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THE INCAS AND THEIR 
 INDUSTRIES 
 

Mute I 
 
 PORTRAIT OF A DIGNITARY 
 
 (Front tlic Si.illi He/tori of tin- \alional Art Collet-lion Funil, 
 in the Author's collect inn) 
 
 Front 
 
THE INCAS AND 
 THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY VAN DEN BERGH 
 
 LONDON 
 
 GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LTD 
 
 NEW YORK : E. P. BUTTON & CO 
 
 1921 
 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 i. PORTRAIT OF A DIGNITARY - Frontispiece 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 II. CYCLOPEAN WALL, PALACE OF THE INCA 
 
 ROCCA, CUZCO - - 2 
 
 III. MONOLITHIC GATEWAY, TIAHUANACO, 
 
 BOLIVIA 3 
 
 IV. UPPER TERRACE, FORTRESS OF OLLANTAY- 
 
 TAMBO 4 
 
 LOWER TERRACES : OLLANTAYTAMBO - 4 
 V. SUN-CIRCLE, SILLUSTANI - 5 
 VI. THE GREAT PYRAMID OF MOCHE - 6 
 PRINCIPAL FORTRESS OF OLLANTAYTAMBO - 6 
 VII. BRIDGE OF THE APURIMAC 7 
 VIII. LOOKING ACROSS THE BRIDGE - IO 
 IX. INCA WALL WITH NICHE I CUZCO - II 
 X. NICHE IN TERRACE WALLS OF THE COL- 
 CO MP ATA - 12 
 INCA DOORWAY, CUZCO - - 12 
 XI. DOORWAYS - 13 
 GATEWAY AT CEMETERY I FRONT VIEW - 13 
 XII. MUMMY FROM THE COAST, ANCON - 14 
 
 PERUVIAN MUMMIES - 14 
 v. 
 
 
vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 XIII. CHULPA OR BURIAL-TOWER - 15 
 
 XIV. PERUVIAN POTTERY - 1 6 
 TAMBOURINE-PLAYER - 1 6 
 
 XV. PERUVIAN POTTERY (3 ILLUSTRATIONS) - IJ 
 
 XVI. TRUMPET, BAKED CLAY 2O 
 
 FISH ORNAMENTS FROM THE CHINCHA 
 
 ISLANDS - 20 
 
 THE SERPENT SYMBOL - 2O 
 
 SNAIL FROM CHIMU VASE - - 2O 
 
 XVII. TWO VASES - 2O 
 
 POTTERY VASE AND POTTERY TRUMPET - 2O 
 
 XVIII. POTTERY (iN THE AUTHOR'S COLLECTION) AT 
 
 THE BRITISH MUSEUM - 22 
 
 XIX. PERUVIAN POTS - ~ 2 3 
 
 XX. POTTERY TYPES - - 26 
 
 XXI. WARRIORS FIGHTING - 2J 
 XXII. TYPES OF DWELLINGS ON THE COAST (FROM 
 
 VASES) - 28 
 
 HUNTING SCENE (FROM A VASE) - 28 
 
 XXIII. FISHING SCENE (FROM A VASE) - 29 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 
 
 POINTED-FOOTED JAR - 22 
 
 SANDALS - 24 
 
 HEAD-DRESSES -. - 25 
 
 JAR PORTRAIT OF A SOLDIER - 28 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTKR PAGE 
 
 I. INCA RULE AND SPANISH WARFARE I 
 
 II. PHYSICAL ASPECTS - "4 
 
 III. THE INCA RULERS - "9 
 
 IV. LAW AND RELIGION - 12 
 V. ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS - - 15 
 
 VI. INDUSTRY - - 19 
 
 Vll 
 
The Incas and their Industries 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INCA RULE AND SPANISH WARFARE 
 
 IF we look backward, across the centuries lying 
 behind us, we notice that, although the ways 
 differ, all nations and their rulers try to arrive 
 at general prosperity by laws and regulations. 
 
 The ancient Hebrew system of short leases offered 
 undoubtedly certain guarantees that families who had 
 "waxed poor," as Leviticus expresses it, were not 
 condemned to everlasting poverty, but able to make a 
 fresh start in " the jubilee " year. 
 
 " For the land is mine," spake the Lord unto 
 Moses. Democracy of our day seems to proclaim 
 the same principle : and it tries to come to the rescue 
 of the poor, by attacking landed property, acquired 
 generations ago, by means alleged to be illegal, and 
 held by generation after generation to the present day. 
 
 The Incas of Peru followed another principle to 
 promote a certain equality among their subjects, and 
 in the twelfth century issued an agrarian law, according 
 to which all the land was divided among the people 
 according to the size of each family, with periodical, 
 annual redistributions. 
 
 It was a remarkable effort, remarkable because so 
 many thinkers have sought to attain a similar result, not 
 only for land and agriculture, but for all means of 
 production. In his " Looking Backward," a book 
 that made a great impression about a quarter of a 
 century ago, the author, Edward Bellamy, gave a 
 
2 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 concise description of his system to nationalise wealth 
 as far as industry is concerned. He assumes that : 
 "The nation organised as the one great business 
 corporation in which all other corporations were 
 absorbed ... it became the one capitalist, the sole 
 employer, the final monopoly in the profits and 
 economies of which all citizens shared. In a word, the 
 people of the United States concluded to assume the 
 conduct of their own business, just as they had as- 
 sumed the conduct of their own government, organis- 
 ing now for industrial purposes on precisely the same 
 grounds that they had organised for political pur- 
 poses." 
 
 Bellamy further asserts that entrusting commerce 
 and industry to private persons and irresponsible 
 corporations and syndicates " is a folly similar in kind, 
 though vastly greater in magnitude, to that of sur- 
 rendering the functions of political government to 
 kings, autocrats, and nobles." 
 
 The Peruvians of the twelfth century probably 
 never dreamed of interfering with the actions of their 
 Incas, but submitted to any regulations these kings 
 decided to make, and accepted that about the equal 
 partitions of the land. Anyway, this attempt to 
 institute "egalite," perhaps with "fraternite," but 
 without "liberte," shows the spirit by which the 
 Incas were guided, and which formed the basis of 
 their government until they were conquered and 
 despoiled of all power by the Spaniards, many genera- 
 tions later, who also destroyed Peruvian civilisation 
 and wealth. 
 
 In consequence of this ruthless warfare it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to investigate Peru's history, her laws, 
 her municipal or communal government, industries, 
 and customs. The Incas left no written records 
 about the greater part of their history ; the Peruvians 
 being, therefore, so far a prehistoric people, about 
 whom knowledge can only be arrived at by inference. 
 
