GIFT OF 
 
 
PRACTICAL STUDIES 
 in 
 
 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
PRACTICAL STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 By 
 
 HOWARD LESLIE LUNT, A. M. 
 
 Associate Professor of Education, 
 Supervisor of Practice Teaching 
 
 University High School 
 University of Southern California 
 
 Special Edition 
 
 Los Angeles, California 
 1919 
 
Copyright 1919, by 
 
 HOWARD LESLIE LUNT 
 
 (All rights reserved.) 
 
 Press of the 
 Grtfton Pvblitbing Corporation 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 "Practical Studies in Sentence Analysis" is a revision 
 and an enlargement of the author's former work, entitled 
 11 A Study of the English Sentence," which was published 
 in 1895. In this work was printed for the first time a 
 new method of written (visual) sentence analysis, 
 designed as a substitute for the defective ''diagram 
 system" then in vogue. 
 
 Since that time the writer has taught his scheme of 
 combined oral and written analysis of the English 
 sentence to many classes of pupils and teachers, who have 
 voluntarily given personal testimony to its practical 
 value. The memory of these words of commendation 
 has furnished, for the most part, the author's main motive 
 for organizing in a textbook the results of his past 
 experiences in studying and teaching the functional 
 elements of the English sentence. In no sense is this 
 work to be regarded as a substitute for a textbook on 
 English Grammar, but rather as a supplement to almost 
 any grammar that would serve as a reference book for 
 rules, principles, and definitions. 
 
 It must be acknowledged that much of the teaching of 
 English grammar has had to do with the recognition and 
 classification of the Parts of Speech, and that no sufficient 
 attention has been given to the classification of unit 
 elements according to their special functions. The impor- 
 tance of sentence analysis has been noted by the New 
 York Boar.d of Regents in an "English Syllabus" in the 
 following terms : 
 
 "To help the pupil to develop the 'sentence sense' and to 
 grasp the thought of difficult sentences, much of the time given 
 to the study of grammar should be spent in the analysis of 
 sentences just within the limit of his mental ability, such 
 analysis consisting of rapid drill in syntax of words, phrases, 
 and clauses." 
 
iv INTRODUCTION 
 
 The opinions of eminent thinkers and writers on the 
 teaching of English grammar as a school subject ought 
 to influence the character of present-day textbooks, as 
 well as present-day methods. 
 
 "I can write all the grammar of the English language," once 
 said a prominent college president, "on four pages of foolscap." 
 
 In the same tenor writes Professor A. S. Hill in his 
 excellent work, "Our English": 
 
 "Above all, the time and energies of the young should not be 
 wasted upon formal grammar. Several hours judiciously used 
 should suffice to teach an intelligent boy the few points of 
 grammar which it is necessary for him to know. 
 
 ' ' How many precious hours are wasted on mere parsing, as 
 if it were not more important for a child to understand a given 
 sentence as a whole than to know that this word in a sentence 
 is a noun, that one an adverb of manner or whatever it may 
 be called in the treatise in vogue at the moment. ' ' 
 
 In an article on "Grammar", the Encyclopedia Brit- 
 tanica upholds the following propositions, which touch 
 strongly the point in question: 
 
 "The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with the 
 sentence, therefore, and not with the list of words and forms, 
 that the pupil should begin. We must first master the expression 
 of a complete thought, and then break it up into its several 
 elements. 
 
 "The idea that the free use of speech is tied down by the 
 rules of the grammar must first be given up. We must get rid 
 of the idea that English grammar should be modeled after that 
 of ancient Rome: until we do so we shall never understand even 
 the elementary principles upon which it is based. We cannot 
 speak of declensions, since English has no genders except in 
 the pronouns of the third person, and no cases except the 
 genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative. Its verbal 
 conjugation is essentially different from that of an inflexional 
 language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into the same 
 categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged at the 
 expense of the accidence. Position has taken the place of 
 form. To speak of an adjective 'agreeing' with its substantive 
 is as misleading as to speak of a verb 'governing' a case. Apart 
 from the personal pronouns the accusative of the classical 
 languages can be represented only by position." 
 
 In his lectures on "The Teaching of English Grammar" 
 Professor F. A. Barbour, of the Michigan State Normal 
 College, puts the case very well: 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 "As a matter of logical training," he says, "the grammatical 
 analysis of our uninfiected vernacular is a more severe discipline 
 than the translation of a highly inflected foreign language like 
 Latin. . . . The mere fact that in English the pupil is 
 obliged to get the meaning of the sentence from the order of 
 the words, and from a logical insight into the content of the 
 thought with little or no aid from the form of the words 
 this very fact makes the study of English grammar a more 
 abstract, and difficult, and disciplinary subject than the 
 grammar of any highly inflected speech. ' ' 
 
 In support of this rather uncommon view he proceeds 
 to quote so high an authority as Professor Whitney, the 
 author of " Essentials of English Grammar": 
 
 "Give me/' says Whitney, "a man who can with full 
 intelligence take to pieces an English sentence brief, and 
 not too complicated and I will welcome him as better pre- 
 pared for further study in other languages than if he had read 
 both Caesar and Virgil, and could parse them in the routine 
 style in which they are so often parsed. ' ' 
 
 The practical outcome of the mental discipline acquired 
 from the logical analysis of sentences, as contributing to 
 the student's constructive ability is emphasized by Pro- 
 fessor Barbour: 
 
 "Analysis is the careful study of the concrete form which 
 thought assumes in expression," he declares; "writing, speak- 
 ing, composition are the putting of our thought into similar 
 forms; surely the analytic study of a model will aid in the 
 synthetic process of building. I am convinced that such study 
 has a marked influence upon the student's ability to marshal 
 his own phrases and clauses more easily and with a firmer 
 hand." 
 
 Professor S. S. Laurie, of the University of Edinburgh, 
 in his exposition of ''Language as a Formal Discipline ", 
 dwells on the advantages of the systematic study of 
 Grammar "the analysis of words and sentences": 
 
 "Grammatical teaching," he says, "can have only three 
 possible objects in a school: the formal discipline of mind, the 
 more thorough understanding of reading, and the art of com- 
 position. . . . The principal defect found in the teaching of 
 Grammar in schools is want of accuracy and precision on the 
 part of the teachers. This prevails to a scandalous extent. 
 This defect manifestly vitiates the whole teaching, and makes 
 it worse than useless." 
 
vi INTRODUCTION 
 
 Modern educational methods point out that both 
 teacher and learner must make use of the eye along with 
 the ear as a complementary avenue of approach to the seat 
 of the understanding. The best method of teaching any 
 subject depends for its success upon the logical use of 
 abstract, representative symbols, rough sketchings, out- 
 lines, and diagrams that present to the eye relations in a 
 compact compass. It is the "natural geometry of the 
 intellect " that finds special satisfaction in the use and 
 interpretation of signs, symbols, and lines of relations. 
 By this method the abstract and indefinite becomes 
 "mentally concrete". 
 
 The practical value of this system of visual analysis, as 
 exemplified in these pages, lies in the fact, that the student 
 can, by means of arbitrary symbols, express briefly the 
 results of his thinking; and the teacher, directing the 
 blackboard work of a whole class, can judge at sight 
 the correctness of each person's work. 
 
 Experience has shown the necessity of providing two 
 sets of explanatory symbols: one to represent the gram- 
 matical relations in the regular predicative sentence and 
 clause ; and the other, the somewhat different forms and 
 relations in the so-called non-predicative, or infinitive 
 clause. 
 
 It is advisable that the teacher and the advanced 
 student, for the sake of getting more extended details, 
 should make use of the books of reference listed herein. To 
 these works especially is the writer indebted for certain 
 fundamental ideas, illustrative material, practical defin- 
 itions, and working principles. 
 
 I am also under obligation to my colleague, Dr. James 
 Main Dixon, Professor of Literature in the University of 
 Southern California, for advice as to modern usage and 
 the historical phases of sentence elements, and for assist- 
 ance in reading the proofs. 
 
 HOWARD LESLIE LUNT. 
 
 Los Angeles, California 
 June 9, 1919. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART ONE 
 PRINCIPLES OF SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 CHAPTER I. THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE. 
 
 Single Words, Phrases, Clauses 1 
 
 Single Words as Parts of Speech _ 2 
 
 Word-groups as Phrases . 3 
 
 Word-groups as Clauses - 4 
 
 Word-groups as Sentences 4 
 
 Forms of Sentence Structure 4 
 
 The Three Fundamental Types _ 5 
 
 Models of Oral Analysis 6 
 
 Models of Written Analysis 9 
 
 Elements of the Sentence _ 11 
 
 Modifiers: Kind and Function 11 
 
 Symbols for Written Analysis , 10, 12 
 
 Examples of Modifications 14 
 
 Written Analysis: Model Sentences _. 15 
 
 The Complex Sentence 15 
 
 The Sentence Symbolized 17 
 
 Notes, Principles, Definitions 17 
 
 CHAPTER II. THE PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 Transitive Verbs with Object Complement 20 
 
 Intransitive Verb "To Be" with Subjective Complement.... 21 
 
 Copulative Verbs with Subjective Complement 21 
 
 Passive Verbs with Subjective Complement 22 
 
 Transitive Verbs with Objective Complement 22 
 
 Passive Constructions _ 23 
 
 Function of the Passive Voice . 25 
 
 Passive Verbs with ''Retained Object" 25 
 
 Infinitives, Participles, and Gerunds 26 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 Comparative View of Verbals in -ing 31 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs - 33 
 
 Notes, Principles, Definitions 33 
 
 CHAPTEE III. THE FUNCTION OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs 37 
 
 The Connectives: Prepositions and Conjunctions 45 
 
 Interjections ~ 48 
 
 Notes, Principles, Definitions 44, 48, 52 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. EQUIVALENTS OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Noun-Equivalents 54 
 
 Adjective-Equivalents 65 
 
 Adverb-Equivalents 56 
 
 Notes, Principles, Definitions 57 
 
 Equivalent Connectives 59 
 
 Sentence-Equivalents 59 
 
 CHAPTEE V. IDIOMATIC CONSTBUCTIONS. 
 
 Comparative Constructions 61 
 
 Constructions with "It" 66 
 
 Independent Constructions . 68 
 
 Negative Constructions 69 
 
 Quotations as Object Complement 71 
 
 Indirect Narration 72 
 
 The Impersonal Verb 74 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. SPECIAL WOED-CONSTEUCTIONS 76 
 
 Works of Beference.... 91 
 
 PART TWO 
 LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 INTEODUCTOBY: EULES, PEINCIPLES, DEFINITIONS.. 93 
 
 Lesson 1: Model of Oral and Written Analysis 100 
 
 Lesson 2: Simple and Complex Sentences 101 
 
 Lesson 3: Simple and Complex Sentences _ 101 
 
 Lesson 4: Phrases as Equivalents _ 103 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 IX 
 
 Lesson 5: The Complex Sentence 103 
 
 Lesson 6: The Passive Voice 104 
 
 Lesson 7: Infinitive Clauses and Adverbials 105 
 
 Lesson 8: The Appositive Construction 106 
 
 Lesson 9: Special Adverbial Constructions 107 
 
 Lesson 10: Expletives and Adverbials 107 
 
 Lesson 11: Expletives and Adverbials 108 
 
 Lesson 12: Comparative Constructions with ''Than" 109 
 
 Lesson 13. Comparative Constructions with "As" and 
 
 ' ' So " - 110 
 
 Lesson 14: Constructions with "As," "So," "Such".... Ill 
 
 Lesson 15: Miscellaneous Sentences 112 
 
 Lesson 16: Verbals in -ing . 113 
 
 Lesson 17: Adverbial Modifications 114 
 
 Lesson 18: Miscellaneous Sentences and Extracts 114 
 
 Lesson 19: Selected Sentences and Extracts 115 
 
 Lesson 20: Miscellaneous Sentences 116 
 
 Lesson 21: Typical Forms of Quotations 117 
 
 Lesson 22: Addison's Sir Eoger de Coverley 118 
 
 Lesson 23: "My Own Shepherd". Jowett 119 
 
 Lesson 24: "The Euling Passion". Van Dyke 120 
 
 Lesson 25: " Walter Bagehot, a Literary Banker ". Bowen 121 
 
 Lesson 26: "Origins of Poetry". Eastman 122 
 
 Lesson 27: Miscellaneous Extracts 122 
 
 Lesson 28: Selected Sentences and Extracts 123 
 
 Lesson 29: Selected Extracts. Ferrero, et al 124 
 
 Lesson 30: "National Honor and Democracy". Dixon.... 125 
 
PRACTICAL STUDIES 
 
 in 
 
 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 PART ONE 
 PRINCIPLES OF SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 
 
 1. The units of verbal expression are: Single word, 
 Phrase, Clause, Sentence, Paragraph, the Whole Dis- 
 course. Of these only Single words, Phrases, Clauses, 
 and Sentences form the subject-matter for grammatical 
 study and analysis. 
 
 2. As the Sentence is the principal unit of thought in 
 the construction of a paragraph, so the Paragraph is the 
 special rhetorical unit in the construction of the Whole 
 Discourse. 
 
 3. Tabular view of the verbal units : 
 
 1. Discourse: connected narrative for developing 
 
 a theme. 
 
 2. Paragraph : the unit of discourse. 
 
 3. Sentence .- chief word-group, or unit of thought. 
 
 4. Clause : major word-group within a sentence 
 
 having the form of a sentence but the function 
 of a single word. 
 
 5. Phrase : minor word-group having the function 
 
 of a single word. 
 
 6. Single word: the fundamental unit of verbal 
 
 constructions. 
 
 4. Examples of the four basic units: 
 
2 ' ' ' : SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 In the following examples all Single words have been 
 put in bold type, Phrases placed within parentheses, and 
 Clauses within brackets. 
 
 Single Words 
 
 1. Birds fly. 
 
 2. The boy studied his lessons diligently. 
 
 3. The green hills are beautiful. 
 
 4. Seeing is believing. 
 
 5. To be or not to be is the question. 
 
 Phrases 
 
 1. The boy (in the boat) threw his line (into the water.) 
 
 2. That man (with the fast horse) (might have been) rich. 
 
 3. Little children like (to play games.) 
 
 4. Small boys enjoy (selling papers) (on the street.) 
 
 Glauses 
 
 1. I do not know [where he went.] 
 
 2. [When we were (in Rome) ] we saw the king. 
 
 3. The travelers remained indoors [until the storm 
 
 ceased. ] 
 
 4. The man [who is honest] is sure to succeed. 
 
 5. It seems certain [that he (has been elected).] 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE UNITS OF EXPRESSION 
 
 The units of verbal expression, Single words, Phrases, 
 Clauses, and Sentences, may be divided according to 
 their structure, composition, or use into the following 
 classes, or categories : 
 
 Single Words as Parts of Speech 
 
 1. Noun : Name of anything (Latin, nomen, a name) ; 
 a name-word. 
 
 2. Pronoun: Substitute for a noun (Latin, pro, for, 
 and nomen, a name). 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 3 
 
 3. Adjective: Adjunct of a noun (Latin, adjectivus, 
 joined to). 
 
 4. Verb : Life-giving word (Latin, verbum, the word) ; 
 an action-word. 
 
 5. Adverb : Adjunct of a verb (Latin, ad, to, and 
 verbum, the word). 
 
 6. Preposition : Relational word (Latin, prae, before, 
 and positus, placed). 
 
 7. Conjunction: Connecting word (Latin, con, to- 
 gether, and junctus, joined). 
 
 8. Interjection: Emotional word (Latin, inter, be- 
 tween, and jectus, thrown). 
 
 Word-Groups as Phrases 
 
 Phrases as grammatical unts are organized, for the 
 most part, and used in connection with prepositions and 
 conjunctions, finite verbs, the infinitive of verbs, partici- 
 ples and gerunds. They may be called preposition-group, 
 infinitive-group, participle-group, gerund-group, verb- 
 phrase. 
 
 Examples 
 
 1. Preposition: (in the house), (against the wall), (on 
 the way). 
 
 2. Infinitive: (to sing songs), (to be angry), (to 
 become rich). 
 
 3. Participle, or Gerund: (telling stories), (our being 
 enemies), (seeming unfair), (seeing me) he turned away. 
 
 4. Verb: (will go), (should have gone), (might have 
 been seen). 
 
 5. Phrase-participles: (having looked), (having been 
 advised). 
 
 6. Predicate-phrases: (1) hit the ball, (2) is white, 
 (3) became calm, (4) made it white, (5) painted the 
 house red. 
 
4 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 7. Adverb-phrases: (as usual), (not at all), (by and 
 by), (now and then), (again and again). 
 
 8. Phrase-prepositions^ (on account of), (in spite of), 
 (with reference to), (in accordance with). 
 
 9. Phrase-conjunctions: (as if), (in order that), (inas- 
 much as). 
 
 10. Phrase-introductions to quotations: " (declared 
 he")> ("to quote from Macaulay"). 
 
 Word-Groups as Clauses 
 
 As compared with the sentence, the clause may be said 
 to be a Major Word-group within the sentence, having 
 the form of a sentence and the function of a single word 
 element. There are three principal classes: 
 
 Noun-clauses: I know [who you are]. [That you do 
 not play fair] is clear. My hope is [that you will be just] . 
 
 Adjective-clauses : This is the house [that Jack built] . 
 Have you seen the spot [where he fell] ? 
 
 Adverb-clauses : We saw the man [when he entered the 
 train]. [Wherever he went] he was welcome. 
 
 Word-Groups as Sentences 
 
 Language is to be regarded as a social instrument. Its 
 logical units of expression are sentences, whose chief 
 functions are to ask for or to give information. The 
 degree of emotion accompanying their expression varies 
 according to the occasion and purpose under which they 
 were uttered. Grammar treats of four kinds of sentences : 
 
 Declarative : Thomas left the room. 
 
 Interrogative: Did Thomas leave the room? 
 
 Imperative: Thomas, leave the room! 
 
 Exclamatory : How pale Thomas looks ! 
 
 FORMS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 
 
 The structural form of a sentence depends, aside from 
 its word-order, upon the kinds of units of expression that 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 5 
 
 enter into its make up. An organization of single words 
 and phrases only into a sentence results in one charac- 
 teristic form; that of single words, phrases, and clauses 
 results in another. There are four varieties of structure : 
 
 Simple sentences : The weather is warm. The flowers 
 will bloom. 
 
 Compound sentences : The weather is warm and the 
 flowers will bloom. 
 
 Complex sentences: The flowers will bloom [if the 
 weather is warm]. 
 
 Compound complex sentences : A man [who is honest] 
 will be respected, and, [though he be poor], will possess 
 a clear conscience. 
 
 SENTENCES 
 
 The Three Fundamental Types 
 
 A typical sentence represents an act of the judgment, 
 and implies that a real relation exists between an idea 
 called a Subject and a second idea called the Predicate. 
 The word or term that describes this combination or 
 relationship is Predication. 
 
 Every sentence, typical in form, may be divided into 
 two par.ts: (1) the Subject-matter, and (2) the Predicate- 
 matter. The Subject-matter or material consists of a 
 Subject-word together with its modifiers, if any. The 
 Predicate-matter or material consists of a Predicate-verb 
 together with its modifiers, if any, and its complement. 
 
 The Subject-word when deprived of its modifiers may 
 be called the Fundamental or Essential Subject. In form 
 the Subject-word may be a Single word, a Phrase, or a 
 Clause. 
 
 The Fundamental Predicate consists of the Predicate- 
 verb, deprived of its modifiers, if any, and its Subjective 
 or Object Complement. 
 
 Such sentences, having been analyzed to their basic or 
 essential parts, may be called Fundamental Sentences. 
 
6 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Of these there are but three types, all grounded upon the 
 nature of the Predicate-verb. The following are illus- 
 trative examples: 
 
 First type : Birds fly. 
 
 Second type: Boys sell papers. 
 
 Third type: Violets are blue. 
 
 In the three fundamental type-sentences the subject- 
 ideas are, in form, unmodified Single words (names of 
 things and persons). In the predicate of the first type, 
 the verb, "fly" represents a quality or characteristic of 
 the subject, "birds". In the predicate of the second type 
 the verb, "sell", represents action (quality of the subject) 
 passing from (transitive) the subject, "boys", to the 
 object, "papers". Such Predicate-verbs are said to be 
 "transitive" in their nature. 
 
 The completing sentence-element, "papers" that repre- 
 sents the object receiving the action may be called the 
 Object Complement, because it stands, as it were, apart 
 from the subject, "boys". 
 
 In the predicate of the third type the verb, "are", does 
 not (intransitive) represent any action passing from the 
 subject to an object. Such Predicate- verbs as "are", and 
 "fly" in the first type, are said to be "intransitive" in 
 their nature. 
 
 Models of Oral Analysis 
 
 At the outset of this study the student should bear in 
 mind that there is a distinction between the subject of 
 thought and the Subject-word of a sentence. For example, 
 in the statement of such a fact as, "A fierce gale uprooted 
 the tree," the subject of thought is an overturned tree, 
 and not "a fierce gale". The gale is declared to be the 
 cause of the tree's overthrow, a new situation demand- 
 ing an explanation. 
 
 The first thing to be done after dividing the sentence 
 into its two grand divisions, Subject-matter and Predi- 
 cate-matter is not to look for the Subject-word in the 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 7 
 
 subject-material, but to point out at once the Predicate- 
 verb in the predicate-material, which is the relational and 
 the asserting word between the Subject-matter and the 
 Predicate-matter; and then ask Who? and What? ques- 
 tions about it ; as, for example, in the three type-sentences : 
 
 1. Who or what flies ? Answer: " birds" Subject-word. 
 
 2. Who sell papers? Answer: "boys" Subject-word. 
 
 3. What are blue? Answer: "violets "..Subject-word. 
 The answer to these two questions will always direct 
 
 the mind to the Subject-word of the sentence. 
 
 The oral analysis of sentences should proceed in a more 
 or less formal and logical way, somewhat as follows: 
 
 I. First type : Birds fly. 
 
 A. 
 
 In the simple sentence: Birds fly, "birds" is the 
 Subject, and "fly" is the Predicate, because a particular 
 action is asserted by the verb, "fly", about the noun, 
 "birds". 
 
 B. 
 
 ' ' FLY " is a verb and asserts the action : it is, therefore, 
 the Predicate-verb of the sentence. It contains within 
 itself a quality respecting the noun, "birds", and is, 
 therefore, at the same time both the Predicate-verb and 
 the Predicate-matter of the sentence. 
 
 C. 
 
 "BIRDS" is a noun, and answers the question, What 
 things fly? It is, therefore, the Subject-word of the 
 sentence. 
 
 II. Second type: Boys sell papers. 
 
 A. 
 
 In the simple sentence: Boys sell papers, "boys" is 
 the Subject and "sell papers" is the Predicate, because 
 a particular action and relation is asserted by the verb, 
 
8 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "sell", between the noun, "boys" and another noun, 
 or object, "papers". 
 
 B. 
 
 "SELL" is a verb, and asserts the action that passes 
 over from one thing to another thing, its Object. It is, 
 therefore, the Predicate-verb, transitive, of the sentence. 
 
 C. 
 
 "BOYS" is a noun, and answers the question, Who 
 sells? It is, therefore, the Subject-word of the sentence. 
 
 D. 
 
 "PAPERS" is a noun, and answers the question, Boys 
 sell what? It is, therefore, the Object of the transitive 
 verb, "sell"; and, by completing the meaning of the 
 sentence is an Object complement. 
 
 III. Third type : Violets are blue. 
 
 A. 
 
 In the simple sentence: Violets are blue, '"violets" is 
 the Subject, and "are blue" is the Predicate, because a 
 definite color-quality, blue, is asserted by the verb, "are", 
 of the noun, "violets". 
 
 B. 
 
 "ARE" is a verb, and asserts the relation of the color, 
 "blue", as a fact about the noun, "violets". It is, 
 therefore, the Predicate-verb, intransitive, of the sentence. 
 
 C. 
 
 "VIOLETS" is a noun, and answers the question, What 
 are blue? It is, therefore, the Subject-word of the 
 sentence. 
 
 D. 
 
 "BLUE" is the name of a color, and is classified as 
 an Adjective. It is related by the verb, "are", to the 
 Subject-word, "violets", and answers the question, 
 Violets are what?; and because it belongs to the Subject 
 and completes the meaning of the Predicate, or sentence, 
 "blue" is a Subjective complement. 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 9 
 
 Models of Written Analysis 
 
 To analyze a whole thing, large or small, is to break 
 it up into its natural, constituent elements, each part by 
 itself constituting a unit-whole. Analysis is one of the 
 first steps to be taken in the acquisition of knowledge. 
 Like a process in rational construction, logical analysis of 
 sentences should proceed according to a well-defined 
 program. The following formula, therefore, will be of 
 use as a guide to the proper steps to be taken in sentence 
 analysis : 
 
 1. Name of the parts : permanent, identifying terms. 
 
 2. Composition or description of the parts : character- 
 
 istic features and qualities; constituent elements. 
 
 3. Function of the parts : their power to be, and to do 
 
 something. 
 
 4. Classification of the parts: final disposition of 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 Every sentence that is complete in its form may be 
 divided into two parts: 
 
 1. The Subject. 
 
 2. The Predicate. 
 
 There are but three types of Fundamental Sentences, 
 of which the following are examples: 
 
 First type : 
 
 Second type : Boys | sell papers 
 
 Third type : Violets | are blue. 
 
 "T" ~3c~~ 
 
 It will be observed that the Subject of each of these 
 simple sentences is a single word unmodified by any other 
 word. 
 
 In the Predicate of the first type the verb alone expresses 
 the whole predicate idea. But in the Predicate of the 
 second type the predicate idea is expressed by two words : 
 the verb and its Object complement ; and in the Predicate 
 
10 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 of the third type the predicate idea is expressed by the 
 verb and the Subjective complement. 
 
 All sentences, however elaborated by means of modifiers, 
 can be reduced to these three types, in which the unmodi- 
 fied noun or noun-equivalent, in this scheme of analysis, 
 will be called the Subject-word, and the asserting verb 
 will be called the Predicate-verb ; the complement after 
 the transitive verb will be called the Object complement ; 
 the complement after the intransitive verb will be called 
 the Subjective complement. 
 
