 43-53 N. 7-45 E. Perth, Perthfliire, Scotland, Europe, 56-22 N. 3-12W. Perth-amboy, New York, North America, 40-30 N. 74-20W. Perfepolis, Irac Agem, Perfia, Afia, 30-30 N. 54-00 E. St. Peter's Fort , Martinico, W. Indies, N. Amer ■. 14-44 N. 61-16W. St. Peter's ine. North Atlantic Ocean, America, 46-46 N. 56-12W. -Petersburg, Ingria, Rufl"ia, Europe, 59-56 N. 30-24 E. Petropawlofkoi, Kamtfchatka, Ruffia, Afia, 53-01 N. 158-40 E. Philadelphia, Pennfylvania, North America, 39-56 N. 75-09W. ^t. Philips Fort , Minorca, Mediterr. Sea, Europe, 39-50 N. 3-53 E. Pickerfgill ifle. South Atlantic Ocean , America, 54-42 S. 36-53W. Pico, Azores, Atlantic Ocean , Europe, 38-28 N. 28-2lW. Pines, Ifle of N. Caledonia, Pacific Ocean, ACu, 22-38 S. 167-43 E. ■Pifa, Tufcany, Italy, Jturope, 43-43 N- 10.17 E. Piacentia, Newfoundland Ifle, Devonfliire, North America, 4/-26 N. 55-GoW. Plymouth, England, Europe, 50-22 N. 4-ioW. Plymouth, New England, North America, 41-48 N. 70-25W. PoUingen, Swabia, Germany, Europe, 47-4« N. 10 48 E. Pondicherry, Coiomandel, Fall; India, Afia, 1 1-41 N. 79-57 E. Ponoi, Lapland, Ruflla, Europe, 67-06 N. 36-28 E. Porto Bello, Terra Firma, South America, 9-33 N. 7 9-45 W. Poi to Sandlo Ifle, JPort JRoyal, Madeira, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, 32-58 N. 1 6-20 W. Jamaica, Weft Indies, America, 18-00 N. 7 6-40 W. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places^ Provinces. Countries. Port Royal, Martinico, Portland Ifle, South Portland Ifle, North Portfmouth Hamjifhire, 'J own, Academy, Hampfliire, garter. Lat. D. M. Weft Indies, America, 14-35 N. Pacific Ocean, Mra., 39-25 S. Atlantic Ocean, Europe, 63-22 N. England, Europe, 50-47 N. New England, Peril, Upper Lancafhire, Prince of Wales New N. Wales, Fort, Portfmoiuh, Potofi, Prague, Prclbiirg, Prcfton, England, North Soii:h Bohemia, Hungary, England, North Europe, America, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, 50-48 N. 43-10 N. 21-00 S. 50-04 N. 48-20 N. 53-45 N. 58-47 N. 831 Long. D. M. 61-04W. 178-17 t. 1 8-49 W. OI-QlW. i-oiW. 70-20W. 77-oow. 14-50 E. 17-30W. . 2-50W. 94-0 2 W. South Canada, . South America, 41-50 N. Ana, 8-40 N. Providence, New England, North Pulo Candor Indian Ocean, Eaft India, Ifle, Pulo Timor GulfofSiam, Eaft India, Afia, 3-00 N. 104-qo E. Ifle, ^ Pyleftaart Ifle, QUebec, Queen Charlotte's Ifles, Pacific Ocean, Afia, 22-23 S. North America, 46-55 N. Pacific Ocean, Afia, 10-11 S. 71-21W. 107-25 E. 175-36W. 69-4SW. 164-35 E. St. Quintin, Quito, RAgufa, Ramhead, Ratifbon, Rhee IQe, Recif, Rennes, Refolution Ifle, Rheims, Rhodes, Riga, Rimini, Rochelle, Rochfort, Rock ofLif- bon, Rodez, Rodrigues Ifle, Rome, (St. Peter's) Rotterdam, Rotterdam Ifle, South Rouen, Normandy, SAba Ifle, Carib. fea, Sagan, Silcfia, St. Auguilin, Eaft Florida, Picardy, Peru, Dalmatia, Cornwall, Bavaria, Aunis, Brafil, Bretagne, South Champagne, Rhode Ifland, Livonia, Romagna, Aunis, Saintonge, Mduth of Ta- gus River, Guienne, South Pope's Terri- tory, Holland, France, South Venice, England, Germany, France, South France, Pacific Ocean, PVance, Levant fea, Ruffia, Italy, France, France, Portugal, France, Indian ocean, Italy, Netherlands, Pacific Ocean, France, Wert India,. Geruiaay, North Europe, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Afia, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, 49-50 N. 0-13 S. 42-45 N. 50-18 N. 48-56 N. 46-14 N. 8-10 S. 48-06 N. 17-23 S. 49-14 N. 36-20 N. 56-55 N. 44-03 N. 46-09 N, 46-02 N. 38-45 N.- Europe, 44-21 N. Africa, 10-40 N. Europe, . 41-53 N. Europe, Afia, . Europe, America, Europe, 51-56 N. 20-16 N. 49-26 N. 17-39 N. 51-42 N. America, 29-45 N, 3-22 E. 77-50W, 18-25 E. 4-15W, 12-05 ^• 1-29W. 35-30W. i-j6W. 1 41-40 W. ■ 4-07 E. 28-00 E. 24-oQ E. 12-39 E. I -04W. 0-53W. . 9-30W0 2-39 E- 63-15 E. 12-34 E. 4-33 E. 174-25W. i-ooW. 63-1 2W. 15-27 E. 81-12W. 834 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. Quarter. Domingo, George's Sc. St Channel, St. Jago, St. Salvador, Salifc'jry, Sail Ille, Salonichi, Salvage Illes, Samana, Samarcand, Samaria Ruins, Sandwich Ille, Santa Cruz, Santa Fee, Savage Ifle, Savannah, Saunder's I fie, Cirib. Tea, Between Chili, Brafil, Wiltfhire, North Macedonia, North Hifpaniola, Ufbec Holy Land, South TenerifFc, New Mexico, South Georgia, South Georgia, Europe, Weft Indies, England and Ireland, South South England, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, Turkey, Lurope, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, Well India, America, Tartary, Afia, Turkey, Afia, Pacific Ocean, Afia, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, North America, Pacific Ocean, Afia, North L<7t. D. M. America, 18-20 N. Europe, Atlantic America, 34-00 S. America, 11-58 S. Upper Yorkfliire, Lower Rhine, Perthfhire, Little Tartary, Turkey in Between Sayd, or Thebes, Scarborough, Schwezingen, Scone, Sea of Afoph, Marmora, . OchotRc, Yellow, Sedan, Senegal, Seville, Andalufia, Sheernefs, Kent, Shepherd's South Ifles, Shields (South,) Durham, S. Atlantic Ocean, Egypt:. England, Germany, Scotland, Europe, and Europe, and America, South A- mcrica Africa, Europe, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, 51-00N. 16-33 N. 40-41 N. 30-00 N. 19-15 N. 40-40 N. 32-40 N. 17-41 S. 28-27 N. 36-00 N. 19-02 S. 58-00 S. Long. D. M. 70-ooW. Ocean. 7 7-00W. 38-ooW. 1-45W. 22-5 1 W. -J ^.5 ^* I5-49W. 69-1 1 vv. 69-00 E. 3S-00 E. 168-38 E. 16-1 1 W. 1 04-00 w. i69-25\V. 80-20W. 26-53W. 27-00 N. 32-20 E. 54- 49. 36- -iSN. -23 N. •24 N. -loW. -45 t. ■loW. Black fca. Siberia, andKamfchatka, Afia, N. Pacific Ocean, Between Eaftern Tartary, China, and Corea, N. Pacific Ocean. Champagne, Shrewibury, Siam, Sidon, Si-gham-fu, Silleron, Smyrna, Sombavera Illes, Soolo Iflc, Southampton, Spaw, Stafford, Stockholm, Sterling, Shropfiiire, Siam, Holy Land, Chenfi, Dauphine, Natolia, Carlb. Sea, Philp. IHes, Hami)nrire, Leige, Staffordfhire, Upland, Sterlingfhire, France, Negroland, Spain, England, Pacific Ocean, England, England, Eaft India, Turkey, China, France, Turkey, Weft Indies, Eaft India, Jingland, Germany, l''ngland, Sweden, Scotland, Europe, Africa, Europe, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Afia, Afia, Afia, F'urope, Afia, North A- 18-33 N. merica. 49-42 N. 37-'5N. 51-25 N. 16-58 S. 55-02 N. 52-43 N. 14-18 N. 33-33 N. 34-16 N. 44-11 N. 3S-28N. Afia, }■ urope, Euro})c, Europe, Europe, Europe, 5-57 N. 50-55 N. 50-30 N. 52-50 N, 59-20 N. 56-ioN. 5-02 E. 16-26W. 6-05W. 0-50 E. 168-47 E. 1-15 E. 2-46 VV. 100-55 E. 36-15 E. 108-48 E. 6-01 E. 2/ -24 E. 63-32W. 121-20 E. 1-25W. 5-40 E. 2-OoW. 18-08 E. 3-50W. A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 8: Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. ^larter. Lat. Long. D. M. D. M. Straits of Babelmandel, between Africa and Afia, Red Sea. of Dover, between England and France, Englllh Channel. . of Gibraltar, between Europe and Africa^ Mediterranean Sea. . of Malacca, between Malacca and Sumatra, Afia, Indian Ocean. of Magellan, between Terra del Fcugo and Patagonia, South America. of La Maire, in Patagonia, South America, Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. of Ormus, between Perfia and Arabia, Perfian Gulf. — — of Sunda, between Sumatra and Java, India Ocean, Afia. of Waigats, between Nova Zembla and Ruflia, Afia Stralfund, Pomerania, Germany, Europe, 54-23 N. 13-22 E. Strafburgh, Alface, France, Europe, 48-34 N. 7-46 E. Straumnefs, Iceland, N. Alan. Ocean. , Europe, 65-39 N. 24-24W. Suez, Suez, Egypt, Africa, 29-50 N. 33-27 H. Sultz, Lorrain, France, Europe, 47-53 ^• 7-09W. Sunderland, Durham, England, Europe, 54-55 ^^• i-ioW. Surat, Guzurat, Eaft India, Afia, 21-10 N. 72-27 E. Surinam, Surinam, South America, , 6-00 N. 55-30W. Syracufe, Sicily Ifle, Italy, Europe, 36-58 N. 15-05 E. rj-^ABLE X. Ifland New Hebrides , South Pacific, Afia, 15-38 s. 167-12 E. Tanjour, Tanjour, Eafl: India, Afia, 11-27 N. 79-07 E. Tanna, South Pacifi.c Ocean, Afia, 19-32 s. 169-46 E. Taoukaa Ifle, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, I4-S0 s. 145-04W. Tayris, Aderbeitzan, Perfia, Afia, 38-20 N. 46-30 E. Teflis, Georgia, Perfia, Afia, 43-30 N. ' 47-00 E. Temontengis, Soloo, Eafl; India, Afia, 5-57 N. 120-58 E. Teneriffe Peak, , Canaries, Atlantic Ocean, Africa, 28-12 N. 16-24W. Tercera, Azores, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, 38-45 N. 27-01 W. Tetuan, Fez, Barbary, Africa, 35-40 N. 5-18W. St. Thomas's Ifle, Thorn, Virgin Ifles, Wefl: Indies, An;ierica, iS-21 N. 64-46W. Regal Pruflia, Poland, Europe, ^i-SS N. 1 9-00W. Timor, S. W. Eaft liidia. Afia, 10-23 s. 124-04 E. Point, Timorland Eaft India, Afia, 8-15 S. 131-59 E. S. Point, Tobolfld, Siberia, Ruflia, Afia, 58-12 N. 68-17 E. Toledo, New Caftile, Spain, Europe, 39-50 N. 3-^S E. Tomfk, Siberia, Ruflia, Afia, 56-29 N. 85-04 E. Tonga Tabu Ifle, Tornea, South Pacific Ocean, Afia, 21-09 S. 174-4 1 w. Bothnia, Sweden, Europe, 65-50 N. 24-17 E. Toulon, Provence, France, Europe, 43-07 N. 6-01 E. Trapefond, Natolia, Turkey, Afia, 41-50 N. 40-30 E. Trent, Trent, Germany, Europe, 46-05 N. 11-02 E. Tripoli, Tripoli, Barbary, Africa, 32.53 N. 13-12 E. Tripoli, Syria, Turkey, Afia, 34-30 N. 36-15 E. Troy Ruins, Natolia, Turkey, Afia, 39-30 N. 26-30 E. Tunis, Tunis, Barbary, Africa, 5 O 36-47 N. 10-00 £. 834 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Places. Provinces. Countries. Turin, Piedmont, Turtle Ifle, South Tyre, Paleftine, Tyrnaw, Trentfchin, ULiatea, South Upfal, Upland, Uraniberg, Huen We, Ulhant Ifle, Bretagne, Utrecht, Holland, Venice, Venice, Vera Cruz, Mexico, Verona, Veronefe, Verfailles, IHe of France, ViENN A(Obfer.) Auftria, Vigo, Gaiicia, Vintimiglia, Genoa, Virgin Gorda, Virgin Ides, WAkefield, Yorkfliire, Prince of New N. Wales, North Wales Fort, Wardluis, Norwegian Lapland, Lapland, Mafibvia, Poland, Warwicklhire, England, Munfter, Ireland, Somerfetfhire, England, North Cumberland, South Italy, Pacific Ocean, Turke)', Hungary, Pacific Ocean, Sweden, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Italy, North Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Weft Indies, England, Quarter, Europe, Afia, Afia, Europe, Afia, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, America, Europe, America, Lat. D. M. 45-05 N. 19-48 S. 32-32 N. 4B-23 N. 16-45 S. 59-51 N. 55-54 N. 48-28 N. 52-07 N. 45-26 N. 19-12 N. 45-26 N. 48-48 N. 48-12 N. 42-14 N. 43-53 N. 18-18 N. 53-41 N. 58-47 N. Long. D. M. 7-45 E. 178-02W. 36-00 E. 17-38 E. 151-26W. 17-47 E. 12-57 E. 4-59W. 5-00 E. 11-59 E. 97-25W. 11-23 E. 2-12 E. 16-22 E. 8-23W. 7-42 E. 63-5 9W. 1-28W. 94-02W. Europe, 70-22 N. 31-11 E. Warfaw, Warwick, Water ford. Wells, Weftman Ifles Whitehaven, Whitfuntide Ifle, WiHiamfburg, Willis's Illes, Wincheilcr, Wilna, Wittenburg, Wologda, Worceftcr, Worms, Woflak, Wurtzburg, YArmouth, York, York-minfter, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, England, Europe, Pacific Ocean, Afia, 52-14 N. 52-18 N. 52-12 N. 51-12 N. 63-20 N. 54-38 N. 21-05 E. i-32W» 7-16W. 2-40W. 20-22W. 3-36W. 15-44 S. 168-25 E. Virginia, South Georgia, Hampfhire, Lithuania, Upper Saxony, Wologda, North America, 37-12 N. Atlantic Ocean, America, 54-00 S. England, Poland, Germany^ Rudla, Worcefterfhire, England, Lov/er Rhine, Franconia, Norfolk, Yorkfhire, Terra del Fu- Germany, Ruffia, Germany, England, England, South Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe, Europe,. Europe, 51-06 N. 54-41 N. 51-49 N. 59-19 N. 52-09 N. 49-38 N. 61-15 N. 49-46 N. 52-45 N. 53-59 N. America, 55-26 N. 7 6-48 W. 38-24W. 1-15W. 25-32 E. S2-46 E. 41-50 E. 1-55W. 8-05 E. 10-18 E. 1-48 E. i-oiW. 70-03W. Grecnv/ich Obferv. Kent, England, Europe, 51° 28^4o"N. Paul's London. o" 5' 37" E. of St. C 835 3 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE-, The mofl: Copious and Authentic that ever was publilhed, of the prcfent State of the Real and Imaginary Monies ofthe Wo«.ld. Divided into Four Parts, viz. EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, and AMERICA: Which are fubdivided into fifty-five parts, containing the Names of the mod Capital Places, the Species whereof are inferted, fliewing how the Monies arc reckoned by the refpeftive Nations ; and the Figures {landing againft the De- nomination of each foreign Piece, is the Englifli intrinfic Value thereof, accord- ing to the beft Aflays made at the Mint ofthe Tower of London. EXPLANATION. By real Money, is underftood an Effedtive Specie, reprefenting in itfelf tho Value denominated thereby, as a Guinea, &c. * This Mark is prefixed to the imaginary Money, which is generally made Ufe of in keeping Accounts, fignifying a fidtitious Piece which is not in be- ing, or which cannot be reprefented but by feveral other Pieces, as a Pound Sterling, &c. All Fractions in the Value Englifli are Parts of a Penny. = This Mark fignifies, is, make, or equal to. Note, For all the Spanifli, Portuguefe, Dutch, and Danifh Dominions, either on the Continent, or in the Weft Indies, fee the Monies of the refpedive Nations. ENGLAND and SCOTLAND. London, Briflol, Liverpool, &c. Edinburgh^ Glajgow, Aberdeen, &c. C ]-< !-• O ^^ -r o W Ph O 12 65 IRELAND. Dublin, Cork, Londonderry, i^c — a Halfpenny r: * a Penny = a Half'Shilling ~ ■ * a Shillina; Irifh O O^ o o 20 Shillings 22^ Shillings a Shilling a Crown * a Pound a Guinea Irifh o o o o o o o I D TT O II 70 o o 5 4 o * A Pening 4 Peningens 8 Penin2;ens 2 G rotes 6 Petards 7 Petards 40 Grotes 171 Scalins 240 Grates FLANDERS and BRABANT. Ghent, OJiend, i^c. Antwerp, BruffeU, &c. an Urche * a Grote ■ a Petard * a Scalin a Scalin * a Florin a Ducat * a Pound Flem. O o o o o o o o o o o Q o o o I 9 9 c O o HAMBURG, Allena, Lubec, Bremen, i3c. * A Tryling zz. • - - o 2 Trylings n:^ * a Sexling - - o 2 Sexlings == a Fening - - o 12 Fcnings zz a Shilling Liib. - o 16 Shillings r: * a Marc - - o 2 Marcs =: a- Sletch-doUar - o 3 Marcs = a Rix-doUar - o 4 Marcs r: a Silver Ducattoon - o 120 Shillings = * a Pound Flem. - o o o o o I 3 4 6 11 o o o o 5 6 6 3 o 9 T o ^ 9 9_ "a o 9 H L L A N D AND Z E A L A N D Amjierdam, Rotterdam, Middleburg, Fhijhing, &c. * Pening = - - I r 3 a'o' 8 Peningens rr * a Grote - 2 Grotes = a Stiver - I X To" 6 Stivers = a Scalin - 6 3 10 Stivers ■=■ a Guilder - I 9 2 Florins 10 Stivers =: a Rix-ddllar - 4 6 60 Stivers = a Dry Guilder - 5 4 3n 3 Florins 3 Stivers. = a Silver Ducattoon 5 8 4- 6 Guilders — * a Pound Flem. - 10 6 20 Florins = a Gold Ducat, or Duccatoon I 16 ic Florins = a Ducattoon, a nother fort, callec tJ a Sovereign - I 7 3 TiT 3 1 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 837 u 4-1 o W o D z O * HANOVER, Luneiibergh, Zell, £3"^. I' J. d. * A Fening ~ - - ,v 3 Fenings "^ZZ a Dreyer - ^V 8 Fenings z^ a Marien - 1 4- 12 Fenings — a Grofli - I I 8 Grofhen — a Half Gulden I 2 16 Grofhen — a Gulden - 2 4 24 Groflien z^ * a Rix-dollar - 3 6 32 Groflien z^ a Double Gulden - 4 4 Guldens = a Ducat — 9 2 SAXONY AND HOLSTEIN. Dre/den, Leipfic, (^c. Wijmar, Keil, isSc. <^ An Heller = _ - vV 2 Hellers — a Fening - + T 6 Hellers — . a Dreyer - tV 16 Hellers — a Marien - I 4- 12 Fenings — a Grofli - I :i 16 Groflien — a Gould - 2 4 24 Groflien — * a Rix-dollar 3 6 32 Groflien zz a Specie-dollar - 4 8 4 Goulds < "*"" a Ducat - 9 •4 BRANDENBURGH and POMERANIA. * Denier 9 Deniers 18 Deniers 3 Folchens 20 Groflien 30 Groflien 90 Groflien 108 Groflien 8 Florins Berlin, Potjdam, ef r. Stetin, &c- = - - - o := a Polchen - o — a Grofli - o = an Abrafs - - o zz * a Marc - - o ::r a Florin - - o 1= * a Rix-dollar - o zr an Albertus - o n a Ducat - - o o o o o o I 3 4 9 2 r 7 To- IT 7 COLOGN, MentZy Triers, Liege, Munich, Miinjler, Paderbourn, &i\ A Dute 3 Dutes 2 Cruitzers 8 Dutes 3 Stivers 4 Plaperts 40 Stivers a Guilders 4 Guilders a Cruitzer an Albus a Stiver • a Plapert a Copftuck a Guilder a Hard Dollar a Ducat o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 4 9 O /o c^i-;;- o 2 8 4 8 7 838 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. n o o pi s BOHEMIA, SILESIA, and Prague, Brejlau, Prejburg, ^c, A Fening = HUNGARY. 2 Fenings 3 Fenings 4 Fenings 2 Cruitzers 62 Cruitzers 90 Cruitzers 2 Goulds 4 Goulds = a Dreyer = a Grofh = a Cruitzer = a White Grolh = a Gould =: * a Rix-dollar = a Hard Dollar = a Ducat o o o o o o o o o s. o o o o o 2 3 4 9 o o o o o 4 6 3 4 AUSTRIA AND SWABIA. ' Vienna, 'iriefte, i£c. Augjburg, Blenheim, &c. 2 4 14 4 15 90 2 60 A Fening Fenings Fenings Fenings Cruitzers Batzen Cruitzers Florins Batzen a Dreyer a Cruitzer a Grofli a Batzen a Gould ' a Rix-dollar a Specie-dollar a Ducat o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2 3 4 9 FRANCONIA, A Fening ■=. 