Plate II 
 
 CYCLOPEAN WALL, PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA, CUZCO. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 

INCA RULE AND SPANISH WARFARE 3 
 
 Specimens of their pottery, textiles, and other 
 objects have, however, been collected, and these give 
 here and there a clue to the wonderful civilisation of 
 this remarkable people. They came to light in recent 
 times through excavations in Peru, and fortunately 
 could be secured for the nation, and are now in the 
 British Museum, accessible to the general public. 
 
 They seem not only to form a convincing and 
 reliable confirmation of previous conjectures as to the 
 idolatrous form of the Peruvians' religion, but also give 
 an idea of their warlike habits and peculiar customs. It 
 may be considered useful to precede an account of this 
 collection of pottery by some remarks about the 
 country itself, and the places where these objects were 
 found. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 PHYSICAL ASPECTS 
 
 AS far as Peru's history is known, her frontiers 
 varied a good deal in the course of time. 
 Originally the country was only two hundred 
 and fifty miles long and sixty wide, but the Incas 
 conquered vast territories, |until ( in ithe sixteenth 
 century their kingdom, during the period of its 
 highest prosperity, comprised the now independent 
 republics of Ecuador, Bolivia and Northern Chile, as 
 well as the immense wooded tracts along the Amazon 
 and its tributaries, of which even now only little is 
 known. 
 
 Peru, as we know it, covers about six hundred and 
 eighty thousand square miles, with a coast-line along 
 the Pacific of some one thousand three hundred and 
 fifty miles, and inland frontiers giving a width varying 
 from three hundred to seven hundred miles. These 
 latter frontiers were arranged at different times and 
 by various agreements, frequently amended as gradually 
 the country became better known and was more 
 accurately surveyed. The oldest of these agreements 
 is the frequently revised Treaty of San Ildefonso 
 (1777) between Peru and Brazil, whereas as recently 
 as 1913 British officers surveyed the borders between 
 Peru and Bolivia. Even this survey left some points 
 unsettled where the Neath River separates the two 
 republics. As a so-called natural boundary a river has, 
 of course, certain advantages, but, unless it is well 
 dyked in, these advantages are more or less theoretical, 
 as floods often alter its course and dense forests 
 frequently make exploration difficult. 
 
Plate IV 
 
 UPPER TERRACE, FORTRESS OF OLI.ANTAYTAMBO 
 
 LOWER TERRACES : OLLANTAYTAMBO 
 
 (From South American Archceology, by kind permission of the Author, MR. T. A. JOYCE; 
 
Plate V 
 
 SUN-CIRCLE, SILLUSTANI. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru : Harper & Brothers, Nezv York) 
 
PHYSICAL ASPECTS 5 
 
 But, however imposing these tremendous rivers be, 
 Peru's outstanding feature, determining the aspect of 
 the country as well as the life and characteristics of the 
 population, are her mountains, the Andes that 
 tremendous range running across the whole continent 
 of South America, on an average about twelve thousand 
 feet high, and, for the greater part, covered with 
 eternal snow. 
 
 It is interesting in this connection to quote the 
 words of one of Britain's prominent men. In his 
 work, " South America : Observations and Im- 
 pressions." (London. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1912.) 
 Lord (then Mr. James) Bryce, says on page 5 about 
 Peru : 
 
 " The foreground of wandering sand and black 
 stones, the sense of solitude and of boundless space, a 
 space useless to man and a solitude he can never 
 people, the grimness of these bare walls of rock and 
 pinnacles of untrodden snow rising out of a land with 
 neither house nor field nor flower nor animal life, but 
 only two lines of steel running across the desert floor, 
 would have been terrible were it not for the exquisite 
 richness and variety of the colours. In the foreground 
 the black rocks and the myriad glitter of sand crystals 
 were sharp and clear. The tints were more delicate 
 on the red hills beyond, and the stern severity of the 
 precipices in the far background was softened into 
 tenderness by distance. The sunlight that burned 
 upon these lines of iron and danced in waves of heat 
 upon the rocks seemed to bring out on all the nearer 
 hills and all the distant crags varieties of hue, some- 
 times contrasted, sometimes blending into one another, 
 for which one could find no names, for pink melted 
 into lilac, and violet into purple. Two months later, 
 in the forests of Brazil, we were to see what the sun of 
 the tropics does in stimulating an exuberant life : here 
 we saw what beauty he can give to sterility." 
 
 The Andes divide into two large parallel arms, 
 
6 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 connected by transverse ranges, so-called " Knots." 
 Whereas the main arms enclose the tablelands, " the 
 Knots " form basins in these lands. One of these 
 basins lies twelve thousand five hundred feet above the 
 sea, between the Cuzco Knot in Peru, at 14.30 S.L. 
 and the Potosi Knot in Bolivia at 22 S.L. ; it is three 
 hundred and sixty miles long and one hundred wide, 
 and contains the sacred lake of Titicaca. 
 
 This is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable 
 freshwater seas in the world, and the largest lake in 
 South America. Near the southern bank are two 
 small islands, of which the one, Titicaca, was dedicated 
 to the Sun, and the other, Coati, to the Moon. Many 
 Inca remains are found here, of which a Convent of the 
 Virgins of the Sun is still in good preservation. The 
 lake has not yet been surveyed, and different travellers 
 give different estimates, varying between one hundred 
 and sixty-five and one hundred and twenty miles for 
 its length, and between sixty-three and thirty-eight 
 miles for its width. However, its size must have 
 decreased considerably, for the ruins of Tiahuanacu, 
 the ancient city, built on its shore, are now at some 
 distance from it, and this may account for the difference 
 in the measurements given above. 
 
 It receives the water of several small rivers, and 
 discharges its own into the river Desaguadero. Its 
 water has a bad taste, but contains a great variety of 
 fish, and consequently large numbers of waterfowl live 
 here. These form the main food for the small popula- 
 tion of mountaineers, for cereals cannot ripen at this 
 high altitude, only green barley, used for fodder. 
 
 North of the Titicaca tableland and the Cuzco 
 Knot is, at a distance of four hundred and forty miles, 
 the Pasco Knot. Between these two knots and the 
 converging Andes chains lies, over eleven thousand feet 
 above sea level, the plateau on which Cuzco, Peru's 
 ancient capital, is built. 
 
 It is clear from the above that the country may be 
 
Plate VI 
 
 THE GREAT PYRAMID OF MOCHE. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FORTRESS OF OLLANTAYTAMBO. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
Plate VII 
 
 
 OF THK AI'UK1.M\< 
 
 (From SQUIKR'S Peru) 
 
PHYSICAL ASPECTS 7 
 
 divided into three longitudinal regions : the sandy 
 coast, the mountains, and the Eastern Amazonian 
 slopes of the Andes. 
 
