Teaching in the 
 
 Army 
 
 Lewis 
 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
TEACHING IN THE ARMY 
 
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 LONDON 
 
 THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 
 
 TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FVKUOKA, SENDAI 
 
 THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY 
 MMWUI 
 
Teaching in the Army 
 
 JAMES C. LEWIS, JR. 
 
 Major of Field Artillery, U.S.A. 
 
 Assistant Professor of Military Science and Tactics 
 
 The University of Chicago 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
\ 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1920 BY 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Published June 1920 
 
 Composed and Printed By 
 
 The University of Chicago Press 
 
 Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The achievement of the American army in converting 
 raw recruits into soldiers in an incredibly short time was 
 one of the most impressive facts in the history of the war. 
 This achievement was due to the earnestness with which 
 officers and men attacked the problems of military training. 
 The new men studied and drilled with a devotion never 
 before seen in any kind of a training school and the officers 
 went about their work without sparing themselves in any 
 degree. 
 
 In spite of all the spirit and energy exhibited, it was 
 apparent again and again to observing officers and also to 
 some of the men that valuable time was lost and energy 
 was wasted because instructors did not know how to get 
 their directions to the men in the best possible way or how 
 to arrange the most effective drills. Officers realized when 
 the war closed that they had discovered in many matters 
 better ways of doing their work as instructors than they 
 knew before, and that these better ways contributed to 
 economy and dispatch. 
 
 In. this experience the army went through exactly the 
 same line of development as have the schools of every 
 country and every age. Schools find that they do their 
 work best after experience has refined their methods of 
 teaching. 
 
 The experience gained by the army ought certainly to 
 be written down. It is this belief which has prompted 
 Major Lewis to undertake the preparation of a book on 
 methods of teaching in the army. This book is the result 
 of a broad contact with army instruction. It is more than 
 that, it is a critical analysis of the experience gained in 
 
 435714 
 
vi Preface 
 
 army training camps. The author came to his task with 
 an unusual preparation to participate in the giving of 
 instruction and to discover those refinements in method 
 which would improve it. He has grasped the significance 
 of a great many concrete situations and has put the kernel 
 of these situations in such definite, straightforward terms 
 that anyone engaged in army training can profit by his 
 analyses. 
 
 The book is a most encouraging symptom of the move- 
 ment to improve teaching technique in the army. It ought 
 to get very wide use. It is also a striking example of the 
 possibility of applying the modern methods of general educa- 
 tion to a special form of instruction. 
 
 CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION i 
 
 1. The Need for Teaching Ability i 
 
 2. Purpose of This Manuscript 3 
 
 II. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD INSTRUCTOR .... 5 
 
 1. Knowledge of the Subject 5 
 
 2. A Sympathetic Attitude 6 
 
 3. Knowing How to Teach .11 
 
 III. AROUSING INTEREST AND HOLDING ATTENTION . . 12 
 
 1. Teaching Judged by Results, Not by Acts of 
 Instructor 12 
 
 2. How to Arouse Interest .13 
 
 3. How to Hold Attention 14 
 
 IV. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 24 
 
 1. Questions by Instructors 24 
 
 2. Questions by Students . . . 28 
 
 3. Answers 33 
 
 V. DRILL 37 
 
 1. Correct Practice . 37 
 
 2. Prevent Errors by a Correct Copy, Desirable to 
 Imitate 37 
 
 3. Concentrated Attention 38 
 
 4. Mental Attitude of the Student toward Drill . . 39 
 
 5. Begin Drill with the Simpler and Fundamental 
 Elements 41 
 
 6. Drill Must Be Individual 41 
 
 7. Habits Formed Best in Definite Situations . . .41 
 
 8. The Instructor an Example of Results . . . .42 
 
viii Contents 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 VI. PLANNING A RECITATION 43 
 
 1. The Necessity for Planning Recitations .... 43 
 
 2. Elements of a Lesson Plan 43 
 
 3. The Aim . 44 
 
 4. Method 44 
 
 5. Summary of Conclusions 45 
 
 6. Review . 46 
 
 7. Assignments 47 
 
 8. Summary 50 
 
 VII. MARKING, GRADING, OR RATING 51 
 
 1. An Experiment in Grading Done by Officers . . 51 
 
 2. A Comparison of Scales of Fine Units and of Coarse 
 Units 53 
 
 3. Objective Rating Scales 55 
 
 4. Variation of Marks of Students in the Same Class . 57 
 
 5. The Use of Graphs in Connection with Marks to 
 Show Progress of a Class 59 
 
 APPENDIXES 
 
 Appendix A. Study Helps .62 
 
 Appendix B. List of References 63 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 i. The need for teaching ability 
 
 Every man, when he finishes his courses at academy, 
 college, technical school, or high school, has in mind the 
 idea that he is finished with study and is at last ready to 
 do some kind of real work. No matter where he goes, 
 however, whether into a profession, business, or trade, he 
 finds that study has just begun in a different sense. As 
 he advances in his work, another factor becomes a part of 
 his daily routine, and the better he succeeds in meeting 
 this new demand the more successful he finds himself. 
 That is, when he is put in positions of authority he finds 
 it necessary to impart to others, perhaps his subordinates, 
 the knowledge he has acquired, ways of doing office work, 
 methods of salesmanship, methods of thought, and what 
 not; in other words he has to become a teacher of a kind, 
 training other people perhaps to work for him. 
 
 a) Army experience. We have just had some share in the 
 greatest war in history, but has our part in it turned out just 
 as we expected ? What was the usual run of experience ? 
 We went to school. After that we organized schools non- 
 commissioned officers' schools, schools for special details, 
 schools for gun-squad drill, dismounted drill, equitation, 
 all kinds of schools and we were face to face with the old 
 proposition of teaching probably even more directly than 
 ever before. We learned that most army work is teaching, 
 training, and studying. Even those who had the good 
 fortune to go to the other side and take part in the actual 
 fighting will recall that most of the time in France was 
 
Teaching in the Army 
 
 spent in either studying or teaching. Now many officers 
 and enlisted men are in school again for the purpose of 
 acquiring more of the necessary information which they 
 will impart to others. The more we see of army work 
 the more we are of the opinion that while a good teacher 
 may not make a good officer, a good officer needs to be a 
 good teacher. 
 
 b) The new army. President Eliot, of Harvard, is quoted 
 as having said recently that one of the greatest needs of the 
 army is teachers. After Plattsburg, commanding organiza- 
 tions for some time, studying and instructing at Fort Sill, 
 and instructing in the Field Artillery Central Officers 
 Training School and the Field Artillery School, Camp 
 Zachary Taylor, the writer has been impressed with 
 the differences in ability between different officers to 
 impart to others the things they know themselves. In 
 the training schools there was a constant sifting and picking 
 of men with this ability, and they were hard to find. Why ? 
 One can imagine the difficulty that confronted the organ- 
 izers of some of the present schools when it became necessary 
 to select instructors for them. If any officer will look 
 back over his experiences at firing centers and elsewhere, 
 he will remember the relatively few men who really could 
 "put across" what they should in helping him to learn 
 rather than leave him to learn everything for himself. 
 If this need for instructors has been so great, it will not 
 diminish. Whether or not we have compulsory military 
 training, the new army is being organized into schools for 
 different kinds of training both for officers and enlisted 
 men, the army is becoming known as the "University in 
 Khaki," Reserve Officers' Training Corps are becoming 
 firmly established, and it is increasingly evident that there 
 is a growing demand for officers qualified and able to 
 instruct well. 
 
Introduction -v 
 
 2. Purpose of this manuscript 
 
 This brief introduction is sufficient to explain in part 
 why the War Plans Division of the General Staff of the 
 army has ordered that an integral part of courses for 
 officers should be preparation to teach. To accomplish 
 this several factors are of importance. First, officers 
 must have an absolutely thorough knowledge of their 
 work, and this is provided for by the thorough and basic 
 character of the courses outlined for study; second, teach- 
 ing done at the training centers must be of such a nature 
 that it will serve as a model, to a great extent, for the 
 teaching done by graduates, and to this end it must be 
 constantly improved; third, instructors and students will 
 take a thorough, basic, and practical course in the principles 
 of teaching and of training which will aid them not only in 
 their own teaching, but will also tend to make them compe- 
 tent judges of good teaching so that they will be able to 
 pick out quickly the real faults of a poor teacher and apply 
 the remedies most suitable. 
 
 For years men of ability have been studying this subject 
 in all parts of the world, and it is the purpose of this manu- 
 script to collect and to present in condensed form many of 
 the useful and concrete conclusions which actual experience 
 has brought to the attention of leading educators, in the 
 army and out. Possibly the contents, supplemented by 
 more exhaustive publications suggested in the index, may 
 be made the basis of a course in the principles of teaching. 
 Such a course given by the author in the Field Artillery 
 School, Camp Zachary Taylor, included, first, a discussion 
 of the principles of teaching; second, practice in instructing 
 various classes by the student officers in the school, who 
 planned and held complete recitations; third, a more 
 detailed study of rating and grading methods; and fourth, 
 practice in planning complete courses of study and time 
 
in the Army 
 
 schedules for certain subjects taught in regular organiza- 
 tions. Similar courses to be given during the summer of 
 1920 will suggest revisions in the text, and especially changes 
 in detailed illustrations from successful methods employed 
 in various branches of the service. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD INSTRUCTOR 
 
 i. Knowledge of the subject 
 
 The first requirement of a good instructor is a sound 
 knowledge of his subject. Mastery is a goal set for every 
 soldier, and he must learn to despise superficial knowledge, 
 sloppy execution, bluffing, and "passing the buck." Dur- 
 ing the war few were the officers whose knowledge of their 
 subjects was so thorough that their answers to questions 
 could be depended on to be absolutely correct, clear, and 
 concise. Knowing thoroughly the details of one's business 
 is so widely accepted a requisite of success in any kind of 
 work that it may seem unworthy of further discussion, 
 but it is desirable here to analyze the exact ways in which 
 each principle may be applied to the particular subject 
 of teaching and why it is essential. 
 
 a) Freedom to teach. It is absolutely necessary that 
 the instructor be entirely familiar with the subject covered 
 in a day's recitation if his class is to do good work during 
 that recitation. Without such knowledge he is not free 
 to teach; he cannot give his attention to the class, to its 
 attitude and method of thought, but is constantly bothered 
 with his own shortcomings. One of the big tasks of teaching 
 is keeping in intimate touch with the ways in which the 
 minds of students are thinking so that the necessary stimulus 
 and assistance can be given. When one is uncertain of 
 his subject, the questions asked or the difficulties of explain- 
 ing keep his mind so occupied that he cannot concentrate 
 on the reactions of the class, and his work is likely to be a 
 failure. 
 