 The written symbols used to represent to the eye the 
 five grammatical elements that enter into the sentence 
 structure of the fundamental types will be as follows : 
 
 Symbols for Written Analysis 
 
 Subject-word: Single word, phrase, clause 1 
 
 [Transitive 2 
 
 Predicate-verb : -{ 
 
 (intransitive 3 
 
 fObject: (with transitive verb) 2c 
 
 Complement : 
 
 [Subjective: (with intransitive verb)..3c 
 
 Model Sentences 
 
 First type : Birds | fly. 
 ~T~ "T" 
 Second type: Boys | sell papers. 
 
 1 2 2c 
 
 Third type: Violets | are blue. 
 
 1 3 3c 
 
 The frame of the fundamental sentence will always take 
 this general, abstract form : 
 
 Subject-word : Predicate-verb : Complement 
 1 2 or 3 2c or 3c 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 11 
 
 These five grammatical elements or categories are prin- 
 cipal and coordinate in their function as basic and con- 
 stituent parts of the sentence, no one being subordinate 
 to and modifying any one of the others. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 An element is a simple part of a complex unit-whole. 
 
 The Sentence elements, or units of expression, are 
 classified according to their grammatical relation in the 
 sentence under the following six headings, or categories : 
 
 (1) Subject-words, (2) Predicate-verbs, (3) Verb-com- 
 plements, (4) Modifiers, (5) Connectives, (6) Independent 
 Relations. 
 
 A sentence may or may not have all these relations 
 represented at the same time in the same sentence. The 
 laws of thought demand that at least two of them shall 
 appear or be understood in every sentence; namely, 
 the Subject-word and a Predicate-verb. 
 
 Modifiers 
 
 Modifiers are said to be "literary luxuries". In form 
 a modifier, in either the Subject or the Predicate, is a 
 single word, a phrase, or a clause. 
 
 A modification is a relation that exists between two 
 grammatical elements; as, a Noun and its Adjective, or 
 a Verb and its Adverb. 
 
 There are but two classes of Modifiers : (1) Adjectival, 
 belonging to a noun or pronoun, and (2) Adverbial, 
 belonging to a verb. 
 
 Function of Modifiers 
 
 Adjectival: All single words, phrases, and clauses 
 that relate to nouns and pronouns are said to modify, or 
 qualify the meaning of the nouns to which they belong. 
 They are, therefore, classed as Adjectives or Adjectival 
 Modifiers. 
 
12 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Adverbial: All single words, phrases and clauses 
 that relate to verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and participles 
 are said to modify the meaning of the words to which 
 they belong. They are, therefore, classed as Adverbs or 
 Adverbial Modifiers. 
 
 Visual Analysis of the Sentence 
 
 This scheme of visual analysis makes use of the fewest 
 possible arbitrary and abstract symbols for representing 
 to the eye the chief grammatical relations that may exist 
 in a group of normal English sentences. 
 
 The underscore means a single word unit, a parenthesis 
 encloses a phrase-unit, brackets surround a clause-unit. 
 
 The relations of the various sentence-elements of 
 structure, principal and modifying, together with the 
 connective particles, will be designated by the following 
 system of symbols: 
 
 Symbols for Written Analysis 
 
 Subject-words: single word, phrase, clause 1 
 
 fVerb, transitive 2 
 
 Predicate-verbs: ] 
 
 [Verb, intransitive 3 
 
 fObject (with transitive verb) 2c 
 
 Complements : \ 
 
 [Subjective (with intransitive verb)..3c 
 
 fAdjective or Adjectival 4 
 
 Modifiers : 
 
 [Adverb or Adverbial 5 
 
 [Coordinate, or Coordinating -f~ 
 
 Connectives : 
 
 [Subordinate, or Subordinating 
 
 Independent relations 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 13 
 
 Secondary or Modified Symbols 
 
 Subject-word (Objective, or Accusative Case) 1" 
 
 Predicate-verb (Infinitives and Participles) : 
 
 Transitive 2" 
 
 Intransitive 3" 
 
 Objective Complement 2c" 
 
 Objective-Subjective Complement 2c"-3c" 
 
 Phrase-modifying Adverb Ph-5 
 
 Sentence-modifying Adverb . Sent-5 
 
 Predicate-modifying Adverb Pred-5 
 
 Auxiliary verbs (detached from main verb) 2-, 3- 
 
 It, as formal Subject or Object (1) or (2c) 
 
 Correlative Connectives x'-x" 
 
 Illustrative Examples 
 
 1. I I know 
 
 2c 2c 
 
 2. You certainly | knew ("when I went away. 
 
 [when I went away. "I 
 __. _ _ _ j 
 
 1 Sent-5 2 
 
 2c 2c 
 
 3. He | was wealthy (at one time). 
 
 1 3c 3c Pred-5 
 
 4. The stranger | was now plainly (in view). 
 
 ~~1 ~~3 Pred-5 Ph-5 3c 
 
 5. Did you ever | see a meteor ? 
 
 6. It | is a fact I" that I | lost my watch yesterday."! 
 
 00 3 3cT ~T" T 2~ IT 2c 5 J 
 
 l l 
 
 7. Either you or I | will have (to do the work). 
 
 x' "T" P" T " "~~2~" 2c 
 
 8. There [is a bird (in the tree) and one (on the fence). 
 
 T l 3c +1 3c 
 
14 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 9. (You) "Come and trip it [ as you go."] 
 
 5~ 5 
 
 Examples of Modification 
 
 I. Adjectival Modifiers 
 
 1. Combination of Noun and Adjective: 
 
 A wise man. 
 4 
 
 2. Combination of Noun and Phrase : 
 
 A man (of wisdom). 
 
 4 
 
 3. Combination of Noun and Clause: 
 
 A man [who is wise]. 
 4 4 
 
 II. Adverbial Modifiers 
 
 1. Combination of Verb and Adverb : 
 
 The boy ran swiftly. 
 5 
 
 2. Combination of Verb and Phrase: 
 
 A fire is burning (in the grate). 
 
 5 
 
 3. Combination of Verb and Clause: 
 
 May we go [where you live] ? 
 
 
 It should be noted that the complements, Subjective 
 and Object, are coordinate with the Subject-word and 
 the Predicate- verb, and are not to be regarded as Modi- 
 fiers, though logically the Subjective complement is as 
 much an attribute of the Noun-subject as is the Predicate- 
 verb, which is never classed as a Modifier. 
 
 Nor is it wise, in this system of written analysis, to 
 keep taking account of the often repeated limiting par- 
 ticles, "a," "an," and "the," as Adjective Modifiers. 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 15 
 WRITTEN ANALYSIS 
 
 Model Sentences 
 
 A. 
 
 1. Constant boasting always | betrays incapacity. 
 
 4152 2c 
 
 2. The green hills | are very beautiful. 
 
 ___ ___ __ __, 3c 
 
 B. 
 
 3. The light (of the moon) greatly | assisted us. 
 
 ~T~ 4 ~~ 5~~ 2 ~2e 
 
 4. The reckless driver [drove swiftly (around the corner). 
 
 4 ~T~ "IT" ~~5~"~ 5 
 
 5. James and John | studied together (out of the same 
 
 "~T"~ ~+ l~~ ~~F~ 5 5 
 
 book). 
 
 C. 
 
 6. The man I" who speaks falsely" is unwise. 
 
 an I" who | speaks falsely"] 
 ~ 
 
 4 4 
 
 7. The soldiers | stopped ["where night [overtook them. 
 
 5~~ 
 
 8. TWhen the officers | arrived"] the thief | had gone. 
 
 5 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 
 
 Sentences are usually classed in three divisions: 
 Simple, Compound and Complex. 
 
 A Simple sentence is one that consists of one Subject 
 united by a finite verb to one Predicate, thus forming 
 a single assertion or proposition. 
 
 A Compound sentence is one that consists of two or 
 more simple sentences united by a coordinate conjunction. 
 
16 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 A Complex sentence is one containing a dependent 
 sentence, or clause that functions either as a principal or 
 modifying sentence-element. Only the Noun-clause can 
 be used as a principal sentence-element, of which the 
 following sentences are examples: 
 
 Illustrative Examples 
 
 1. ["That the earth | is round"! | has been proved. 
 
 L~l 1 ~T" 3c J 3 
 
 i 1 
 
 2. I | know ["what you |want.l 
 
 T 2 L "2c~~ ~T~ 2 J 
 2c 
 
 3. The fact | is ["you | are unhappy.! 
 
 ~ "3 L 3- 3c ; 
 3c . 3c 
 
 4. ["What you want! | is ["what I | want. 
 
 L 2c "T~ 2~"J "3 L^~~ T 2 
 
 1 1 3c 3c 
 
 CLAUSES AS MODIFYING SENTENCE-ELEMENTS 
 
 Ad j ective-clauses 
 
 This | is the house Fthat Jack | built. 
 
 ~~T" "T "3^ "-2^ "T" 2 
 
 4 4 
 
 Today the men found the spot F where he | fell."! 
 5 T~~ 2 2c L~TS "I" "3 J 
 
 4 4 
 
 Ad verb- clauses 
 
 We | saw the men ["when they | entered the train. 1 
 
 "T" 2~" 2c L 5 1 2 2c 
 
 5 5 
 
 [Wherever he went! he | was welcome. 
 " 5 "T "~3~ J "T 3" 3c 
 
 5 5 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 17 
 THE SENTENCE SYMBOLIZED 
 
 Fundamental (bare) Form 
 
 Principal Elements: 
 
 Subject-word ; Predicate-verb ; Complement. 
 
 1 2 or 3 2c or 3c 
 
 Elaborated (full) Form 
 Principal Elements plus Modifying Elements : 
 
 Subject-word : Predicate-verb : Complement. 
 
 1 2 or 3 2c or 3c 
 
 Adjective Adverb Adjective or Adverb 
 
 T~ ~1T~ 4 5 
 
 NOTES PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS 
 
 ' ' A sentence is a related group of words, containing a subject 
 and predicate with their modifiers, and expressing a complete 
 thought." Standard Diet. 
 
 "A group of words expressing a statement, command, or 
 question, is called a sentence. " Abbott. 
 
 "A sentence is a number of words arranged in due order, 
 forming a complete proposition, or such an arrangement of words 
 as asserts a fact." Professor York. 
 
 "When a group of words makes complete sense, it is called a 
 sentence." J. M. D. Meiklejohn. 
 
 "A sentence is a group of words, or in some cases a single 
 word which makes either a Statement, a Command, a Wish, a 
 Question, or an Exclamation." Onions. 
 
 A sentence is the principal unit of verbal expression 
 having a Subject-word and a Predicate-verb either 
 expressed or understood. 
 
 The following is rather a psychological than a gram- 
 matical definition: 
 
 H. Paul defines a sentence as "the linguistic expression 
 or symbol for the fact that two or more ideas unite in 
 the mind of the speaker; and the medium for bringing 
 about the same union of ideas in the mind of the hearer." 
 Quoted by Sheffield. 
 
18 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 It seems quite evident that a word or a word-group 
 may be a " sentence in thought" but not one in form. On 
 this point Sheffield makes the following observations: 
 
 "So much may be true of the sentence in thought, and 
 yet there remains a question as to what makes a sentence 
 in words. In conversation, of course, words are helped 
 out by looks, tones, gestures, so that sentences need be 
 verbal only so far as their constituent ideas do not get 
 expression otherwise. Indeed a sentence may always be 
 short of words where its ideas are sufficiently evident 
 from the context. The sentence-thought is here complete, 
 but its expression is scant. What we then have is a word 
 or phrase with the value of a sentence. Such words and 
 phrases appear to be of three classes: 
 
 1. Predicates : 
 
 An exclamation like shame !, how true !, good !, is really 
 a predicate, -having as subject what is simply accepted by 
 speaker and hearer as present to the mind. Such exclam- 
 atory words, which are traditionally classed as Interjec- 
 tions, would be better called sentence-words. So also are 
 imperatives (look! look!) and any words that answer a 
 given "part-question"; thus, 
 
 Who killed Cock Robin? I! 
 
 When was Milton bora? In 1608. 
 
 2. Fact- words : 
 
 Yes, no, and their equivalents certainly, not at all, 
 etc. presuppose the complete content of a sentence aa 
 given, but without its reference to fact. 
 
 3. Parallels : 
 
 Sentence-equivalents such as much cry little wool; 
 borrow, sorrow, seem different from other sentence-phrases 
 in that their unexpressed parts need not be given in the 
 context. In their character as proverbs, however, they 
 
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 19 
 
 assume a background of common experience that amounts 
 to a permanent social context." 
 
 Language is the medium or instrument by which com- 
 munication between mind and mind is made possible. The 
 sentence is said to be the form in which "a unit of 
 experience" is embodied, so that it may be conveyed as 
 a thought from one person to another. Primarily sen- 
 tences are for two purposes: (1) to ask for information, 
 and (2) to give information. 
 
 Our experiences must ever be dealing with reality in 
 its two most general features : things and their relations. 
 Things, including persons, are for subjects of sentences, 
 and relations for predicates. Things are given, or pre- 
 sented to the mind for investigation, and, to that extent, 
 are fixed and certain ; that which is unknown or uncertain 
 is the relations or meanings of things. Therefore our 
 knowledge or belief is said to be embodied in the predi- 
 cates of sentences. 
 
 Every sentence expresses a judgment, that is, a predica- 
 tion. ''All predication is a comparison, and a comparison 
 is finding the relation of one thing to another." In his 
 "Psychology of Reasoning" Pillsbury defines judgment 
 as "the ascription of meaning to the presented". 
 
 The principal attributes of reality may be summarized 
 under the following relations: Substance; Quality; 
 Space (here and there) ; Time (now and then) ; Form; 
 Magnitude (number, quantity, extent) ; Cause (force, 
 power, or function). 
 
20 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 FORMS OF THE PREDICATE 
 
 Under this head an attempt has been made to cite 
 typical examples of predicates, constructed upon the 
 following dominant, predicative features: (1) Transitive 
 verb, (2) Intransitive verb, (3) Passive verb, that is, 
 transitive verb in the Passive Voice. 
 
 Transitive Verb with its Object Complement 
 
 A. Single word as Object Complement: 
 1. Noun : Josephus wrote a history. 
 
 2. Pronoun: We admire 
 
 3. Adjective : One should pity the poor. 
 
 4. Infinitive: Children love to play. 
 
 5. Gerund: We enjoy bowling. 
 
 B. Phrase as Object Complement: 
 
 6. Infinitive : We hope (to see him soon) . 
 
 7. Gerund : I have finished (reading the book) . 
 
 C. Clause as Object Complement : 
 
 8. We heard [that he had arrived]. 
 
 9. I know [why he did not go]. 
 
 10. They thought [that he would fail]. 
 
 D. Sentence (quoted) as Object Complement: 
 
 11. He said quietly: ["Show me your receipt "] 
 
 12. And they all exclaimed : [' ' Long live the king ' 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 21 
 
 Intransitive Verb "To Be" with its Subjective 
 Complement 
 
 A. Single word as Subjective Complement: 
 
 1. Noun: They are friends. 
 
 2. Pronoun : It is I; It is she; It is they. 
 
 3. Adjective : The day is bright and warm. 
 
 4. Adverb : One tree is here and one is there. 
 
 5. Infinitive: My pleasure was to go. 
 
 6. Participle: Socrates was speaking; The sun is 
 
 shining. 
 
 B. Phrase as Subjective Complement: 
 
 7. Preposition: Iron is (of great use). 
 
 8. Infinitive : His one aim was (to know the truth) . 
 
 9. Gerund: My chief delight is (reading good 
 
 books). 
 
 C. Clause as Subjective Complement: 
 
 10. The purse is [where you left it] . 
 
 11. One should be [what nature designed one to be]. 
 
 D. Sentence as Subjective Complement: 
 
 12. The question is [why men will cheat]. 
 
 13. The fact is [John will not return to school]. 
 
 14. Pilate's question was, "What is truth?" 
 
 15. My answer is, "You should try again". 
 
 Copulative Verbs with Subjective Complement 
 
 The following sentences exhibit a few of the verbs that 
 perform the function of the copula while having at the 
 same time an attributive idea: 
 
 1. Though human he seemed a monster. 
 
 2. At the last he became a hero. 
 
 3. He lived an apostle and died a martyr. 
 
 4. Today the sky appears dull and cloudy. 
 
 5. Those berries look sweet but taste sour. 
 
 6. Children grow weary with playing. 
 
 7. Some of our so-called friends proved false. 
 
22 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 The student can easily construct for himself sentences 
 based upon the following copulative verbs and Subjective 
 complements: continue faithful; remain firm; wax old; 
 come true ; feel warm ; keep well ; look pale ; get rested ; 
 turn traitor; sit silent; run wild. 
 
 Passive Verbs with Subjective Complement 
 
 The passive forms of the transitive verbs : call, make, 
 name, choose, elect, think, believe, suppose, deem, appoint, 
 create, consider, regard, etc., are copulative in their 
 function and are followed by the Subjective complement. 
 This is also true of the active forms. 
 
 1. Woodrow Wilson was elected president. 
 
 2. Abraham was called the friend of God. 
 
 3. The child was named Mary. 
 
 4. He was considered an honest man. 
 
 5. .Romulus was made king. 
 
 6. He was appointed chairman. 
 
 Transitive Verbs with Objective Complement 
 
 Thus far we have considered predicates made up of 
 (1) the transitive verb and an Object complement, (2) the 
 intransitive verb, the copulative verb, or the passive verb, 
 and a Subjective complement, that is, a predicate noun, 
 a predicate adjective, or a predicate pronoun referring to 
 the Subject of the sentence. 
 
 We now have to illustrate a predicate that is more 
 complex in its nature, a predicate that consists of a 
 transitive verb with its Object complement and a predi- 
 cate noun or a predicate adjective that refers to that 
 object. In such a sentence structure the noun or 
 adjective predicated of the Object is called an Objective 
 complement. 
 
 This construction is variously described in grammars 
 under such terms as, "the predicate objective," "the 
 complementary object," "the objective attribute," "the 
 objective supplement of the verb, " " adjunct accusative ' '. 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 23 
 
 The verbs that govern this mode of speech are those 
 denoting to choose, make, call, name, think, show, etc. 
 They require after them, besides the direct Object, a noun 
 or an adjective referring to that object; as, They chose 
 him captain. They call me fortunate. We shall paint the 
 house white. They made the log a boat. 
 The written analysis is as follows: 
 
 They | chose him captain. 
 
 ~T~~ 2 ~2e" ~~W r ~ 
 
 They | call me fortunate. 
 
 ~T~ ~~2~" "2c" 2c" 
 
 We | shall paint the house white. 
 
 They | made the log a boat. 
 
 "~T~" ~~1T~ 2c 2c" 
 
 Note. "In such combinations the first noun-word after the 
 transitive verb is its direct object, and the second noun-word 
 is a complement to the other one." H. Sweet. 
 
 Passive Constructions 
 
 In dealing with the Passive Voice we shall be guided 
 in our analysis of the sentence into its grammatical 
 elements with the classification of their functions, by the 
 following principles: 
 
 1. Only transitive verbs have both Active and Passive 
 forms. 
 
 2. The peculiar sign of the Passive Voice is the past 
 participle of the verb joined with some form of the copula 
 verb to be, the combination making a verb-phrase. 
 
 3. A transitive verb in the Passive Voice cannot take 
 an object, i. e., an Object-complement. In He was given 
 a book, "book" is often called the "retained object". 
 
 4. The grammatical element that completes the mean- 
 ing of such passive forms of the verb must be either a 
 Subjective Complement or an Adverbial Modifier. 
 
 5. This use differs from that of the various forms of 
 the copula, to be, in that they can be modified, that is, 
 
24 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 changed in their meaning or idea, by an adverb or an 
 Adverbial Modifier. 
 
 Whatever element is used with the forms of the copu- 
 lative verb, to be, to complete the meaning of the sentence, 
 is always a Subjective complement, and never an 
 Adverbial Modifier. 
 
 6. By way of comparison we may say that the verb 
 in the Active Voice points to action against an Object, 
 as the recipient; while the verb in the Passive Voice 
 signifies the direction of an action against the passive, 
 or non-acting Subject. 
 
 7. The following diagram will serve to indicate to the 
 eye the grammatical idea of Voice, as applied to transitive 
 verbs : 
 
 I. Active Voice (direct action) : 
 John (agent) hit > the ball (recipient). 
 
 II. Passive Voice (reverse action) : 
 The ball (recipient) < was hit by John (agent). 
 
 8. Some intransitive verbs become transitive by the 
 addition of a " fixed preposition". Such verbs are to 
 be dealt with as simple verbs. The following examples 
 will illustrate the usage: 
 
 Intransitive Transitive 
 
 to speak to speak to 
 
 to laugh to laugh at 
 
 to wonder to wonder at 
 
 to talk to talk of 
 
 Passive Forms 
 
 1. King Arthur's death was talked of. 
 
 2. His brave deeds are wondered at by every one. 
 
 3. He was laughed at by all the children. 
 
 4. I was spoken to about the matter. 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 25 
 
 Note. "When the combination of an intransitive verb," 
 says Sweet, "is logically equivalent to a transitive verb, we call 
 the combination a group-verb." 
 
 Function of the Passive Voice 
 The passive voice is used with the following purposes: 
 
 1. To conceal the identity of the actor. 
 
 2. To keep as the subject of the sentence the principal 
 subject of the discourse. 
 
 3. To break the monotony of the subject-object style 
 of sentence. 
 
 It is more interesting to read: 
 
 1 'Caesar crossed the Rubicon." 
 "He was stabbed by Brutus." 
 than: 
 
 "The Rubicon was crossed by Caesar." 
 "Brutus stabbed Caesar." 
 
 It is said that children rarely use the passive con- 
 struction. 
 
 In the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah the writer seems 
 to have preserved a harmonious ratio between the number 
 of active and passive forms, the proportion being two 
 active predicate-verbs to one passive predicate-verb. 
 
 Passive Verbs with "Retained Object" 
 
 Present usage sanctions a grammatical construction 
 called by grammarians the retained abject. Certain verbs 
 like ask, give, tell, and teach, require two objects after 
 them to complete their meaning: as, "He gave me a 
 book". "They told the children stories." These ideas 
 may be expressed in the passive voice in two ways : 
 
 {A book was given to me. 
 I was given a book. 
 f Stories were told to the children. 
 
 2. \ 
 
 I The children were told stories. 
 
26 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Because a verb in the passive voice cannot logically be 
 followed by an Object complement, this seemingly "illog- 
 ical" idiom has been called "outrageously anomalous, but 
 perhaps incorrigible ' '. 
 
 In explanation of this idiom, "which is peculiar to 
 English among the modern languages," it may be said 
 that the irregularity was originally due to confusion of 
 cases, so that the dative was used as the subject of the 
 sentence, and the direct object (accusative) was allowed 
 to remain after the passive verb. In most cases the 
 retained object answers the question, "In what respect 
 or what particular?" one is or was asked, given, told, 
 taught, etc. Hence this construction is in definitive rela- 
 tion with the Predicate-verb, and is to be classified as 
 an Adverbial, and not as a Subjective complement. 
 
 The retained abject may take the form of a noun, a 
 gerund, an infinitive, or a clause ; as, 
 
 1. He was saved that expense. 
 
 2. I was taught reading. 
 
 3. We were told to go home. 
 
 4. They were informed [that the ship was lost]. 
 Ask is said to be "the only verb in modern English" 
 
 that takes two direct objects (Accusatives), one denoting 
 a person, and the other the thing; as, 
 
 Active: He asked me my opinion. 
 Passive : I was asked my opinion. 
 
 Of the "double objects" that are regularly used with 
 other verbs, one is a direct object (Accusative), and the 
 other is an indirect, or secondary object (Dative). 
 
 Note. "Observe, however, that this Passive Construction has 
 its limits and is impossible with particular verbs or particular 
 objects . . . 'The trouble was spared me,' is hardly English, 
 while 'I was spared the trouble' is quite natural." Onions. 
 
 INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS 
 
 The Verb is the word in every sentence that asserts 
 (Latin, ad, to; sertus, bound, i. e. parts bound together) 
 that a particular relation exists between a Subject and 
 
PREDICATE OP THE SENTENCE 27 
 
 a Predicate. All sentences have assertive verbs, either 
 expressed or implied. Such verbs are classified as Finite 
 Verbs, because they are limited by Person and Number. 
 
 "The essential element of the predicate is the verb in its 
 personal form. ' ' Maetzner. 
 
 Verbs in principal and dependent sentences, where not 
 used to assert relationship between a subject and predi- 
 cate, are called non-assertive and are classified as Infinite 
 Verbs. As soon as an Infinite verb is used in the con- 
 struction of a sentence or clause, it becomes Finite. The 
 non-assertive forms of the verb merely assume in a 
 general way relation between objects. 
 
 The infinitive forms of the verb may also be described 
 as being non-modal, or non-predicative, that is, incapable 
 of forming a true predicate. 
 
 Participles are not limited by person and number, and 
 in that sense, may be called infinitives. They are, there- 
 fore, said to have non-predicative forms, " though they 
 often imply predication". 
 
 The verb in the Infinitive Clause, being in its nature 
 general rather than specific, represents the relation 
 between Subject and Predicate in a general, or an 
 assumptive manner. The Subject-word of the infinitive 
 verb is a Noun or Pronoun in the so-called Objective 
 Case, the construction corresponding with the Latin rule 
 that "the subject of the infinitive is in the Accusative 
 case". 
 
 "One of the non-predicative forms, however, does gain 
 predicative power in certain constructions, as in "I believe him 
 to be honest, " which is an indirect way of saying, "He is, in 
 my opinion, honest." In such a sentence, accordingly, a group 
 of words like "him to be honest " may properly be called an 
 "infinitive clause". Report of the Joint Committee on Gram- 
 matical Nomenclature. 
 
 ' * The infinitive may be used with or without a subject. When 
 a subject is employed for the infinitive . ". . the subject of 
 the infinitive is in the objective case; as, Do you wish me to 
 go?" Fernald. 
 