 The coastal region between the Andes and the 
 Pacific is a desert intersected by rivers running into the 
 sea. About half of these do not reach the snow line, 
 with the unavoidable result that, except during the 
 rainy season, they are dry from June to September, 
 when there is also much fog, called " Garnua." 
 
 The heat and dryness are greatest from November 
 till April, and next to no vegetation is possible in the 
 deserts between the rivers deserts that have sometimes 
 a width of seventy miles. Fertility is only found in 
 the valleys, along the banks of those rivers that have a 
 constant supply of water, because they originate high 
 up in the Andes in the snow line. Here one finds 
 abundant sugar-cane, cotton, vine, olives, and large 
 forests. 
 
 The second region of the three, that of the moun- 
 tains, the Andes themselves, forms about one-fourth 
 of the country. It is called the " Sierra " and consists 
 of enormous chains of mountains, high-lying tablelands 
 of tremendous size, deep fertile valleys, and ravines. 
 
 The third and eastern part is the exact and com- 
 plete opposite of the first. Although it is called the 
 " Montana," it does not contain the mountains 
 themselves, but only their slopes, descending into the 
 plains of the Amazon. It is moist and fertile and 
 absolutely tropical. Its low-lying plains are full of 
 dense forests through which large rivers run, all 
 ending in the Amazon, that carries their water into 
 the Atlantic. Here grow the rubber trees, on whose 
 account the boundary commissions are busy. Cacao, 
 coffee, sugar-cane and manioc are grown here. Peru 
 is, moreover, the country from which two famous and 
 for medical purposes useful drugs are obtained, 
 cocaine and quinine, for the coca, from which 
 cocaine is extracted, and the chinchona, whose bark 
 
8 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 provides the quinine, grow here. The Indians, when 
 they are travelling, also use the coca leaves, mixed with 
 a little lime, thus providing a satisfying and sustaining 
 food. Whether they themselves or the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries discovered the beneficial qualities of the 
 " Peruvian bark " seems uncertain, but at all events, 
 the latter were the first to send it to Europe, for which 
 we owe them a great debt of gratitude. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Peru is well known and 
 excited European cupidity from the time the country 
 was first invaded by the Spaniards, who possessed 
 themselves of the immense quantities of gold of the 
 Incas. The silver mines of Cerro de Pasco were the 
 richest of all ; the Cordilleras de los Andes are rich 
 in veins of gold, copper, lead and bismuth, whereas a 
 considerable trade is going on in nitrate of soda. 
 
 These mines might be worked to much greater 
 advantage if there were better roads in the mountains. 
 As it is, they are only accessible by mule tracks and over 
 rather frail bridges, so that the heavy mining machinery 
 has no other means of transport than the backs of 
 mules and llamas. 
 
 With regard to the climate, it is obvious that it 
 varies in the three regions. At the coast it is unhealthy ; 
 the tropical lowlands of the " Montana " are hot ; in 
 the higher regions it is mild ; whereas the highest 
 mountains are covered with eternal snow. 
 
 The result is that nearly every crop, European and 
 other, can be and is grown here. All sorts of domestic 
 stock can be raised, especially sheep of European 
 origin, who multiply amazingly. The llama is the 
 native sheep and also the native beast of burden, but 
 the vicunas and huanacos live in a wild state. These 
 are, however, carefully preserved, for they give the 
 most beautiful wool of admirable fineness, from which 
 the famous textiles of the Incas were woven. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE INCA RULERS 
 
 MANCO CAP AC and his sister-wife Occllo, 
 the first Inca King and Queen, were said to 
 be Children of the Sun, who were sent to 
 Peru by their father, that they might teach the 
 barbarian natives to plant maize, breed flocks, build 
 houses, found cities, weave wool, and other industries 
 and arts. 
 
 Manco Capac with his Queen descended from 
 heaven on the Island of Titicaca, in the lake of that 
 name, thereby making it a sacred spot; and after 
 some time the two travelled north, across the table- 
 land near Cuzco, until they found land soft enough to 
 drive in the sceptre of gold, which their father, the 
 Sun, had given them for this purpose. 
 
 Here, in a beautiful valley, they founded Cuzco, 
 their capital. 
 
 This legend, one of the many about the origin of 
 the Incas, may safely be taken to prove two things. 
 The first is that the Incas, when invading Peru, found 
 there advanced civilisation, the second that this 
 invasion took place in prehistoric ages of which there 
 are no records as these are usually understood. Proof 
 for the first may be found in the immense structures, 
 megalithic and otherwise, on the mainland near the 
 Island of Titicaca, probably erected long before the 
 Inca rule. 
 
 And, as Spanish chroniclers relate, the Incas seem 
 to have built on the foundations of civilisation which 
 they found. They promoted agriculture, introduced 
 the cultivation of useful crops, taught the people to 
 
lo THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 build terraces on the slopes of the mountains, and 
 initiated a system of irrigation, conveying the water by 
 extensive aqueducts to the coast and other parts where 
 the soil suffered from drought and the dryness of the 
 climate hindered vegetation. 
 
 These developments necessitated legislation, and 
 the Incas became great law-givers as well. They kept 
 in being the local village communities, the " Ayllus " 
 which they found in the conquered country, and 
 through these carried on husbandry in a more or less 
 communistic way. The distribution of the land in 
 equal shares has already been referred to. They 
 " rationed " the allotment holders with regard to the 
 quantity of water each was allowed by the overseers. 
 These local overseers also saw to it that no land was 
 left uncultivated, and no terraces allowed to fall into 
 decay, in the same way as during the late war British 
 farmers were controlled by government officials and 
 if necessary punished. 
 
 So idleness, unemployment and poverty were 
 unknown, and certainly not encouraged or endowed. 
 If calamities destroyed crops the victims were sup- 
 ported from the village stores, to which each inhabitant 
 had to give part of his harvest. If illness or other 
 causes prevented a man from doing his work, his neigh- 
 bours were obliged to come to the rescue, and till 
 the land for him. 
 
 To show how great an importance the government 
 attached to agriculture and husbandry, the Inca 
 ploughed the land on the day of the great festival of 
 the Sun. On these occasions he used a golden plough, 
 and thereby showed that tilling the earth iTrwork well 
 worthy of the Children of the Sun. 
 