6 Teaching in the Army 
 
 b) Understanding the difficulties of the student. Time and 
 again instructors iail to answer questions asked by their 
 classes because they do not understand the real difficulties 
 which lie at the base of the questions, and their explanations 
 cannot satisfy the students who ask the questions for this 
 very reason. For example, classes in gunnery often fail 
 in trying to determine whether a target beyond a hill can 
 be reached because they do not realize that the drop of 
 the projectile in traveling to the crest equals the angle of 
 departure for the range to the crest. A common failure 
 to appreciate difficulties is seen in teaching equitation 
 where an improper position of the back is often caused 
 because the ankles of the rider are held stiffly. A com- 
 plete knowledge of the relation of all parts of the body in 
 riding is required for immediate assistance in this case. A 
 thorough knowledge is necessary so that the instructor 
 may appreciate the difficulties of his students. 
 
 c) Confidence and methods of approach. A third result 
 of thorough knowedge is confidence, a requisite of more 
 importance in the army than in most other professions. 
 This is confidence both in your own knowledge and in your 
 ability to teach, because it gives so many methods of 
 approach to problems. When a student finds a difficulty 
 very great, you have on hand illustrations which will clear 
 up the matter to him, and soon he gains confidence in you 
 and in himself. Methods of approach and illustrations are 
 discussed in a succeeding chapter. Here it may be said 
 that the more of an authority an instructor is in any subject, 
 the better he can teach it, other things being equal.- 
 
 2. A sympathetic attitude 
 
 a) Meaning. It is not necessary, however, to be an 
 absolute authority on the whole of a subject in order to 
 teach it well, for it is easy to recall that many of the best 
 
Requirements of a Good Instructor 7 
 
 teachers in college or elsewhere were young men, full of 
 enthusiasm, who were not the authorities that some of the 
 older and less successful instructors were. In the Field 
 Artillery Central Officers Training School the writer was 
 called upon at one time to select the best instructors in the 
 department of gunnery, and of the ten selected, three had 
 taken only the course given in that school and had never 
 been to Fort Sill, or elsewhere, to get a more thorough 
 training. A reason for this was, as we say, that these 
 young men understood so well the difficulties and the 
 mental attitude of their students. An instructor has a 
 different point of view toward his subject from that of his 
 students because he knows it and tries to give them like 
 knowledge, while both the subject and the teacher are 
 strange to the class. A good teacher is able to, and does, 
 look at things through the eyes of his class; if he fails to 
 do this he becomes a driver and not a leader, and sooner or 
 later he is bound to fail. This point of view is what is 
 meant by a sympathetic attitude. It is a requisite of a 
 great leader in any occupation ; and it is a basic requirement 
 of good teaching because without it proper methods of 
 approaching new or old problems are often missed entirely. 
 b) Individual differences of students. Individuals in 
 classes vary greatly in their ability in the same subject and 
 in different subjects. ABILITY SCALE 
 
 If the class were made 
 up of all men or of a 
 large number of men 
 selected at random, 
 the variation in ability 
 
 , ' Poor FAVC MeSwrcw Oooi ExcelVxA 
 
 in any particular 
 
 j ij u FIG. i. Normal distribution curve, 
 
 study would be ex- 
 pressed by a graph much like the accompanying, called the 
 " Normal Distribution Curve." This curve merely indicates 
 
8 Teaching in the Army 
 
 (i) that men vary in ability, the amount of variation 
 being shown by the length of the curve; (2) that there is 
 a point in the ability scale, near the average, the point where 
 the middle man will stand above and below whom there is 
 an equal number of men, about which point the great 
 majority of men are grouped in ability, as shown by the 
 height of the curve at and near this point; (3) that the 
 number of men of very much greater or of very much less 
 ability is comparatively small. 
 
 c) Application. This variation in ability must be 
 considered in teaching classes, (i) First, instruction 
 should be prepared for the man somewhat below the median 
 if it is to benefit the larger part of the class; (2) second, 
 very bright students need opportunity for extra work 
 while very slow students need extra help or grouping in 
 separate sections. 
 
 Classes are never so perfectly ranged in ability as in 
 this graph. They may be a selected group so that their 
 median or middle ability is very high, but in all cases there 
 is a somewhat similar curve to be considered. Reserve 
 Officers Training Corps instructors and instructors of 
 officers will find a wide range of ability. It is sometimes 
 hard for a very bright instructor to have patience with slow 
 progress, sometimes for a slow teacher to have patience 
 with a very quick student. In any case an understanding 
 of such distribution adds to an understanding of the class 
 and must be kept in mind in considering questions to be 
 asked and of whom to ask them, the kind of work probable 
 from different men, and other details of the work of a 
 teacher. 
 
 d) Determining individual differences. How can an in- 
 structor obtain such a graph of ability for his class? 
 The best way is to take the marks or grades given mem- 
 bers and form a graph for the class. These marks are his 
 
Requirements of a Good Instructor 9 
 
 best judgment of the pupil made from time to time. 
 Suppose the following to be a set of ratings for a class of 
 eighty-nine students: 
 
 No. of Students Eating 
 
 4 A (91-100) 
 
 II B (81-90) 
 
 40 C (71-80) 
 
 20 D (61-70) 
 
 14 E (60 and below) 
 
 These figures would be represented by the following graph : 
 RATING SCALE 
 
 FIG. 2. Graph showing distribution of class marks, eighty- 
 nine students. 
 
 Each block represents by its height the number receiv- 
 ing the grade below it. Since there are eighty-nine in 
 the class, No. 45 from the bottom or from the top, arranged 
 in order of merit, is the middle man, represented by the 
 solid, light line. By counting the numbers in the blocks it is 
 seen that No. 45 falls in the Grade C group. The middle 
 50 per cent of the class includes twenty-two men on each 
 side of No. 45, so according to the grades the middle half 
 extends from well down in the Grade D group not quite up 
 to the Grade B group, as indicated by the dotted lines. 
 Now the instructor looks up any man in his class, say 
 
io Teaching in the Army 
 
 Mr. X, and finds his mark is B, so he says X is in the upper 
 fourth or quartile of the class. Mr. Y may be marked E, 
 so he is in the lower fourth, or quartile, and needs special 
 aid. Z is marked D and probably falls in the middle 50 
 per cent. Instruction in class should reach at least the 
 upper three-fourths, so the instructor can test its success 
 by referring it to some Group D or second quartile man, or 
 possibly to a Group E or lower quartile man. 
 
 Such a study of students can be made in ten minutes. 
 Sometimes the names of students in each group are written 
 in or below the* grade for their blocks, and often the instruc- 
 tor will find a considerable interchange of names before the 
 year is out. Indication of progress by this method is dis- 
 cussed in the chapter on marking, grading, or rating. 
 Because this method is graphic, it is one of the clearest 
 and simplest ways of getting acquainted with the class, 
 and it is becoming widely used by progressive instructors. 
 
 e) Reaction of attitude on teacher and student. A sympa- 
 thetic attitude is difficult for the instructor to maintain. 
 When the Central Officers Training Schools were running 
 at full blast, it was brought to the attention of the directors 
 and battalion commanders of one of them which contained 
 over 13,000 students that while the students seemed to be 
 working to the best of their ability, large numbers of them 
 were advising their friends at home not to enter, though 
 claiming that they themselves were getting along very 
 well, as they were. One of the chief causes for this feeling 
 was given as the attitude of a number of the instructors, 
 who had been instructing in army schools from the beginning 
 of the war, with the natural result that they had become 
 drivers and not leaders. The students who entered the 
 school were eager and anxious to work as hard as they 
 possibly could, and this attitude on the part of the instruc- 
 tors was out of place, especially in the case of such men. 
 
Requirements of a Good Instructor n 
 
 It was partly for this reason that some other armies found 
 it advisable to retain officers as instructors for a shorter 
 length of time, then putting them on duty with troops. The 
 losing of a sympathetic attitude is a cause of the souring 
 of a number of teachers and of that rather strained look 
 which leads to the remark occasionally heard, "You can 
 tell a teacher as soon as you see one." On the other hand, 
 constantly keeping in touch with the viewpoint of the 
 members of his classes will enable an instructor to do 
 away almost entirely with sarcasm and ridicule; almost, 
 because there sometimes arises the "smart" case which 
 may need it, but even then a young teacher can seldom 
 use them to advantage. In this connection it is hardly 
 necessary to suggest that no soldier has respect for an 
 officer who is not military, speaking directly what he 
 means and forceful in word and action. The ability to 
 look through the eyes of others is not unsoldierly, and it can 
 be developed with practice and experience. 
 
 3; Knowing how to teach 
 
 The third requisite of a good teacher is knowing how to 
 teach. Any officer who thinks back for a moment over his 
 experiences during the past three years will recall mistakes 
 he made in training men, and how much easier it was to 
 get desired results after a little experimentation, practice, 
 and experience. One cause of this was, of course, that he 
 knew more definitely what results he desired, in itself 
 a requisite of good teaching. In the succeeding pages 
 are collected and grouped about principles some of the 
 results of such experience, and these will doubtless suggest 
 many similar cases emphasizing the same ideas, 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 AROUSING INTEREST AND HOLDING 
 ATTENTION 
 
 i. Teaching judged by results, not by acts of instructor 
 
 Some years ago it fell to the lot of the writer to go with 
 four others to survey the school system of Mount Clair, 
 New Jersey, and a particular part of the report submitted 
 had to do with teaching efficiency. We visited practically 
 all classes in all schools, and there we learned this, that 
 when visiting a classroom it was of great advantage to 
 sit so that we could see the faces of students as well as 
 the teacher. By doing so we could see the expression of 
 the class and judge of its interest and attention. The 
 point emphasized is that instructors are judged not so 
 much by what they say or do, but by the results they 
 get from their classes. Commanding officers judge their 
 subordinates not so much by what they say or do as by 
 the way their organizations perform their duties. An 
 instructor is not excused by dubbing his class a lot of 
 " blockheads"; it was given him to get results. A section 
 was learning firing battery drill; at first glance the officer- 
 instructor seemed poor, his voice rather low, even his 
 personal appearance not as good as it should have been; 
 and the inspector, a well-known officer, approached all 
 ready to criticize. To his surprise the men were moving 
 swiftly and silently, all settings were accurate and prompt, 
 the work was quickly checked, every man was so hard at 
 work that even the inspector was unseen. The outcome ? 
 The inspector personally commended the instructor and 
 recommended him for certain advancement because his 
 class was getting results. 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 13 
 
 2. How to arouse interest 
 
 Since instruction is judged by the work of the class, 
 it is a common saying that a good instructor is interesting 
 and stimulating, and holds the attention of his class. It 
 is not difficult to arouse interest temporarily, as at the 
 first recitation, but it is important that this interest be 
 aroused. Merely a quick movement, a short silence, a 
 drawing, many little things will do this. But all of us are 
 witnesses to the fact that interest may die quickly, and a 
 class may get to the condition where it expects a certain 
 instructor to be uninteresting, and consequently he will 
 find it difficult to arouse even temporary interest. We 
 are familiar with the methods used by Billy Sunday to 
 arouse and hold interest, but most of these methods the 
 ordinary instructor is incapable of using and some of them 
 he would not use if he could. The following suggestions are 
 useful in getting interest at the beginning of the class. 
 
 a) Be prompt and prepared. Attention is often killed 
 by dilly-dallying at the first of an hour. Time lost in 
 getting reports, in calling rolls, in getting seated, and in 
 other ways is harmful. Get this systematized. Some 
 common ways of doing this are as follows: (i) Have a 
 numbered seat assigned to each student and appoint some 
 student to hand in after class a check of empty seats and 
 late arrivals. (2) Assign numbers to students and have 
 them count off. (3) Each section marcher reports orally 
 to the senior marcher and hands in list of absentees with 
 causes of absence, and the senior reports orally to the 
 instructor. Some instructors will not appear before their 
 classes until all reports are in and the class ready for work, 
 when they step up in front and start the day's work with a 
 swing. Everybody knows that when the instructor appears 
 things are going to happen. Being prepared to start, 
 starting on time, and where you intend is a good beginning. 
 
14 Teaching in the Army 
 
 b) Be enthusiastic. Enthusiasm always attracts atten- 
 tion and, properly applied, holds it. Enthusiasm does not 
 mean a constant bubbling over of superlatives which 
 destroy attention, but rather a deep feeling of the value 
 of the work in hand, developed by real preparation and 
 interested effort on the part of the instructor. An enthusi- 
 astic instructor is always able to say more about his subject 
 than the allotted time permits; his enthusiasm is contagious, 
 his class will be interested, and the end of the period will 
 come all too soon. 
 
 c) A definite purpose or a challenge draws interest. There 
 was one class in law in the Field Artillery School, Camp 
 Zachary Taylor, in which the instructor began the day's 
 work by stating or having stated clearly the problem 
 for the day, and enumerating the parts as they were to be 
 taken up in the recitation. Everyone was immediately 
 all attention. When he was giving a lecture it was notice- 
 able that notebooks and pencils were in immediate demand, 
 and the mere statement of the challenging interesting 
 problems that were to be brought up in the class aroused 
 the attention of its members. Such a clear understanding 
 by the class of what the recitation is about is accepted as a 
 requisite of good teaching. It can be developed only as 
 the result of forethought and planning on the part of the 
 instructor. The value of an interesting purpose at the 
 beginning of a period is illustrated by the added interest 
 of a reader in a chapter whose purpose is clearly denned 
 in the first paragraph. A further discussion of the use 
 of problems may be found in this chapter under "How to 
 Hold Attention" and in the discussion of assignments. 
 