 "An Infinitive abridged sentence is one whose leading word 
 of construction is an infinitive." Holbrook. 
 
28 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 In the sentence 'I wish Mm to go' it is plain that 'him to 
 go* is a noun clause, of which 'him' is the subject, and 'to go' 
 the predicate. Such an expression is called an infinitive clause. ' ' 
 Kittredge and Farley. 
 
 Written Analysis of Infinitive Clauses 
 
 wanted |"them [ to be diligent. 
 
 2c"-3c 
 2c 2c 
 
 for them | to be dishonest.! 
 "T i"~' a* 2c"-3c" J 
 
 1 1 
 
 [For students | to be happy! is desirable. 
 ~ P ~ ' 2c"-3c" -I T 3^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 They (believe fhim | to be the author."] 
 
 "1 2 T r ' 2c"-3c" 
 
 2c 2c 
 
 THE INFINITIVE 
 
 Being allied in form and function with the finite verb, 
 the Infinitive and Participle are called "verbals". The 
 Infinitive has the nature of an abstract noun and is known 
 as the Noun-verbal. The Participle has the nature of an 
 Adjective and is known as the Adjective-verbal. 
 
 The following examples will illustrate the principal 
 uses of the infinitive : 
 
 1. As a Noun or noun-equivalent : 
 
 I like to walk. 
 
 He taught me to swim. 
 
 My friend wishes (to read the book). 
 
 To err is human. 
 
 It is good (to be here). 
 
 2. As an Adjective or adjective-equivalent: 
 
 Have you water to drink and bread to eat? 
 There is a time to work and a time to play. 
 He has a knife to whittle with. 
 Nothing to do is worse than nothing to eat. 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 29 
 
 3. As an Adverb or adverb-equivalent: 
 
 I came (to see you). 
 We are sorry (to hear this). 
 The bread was not fit to eat. 
 Are you content (to be poor?) 
 (To be sure) I will go with you. 
 
 4. As Predicate-verb in "Infinitive Clauses": 
 
 I believe [him to be honest]. 
 
 They saw [him take the book] . 
 
 It is not right [for them to disobey the rules] . 
 
 5. In Exclamations and Interrogations: 
 
 I to be so happy ! 
 
 You to leave me so ! 
 
 And now what to do? where to go? 
 
 To think that he should deceive me ! 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 The Participle is that form of the verb that shares in 
 the nature of a verb and an adjective. It therefore may 
 be called an Adjective-verbal. 
 
 The participial forms are used in a variety of ways : 
 
 1. Participial Nouns, or Gerunds: 
 
 1. The signing of the treaty occurred at noon. 
 
 2. Did you enjoy the singing? 
 
 3. There is no need (of (your doing that)). 
 
 4. No one spoke of (there being any danger). 
 
 5. (Your being strangers) would not prevent 
 
 our going. 
 
 6. (Of (making many books)) there is no end. 
 
 7. Running about aimlessly will accomplish 
 
 nothing. 
 
 8. There has been too much foolish talking. 
 
 9. (Giving him money) is useless. 
 
 2. Participial Adjectives : 
 
 1. Running 1 water is always clear. 
 
 2. ' * The breaking waves dashed high. ' ' 
 
30 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 3. The sky is full of twinkling stars. 
 
 4. Beware of a broken chair. 
 
 3. Participial Adverbs: 
 
 1. The children came running into the room. 
 
 2. It is passing strange. 
 
 3. The fields are clad in living green robes. 
 
 4. We entered a stifling hot room. 
 
 5. The boys said they had a rattling good time. 
 
 4. Participial Prepositions: 
 
 1. Nothing was said (concerning the trouble). 
 
 2. Something ought to be said (regarding the 
 
 work). 
 
 3. Do nothing (pending the court's decision). 
 
 4. (Owing to an accident) we were delayed. 
 
 5. Participial Conjunctions: 
 
 1. Seeing (since) we must part, let us part as 
 
 friends. 
 
 2. Considering (when one considers) his abili- 
 
 ties, he should have done better. 
 
 6. The Participle proper: 
 
 1. We saw a man coming rapidly toward us. 
 
 2. The gentleman hastily rising left the room. 
 
 3. They found the book lying on the table. 
 
 4. He is a man repected by all. 
 
 5. (Having finished their lesson) the pupils 
 
 went out to play. 
 
 6. The farmer caught [the boy stealing his 
 
 apples]. 
 
 7. We heard [the teacher saying ["Stop the 
 
 laughing"]]. 
 
 "Every infinitive and participle has a subject expressed or 
 understood. ' ' Holbrook. 
 
 "The Subject of the Infinitive, unexpressed, must be the 
 same as that of the principal verb. . . . The Participle must 
 always have a proper 'subject of reference'." Onions. 
 
 The following sentences will illustrate the manner of 
 supplying unexpressed Subject- words : 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 31 
 
 1. (To see is to believe, 
 
 | [For one to see] is [for one to believe]. 
 
 2. Jl hope to be wealthy sometime. 
 
 (I hope [myself to be wealthy sometime], 
 fl come to bury Caesar not to praise him. 
 
 3. -{I come [for me to bury Caesar], not [for me to 
 ( praise him]. 
 
 4. J To be a lawyer was his desire. 
 
 I [For himself to be a lawyer] was his desire. 
 
 "A Participle is a form of the verb combining the properties 
 of a verb and an adjective or a verb and a noun. . . . The 
 form in -ing, wherever found, is to be called the Present Par- 
 ticiple, and its use as a participle is then to be explained. . . 
 The participle is thus a wonderful contrivance of language for 
 carrying over the idea of the verb into close and vivid connec- 
 tion with other words, to modify a noun, to take an object, or 
 to be itself the subject or the object of a verb or the object 
 of a preposition. The participle expresses the idea of a verb 
 otherwise than as a predicate; it might be called the non-pred- 
 icable verb, or most fittingly 'the participial mode of the verb', 
 having three tenses, present, past, and perfect, since the parti- 
 ciples distinctly divide along the line of time." Fernald. 
 **#**# 
 
 Note. The use of the term Gerund for the participial noun 
 is recommended by the Joint Committee on Grammatical 
 Nomenclature. 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF VERBALS IN -ING 
 
 In grammar the term "verbal" has reference to words 
 derived from verbs. The so-called root infinitive of the 
 verb forms the basis of all verbals. From the infinitive, 
 e. g. run, stand, climb, stop, stoop, there are the verbals : 
 running, standing, climbing, stopping, stooping. As 
 grammatical elements the verbals in -ing may be classified 
 under the following heads : 
 
 1. Noun- Verbals, or Gerunds. 
 
 2. Adjective- Verbals, or Participles. 
 
 3. Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 Note. "The verbals," says H. Sweet, "are intermediate 
 between finite verbs on the one hand and nouns and adjectives 
 on the other." 
 
32 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 The Gerund, or noun-verbal, has the same form as the 
 present participle, but a quite different function. The 
 former may have the function of a noun and a verb, the 
 latter that of an adjective and a verb. The participle 
 modifies a noun or noun-equivalent; the gerund never 
 modifies, but may be modified by adjectives and adverbs 
 or their equivalents. And in addition gerunds may be 
 used like common nouns, as Subject-word, Subjective 
 complement, Object of prepositions and transitive verbs ; 
 and like verbs take a direct or an indirect object. 
 
 A word-group organized with a gerund is called a 
 ''Verbal noun- phrase". Whenever the past participle is 
 joined with being and having, the gerund exhibits the 
 characteristics of voice and tense; as, 
 
 1. After being visited by my friends I felt happier. 
 
 2. After having been drafted, the man deserted. 
 
 3. I do not remember having seen him. 
 
 The following examples will serve to illustrate the 
 peculiar use of verbals: 
 
 I. Noun-verbals, or Gerunds. 
 
 1. Boys, stop throwing rocks. 
 
 2. Swimming and rowing will strengthen the body. 
 
 3. We never thought of your being angry. 
 
 4. The thought of your being my friend gives me much 
 pleasure. 
 
 5. Studying without an aim is fruitless. 
 
 6. There is no denying your ability to do it. 
 
 7. The laying of the corner-stone will take place 
 tomorrow. 
 
 8. Just giving him advice will do no good. 
 
 II. Adjective-verbals, or Participles. 
 
 1. So looking down, he remained silent. 
 
 2. Seeing the danger, the driver halted. 
 
 3. We heard the crowd running down the street. 
 
 4. A certain man was standing on the corner. 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 33 
 
 III. Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 1. We stood beside the flowing" stream. 
 
 2. A charming view lay before us. 
 
 3. Did yon ever attend a quilting party? 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS 
 
 Those verbs known as Auxiliary verbs have little inher- 
 ent meaning, their function being simply to help to form 
 modes and tenses of principal or notional verbs : 
 
 There are eight of them : be, do, have, may, can, must, 
 shall and will. 
 
 Ought and let have been called "semi-auxiliaries". 
 
 Auxiliaries may be divided into three classes : 
 
 1. Modal auxiliaries (in ''potential phrases") ; as, may 
 go, can go, must go, might have gone, etc. 
 
 2. Tense auxiliaries (futures and perfects) ; as, shall 
 or will go, shall or will have gone, have or had gone. 
 
 3. Voice and tense auxiliary: The verb be is used to 
 change the active into the passive voice; and to form the 
 past tenses: as, is seen, was heard, will be found, was 
 running, has been running, has been gone. 
 
 NOTES PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS 
 
 After intransitive verbs the completing element is a 
 Subjective complement if it refers to the Subject-word, 
 and an Adverbial Modifier if it refers to the Predicate- 
 verb. 
 
 "Many grammarians regard the verb 'to be' as incapable of 
 being modified, and, in consequence, the adverb that follows 
 it is considered, for the time being, as a complement the equiv- 
 alent of a predicate adjective. Thus in the sentence, 'He is 
 here,' here is regarded, for the time being, as a predicate 
 adjective, instead of an adverb; again, if in addition to the 
 adverbial modifier, the verb to "be is followed by a complement 
 (predicate noun or adjective), the adverbial modifier is then 
 regarded as modifying the idea conveyed by the verb and the 
 complement; thus; in the sentence, 'He was wealthy at one 
 time,' 'at one time' may be regarded as the modifier of 'was 
 wealthy'." Josephine Turck Baker in "Correct English ". 
 
34 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 The opposite view is upheld by Holbrook in his "New 
 English Grammar": 
 
 "But an adverb is never an attribute. 'He is here.' In 
 expressions of this kind, the attribute is included in the verb 
 'is', and may be expressed; as, He is, or He is existing here, 
 or He is sitting here, etc., etc. So of 'She was there'. In such 
 cases the adverb modifies the copula or the attribute included 
 in the verb 'be'." 
 
 It seems quite obvious that in the sentence, "He is 
 here," we must first discover what is the function of the 
 descriptive word "here", before we are able to say 
 whether it is a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 
 
 Since it is the clear purpose of language to represent or 
 describe reality, predications must needs deal with the 
 attributes of reality. "The relations most frequently 
 employed to distinguish and define beings, are relations 
 of time, space, and causality. As soon as things are known 
 to be enduring for a longer or shorter period, or having 
 this or that size or form, and these relations are used to 
 designate or distinguish them from other beings, these 
 relations become their attributes." Porter. 
 
 Position, then, is one of the chief characteristics of 
 objects, and, when asserted in a predicate, as, "A man 
 is here", "A horse is there," has especial reference to the 
 subject and not to the verb in the predicate. "Here" and 
 "there" in such predications do not modify the verb "is" 
 as adverbs, but are Subjective complements, character- 
 izing the subjects of the sentences. 
 
 In this function "here" and "there" are adjectival and 
 not adverbial. 
 
 In a sentence there are but three possible positions for 
 the adjective and the adjective-equivalent: (1) before 
 the noun, (2) after the noun, (3) in the predicate after 
 the copulative verb. These positions are known as (1) 
 adherent, (2) appositive, (3) predicate. The first and 
 second are subordinate positions with reference to a noun, 
 and the third a principal or coordinate position. For 
 example : 
 
PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 35 
 
 1. Old and new books are on the shelf. 
 
 2. Hymns, old and new, are in the hymnal. 
 
 3. The stories in my reader are old and new. 
 "Here" and "there" as place, or position-attributes 
 
 can, according to the regular habits, of English speech, 
 occupy but two of these positions: (1) predicate, and 
 (2) appositive. For example: 
 
 1. My book is here; yours is there. 
 
 2. This book here is mine ; that one there is yours. 
 
 In such irregular speech as, "This here man and that 
 there horse", there is a very natural attempt to use these 
 attributes in the adherent position. 
 
 "In a proposition one term is predicated of another; the 
 subject is referred to the predicate, and the predicate gives us 
 information about the subject." Newman. 
 
 "When the predicate does not really involve an action we 
 have seen that the abstract verb "is" fulfils the predicative 
 function. ' ' Bloomfield. 
 
 "A naked sentence is one in which both the subject-idea 
 and predicate verb are unmodified. Modifiers are additions 
 or adjuncts which enlarge or define the meaning of word 
 elements. ' ' Bain. 
 
 "Language is a complex set of associations of experiences 
 in groups, each of which is accompanied by a habitual sound- 
 utterance. ' ' Bloomfield. 
 
 TYPES OF JUDGMENT 
 
 Types of judgment have been described and classified 
 by Pillsbury as follows: 
 
 1. The Interjection or linguistic judgment; as, 
 "Wolf"! "Fire"! 
 
 2. The impersonal judgment; as, "It's raining ". "It's 
 a wolf". 
 
 3. The Demonstrative judgment; as, "There is a 
 wolf". "Here is a tree". 
 
 4. The Typical logical judgment; as, "That tree is 
 green ". 
 
36 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "The significance of subject, predicate, and copula is in the 
 respective functions which they perform in the mediation of 
 experience. The subject is the formulation of the conditions 
 of action. The predicate is the statement of the method of 
 dealing with the conditions. The copula is the attempt to 
 apply the method under the conditions. ' ' Bawden. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 There seems to be good reason for believing that the 
 Noun is "the most ancient part of speech". Certain it 
 is that all objects in man's environment would have to 
 be named before they could be talked about. 
 
 And we might well suppose that action-words, names 
 describing the appearance of moving objects, might be 
 the next part of speech in the order of time. For with 
 these two parts of speech, the Noun and the Verb, man 
 could begin to form sentences, that is, begin to think 
 and to talk. 
 
 A Noun is the name of anything that has power to 
 arrest the attention, whether it be within our inner world 
 of experiences, or an object in our outer world of exper- 
 iences. 
 
 Nouns may be used in the following situations in 
 sentences : 
 
 1. Subject: the actor, agent, or instrument. 
 
 2. Object : that which is affected by an action. 
 
 3. Subjective Complement : that which completes the 
 
 predicate-verb and refers to the Subject. 
 
 4. Vocative : case of address ; independent element. 
 
 5. Appositive : a denning or explanatory word. 
 
 6. Dative : case of the indirect or more remote object. 
 
 7. Object of a Preposition: thus forming a phrase. 
 
 8. Subject of an infinite verb : thus forming an infin- 
 
 itive clause or abridged sentence. 
 
38 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 9. Objective Complement: that is, "a factitive 
 object/' 
 
 10. Adverbial Modifier : in definitive construction with 
 
 Verbs and Adjectives. 
 
 11. Possessive : modifier of another noun. 
 
 Illustrative Examples 
 
 1. The boys are playing. 
 
 2. John hit the ball. 
 
 3. My two friends are lawyers. 
 
 4. William, bring me the book. 
 
 5. Mr. Jones, the tax collector, is here. 
 
 6. The father gave his son a present. 
 
 7. A book lies (on the table). 
 
 8. He saw [the boy hit the ball]. 
 
 9. Hard work will make [him a student]. 
 
 10. He walked a mile every day. "Beauty is only 
 
 skin deep." 
 
 11. The day's work is done. 
 
 VERBS 
 
 Primarily the Verb is looked upon as a word repre- 
 senting the action or behavior of objects within one's 
 experience. Just as the Noun serves as the organizing 
 center of the Subject of a sentence, so the Verb is the 
 nucleus around which is gathered all the Predicate 
 elements of the sentence. 
 
 The principal functions of the Verb may be summarized 
 under the following heads : 
 
 1. Predicate-verb : to assert something of the Subject. 
 
 2. Attributive verb: to express some quality of the 
 
 Subject. 
 
 3. Voice: to denote the direction of an action. 
 
 4. Mode : to indicate the emotional mood of the 
 
 speaker. 
 
 5. Tense : to show the time of an action. 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 9 
 
 6. Base-word: to form Predicate-verb phrases; also 
 
 to form : 
 
 a. Infinitive phrases. 
 
 b. Infinitive clauses, or abridged sentences. 
 
 c. Participial clauses and phrases. 
 
 d. Participial nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepo- 
 
 sitions, and conjunctions. 
 
 7. Reciver of Modifiers : person, number, adverbs, and 
 
 Adverbial Modifiers (Adverb-equivalents). 
 
 Illustrative Examples 
 
 1. The cat | is black. 
 
 2. The fire | burns. 
 
 3a. The boy | broke the window (Active Voice). 
 3b. The window | was broken by the boy (Passive 
 Voice). 
 
 4. How warm the sun is ! The children want to walk 
 
 with you in the park. They may go, but do 
 not allow them to pick any flowers. Do you 
 understand me? 
 
 5. A book agent came here yesterday, and will come 
 
 again tomorrow. 
 
 6. The moon might have been seen. 
 
 a. It is a grand sight (to view the ocean). 
 
 b. We saw [the sun go behind the clouds]. 
 
 c. We saw [the harvesters reaping the grain]. 
 c". (Hearing a noise) he turned around. 
 
 d. Most children like reading. The hunting season 
 
 has opened. The pupils came running out of 
 the room. (Barring accidents) the boat will 
 arrive tomorrow. Seeing you have come, let 
 us go in at once. 
 
 7. I am going to town. They are in the city. Go 
 
 quietly out of the room. The city council acted 
 (with discretion) [when the vote was taken]. 
 
40 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 Adjectives are said to be the names of the attributes of 
 persons and things. In sentences they belong to Nouns, 
 describing their qualities or characteristics. 
 
 The work done by the Adjective in a sentence is deter- 
 mined by some of the following considerations: 
 
 A. Place or position in the sentence : 
 
 1. Before or after the Predicate -verb (Predicate 
 
 position). 
 
 2. Before or after its Noun (Adherent or Appositive 
 
 position). 
 
 3. After a noun or pronoun Object. 
 
 These positions are designated by the following gram- 
 matical terms: 
 
 1. Subjective Complement: forming predicates 
 
 with the verb. 
 
 2. Adjective Modifier: (Adherent or Appositive). 
 
 3. Objective Complement: completing the mean- 
 
 ing of a noun or pronoun, the Object of a 
 transitive verb. 
 
 B. Power to express degrees of comparison : better, best, 
 richer, richest; less, least; more delightful, most 
 delightful. 
 
 C. Special classes of words, having attributive qualities, 
 that are used for the following purposes: 
 
 1. Demonstrative words: this, that; here, there; 
 
 now, then; yon, yonder. 
 
 2. Interrogative words: which, whose, what: 
 
 a. Which road shall I take? 
 
 b. What formula did you use? 
 
 c. Whose letter is that in your hand ? 
 
 3. Exclamatory what: What a noble figure! 
 
 4. Relative words: which, what, whichever, what- 
 
 ever. 
 
 a. Days passed: during which time we did not 
 
 hear from you. 
 
 b. I do not know what manner of life he leads. 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 41 
 
 c. Follow whatever plans you like. 
 
 d. Whichever way one turns there will be found 
 
 difficulties. 
 
 Illustrative Examples 
 
 Subjective Complement 
 
 1. The giant is tall. 
 
 2. Beautiful are the gates of Zion. 
 
 Adjective Modifier 
 
 3. Dark shadows cover the mountain side. 
 
 4. Stories, old and new, please every one. 
 
 Objective Complement 
 
 5. The children washed their hands clean. 
 
 6. Your going makes me sad. 
 
 7. Make straight the paths of progress. 
 
 In general it may be said that the function of adjectives 
 is to modify nouns and pronouns. But all words and 
 word-groups that limit or qualify nouns and pronouns 
 are not adjectives. Such as are not adjectives must be 
 classified as Adjectival Modifiers. 
 
 The Subjective Complement and the Objective Comple- 
 ment are not to be classed as modifying elements. They 
 are as primary or coordinate as the Subject- word and the 
 Predicate-verb, which are the two important grammatical 
 categories. 
 
 "The adjectives express a quality (green, large, long) or 
 what is viewed as such (growing, burning, boyish). They can 
 be used to express neither predication nor action, actor, nor 
 objects affected, but stand only in attribution with nouns; in 
 the predicate, as qualities predicated of the subject (The man 
 is good)." Bloomfield. 
 
 "The use of the adjective implies an act of judgment, so 
 the predicate use of an adjective is a primary office, as, 'The 
 sky Is red." Leonard. 
 
 ADVERBS 
 
 As implied in the name, the Adverb is a word that 
 naturally attaches itself to the verb. In the early stages 
 
42 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 of language development the adverbs were not separated 
 from the verbs, both being written together as single 
 words, and thus forming "verb-adverb phrases". 
 
 It is the special function of adverbs to modify verbs, 
 adjectives, adverbs, and participles. When modifying 
 verbs they tell haw, when, where, or why an action took 
 place. 
 
 A few adverbs, however, are used as Adjective Modi- 
 fiers of nouns and pronouns; as, scarcely a person ap- 
 peared; hardly a man was injured; not a bird was seen. 
 "Not enjoyment and not sorrow is our destined end or 
 way." "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note." 
 
 Because adverbs are attributes used to describe the 
 qualities of things and their behavior when in motion, 
 they have been called "secondary attributes". 
 
 In classifying the attributive work done by adverbs in 
 the sentence grammars usually speak of seven classes : 
 
 1. Place: here, there, where, whence, etc. 
 
 2. Time: then, today, immediately, soon, afterwards, 
 
 etc. 
 
 4. Manner: rapidly, slowly, fast, kindly, etc. 
 
 5. Cause: consequently, hence, therefore, then, etc. 
 
 6. Number: once, twice, first, secondly, etc. 
 
 7. Negative: no, not, never, not even, not only, etc. 
 In accordance with their other characteristic functions 
 
 adverbs are classed as Relative Adverbs, Conjunctive 
 Adverbs, and Interrogative Adverbs; as, 
 
 1. I do not know the reason why he is absent. 
 
 2. Can you tell me where the lesson is ? 
 
 3. I expect to go wherever I am sent. 
 
 4. Do you know why the train is late? 
 
 5. I will do it because you ask it. 
 
 6. Why have you remained away so long ? 
 
 7. When will the work be finished? 
 
 Adverbs have the power to modify not only single 
 words, but word-groups: phrases and sentences. Such 
 adverbs are known as Phrase-modifying, and Sentence- 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 43 
 
 modifying Adverbs. 
 
 The following illustrative material is based upon 
 Sweet's treatment of Adverbs in his "New English 
 Grammar". 
 
 Sentence- Modifying Adverbs 
 
 (Written symbol Sent-5) 
 
 1. I certainly think he will come today. 
 
 2. I do not think he will come until tomorrow. 
 
 3. He will probably not bring the book. 
 
 4. Indeed I mean every word of it. 
 
 5: Undoubtedly you are right in thinking so. 
 
 6. Evidently he was in the wrong. 
 
 7. ' ' Generally speaking 1 the figurative use of a word is 
 
 derived from its sense." James. 
 
 8. "The very chin, modestly speaking, was as long as 
 
 my whole face." Addison. 
 
 9. I know (at least) [what my own experience is]. 
 
 Note. "Some sentence-modifying adverbs single out one 
 particular word, although they still modify the sentence as a 
 whole; as, 
 
 Even Homer sometimes nods. 
 
 Only a fool would do that. 
 
 These adverbs are classed as word-sentence-modifying, word- 
 emphasizing adverbs." H. Sweet. 
 
 Phrase-Modifying Adverbs 
 
 (Written symbol Ph-5) 
 
 1. He is quite (in the wrong). 
 
 2. I am half (through my work). 
 
 3. He gave his money not (from benevolence) but 
 
 (from ostentation). 
 
 4. He rendered the service only (from a sense of duty). 
 
 5. He did it partly (from love of show), partly (from 
 
 a desire of praise). 
 
44 
 
 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 1. He 
 
 2. They 
 
 3. He 
 
 4. They 
 
 Predicate-Modifying Adverbs 
 
 (Written symbol Pred-5) 
 (in his class). 
 
 Pred-5 
 sad (by his sudden departure) 
 
 ~ Pred-5 
 
 (at one time). 
 
 Pred-5 
 
 dumb (by his eloquence). 
 ~3c Pred-5 ' 
 
 TABLE OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 I. Notions. 
 
 fl Substantives 
 
 II. Relations. 
 
 With an 
 assertion .. 
 Without an 
 
 Noun. 
 
 Pronoun. 
 
 Verb. 
 
 Adjective. 
 
 Adverb. 
 
 2 Attributives. , 
 
 assertion 
 Secondary 
 attribute .. 
 
 '1. Between one no- } ..Preposition. 
 
 tion and another. ( 
 
 2. Between one as- j .Conjunction. 
 
 sertion and another f 
 Extra-grammatical utterance Interjection. 
 
 NOTES PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS 
 
 "An adverb is simply the attribute of an attribute; it bears 
 the same relation to an attribute-word as an adjective does to 
 a thing- word." H. Sweet. 
 
 "In form the adverbs are almost without exception, abbre- 
 viations and often corruptions of other parts of speech. In 
 meaning they denote qualities which do not belong to objects 
 (nouns), but rather to actions, etc. (verbs). Hence their one 
 unchanging peculiarity, common to all, is that they cannot be 
 joined to a noun, but only to verbs, and, through them, to 
 adjectives and other adverbs." De Vere. 
 
 "Adverbs shade off into prepositions, and conjunctions, and 
 the same word is often used as two of these parts of speech 
 or even as all three. ' ' Quoted by Leonard. 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 45 
 
 " Adverbs modify so many different parts of speech, besides 
 modifying groups and sentences, that their position varies 
 greatly." H. Sweet. 
 