 It was perhaps only natural that these Children of 
 the Sun considered themselves a superior race, being 
 of divine descent, forming a separate caste who ac- 
 quired superior learning, and thereby secluded them- 
 selves still more from the common population ; they 
 
Plate VIII 
 
 LOOKING ACROSS THE ERIDGE. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
Plate IX 
 
 [Photo, Underwood 
 INCA WALL WITH NICHE : CUZCO 
 
 (From South American Archaeology, by MR. T. A. JOYCE) 
 
THE INCA RULERS ' n 
 
 asserted that they could prophesy the future, and 
 perhaps had some knowledge of astronomy mixed up 
 with notions of astrology. 
 
 It also deserves notice that they called their capital 
 Cuzco, the Inca word for " Navel." This Cuzco be- 
 came a very great city, as a matter of fact the Rome of 
 the gradually expanding Inca empire, the residence of 
 princes and nobles, where the great Temple of the Sun 
 was built, the goal of numberless pilgrims. 
 
 The Incas' favourite residence was, however, 
 Yucay, a few miles away from Cuzco. There they 
 built their villas in another beautiful valley, sheltered 
 from the winds by the surrounding mountains, watered 
 by crystal streams, which afforded them the luxury of 
 refreshing baths. 
 
 They derived their wealth from the mineral 
 products of the country, and indulged even in the 
 luxury of having their palaces and other residences left 
 intact after their earthly death. For the Children of 
 the Sun believed in resurrection and had their bodies 
 embalmed. On certain important festivals these 
 mummies were even taken into the central square of 
 Cuzco, where banquets were served ceremoniously in 
 grand style, as if they were still alive. 
 
 It is surely a ground for pity that the Spaniards 
 destroyed the country with nearly modern ruthlessness, 
 and ruined it so thoroughly that even now the wounds 
 of that conquest are not healed. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 LAW AND RELIGION 
 
 AGRARIAN and other social laws give the 
 measure of a nation's civilisation ; the 
 criminal laws and the punishments prescribed 
 therein indicate how far it has progressed from 
 savagery and barbarity. 
 
 A very important social law obliged every Peruvian 
 to marry at a certain age, whereas the community 
 provided the Jiagpy couple with a house and a plot of 
 land, which increased or decreased annually according 
 to the number of children born or leaving the paternal 
 roof. The Incas did not believe in equal rights for 
 men and women, for the allotment for a son was 
 double of that allowed for a daughter. Whereas 
 monogamy was the rule, it was not compulsory ; the 
 Incas and Nobles were allowed to have a great many 
 wives, and had in consequence so many children that 
 these marriages not only must have become agrarian 
 questions, but also made them a considerable factor of 
 the community in other ways. There are accounts of 
 families of seven hundred wives and two to three 
 hundred children. 
 
 Probably there was a sufficient fixity of tenure, 
 notwithstanding the annual redistributions, for as 
 neglect of the land was a criminal offence, the necessity 
 of eviction must have occurred only on rare occasions, 
 and it may be assumed that the annual holder was in 
 fact a tenant for life. 
 
 The criminal law was a much cruder product of 
 legislature, and might have satisfied the Queen in 
 " Alice in Wonderland." Capital punishment was 
 
Plate X 
 
 NICHE IN TERRACE WALLS OF THE COLCOMPATA. 
 
 INCA DOOR-WAY, CUZCO. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
DOOR-WAYS. 
 
 GATE-WAY AT CKMETERY FRONT VIEW. 
 
 (From SQUiEiTs Peru) 
 
LAW AND RELIGION 13 
 
 the greatest deterrent from repeated crime ; theft, 
 adultery, murder, burning of a bridge or a house, 
 turning a neighbour's water into one's own irrigation 
 system they were all punished by loss of life. 
 
 Rebellion in town or province was followed by 
 devastation of the place or district and extermination 
 of the population. 
 
 Life was primitive ; every family was self-sustaining 
 or nearly so ; there was no trade, no coinage, and 
 hardly any real estate. So no laws were necessary 
 regulating those matters. 
 
 The judicature was equally simple. Each town 
 and community had its own tribunal, with jurisdiction 
 on small offences ; important cases were dealt with by 
 superior judges. But every case had to be settled 
 within Jive days, and returns sent to Cuzco, the seat 
 of the central government. At regular intervals the 
 local courts were visited by inspectors, who checked 
 these returns and examined the magistrate's or judge's 
 findings and sentences. Any member of the Bench 
 who was found to have made a judicial mistake was 
 subjected to the sentence that he ought to have pro- 
 nounced, and in such a case the criminal went scot 
 free. This may have induced the judge frequently to 
 give defendant the benefit of the doubt. 
 
 So much for the law. 
 
 Not much more is known of the Incas' religion, and 
 it may be doubted whether the accounts given by 
 Spaniards perhaps bigoted are entirely reliable. 
 
 For an agricultural community it was only natural 
 to worship the Sun as the Supreme Deity, the source 
 of light and warmth, the ultimate director of the fate 
 of man, the father of the founders of the Inca empire. 
 Every village and every city had its temple or temples 
 dedicated to the Sun, with their altars on which it is 
 asserted even human beings were burnt as offerings. 
 
 Next to the Sun came his sister-wife, the Moon, 
 and further the Stars, Thunder, Lightning and the 
 
14 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 Rainbow, the royal emblems worked in the banners of 
 the Kings as the beautiful emanation from the Sun and 
 his divine glory. 
 
 Minor meteorological and physical phenomena also 
 came in for their share of worship : the Winds, the 
 Mountains, the Rivers, but not nearly so much as the 
 Sun. 
 
 Blasphemy against the Sun and cursing the Incas, 
 the deity's offspring, were sins punished with death. 
 There was of course a clergy, whose head was the 
 Huillac Umu, or High Priest, the next in rank and 
 status to the Inca, from among whose brothers or next 
 of kin he was usually chosen. The minor clergy were 
 also descendants of the sacred race of Incas, - and in 
 Cuzco alone it is said there were over four 'thousand of 
 these priests. 
 
 The church rituals seem to have been very complex 
 and elaborate, and there were religious festivals in each 
 month. Of these, the grandest was the Raymi, the 
 festival of the Longest Day, the Solstice, 'and next 
 came those of ^the two equinoxes in March jand Sep- 
 tember. Sundials 'of various sorts were used by the 
 priests to watch the Sun, and as a rule they used a 
 column on a platform to observe when exactly the 
 Sun rose due east and set due west. Very likely the 
 " Stonehenge " arrangement near Tiahuanaco jwas 
 also erected in connection with these or similar 
 astronomical observations. 
 
 In how far the educated and learned among the 
 Inca priests had a conception of a Creator who made 
 the Sun, and worshipped the latter as a symbol of the 
 former, is a matter for conjecture, but the masses 
 probably saw the Creator in the Sun itself. 
 