 3. How to hold attention 
 
 While it is comparatively easy to arouse attention, it 
 is much more difficult to hold it. Consciousness is a 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 15 
 
 moving stream and can never be held fixed for any length 
 of time. Suppose you are told to fix your attention on a 
 spot on a blackboard for five minutes. You will find it 
 impossible to do so. This is the way you might go about 
 it: "That spot is white while the blackboard is black; it is 
 pear-shaped; it is about two inches from the end of the 
 board and about six inches from the top; it seems to have 
 a yellow rim around it; etc." As long as you continue 
 thinking about the different aspects of the point you can 
 hold your attention on it. It is this changeableness of 
 consciousness that makes it difficult for a class to continue 
 at attention, because active attention means hard work and 
 continuous application. It is impossible to hold attention 
 by "stunts" even if they were desirable, but it is possible 
 to analyze to some extent the causes of attentiveness and 
 to suggest in a simple way some of the means of holding 
 interest. 
 
 a) Physical position. In the Field Artillery Central 
 Officers Training School it was found that the formation 
 of classes and the position in which the members were 
 seated had something to do with their attitude of mind. 
 The classes were held but of doors and the section marchers 
 marched their sections in front of the instructor and gave 
 the command, "Halt, left face, seats." This put the class 
 in a regular and close formation facing the instructor. No 
 one was allowed to lie down or to sit in a slouching position, 
 and a strained position was likewise avoided by providing 
 seats of a certain kind. Of course the important question 
 of fresh air took care of itself under these circumstances. 
 
 An instructor standing dominates his class by his position 
 above them, and it is necessary that while he is conducting 
 the recitation he remain in a standing position. At the- 
 same time he must be careful that the light is/ not behind 
 him so as to shine in the eyes of the class. When some 
 
1 6 Teaching in the Army 
 
 student is explaining blackboard work, the instructor either 
 sits down or stands near the back of the class so that the 
 domination is transferred to the student reciting and 
 the recitation will be addressed to the students. To hold 
 attention on the proper center of interest, have that center 
 stand up, whether instructor or student. 
 
 b) Movement. Movement always attracts attention 
 and is a legitimate way of holding it. One grows tired 
 of looking at a fixed object. Some time ago a group went 
 to watch one of the most celebrated kindergarten teachers 
 in the city of New York, having in mind the difficulty 
 of holding the attention of a number of small children. 
 After the children had been working for a little while they 
 began to grow restless. Then the teacher stood up, walked 
 slowly across the room to the blackboard and began draw- 
 ing something. As soon as she began to move, every child 
 in the room fixed his attention on her and kept watching 
 her until she had finished. If the spot on the blackboard, 
 mentioned above, should begin to move and make figure 
 eights and spell words, one would have little difficulty in 
 watching it for some time. When work is not in the form 
 of lectures, movement by the students is most valuable. 
 They should go to the board, illustrate what they are 
 describing, or show what they mean, with the result that 
 they pay more attention to each other. Movements to 
 hold attention are best if they serve some purpose, such 
 as illustrating the aids in riding, drawing a figure in gunnery, 
 showing the parts being described in materiel, or acting 
 out any maneuver which is being discussed. 
 
 c) Variations. Variations in tone of voice and in 
 rapidity aid in holding attention. Speak slowly when 
 saying something important, but when giving an illus- 
 tration or saying something less important, speak more 
 rapidly. 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 17 
 
 Variations in point of view or of attack are extremely 
 important. One day an instructor in equitation had been 
 discussing in a lecture the various aids in jumping, showing 
 how the horse must be made to gather his haunches under 
 him before taking the jump. He considered the subject 
 of so much importance that he spent some time on it, and 
 the class began to grow restless. Suddenly he stopped, 
 looked over the heads of the class, and said, "I remember 
 a horse over in Manila ," and went on to tell his story of 
 this horse which was a wonderful jumper; and the point of 
 the whole story was that the horse gathered his haunches 
 so well before jumping. As soon as he started this story, 
 approaching his subject from a new point of view, the 
 whole class became attentive again. Illustrations nearly 
 always furnish a new approach to a subject; their use 
 requires some discretion, however, lest the class carry 
 away a number of stories and miss the point they are to 
 emphasize. 
 
 d) Using simplest methods of approach. The method 
 of approach to a problem or to new material should be 
 simple. To select the method of teaching most easily 
 understood and remembered requires a very thorough 
 knowledge of the difficulties of the subject and of the 
 student. Semaphore can be learned easily by the group 
 method, but the method grew from a careful study of the 
 relationships of the subject. The "knee sprung" gait 
 of some recruits which makes them bob up and down out of 
 time with the remainder of the company can usually 
 be cured by a little practice at the goose step. In artillery, 
 deflection may be computed in many ways, but the simplest 
 method for the student to grasp is the combination parallel 
 method in which the offsets are computed as a whole and 
 simply set off away from the guns, no matter whether left 
 or right. Other methods can be built on this one. A 
 
1 8 Teaching in the Army 
 
 good course of study should suggest the best ways of 
 meeting its main problems, and a successful teacher is 
 always looking for the way most readily comprehended and 
 most easily remembered. 
 
 e) Visual instruction. In many instances the simplest 
 method of instructing is showing how a thing is done, espe- 
 cially having students show each other. Thus it is custom- 
 ary to show the proper application of the aids in riding, 
 or the proper salute in dismounted drill, or the dismounting 
 of a gun in ordnance, after which the student tries it for 
 himself and then studies the theory. It is not enough to 
 show how to do a thing, but the class must try it for itself 
 to really learn the difficulties, as is shown in the case of the 
 three illustrations above. Moreover, it is only when the 
 class applies its knowledge in practice that the instructor 
 can judge of the success of his approach. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be laid on visual teaching. 
 A large part of learning is through the eyes and a corre- 
 spondingly large part of instruction must be through the 
 same channels. In many classes the instructor who fails to 
 use the blackboard is inexcusable. In studying the theory 
 of motors, put a running outline of your conclusions on the 
 blackboard; in conduct of fire, put angles and hills, and 
 even guns, on the board; in topography show on the board 
 the symbols, co-ordinates, ways of shading, etc. Seldom 
 is this done enough or well enough. Everyone uses terrain 
 boards, miniature ranges, and service ranges to teach 
 advanced conduct of fire; but adjustable angles made of 
 two sticks held by a wing nut are almost as useful in the 
 early stages of computation, and field gunnery becomes a 
 different subject with prepared appliances showing site, 
 movable trajectory, or actual points of impact. "Seeing 
 is believing" applies to teaching as to other phases of life. 
 (See further discussion of visual instruction under "Drill.") 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 19 
 
 /) Grouping work about interesting problems. A chal- 
 lenging problem is the basis of nearly all good individual 
 application. The inventor who spends his nights and days 
 working on some new idea, hardly stopping for meals, does 
 so because he has in front of him some problem which he 
 feels is worth working on. If the instructor bases the 
 work of his class on problems which both he and the class 
 feel to be worth while, he can always feel sure that the 
 class is working with him. Every day's recitation must 
 contain such problems requiring thought and attention, 
 and these problems should be clear to the class, to insure 
 which they are often stated definitely before being taken 
 up for study. 
 
 Some illustrations of problems assigned for study may 
 be of interest, (i) One class in geography was studying 
 Brazil and the problem was, "Why has the trade between 
 Brazil and the United States increased (so many) per cent 
 during the past four years?" involving a study of the 
 resources and products of each country. (2) A class in 
 reconnaissance had occupied a new position and selected 
 observation and reference points, so they were required 
 to bring in battle maps in preparation for opening fire on 
 various targets. Their sector had been laid out on a minia- 
 ture range and the maps they prepared were used immedi- 
 ately in lateral observation in the course in conduct of 
 fire. (3) A class in tactics was in two sections commanding 
 opposing forces in a campaign. Having fought fairly 
 evenly during the recitation period, they were left with 
 the problem of obtaining the advantage on the next day. 
 (4) A class in materiel learned that in the next period they 
 must adjust their quadrants and fill recoil cylinders with oil, 
 for which tasks they must be prepared. 
 
 These illustrations are simply a suggestion of how an 
 instructor may have a class report to him in an attentive 
 
2O Teaching in the Army 
 
 frame of mind at the beginning of a recitation. To do this, 
 he must have the students report to him with problems in 
 their minds which are to be solved during the recitation 
 period, if possible. The most successful teachers dismiss 
 their classes with such problems, and the nature of the 
 problems must be such as to arouse interest and cause study, 
 a thing they can be depended upon to do when they involve 
 practical application to a real task of some kind. Army 
 work lends itself peculiarly to such tasks because most of 
 it is of a very practical nature, and nearly all of it is studied 
 for actual use. Even drill of various kinds, such as platoon 
 or company drill, becomes deadly and useless in the mind 
 of the student unless it can contain such problems calling 
 for perfection of detail, and an instructor is not justified in 
 simply executing "Squads Right" and " Squads Left" 
 indefinitely as mere maneuvers. 
 
 It will not do to take for granted that the work being 
 done supplies its own problems, but the instructor must 
 be sure that the class knows a definite, valuable purpose in 
 each day's recitation. Problems to be used in class work 
 and in study are often put in the form of questions, and 
 questions of this nature are not easy to answer. They 
 are often asked by the students themselves. Such ques- 
 tions are discussed more fuUy under the subjects of 
 " Quest ions" and of "Assignments." 
 
 g) Competition or emulation. A spirit of competition 
 injected into any study will hold attention. This spirit 
 is used by practically all organizations, but in addition to 
 having men compete against each other or against other 
 organizations, it often proves to have even better results 
 to have them compete against their own records. Only 
 certain phases of this subject nee,d discussion here. 
 
 Competition between individuals depends in part on 
 their knowing the results of their work, and since results 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 21 
 
 are so often expressed by grades or marks, competition is 
 increased if students know their marks. 
 
 A graphic representation of the standings of individuals 
 or of units, such as those suggested in chapter ii and chapter 
 viii, shows most clearly relative efficiency, and this method 
 is growing in use in the army as well as in schools and col- 
 leges. There was one division during the war in which 
 platoon chiefs rated their men monthly, showing the men 
 excellent, good, fair, etc., in each subject; captains col- 
 lected the results, majors summarized them for battalions, 
 colonels for regiments, and brigade headquarters for 
 brigades. Then the division commander had comparative 
 graphs made and placed on his bulletin board. When 
 brigade commanders reported to division headquarters 
 they sometimes waxed warm over the comparison, though 
 each knew the record fairly accurate and prepared by his 
 own officers; and when the regimental commanders were 
 assembled they were set to work in no uncertain terms to 
 pass their competitors in subjects showing defeat. 
 
 Competition against others should be supplemented 
 by competition against one's own record or against the 
 squad or class record. In some school subjects there have 
 been developed certain standard tests which are used in 
 hundreds of schools as the basis for graphs for each student, 
 showing his progress from month to month. These are 
 intensely interesting and are practically always encour- 
 aging, since work on a subject brings improvement. Some 
 suggestions along this line are found under the subject of 
 " Grading." This branch of competition is worthy of 
 much greater use in the army and is now employed in some 
 army schools and in some units of the R.O.T.C. 
 
