THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES w is and Great Western, 1838 — Succcesful voyages of these vessels— Details of Great Western— The Boyal WiUium, second of that name, the first steamship from Liverpool, 1838, followed by the Liverjwol— Origin of the Cunard Company— Contract for conveyance of mails— Conditions— Names and particulars of the first steamers in this service— The Britanrda —Comparative results of different vessels— Building (1839) and loss (1841) of the P/es/fZ?«^— Building of the Grnit Britain in 1843 —Advantages of iron ships— American auxiliary screw steamer Masmchusetts, 1845— American line of steamers to Europe, 1847— First ocean race won by the English— Not satisfied with Cunard line, the Americans determine to start one of their own— Reasons for 'so doing— American shipowners complain justly of the " Pro- tective " policy of their own Government— Nevertheless adopted- Collins line established— Original terms of subsidy— Dimensions of their steamers— Mr. Faron's visit to England— Details of the build of these vessels— Engines— Frame sustaining engines and dead weight— Cost of steamers greatly increased by demand for increased speed— Further details of competing lines— Speed obtained and cost —Great competition, 1850-1852- Results of it . Ba,jes 163—220 CHAPTER V. Dangers of Atlantic Navigation— Collision of Arctic and Vesta, 1854— Arctic founders— Loss of Pacific, 1856 -Renewed exertions of the Collins and, also, of the Cunard Company— Launch of the Persia— Collins line relinquished, 1858— Sco^w— Her great strength and speed — Bussia, first Cunard iron screw-steamer, 1S62 — Bothnia and Scythia, 1874— Their construction, outfit, and cabin accommodation —Vessels now owned by Cunard Company— Comparison of Britannia and Bothnia— Cwnavd Company never lost a life nor a letter during thirty-five years— Reasons— Value of punctuaUty— Admirable dis- cipline in their ships— Regulations of the Company— Most disasters may be prevented by foresight— Success depends on fitting means— Cunard line shows what can be done .... 221 250 CHAPTER VI. Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia Steamship Company— CV/y of Glasgow, IS50— City of Manchester, 1851— Speed of City of Paris and (Jity of //r('.s.vr/s— Exertions of Mr. Inmau to improve and facilitate vi CONTENTS. cheap emigration to the United States — Large number of emigrants carried in the Inman steamers — CUy of Chester, 1873 — City of Berlin, 1875 — Ocean steamers to Canada, 1853 — First mail contract, 1852 — Allan line of steamers, 1856 — Extent and capacity of its fleet — Speed of these vessels — Galway line a failure — Loss of Cormaugld, 1860 — Eapid Passage of Adriatic, 1861 — Struggles between sailing- clippers and ii-on screw-ships — National Steam Navigation Company, 1863— Their splendid ships— Old Black Ball line— The Guion line, 1863 — Mississippi and Dominion Company — White Star Line, 1870 — Strict regulations for safety — Britcmnic and Germanic — Their great speed— Details of Britannic and form of her screw — Difficulty of estimating real cost of steamers — Pennsylvania Company, 1873 —Anchor line from the Clyde, 1856 — Prodigious range of their trade operations — The Victoria— Karnhnrg American Steam Packet Com- pany—North German Lloyd's .... Pages 251—291 CHAPTEE VIL Eoyal West India Mail Steam Packet Company, 1841— Number of their gl^ips — Conditions of mail contract — Large subsidy — Heavy loss during the first year of their operations — Capital of the Company — Liberal concessions by Government— Complaints of the public — Improved prospects of the company from improved management — Contract renewed, 1850 — Its conditions— Fresh conditions, 1857 — Contract again renewed, 1864— Further renewal, 1874 — The steam- ship Forth — Losses of various ships of the company — Causes of these losses — Loss of the Amazon — Terrible sufferings — Loss of the Demerara — Additions to their fleet, and superior class of vessels 292—313 CHAPTEE YIII. Pacific Steam Navigation Company — First steamer on the Pacific, 1825 ]VIr. Wheelwright — Obtains a charter, 1840 — First vessels, the Chili and Peru — Warm reception at Valparaiso — The Company persevere Appointment of Mr. Just, 1846 — Extension of contract, 1850 — I^Iarked improvement in the prospects of the Company, 1860— New lines — Vast increase of capital, 1867 — Further increase of capital to 3,000,000/., 1871— Capital increased to 4,000,000/., 1872— Extent of fleet, Iberia and Lifjiiria — Chimboruzo, 1871 — Too rapid increase — Loss arising therefrom — Modification of mail contract and reduced services — West coast steamer Bolivia — Future prospects of the Company — Trade with Mexico — First line of steamers from Liverpool to Chagrcs— West India and Pacific Steam Navigation Company —Liverpool, Brazil, and Eiver Plate Steam Navigation Company 314-335 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. Steam to India and overland routes — East India Company establish a Tatar post between Constantinople and Baghdad — First public meeting in London to promote steam communication with India, 1822 — Cajitain Johnston — Calcutta meetings. 