Plate XII 
 
 MUMMY FROM THE COAST, ANCON [after Rciss and Stiibcl] 
 (From South American Archceology, by kind permission of the Author, MR. T. A. JOYCE) 
 
 PERUVIAN MUMMIES. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
Pltite XIII 
 
 CHULPA, OR BURIAL-TOWER. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 
 
 MENTION has already been made of the 
 ruthless manner in which the Spanish 
 invaders dealt with the unhappy empire of 
 the Incas. There are a great many remains that 
 prove how, under the Incas, Peru had better govern- 
 ment, greater security -for life and property, more 
 facilities for {attaining jprosperity than it had since 
 that unfortunate Conquest. 
 
 At that time, under Huyana Capac, the Inca 
 empire had obtained its greatest extension, and he 
 could not add to it, for the Peruvians never succeeded 
 in subduing the savage tribes living in the forests at 
 the eastern foot of the Andes or in taking possession 
 of the fertile plains beyond them. What they could 
 not do was performed later by the narrow-bladed 
 American axe, that became the conqueror of the 
 forests of a continent. 
 
 But Huyana Capac made a fatal mistake. He had 
 a son, Atahualpa, by the daughter of the conquered 
 chief of Quito, and another, Huascar, by his wife-sister 
 in Cuzco. He tried to divide his kingdom between 
 these two, but tried in vain, and civil war was the 
 result. This civil war facilitated the conquest, that 
 the Spaniards could not have effected otherwise, 
 although at first they frightened the Peruvian warriors 
 by their horses, animals Peru had hitherto not known, 
 and by their apparent control of lightning and thunder 
 from their guns and cannons. 
 
 Thus came an end to Peru's independence, different 
 
1 6 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 from what might have been the consequence of the 
 civil war, which probably would have resulted in a 
 division of the country, each part following its own 
 development, that would most likely have carried 
 Peruvian civilisation to the highest point of American 
 aboriginal culture. 
 
 But this was not to be : devastation took the place 
 of civilisation of which Peru's architectural remains are 
 the surviving proofs. 
 
 There are two sorts of these remains in Peru, 
 the older ones from the times before the Incas, 
 milestones on the road of progress, placed there in an 
 early and comparatively rude past. 
 
 Besides the elaborate remains of Tiahuanaco, that 
 are almost as admirable as those of Assyria, Egypt, 
 Greece or Rome, there are analogous structures to 
 those of Stonehenge in England and Carnac in 
 Brittany, remains occupying the remotest place in 
 monumental history. 
 
 The rude sun-circles of Sillustani, almost under the 
 shadow of the finest Inca structure, are very like 
 those in England, Denmark and Tartary. 
 
 There are only very few of these older remains 
 left, for the Incas ruled over a steadily increasing 
 population, occupying a very restricted inhabitable 
 and arable area. Necessity compelled them to use 
 every square foot for food production, and hence they 
 were obliged to disregard utterly the traditions and 
 monuments, the temples and cemeteries that stood in 
 the way of land development. 
 
 It is a country of which the fertile part is sur- 
 rounded by deserts and mountains, where every blade 
 of grass, every stalk of corn is valuable ; no wonder 
 that the Incas did not respect the rude structures, 
 public or private, of their predecessors, about whom 
 little is known in consequence. The wonder is that 
 not everything has disappeared. 
 
 Garcilasso is the principal Spanish authority, who 
 
Plate XIV 
 
 PERUVIAN POTTERY 
 
 (7/i the Author's collection) 
 
 TAMBODRINE-PLAYER. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
Phite XV 
 
 PERUVIAN POTTERY 
 
 PERUVIAN POTTERY PERUVIAN POTTERY. 
 
 (In the Author* x collection} 
 
ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 17 
 
 recorded what he was told by the son of an Inca 
 mother about their ancient history, customs, traditions. 
 But there is no possibility of checking either the relia- 
 bility of his sources or his own as a chronicler. It is 
 known that the so-called " Amautas " taught the 
 ancient history in the schools of Quito, but it is 
 also known how carefully such oral records must be 
 sifted. They used "quipus," or knotted cords, prob- 
 ably for recording of dates and numbers ; but even 
 this is not certain, and these " quipus " were decidedly 
 inferior to the painted records of the Mexicans, or 
 the, probably syllabo-phonetic, writings of the inhabi- 
 tants of Central America. 
 
 In no way do they provide reliable evidence, and 
 since written or graphic documents do not exist, 
 architectural monuments become of the greatest value 
 for the knowledge of Peruvian history. 
 
 The remains of the great fortresses at Ollantay- 
 tambo and Pisac give an indication of the military 
 positions ; ruins of towns confirm the tradition that 
 they were founded or destroyed by some Inca. These 
 two, fortresses and towns, and remains of great public 
 works show that the Incas must have ruled a population 
 both numerous and industrious. They also give an 
 insight into their proficiency in the sciences. 
 
 The ruins of the villages and their sites indicate 
 how dense the populations must have been ; aqueducts 
 and reservoirs point to the efficiency of their agri- 
 cultural system, as bridges, roads, and " tambos," or 
 stores, tell the story of intercommunications. There 
 are some prisons, telling their own tale, and ruins of 
 structures indicating that they may have been built 
 for the purpose of executions and giving a clear idea 
 of the way in which these were performed. 
 
 With regard to the condition of the masses, there 
 is eloquence in the absolute absence of any remains of 
 the dwellings of the common people. These dwellings 
 were evidently not built for the ages, and even now 
 
1 8 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 Bryce found in Cuzco " mud huts with grass roofs." 
 The ruins of their " chulpas " and tombs prove their 
 belief in a future life and resurrection. What is found 
 there gives an idea of their household utensils and 
 implements and the texture of their garments. There 
 were found also the various specimens of pottery, now 
 placed in the British Museum. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 ONLY a few more remarks are necessary before 
 proceeding to deal with some urns, vases, and 
 bowls found in Peruvian cemeteries, pyra- 
 mids and palaces. It was explained that Peru's coastal 
 region is intersected by valleys and rivers, where is 
 found the clay, the raw material for the potter's in- 
 dustry. That industry could not exist and develop in 
 the eastern mountainous and rocky part, as clay is not 
 found in those regions. 
 
 This explains how the ancient buildings along and 
 near the coast are built of sun-dried bricks (adobes) 
 and also proves that their architects were not the Incas, 
 but the Chimus, who inhabited the coastal region long 
 before they were conquered by their more warlike 
 eastern neighbours. 
 