 K) Allowing students to use their brains. It is the 
 besetting sin of some instructors to overlook the fact that 
 students want to use their own brains. A number of 
 
22 Teaching in the Army 
 
 student officers at Camp Taylor held recitations as a part of 
 their course in principles of teaching, and it was very 
 noticeable that many of them were so anxious to get exactly 
 correct answers from their classes that they interrupted the 
 students reciting and suggested to them the correct answers 
 to questions. It would have been far better to have made 
 the student rely on himself and to have waited for him to 
 give his answer in the best way he could. This fault is 
 almost universal. Classes are not for teachers, but for 
 students. Some instructors make their classes, especially 
 their lectures, almost unbearable by going into all details, 
 so that they do all the thinking for their students. In 
 order to get the best work from a class, note the big diffi- 
 culties in the way of a thorough understanding of the 
 subject, if necessary present the difficulty in the form of a 
 challenging problem, and put it up to the class to solve 
 the difficulty in its own discussion. Never be afraid 
 to let a class work as hard as it wants to on such a 
 task, and often when it is unable to finish it in one day, 
 leave the problem over until next time. When the class 
 learns with the instructor's aid that it can work and work 
 well, that individual ideas are expected and appreciated 
 by teacher and students, it will enjoy the satisfaction of 
 successful work and its members will become thoughtful, 
 independent students. When most questions are referred 
 to the teacher and answered by him, these results cannot be 
 expected. 
 
 i) Personal attitude of the instructor. The foregoing 
 discussion emphasizes the statement that an instructor 
 always tries to keep in close touch with his class. If he is 
 delivering a lecture, it is often difficult to know whether 
 he has the attention of a large section. In this case the 
 individual idea is a good one. Select some member of the 
 group and talk directly to him; watch the effect on him; 
 
Arousing Interest and Holding Attention 23 
 
 if a funny illustration is used see if he laughs. If the 
 lecture is " taking" on him, pick out a different student in 
 a different part of the room and try it out on him. By 
 keeping in touch with individuals one gets a good idea of 
 the thought of the whole class. In recitations the same 
 rule applies. The work of the class is the paramount 
 consideration. Members are seated to aid their work; 
 illustrations are selected in view of their effect; methods 
 of approach depend on the mental status of the students; 
 problems of interest are developed and competition is 
 fostered to hold interest; and the whole learning process can 
 be complete only if students grow to think independently 
 and to the point, sometimes guided by the instructor and 
 sometimes using him as a reference, until they reach the 
 point where they can stand on their own feet, and lead 
 others about them in practical or theoretical production. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 The question-and-answer method is the usual form for 
 holding a recitation. In olden times the students asked 
 questions of the instructor, whose part it was to answer 
 them; nowadays the opposite custom often prevails. A 
 combination of the two methods is generally aimed at by 
 a good instructor, but even this is not enough. It is just 
 as important to have students ask questions of each other 
 as it is to have them ask questions of the instructor. The 
 two natural heads under which questions fall are those 
 asked by the instructor and those asked by the students. 
 The former have three purposes, the first and primary 
 being to stimulate thought, the second to test for knowledge, 
 and the third to emphasize facts already known to the class. 
 
 i. Questions by instructors 
 
 a) Mechanical requirements of good questions. There 
 are several so-called mechanical requirements of questions, 
 (i) They must be asked in a clear, loud tone of voice, with 
 distinct enunciation, so that every member of the class 
 can hear and understand them. While this requirement 
 is obvious, it is surprising to note the large number of 
 instructors who fail in this very point, so that many mem- 
 bers of their classes often do not know what is being dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 (2) Questions should be asked before designating an 
 individual to answer them, insuring the attention of the 
 whole class and relieving any particular individual of the 
 strain which might otherwise result. 
 
 24 
 
Questions and Answers 25 
 
 (3) Avoid calling on students in a regular order. Have 
 you ever seen an instructor who has an alphabetical list 
 of his class and who calls upon thqm in alphabetical order ? 
 If one's name begins with A, he can rest in peace after the 
 first part of the alphabet has been covered and know that 
 he will have nothing to say for some days to come. Other 
 instructors have the habit of calling on students in the 
 order in which they are seated, with the same bad result, 
 and it would be possible for a man with an alert mind and a 
 lazy temperament to move about the class in such a way 
 that he would be seldom called on. 
 
 (4) Sometimes the instructor forms the habit of calling 
 upon bright students to the exclusion of others. One day 
 the writer visited a class in conduct of fire in which problems 
 were being fired on a terrain board. A question came up 
 and the instructor called on a student to his left, who 
 answered very well. In a few minutes a second question 
 arose, the same student was called on and he answered 
 even better. When a third question was referred to the 
 same man I interrupted and asked that another be called 
 on. The second man answered, when to my surprise the 
 instructor asked the one who had been reciting so fre- 
 quently, if he thought the answer correct. Evidently 
 this officer had formed the habit of calling on one or two 
 bright members of his class to do most of the reciting, 
 hoping that their answers would "soak in" on the rest of 
 the class. A man will usually learn more when called 
 upon to express his own ideas than when simply listening 
 to the ideas of others. In this connection it might be 
 mentioned that an instructor sometimes knows the names 
 of only a few members of his section, and if he is not careful 
 he will find that these members are doing most of the reciting. 
 
 (5) Questions should not be repeated unless they are not 
 understood by .the class, and they should be understood. 
 
26 Teaching in the Army 
 
 Repeating has two bad results: it detracts from the atten- 
 tion paid the first question, and in case of a difficult 
 question requiring thought, it is often asked the second 
 time in a different form from the first so as to cause con- 
 fusion to a thoughtful student. 
 
 (6) Questions must be clear and definite, so far as 
 possible having only one meaning. 
 
 (7) If questions are framed in a novel form it is found 
 that they stimulate thought, while questions of some old 
 stereotyped form tend to have the opposite effect. 
 
 b) Content requirements of good questions. (i) Ques- 
 tions with predetermined answers. Often an instructor 
 asks a question to which he has a definite answer fixed in 
 his mind, which answer he tries to persuade some member 
 of the class to give him in his own exact words. This 
 leads the class to guess at what is in the mind of their 
 teacher and will result in the destruction of individual 
 thought and finally in a loss of interest in any question 
 such an instructor may ask. 
 
 If the discussion by the class contains a good answer 
 which the instructor finds it necessary to express in some 
 simple terms, he should of course do so in many cases; but 
 at the same time he must recognize the value of good answers 
 and constantly prevent the tendency of the class to try 
 to guess at what he wants them to say. Except in the 
 case of definitions, it is usually best not even to try to 
 force the class to answer questions in some previously 
 conceived form. 
 
 (2) Difficulty proportioned to ability of class. One 
 officer studying principles of teaching was called on to 
 teach a class in mathematics on the theory of exponents. 
 His first question was, " What is the law of positive integral 
 exponents?" The eighth man called on succeeded in 
 giving some kind of an answer to the question. A second 
 
Questions and Answers 27 
 
 officer in the same course taught the same lesson to a differ- 
 ent section. His first question was something like this, 
 "If you multiply a letter by itself, how do you find the 
 exponent of the result?" The three other parts of the 
 law of exponents were taken up in the same way, and 
 different members of the class succeeded in both answering 
 the questions and illustrating them, while another student 
 combined the answers into the complete law. The first 
 question was too hard; the second questions called for the 
 same information, required thought, especially in the 
 illustrations, obtained the desired results, took less time, 
 and so were much better fitted to the class. 
 
 On the other hand it is possible to ask questions which 
 are so easy as to require no thought. Whenever an instruc- 
 tor asks many questions in rapid succession, receiving 
 many answers such as "Yes" and "No," it is fairly certain 
 that the questions are poor and should never be asked. 
 If such questions could be combined into one question 
 requiring some thought and discussion, the result might be 
 worth while. If the instructor is asking fact questions, 
 for example calling for definitions or asking for the names 
 of the parts of a gun, the questions are bound to be easy 
 and should require very little time for an answer. Except 
 in this case such a question is better omitted. 
 
 (3) Sufficient scope. It can be said, then, that if a 
 question is to stimulate thought it must be of sufficient 
 scope to require thought, and in this case the instructor 
 may expect a short time to elapse before receiving an 
 answer. Often when such a question is asked it is followed 
 by a period of complete silence on the part of the class 
 while they are thinking of the possible answer they may 
 give. It usually requires considerable thought and prepara- 
 tion on the part of the instructor to prepare such questions. 
 Before going to the classroom he should write down four 
 
28 Teaching in the Army 
 
 or five pivotal questions to be used in the recitation, about 
 which the whole thought of the day's assignment hinges. 
 Absence of such questions indicates lack of preparation. 
 When the instructor starts doing this, it seems to him that he 
 is preparing a sort of examination on the lesson. 
 
 For example, a class in topography was near the first of 
 the course. The following questions covered the day's 
 recitation: 
 
 1. Distinguish between the different types of area 
 sketches and reconnaissance sketches. This provided for 
 review. 
 
 2. What are the three respects in which two points on a 
 map are related to each other? Distance, direction, ele- 
 vation illustrate. 
 
 3. What means are in common use for measuring dis- 
 tance, direction, and elevation ? Illustrate from map. 
 
 4. What is placed in the title of a sketch ? 
 
 5. Where are the title and the scales usually placed on 
 a sketch ? 
 
 By means of such an organization of questions the class 
 can get the idea that most of their work, especially of their 
 study, can be organized and grouped about the big ideas or 
 main topics of the lesson, and they will be well along their 
 way toward efficient study and excellent individual thought. 
 
 c). A test for the quality of questions. One of the best 
 tests of questions which are asked by an instructor is this, 
 Do they lead to questions on the part of the class ? Pro- 
 fessor Strayer, of Columbia University, says, " Questions 
 by an instructor which do not lead to questioning by stu- 
 dents are unsatisfactory." A further discussion of this 
 requirement is carried on under the topic of questions by 
 students. 
 
 2. Questions by students 
 
 a) Teaching judged by questions asked by students. In 
 the discussion of questions asked by students, we must 
 
Questions and Answers 29 
 
 consider what kinds of questions should be asked, why 
 they should be asked, and to what extent the instructor is 
 responsible for obtaining them. It is stated above that 
 questions by the instructor which do not lead to questions 
 by his class are unsatisfactory. This emphasizes in a new 
 way the idea which is basic in obtaining an attentive class, 
 namely, that the center of interest in teaching is in the 
 class and not in the teacher, and that the object of instruc- 
 tion is to have a class of successful workers rather than a 
 working teacher. The questions asked by a class are one 
 of the very best indexes of the work of the class. 
 
 The instructor needs to have his students ask questions 
 to help him judge the progress of his class. Many a time he 
 will be asked a question which he thinks has already been 
 answered to the satisfaction of the class, only to find that a 
 large number of his students have never really grasped the 
 point. For example, in a class in motors the other day, 
 after a complete discussion of the operation of valves for 
 the inlet of gas and the outlet of the exploded mixture, with 
 lantern slides to illustrate the complete movement and 
 a sectionalized engine for practical demonstration, one 
 student asked, "Sir, of course I understand the action of 
 these valves, but I would like to know just when it is that 
 both the inlet and the exhaust valves are open at the same 
 time." At times, also, students will ask questions which 
 will remind the instructor of some idea which he has entirely 
 forgotten to bring up in his class work, although it may be 
 of considerable importance. When the class is asking 
 thoughtful questions the instructor knows that he has a 
 thoughtful class, otherwise he may be fairly certain that the 
 reverse is true. Just as a small child who is learning is 
 interested in things and is constantly asking questions, 
 so an interested class will be full of questions which they 
 either want to answer for themselves or need someone else 
 to answer for them. 
 
30 Teaching in the Army 
 
 b) Questions must be heard. It is necessary to empha- 
 size the importance of having all questions asked by students 
 heard by the whole class. Too often in every school does 
 a member of a class who sits near the instructor ask a 
 question in a low tone of voice so that many of the section 
 cannot hear what he says. The result is that other mem- 
 bers of the class are not interested in the ensuing discussion 
 and tend to lose interest in the general idea of asking ques- 
 tions. If the class is to work together, they must develop 
 the habit of expecting, even demanding, to hear everything 
 that is said because nothing is going to be said in the class 
 which is not worth hearing. If a question cannot be 
 heard, the class will demand its repetition or the instructor 
 will do so. 
 
 c) Dealing with questions too easy or too hard. It is 
 taken for granted that instructors can avoid the question 
 asked to start him talking, to the great relief of some 
 student dreading any such effort on his own part. There 
 are many questions, however, which seem to the instructor 
 to be too easy because they have just been answered in the 
 preceding discussion, or for some other reason. He must 
 be careful in deciding that such a question is too easy to 
 be worth attention because what seems easy to him is often 
 difficult for the class or it may be based on some previous 
 principle not understood, and he may destroy the habit 
 of asking questions by making the mistake of disregarding 
 those he thinks too easy. The best way to decide the 
 matter is to refer the question immediately to some other 
 member of the class for answer. 
 