4 Fenings =: 3 Cruitzers = 4 Cruitzers = 15 Cruitzers :r 60 Cruitzers := 90 Cruitzers 2 Goulds l_24o Cruitzers — * o o o o 2 3 4 9 Francfort, Nuremhurg, Dettingen, &c. o o a Cruitzer - - o a Keyfer Grofh - o a Batzen - - o an Ort Gould - o a Gould - - o a Rix-dollar - o a Hard Dollar - o a Ducat - - o T SS 3 T"5r 7 7 TT I 4 TT T 7 xs- 7 I s I 9 I J O O I I 7 4 6 8 4 7 7 TT s T I 3 A Shell on 3 Shellons 5 Grofhen 3 Couflics 18 Grofhen 30 Grofhen 90 Groflicn 8 Florins 5 Rix-dollars POLAND AND PRUSSIA. Cracow, Warjaw^ i^c. Dantzic, Koningjberg, is?c. a Grofh a Couftic a Tinfe an Ort a Florin * a Rix-dollar - a Ducat & Frederic d'Or o o o o o o 'o o o o o o o o I 3 9 17 o o 2 7 8 2 6 4 6 7 7T TT I T CM o PM O P^ D W A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. LIVONIA, Ri^a, Revel, Narva," &c. £• A Blacken n — ^ 6 Blackens =: a Grofli 9 Blackens :::: a Vording 2 Grofhen — a Whiten 6 Grofhen Z™» a Marc 30 Grofhen ^^ a Florin 90 Grofhen =t * a Rix-doUar 108 ■ .rofhen =: an Albertus 64 VViiirens " a Copper-plate Dollar s. d. -^ 0^ .V O^A 2 ^ I 2 3 6 4 ^^ 5 DENMARK, ZEALAND, and NORWAY. Copenhagen, Sound, i^c. Bergen, Drontheim, i£c. A Skilling = - - . o 6 Skillings = a Duggen - _ o i6 Skillings = * a Mark - - o 20 Skillings = a Rix-mark - o 24 Skillings = a Rix-ort - - o 4 Marcs =: a Crown _ . q 6 Marcs = a Rix-dollar - - o 1 1 Marcs = a Ducat - - o 14 Marcs = aHattDucat - - o o o o o I 3 4 8 10 o 3 9 II I o 6 3 6 9 T WEDEN AND LAPLAN Stockholm, Upjal, &c. Thorn, &c. D. A Runftick Runfticks Runfticks Copper Marcs 4 Copper Marcs ,9 Copper Mafcs 3 Copper Dollars Silver Dollars Rix-doUars - - tV a Stiver . -T a Copper Marc - I 1- a Silver Marc - 4 4 a Copper Dollar ^ 6 4- a Caroline - 1 2 a Silver Dollar - I 6 T a Rix- dollar _ 4 6 a Ducat - 9 4- A Polufca 2 Polufcas 2 Denufcas 3 Copecs 10 Copecs 25 Copecs 50 Copecs. ;oo Copecs 2 Rubles RUSSIA AND MUSCOVY. Peterjburgy Archangel, &c. Mofcowy &c. * a Denufca Copec an Akin a Grivener a Polpotin a Poltin a Ruble a Xervonitz o o o o o Q o o o o o o o o I 2 4 9 o o o I 5 I J 6 2 7 i o o 2_7 1 o o" 1 7 T^ 3 I T-5- 840 A MODERN L FNIVERSAL 1 •ABLE. - BASIL. Zurich, Zu^, ^c. £' s. (/. A Rap ■z=. _ - - - 3 Rapen ;rs. a Fening - X 4 Fenings '"' a Cruitzer - 12 Fenings * a Sol - I 1 15 Fenings 18 Fenings — a Coarfe Batzen - I 7 ""^ a Good Batzen - 2, 20 Sols ■=. * a Livre - 2 6 60 Cruitzers •^z. a Gulden - 2 6 V loS Cruitzers == a Rix-dollar " 4 6 St. G ALL. Jppenfal, ^c. An Heller — - - I 2 Hellers = a Fening - a 4 Fenings — a Cruitzer - I •57 12 Fenings ~^ * a Sol ~ I I i2 4 Cruitzers :=: a Coarfe Batzen - 2 5 Cruitzers "~" a Good Batzen - 2 I c • Q 20 Sols :3 * a Livre . 2 6 ?; 60 Cruitzers r=z a Gould m 2 6 < 108 Cruitzers = a Rix-dollar - 4 3 !l B«< Ph N B E R N > Lucerne, Neufchatel, &c. c J A Denier — _ ^ T ^ C/3 4 Deniers -_ . a Cruitzer m. 1 4 i — . 3 Cruitzers ~^ * a Sol . I S t "I* H 4 Cruitzers -.= a Plapert - I 3 5 Cruitzers ^"™ a Gros . 6 Cruitzers "~" a Batzen . 2 2 20 Sols ^7"^ * a Livre • 2 s 75 Cruitzers =r a Gulden . 2 6 135 Cruitzers — - a Crown - 4 6 GENEVA. Pekay, Bowie, &c. A Denier = - _ I 2 Deniers tr: a Demer current ^ 3 i 12 Deniers *""" a Small Sol « It 12 Deniers current "^ a Sol current . T 3 12 Small Sols ^^ * a Florin . 4 3 11 4- 20 Sols current ^n * a Livre current _ ■ I V 10! Florins ^1 a Patacon . n 7. 15; Florins ^Z a Croifade • 5 10 7 24 Florins = a Ducat - 9 T A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABL"£. 84.V u z J I 4- Gibraltar, Malaga, Denia, &c. Felon. * A Maravcdie zzz . -- tVt 2 Maravedies ^2 an Ochavo - tVV 4 Maravedies :r: a Quartil ■ - u 34 Maravedies — * a Rial Velon - 2 i 15 Rials — * a Piaftre of E'x. - a 3 7 512 Maravedies 60 Rials — a Piaftre - 3 7 — * a Piftole of Ex. -' 14 4 2048 Maravedies — aPiftoleof Ex. -• 14 4 70 Rials 1^. a Piftole ■"" 16 9 Barceloua, Saragojfa, Valentin, &c. A Maravedic = Old Plate. 16 Maravedies 2 Soldos 20 Soldos 24 Soldos 16 Soldos 22 Soldos 21 Soldos 60 Soldos a Soldo a Rial Old Plate * a Libra * a Ducat * a. Dollar * a Ducat * a Ducat a Piftole o o o o o o G O o o o o 5 6 4 6 5 .6 3 6 7 9 6 2 10 2 7 T-ST 4- 4- 7 T A Dcnari 12 Dcnari 4 Soldi ao Soldi 30 Soldi 5 Li res 1 15 Soldi 6 Teftoons 9.0 Ijrcs GENOA. Novi, St. Remo, ^c. CORSICA. Bajlia, y I 6 ,*^ 13 Tarins ::3- a Ducat of Ex.. - 3 4 60 Carlins , " * an Ounce -■ 7 8 A > 1 Ounces :^ a Piftole - '5 4 H -H Bohgm, Ravenna, ^c. A Quatrini :::: - tV 6 Quatrini I ' a Bayoc - I- 10 Bayocs T~~: a Julio - 6 20 Bayocs, 7—; * a Lire - I 3 Julios ^"^ a Teftoon - I 6 85 Bayocs ::ii- a Scudi of Ex. - 4 3 105 Bayocs = a Ducatoon - 5 3 100 Bayocs = a Crown . 5 31 Julios =- a Piftole " 15 6 VENICE. Bcrgbam,.&c t - A PicoH *"^ _. _ T-V 12 Picol ;= a Soldi - 004. 64 Soldi ;:z. * a Gros - 02^ 18 Soldi zz: a Jule — 6 20 Soldi = * a Lire - 6 -I 3 Jules z^ a Teftoon » 1 6 124 Soldi 1 24 Gros I, 17 Lires ^-^ a Ducat current .. 3 S r = * a Ducat of Ex, . 4 4 = a Chequin * 9 a A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABL E. S4S V.' TURKEY. Morea, Ca>idia, Cyprus, i^c. re I- s. 5 T-5- 7 T 3 A MODERN U NI VERSAL TABLE. 847 SI AM. Pegi {, Malacca, Cambodia, Sumatra , Java, Borneo, &c. i s. d. ACori = -• « ■ 460 6'o' lo Cori ^^ a Fettee •• 125 Fettees ;;:; a Sataleer . 7 250 Fettees =r a Sooco • I 3 500 Fettees = a Tutal m 2 6 90Q Fettees = a Dollar - 0" 4 6 2 Ticals r:r a Rial •• 5 4 Soocos — an Ecu - 5 8 Sataleers ^=^ a Crown r 5- CHINA. P^-^/>/^, CtfK/c?;,. &C, » A Caxa. z=. - * 4v <; 10 Caxa =3 a Candereen _ -t t-H 10 Candereens "' ™ a Mace — ♦- 8 35 Candereens == a Rupee . 2 6 C/5 2 Ru])ees ::= a Do lar .. 4 6 < 70 Candereens =^ a Rix-doUar ..■ 4 4 -^ 7 Maces = an Ecu - 5 2 Rupees- ZH a Crown - 5 10 Maces — — ■ a Tale - 6 8 JAPAN. Jeddo, Meaco, &c. A Pki ZIZ - — 4 20 Pitis — a Mace ^ 4 10 1. 15 Maces n^ an Ounce Silver - 4 20 Maces :3: a Tale - 6 3 8 30 Maces i^ an Ingot - 9 8 4 13 Ounces Silver ^ an Ounce Gold - 3 3 2 Ounces Gold z= a Japanefe - 6 6 2 Japanefcs ^z a Double r 12 12 21 Ounces Gold ^^ * a Cattee - 66 1 J EGYPT. Old and New Cairo, Alexandria, Sayde, &'f. An Afper m - . ■4r « <: 3 Afpers — a Med in _ 7 I 4. 24 Med ins — an Italian Ducat « /n T 4 1— 1 80 Afpers — * a Piaflre • 4. ^ 30 Mcdins — a Dollar ^ -J. 4 5 5 10 6 \u 96 Afpers ^^ an Leu ^ < 32 Med ins — - a Crown ^ 200 Afpers. —Z a Sultanin ^ 70 Medins .~ a Pargo Dollar - 10 Q S48 A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. B A R B A R Y. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Una, ^c. < u ^ i < An Afper 3 Afpers 10 Afpers 2 Rials 4 Doubles 24 Medins 30 Medins 180 Afpers 15 Double a Medin a Rial old Plate a Double a Dollar a Silver Chequin a Dollar a Zequin a Piftole o o o I 4 4 o o o o o o o o 8 10 o 16 9 d. o I 6 I 6 T 4 6 < MO R C C Q. Sa-nia Cruz, Mequinez, ivz, Tangiers, 6'.7//^^, &fc. A Fluce - - - 000 -j\- 24 Fluces — a Blanquil - - 002 4 Blanquils r: an Ounce — - 008 7 Blanquils — an Oftavo - - I 2 14 Blanquils ■^z a Quarto — - 024 2 Quartos :^z a Medio - - 048 28 Blanquils -zz. a Dollar - .- 046 i 54 Blanquils — a Xequin ■^ 4» 090 l_ioo Blanquils ^= a Piftole ^ ^ 16 9 < E N G L I * A Halfpenny = 1 Halfpence — 7i Pence rr 12 Pence ■= 75 Pence ::= 7 Shillings = 20 Shillings = 24 Shillings = 30 Shillings zz S H. Jamaica, Barbadoes, &c. * a Penny a Bit * a Shilling a Dollar - r a Crown - — ■* a Pound a Piftole a Guinea o o o o o o o o o o 4 5 o 14 o 16 5 7 "i T o 5 7 8 O 3 T I 1 < 2 71 2Q 7 8 . ^^ PRE ■^ A Half Sol Half Sols Sols Sols Sols Li vies l.ivres Livres Livrcs N C H. St. Dumingo, Alartinico, ffjr. * a Sol a Half Scalin a Scalin * a Livre a Dollar an Ecu a Piftole a Louis d'Or 8 1 1 7 0*0 1 1 7 2 1 I 5 3 T 7 4 6 4 10 X 16 9 O O A MODERN UNIVERSAL TABLE. 849 < Nova Scotia, New England, Virginia, &c. * a Shilling * a Pound o o I d. I o o ENGLISH. * A Penny : 12 Pence ; 20 Shillings : 2 Pounds 3 Pounds 4 Pounds 5 Pounds 6 Pounds 7 Pounds 8 Pounds 9 Pounds lO Pounds The Value of the Currency alters, according to the Plenty or Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins that are imported. ^< H 2: U Canada, Florida, Cayenne, &c\ * A Denier 1 2 Deniers = * a Sol. 20 Sols =: * a Livre, 2 Livres 3 Livres 4 Livres 5 Livres 6 Livres 7 Livres 8 Livres 9 Livres ^ 10 Livres The Value of the Currency alters, according to the Plenty or Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins that are imported. Noie. For all the Spanijh, Vortugueje, Butch, and Danijh Dominions^ either on the Continent or in the West Indies, fee the Monies of the refpedive Nations. sQ. A NEW [ 850 1 NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE O F REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, and INVENTIONS; ALSO, The JEKAy the Country, and Writings of LearnedMen: The whole comprehending in one View, the Analyfis or Outlines of General Hiftory, from the Creation to the prefent Time. Bef. Chria. _ , , , J . , , _ TH E creation of the world, and Adam and hve. The birth of Cain, the firfl who was born of a woman. 4004 4C03 0017 Enoch, for his piety, is tranflated to Heaven. 2^48 The old world is deftroyed by a deluge, which ( 2^48 The old world is cieitroyea oy a aeiugc, wmtucommued 377 days. 224.7 The Tower of Babel is built about this time by Noah's Pollerity, upon which God mira- culoufly confounds their language, and thus difperfes them into different nations. About the fame time, Noah is, with great probability, fuppofed to have parted from his rebellious offs-pringt and to have led a colony of fome of the more traiflable into the Ea(l and there either he or one of his fucceflbrs to have founded the ancient Chinefc a274 The celelUal obfervations arc begun at Babylon, the city which firft gave birth to learning and the fciences. 2188 Mifraim, the fon of Ham, founds the kmgdom of Egypt, which lafted 1663 years, down to its conqued by Cambyfcs, in 525 before Chrift. Ninus, the fun of Belus, founds the kingdom of Ailyria, which lafted above 1000 years, and out of its ruins were formed the Aflyrians of Babylon, thofe of Nineveh, and the kingdom of the Medes. 1021 The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves Haran logo into Canaan, which begins the 430 years of fojourning. i8q7 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are deftroyed for their wickednefs, by fire from Heaven. , t 1 i8c6 The kingdom of Argos, m Greece, begms under Inachus. 1822 Mcmnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters. ,715 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flmt^. ^ , , .^ . . ., r c 163? Jofcph dies in Egypt, which concludes the book of Gcnefis, contamg a period of 2369 1574 Aaron born in Egypt ; 1490, appointed by God fjift high-pricft of the Ifraditics. 1571 Mofcs A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 851 1571 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, whoedu- CJtes him in all the learning of the Egyptians. 1556 Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens, in Greece. 1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phyrgia, and begins the kingdom of Troy. 14Q5 Cadmus carried the Phoenician letters into Greece, and built the citadel of Thebes. 1491 Mofes peiforms a number of miracles in Egypt, and departs from that kingdom, 'togc- ther with 600,000 Ifraelites, befules children, which completed the 430 years' of fo- journing. They miraculouily pafs through the Red Sea, and cotne to the defert of Sinai, where Mofes receives from God, and delivers to the people, the Ten Com- mandments, and the other laws, and fets up the tabernacle, and in it the atk of the covenant. J485 The fitft fhip that appeared in Greece was brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty daughters. 1453 The firft Olympic games celebrated at Olympia, in Greece. 1452 The Pentateuch, or five firft books of Mofes, are written in the land of Moab, where he died the year following, aged i!0. 1451 The Ifraelites, after fojourning in the Wildernefs forty years, are led under Jofhua into the land of Canaan, where they fix themfelves, after having fubdued the natives ; and the period of the fabbatical year commences. 1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental burning of the woods. 1 198 The rape of Helen by Paris, which, in 1 193, gave rife to the Trojan war, and fiege of Troy by the Greeks, which continued ten years, when that city was taken and burnt. I048 David is fole king of Ifrael. 1004 The Temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon. 8g6 Elijah, the prophet, is iranflated to Heaven. 894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos. 8(^9 The city of Carthage, in Africa, founded by queen Dido. 814 The kingdom of Macedon begins. 753 JEn of the building of Rome in Italy by Romulus, firft king of the Romans. 720 Samaria taken, after three years fiege, and the kingdom of Ifrael fimftied, by Salmana- far, king of Aflyria, who carries the ten tribes into captivity. The firft eclipfe of the moon on record. 658 Byzantium (now Conftantinople), built by a colony of Athenians. 604 By order of Necho, king of Egypt, fome Phoenicians failed from the Red Sea round A- frica, and returned by the Mediterranean. 600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults the priefts of Memphis, acquires the knowledge of geometry, aftrononiy, and philofophy ; returns to Greece, calculates eclipfes, gives general notions of the univetfe, and maintains that an only fupreme Intelligence regulates all its motions. Maps, globes and the figns of the Zodiac, invented by Anaximander, the fcholar of Tliales. 597 Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away captive, by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon. 587 The city of Jerufalem taken, after a fiege of 18 months. 562 The firft comedy at Athens a£led upon a moveable fcafFold. 559 Cyrus the firft King of Perfia. 533 The kingdom of Babylon finifiied ; that city being taken by Cyrus, who, in c?6 iflucj an edift for the return of the Jews. ' 534 The firft tragedy was adled at Athens, on a waggon, by Thefpis. 526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public library firft founded^ 515 The fecoud 'I'emple at Jerufalem is finifhed under Darius. 509 Tarquin, the feventh and laft king of the Romans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by two confuls, and other republican magiftrates, till the battle of Pharfalia, being a fpace of 461 years. ° 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which gave occafion to the Perfian invafion of Greece. 486 iEfchylus, the Greek poet, firft gains the prize of tragedy. SQjt 481 Xerx£» 8p A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 481 Xerxes fhe Great, king of Perfia, begins his expedition againfl Greece. AcB Ezra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with the captive Jews and the vefTels of goldand filver, &c. being feventy weeks of years, or 490 years before the crucifixion of our Sa- viour. 4J4. The Romans fend to Athens for Solon's laws. 451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the Twelve Tables compiled and ratified, 433 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finifties about this time. Malachi the laft of the prophets. 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among the Greeks, believes the immortality of the foul and a ftate of rewards and punifhments, for which, and other fublime doc- trines, he is put to death by the Athenians, who foon after repent, and ereft to his memory a ftatue of brafs. 'i^^ Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, conquers Darius, king of Perfia, and other na- tions of Afia. 323, Dies at Babylon, and his empire is divided by his generals into four kingdoms. 285 Dionyfius, of Alexandria, began his aftronomical sera on Monday June 26, being the firft who found the exa£t folar year to confift of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. 284 Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs leventy-tviro interpreters to tranflate the Old Teftament into the Greek language, wliich is called the Septuagint. 269 The firft coinage of filver at Rome. 264 riie firft Punic war begins, and continues 23 years. The chronology of the Arunde- lian marbles compofed. 260 The Romans firft concern themfelves in naval affairs, and defeat the Cartliaginians at fea. 237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufes his fon Hannibal, at nine years old, to fwear eternal enmity to the Romans. 2l8 The fecond Punic war begins and continues 17 years. Hannibal paflesthe Alps, and de- feats the Romans in feveral battles, but being amufed by his women, does not improve his vi£lories by the ftorming of Rome, igo The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the fpoils of Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury firft to Rome. 168 Perfeus defeated by the Romans, which ends the Macedonian kingdom. 167 The firft library eredled at Rome, of books brought from Macedonia. 163 The government of Judea under the Maccabees begins, and continues 126 years. 146 Carthage, the rival to Rome, is razed to the ground by the Romans. 135 Ihe hiftory of the Apocrypha ends. 52 Julius Csefar makes bis firft expedition into Britain. 47 The battle of Pharfalia between Cxfar and Pompey, in which the latter is defeated. The Alexandrian library, confifting of 400,000 valuable books, burnt by accident. 45 Thewar of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf. The folar year introduced by Caefar. 44 Cxfar, the greateft of the Roman conquerors, after having fought fifty pitched battles, and (lain 1,192,000 men, and overturned the liberties of his country, is killed in the fenate-houfe. 4 1 The battle of Aftium fought, in which Mark Anthony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by Oflavius, nephew to Julius Cxfar. 