1823 — The Knterprlze, first steamer to India by Cape, 1825 — Sold in Calcutta to East India Company — Other steamers follow — Pioneers of overland route via Egypt— Sir Miles Nightingall in 1819 and Mount-Stuart Elphin- stone in 1823 return home by this route— Mr. Thomas Waghorn visits England to promote the Cape route, 1829-30— Returns to India by way of Trieste and the Red Sea — Still advocates Cape route, 1830 — Mr. Taylor's proposal— Reply of Bombay Government and discussion of the question — Supineness of the Coui't of Directors — Their views — Official report of the first voyage of the Hugh Linrhay, 1830— Report of the Committee of 1834— Decision of the House of Commons Committee influenced by political considerations — Admiralty jiackets extended from Malta to Alexandria — Steamers of the Indian navy — Modes of transport across the Isthmus of Suez — Great exertions of Waghorn in the establishment of this route — Suez Canal — Popular errors on this subject— M. de Lesseps — His great scheme — Not fairly considered in England — Commencement of M. de Lesseps' works in 1857 — General details— Partial opening of Canal, April 18th, 1869— Finally opened by Empress Eugenie, November 17th, 1869 Fages 336—375 CHAPTER X. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company — Its founders and origin — Messrs. Willcox and Anderson — Mr. James Allan — How the Peninsular mails were originally conveyed — Proposal of Peninsular Company for their conveyance— Contract concluded Augaist 29th, 1837 — Conveyance of mails to India previously to 1839 —Govern- ment applies to the Peninsular Company and accepts their proposals, though reluctantly — Proposed direct line from Falmouth to Calcutta — First vessels hence, on Indian postal service to Alexandria- Original postal service from Suez to Bombay — Contract for mails between Suez and Calcvitta, September 1842 — Further proposals made by the East India Company and Government, but finally rejected by the East India Company — Further contracts for mail service to China and Singapore — Pcninsiilar and Oriental Company undertake the line between Bombay and Suez, 1854— House of Commons Conunittco on Australian mail service, 1819 — Eastern ii CONTENTS. Steam Navigation Company and Peninsular and Oriental Company tender for it, but the Peninsular and Oriental succeed— The Hima- Inja built— New contract with Peninsular and Oriental Company, January 1853— Failure of Service during the Crimean War— Pro- posals for an independent Australian mail service— Tender of Euro- pean and Australian Company accepted — Their entire failure — Speech of Lord Overstone, March •24th, 1859— Eoyal Mail Company undertakes the Australian service and fails — New tenders invited — That of Peninsular and Oriental Company accepted, 1859— Con- solidation of services in the Peninsular and Oriental Company — Its present condition and fleet of ships— Terms of the contract now in force — Revenue and expenditure -Coals required — Descriptions of vessels — Screw steamer Khedive — Particulars of this ship — Uniform and regulations of the Company .... Pages 316— -Ho CHAPTER XI. Changes produced by the opening of the Suez Canal — SaiUng fruit- clippers — Introduction of steamers into the Mediterranean trade, 1840 — Establishment of various steam Unes, 1850— That of Messrs. Frederick Leyland and Co., &c. — Their fleets — Messageries Maritimes Company — Its origin aud management — Fii'st contract for the conveyance of the oversea French mails, 1851 — Extension of contracts, 1854-56 — Brazil Une, 1857 — Vast extent of its fleet — Largest vessels — Trade via the Suez Canal — Presumed advantage of auxiliary engines— Not borne out by the results— Conveyance of the Australian mails — Peculiar conditions of contracts — Faihu'e of the service — Stringent penalties — Australian steam services — jMr. Alfred Holt's line