 Then there is the question which is too difficult for the 
 class because the student asking it is more advanced than 
 other members of the section or because it needs more 
 preliminary study before it is taken up in due time in the 
 course. It is probably best to defer answers to such ques- 
 
Questions and Answers 31 
 
 tions or to refer the student to a proper source for an 
 answer which he will present to the class at a later date, 
 being assured that the matter is important and is to be 
 considered in a few days. This avoids a discussion over the 
 heads of the majority of the students. 
 
 d) Repetition of questions asked by students. Do not 
 repeat questions asked by students. If the class cannot 
 hear, either they or you will request a repetition. The 
 instructor desires especially to promote free discussion 
 between members of his class, but if he repeats their ques- 
 tions their attention will be centered upon him rather than 
 on the student who asked the question, and in all likelihood 
 the answers obtained will be directed to the instructor, who 
 already knows the answer, rather than to the student who 
 wants to know it. It is usually true that students will 
 recite better when assisting a fellow-student in difficulty 
 than when called on by their instructor. 
 
 e) Questions should be asked of fellow-students. The 
 next requirement, then, is that questions asked by a student 
 should be asked of the class rather than of the instructor, 
 (i) It is often a good plan to require a student in the front of 
 the class to turn about and face the class when asking ques- 
 tions. (2) If one student is reciting and another desires to 
 ask a question, he asks the question of the student who is 
 reciting and expects the latter to answer him. If this fails, 
 the question is referred to a member of the class. The 
 object of such a method is to have students working together 
 and for each other. It does not mean that the teacher 
 shall stop working altogether. As a matter of fact this 
 idea of a successful recitation lays down a difficult task for 
 the instructor in that he must not only succeed in arousing 
 the interest and stirring up the active thought of the class, 
 but he is always in a position to control the discussion, to 
 keep it out of byways and from "going to seed," to terminate 
 
32 Teaching in the Army 
 
 it when necessary, to act as a reference library, and always 
 to judge of the value of the work that is being done. 
 The point is that the students are working. If the class 
 consists of fifty men and all fifty are at work, asking ques- 
 tions of each other and adding their thought to his, it is 
 obvious that much greater results will be obtained than if 
 the instructor is doing most of the work. 
 
 /) How to obtain good questions from the class. Since 
 the questions asked by students stamp the quality of 
 instruction, the principles of teaching of course apply to the 
 ways of obtaining good questions, (i) For example, first, 
 throw the emphasis of instruction on the class as suggested 
 in the preceding paragraph, and develop the habit of 
 constantly watching the way in which the class is working 
 rather than of thinking during the recitation of what you 
 are going to do or say. (2) Expect the class always to 
 judge the soundness and the worth of any statement made 
 at any time. The student who simply accepts a statement 
 as true because somebody says so is no student. Ask such 
 questions as "Do you agree?" "Does anyone differ?'' or 
 "Would you like further explanation?" Even when 
 studying the drill regulations ask, "Is that the best method ? 
 Why?" The result will be much clearer thinking on the 
 part of the class and a corresponding increase in valuable 
 questions. (3) Leave a problem with the class for study. 
 When the assignment contains such a task in which the 
 group is interested, the members will appear with a number 
 of conclusions and questions for the next recitation. 
 (4) Differentiate between good and poor questions. One 
 way to do this is to take a question asked by a student 
 and make it the assignment for the next period. One 
 class in motors was studying the construction of internal- 
 combustion engines, and the illustrations showed these cast 
 en bloc. A student asked, "What is the reason for casting 
 
Questions and Answers 33 
 
 engines en bloc?" Only a very partial answer could be 
 obtained from the class, so this question was made one of 
 three parts of the assignment for the next day, and proper 
 references for study were given. 
 3. Answers 
 
 The foregoing discussion of questions has naturally 
 covered to a considerable extent the kinds of answers an 
 instructor desires and how he goes about getting them. 
 There are some ideas, however, which relate directly to 
 answers and which are worth attention. 
 
 a) Mechanical requirements of good answers. (i) An 
 answer must be heard and understood by all members of the 
 class. Any membeY who does not hear or who desires 
 further explanation of the answer should be encouraged to 
 ask at any time for what he wants. 
 
 (2) Answers should be grammatically correct, and the 
 instructor can aid in this by using good grammar himself 
 and by insisting upon its use by students whose answers 
 are not clear. 
 
 (3) It is often necessary to point out the difference 
 between answers which cover the question asked and those 
 which go all around it without really answering it at all. 
 This defect is often due to a misunderstanding of the ques- 
 tion. In such a case the instructor should point out the 
 gist of his question so that the student may give a more 
 satisfactory answer, but if the question was asked by a 
 student the answer should be referred to him for acceptance. 
 Even when an answer is accepted by a student, however, it 
 is often well for the instructor to make certain that his 
 difficulty has been cleared up by asking him further ques- 
 tions, especially since students are inclined to accept any 
 answer of their fellows whether complete or not, and such a 
 test tends to develop judgment of the value of statements 
 of all kinds. 
 
34 Teaching in the Army 
 
 b) Memory answers. The kind of answer will depend 
 to a large extent on the kind of question asked. One class 
 of answers may be called memory answers. . Such answers 
 show the exact knowledge of students and include defini- 
 tions, the nomenclature of the parts of a piece, etc. They 
 require little time, should be given quickly, and must be 
 concise, exact, and admitting of only one meaning. Defini- 
 tions especially require considerable attention. When 
 a student is called on to define mil, for example, his defini- 
 tion should not begin with the words "It is when," a 
 common error. Instead he should begin by saying, "A mil 
 is a unit ," and continue with an exact statement of what 
 it is, following the verb "is" with a noun and its modifiers. 
 Definitions are the basis of exact knowledge and of clear 
 statements, and unless the student can think of a better 
 substitute, an unlikely event, he might as well learn the 
 exact definition laid down in the drill regulations. An 
 occasional drill in memory answers is very invigorating, 
 in which the instructor requires a number of definitions, 
 names of parts, etc., in rapid succession, passing directly 
 from one student to another without waiting for the man who 
 hesitates. Such drills are not continued over long periods. 
 c) Thought answers. The second class of answers may 
 be termed "thought answers," usually requiring more time 
 than memory answers. It is necessary for the instructor 
 to remember that any idea which a student thinks of for 
 himself appears to him as a discovery, and it is his own 
 discoveries that make his work worth while. The good 
 instructor is always on the alert for such ideas, because 
 it is by appreciating just such thoughtful work that a whole 
 class is taught to understand what individual study means 
 and what their own possibilities are. 
 
 One of the best instructors the writer ever had is Pro- 
 fessor McMurry, of Columbia University. He will always 
 
Questions and Answers 35 
 
 remember the first recitation in this class. After studying 
 the text very carefully, I was called on and for answer 
 quoted almost word for word what the text had to say 
 on the subject, feeling very well satisfied with my statement. 
 The instructor asked two questions which showed me that 
 I really did not know anything about the subject but was 
 merely quoting someone else's ideas. The questions were 
 not asked in such a way as to discourage me, but when I 
 sat down I appreciated thoroughly that I had not assimilated 
 the reasons for the answer given. I did not recite again 
 in that class for some time. Finally in my studies a ques- 
 tion came up which I was unable to answer, so I looked 
 up various references and talked to other students about 
 it and then thought out my own conclusions about the 
 matter. Then one day Professor McMurry asked this 
 very question and requested volunteers to answer. I 
 volunteered, but this time I gave my answer in two sentences 
 and decided not to risk any more. The instructor was so 
 alert to the thoughts of his class that he seemed to know at 
 once that I had been thinking about this question, and he 
 would not let me even take my seat but asked me to explain 
 further. This time the answer was satisfactory. Here was 
 the secret of a good answer, the expression of individually 
 applied thought, and with it was discovered the pleasure 
 that comes to a student from developing and expressing 
 for himself what he thinks to be a good idea. Of course 
 the idea may not be new to the instructor, but he shows 
 his ability by drawing it from the student and by giving 
 him the opportunity of presenting and defending it. 
 
 This kind of answer is what is meant by a thought 
 answer. The illustration shows that students often need 
 encouragement in giving answers of this kind. The instruc- 
 tor may ask, "What do you mean by that ?" or " Can you 
 make your meaning clearer by an illustration?" or "Do it 
 
36 Teaching in the Army 
 
 and show us just what you mean." He niust be alert to aid 
 in this way when the student is unable to complete his 
 answer, call on some other member of the class to amplify it, 
 and if possible reduce it to a definite and concrete form. 
 It may be necessary to defer the completion of the answer 
 to the next recitation. Since this is the kind of answer 
 most desired from a group of students, it is the primary 
 object of a considerable part of the work of an instructor. 
 d) Repeating answers. Do not repeat answers. If the 
 instructor does this, the class forms the habit of speaking to 
 him. This tends to prevent the class from paying close 
 attention to each other. Many officers conducting recita- 
 tions obtain the same undesirable result by saying " Check" 
 every time they agree with the answer given, and often 
 one can see the face of a man just ready to ask for further 
 information or to raise an objection change to an affirma- 
 tive expression simply because the teacher agreed. Answers 
 are primarily for the consideration of the group of fellow- 
 students who are working together on the same subject, 
 and the reaction of this group toward any answer is second- 
 ary only to the work of the individual reciting and is the 
 best test of the recitation. The instructor can often tell 
 by watching the faces of students whether they understand, 
 or agree, or differ; and instead of helping the recitation by 
 suggestions to the man reciting, he usually accomplishes 
 more by calling on the doubtful student for his question 
 and having the first man explain to him his difficulty. In a 
 class so conducted one of the highest forms of praise would 
 be a complete silence after the recitation is concluded, 
 showing that both students and teacher have understood 
 the recitation and found it to satisfy all their questions; 
 and the next best form of praise would be a number of 
 questions from all parts of the room. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 DRILL 
 
 In army instruction the value of drill is recognized 
 in many ways and it is especially emphasized in the 
 maneuvers of dismounted and mounted troops, in firing 
 with arms of small and of large caliber, and in many similar 
 activities. Obviously drill varies in its efficiency and a 
 discussion of the elements of successful drill may be of 
 value. "Practice makes perfect" is an old saying, and 
 certainly correct practice improves skill. Repetition, 
 however, is not the only requirement for successful results. 
 
 1. Correct practice 
 
 In the first place, wrong practice is worse than no 
 practice. This is illustrated by the fact that during the 
 past war constant comment was made by commanding 
 officers on the improper saluting in the army, and this was 
 extremely difficult to change because improper practice 
 had made incorrect salutes a habit, especially in some 
 organizations. 
 
 2. Prevent errors by a correct copy, desirable to imitate 
 Perhaps the best means of preventing errors in drill 
 
 is to present a correct copy to the class. The purpose 
 and meaning of the copy must be clear and definite, and 
 definite instructions to the beginners must precede its 
 presentation, so that they know exactly what is expected of 
 them. 
 
 For example, when teaching " Squads Right," a selected 
 squad is used to demonstrate the movement. Form the 
 learners in two ranks, have them count off and form squads, 
 
 37 
 
3 8 Teaching in the Army 
 
 and require each man to watch the movement of his number 
 in the exhibition squad. After front and rear ranks of the 
 special squad have executed squads right separately, then 
 together, have the beginners execute it a few times, and 
 then call on individuals to tell what they did. Often 
 their replies are almost in the words of the book, which they 
 have not seen. Then have the class change places, count 
 off, and repeat the process throughout. In a short time 
 all will be executing the movement correctly and will be 
 able to explain it. 
 
 In addition to having the class know just what the 
 copy is for and what they themselves are to do, it is necessary 
 to have the copy one desirable to imitate. Men on exhibi- 
 tion drill, when well selected, take pleasure in their work 
 and their snap and vigor inspire emulation. A very 
 excellent copy of work in tactics, in mapping, and in other 
 subjects has the same effect. As a copy for just such a 
 purpose the moving pictures developed by the General 
 Staff have very great value and their use shows immediate 
 results. 
 
 3. Concentrated attention 
 
 To get best results from drill, the learner must think 
 about what he is doing. This is one reason why ques- 
 tions were asked of individuals learning squads right 
 above. Some suggestions as to how to obtain close 
 attention will lead any instructor to think of many 
 others of value, (a) Drill should be quite vigorous and 
 should be interspersed with short rest periods, (b) Variety 
 in drill aids in holding attention, while a constant 
 repetition without variations tends toward the opposite 
 result. In perfecting a movement, continue at it for a 
 time, change to something else, then return to it; and 
 even the same movement may be continued if used 
 
Drill 39 
 
 in different situations, (c) Selecting students to criticize 
 units adds to alertness, (d) Catch schemes such as 
 "Simon says" or "Grady says" are often used for the 
 same purpose, (e) Attention is much better concentrated 
 on any drill whose purpose is clearly defined in the minds 
 of students. (/) In short, practically all the discussion 
 of drill in this chapter emphasizes the value of attention 
 in drill. 
 
