;iTY OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 ESSAYS 
 
 O N T H E 
 
 l^OL LOWING SUBJECTS; 
 
 Health and force of nations, 
 
 AUTHENTICITY of OSSIAN, 
 
 ACCOMPANYMENT, 
 
 EXISTENCE OF BOJY, 
 
 FORTIFICATION, 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 o 
 
 By CHARLES M«K I N N O N, Efq^ 
 
 EDINBURGH. 
 •Printed for W I L L I A M CREECH. 
 
 M.DCC.LXXXV, 
 
 ^ ^ 3 S 13
 
 L^Ui ,:#t/W--'-/^'
 
 
 % 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 <: 
 or 
 
 OS 
 
 Note to pag. 25. line 10. 
 Even confidering money as fixed capital, it can caiife 
 produdlion as the addition of any other fort can ; and, 
 befides, can caufe the produftion of any fort of fixed 
 capital or commodity that is wanted. 
 
 00 Pag. 78. Before the words " The opinions anfwer- 
 *" <« ed above" there ought to have been a break * * * * 
 c^ for the exprefiion refers to the 7 Sevens. 
 
 CD 
 
 ID 
 
 <c 
 
 C3 
 
 301273
 
 xx>o<><>o<>o<>o<xx><><><><><><x>o<><xx><x>ooc><x>< 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 * 
 
 ON THE 
 
 WEALTH AND FORCE 
 
 F 
 
 NATIONS. 
 
 This was firft printed in 1781. 
 
 xx>cx:><xx>«<K><x><x><><>o<xx><><><><x>o<>oo<><><x><
 
 T O T H E 
 
 MEMORY 
 
 o F 
 
 DAVID HUME. 
 
 " Say, Jhall vty tittle hark attendant JaH ?'
 
 OBSERVATIONS, &c. 
 
 =«>«^>..^»«,.<»««<>— <»«.^ >«.<>. >--<>-»<>.■ ^>.. ..<>.■ .^>, »<>r»<>.-<K ■■<»•"<►— <►• 
 
 Of Nations fuppofed to have no dealings 
 ivith others. 
 
 THE expence, annual (for inftance) 
 of a nation, is fupplied from its in- 
 come during that period, and the favings 
 of former years. Whatever a man believe 
 to be the firft, a few lines will hold his 
 account of the fecond. 
 
 Frogrefs
 
 ( 6 ) 
 
 Progrefs of Wealth, 
 
 If a man propofes to make a piece cf 
 clothing, an ornament, or a weapon, he 
 mud lay in food to fubfift himfelf while 
 he is about it. If he employs another man 
 to furnilh him any fuch things, he muft 
 give him food, if he has it not of his own. 
 V/hat was once a luxury, is, in procefs of 
 time, held a conveniency, and may after- 
 wards be held a neceflary. Now, it is the 
 fame thing whether a man gives another 
 articles, or the food to fubfift thofe who 
 make them. 
 
 Income Annual (for inftance) rf Nations, 
 
 The firft attempt to afcertain this, worth 
 mentioning, was made fome little time ago 
 
 by
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 by Quefnai, firft phyfician to the King of 
 In-ance. It has been fupported by many 
 refpedtable men. His opinion was, the 
 income of a country was its commodities, 
 with this Hmitation, that artifans added no- 
 thing to the national income. They did 
 not produce the materials they worked on. 
 The fociety, therefore, received by their la- 
 bour only one fort of commodities inftead 
 of another necefiarily confumed in fabrica- 
 ting it. 
 
 The next is that of Doctor Smith, ima- 
 gined, I believe, without any afliftance 
 from the oeconomifts, though not pu- 
 blifhed till very lately. It is, * That the 
 
 * annual revenue of every fociety is always 
 
 * precifely equal to the exchangeable value 
 
 * of the whole annual produce of its indu- 
 
 * ftry ; or rather, is precifely the fame thing 
 
 * with that exchangeable value.' For lich 
 is the word by which we exprefs that a 
 perfon or a nation has many commodities ; 
 and whatever opinion may be entertained 
 
 of
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 of human capacity and fteadinefs, few fa- 
 bricate what is not of fome ufe to them- 
 felves or others. 
 
 A man beftows any income on any num- 
 ber of people : It will not be difputed that 
 the income he gives may be the fame, 
 whether they live in his houfe or not; 
 whether they fabricate any thing for him 
 or not : That he may get the fame work 
 done by them, whether they live in his 
 houfe or not. Suppofing, now, on the one 
 fide, that they are abfolutely idle, and, on 
 the other, that they do more or lefs work 
 for him : In this laft cafe, he has? from any 
 income, the fame benefit as if, in the for- 
 mer, he had the fame income, with as 
 much more as would procure the work. 
 Suppofing a man gets any quantity of work 
 done, and another gets the fame work done 
 for lefs income, this laft is, for the time, 
 in refpe6t to the former, in the fame fitua- 
 tion as if he had as much more income as 
 
 the
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 the dlnerence of income beftowed amounts 
 
 to. 
 
 Suppofmg the income the fame, and 
 that work can be got for the fame pi ce, 
 it will be held a matter of indifference 
 whether the work is executed or not. 
 
 But who are the employers ? What I 
 have faid in the former Sect, leads me to 
 think that all others are employed by tne 
 holders of the food. 
 
 If it is obferved, that the more govern- 
 ment takes from any clafs of people, the 
 iefs it has for Itfelf, and the iefs it can give 
 others, it is of little confequence to a coun- 
 try whether the government ftates iis in- 
 come to be the food ; or the food, wiih fome 
 articles held the mod neceifary; the whole 
 produce of the land with the oeconomifts. or 
 even with Smith, the produce of ' all the 
 * lands and all the labour.' 
 
 B Hoards,
 
 ( lo ) 
 
 Hoards, 
 
 Food, clothing, lodging, amufemeni, 
 lliow, war, medicine, and travelling, with 
 the inftruments ufed in providing them, 
 are all the commodities of any country. 
 In the following obfervations, I confider 
 the national income, the condition of the 
 people, and the revenue of government, 
 in nations where the labourers are free, and 
 bufmefs carried on by perfons who advance 
 their capitals. The reafonings do not de- 
 pend, on my opinion, upon the income of 
 nations : I explained it at fo great length, 
 chiefly becaufe it ihowed a method to fludy 
 the fcience. 
 
 Variations
 
 II 
 
 Variations of the iticome Annual (for iii- 
 ftance) of Nations, 
 
 The quantity of commodities In any- 
 country is greater or lefs, as the people are 
 able and willing to produce. Their ability 
 and inclination may be fuch, that the 
 wealth may go on increafing, till it reaches 
 its greateft pofTible height ; may continue 
 long the fame ; may diminifh for a long 
 time ; or a flux and reflux may take place ; 
 on the balance of which, in any period, it 
 is found to have increafed, to be the fame, 
 or to have dlminiflied. 
 
 Few, if any, are equally fit for bufmefs 
 the whole time they continue in it. Some 
 may know more, attend more than thofe 
 whofe places they fill, and increafe their 
 capital ; others m.ay be only equal to their 
 
 prede-
 
 ( «^,) 
 
 predeceilbrs, and keep their capitals the 
 fame ; others again, may know lefs, at- 
 tend, lefs, than thofe who went before 
 them, and are not able to keep up the ca- 
 pitals they received. Differences in the 
 qualities of the labourers may alfo have aii 
 effed. 
 
 No art, once made public, is loft, the 
 danger, expence, &:c. of which the em- 
 ployers are willing to reward, and the em- 
 ployed to rifle ; difcoveries are continually 
 made ; the capacity of men, as well as 
 their knowledge, increafes ; and, when men 
 err in chafing their projects, they ufually 
 err on the fafe fide. 
 
 The increafe in the produdion may be- 
 gin from the holder of the food (for ex- 
 ample) wifhing to fecure his fubfiftence, or 
 get fome particular article ; or he who o- 
 therwife would not have exerted himfelf,
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
 is tempted by the articles the artifan lays 
 before him. 
 
 The narrower the competition in the fale 
 of any commodity is, it may be expected 
 that thofe who produce it are capable of 
 ]c[b exertion ; that they will exad lefs work 
 from the labourers they employ, and be 
 more indifferent about the quantity of it : 
 The labourers, therefore, are lefs fkilful, 
 dexterous, and lefs able to bear fatigue. 
 
 Men may 'voluntarily produce lefs^ 
 
 For fear of not getting fale. 
 
 Finding, or prefuming, that a quantity of 
 goods, fold at a higher price, gives as much 
 or more profit, than a greater quantity fold 
 at a lower rate. 
 
 The
 
 { H ) 
 
 The uncertainty how much of the fruits 
 of their labour they will be deprived of, 
 the hopes of having warning for one, five, 
 twenty years ; the fear of quarrels : Thefc 
 may afFed their induftry for ages. 
 
 Of the Labour of Soldiers , Menial Ser^vants^ 
 &c. 
 
 If, inftead often perfons (for inftance) 
 twelve of equal fkill, dexterity, and indu- 
 ftry, are employed in producing commodi- 
 ties, there muft be more produced ; that is, 
 in the view I place things, the difference, 
 as far as employed in fome occupations, 
 augments the income ; employed in others, 
 the income does more. 
 
 The income that fupports perfons of fuch 
 occupations, will fuppoit artifans. 
 
 The
 
 ( '5 ) 
 
 The increafe in the produdion, will not 
 follow immediately upon the increafe in the 
 number of hands employed in produdive 
 occupations. 
 
 It may happen, that there follows no di- 
 minution of commodities from even a con- 
 fiderable diminution of hands. 
 
 The national income may be the fame, 
 whether the portion of it laid out on per- 
 fons of fuch occupations, be bellowed on 
 troops or footmen. 
 
 Cheapnefs, 
 
 Many who would not give twelve days 
 labour for an article, would be tempted to 
 exert themfelves, if it coft but fix. 
 
 Enterprife,
 
 { i6 ) 
 
 Enterpnfe, 
 
 Our dally obfervation, and the accounts 
 we have of the different countries, defec- 
 tive as they are, entitle us to conjed:ure, 
 
 That a nation may advance more quick- 
 ly than fome who mull make exertions ab- 
 folutely greater ; and that it may keep an 
 even nace with others. 
 
 That a nation may go on equally with 
 fome whofe fituation is eafier than its own, 
 or may get before others. 
 
 That nations whofe fituation is equal, 
 may advance equally, or that fome may 
 get before others. 
 
 Where
 
 { 17 ) 
 
 Where the government is not mixed, 
 and the competition is open, we may ex- 
 ped: to find almoft the whole of a nation 
 of the one charader, as far as the commu- 
 nication is open. 
 
 As European nations now are, I think 
 increafing the difEculties would retard. 
 
 Hoards^ 
 
 # 
 
 Commodities are employed, 
 
 As capital. 
 
 As income in producing commodities. 
 
 As Income in rewarding unprodu<Stive 
 lahour. 
 
 C People
 
 ( i8 ) 
 
 People confume the clothes (for inftance) 
 they have ; government its arms, 3zc, 
 
 It is well known to what a degree the 
 droughts in rice countries, infeds in others, 
 drift ice in Iceland, &cc. render the repro- 
 dudlion of food precarious. 
 
 Government ma^ put together its hoards 
 of military (lores in one year, (for inftance) 
 or gradually in ten. So it may any hoards 
 of food It makes for armies, &c. 
 
 Of the Extent of Capital required to carr^ 
 en National Biftnefs, 
 
 Suppose two countries, of which the 
 produce (for example) of the land, in the 
 year (for inftance) is equal ; that, in the 
 one, the whole is in one crop ; in the o- 
 ther, in two equal crops ; and that, in it, 
 
 the
 
 ( '9 ) 
 
 the payment for the firfl crop comes in 
 foon enough to carry on the cultivation of 
 the fecond. In tiie former, it is vifible 
 that tvv'ice the capital is required to pro- 
 duce the fame total. 
 
 I have not endeavoured to calculate how 
 fmall a capital may employ the artifans of 
 any country. 
 
 Suppofe tv^^o countries, of which the 
 fales are equal ; that, in the one, the ac* 
 counts are paid in fix months j in the o- 
 ther, in twelve : In this laft the merchant? 
 mufl have twice the capital. 
 
 Divifion of CapitaL 
 
 Whether the capital be divided among 
 ten, or among forty men, fo much of their 
 profits as are not added to their capital, will 
 equally give income to the people. 
 
 The
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 The former are more tempted to rival 
 any fuperior orders that may be in the ftate. 
 
 The competition among the latter is 
 ftronger than among the former. From 
 particular accidents, indeed, the competi- 
 tion among the ten may be fometimes as 
 ftrong, or ftronger, than among the forty ; 
 but we cannot expert this to happen often, 
 or to continue long. 
 
 Of Fixed Capital. 
 
 In inclofmg a field (for inftance) with a 
 wall of ftone and lime, more capital is dif- 
 fipated at firft than if it is inclofed with dry 
 ftone, and more capital is diftipated after- 
 wards; ^Jh keeping up the laft. 
 
 Shipping are a .fixed capital, that coft 
 much in building, in keeping them up 
 
 while
 
 ( 2. ) 
 
 while they are worth repairing ; and they 
 are fometiines totally loft. 
 
 Diminution of Money CapitaL 
 
 It may be of great confequence, what 
 proportion in production is effedied by fix- 
 ed capital. 
 
 In Britain (for example) the farmer (for 
 inftance) can raife but one crop of corn in 
 the year. 
 
 Suppofe that there are fome years to run 
 of the leafe of a farmer (for inftance) the 
 fall in the price may leiTen his capital con- 
 fiderably, before he gets fuch a dedudion 
 in his rent as the change of affairs requires. 
 
 Money,
 
 ( 22 ) 
 
 Mojicy, 
 
 David Hume, with the perfpicuity na- 
 tural to his vail mind, has iliovved, how ! 
 an addition to the quantity of money in- i 
 creafes the production of a country ; and 
 the bad efFedts of a diminution in the mo- 
 ney. And Dr Smith has reprefented it as 
 a kind of fixed, capital. 
 
 I propofe to begin the comparifon of the 
 effects caufed by bringing more figns to fale, 
 with thofe caufed by bringing more con- 
 fumable commodities ; of the effeds caufed 
 by a diminution of figns, with thofe caufed 
 by a diminution of confumable commodi- 
 ties. 
 
 All thefe may afFed the fixed capital of 
 the nation. 
 
 Few
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
 Few chufe to let capital lie long idle. 
 
 Where the income Is at its greateft pof- 
 fible height, the commodity introduced, if 
 fold, can only hinder the fale, or lower 
 the price of others in competition with it : 
 The effedt muft be the fame, if it caufes no 
 produdion. 
 
 The addition of confumable commodities 
 caufes produdion, 
 
 By keeping labourers more eniployed. 
 
 By increafing the labouring hands. 
 
 Caufnig exertion among undertakers, by 
 lowering the price of commodities. 
 
 The produdion caufed vifibly may be 
 various ; except from rafii projed, it can- 
 not be more than the produdion fells for. 
 
 *The
 
 ( M ) 
 
 The addition may caufe no produdion, 
 
 ijL i. iQcreafe not the number of labour- 
 ing; "^ands, * 
 
 If it employs them not more fully. 
 
 When fold to undertakers, it does not 
 tempt a certain exertion. Though it caufes 
 none one year (for inftance) if continued, 
 it may. 
 
 The effedt is the fame, if it caufes no 
 production. 
 
 When the income is at its greateft pof- 
 fil e height, the addition of figns can only 
 lovvc:- the value of the figns already in cir- 
 culation. 
 
 The addition of figns caufes production,
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 By the price of labour not rifing imme- 
 diately in proportion to the addition. 
 
 The addition caufes no produdion, 
 
 From falling Into the hands of people 
 unwilling or unable to effect it. 
 
 The production can go on, while an ad- 
 dition of figns procures more labour; which 
 will be, till the proportion of figns and 
 commodities is the fame, as among the o- 
 ther figns and commodities in the country. 
 
 The proportion, therefore, of the fign 
 to the greateft production caufed by it, is 
 the fame as that of the money circulating 
 in a country, to the money price of all the 
 commodities fold in it: This may be vari- 
 ous ; but the quantity of money in every 
 country is far lefs than the money price of 
 the goods fold. 
 
 D
 
 ( 26 ) 
 
 A dimiuiition of commodkles caufes a 
 diminution of the produdion, 
 
 By lefTening the labouring hands. 
 
 When, in confequence of the diminu- 
 tion, hands are lefs employed. 
 
 Relaxing exertion, by heightening the 
 price of the commodities that would have 
 been in competition with them. 
 
 The diminution caufed may be various ; 
 except from caution, it cannot exceed its 
 price in the commodities diminifhed. 
 
 The diminution does not lefTen the pro- 
 dudion, 
 
 If it does not \eCCeii the labouring hands, 
 
 If there is ftill enough left to employ the 
 labourers as they would have been, 
 
 When
 
 { 27 ) 
 
 When it does not relax exertion. 
 
 The efFed: of the diminution of confu- 
 mable commodities here, is to heighten the 
 price, or caufe the fale, of the commodi- 
 ties with which they would have been in 
 competition. 
 
 The diminution of figns lefTens the pro- 
 dudion, 
 
 By the price of labour not faUing fo 
 much, as that the figns remaining will em- 
 ploy all who were employed before, in 
 this fituation nothing can keep up the price 
 of labour, but the labourers being forced to 
 pay a certain price for the commodities 
 they purchafe : That price may be fuch as 
 to caufe a diminution in the number of la- 
 bouring hands, greater or lefs. 
 
 The diminution of figns does not lellen 
 the produdioD, 
 
 If
 
 ( 28 ) 
 
 If there is ftill enough left to keep all the 
 hands employed as they would have been. 
 
 The diminution caufed may be various ; 
 it cannot exceed the produdion that would 
 have been caufed by the addition of the 
 figns gone, to the remainder in the coun- 
 try. 
 
 It is obvious, that the progrefs of in- 
 creafe and diminution, however caufed, 
 may be regular and uninterrupted, or not ; 
 more or lefs rapid ; and may take more or 
 lefs time. 
 
 Money, whether metal, fait, or ihells, 
 is of fo much furer fale, that other com- 
 modities rarely perform the office of figns : 
 I have not known one inftance of it. 
 
 The increafe of figns or commodities 
 renders it eafier to increafe capital ; the di- 
 minution renders it more difficult to keep 
 
 capita!
 
 ( 29 ) 
 
 capital entire, and may render it impof*- 
 fible. 
 
 Poverty, 
 
 A PART of the national income is de- 
 ftroyed, or its fource flopped up ; fome 
 propofe to produce a lefs quantity of any 
 commodity ; cultivators, artifans, &c. choofe 
 to employ fewer hands ; in confequence, 
 more or lefs labouring people may be obli- 
 ged to try new trades, in competition with 
 thofe eftablilhed in them, on whom they 
 may encroach more or lefs. The mifery 
 or deaths which follow, have not, 1 believe, 
 been afcertained in any one cafe : There 
 may be more or lefs. Though none may 
 die, literally of hunger, yet no fmall num- 
 ber of grown perfons, and many children, 
 may die of difeafes brought on by fcanty 
 or unwholeforae nourifhment, bad lodging, 
 
 or
 
 ( 3° ) 
 
 or clothing ; befides, that difeafes owing to 
 none of them, lie heavier on perfons in 
 fuch circumftances. 
 
 Slaves may fufFer lefs from this than free 
 labourers. 
 
 Population, 
 
 It appears that neither the marriages, 
 births, nor deaths, bear a fixed proportion 
 to the numbers of men, nor near it : Nor 
 do the fexes bear an uniform proportion 
 to one another. 
 
 A nation may have the fame income 
 v^rith another more or lefs numerous. 
 
 Much of the labour done in one country 
 by cattle or machines, may be done in aq- 
 other by human animals. 
 
 » Suppofe
 
 ( 3' ) 
 
 Suppofe any income divided among any 
 number of people, 
 
 The income may increafe, and their 
 numbers remain the fame. 
 
 The population may increafe, while the 
 income refts the fame. 
 
 Either may diminifh, while the other 
 remains as it was. 
 
 The people may increafe fafter than the 
 income, and the income may increafe faft- 
 er than the people. 
 
 The people may diminifh fafter than the 
 income, and the income may diminifh faft- 
 er than the people. 
 
 Both may increafe or diminifh equally: 
 Both may ftand ftill. 
 
 In all the countries we know^ almoft 
 every man would, from one motive or o- 
 
 ther,
 
 ( 32 ) 
 
 ther, marry*, if he thought he could have 
 what is, in the idea of the times and coun- 
 try, a fubfiftence for his family. 
 
 Surely the income may diminifh fo far, 
 as that fewer can rear families. 
 
 Where the income has been for fome 
 time the fame, it is probable moft of the 
 people have fmall portions ; perhaps ftill 
 more generally in fuch as are far advanced 
 in the arts : in thefe, the women may earn 
 more, and the children earn earlier. 
 
 Of the Revenue of the Government, 
 
 Government may take any article 
 from thofe who have produced it, or from 
 thofe who have got it of them. 
 
 Whatever 
 
 * Confider the cafe of the Lazeroni at Naples.
 