30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Odtavius, upon which Anthony and Cleopatra put themfelves to death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman province. 27 Oftavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the title of Auguftus Caefiir, and an abfolute exemption from the laws, and is properly the firft Roman emperor. 8 Rome at this time is fifty miles in circumference, .ind contains 463,000 men fit to bear arms. The temple of Janus is fliut by Ajguftus, as an emblem of univcrfil peace ; and JESUS CHRIST is fuppofed to have been born on Monday, December 25, but according to many, in September during the Jcwifh feaft of tabernacles. A. C. 12 Difputes with the Doors in the Temple ; 27 is baptized in the Wildernefs by John j JESUS A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 853 33 JESUS CHRIST is crucified on Friday, April 3, at 3 o'clock P. M. His Refurreflion on Sunday, April 5 ; his Afcenfjon, Thurfday May 14. 36 St. Paul converted. 39 St. Matthew writes his Gofpel. Pontius Pilate kills himfeif. 40 The name of Chriftians firft given at Antloch to the followers of Chrift. 43 Claudius Csefar's expedition into Britain. 44. St. Mark writes his Gofpel. 49 London is founded by the Romans ; 368, furrounded by ditto with a wall, fome parts of •which are ftill obfervable. 51 Caradlacus, the Britidi king, is carried in chains to Piome. 52 The council of the apoflles at Jerufalem. 55 St. Luke writes his Gofpel. 59 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to death. Perfecutis the Druids in Britain. 61 Boadicea, the Britilh queen, defeats the Romans; but is conquered foon after by Sueto- nius, governor of Britain. 62 St. Paul is fent in bonds to Rome, writes his Epiftles between 51 and 66. 63 The Arts of the Apoftlcs written. Chriftianity is fuppofed to be introduced Into Britain by St. Paul, or fome of his dif- ciples about this time. 64 Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days; upon which began (under Nero) the firft perfecution againft the Chriftians. 67 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 70 Whilft the faflious Jews are deftroying one another with mutual fury, Titus, the Roman general, takes Jerufalem, which is razed to the ground, and the plough made to pafs over it. 83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian. 85 Julius Agricola, governor of South-Britain, to protect the civilized Britons from the ia- curfions of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde } defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Grampian hills; and firft fails round Britain, which he difcovers to be an illand. 96 St. John the evangelill wrote his Revelation — his Gofpel in 97. 121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all the fouthern parts of Scotland ; upon which the emperor Adrian builds a wall between NewcalUe and Carlifle ; but this alfo proving ineffedlual, Pollius Urbicus, the Roman general, about the year 144, repairs Agricola's forts, which he joins by a wall four yards thick. 135 The fecond Jewilh war ends, when they were all baniflied Judca. 139 Jurtin writes his firft Apology for the Chriftians. 141 A number of herefies appear about this time. 152 The emperor Antoninus Pius ftops the perfecution againft the Chriftians. 1 1 7 The Septuagint faid to be found in a calk. 122 About this time the Roman empire begins to fink under its own weight. The Barbarians begin their eruptions, and the Goths have annual tribute not to moleft the empire. 260 Valerian is taken prifoner by Sapor, king of Perfia, and flayed alive. 274 Silk firft brought from India; the manufafture of it introduced into Europe by fome monks, 55 1 ; firft worn by the clergy of England, 1534. 291 Two emperors and two Caefars, march to defend the four quarters of the empire. 306 Conftantine the Great begins his reign. 308 Cardinals firft began. 313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edifl of Conftantine, who favours the Chriftians, and gives full liberty to their religion. 314 Three bifhops, or fathers, are fent from Britain to afilft at the council of Aries. 325 The firft general council at Nice, when 318 fathers attended, againft Ariusj where wag compofed the famous Nicene Creed, which we attribute to them. 328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, which is thencefor' wards called Conftantinople a 331 Conftantine S54 A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. -31 Conflantine orilers all the heathen temples to be deftroyed. 303 The Roman Emperor Julian, lurnanied the Apoftate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the temple of Jerufalem. n • 1 . 364 The Roman empire is divided into tlie eaftern (Conftantinople the capital) and weftern (of which Rome continued to be the capital), each being now under the government of different emperors. 400 Bells invented by bifhop Paulinus, ofCampagnia. 404 The kingdom of Caledonia or Scotland revives under Fergus. _ 405 The V^andals, Alans, and Suevi, fpread into France and Spain, by a conceffion of Ho- norius, emperor of the Weft. 410 Rome taken and plundered by Alaric, king of the Vifi-Goths. 412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain. 420 The kingdom of France begins npon the Lower Rhine, under Pharamond. 426 The Romans reduced to extremities at home, witlulriw tlieir troops from Britain, and never return; advifing the Britons to arm in their own defence, and truft to their own valour. 4.46 The Britons now left to themfelves, are greatly harafled by the Scots and Picls, upon which they once more make their complaint to the Romans, but receive no affiftance from that quarter. 447 Attila (furnamed the Scourge of God) with his Huns ravage the Roman empire. 440 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the Saxons into Britain, agaiidl the Scots and Fids. 455 The Saxons having repulfed the Scots and Pids, invite over more of their countrymen, and begin to eftablifh ihemfelves in Kent, under Hengill. 476 The wcftern empite is finilhed, 523 years after the battle of Pharfalia ; upon the ruins of which feveral new dates arife in Italy and other parts, confifting of Goths, Van- dals, Huns, and other Barbarians, under whom literature is extingui(hcd, and the works of the learned are deftroyed. 496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Chriftianity begins in that kingdom. cgS Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Britons. CI 3 Conftantinople befieged by Vitalianus, whofe fleet is burned by a fpeculum of brafs. C16 The computing of time by the Cliriflian xra is introduced by Dionyfius the monk. 529 The code of Juftinian, the eallern empeior, is publiflied. 557 A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and Africa, which continues near 50 years. 581 Latin ceafed to be fpoken about this time in Italy. 596 Auguftine the monk comes into England with forty monks. 606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the concclhons of Phocas, emperor of the Eaft. 622 Mahomet, a falfe prophet, flies from Mecca to Medina, in Arabi:?, in the 54th year of his age and loth of his miniftry, when he laid the foundation of the Saracen em- pire, and from whom the Mahometan piinces to this day claim their defcent. His followers compute their time from this a;ra, which in Arabic is called Hegira, i. c. the Flight. 637 Jerufalem is taken by the Saracens, or followers of Mahomet. 640 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the grand library there burnt by order of Omar, their caliph or prince. 653 The Saracens now extend their conquells on every fide, and retaliate the barbarities of the Goths and Vandals upon their poflerity. 664 Glafs invented in England by Benalt, a monk. 685 The Britons, after a brave (truggle of near 150 years, arc totally expelled by the Saxons, and driven into Wales and Cornwall. 7 1 3 The Saracens conquer Spain. 726 The contioverfy about images begins, and occafions many infurredions in the eaftern empire. ^48 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift began to be ufed in hiftory, ^49 The ittci: of Abbas became caliphs of the Saracens, and encourage learning. 762 The A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 855 762 The city of Bagdad upon the Tigris, is made the capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Abbas. 800 Charlemagne, king of France, begins the empire of Germany, afterwards called the weflern empire ; gives the prefent names to the winds and months ; endeavours to reftore learning in Europe ; but mankind are not yet difpofed for it, being folely eii- grofTed in military enterprizes. 826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his fubjeifls, for being a Chriftian. A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 855 1580 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round the world, being the fira Englifh cir- cumnavigator. Parochial regifter firft appointed in England. 1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New iJtyle in Italy ; the 5th of October being count- ed 15th. 1583 Tobacco firft brought from Virginia into England. 1587 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of Elizabeth, after 18 years imprifoument. 1588 The Spanifti Armada deflroyed by Drake and other Englifii admirals. Henry IV. pafles the edi£l of Nantes, tolerating the Proteftants. 1589 Coaches firft introduced into England ; hackney ad, 1693 ; increafed to 1000 in '770' 1590 Band of Penfioners inftituted in England. 1591 Trinity College, Dublin, founded. 1597 Watches firft brought into England from Germany. 1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges. 1603 Queen Elizabeth (the laft of the Tudors) dies, and nominates James VI. of Scotland (and firft of the Stuarts) as her fuccefTor ; which unites both kingdoms under the name of Great Britain. 1605 The Gunpowder plot difcovered at Weftminfter ; being a projedt of the Roman catho- lics to blow up the king and both houfes of parliament. 1606 Oaths of allegiance firft adminiflered in England. 1608 Galileo, of Florence, firft difcovers the fatellites about the planet Saturn, by the telcfcope, then juft invented in Holland. 1610 Henry IV. is murdered at Paris, by Ravilliac, a prieft. 161 1 Baronets firft created in England, by James I. 161 4 Napier, of Marchefton, in Scotland, invents the logarithms. Sir Hugh Middleton brings the New River to London from Ware. 1 616 The firft permanent fettlement in Virginia. 1619 Dr. W. Harvey, an Englifhman, difcovers the do£lrine of the circulation of the blood. 1620 The broad Glk manufa£tory from raw filk, introduced into England. 1621 New England planted by Puritans. 1625 King James dies, and is fucceeded by his fon Charles I. The iiland of Barbadoes, the firft Englifh fettlement in the Weft Indies is planted. 1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Guftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and head of the Proteftants in Germany, is killed. 1635 Province of Maryland planted by lord Baltimore. Regular pofts eftablifhed from London to Scotland, Ireland, &c. 1640 King Charles difobliges his Scottifh fubjeds, on which their army, under general Lef- ley, enters England, and takes Newcaftle, being encouraged by the malcontents in England. The mafTacre in Ireland, when 40,000 Englifli proteftants were killed. 1642 King Charles impeaches five members, who had oppofed his arbitrary meafures, which begins the civil war in England. 1643 Excil'e on beer, ale, &c. firft impofed by parliament. 1646 Epifcopacy aboliilied in England. 1649 Charles I. beheaded at Whitehall, January 30, aged 49. 1654 Cromvfell afliimes the proteftorftiip. 1655 The Englifh under admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the Spaniards. 1658 Cromwell dies, and is fucceeded in the proteftorftiip, by his fon Piidiard. 1660 King Charles II. is reftored by Monck, commander of the army, after an exile of tweire years in France and Holland. Epifcopacy reftored in England and Scotland. The people of Denmark, being opprefTed by the nobles, furrender their privileges to Fre- deric III. who becomes abfolute. 1662 The Royal Society eftablifhed in London by Charles II. 5 ^ * 1663 Carolina 36o A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1663 Carolina planted ; in 1728, divided into two feparate governments. 1664 The New Netherlands, in North America, conquered from the Swedes and Dutch, by the Englifli. 1665 "^^^ plague rages in London, and carries off 68,000 perfons. l66t) The great fire of London began Sept. 2, and continued three days, In which were de- fi:royed 13,000 houfes, and 400 ftreets. Tea firft ufed in England. 1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Englifh the New Netherlands, now knowrt by the name of Pennfylvania, New York, and New Jerfey. 1668 ditto, Aix la Chapelle. St.. James's park planted, and made a thorough-fare for public ufe by Charles II. 1670 The Englifh Hudfon's Bay Company incorporated. 1672 Lewis XIV. over-runs great part of Holland, when the Dutch open their fluices, being determined to drown their country, and retire to their fettlements in the Eafl Indies. African company eftabliflied^ 1678 The peace of Nimeguen. The habeas corpus aft pafled. 1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearnefs to our earth, alarmed the inhabitants. Is continued vifible from Nov. 3, to Rlarch 9. William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for planting Pennfylvania. 1683 India flock fold fronn 360 to 500 per cent. 1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is fucceeded by his brother, James II. The duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Charles II. raifes a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle of Sedgemoor, and beheaded. Tlie edift of Nantes infamoufly revoked by Lewis XIV. and the proteftants cruelly perfecuted. 1687 The palace of Verfailles, near Paris, finifhed by Lewis XIV. 1688 The Revolution of Great Britain begins, Nov. 5. King James abdicates, and retires to France, December, 3. 1689 ^'"g William and queen Mary, daughter and fon-in-law to James, are proclaimed Fe- bruary 16. Vifcount Dundee Hands out for James in Scotland, but is killed by general Mackey, at the battle of Killycrankie, upon which the Highlanders, wearied with repeated mif- fortunes, difperfe. The land-tax paiTed in England. The toleration acl pafTed in ditto. Several bifhops are deprived for not taking the eath to king William. 1690 The battle of th': Boyne, gained by William againft James, in Ireland. 1691 1 he war in Ireland finilhed, by the furrcnder of Limerick to William. 1692 The Englifh and Dutch fleets, commanded by admiral Iluffel, defeat the French fleet olF La Hcgue. 1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded mufkets firft ufed by the French agalnft the Confederates in the battle of Turin. The duchy of Hanover made the ninth deflorate. - Bank of England eflabliflied by king William. The firft public lottery was drawn this year. Maflacre of Highlanders at Glencoe, by king William's troops. 1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William reigns alone. Stamp duties inllituted in England. 1696 The peace of Byfwick. 1699 The Scots fettled a colony at the iflhmus of Darlen, in America, and called ifr Caledonia. 170:' Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign. King James II. dies at St. Germaina, inthe <58th yearof his age. JJOI Prudia crefted into a kingdom. Societyfar ilie propagation of the Gofpcl in foreign parts eftablifliedo 1702 King A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 86i 1-702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fucceeded by queen Anne, daughter to James 11. who, with the emperor and States General, renews the war againfl France and Spain. 1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards, by admiral Rooke. The battle of Blenheim, won by the duke of Marlborough and allies, againft the French. The court of Exchequer inftituted in England. 1706 The treaty of Union between England and Scotland, (igned July 22, The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough and the allies. 1707 The firil Britifh parliament. 1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by general Stanhope, The battle of Oudenarde won by Marlborough and the allies. Sardinia eredled into a kingdom, and given to the duke of Savoy. 1709 Peter the Great, czar of Mufcovy, defeats Charles XII. at Pultowa, who flies to Turkey. The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough and the allies. 17 10 Queen Anne changes the whig miniflry for others more favourable to the intercft of her fuppofc-d brother, the late Pretender. The cathedral church of St. Paul, London, rebuilt by fir Chriftopher Wren, in 37 years, at one million expence, by a duty on coals. The Engiifli South-Sea company began. 1712 Duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun killed in a duel in Hyde-Park. 17 13 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Britain, and Hudfon's Bay in North Amsiica, were yielded to Great Britain ; Gibraltar and Minorca, in Europe, were alfo confirmed to the faid crown by this treaty. 