of steamers to China — Its success —Messrs. GeUatly, Hankey, and Company — Messrs. Green and Company — Messrs. Rathbone Brothers — Messrs. George Smith and Sons— Letter from Mr. George Smith — ^Messrs. Smiths' ships and their voyages to and from India — Changes in the mode of conducting commerce wth India and China — Number of vessels through Suez Canal since its oi)ening, and their nationality 416 — 446 CHAPTER XII. First application of steam-vessels on the rivers and coasts of India, 1825— S.S. Diana— U.S. Burhamixioter and Hooghly, 1828— Arrival in India of Lord William Bentinck as Governor-General- His efforts CONTENTS. ix to promote Steam Navigatiou — Voyages of the S.S. Hooghly up the Ganges, 1828,1829 and 1880— Other vessels recommended to be bnilt — Two of them of Iron — Steam Companies formed, 1815 — Steam Committee, 1857, and rapid progress of steam-vessels from this date— Improved troop steamer for the Lower Indus— Sea-going steamers of India— S.S. Jo/m BrigJd — British India Steam Navigation Company established, 1857 — Its fleet, and extent of its operations — Origin of this Company— Its early diflBculties, and rapid extension — Number of ships lost— Effect of the opening of the Suez Canal on the trade of this Company — The Noly Ship, «o^e— Netherlands Steam Navigation Company, 1866 — Its fleet, and how employed — Irrawaddy Flotilla and Burmese Steam Navigation Company, 1865— Services of this Company — Extent of inland trade — Fleet of the Company — Interior trade of China — The Yang-tse-Kiang — Its source and extent — Opened to trade, 1860— First steam-ship direct from Hankow to England, 1863 — Passage of the Itohert Loioe and her cargo — Number of steamers employed on the Yang-tse 1864 and in 1875 — S.S. Hankow — Her power and capacity, note — Chinese Steam Navi- gation Company — Proposed Imperial fleet of steamers— Increase of trade with China — The resources of the interior — Mode of con- diicting business — " Hongs " or Guilds — Chinese Bankers — Eiver and coasting trade of China— Japanese line of steamers— How employed Pages 447—485 CHAPTER XIII. Eastern Steam Navigation Company — Detailed proposals of the direc- tors — Capital subscribed to build the Oreat JS'as^e/'n — Eelative size and speed of sailing-ships — Mr. Brunei proposes to build a ship five or six times as big as any existing vessel, and is supported in his views by Mr. Scott Russell — Plan of construction, size, &c. — Mr. Atherton considers the views of the directors are not supported by their data — The Oreat Eastern commenced May 1, 1854 — Details of her dimensions and mode of construction — Practically, one ship within another — Compartments and bulkheads — Floor — Construction of the iron plates for hull — The deck and its strength — Enormous steam-power from combination of paddle and screw — Paddle-wheel, auxiliary, and screw-engines — Donkey-engines — Proposed accom- modation for passengers, &c.— View of deck, &c. — Saloon— Intended to carry twenty large boats and two steamers — Compasses — Size of sails — Magnetic apparatus of Mr. J. Gray — Apparatus for steering — Rxidder and ancliors, and Hote— The ship itself a marvel, though commercially, a failure— Preparations for, and details of, the launch- ing of the Great Eastern 486 — 515 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. Commencement of launch of the Oreat Eastern, November 3rd, 1857 — Christened by Miss Hope — ComiDarative failure — Renewed efforts scarcely more successful — Hydraulic ram bursts — Floats of her own accord, January 31st, 1858 — The whole scheme of tliis launch a thorough mistake — Difficulties of the Company — Offer to Government wisely declined — Further proj)Osal to employ her as a cable layer — Makes her first sea trip, September 9th, 1859 — Accident off Hastings, and the opinion of the pilot— Reaches Holyhead ; and details of her voyage — Makes her first voyage across the Atlantic, June 1860— Second voyage, May 1861 — Third voyage, to Quebec, July 1861 — Fourth voyage, September 1861 — Heavy gale off S. W. coast of Ireland, and compelled to return to Cork — General remarks on the sea-going qvaalities of different ships, and on the effect of wind in causing " rollers " — Real truth about " momentum " — Very large ships not so safe as smaller ones, as their damages are less easily repaired — Chief later use of the Great Eastern as a cable layer, but not, even here, remunerative — Concluding remarks. Pages 516 — 543 CHAPTER XV. River and coast trade of Great Britain — The lona, paddle steamer — First screw collier Q. E. I). — The King Coal collier — Her dimensions and crew, note — Improvement in care of seamen — Leith and London traders — Diiblin and Holyhead Mail-Packets — Their great speed and regularity — Dimensions, power, capacity, and cost — Dover and Calais Mail- Packets — The Victoria — Her speed — Proposed tunnel and other modes of crossing the Straits of Dover — Mr. Fowler's plan— The Castdlia — The Bessemer — Her swinging saloon — The cigar-ship built at Baltimore, 1858 — Similar ship built on the Thames, 1864 — Per- kins's economical steam-engine and proposed fast boat — The Engine of the Comet — Modifications in the construction of Marine Engines — Ratio of speed to power — The Compound Engine more econo- mical than the simple — Great skill required for building perfect ships, and especial importance to England of having the best ships — But her ships not yet perfect, though great progress has been made during tlie last half century .... 544 — 584 CONTENTS. APPENDICES. Appendix No. 1 . ,j No. 2 . No. 3 . No. 4 jj No. 5 ,j No. 6 » No. 7 ,j No. 8 t> No. 9 ,, No. 10 jj No. 11 » No. 12 No. 13 No. 14 „ No. 15 jj No. 16 jj No. 17 „ No. 18 5) No 19 No. 20 No. 21 „ No. 22 „ No. 23 JJ No. 24 No. 25 jj No. 26 No. 27 PAGE . 587 . 591 . 593 . 594 . 595 . 599 . 600 . 601 . 603 . 606 to face 608 . 609 . 611 . 612 . 613 . 614 . 617 . 633 . 634 . 635 . 637 . 637 639 . 641 . 643 . 644 . 645 Index 647 ILLUSTRATIONS.* S.S. "Okkat Kastkrm " (Longitudinal Sf.ction and Scale) Frontispiece. „ ., View of Deck „ ., ., AVheel-house and Steerin(; Apparatus ,, ,, „ Laying Cablk „ ,, „ At Sea „ The Paper Nautilus 3 Hero's Steam Caui;Dron (First Idea ov the Power of Steam, B.C. 120) 5 Hero's Steam ^x)lipile (First Steam Machine) .... G First Vessel Propelled by Wheels (Seventh Century) . . 10 Illyrian Barge with Oxen driving Paddle-wheels ... 19 Curious Vessel built in Rotterdam, a.d. Ifi53 20 First Steam-boat (by Jonathan Hulls of Campden, Glouces- tershire), 1736 26 Murray River Steamer 27 Water-wheel 33 Miller's Treble Vessel, to which a Steam-en(;ine was ap- plied, 1787 33 Sectional View of the S.S. " Charlotte Dundas "... 37 First American Steam-boat by John Fitch, U.S., 17f<() . . 42 Second „ ,, ,, First Used, 1790 44 * Tlie whole of these Illustrations have been re-drawn on block, and a great many of them are original. It is, however, only due to the memory of a truly good and unassuming man to state, more especially as he was a thorough genius in the illustration of all nautical subjects, that many of the drawings are reduced copies from those of the late Edward Wecdon, who, for many years, and u]) to his untimely death in 1874, was one of the stafi'of artists of the llJuHtratcd London News. xiv ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGi: S.S. "Clermont" hy Robert Fulton, U.S. First Steam-vessel USED successfully IN AMERICA, 1807 51 S.S. " Comet." First Passenger Steamer on the Rivei; Clyde, Scotland, 1812 (56 Thames Sailing Barge 75 Stationers' Company's Sailing Barge 76 S.S. "United Kingdom" (London and Edinburgh) .... 81 Galloway's Patent Paddle-wheei 9'J Different Forms of Screws . 101 Screw Steamer "Robert F. Stockton'" 114 Woodcroft's Varying-pitch Screw-propeller 117 Early American Lake Screw-propeller 133 American River Steamer " New World " 145 Longitudinal and Trans\t:rse Midship Sections of proposed large American Steamer 158, 159 First Cunard Steam-ship " Britannia " 182 Steam-ship "Great Britain" 188 Auxiliary U.S. Steam-ship "Massachusetts" 191 American Steam-ship " Washington " 196 Collins's U.S. Steam-ship "Atlantic" 206 Cunard's Steam-ship " Scotia " 229 „ „ "Bothnia" 233 Harfield's Steam Windlass 234 Saloon Cabins S.S. "Bothnia" and "Scythia" 236 Inman's Screw Steam-ship " City of Manchester " . . . . 252 „ „ " City of Chester " 258 White Star Steam-ship " Britannic " 278 Screw-shaft of S.S. "Britannic" 280 Midship Section of "Britannic" 281 Anchor Line S.S. " Victoria " 289 Royal Mail W^est India S.S. " Forth " 303 S.S. " Amazon " 306 Pacific Company's S.S. " Peru " 319 „ S.S. "Chimborazo" 325 S.S. "Santa-Rosa" . 328 S.S. "Enterprise." First Steamer that Doubled the Cape of Good Hope 340 Map of Suez Canal and surrounding District 364 Peninsular and Oriental Company's S.S. "Royal Tar "" . . 380 „ „ „ S.S. "Khedive" . . 411 ILLUSTRATIONS. x\' I'AGK Leyland and Company's S.S. " Bavarian " 420 Lindsay's Auxiliary Stkam-siiips 429 Swires' Yang-tse Steamer " Hankow " 471 Chinese Tea-boat 475 Japanese Cargo-boat 485 Platform on which S.S. " Great Eastern " was built . . 