 { 3i ) 
 
 Whatever part of the income of any clafs 
 of people government takes, the clafs has 
 the lefs ft}r itfelf, and the others can get 
 the lefs from it. 
 
 Government may either give av^ay the 
 whole again among the people, or hoard 
 a part. However great the portion govern- 
 ment takes may be, the income of the na- 
 tion may ftill remain the fame : Though it 
 may buy dear, or fell cheaj) ; yet thofe in- 
 to whofe hands it gets through government,; 
 may be as able and willing'to take care of 
 themfelves as other people ; but, as it may 
 notbeftow its income on thofe it came from, 
 individuals may fuffer greatly. 
 
 Many are furprifed, that a man of any 
 moderate underftanding fhould not obfervej 
 that income would circulate through the 
 nation from the hands of the fubjedls, as 
 well as from thofe of the prince ; and that 
 the outlays of the prince would circulate' 
 as w^ell, if beftowed on canals and high-
 
 ( 34 ) 
 
 ways, troops and military ftores, as on pa- 
 laces, gardens, and agreeable attendants. 
 Such has been the progrefs of man in eve- 
 ry inquiry of fad and exiftence. 
 
 As foon as additional rent can be afford- 
 ed, government, in fome cafes, no doubt, 
 ought to take it ; in others, it ought to ab- 
 ftain for a longer or fhorter time. 
 
 Where the fubje£ts know not how much 
 of the produce of the land (for example) 
 government fhall exadt, fome may enter- 
 prife in hopes of defrauding the govern- 
 ment, and are difappointed ; the national 
 income of the year (for inftance) may not 
 be lellened by their enlerprife ; their capi- 
 tal may ; the difpute may coft government 
 fomething ; and the example may leflen 
 the fcandal attending injuftice and fraud, 
 where government is concerned. 
 
 An excife on a commodity may be a tax 
 on the rent, on the tenant, on the produ- 
 cer.
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
 €er, on the labourers employed In produ- 
 cing it, or on the confumer, as accident 
 determines. Labouring perfons are the 
 lead able to hold out in combination, from 
 their poverty and their numbers. 
 
 It may happen, that the falary paid to 
 working people, though perhaps not the 
 price of labour, is by fuch taxes raifed fo, 
 the national income not increafmg faft e- 
 nough, that for feveral there is but a fcan- 
 ty fubfiftence, and for fome none. 
 
 Laying an exclfe on a luxury may caufe 
 lefs of it to be produced ; but, it has been 
 obferved, that mod men are not induced 
 to quit their country but by very great dif- 
 ficulties. Such a tax may retard the ad- 
 vances of a country, by raifmg the price 
 of the article ; for what does not allure 
 one, may allure another. 
 
 Even in countries which have not reach- 
 ed their greateft poffible height, if, inftead 
 
 of
 
 ( 36 ) 
 
 of laying on the whole in land taxes a large 
 fum were laid on luxuries, I believe that 
 the fmall proprietors would almoft always, 
 \n the courfe of a life, have more to them- 
 felves, after paying what they chofe of the 
 excifes. 
 
 The greater portion each perfon has of 
 the national income, the more government 
 can take from him. A tax on the necef- 
 faries of life will hinder people from breed- 
 ing, if high enough. 
 
 Suppofe a nation has an annual income, 
 which we fhall phrafe twenty millions. 
 Suppofe another nation of only half its 
 numbers ; but which, by fuperior art or 
 induftry, has the fame income. Suppofe 
 in both the income at its greateft poffible 
 height, keeping war and peftilence out of 
 the queflion. 
 
 Perhaps, by laying a poll-tax in fmalls, 
 by the week (for inftance) a ccnfiderable 
 
 fum
 
 ( 37 ) 
 
 fum might be got, without much oppref- 
 fion, of the moft thoughtlefs ; at worft, 
 government might make ufe of it, to get 
 at the income of thofe who would not 
 confume the commodities it chofe to tax. 
 
 Of Bounties^ Regulations^ &c. 
 
 It may happen, that the induftry of 
 fome part of the people is employed in ob- 
 jects lefs beneficial to themfelves and the 
 ftate. 
 
 In any art, ufeful methods may be 
 known in one province that are not known 
 in others ; they may be borrowed from 
 foreign nations; difcoveries may be made: 
 Thefe, however valuable, may be adopted 
 but flowly. I do not know whether men 
 will ever be able to prove that the fkill of 
 any country is fuch, that more cannot be 
 done. 
 
 Some 
 
 301273
 
 ( 38 ) 
 
 Some men, had they capital, might ac^ 
 complilh defigns, which would, in more 
 or lels time, replace to government an out- 
 lay. 
 
 The intereft of no one clafs of people is 
 neceffarlly the fame with that of the ftate. 
 The produce of a piece of ground may be 
 as 20, leaving a profit of 10 ; or it may be 
 as 16, leaving a profit of 9 : The bufmefs 
 of fifhing may, in fome degree, admit fi- 
 milar variations ; the artifan may have 
 profit in his bufmefs, 10 or 15, as he ma- 
 nages it ; produdion may be effected by 
 machines and cattle, or by labourers pay- 
 ing taxes ; while the national income has 
 advanced (for inftance) a feventh, the po- 
 pulation has advanced a fifth, and the em- 
 ployment of the labourers lefs fecure. 
 
 A queflion will, on thefe views, occur, 
 what government may gain by beflowing 
 money, or by penal regulations ? 
 
 The
 
 ( 39 ) 
 
 The more fimple the inquiry, the more 
 honefty and fimplicity are in the charac- 
 ter of the fubjeds, the lefs any change pro- 
 pofed crofles their ideas of their own inte- 
 reft, or their vanity ; the lefs the govern- 
 ment is difturbed by parties, the lefs vigour 
 is required in adminiftration. 
 
 The outlay may be raifed from fo many, 
 that each fhall not regard v^hat he pays to 
 it. 
 
 Giving the aid In one fum may often be 
 very proper ; government may give only 
 what it pleafes ; but perfons of the beft in- 
 tentions may fall often in their projects ; 
 government may be impofed on, and many 
 may enter more haftily into bad fchemes, 
 or indulge themfelves in pernicious expen- 
 ces, from hopes of having a confiderable 
 part, if not the whole, of their outlay re- 
 placed by government. 
 
 On
 
 { 40 ) 
 
 On thefe accounts, it may often be 
 thought proper to give the afTiftance accor- 
 ding to the quantity produced, however 
 great that be. Hurt may follow from dif- 
 continuing the afliftance given in this man- 
 ner. The weaknefs or corruption in the 
 ffovernmeni: may increafe fo far, that this, 
 too, may be given to fuch as have not la- 
 boured for it. 
 
 Government is ftill more expofed to mi- 
 ftake, in endeavouring to difcover what 
 chance it has of changing the diredion of 
 national induftry, and how much it ought 
 to lay out on fuch views : It can more ea- 
 fily difcover whether the change propofed 
 is beneficial, at leaft to fuch a degree as to 
 make it proper in it to venture. 
 
 Premiums are given merely for difcove- 
 ries in the arts ; the expence of them is 
 fuppofed to be a matter of indifference to 
 the ftate, 
 
 Suchv
 
 ( 41 ) 
 
 Such, however, has hitherto been the 
 frame of man, that, if a rule were to be 
 laid down over the whole world, for ages, 
 there is no room to hefitate a moment in 
 deciding, that government ought to inter- 
 fere no farther than to give its fubjeds fe- 
 curity in their property ; all the confidence 
 po/Tible, that they fhall enjoy the fruits of 
 their labour ; prevent all reftraints on com- 
 petition in the produdion ; make thefe 
 works that private perfons would not, or 
 could not do, as roads, canals ; and reward 
 difcoveries in the arts. 
 
 The more profit any perfon makes in his 
 bufinefs, the more government may get 
 from him ; on the other hand, the wider 
 the competition, the more each man drives 
 to produce as much as he can, as good as 
 he can, and as cheap as he can. Cheap- 
 nefs may, befides giving the government, 
 by difFerent ways, opportunity to increafe 
 its revenue, make the revenue more valu- 
 able. 
 
 F About
 
 ( 4^ ) 
 
 About a century ago, pecuniary en(ioU^ 
 ragements were offered in France to mar- 
 riages contracted fo early as twenty years. 
 A man who had a wife and the prolpe(St of 
 a family, may be expeded to exert himfelf 
 more : When the young ones born in con- 
 fequence are grown up, the fall of labour, 
 from the greater number of labourers, and 
 the invention of thefe more quickened, en- 
 ables the undertaker to execute more pro- 
 jed with the fame capital. If many mar- 
 riages followed in confequence, there muft 
 not only more children of the poor die, 
 but a greater proportion of them, if the 
 increafe of exertion of the parents, and the 
 aid of government, did not prevent it. The 
 aid here was an exemption from a pernici- 
 ous tax ; a fmall fum, not a reafonable en- 
 couragement to marriage. 
 
 Where the aid is given to fuch as would 
 marry without it, as well as to thofe who 
 would not, which was done here, there is 
 no reafon to exped that the benefit will 
 
 compenfate
 
 ( 43 ) 
 
 compenfate fuch an out-lay. To difcover 
 all, or nearly all, who would not marry 
 without the aid, is perhaps the inquiry, of 
 all others, in which government has the 
 leaft reafon to e.^pedt fuccefs. As France 
 then was, it is probable that even the 
 vigorous adminiftration of Colbert was no 
 way equal to the tafk *. 
 
 A cafe may be fuppofed, in which peo- 
 ple ought to be had, in cafe of wars or 
 contagious diftempers. 1 know no country 
 in which it has been proper to lay out any 
 thing on that account. 
 
 Of foreign Tirade, 
 
 I STATE, on one fide, the clafs of arti- 
 fans, and, on the other, thofe who fupply 
 
 every 
 
 * I have fometimes fufpecled tliat this edidt was 
 only a {Iroke of court addrefs.
 
 ( 44 } 
 
 every article of expence that itfelf does not 
 make. 
 
 It is more advantageous for government 
 to have both fides of the exchange in the 
 country than only one. It can chufe where 
 to lay its taxes ; whence to levy its troops ; 
 even the command of the greater number 
 of people for this laft ufe, may fometimes 
 be of the utmoft confequence. 
 
 Cafe Firfi. 
 
 The exchange of commodities produced 
 by either clafs in one nation, for thofe of 
 the fame clafs in another. 
 
 Cafe
 
 ( 45 > 
 
 Cafe Second, 
 
 Exchange of the artifan commodities 
 of one nation for thofe of the other clafs of 
 a fecond. 
 
 The demand for the commodities of one 
 may be more fteady than for thofe of the 
 other. 
 
 The commodities of the one clafs may 
 be of more ufe at home, upon a ftagnation, 
 than thofe of the other. 
 
 On a rupture, the effed of the greater 
 command of neceffaries may be great : Go- 
 vernment can always find people able to 
 make arms. 
 
 Either
 
 ( 46 ) 
 
 Either may come to have both fides of 
 the exchange, within itfelf, fooner than 
 the other. 
 
 It is better in the monarchies of Europe, 
 and even in the greater republics, to tax 
 rent, than profit of capitals. 
 
 Artifans within a country have fuch ad- 
 ntages which foreigners have not, that 
 ney cannot fail to draw to themfelves, in 
 the end, any bufinefs they aim at, if the 
 country produces the materials they work 
 on. In the great nations of Europe, the 
 national income is increafmg ; tafte changes 
 continually ; novelty pleafes. Some com- 
 modities, and the materials of fome manu- 
 factures, are confined to certain countrieS^ 
 by climate ; the weight of coriefpondence, 
 flock, and ikill, is great ; fo that foreign- 
 ers ftill fell much to all of them, and would 
 fell more, if they were not reftrained. 
 
 Cafi
 
 ( 47 ) 
 
 Cafe Third, 
 
 The above, with what I have faid on 
 mines of money metals, in my remarks on 
 the home trade, fliow all I have to fay on 
 the money balance. 
 
 Reftraints on Importation, 
 
 People who muft ftruggle through a 
 great competition to make money, will be 
 lefs apt to throw it away than thofe who 
 fee they have few rivals. 
 
 Bounties
 
 ( 48 ) 
 
 Bounties on Exportation, 
 
 TiiE bounty may lower the money price 
 .of a commodity. 
 
 More of it being produced, the expor- 
 tation, and the apprehenfion of it, having 
 lefs efFedt than the greatnefs of the quan- 
 tity brought to market. I have heard no 
 proof of a fingle inftance of this, though 
 it muft have happened. 
 
 The increafe in the produdlion may be 
 .^l?a]iifed, 
 
 By drawing capital from other employ- 
 ments. When intereft is given for loans, 
 (i. e. almoft always) nobody keeps his mo- 
 ney in his defk. 
 
 Employing
 
 ( 49 ) 
 
 £mploying as capital, circulating or fix- 
 ed, what would have been employed as in- 
 come. 
 
 By exerting more fkill or induftrye 
 
 It has always been propofed to give this 
 bounty on the produdion, no matter how 
 produced ; it therefore tends to improve 
 methods, no more than many other equal 
 fpurs to induftry. 
 
 If the production is caufed merely by 
 force of capital, and the price of the com- 
 modity is lowered, the capital may, foon- 
 er or later, be lefTened ; and continually 
 lefTened, till it be diffipatedo 
 
 Will the produdioa caufed by the md- 
 ney balance gained by the bounty, often 
 make up to government the revenue it 
 cofts ? 
 
 O Many
 
 ( JO ) 
 
 Many will exert themfelves for the for- 
 ced, that would not for the natural price. 
 Others will be confirmed in their inactivity 
 and bad methods, by the greater probabi- 
 lity of fale. 
 
 People go moft readily into the employ- 
 ments that are neareft their own, as the 
 farmer into the gardening, the weaver in 
 wool into weaving flax. 
 
 Regulations on importation and expor- 
 tation may hinder variations in the price 
 of a commodity : Bounties on both hinder 
 jefs ones : To difcover when the advanta- 
 ges of fuch bounties compenfate the ex- 
 pence, and what expence, requires nice in- 
 formation indeed. It may fafely be affirm- 
 ed, that not a man in Britain has ever pof- 
 fefled it in any one cafe. 
 
 Comparifon
 
 ( 5« ) 
 
 Compart/on of the Foreign and Domejlic 
 Trade, 
 
 Less time is required to bring in the re- 
 turns in many branches of the foreign trade, 
 than in many of the domeftic ; but more 
 time is needed generally to bring in the re- 
 turns when the fale is made abroad, than 
 if it had been made at home. 
 
 It is better for a nation to have the fame 
 amount of employment, by people within 
 the country, than by foreigners, as the 
 employ is expofed to fewer caufes of fail- 
 ure. 
 
 Objerva'
 
 ( 5^ ) 
 
 Ob/ervations on the Force of Shepherd Na-* 
 tions againjl the Jlanding Armies of Na^ 
 tions farther advanced in Society, 
 
 L 
 
 We may exped lefs patience in fhep- 
 herfls than in the others, and alio lefs a- 
 cutenefs in their defigns. 
 
 11. 
 
 Methods of fighting abandoned on the 
 beft grounds, may have great fuccefs for 
 fome time, becaufe the manner of oppor 
 fmg them is forgot ; but, when one of 
 thefe has had fuccefs much taken notice of, 
 an effe^ual way of oppofmg it, is fooner 
 or later found out ; in procefs of time it 
 is difcovered that the method of fighting 
 
 mull
 
 ( S3 ) 
 
 muft be "varied more or lefs, when the me^ 
 thods made ufc of by the enemy are dif- 
 ferent. 
 
 It is probable that barbarians will be 
 found lefs liable to panic, except thofe ri- 
 fing from fuperftition, than civilized troops ; 
 particularly from being oppofed by me- 
 thods unknown to them. In courfe of 
 time it is found, that exercife before the 
 war, and patience in the beginning, will 
 prevent the panic. 
 
 Attempts openly made will fucceed of^ 
 ten, even with fhepherds, from the very 
 idea of the boldnefs neceflary to make 
 them. It is difcovered that troops whofe 
 minds and limbs have been occupied on 
 thefe, will eafily difappoint them. 
 
 A (landing army, which never has feen 
 the face of an enemy, may often do great 
 things, merely becaufe they do not know 
 but that they are done every day. 
 
 It
 
 ( 54 ) 
 
 It is amoved, that fortreffes are of no 
 ufe but to hod magazines, command roads, 
 rivers, canals, or make it eafier for armies 
 to command them ; rhe expence bellowed 
 on feeding them muft be great indeed, and 
 improper, except from the view of foreign 
 aid, if they can hold out long, after the 
 country is ruined. 
 
 III. 
 
 Hunting nations, when they can be tra- 
 iled, are by far the bell fcouts. A civili- 
 zed nation might make great ufe of Hiep- 
 herds, particularly riding nations, to lay 
 wafte an enemy's country. If the Ruffian 
 court apprehended the lofs of much power 
 or territory, it would, without fcruple, let 
 loofe their ColTuks, &c. What devalla- 
 tion could the peafants of Germany do, in 
 comparifon to thefe, under the direction 
 of Ruflian officers ? 
 
 IV.
 
 ( 5S ) 
 
 r 
 
 IV. 
 
 War, as other arts, is continually Im- 
 proving ; the capacity of men is fo too. 
 Yet, from the good fenfe, humanity, love 
 of quiet, averfion to fatigue, lejfifhnefs, 
 fear of encountering dangers which are 
 new, the want of epidemical pafTions, and 
 of blind prejudice in favour of one*s feif 
 in its people, a nation, in the laft ftjges 
 of fociety, may be conquered, province by 
 province, or perhaps even at once, by any 
 fliepherd nation that chufes to attack it. 
 No art, by which a reward of wealth, rank, 
 or fame, proportioned to its difficulty, &:c. 
 is not gained, will be followed by many. 
 There feems to have been a" progrefs of 
 fraud in the managemeQt of the pecuniary 
 intcrefts of government. 
 
 Among people fo warlike and adive aa 
 the Europeans, chivalry mud have retard- 
 ed the progrefs of civilization ; it added to 
 
 the
 
 { 56 ) 
 
 the caufes of war *, and of diverting from 
 luxury people little addided to literary a- 
 mufements of any kind. 
 
 ^ -particular Cafe, 
 
 it has been faid, that the Pruflian em- 
 pire is upon diet j that the Britilh empire 
 is in that flate in which the phyfician al- 
 lows his patient to do what he pleafes, will 
 be held by many of thofe who confider all 
 the circumftances of its condition. 
 
 There is no harm in my printing an in- 
 quiry, whether a fcheme be not the bell 
 that a bad fituation allows. It is, to drop 
 the fleet. We are at war with a combina- 
 tion far fuperior to us in power. Though, 
 by the whim of human affairs we fhould 
 
 get 
 
 * The hurt of private war is well known.
 
 { S7 ) 
 
 get out of this, with Uttle or no lofs of 
 territory, we mud exped: to be foon in 
 war again. War adds little to our taxes ; 
 our country is not the feat of it ; we are 
 republicans, cut off, in fome meafure, from 
 the world ; no wonder if we are readier to 
 enter into war than any other people. The 
 wars we have begun, merely to get a choice 
 of markets to fell goods, are well known. 
 The expence laid out by the French and 
 Spaniards on their fleets, fhows they are 
 refolved to defend their colonies, and makes 
 it probable they will perfift for fome time 
 in fchemes depending on naval force. Have 
 we any title or reafon to expe»5l that they 
 will leave us any thing they think them- 
 felves at liberty to take ? 
 
 The grandeur of the French monarchy 
 feemed to difpenfe it from the precautions 
 neceflary to other powers : But may not a 
 minifter arife, who will facrifice connec- 
 tion enough to give the monarchy the ef- 
 H fed
 
 { 58 ) 
 
 fedl that its wealth, and the character of 
 its fubjeds entitle it to ? 
 
 It is more difficult to form troops in Bri- 
 tahi than on the Continent ; and the dif- 
 pofition of Parliament, the army appearing 
 lefs neceflary to us, led miniftry to make 
 ufe of military command as rank and pen- 
 fion *. When the army was more necef- 
 fary, ours might be little inferior to thofe 
 of our neighbours : The country could now 
 maintain a great one. 
 
 It is probable that few capitals would 
 quit the country. In fome countries, the 
 rank of a merchant is lefs honourable, as is 
 that of a fubjed: who has no power at 
 court ; many would think a fubjedl of the 
 Britifli government a higher condition than 
 the fubjed of a fimple monarchy ; in o- 
 
 thers 
 
 * In the late ttials of the two Admirals, the fleet, 
 after every allowance to be made for party, and for newf- 
 paper manoeuvres, made aa appearance that was little 
 
 expecled.
 
 ( S9 ) 
 
 thers the profits are lefs, and they would 
 have to contend with abilities more fhar- 
 pened than their own ; in others no more 
 lale than at home ; in all they would be 
 ftrangers, and in fome find their country- 
 men their competitors ; ftock could no 
 where be fo eafily managed as at home. 
 Some capitals would perhaps be taken or 
 forced out of the Ihipping bufinefs with 
 lofs *. 
 