 "Than (akin in origin to the demonstrative pronoun that) 
 is a relative adverb, the old meaning of which was 'at one 
 time' or 'when*. 'I am taller than he is," thus originally 
 meant: 'When he is tall, I am taller*." Carpenter. 
 
 In such constructions as (1) "The more the merrier; 
 (2) the sooner the better; (3) the more the better; (4) the 
 better I am, the happier I am", the is not the definite 
 adjective or article; it is a form of the old relative or 
 demonstrative pronoun that, used as an adverb of degree. 
 Thus in the fourth example the meaning is: "In what 
 degree I am better, in that degree I am happier". 
 
 FUNCTION OF THE CONNECTIVES 
 
 There are certain classes of words called Connectives, 
 whose especial function in a sentence is to join together 
 single words and word-groups and aid in coordinating 
 and subordinating related parts into a coherent whole. 
 
 The following are the principal classes: 
 
 1. Relative pronouns: connecting a dependent with the 
 main sentence. 
 
 Examples : who, which, what, that. 
 
 2. Relative adverbs : connecting a dependent with the 
 main sentence. 
 
 Examples: when, where, while, hence, why. 
 
 3. Participles: connecting words, phrases, and clauses 
 with some antecedent word which it modifies: ("Seeing 
 the multitude) he went up into a mountain." 
 
 4. Prepositions: connecting words, phrases, clauses, 
 and sentences as object-terms with an antecedent term. 
 
 5. Conjunctions: connecting words, phrases, clauses, 
 and sentences as antecedent and subsequent terms, thus 
 indicating subordinate and coordinate sentence elements. 
 These two classes are often further classified as to their 
 meaning as follows: 
 
46 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Coordinating 
 
 1. Copulative : uniting terms or parts, so that the sub- 
 sequent term adds something to the antecedent term: 
 and, also, likewise, too, moreover, as well as, etc. 
 
 2. Alternative : offering or refusing a choice ; or, nor, 
 either, neither, else, etc, 
 
 3. Correlative: one term answering to what the other 
 calls for: both and, either or, neither nor, not only 
 but also. 
 
 4. Adversative: turning the attention away from the 
 antecedent term: but, yet, however, still, nevertheless, 
 etc. 
 
 5. Illative: expressing an inference or conclusion 
 drawn from the previous statements: therefore, hence, 
 then, thus, so, consequently, accordingly, etc. 
 
 Subordinating 1 
 
 Grammars for the most part formally classify the sub- 
 ordinate conjunction under the following heads: (1) 
 Place, (2) Time, (3) Cause or reason, (4) Condition, 
 (5) Purpose or result, (6) Comparison, (7) Relation, 
 (8) Concession, (9) Manner. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 The term, Preposition, was coined by the early gram- 
 marians to indicate its position with reference to other 
 words in the sentence. This was in front of verbs, verbals, 
 and nouns. And being attached to the words they modi- 
 fied, they were regarded as prefixes. 
 
 Note. "In some languages like Japanese the prepositions 
 
 follow and never precede the object." J. M. Dixon. 
 
 Today, in modern languages, the term is still retained 
 as a grammatical category, though it no longer correctly 
 describes either the use or location of this important 
 particle. 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 47 
 
 It is the chief function of the preposition to designate 
 the kind of relation existing between two words or terms, 
 the first of these being the antecedent-term and the second 
 the object-term. The antecedent term may be a noun, 
 verb, adjective, or adverb; the object may be a single 
 word or word-group : phrase, clause, sentence. 
 
 A preposition, therefore, may be said to be an index 
 of the kind of relation that exists in a given sentence 
 between two terms of a comparison, one of which may 
 be unexpressed. 
 
 Examples of Antecedent and Object-Terms 
 
 1. Here is a pail OF water. 
 
 2. There is a pail floating ON the water. 
 
 3. The pail is full OF excellent water. 
 
 4. A boy has a pail WITH water in it, and another 
 WITHOUT any. 
 
 5. James was (ON time), but his brother was 
 (BEHIND time). 
 
 6. Men work FOR wages. 
 
 7. Houses are built to live IN. . . . 
 
 8. He has a staff to walk WITH. . . . 
 
 The second or object-term may be a single word or 
 a word group. 
 
 The object of the preposition may be : 
 
 1. Noun: He is a man (of wealth). 
 
 2. Pronoun: Let us go (with them). 
 
 3. Adjective: We should give (to the poor). 
 
 4. Adverb: (From there) the party went to Rome. 
 
 5. Infinitive: He does nothing (but read). 
 
 6. Infinitive-group: It is time (for [them to finish the 
 work.]) 
 
 7. Gerund-group: He has no idea (of sending me the 
 
 money). 
 
 8. Clause: I have no thought (of [what I shall need] ). 
 
 9. Sentence: He answered my questions (with, "That 
 
 will depend upon the circumstances"). 
 
48 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 "An Interjection is an exclamatory word or sound thrown 
 into a sentence to express an emotion of the mind, and is not, 
 properly, a part of speech." Eowe and Webb. 
 
 Examples 
 
 Oh ! Alas ! Ah ! Hark ! Hush ! 
 
 dear me ! Woe is me ! For shame ! 
 
 Look out ! Good-bye ! Farewell ! 
 
 ' l The early grammarians, wiser perhaps than we, did not rank 
 the interjection as a part of speech. It seems to have slipped 
 into the list at a later era, partly perhaps to preserve the 
 historic number eight after the article had been crowded out, 
 and other 'parts' had become differently divided." Leonard. 
 
 "If the English is poorer in conjunctive particles than either 
 the Greek or the German, it abounds, by way of strange com- 
 pensation, in interjections, for which there is no equivalent, 
 at least in the refined form of other languages. . . . The 
 tendency to energetic brevity, which characterizes our language, 
 has, no doubt, led to the frequent use of interjections. . . . 
 A long speech often does not convey as much as one short 
 interjection. . . . They are indispensable for the full expres- 
 sion of feeling and passion." De Vere. 
 
 NOTES PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS 
 
 Many Conjunction-equivalents are in use, of the fol- 
 lowing kinds: 
 
 a) A phrase formed with a preposition governing a 
 noun, with a that-clause in apposition, as "on the ground 
 that", "for the reason that". 
 
 b) A verb-adjective governing a that-clause as object: 
 as, seeing that ; considering that. 
 
 (c) A preposition governing a that-clause; as, "in 
 that". 
 
 The following are examples: 
 
 1. In [that ye have done it unto the least of these], 
 
 ye have done it unto me. 
 
 2. This is strange, considering [that he is your friend] . 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 49 
 
 3. Seeing [that you are here], you may as well stay. 
 
 4. (On the ground) [that he had fairly won the race] 
 
 the athlete demanded the prize. 
 
 Adapted from Onions' Syntax. 
 
 "It may be of some assistance to remark that a sentence 
 joined to the previous one by a coordinating conjunction is 
 grammatically independent, as well as one not joined to it at 
 all. But the difference between a coordinating and a subordin- 
 ating conjunction is itself in English rather fine." The King's 
 English. 
 
 The most common and numerous connectives are : 
 (1) Prepositions, and (2) Conjunctions. 
 
 The former deals with relations, the latter with con- 
 nection. But every relation implies some connection, and 
 every connection a relation. Thus both perform the same 
 kind of function, but in a reverse order; that is, the 
 first function of the preposition is to point out the 
 relations, that of the conjunction, connection. In these 
 relations there are two terms to be considered : the ante- 
 cedent term and the subsequent term. 
 
 "No preposition is, perhaps, more frequently employed 
 between nouns than of, and, although it has the same meaning, 
 of itself, yet it expresses a great variety of relations. To 
 discover the relation in any given instance, it will be necessary 
 to ascertain just what are the terms of the relation." Choate. 
 
 "Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and 
 to show the relation between them." Murray. 
 
 "Prepositions express a relation, usually spatial, with regard 
 to an object." Bloomfield. 
 
 "The grammatical function of a preposition is to make the 
 noun-word it governs into an adjunct-word." H. Sweet. 
 
 "Now, an adverb, is made a part of a prepositional phrase: 
 'Such a periodical is what I have been seeking diligently (for 
 now) many years'." Krapp. 
 
 "Upon the classification of words, as parts of speech, distin- 
 guished according to their natures and uses, depends the whole 
 scheme of grammatical science. It is absurd to suppose that 
 the same words can never be used so differently as to belong 
 to different parts of speech. It is absolutely necessary to 
 classify words, not according to their derivation merely, but 
 rather according to their sense and construction. ' ' Goold 
 Brown. 
 
50 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "By words, a man's thought i& made clear to himself; by 
 them it becomes the property of the community. By words, 
 the thought of one age becomes a solid basis upon which suc- 
 ceeding generations may build. . . . Words, then, imitate 
 
 in their composition the actual realities of things 
 
 Thought at once embodies itself in language. The conception 
 takes form in the term. By term is meant a word, or words, 
 by which a conception is expressed. Words in their formation 
 and changes bear the living impress of thought, and by the 
 study of words we can often, settle questions that otherwise 
 would be insoluble. ' ' C. C. Everett. 
 
 "Names are word-symbols. Knowledge is rendered definite 
 by naming. We can be said to know a thing only when we 
 have named it. We know only that which we can clearly 
 describe in words. Names label things and enable us to handle 
 them in our minds without difficulty. They are symbols of the 
 essential features of things. . . . Unless you know the names 
 of things your knowledge of them also wholly vanishes. . . . 
 By names we mean any word or group of words identified with 
 an experience. ' ' Carus. 
 
 "The parts of speech used in English occur in only a limited 
 number of languages. In Chinese, for instance, a word, no 
 matter whether it expresses object, quality, or action, is exter- 
 nally treated alike, and may express subject, predicate, or 
 attribute. Chinese has no such parts of speech as noun, verb, 
 adjective, and adverb. ' ' Bloomfield. 
 
 "With regard to the origin of language, I must say that I 
 find nothing on this point more satisfactory than the account 
 given, Gen. 2:19, where we are told that 'Out of the ground the 
 Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of 
 the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would 
 call them; and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, 
 that was the name thereof. According to this the first words 
 employed in human speech were nouns. . . . Spinoza, in his 
 Hebrew grammar, published in 1677, says that all words in that 
 language, except interjections and conjunctions with one or 
 two particles, have the power and the properties of nouns." 
 I. B. Choate. 
 
 ' ' Substantive nouns are the foundation of grammar, and the 
 most ancient part of speech." Blair. 
 
 "The alphabet did not originate until long after the genesis 
 of language. Our literature did not begin as separate words 
 expressive of distinct ideas, which then were welded into the 
 phrase, the sentence, the paragraph, but began as a vague 
 whole which was then analyzed into these elements. . . . 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 51 
 
 The sentence is the unit of language, that is, a word taken by 
 itself cannot have a complete meaning, unless it is a verb, or 
 used with verbal force, for a verb is an unanalyzed sentence. 
 In truth, neither the noun nor the verb is prior. They arise 
 together, since both are essential to the expression of a unit 
 of meaning." Bawden. 
 
 THE VERB TO BE 
 
 To be is a defective verb, its conjugation being made 
 up of fragments of three independent verbs which furnish 
 the forms, be, am, and was. 
 
 Be is derived from the Anglo-Saxon beon=be, exist. 
 Was has no etymological connection with be or is. In 
 its original sense it conveyed the idea of dwelling in a 
 place. 
 
 Eight distinct forms are found in the conjugation of 
 the verb to be, namely: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, 
 been. 
 
 To be is (a) a substantive verb when it predicates or 
 affirms actual existence, as in the following examples : 
 Whatever is is right. 
 We believe that God is. 
 And Enoch was not. for God took him. 
 Can such things be? 
 
 It is not to enjoy, but to be, that we long for. 
 To be or not to be; that is the question. 
 And God said unto Moses, I Am that I Am. 
 "To be is (b) a pure link-verb, that is, a pure form-word, 
 devoid of independent meaning; although having the inflections 
 of a verb enables it to express distinctions of time and other 
 shades of meaning, as in he was here compared with he is here." 
 H. Sweet. 
 
 Phrases of futurity are formed by combining the 
 auxiliary verb, be and the infinitive ; as, 
 I am to go on Monday. 
 
 The concert was to have been given last week. 
 1 'For I'm to be Queen of the May." 
 We are to be entertained by a special reception com- 
 mittee next Friday evening. 
 The next meeting is to be held in the stadium. 
 
52 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "Two Future-equivalents are in common use, viz., 'To be 
 about to '; 'to be going to '; which are of almost identical 
 meaning (= 'to be on the point of ). They may be called 
 'Immediate' Futures. 
 
 He is (was) about to write. 
 
 Who is going to tell us a story?" Onions. 
 
 THE VERB 
 
 ' ' The verb is the most purely universal of all terms. It 
 implies a state of action separate from all connection with 
 individuals, and in the simplest form. . . . 'To be' is the 
 most universal term. ... It represents, however, the start- 
 ing-point of speculative thought. . . . It is the beginning, 
 expressed or implied, of all statement. We say 'I am,' 'he is'; 
 whatever follows is limitation or definition." C. C. Everett. 
 
 "No one denies connection to be a property of the verb. 
 The verb not only connects but it does more; it declares that 
 the connected conceptions co-exist as parts of one assertion. 
 For example: 'He is good' implies two conceptions, i. e., (1) of 
 a particular man and (2) goodness. The one is asserted to 
 exist in the other, and to be a quality belonging to it." 
 Stoddart. 
 
 "But in all, the verb is, when compared with other parts of 
 speech, the most universal term. It solves the fixed, it connects 
 those which had stood motionless over against one another. The 
 verb is the life of the sentence. It is the relation between its 
 parts, ... So the verb breaks up the isolation of the objects 
 which fill the rest of the sentence, and brings them into the 
 common system of action and reaction. C. C. Everett. 
 
 "These two parts of speech, noun and verb, suffice to consti- 
 tute language. To name an object by a noun, and to affirm 
 something concerning that object by a verb, is all that is 
 needed to convey thought from one mind to another. ' ' De Vere. 
 
 "The Chinese say that verbs alone are living words; that 
 nouns are dead words, and all other parts of speech but 
 auxiliaries. ' ' De Vere. 
 
 ' ' This power of turning almost any noun into a verb has been 
 called the most kingly prerogative of the English language. ' ' 
 De Vere. 
 
 "The auxiliary verb to be is in English, as in all languages, 
 one of the most interesting and yet one of the most difficult to 
 explain." De Vere. 
 
 "In English, predication can only be expressed by means of 
 the verb; where no action is involved, the abstract verb is, 
 
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 53 
 
 expressive only of the relation of predication (in the forming 
 of an action), is used." Bloomfield. 
 
 "The verb is the only part of speech which is absolutely 
 essential to sentence formation. A subject may be a pronoun, 
 a phrase, or a clause, as well as a noun, or it may be omitted, 
 as in imperative sentences. But if the verb is lacking there 
 is no sentence." Leonard. 
 
 "The general relation expressed by the verb, is a relation- 
 ship so immediately conceived by the mind that language can 
 leave it to be understood, as is instanced in rudimentary lan- 
 guages which have no verb." Bergson (Tr. by Mitchell). 
 
 "Well have pronouns from of old been looked upon as 
 'venerable relics of languages'. Their great and main purpose 
 is to express personality. Grammarians tell us that they are, 
 as their name indicates, mere substitutes for the noun, which 
 we do not like to repeat as often as the same idea is rein- 
 troduced. " De Vere. 
 
 "Adverbs sometimes modify nouns; as, he is fully master of 
 the subject. In such instances the noun is almost equivalent 
 to an adjective or verb, and the verb approaches very near in 
 function to an adjective. Other examples are: you are the 
 very man I want; he is an only son. Very and only are 
 adjectives. ' ' H. Sweet. 
 
 "In the fundamental parts of speech we observe the reap- 
 pearance of categories. Noun and Adjective reproduce being 
 and quality, or substance and attribute. The active verb rests 
 OH the notion of causality. Other parts of speech represent 
 other rational relations." Bowne. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 EQUIVALENTS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 EQUIVALENT SENTENCE ELEMENTS 
 
 A single word or word-group that performs the 
 function of a Noun, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Con- 
 junction, or a Sentence is called an Equivalent. There 
 are, therefore, six classes of equivalents: (1) Noun-equiva- 
 lents, (2) Adjective-equivalents, (3) Adverb-equivalents, 
 (4) Preposition-equivalents, (5) Conjunction-equivalents, 
 and (6) Sentence-equivalents. 
 
 i 
 Noun-Equivalents 
 
 A. Single words: 
 
 1. Pronoun : I have lost the book that you gave me. 
 
 2. Infinitive: To see is to believe; " Learn to labor 
 
 and to wait." 
 
 3. Participle: Seeing is believing; "The dying and 
 
 the wounded are here." 
 
 4. Adjective: The wise are happy; Playing on the 
 
 green. 
 
 5. Quoted words: "Red" is an adjective. There is 
 
 no "if" about it. 
 
 B. Phrases with 
 
 1. Preposition: (From morning) (to night) is called 
 
 day. 
 
 2. Infinitive: (To see the sun) is pleasant. 
 
 3. Gerund : (Reading good books) is profitable. 
 
 C. Clauses : 
 
 1. Subject-word [When he went] is not known. 
 
EQUIVALENTS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 55 
 
 2. Subjective complement: Your book is [where 
 
 you left it]. 
 
 3. Object complement: I know [who you are]. 
 D. Sentence (quoted) : 
 
 1. Pilate's question was, "What is truth?" 
 
 2. He simply said: "Shaw me the packages." 
 
 3. "I have been where you sent me," was his reply. 
 
 Ad j ective-Equivalents 
 
 A. Single word: 
 
 1. Participle: "The burning bush"; The printed 
 
 page. "Let a sleeping dog lie." 
 
 2. Noun in Apposition : You Americans. President 
 
 Lincoln. Nimrod, the great hunter. 
 
 3. Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive Case: 
 
 His book, my pencil, your desk, Cicero's ora- 
 tion, a man's hand. 
 
 4. Nouns without "of" a prepositional phrase: 
 
 The measure is not the right length. 
 The windows are the same height. 
 The liquid was a dark brown. 
 A book the same size as this. 
 What age is he? 
 
 5. The Infinitive : 
 
 A house to let. A horse to sell. Sights to be 
 
 seen. 
 
 Work to be done. A knife to whittle with. 
 A staff to walk with. "The best is yet to be." 
 
 Browning. 
 
 B. Phrases with, 
 
 1. Preposition : 
 
 A man (of honor). 
 
 The pleasures (of hope). 
 
 A bird (in the hand). 
 
 2. Infinitive : 
 
 Agassiz had no time (to make money). 
 He had no mind (to learn his lessons). 
 
56 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 3. Participle : 
 
 (Believing 1 his story), I allowed him to enter. 
 (Being afraid), he ran away. 
 (Having finished his task), the student closed 
 the book. 
 
 C. Clauses : 
 
 1. A man [who perseveres] will succeed. 
 
 2. The book [that I purchased] is damaged. 
 
 3. This is the house [where I was born]. 
 
 4. The reason [why he ran away] is not known. 
 
 5. The house [we lived in] is still vacant. 
 
 D. Sentences (quoted) : 
 
 1. The shout, "They are coming!" was heard on all 
 
 sides. 
 
 2. His oft repeated expression of praise, "You did 
 
 well," is greatly appreciated. 
 
 3. Your advice, "Do your best," is good. 
 
 Adverb-Equivalents 
 
 A. Single words: 
 
 1. Nouns and pronouns as indirect object (Dative 
 
 Case). 
 
 a. The children taught their dog tricks. 
 
 b. He gave his coat a brushing. 
 
 c. Bring me my hat, 
 
 d. The teacher told them to go home. 
 
 2. Adjectives : 
 
 a. He lived honest and died poor. 
 
 b. "Fair stood the wind for France/' 
 
 c. "Thereon I built it firm." 
 
 3. "Flat adverbs": Same form for both Adjective 
 
 and Adverb) : 
 
 a. to work hard, run fast, play fair. 
 
 b. to stop short, ring true, aim high. 
 
 c. to serve right, make blood run cold. 
 
 d. wide open, sound asleep, passing strange. 
 
EQUIVALENTS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 57 
 
 4. Comparative the: In the following phrases the 
 
 is not the definite article, but a demonstrative 
 adverb, being a weakened form of the demon- 
 strative pronoun "that". 
 
 a. "the more, the merrier." 
 
 b. "the sooner, the better." 
 
 5. Infinitives : 
 
 a. He is striving to succeed. 
 
 b. They all sat down to rest. 
 
 6. Participles : 
 
 a. He reads standing at his desk. 
 
 b. The boy came limping 1 into the room. 
 
 B. Phrases with, 
 
 1. Preposition : 
 
 The sun rises (in the east). 
 
 2. Infinitive : 
 
 We went (to visit the Tower) of London. 
 
 3. Participle : 
 
 a. (No one appearing), we left the place. 
 
 b. (Feeling a hand on my shoulder) I turned 
 
 round. 
 
 C. Clauses : 
 
 1. The soldiers stopped [where night overtook 
 
 them]. 
 
 2. He labors [that he may become rich]. 
 
 3. [While you were speaking] he left the room. 
 
 4. Follow me [lest you miss the path]. 
 
 NOTES PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS 
 
 A saying of the old grammarians is: "Omnis pars 
 orationis migrat in adverbium". (Adverbs can be made 
 out of anything.) 
 
 Verbs may be turned into adverbs : as, 
 
 ' ' Smack went the whip, and round went the wheels. ' ' 
 "Tramp, tramp, tramp across the fields they sped." 
 "Splash, splash through the water they ran." 
 
58 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Adverbs may be made into verbs: as, 
 
 "She could never away with me." 
 
 "Down with the tyrant." 
 
 "He is not wanted here, so out with him. ' ' 
 Adverbs may become nouns in prepositional phrases : as, 
 
 I never heard that (before now). 
 
 He has changed his opinion (since then). 
 
 They live two blocks (from here). 
 Adverbs are sometimes used as Adjectival Modifiers : as, 
 
 The then president ; the down train ; a through ticket ; 
 an outside passenger ; an off day ; fhe above statement ; 
 yonder house ; in after ages. 
 
 "Adverbs expressing extent of time, space, amount, and the 
 locative adverb are sometimes called adverbial objectives, 
 because in the earlier stages of the language they were inflected 
 for the objective case. They are not felt, however, to have 
 any case value and should be parsed as pure adverbs. ' ' Krapp. 
 
 As modifiers, words, expressing the qualities of things, 
 belong to nouns; those that represent the manner of the 
 action of objects, belong to verbs. Thus in the sentence, 
 "How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon the bank," 
 "sweet" is an Adverbial modifier and not the Subjective 
 complement. 
 
 Rule: Nouns and pronouns in definitive construction 
 with verbs and predicates that call for the direction and 
 end of motion; and for measures of time, distance, 
 capacity, weight, price, value; and for the degree of 
 difference, function as Adverbial Modifiers. 
 
 Adverbs may become nouns, as; today, tomorrow, 
 tonight, yesterday; the how and the why; between here 
 and there, from where, of yore, since then, for once, from 
 behind, from above. 
 
 In such constructions as: 
 He seems (to be clever), 
 He grew (to be tall), 
 
 the Infinitive phrase is an Adverbial modifier and not a 
 Subjective complement. 
 
EQUIVALENTS OF PARTS OF SPEECH 59 
 
 "Once or twice are but old genitives of 'one' and 'two'. 
 When we say, 'It must needs be,' we employ the genitive of 
 'need', originally 'need-es'. " Welsh. 
 
 " 'He walked a mile.' 'It weighs a pound.' The ideas 
 expressed by mile and pound, are not the names of anything 
 that serves as either object or instrument to the verb. They 
 only denote the manner of the action, and define the meaning 
 of the verb." Latham. 
 
 "The relative adverbs as and than may also be classed as 
 subordinate conjunctions. ' ' Carpenter. 
 
 EQUIVALENT CONNECTIVES 
 
 A. The following compound conjunctions (phrase-con- 
 junctions) perform the function of simple conjunctions 
 and are, therefore, con junction -equivalents ; provided that, 
 granting that, as soon as, in order that, in case that, etc. 
 
 B. The following compound prepositions (phrase- 
 prepositions) function as simple prepositions and are, 
 therefore, preposition-equivalents: for the sake of, in 
 addition to, by means of, in accordance with, etc. 
 
 SENTENCE-EQUIVALENTS 
 
 A single word or a word-group may, without" having a 
 finite verb, infinitive or participle, constitute a Sentence- 
 equivalent; that is, have the meaning hut not the typical 
 form of a sentence. 
 
 The following are examples of Sentence-equivalents: 
 
 1. Sentence-words and phrases: 
 
 1. Affirmative: Yes, amen, truly, certainly, by all 
 
 means. 
 
 2. Negative : No, not at all, by no means. 
 
 3. Probability: Perhaps, probably, doubtless, with- 
 
 out doubt. 
 
 2. Exclamation : 
 
 1. Interjection: Oh! Alas! Bah! Zounds! 
 
 2. Word-groups: "Me miserable." "A horse! a 
 
 horse! my kingdom for a horse!" "0 my 
 cousin, shallow-hearted ! " ' * Oh for a lodge in 
 some vast wilderness!" 
 
60 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 3. Sentence-groups : 
 
 1. " Borrow, sorrow." 
 
 2. "Much cry, little wool." 
 
 3. "First come, first served." 
 
 4. "Better late than never." 
 
 5. "The more, the merrier." 
 
 4. Elliptical Sentences: 
 
 1. To err is human, to forgive divine (is divine). 
 
 2. Hence, loathed melancholy! (depart or go hence). 
 
 3. Well done! (It is well done.) 
 
 4. To arms! To arms! (Run to your arms.) 
 
 5. So much for the sun. What about the stars? (So 
 
 much is sufficient for our treatment of the sun. 
 What shall we say about the stars?) 
 
 6. I could, but I won't (do it). 
 
 7. Good-bye. (God be with you.) 
 
 5. "Subjectless" constructions: 
 
 1. Methinks or meseems. (It seems to me.) 
 2.* If you please, (If it pleases you.) 
 
 3. I shall act as seems best (as (it) seems best to me). 
 
 4. He came much sooner than was expected (than it 
 
 was expected). 
 