 4. Mental attitude of the student toward drill ' 
 
 Many officers who trained troops during the world-war 
 are witnesses to the effect of the mental attitude of the men 
 upon the success of their efforts. A senior instructor of 
 one brigade stated recently that this was 90 per cent of his 
 work and required such agencies as the following: an 
 organization to collect bills due troops at their homes and 
 to arrange for credit for their families, etc. ; special efforts 
 of the morale branch in the line of entertainment; co- 
 operation of chaplains and others in learning private 
 troubles and arranging them; . and many others. With 
 most of the private worries out of the way, attention to 
 proper methods of drill almost invariably showed surprising 
 results. Even under these circumstances, however, where 
 there was a special incentive in impending action, drill 
 often became monotonous and in a longer period tended 
 to be looked on with antipathy. 
 
 The principal purpose of drill is the formation of correct 
 habits. Some leading psychologists maintain that any 
 act which brings pleasurable consequences tends to become 
 a fixed response or habit more readily than one which is 
 followed by unpleasant results because of certain physio- 
 logical effects on the brain. Other psychologists reject the 
 idea of these physiological effects, but they agree that 
 pleasurable consequences make drill more perfect because 
 
4o Teaching in the Army 
 
 they induce further drill on the part of the individual. 
 In either case it seems certain that it should be the plan 
 of the instructor to connect drill with pleasurable conse- 
 quences so far as possible in order to get best results, 
 especially to connect successful work in this way. This 
 is frequently done and is not contrary to the idea of disci- 
 pline. 
 
 One source of pleasure in any kind of work is a personal 
 feeling of success and progress. One means of obtaining 
 this feeling in classes is by posting a report of the progress 
 of the section, squads, or individuals, preferably in a graphic 
 form, with a clear statement of the standards to be attained 
 to advance through the various grades of development. 
 Some such suggestions are made under the discussion of 
 marking. The more definite the standards for self- 
 judgment, the better the individual can measure his prog- 
 ress. It is partly for this purpose that qualification as 
 expert rifleman, first-class gunner, etc., should be offered 
 every man, and a list of those qualifying should be posted, 
 together with a statement of requirements for qualification. 
 Such definite ways of judging are needed in different stages 
 of progress in all subjects. 
 
 A second source of pleasure from work is some external 
 recognition of progress, expressing appreciation of success by 
 others than himself. A valuable way of doing this is to 
 provide for men to complete different phases of their drill 
 when they have become expert in them. For example, 
 when a man has completed the requirements for Semaphore, 
 he should "pass " to wigwag; the school of the squad should 
 be completed for the the school of the platoon; and only 
 occasional reviews of subjects passed would be required. 
 Here again requirements for advancement should be very 
 definite so that each student can judge his own progress. 
 Other ways of expressing appreciation of real success are 
 
Drill 41 
 
 numerous, and those -are more valuable for drill which are 
 based on a definite standard of accomplishment. Such 
 standards need to be developed in different subjects. 
 
 Other details of the proper mental attitude toward drill 
 are discussed in the various paragraphs of this chapter. 
 
 5. Begin drill with the simpler and fundamental elements 
 The habits formed at first must be exact, for ex- 
 ample the correct position of the soldier at attention or 
 the positions of the hands and arms in signaling. The 
 fundamentals must be developed deliberately and with 
 patient attention to detail. Here the model is used fre- 
 quently and with careful precision. Later complex develop- 
 ments will then be easier because the basic elements have 
 become habits and need little attention on the part of the 
 student. 
 
 6. Drill must be individual 
 
 Attention to individuals is the basis of economical drill. 
 Pick out individual errors for correction. In large classes 
 have the corporals rate the performance of the individuals of 
 his squad or the sergeant of his section; in other cases use 
 methods like those suggested in chapter ii for judging indi- 
 vidual differences; and use the results for the selection of 
 individuals for certain kinds of treatment. Poor men retard- 
 ing the whole class should be picked out and given indi- 
 vidual instruction by someone well qualified. Never drill a 
 few men at the expense of a large group. Experts should 
 likewise be picked and should be advanced or given special 
 recognition as drillmasters, etc. 
 
 7. Habits formed best in definite situations 
 
 The object of drill is to form habits. This is accom- 
 plished best by drill in definite situations. For example, it 
 is desired of officers and men that military courtesy become 
 
42 Teaching in the Army 
 
 ingrained. This is accomplished by practice in definite 
 situations. A superior officer approaches and all come to 
 attention and salute; practice in reporting in different situ- 
 ations is repeated. Attention to such details forms the habit 
 desired and it could not be formed in any general way. The 
 same demand for definite situations for practice can be 
 made of instruction in tactics in which one real section of 
 terrain after another is occupied and the proper evolutions 
 executed in each case, ending in the proper reactions and 
 solutions in new cases. Even one simple reaction is only 
 a habit in a few situations unless it has been practiced in 
 many situations. The use of problems in drill is important 
 both to make it interesting and to make it general. 
 
 8. The instructor an example of results 
 
 Finally the instructor should be an example of the 
 results desired in his men to carry out most successfully 
 the requirements for success in drill. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 PLANNING A RECITATION 
 
 i. Necessity for planning recitations 
 
 When an instructor applies the principles of teaching 
 so far considered, he may find that the recitation periods 
 are passing very quickly and that part of the work to be 
 covered is in danger of being omitted for lack of time. 
 When a course is laid out, it is planned to cover a certain 
 amount of subject-matter. Such a course is grouped into 
 various main topics ; the instructor must consider how 
 much time each topic will require and assign to each recita- 
 tion period a fairly definite part of the topic. Each hour, 
 then, requires a plan in order that all parts of the subject 
 may be thoroughly studied. In addition to this, the prin- 
 ciples of teaching call for a plan. The way of presenting 
 work varies with different classes; the work of the preced- 
 ing period must be considered ; and it will not do to depend 
 on the inspiration of the moment for the best pivotal ques- 
 tions or for good illustrative material and references. So 
 many beginners obtain good results in teaching because they 
 feel it necessary to plan their recitations, while many 
 experienced instructors grow stale because they miss the 
 freshness and interest which come from a little forethought. 
 
 2. Elements of a lesson plan 
 
 A plan must first consider the ground to be covered 
 during the recitation period. This naturally falls into 
 three parts, the review, the advance, and the assignment. 
 A definite section of the time should be allotted to each 
 part. At times a recitation may be all review, at times all 
 
 43 
 
44 Teaching in the Army 
 
 assignment, as when a complete period is taken up in 
 considering the next few days' work, but usually all three 
 parts are included in one recitation period. 
 
 3. The aim 
 
 Each day's recitation must have a definite aim or 
 object, and this object determines the arrangement of 
 subject-matter and the length of time for each part. The 
 aim is the basis of the lesson plan. It should be com- 
 prehended by the class, should be specific rather than 
 general, and applies to the "why" and the "what" of the 
 lesson, not the "how." 
 
 The following are examples of aims in recitations: 
 
 a) Materiel. To learn nomenclature of the traversing 
 mechanism and obtain practice in disassembling and 
 assembling it. 
 
 b) Care of horses. To discover clearly the fundamental 
 points considered in the selection of horses for artillery. 
 
 c) Dismounted drill. To increase the carrying power of 
 the voices of students in giving commands and to perfect 
 certain maneuvers. 
 
 d) Mathematics. To make clear the method of analysis 
 of a problem, especially emphasizing care in discovering 
 its meaning and ways of forming an equation. 
 
 4. Method 
 
 Having the aim of the recitation in view, the methods 
 of attaining it are considered. Methods in the lesson 
 plan must be detailed, so that they include important 
 questions to be asked, illustrations, references, practical 
 problems, etc., and these arranged in sequence. 
 
 The following methods have been used for the aims 
 stated in the preceding paragraph: 
 
 a) Materiel. Class of twenty, assign four men to each 
 gun, guns in circle around instructor; groups dismount 
 
Planning a Recitation 45 
 
 traversing mechanism as instructed, each part named as 
 dismounted and placed in regular order on paulin; review 
 nomenclature by naming parts and calling on individuals 
 to hold them up, then by holding up parts and asking 
 groups for names; reassemble parts; return tools. 
 
 b) Care of horses. Have an artillery horse on hand; 
 weigh him and compare with standard weights for artillery 
 horses; height, relation of height to weight; general 
 indications of quality in hair, bones, joints, head, feet; 
 action shown and criticized; general study of various parts 
 of the horse, head, neck, shoulders, withers, etc.; tests of 
 temperament. Follow by short quiz asking only for 
 nomenclature of parts. 
 
 c) Dismounted drill. State purpose to class. Review, 
 select student officer to stand at distance of 100 yards and 
 give the following commands, the last five repeated forcibly 
 by the class before execution (10 min.); second student 
 drop from ranks and march company to position of first, 
 giving following commands at that distance, commands, 
 then repeat with group giving commands before execution 
 (10 min.); like maneuvers by two other students giving 
 
 the following commands: (i) , (2) (20 min.); 
 
 company marched to east side of field, facing east, to be 
 moved by four commands to a definite position by sixth 
 student (10 min.); instructor takes command and tests 
 for maneuvers indicated in the aim (10 min.). 
 
 5. Summary of conclusions 
 
 At the end of the period it is necessary in most recitations 
 to have the class sum up the outstanding conclusions 
 reached in the lesson. For example, in the materiel lesson 
 above, this was done by asking the following question: 
 "Trace the action of the traversing mechanism from the 
 turn of the handwheel to the movement of the cradle/' 
 
46 Teaching in the Army 
 
 A definite summary of this nature is of great benefit in all 
 subjects because it fixes clearly the main points to be 
 remembered and assists students in review and in organizing 
 their work. 
 
 6. Review 
 
 An important part of the student's work is to remember 
 much of his course. The best way to remember a problem 
 once solved is to repeat it occasionally in some form or 
 another. The instructor may be sure that the class must 
 repeat and repeat again, and then he is often astonished that 
 after the third or fourth time the principles he thought 
 clearest and best fixed are not even understood by some of 
 the students. The lesson plan must provide definite 
 time and definite material for review. Usually it is best 
 to have a few minutes of review at the beginning of the 
 period to sum up salient points in previous lessons which 
 bear on the day's advance. The preceding paragraph 
 pointed out the need for a review at the end of the period, 
 in which students state the things that stand out boldest in 
 the recitation. The successful instructor prepares certain 
 review questions for the day as carefully as he plans the 
 method for advance work, and in records of work kept in 
 such units as those of the R.O.T.C. the review should be 
 included with the advance and the assignment. 
 
 At the conclusion of a main division of a course for ex- 
 ample, after studying the 3 -inch battery in materiel a com- 
 plete period of oral review is advisable, probably followed 
 by a written quiz. For general reviews of this nature the 
 advantage of having an outline of the course in the hands of 
 the class is obvious, and this is one reason for placing before 
 students such an outline either at the beginning of their 
 work or during its progress. A plan for review which often 
 brings excellent results is to prepare a set of questions 
 
Planning a Recitation 47 
 
 covering much of the course, give them to the class in 
 mimeographed form, and then select examination questions 
 from the set. If the questions are well selected they pro- 
 vide for adequate review, and the last suggestion insures 
 careful attention to them. 
 
 7. Assignments 
 
 Perhaps teachers fail more in giving assignments than 
 in any other part of their instruction. This is due to a lack 
 of appreciation of the importance of assignments. The 
 primary purpose of this part of the lesson plan is to show 
 students how to study the advance. Most students do 
 not know how to study. Hundreds of graduate students 
 have said that they never learned how to study until they 
 had finished their college work and had started on profes- 
 sional graduate courses. For this their instructors are 
 largely to blame. 
 