 Reftraining Ireland made the employ 
 more certain : The Irifh could buy more 
 foon after the reflraints were taken off: 
 Few have full grounds to guefs whether 
 they would buy more from us or not, ex- 
 cept court drefles, which the fovereignty 
 of the King would fecure. How far the 
 
 iaflu- 
 
 * On the different employments of capital, on fo^elg^ 
 trade, and money, I refer to what has been faid by 
 Hume, Smith, and above. As to the reft, thofe who 
 entered into fuch trade as we were in, would one way 
 or other make room for us.
 
 ( 6o ) 
 
 influence and example of the court would 
 extend the confumptlon of Britifli drefles 
 among the riiiddling clafTes of people, not 
 many have a title to conjecture. 
 
 The exportation of fhips, iron, &c. from 
 America, would probably not be reftrain- 
 ed. 
 
 The other commodities we get from the 
 Colonies and the Eaft Indies are fuch, that, 
 even in this country, the influence and ex- 
 ample of the court would limit the ufe of 
 them to very narrow bounds, without any 
 regulation. If fuch as our country did not 
 produce were entirely prohibited, a very 
 moderate exertion would hinder any im- 
 portation worth noticing. The muflins, 
 fugar, &c. fold us by foreigners, would 
 furely be as proper a fubjecSl of taxation as 
 the fugar, &c. fold us by ourfelves. If 
 drawbacks were then given, it would be 
 for reafons on which no fl:refs is laid at 
 prefent. We fhould then have a wider 
 
 market
 
 ( 6i ) 
 
 market to buy moft of thefe commodities in, 
 and in no cafe a narrower. 
 
 From the ruins of the Mogul empire 
 powerful Hates have rifen ; war is impro- 
 ving in the country, which, befides, has 
 been long polilhed. It cannot be expected 
 that the diftance of India fliould not affe<St 
 deeply the condition of the people, and the 
 management of the revenue after it comes 
 in. The bulk of the Whites, and fome na- 
 tives who were in favour, or expedled it, 
 might, perhaps, for a long time, prefer 
 the diftant government ; it is more certain, 
 that almofl the whole of the natives would 
 prefer an independent one in the country, 
 even a White and a Chriftian one. 
 
 Accordingly, the military force fent o- 
 ver, has always been fmall, and fent by 
 ftealth. 
 
 Leaving the territories .in the hands of 
 the Company, government might draw 
 
 fome
 
 ( 62 ) 
 
 fome money from it, and reward fome fer- 
 vants, by giving them or their friends 
 places in the country ; taking them into its 
 own hands, it could reward many more, 
 and draw more money, or the fame money 
 with lefs opprefTion, as its management 
 would probably be more vigorous than that 
 of the Company ; threatening to take them 
 is a middle way. When government had 
 • ore to give, its fervants would crave 
 jr^o^e. How much would the high pric^ 
 be lov\rered, when the fund which afforded 
 it was greatly lelTened, or loft ? 
 
 Without any difTertation upon _ the qua- 
 drille party on the Continent, it will be 
 allowed, that there is no occafion for our 
 interference to ftop any preponderating 
 power : When there fliall, the more reft 
 we have, the more we can do. 
 
 The longer it is deferred, ihe more our 
 burthens are increafed. 
 
 The
 
 ( 63 ) 
 
 The increafe of the national debt may. 
 kad the people to wifh for monarchy, as 
 the only chance they have of getting rid 
 of it. 
 
 Confined to Britain and Ireland, the fi- 
 luation of the King would be more enviable 
 than that of any monarch in Europe. 
 
 If undertaken, it would be eafily exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 Why not undertaken, and that imme- 
 diately ? 
 
 * * e& * * 
 
 Hie muUa deftderantur. 
 
 When I read the within, I am tempted 
 to think, that I too am a painter; but, 
 
 when
 
 ( 64 ) 
 
 when I confider that expedation has been 
 analyfed, I relapfe into my natural fcepti» 
 cifm, and reft fatisfied, that, 
 
 De las cofas mas feguras 
 La mas Jegura es dudar.
 
 xx>o<xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>^xxxxxxxxxxx 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 AUTHENTICITY 
 
 O F 
 
 O S S I A N. 
 
 xxxxxxcxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
 
 OF THE 
 
 AUTHENTICITY of OSSIAN. 
 
 1 Propose only a few thoughts on this 
 fubjedl, without pretending to decide 
 the queftion. They are the ideas of one 
 who never faw any of the fuppofed Gaelic 
 copy but what M'Pherfon has printed, and 
 the Epiibde which introduces the Fourth 
 Book of Fingal, with two not inconfide- 
 rable variations, addrefled to a perfoQ very 
 different from Malvina. 
 
 I. 
 
 The ideas are thofe of a great poet. 
 
 This
 
 ( 68 ) 
 
 This has been denied, becaufe of diffe- 
 rent circiimftances. 
 
 A mode of exprefiion which is not ufed 
 either in Englifh, French, Italian, or Spa- 
 nifh, ' the tree of the rujll'mg leafy ' the 
 
 * felds of my reft ; * the bed of thy repofe ; 
 this is much ufed in the Gaelic. 
 
 There is no language but has modes of 
 expreffion which appear to a certain eye, 
 or to all eyes, on fome occafions, ridiculous, 
 if the words of another language are thrown 
 into them. Tranflate word for word into 
 Englifh the phrafes, ' qiiilfuffit d'tinfana- 
 
 * tique pour \ * Le propre du fanatifme eft 
 ' d^chaiiffcr les tetes ; ' Quelc^ues perfon- 
 ' nes proferent des paroles indlfcretes et vi- 
 
 * olentes ;' yet thefe expreflions are con- 
 ftantly ufed by the moft clafTical French 
 authors. We know but little of the Latin 
 language ; yet, it cannot be denied, that 
 many pafTages of the Epiftolae Obfcurorum 
 Virorum, and Swift's Latinitas Grattanla- 
 
 na
 
 { 69 ) 
 
 jia are ridiculous, merely becaufe we know 
 the mode of expreflion is that of a modern 
 language, and are fure it is very different 
 from the Roman. 
 
 In the Gaelic, the expreffion * field of my 
 ' reft,' or * my field of reft,' is (for inftance) 
 preferable to that ' field where I reft,' as it 
 exprefles the fame idea in fewer founds and 
 in fewer words. 
 
 II. 
 
 In tracing the different fteps by which 
 language arrived to what it now is, Smith 
 found an employment not beneath his ge- 
 nius ; many refpedlable men had failed in 
 it ; much lefs genius is required to gain one 
 or more of the fteps: In polifhed times 
 people are preity much tied down to what 
 was made in times lefs refined. According- 
 ly, one cannot examine a page of the bed 
 books in Englilh, French, or Italian au- 
 thors,
 
 ( 7° ) 
 
 thors, if he does it in this view, without 
 feeing that the language is fcarce any where 
 what one would wifh it, in any refpedt. 
 Each has faults in idiom, figure, and con- 
 ftrudion peculiar to itfelf ; and the idiom, 
 figure, and conftru^tion of all are confined 
 by cuftom within too narrow limits. In 
 all of them, too, one is forced to ufe many 
 more founds and words, on almoft every 
 occafion, than he would wifli if he ftudies 
 the matter ever fo little. The Latin is, in 
 this refpe£t, far fuperior to any of the lan- 
 guages above mentioned ; yet, even in 
 writing hiflory, Tacitus found it fluggifh. 
 This fault muft be flill more felt wlien on© 
 fpeaks in public than in hiftory, and yet 
 ftill more in poetry. In poetry, it will be 
 more felt in figured than in plain ftyle, as 
 that may very eafily be too long ; in ge- 
 neral, where the mind is moft to be moved, 
 the pallage would gain moft by being in 
 few words and founds. 
 
 It
 
 ( 7« ) 
 
 It is fufRcient to cite a few inflances. 
 
 The firft -is from the addrefs to the fun 
 in Carthon, * But thofe thyfelf moveft a- 
 
 * lone ; nvho can be a companion of thy 
 
 * courfe.' The phrafe in Italics is much 
 longer than one would wifh. 
 
 The other is from Lathmon ; * Offian 
 
 * rufh'd forward in his ftrength, and the 
 
 * people fell before him ; as the grafs by 
 
 * the Jiaff of the boy^ ijuhen he ivh'ijlles a- 
 ' long thefeldy and the gray beard of the 
 ' thijile falls. But carelefs the youth mo'ves 
 ' on; his Jieps are toivards the defertj 
 The fame may be faid of this. 
 
 Ill, 
 
 The beft critics of France con/efs, that 
 
 their language, as to found, cailence, and 
 
 turn of expreffion, is, as they e^^iprefs them- 
 
 , felves,
 
 ( 72 ) 
 
 fclves, extremely profaic, as well as mono- 
 tonous. 
 
 IV. 
 
 The poet and all his perfonages are un- 
 civilized. 
 
 This is no proof that a work is bad of 
 its kind, though it may be true that its 
 kind is inferior. Mixing much in civili- 
 zed life, confidering little or not at all any 
 buf r^^e ideas of fuch a ftate of fociety, em- 
 ploying a good deal of time in writing in 
 thefe ideas, attempting feldom or never to 
 imitate the ideas of uncultivated life, may 
 eafily hinder a man from entering into the 
 feelings of a favage. 
 
 V.
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
 V. 
 
 The frequency of his fimilies and figu- 
 red exprefTions is infifled on. 
 
 The poco piu and poco meno of thefe in 
 their numbers, or in each part, will not be 
 agreed on by writers ; the oratory of the 
 North Americans Ihows them to be not un- 
 natural to favages ; and as the Whites are 
 fuperior to any other breed of huinan crea- 
 tures, it is no violent fuppofitlon, that the 
 oratory of at leaft fome varieties of Whites 
 has been alfo much figured. 
 
 VI. 
 
 That he has made the fun, moon, and 
 ftars dance the bowling green. 
 
 Firft, as to the uniformity of his images, 
 
 Dr Blair, in one of the bed pieces of cri- 
 
 K ticifm 
 
 P
 
 ( 74 ) 
 
 ticiim we have in any language, has fhown 
 that there is not at all in them that uni- 
 formity that has heen alledged. The num- 
 ber of objects employed is fmall ; but they 
 are placed in many different views. 
 
 Next, as to the propriety of them, Dr 
 Blair, in the above mentioned differtation, 
 has feen all that was to be faid on this fub- 
 je£t. The ufe of an image is to make an 
 effedl greater than a plain narration would 
 do ; and they have often been employed 
 with approbation, whtre, I confefs, I could 
 fee no other effect than bringing to reft the 
 excited imagination. It is, therefore, in- 
 difpenfible that their eflcd ihould be of the 
 fame kind or fpecies with that of the objed: 
 to which they are fubjoined ; but, if this 
 is obferved, it is obvious, and aulhorifed by 
 univerfal practice, that a confiderable lati- 
 tude may be allowed in the refemblance. 
 Two inilances will fliow that Oflian's ima- 
 ges rarely fail in this point: ^ Js roll a 
 * thoujand luaves to the rocky Jo Sivarans 
 
 * hojl
 
 ( 75 ) 
 
 * hojl came on ; Fing. B. i. * Nor my foul 
 
 * carekfs as that fta zvhich lifts its blue 
 ' ivaves to every 'wind ;' Oethona. 
 
 On the latitude allowed in frequency or 
 in ftrudure of images, 1 have faid above 
 all I need fay here. 
 
 The principal circumftance is the ideas 
 prefented to the mind. 
 
 VII. 
 
 The want of verfification in the Englifli 
 appears as a defefl of the firft magniiude. 
 The principal parts of a piece are much 
 improved by good verfification, which al- 
 fo renders the inferior parts more agreea- 
 ble or lefs tireforae ; befides, that there is 
 more difficulty overcome. 
 
 There is certainly a pleafure in feeing 
 difficulty overcome ; this circumftance, 
 
 how-
 
 ( 76 ) 
 
 however, ought not to be put in competi- 
 tion with any difference worth mentioning 
 in the other articles. 
 
 Good verfification has certainly an effect 
 of the fame kind with imagery ; yet, not- 
 withftanding the liccnfe permitted to in-!- 
 creafe the concifenefs, is the whole in ca- 
 pital pafiages often equal to what might 
 be attained,- v/ith lefs labour, in profe, 
 where one has fo much more choice ? And 
 is not the effedt oftener miffed ? I think 
 that, with regard to the more conftrained 
 kinds of verfification, as the Italian, he- 
 roic ftanza, French and Englilh epic verfe, 
 with rhymes, the matter is very clear. The 
 ftridt folrm of the ftanza and the rhymes 
 are remains of thofe monkifli and Gothic 
 delicacies which are now every where a- 
 bandoned, they are of the fame fpecies or 
 effect with the others, differing only in de- 
 
 gree.
 
 ( 11 ) 
 
 It IS a real lofs, that the clofe of the 
 ftanza and the return of the rhyme, fhould 
 be perceived ; yet they generally obtrude 
 themfelvcs. This conftraint and labour, 
 therefore, is fubmitted to for a found that, 
 at beft, lliould not be heard, but whofe ufual 
 operation is leflening the effedl. Even in 
 Englifh blank verfe it is a lofs that the end 
 of the line fhould be perceived merely as 
 the end of the line *'. The cffedils of a great- 
 er choice are perhaps ftill lefs to be difpenfed 
 with in inferior pallages This directs us to 
 an irregular verfification, which has more 
 advantage from found than that ftridtly re- 
 gular, and in which, at the fame time, the 
 writer has much more choice. But, tho' 
 fuch verfe has more advantage from found 
 than either regular verfe or profe, yet the 
 latter has ftill fomewhat more choice. As 
 to the preference, this I prefume is like 
 all other cafes of matters of tafte, wher^ 
 
 there 
 
 * The obfervatlon of Blair (Crit. Diff. on Ofl'.) is al- 
 fo juil, though the Englifh copy be fuppofed the origi- 
 nal.
 
 ( 78 ) 
 
 theie are oppofite advantages, that a con- 
 fiderable latitude muft be admitted. (Vide 
 Hume on fimplicity and Refinement.) 
 
 It were proper, in thefe critics who think 
 that the being in profe makes fo much a- 
 gainft the Englifli copy, to fufpend their 
 judgment of the Galic copy in this refped:, 
 till it appear. 
 
 The opinions anfwered above may ap- 
 pear extremely fuperficial ; fuch as they 
 are, however, they have determined emi- 
 nent men. It may feem trifling to wifh 
 that a capital paflage of Taflb (for in- 
 ftance) was put into fuch French profe as 
 the opening of Fingal chofe, as being fee- 
 ble, is put into, in the ^lejiions fur V En- 
 cyclopedic^ article^ Anciens et Modcrnes» 
 
 VIIL
 
 ( 79 ) 
 
 viir. 
 
 The author has not evaded minute ftrckes, 
 as the author of Phalaris's Epiftles has 
 done, but enters into painting as minute 
 as any in moft works, and has preferved 
 the utmoft confiftency in the^ainting. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Blair obfervcd, that theimagery is drawn 
 from a few objeds, all of uncultivated life, 
 which are placed in feveral different lights j 
 that this invention is of great ability ; it 
 is quite confident with the favage (late ; 
 it is fo different from the pradice of po- 
 lilhed ages, it was very unlikely to enter 
 into the head of a man in our times; there 
 is no deviation into civilized life ; the at- 
 tempt is bold and executed with fuccefs, 
 though a great quantity of imagery is far 
 
 beyond
 
 ( 8o ) 
 
 teyond what is ufed in civilized times, and 
 extremely various. 
 
 X. 
 
 Whatever grounds for the mytholo- 
 gy might have been found in the High- 
 lands, there is none rcfemblinglt in books, 
 only fome ftrokes in the Old Teftament, a 
 book not likely to be taken for a model. 
 
 Milton's failure . in that his devils, 
 angels, and the Almighty, are but men, 
 if one or two ftrokes on Satan be not 
 excepted, had indeed not been obferved *, 
 but the charader of the age is not favour- 
 able, either to the produdion or reception 
 of mythology. The charader he had 
 to affume was extremely favourable to both. 
 But he faw that, in the fublime, there is 
 indiftindnefs. All the various and nume- 
 rous 
 
 * I have no where met this remark ; but I think it 
 requires only being made, to be admitted.
 
 ( 8f j 
 
 rous paintings are amazingly executed, and 
 in the fimplicity of a favage of great ge-* 
 hius. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Blair has obferved another circumftance 
 which ftrongly marks times greatly more 
 rude than ours. ' No artful tranfitions ; 
 
 * nor full and extended connedion of 
 
 * parts ; fuch as we find among the po- 
 
 * ets of later times, when order and 
 
 * regularity of compofition were more 
 
 * ftudied and known ; but a ftile al- 
 ' ways rapid and vehement ; in narration 
 
 * concifc, even to abruptnefs, and leaving 
 
 * feveral circumftances tobe fupplied by the 
 
 * reader's imagination.' Every one would 
 not notice it, and very few could fupport 
 it.
 
 ( s^ ) 
 
 XIL 
 
 The want of abftrad: ideas, fo decifive a 
 mark of rude times, did not efcapethe acute 
 obfervation of Blair. Though Conda- 
 mine's voyage was printed many years be- 
 fore M'Pherfon's firft publication, yet there 
 was no mean fagacity in making ufe of it. 
 It is extremely difficult to abftain fron^ 
 ihefe through the whole length of fuch a 
 work ; yet this is done in fuch a manner 
 that the whole lies within ihe imagination 
 of a Peruvian, in whofe language, fays 
 Condamine, though it admits, in a great 
 degree, energy and elegance, there is no 
 word to exprefs Tme^ Duration^ Space ^ 
 Beings Subfimcey Matter^ Body^ Virtue^ 
 Jujiice^t 6*^. 
 
 XIIL
 
 ( 83 ) 
 
 XIII. 
 
 We cannot but admire the talents that 
 could fupport, as he has done, through fo 
 large a work, the charader of a great fa- 
 vage poet, painting, minutely, in the fhac- 
 kles of an imagery, a train of compofition, 
 and an extent of idea fo different from thofe 
 of civilized times, let him write ever fo 
 much at his eafe, but ftill more if he was 
 difturbed by confcioufnefs of deceit, or o- 
 ther occupations *. 
 
 The queftion comes, then, whether his 
 other writings (how poetical and hiflorical 
 talents equal to fuch a performance ? 
 
 On it I (hall fay nothing. 
 
 If 
 
 * Alzire is a great work ; byt the Indians are more 
 Europeans than Peruvians. There is only one article in 
 which they refemble the favages, that their paffions arc 
 fomewhat lefs reftrained than the others. Yet the parts 
 of the Peruvians muft have been confidered by the au- 
 thor, as one of, if not the gr (^teft novelty in the piece.
 
 ( H ) 
 
 If it were made to appear that he who 
 could fit down ferioufly to write the pre- 
 face, the notes, the differtation on the an- 
 tiquity of Offian, and of that before the 
 fecond volume, and the introdudion to 
 the hiftory of Britain and Ireland, (this laft 
 was publiflied fome years after Offian) could 
 not have, in hiftory, the acutenefs that ap- 
 pears in the poems, it muft be admiued, 
 either that he did not compofe the poems, 
 or that he underwrote the other pieces to 
 cover the deceit. This laft fuppofition will 
 feem the more bold, if it appears that one 
 genius runs through thefe pieces. 
 
 If it r.ppears that the preface, the notes, 
 and the above mentioned differtatioris, are 
 written as if the author of them did not, in 
 regard to hiftory, underftand the poems, 
 the fame alternative occurs. 
 
 If it is made to appear that the poetry 
 he wrote before, or at the time Offian was 
 handed about, is fuch that it could not be 
 
 ferioufly
 
 ( 85 ) 
 
 rerioufly written by the author of OfFiatij 
 the fame ahernative occurs. The fuppo- 
 fition, that this was underwritten with a 
 view to the other, is the more bold the 
 longer the interval between the appearance 
 of both, particularly if, when the firfl: ap- 
 peared, the author was driving to get him- 
 felf into notice. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Suppofing, now, for a moment, that 
 there was an original compofed in the firft 
 ages of Chriftianity, and that this fhould, 
 in all fucceeding times, have been efteem- 
 ed the principal work in the language : 
 From ignorance, affedation, negled, and 
 the numberlefs accidents to which tradi- 
 tional pieces, ever fo much repeated, and 
 perhaps, too, from changes in language, 
 this muft have come to Mr M'Pherfon's 
 hands more or lefs altered, and in different 
 ways. How much it is difficult to fay. 
 
 This
 
 { 86 ) 
 
 This renders fingle words or lines a very- 
 uncertain foundation for conjedure : Vaft- 
 ly more uncertain in this cafe than in vo- 
 lumes of law, which ferve as a rule to the 
 countries they are coi^pofed in, which are 
 never trufted to tradition, and which come 
 into the prefs as foon as printing is tolera- 
 bly done. If it renders the detedion of a 
 deceit more difficult, it may caufe an ap- 
 pearance of deceit, though there ihould be 
 none, 
 
 XV. 
 