 Whether the Incas removed the potters themselves 
 to the inland, to let them do their work there, or had 
 the finished articles sent up, is a matter of conjecture. 
 Possibly the bulk of these artisans stayed where they 
 found an abundance of raw material to work on, 
 whereas a few came to Cuzco ; and these few may have 
 been the best and ablest workmen among them, who 
 would find their craft more highly valued in the aris- 
 tocratic circles of the Incas' capital than among the 
 simpler dwellers along the coast. 
 
 Another point should not be lost sight of, and that 
 is the similarity between Chimu and Peruvian art and 
 that of various ancient remains in the so-called Old 
 World. 
 
20 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 There are the truncated pyramids built of bricks ; 
 there is the absence of the arch in their architectural 
 constructions, in consequence of which, for instance, 
 doorways, gates and niches in Ollataytambo, Col- 
 compata and other places resemble Old Greek struc- 
 tures, such as the famous gate at Argos. Further, the 
 ornamentations of vases and bowls resemble so strongly 
 those of the Greek that it is difficult to believe that the 
 two came into existence and developed independently 
 of each other. 
 
 And then there are the faces into which some of the 
 vases are moulded. These have more often than not a 
 Caucasian type, whereas in some cases the expression, 
 or lack of expression, and attitude of arms and hands 
 remind one of Buddha images. 
 
 Another peculiar feature of the vases and jars in 
 the shape of human forms is that the artist gave 
 great attention to the face. The same may be 
 noticed in the ancient Egyptian images of the various 
 gods and goddesses ; the face is treated with great 
 care, but the arms and legs, as well as the trunk, are 
 dealt with in a more or less sketchy manner. 
 
 All this seems to point to the possibility, if not even 
 probability, of a lively intercourse between Peru and 
 other parts of the Old World, which " Old " World 
 may have appeared a new one to the Chimus, whose 
 civilisation is considered by archaeologists to be some 
 5,000 years older than our own. 
 
 ~^Be that as it may, it is obvious that through the 
 pottery we get an idea of the people themselves by 
 whom and for whom it was made ; in it we find 
 faithful records of national manners and customs 
 modelled on the vases. There are depicted warriors, 
 sportsmen, sailors, fishermen, modes of punishment, 
 costumes of all sorts, the personal ornaments they 
 adorned themselves with, the food they used, the arms 
 they fought with nothing seems to have escaped the 
 potter's eye. They show all sorts of birds, fruit, sea- 
 
Plate XVI 
 
 TRUMPET, BAKED CLAY. 
 
 FISH ORNAMENTS FROM THE CTIINCHA ISLANDS. 
 
 THE SERPENT SYMBOL. 
 
 SNAIL FROM CHIMU VASE. 
 
 (From SQUIER'S Peru) 
 
Plate XVII 
 
 (From Elseriefs Geillustreerd Maandschriat : by permission) 
 
 POTTERY VASE, POTTERY TRUMPET (Scale 5^) (British Museum) 
 (From South American Archtcology, by kind permission of the Author, Mu. T. A. JOYCE) 
 

 INDUSTRY 21 
 
 lions, monkeys, penguins from the South, parrots, 
 llamas, lizards, frogs, and many other objects ; every 
 touch by the potter's finger of the soft clay is the 
 expression of a thought. Modern plates and dishes 
 of uniform pattern and with stereotyped orna- 
 mentation tell one very little, but the burial mounds 
 of Peru, her pottery and her mummies, enable one to 
 form an idea of a civilisation which has now passed 
 away. 
 
 There is no doubt that a simple vessel, made solely 
 to hold water, gives the earliest form of industry such 
 as a jar found at Ancon, on the coast not far from 
 Lima. Later the forms became much more elaborate, 
 but the first ornamentation was evidently moulded, 
 as many of the earlier vases are stamped with shells 
 and other objects found on the shore. Thus some 
 have a helix into which the clay has been pressed, and 
 another with a scallop shell, which forms the body of 
 the jar and makes a simple ornament of some beauty ; 
 after this the potters went further and produced jars 
 in great variety in the shape of fish. A fish, being a 
 more or less hard object, could be easily moulded in 
 the clay, but they were not so successful with birds, 
 and it is difficult to know which birds the jars are 
 intended to represent. Although by their faulty 
 workmanship these primitive bird- jars impress one as 
 a step downwards, they are really a step upwards as 
 the potter has given up the stamped moulding and 
 taken to modelling by hand. The first results are not 
 very good, but they are a great advance towards the 
 later elaborate designs. 
 
 Many of the jars found in the coastal region have a 
 bifurcated spout, which is in fact a distinctive mark of 
 the coast 'pottery. These jars are also very simple, 
 but even here one finds a small animal sitting in the 
 angle of the spout ; it shows how, even in those early 
 days, they loved to ornament everything./ It has been 
 thought that the more intricate spouts were thus made 
 
22 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 for fear of creeping animals finding their way into the 
 jars, and also for the purpose of stopping evaporation. 
 This coast pottery appears to have led to an 
 alteration of the form of the jar from the flat or round- 
 bottomed to the point-footed shape, as many have 
 been found in this form. As the Peruvians were 
 usually squatting on the ground, nearly all jars repre- 
 senting human figures have this form, and even the 
 mummies have a similar attitude. It is probable that 
 the native, when resting, had such jar filled with some 
 
 beverage before him, to quench his thirst, and as the 
 coast region was all sand, a point-footed jar would 
 stand even better than a flat-bottomed one. In the 
 rocky ground of the Sierras they would be of little use, 
 and yet some have been found inland, which suggests 
 that there the point-footed jar was put to some other 
 use. It is also possible that the pointed form was 
 useful for heating the contents over a fire. 
 
 Anothertype of jar has two openings connected 
 by the TianctteTancl in some of the vases with only one 
 opening the body is double the two vases being 
 connected at the bottom, the upper part serving as a 
 handle. One of these, known as the man eating his 
 lunch, is now in the Smithsonian Collection at Wash- 
 ington, 
 
Plate XVIII 
 
 6 
 
 
 1, CARVED STONE VESSEL, CU7CO. 2-5, BLACK TOTTERY: TRUXILLO. 
 
 6. 7, 8, RED POTTERY : TRUXILLO (In the Author s collection at the 
 British Museum) 
 
 (From South American Archccology, by kind permission of the Author, 
 MR. T. A. JOYCE) 
 
Plate XIX 
 
 PERUVIAN POTS 
 
 (In the Author s collection, showing increasing artistic ability 
 of the makers) 
 
INDUSTRY 23 
 
 There are a great many of these double jars with a 
 great variety of figures. Some of these, known as 
 whistling jars, are s6 constructed that the handle 
 passes from the spout on one side to a similar projection 
 on the other, on which the head of a bird or other 
 animal is represented. The filling or emptying of the 
 vessel produces a sound like the piping of a bird, the 
 cry of some animal, or the human voice, according to 
 the head on the jar. In the death-like stillness of the 
 desert regions even a whistling jar was probably a 
 desirable companion. 
 