1714 Queen Anne dies, at the age of 50, and is fucceeded by George I. Intered reduced to five per cent. 1715 Lewis XIV. dies, and is fucceeded by his great-grandfon, Lewis XV. The rebellion in Scotland begins in Sept. under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pre-- tender. The adlion of Sheriff-muir, and the furrender of Prefton, both in November, when the rebels difperfe. 1716 The Pretender married to the princefs Sobielki, grand-daughter of John Sobieflci, late king of Poland. An aiS pafled for feptennial parliaments. J719 The Mlihirippi fcheme at its height in France. Lombe's filk throwing machine, containing 26,586 wheels, ere£led at Derby; takes up- one-eighth of a mile ; one water-wheel moves the reft ; and in twenty-four hours, it; it work 318,504,960 yards of organzine filk thread. The South-Sea fcheme in England begun April 7, was at its height at' the end of June,- and quite funk about September 29. J 727 King George dies, in the 68th year of age, and is fucceeded by his only fon, George II. Inoculation firft tried on criminals with fuccefs. Ruflia, formerly a dukedom, is now eftablifhed as an empire. J732 Kouli Khan ufurps the Perfian throne, conquers the Mogul empire, and returns with two hundred thirty-one mOlions flerling. Several public-fpirited gentlemen begin the fettlement of Georgia, in North America. 1736 Captain Porteous, having ordered his foldiers to fire upon the populace, at the executioti of a fmugglcr, is himfelf hanged by the mob at Edinburgh. 3738 Weftminfter-Bridge, confiding of fifteen arches, begun ; finiflied 175O, at the expence o£: 389,0001. defrayed by parliament. 1739 Letters of marque iffued out in Britain againft Spain, July 21, and war declared Oc- tober 23. 1743 The battle of Dettingen won by the Englilh and allies, in favour of the Queen cf Hungary. 3744 War declared again France. Commodore Aafon returns from his voyage round ths: world. 3745 The:. f6i A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1745 The allies lofe the battle of Fontenoy. The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the Pretender's army defeated by the duke of Cumberland, at Culloden, April 16, 1746. 1746 Britifli Linen Company erefted. 1748 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which a reftitutlon of all places taken during the war was to be made on all fides. 1749 The intered of the Britifh funds reduced to three per cent. Britifh herring fifhery incorporated. 1 75 1 Frederic, prince of VVales, father to his prefent majefly, died. Antiquarian fociety at London, incorporated. 1752 The new ftyle introduced into Great Britain; the third of September being counted the fourteenth. 1753 The Briiifli mufeum erected at Montague houfe. Society of Arts, Manufaftures, and Commerce, inftituted in London. 1755 Lifbon deftroyed by an earthquake. J 756 146 Engliflmien are confined in the black hole at Calcutta, in the Eaft Indies, by order of the nabob, and 123 found dead next morning. Marine fociety eftablifhed at London. 1757 Damien attempted to an'aiTniate the French king. 1759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec, which is gained by the Englilh. 1760 King George IL dies October 25, in the 77th year of his age, and is fucceeded by his prefent majefly, who, on the 22 J of September, 1761 married the princefs Charlotte, of Mecklenburgh Strelitz. Black-Friars bridge, confifling of nine arches, begun ; finifhed 1770, at the expence of 152,8401. to be difcharged by atoll. 1762 War declared againft Spain, Peter Hi. emperor of Rulha, is depofed, imprifoned, and murdered. American philofophical fociety eftabliflied in Philadelphia. George Auguftus Frederic, prince of Wales, born Auguft 12. 1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, con- cluded at Paris,' February 10, which confirmed to Great Britain the extenfive pro- vinces of Canada, Eaft and Weft Florida, and part of Louifiana, in North America; alfo the iflands of Granada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, in the Well Indies. 1764 The parliament granted io,cool. to Mr. Harrifon, for his difcovery of the longitude by his time-piece. 1765 His nijjefty's royal charter pafTed for incorporating the fociety of artifts. An aft paficd annexing the fovereignty of the ifland of Alan to the crown of Great Britain. 1766 April 21, a fpot or macula of the fun, more than thrice the bignefs of our earth, pafled the fun's centre. 1768 Academy of painting eftabliflied in London. The Turks imprifon the Ruihan ambaflador, and declare war againft that empire. 1771 Dr. Soiander and Mr. Banks, in his majefty's fliip the Endeavour, lieut. Cook, return from a voyage round the world, having made feveral important difcoveries in the South Seas. 1772 The king of Sweden changes the conftitution of that kingdom. The Pretender marries a princefs of Germany, grand-daughter of Thomas, late carl of Aylcfbury. The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruftin, and the king of Pruflia ftrip the king of Poland of great part ol his dominions, which they divide among themfelves, in viola- tion of the moll folemn treaties. '773 Captain Phipps is fcnt to explore the North Pole, but having made 81 degrees, is in danger of being locked up by the ice, and his attempt to difcover a paffage in that tiuaner proves fruiilcfst J773 The A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 863 '773 "^^^ Jefuits expelled from the Pope's dominions, and fupprefled by his bull, Aug. 25. The Englidi Ea(l India company, having by conqueft or treaty, acquired the extenfive provinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Bahar, containing fifteen millions of inhabitant.', great irregularities are committed by their fervants abroad, upon which government inter- feres, and fends out judges, 8cc. for the better adminillration of juflice. The war between the Ruffians and Turks proves difgraceful to the latter, who lofe the iflands in the Archipelago, and by fea are every where unfuccefsful. 1774 Peace is proclainieil between the Ruffians and Turks. The Britifli parliament having palled an acl, laying a duty of three pence per pound upon all teas imported into America ; the colonills, confidcring this as a grievance, deny the right of the Britiffi parliament to tax them. Deputies from the feveral American colonies meet at Philadelphia, as the firft general congrefs, Sept. 5. Firfl: petition of Congrefs to the king, Nov. 1775 April 19, The firll aftion happens in America between the king's troops and the Pro- vincials at Lexington. May 20, Articles of confederation and perpetual union between the American pro- vinces. June 16, A bloody a£lion at Bunker's-Hill, between the royal troops and the Ame- ricans. 1776 March 17, The town of Bofton evacuated by the king's troops. An unfuccefsful attempt, in July, made by commodore fir Peter Parker, aud lieutenant- general Clinton, upon Charles-Town, in South Carolina. The Congrefs declare the American colonies free and independent ftates, July 4. The Americans are driven from Long Ifland, New York, in Auguft, with great lofs, and great numbers of them taken prifoners j and the city of New York, is afterwards taken poffeffion of by the king's troops. December 25, General Wafhington takes goo of the Heffians prifoners at Trenton. Torture aboliffied in Poland. 1777 General Howe takes pofleffion of Philadelphia. Lieutenant-general Burgoyne is obliged to furrender his army, at Saratoga, in Canada,, by convention, to the American army under the command of the generals Gates and Arnold, Odober 17. 1778 A treaty of alliance concluded at Paris between the French king and the thirteen united" American colonies, in which their independence is acknowledged by the court of France, February 5. The remains of the earl of Chatham interred at the public expence in WeflminlleT Ab- bey, June 9, in confequence of a vote of parliament. The earl of Carlifle, "William Eden, efq. and George Johnflone, efq. arrive at Philadel- phia, the beginning of June, ao commiffioners for reftorlng peace between Great Bri- tain and America. Philadelphia evacuated by the king's troops, June 18. The congrefs refufe to treat with the Britiffi commiffioners, unlefs the independence of the American colonies were firft acknowledged, or the king's fleets and armiei withdrawn from America. An engagement fought off Breft between the Engliffi fleet under the command of ad- miral Keppel, and the French fleet under the command of tlie count d'OrvlllieiS) July 27. Dominica taken by the French, Sept. 7. Pondicherry furrenders to the arms of Great Britain, Oct. I7»- St. Lucia taken from the French, December 28. 1779 St. Vincent taken by the French, June 17. Grenada taken by the French, July 3. S780 Torture in courts of juftice abohffied in France. The inquifition aboliftied in the duke of Modena's dominicjis. J j8o Admiral 864 A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 1780 Admiral Rodney takes twenty-two fail of Spanifli (hips, Jan. 8. The fame admiral alfo engages a Spanifti fleet under the command of Don Juan de Lan- gara, near Cape St. Vincent, and takes five Ihips of the line, one more driven on fhore, and another blown up, Jan. 16. Three aftions between admired Rodney and the count de Guichen, in the Weft Indies, in the months of April an Staiius, the Roman epic poet. Lewii. ' 98 Lucius Florus, of Spain, the Roman hiftorian, fl. 99 Taciius, the Roman hiftorian. Gordon, 104 Martial A NEW CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 867 104 Martial, of Spain, the epigrammatic poet. Hay. Valerius FJaccus, the Roman epic poet. 116 Pliny tlie younger, hirtorical letters. Melmoth, Orery. 117 Suetonius, the Homan hillorian. Hiigha. J 19 Plutarch of Greece, the biographer. Dtyden, Langlome. 128 Juvenal, the Romin fatiric poet. D'ydcn. 140 Ptolemy, the Egyptian geographer, matliematician, and aftronomer, fl. 150 Juftin, the Roman hiftoriaii, fl. Tumbull, 161 Arrian, the Roman hiftorian and philofopher, fl. Ronke. 167 Juftin, of Samaria, the oldcll CIuiRian author after the apoftles. 180 Lucian, the Roman philologer. Dim [dale, Dryden, Franklin. Marcus Aur. Antoninus, Roman emperor and philofopher. Coliier^ Elphinllont. 193 Galen, the Greek philofopher and phyfician. 200 Diogenes Laertius, the Greek biographer, fl. 429 Dion CafTius, of Greece, the Roman hiftorian, fl. 254 Origen, a Chriflian father of Alexandria. Herodian, of Alexandria, the Roman hiflorian, fl. Hart. 258 Cyprian, of Carthage, fufFered martyrdom. Marjhal, 273 Longiiius, the Greek orator, put to death by Aurelian. Smith. 320 Laftantius, a father of the church, fl. 336 Arius, a prieft of Alexandria, founder of the fe£t of Arians. 342 Eufcbius, the ecclefiaftical hiftorian and chronologer. Hanmer. 379 Bafil, bifliop of Ctefarea. 389 Gregory Nazianzen, bifhop of Coiiflantinople. 397 Ambrofe, bifhop of Milan. 415 Macrobius, the Roman grammarian. 428 Eulropius, the Roman hidorian. 524 Boetius, the Roman poet and Platonic philofopher. Bellamy, Prejlott, 529 Procopius of Ca2farea, the Roman hiftorian. Holcroft. Here ends the illuftrious lift of ancient, or, as they are ftyled, Claflic authors, for whom mankind are indebted to Greece and Rome, thofe two great theatres of human glory ; but it will ever be regretted, that a fmall part only of their writings have come to our hands. This was owing to the barbarous policy of thofe fierce illiterate pagans, who, in the fifth century, fubverted the Rornan empire, and in which pra£lices they were joined foon after by the Saracens, or followers of Mahomet. Conftantinople alone had efcaped the ravages of the Barbarians ; and to the few literati who (heltered themfelves within its walls, is chiefly owing the prefervation of thofe valuable remains of antiquity. To learning, civility, and refinement, fucceeded worfe than Gothic ignorance — the fuperftition and buffoonery of the church of Rome ; Europe therefore produces few names worthy of record during the fpace of a thoufand years \ a period which hiftorians, with great propriety, denominate the dark or Gothic ages. The invention of printing contributed to the revival of learning in the fixteenth century, from which memorable aera a race of men havefprungup in a new foil, France, Germany, and Britain; who, if they do not exceed, at leaft equal the greateil geniufes of antiquity. Of thefe our own countrymen have the reputation of the firft rank, with whofe names we ft all finifh our lift. A. C. 735 Bede, a prieft of Northumberland ; hiftory of the Saxons, Scots, fw Jcrfcy, 747. Pennfylvania and D.laware, 744. Maryland, 748 Virginia, 7,0. Caio.iiia, North and S luth, with Georgia, 755. Eaft and Weft Hor.da, 7 ;. , dilluibancts occ;.ii 'tied by an attempt 10 imptife a flam)) ad on the Bruiih colon ef, 320. A general congrefs alTembied at New York, 329. Kiotf tlieie, on a tax being laid en tea, 333. The port of l.olhm lliut up, and li.e government of the province of iVIaifaclu let's Bay altered, ibid, Non importation agreement entered iiito by the Amcricai;s, 334. Petitions and N D and aiWrefTes, Ibhl. Be^in to prepare for taking up arms, 315. Commencemeiu ot hoft.lities, ibid- AlFuine the appellation ot the United Co- lonies ot America, 33b. AtVion at Bunker's Hill, 337. Expedition againft Canada, 338. Tlie indepeniteiicy of the American rta-.es ce- elared, 339. Art affilled by France, anc an al- liance concluded between iheni, 342. Georgia reduced by the Britifli troops, ibid. Aclandcftine correfpondenceellablilhed between Holland and the American?, 347. America, boulli, the grand dlvilions of, 714. New Mexico and Calitornia, 777. Old Mexico, or New Spain, 77S. TcrraFinna, 7S2. DiUinc- tions ariling from mixture ot blood among the inhabitants, 784. Peru, 785. Chili, 788. Pa- raguay, 789. Brafil, 794. jitnphiByon unites the feveral flatcs of Greece in one fyileni of policy, 28, 29. Amjicrdam, account of the iiadthoufe there, 425. Nuinber of inhabitants, ibid. Irs advantages and dtfedls, ibid. Account of the bank of, 426. Andalvfta, in Spain, its fubdi\ilions and chief towns, 508. J."dama>t iHands, 662, Andes, or Cordilleras mountains, their amazing extent and height, 710. Andre, tnajor, taken and hanged by the Ameri- cans, 344. Andrews, i/. profelTorfliips in that univerfity, 150, note. Jn^lflea ifland, 366. An'^io Saxons, hillory of the, 272. Arc infefted by the piratical inialions of the Danes, 273. A character of, 275, 276. y?;j|-«/7/a ifland, 75 I. Animals, remarks on thofc of America compared with thofe inotlier parts ot the world, 716. Jnjou, Philip, duke of, placed on the throne of Spain by Lewis XIV. 528. AnapoUs, in Nova Scotia, 728. Aimc, queen of England, the flourifliing flate of literature and the arts during her reign, 196. Her great fuccefles in the war againll France, 313. The events of her reij/n inlluenced by the fluiitations ot the Whig and Tory parties, 314. ^«/(i?