 In compofing fuch a work, one who had 
 much lefs confidence in his own powers 
 than was neceffary for attempting the En- 
 lifh copy of OfTian, {not to mention the 
 Gaelic copy he would exped would be 
 called for) might naturally enough think 
 of fetting it up againft Homer: Yet ther^ 
 is not one attempt at wit in the whole col- 
 
 ledion.
 
 ( 87 ) 
 
 kdion, not even at the pleafantry of a 
 melancholy bard. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 The generofity of Fingal and others is 
 much infilled on. 1 inquired fo late what 
 opportunity I had, and made fo little ufe 
 of what 1 had, that I can only fay, that 
 M'Pherfon is not the fir ft who reprefented 
 Fingal fparing his enemies. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 It has been faid there is chivalry in the 
 poems. 
 
 By chivalry is meant here, that refined 
 chivalry which has been painted in fo ma- 
 ny hiftories and romances. 
 
 This,
 
 ( 88 ) 
 
 This, with the five following objedions^ 
 if admitted, would go far to prove, that 
 very little of the work was fabricated by 
 M'Pherfon ; the more, if they are errors 
 in the ftrain of the notes, &c. Thev are 
 all blunders not eafily fufpeded of the ar- 
 tifice which fabricated the poems ; for, 
 though every man has weak moments, e- 
 very man revifes, and deceit caufes anxiety. 
 But thefe objedlons, it is to be confefled, 
 are not well founded. 
 
 Chivalry muft have come gradually and 
 flowly to its height ; all origins, fays He- 
 naut, are obfcure. We know not in whofe,; 
 or in how many countries, its coarfe be- 
 ginnings appeared ; whether many coun- 
 tries had not to learn from foreigners, be- 
 caufe thele were entirely given up, or that 
 they remained the fame, or that they were 
 improved fo flowly. Here the defining and 
 obtaining fingle combats, or combats of 
 numbers againfl numbers, for mere name, 
 
 the
 
 ( 89 ) 
 
 the wifhing to be remembered after death 
 to a wife or a young woman, are given, 
 even in Englifh, in fuch a manner, that 
 they at moft only refemble what we may 
 conceive chivalry, in its rudeft ftate, to 
 have been, and very different from what 
 it afterwards came to be. Infilling that 
 this alfo is done by MTherfon, fuppofes 
 that he thoroughly underftood chivalry; an 
 addition which will be allowed to be at 
 leaft too confiderable to be dropt. 
 
 Befides the chance there ^as of va- 
 riations prior to M'Pherfon, 1 heard a po- 
 em repeated, containing combats of num- 
 bers againft numbers, and fingle combats, 
 which was certainly not compofed by 
 M'Pherfon. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 Here appears a Therfites. MTherfon 
 
 was not the firft who prefented him. In rhc 
 
 M only
 
 { 90 ) 
 
 only poem I could repeat of the few lever 
 heard, Connan (the Therfites) defires Fin- 
 gal to put into his hands a perlon defign- 
 ed by the word we at prefent tranflate King, 
 whom Fingal had fpared, after vanquifh- 
 ing him in fmgle combat, that he might take 
 off his head. 
 
 XIX, 
 
 Cuchullin has a chariot *. It is to be'ob- 
 ferved, that none of the others ufe one ; 
 and he appears only in Ireland. I know 
 that MTherfon was not the fi'-fl who gave 
 a defcription of Cuchullin's chariot. 
 
 XX. 
 
 Mr Gibbon has fhowed that there is lit- 
 tle reafon to think that OfTian knew the 
 
 name 
 
 * Dio (Xiph. lib. 76.) fays the Caledonians, in the 
 y-ge of Severus, had horfes, and fought in chariots.
 
 ( 9' ) 
 
 name Caracalla. In fabricating the poems, 
 it would be natural to affign, within certain 
 limits, the time they were written in. This 
 would, however, be equally natural in 
 very many of thofe who tranfmitted, either 
 by writing or repetition, genuine poems. 
 There is no man but would examine a lit- 
 tle the pafTages he inferted, for this purpofe. 
 The few books requifite for the hiftory of 
 Caracalla were at M'Pherfon's hand, and 
 the hiftory of the name is no way difficult. 
 Father Bower could not avoid giving cir- 
 cumftances ; but the neceffity here was not 
 at all fo great as to force one to inferr v^hat 
 was fcarcely pofTible, and not at all pro- 
 bable ; for it is very eafily feen, that the 
 want of fuch a particular would not weiglv 
 much among the other evidence, external 
 and internal. 
 
 My information is fo (lender, that 1 only 
 know that there is mention, in traditions, of 
 the Son of the King of the World ; I know 
 
 not
 
 ( 92 ) 
 
 not whether he is an imaginary perfonagCj 
 or whether he is not even given as fuch. 
 
 XXT. 
 
 In the DlfTertation on the Antiquity, &c. 
 of Offian's Poems, and in the notes, Caros 
 is faid to be the fame as Caraufius, and Ca- 
 racul is fuppofed to be Caracalla. Fingal 
 oppofed him about the year 210. Ofcar, 
 fay 70 years after, oppofed Caraufius, who 
 aflumed the purple A. D. 287. Fingal 
 furvived Ofcar, (Temora, B. i.) ; and, 
 though, he felt the effeds of age fo much, 
 that he then declared he was to fight 
 the laft of his fields, yet he appears ftill 
 far fuperior to all the heroes ; and that in 
 favage hfe, in fuch a country, and fuch a 
 climate. 
 
 IXXII.
 
 ( 93 ) 
 
 XXIL 
 
 There is in Carthon a ftrange error. Fin- 
 gal, in a very fuperior piece of poetry, fym- 
 pathifes with Cleflamor that Balclutha was 
 defolate. As foon as Carthon's Veflels ap- 
 pear, he is known to be the King of Bal- 
 clutha ; the bard fpeaks to him by his name. 
 In his anfwer, he gives himfelf as the heir 
 of thofe whofe dwelling Comhal had de- 
 ftroyed ; he is young. Balclutha is placed 
 on the Clyde ; Fingal mud have been 
 known in, and had fome knowledge of 
 thefe quarters; for, (not to mention the 
 fpoils of the Roman conquefts, and that 
 M'Pherfon, in a note to the war of Caros, 
 places Hidallan's country in or nearStirling- 
 fhire) Comhal and Cleflamor had made in- 
 curfions into the country feized by the Ro- 
 mans ; Ofcar had gone to the neighbour- 
 hood of the Romans ; Fingal had fought 
 againft them oftener than once, and v/as 
 
 jua
 
 ( 94 ) 
 
 juft returned from an incurfion. It is need- 
 lefs to fay how much ClefTamor's affedions 
 were flill engaged by what had happened 
 at Balclutha. Yet Cleflamor goes down 
 without any queftions being afked by him- 
 felf, or any one elfe, or the leaft fufpicion 
 being exprefTed, that Carthon might be his 
 fon or near relation. Carthon is .a work 
 of much enthufiafm ; but the error is not 
 only very grofs, but of a fpecies M'Pher- 
 fon was not likely to fall into. In the bard 
 it was impoflible. It is to be accounted for 
 moft naturally by MTherfon's keeping to 
 what he found. 
 
 XXIIL 
 
 It is with a good deal of diffidence I en* 
 ter upon the fpecimen of the original fub-^ 
 joined to the Englifh copy. One who 
 hears the language conftantly, and hears 
 little in it he can ftudy with pleafure, may, 
 if he is a man of habit, feel a mechanical 
 
 averfion
 
 { 95 ) 
 
 averfion to any new thing that appears in 
 it. 1 applied to a clergyman in my neigh- 
 bourhood, a man of tafte, who faid he was 
 alfo of opinion that the Knghih copy was 
 fuperior to the Gaelic. 
 
 The Gaelic copy feems to me amazingly 
 contrived to fupport the deceit. That mode 
 ot compofition which, as Blair obferved, 
 marks times greatly more rude than ours, 
 is carried ftill further in the Gaelic, though 
 in verfe, than in the profe in Englifh. The 
 whole is more concife, too, in fome mea- 
 fure, no doubt, from the nature of the lan- 
 guage. In many capital pafTages, this 
 makes the Gaelic copy prodigioufly fupe- 
 rior. I cannot fay, (1 am, indeed, no good 
 judge) I have feen above two or three 
 words that feemed Knglifh, nor any terms 
 of phrafe peculiar to l^nglifh. If the Gae- 
 lic was really the original, it is ftrange that 
 there Ihould be nothing of this: Some 
 might remain, though fome were correc-*- 
 ted. 
 
 Ia
 
 ( 96 ) 
 
 In tranflating fuch an original as the 
 Gaelic, the hand of a civilized tranflator 
 could not but fome appear, more or lefs ; 
 Via, Picrcy^s Rio Verde, 
 
 It feems to me, that the two copies are 
 not farther from, or neaier to one another, 
 than is perfedly confiftent with the fuppo- 
 fition of the Englifh being a tranflation 
 from the Gatlic, done by a mafterly hand. 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 Comes Littoris Saxonici is an oiEce of 
 the firft ages of our aera. The Littus Sa^- 
 onicum per Britanniam lies in the fouth 
 of the ifland, and the other on the coaft 
 of Gaul, oppolite to the fouthern part of 
 Britain, 
 
 XXV,
 
 ( 97 ) 
 
 He fays little of obfolete exprefTion in 
 his original ; the language of the fpecimen 
 he gives, and of courfe, the whole, to a 
 trifle at moft, is intelligible at this day, to 
 all who underftand Gaelic unmixed with 
 English. This I know is the cafe WMth o- 
 ther poems to which the name of OfTian is 
 put. 
 
 Though the general mechanifm of hu- 
 man paffion is every where the fame ; yet 
 the particular differences are numerous and 
 confiderable, as alfo their efiects. 
 
 It may eafily have happened, among the 
 various tra(f;ts which language takes, that, 
 in a bad country, feldom quiet, where 
 conqueft or religion affeded the language 
 but little, where foreign models were not 
 imitated, but rather difliked ; and where 
 there v/as fome attachment to anceftors, 
 feme time after a language had got inid 
 the form we call grammatical, it might 
 remain long while the people continued 
 N rude.
 
 ( 98 ) 
 
 rude, without much alteration in the words 
 or ftrudure. 
 
 Attempts at elegance, fo minute as to af- 
 fedl the words and ftrudurc of the lan- 
 guage, fuppofes a degree of refinement. 
 
 Though this conjedure feems fo fafe, 
 that it may appear to be what has gene- 
 rally happened among nations in fuch cir- 
 cumftances, yet the fad may pafs unno- 
 ticed; the mere language of people in bar- 
 barifm does not tempt civilized nations to 
 make dictionaries of it ; and among them- 
 felves, when once books, even tranflations^ 
 become tolerably numerous, a more minute 
 elegance is ftudied ; foreign books are ftu- 
 died, and then nothing but a moft obftinate 
 attachment can hinder the language from 
 changing very much, though it fhould be 
 aifeded neither by religion nor conqueft. 
 Books and records fecure to us the know- 
 ledge of the language in all its variations, 
 and an alteration may be imagined fo rapid 
 
 as
 
 ( 99 ) 
 
 as that they would retard it. But it is not 
 probable that fuch an alteration ever hap- 
 pened while a people was flill barbarous 
 and left to themfelves. 
 
 In the cafe in queftion, the only altera- 
 tion that 1 have heard has taken place of 
 late, is the intermixture of Englifh; if we 
 go but a little way back, we can hardly 
 fuppofe that they aimed at elegance fo mi- 
 nute as to affed: much the words or the 
 conftrudtion of the language. 
 
 It does not feem probable that the bards 
 have, for feveral centuries paft, had rank 
 enough to get their changes followed, if 
 they were to propofe any. If we go flill 
 farther back, we may fairly fuppofe them 
 to have had lefs inclination to make any. 
 If a chieftain had any whimfical inclination 
 to change, he would exped little encou- 
 ragement from the neighbouring tribes. 
 
 But
 
 ( lOO ) 
 
 * * * * 
 
 But ihere are alfo fome confiderations 
 which faA^our the fufpicion that MTherfon 
 is the author. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 If they had been compofed in the High- 
 lands, within thefc two or three centuries, 
 they would have been forced into the no- 
 tice of the pubhc as Hardyknute and Row- 
 ley's poems', as they would have been com- 
 pofed merely to draw attention. The times 
 before that, Blair has well obferved, were 
 lefs favourable to fuch a production than 
 the ftate of foclety reprefentcd in them. 
 Now, in fome refpedls, they may feem not 
 fuch as wc would expert to be dqne in fuch 
 times. 
 
 Scarce any degree of judgment is c- 
 nough to hinder men from rating too high 
 the attention due to what has long employ- 
 ed them. The more men are moved by 
 paffion, the more they dwell on minute 
 
 particulars^
 
 ( 101 ) 
 
 particulars conne£led with the principal 
 obje£t. Savages are lefs apt to ftudy the 
 movements of their minds than civilized 
 men. They have more violent pafiion, and 
 from having fewer ideas to diftrad them, 
 they dwell the more on what engages them. 
 Hence the minutenefs of Homer's narra- 
 tive. He tells us when his hero buckles 
 his {hoes and ties his garters ; the whole 
 cooking of a feaft ; vvho gets the chine ; 
 not only the detail of every combat between 
 the principal perfonages, but the wound 
 by which a hero kills every obfcure perfon 
 is given, and with great ftudy of words. 
 It is now infupportable, and would be fo, 
 though ravages were not the fubjecc. Net 
 to mention the lift of the forces, TaiTo's 
 combats are now taflc-reading. Nothing 
 of all this is in Offian ; the perfonages are 
 prefented only in fuch light as to intereft 
 us ; no more particulars than arc, in our 
 eyes, enough to complete the impreftion : 
 They cannot tire, ftill lefs difguft any one 
 \yho can bear favages at all. 
 
 xxvir.
 
 ( 102 ) 
 
 XXVIT. 
 
 The landfcapes are numerous, and done 
 by a mafter ; yet many, not to fay moft of 
 tliefe ftrokes are of a kind, one is tempted 
 to imagine, would have little effed: on a 
 favage, even a bard who drew his fimilies 
 from inanimate obje£ls, and ftill lefs on his 
 hearers, though they are not the landfcapes 
 of civilized times. For inftance, ' I came 
 ' to the place where Fillan fought ; nor 
 ' voice nor found is there. A broken hel- 
 ' met lay on earth ; a buckler cleft in 
 
 * twain. Where, Fillan, where art thou, 
 ' young chief of echoing Morven ? He 
 
 * heard me leaning againft a rock, nvhich 
 ' bent its gray head o'uer the Jlream^ He 
 
 * heard ; but, fullen, dark, he ftood ;' Tem. 
 B. 6. The fame may, perhaps, be faid of 
 much of the imagery, not to fay the great- 
 er part of it. 
 
 Thefe
 
 ( i<^3 ) 
 
 Thefe afFe£t the whole book, and in 
 thefe the chara(Sler of a favage poet may 
 feem to be departed from : They are much 
 more delicate than thofe taken notice of in 
 Sed. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. They are not 
 more delicate than thofe noticed in fome 
 other fediions, and which favour the con- 
 trary fuppofition ; but it ought not to be 
 forgot, that it is eafy to fee how much the 
 book is improved by them, in the judgment 
 of our times. 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ".'; 
 
 There occur fome other confiderations, 
 which though of lefs weight, may feem 
 confiftent with the fame fuppofition. 
 
 xxviir. 
 
 I have elfewhere (Paper whether the At- 
 tacotii were Cannibals in the time of Jerom)' 
 endeavoured to fhow, that it is improbable 
 hunters fhould have iron. Once when I 
 applied it to this cafe, it was anfwered, 
 
 ' They
 
 ( I04 ) 
 
 * They got thefe as the Indians got theirs.' 
 I have in the fame Paper remarked, that it 
 is not natural that Hunters fhould fight 
 chiefly hand to hand, and that the fpear, 
 fword, and fhield, fhould be their chief 
 weapons. Yet, though the fhepherd ftate 
 would furnifh many images and ftrokes 
 for landfcapes, we find no traces of it here. 
 It is true I know poems prior to M'Pher- 
 fon, wherein the arms and manner of fight- 
 ing are the fame as here ; but not to infift 
 that the want of imagery in them caufcs 
 a fufpicion of their high antiquity, or that 
 thefe arms and manner of fighting expofes 
 themfelves to fufpicion, inftead of helping 
 to clear the others ; the colledion printed 
 by M'Pherfon, though perhaps in no great 
 proportion to what has paflTcd under Of- 
 fian's name, is flill large as well as various. 
 I recolledt but three, befides the allufions 
 to the fteeds. Thefe laft are not decifive, 
 as they are very few, and the denomina- 
 tion * Steeds of the ftranger's land,' is fome- 
 times ufed. Of the others, the fcene of 
 
 that
 
 { 105 ) 
 
 that ill the firfl: and that in the fecond book 
 of Flngal, is in Ireland, the third is in 
 Caric-Thura, perhaps the moft fufpicious 
 of all the poems. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 It feems ftrange that Oflian fhould have 
 made his own father, who was for fome 
 time his own contemporary, threaten and 
 worft the fpirit of Loda. It is true he was, 
 as Blair remarks, the divinity of another 
 and a hoftile people ; but Homer placed 
 his ftory in remote times. Notwithftand- 
 ing the excellent infinuation in the laft note, 
 that Oflian thought the Gods deferved what 
 they might meet with for interfering in our 
 affairs, the error might eafily efcape notice 
 in the enthufiafm of compofing fo great a 
 work as Carric-Thura. The note at the 
 clofe fuppofes there are precedents for it. 
 Some things here may feem imitations of 
 
 O the
 
 ( «o6 ) 
 
 the Old Teftament, and fet up againft Hd- 
 mer. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 Temora. 
 
 In Fingal the fuccefiion of heroes is fo 
 natural, (whatever may be thought of the 
 epifode of Lamderg and Ullen in the 5th 
 book,) as to extend the piece with as great 
 propriety as can eafily be imagined. But 
 here Fingal had loft Ofcar in the begin- 
 ning, yet ftill keeps off, though a moft 
 obftinate refiftance was to be expeded, and 
 a long fuccefiion is prefented. The error 
 cannot be called a grofs one ; particularly, 
 if thefeven books were written after the be- 
 witching fuccefs of the firft volume. But 
 Offian could not deviate much from fad in 
 what had happened fo recently, however 
 he might colour.
 
 >o<><xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 
 
 O N 
 
 ACCOMPANYMENT. 
 
 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>^xxxxxx
 
 O N 
 
 ACCOMPANYMENT, 
 
 IF.NTER only into a part of the fubje£i:. 
 I hope, however, what I fay will be of 
 ufe to fome of thofe who can make cxpe- 
 riments. I do not attempt to afcertain how 
 the parts influence one another. This, a- 
 mong other things, requires a very nice 
 ear. D'Alembert did not truft his own 
 fo far as to enter into the fads which were 
 difputed, when he wrote, (and which, for 
 aught I know, are fo ftill) though they 
 were fo material. 
 
 If any part in a harmony is once fixed, 
 whether it be the firft, the fecond, the bafs, 
 
 pr
 
 ( "o ) 
 
 or any other accompanyments, it regulates 
 all the others within narrower or wider 
 limits, whatever he the principles which 
 guide the compofirion ; and the choice of 
 thefe principles does not oblige the com- 
 pofer to begin with one part in preference 
 to another. I fhall conlider only pieces 
 compofed on the principles of Rameau and 
 thofe of Tartini (Romieu's tra£l I have 
 not feen) and the very fimpleft cafes. 
 
 D'Alembert grounds Rameau's fyftem on 
 two fads. The firfl, that, if a firing is 
 founded, we hear, befides its found, the 
 o£lave of its fifth above, and the double 
 o6tave of its greater third above. The fe- 
 cond, that, inflead of any note, its odlave 
 above or below may be fubftituted v^ith 
 little variation in the effedt, and that it 
 will make but little difference to fmk or 
 raife the whole piece an odave *. 
 
 Suppofe, 
 
 * This fad is not true. Not to dwell on greater va- 
 riations, it is cafy to produce an inllance, where, by 
 
 finking
 
 { «n ) 
 
 . Suppofe, now, thefe fad:s true, and that 
 they alone influence compofition. 
 
 Confider, firft, a melody compofed by 
 one who had no idea of the fundamental 
 bafs, and which has been firft ufed without 
 any bafs ; fuch melodies, it is well known, 
 exift in great numbers. 
 
 What regulates this melody ? 
 
 To this it is anfwered, that, fince it is 
 agreeable, it muft have one fundamental 
 
 bafs, 
 
 finking a whole piece an o«51ave, it becomes a burlefqiie 
 from being good. One reafon of the error may be, that, 
 from its refemblance the o<flave fo fubftituted fuggefts 
 to certain ears the note (V. Hume's inquiry on human 
 underftanding.) I enter not here farther into this fad, 
 though it were not hard ; for I find in Roufleau's dic- 
 tionary, article Harmony, that Mr Elleve of the Montpel- 
 lier Society had fliowed, that, ' beginning by this fa(5l, 
 * there was nothing demonftrated, or even fully eftabJifh. 
 « ed ' in the whole fyftem ; and this treatife I have nei- 
 ther feen, nor met with any one who had.
 