 The Peruvians, no 'doubt, had a taste for music, 
 like the natives of all tropical countries. The sun, 
 setting soon after six o'clock, is gone for about twelve 
 hours, and this all the year round ; this gives rather a 
 long evening, and music, song, and an occasional dance 
 would vary the monotony. In any case, there are many 
 musical instruments represented on the jars, such as 
 tambourines beaten with a stick, and trumpets. 
 
 For the purpose of dancing they had various 
 instruments. There was the drum, or cajas, made of 
 llama skin ; the gwena, a sort of flute ; " Pandean 
 pipes," made of reeds ; the lyre, a stringed instrument 
 like a guitar or banjo ; and on grand occasions they 
 used the clarion, a long reed instrument with a sort of 
 bag at one end and holes in the mouth's end for finger-^ 
 ing, in fact a sort of bagpipe, though a Scots piper 
 might not recognise it as such. The Incas evidently 
 ruled over a pleasure-loving people, who liked play- 
 acting, and were fond of poetry and recitations. They 
 used many objects for personal adornment : necklaces 
 of gold, silver, copper, bands for the head, and bracelets, 
 ear-rings and finger-rings, all found in the tombs where 
 the mummies of great people also had precious stones 
 pierced and strung to necklaces. They seemed par- 
 ticularly fond of turquoise, of which a great number 
 are found among the mummy jewels. 
 
 The jars and tombs tell us also which shoes they 
 
24 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES , 
 
 wore. Probably they mostly went about on bare feet, 
 but some sort of protection was needed on the stony 
 ways in the mountains. They used sandals, of which 
 
 one was found at Ancon, on the coast. It served as 
 sole for most of the footwear, but there were many 
 
 ways of fastening them on. Some were quite dressy, 
 while 'the soldiers wore a very strong shoe. 
 
 )The general dress was the poncho, a square piece 
 of cloth or blanket with a hole in the middle for the 
 head to pass through. These ponchos were of various 
 
INDUSTRY 25 
 
 lengths ; some only covered the chest, and underneath 
 a sort of shirt was worn, of which garments specimens 
 have been found. Sometimes the poncho came down 
 to the feet, and workmen had holes cut in the sides for 
 the arms ; sometimes the shirts themselves had 
 sleeves, to make manual labour possible. 
 
 The head-dresses show a great variety, but all were 
 thick, substantial coverings to protect the head 
 against the heat of the sun. 
 
 INDIAN HEAD ORNAMENT WITH GOLD PLATES. 
 
 Massive golden ear-plugs were worn by the higher 
 classes. These rings were so large and heavy that they 
 stretched the lobes of the ear so as to almost touch the 
 shoulder. Long ears were thus a mark of high rank. 
 The Spaniards called these aristocratic Peruvians 
 Ore] ones, or people with great ears. The ears of all 
 nobles were pierced by the Inca at the time of the 
 great festival, when they were admitted with great 
 ceremony as warriors of the King. 
 
26 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 The jars give also some idea of the dress of soldiers. 
 A soldier on a jar, found at Moche, on the coast, wears 
 a sort of helmet and carries a small shield in his left 
 hand ; he has apparently no weapon. Another jar, 
 also found at Moche, shows a warrior fully ready for 
 the fray, armed with a very formidable club and what 
 would appear to be heavy stones in his left hand and 
 forearm a forerunner of our present bomb-thrower 
 or grenadier. 
 
 We also find sporting scenes on the jars. On a 
 beautiful jar, found at Santa, the sportsman wears the 
 plumed helmet of a chief. He is running after a 
 spotted animal which looks like a hind but may be 
 something else ; he is apparently about to give it a coup 
 de grace with his spear, holding his club in his other 
 hand ready to strike. It would rather seem as though 
 the animal were previously driven into a pit or trap. 
 However, it gives us an idea of the weapons they used, 
 the dress they wore, and the game they went after for 
 food. 
 
 The Incas may or may not have had much to do 
 with the sea, but the coast region was inhabited by an 
 earlier race, about whom a legend existed that they 
 ^came to Peru on rafts. So we find that these people 
 had boats for fishing, or voyages to the guano islands 
 to get manure for the land. A jar found at Chima 
 tells us what the boats and sailors were like. By the 
 Spaniards these boats were called " caballitos " ; they 
 were made of bundles of rods, across which the boat- 
 man sits astride, and rowed with a double paddle. 
 The prow is turned up in front. Other similar jars 
 have been found on the coast settlements, but the 
 Chima jar shows a rather more solid boat, although the 
 shape is the same. Two sailors are seated in this one ; 
 the man in front is apparently paddling, the man 
 behind appears to be doing nothing, but there is a 
 rowlock in front of him, so perhaps he is resting. The 
 spout and handle of the jar surmount the central part 
 
POTTERY TYPES 
 
 1, 2, 3, TRUXILLO (In the Author's collection at the British Museum). 
 
 4, YCA. 5, ARICA. 0, RECUAY NEAR TRUXILLO. 7. 8, 9, TITICACA. 
 
 (From South American Archceology, by MR. T. A. JOYCE) 
 
Plate XXI 
 
 WARRIORS FIGHTING (From a Vase ; Truxillo) 
 (From South American Arcfucology, by kind permission of the Author, MR. T. A. JOYCK) 
 
INDUSTRY 27 
 
 of the boat, which gives it more or less the appearance 
 of a steamer with her funnel. 
 
 It must also be remembered in this connection that 
 Inca Yupanqui is said to have made an expedition by 
 sea, and to have reached the Galapagos Islands in the "L 
 Pacific Ocean. He had a number ofbalsas constructed 
 of inflated sealskins fastened together, and took with 
 him a large detachment of his army. The Inca and 
 his men sailed away and disappeared below the 
 horizon. It must have been an exciting adventure, 
 but he returned in safety after an absence of nine 
 months. Sarmiento believes that he even reached the 
 Solomon Islands, but this is doubtful. It shows, at any 
 rate, that the Incas had boats fit for a sea voyage, out , 
 and home, of at least 1,400 miles. 
 