 5. As has been said. (As it has been said.) 
 
 6. As far as in me lies. (As it lies in me.) 
 
 7. As follows: (As it (the enumeration) follows). 
 *Note. Historically impersonal, but now regarded as having 
 
 personal subject you. 
 
 ' ' Ellipsis is a kind of compensation for the slowness of 
 speech, a kind of economy in the use of linguistic elements. Not 
 only psychology and daily speech, but also historical syntax 
 proves the existence of ellipsis." Kellner. 
 
 "Some sentences omit some part or parts which are neces- 
 sary to the full form of a sentence. These are called elliptical 
 sentences ,and an ellipsis is said to occur. Ellipsis plays a great 
 part in English. In poetical and rhetorical language it often 
 lends dignity and impressiveness, with something of an archaic 
 flavor; to colloquial speech it gives precision and brevity, and 
 saves time and trouble." Onions. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
 All languages have peculiar turns of expression called 
 idioms. One of the difficult tasks for translators is that 
 of putting the stereotyped forms of one language kito 
 the equivalent expressions of another. "How do you 
 do ? " and ' * He is well to do " are * ' sample ' ' idioms. Exact 
 translations are often impossible. Many of our idiomatic 
 expressions sometimes seem illogical and often defy strict 
 grammatical analysis. 
 
 There are several causes for idiomatic constructions. 
 Among them are: (1) a desire for brevity, (2) a desire 
 for ease in speaking, and for harmony of sound, (3) a 
 Desire for special emphasis. 
 
 COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
 Comparison implies the relation of two objects in point 
 of likeness and difference. The process of comparing 
 extends to the qualities of things, persons, events, and 
 their relation to position, magnitude, duration, distance, 
 direction, value, worth, personal choice or preference, 
 manner of behavior, etc. 
 
 The language of comparison includes the use of adjec- 
 tives and adverbs in the comparative degree, the compar- 
 ative conjunctions as, so, than; the crystallized verbal 
 expressions: had rather, had as lief, would rather, and 
 the comparative phrases: had better, would better, the 
 better, rather than, other than, else than, etc. 
 
 The comparative sentence consists of two clauses : one, 
 the subordinate clause, contains the positive idea from 
 
62 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 which, as the standard, the comparison is made ; the other, 
 the principal clause, contains the comparative idea. 
 
 In nearly every case the subordinate clause, and often 
 the main clause, has been contracted by the omission of 
 some word or words that belong to the full sentence form. 
 In the analysis of such sentences the omitted elements 
 should be supplied. For example: 
 
 COMPARATIVE SENTENCES 
 
 My father is taller than I [am tall]. 
 
 You have given him more than I [have given him]. 
 
 The storm rages more fiercely than ever [it has raged]. 
 
 His rudeness is more apparent than real [than it is real] . 
 
 He knows no more about it than I do [=than I know 
 about it]. 
 
 The following facts about the comparative conjunction 
 ''than" should be carefully noted: 
 
 Than is a subordinate connective, when it introduces a 
 dependent sentence. 
 
 This dependent sentence is an Adverbial modifier with 
 an adjective or adverb of comparison in the antecedent 
 proposition. 
 
 Than was originally the same word as then, the adverb 
 of time. From its early relative or conjunctive use, than 
 came to have the sense of when. This meaning is evident, 
 if we explain the statement, "My father is taller than I," 
 as implying, "When I am tall, my father is taller." 
 
 The than-clause contains the standard or positive term 
 in the comparison. 
 
 "A part of the Comparative Clause is often omitted, leaving 
 
 only sufficient to indicate the person or thing with which the 
 
 comparison is made. Such a clause may be called a Contracted 
 
 Comparative Clause. ' ' Onions. 
 
 Than is also a coordinate connective, as noted in the 
 following : 
 
 "Less judgment than wit is more sail than ballast." 
 
 He speaks with no less eloquence than freedom. 
 
 More men than women were there. 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 63 
 
 "It must be further noticed that both as and than are con- 
 junctions of the sort that can either, like and, etc., merely join 
 coordinates, or, like when, etc., attach a subordinate clause to 
 what it depends on. This double power sometimes affects case. ' ' 
 The King's English. 
 
 Note. Than in the idiomatic phrase "than whom" is to be 
 treated as a Preposition. "With relative pronouns," says 
 Onions, "the Accusative is obligatory (than whom* not than 
 who), and its very common use with other pronouns bears 
 witness to the prepositional character of than. ' ' 
 
 The idiomatic auxiliary verbal phrases "Had better " 
 and "had rather" help to predicate an ideal situation. 
 Hence the auxiliary "had" is a subjunctive, having the 
 meaning of "would have", and the verb-phrase asserts 
 an aim, a choice, or a preference ; as, 
 
 You had better wait a while. 
 
 I had rather be a clerk than a bookkeeper. 
 
 No attempt should be made to analyze these verb- 
 phrases into separate parts. Such expressions form a 
 comparative predicate-verb, taking complements and 
 adverbial modifiers. 
 
 In the phrase would rather, would is the past tense of 
 will, and means "to wish" or "to desire" to be or to do 
 something. 
 
 Rather is an adverb in the comparative degree, the 
 positive form being rathe or rath, meaning "coming soon" 
 or "early"; coming before others or before the usual time. 
 "Rath" is an adjective in "The rath primrose that for- 
 saked dies," of Milton. 
 
 Other meanings of rather are : * * with more reason " ; " in 
 a greater or less degree"; "to a greater extent"; as, 
 
 Do not doctor yourself, go rather to a good physician. 
 
 I rather like the idea. 
 
 He said good-bye rather hurriedly. 
 
 AS 
 
 In origin as is an adverb. Like the relative what it 
 has in itself a twofold meaning: (1) demonstrative, and 
 
64 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 (2) relative. These meanings may be expressed by the 
 two phrases: (1) "in that way" and (2) "in which way." 
 
 Specifically as is an adverb of manner or of degree, 
 and is equivalent to the double phrases, "in the way in 
 which" or "in the degree in which". 
 
 As is also used as a conjunction and as a relative 
 pronoun, and, by some authorities, is classed as a 
 preposition. 
 
 In the analysis of as-constructions, the meaning and 
 grammatical use of as will become more evident, if it is 
 expanded into the double phrases. 
 
 Examples 
 
 1. The water is as cold as ice: [as ice is cold]. 
 
 The water is cold (in the degree) (in which) ice is 
 cold. 
 
 2. He treated himj as his own son: [as he treated his 
 
 own son] . 
 
 He treated him (in the way) (in which) he treated his 
 own son. 
 
 3. He was employed as bookkeeper : [as a bookkeeper is 
 
 employed] . 
 
 He was employed (in the way, (in which) a book- 
 keeper is employed. 
 
 As is used with prepositions to define the reference of 
 the preposition; e. g., as for, as to, as of, as against, as 
 between, as touching, as concerning, etc.; and with the 
 adverb "yet" in the adverbial phrase as yet. 
 
 The phrase-prepositions, as to and as for, are used to 
 introduce topics of special reference; e. g., "As for me 
 and my house, we will serve the Lord". Bible. 
 
 When as follows same and such and refers to an ante- 
 cedent noun or pronoun, it is a relative pronoun; when 
 it is used in the sense of "because" it is a conjunction. 
 
 The antecedent of as as a relative pronoun is often the 
 .whole statement conceived of as a fact. It is then equiv- 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 65 
 
 alent to "a thing which" or "a fact which"; e. g. "He 
 was an Englishman, as they perceived by his accent". 
 
 SO 
 
 Historically so is a demonstrative adverb and is equiv- 
 alent in meaning to the phrases: "in that way", "in that 
 degree", "to that extent". The full significance of this 
 particle becomes clear when it is expanded into these 
 adverbial phrases. Its correlate is as. 
 
 Examples 
 
 James is as tall as John (idea of equality). 
 
 Charles is not so studious as his sister (idea of 
 inequality). 
 
 If you believe it, say so (in that way). 
 
 As two is to four so is one to two (in the way) (in that 
 way). 
 
 When used in pairs, as as, so as, and as so are 
 called correlative or corresponding conjunctions, because 
 they form but one connection, and have a reciprocal 
 relation to each other. 
 
 So is used as an expletive to introduce a fact; e. g. 
 "So you have been in Rome, have you?" It is also used 
 with past participles to form compound adjectives; as, 
 "so-called," "so-styled," "so-named," etc. 
 
 The following are some of the uses of so in stereotyped 
 phrases: "and so on" or "and so forth" (=and other 
 things) ; "so to say" or "so to speak" (=if one may say 
 or speak thus) ; "so be it" (let it be in that way). 
 
 As and So 
 
 "The radical meaning of 'so' (Early English 'swa') is 'in 
 that way'; and the radical meaning of 'as' (which is a con- 
 traction of an emphatic form of 'so' (Early English 'al-swa', 
 'also,' 'als,' 'as'), is 'in which way', or 'in that way'. Con- 
 sequently, 'as' has the Demonstrative meaning of 'so', besides 
 having its own Eelative meaning." E. A. Abbott. 
 
66 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "The purely adverbial function of as is limited to its use 
 in the beginning of a sentence, especially where the correlate 
 so or as is used; it is then called an antecedent or demonstrative 
 adverb. In other cases it is a conjunctive adverb; while in 
 some instances it is almost a preposition or a pronoun. It is 
 used most frequently with its correlatives, same, such, so, as, 
 sometimes abbreviating an expression or allowing for an ellipsis, 
 as in the following: 
 
 "As we live, so we die. 
 
 "Such a one as he cannot succeed. 
 
 "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself. 
 
 "He put it off as long as [putting it off was] possible." 
 
 Standard Dictionary. 
 
 "As and than are properly conjunctions, and take the same 
 case after them as before. But those words must be rightly 
 understood, (a) 'I love you more than him,' means something 
 different from (b) 'I love you more than he.' It must be borne 
 in mind that the 'case before' is that of the word that is 
 compared with the 'case after', and not necessarily that of 
 the word actually next before in position. In (a) you is 
 compared with him; in (b) I, not you, is compared with he." 
 The King's English. 
 
 "The case of a noun or noun-equivalent," says Onions, "fol- 
 lowing than is determined by mentally supplying the verb." 
 
 CONSTRUCTIONS WITH "IT" 
 
 The impersonal pronoun "It" was originally a demon- 
 strative adjective, having the form "hit", and referring 
 to "that person or thing". As a demonstrative pronoun, 
 "it" represents definitely some noun (person or thing) 
 or noun-equivalent. As an indefinite pronoun, "it" has 
 a vague meaning, that of a mere noun-equivalent for 
 a case, situation, condition, plan, reason, or an act, etc. 
 The following classification with examples includes the 
 most common uses of "It". 
 
 1. Conventional or introductory Subject: the content 
 being wholly in the verb or predicate to which it 
 is attached. 
 
 It is raining ; It thundered. 
 It is nine o'clock. 
 It has been a warm day. 
 It says so in the book. 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 67 
 
 It is too early to start. 
 
 How far is it to your house ? 
 
 It was a tiresome journey. 
 
 It was the night before Christmas. 
 
 2. Formal or provisional Subject, the real Subject 
 
 being an antecedent phrase or clause : 
 It is hard (to do right). 
 It is good [for us to be here] . 
 It hurts me (to write). 
 It is evident [that a mistake was made]. 
 It is better (to suffer wrong) than (to do wrong). 
 It is the best [that I have]. 
 What is it (to be a gentleman) ? 
 It seems [that you were right] . 
 
 3. Introductory "It is" to emphasize Nouns, Phrases 
 
 and Clauses: 
 
 It was Stevenson who wrote ' ' Treasure Island ' '. 
 It was here that the accident happened. 
 It was (on this condition) that I went. 
 It was (in vain) that we strove to advance. 
 It is (with many regrets) that we take our leave. 
 It was on Monday that we called. 
 It is [when sorrow comes] that one needs friends. 
 
 4. As predicate of any gender or person with the verb 
 
 "to be". 
 
 It is I : it is they : who is it? 
 It was they who told me. 
 It is the King of England. 
 If it be you, say so. 
 Who was it that said so? 
 It was you that he laughed at. 
 5. As formal Object: 
 
 The cars are not running; let's "foot it" to town. 
 
 If you go, you will have to rough it. 
 
 "They frolic it along." Cowper. 
 
 "Come and trip it as you go." Milton. 
 
 * ' Courage, father, fight it out. ' ' Shakespeare. 
 
 You cannot lord it over me. 
 
68 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 " 'It is raining' is a type of the impersonal judgment, and 
 involves nothing more than the interjectional judgment of per- 
 ception, as in 'wolf! ' or 'fire! ' which is a type of the linguistic 
 judgment. What is the 'it'? Nothing is meant by the 'it'. 
 Nothing in mind correspends to it. Its presence is due to a 
 mere habit of language. The linguistic convention of subject 
 and predicate has become so thoroughly established, that any 
 other expression seems awkward." Pillsbury. 
 
 "In the sentence: 'It is good for us to be here,' the infini- 
 tive phrase is a Noun-equivalent and not an Adverb-equivalent; 
 the order, for -f- noun or pronoun + infinitive is invariable. ' ' 
 Onions. 
 
 INDEPENDENT SENTENCE ELEMENTS 
 
 An independent sentence element is a word or word- 
 group that, although accompanying a sentence, has no 
 real grammatical relation to any part of it. Its function 
 is rhetorical rather than grammatical. 
 
 The following examples are some of the most common 
 types of expression said to be in absolute or independent 
 construction : 
 
 1. Direct address: 
 
 John, please bring me my coat. 
 
 Stars, hide your fires ! 
 
 my country, what a wound did you then receive ! 
 
 The boy oh, where was he? 
 
 death, where is thy sting? 
 
 2. Mere introductory words : 
 There is a green pine yonder. 
 
 It is I. It is a friend. "It was the night before 
 
 Christmas." 
 
 That you did your best seems certain. 
 Well, what can you say for yourself? 
 Now, under those conditions ought you to go? 
 Why, you were there and heard the story. 
 
 3. Other independent words and phrases used in con- 
 
 nection with sentences are : 
 Namely, to repeat, in short, of course, as a matter 
 of fact, etc. 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 69 
 
 4. Parenthetical phrases and sentences : 
 
 The affair, (to be sure), turned out unfortunately. 
 His rudeness, (strange to say), was bearable. 
 The house, (as I have heard), is haunted. 
 The bill, (thanks to your generosity), is paid. 
 
 EXPLETIVES 
 
 "The expletive words it, that, there, are used to introduce 
 sentences; and the expletive for, is used to introduce the infini- 
 tive with its objective subject." Holbrook. 
 
 It 
 
 "The pronoun 'it' is employed merely as an expletive, with- 
 out reference to a particular thing, as in Milton's lines: 'Not 
 lording it over God's heritage', and, 'Come and trip it as you 
 go'; and in Shakespeare, 'I'll queen it no inch farther', (Win- 
 ter's Tale). De Vere. 
 
 There 
 
 Pillsbury has pointed out that "there" has become a 
 purely formal or conventional word to introduce a 
 sentence when no reference to space is intended. Its use 
 also prevents repetition of the usual subject-predicate 
 order. Spatial appreciation is involved in all the forms 
 of judgment, though not made explicit in the spoken or 
 written word. 
 
 There: Subjective Complement 
 
 " 'There was a man there.' 
 
 " 'There' (1) is an independent indefinite adverb, used to 
 introduce the subject, man. 
 
 " 'There* (2) is an independent adverb of place, used as 
 subjective complement of the verb, was". Eowe and Webb. 
 
 NEGATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
 The term " negative" and " negation" are derived from 
 a Latin verb, negare, which means "to say no". In the 
 
70 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 English sentence negative ideas are designated by such 
 words as, 'no,' 'not,' never'; 'nobody,' 'no one,' 'none'; 
 'not any', 'nothing'; 'nowhere,' 'nowise,' 'not at all,' etc.; 
 also by words compounded with the Latin adverb 'non'; 
 as, non-existence, non-essential, non-conductor, etc., and 
 other words having a negative prefix or suffix. 
 
 Examples 
 
 The pupils did not write their lessons. 
 
 You cannot enter the room now. 
 
 Mind is not a material substance. 
 
 There is no book on the shelf. 
 
 Nobody is here, but that is nothing. 
 
 Neither you nor I can go. 
 
 The ground is not damp. 
 
 I am not at all surprised. 
 
 You may never see it again. 
 
 It was an unimportant event. 
 
 In the following stanza every line contains one or more 
 words of negative meaning: 
 
 "Clay, not dead but soulless, 
 
 Though no mortal man would choose thee, 
 An immortal no less 
 Deigns not to refuse thee." Byron. 
 
 A purely negative statement implies at the same time 
 some affirmative judgment that represents the reality; 
 as, "That is not square, it is oblong". 
 
 The following are characteristic definitions of negative 
 propositions : 
 
 "A negative proposition asserts a difference or discrepancy. " 
 Jevons. 
 
 "Negative is only the affirmation of difference or exclusion.' 7 
 Bowen. 
 
 "To affirm and to deny are two mutually symmetrical acts. 
 The first establishes a relation of agreement; the second, a 
 relation of disagreement between a subject and an attribute." 
 Bergson (Tr. Mitchell). 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 71 
 
 In a negative proposition the predicate is denied of 
 the subject. As "is" is the sign of a positive proposition, 
 so the words "is not" become the sign of a negative prop- 
 osition; as, 
 
 "The ground is damp." "The ground is not damp," 
 in which "is" is the copula and "not damp" the predi 
 cate-idea. 
 
 "The adverb 'not' in I do not think so is a sentence-modi- 
 fier serving to deny or negative the connection between the 
 subject 'I' and the predicate * think so'. Not is joined on to 
 the unmeaning form-word do, thus distributing the negation 
 over the whole sentence." H. Sweet. 
 
 "Negation aims at some one, and not only, like a purely 
 intellectual operation, at some thing. It is of a pedagogical and 
 social nature. It sets straight or rather warns, the person 
 warned and set straight being, possibly by a kind of doubling, 
 the very person who speaks." Bergson (Tr. Mitchell). 
 
 "A positive notion of a negative object or of a pure nega- 
 tion, is impossible. A negative object or negative term indi- 
 cates only some real or possible object or objects in a negative 
 relation. ' ' Porter. 
 
 ' ' Thus, while affirmation bears directly on the thing, negation 
 aims at the thing only indirectly, through an interposed 
 affirmation. An affirmative proposition expresses a judgment on 
 an object; a negative proposition expresses a judgment on a 
 judgment. Negation, therefore, differs from affirmation prop- 
 erly so called in that it is an affirmation of the second degree; 
 it affirms something of an affirmation, which itself affirms some- 
 thing of an object." Bergson (Tr. Mitchell). 
 
 "Prom the point of view of our knowledge in general . . . 
 the peculiar function of negative propositions is simply to 
 prevent error." Kant (Quot. by Bergson). 
 
 QUOTATIONS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENT 
 
 A quotation, be it in form a single word, a phrase, a 
 sentence, or a whole paragraph, serves usually as an 
 Object complement to a verb of saying or asking expressed 
 or implied. 1 
 
 The normal order for introducing a sentence as a direct 
 quotation is: (1) a rhythmic part of the quotation, con- 
 sisting of a phrase or a part of a phrase; (2) the intro- 
 ducing phrase of saying or asking, "he said" or "said 
 
72 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 he", (the inverted order being more common) ; (3) a 
 resumption and completion of the quoted words. 
 
 It is to be noted that the matter under quotation marks 
 brings in a new rhythm, as it nearly always belongs to a 
 different personality ; and if the passage is of any length, 
 the "sample" phrase comes first. This phrase is some- 
 times repeated if the injected introductory words are 
 explanatory and more numerous than usual. One of 
 Macaulay's sentences will serve to illustrate this form: 
 
 "I never," said Knox, when he introduced Schitab 
 Roy, covered with blood and dust, to the English function- 
 aries assembled in the factory, "I never saw a native fight 
 so before." 
 
 Other typical forms of quotations may be seen in 
 Lesson 21. 
 
 In biography where the quoted passages are very fre- 
 quent, and in texts in which long citations are made by 
 way of showing examples, the quoted matter is usually 
 printed in smaller type, and so no injected phrase is 
 needed. 2 
 
 "The moulds in which conversation is cast," says 
 Esenwein, "are of forms as various as those of everyday 
 speech, but the manner of reporting them requires some 
 art. . . . Do not think it necessary to put 'he saids' 
 after every remark made by a character. . . . Use 
 some ingenuity in getting away from conventional forms. ' ' 
 
 The following are some of the more common equivalents 
 for verbs of saying and asking: stated, declared, re- 
 marked, observed; inquired, queried, questioned, inter- 
 rogated. 
 
 'For exceptions (as Subject) see Lesson 21:8. 
 2 Macaulay, however, uses such injected phrase. (See his 
 essay on " Gladstone on Church and State".) 
 
 INDIRECT NARRATION 
 
 Present-day English, like highly inflected languages, as 
 Latin and Greek, has a well defined idiom in reported 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 73 
 
 speech called "direct and indirect discourse". The 
 thoughts and sayings of another must be reported in one 
 of two ways: (1) directly in the form of a quotation, 
 or (2) indirectly in a revised form of the original 
 expression. 
 
 "The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that 
 the language of some other person than the writer or 
 speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause. ' ' 
 
 In both these forms of narration the speaker or writer 
 endeavors to report what some one the speaker himself 
 or some one else has said, thought, or resolved. When 
 the indirect form is used the reporter is expected to pre- 
 serve the original meaning, and adhere to the linguistic 
 principles by which the direct form of expression may be 
 correctly transferred to the indirect. 
 
 The following examples will serve to show what 
 changes are likely to occur in (1) the order of words, 
 (2) the form of the pronouns, (3) the tense of the verbs, 
 (4) the omission, addition, or substitution of words, when 
 the narrator uses with good reason the indirect instead of 
 the direct form. 
 
 DIRECT NARRATION (Original Form) 
 
 1. "I can tell you a different story," remarked a 
 by-stander. 
 
 2. "Oh, Mary, where is my hat?" asked her brother. 
 
 3. "I shall be pleased to go with you tomorrow, if 
 the weather will permit," said my friend. 
 
 4. "I will pay all the expenses myself," I insistently 
 urged, as we parted. 
 
 5. The pupils were asking for their grades. ' ' I cannot 
 tell you now," replied the teacher. "Wait awhile longer 
 and then I will tell you." 
 
 6. I overheard Joe saying: "My father died last 
 night." 
 
 7. "The fact is, a man can do anything if he is in the 
 House, and he can do nothing if he is not," said Undy. 
 
74 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 INDIRECT NARRATION (Revised Form) 
 
 1. A by-stander remarked that he could tell them a 
 different story. 
 
 2. Her brother asked Mary where his hat was. 
 
 3. My friend said he would be pleased to go with me, 
 if the weather would permit. 
 
 4. As we parted I was still insisting that I would pay 
 all the expenses. 
 
 5. The teacher, replying to her pupils who had asked 
 for their grades, said she could not tell them then but 
 bade them wait awhile longer, and then she Avould tell 
 them. 
 
 6. I overheard Joe say that his father had died on the 
 previous night. 
 
 7. Undy said a man could do anything if he were in 
 the House, and nothing if out of it. 
 
 "It will be noticed that Indirect Narration is a necessary 
 introduction to Precis-Writing, which, may be denned as the 
 expression, in as few words as possible, of the information con- 
 tained in bulkier form. The student must always be prepared 
 to use his judgment regarding what is essential in the direct 
 quotation, and what is superfluous: no exact rules can be 
 given." J. M. Dixon, "English Composition". 
 
 THE IMPERSONAL VERB 
 
 A predicate-verb having "it" for its Subject-word is 
 called an "impersonal verb"; as, "it rains"; "it thun- 
 ders"; "it is hot"; it is foggy", etc. These forms of 
 expression are employed to describe the conditions or 
 operations of nature. In such sentences "it" is not a 
 pronoun, but an expletive, or an introductory word added 
 to keep the form of the sentence regular. As has been 
 said: "Nothing is meant by the 'it'. Nothing in mind 
 corresponds to it. Its presence is due to a mere habit 
 of language." 
 
 In these examples the verbs "rains" and "thunders" 
 are said to be impersonal, but they become personal in 
 
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 75 
 
 another context, as may be seen in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 "The Lord rained upon Sodom . . . brimstone and 
 fire. "Bible. 
 
 "The glory of God thunder eth. " Ib. 
 
 ' ' Canst thou thunder with voice like him ? ' ' Ib. 
 
 Another instance of the impersonal verb appears in 
 modern English in the archaic phrase "methinks" (past 
 "methought"), which occurs only in poetry. Originally 
 "me" (now joined for convenience with the verb) was 
 in the Dative case and must be so regarded now, the 
 phrase being equivalent to "to me it seems," (or 
 "appears"). 
 
 The student will do well to remember that "methinks" 
 is not the same as "I think". For the verb "think" in 
 "methinks" is intransitive and means "to seem' or to 
 "appear", that is, "to imagine"; while in "I think", the 
 verb is transitive and means "to say to one's self", thus 
 requiring a direct object (Accusative). 
 
 As a grammatical element "methinks" is equivalent 
 to the phrase "in imagination", and is therefore to be 
 treated as an adverbial ; as, " Methought I saw him fall ' ' 
 is the same as "In imagination I saw him fall". 
 
 Many of the impersonal verbs that occur in Shakespeare 
 now take the personal form, e. g. 
 
 "This likes me well. "Hamlet. 
 
 "Will 't please you go?" Two Gentlemen of Verona. 
 
 "It grieves me for the death of Claudia." M. for M. 
 
 Today there is a natural preference for the order: (1) 
 personal subject, (2) verb, (3) object, where possible. 
 Thus it is now regular to say, "I like it." "Will you 
 please go?" "You grieve me." "I am grieved by your 
 conduct." 
 