/, admiral, his return fromthe South Scas,32. Anligua, its lituation, produ(^iion3, and inhabi- tants, 769. Antirchiis, king of Syria, his unfuccefsful war a- gainft the Romans, 39. Antiquities, Roman, itmains of, in Italy, 547. Anl-uuerp, the commerce ol that city how ruined by the Dutcli, 433. Apollo, remiiins of his temple at mount Parnaflus, 570. Aqucdui^}, Trajan's, near Segovia, fomc account ot, 516. Arabiit, its fituation, extent, and boundaries, 650. Its divifioDB and chief towns, ibid. Derivation of the name, ibid. Mountains, rivers, climat?, foil, and produce, ibid. The inhabitants, their manners, and cuftoms, 651. Their religion, learning, and language, 652. Cities, cuiiofi- ties, and arts, 653. Government, 654. Hillo- ry of Arabia, ibui. Arabian poem, 652. Aranjucz, the palace and park there defcribed, ;.8. Archangel, the town and port of, 1 17. Archipelago, Grecian, a lift of the idands com- poling the, 55. Account of, 571. Northern, difcovered by the Rulfians, 804. Archon, hillorical account of the nature of that of- fice at Athens, 3 i. Argonauts, the expedition of the, to Colchis, ex- plained, 29. Army of Great Britain, the nature and magnitude of, 262. Daily pay of every ra k in the, 263. Arnold, the Americ:tn colonel, his expedition a- gainft the city of Quebec, 338. Delerts the A- mericans and enters into the Bririih lervice, 344. Arracan, kingdom of, 624. Arrngon, in Spain, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 507. Arts, the levival of, after the general deluge, ac- counted for, 26. AJcenJion ifland, 787. AJia, a general review of that quarter of the world, 575. Brief hiftory of, 576. The principal regions into which it is divided, 577. AJfyria, 585. _ AJirachan, its climate and produce, 597. AJlronomy and geometry, their diftindion, i. The difcoveries made in, by analogic reafoniug, 5. Review of the feveral lyllems of, 6, 7. AJluria, in Spain, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 506. Atabalipa, inca of Peru, cruelly feized and put to death by Pizarro, 697. Athens, where, and by whom founded, 30. Re- view of the ancient hiflory of, ibid. The ex- ifting antiquities of, 369. Athos, mount, ij-o. Atlas, mount, 664. Atterbury, bifiiop of Rochefter, baniflied, 317. A'va, kingdom of, 624. Audiences, the nature of thofe tribunals in Spanifli America, 781. Augujla, the town of, in Georgia, 759, Augujline, St. in Eaft Florida, 777. AuguHus, elcif or of Saxony, how he obtained the crown ot Poland, 405. Aulic council ot the German empire, an account of the, 4;,;, 456. Aurengzebc, the real founder and legidator of the Iiulollan empire, 633. Aujlin the monk, his arrival in Britain to convert the Saxons, 272. Aujlria, dominions of the houfc of, in Italy, 538, 539' Auf.rigf N D Aujirla, circle of, its divifion into provinces, 442, j^iijlrian Nethet lands. See 'Netherlands. Ar.em, kingdom of, 622, 623. Azores^ or Weftern Iflands, OpOt B. jyAB/I, a Rudian bird, 597. Babelmandel ifland, its fituation and charafter, 684. Bacon, Roger, liis extraordinary learning for the age he lived in, 194. Baden, account of the Swifs diet there, 503 . Bagdad, the city of, 58 5. Bagnios, t^&crn, 647. Bahama iflands, firfl: difcovered, 692, Defciibed, 773- Bahia, the capital of Brjfil, defcribed, 796. Balhcc, the ruins of, 582. Baliol, John, account of his contcfl for the crown of .Scotland, 167. Baltic fea, iflands in the, 1;;. Baltimore, lord, fettles INIaryland with Roman Catholics, 7^9. Banda iflands, and their produce, 659. Bank of England, an hillorical account of, 228. Its government, 230. Of Amllerdam, its great fuppofed wealth, 426. Bannock-burn, battle of, between the Scots and Englifli, 168. Baftijls, in England, their diflinguifliino- tenets 190. Barbadoes, its fituation and extent, 768. Great population and produce of, ibid. Barhary, account of the flates of, 673. Climate foil, and produclions, 674. Inhabitants, their manners and cufloms, 675. Their drefs, reli- gion, and language, 676. Antiquities and cu- riofitics, ihid. Cities and public buildings, ibid. IVlanufadures and commerce, 678. Why Eu- ropean ftates fubmit to the Barbary piracies ihid. Conftitulion and government of, ihid. Revenues, 679. Military ftrength, ihid. Hi- ftory of Barbar)', 680. Barbnda, ifland of, 771. Barcelona, city of, 520. Baids, ancient Welch, fome account of, 363, MafTacred by Edward I. ibid. Bark, Jefuits, where produced, 786. Baronet, the original and nature of that degree of nobility in England, 269, 270. Bartholomew}, St. ifland of, 800. • 's day, maflacre of the French pro- teftants on, 415. Bafaltes, pillars of, in Iceland, 59. In StafTa, 135. In Ireland, 375. Bajil, the city and univerfity of, 502. BaJJas of the Turkifh empire, their ufual treat- ment by the grand feignior, 1589. Batavia, the fplendor of the Dutch government there, 426. Bath, city of, 214. Bavaria, circle of, its divifion into provinces, 442, H3' Bears of Norway, 61. Beaver of Norih America, 721. Beawfy, male and female, Ch:ncfc ideasof, ^ofn Bcciet, Thomas a, arcl.bilhop of Cantcrbur), a haughty affertor of exclcfiaiHcal power, mur- dered at the altar, 279, Bede, his account of the antiquity of Irifh litera- ture, 374, Belgic Gaul of the Romans, hiflory of, 43 3, -434. Bell, the great one at Mofcow, its dimen.'ions and weight, 1 16. Beluga, a fiili of the fturgeon kind, defcribed, 10:. A»<7;Yr, city of, 63 I. Bengal, jirovinces of, ihid. Berlin, city of, 45 i. Bermuda iflands defcribed, 772. Bern, city and canton, their importance in the Helvetic confederacy, 50.-. Bilboa, city of, 520. Bifiay, in Spain, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 507. Bijhopricks, in England, a lift of, with their reve- nues as in ihe king'j books 188. Account o£ thofe fecularized in Germany, 44.8. Blaclfriars bridge, at London, 205. Blanc, mount, its amafing height computed, 550. Blenheim, battle of, between the duke of Marlbo- rough and count Tallard, 313. Boccace, a character of his novels, 546. Bohac, account of, 483. Bohemia, its fituation, . boundaries, and extent, 472. Its riivillons, ibid. Climate and natural produftions, /i5/V. Inhabitants, 473. Religion, ibid. Blfliopricks and cities, ihid. Govern- ment and hiftory, 4-3, 47^. Bokharia, city of, 603. Bolahola ifland, 809. Bologri.-i, the city and government of, 556, 557. Bombay ifland, 640. Borijfhenes, thecourfe of that river defcribed, 104. Borneo, its produce and inhabitants, 66o. Bo/awrn, admiral, defeats the French intended invafion of Great Britain, 324. Bo/ton, in New England, riotous acSs of violence "committed there on account of a tax laid on tea, 333. The port of, fliut up by a Britifh law, ibid. Genral Gage inverted there by the Americans, 336. Is quitted by the Britilh troops, and taken poflelfion of by general Walhington, 339. The town defcribed, 734. Bn/ivcrth, battle of, between Henry, earl of Rich- mond, and Richard III. king of England, 393. Bouquetin defcribed, 500. Bourhon ifland, its climate and produce, 68^. Boyiie, battle of, between William III. and Tames II. 311. Braddoek, general, his unfortunate expedition to North America, 322. Braganza, John, duke of, placed on the throne of Portugal, 535. Brahe,Tyc\\o, accountof his fy Hem ofaftronomy,6, Bramins, Indian pricfts, 616, 621, 644. Brajil, iu fituation, extent, and boundaries, 794. S T Soil, N D Soil, clirrate, and inhabitantf, 795. Trade and chief towiib, ibid. Hiftory and government of, 796. . Brrjlau, city of, 452. Bieji, city of, 407. Brctagne, province of, in France, its fubiliviflons and chief town^, 392. Brijlol, City ot, 212. Britain, Neiv, in North America, its fituation and bou.iddiie:, 715. Dcfcription of the cnuntry and its produce, animals, iiiil. Inhabitants, 716. Account of voyages fnr difco.c'-y of a Nonh-wefl paffage, UuJ. Trade of the Hud- fon's bay company, 718. •^ , New, in the fouthcrn ocean, 813. Brltifi, Mufeum, at London, and its valuable contents, 209. Brltcns, ancient, Julius Caefar's account of their manners andcuftoms, 2O9. Their fituation un- derthe Roman government, 270. Their diltrefs when deferted by the Romans. ibiiL Are fub- jeacdbythe Saxons, 271. State of literature at this time, ibid. When converted to Chrifli- anity, 272. See Anglo Saxons. Snue, Robert, his contell for the crov/a of Scot- larid, 1 68. > ., Robert, the fon, defeats the Englilh at Bannock-burn, 16S. -, Edward, invades Ireland, and is crowned king, 3S2. . ,. , Bruges, the centre of communication between the Hanfeatic merchants and the Lombards, 45 ._ Bncmma, the legiflator of the Gentoos, his religi- ous doftrines, 616. Brioifwick, Nfiv, 727. ^»aw/ffrj of America, 766, 77 j. Buenos Jyres, town of, in Paraguay, 789. Buffalo, 722. Buffon, the natural hiftorian, his charadler, 404.. Bulac, 671. ^K//feafts, in Spain, 513. Bunker's hill, engagement there between the Bri- tifli and Americans, 337. Burgoyne, general, narrative of his unfortunate ex- pedition from Canada, 341. Burgundy, province of, in France, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 393. Bute, carl of, appointed Britifli fecretary of Hate, 326. Refigns his office, 32^. Byng, the Britilh admiral, fhot for mifbchaviour, 322. r'ABOT, Scbaftian, the difcoverer of North A- nicrica for Henry VII. of England, 693. Cad:, Jack, his Kentifli inl'urreilion, 290, Catiiz, and its harbour, 5 ig. Ca-/ar, Julius, his firfl invafion of Britain, and ac- count of the natives, 269. Cagliari, the capital of the iJland of Sardinia, 560. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, 67 1 , Calais, taken from the Englidi by the duke of Guife, 297. C.ilcutta, or Fort William, i« Bengal, account of the Englifli fac'lory and civil government thcre^ 63 I . Cruel treatment of the Englifli there, by Surajah Dowla, ihid, Cal.doitia, Nil'.', 813. California, 777. See ^fw/Vc,. New. Cailao, a port-town in Peru, deftroyed by an earthquake, 7^7. Calniar, the unio:i of,, formed by Margaret, queen of Denmark, 75- Calnii/i, John, the reformer, fome account of 448. Cambodia, and its inhabitants, 626. Camhricks, the chief article of commerce at Cam- b'-ay, 433-. Catnbridge univerfity, its collegei and other public buildings, 199. , in New England, 734. Camden, his account of the antic^uity of Irifh lite-- rature, 374. Camelion of Euyp.t, 668. Camels, in what refpeds well-fiuted to the Arabian • deferts, 651. How taught to dance in Egypt,,.- 671. Campagna di Rsma, prefent ftate of, 555. Canada, iis fituation, extent, and boundaries, 712. 719. Climate, foil, and produce, 719. I'S rivers and lakes, 720. Animals, 721-. Fifli, 723. Inhabitants, 724. Qu-bec, ibid. Mon- treal, ibid. Government of the province, 725. Trade and commerce, ihid. The quiet of tha province often difturbed by the capricious in- roads of the Indians. 726. An American ex* pedition againff, by general Montgomery, 338.- See ^tehcc. Ci7?i<7/ of Languedoc, its intention, 396. Of Ca- lais, ibid. Of Orleans, ibid. In Holland, the great advantages of, 425. In China, extraor- dinary fize and length of, 604. Cajiayy iflands, 688. Cancel-, the tropic of, 10. CanJia, the ancient Crete, 574. Canibals, the exiftence of, confirmed, 8og, note. Canoes of the North American Indians, how made,, 719, 75S. Canton, the greateit lea-port in China, 6ri, Cape Briton, account of that ifland, 772. Cape ^cr^illands, 6S7. ■ St. Francois, 792. Caprea, the voluptuous retreat of the emperor Ti- berius, 561 » C.iprieorn, the trojiic of, 10. Caribhce Indians, ill treated by the Englilh plan"- ters, 769. Carnatic, account of that country, 638. Carolina, North and South, with GccMgia, their fituation, extent, and boundaries, 755. Their divilions, counties, and chief towns, ibid. Ri- vers, bays, and capes, 751;, 756. Climate, foil, and produce, 756. Animals, 757. Firil fet- i tlenmenc. N E X. tlcnient of Carolina, 757. Chailcftowii, ii;V/. Commerce, 7.9. Government, iiiiJ, ■Carpathian mountains in Hunj^ary, 475. Ca rikfiigus, (Jefcent of the Frcncii panifanThu- ri)t there, 324. Carteret., capt.'iiii, fumrairy of his fouthcrn difco- vcries, 806, note. Carthage, brief leview of the hiftory of that flate, 37. Remains of, 676. Carthagena harbour of, in South America, 785. Cajtmir, John, kinc; of Poland, abdicates his throne, and turns abbot, 494. CaJJia tree, 661. CaJJimerc, the province and city of, 6^0. Cajiile, Old and New, in Spain, their fubdiiifious and chief towns, 5^6. Catacomis of Egypt, 670. Catalo7iia, in Spain, its fubdivifions and chief towns, ^07. Defcriptiou of Wontferrat with the heimitages on it, 509. Catharine If. eniprcfs of Ruffia, depofes her huf- band Peter III, 125. Enters into a war with the Turks, 126. Her great talents and prof- perous adminiftration, 129. Catholics, Englifli, their general charaiSer, 193. Caltach citv. 632. Caxlon, William, the firft En^litll printer, 292. •■Cayenne, or Equinoftial France, delcribed, 797. -■ pepper, great export of, from Peru, 786. CeUhes. See Macaffar. Cerlga, the ancient C)'therea, 573. Cervantes, liis literary charaiSler and unfortunate life, 514. Ceuta, -in Baibary, 677. Ceyhm, its produce anSinhabltants, 662. C'^'rtOTua dcfciibed, 500. Champagne, province of, in France, its fubdivi- fions and cliiif towns, ^92. Chandcnagore, its ftrcngth when taken by colonel Clive, 6 : 2. Charities, public, the munificence of, in Eng- land, 201. Charlen,a_^iii-, his empire dlfmembered foon after his de.iih, 46 r, 564. Charles I. of E;!gl.ind, his patronage of the po- lite Arts, 195. Cliaraifler of his queen Hcnii- etta, 301, 3C2. His arbitrary impofnion of tixes, and quarrel with bis parliament, 302. Commences war with his parli.imcnt, 3C.3. F'inally defeated at Nafeby, 304. Is tried and 'executed, 30^;. His charader, ibiih » II. of England, his reign clleemcd an Aiigufian age for literature and arts, 195. Is received bv the Scots as their king, after the death of his fither, 305. His relloratitn in England, how efl'eftcd, 307. The firll aefs of his reign,////,/. His extravagancies anddiflrcffes, Mid. His death and charai^er, 369. Attempted to inlroJucc the Polifh dicls, into Englaud, 4S6. Charles, y, eiripei-or of Germany, and V'ng of Spain, general view of his reign, 40.:. Hii re- tirement, 526. — - VI. emperor of Germany, his troublc- fomc reign, 463. ' ; ^^•„°* France, affifts at the inaffacre of the pioteflants at Paris, 415. XII. king of Sweden, a fummarv of his military exploits, 96. His death, 97. Charhjlo'wri, South Carolina, 758, 759. Taken by the king's troops, ibid. Charlotte's Illand, 806, note. Chatham, Pitt, earl of, his declared opinion of American meafures in the houle of peers, 339. 33 ^• ChcrphiUy cafile in Glamorgandiire, its remainj, 366. Chejltr, city of, 213. Chili, in Soiitli America, its fituation, extent, and boundaries, 788. Its divilions and chief towns, ihid._ Climate, inhabitants, and commerce, tSo! Chiloe ifiaiid, in the South Seas, 793. ' Chijm,^ its fituation, extent, and boundaries, 604. It divifions inro provinces, ibid. Its rivers and canals, ibid. Climate, (oil, and produce, O05. Metals, 606. Tlie inhabitants, their manneis, and culhims, ibid. Their drefs, 607. Their marriages and funerals, ibid. Language, ibii. Genius and learning, 608. Antiquities and cuiiofities, 609. Chief cities, 610. Trade and manufaftures, 611. Conllitution and go- vernment, 612. Religion, 615. Revenues and military flrengtli, ibid. Hillory of China, ibid. Chios ifland, and its inhabitants, 572. Chrijlian II. king of Denmaik and S'vcden, hrs barbarous fchemc to render himfelfabfikite, 94. ■ yil. king of Denmark, mifl.d by the arts of his fiepmoiher, 78. Chrijlina, queen of Sweden, her chara£ler, 95, 96. Chrijlopher'!, St. its fituation, produdlions, and in. habitants, 769. Chronological ta!)lc of events, difcoveries, and learned men, 850. Chronology, remarks on that of China, 613, 614. Church of England, its govermnent and diftin- gaifliing charaders, 1S7. The convccitioa why not permitted to fit, 189. Churchill nver, 717. Cecijleos in Italy-, the ilorles of, fuppofed to be ex- aggerated, 547. Cinnamon tree, ^62. Circafa, women the (laple coinmodity of that country, 59 ;\ Its religion, 599. Gjverument, 6C2. Ciruits of the judges in England, taH." of, i-j. In Wales, 177. C:tirs, tiie civil government of, in Great Biitain, 249. 5 T : Civil N D X. "c/f/V lift revenue of Great Britain, the nature and aiiiount ot, 261. CUopatras nec-dle, 670. ClinuHes, the feveral diftlniTtions of, exphined, 11. Table of, 12. C//V.', colonel, his fuecefsful operations in the Eaft Indies, 333. Cljftei/cvai, convention of, between the French and the Engllfh, 323- Clove iilands, 65g. Clevis, the firft Chriftian monarch of the Franks, 413- . ^ , Cochhi China, and its inhabitants, 626. Cochineal, the nature and ufes of, explained, 857. Cocoa trees, great profit made from, in South A- merica, 779, 780. Co^fifhery on the Banks of Newfoundland, great amount of, 771. Colbert, the father of French cominerce and ma- nufa>ftures, 40S. Succeeds cardinal Mazarine as prime minifter, 417. ColiJJeo of Velpafian and Domitian, a charafter of, with an account of its prefent condition, 547- ... . , Colonies, Bniiflt in America, the three forts of go- vernmtnt eftablifhed there, diftinguifhed, 737. Cohmbkiil, one of the weftcrn iflands of Scotland, remains of antiquity there, 134, Columbus, Chriftophcr, his expedition for the dif- covcry of a new track to India, 48, 692. Dif- covers the Bahama iflands, 692. Hifpaniola, ibid. His fecond voyage to the Weft Indies, ibitl. His third voyage, 693. His ill treatinent and death, 694. Colures, what, 8. Solflicial and equlnoftial dif- tinguiflied, 10. Cornels, their relation to our folar fyftem, how proved, 4. The doftriiie of, and their num- ber, 6, note. Commerce, ancient, enquiry into the nature of, 28. the various caufes that contributed to the revi- val of, 46. Council of, in France, the objeds of its inftitution, 798. Comora iflands, 684. Concord, American ftorej dcftroyed there by the Britilh troops, 335. Congrefs, North American, the firft formation and afl'cmbling of, 329. Enter into a non-impor- (arion agreement, 334. Petitions and addrclfes, ibid. Appoint general VVafliiiigton eoiiimander in chief of the Ainerican forces, 338. Declare the independency of the American ftates, 339- . ^ . .... Connaught, province of, 111 Ireland, its divition into counties, and its chief towns, 369. .^or.neHicut, in New England, character and num- ber of the inhabitants of that province, 733. Its government, 737. C«Aiya<7?j, the natural tendency of, pointed out, 48, GonJlMi^ the nature of that office in Bngland, 250. Conjlantina, in Barbary, 677. Conjlantinoplc, the feat of the Roman empire re- moved to that city, 42. The good confe- quences of its efeaping the ravages of the Goths and Vandals, 44. Difcription of, 570. Its prefent inhabitaais, 571. Its happy litua- tion, 588. Conjlellations, by whom firft invented, and their number, i;. ConJ'uls, inftitution of their office at Rome, 37. Continent defined, 20. Co'vnocation of the Englifti clergy, why not per- mitted to fir, 189. Caol, captain, his account of the ifland of Ota- heite, and its inhabitants, 807. Of the Friendly Iflands, 810. Summary view of his Southern difcoveries, 8c8, note, 814, 815. His death, 815. His chara6ter, 2^;V. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, 68. Curio- fities in the royal mufeuin there, 70. Copernicus was the reviver of the Pythagorean a- llronomy, 6. Copper illand, 804. Copper-mine river, 717. Copies of Egypt, their manners and cuftoms, 669, Cork, the city of, in Ireland, 377. Corneille, the tragic poet, his charafter, 403. Coroniandel, coaft of, its provinces and chief towns, 636. Corporations, the motives to the eftablifliment of, Corfica, account of the ifiand, its inhabitants and produce, 560. Cortez, FernanJo, his expedition to, and conqueft of Mexico, 695. Ciyjfacs, Ruffian, 1O9. Cojjiar, in Egypt, 671. Coventry, city of, 213. Courts of law, in England, /47. Craco'M, in Poland, 488. C?Y(v/of pope Pius IV. 544. Creoles, in Mexico, their charaif^er, 780, 781. In Peru, 788. Crejfy, battle of, between Edivard, prince of of Wales, and John, king of France, 285. Croatia, general account of the country and inha- bitants, 480. Crocodile ol Egypt, 668. Cromwell, Oliver, as great a friend to literature as was conlillent with his peculiar fituation, 19^^ His ftcps to the fupreme power, 305. Review of his adminiftration as protf(5for, 306. , Richard, fuccceds his father, as pro- tcrtor, hut is loon fct afide, 3' 7. Cronjliidt, the city and fortrefs of, founded by Peter the Great, 1 16. Croivn, belonging to the regalia of Hungary, 477. Cru/ides, the advantages rcfulting from, 47. Par- ticularly to France, 41^. Cuba, the ifland of, defcribed, 791, CuddaferCf N D X. CudJ^lore, or Foit St. David, 638. Cuhh-es, the ancient Scotcli clergy, an account of, 146. Cnlloilcn, battle of, between ilic duke of Cumber- lam! and the vouns^ pretender, 320. Cumherlaiul William duke of, his operations in Flanders frullratcd, by the bad behaviour of the Briitfli allies, 320. Defeats the Scotch rebels at Culloden, ibid. Obliged to lay down his arms in Hanover, 323. Curaffbu, ifland of, 802. Great trade carried on there, ibid. Curdijlan, ;,86. Curling, a popular Scotch diverlion on the ice, I4^"• Currents: conftant, in the ocean, the inofl remark- able ones, 23. Cujco, the ancient capital of Peru, 697. Caufe of itsprcfent decay, 787. CyclaJes, Grecian iflands, fo denominated, 573, Cyprus illand, 574. Czar, the title of, when firft afTumed by the Ruf- lian fovereigns, izo. J^ALMATIA, Hungarian, 480. Damafcus, account of the trade of that city, 586. Damicttii, in Egypt, 671. Danijl} remains in Scotland, 156.- Dantzic, defcripilon of that city, 488. Is op- preffed by the king of Pruffia, 489. Danube, extent and courfe of that river, 444. Uaricn, iilhmus of, 783. David, the laft independent prince of Wales, hanged by Edward I. of England, 367. » I. king of Scotland, one of the greatefl princes of his age, 167. Dauji, count, the Impeiial general, his military exploits, 46;. Dauphin, how the elded fon of the king of France came to be diftinguilhed by that title, 4 1 2. Dauphine, province of, in France, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 394. Debt, national, of the Britifh government, an ac- count of, 258, 259. Z)ffrt», its chief towns, 636. — — , accoimt of that country, and the provinces it contains, 639. Degrees, geographical, the meafure of, explain- ed, to. Delavjarc, province of North America, 744. River of that name, 745. Delhi, the capital of Indol^an, 630. Delos, ifland, ^73. Deluge, general, its efFe£ls on the earth, 24. Demerary, 801 . Demetrius, czar of Riiffia, the feveral pretenders who perlonated him 120. Dtn?nark, fituation and dimenfions of the feveral countries compoiing that kingdom, 53. Green- land, £aft and Weil, 54. Iceland, 55. Faia Idands, 59. _ Norivay, 60. Dentnark Proper, or Jutland, its boundaries, and divifu.iis, C6, Chm:ite, foil, and .-igrlculturc, il,id. Animals, 67. Inhabitants and cudoras, /i;V/. Religion, ibid. LanfTuage and learning, 68. Cities, and buildings, ibid. Coii.mtrce, 6;. Natural and artificial curi.,fitie3 of the country, 70. Govein- nient and laws, ibid. The king rendered ab- felute, 71. Pohtical and natural intcrcfls of the country, 72. Revenues, ibid. Army and navy, 74. Orders of knighthood, i!,id. Ali- firait of the hiftory of Denmark, ibid. Jlal. flein, 80. Lapl.iud, 81. Derbent city, 602. Des Cartes, his feieniific charafter, 404. Defeada, ifland ol, 800. D'EJlaing, count, his expedition to aflid the Ame- ricans againft the Britidi, 343. De-tingen, battle of, between the Englifli and the French, 319. Devil's Arji, in Derby fiiire, 203. Diet of Geimany, the conditution of, explain- ed, 454. _ Difioveries in Hudfon's Bay, 717. Difidents of Poland, fome account of, 486. Divorces, Britifli laws relating to, 254. Dog-Jiar, its didance from the earth comput- ed, 4. Demefday-book, a valuation of all the lands ia England, compiled by William the Conqueror, 270. Dominica, ifland of, 770. Domingo, St. 792. See Hifpaniola. Don, or Tanais river, 104. Draco, the Athenian legiflator, the feverltj of his laws, dedruftive tothcir efficacy, 31. Drcfdcn, general character of that city, 4^1. Z)/-^, the pundtilios obferved in, by the' French, 40'- Z)rK;WAvz/ antiquities in Scotland, 157, Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, its magnitude and fituation, 376. Its buildings and bridges, ibid. St. Stephen's Green, ibid. Parliament- houfc, 377. Its public huiloiiigs and civil go- vernment, ibid. Why ill futnilhed with good inns, ihid. Dunkirk, fold to France by Charles II. of Eng- land, 307. Dutch people, their manners and cufloms dcfcrib^ ed, 422. Their trade with the Indian idands 657._ Dykes, in Holland, their immenfe fize, 425, E^^GI,£S', of Norway, 62. Earth, how conlidered bv the ancients, i. Its Ipherieal figure, how fird deternuncd, ibid. Coniiderations hading to the morion ol, 2. Its true fliape afcertained, 8. Its poles, what, 9. Natural divllions ot, ig. Table of the hipei- ficial contents of the fcveial countries or 21. Computation of the number of its inhabitants. I N D X. 2i,Ke/c. EfFccfls of tlie gener.l c'.cluge on, 24. How repeopled by the pofttrity of Noah, ibid. Eaji India conipanv, B.-itidi, an hiftoiical ac- coui t of, 223. Account of the bills for their regu'.a-.ion, 224. , Danifli, eflabliihment of at Copenhagen, 69. , Dutch, their great divi- ciends upon (lock, ,126. Eajl Indie.; the naval ti aft to, firft difcovered by the Portuguefe, 4;. ^ff/'/«/?/.fl/'flatein'It,Iy, 544, 1:59. Eclifjei, firft ciilculdted by Thales the Mile- iian, ;. £c7////tion of Lrwidon, 203. Royal palaces, . 21 I. A lift of the nioft dilVinguiflied feats of the Britith no- bility, 211, 212. Principal cities, 212, 213. Remains of antiquity, ibid. Hiftorica! deduc- tion of the Britifli commerce, 2 14, Trade of ike colonies of North America, 1 -. 7. Trade with the Weft India ill.mds, ibid. Trade with the Eaft Indies, ibid. Trade with Turkey, 2iS. •Trade with the feveral countries of Europe, ibid. Summary view of the balance of trade upon x\\i. whole, 219. Brief Iketch of Englifli nianiUac'liires, 220. Public funds, 221. Tiad- ing companies, 223. Conftitution and laws of England, 231. Chronological table of Enjlith kings, 256. Nature and antiquity of the par- 1 ameut, 238. Manner of enarting laws, 242. Privy council, J45. Great olhcers under the QXavin, ibid. Courts oUaw, 247. Puniliuncnts, 252. Laws relating to matrimony, 254. Re- venues, -57. National debt, 258. Sinking fund, 2^9. Table of llocks, 26.. Civil lilt, ibid. National militia, 262. Army, ibid. D.iily pay of every rank in the Britilh forces, 263. State of the navy, 26.). Biiiifli coins, 267. Royal title and armorial hearings, /i/V. Orders of knighihoud, ihid. llillory of Eng- land, 269. Genealogical lill of the pi cfent roj-al family, -^67. England, Kciv, its fituaiion, extent,' and bound- aries, 730. Its divifioiit, piovinces, and chitf towr.Si,73i, Rivers, b.iys, and climate, Hid. Soil, N D X. Soil and produce, 731. Animals, 732. Fidi, iiii!. Number of iiih.ibiianis, and their hajip/ mediocrity of condition, 73-;. Religion, ibid. Chief towns, 734- Commerce and manufac- tures, lytd. Hillory and goveinmenr, 73 (. Form of government eftabliHicd there, under the late revolt, 738. F.oia, illand, Sio. i!,,^«rt/«r defcribed, 7, 9. E.r'ic lake, 720. Ermine, dcfciiption of, 62. Ef-urial, palace of, 5 1 8. Efqiiirc, an enquiry into the origin and meaning of that didinftiori in Great Britain, 26(j. Effcck, its remarkable bridge, 477. Eftranadura, in Spain, itj fubdivifions and chief towns, 507. Etna, mount, and its eruptions, 550. Europe how firft peopled alter the general deluge, 2;. Conqueftsof the Romans in, 41. State of, after the deftruftion of the Roman empire by the Gethf, 43. The circumftances that give it a fuperiority over the other quarters of the globe, 51. Its boundaries, and the grand di- vifions of, 52. Principal illands in, 53. The prefervation of the balance of power in, a wife policy, 49S. Eiifiatia, St. the ifland of, taken from the Dutch by admiral Rodney, 348. Defcribed, ,802. Exeter, city of, 213. F. PJKIRS of India, 628, 629.. ■^Falkirk, battle of, 168. Falkland, iflands, the iirqiortance of, for facilitat- ing expeditions to the South Seas, 774. De- fcription of, ibid. Why not- fettled by the Englid), 771;. Family com paft. between the kings of France and Spain, 326. Ferdinand I, emperxxr of Germany, general view of his reign, 462. i 11; emperor of Germany, his contcils with the protefta: t confederacies, ibid. Feudal fyRcm, the nature of, explained, 43. Fcyjco, father, his literary charader, 515. Fe'z, its fituacion and boundaries, 673. City of, 677- Fingers cave, in the ifle of StafFa, 1 3 j. Finland, its extent and chief city, 86.' Its fub- divilions, ibid, Finns, the tribes of, 1 to. Flanders. See Netherlands, Floddenfield, battle of, between the Englifli and Scots, 170. Florence, account of a curious Romifli proceffion there, i,\^. The city defcribed, 5^4. Florida, Eaft and Weft, their fituation, extent, and boundaries, 775. Rivers and climate, ibid. Soil and produdions, 776. Inhabitants, com- xnerce and chief towns, 777. Flota, Spanifh, the nature of the traffic carried on by, 781, Fonchiale town, on ihc ifland of Madeira, 689. Fontenoy, battle of, between the Britifli and the French, 320. Formoft, the Dutch driven out of that ifland by the Chinefe, 615. Account of the illand and its inhabitants, 658. /"ojr iilands, part of the Northern Archipelago difcovercd by the Rulli.inF, 804. Foxes o\ Norway defcribed, 62. France, its fituation and extent, 390. Its pro- vincial divifious, 391. Its climate and natural produdions, 395. Artificial canals of Langue- doc, Calais, and Orleans, 396. Mineral fprings, mines and other produitions, 397. Number of inhabitants, their manners and cuftom?, 398. Characler of a petit m.iitrc, 399. Abfurd ufe of paint by the ladies, 400. Arteniion of iha natives to drcfs, 401. Eftabliflicd religion, ibid. Ecclefiaftical government, 402. Lan- guage and learning, ibid. Lewis XIV. the great patron ot French littraturc, 403. Univeriities, colleges, and academies, 404. Antiquities and curiofities of the country, ibid. Defcrip'ion of Paris, 405. The palace of Verfailles, 407. Breft, ibid. Toulon, 408. Commerce and manufactures, ibid. How they loft the filk manufafture, ibid. Their foreign trade, ibid. Conftitution and government, 409. Parlia- ments, ibid. Courts of judicature, ihid. The natural advantages of France counteracted by \l& government, 410. Revenues, ibid. Military force by fea and land, 411. Regal title, arms, and clafTes of nobility, ibid. Hilksry of Francv, 413. The government of their American co- lonies defcribed, ^98. Francis I. of France, his charaffer, and the prin- cipal events of his reign, 414. ■ II. his charafter. Hid. Franconia, circle of, its divifion into provinces, 44'- Frankfort, the city of, 45:. Frederick, eledor Palatine, his unfortunate contefl for the crown of Bohemia, 462, 474. • III. king of Denmark, his war with- Charles Guftavus, king of Sweden, 76. — III. king of Pruffia, his military hif- tory, 465. Perfonal anecdotes of, 471. His tyrannical conduft towards Poland, 46^. His cruel exae'tions from the inhabitants, ibid. IV". king Denmark, his war with Charles XII. king of Sweden, 76. Frtdericjhiirg, a palace of the king of Denmark, 68. Freethinkers in England, their charafter, 193. Fril'.'.rg, account of a curious hermitage in the neighbourhood of, 502,- Frieniilf JJlandi, 810. Friefiand, one of the United Provinces, its fubdi-- vifious and chief towns, 420. F-und^ I N D X. Pkw/, fmking, of Britain, the nature of explain- ed, 259. Fi/n,^s, public, of England, an account of, 221. Table of, 261. Fu'ieral cercmomes in Norway, 65. In Ruflia, 107. In Scotland, 144. Among the Turks, 581. In China, 607. In America, 707. FuretUn. his French difiionary better approved than that of the Academy, 403. f^JLEONS, Spanifli, the nature of the traffick carried on by, 781. Galkia-, in Spain, its lubdivifions and chief towns, coS. Galileo forced by the Romifli clergy to renounce the Copernican fyftcm of aftionuniy, 6. Gainpago illands, in the South Seas_ 794- Caliviiy, lord, event of hia expedition to Spain, Gamhia river, 664. Garonne river, 396. Gafco'gne, province of, in France, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 395. Cales^ the American general, captures general Bur- goyne and all his army, 341. Is defeated by lord Cornwallis, 344. Gaurcs, Perlian priells, foine account of, 644. Gaza-, 587. Gctlert, profeffor, a charaiElcr of his writings, 450. G^«fr«/ warrants, difturbances occafioned at Lon- don by aguaiing the queftion of their legality, 528. ' G/kw^, the city and republic of, 502. Gf«tf II. his conduit icfpefting his miniflcr, fir Robert Walp<;le, 318, 319. His condudt at the battle of Dctnngen, 319. His death and charafter, 325. Georgia, in Afia, charadler of its inhabitatits, 586. — , in North America, its chief divifions and towns, Ti; 5. Firft fcltlcmcnt of, yj^t Its trade, ibid. Savannah, the capital of the pro- vince, 759. Augufta, ibid, its government, 760. Germany, its fituation, extent, and divifions, 437. Suboivifionj, 438. Derivation of the name, 443. Climate, foil, mounti.ins, and forefls, 443. 444. Baths and mint rai waters, 444. Metals and minerals, 444, 44;- Vegetable a.;d animal pro- dufllons, 445- Inhabitants, their manners and cuftoms, ibid. Religion, 447. Bifliopii.ks, 448. Language, ibid. Learning and univer- fnies, ibid. A partiality in favour of the French language, unfavourable to Germ.in li- terature, 450. Account of cities and j)nblic edifices, 451. Conllitution and government, 454. The electors, 455. Iinperial revenue, i^sj. Military llrength, /i/V/. Imp-rial titles, Sec. 458. Hiftory of Gertnany, 460. Gertruydniburg, conferences there for peace, bs- tvveen the Lnglifli and the French, 314. Giant^iCauffivay, in Ireland, 375. Gibraltar taken by the Englifli under fir George Rooke, 313. Belieged by the Spaniards, 3^3, Adcfcription of, 1551. Girif.iig, not found to deferve the encomiums be« flowed on it by the Chinefe, 606. G/aaV;-i of Savoy, 550. Glafgo-v}, univerfity of, profefTorftiips in, 150, nolt, city, defcription of, 154. A great em- porium for American trade, 15c;. Globe, geographical, what, 8. DotSltinc of, 9, Problems performed by, 14. Gloucejler, city of, 2t3. Cilutton, a defcription of that animal, 61, 44c. Qioa, on the Malaoar coaft, 641. Gobeliius, account of the origin of the French tapellery manufadure fo called, 406, note. Golf, a popular Scotch diverlion, 145. Golconda. kingdom of, 639. Good Hope, cape of, 064. Goodv.in lands, on the coaft of Kent, how and when formed. 277. Gordon, lord George, his tumultuous proceffioa to piefent the Protellant petition to the hoiife of commons, 345. Horrid outrages committed by the mob, ibid. Is iricd and acquitted, 34<5. Goree ifland, 688. Goths, the barbarity that overfpre.id all Europe when over-run by them, 43. Gothic architci^ure in England, the fineft fpeci- mrns of pointed out, 201,213. Gothland, its extent, chief city, and fubdivilions, 86. Graham i d)ke, in Scotland, 155. Cran.ida, in Spain, its fubilivifions, and chief towns, 508, 520. Remains of the Moorifli palace there, 5 16. Gianleei f Spain, their privileges, 524. Gravity the general law of natuis, firft difcovcr- cd by Newton, 7. Grecian illands, 571. Creere, the fcvcral ftates of, united in one fyftem of policy, 28. Review of the ancient hiflory of, 2 fcripcion of the whale, and manner of taking it, 55. Crodiio, ill Liihuania, 48S. Gyonitrgrn, die of the United Provinces, its fubdi- vilions apd ehief towns, 42:. GuaJaloiipc, deljribed, 799. CuchiirLiiuI, one of the United Provinces, its fub- divifions and chief towns, 420. Cudphi and Ghlbeline?, faiiVions of, in Germanv, Ci/er«/ey ilhiu', its fitu.i:ion and dcfcrlption, 390. Cn}a/ia, Dutch, in S >uth Amciica, 80 ' . Gu'ctinc, piovince of, in France, iis fubdivlfions and chief towns 394. Guinea, the trade cinried on by the Englifli on the coall of, 68 I. J , Nciv, in the Somhetn ocean, 813, Gayf,"dii!rovince, 430. Hali/nx, ill Nova Scotia, its ereL'^ion and defciip- tion, 728. Hamhurg^, the city o'', 8"-. lJiim;Jl;irc, Nc'v, the firft fettleittent of that pro.. viiioe, 736, Ilannilhu, the Car'haginian general, his enmity to the R'Unans, and vy.ir ag.iinft t(um, 38. Hanoi'er, ihe po'-iics of G eat Biitain imder Georj;? I. and Georje II. influenced by a re- <;,irJ w the interclls of th.u clcdtorate, 3 16, jzj. Xliecity of, deferibed. 