 Besides all these details", the jars tell us also what 
 sort of people the Incas were, and how they looked. 
 There are no pictures left, if any ever existed, and we 
 have only a few rather vague descriptions by Spanish 
 writers of the race they conquered and practically 
 destroyed. Still, we know that they were a fine race, 
 brave and hardy, and of great intellectual powers to 
 have produced such statesmen and generals and such 
 victorious -armies. Fortunately a favou'rite form of 
 Peruvian pottery was, like the Greek drinking-cup, the 
 human head, and these are evidently not only life-like, 
 but also show much character. 
 
 There is, for instance, such a jar found at Santa, 
 obviously the portrait of a man of strong character, 
 fierce-looking, and with a hard, cruel mouth. His 
 ears are pierced and he wears ear-rings, probably of 
 gold, and he evidently belonged to the warrior class. 
 In another the head is thrown back and, to balance 
 this weight, the face is thrust forward ; the nose is 
 well formed, and the lower jaw is strong. The syphon 
 handle runs from forehead to crown. 
 
 Another even finer head wears a close-fitting cap 
 with heavy flaps behind. The face, full of strength, 
 
28 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 vigour and determination, is that of a ruler of men. 
 The shape of the jar shows that it probably was made 
 at Cuzco, and it may be the portrait of some eminent 
 personage. If he was one of the rulers one can no 
 longer wonder at the moral force they exercised over 
 the people and the wisdom of their laws. 
 
 There is another jar in the Smithsonian Institution, 
 obviously the portrait of a soldier, evidently a born 
 fighter and determined leader. He wears a head-dress 
 which may indicate some high military rank. He 
 wears the large ear ornaments of the ruling class, and 
 perhaps had led the Inca's troops to victory. But 
 
 even more beautiful and lifelike heads are some of 
 those in the British Museum collection. They were 
 photographed at the Museum to illustrate an article 
 in the Burlington Magazine for April, 1910. The 
 faces seem familiar, as if one might recognise these men 
 in the street, if one met them ; one feels that they are 
 like somebody one knows or has seen. 
 
 Most of them came from the Tombs in the Chicama 
 Valley in the Chimu country. 
 
 But from the fact that the jars, etc., were found 
 low down in the burial places, one must conclude , 
 \ that not many were .made after the Spanish conquest 
 \ (1524); some, indeed, must have been made two 
 
Plate XXII 
 
 TYPES OF DWELLINGS ON THE COAST (from VaSCS ; TfUxillo) 
 
 HUNTING SCENE (from a Vase ; Truxillo) 
 (From South American Archaeology, by kind permission of the Author, MR. T. A. JOYCE) 
 
INDUSTRY 
 
 29 
 
 hundred years or so earlier, and before the Inca 
 conquest, for Chimu pottery was evidently famous at 
 the time of the latter conquest, as is shown by the fact 
 that many potters were moved to Cuzco by the 
 conqueror. On the other hand, the figures on the jars 
 seem to represent the Inca's people themselves, 
 whereas, if they had been the work of pre-Inca people, 
 one would expect to find a change of type after the 
 conquest ; but there appears no marked difference 
 beyond that arising from increased skill in the manu- 
 facture. That the craft was practised up to a com- 
 paratively late period is shown in the later ware, found 
 in the same tombs with the earlier ones, and represent- 
 ing Spanish soldiers. 
 
 There are no accounts left about the way in which 
 Peruvian pottery was made, nor have any kilns or 
 ovens been found to show how it was baked, but one 
 thing strikes one at once, namely, the great variety of 
 colour from white to black. A large part of the pottery 
 is black, and this was at first attributed to the influence 
 of time. On this ground the jj ar _k ware was thought r ~2 
 to be the oldest ; but this does not seem to be the 
 case. In the first place, the clay is found in the coastal 
 deposits of various colours, some being quite white 
 and some almost black ; this is chiefly caused by 
 metallic and mineral matter with which it is mixed 
 a great deal of broken pottery has been tested; and even 
 gold has been found to be mixed with the clay in 
 considerable quantities. 
 
 But in the second place, clay of whatever colour 
 requires something to render it coherent, otherwise it 
 would crumble to pieces during the drying process, and 
 the jar be ruined. Various ingredients were used by 
 the potters, as was found on examination of the ware. 
 For ordinary pottery finely-chopped straw, reduced 
 almost to powder, was mixed with the clay ; some of 
 the finer vases contained mica and pounded shells, 
 ashes of various sorts, and charcoal dust, while for the 
 
30 THE INCAS AND THEIR INDUSTRIES 
 
 black ware graphite was used. To these admixtures a 
 great deal of the difference in colour of the ware is due, 
 but something must be attributed to the way of 
 baking, the fineness of the paste and its homogeneity. 
 How the vases were baked is not known. Monsieur 
 Wiener, member of the French expedition in 1875, 
 records a Peruvian tradition that the vases were placed 
 in the middle of a wall of taquia, a sort of dried llama 
 dung, which burns with a very fierce flame, and that 
 about half a dozen Indians sat round the fire, blowing 
 through long reeds, thus producing the required 
 intense heat. It is said that even now Indians are 
 occasionally seen using this process for small clay 
 objects, made by themselves for domestic use, some- 
 times simply covering the article they want to dry with 
 a fire which is kept burning for some hours, and which 
 seems to answer the purpose. For painting their 
 vases the potters are said to have mixed a mineral 
 colour with a little clay, which they then stirred in a 
 large quantity of water, thus acquiring a very thin 
 colouring matter. When the jar was half baked a 
 thin coating was applied, and the baking was then 
 finished. In this way the colour assimilated itself 
 with the jar. 
 
 The Peruvians do not seem to have used glaze, but 
 were able to get a very fine polish by burnishing the 
 jars with a piece of wood suitably shaped. But the 
 favourite way of obtaining a polish was by rubbing the 
 surface with the thumb-nail, a process not unknown 
 to schoolboys when part of their exer'cises requires 
 erasure, and the paper has lost its smoothness in 
 consequence. 
 
 The potters at Cuzco seem to have excelled in 
 giving a very fine surface to their wares, but in the 
 coast region only the black ware was so polished. The 
 coast vases were very light and delicate, while the 
 inland vases were perhaps finer in shape but all much 
 heavier ; it is difficult to give any reason for this 
 
INDUSTRY 31 
 
 difference, but it assists to decide in which particular 
 region it was manufactured. Some of the patterns on 
 the commoner vases were no doubt applied by moulds, 
 many of which have been found in excavations in 
 various parts of the country. 
 
 This rapid survey of Peru and her pottery is in- 
 tended to excite a desire in the visitor to the collection 
 in the British Museum for more information about 
 this interesting country. The literature about Peru, 
 already extensive, is rapidly growing, and the present 
 writer owes a debt of gratitude to the various authors 
 of scientific works from which he gleaned the preceding 
 remarks. 
 
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