 ( 112 ) 
 
 bafs, or more, and that bafs regulates the 
 melody *' 
 
 The next queftion is, what regulates 
 this fundamental bafs ? in its key ? in the 
 pitch it is to fet out on ? its firft note ? its 
 progrefs to the clofe ? and the c4ofe ? 
 
 What fuits the melody beft, in regard 
 to thefe, is chofe as its fundamental bafs t. 
 
 Suppofe 
 
 * Though I confefs I do not underftand what D'A- 
 lembert means by his propofition, that • melodie nait 
 * de la harmonic,' yet this anf^'er feeras to rae the only 
 one confiftent with his writings. 
 
 t What is propofed in D'Alembert's writings is to 
 fhow, that, to every piece there is a fundamental bafs, 
 fuch, that notes in the upper parts, whether one or more, 
 are allowed or not according as they fuit it on the prin- 
 ciples mentioned above. This certainly is not done; but I 
 enter not into that queftion, becaufe of Efteve's treatife ; 
 from the ftrain of Jamard's and Rouffeau's books, I am 
 (perhaps too eafily ) tempted to think this is the only fubjeft 
 of it. A choice of fundamental baffes is evidently fuppofed. 
 If the above ftated principles are the only which influence 
 competition, my propolition would go ftill further, if it 
 
 be 
 
 I
 
 ( "3 ) 
 
 Suppofe, next, the fundamental bafs 
 fixed firft, and a melody compofed from 
 it ; this is certainly pradlicable. 
 
 In this cafe, the fundamental bafs regu- 
 lates, within certain limits, the melody. 
 
 The mufic may ftill be the very fame, 
 whichever of the two the compofer choofes 
 fhould regulate the other. 
 
 Suppofe the fundamental bafs made firft. 
 A note fixed, and in confequence its fe- 
 
 venteenth major fet down in the melody 
 
 becaufe of its fou'^rl. with the bafs, and be- 
 
 caufe the bafs is av .ompanied by another 
 
 feventeenth major and a twelfth. If the 
 
 P me- 
 
 be true, what I think very clear, that, in the fundamen- 
 tal bafs, there is no rule of fucceffion but its connection 
 with the upper parts fixed before it ; and that thefe parts, 
 though they might bear to it a conftant relation, are not 
 fixed by that, but by their relation to one another, at the 
 fame time, that it is proper to remark the former rela- 
 tion alfo.
 
 ( "4 ) 
 
 melody Is made firft, the fame note fixed 
 as is placed in the other melody, the very 
 fame confiderations give the fame bafs, the 
 feventeenth major below ; becaufe of its 
 own found, and that it generates a note 
 the unifon of the upper note befides its 
 twelfth. And fo on. 
 
 Confider , next a part betwixt the two, 
 fay a fecond. 
 
 Suppofe the fundamental bafs made firft. 
 The fecond its twelfth, and the upper part 
 Its feventeenth major, becaufe it generates 
 their unifons, and bee -^'^'^^ of their agree- 
 ment with one anothciT If the fecond is 
 fiift made, the fame note fixed in it as in 
 tlie former cafe, the fame reafons of choice 
 give the fundamental bafs and upper part 
 the fame. If the upper part is firft made, 
 the fame reafons give the two other parts 
 the fame. And fo on. 
 
 The fame of all the other parts that are 
 added. 
 
 Tartini
 
 ( "5 ) 
 
 Tartlnl forms the bafs, by the harmony 
 a chord makes with its aliquot parts, and 
 the attention due to the third tone gene- 
 rated by two founding together. In his 
 Trattato di Mufica, chap. i. is the follow- 
 ing pafTage : * Mi domandera poi ella in 
 ' fecondo luogo in qua relazione fi trovi 
 
 * quefto terzo fuono ag'rintervalli rifpettivi 
 
 * da quali rifulta. Le rifpondo che dati i 
 ' feguenti interv.illi, de quali e rifpettivo 
 ' terzo fuono il fottopofto, quefto fara di- 
 
 * monftrativamente il bafTo armonico de 
 
 * dati intervalli e fara paralogifmo qualun- 
 
 * que altro baffo vi fi fottoponga.' 
 
 Suppofe now of the firft three notes 7;;/ and 
 ^5 fliarp given, and that the bafs la is fixed 
 
 from
 
 { "6 ) 
 
 from them, becaufe It is unifon of the tone 
 they generate. If the upper part mi and 
 the bafs la were given, and that the fame 
 confideration were to guide, this fixes the 
 fecond upperpart do fharp, becaufe that is the 
 note which, with the fixed upper part miy 
 generates the unifon of the bafs. And fo 
 on. 
 
 And the fame reafoning may be applied, 
 though the compofition v/ere guided by 
 the principles employed by D'Alembert and 
 thofe of Tartini together ; or any others. 
 
 But what part ought to be firft made*? 
 
 Surely that part to which all the others 
 ferve as accompanyments, more particular- 
 ly, if the effect is to be produced more by 
 
 the 
 
 * It is known to compofers that it ought not be at- 
 tempted to carry on the part without a view, more or 
 lefs, to the others, though it could be done ; and that it 
 cannot be done though attempted, becaufe any part- fag- 
 gefts the others more or lefs.
 
 ( "7 ) 
 
 the fucceffion of notes, and lefs by harmo- 
 nv. We can the lefs exped: meaning, if 
 the beginning is made by an accompany- 
 ment inftead of that part ; and flill the lefs 
 according as the part begun by, is propofed 
 to have lefs feeling. 
 
 If one were to compofe a. piece of mufic, 
 in which the bafs were the principal part 
 in the expreflion, there would be the fame 
 propriety in beginning by it, as there is 
 now in beginning by the upper : As alfo, 
 in beginning by any other part which is 
 made the principal in the expreffion. This 
 will probably be tried one day ; at prefent 
 it appears not fo natural. 
 
 I fhall endeavour to explain how. 
 
 High notes (to fpeak in the inaccuracy 
 of common language) fill the ear more than 
 the low. 
 
 Here,
 
 ( "8 ) 
 
 Here, as in other things, the females 
 have invented little ; their voice pleafes us 
 more than our own, and is an odtave high- 
 er. 
 
 The only other animals who appear to 
 us to have mufic, are birds ; their pipe is 
 acute, and pleafes us. 
 
 As making the bafs an accompanyment 
 feems to me not to have been done from 
 mere caprice, I imagine that this, and fuch 
 other things, will be tried, and come into 
 ufe, chiefly from the love of novelty and 
 variety. 
 
 OF
 
 d!^x^:J^^xJlfx>Sp:^di3l^ 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 EXISTENCE OF BODY. 
 
 3:^c$:c$::#x^2!53-*^c$x5oc5x{f3:^9:53C$3t5j^c$DC^
 
 ON THE 
 
 EXISTENCE OF BODY. 
 
 'TPH E exiftence of body muft always be 
 taken for granted : Reafonings on it 
 are to be made only to difcover the nature 
 of our frame. 
 
 It Is faid that there has been difcovered 
 an argument, which admits no anfwer, to 
 ihow the exiftence of body an abfurdity. 
 
 I prefume, that an argument, or any 
 thing like an argument, to prove that body 
 does not exift, is entirely out of our power. 
 
 Does body exift ? 
 
 ,0. The
 
 ( J22 ) 
 
 The firft queftion in this inquiry is, whe- 
 ther the mind perceives body ? 
 
 This point has been made very clear. Sex- 
 tus Empiricus, {Sceptical Stippofitions^ B. 2, 
 c, 7. and clfiivhere ; alfo Adverf, Mathemat , 
 I. 7. § Of Man), Berkley, [Dialog, on Body), 
 And, ftill more, DAVID HUME, [Trea^ 
 tife of Human NaturCy Vol. i . and EJfay on 
 the Sceptical Philofophy)^ have fhewed, be- 
 yond difpute, that body is never prefent to 
 the mind : That nothing is ever prefent to 
 the mind but fenfations, as extenfion, co- 
 lour, folidity, &c. alledged to be impref- 
 fions made on our frame by body ; move- 
 ments of our frame alledged to be caufed 
 by body. 
 
 The next queftion is, whether thefe fen- 
 fations or perceptions are impreffions made 
 on our frame by body^ placed without it, 
 or not ? 
 
 Sextus
 
 ( 123 ) 
 
 Sextus Emplricus, loc. cit. (and HUME, 
 loc. citat.) have fliowed, that it is out 
 of our power to form any thing like an ar- 
 gument to prove that they are caufed by 
 body. The mind never perceives body ; 
 nothing beyond thefe fenfations : There is 
 no poffibllity of attaining any experience 
 what may be beyond them. 
 
 The fame reafoning fhows that it Is e- 
 qually out of our power to prove that they 
 are not caufed by fomething without us. 
 
 Accordingly, I prefume it not difficult 
 to difcover the fallacy of any reafoning 
 which pretends to eftablifh that point, or 
 the contrary, let us examine the celebrated 
 reafoning of Berkley. 
 
 It is proved, and admitted, fays he, that 
 the fecondary qualities of body, as colour, 
 tafte, &c. exift only in the mind, and have 
 no prototype ; in the fame manner, it may 
 be proved, that the primary qualities, ex-- 
 
 tenfion
 
 { 124 ) 
 
 tenfion and folidlty, exift alfo only in the 
 mind, and rcprefent no prototype : Now, 
 fince we know nothing of body but qua- 
 lities, and that all qualities exift only in 
 the mind; it is a contradidion to fay that 
 body can exift, except in the mind. 
 
 * Extenfton and foUdity^ as ijuell as the 
 
 * other qualities bf body^fuch as colour ^ ci-T. 
 ' exijl only in the mind^ 
 
 He has proved, that extenfion, colour, 
 &c. are movements of our frame, alledged 
 to be caufed by body. This is clearly af- 
 certained to be his meaning ; the proof is 
 long, perfpicuous, and minute. 
 
 ' Since all the qualities of body exiji only 
 
 * in the mind^ it is a contradiSiion to fay 
 
 * that body exijls but in the mind,' 
 
 This is juft, if by qualities of body is 
 meant movements, fuppofed to be of body, 
 
 which
 
 ( 125 ) 
 
 whlca produce extenfion, colour, and thefe 
 other movements of our frame. 
 
 His argument therefore is, Extenfion, 
 colour, Sec. are movements of our frame ; 
 fmce the movements which produce thefe 
 are not movements of external body, but 
 movements of our frame, fuppofmg body- 
 to exift, is fuppofmg body incapable of 
 caufmg extenfion, folidity, &c. or, in com- 
 mon language, body, which has no quali- 
 ties, a flat contradidion. This reafoning 
 requires no long commentary. There is 
 no attempt to fhow whether the move- 
 ments of our frame are caufed by move- 
 ments of body or not ; but, relying on an 
 expreffion of common language, (qualities 
 of body) which was not even invented with 
 any view to this inquiry, he fees no diftinc- 
 tion betwixt the movements of our frame, 
 extenfion, colour, &c. and the movements 
 of body, or of our frame which produce 
 shem. 
 
 Nor
 
 ( «26 ) 
 
 Nor IS there any thing like an argument 
 to fupport his conclufion, in which ever of 
 the two fenfes, above mentioned, we take 
 his phrafe, ' qualities of body/ 
 
 He proves that extenfion, colour, &c. 
 are movements of our frame. The next 
 queftion is, Whether thefe are caufed by 
 body, placed without it or not ? Into this 
 queftion he never entered. 
 
 If thefe are not caufed by movements of 
 body, it is plainly a contradiction, an ab- 
 furdity to fay that body exifts beyond our 
 frame. He never attempted to prove that 
 they were not, as I have juft remarked, 
 though his treatife is very minute. 
 
 It cannot be pretended, that if extenfion 
 and folidity, &c, are admitted to be only 
 movements of our frame, it follows plain- 
 ly and palpably, that they are caufed by 
 nothing external *. That is not to be admit- 
 ted 
 
 * Citing parallel cafes is very bad reafoning ; it is, 
 
 however,
 
 ( 127 ) 
 
 ted without a proof; no proof has hither- 
 to been attempted ; and where are the 
 grounds of it to be looked for ? 
 
 To make ^ proof, he Ihould have (bow- 
 ed that extenfion, colour, &c. were only- 
 movements of our frame, and that thefe 
 were not caufed by body placed without it. 
 His inference would then have been juft. 
 
 * Exijl only in the mindy is a .very im- 
 proper exprelTion ; but if, inftead of it, 
 movements of our frame^ or any fuch ex- 
 preffion had been ufed, the doubt would 
 have more readily have occurred, whether 
 thefe were the effcdl of any thing externaJ. 
 
 ' ^alities 
 
 however, fb often ufed, that one Is inclined to fufpecl it 
 may fometimes have its ufe : I fliall, therefore, venture it 
 for once. A piece of ice becomes fluid on coming near a 
 heated body. The fluidity in the water is a diftintft thing 
 from the heat that comes from the body without it. The 
 fluidity exifts only in the water, to ufe Berkley's language, 
 and has no prototype. Does it, therefore, follow, that 
 it neither is nor can be caufed by any thing external ?
 
 { 128 ) 
 
 ' ^alities of body" is a very convenient 
 expreffion for the purpofe it was invented; 
 but it was not invented with any view to 
 this inquiry. It is here very improper, the 
 fubjedl has been thought by many not the 
 very eafieft to comprehend ; this expreflion 
 could not but make it lefs eafy. But if he 
 had fpoke clear language, ufed inftead of 
 that phrafe, either tnonjements of our frame, 
 fuppofed to he caufed by movements of body^ 
 or movements of body, fuppofed to caufe them, 
 or ufed thefe two as fynonimous terms, 
 the fallacy of the reafoning had been foon 
 difcovered. 
 
 ' We knoiv nothing of body but quali- 
 ' ties ;' either of the two exprefTions 
 ufed by Sextus Empiricus, * the mind has 
 
 * no intercourfe with external things,' or 
 
 * thefenfe fJoows to the mind, not. external 
 
 * things, but its own feeling,' or any other 
 analogous exprefTion, would alfo have more 
 readily fuggelled a doubt than that he ufes. 
 
 That
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
 That part of his argument where he 
 fhows that extenfion and foHdity are mere 
 movements of the frame, as well as colour, 
 &c. is well ; but, I apprehend it is not eafy 
 to point out any attempt more defective 
 than the reft. 
 
 a
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 O N 
 
 FORTIFICATIONS 
 
 WITH 
 
 REVETED DITCHES, 
 
 WHERE THE " 
 
 WORKS ARE RAISED IN AMPHITHEATRE. ''
 
 D E D I C A T I G N. 
 
 Oh curas hominum / Oh quanttm ejl in rebus inane!
 
 THE opinions in the following flieets 
 were formed long before they were put in- 
 to writing. I kept them by me for fome 
 time, and I print them now much againfl 
 my will, merely becaufe of an accident 
 which left me anfwerable for their errors, 
 and would have transferred any merit they 
 had. The lirft treatife flood originally in 
 lefs than a page, and had no figures ; but 
 having feen that no reputation or capacity 
 could fecure a man from being charged 
 with the moft vulgar errors, I found my- 
 felf forced to fpread it: I added, too, fome 
 applications of its principles. The fecond 
 v^^as, from the fame reafon, made from the 
 firft, much longer than I could have wifh- 
 ed. In thefe circumftances, it is furely very 
 unpleafant to me, who have never ferved, 
 to print on military fubjedls ; but, at leaft, 
 I am not obliged to inquire whether hea- 
 ven is defended by infinite artillery, or 
 whether the devil charged in column.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 5F in any Inqairy of fa£l and exiftence 
 we afk whether we have gone all the 
 length pcfTible, we can hitherto fatisfy our- 
 felves by no other expedient than an exa- 
 mination of every attempt to add to our 
 knowledge ; nor do we know whether any 
 other ever fhall or can be found. But have 
 we any reafon to think, that, in the military 
 fciences, we are advanced fo far as to have 
 any thing like a ground to put the que- 
 ftion ? All appearances fay quite the con- 
 trary. In the civil fciences, as the mind, 
 chemiilry, botany, difcoveries are every 
 day made ; and thefe, inftead of narrow- 
 ing the fubjeifts of inquiry, have hitherto 
 extended them, and that regularly the fur- 
 ther as each ftep is gained j to fuch a pitch 
 too. Nor is this opinion of them peculiar 
 to me, but will be aflented to by every 
 S one
 
 ( I3S ) 
 
 one converfaiit in thefe fubjecls, with (o 
 little hefitaticn, that they would not give 
 the opinion,, or even the doubt, whether 
 we v/ere near our laft ftage in them, the 
 name of fcepticifm. Indeed, if ever we 
 jfliall attain the utmoft our frame permits, 
 in'fome of thefv:; fciences. It Is poffible, or 
 probable if you will, that we may reach it, 
 in fome a good deal fooner than in others: 
 But it Is ftill unknown, whether we ihall 
 ever be able to gain that height in any one ; 
 it is equally unknown, whether, though it 
 were attained, men could ever prove they 
 had done fo. There is no reafon for think- 
 ing that we have already reached this point 
 in the military fciences, if the others are 
 in the ftate they feem to be ; for we have 
 no reafon to think that our progrefs Ihauld 
 be much greater in them than in others. 
 The progrefs of each of the other fciences 
 is liable to be retarded by feveral caufes : 
 So are the military ones. Forms of go- 
 vernment and jurlfprudence are thofe whole 
 hiftory one would exped fhould approach 
 
 the
 
 ( 139 ) 
 
 the neareft to that of the military fciences ; 
 ire v/e to believe that the firfl is at its ut- 
 moft height : Whether the laft is, is a point 
 fully fettled by the writings of Cocceius 
 and Blackftone. The progrefs of the civil 
 fciences has always been whimfical : That 
 of the military fciences has been at leaft as 
 whimfical, I think rather more fo The 
 military fciences have been cultivated by 
 men of great abilities. No doubr, there 
 were heroes and inventors, when men 
 fought with flones and clubs, and defend- 
 ed themfelves in huts, dens, or trees, but 
 then, from the time of Guftavus Adolplms 
 (and we might go further back), there is a 
 lift of foldiers, whofe names are not men- 
 tioned but with veneration : In the others, 
 there is a very long lift of names which are 
 mentioned with equal regard : Within that 
 period, Rapin has been held a great hifto- 
 rian, and Petty a great financier, and, oii 
 this fo called fcience, no difcovery has ever 
 been made by a great general, nor by one 
 who fhowed genius on any other fubjed. 
 
 of
 
 F 
 
 REGULAR FORTIFICATIONS. 
 
 •^^-0-'^>< -<»--<>• ••<►■ -4, <t4>-' •4V.-4>--<>. . <>-..<►-.<»--<>. -<>....«►- .«>....o-'«>- 
 
 0/ Dry Ditches, 
 
 T T is agreed, tliat fuch plans as Belidor'3 
 -fi fecond method, or BilTei's fifth, ought 
 not to be ufed, except where the town is 
 the whole ftarc, as Hamburg ; or its lad re- 
 fource, as Magdeburg happened to be in 
 the feven years war*. 1 fhall examine here 
 
 fuch 
 
 * The reafon given for this is, that troops and ftores 
 cannot be afforded to garrifon them according to thcii 
 extent, and that, if they are provided only as the fimplcr 
 
 methods,
 
 ( H« ) 
 
 fuch methods as are ufed where the ftake is 
 lefs, in cafes fuppofed, a century ago, to hap- 
 pen every dayf. 
 
 I. 
 
 Fig. I. is BifTet's eighth method; Fig. 2. 
 is Biffet's firft method. Thefe, it is allow- 
 ed, admit a very good defence. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 methods, the defence they make wiil be little or nothing 
 better. This reafoning is good, and fully enough to de- 
 cide the cafe in hand. It may be applied to works ftill 
 fimpler than thofe now preferred, at lead, in fome mea- 
 fure. I flatter myfelf I have introduced a principle which 
 goes further. 
 
 f It is now thouglit not proper 10 fortify all the places 
 that would have been fortified then. I prefume this 
 change of opinion has come, from confidering the uncer- 
 tainty whether the places would be befieged, the ma- 
 noeuvres of armies being performed with much more dl- 
 fpatch and fafety than in thefe days, and that it was ob- 
 ferved it cofl more to fortify and defend a place than to 
 take it.
 
 ( 142 ) 
 
 Fig. 3. is done from Fig. i. Fig. 4. 
 from Fig. 2. 
 
 Would it not be better to fortify in fucli 
 methods as the latter ? 
 
 Firft is to be confidered the uncertainty 
 whether the place may be befieged, and 
 when. 
 
 Suppofe the difference of expence in the 
 conftrutStion beftowed in additional troops 
 and flores for the fmaller works, the others 
 being provided in the ufual manner; from 
 v/hich is the befl defence to be expected ? 
 
 The covered way, glacis, and field of 
 
 N^^ 3. and 4. may be as well mined as thofe 
 
 » 
 
 of the other. I juft mention counter ap- 
 proaches, to fhow I have not forgot them. 
 
 It will not be difputed, that the fmaller 
 works are ftill enough to oblige the befieger 
 
 to
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
 to go on by regular approaches, and to 
 batter in breach for more or lefs time. 
 