497 Transverse Midship Section of " Great Eastern " , . . . 498 „ „ OF Engine-room of " Great Eastern " 501 Grand Saloon Cabin of " Great Eastern " 506 S.S. " Great Eastern " ready to be Launched .... 517 „ ,, at Sea under full Sail .... 527 Modern Screw Collier " King Coal " 548 Channel Packet S.S. " Victoria " 556 Fowler's proposed Channel Steam Ferry 559 Channel Packet S.S. "Castalia" 562 „ S.S. " Bessemer " 565 Perkins' proposed I'ransatlantic Steam-ship 572 Transverse Midship Section of ditto 572 Engine of the First Clyde Steamer " Comet " .... 574 Latest and most Improved Compound Surface Marine Steam Engine 578 MERCHANT SHIPPING. CHAPTER I. Earliest modes of propulsion — Suggested partly by nature — Hero of Alexandria, B.C. 120 — Dancing steam ball — iEolipile— Ajiplication of science to superstitious purposes — Ecvival of learning — Eobertus Valturius, 147'2 — Blasco dc Garay — Story of his experiment, 1543 — Disproved by Mr. MacGregor's investigations, j.oi'e — Progress of in- vention — Bourne — Solomon dc Cans, Marquess of Worcester, &c. — Morisotus' vessel vith pa/hllc-whcefs — Hollar's drawing — Absurd patents — Phillips and his windmiH — Papin and Morland — Savery — Jonathan Hulls — James Watt's engine — Matthew Wasborough — Marquis de Joxiffroy — Bramah's screw-propeller — Mr. Miller of Dalswinton — Mr. Symington and Mr. Taylor — The Charlotte T)undas — Piumsey and Fitch— J. C. Stevens— Oliver Evans — Robert Fulton and Mr. Livingston — Plan really derived from the English experi- ments of Symington — Fulton builds steamers in the U. S. — The Clermont — Merits and demerits of Fulton — At all events the first to " run " a .steam-vesscl regularly, and to develoi") its power and useful- ness — First steam-boat on the St. Lawrence, 1813. Modern investio-ation has confirmed the opinion that ^"'J'®**. ^ _ -* _ modes ot the' knowledge of the ancients was more varied and propulsion extensive than has hitherto been generally snpposed, and tliat there is indeed " nothing new under the sun." Iron chain-cables, supposed to have been the inven- tion of the present century, were, as already shown,' used by the shipowners of Tyre, while the iron-clad rams of to-day are but copies of the prows of the > Ante, vol. i. Introd. p. xxxi. Arrian, Exped. Alex. 11, 21. VOL. IV. K 2 MERCHANT SHIPPING. war galleys of ancient Carthage, Rome, or Nineveh :' and, although, on the sculptures of Egypt and Assyria there is no trace of the application of wheels or machinery of any kind, as a propelling power, the mechanical knowledge ancient inventions exhibit leads to the conviction that other modes of pro- pulsion than those of poles, oars, and sails must have been understood in remote ages. Indeed, Nature herself, at the dawn of knowledge, must have suggested to men widely removed one from the other, aj)pliances for lessening manual labour, while some of these were undoubtedly carried into prac- tice during the earliest period of the existence of the human race. That such was the case may be reasonably in- ferred from the ancient stone sculptures exhumed by Layard and others, showing as these do beyond question that the people of Egypt, Assyria and Baby- lonia, when floating on bundles of reeds or on inflated skins, propelled them by the motion of their legs,'"^ juBt as an animal swims by using its limbs for the purpose of jDropulsion in the water which Suggested supports it. In aquatic animals may be seen the by'^Dltuie. types of almost every kind of machinery now adopted by man to lessen bodily toil. The cuttle-fish moves forward by fins, and backwards by ejecting water from a tube ; whelks suggest the art of punting and towing; the value of paddles may be learned from ducks or other aquatic birds in their motion through the water, and the use of a folding feather from the lobster ; while the combined action of the ' Galley from Koyunjik, 'lutc, vol. i. p. 276. ^ See the bas-reliefs from Nineveh, British Museum. mehcHant siiirnxG. 