 Note. "The true impersonal use of 'please', without gram- 
 matical subject any kind, has survived in 'if you please ', 
 
 where 'you' is historically not the subject of 'please', but a 
 
 dative case dependent on it." Onions. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
 The function that a word performs in a sentence deter- 
 mines its classification as a part of speech. The same 
 word may be used as one part of speech in one sentence, 
 and another part of speech in another. 
 
 The following list of special words will serve to 
 illustrate this principle of the classification of words by 
 function. 
 
 1. Adjective : a rose, a tree, an apple, an orange. 
 
 2. Preposition (on, in, to, into) : 
 
 to go a-begging; to set the clock a-going; once a 
 year; to go afoot; to go a-shore; to earn a dollar 
 a day. 
 
 Note. The preposition a is a "worn down" form of on. 
 
 3. Phrase uses (as adjective or adverb) : 
 
 now-a-days, a few, a great many, a good many, 
 many a flower, what a loss". "A many merry 
 men. " Shakespeare. 
 
 AGO 
 
 1. Adjective: Ago is used as an adjective to qualify 
 some noun of time, expressed or understood. It 
 is derived from the archaic form agone, meaning 
 ' * gone by " ; ' ' by-gone " ; ' ' past ' \ It always follows 
 its noun: 
 
 (a) It happened an hour ago. 
 
 (b) Years ago I heard that story. 
 
 (c) Some time ago we saw him leave the house. 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 77 
 
 2. Adverb (In the past, since) ; as, 
 
 (a) "Poor old lady, she is dead long ago. 
 
 Holmes. 
 
 (b) The miser was dead and buried long ago. 
 
 3. Noun: "In the life and warmth of long ago." 
 
 Lowell. 
 
 ABOVE 
 
 1. Adjective (Position; attribute of things in space) ; as, 
 
 (a) The above explanation will suffice. 
 
 (b) In the exercises above there is a good example. 
 
 (c) The heavens are above, the waters, below. 
 
 2. Noun : The above will show what is meant. 
 
 3. Adverb : The leaves are green above. 
 
 4. Preposition (Vertically over, in excess of) ; as, 
 
 (a) The clouds are above the mountains. 
 
 (b) Our blessings are above measure. 
 
 (c) The moral law is above the civil. 
 
 5. Phrase use: above all, above the rest, above-board, 
 
 above-named, etc. 
 
 ANY 
 
 1. Adjective (one, or a portion of) ; as, 
 
 (a) Have you any food? 
 
 (b) Any person may enter the building. 
 
 (c) Can any good come from that? 
 
 2. Adverb (somewhat, in the least, at all) ; as, 
 
 (a) We cannot remain any longer. 
 
 (b) Can you drive any nearer? 
 
 3. Pronoun (one or more persons, things, or portions) ; 
 
 as, 
 
 (a) Any of the books will do. 
 
 (b) The case was unknown to any, but those two 
 
 only. 
 
 (c) They offered him money but he would not 
 
78 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 take any. 
 
 4. Phrase use : at any rate, in any case, any-how, any- 
 way, anywhere, etc. 
 
 ALL 
 
 1. Adjective (the entire quantity or extent of) ; as, 
 
 All day; all America; all wisdom. 
 
 2. Noun (the whole collectively, entire amount) ; as, 
 
 (a) "All is God, and God is all." 
 
 (b) All he had was lost in the fire, 
 
 (c) All went well with him. 
 
 3. Adverb (wholly; entirely; quite); as, 
 
 (a) All at once the lights went out. 
 
 (b) They were dressed all in white. 
 
 (c) That will be all the better for us. 
 
 4. Phrase use : after all, for good and all, at all, all in all, 
 
 not at all, once for all, all along, all but (nearly, 
 almost), etc. 
 
 BETTER 
 
 1. Verb (To make better; improve conditions) ; as, 
 
 (a) He tried to better his position. 
 
 (b) If you work hard you can better yourself. 
 
 2. Adjective (Excelling in desirable qualities) ; as, 
 
 (a) A better plan would produce better results. 
 
 (b) His method, better in many respects than 
 
 mine, was adopted. 
 
 (c) That course was probably better for you. 
 
 3. Noun (Whatever is better; advantage; superiority); 
 
 as, 
 
 (a) "There is no hope of better left for him." 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 (b) The merchant made a change for the better. 
 
 (c) In the trade he got the better of the bargain. 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 79 
 
 4. Adverb (Comparative of well; in a superior manner 
 
 or degree) ; as, 
 
 (a) "We know better than we do." Emerson. 
 
 (b) The pupils understand English better than 
 
 Latin. 
 
 (c) He has a better trained mind than hand. 
 
 5. Phrase use: to be better off; to think better of; to 
 
 get the better of. 
 
 BUT 
 
 1. Conjunction (Radical meaning of but is "be-out", 
 
 that is "without" or "except) ; as, 
 
 (a) The family went to church but John stayed 
 
 at home. 
 
 (b) I want to read the book but cannot do so now. 
 
 2. Preposition (Leaving out; with the exception of; 
 
 except; barring) ; as, 
 
 (a) No one would have thought of it but him. 
 
 (b) We brought everything but the box of books. 
 
 (c) He does nothing but read all day. 
 
 3. Adverb (Only, merely, simply) ; as, 
 
 (a) There is but one God. 
 
 (b) The lecturer made but little impression upon 
 
 is audience. 
 
 4. Noun: He went about his task without any ifs or 
 
 buts (verbal objections.) 
 
 5. Pronoun (Who not, after a negation or interrogative 
 
 by the omission of "who" or "that") ; as, 
 
 (a) There is no one but would have done the 
 
 same thing. 
 
 (b) "What heart was there, but felt the pang of 
 
 disappointment. ' ' 
 
 6. Phrase use : all but (almost) ; but that (except for 
 
 the fact); cannot but (can do nothing except; 
 as, We cannot but believe it; i. e. We can do 
 nothing except to believe it) . 
 
80 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Note. "The word 'but' is often used for 'who not'. It may 
 hence be called the negative relative. Thus Scott has: 'There 
 breathes not clansman of my line, but (who not) would have 
 given his life for mine'." Meiklejohn. 
 
 DO 
 
 1. Verb (to act; to execute; to finish, etc.) ; as, 
 
 (a) To do work; to do good; to do evil. 
 
 (b) What shall we do with him? 
 
 2. Auxiliary (used in interrogative or negative clauses) ; 
 
 as, 
 
 (a) Do you see that ship in the offing ? 
 
 (b) I do not think you should go now. 
 
 3. Substitute (used to avoid repeating the foregoing 
 
 predicate-verb) ; as, I do not believe as some do, 
 that "Whatever is, is right". 
 
 4. Phrase use : do-all (a servant) ; to out-do (surpass) ; 
 
 to do, over (repeat); a-do (fuss, trouble). 
 In the expression "How do you do?" the first do is the 
 auxiliary; the second is the main verb derived from the Old 
 English verb dugan, which means "to be worth," or "be fit". 
 
 ELSE 
 
 1. Adverb (In another manner, otherwise, besides) ; as, 
 
 "Thou desirest . . . not sacrifice else would I 
 give it." 
 
 2. Adjective (Other than the person or thing men- 
 
 tioned) ; as, 
 
 (a) Who else is coming? 
 
 (b) What else could he do? 
 
 (c) Head me something else. 
 
 (d) All else of earth may perish. 
 
 (e) Let me have somebody else's book. 
 
 ENOUGH 
 
 1. Adjective (sufficient to satisfy desire or expectation) ; 
 as, 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 81 
 
 (a) There is not enough heat in the room. 
 
 (b) He says he has time enough and to spare. 
 
 2. Pronoun : Have you any bread ? We have enough for 
 
 the present. 
 
 3. Noun : We have had enough of wandering. 
 
 4. Adverb : He was glad enough to go with us. 
 
 5. Interjection: Enough! ("Stop"; "that will do"). 
 
 EVEN 
 
 1. Verb (To make even, or level) ; as, 
 
 The boys tried to even the load. 
 
 2. Adjective (Smooth; level; uniform); as, 
 
 (a) We all now have an even chance. 
 
 (b) The foundation is even with the ground, 
 
 3. Adverb (To a like degree; exactly; fully; quite; used 
 
 to express emphasis, surprise, concession, or exten- 
 sion to what might not have been expected) ; a&, 
 
 (a) There was harmony even to the end of the 
 
 session. 
 
 (b) I am not even acquainted with him. 
 
 (c) It is intelligible even to a child. 
 
 (d) It is even as you say. 
 
 (e) I, even I have been able to do as much. 
 
 FOR 
 
 1. Preposition (On account of; with reference to; in the 
 
 stead or place of) ; as, 
 
 (a) He was respected for his great learning. 
 
 (b) This is no place for you. 
 
 (c) They gave ten dollars for one share. 
 
 (d) It is time for (the work to be finished). 
 
 2. Conjunction (a) Subordinate, (b) Coordinate: (Intro- 
 
 ducing a clause of cause, explanation, or relation- 
 ship) ; as, 
 
82 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 (a) That student recites well for he studies hard. 
 
 (b) It will rain, for the barometer is falling. 
 
 (c) For wheresoever the carcass is, there will the 
 
 eagles be gathered together. 
 
 (d) Cast thy bread upon the waters: for thou 
 shalt find it after many days. 
 
 Note. "For is used chiefly in causal coordinate sentences in 
 which the last sentence expresses the reason or cause of the 
 preceding. J ' Stand- Diet. 
 
 Phrase use: For as much as (seeing that; since). 
 
 Forever (endlessly; always). As for (so far as 
 
 concerns). 
 
 For short (by way of abbreviation). 
 
 Note. "In the oldest English for appears as a preposition; 
 but in modern English for (unlike the other Coordinating Con- 
 junctions) can link together sentences only. Onions. 
 
 HALF 
 
 1. Adjective (One of two equal parts of a thing) ; as, 
 
 (a) We got only a half holiday. 
 
 (b) "He is the half part of a blessed man." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 2. Noun: Usually not followed by "of" unless preceded 
 
 by a qualifying word; as, 
 
 (a) The man bought half a pound of powder. 
 
 (b) He deeded the other half of his estate to his 
 
 son. 
 
 4. Adverb (In equal part or degree) ; as, 
 
 (a) The boys were half famished. 
 
 (b) "The world was only half discovered." 
 
 5. Phrase use : Better half, by halves, half in half, half 
 
 (adverbial) past. 
 
 LIKE 
 
 1. Verb (Have a taste for; take pleasure in); as, 
 I do not care whether you like me or not. 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 83 
 
 2. Adjective (Having resemblance; similar); as, 
 
 (a) The teachers use like methods. 
 
 (b) They are as like as two peas. 
 
 Note. It should be noted that like as a verb and "like" as 
 an adjective are, historically, two different words. 
 
 3. Preposition (In the manner of) ; as, 
 
 (a) He walks like his father. 
 
 (b) The boy talks like a philosopher. 
 
 4. Noun (An equal ; counterpart) ; as, 
 
 (a) We shall never see his like again. 
 
 (b) Each of us has his likes and dislikes. 
 
 NEED AND NEEDS 
 
 1. Noun (A necessity ; urgent want) ; as, 
 
 (a) "A friend in need is a friend indeed/* 
 
 (b) Our needs have been well supplied. 
 
 2. Verb (To have need for; to require) ; as, 
 
 (a) "They that are whole need iiot <i physician." 
 
 (b) One needs sympathy in time of trouble. 
 
 (c) He need not do it now. 
 
 (d) Why does he need to know it? 
 
 3. Adverb (Of need or necessity; derived from an old 
 
 Genitive need-es) ; as, 
 
 (a) We must needs wait till morning. 
 
 (b) "So stooping down, as needs he must who 
 
 cannot sit upright." Cowper. 
 
 (c) ' * She shall go, if needs must. ' ' Browning. 
 
 NEAR 
 
 1. Adverb (Close by, almost) ; as, 
 
 (a) Let them draw near. 
 
 (b) "A literary life of near thirty years." 
 
 Macaulay. 
 
 2. Preposition (Close to a place or object) ; as, 
 
 (a) They were boating near the shore. 
 
 (b) We stood near him as he spoke. 
 
84 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 3. Adjective (Close, intimate, familiar) ; as, 
 
 (a) You are one of my near friends. 
 
 (b) In the near future we shall report. 
 
 (c) Let us try to get a nearer view. 
 
 4. Verb (To draw near, approach) ; as, 
 
 (a) The vessel was now nearing the shore. 
 
 (b) As we neared the pier, we saw our friends. 
 
 NONE 
 
 1. Pronoun (not one; no one) ; as, 
 
 (a) " There is none that doeth good." Bible. 
 
 (b) "None of these things move me/' Bible. 
 
 (c) "None but the brave deserves the fair." 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Note. Modern usage gives preference to none for the plural 
 and no one for the singular, when the reference is to persons; 
 as, None were there. No one was present. 
 
 2. Adverb (In no respect or degree) ; as, 
 
 (a) You are none the worse for the experience. 
 
 (b) "He is none the happier for all his wealth." 
 
 NOW 
 
 1. Adverb (At the present instant) ; as, 
 
 (a) "Do not wait, do it now." 
 
 (b) It is warm weather now. 
 
 (c) Let us now proceed to vote. 
 
 (d) "Now, Barabbas was a robber." (Sentence- 
 
 adverb). 
 
 2. Conjunction (Equivalent to "now that" in introduc- 
 
 ing an inference or explanation) : 
 
 "Why struggle longer, now we are doomed?" 
 
 3. Expletive (Introducing a command or remonstrance, 
 
 etc.) ; as, 
 
 (a) Now, you should close the door quietly. 
 
 (b) Now then, please leave that alone. 
 
 Note. Practically equivalent to the exclamations "lo!" 
 " behold I" 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 85 
 
 4. Noun (the present time) ; as, 
 
 "An everlasting Now reigns in nature." Emerson. 
 
 5. Phrase uses : Now-a-days (adverb or noun) ; now and 
 
 again; now and then; now now (idea of swift 
 changes). 
 
 OUT 
 
 1. Verb (Drive out; come out) ; as, 
 
 (a) Out with him. 
 
 (b) Murder will out. 
 
 2. Adjective (External; outside). Commonly in predi- 
 
 cative position; as, 
 
 (a) This is the way in, but where is the way out? 
 
 (b) The umpire says that you are out. 
 
 (c) And cast ye the unprofitable servant into 
 
 outer darkness. 
 
 (d) The tramp was out at the toe and out at the 
 
 knee. 
 
 3. Noun (Position, place, or thing outside) ; as, 
 
 (a) There are many ins and outs in life. 
 
 (b) There is only one out about your plan. 
 
 (c) The measure of the bin is from out to out. 
 
 4. Adverb (On the outside; beyond the limits) : *s, 
 
 (a) A page of my book has been torn out. 
 
 (b) We set out from Paris last Friday. 
 
 (c) They picked out two of the best horses. 
 
 5. Preposition (Forth from) ; as, 
 
 He threw his books out the window. 
 
 6. Interjection : Out on you ! 
 
 RIGHT 
 
 1. Verb (To change, correct, adjust) ; as, 
 
 (a) One should always right a wrong. 
 
 (b) Let us right ourselves. 
 
 2. Adjective (Comformable to some standard; being in 
 
 accordance with the truth or facts) ; as, 
 (a) You have not found the right place. 
 
86 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 (b) It was not right for you to speak so. 
 
 (c) Every act, right or wrong, receives its reward. 
 
 3. Adverb (In a great degree; very, precisely) ; as, 
 
 (a) You will find him right there. 
 
 (b) Speak your opinions right out. 
 
 (c) Be sure you are right and then go right ahead. 
 
 (d) Nothing went right on the trip. 
 
 4. Noun (Whatever is correct; one's just or legal claim, 
 
 title; interest, etc.) ; as, 
 
 (a) Right is opposed to wrong and will eventually 
 
 prevail. 
 
 (b) Each one has certain rights and privileges. 
 
 (c) His right to appeal is not in question. 
 
 5. Phrase use: right now, right off, Right Honorable, 
 
 right down, downright, right-about. 
 
 SUCH 
 
 Such always implies a comparison. It may have a back- 
 word or a forward term of reference. Its position in a 
 sentence may be adherent, appositive, or predicate at the 
 head of the sentence. Its original meaning was "so-like", 
 and today it seems to be equivalent to "like in that way" 
 as to quality or quantity. As or that, as the correlative 
 of such, is used before the subject of comparison. 
 
 1. Adjective (Of that kind; of the same or like 
 
 kind) ; as, 
 
 (a) Should we speak to such a man about such 
 
 matters ? 
 
 (b) Can you play such music as that? 
 
 (c) "Such pictures would I . . . have made." 
 
 (d) "Tears such as angels weep." Milton. 
 
 (e) Such is life ! Such are the parts we play. 
 
 (f) Your habits are such that you cannot be 
 
 trusted. 
 
 2. Pronoun (Such persons or things) ; as, 
 
 (a) "He is the friend of such as are in sorrow." 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 87 
 
 (b) "I bring good tidings, for such the general 
 
 sent." 
 
 3. Phrase use : As such (as being what the name or de- 
 scription implies; in that capacity) ; as, 
 
 (a) He is the chief engineer, and as such can be 
 
 trusted. 
 
 (b) "Witty men are apt to imagine they are 
 
 agreeable as such." Steele. 
 
 (c) Such-wise, such like, such and such a day. 
 
 THE 
 
 1. Definite Article (Before nouns ; adjectival) ; as, 
 
 The moon ; the Duke of Wellington ; the good ; the 
 poor ; the dead ; the unbelieving ; the thoughtless. 
 
 2. Adverb (Modifying adjectives and adverbs in the 
 
 comparative degree) ; as, 
 
 (a) I am the better for having seen you. 
 
 (b) He is none the worse for his trip. 
 
 (c) The sooner the work is done, the better it will 
 
 be for you 
 
 THAT 
 
 1. Adjective (Definitive, pointing to some object) ; as, 
 
 (a) That book cost me a dollar. 
 
 (b) No one will believe that statement. 
 
 2. Pronoun (a) Demonstrative, (b) Relative) ; as, 
 
 (a) Joe told us no tale so weird as that. 
 
 (b) You have taken the last penny that I had. 
 
 (c) He is the man that I saw yesterday. 
 
 3. Conjunction (Introducing (1) an object clause; (2) a 
 
 reason, purpose, or result) ; as, 
 
 (a) He knew that he did wrong. 
 
 (b) He is so lame that he cannot walk. 
 
 (c) We will see that you are elected next time. 
 
88 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 4. Adverb (Equivalent to in which time or when) ; as, 
 
 (a) The moment that I stop, you start. 
 
 (b) "On the day that thou eatest thereof thou 
 
 shalt surely die." 
 
 5. Phrase use : In that (because). In order that (express- 
 
 ing the purpose of the main verb). But that (except 
 or because). 
 
 THEN 
 
 1. Adverb (At that time, past or future) ; as, 
 
 (a) Then someone sounded the alarm. 
 
 (b) "First the blade, then the ear." Bible. 
 
 2. Pronoun (By that time) ; as, 
 
 (a) Come at one o'clock ; by then I shall be ready. 
 
 (b) "All will be ended by then. "Swift. 
 
 (c) "The little man had by then recovered 
 
 himself." 
 
 3. Conjunction (In that case ; therefore) ; as, 
 
 (a) So then what can you say for yourself? 
 
 (b) "If God be true, then is his word true." 
 
 4. Adjective (An ellipsis for "being at that time") ; as, 
 
 (a) " Our then Ambassador was there. " 
 
 (b) "Of quite another stamp was the then ac- 
 
 countant, John Tipp. " Lamb. 
 
 5. Phrase use: Now and then, every now and then, till 
 
 then, now then, but then. 
 
 WHILE 
 
 1. Conjunction (During ; as long as ; though) ; as, 
 
 (a) "While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall 
 
 stand. ' ' Byron. 
 
 (b) "While ho found fault, he also praised." 
 
 2. Adverb (During the time that; at the same time 
 
 that) ; as, 
 
SPECIAL WORD CONSTRUCTIONS 89 
 
 (a) While walking on the ice, I slipped. 
 
 (b) While filled with hope, the heart is light. 
 
 3. Verb (To cause to pass ; spend) ; as, 
 
 (a) Is it right to while away one's time? 
 
 (b) They whiled away the day to no purpose. 
 
 4. Noun (A short time; one's time in general) ; as, 
 
 (a) May we stop here and rest a while? 
 
 (b) You will find the book worth your while. 
 
 WHAT 
 
 1. Interrogative Pronoun.- What shall I do? 
 
 2. Interrogative adjective : What book is that ? 
 
 3. Relative pronoun: I do not know what was done. 
 
 4. Adverb: (to what degree? in what respect?) 
 
 For what is a man advantaged, if he gain the whole 
 world and lose himself. Bible. 
 
 5. Exclamatory adjective : What a fall was there ! 
 
 6. Interjection: What! Are you here? 
 
 7. Phrase uses: 
 
 (a) Exclamation: What folly! What a spend- 
 
 thrift you are ! 
 
 (b) What with (adverb=partly). What with 
 
 work and what with study he had no time 
 to play. 
 
 (c) What not (indefinite pronoun=" something") ; 
 
 as, 
 
 The table was loaded with toys, pictures, and 
 what not. 
 
 Note. " 'What not' is elliptical for what may I not say? 
 implying everything else." Cent. Diet. 
 
 Note 1. "In the sentence, 'What I hold is mine', what ia 
 a condensed antecedent-relative. It is only object to 'hold', 
 and not subject to 'is'; the subject to 'is* is the whole noun- 
 clause 'what I hold'." Goold Brown. 
 
 Note 2. "What, who, and which were all originally interro- 
 gatives only, and their interrogative and relative senses often 
 
90 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 mingle and pass into each other, so as not to be easily dis- 
 tinguished. ' ' Standard Diet. 
 
 Note 3. "The pronoun what never has an antecedent, but 
 combines within itself the powers of antecedent and relative. 
 Thus 'Take what you want' is equivalent to 'Take that which 
 you want'." Fernald. 
 
 WORTH 
 
 1. Verb (to be, to become, to befall, to betide) ; as, 
 
 "Woe worth the chase"; (the day or man). 
 
 Note. The verb worth is imperative, and the following noun 
 is an Adverbial Modifier. 
 
 2. Adjective (Equal in value or in price (to)) ; as, 
 
 (a) The hat is worth two dollars. 
 
 (b) The view is not worth looking at. 
 
 (c) He is worth his weight in gold. 
 
 (d) To work for others is worth while. 
 
 Note. It should be observed that the adjective worth is 
 always followed by a noun or phrase of measure or value as 
 an Adverbial Modifier. 
 
 3. Noun (That quality of anything which renders it 
 
 valuable or desirable) ; as, 
 
 (a) He has great moral worth. 
 
 (b) What is his worth as a friend? 
 
 YET 
 
 1. Adverb (At present; in addition; still; at or before 
 some future time ; up to the present time ; at least) ; 
 as, 
 
 (a) I have not yet finished my work. 
 
 (b) "I see him yet, the princely boy!" Scott. 
 
 (c) And yet he did it in good faith. 
 
 (d) He has not reported to the class as yet. 
 
 (e) "The yet warm Thracians panting on the 
 
 coast. ' ' Pope. 
 
 (f) "Hope thou in God; for I shall yet praise 
 
 him." Bible. 
 
WORKS OF REFERENCE 91 
 
 2. Conjunction (Nevertheless; however; but) ; as, 
 
 (a) I will do so, yet it is against my judgment. 
 
 (b) You may go, yet remember there is another 
 
 day coming. 
 
 WORKS OF REFERENCE 
 
 I. For School Textbooks. 
 
 "English Grammar": George R. Carpenter. 
 "Correct English": Josephine Turck Baker. 
 "New English Grammar": Alfred Holbrook. 
 "A Guide to the Study of English" : Rowe and Webb. 
 "The Elements of English Grammar": George P. Krapp. 
 "English Grammar": Sanford and Brown. 
 "Lessons in English Grammar": Alfred H. Welsh. 
 ' * Practical English Grammar ' * : John T. Prince. 
 "Essentials of English Grammar": William D. Whitney. 
 "Advanced English Grammar": Kittredge and Farley. 
 "English Grammar": J. M. D. Meiklejohn. 
 "A Working Grammar of the English Language". James 
 C. Fernald. 
 
 II. For Teachers and Advanced Students. 
 
 "New English Grammar": Henry Sweet. 
 
 ' ' The King 's English ' ' : Oxford, 1906. 
 
 "An Advanced English Syntax": C. T. Onions. 
 
 "Grammar and Its Reasons": Mary Hall Leonard. 
 
 "Elements of English Speech": Isaac Bassett Choate. 
 
 "The Study of Language": Leonard Bloomfield. 
 
 "Modern English": George P. Krapp. 
 
 ' ' English Syntax ' ' : Leon Kellner. 
 
 "Grammar of English Grammars" : Goold Brown. 
 
 "How To Parse": E.A.Abbott. 
 
 "English Analysis": Samuel S. Greene. 
 
 "The Teaching of English Grammar": F. A. Barbour. 
 
92 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 "Classification of Sentences and Clauses": Sch. Rev., 
 June 1913: William G. Hale. 
 
 "Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen- 
 clature," 1913. 
 
 "Studies in Logical Theory": John Dewey. 
 
 "The Human Intellect": Noah Porter. 
 
 "Lectures on Linguistic Method" : S. S. Laurie. 
 
 "The Psychology of Reasoning": W. B. Pillsbury. 
 
 1 ' Studies in English ' ' : Schele De Vere. 
 
 "Grammar and Thinking": Alfred D. Sheffield. 
 
 Dictionaries: The Standard; The Century; Webster's; 
 Murray's "New English Dictionary" (Oxford). 
 
PART TWO 
 LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Rules Principles Definitions 
 
 1. The Sentence as a whole is a system of relations. It 
 consists of two parts: (1) Subject and (2) Predicate. 
 The substance of the subject is called Subject-material, 
 that of the predicate, Predicate-material. 
 
 2. The constituent relational elements of the sentence 
 take the form of single words, phrases, and clauses. All 
 words and word-groups may be classified according to 
 their peculiar functions under the following heads : 
 
 I. Principal Relation: primary; non-modifying. 
 
 (1) Sub ject- word : Nouns and noun-equivalents. 
 