 The ahn of the garrifon is to put the be- 
 fieger to as great expeiice of men and ftores 
 and to make him employ as much time as 
 they can. The fecret of the defence is to 
 hufband the ftiength of the place, fo as to 
 attain thefe ends in the greateft degree. 
 
 While both parties are provided, as they 
 have been in the laft wars, after the befie- 
 ger is mafter of the glacis of fuch plans as 
 Fig. I. and 2. if he has conducted himfelf 
 with proper caution, whatever men the 
 garrifon can kill him, they cannot hinder 
 him long from entering the body of the 
 place, though they fhould not have fired 
 a fhot, nor made a fally till then. They 
 always ufe a great proportion of their ftores 
 before he can get there, and lofe many 
 men. 
 
 Mining
 
 ( H4 ) 
 
 Mining retards the befieger's progrefs to 
 the creft of the glacis, more than the fire 
 and failles of fuch places ; it kills few men. 
 
 The additional charge in the more ex- 
 penfive plan is laid out over the whole en- 
 ceinte. The befieger has to repair only the 
 demolition he did. 
 
 State two places precifely the fame, but 
 the garrifon, artillery, dzc. of ihe one to 
 thofe of the other, as 15 to 10. The addi- 
 tional charge is employed entirely againft 
 the enemy. This is the chief reafon why 
 large places have made fo much Ijetter de- 
 fences than fmall ones : A decagon, e. g. 
 Vid. Le Febvre*s and Mont. Rozard's tran- 
 flation of Antoni's Treatife of Artillery, 
 dated 1780, (I have not feen the original) 
 is garrifoned and provided according to its 
 number of baftions, the hexagon is attack- 
 ed, perhaps, by the fame force, or at leaft 
 by a force greater in proportion to that it 
 has for its defence. 
 
 On
 
 ( 145 ) 
 
 On the whole, I think we may exped 
 the fmaller works will make the better de- 
 fence. 
 
 IL 
 
 Let us now confider the works left at 
 their full height in Fig. 3. and i|. 
 
 Many have contended that the body of 
 the place ought to be as low as the out- 
 works which cover it. 
 
 One reafon much infifted on was, that, 
 when the out-work was ruined, the can- 
 non might be retired into the inner work. 
 
 The covered way, ravelin, baftion, glacis 
 of Vouban's firft method, has never yet 
 been fo fully employed as they might ad- 
 vantageoufly be. 
 
 T Another
 
 ( h6 ) 
 
 Another was, that the befieger could 
 ruin the body of the place at the fame time 
 that he ruined the out-woiks, and while 
 he was yet at a diftance*. In anfwer to 
 this, it has been obferved, that the demo- 
 lition is not fo great as is reprefented, the 
 mark is fo fmall, and the repair not diffi- 
 cult; that A^ouban had not feen a parapet 
 fo rumed that it could not be ufed ; and 
 before the befieger begins to batter in breach, 
 the parapet may be put in almoft as good 
 condition as it was the lirft day of the fiege ; 
 That the command given by the height 
 was of great confequence, particularly 
 when the enemy came near. 
 
 What refpeds the demolition in this an- 
 fwer has the lefs weight, according as the 
 befieger brings on his batteries, (compare 
 Billet and Le Febvre) ; on the whole, It ap- 
 pears clearly, that the high line is the beft ; 
 
 but 
 
 * One reafon for the numerous batteries we fee in fome 
 methods has fometimes been probably the eafe of the 
 repair.
 
 ( M7 ) 
 
 but the expence of carrying this height 
 round the whole enceinte, would furnifh 
 a great quantity of fiores, if the works are 
 completely reveted ; if they are demi-re- 
 veted, the expence ought not to be faved. 
 
 As to the curtain, I need only fay, that, in 
 each point, I would wifli to have fome little 
 thing to anfwer the ufe of a cavalier, and 
 that diftance increafes the uncertainty of 
 the aim of mortars, and hobitz ftill more 
 than that of cannon : It feems admitted, 
 that the befieger ought not to take the ra- 
 velin ; nor would lowering the curtain to 
 its level make it his intereft to do fo. 
 
 III. 
 
 Many methods of fortification are fo ad- 
 mirably contrived, that it feems barbarous 
 to attempt to bring them into dlfufe ; if, 
 however, in the courfe of fuch attempts, a 
 wafte of public money is prevented, the 
 
 man
 
 ( H8 ) 
 
 man who does it will not be entirely a ve- 
 getable in his country, and he cannot be 
 entirely diffatisfied with the time he has 
 beftowed on it. I think I fnould have lit- 
 tle pleafure in conftruding a fine plan that 
 I fuppofed would never have juftice done 
 to it. 
 
 Fig. 5. is done from Pagan's firft method ; 
 it is allowed to admit a very good defence. 
 
 It is eafily feen that I do not fuppofe the 
 advantage of employing ftores on the coun- 
 ter-guard, rather than on the baftion, and 
 any other ufe there is hitherto found in that 
 work, a compenfation for its expence. 
 
 Fig. 6. is done from Fig. 5. Fig. 7. from 
 Fig. 3. and Fig. 8. from Fig. 4, - 
 
 Thefe are ftill enough to oblige the be- 
 fieger to go through a regular fiege ; they 
 admit mining equally as the others. 
 
 Againft
 
 ( 149 ) 
 
 Againft the general aflault, early in the 
 fiege, the flanks of the baftions, in Fig. 3. 
 and 4. are an excellent defence, which thefe 
 laft have not. Vaulted batteries, for two or 
 three pieces of cannon, could be made in 
 them at little expence ; which, againft fuch 
 an aflault, would be of great ufe. But it 
 would be neceflTary, a little before he began 
 to batter in breach, to takej^way the guns 
 and ram them as the gallery of a mine. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Where a fortrefs is done where there 
 were no houfes, there is a vaft quantity of 
 earth which muft be carried away; where 
 a place already built is to be fortified, the 
 interval between the buildings and the 
 works affords, almoft every where, a great 
 deal. Without the works earth is always 
 to be had in the -fields, and little heights 
 are often met with that would be of ule to 
 the befieger. 
 
 V.
 
 { ijo ) 
 
 V. 
 
 On what diminution of the ditch, a ma- 
 terial addition muft be made to the num- 
 bers of the garrifon, and what addition on 
 account of different degrees of diminution, 
 is what will not be agreed on till many- 
 trials are made . I dare only remark, that, 
 in a matter fo uncertain, and fo important, 
 nicety is not at prefent to be aimed at, pro- 
 bably never. 
 
 VI. 
 
 If a gallery in the counter- fcarp were 
 to be carried round the whole place, on 
 account of the refiftence made from its 
 loop-holes to the paflage of the ditch, the 
 money muft be held ill laid out. If there 
 is one, why make it large ? 
 
 VII.
 
 ICI 
 
 VII. 
 
 Le Febvre, in his example of a fiege, 
 fuppofes the retrenchment in the baftion 
 made after the fiege is begun ; in ftating 
 the queftion how much mining ought to 
 be done beforehand, he gives the mining 
 at Fort Jauernik of Schweidnitz, which he 
 calls Travaux immenfes, (Note, p. 8. Effai 
 fur les mines J, as works which were not 
 faites de . longue ?nain. If the excavations 
 made by the globes of compreflion (Plate 
 3. fiege of Schweidnitz) are admitted as a 
 fcale, (there is no other) the galleries be- 
 yond the counter-fcarp were five hundred 
 fathom. I need enter into this queftion no 
 further than to obferve, that though fome- 
 thing ought always to be done beforehand, 
 the expence of fuch works as are not done 
 till the befieged has fixed where he attacks, 
 is not laid out till wanted, and only where 
 wanted, 
 
 MIS-
 
 ( ^52 ) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ought the flank of the baftlon to be pla- 
 ced as in Fig. i. ^fo^ inftance), or retired, 
 as in Fig. 9. or lo. ? 
 
 Blflet, (Sea. 2. chap. 3. § S^-) %s, 
 ' Bombs are of fo much importance in the 
 ^ attack, and anfwer fo effedually all the 
 ' ends which are obtained by counter bat- 
 
 * teries of cannon, that there feems to be 
 ' a pofTibility of taking fortified towns with 
 
 * bombs only*; and, it is certain, that 
 ' there are always more of the cannon of 
 
 * the befieged ruined and difmounted by the 
 
 * bombs than by the cannon of the enemy, 
 
 ' when 
 
 * There can be no doubt, that a place may be takea 
 without either cannon or bombs.
 
 ( '53 ) 
 
 ' when the former are properly ufed, and 
 * in abundance.' If retiring the flank of 
 the baftion made it the befieger's intereft to 
 lay out fhells againft it, inftead of cannon- 
 fliot, this is to him fiich a lofs, that the 
 flank ought to be retired : But merely re- 
 tiring it does not make that his intereft ; 
 it is, therefore, a matter of indifference. 
 
 ir. 
 
 Though the fize of ditches I propofe 
 were as proper, as i believe it to be, yet che 
 imaginations of many will be fo fliocked 
 by the look of it, that they will not give 
 the propofal an examination. 
 
 Fig. II. is a ditch twenty fathom wide, 
 and twelve feet deep. Fig. 12. Is twelve 
 fathoms wide, and eighteen feet deep. 
 
 Confidering the great difference of ex- 
 pence, would it not be proper to make 
 U them
 
 ( 154 ) 
 
 them as in Fig. 13. and 14. or to flope the 
 fcarp too, or to Hope only the fcarp. Fig. 
 15. is the body of Fort Jauernick of 
 Schweidnitz from Le Febvre *. In places 
 which, by chance, have many troops, fuch 
 a ditch would be better than thofe in Fig. 
 II. and 12. A flair of brick would be 
 better than reveting the ditch to the top 
 with brick ; but a ftair of brick or ftone 
 would be {battered by fliells, and do hilrc 
 and confufion by the fpliniers. Such a com- 
 pofition as we fee in buildings of the Ro- 
 mans, if deep enough, would refill fhells 
 well, and it would not fplinter ; but it 
 would be expenfive f . If there is a gallery 
 in the counter-fcarp, there is lefs benefit 
 in this alteration. 
 
 III. 
 
 * He makes no remark on it. 
 
 f Inftead of reveting with ftone, might it not, ia Tome 
 fituations, be proper to ufe thefe compofitions.
 
 ( 155 ) 
 
 III. 
 
 If tlie great ditch were continued along 
 the lines of defence, there would be a con- 
 fiderable portion of it that would not be 
 feen into ; this might in a great meafure 
 be remedied by floping the fcarp to- 
 wards the flanks and curtain. In the 
 ravelind method, Fig. i6. from the line in 
 which the face of the ravelin produced cuts 
 the ditch, &c. the ground is floped away, 
 fo that the whole ditch is feen into from 
 the flanks and curtain* ; along the foot of 
 thefe there is no excavation. The great 
 
 faving 
 
 * 1 think it needlefs to draw any Hopes or commu- 
 nications with the ravelin. I take it to be granted there 
 muft be fome cheap contrivance along the flanks and cur- 
 tains, for the fake of fallies againft the enemy's lodge- 
 ments in the ravelin. Other works may alfo be made in 
 the fpace between the lines, &c. at an inconfiderable ex- 
 pence, by finking them fome feet in the ground, as, for 
 inftance, a kind of caponiere, and fomething in the Ihape 
 of a redoubt to the ravelin. I enter not here into this 
 znatter.
 
 { liS ) 
 
 faving that may be made by this I think ^ 
 very proper one. It may be objedted, that 
 the befieger will carry on his attack by ta- 
 king the ravelin, and thence go to the cur- 
 tain or fhoulder, and fo find his account 
 more in the attack of this than of Fg. 3. 
 Firft, this place can, on the fame total, 
 be better provided than Fig. 3. by much. 
 In the next place, in attacking Fig. 3. it 
 is not his intereft to take the ravelin ; here 
 taking the ravelin cofts him more than 
 in Fig. 3. Siippofe him now to have 
 made an entry into it, there is next in Fig. 
 3. the paflage of the great ditch ; here he is 
 more expofcd to fuffer by fiillies, and the 
 befieged have more opportunity of mining. 
 On the whole, then, it fccms the intereft 
 of the befieger to carry on his attack again ft 
 the face of the baftion. Even if the two 
 places were equally provided, each in the 
 manner fuitable to its ccnftrudtion, but 
 both decently well, this place does not ap- 
 pear much inferior to Fig. 3. The chief 
 difference is, that a practicable breach is ea- 
 
 fier
 
 ( '57 ) 
 
 Tier made here in the flanks or curtain than 
 in the faces of the other ; that difference 
 is in that article very confiderable, but will 
 not, I prefume, be held to make much dif- 
 ference betwixt the defences, if both are 
 are equally well conduded*. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Suppofe the body of the place fortified 
 by Biffet's eighth method, whether are ra- 
 velins to be added, or only common places 
 of arms in the re-entering angles where the 
 ravelins ftand t« i think the ravelins well 
 
 worth 
 
 * Long after this was written I was informed by a ve- 
 ry good authority at Copenhagen, that fomething like 
 this has been done in the Belle Croix at Metz (the en- 
 gineer's name I have forgot) but though the inventor, 
 whether my informer or the engineer, had printed the 
 plan, I could not avoid citing his reafoning, if it appear- 
 ed any way tolerable. 
 
 f I dated the cafe in this manner to avoid entering at 
 
 prefent
 
 ( '58 ) 
 
 worth the additional expence. Not be- 
 caiife they oblige the befieger to break 
 
 ground 
 
 prefent into a difcuffion, whether, inftead of the ravelin, 
 it might not be proper to make only a place of arms of 
 its fize, (as in Fig. 17.) or inftead of the lunettes in Fig. 
 2. to make places of arms of their fize, (as in Fig. 18.) or 
 to zig-zag the covered way otherwife, leaving the great 
 ditch as ufual. The redoubts have a ftair-cafe like thofe 
 of the drums of lunettes. The ufe of thefe lad kind of 
 v.'orks is more or lefs as the ftrength of the placets in its 
 fmall arms or great. Le Febvre informs us, (Siege of 
 Rivol, chap. 17. laft note) that the drums of the lunettes 
 at Bergen-op-zoom coft the French dear. Bergen-op- 
 zcom had an army in it ; and there is no one fpot near 
 at hand but may be made to coft the enemy dear. He 
 has not faid but it'was by the irregular ftrokes, of which 
 there were many at that fiege, that they came to coft fo 
 much. Befides, the attacks of Turin in 1706, and Lifle 
 in 1708, were very ill conducted, and for thefe there is 
 no excufe. 
 
 I fhall juft obferve, that, if it is objefted that fo large 
 a place of arms as in Fig. 17. is liable to be carried by 
 general aflault much earlier in the fiege than the ravelin, 
 if a great addition is not made to the garrifon, and which 
 I do not believe ; yet that a great faving may be made 
 by floping the bottom of the ditch from the falient angle 
 towards the face of a baftion, in foch a manner that it 
 
 may
 
 ( ^59 ) 
 
 ground farther off; for if there were no 
 variation in the troops or ftores, that ia 
 itfelf would only oblige him to go through 
 more fathoms meeting lefs refiftance in 
 each fathom ; nor becaufe of the time and 
 expence he mud beftow on making a prac- 
 ticable breach in the ravelin ; but becaufe 
 of its ufe when the^nemy comes near, and 
 the ufe of the collateral ravelins. 
 
 V. 
 
 In fome places we find fimple fronts, as 
 in Fig. 19. For the flanks and curtain I 
 propofe a redan, as in Fig. 20. The de- 
 velopement of the two figures is the fame. 
 To the ravelind method, Fig. 21. I prefer 
 
 Fig. 
 
 may be well feen into, and that to fucii a ditch the objec- 
 tion will not be made. 
 
 As to the flanks of the redoubts, there is little ufe in 
 thofe of the front attacked ; the ufe is in thofe of the col- 
 lateral fronts ; at building the place, therefore, they ought 
 jftot to be raifed fo high as the creft of the glacis.
 
 ( >6o ) 
 
 Fig. 2 2. Fig. 23. is given as a fimilar im- 
 provement on Fig. 5. 
 
 VI. 
 
 If there was drawn within Fig. 6. (for ] 
 inftance) parallel to it and at the proper di- 
 ftance, and fo high as to fire over it, a line 
 of works without a ditch, fuch a place, on 
 the fame total of expence, would make a 
 better defence than Fig. 5. 
 
 On this ground I propofe, Fig. 24. 25. 
 to be compared with Fig. 5. Though 
 thefe plans were held good, it is not to be 
 expected that engineers would agree' foon 
 on the height the inner line fhould be rai- 
 fed to. On the one hand is to be alledged 
 the greater quantity of fire which may be 
 employed, at a greater height too, the line 
 which holds it almoft entirely covered from 
 the enemy, and in a diredion different 
 from any other, with the equal eafe offal- 
 lying
 
 ( i6i ) 
 
 lying for a trifle more expence in the if- 
 fues. On the other, befides confiderations 
 already often employed, there may be much 
 flrefs laid on the efiecl of fallies, particu- 
 larly when joined to vigorous mining, on 
 which fubject the authority of Saxe, given 
 in a very inftrudive projedt of fortification, 
 may be added, and the advantages of blow- 
 ing judicioufly pieces of the outer wall 
 may be mentioned. 
 
 vir. 
 
 In chap. 5. Siege of Rivol, Le Febvrc 
 direds that the befieged fhould begin to fire 
 as foon as they know where the enemy is, 
 *" Le feu [idiy^ he) cTune place ajfiege neji 
 ^ jamais ft fort qiiau commencement du fiege\ 
 
 * et cela dolt etre ainfi ; pour eloigner Vaf- 
 *" fi^eant le plus quil eft pojjible, et lui dif 
 
 * puter le terrein pied a pied *.' In that fiege 
 
 X I 
 
 * He goes on here, Lorfque rartillerie du dehors a
 
 ( l62 ) 
 
 1 eannot help thinking, that the garrifort 
 ought not to tire a (hot till the befieger fets 
 about his third parallel at fooneft, that is^ 
 in the attack of the left, for inftance. Le 
 Febvre informs us in the fame chapter, that 
 in all the ficges of the laft war, (the war 
 1 74 1, in the Low Countries,) thebefieged, 
 the night of opening the trenches, either 
 did not fire at all, or not till after midnight, 
 and fays 1 am trcs perfaade that the gc*= 
 vernors had all flattered themfelves that 
 they would not be furprlfed. In chap. 4. 
 § I. he tells us, that, in the laft fieges of 
 the French in Flanders, thev loft fewer 
 men the night of opening the firft parallel 
 
 than 
 
 gfigne la fuperiorhe fur celle dii dedans , il n^ejl gucre pojfibk 
 qui celle-ci lui rcjijley etfi l^qjftege ne profits pas du terns el 
 defes avantages des le commencemejit , en voulatit pent etre 
 trop economfcr a quo'i ha fulvront enfu'ite fes poudres^ et tou- 
 tes fes outns miant'ionSy lorfqiis fes batteries front de^non-' 
 ires J et qviil nc lui rejlera plus que quelques pieces ambulan- 
 tes. 1 do not fee what he meant here •, for I cannot 
 fuppofe him to have run into an error which Vait- 
 ban and Biflet avoided. 
 
 I
 
 ( '63 ) 
 
 than in mod of the other nights. In this 
 very fiege our author take it for granted, 
 that the befieged do not fire till after the 
 enemy has been fome hours at work, and 
 he fuppofes the foil neither favourable nor 
 otherwife. The advantage is that of em- 
 ploying the (hot when he is a better mark, 
 and when his (hot is more to be feared. 
 It may be objected, that, if he does not 
 fire his ammunition from the beginning, 
 it will be taken ; but that can happen .only 
 from mifproportioning the iiores to one 
 another, or to the troops, or from milcon- 
 du^t. It may be faid, that this makes it 
 his intereft, or at leaft engages him to per- 
 form the firft parallel ; though it fliould, 
 he can better afford it ; in fieges we muft 
 fuppofe that he can get what he wants, and 
 the place only wh.it it fet out with *. 
 
 viir. 
 
 * I founJ, in the King's library at Berlin, a book I had 
 long fearched for to no purpofe, J^uihji ed efame ragionato 
 MV arte della Jortificazione e dijefa deile piazze deir AbbaU 
 Carlo Borgo, Veiuzia 1777, in which the author propofes to 
 
 Ave
 
 ( i64 ) 
 
 VIIL 
 
 In the fame attack of the lefr, Fig. ii. 
 there are no batteries of cannon raifed be- 
 tween the breaching batteries on the creft 
 of the glacis and the third parallel ; and 
 thefe laft are covered by the crowning of 
 the glacis. Now, I think it were much 
 more frugal to raife betw-een thefe. I would 
 raife them for two ends. 
 
 Fiifl, To have my cannon where I had 
 a better mark. 
 
 Secondly, To avoid covering them by 
 my works on the glacis. 
 
 Le 
 
 fave the fire alio, and defends fuch condud at greai 
 length. I, however, left my fedion as it flood, becaufe 
 I got thereby an opportunity of defending further the 
 changes 1 propofe in the conftruilion of places.
 