 Good study includes several important parts. (a) It is 
 necessary for the student to know exactly what the assign- 
 ment is, and it is best for him to write down clearly the 
 material it includes, (b) Like the recitation, the results of 
 study depend on the aim for that particular day's study, or 
 on the problem in mind. For example, if the class is to 
 find out methods of doing certain things, its attention 
 will be centered on how they are done rather than the 
 results of doing them. No assignment is satisfactory 
 unless it impresses clearly on the minds of the class the aim 
 of their study for the next day. (c) Study calls for an 
 organization of the subject-matter, often termed skeletoniz- 
 ing the subject-matter. This means the grouping of minor 
 topics about the few main topics suggested in the material. 
 Textbooks are usually, divided into paragraphs, each with 
 its own heading, but these paragraphs are minor topics which 
 need to be collected in support of the main ideas in the 
 
48 Teaching in the Army 
 
 lesson. Students need help in organizing their study 
 material, and the assignment provides for this. It is 
 usually done by pointing out the one, two, or three main 
 problems to be solved or major ideas to be considered; 
 sometimes by showing in addition the parts of the text 
 dealing with each topic; and sometimes by leaving to the 
 class the task of so selecting the subject-matter. For 
 example, in studying equitation the use of the aids is being 
 covered theoretically and practically, and the assignment 
 presents the problems, "What aids would you use in 
 jumping, and why?" "What difficulties do you meet in 
 turning on the forehand and how are they overcome ? " 
 "Prepare a rating scale for marking the members of this 
 section on their seats." (d) Individual study requires a 
 judging of the value of the subject-matter, not only in 
 organizing it, but also in deciding whether it is true, whether 
 it is well stated, whether it applies to the aim of the lesson, 
 etc. This faculty is developed in the recitation, (e) Study 
 is not complete when it simply includes the ideas of the 
 book, but this must be supplemented by one's own ideas 
 and experiences. For example, "This is different from the 
 way I did this yesterday. How does it differ ? Which is 
 better?" Or, "According to this, a regiment takes so 
 many minutes to get under way. How far could we go in 
 a morning?" The questions of the instructor in class 
 will call for such supplementary thought, and the assign- 
 ment includes questions requiring it. (/) Remembering 
 certain ideas or facts is an important part of study. The 
 assignment suggests some parts to memorize. 
 
 The time spent by a student in study is as important as 
 that spent in class. Usually a few minutes spent at the 
 conclusion of a period in bringing out a problem or two to 
 be answered in the coming work, as indicated above, makes 
 the difference between successful study and poor study. 
 
Planning a Recitation 49 
 
 Form of assignments. Assignments are made in many 
 forms. In some of the training camps during the war it 
 was found that certain subjects were not thoroughly covered, 
 that many sections fell behind the schedules of instruction, 
 and that men needed more aid in their study, To meet this 
 difficulty, printed assignments were prepared for each 
 day's study and a copy given to each student at the end of 
 the recitation. This material was required because most 
 officers had so little time to prepare assignments, the sub- 
 jects were so condensed that the recitation was crowded, 
 and many officers were not sufficiently able to prepare 
 assignments even with time. The printed copies consisted 
 usually of a set of questions or of problems to be answered 
 from the text, many questions involving considerable 
 individual thought. The following is an illustration: 
 
 CONDUCT OF FIRE. STUDY ASSIGNMENT 
 Second week, first hour. Pars. 1155-58, 1196, 1207, F.A.D.R. 
 
 Aim: Understanding of parallax and the effect of obliquity, 
 and a clear idea of deflection in preparation for firing data. 
 
 1. How many mils in 30 ? How many degrees in 1,000 mils ? 
 Ans.: 533J mils; 565. 
 
 2. Define parallax. Compute the parallax of 400 yards at a 
 point 2,500 yards away on a perpendicular. 
 
 3. Define obliquity. Draw a circle indicating the limits of 
 the obliquity factors, no interpolation. 
 
 4. Compute the parallax in question 2 if the point is 800 mils 
 to the right of the perpendicular. 
 
 5. Show by diagram one gun in position (G), a target (T) 
 2,000 yards away, an aiming point (P) 5,000 yards to the right 
 rear, and an observing station (BC) 500 yards to the exact right 
 of the gun. Which angle is larger, PGT or PBCT ? 
 
 6. By parallel lines construct an angle at BC equal to PGT. 
 
 7. What is deflection? From what is it measured and in 
 what direction ? 
 
 8. How close to their computed values are the initial deflection 
 and deflection difference usually sent to the guns ? 
 
So Teaching in the Army 
 
 This assignment prepares for computation of firing data 
 in class. 
 
 Whatever the form of the assignment, whether a brief 
 glance over the new work, or an oral problem, or oral 
 questions to be settled by study, or written material of some 
 kind, it should contain a definite aim, a suggestion of 
 organization, and a demand for actual application of the 
 material in some way. It requires a definite time in 
 the lesson plan and is worth careful preparation by the 
 instructor. 
 
 8. Summary 
 
 A complete lesson plan will probably take the form 
 indicated below: 
 
 A. Materials covered in the lesson. 
 
 1. Review. ( min.). 
 
 2. Advance. ( min.). 
 
 3. Assignment. ( min). In detail. 
 
 B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 
 
 1. Aim. 
 
 2. Method. (Details of review of advance.) 
 
 3. Results. (Instructor's idea of success of 
 lesson.) 
 
 It will assist the class to know the plan of the recitation, 
 since this increases their interest, helps them to remember 
 important ideas, and shows them how to study. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 MARKING, GRADING, OR RATING 
 
 i. An experiment in grading done by officers 
 
 Finding that the marks in conduct of fire given some 
 8,000 students in one training camp varied enormously 
 between batteries, and that some grades were much too 
 high and others as much too low, the writer tried the 
 experiment of assembling all instructors of the subject 
 and giving them a single set of answers to grade. The 
 paper to be marked consisted of ten answers to a test 
 handed in by a candidate, each answer valued at 10 per 
 cent for correct and most of them simple computations. 
 Each question was carefully considered by the group of 
 instructors, the correct answer determined, and a value 
 set on each part of an answer, so that every precaution 
 possible was taken to obtain uniform grading. Each 
 answer was discussed and marked before taking up 
 the next, and any question as to errors was answered. 
 The rating was done independently by each instructor. 
 The resulting grades were distributed as shown in the 
 graph on page 52. 
 
 a) Reading the graph. Numbers below the graph indi- 
 cate grades by percentage, numbers on the left indicate 
 number of officers giving any grade, and the numbers on 
 horizontal lines of the graph indicate definitely the number 
 of officers giving the grade immediately below, which 
 number is represented graphically by the height of each 
 line above the base line. The graph may be read as fol- 
 lows: (i) grades on the one paper varied from 43 per cent 
 to 88 per cent; (2) it was rated at 43 per cent by one officer, 
 
52 Teaching in the Army 
 
 at 44 per cent by two officers, etc., at 62 per cent by forty- 
 two officers, etc.; (3) since there were four hundred and 
 five officers, the middle or median grade is the 203 d in 
 the line, and the 203d grade falls in the group rated 62 per 
 cent, so that practically as many officers gave a grade 
 
 V fu 
 
 k^^V 1 f\ 6# 
 
 FIG. 3. Distribution of grades given by the same test 
 paper in conduct of fire by four hundred and five officers. 
 
 above 62 per cent as below 62 per cent, which is the median 
 or the middle grade; (4) two hundred and twenty-seven 
 papers, or 56 per cent of the total, fell between 59 per cent 
 and 65 per cent, inclusive, or more than one-half were within 
 3 per cent of the median grade, while between the grades 
 55 per cent and 70 per cent, a variation of 16 per cent, 
 there were 341, or 84 per cent of the total papers; (5) the 
 
Marking, Grading, or Rating 53 
 
 error as often exceeded as not, or the " probable error,'' 
 was 3! per cent. 
 
 b) Conclusions from the graph. (i) The wide distribu- 
 tion of grades shows that there is a great variation in mark- 
 ing even in a case apparently so simple. A special study 
 of grades given by field officers in the group showed a 
 variation almost as great. Evidently, then, the subject 
 of grading needs close attention. 
 
 (2) The close grouping of such a large percentage of 
 grades about the median is unusual. Most similar studies 
 of marking show less grouping and a larger probable error, 
 running from 5 per cent to 9 per cent. In this case the 
 grouping was probably due to the unusual precautions 
 taken in marking, which tends to show that it is possible 
 to train most officers to grade fairly evenly by careful 
 instruction in marking. 
 
 (3) In view of the care taken in this case, however, it 
 seems true that it is probably impossible to obtain uniform 
 grading with such a scale as the one used, namely a 100 per 
 cent or one-hundred-unit scale. 
 
 2. A comparison of scales of fine units and of coarse units 
 
 The paper in the experiment above was rated on a 
 100 per cent scale and the final grade given in units of i per 
 cent. Let us see what would have been the effect of 
 grading each question as before but expressing the final 
 mark in terms of a coarser scale, such as is usually indicated 
 by the letters A, B, C, etc. The following table shows 
 exactly the same marks as were given in the experiment 
 above expressed in terms of the scales indicated below. 
 
 a) Conclusions from table. (i) The coarse scale A 
 would have resulted in 82 per cent of the instructors giving 
 the same grade, C, or Fair, and consequently in a greatly 
 decreased variation. If D had been taken as Failure, 
 
54 
 
 Teaching in the Army 
 
 9\ per cent of the officers would have so marked the paper. 
 (2) The second scale, B, shows a wider variation, with 
 63 per cent of the instructors giving D and 25 per cent 
 giving E, a total of 88 per cent for the two. If grades 
 below 60 per cent were considered Failure, 27 per cent of 
 
 RATINGS EXPRESSED ON A COARSER SCALE 
 SCALE A* 
 
 Grade 
 
 Per Cent Value 
 
 Rating 
 
 No. of 
 Papers 
 
 Per Cent of 
 Total 
 
 A.. 
 B 
 
 86-lpo 
 71- 8S 
 
 Excellent 
 Good 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 J 
 
 8 
 
 C 
 
 <\6 70 
 
 Fair 
 
 332 
 
 82 
 
 D. 
 
 /IT CtJ 
 
 Poor 
 
 7Q 
 
 Q 
 
 E 
 
 ^ 1,1 
 40 and beloW 
 
 Failure 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SCALE B 
 
 
 
 A.. 
 
 90100 
 
 Excellent 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 B. 
 
 80- 80 
 
 Very good (G) f 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 C 
 
 7O 70 
 
 Good (Fair) 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 D 
 
 60- 69 
 
 Fair (Poor) 
 
 2<tf 
 
 63 
 
 E 
 
 50 59 
 
 Poor (Fail) 
 
 IO3 
 
 25 
 
 F 
 
 49 and below 
 
 Failure 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 405 
 
 IOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Scale A uses units corresponding to 15 per cent in the original experiment. 
 fWords in parentheses indicate ratings often given the preceding grade. 
 
 the officers would have so marked the paper. (3) It is 
 evident that a coarser scale means more uniformity in 
 marking a single, paper. (4) While a very fine scale tends 
 to too great variation among instructors in marking, it may 
 be that one too coarse will not indicate closely enough 
 the differences between the various individuals in a class. 
 Evidently the scale can be either too fine or too coarse. 
 
Marking, Grading, or Rating 55 
 
 b) General opinion. A number of prominent educational 
 investigators have published results of studies of marking 
 systems, and the consensus of opinion is that when marking 
 work in this way the minimum size of the marking unit 
 should be about 10 per cent, though a few say 5 per cent, 
 and that there should be about four such units above the 
 failure mark. The failure point varies with type of sub- 
 ject, of instruction, of text, etc. The two illustrations 
 show failure at 40 per cent and 50 per cent, respectively, 
 standards often used in the army. At any rate it is 
 the growing tendency to mark with such coarser units 
 and such a system may well be adopted by any instructor. 
 