 (2) Predicate-verb: Verb (finite and infinite). 
 II. Coordinate Relation: of equal rank; non-modifying. 
 
 (3) Subjective complement: Nouns, Adjectives, 
 
 and Equivalents. 
 
 (4) Object complement : Nouns and noun-equiv- 
 
 alents. 
 
 III. Subordinate Relation: secondary; modifying. 
 
 (5) Adjectives and Adjectival modifiers. 
 
 (6) Adverbs and Adverbial modifiers. 
 
 IV. Relational Connectives: joiners of words and word- 
 groups. 
 
 (7) Prepositions. 
 
 (8) Conjunctions. 
 
94 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 V. Independent Relation: associated with the sentence 
 but modifying no part of it. 
 
 3. The first step in sentence analysis is to select and 
 classify the Verb. Starting from the verb one is able to 
 discover the Subject-word and then the Complement, if 
 any. By this process the fundamental type or skeleton 
 sentence may readily be seen. The next step is to classify 
 the modifiers which are related to some one of the three 
 parts of the fundamental sentence. Finally the sentence 
 as a whole is to be classified. 
 
 4. There are but two classes of modifiers : 
 
 (1) Adjectives and Adjectival Modifiers. 
 
 (2) Adverbs and Adverbial Modifiers. 
 
 A modifier belongs to or limits either (1) a single word, 
 (2) a phrase, (3) a predicate (verb and complement), or 
 (4) the sentence as a whole. 
 
 5. Nouns and pronouns having the " possessive case- 
 form " modify the meaning of nouns and are therefore to 
 be classed as Adjectival Modifiers. 
 
 6. A noun or noun-equivalent is said to be in apposi- 
 tion with another noun or its equivalent, when it serves 
 to identify, explain, or emphasize a preceding noun, 
 pronoun, or substantive clause. 
 
 Hence an appositive is to be classed as an Adjectival 
 Modifier. 
 
 Note. "The forms in -self are also used in apposition with 
 Personal Pronouns, by way of emphasizing them, as I myself, 
 you yourself, they themselves. In this position they become 
 Definitive Adjectives, i. e., Adjectives denning more exactly 
 the words to which they refer." Onions. 
 
 7. In English, words that modify the meaning of single 
 words and word-groups look forward rather than back- 
 ward, and usually stand immediately in front of the words 
 which they qualify. 
 
 8. The student should bear in mind the general rule 
 that Adjectives and Adjectival Modifiers belong to and 
 limit nouns and pronouns ; also the fact that often single 
 words and word-groups though modifying nouns and pro- 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 95 
 
 nouns are not adjectives but Adjectival Modifiers. 
 
 9. The general rule for Adverbial Modifiers is as 
 follows : all single words and word-groups that belong to 
 and limit the meaning of a verb, verbal, adverb, or 
 adjective are classified as Adverbial Modifiers. All 
 adverbs are adverbial modifiers, but all adverbial modi- 
 fiers are not adverbs. 
 
 10. Certain adverbs modify not a particular word in 
 the sentence but the sentence as a whole or some part of 
 it; as, for instance, the verb with its complement, or a 
 prepositional phrase. Such uses of the adverb are desig- 
 n a t e d as Sentence-modifying, Predicate-modifying, 
 Phrase-modifying adverb. 
 
 11. The following are some of the transitive verbs that 
 regularly take an Infinitive with the sign "to" attached, 
 as Object complement: begin, continue, desire, expect, 
 fear, have, intend, learn, like, mean, ought, prefer, try, 
 wish, etc. ; as, The bird began to sing. I intend to write 
 a poem. 
 
 The verbs dare and need take Infinitives as Object 
 complement either with or without to; as, 
 The pupils dare not whisper. 
 They do not dare to be tardy. 
 Does the teacher dare to punish them? 
 We need to make haste slowly. 
 The house needs to be painted. 
 No one need know it. 
 
 12. The following verbs in the active voice are regu- 
 larly used with the Infinitive without the sign "to": bid, 
 feel, hear, make, see, and their participles ; as, We felt the 
 house shake. They departed bidding us be merry. 
 
 13. After the comparative phrases had better, had or 
 would rather, sooner or rather than, the Infinitive is used 
 without to; as, You had better go home. I would rather 
 not go now. 
 
 14. The transitive verb let as an auxiliary is used with 
 an infinitive without to to form imperative verb-phrases, 
 
96 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 expressing commands, entreaties, exhortations, etc., as, 
 Let us walk. Let him enter. "Let my people go." In 
 such constructions the direct object of the verb let is the 
 infinitive clause, of which the Subject-word is the noun 
 or pronoun in the Objective (Accusative) case. 
 
 15. A noun that denotes the measure of time, distance, 
 capacity, weight, price, value, or that designates direc- 
 tion, and the degree of difference is in definitive con- 
 struction with the predicate-verb or the predicate as a 
 whole, and is, therefore, to be classified as an Adverbial 
 Modifier. 
 
 16. A noun, having meaning similar to that of the 
 intransitive verb with which it is used, is called a " cog- 
 nate object"; as, "to dream a dream," "to run a race," 
 "to live a life". These nouns are apparent, not real 
 objects; they are, therefore, to be classified as Adverbial 
 Modifiers, and not as Object complements. 
 
 17. Adverbials in the form of a word or word-group, 
 as certainly, hence, indeed, moreover, therefore, surely; 
 at best, at least, in fact, as a matter of fact, by all means, 
 etc., seem to be related to the sentence as a whole, or to 
 point out its connection with other sentences in the 
 context. They are, therefore, to be classed as Sentence- 
 modifying adverbs or Conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 SPECIAL DESCRIPTIVE DEFINITIONS 
 
 ADJECTIVAL: A word or word-group used as an 
 adjective-equivalent to limit or describe a substantive. 
 
 ANTECEDENT term : A term that goes before another 
 term as an object of reference or point of connection. 
 
 ATTRIBUTE: An adjective or an adjective-equivalent 
 that expresses a quality or characteristic belonging 
 to a person or thing. 
 
 ATTRIBUTIVE verb : A finite verb expressing in itself 
 a complete predicate which characterizes the Subject, 
 and thus becomes an attribute of the Subject; as, 
 Wood decays. Birds fly. Stars twinkle. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 97 
 
 AUXILIARY verb : A helping word in the formation of 
 the modes and tenses of principal or notional verbs. 
 
 ADHERENT relation : Said of the adjective or participle 
 that stands directly in front of its substantive. 
 
 APPOSITIVE relation: (1) Said of the adjective or par- 
 ticiple that stands immediately after its substantive. 
 (2) Said of a substantive that stands after another 
 substantive to explain or identify its antecedent term. 
 The appositive is said to be in apposition with its 
 antecedent. 
 
 ADJUNCT: A subordinate element, as an adjective or 
 adverb, joined in thought to another word to limit 
 or describe its meaning. 
 
 ADJUNCT ACCUSATIVE: After "factitive verbs," as 
 call, choose, name, elect, think, show, etc., there is 
 added to the direct object (Accusative) a substantive 
 or adjectival to identify or describe the meaning of 
 the object. Such a qualifying adjunct, or element, 
 is called an Adjunct Accusative (=0bjective com- 
 plement). 
 
 ADJECTIVAL MODIFIER: An adjective or its equiva- 
 lent that limits or describes a noun or pronoun. 
 
 ADVERBIAL MODIFIER: An adverb or its equivalent 
 that limits or modifies the meaning of a verb, adverb, 
 adjective, participle, or gerund. 
 
 ADVERBIAL : A word or word-group used as an adverb 
 or adverb-equivalent. 
 
 COGNATE object : The noun that follows an intransitive 
 verb repeating its meaning in identical or in a dif- 
 ferent form, is called a cognate object. The cognate 
 object, which is always an abstract noun or the 
 indefinite pronoun "it", is much different from a 
 direct object, and may be regarded as an Adverbial 
 modifier. Examples : to dream dreams, to die a death, 
 to fight it out, to run a race. 
 
98 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 CASE : That form or position of a word, or Substantive, 
 which indicates the connection and relation that it 
 has with other words in a sentence. 
 
 Note. In harmony with the recommendation made by the 
 British Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology in its 
 report of 1910, the Eeport of the Joint Committee on Gram- 
 matical Nomenclature (1913) recommends "the use of Latin 
 case names in describing English noun-constructions." 
 
 NOMINATIVE case : The naming case : that is, the simple 
 form of a noun which may be the subject of a finite 
 verb. 
 
 GENITIVE case : The Genitive is the possessive case, but 
 is extended to cover source, connection, or some other 
 close relation. Its sign is an apostrophe with or with- 
 out s. It is sometimes called the adjective case. 
 
 DATIVE case: The Dative is the case of the "indirect 
 object". Etymologically it is the case of giving, but 
 is extended to cover relations of personal interest 
 or concern. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE : The Accusative is the case of the "direct 
 object", and corresponds to the so-called Objective 
 case. 
 
 Note. ' ' The Accusative is the Whither case, and hence 
 denotes in the local relation, the goal, limit, or point to which 
 the action of the verb is directed." Quoted in Stand. Diet. 
 (Kuhner Gr. Gram.) 
 
 DEFINITIVE constructions: Definitive as an adjective 
 means having the function of defining, or fixing exact 
 and final limits. Hence the articles, the demonstra- 
 tives; and the reflective, or intensive pronouns used 
 for emphasis, as I myself, you yourself, they them- 
 selves, John himself, the affair itself, etc., are in 
 definitive construction with nouns and pronouns. 
 
 Likewise nouns and pronouns in which terminates 
 the action or application of the verb, may be said to 
 be in definitive construction with verbs. Of this con- 
 struction are the Dative case, or indirect object, the 
 Adverbial Accusative, or Adverbial Objective, and 
 the " retained object ". 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 99 
 
 EXPLETIVES : Words that fill out or complete the form 
 or rhythm of a sentence or clause, their function 
 being merely introductory; as, there and it; and some 
 instances of do and so. 
 
 EQUIVALENT : A word or a word-group used as a simple 
 part of speech Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, or Adverb, 
 is called an Equivalent. There are three classes : 
 
 (1) Substantive, or Noun-equivalent. 
 
 (2) Adjectival, or Adjective-equivalent. 
 
 (3) Adverbial, or Adverb-equivalent. 
 SUBSTANTIVES : Nouns are the true Substantives, but 
 
 noun-equivalents (pronoun, adjective, adverb, infin- 
 itive verb; gerund, or verbal noun, phrases, and 
 clauses) are also classed as substantives. 
 
 SUBSEQUENT term : A term that follows a relational 
 word (preposition or conjunction) by which it is 
 related to its antecedent term. 
 
 TRANSITIVE verb : A verb that requires a direct object 
 as a complement to complete its meaning. The Object 
 may be a quality as well as a substance ; as, 
 John hit the ball. He has a bat. 
 I gave him an apple. The apple had a yellowish 
 color and an odd shape. 
 
 INTRANSITIVE verb : A verb that does not require a 
 direct object after it to complete its meaning; as, 
 James is a lawyer. He is tall and manly. The old 
 tree has fallen down. 
 
 VERBS (Finite and Infinite) : 
 
 A finite verb is a word that is limited by person 
 and number, and asserts that a modifying relation 
 exists between a Subject and a Predicate. 
 
 An infinite verb is a word that is not limited by 
 person and number, and assumes that a modifying 
 relation exists between a Subject (expressed or un- 
 derstood) and a Predicate. 
 
100 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 LESSON 1 
 
 ORAL AND WRITTEN ANALYSIS 
 
 Model Sentence 
 
 The little boy (in the boat) suddenly threw his line 
 1 T~ ~~4~ ~5~~ ~~2 4~ 2c~ 
 
 (into the water). 
 "T~ 
 
 1st. Divide the sentence into its natural grammatical 
 unit-elements, that is, into single words, phrases, and 
 clauses, if any. 
 
 2d; This sentence is composed of single words and 
 phrases that perform certain functions, which we are to 
 classify as we proceed with its analysis. 
 
 3d. The fundamental sentence is : boy threw line 
 (1, 2, 2c) a sentence of the 2d type, of which " threw " is 
 the Predicate-verb, transitive; "boy" is the Subject-word 
 and "line" is the Object complement. 
 
 4th. "The little" limits the Noun, "boy", and is 
 therefore an Adjectival Modifier. 
 
 5th. "in the boat" is a prepositional phrase, limits the 
 Noun, "boy", and is therefore an Adjectival Modifier. 
 
 6th. "suddenly" is a single word, limits the Verb, 
 "threw", and is therefore an Adverb. 
 
 7th. "his" is a single word, limits the Noun, "lineV 
 and is therefore an Adjectival Modifier. 
 
 8th. ' ' into the water " is a prepositional phrase, limits 
 the Verb, "threw", and is therefore an Adverbial 
 Modifier. 
 
 9th. Classification: This is a simple, declarative sen- 
 tence. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS- 101 
 
 LESSON 2 
 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 Oral and Written Analysis 
 
 1. Leaves fall. Fire burns. 
 
 2. The pupils are studying their lessons. 
 
 3. In spring the green hills are beautiful. 
 
 4. That man with the big book is a lawyer. 
 
 5. In the background rose the mist. 
 
 6. In 1066 was fought the battle of Hastings. 
 
 7. On Monday will be shown the entire collection. 
 
 8. At the foot of the terrace is a large lagoon. 
 
 9. On another page we print two illustrations. 
 
 10. The small boy enjoys selling papers on the street. 
 
 11. While we waited the storm increased in fury. 
 
 12. John walked home, sorrowful, because he had lost 
 
 his money. 
 
 13. If we remain here any longer, the dark will overtake 
 
 us. 
 
 14. We are now standing on the spot where the Pilgrims 
 
 landed. 
 
 15. Ichabod, who had no relish for this strange midnight 
 
 companion, now quickened his steed. 
 
 LESSON 3 
 
 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 Oral and Written Analysis 
 
 A. 
 
 1. The village smithy stands under a spreading chest- 
 
 nut tree. 
 
 2. The blacksmith has large hands and long black hair. 
 
ANALYSIS 
 
 3. He is honest and can look the whole world in the 
 
 face. 
 
 4. From morning till night he slowly swings his heavy 
 
 sledge. 
 
 5. On Sunday he goes to church and sits among his 
 
 boys. 
 
 6. He hears his daughter's voice singing in the choir. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. At evening the stag made his lair beneath the hazel 
 
 trees. 
 
 2. In the morning he heard the clanging of hoof and 
 
 horn, and sprang from his heathery couch in haste. 
 
 3. The impatient rider strove in vain to rouse his gal- 
 
 lant horse. 
 
 4. The hunter having lost his way began to blow his 
 
 horn. 
 
 5. A maiden concealing herself among the leaves of the 
 
 trees tried to catch a glimpse of the hunter coming 
 toward her. 
 
 C. 
 
 1. A man who is honest will be respected. 
 
 2. The boat which left yesterday was laden with 
 
 lumber. 
 
 3. That the problem is difficult is quite evident to all 
 
 of us. 
 
 4. A man should often reflect upon his past course in 
 
 life. 
 
 5. A wise writer once said that pride goes before a fall. 
 
 6. How shall I find my way to the city? 
 
 7. Alas! How are the mighty fallen! 
 
 8. Did you forget your lesson today? 
 
 9. Where are the books that lay on the table ? 
 
 10. The hope that you will soon return gives me great 
 
 pleasure. 
 
 11. The globe on which we live is called a planet. 
 
 12. The man who wastes his money will eventually come 
 
 to want. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 103 
 
 13. No one knows when the war will end nor who will 
 be the victors. 
 
 LESSON 4 
 
 PHRASES AS EQUIVALENTS 
 
 Substantive : Function of a Noun. 
 Adjectival : Function of an Adjective. 
 Adverbial : Function of an Adverb. 
 
 Oral and Written Analysis 
 
 1. From here to town is a long way. 
 
 2. From morning to night is called day. 
 
 3. ' ' Out of sight is out of mind. ' ' 
 
 4. To sleep well is a sign of good health. 
 
 5. He has no intention of sending the money. 
 
 6. Almost every one likes to hear good music. 
 
 7. To strive to do good should be a great aim in life. 
 
 8. I came to have a talk with you about our plans. 
 
 9. "A thing of beauty is a joy forever." 
 
 10. A friend of mine lives in a cottage by the sea. 
 
 11. "The love of money is the root of all evil." 
 
 12. Agassiz, the scientist, had no time to make money. 
 
 13. Hearing an uproar we hastily ran out of the house. 
 
 14. In our sturdy boat we were carried along with the 
 
 tide. 
 
 15. "Snuffing the candle was a favorite sport on the 
 
 frontier." 
 
 LESSON 5 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 
 
 1. I found it to be just what I wanted. 
 
 2. That he should have done this surprises me. 
 
 3. The truth is he is very careless. 
 
104 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 4. Let me see what you have in your hand. 
 
 5. We heard that you were ill with a fever. 
 
 6. There is but one thing that you can do : study for 
 
 the examination. 
 
 7. You certainly told me what you intended to do with 
 
 the money. 
 
 8. "I shall be glad to have you forward this letter to 
 
 whoever is the proper person to see it." T. 
 Roosevelt. 
 
 9. "A civilization which allows itself to be intoxicated 
 
 by the madness of mere size, by speed, by quantity 
 is destined to end in a new type of crass and 
 violent barbarism." G. Ferrero. 
 
 10. How the prisoner made his escape is a mystery. 
 
 1 1 . Who will do this work, is the next question. 
 
 12. Where the treasure was hidden cannot be ascertained. 
 
 13. It is our hope that no harm will come to him. 
 
 14. My wish is that you shall attend a private school. 
 
 15. The promise that you made to me then was that you 
 
 would visit me in the spring. 
 
 LESSON 6 
 
 THE PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 1. When the letter came, it was hurriedly opened and 
 
 read by the official. 
 
 2. The author was called careless, because he misspelled 
 
 words. 
 
 4. For three nights in succession a stranger was seen in 
 
 the lone house on the hill. 
 
 5. For several days a letter had been expected by every 
 
 member of the family. 
 
 6. When the fire bell was heard, everybody rushed into 
 
 the street. 
 
 7. No one can tell when the work will be finished or 
 
 when the building will be ready for occupancy. 
 
 8. When the letter had been written it was taken to the 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 105 
 
 postoffice. 
 
 9. A daring robbery was committed yesterday, but the 
 thief has not yet been apprehended. 
 
 10. The new townsite has been named Newton, and, 
 
 from now on, will be advertised far and wide. 
 
 11. Special problem: Bead the Fifty-third Chapter of 
 
 Isaiah; count all the Predicate-verbs and classify 
 them into three groups: (1) Intransitive; (2) 
 Active; (3) Passive. 
 
 LESSON 7 
 
 INFINITIVE CLAUSES AND ADVERBIALS 
 
 1. He is an honest man. 
 
 2. We know that he is an honest man. 
 
 3. They believed him to be honest. 
 
 4. The children saw the man open the letter. 
 
 5. The officers found him opening the letter. 
 
 6. They considered him to be a tramp. 
 
 7. We know of none being sick at present. 
 
 8. On our return we found it to be him. 
 
 9. The people elected Washington president. 
 
 10. They named the child Mary. 
 
 11. I believe the man to be honest. 
 
 12. The teacher forbade the pupils to enter. 
 
 13. His comrades proclaimed him a hero. 
 
 14. They thought him a coward. 
 
 15. Your goodness makes me ashamed. 
 
 16. Why should you think him dishonest? 
 
 17. People called him a fortunate man. 
 
 18. Why do you always want me to do your work for 
 
 you? 
 
 19. We saw the speaker's eyes twinkle with merriment. 
 
 20. The old man asked his visitors to take a seat by the 
 
 fire. 
 
 21. It is impossible for one to please everybody. 
 
106 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 22. The captain ordered the wounded soldier to be car- 
 
 ried back to camp. 
 
 23. Yesterday we saw our friends take the train for 
 
 home. 
 
 24. Because my friend is tall they took him to be me. 
 
 25. "Let us hope tomorrow's entertainment will be more 
 
 agreeable. ' ' Thackeray. 
 
 LESSON 8 
 
 THE APPOSITIVE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 1. We Americans are said to be extravagant. 
 
 2. Solomon, the son of David, wrote many proverbs. 
 
 3. Do you think that Paul Jones, the attorney, can be 
 
 elected to the next legislature? 
 
 4. David mourned for Absalom, his beloved son. 
 
 5. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, 
 "Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. " 
 
 6. "It was Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel 
 
 to sin." 
 
 7. We, that is, the most of us, do not always appreciate 
 
 ethical values. 
 
 8. The proprietor of vast estates, he has spent many 
 
 years in travel and leisure. 
 
 9. The grand secret of all his mistakes was this, the 
 
 not being guided by the written word. 
 
 10. "The original 'Star-spangled Banner', the flag that 
 inspired Francis Scott Key to write the anthem, is 
 
 to be unfurled again over the rampart of historic 
 Fort McHenry on September 12, the anniversary 
 of North Point." 
 
 11. "No finer tribute could be paid to any public man 
 
 than was addressed by Sir Edward Carson in these 
 words referring to Mr. Bonar Law: 'Of all the 
 men that I have ever met he is the most single- 
 minded, with nothing guiding, directing or con- 
 trolling him but his absolute love of his duty, and 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 107 
 
 his detestation and horror of betrayal'." Wm. 
 H. Knight. 
 
 LESSON 9 
 
 SPECIAL ADVERBIAL CONSTRUCTIONS 
 
 1. The train was running twenty miles an hour. 
 
 2. My friend arrived yesterday morning. 
 
 3. We expect to go home tomorrow. 
 
 4. They were called three times. 
 
 5. The boat is twenty-five feet long. 
 
 6. I am three inches taller than you. 
 
 7. The miners came west in 1849. 
 
 8. Beauty is only skin deep. 
 
 9. We were taken this way by our guide. 
 
 10. The accident happened five miles from here. 
 
 11. His hesitation and delay cost him his life. 
 
 12. The merchandise is certainly worth the price. 
 
 13. Let me ask you one question. 
 
 14. He paid the steward a small fee to give his coat a 
 
 good brushing. 
 
 15. I think I will have my house painted gray. 
 
 16. The strangers asked the boy to show them the way 
 
 to the postoffice. 
 
 17. That old umbrella stood me in good stead. 
 
 18. The youth was twenty-one when his uncle left him 
 
 a small fortune. 
 20. If I ask you, will you tell me whom he is like ? 
 
 LESSON 10 
 
 EXPLETIVES AND ADVERBIALS 
 
 1. Here is one book here. There is one there. 
 
 2. One is here and one is over there. 
 
 3. There are three men there at the door. 
 
108 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 4. The three men here and the two over there are 
 
 policemen. 
 
 5. How many were there at the party? 
 
 6. There were only twenty-one persons present. 
 
 7. The book on the table is mine. 
 
 8. There is my book there on the floor. 
 
 9. I have seen no one there for a long time. 
 
 10. I have long wanted to see your home. 
 
 11. Have you ever tried to teach your dog tricks? 
 
 12. The fight is on : let every man do his duty. 
 
 13. ' l On with the dance : let joy be unconfmed. ' ' 
 
 14. Stay a little while longer and keep me company. 
 
 15. ''How happy are the saints above, who once went 
 
 sorrowing here!" 
 
 16. "Shall all the world go free?" 
 
 17. Such conduct will lose you your friends. 
 
 18. Please tell me where I can find my book. 
 
 19. Yesterday nature played us an unpleasant trick. 
 
 20. The boy told me to go one block west and two north. 
 
 21. This agreement saved my father much trouble. 
 
 22. They meant us no good by such actions, but much 
 
 harm. 
 
 23. We must needs forgive them their faults. 
 
 24. The father allowed his son but one dollar a week. 
 
 LESSON 11. 
 
 EXPLETIVES AND ADVERBIALS 
 
 1. That I am no longer young is true. 
 
 2. There is a house to let two blocks away. 
 
 3. We take long walks mornings and evenings. 
 
 4. It is said that the indirect object is in the Dative 
 
 case. 
 
 5. This lesson is very well worth learning. 
 
 6. It is mind, after all, that does the work of the world. 
 
 7. Let me give you a form for writing a note. 
 
 8. The exhausted man asked me to send relief. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 109 
 
 9. He asks them the way and sings of them as he walks. 
 
 10. "Let there be some who forgive and many who 
 
 forget. " 
 
 11. There being no quorum, the meeting was adjourned. 
 
 12. It is not wise for one to praise himself. 
 
 13. The plan for him to escape punishment failed. 
 
 14. For them to make such a failure was inevitable from 
 
 the start. 
 
 15. "I know it is a sin 
 
 For me to sit and grin 
 
 At him here." Holmes. 
 
 16. It is probable that they will never return. 
 
 17. It is not well for one to live alone. 
 
 18. It is wrong for me not to love my country. 
 
 19. It happened that I was away at the time. 
 
 20. That he would fail was a foregone conclusion. 
 
 21. There are only two ways which lead us to where 
 
 we may expect to see new views opened before us. 
 
 22. So you think you can do this as well as I, do you? 
 
 LESSON 12 
 
 COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH "THAN" 
 
 1. My friend has a better disposition than I. 
 
 2. Mine is a far better book than yours. 
 
 3. Yours is a better plan than mine. 
 
 4. I know a better way of doing it than that. 
 
 5. He said he knew a better way than to jump. 
 
 6. To argue the matter is better than to get angry 
 
 and fight. 
 
 7. John told me he knew better than to resist. 
 
 8. My situation is no worse than yours. 
 
 9. "A living dog is better than a dead lion." 
 
 10. His rudeness is more apparent than real. 
 
 11. I think it better for you to remain a while, than to 
 
 go alone in the storm. 
 
 12. They need food now more than ever. 
 
110 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 13. I know no more than this, he failed in his business 
 
 last Spring. 
 
 14. Smith can do better than forty miles an hour with 
 
 his car. 
 
 15. His mileage this year is no greater than last. 
 
 16. Your load is just two tons heavier than his. 
 
 17. Charles says he is two years older than John. 
 
 18. Farmer Jones is better off than you think. 
 
 19. My friend has more thought for others than for 
 
 himself. 
 