 ( i65 ) 
 
 Le Febvre lays, chap. i6. that whatever 
 is done by the ricochet batteries on the 
 flanks of the attack, (they are in the firft 
 parallel) by a conilant fire of the mortars 
 of the trenches, and the mufquetry with- 
 out ball from the neareft parrs of the ap- 
 proaches, cannot hinder, but the interval 
 from covering the batteries of the third pa- 
 rallel to opening the breaching ones, is the 
 time of the fiege in which they mufl: lofe 
 the mod men *; and in chap. 17. that the 
 fituation of the befieger is then the moft 
 critical in the whole fiege. The befieger 
 covering his cannon, if he means to hinder 
 the garrifon from having their works be- 
 fore he can begin to batter in breach, in 
 almoft as good condition as they were in 
 the firft day of the fiege, muft do it by 
 mortars : For the batteries in ricochet can 
 do little. BiiTet fays they did litde at Ber- 
 gen-op-zoom. It does not appear that 
 they did much at Schweldnitz ; and Le 
 
 Febvre, 
 
 f This exprejpon is ambiguous.
 
 ( j66 ) 
 
 Febvre, in chap. 17. fays that, in thefe cir- 
 cumftances, the befieger is not always fure 
 of being able to make ufe of them as he 
 would wilh. 
 
 Suppofe now the ammunition of Rivol 
 hufbancled To as that there remains two 
 thirds of it (for inftance) when the enemy 
 has covered his batteries on the third pa^ 
 rallel. In this cafe there is ftill more rea-^ 
 fon for making fuch batteries as I propofe. 
 
 IX. 
 
 If againft a pentagon five attacks {e. g.) 
 are made inflead of one, it has but the 
 fifth part of the troops and (lores to op- 
 pofe each attack. 
 
 * * -:ij =* * 
 
 The progrefs of all fciences has been 
 much retarded by routine. Fortification 
 
 has
 
 ( i67 ) 
 
 has alfo felt its effeds. There is perhaps 
 iefs reafoii to expedl that it fhould, in a 
 little time, get out of its fhackles than any 
 fcience of fadt and exiftence. 
 
 In this fcience the opportunity of expe- 
 riments has always been fmall ; the num- 
 ber of places fortified is fmall ; few have 
 accefs to fee them ; fieges rarely occur ; 
 the experiments com/mg under the eyes of 
 few were communicated with the more re- 
 ferve ; a failuie would draw bad confe- 
 quences where the (lake played "for was fo 
 deep. 1 his has been the chief iul)je(5t of 
 attention to very few. The nomination 
 of an engineer to build a place is a fubjedt 
 of intrigue in the Sovereign's court, u'.d 
 perhaps in half a dozen cour'^s below his* 
 There is a buftle to name the director of 
 an attack or defence, and who is to attend 
 him, 
 
 Tadics
 
 ( i68 ) 
 
 Taifllcs are alfo a fubjed of Intrigue ; 
 but in them the' opportunity of experiment 
 is endlefs. Improvement in them was fup- 
 pofed to be of more confequence, than any 
 improvement in the other; procured much 
 higher rewards from the Sovereign, and 
 could place a man a great deal higher in 
 the eyes of the world too ; they have not 
 only been the chief fuhjedt of attention to 
 an Infinitely gi eater number of people in 
 each country ; but if we compare the na- 
 tions to whom they have been the principal 
 fubjedti of attention, we fhall find engineer- 
 ing has had by much the leaft. They have 
 been cultivated by numbers whofe genius 
 is placed in the firft rank, and that for ages 
 paft. Yet, in the hiftory of modern tadics, 
 we fee not only all Europe, but thefe great 
 names, perfift, till very lately, through ages, 
 in errors which would feem to require no 
 great effort of acutenefs to detedl. It may 
 occur that this fubjedt muft be confefled 
 fimple, that no other account can be given 
 of the moderate degree of refpedt paid to 
 
 any
 
 ( i69 ) 
 
 any fuccefs in it, refpedt in itfelf moderate, 
 paid but to a very finall number, while all 
 the others who follow it, or have followed 
 it, are negle£led or forgot. That it has 
 not, however, been left entirely to thofe 
 whofe profeffion particularly it is j that the 
 greateft generals have had more or lefs at 
 ftake in fiegesj have interefted themfelves^ 
 and been interefted, whether they would or 
 not, in their event. 
 
 In ihQjirJl place, in the hiilory of other 
 fciences, we do not find that the fimpleft 
 difcoveries were the firft madfe. In the next 
 place, thefe great men left, in the fciences 
 they chiefly attended to, errors, which we 
 would think eafily amended. In the loft 
 place, it is certain, that none of them made 
 any improvement in either tlie attack, the 
 defence, or the conftrudion of towns : 
 Though they were often engaged by every 
 tie to ftudy them ; as if the fimplicity of 
 the fubjcd had deprived them of their u- 
 fual reach. 
 
 Y it
 
 ( 170 ) 
 
 It is not denied, that till Vauban got in- 
 to employment, there was much routine 
 in en'^ineering ; the many errors made, en 
 paffcint^ in the moft eftiinable books, and 
 in ih( fe oi an inferior order, on the chief 
 fubjedt in view, not only fhow that the 
 fubjed: is far lefs familiar than is alledged ; 
 but excite a fufpicion that many opinions 
 on the moft important qucftions are chiefly 
 the reiult of routine. I fhall not enter in- 
 to thefe; but I fhail give fome deliberate 
 opinions of men of the firft diftindion, on 
 important points, which appear ftill more 
 to confirm the fufpicion. 
 
 FOLARD, 
 
 In his Commentary on Polybius, Book I. 
 Chap. I. pag. 47. he fays, ' jipres la prife 
 
 * du ^lefnoy ils^ (the Allies in the war of 
 the Spanifh fucceflion), ' hi'vcjlijjhit Lan- 
 
 * ducy^ [ils navoient que a pas a j aire pour 
 
 * pcnetrer la Fra7ice], qui etoit une affaire 
 
 * de
 
 ( «7' ) 
 
 * de peu de jours ^ avec des forces ft forml- 
 ' dables, Lcs gens eclairez cro'ioient me- 
 
 * 7ne cette hicoque plus bicoque qiielle netoit 
 
 * en effet^ en Jaifant ahjlvatiion defes rem- 
 
 * parts^ et de fes outrages? The gens e- 
 clairez mud have had an accurate plan of 
 the place, for it had been long in the hands 
 of the French, and the fituation of their 
 affairs, for feme time before the fi^ge, for- 
 ced them to artend to it. ^^x^ gens eclairez^ 
 therefore, eftimated the ftrength of the 
 place by its works, without oblerving what 
 difference providing it better t''an ufual 
 would make, or, at lealt, believing it would 
 make no difference worth regarding. The 
 author no where infinuates that he did not 
 himfelf fall into the miftake with i\\^ gens 
 eclairez ; his cxprefTion rather infinuates the 
 contrary. 
 
 Lan-
 
 ^72 ) 
 
 IjANDEberg, Pag. 9. Edit. 1731. 
 
 * Apres avoir attcntivqnent inedite fur 
 ^ le plan de la citadelle de Lille^ dans le terns 
 ^ que les allies s'en etolent rendiis maltrcs 
 
 * de meme que de la njllle^ il mefemhla qiien 
 
 * 7noins de deux mols de terns, et pour la 
 ^ fojnme de douze on quinze mllle ecus, on 
 
 * pourrolt jnettrc cette citadelle en tel etat^ 
 
 * qiill nc feroit pas pojjihle aux ajjicgeans de 
 
 * la reprendre par la force de T artlllerle. 
 ^ ye me perfuadal qiion pouvolt falre la 
 
 * mejne chofe a Vcgard de Bcthiine et de 
 
 * Aix, 12^,000 .florins de la Hollandc fuf- 
 ^ ffolent pour ces.trols places ;'' . . . goes on 
 to prove this, and explain his plan. ^ jf^e ne 
 ' doute point quun bon commandant ^ a qui la 
 
 * defence dune place co7iflriilte fulimnt les 
 ^ regies que fal prls la liberie de propofer^ 
 
 * feroit confc, ne fit en ttat d'empecher 
 ^ Venneml d^entrer dans le cheniln convert^ 
 *» et qiiil en rendrolt bofi coinpte^ s^ll avolt 
 
 ' feul^
 
 ( ^73 ) 
 
 * fiulement cinq ou fix hataillons dans la 
 ^ place^ et cinqiiante ou foixante pieces de 
 ' canon de huit ou douze livres de balle* 
 
 To fuch a degree has the proportion of 
 the total troops and ftores of the garrifon 
 to thofe of the befieger been negledted. 
 
 Feuquieres. 
 
 Vid. his Remarks on the defence of 
 Tournay. 
 
 Saxe, Reveries, Book II. Chap. i. 
 
 * It is to'wards the end of afiege^ ivhen 
 every thing comes to be difputed by inches, 
 that 'vigor and refolution are mojl 'wanted: 
 At 'which time^ the greater proofs you 
 give of the/e, the more the enemy 'will be 
 difcouraged ; for difcords 'will then begin 
 tofprcad a7nong them ; forage and provi^ 
 
 ' Jions
 
 ( 174 ) 
 
 ^ ftons ivill groiv fcarce^ and all things 
 ^ feem to concur to their deftruction If^ 
 ' moreover, they perceive that your rejtji^ 
 * ance is Jlilljlronger, and that it increafes 
 ' ivhen they expected it to diminijh^ they 
 ' 1^^7/ be at a lofs hoiv to afl^ and give 
 ' them/elves totally up to defpairj 
 
 They furely need not defpair of exhauft- 
 ing his ammunition and ftores; and what 
 are works without arms ? 
 
 Vauban's Firft Method, 
 
 This is completely reveted, ditch twenty 
 toifes broad, twelve feet deep ; fuppofe the 
 fire of the rampart to graze the glacis 
 completely. 
 
 State now another plan alfo completely 
 reveted, ditch fame depth, twelve toifes 
 broad, fame glacis, and the fire of the ram- 
 part to graze it, in all its breadth, as it 
 
 does
 
 ( '75 ) 
 
 does the other. Suppofe now batteries of 
 the fame height above the field, and at the 
 fame diftance, planted againft both. 
 
 Since the heights of the ramparts are as 
 their diftance from the foot of the glacis, 
 the portion of Vauban's rampart feen over 
 the glacis, Tubtends at ihc batrery a greater 
 angle than the portion of the low^er one; 
 the befieger can alfo batter in breach Vau- 
 ban's rampart at a greater diftance : On the 
 other hand, Vauban's rampart fees more 
 into the beneger's works. Let us leave 
 theie to balance one another; engineers 
 will, perhaps, never agree on them. Sup- 
 pofe Vauban's place provided according to 
 Le Febvre's rule, his own, or any other, fo 
 it be decently furniftied, and the other place 
 the very fame. Any one who would give 
 a general aflault to the fecond, while the 
 works are yet entire, ought alfo to do the 
 fame to Vauban's, for the narrow ditch is 
 ftill fo broad as to hinder him the fame. The 
 only advantage Vauban's has, is a mere 
 
 trifle,
 
 { '76 ) 
 
 trifle, (It will be allowed fo) more difEcuU 
 ty in the afcent: And, in the other, the 
 works are clofer, as well as lefs expofed. 
 If, at any time, earlier than ufual, he means 
 to give the general aflault, fuppofmg the 
 ftrength in both hufbanded the fame, as 
 alfo the fame attack, it is eafier for him to 
 give it to the higher work, as he muft be 
 fuppofed to have made more demolition in 
 it than in the other, and the greater lofs of 
 men he may fuftain from the higher work, 
 we muft fuppofe him able to repair. With 
 regard to regular fiege, it is fufficlent to ob- 
 ferve, that, on the one hand, Vauban's plan 
 has a broader ditch for the enemy to pafs, 
 where it is faid he may be oppofed ; and, 
 no doubt, he may ; but the advantage is 
 only that of oppofmg him there, rather 
 than eifewhere, which is juft nothing; on 
 The other hand, the narrow ditch brings^ 
 the works clofer, undoubtedly an advan- 
 tage. Though the difference of the height 
 of the ramparts be but a trifle in the length 
 of the fcaling ladders, yet the expence of 
 
 thaS
 
 ( ^1 ) 
 
 that dlfFerence, carried round a reveted 
 place, Is very confiderable. The glacis and 
 parapet of both require the fame quantity 
 of earth ; the evacuation of the greater ditch 
 is to that of the fmaller, in a greater pro- 
 portion than its rampart is to the lower. 
 But, when a fortrefs is done where there 
 were no houfes, there is a vaft quantity of 
 earth which muft be carried away ; vrhen 
 a place already built is to be fortified, the 
 interval between the works and it, almoll 
 every where, aitords a great deal : It is, in 
 ■ towns, thought a faving to fmk private 
 buildings a few feet. Without the worksj 
 earth is every where to be had, and little 
 heights are fdmetimes met with that would 
 be of ufe to the befieger. 
 
 The queftlon is, between earth got out 
 of the middle of the wide ditch, and earth 
 got elfewhere. 
 
 It is, on the whole, almoft every tvhere 
 
 much more to the engineer's purpofe, to' 
 
 ^ make^j
 
 ( J73 ) 
 
 make, In this method, the ditch only twelve 
 toifes. 
 
 Now, to the firft who fortified by both 
 a ditch and bank, it appeared excellent 
 contrivance to do two things at once. 
 
 Coc horn's Ditch, 
 
 Say twelve fathom broad, and eighteen 
 feet deep ; compare this with a ditch of the 
 fame breadth, only twelve feet deep. 
 
 Any advantages the latter has over Vau- 
 ban's firft method, the former has alfo, be- 
 fides the additional ftrength by the depth 
 of the ditch. Suppofe the befieger meant 
 to give the general affault while the ditches 
 were entire, and the ramparts entire, or 
 nearly fo, or the works in both equally 
 hurt ; the defcent and afccnt are not only 
 more diiiicult in rcaUty, but the very ap- 
 pearance
 
 ( 179 ) 
 
 pearance of the deeper ditch is much more 
 fuited to awe the imagination ; fo that if 
 the latter is decently provided, the former 
 may be held equally defenfible, with a lefs 
 force. But the method univerfally appro- 
 ved, when a place is properly provided, is, 
 to weaken the garrifon, and make a large 
 breach, before giving the aflault, if it is to 
 be given at all. All engineers will confefs, 
 that, in the regular method of approach, the 
 difference between pafling the deep ditch 
 and the other, when oppofed by equal 
 ftrength of garrifon, is a mere trifle. Now, 
 though Cochorn could revet his ditch, at 
 the lame, or perhaps lefs expence than 
 Vauban could his ; yet a ditch of only the 
 depth of Vauban's may be reveted in Co- 
 chorn's method. As to the earth, the que- 
 ftion is about only hoiiting it from a great- 
 er depth, and getting it from elfewhere. 
 
 The difference of expence between the 
 two conftruflions is great; by ufmg the 
 one, this difference is almoft entirely faved. 
 
 t.iU
 
 ( i8o ) 
 
 till wanted, and then is only ufed (except 
 a trifle, if people aim at nicety) in the 
 fronts attacked : A great fuperiority. 
 
 But Cochorn's ditch affords earth enougl> 
 for the works. 
 
 Le Febvre. 
 
 Siege of Rivol, chap. 7. § 6. * On f cut 
 ^ deny; ou trois attaqiies devant inie me me 
 
 * place^ pour en impofer a l^ajfiege et divifer 
 
 * fes Jorces ; qitoique d^ ordinaire il ny en ait 
 ' qiiune *vraie, on doit cependant les traiter 
 
 * toutes auj/i ferieujement Pune que Pautre^ 
 '^ ou du moins le paroitre^ autrement Pennemi 
 
 * qui ^appe'^ce'vroit bientot de lajcinte^ Uiif- 
 ^ feroit Pune pour donner fa principale at- 
 ' tention a Vautre^ 1 he falTe attacks are 
 to be carried on by this diredlion fo brifkly, 
 that the beficged fliall have a drfliculty in 
 
 diftinguifliing
 
 ^diftinguiflilng which is the true*; they 
 muft, therefore, have, during the former 
 part of the fiege, a good number of labour- 
 ers, with their tools, for the falfe attacks ; 
 they muft alfo be pretty well guarded, at 
 leaft, in proportion to the other. Why 
 not then malye them real I The thing feems 
 perfedly clear. There is not here the leaft 
 infmuation of exhauftirig the garrifon the 
 fooner (nor any where elfe), but exprefTions 
 fo very general, as fhow that the author 
 had no intention ot communicating any 
 thing out of the beaten path f. It is true, 
 
 * The author gives inftances of places taken on the 
 attacks meant at firft to be falfe, fo that, in fome of thefe, 
 the deception may have been well kept up ; I fay only 
 may, becaufe there are bad reports cf the Orange party; 
 and our author informs us, that the French were fome- 
 times carelefs in reconnoitring 
 
 ■^ I conclude, that ope part of the meaning of the ex- 
 preflion en impofir a I' ajficge, was to miflead him that he 
 may make (for the time) lefs refiftance to the true, and 
 neglecl fome one of the falfe, fo far as to give the befie. 
 ger an advantage in making the true. From the fa>5ls 
 
 alluded
 
 ( >82 ) 
 
 that there muft be fome quantity, beyond 
 which all the ftrength thrown into a place 
 would be of no ufe, and if a place were 
 fo provided, making more real attacks than 
 one (or, indeed, falfe either) would be only 
 more lofs, if not delay : But, on the flight- 
 eft examination, it will be confefled, that 
 no place has ever yet had that quantity, or 
 any thing near it. As a place may alfo be 
 fo very weakly provided that there is little 
 ufe in a falfe attack, or in more than one 
 true one. 
 
 This laft is not the queftion here. 
 
 Le Febvre, 
 
 Siege of Rivol, chap. 5. § 2. fays, ' Ls 
 * fen, (Tune place ajfiege neji jamais Ji fort 
 
 ' quail 
 
 alluded to in the preceding note, he never infinuates any- 
 thing of the treachery of the governours ; even a treache- 
 rous governour might give an advantage when he did not 
 ?nean it.
 
 ( i83 ) 
 
 * quau commencement du ftege ; et cela doit 
 
 * etre ainfi^ pour eloigner V ajfiegeant le plus 
 
 * qiCil efipojfible^ et lui difputer le terrein pied 
 ' a pied ^ As if the troops and (lores in 
 the place were unlimited. In this very 
 fiege, on the attack of the left it is certain- 
 ly foon enough to begin firing when the 
 befieger fets about his third parallel, which 
 is on the fourth night of the fiege. 
 
 He-informs us himfelf, in the fame chap- 
 ter, that, in all the fieges of the laft war, 
 (the war 1741 in the Low Countries), the 
 befieged, the night of opening the trenches, 
 either did not fire at all, or not till after 
 midnight, adding, 1 am tres perfuade that 
 the governours had all flattered themfelves 
 that they would not be furprifed : Alfo, in 
 chap. 4. § I. That in the laft fieges of the 
 French in Flanders, they loft fewer men 
 the night they opened the firft parallel than 
 in the run of the other nights. In this 
 I very fiege, he takes it for granted, that the 
 befieged do not fire till after the enemy has 
 
 been
 
 ( i84 ) 
 
 been fome hours at work, and he fuppofes 
 the foil neither favourable, nor otherwife. 
 
 The queflion Is, therefore, merely the 
 life of fo many fliot when the enemy Is at 
 a greater or lefs diftance. 
 
 The expreffion he ufes is that of a gon^- 
 ral rule, which includes Hieges where mi- 
 ning is employed : Yet, if the place is ill 
 provided, the conduct I ptopofe is ftill lefs 
 to be difputed. If a place, Indeed, were 
 provided, as no place ever was, nor Rivol 
 in particular, fuch condud: (Vid. preceding" 
 inftancej would be pure lojfs. *J. 
 
 The queftion is only t.he fhot fired in 
 three days; it cannot, furjly be pretended, 
 in the cafe of Rivol, th;at this quantity 
 muft, if not fired then, be found in th'e 
 magazine. 
 
 His reafon is, not that ithe variation this 
 would caule in the repau" r/ould be as-hurt-
 
 ful as the wafte objected to ; for, befideSj 
 that fuch variation, though, on the whole, 
 more material, could be guarded againft in 
 providing the place, he takes no notice of 
 the circumftance, but gives other reafons. 
 It is true, that, in his method, the befieger 
 pafles through more fathoms under the fire 
 of the place ; but, in mine, after paffing 
 fome unrefifted, he meets more refiftance 
 in each fathom of the remainder ; the fads 
 he has given fhow, that, in his m.ethod, the 
 additional quantity v^herein I would not 
 beftow oppofition, is paiTed through with 
 little lofs, and that furely might be believed 
 en much lefs authority. 
 
 He goes on ' Lorfqut Tartilleria du dc^ 
 
 * hors a gci;^ne la fuptr'ior'ite fur cells du 
 ' dedans^ il n cjl querc pojjibh que telle cl 
 
 * hit rejifte^ et ft I'qffiege ne profite pas du 
 tems^ et de fes av ant ages des le com- 
 
 * viencementy a qiioi lu'i fewiroientfes poudres 
 ' et toutes des autres munitions, lorfque fes 
 
 * batteries feront demontees, et quit ne lui 
 
 A a ' refer a
 
 ( i86 ) 
 
 ' rejlera plus que quelques pieces ambulant 
 ' tes. 
 