 3. Objective rating scales . 
 
 With reference to grading, the most pronounced tend- 
 ency in the educational field today is toward objective 
 scales for rating qualities or knowledge. The greatest 
 cause of this tendency is an effort to reduce the variation 
 in marks due to the personal differences of instructors. 
 These scales are usually quantitative, so that higher marks 
 are obtained by doing more work, as illustrated in the Curtiss 
 scales for arithmetic, the variation in quality being provided 
 for by variation in types of work in the different parts of 
 the tests. Other tests, like the Thorndike Writing Scale, 
 are almost entirely for the quality of work done. It is 
 impossible to discuss such scales here. The psychological 
 rating tests used in the army during the war and the uni- 
 versal rating scales for the essential qualities of officers were 
 the beginning of efforts in this direction in our service. 
 
 a) Illustration. Efforts toward objective rating scales 
 for different subjects taught in the R.O.T.C. are of interest. 
 In one unit the sections in materiel were given a list of some 
 five hundred parts which they should be able to name and 
 locate, and thirty-three questions on design, operation, 
 
56 Teaching in the Army 
 
 ammunition, etc., which covered the course. The five 
 hundred parts counted 50 per cent of the whole, so that a 
 single failure in one of them cost iV per cent; the thirty- 
 three questions counted 50 per cent, so that a failure on 
 one cost i per cent. The whole scale was used for testing 
 a student or a section, and fairly absolute results were 
 obtained, since the part touched was either right or wrong, 
 whatever the personal attitude of the instructor, and an 
 error in a question made it incorrect. For a section of ten 
 students, each man was simply asked fifty of the five hun- 
 dred parts, each valued at i per cent, and three of the thirty- 
 three questions, each valued at 17 per cent, the men being 
 taken in rotation. Suppose one man answered correctly 
 thirty-five of the fifty parts and two of the three questions, 
 his grade would be 35 per cent plus 24 per cent, or 79 per 
 cent, and his rating would be C. This is the beginning of 
 an objective scale of a quantitative nature. Such scales 
 should be made of parts of equal value or difficulty and 
 the answers should admit of exact grading, that is they 
 are either right or wrong. Their development in the army 
 is a matter for the future. 
 
 b) Advantages. (i) One of the main reasons for objec- 
 tive rating scales was stated as the necessity for removing 
 as far as possible the personal variation in marking. (2) A 
 second reason of great importance is that such a scale fur- 
 nishes the student with a measure of his own advance. 
 Among the obvious advantages of this are increased interest, 
 a clearer knowledge of what he is working for, and a satis- 
 factory basis for considering his own work independent of 
 the ideas of the instructor. (3) A third reason for such 
 scales is that they enable the student to understand just 
 what his marks mean, bringing him in closer touch with 
 the instructor. (4) Grades so given are much more satis- 
 factory to the instructor for much the same reasons, and 
 
Marking, Grading, or Rating 57 
 
 especially because each student can be rated without refer- 
 ence to the work of other members of the class. 
 
 4. Variation of marks of students in the same class 
 
 The individual differences of students, discussed in 
 chapter ii, must be considered in discussing the variation 
 of marks which is found among the members of a single 
 class. In that chapter it was suggested that the abilities 
 of students cannot be expected to be grouped so regularly 
 as in the Normal Distribution Curve there shown. The 
 same chapter suggests a method of determining to some 
 extent these differences by a graphic presentation of their 
 grades. A number of such studies have been made. In 
 most cases the curve of ability is high at some one point 
 and the majority of students have ability, so far as could 
 be determined, closely grouped about this point, with only 
 a few showing it to a very much greater or very much less 
 degree. In a few cases the class seemed to be divided into 
 two groups, one showing very high ability and the other 
 rather low ability in the quality tested, and in these cases 
 the curve of distribution showed two distinct high points, 
 or modes, with most of the students grouped about these 
 points and only a few in the area of medium ability between. 
 It seems to be true, however, that an instructor can be 
 fairly certain that when he grades a number of students on 
 one subject there will be a middle mark, near average 
 ability for men ready to take the course, about which the 
 majority of the class should rank. As he becomes better 
 acquainted with his class this will become clearer, so that 
 he cannot only judge the ability of his students by the 
 graph of their marks, but he can judge also of the correct- 
 ness of his marks by the same means. 
 
 The following graphs of supposititious cases show such 
 a distribution of grades and are given for the reasons 
 
Teaching in the Army 
 
 indicated in the discussion following them. They may 
 be taken as the records of two batteries working at dis- 
 mounted drill. 
 
 a) Discussion of curves. (i) "A" Battery shows the 
 median grade as D and an even distribution above and 
 below this mark. 
 
 CURVE OF GRADES or "A" BATTERY 
 
 G-ca^es E B C D A 
 
 CURVE OF GRADES OF "B" BATTERY 
 
 A/o ofMetv 
 
 Graces 
 
 D C 
 
 FlG. 4 
 
 (2) "B" Battery shows a median grade of B, with com- 
 paratively few A's and a gradual decrease to D and E. 
 This curve is "skewed" to the upper end of the scale. 
 
 (3) In each battery there is a grouping such as that 
 discussed above. The first curve would indicate that the 
 work is fairly hard for the battery, or that it is indifferent, 
 or that the instructor is probably marking relatively with 
 fairness but with a very high standard, perhaps because 
 the work is just beginning and progress will show a steady 
 move of the mode or high point to the right. 
 
 (4) The second curve would indicate that the work is 
 fairly easy for the battery, or that the instructor is inclined 
 
Marking, Grading, or Rating 59 
 
 to mark too high, or that the organization contains an 
 unusually large proportion of men of high ability. 
 
 b) Uses of the curves. (i) By the instructor. A graphic 
 presentation of marks presents a clear basis for judging 
 whether his marks are fair and for comparison with the 
 work of other instructors and with their standards of rating. 
 
 (2) By the supervisor. The inspector obtains the 
 same aid in judging that is given to the instructor by 
 graphic representation of marks. In case of the first curve, 
 he would want to know why the rating is so low; in the 
 second case he would want to know both why it is so high 
 and why it is " skewed" to one side. 
 
 (3) Some educators and some educational institutions 
 go so far as to require that marks given by instructors 
 shall conform approximately to the curve shown for "A" 
 Battery. This has been done, for example, in the University 
 of Missouri. The basis for this requirement is that the 
 courses outlined are sufficiently difficult for the great 
 majority of students, and that it is fairly unusual to find a 
 class made up largely of men of great brilliance in any 
 particular subject. For this reason instructors whose 
 marks show great variation from the normal curve are 
 sometimes required to explain the cause for such variation. 
 
 (4) Until the subject has been more completely deter- 
 mined, the ordinary instructor will probably be satisfied 
 with a fairly even distribution of grades for his classes, 
 but at the same time he should be able to explain to some 
 extent why he has whatever kind of curve is shown for 
 those classes. 
 
 5. The use of graphs in connection with marks to show 
 
 progress of a class 
 
 As suggested above and in preceding paragraphs, graphs 
 of ratings can be used to indicate the progress of a whole 
 
6o 
 
 Teaching in the Army 
 
 class as well as to study the individual differences of its 
 members y the standard of rating of instructors and the 
 relative progress of different classes. The following 
 graph was used to study the progress of sixty-four students 
 in a class in field artillery materiel in the R.O.T.C. unit at 
 the University of Chicago. The marks are based on the 
 objective scale for rating knowledge mentioned in section 3 , 
 paragraph a, of this chapter, which required an intimate 
 knowledge of 500 parts of materiel of different types. 
 
 a) Discussion of graph. (i) The first graph shows a 
 wide distribution in knowledge of materiel, with the middle 
 
 SERIES OF GRAPHS OF PROGRESS 
 
 & F E D C B A 
 
 Below 41 4J-50 51 - W fcl - 70 7/ - CO *l -90 <" " '0 
 
Marking, Grading, or Rating 
 
 61 
 
 F D C B A 
 
 FIG. 5. Graph showing progress of sixty-four students in 
 field artillery materiel, based on objective scale: a. Grades 
 obtained in first test, end of one-third of quarter; b. Grades ob- 
 tained in second test, end of two-thirds of quarter; c. Grades 
 obtained in final test, end of quarter. 
 
 grade D, which is barely passing in the University, with 
 eight conditioned and eleven failures. The change in the 
 median is noticeable, as is the final grouping toward high 
 marks. Evidently the university students were well 
 able to learn materiel and to understand its uses. 
 
 (2) The presentation of successive graphs to the class 
 added considerable interest to the tests and to the work. 
 
APPENDIXES 
 APPENDIX A. STUDY HELPS 
 
 [From suggestions to University High School Students] 
 
 Good work habits are quite as important as subject-matter. 
 Your aim should be to do the job in less time and do it better. 
 
 1. Form a time and place habit by studying the lesson in the 
 same subject in the same place, at the same time each day. 
 Don't study immediately after a heavy meal. 
 
 2. Have proper study conditions and equipment a quiet room not 
 too warm, good light on the left, a straight chair and table, 
 the necessary books, tools, and materials. 
 
 3. Study independently. Do your own work and use your own 
 judgment, asking for help only wh/en you cannot proceed 
 without it, thus developing ability to think for yourself, 
 and the will-power and self-reliance essential to success. 
 
 4. Arrange yaur tasks economically; study those requiring fresh 
 attention first; those in which concentration is easier, like 
 written work, later. 
 
 5. Sit straight and go at the work vigorously, with confidence 
 and determination, without lounging or waste of time. 
 When actually tired, exercise a moment, open the window, 
 change to a different type of work. 
 
 6. Be clear on the assignment and the form in which it is to be 
 delivered. In class take notes when the assignment is 
 made; mark things to be carefully learned. When in doubt, 
 consult the instructor. 
 
 7. In committing material to memory, learn it as a whole; go 
 over it quickly first, then more carefully, then again and 
 again until you have it. In learning forms, rules, definitions, 
 etc., it will help to repeat them aloud. 
 
 8. In studying material to be understood and digested but not 
 memorized, first go over the whole quickly, then carefully, 
 section by section; if possible, then review the whole quickly. 
 
 62 
 
Appendixes 63 
 
 9. Use judgment as well as memory; analyze paragraphs, select 
 important points, note how minor ones are related to them; 
 use your pencil freely to mark important points so that you 
 may learn systematically and review easily. 
 
 10. Study an advance lesson promptly and review before going to 
 class, recall memorized matter by repeating it, aloud if neces- 
 sary; think through a series of points to see that you have 
 them in order in your mind. 
 
 11. Use all the material aids available index, notes, etc. 
 
 APPENDIX B. LIST OF REFERENCES 
 
 1. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 BAGLEY, Educative Process. Macmillan. 
 
 COLVIN, The Learning Process. Macmillan. 
 
 DEWEY, How We Think. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 JAMES, Talks to Teachers on Psychology. Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 THORNDIKE, Educational Psychology (briefer course). Teachers 
 
 College, Columbia University. 
 
 , Educational Psychology. 3 vols. 
 
 2. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 
 
 BAGLEY, Educational Values. Macmillan. 
 
 BOLTON, Principles of Education. Macmillan. 
 
 CUBBERLEY, Changing Conceptions of Education. Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co. 
 
 HANUS, Educational Aims and Values. Macmillan. 
 THORNDIKE, The Principles of Teaching. A. G. Seiier Co. 
 
 3. METHODS AND MANAGEMENT 
 
 BAGLEY, Classroom Management. Macmillan. 
 COLVIN, Introduction to High School Teaching. Macmillan. 
 EARHART, Types of Teaching. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 McMuRRY, Elements of General Method. Macmillan. 
 
 , How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co. 
 STRAYER AND NORSWORTHY, How to Teach. Macmillan. 
 
64 Teaching in the Army 
 
 STEVENS, The Question as a Measure of Efficiency. Teachers 
 
 College, Columbia University. 
 WHIFFLE, How to Study Effectively. Public School Publishing Co. 
 
 4. TEACHERS' MARKS 
 
 GRAY, "Descriptive List of Standard Tests," Elementary School 
 Journal, September, 1917. 
 
 RUGG, "Teachers' Marks and Marking Systems," Educational 
 Administration and Supervision, February, 1915. 
 
 , Statistical Methods Applied to Education. Hough ton 
 
 Mifflin Co. 
 
 STARCH, Educational Measurements. Macmillan. 
 
 TERMAN, The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
 
 WHIFFLE, Manual of Physical and Mental Tests. 2 vols. War- 
 wick and York. 
 
 KELLEY, Teachers' Marks: Their Variability and Standardization. 
 Teachers College, Columbia University. 
 

 
 
 
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