4!;;. ^ , iVf<;v, in the Southern ocean. Si 4. JJ.vifeatic league, origin of, 44, Ijaics of Lapland, 8 , /i'l/^i'-rs. battle of, between William, dnkeofNjr- many, and Harold, king of England, 376. Uats, and oap5, political parfie; in Sweden, 91 ,9a, J-Javanvah, town of, on the iiland of Cuba, 792. Ihl"-ii!es, orWeflein Idands of Scotland, their litQ- aiion and defeription, 13c. Manners of the inhal>itanrf, 131. Their pretentions to the gift of fccond-fij^ht, 13:. Tiieir langunore not the pure Celtic or Erfc, ibid. Natural prode/tions and trade, 13:, 133. Remains of amirjuitv, 134_. St. Columbkill, ihid, Fingal'i cave in the ifland of Sraffa, i 35. — , Nciv, in the Southern ocean, 812. Jlcda, mount, in Iceland, 58, Hcgira, the Mahometan epoclia, when it com- nunced, 6:6. He-dclbur^, content- of the fiimoMs tun tli. r • a'-' Hi'ina, tity its fituation and produce, 6, 6. tlcir^iji and Horfa, their ariival and e(labli(I.m:nt in Britain, 27 i . Henry I. king of England, princijal events of his reign, 277". - II, a detril of his many political regula- tions, 278, Redeces Irelind under his tioir.i- nion, 2-9, Holds a parliament at Dublin, and fctiles the adriiniftration of government, 281. Ill, charader and inglorious reign, 28?, 2S3. • IV. review of the tranfactions of his reien. 28S. _ ^ V. hif fuecefsfiil wars in France, 289. Mar- ries the p'incefs Catharine, Hid. VI. his unfucccfsful and troublefome reign, 290. Is depofed, 291. VII. his defcent, 291, 292. Puts an end to to the conttfti between the houfes of Yoik and L^'nealler, by marriage, ^9^. Hii political re- gul itions, illJ, His char..n^rt«, the capital of Perfia, 646. \ ijfcqiilbo, a Dutch fettleinent, boi. IJlhnit'S defined, 20. Italy, its fituaiion, boundaries, and extent, 536. The fcveral countries of, fo whom fubjeiff, 537. Subdivifions, ibid. Soil and air of, 540. Moun- tains, rivers, and lakes, ibid. Seas, bays, capes, &-'c. 54!. Metals and minerals, //;/Vr'.' Produc- tions, ibid. The inhabitants, their manners and cudoms, ibid. Bad accommodations fur tiavelling in Italy, 542. Religion, 544. Ec- clcfiallical government of the pope, ibid. Creed of pope Piu? IV. ibid. Lift of papal indul- gencics, with their current prices, 545, 7iote. Language and learning, 546. Lift of uiiiycr- fities, ibid. Antiquities and curiofitles of the country, 5^17. /'rins of the rcfpet'live piiiices of, 562. Diftlnd view of t!;e fevcral Itali.,n States, '551. Hiftory of, 563. Juan Fcrnandes, ifl.md of, in the South Seas, 79,^ Juddab, 653. Jiidca, prefent ftate of the country, and its inha bitants, 586. Jury, the mode of trial by, in England, explained, 233. In criminal cafes. Hid. Ivica, 522. Jutland, 66. See Denmark. i<:i,'a«, prince, his death, 125. K. TTAL'MUCS, their manners andcuftoms, 112. Kair.tfchatka, manners and cuftoms of the in- h;ibitanis, 113. Situation and divifion of the country, 596. Iflands near to It, 804. Kafan, the manners and culfoms of its Tartarian inhabitants defcribed, 109. Annexed to the Rulfian empire by Iwan Bafilides I[. 120. Kcn?irth M.-iipinc, k ng of Scotland, fubdues ihe Pifts, 166. 5 U 2 Keppely I N D X. KepprU admiral, his engagement with the Fiench Ilea ofFBieft, 14.2. "it is tried tn a charge ex- hibited againii him by fir Hugh Palhl'er, ibid. Kild. it-ny cartie, in Sotl.ind, i ^7. Kivp;.' lit England, a chionological table of, 2^6, Kinipon in Jamaica, 767. Kiygu/ians, I heir manners, &c. 1 1 i, i 1 1. Knioljf, the import of that title, and how confer- red ill Eiighmd, 269. Kniglfl ooi!, orders of, in Denniaik, 74. In Sivcden. 9^ In Scotland, 160. (n England, 268. In Ireland, 3K0. In France, 41 z. In Holland, 428. In Germany, 458. In Pruilii, 470. In Poland, JQ2. In Spain, 5 4. In Portugal, s33> I" Naples and Sardinia, 562. In \'enice, 563. In Malta, 561. In Rome and Genoa, 565. Knout, the natuie of that punifliment in RLuha, Fmx, Join, introduces the doftrine of Calvin into J-cc'tland, 147. Kniitngfbrrg, the capital of Prullia, 468. KouU Khan, the imnifnfe plunder made by him in the Mogul empire, 634. Suinmary of his his hiilory, 649. Krnken, a ftupendous animal in the Norwegian fea^ 63. Kumrab, a Barbary beaft, 674. A':.T;/f ill.ind?, and their inhabitants, 663. TA MJIRE, ftreightsof, 8; 8. La Plata. See Paraguay. Lahrador. See Britain, Ne-iv. I.adronetfi'nds, 658. Labor province, 630. Lwna of Peru defcribcd, 786. ' , grand of Thibet, his office and charaain, 513. The Pater-noller in Spanifli, ihid. The Pater- noftcr in Portuguefe, 531. Ol Italy; and the Paier-nofter in Italian, 1546. Ot'Tuikey, 58', The Paier-noflcr in Modern Greek, ihid. Of China, 607. Of India, 623. Ol Perfia, 645. The Pattr-noftcrin Peifian, ihid. Of Arabia, 65Z. The i'ater-nofter in Arabic, 653. Ot the Oriental illaiids, 663. Of Egypt, 669, Of the Uarbary iLitcs, 676. Lnn^vedoc, province of, in France, its fubdivifioii* and chief towns, 39. . Z««/Z>cr« of Dtinolfiitncs, at Athens, 569. Laoi kingdom ol, 625. Lafla'id, its firuaiioii, extent, and 'ivifiuns, 8^. Anini.ils of the counrvv, ihid Rcligioii, man- ners, and curtonisof the inhabitanrs, ;>2. Their commerce, 87. Rufiian Lapland, ^97. Lajj'a city, 602. Lntitiidc, VI hat, 13. How to find on the globe, 14. Table of the latitude and I 'ngiiude of the principal parts of the world, 819. Ijinihha, an anim.il of Guiana, !-oi. Laud, arctibifliop of Canterbury, his pernicious influence over Charles I. 30J. Is beheaded, ibid. Laurence^ the river St. 710, 720, 724. Lauren.', Mr. late prefident of the American con- jirel's taken prifoncr by the Britifli, on board a fhip bound to Holland, 34;. Laivs, Britidi, the manner of their pafling the thrtc cliatcs In parliament, 241 , 24:. Prague formed in France agaiiiil the Hugonots, under the duke ol Guii'c, 415. Learning, tlie great honours acquired by, i;i China, 608. In India, 623. Lef'oo^a illand, 810. Leinjiir, province of, in Ireland, its divifions into counties and its chief towns, 368. Leipjif, and its univerlity, 45;. Lclaiid, his account of the antiquity of Irifit li- terature, 374. Lemnos, account of that ifland, and its produce, 572- I^eogane, 792. Leon, in Spain, its fubdivifions, and chief town?, 507. Lei'pdJ, emperor of Germany, his charatfer ai:d turbulent reign, 4'^ 3. Lepanio, the TurkiP.i navy ruined by the Chril"- tians in that battle, 593. Lefoiji, ifland ot, its ancient fame, 572. Lcv.^is WX. of France, his fucccfst'ul patronage ot literature, 403. The unhappy Italo of his kingdom during his niinoiii}', 417. His cha- lader, iliit. • XV. review of the principal events of his reign, 417, 418. XVI. affills the revolted Britifli colonics in America, 418. Lexington, commencement of hoflilities there, be- tween the l]ritifli and North Americans, 335, 336. . Leyden, univeifity of, 424. Lima, the city of, founded by Pizarro, C98. Defcribcd, 787. Amazing riches of, ibid. AU molf ruined by an earthquake, ihid. lAncn inanutacfure, in Scutland, flate of, i;g. Lingua Franca, a mixture ot languages, 670. I. in on, the ca()ital city of Portugal, 532. Lijlc, in Flanders, 405. Lid field, city of, 213. LUivcllyn, prince ot Wales, performs homagf: to Henty N X. Henry III, of EnsjlinJ, to obialn protcd'on agaiiill his undiiiilul fon Griffin, 367. locujli, Spuia greatly expoftd to rav;igcs Ly, 560. Le-j^ariihms, by whom invctitcJ, 149. J.o:re river, its courfc and extent, 396. Loii.bardi, the moll ancient mcrcliauts of Europe, 44- Londoa, the metropolis of the Briiifli empire, its £tua[io;i aiiJ cxlciir, 203. The iiumhtrr of churches and other phiccs of devotion it con- tains, 20^. Annual confumption ijf proi'ifions In it, ibid. Its br'duef, 205. St. PjuI's ra- thcdral, ihuL Weilminfttr Abbey, ihid. Mo- nument, 2o5. Curiollties in the Tower, 207, note. Bri;i(h mufcum, 209. Infurance offic' s from fire, ihuh Alterations in the difpolition of, alter the great fire, 210. Why delfitute of a fuitiible royal palace, 21 t. Origin of the proteflant ailbciation ihcie, 34.^. Lord George Gordon's tumultuous proctllion to the houfe of Commons, ihld. Hon id outrages committed by the mob, 346. The infuigents reduced by the troops, ih'uU T^ondon Bridge, hiftofical defcription of, roj. L,oiig Ijland, the American troops there cfcape from genenil Howe, 340. longitude, what, 13. Table of the number of miles in a degree of, in each pa'allel of lati- tude, il:d. How to find on the globe, 14. Table ot the longitude and latitude, ot thcprin- ci( al parts of the world, S19. Lordi of the articles, in Scotland, how chofen, and their powers, 161. Loretto. riches of the houfe of the Virgin Mary there, with its extraordinary hiftory, 557. Loitvaiu, the prcfeut (late of that city, 433. Lubcc, an imperial city, Be Liicay iflands, 773. I.ncca, city and commonwealth of, 554. Liuia, St. revolution of that ifland, 799. Luther, M.iftin, the reformer, feme account of, 448. LuttrcU, colonel, difiurbances caiitd by his be- ing declared member for IMiddlefex to the pre- judice ot Mr. Wilkes, 33 t. Lyeiirgiis, the Spat tan legillator, a review of his political infiiiutions, 32. Lynx, defcrij^tlon of that animal, 62, 104. Lyonnois, province of, in France, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 394. M. 1^/1 jiCJlSSAR, its produce and inhabitants, 6i;g. Macbeth, the dramatic flovy of, founded on hif- torv, 166. MnLhiavel, his literary chariifter, 546. M'idag.'J\iv illand, its lituation, and defcription, 68.', 035. Madeira illands, 689. Madras, or Fort St. George, on the coail of Co- roinandel, 638. Madrid, the capital of Spain, defcril eJ, ^17. The royal cabinet of natural hillory there, ibid. Madura, on the coall of Coroinaiidt.1, (S37. M^. Defcrip- tion of the illand ot Sicily, 559. Brief hiftory of, 564. Narliorou^l', fir John, fent by Charles II. on dif- covery to the Siraiis of Magellan, 7-3. Nafehy, dtcifivc battle of, between Charles I. of Knglar^d, and his parliament, 304. National (\cht llattd, 258. Natalia, or Lcl'er Alia, its fubdivifions and chief towns, i;/*^'. Ruinous ttfciits of Turkilh op- prdfinn there, 586. Navarre, in Spain, its fubdivifions and chief towns, (;o;i. Navy of Great Britain, an hidorical account of, 2154. A lift o(, 265. Pay of every rank in, 266. NccJiar, M. a Swifs Protcflant placed at the head ot the Frcncli fiiiantts, 418, Js dlfplaccd on account N D X. account of his ceeonomkal itformations, iHJ. Negroes, hoiv fiiblifted in the Weft Indian jjlm- tations, 763. The nuiuber there cumj>aied with that ot the AVhites, 76;. Kci^ropoiu, the ancient Euboca, defciiption of that lUand, ^ji. Nclbci!a:uh, the feventceti provinces of, their fi- tuation and extent, 419. — — , Aullrian and French, their fituation, extent, and divihons, 429. Nitnral hiflory and produiiions of, 431. Inhabitants, /'///,/. Their drefs and language, 432. Rehgion and learnin.i^, ikiJ. Univerfities and antiquities, ibid. Cities, ihiJ. Commerce and manutac- tures, 433. Conltilution and government, ibid. Revenues, ibid. Hiftory of Flanders, ibid. • , United Provinces of, their number, fituation, extent, and dividons, 420. Nature of the country, ibid. Rivers and harbours, 421. Vegetables and animal produtfions, ibid. The inhabiianti, their manners and cuftoms, ilrid. Religion, 423. Univerlities, 424. De- fcription of the dykes, and other curiofitic:, 425. Cities, towns, and public buildings, ibid. Method of travelling, ibid. Commerce and manufaiStures, 426. The advantage of their canals. Hid. Conrtittition andgoverr»ment,427. The office of fladtholJer made hereditary, ibid. Revenues of the ftate, 428. Military and ma- rine Ilrength, ibid, Hiftory of the republic, 42g. Nc-^is and Montferrat iflands, 714. AVzu difcoveries in the South Sea, 805, 806. '— England. See England, Nc-nj. — — Hampfliire. See Hampfhire, New, —^ Jerfey. See Jerjly, New, . Yoik. See Tori; New. • Brun/hvick, 727. Ncixifoundland, its fituation, extent, and climate, 77.. Cod fifhery on the Banks, ibid. Limi- tations prefcribed to France concerning, 772. Newport, the chief town in the Illc of Wight, de- fcnbed, 389. Ninveira, cataiaft of, 720^ Nicobar iflands, 662. Niger rivtr, 66^. Ni/e river, 664. Its annual overilaw defcribed, 667. Nifiiics, the reinains of ancient architeiSure chill- ing there, 405. Noah, the earth how rcpeopled by his pofterity, Nerden, captain, his account of the trade of E- gypr, 67 1 . ■ Normandy, province of, in France, its fubdivifions and chief towns, 392. Normans, ihe firff edablifhment of, in France, 413. North Briton, dilfurbances occufioned by that paper, and the profecution of the author, at Loudon, J27, 32S, North-Eajl paflage decided to be imprafticable, 815. JVcJl pafTage, account of voyages for the dif- covery of, 71s. Nurthcrn archipelago, 804. circars, in Iiuli.i, 639. Norway, its bound irics and extent, 60. Climate, ibid. Mountains and forcfts, ibid. Metals and minerals, 61. Rivers and lakes, ibid. A- nimdls, ibid. Natural curiollties, 64. Inha- bitants, ibiJ. Commerce and revenue. 6c. Hillory, ibid. ^ No-va Scotia, its fituation, extent, and boundarie?, 727. Its rivers, feas, lakes, and climate, ibid. Produce and animals, 727, 728. Ililtory of the province, ibid. Trade and population, 729. Nova Zembla, general charader of, 597. Nutmeg \i\aa6.?,, 659. O. Q A T E S, Titus, his fcheme of a popiHi plot, S08. O Hallora?!, Mr. his account of Irifli literature, 373. Of St. Patrick, 374. ^beieroa ifland, in the South Sea, 810. Oldcajile, fir John, put to death for joining the reformers, 289. Oliva, treaty of, in favour of the Poliflidiflidents, ineftcftual for their fecurity, 486, Ontario lake, 720. Ophir, a inountain, 660. Ofojfu»i, of Virginia, defcribed, 752. Oraii, city, 677. 0,-bits of the planers not circular, but elliptical, 2. Oriental \iiM-\Ai, 656. Their language, 663. Orixa, province of, on the coaft of Coromandel, 632. Orkney ifiandj, their fituation and defcription, 130. Manners of the inhabitants, 13 j . Orleannoli, jirovince of, in France, its fubdlvi- fions and chief towns, 393. Orlow, count, the R.iffian admiral, his operations in the Levant, 594. Oi-mondy the duke of, fucceeds the duke of Marl- borough in the command of the Britifn army, 314. OJliaks of Siberia, 1 1 1. Otaha ifland, S09.- Otaheitc, or King George's ifland, 806. Othmans, from whence tliey derived their name, 1^92, OnierylJel, one of the United Provinces, its fub- divifions and chief towns, 420. O'why'hee iflanH S14. O.rford univerllty, its high antiquity, 198. In colleges and other public buildings, 198, 199. P. pJCTAcoavenXz, in Poland, what, 489, Was- frequently altered on the eledticn of a new king, 493. 8 Painters^ N D X. l\i':Kt,-yiy I-rflian, charafki'S of tlie nioft efteemeJ, 346. TaLiirqii'ins of India, 6',c. Of Btadl, 795. Pij/rac, ibti c-jpiral of Sicily, 560. J alelhe, prcfeiit Ibte of tba' country, and its in- . h:biiants, ;86, 587. raHfi-r, iir HurIi, exhibits a cliarge njraiiift 'lie U'l.duft of admiral K^ppsl, 342. li tiicJ him- fcff,^43. Pahnyra, ru ns of, 583. PiTutma, bay of, i.i South America, 783. Pearl fidicry, 7^5. Pantheon \X Rome, 547. Papyrui, 670. Paraguay, its finiation, extenf, and boundaries, -89. Air, fo'l, and produce, 75O. Founda- tion oF the ci'v of Butnt.s Ayres, ihlA. The el>:ibr n.nient formed by the frfiiits in the interior parts of, 7,;!. Tiiey are reduced, ihld. Parif, its population comp.ired with that of Lon- don, 406. Gei-.eral defcription of the city, •hid. Comparilon nf, uith London, in vaiious particulars 407. General view of the articles of the ]ieice in 17^13, figncd there, 327. Paykif. admir 1, hii obftinate cngasjement with the Dutch fleet oft' the Dogger-b.iik, 348. .Pa.'7'«ff«K/ of Great Biitain, the ctSnltitut'on of, txphiincd, 2 '9. The duration of, extended from three to (even years, 316. Parliaments of France, the conllitulion of, 409. Par?i!a, duke of, his doininic.ns, with their chief towns, 539.- Account of the coLintry and its government, 555. H'ftory of, i;6;. Pa OS. the ifl.inJ i.f, forwliat noted, 573. Part'tion treaty, motives of W'illiain 111. of Eng- land for concluding it, 312. Pajjauk river, in North America, great catarad '". 743- PatagavOy 817. PalmOS itland, 573. Patricia St. the patron of Inland, his country dlf- pu'ed, 3-4, »o/f. His arra-,.l there, 300. Tiiul'i, St.. cathedrnl at London, 205. /Vrt.vof 17S3, its articles, j'ji, 332. Pffl>-/i(1and, 794. Prgu, kingdoiM of, 625. Peking, the capital city ot Cliina, 610. Pelham^ the lirll Biiiifl) niinifter wno difcovcrcd the true value of Scotland, 1 5 8. Pehpnn'.eftiin war, the origin ot, 31J. Pen'niful'a defined, 20. Within the Ganges, 636. P enmiinmaur mountain in Caernarionll.iic, the rc^ad over it, 3 6, P,v/*,*l\Ir.ihele^i!lal!ve plan \n of Eng- land, hanged by Henry VII. 294. Perfers of Indoflan, 620. Perfcpolis, remains of the ancient city of, 646. Pcrjia, its fituation, extent, and boundaiies, 643. Its provinces, clina'c, and foil, ihiJ. Pr- dic- tions, ibid. Mounta'ns, rivers, and mine:ar?, 643. Its inhabitants, thtir manners, and cuf- toms, ih'd. Rel gioi>, 644. Language and learning, 645. Curiofiries, &c. 646. Citits and public buildings, //' V. iVIofine'; and bag- nios, 64-. Manutadlii' c,-; and conuiiTce, /y;',/. Conftitiition and governnicar, 648. llefCnnes, ibid. Mdrary flitugth, liims, and titics, tbid. Hiftory of Periia, 6-1.9. 