 20. It is better to do good than to do evil. 
 
 21. We have more money than we need to pay all our 
 
 expenses. 
 
 22. The idea comes from some other source than one's 
 
 personal desire. 
 
 23. "When thou prayest, rather let thy heart be without 
 
 words, than thy words without a heart. " 
 Bunyan. 
 
 24. "Yet read the names that know not death; 
 
 Few nobler ones than Burns are there ; 
 
 And few have won a greener wreath 
 
 Than that which binds his hair." Halleck. 
 
 LESSON 13 
 
 COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH 
 
 "AS" AND "SO" 
 
 1. He is as good as can be. 
 
 2. He is not so rich as he appears to be. 
 
 3. Do we always get as much as we deserve? 
 
 4. The fisherman fears nothing so much as a noise. 
 
 5. That poor man has as much as he can do to make 
 
 a living. 
 
 6. Boy as he was, they looked to him as their leader. 
 
 7. Be so kind as to have me excused. 
 
 8. You are not so unfortunate as you would have us 
 
 think. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 111 
 
 9. I am not so wealthy as I hope to be some time. 
 
 10. He was so kind as to tell me the whole story. 
 
 11. Be so kind as to remain here a while. 
 
 12. Do as I do and not as I say. 
 
 13. So you are late again as usual. 
 
 14. He did the work as quickly as possible. 
 
 15. He did not so much as say he was sorry. 
 
 16. "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so 
 
 longeth my soul after Thee, God." Bible. 
 
 17. "So fight I, not as one that beateth the air." Bible. 
 
 18. "When I was a child, I spake as a child, I under- 
 
 stood as a child : but when I became a man, I put 
 away childish things." Bible. 
 
 LESSON 14 
 
 CONSTRUCTIONS WITH "AS", "SO", "SUCH" 
 
 1. As ye sow, so shall ye reap. 
 
 2. Let the children play as hard as they please. 
 
 3. Your book is as good as mine. 
 
 4. Your pencil is not so long as John's. 
 
 5. My hat is just twice as good as yours. 
 
 6. If you are busy, say so. 
 
 7. Bring with you such books as you have. 
 
 8. I have not such kind treatment as I used to have. 
 
 9. "As have been our sorrows, so let our joys be great 
 
 and long." 
 
 10. "As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he." 
 
 11. "For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yes- 
 
 terday when it is past, and as a watch in the 
 night. "Bible. 
 
 12. "So teach us to number our days, that we may get 
 
 us a heart of wisdom." Bible. 
 
 13. You say you are his friend; so am I. 
 
 14. If you are sorry about that affair, so am I. 
 
112 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 15. "So, as much as in me is, I am ready to preach the 
 
 gospel to you that are at Rome also." Bible. 
 
 16. I bring you peace and happiness ; for such he sent. 
 
 17. He is guilty and must be punished as such. 
 
 LESSON 15 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES 
 
 1. He resigned rather than be transferred. 
 
 2. Shall I say "How are you? or How do you do?" 
 
 3. "What words are these have iall'ii from me?" 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 4. "He helped to bury whom he helped to starve." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 5. "The little beggars are doing just what I do not 
 
 want them to do." Stevenson. 
 
 6. His whole theme centered around what our duty in 
 
 the matter was. 
 
 7. "As to all the seceded States, the real question is, 
 
 how to get them again into proper relation with 
 the Union." 
 
 8. Act upon this proverb : ' * Slow and steady wins the 
 
 race." 
 
 9. They are the very persons whom we have described 
 
 them to be. 
 
 10. "His fame as a statesman can never outrun his fame 
 
 as a man." 
 
 11. The bank examiner described the scheme as "nothing 
 
 but a graft proposition from start to finish." 
 
 12. "Behold the branch that thou madest strong for 
 
 thyself." Bible. 
 
 13. "He chose David and took him from the sheepfold; 
 
 from following the ewes he brought him." Ib. 
 
 14. "They have said : Come, and let us cut them off from 
 
 being a nation." Ib. 
 
 15. "When I was a king and a mason, 
 
 A worker, proven and skilled, 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 113 
 
 I started to build me a palace, 
 Such as a king might build. ' ' 
 
 16. If anybody would make me the greatest king that 
 ever lived, with palaces and gardens, and fine 
 dinners and wine, and coaches and beautiful 
 clothes and hundreds of servants on condition 
 that I would not read books, I would not be a 
 king. I would rather be a poor man in a garret 
 with plenty of books, than a king who did not 
 love readin g. ' ' Macaulay . 
 
 LESSON 16 
 
 VERBALS IN -ING 
 
 1. Running an engine requires expert knowledge. 
 
 2. He preferred shaking hands with the workingmen. 
 
 3. There is no time left for finishing the work. 
 
 4. Is it right to call doing one 's duty an obligation ? 
 
 5. Doing one's duty is setting a good example. 
 
 6. Being a man of principle he would scorn doing any- 
 
 thing mean. 
 
 7. Upon touching the other bank of the stream the 
 
 deer ran for its life. 
 
 8. I was not surprised at their going east so suddenly. 
 
 9. His being injured delayed the game twenty minutes. 
 
 10. After being ordered by the physician to remain quiet 
 
 a half hour, he decided to obey. 
 
 11. Some doubts were expressed as to his ever having 
 
 seen a big battle. 
 
 12. After having been told that the bridge was not safe, 
 
 yet they ventured to attempt to cross it. 
 
 13. And of us all there is no one but would say that 
 
 reading is a help to writing. 
 
 14. "True worth is in being, not seeming; 
 
 In doing each day that goes by 
 Some little good ; not in dreaming 
 Of great things to do by and by.' 1 
 
114 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 LESSON 17 
 
 ADVERBIAL MODIFICATION 
 
 Sentence: Predicate: Phrase 
 
 1. He was wealthy at one time. 
 
 2. You are certainly most ungracious. 
 
 3. The committee was unanimously in favor of the new 
 
 project. 
 
 4. Woe to them that are at ease in Zion! 
 
 5. A river was there once upon a time. 
 
 6. I know at least what my own experience is. 
 
 7. Truly that was an unpleasant situation, and fortu- 
 
 nately I was not a part of it. 
 
 8. Perhaps before hearing the story, certainly after- 
 
 wards, he came to have a deep interest in the 
 welfare of the mission. 
 
 9. After careful consideration we are glad to say that 
 
 yours is indeed an excellent plan. 
 
 10. The youth wore a happy smile ; for did he not stand 
 
 first in his class? 
 
 11. The prospects for our agreement upon a league of 
 
 nations are just now very encouraging. 
 
 12. The daily papers report that our hardest times are 
 
 likely to be ahead. 
 
 13. We are all very glad that you have come so early. 
 14;. Certainly there cannot be evolved what has no 
 
 beginning. 
 
 LESSON 18 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES AND EXTRACTS 
 
 1. This I call the ultimate mirage of mysticism. 
 
 2. The grand secret of all his mistakes was his not 
 
 being guided by the advice of his friends. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 115 
 
 3. In most pathetic language he describes how he him- 
 
 self was all but ruined by those reckless theories. 
 
 4. True, he lost his money but he gained a friend. 
 
 5. There can be little doubt but that I shall be at home 
 
 all day tomorrow. 
 
 6. Not content with sending me into exile, the author- 
 
 ities confiscated all my property. 
 
 7. The veriest schoolboy has learned to laugh at that 
 
 picture. 
 
 8. A house-boat is floating down the Sind river, which 
 
 is right at our tent door. 
 
 9. The double rainbow that graced the occasion reached 
 
 clear across the meadow. 
 
 10. I took a plunge and enjoyed a good swim, but found 
 
 the water a bit cold, as it was right from the snow. 
 
 11. ' 'For if I make you sorry, who then is he that maketh 
 
 me glad but he that is made sorry by me." Bible. 
 
 12. ''While life's dark maze I tread, 
 
 And griefs around me spread, 
 
 Be Thou my guide; 
 Bid darkness turn to day, 
 Wipe sorrow's tears away, 
 Nor let me ever stray 
 
 From Thee aside." Rev. Ray Palmer. 
 
 13. "His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
 
 Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast 
 Of some great ammiral, were but a wand, 
 He walk'd with, to support uneasy steps 
 Over the burning marie." Milton. 
 
 LESSON 19 
 
 SELECTED SENTENCES AND EXTRACTS 
 
 1. "Always there must be lofty souls to keep alive the 
 
 ideal principle in a nation." Ed. Markham. 
 
 2. "To be a man means not to be a brute. His spirit 
 
 is above his body and always in command." 
 Dr. Crane. 
 
116 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 3. "If you will study this analysis, I think you will find 
 
 it the needle in the moral compass pointing at 
 what we are here for." Wm. B. Harvey. 
 
 4. He went away long before you came. 
 
 5. This principle of life was I taught by my parents. 
 
 6. "There was Peter in his self-will, trusting his own 
 
 wisdom . . . And yet how much there was 
 wanting in Peter ... I do not think we can 
 judge into what a depth of humiliation Peter 
 sank." 
 
 7. Most people think it is hard to be good. 
 
 8. " Later on at the Lake of Galilee, He asked him: 
 
 "Lovest thou me?" 
 
 9. How many have asked the question : ' * Is life worth 
 
 living?" 
 
 10. The military conflict is ended. What next? The 
 
 immediate thing is to arrange the terms of peace 
 according to justice and righteousness. 
 
 11. During the war, and even now, the great problem 
 
 was and is to bring men and nations to a due 
 sense of moral accountability. 
 
 LESSON 20 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES 
 
 1. The indirect object is in the Dative case. 
 
 2. The indirect object is said to be in the Dative case. 
 
 3. The rule says that the indirect object is in the Dative 
 
 case. 
 
 4. ''Come what may, I have been blessed." Byron. 
 
 5. But as has been said so often, it is all a mystery. 
 
 6. I have heard it said that he who steals will very 
 
 likely be found out. 
 
 7. "Who do people say the Son of man is?" 
 
 8. "But better than all else is this: he who sees my 
 
 worst is still my friend." 
 
 9. "They mean that men shall become free without it 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 117 
 
 ever beginning to dawn upon them that they have 
 been slaves.'* 
 
 10. "One who has studied the history of mankind even 
 
 a little knows how cruel and miserable has been 
 the history of nations." 
 
 11. "Of no other poet, except Shakespeare, have so many 
 
 phrases become household words as of Words- 
 worth. ' ' Lowell. 
 
 12. This matter had until a day or two ago been under 
 
 discussion. 
 
 13. "America has succeeded in producing riches at a 
 
 rate of speed that man has never yet attained 
 elsewhere in the world." 
 
 14. "Like Aaron's rod that budded, Foch's life is 
 
 a -flower with inspirational lessons. " C. E. 
 Laughlin 
 
 15. "Let us take to our hearts .a lesson, 
 
 No lesson can nobler be, 
 From the ways of the tapestry weavers 
 
 On the other side of the sea." Dr. A. G. Chester. 
 
 16. "Theodore Roosevelt died too young, far short of the 
 
 allotted span. But he lived in one day more than 
 many men live in a lifetime. He would not com- 
 plain, and the millions of friends that he leaves 
 may know that his life was such as he would 
 have had it. 
 
 "As a youth he was a cowboy, on his own 
 ranch, roping steers, killing grizzlies; later at 
 Albany as legislator; in New York as police com- 
 missioner and governor; in Washington as Presi- 
 dent, and the last years not retired but still 
 fighting. "Editorial. 
 
 LESSON 21 
 
 TYPICAL FORMS OF QUOTATIONS 
 
 1. "This," he began, "is really an extraordinary dis- 
 covery." 
 
118 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 2. ' ' Do you mean to leave us now ? ' ' put in Brown with 
 
 a little tantalizing laugh. 
 
 3. "No," he answered meekly, and again settled back 
 
 into his chair. 
 
 4. The driver called "All aboard!" and Mr. Hamlin 
 
 returned to the coach. Bret Harte. 
 
 5. "It is natural," she went on, rapidly, in a voice that 
 
 trembled strangely between pride and humility, 
 "it is natural that he should take to you." Ib. 
 
 6. "Why, the truth is, my dear," said Mr. Pecksniff, 
 
 smiling upon his assembled kindred, "that I am 
 at a loss for a word." Dickens. 
 
 7. "That will do, John," said Natty, raising his prize 
 
 by one of his fingers, and exhibiting it before the 
 torch: "I shall not strike another blow tonight." 
 Cooper. 
 
 8. "0 Rebecca, how can you ' was all that Briggs 
 
 could say as she turned up her eyes. 
 "0 Rebecca, how can you " echoed my lord. "So 
 that old scoundrel's dead, is he?" Thackeray. 
 
 9. "Why, what is the matter with you?" he cried, as he 
 
 linked his arm through mine, "you look outdone, 
 tired all the way through to your backbone." 
 Henry Van Dyke. 
 
 10. "No, Mr. Pierrepont," replied the dealer, "the pic- 
 ture is worth what I ask for it, for I would not 
 commit the impertinence of offering a present to 
 you or your friends ; but it is worth no more. " Ib. 
 
 LESSON 22 
 ADDISON'S SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY 
 
 I. Sir Roger's Country Residence and Friends. 
 
 Having often received an invitation from my friend Sir 
 Roger de Coverley to pass away a month with him in the 
 country, I last week accompanied him thither, and am 
 settled with him for some time at his country-house, where 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 119 
 
 I intend to form several of my ensuing speculations. Sir 
 Roger, who is very well acquainted with my humor, lets 
 me rise and go to bed when I please, dine at his own table 
 or in my chamber as I think fit, sit still and say nothing 
 without bidding me be merry. "When the gentlemen of 
 the county come to see him, he only shows me at a dis- 
 tance. As I have been walking in his fields, I have 
 observed them stealing a sight of me over an hedge, and 
 have heard the knight desiring them not to let me see 
 them, for that I hated to be stared at. 
 
 II. Will Wimble, a Guest. 
 
 As I was yesterday morning walking with Sir Roger 
 before his house, a country fellow brought him a huge 
 fish, which, he told him, Mr. William Wimble had caught 
 that very morning; and that he presented it, with his 
 service to him, and intended to come and dine with him. 
 At the same time he delivered a letter, which my friend 
 read to me as soon as the messenger left him. 
 
 "Sir Roger I desire you to accept of a jack, which is 
 the best I have caught this season. I intend to come and 
 stay with you a week, and see how the perch bite in the 
 Black River. I observed with some concern, the last time 
 I saw you upon the bowling-green, that your whip wanted 
 a lash to it; I will bring half a dozen with me that I 
 twisted last week, which I hope will serve you all the 
 time you are in the country. I have not been out of 
 the saddle for six days last past, having been at Eton with 
 Sir John's eldest son. He takes to his learning hugely. 
 I am, Sir, your humble servant, 
 
 "Will Wimble." 
 
 LESSON 23 
 
 MY OWN SHEPHERD 
 
 Psalm XXIII. 
 
 "How shall we touch this lovely psalm and not bruise 
 it? It is exquisite as 'a violet by a mossy stone'! Expo- 
 
120 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 sition is almost an impertinence, its grace is so simple 
 and winsome. 
 
 ''There is the ministry of rest. 'He maketh me to lie 
 down in green pastures.' The Good Shepherd knows 
 when my spirit needs relaxation. He will not have me 
 always 'on the stretch'. The bow of the best violin 
 sometimes requires to have its strings 'let down'. And 
 so my Lord gives me rest. 
 
 "And there is the discipline of change. 'He leadeth 
 me in the paths of righteousness.' Those strange roads 
 in life, unknown roads, by which I pass into changed 
 circumstances and surroundings ! But the discipline of 
 the change is only to bring me into new pastures, that I 
 may gain fresh nutriment for my soul. 'Because they 
 have no changes they fear not God.' 
 
 "And there is 'the valley of the shadow,' cold and 
 bare ! What matter ? He is there ! ' I will fear no evil. ' 
 What if I see 'no pastures green'? Thy rod and Thy 
 staff they comfort me ! ' The Lord, who is leading, will 
 see after my food. 'Thou preparest a table before me in 
 the presence of mine enemies. ' I have a quiet feast while 
 my foes are looking on!" John Henry Jowett. 
 
 ; LESSON 24 
 
 THE RULING PASSION 
 
 "In every life worth writing about there is a ruling 
 passion, "the very pulse of the machine." Unless you 
 touch that, you are groping around outside of reality. 
 
 "To tell about some of these ruling passions, simply, 
 clearly, and concretely, is what I want to do in this book. 
 The characters are chosen, for the most part, among plain 
 people, because their feelings are expressed with fewer 
 words and greater truth, not being costumed for social 
 effect. The scene is laid on Nature's stage because I like 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 121 
 
 to be out-of-doors, even when I am trying to think and 
 learning to write. 
 
 '''.''-.' 
 
 ' ' The soft sea-fog clothed the night with clinging dark- 
 ness ; the faded leaves hung slack and motionless from the 
 trees, waiting for their fall; the tense notes of the surf 
 beyond the sand-dunes vibrated through the damp air 
 like cords from some mighty violono; large, warm drops 
 wept from the arbor while I sat in the garden, holding 
 the poor little- book, and thinking of the white blot in 
 the record of a life that was too proud to bend to the 
 happiness that was meant for it." Henry VanDyke. 
 
 LESSON 25 
 
 WALTER BAGEHOT, A LITERARY BANKER 
 
 President Wilson called him (Walter Bagehot) a liter- 
 ary politician, a wit, and a seer. "To ask your friend to 
 know Bagehot," he wrote, in an appreciative essay some 
 years ago, "is like inviting him to seek pleasure. Occa- 
 sionally a man is born into the world whose mission, it 
 evidently is to clarify the thought of his generation and 
 to vivify it ; to give it speed when it is slow, vision when 
 it is blind, balance where it is out of poise, saving humor 
 when it is dry, such a man was Walter Bagehot." 
 ##*### 
 
 But, like scores of young men who have studied law, no 
 sooner had Bagehot prepared himself for the practice of 
 law than he resolved to abandon it, and thereupon entered 
 into the banking business with his father in Langport. 
 His, however, was not the humdrum life of a country 
 banker. 
 
 Banker, to be sure, he was, but a literary banker. Later 
 in life, in pursuit of the literary side of his profession, 
 he became editor of the London Economist. 
 
122 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 Bagehot was never the avowed exponent of the prin- 
 ciples of any party, he was "between sizes in politics", 
 and his views on finance were considered sane and 
 sagacious and commended themselves to public confidence. 
 
 Such was Bagehot as his many-sided genius is revealed 
 to us of the present generation through his miscellaneous 
 writings. 
 Meth. Rev. 1914. Prof. E. W. Bowen, Ph.D. 
 
 LESSON 26 
 
 ORIGINS OF POETRY 
 
 "Leaving out the accident of metre, we could discover 
 these origins of poetry every day in the Kindergarten. 
 A little boy is trying to guess the name of his teacher's 
 friend, and not having in his mind the name of the general 
 concept first, he asks, 'What is the letter that lives on the 
 edge of it?' Another conveys his abstract notion of 
 height in the words, 'Nearest the sky.' 
 
 "There is no escaping the picturesque. I find this 
 memorandum of a bit of such instruction in the early 
 diary of Helen Keller: 
 
 " 'Nancy was cross. Cross is cry and kick.' 
 
 "Now, if we could arrange so that all the children of 
 the world should become teachers of the adults, telling 
 them how to turn their talking into poetry, we should 
 find exactly such memoranda in the note-books of the 
 pupils. They would be taught that, 'Cross is cry and 
 kick.' " Eastman. 
 
 LESSON 27 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXTRACTS 
 
 1. "This plan was in advance submitted to the then 
 Cabinet, and distinctly approved by every member of it. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 123 
 
 One of them suggested that I should then and in that 
 connection apply the Emancipation Proclamation to the 
 theretofore excepted parts of Virginia and Louisiana. ' ' 
 Lincoln. 
 
 2. ''This cup of liberty we will dash from you, and 
 leave you to the chances of gathering the spilled and scat- 
 tered contents in some, vague, and undefined when, 
 where, and how." Lincoln. 
 
 3. "According to Nicephorus, Paul was a little man, 
 crooked, and almost bent like a bow; with a pale coun- 
 tenance, long and wrinkled; a bald; head; his eyes full 
 of fire and benevolence ; his beard long, thick, and inter- 
 spersed with gray hairs, as was his head." 
 
 4. "Two principles in human nature reign; 
 
 Self-love to urge, and reason, to restrain ; 
 Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call, 
 Each works its end, to move or govern all : 
 And to their proper operations still 
 Ascribe all good; to their improper, ill." Pope. 
 
 5. "We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; 
 
 Our wisest sons, no doubt, will think us so." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 6. "Now as words affect, not by any original power, 
 but by representation, it might be supposed that their 
 influence over the passions should be but light; yet it is 
 quite otherwise ; for we find by experience that eloquence 
 and poetry are as capable, nay indeed much more capable, 
 of making deep and lively impressions than any other 
 arts, and even than nature itself in very many cases. 
 And this arises chiefly from these three causes." Burke. 
 
 LESSON 28 
 
 SELECTED SENTENCES AND EXTRACTS 
 
 1. Whatever skill or cost could do was done. 
 
 2. Experience does not come from anywhere. It is here. 
 
 3. It is better to be noble than base, true than false, 
 
 loving than selfish. 
 
124 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 4. Some things need to be inspected and described as a 
 
 whole rather than to be divided or analyzed. 
 
 5. Critical discernment is not sufficient to make men 
 
 poets. 
 
 6. Some insects take color from the plants they lodge on. 
 
 7. This did not hinder their receiving him as an angel 
 
 from heaven. 
 
 8. ''Rock of Ages, cleft for me, 
 
 Let me hide myself in Thee ; 
 Let the water and the blood, 
 From thy riven side which flowed, 
 Be of sin the double cure, 
 Save from wrath and make me pure. ' ' 
 "In sooth, I know not why I am so sad: 
 It wearies me; you say it wearies you; 
 But how I caught it, found it, or came by it, 
 What stuff 'tis made of, whereof it is born, 
 I am to learn; 
 
 And such a want-wit sadness makes of me. 
 That I have much ado to know myself." Shakespere. 
 "Let there be a cottage, standing in a valley, eighteen 
 miles from any town; let it be, in fact, a white cottage, 
 embowered with flowering shrubs. Let it, however, not 
 be spring, nor summer, nor autumn; but winter, in its 
 sternest shape." De Quincey. 
 
 "Advocate of social democracy as he is, and eager for 
 its sway over all the earth, he does not believe that feudal 
 absolutism can be transformed into its opposite without 
 passing through other phases of national existence to 
 which Russia is yet a stranger." 
 
 LESSON 29 
 
 SELECTED EXTRACTS 
 
 1. "The invention of the steam-engine made possible 
 the exploitation of vast countries and the swift creation 
 of wealth. 
 
LESSONS IN SENTENCE ANALYSIS 125 
 
 , 2. "What service is there in struggling to make one 
 idea triumph over another instead of allowing men to 
 draw from each idea the good which each can yield? . . . 
 
 3. "In the lap of modern civilization there are twin 
 worlds struggling with each other for leadership. These 
 two worlds are Quality and Quantity. It was Quality 
 not Quantity which carried our forefathers forward in 
 civilization. . . . 
 
 4. "To create beautiful palaces, to construct beautiful 
 furniture, to attain the distant ideal of perfection, time 
 is essential, time and wise deliberations. . . . 
 
 5. "The Modern World demands two contradictory 
 things, speed and perfection. ' ' G. Perrero. 
 
 6. "The ear is the pathway, not only to the heart, as 
 the French say, but to the mind." 
 
 7. "Why, any man, that is, any good man, that had 
 such a mother, would have done exactly the same." 
 Fielding. 
 
 8. "They were my enemies, because they grieved to 
 think me rich, and my oppressors, because they delighted 
 to find me weak." Samuel Johnson. 
 
 9. "Imitation: it enters into the very fastnesses of 
 character; and we, our souls, ourselves, are forever imi- 
 tating what we see and hear, the forms, the sounds which 
 haunt our memories, our imagination." 
 
 LESSON 30 
 
 NATIONAL HONOR AND DEMOCRACY 
 
 A book that has just come out, discussing the question 
 of national honor, finds that there is no such quantum in 
 international affairs. Wrongly, we think; for the diver- 
 gencies which the author finds in the interpretation of the 
 term, from Bismarck to Roosevelt, do not imply that 
 there is no real and actual standard behind the differ- 
 ences. The fact is that the recent world war has been, in 
 essence, the struggle of a type of statesmanship, French, 
 
126 SENTENCE ANALYSIS 
 
 British, Italian, American, that recognizes a gentleman's 
 code of honor in national affairs, and the other a ruthless 
 type, with headquarters at Berlin, that has discarded it. 
 
 "You Englishmen will always be fools," remarked a 
 cynical Prussian, * ' and we Prussians will never be gentle- 
 men. " This foolishness seems to consist in being true 
 to a moral obligation, even when it does not seem to pay. 
 Now the result of the present titanic struggle shows that 
 such "foolishness" does pay, especially in political 
 matters. The moral test still remains the final test of 
 victory or defeat. German autocracy failed to see this, 
 and so Kaiserism has collapsed. It is doubtful whether 
 the socialism which takes its place is, at heart, any less 
 selfish and cynical. Critical observers detect no moral 
 change in the German attitude. Getting hold of the reins 
 of power and using it entirely to benefit friends and hurt 
 opponents; this seems to be regarded as the acme of 
 political wisdom. A trno democracy, a Christian nation, 
 is based on no such selfish code of action. 
 
 The fact is. democracy works for a sane and noble 
 imperialism and away from local butter-and-breadism. 
 Our red,-white- and blue flag which floats so proudly 
 today on every sea and continent, is imperial as well as 
 democratic. It stands for imperial moral obligation; for 
 that national and commercial code of honor, holding sway 
 from ocean to ocean, without which no democracy can 
 survive and flourish. 
 
 Jan. 1919. James Main Dixon. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 SEP 151933 
 
 JUL 25 1! 
 
 NOV201940 
 
 LD 21-50m-l,'3: 
 
YB 12439 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
; ; .