 Of the Bajlion and Curtain, The Routine 
 Line, 
 
 Where no account Is kept of the im- 
 provements made, where any account ta- 
 ken has been kept private, or even has not 
 got into the public, it is difficult, if not 
 impoffible, for moft to fee how ihey were 
 affeded by routine. Even with a tolerable 
 hiftory of the practice of ages, we might 
 be milled from omiffions in our monu- 
 ments, and fufpedt routine where there was 
 none, as well as novelty. Even with hif- 
 tories a degree more complete, there is 
 ftill room for hefitation. 
 
 The hiftory of the invention of the ba- 
 ftion given by Deidier in his Parfait Inge- 
 
 nieur
 
 ( i87 ) 
 
 nieur Franfois^ is fo natural, that, allow- 
 ing for fome deviations, which neither 
 could nor ought be noticed in fo general a 
 view, we cannot believe it very different 
 from what really happened. After the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, we find 
 fuch works on foot, that the trains of ar- 
 tillery then brought to fieges, were able 
 (for aught we know, in fpite of all attempts 
 to repair) to make a practicable breach in 
 a day or two, and that from the firft ground 
 the batteries were made on. While build- 
 ing and repairing were (o ill underilood 
 making the flank of the baftion Jichant^ 
 might juftly be efleemed a very good con- 
 trivance. This pofition, however conti- 
 nued it is well known to be directed by a 
 long lid of authors, long after the neceffity 
 was removed. Errard of Bar, engineer to 
 Henry the Great of France, made his 
 flank perpendicular to the face, keeping it 
 fafe ; after him we find a long lift who, 
 for the fame reafon, made the flank per- 
 pendicular to the curtain. At length, how- 
 ever.
 
 ( i88 ) 
 
 ever, a better pofition has been of late a- 
 greed on. But the flank fichant continued 
 not only long after the firft neceflity, but 
 after the efcalade itfelf was fcarce ever 
 feen ; becaufe it was not thought of till 
 the breach was good, the garrifon of a vi- 
 gorous governor was by this time exhauft- 
 ed, or before, and no other would dream 
 of rifking it. The long flank, however, 
 continued fl:ill in favour, though no one 
 could fhow that the half of it, or little 
 more, was not enough. Biflet propofed 
 to fliorten the perpendicular fo a<s to make 
 the flank of fixteen fathoms, befides the 
 flanks of the gorges. This change had 
 many advantages ; in particular, when join- 
 ed to the flank of the face given in his fe- 
 cond method, one fliould have fuppofed no 
 oppofition would have been made to it. 
 Yet, from what we find in the books print- 
 ed fmce thefe improvements were fuggefl:- 
 ed, and from the work of that excellent 
 engineer never having got to a fecond edi- 
 tion, we fee that they are iiegleQed. The 
 
 baftion.
 
 ( i89 ) 
 
 baftion, though originally contrived againft 
 the cfcalade and the paflage of the ditch, 
 continues ftill the element of regular forti- 
 fication, though the efcalade has been out 
 of the queftion for a century paft, although, 
 for fo long a time, not only the pafTage of 
 the ditch, but every part of a fiege, has 
 changed its face ; and though a bare in- 
 fpedion fliows, that a redan, in all com- 
 mon cafes, might be fubftituted to its flanks 
 and curtain to great advantage. 
 
 Of Wet Ditches. 
 
 The confideration of thefe gives, per- 
 haps, the chief objedion againft the rea- 
 fonings laid down above. It may be faid, 
 that the dimenfions of thefe are lefs than 
 thofe of dry ditches ; that thefe guard bet- 
 ter againft the general aflault than dry 
 ditches ; that engineers, therefore, were in 
 the conftrudion of ditches plainly guided 
 by the facility of the general aflault, and 
 
 thought
 
 thought fuch dimenfions as Fig. 3. too 
 fmall. 
 
 In the firft place, I am yet to learn that 
 the dimenfions of ditches have been much 
 or often altered on account of the water 
 in them, except in preferring abroad fhal- 
 low ditch to a narrow deep one, or that 
 the general opinion of engineers is, that 
 that there ought to be much other altera- 
 tion on that account. In Le Febvre's Ri- 
 vol, the great ditch is twelve feet deep, 
 and twenty toifes broad, the fize attributed 
 to Vauban's dry ditches, and admitted to 
 be fufficient without the fix feet of water ; 
 the ditch of the ravelin the fame depth, and 
 fourteen toifes broad, agreed to be enough, 
 though dry. 
 
 It is obvious, that the water renders the 
 pafTage of the ditch more difficult, either 
 in aflault or in regular fiege ; and, there- 
 fore, it is no wonder if an engineer, free- 
 ing himfelf a little from routine, fhould 
 
 content
 
 ( 191 ) 
 
 content himfelf with dimenfions fomev^hat 
 lefs. But even this may have coft time, 
 may have begun, or been fometimes ufed 
 from being confined in the fum allotted 
 for building the places, or even from fraud 
 or dlfputes about ground. And I think 
 it may be plainly fhown, that the opinions 
 ftated in the objedlion were not thofe of 
 the engineers who did make the deviation. 
 Compare the plan of Rivol [e. g.) with an- 
 other whofe ditches are of the fame depth, 
 the great ditch only fourteen toifes broad, 
 and that of the ravelin ten. The jrarrifon 
 that provides Rivol tolerably well, will not 
 be pretended a bid provifion for the other. 
 Narrowing the ditch gives many advanta- 
 ges ; the works are lower, theretore lefs 
 expenfive, and feen at a lefs an^jle from 
 the field ; they are clofer, and the befieger, 
 it is agreed, has much lefs ground to ere6t 
 batteries againft the flanks. This laft ad- 
 vantage is much infilled on by all engi- 
 neers in treating of the falient angle of the 
 
 baition
 
 { 192 ) 
 
 baftion and Cochorn's ditch*. All thefe, 
 it will be allowed, overbalance the advan- 
 tage of the height of Rivol. Where much 
 of the water of the ditch is gained from 
 within itfelf, there cannot be a worfe place 
 to get earth from than the ditch. Nothing, 
 therefore, but routine could have hindered 
 the ditch from being narrowed. 
 
 Where the ground eafily permits mining, 
 and the ditch is wet, there is iefs reafon 
 againft the alterations I propofe. 
 
 Of Irregular Fortification^ 
 
 Though I thought that the methods I 
 oppofe could be defended againft all I have 
 
 faid 
 
 * It is fufficient for my argument that this Is fuppo- 
 fed no inconfiderable advantage. In reality it is a trifle. 
 If he extends his battery on the glacis it cofts him fomc- 
 what more labour. As far as he extends them on the 
 counterfcarp he conRru»5ls them ut more labour j but hi^ 
 merlons are ftronger.J
 
 { m ) 
 
 faid, I fhould think that the great variety 
 of plans that has been propofed, is not 
 more ufeful by giving different fcales of 
 expence, than by giving different poiitions 
 of works. 
 
 On confidering the different expedients 
 by which the difadvantages of fituation are 
 correded or eluded, it will be allowed, 
 that, if I have fucceeded in fhowing that a 
 fingle line is fufEcient in even ground, it 
 may often be found the propereft in une- 
 ven ground. Where its faces were fo fhort 
 as not to contain fire enough, I would, in 
 general, prefer cavaliers * to outworks, as 
 alfo where, on other accounts, 1 built two 
 lines. If my opinions on hufbandlng the 
 ammunition and troops of the place are 
 B b juft, 
 
 * 1 do not mean to limit the ufe of cavaliers to un- 
 even ground ; I think that, in my own plans of regular 
 fortification, fome little things of the kind would here 
 and there be worth the expence. To them they are of 
 more value than to the ufual methods.
 
 ( 194 ) 
 
 juft, the engineer is more at liberty in 
 choofing his plan. I need not enter into 
 cafes extremely bad. 
 
 ***** 
 
 If cremailleres (invented by Fallois) are 
 ufed inftead of the glacis and covered way, 
 (I think them preferable) there will be the 
 lefs to objed to the alterations I propofe. 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 Though it fhould be held that, in the 
 cafes confidered, I may in fome inftances 
 have propofed laying out too little money 
 on the works, yet I flatter myfelf it will 
 be allowed, that, in the plans now prefer- 
 red, the expence of them is too great by 
 far. 
 
 Explanation
 
 ( "95 ) 
 
 Explanation of the Figures, 
 
 All except No. ii. 12. 13. 14. 15. are 
 done from a fcale half an inch to twenty- 
 five fathoms or toifes, fold in the common 
 cafes. 
 
 In all, the fire from the rampart is fup- 
 pofed to graze the glacis equally. 
 
 Fig. I. 2. and 5. are ftated only deml- 
 reveted, and of courfe thofe compared with 
 them, if they were ftated fully reveted, the 
 objections to them would have ftill more 
 force : Bui that feems abandoned of late. 
 
 I fuppofe the places of arms and the 
 covered way occupied very much by can- 
 non, and either on high carriages or in 
 fomething like the way diredcd in Saxe's 
 
 Reveries ;
 
 { 196 ) 
 
 Reveries ; a few of thefe will do more than 
 all the troops it can contain j but they muft 
 be attended by guards, befides thofe who 
 "work them. I have drawn no traverfes in 
 the covered way, becaufe, though thefe 
 muft be had when the enemy is at fome 
 diftance, yet, when he comes fo near as 
 that there is fome chance of his fucceeding 
 in an aflault on it, the beft defence is, to 
 caft down or carry away the traverfes, and 
 withdraw all the people who are above 
 ground. 
 
 Fie
 
 ( 197 ) 
 
 Fig. I. Great ditch 
 
 14 fathom broad 
 
 14 feet deep. 
 
 Ditch of the ravelin 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 3. Great ditch 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Ditch of the ravelin 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Fig 2. Great ditch 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 Ditch of the ravelin 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 Ditch of the lunette 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 4. Great ditch 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 Ditch of the ravelin 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 ■ lunette 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 5. Great ditch 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 Ditch of ravelin 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Fig. 6. Ditch 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 7. Ditch 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 OF
 
 »5oc$x$3^a:|ic^:$xj3:5a$3c8x$:c5o:$^ 
 
 O F 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 •S9^^^'^:^jcc^^:i^o§o^:^jf^^ ^
 
 N 
 
 A T T L E. 
 
 FOLARD propofed fighting always in 
 deep bodies, whatever might be ths 
 fituation, or whatever might be the objedfc, 
 except, perhaps, diredlly oppofite to the 
 enemy's batteries ; and he has been follow- 
 ed by many. 
 
 He has been oppofed by many more, who 
 have held, that, whatever the fituation of 
 the obje<3: might be, nothing but thin lines 
 were to be ufed. 
 
 The intereft of both parties can feldom 
 be the fame. 
 
 Bb A
 
 { 202 ) 
 
 A man may choofe to pufh as hard as 
 pofTible in one part of the front engaged, 
 while, in another, he propofes only to oc- 
 cupy the enemy. 
 
 « 
 
 The nature of the ground may make 
 the pofTeflion of a poft worth fome lofs or 
 rifk. 
 
 Of the two parties, the one may be in 
 fuch a fituation, that, if obliged to give 
 ground, he may be pinched for room to 
 rally in, (as King William at Nerwinden) 
 or find it difficult, from the pofiiion, num- 
 ber, or quality of his troops, (as De La 
 Motte at Wynnendal). 
 
 One party may have fuch reinforcements 
 coming up during the adion, as makes it 
 his intereft to pafs off the time the beft he 
 can, till they come up, while it is the in- 
 tereft of the other to decide it before they 
 arrive. The approach of night may make 
 it the intereft of one party to prcfs a de- 
 
 cifion.
 
 (203 ) 
 
 cirion, or to avoid fighting in the dark. 
 A part of the one army may be carried oif 
 by the enemy, and of courfe it may be 
 their intereft to prcfs the affair ; and the 
 enemy's to wait the return of his people^. 
 
 On turning his enemy's flank, he may 
 find him more or lefs prepared. 
 
 One party may be more or lefs furroun- 
 ded by the other. 
 
 One party may be greatly ftronger than 
 the other. 
 
 There is nothing more dangerous than 
 endeavouring to gain a vidtory at little riik 
 
 or 
 
 * This, I imagine, was Hannibal's cafe at Zama. By 
 the edition I have of Poiybius, the cavalry of both 
 wings was carried off at the beginning of the adion, and 
 his infantry was more numerous than the enemy's. But 
 as, on this memorable battle, I prefume to entertain fen- 
 tlments different from thofe expreffeJ by Guifchardt, this 
 is not the place to explain them fo minutely as is requ;- 
 fite.
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
 @r expence. ; yet daring meafures may be 
 the intereft of one party, and adions that 
 decide much. 
 
 There is ftill a great dijfFerence between 
 troops and troops ; befides, the itrength of 
 one army may lie more in artillery than 
 that of the oth^r. 
 
 The incidents in battle are very various. 
 
 Recommending one method of fighting 
 in all thefe different cafes to both parties, 
 naturally reminds one of the medicine that 
 infallibly cured the diabetes, and, when 
 fair play was given it, cured the dropfy 
 alfo. 
 
 But truth is the tefl of ridkule. 
 
 Folard colledied inftances to fliow that, 
 %vhen the centre of an army was broke, a 
 defeat followed inevitably ; and in' fad he 
 fhowed, that, in the times of which he 
 
 treated.
 
 ( 205 ) 
 
 treated, the defeat might follow from art 
 opening made in any part of the front. 
 
 War is now not quite the fame as it was 
 in any of the times confidered by him. 
 
 Yet it will not be difputed; that if an open- 
 ing is once made with white arms, a de- 
 feat may follow from it. It is more diffi- 
 cult to rally the troops that are broke; 
 thofe that are not find themfelves attacked 
 in flank and front ; and ihofe that come up 
 from referves are more entangled by the 
 runaways. A fmall blow well followed 
 may give a vicStory. 
 
 Great improvements have been made 
 on Folard's fcheme. It has been propo- 
 fed to make the deep bodies more adtive ; 
 it has been fhowed that a longer bayonet 
 may be ufed without inconvenience *; that 
 
 they 
 
 * With the common bayonet only three ranks can 
 
 ejit^r
 
 ( 206 ) 
 
 they fliould be formed at a lefs diftance 
 from the enemy; and JVJarfhal Saxe ufed 
 a column with great fuccefs by feeding it 
 conftantly with frefh troops, and fupport- 
 ing it well. 
 
 Folard has not explained the ufe of his 
 fecond, &c. lines of deep bodies. It is 
 poflible that a fecond line of thefe coming 
 up after the firft was broke, might make 
 an opening. Warnery mentions a cafe 
 fomething like this that had oftener than 
 once happened between the Pruflian and 
 Saxon cavalry. The Pruffians drawn up 
 without intervals, the Saxons with inter- 
 vals equal to the front of their divifions, 
 fo that half their corps made a fort of fe- 
 cond 
 
 enter into aflion, and the third of thefe with not 
 much effect ; but ftill three ranks are no match for fix. 
 They cannot reafonably expeft to mafter the fix, nor will 
 they expea It ; and thofe in the fix ranks know that. This 
 feems trivial ; but Vid. the anfwer made by Guifchardt 
 (to fay nothing of Gulbert) to Folard on the impulfe of 
 the column.
 
 { 207 ) 
 
 cond line fronting the intervals of the firft. 
 The firft line of Saxons were, though they 
 charged brifkly, drove off by the PrufTians, 
 who were in their turn drove off by the 
 fecond, half their number. In confequence, 
 the King gave up ranging cavalry en mu- 
 raille. The Pruffians were furely better 
 officered, and cannot be fuppofed worfe 
 difciplined. 
 
 I venture to propofe another method of 
 ufing deep bodies ; by deep I mean luch 
 as are at leaft fix deep, i. e. twice the depth 
 of the common line. 
 
 Suppofe the firft line with its artillery 
 formed, and to engage as if fuch bodies 
 were not to be ufed *. The deep bodies 
 
 to 
 
 * I take this opportunity of fuggefting what I think 
 are improvements. That, when troops march in line, 
 and do not charge, inftead of ranging as in Fig. i. they 
 Ihould range in feme fuch order as in Fig. 2. This gives 
 a corps more ailivity, and it feems Icfs expofed to the e- 
 
 nemy's
 
 ( 208 ) 
 
 to be made of the fecond line when and 
 where judged proper, carrying off as they 
 charge that part of the firft Hne oppofite 
 
 to 
 
 nemy's cannon. It is true tlie foldier has more difficulty 
 in keeping his diftance than if he were clofer to his fel- 
 low ; but the Romans, defcribed by Polybius, (V. Guif- 
 chardt) were ranged ftill loofer ; and if their men be then 
 fuppofed to have been ranged in quincunx, which increa- 
 fes the adivity, it increafes alfo the difficulty of keeping 
 the diftance. But that error is in reality of no confe- 
 quence, in comparifon to the advantages gained. 
 
 Suppofe (Fig. 3.) a line ranged in echelons, which en- 
 gages another ranged in the fame manner. Suppofe the 
 echelon A a good deal itronger than B, and that no trif- 
 ling portion of its excefs in front, as a, inftead of direft- 
 ing its fire on the corps C directly in front, fhould play 
 upon B. If the interval between B and C, (t. e. h c) is 
 confiderable, as in Saldern's book, B muft vifibly break, 
 or wafte men in reinforcements, if that will do. If to 
 remedy this, the intervals are made lefs, thtn if each e- 
 chelon is confiderable, (as C 2coo, men) it will be impof- 
 fible to confine the engagement for any time, to a fiiort 
 front, if the enemy wiflies to engage a long one; The 
 beft is, therefore, to make each echelon fmall, and th^ 
 intervals fmall alfo. 
 
 I enter not here into theefFedl of charges with white 
 arms, or horfe on the echelon B.
 
 ( 209 ) 
 
 to their fronts, and they to be fupported 
 and fed as circumftances permit. 
 
 There is more time beftowcd by the 
 Pruflians on what they never pradlife in 
 adtion, than is required to make the ma- 
 noeuvres of deep bodies as familiar as the 
 others. 
 
 The revival of the opinion laid down in 
 Vegetius, that an army ought only to en- 
 gage on a part of its front, is favourable 
 to this addition. 
 
 There is no faying to what a pitch men 
 may be carried bv '■^iicipiine. 
 
 There is no Taving how little may flartle 
 people if it be novelty *. 
 
 D d But 
 
 * Confider the a.rtions of Alderne, Klllicranky, and 
 Preilonpans, the obfcurity of the ftage has made them be 
 neglected ; yet the t%vo firft were gained over fuperior 
 numbers of difciplined troops, commanded by refpe-^-ed. 
 officers. The army beat at Alderne v-as from the age 
 the leaft difciplined of the two j but its commaader, and 
 
 many
 
 ( 2IO ) 
 
 But the part of an army armed with ar- 
 tillery is now great. 
 
 True : But till there is much more or- 
 der in battle, and fire is greatly improved 
 beyond what it is, it is not yet great e- 
 nough in all times and places, to flop a bo- 
 dy of men who come from one hundred 
 and fifty paces (for inftance) fome time af- 
 ter an ad-ion is begun. 
 
 A management of a line has been ftated, 
 by which a deep body, it is fuppofed, may 
 lofe fo many as not to come up ; but fuch 
 a line cannot always be had. The advan- 
 tage of attacking is great. By a fimilar 
 reafoning, one ought not to try to turn 
 the enemy's flank. Yet the Pruffians have 
 fhowed that, in mod fituations, it is ve- 
 ry prudent to attempt it. 
 
 But 
 
 many of its officers, had feen deep bodies gradually go- 
 ing into difufe in the thirty years war ; and the remem- 
 brance of the thirty years war muft have been ftill frefh 
 at the time of the battle of Killicranky.
 
 ( 211 ) 
 
 But the part of an army armed with ar- 
 tillery is now great. 
 
 True ; but it is not yet great enough 
 in all times and places to ftop a body of 
 men who come from one hundred and fif- 
 ty paces (for inftance) fome time after an 
 adion is begun *. 
 
 Warnery has fhowed, that a column 
 cannot elcape being deftroyed, if judiciouf- 
 ly attacked in flank and front by cavalry, 
 while its front is oppofed as ufual. 
 
 In the firfl: place, this oppofition would 
 deftrDy a line. 
 
 In the next place, cavalry is not always 
 at hand when needed. 
 
 In 
 
 * The revival of the opinion laid down in Vegetius, 
 that an army ought only to engage on a part of its front, 
 is favourable to this addition.
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
 In the third place, the column muft be 
 fuppofed fupported. If it is, what comes 
 of this attack ? 
 
 In the laft place, he has vifibly fuppofed 
 the column to begin its charge from a 
 great diftance. 
 
 In the thirty years war, when deep bo- 
 dies went into difufe, the movements of 
 thefe were very flow. They were form- 
 ed at the beginning, and prefented at a 
 great diftance. 
 
 On the whole, I cannot help thinking 
 that dee^ bodies might fometimes be ufed 
 with fuccefs. 
 
 FINIS.
 
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 PLATE X.
 
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