'Piiu, the empire o', by whom founded, 697. St>te of, at tbeanivalof the Spaniards, ibid. Their cruelty and rapine, Hid. ! he Ptruvians fly to their mountains, 69;. Is fituation, ex- tent, and boundaiic:', 78^. Climate snd fi il, ibid. Natural pro ju.'tions, 7 6. Cities and trade, ibid. Inhabuant , &r, -87. Peter, f-M ft., an American animal, 7 -4. Peter the G;e:!t recovers the fovdeigntv of Riiflia out ot "he ii.indf ot the piincels Siphia, 122. A general vi-w of his plans ot political re forma- tion .ind !niprovin;eni, 123, — — III czar of Ruliia, his ra.Ti conduit and death, izi;. Peterjbiirg, tlie capi:.d of Rafiia, i i t. Petit ata tre, French, the ch.raoli.r difplayed, 400. P'oiladdphia, the capital c"ty of Pennfylvaria, 74O. _ ' ■ ' Phiiip, king of Macedon, how he acquired the- fovereignty of Greece, 3;. II. of Spain, his cin.raffer, 52'. PhiUipp!nc\^A\'L%, their number, produce and In-> habitants, 65S. Viiijl, origin ar.d meaning of that term in Po- land, 49 -'. Picar.iy, provii;ce of, in France, its fubdlvili >i'.3 ai.d chief town?, 39; PiP.s, rcinains of, iji Scotland, AVei'c not exterminated by the Scots, b.it incorpor ,ted with them, 166. Their wall, ia the North of Kngland, 201, Pied.!:i :;t, it« (nbdi vifions and chief towns, r --. Pitt,_ J-'r. his fuccefsful adm niflraiion as Bitilh iidnifler, 322. H.s refigi.aron, and lemarks ( n his conduct. 326, vSee Chatham, earl of. P'.r.trro, Francis li's exjjeilit on to l*ctu, 696. Ama/.ing v. calth collcrted there, 697. Puts the inca Atabalipa to death, 698. Reduces Al- magro, 69.9. His death, 70-. Plinels, th. ir ('•vfinl names and orduT, i. Their orbits ellipti.al, z, Tabic of their diameters, periods, 5ic. 3, Planters, V/ifl Indim, ihcir lalinvioiis, expenlivc, and prccariaui cirijiloymcnts, 76^1 Plcurijjy N X. Pleuylj); Swlfs, remedy for tliat diforder, 500. Flymoiith dock-yard, 214. Pcejluiit, the ancient city of, in Italy, how dif- covered, 548. Poitiers, battle of, between Edward, jnince of Wales, and John, King of France, 285. Poland, its extent and boundaries before the late partition, 481. Its grand divifions and chief cities, ifc/. Derivation of the name, 482. Cli- mate, foil, and produce, ihid. Extraordinary fpring, ih'id. Rivers and lakes, iliJ. Veget- able and animal productions, ihid. Population, charafler and manners of the inhabitants, 483. Their clalfcs, 484. Their feudal tyranny, 485. Drefs of the country. Hid. Religion, 486. Bifhoprieks, language, and learning, ihid, U- iiiverlities, 4S7. Antiquities and cnriofities of the country. Hid, Cities and public build- ings, 488. Commerce and government, 489. New conftitution fixed by the partitioning powers, 491. Revenues;'^/;/, Military ftreiigth, 492. Orders of Knighthood, //'/V. Hillory of the country, 492, 493 • Difmcmbermcnt of the kingdom, 497, Reflexions on this event, 498. _ Polar circles, what, 7, 10. Pole, cardinal, employed by queen IMary to reftore popery in England, 297. Poles, celeftial, how pointed out, 7. Polythcijht, the origin of, 48. Pompcy^i pill.ir, near Grand Cairo, 670. Pont du Garde, at Nifmcs, 405. Poole s hole in Dcrbyfliire, 202. Pope of Rome, territories fubjcft to, with their chief towns, 540. His ecclefiallical govcrn- inent, 544. Creed of |X)pe Pius IV. .-'///V/. Lift of indulgences, with their prices, 545, 7iote. A view of the ecelefiaftical llate, 555. His teinporal government, 556, 566. PopiJ)} plot in England, an account of, 30S. Population, the low ftate of, in Spain, accounted for, 511. Port Royal, ill Jamaica, repeated deftruClions of, 765, 766. Porter, fir James, liis charaifier of the Ottoman government, 588. Porta Bdlo, taken by admiral Vernon, 350. Bay of, 783. . Rico, defcription ot that illand, 793. Portugal, its lituation, extent, and boundaries, i;29. Its ancient names and divilions, ihid, Natural hiftory of, 529, 530. The inhabitants, their manners and cuftoms, ^30. Religion, 531. Billiopricks, Hid. Language and learn- ing, ihid. Univerfities, ib'd. Curiofities and chief cities, ibid. Cotnmerceand manufaiflures, 532. Conftitution and government, /i/ii. Re- venues and taxes, 533. Military and marine llrcngth, ibid. Royal titles and axms^ ibid. No. bility and orders, ibid, Hlftory of, 534. Tetofiy filver iniuej there, 786. P;v/»w, city of, 473, Prtigiiiaiic faiid\ion, in Germany, the term ex- plained, 456. Prcfyferian irodel of church-govcrnment ill Scotland dcfcribcd, 14". Prcjlnn, the Jacobite Briiifii rebels reduced ihcic, 316. Pretender \o the crown of England, of the lioufe of Stuart, account of him and his family, 316, nnte. Rebellion in Scotland, in favour of, 316. Another, 320. Battle of Culloden, /i^///. Pride, the good cffefts of this palfion among ll.c Spaniards, 511. Pr:ii:ers, dillurbances occafioncd at .London by profceuting them lor priming parliamentary ipecches, 332. Printing, the art of, in what fenfe icr.own to the Chinefe befoie invented in Europe, 600. Promontory defined, 20. Protcjlant aflbciation formed at London, 345. Their tumultuous proetllion to the hotile of commons, ihid. Horrid outrages comniiiicd by the mob in London and Weftinii;fi:i.r, ibid. The infurgcnts reduced by the troop;, 346. Pro'vencc, province of, in France, its lubdiviiions and chief towns, 394,. Pro'videme, one of the Bahama idands, 775. Priijui, its fitu ition, boundaries, and extent, 4.67. - Derivation of the name, Ibid. Climate, l<>il, and produfiions, ibid. Ttfritories fubjc'd. Com- merce and manutartuies, 469. Government and revenues, ibid. Mil.taiy llrcngth, ibid. Arms and orders of knighthood, 470. Hiftory ot Prullia, ihid. Ptoiemv, his fyllem of aftronomy accommodated to vulgar prejudices, 5. Pugatfcheff, the Colfac, his rebellion in Rudia, un- der the charaelerof the czar Peter HI. 128. /'///v'/a'winEnglandtheirorigin and character, 190. Pyramids oi Esypr, ancient fepulchres, 33, 669. Pythagoras, his fyflctn of aftronomy, why not generally received, ^. Was revived by Coper- nicus, 6. CL €) l/JfCKR.^ in Engl.ind.tlie principles and "v* manners of that foil, 191. iillfrhee, account of the Briiilhlaw for the better government of that province, 725. The town ot, dcfcribcd, 724. ^Nc^.'cdo, his literary charac'^er, ^14. ^ich/lher, where produced, and how obtaiccd, 786. ^iitit, city of, in Peru, 7S7. R. DJVINE, the tragic poet, hischarafler, 403. Ragufg, the city and republic of, 567, s6&. note. S^ K.I.' N RaLigh, fir Walter, tlie firll planter of a colony in North America, 712. Jtattlefnake of North America, 725. Rai'iliac affaffinatcs Henry IV. of France, 416. Reformation in religion, the leading caufes of, pointed out, 50. In England, the firft begin- nings of, 288. Is favoured by the quarrel of Henry VIII. with the pope, 295. Progrefs of, under Edward VI. 296. Is completed by Eli- zabeth, 298. Reglftcr fliips, Spanidi, the trade carried on by, 781,787, Rehi-dter, account of that animal, and its ufes, 8 1 . RcUgwn, the origin and progrefs of, 48. Religious foundations in England, the dilToluiioa of, 295. Revolution in Sweden, 90, 98. In Denniark,-7r, 80. In England, the grounds upon which it proceeded, 236, 237, 3ii>' Rhine, Upper and Lower, their dlvifwn into pro- vinces, 440, 441. — river, 396, 421. Rhode iOand, rife of (hat province, 736. N'um-- ber of inhabitants, 733. A'^ofl'^j jfiand, ";73- Rhone river, 196. ^/V/'ar^I. king of England, fummary account of his reign, 280. .1 II. depofed by Henry, -duke of Lancafter, 287^ • III. defeated and killed at the battle of Bofworth, by Henry, earl of lUchmond, 293. His charafter, ibid. Richli.u-, cardii)al, review of his adminiftration ia France, under Lewis XIII. 416. Rio de la PLita, in South America, 71 ?.- Rivers, why tliofe witiiin the tropics overflow their banks at certain fe.ifons, 761. Roanoke haibour, in North Carolina, 756. Rth'nfon Criifoc, origin of that romance, 793. Rederic, king of Wales, his divilion of his domi- nions among his three foiis, latal to the inde- pendency of Wales, 36-. Rodney, admiral, his fuccefTes againft the Spa- niards, 343. Takes the Dutch iiland St. Eu- flatia, 348. Rogers, captain Woodes, dlflodgcs the Buccanrcrs from the ifland of I'lovidt nee, and in-kes a fet- tleincnt there, 773. His account of Falkland in.iuds, 774. Rotlo, the Norman, his fettlement in ■Franco, 413. Rome, fummaiy of the liiftury ol that empire, 36. Arts, feicnccs, at.d manners, nf the Romans, 40. Tof..ily fubvencd, 43. The prelent lity de- fctibcd, 556. Romulus, the founder of Rome, review of his lilc and chaiaflcr, 36. Rn/thld, peace of, between Denmaik and Sweden, 76. Rofctta, in Egypt, 670, Rotterdam, computation 01 the number of its Tn* habltantf, 425. Reiiinda, at Rome, 5-47, Royal Society, at Lon- Pruflia, 4-68. Sah'adjr, St. See Eahia. - Saaios ifland, and its produftions, 57,2. Sandemanians, 1 9 1 . SatuhviehWVAndii, 814, S.^nt.i Ou-z, ifland of, Sojv- Santorin ifl.ind, 573. Scy.Hcns cliablifli thenifclves in the foiuhern pro- vinces ol Spain, 526. Derivation ol tliL-ir naine,- 650. S.irdaiiapa!iis, the^ laft emperor of Aflyiia, his- contcmptilde charafler, 33. Sardinia, dominions in Irily fubje(5t to the k'ng ■ of, 537; Computed number of his Italian fubje\Sls, 541. General view of his political. circumftances, i;5 1. Dclciiption ol the ifland of, 560. Family of the.prtfcnt kiuj, 551,. 7iote. Siri ifland, 390. Savages of Pegu, 673. Savannah, in (jcorgia, 7s9« • Saxoy, its (ubdivifions anil iliief towns, ^38. Ge- neral cliaiaitcr of the country and iib inha;)i- tantf, 551. Saxc, Maurice,, count, chofcn duke of Gourland, 495* Saxe GntmmatiiMS^ W D E If. ■Saxtr-CramMJihiii, the Danlfli hillorian, his cha- laifter, 74. Sa.xony, Upptr and Lower, their divifions into provincts, 438, 439. General account of the eU-i51oratt', 4^1. ■Sihamanij'/ii, iiccoLint of that religion, 6ot>. S.h'ras, in Peilia, 647. iicilly iflc?, their niimbci' and fitu-ition, 3>^<), Scio. See Chios. Sclafouia, its extent and boundaries, 479. Cha- lailcr of ihe inhabiiants, 480. S''o>/axr/, hs liiuation, extenr, and divifion;^, 13J. Tables of fhirc?, fl-.criffdonis, and principal towns, 136. Climate, foil, mountains, &c. 138, 1 39. Rivers, lukef»&c. 1 39. Appears formerly to h;.\e been a wcody country, 140. Its mines and ether natural produrtions, iiiJ. Vegetables and agricultuie, 141. Manners and culloms of the inhabitants, 142. Their religion, 146. Num- ber of bllhopiicks during the times of epifco- pacy, 149. Learning, &:c. HitL Univeriitics, -150. Defcription of the city of Edinburgh, 151. Glafgow, I 54. Aberdeen, /i/V/. Graham's dyke, 155. Agricola's camp, /i/V/. Pirtifh mo- luiments, 156. Danlfli remain?, iiii/, Kil- druiny callle, 157. Traces of ancient volcanoes, liiti. The Scots not well ufed in their attempt to fettle at Darisn, t'^.r/. Their trade and fifli- eries, 1 1;8. Their linen manufactory, 159. Ancient oath taken by their kings, 160. Con- flitution of their parlianiL-nr, i/iir/. Their peers did not form a diilini't houfe, 161. Their com ts of law, 162. Hiltory of Scotland. 165. &yro!, the illand of, noted for i»s antiquities, 572. Scythia, the countries anciently comprehended under that name, 75. Si-a Devil defcribed, 63. >—- Scorpion, ibui. •—- Snake, ib,i. Seamen in the Britifli navy, the numbers of, in peace and war, 264. Seafoys, the eaHern troops fo called, what, 640. SenfoKs, the variety of, occafioned by the annual motion of the earth, z. Seceders, in the churcK ef Scotland, account of, 148. Second fight, pretelifions of the inhabitants of the Wefttrn Ifiands of Scotland to this extraordinary Seine, river, its courfc, 393. Defcription of at Paris, 406. Si-liirl; Alexander, his hlfiory conterted into that of Rohinlon Cruloe, 793. Senrg X. foil, and water, 508. ^el■s and kikes, 510. Iti moui. tains, 509. lli- Bays, iliirf. Natural -Mui animal proiluilwn;, iliiti. Inhabitants, tlicir man- ners, andcudoras, 511. State of religion, 513. liilliopricks, iiiJ. Language and learning, 513,514. Univcrfilies, 516. Antiquities and turiolitics. Hit/. Cities and chief towns, ciy. Commerce and nuuiufadures, 522. Cor.lbtu- tion and governnienr, 523. Revenue, :'>:J. Miltary and marine ftiength, 524. Royal arms, title, nobility, and military ordci^s, H.-J. Lift oftheprel'ent royal family of Spain, 529. f/v7;«, Nev.'. See Mexico, OLl. iiparia, view of the ancient liillory of. 32. Sphrc, the dodtiinc of, 7. Attilkal, delcribed, ihiti. Spice IlJaniU. See Molucca. Sj>iiiii':jori, 638. langier, the occafion of its ruin, 677. Tarirr, city, 6o2. Tartars of Kafan, their manners and cudoms, 109. A prodigious emigration of, quit the P.ulfian government, and put themfclves under that of China, 61 ;. Tartar tribes, how dilVinguiflied, 603. Tartary in Afia, its fituation, extent, and bound- aries, 596. Its divifion and chief towns, ibid. Mountains, feas, and rivers, 596, 597. Cli- mate, foil, and produce, 597, Animals, ibid. The inhabitants, their manners and culloms,. 598, 603. Their religion, 1:99. Learning, 601. Curiofitics cf ihe country, ihid. Citiet and towns, 602. Comiretce and manufai^turc?, ibid. Hiftory of Tartary, 603. laita city, 630. laitowi/tg the Ikin, how performed at Ot.theite, 807. fi Taxet N D X. S'trtrrs, Britifli, none impofid on tlie i)cople, but bv their rcprcrcnt.ttlvLS in tht; lioiife of com- mons, 242. Ti-a plant, 60;. When firll introduced into Eng- Ifli-.d, iii<(. Tcfilis, the capitnl of Georgia, 5.86. Tell, AVilliam, the founder of the Helvetic liberty,. 504. Tinu'/hvar in Hungary, 475. Charafler of tlie In- habitants, 476. STMiv/otilland, <{y2, Toicriffc, peak of, 664, 688. Tcncra, one of the Wellern Illands, 690. 9'vrkl city, 602. Tvna Firma, in Spnnifli America, its fituation, extent, and boundaries, 782. Its fubdiviiioas and chief toivns, 783. Climate, foil, and pro- duce, /i^/V.. Animals, 78.1 . Inhabitants, Art'.. DilVmftions among them, owing to thf mix- ture ot blood, ihicL. — Incn^^nita, in Africa and America, 816. Tilitaii, the town of, 677. Teutonic kiiighis, their order, 428. Ravage the kingdom of Pruffia, and accjuire the dominion, 47'- 7('alnjjii, the ancient Welch bard, fome account of, 271, 363. Thames river, 179. Thebes, a review of the early hiilory of, 31. in Egypt, prefent name of, 671. Thejhis, fuminary view of his political infUtutions,. 3°- ■ temple of, at Athens, the remains of, 569. Thibet, the religion and government oi that coun- try, 600. Thomas, St. iiland of, in Africa, 687., In the Weft Indies, 803. Thorn, malfacre of Polifli diffidents there, 486.. Thuiot, his defcent at Carrickfergus, 324. TiJes, the general doflrinc of, explained, 22. Timber of North America, general account of, 7'9* Tinto, river, in Spain, its extraordinary qualities,. 510. TippnoSaib, his dominions, 641.. Tl/i/v?, kingdom of, 624. Tobacco, the annual export of, from Virginia and. Maryland, 754- Tebavo defciibcd, 800. Teleih, prefent Ibte of that city, ;: i. Tonquin, charafter of the inhabitants of, 62 1-. Their government, 626. Torgou, the laipcndifts defeated there, by Fre- deric HI. of Prufli.i, 466. Toulon, city and harbour of,. 408.. To'-cL'er of London, curlofitics to be feeii in the,. 207, note, Tranjylvan'it, its fituation and boundaries, 478, 479. Its government, inhabitants, and reli" gion, 479. TredfcKits, in Holl.ifld, mode of travelling in, 4*S- Tyi.v-ihiil, iiland of, 793.. Trinity, places of public worfliip In Englandi where the doftrine of rtnoiuiccd, 191, ■ co'.ltgc, Dublin, 374. Tri/oli, its boundaries and extent, 674. Charac- ter of the inhabitants, 675. City of, 677. Go- vernment of, 678. Tios Rivieres, town of, in Canada, 720. Trophnnius, Cave of, 570. 'Jropits, whar, 8, jo. Troiibatlours oi SfMn, fome account of, 51-, Tjlhouiveifches, their culloms, Sec. m . ^ tuiigujians, their manners and cufloms, iiz. Tunis, its boundaries and extent, 674. Charaif^cn ol the inhabitants, 675. Its capital, /i,V. Turcomans polllfs themfclves of the kingdom of Pcrfia and the neighbouring countries, 592.. Take Conftantinoj)le, and put an end to ths Greek empire, ibid, Turin, city of, 551.. Turkey, the three principal divifions of the grand iignior's dominion*, 566. in Europe, its fituation, extent, and boundaries, 566. Its divifions and chief towns, 567. Clim.ite, mountains, feas, rivers, &c. 568, 569. Vegctab'e and miner.d produflions, 569.. Animals, ibid. Anti.juities and curiofitics, ibiJ. Delciiption of Conr'antinople, 570. Inhabi- tants, their manners and culloms, 579. In Alia, its fituation and extent, 578. Its boundaries, ibiel. Its dlvi/ions and principal towns, /7;;y, Climate, foil, mountains river": and produce, /fc/. Animals, 579. The inhabi- tants, their manners and culloms, /^W. Mar- riages and funerals, 581. Their religion, lan- guage, and learning, ibiJ. Antiquities and cu- nofities of the country, 5S2, Chief cities and moUjues, 584. Commerce and inanufaaures,. 588. Conftitution and government, ;^/V/. Re- venues, 589. Arms and titles of the grand feignior, 590. Court and feraglio, ibid. Hif- tory of the Turkifli empiic, 592. Tiifcan dialciSt, the moft elfeenied in Italy, .- ,6. Tufcany, its inhabitants and government, cca. Brief hiflory of, 564.. 1'yrt, 586. U. JJLITEA iflaiid, 809. Ulfter, province of, in Ireland, its divifioQ into counties, and its chief towns, 568. t/"^.-o« between England and ScotLand, 17'j. U?iittd Provinces. See Kahcrlandu States of Atncrica, 729. Their confeder- ation, /*;