3 paddle-wheel and screw-propeller will be found in the microscopic insects " Paramacium caiidatum " and " Paramacium compressnm." The marine animals "Yebella'' and " Physalia," familiarly known as the "Portuguese men-of-war," whose bodies resemble an inflated bladder, float on the water and are propelled by the wind acting on tbeir extended membranes. Swans extend their feathers to sail With the wind ; and, though that fairy-looking, fragile thing, the pnper-nautilus, seems to be the sport alike of the gale and of the most gentle breeze, it possesses in itself the power of propulsion by projecting water/ But the common fish of every sea would have suggested to man, in the most remote ages, a mode of supplementing manual labour : the fin giving him ' Owen's "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,'' 2nd. cd. p. 605. Carpenter's " Physiology," 645. " Woodcroft on Marine Propulsion," note, p. 1, and drawing of Nautilus in frontispiece to Woodcroft's " Steam ^Navigation." Sec also an interesting paper, read at the Society of Arts on the 14th of April, 1858, by John MacGregor, Es(]., M.A., Barrister at Law. i- •> 4 M ERG H ANT SHIPPING. the idea of a paddle or of an oar, and the tail teaching him the art of sculling, the principle in each case heing the same : the tail, moving from side to side, by oblique pressure on the water, propels the fish forward along a diagonal line, the resultant of the forces acting from the right and the left sides of the fish, and is, thus, the chief instrument of motion, while the fins serve to direct and steady it.^ Nor, indeed, is there much doubt that the ancients were acquainted with the power of steam, though they cannot be said to have applied this knowledge to any useful purposes. A treatise is still in exist- Hcroof ence "On Pneumatics," by Hero,^ a philosophic andria, mathematician who lived at Alexandria about B.C. 120, in which he gives an account of seventy- eight miscellaneous experiments, most of them pro- bably adapted for the superstitious purposes of the heathen priesthood, but some also as certainly fore- shadowing the definite application of steam as a ' There is little difiference between the action of an oar in sculling and that of the modern screw-propeller, which is fast superseding the ]iaddlc- wheel in all ocean-going steamers : the one has an alternate lateral motion, like the tail of a fish ; the other is rotatory, but with the Pame eifect. It may be added that fishes often have the powei' of " feathering " their tails, by puckering their lobes in their forward motion, and expanding them on their return, so as to displace as little water as possible, while they, at the same time, rely for their advancement on the reaction of the water in the direction of their body. These points have been carefully considered in the con- struction and arrangement of the blades of the screw, as well as the important fact that the tail of the fish or the sweep of an oar in their motions displace a quantity of water, great in proportion to the length of the instruments employed ; and further, that it is by the resistance the water makes to this displacement by the oar or tail, in their continued oscillation, coming as these do from their extreme sweep to the axis of the boat or fish, that either is urged forward. ^ An edition of Hero's " Pneumatics " has been published by Mr. Woodcroft. Lond., 4th ed. 1851. His second experiment is referred to in Muirhead's " Life of James Watt," 2nd ed. p. 107. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 5 motive force. The following, we notice as, in tlieni- selves, of consideraLle interest. " First," lie s;iys (exper. No. 45), " let there be a caul- dron with water in it and a covered top ; and let a fire be hVlited under it. From the cover let a tube Uanoin run upward, and place at its extremity a hollow iiemi- bail, sphere, in like manner perforated. Then, if a light ball be cast into the middle of the hemisphere, the vapour (steam) raised from the cauldron tliroiigh this tube will lift the ball so that it seems suspended." This is no doubt an ingenious and amusing philo- sophical toy, but has no further value. His next ex- periment, however (No. 50), is of greater importance, not only as showing a clear and distinct appreciation of the motive power of steam, but because its prin- ciple is embodied in the well-known mode of driving potters' wheels and in the modern turbine. He says, " Let a fire be lighted under a cauldron with water yEoiipiio. in it and covered with a lid; and attach to this cauldron a bent tube»with the extremity fitting into a hollow balh Opposite to tlie extremity of this MERCHANT SHIPPING. tube 23lace a pivot fastened to the lid, and let the ball have various tubes communicating with it at opposite ends of the diameter, with their bendings at right angles (i.e., in opposite directions). Then when the fire is lighted, the steam passing through the first tube (i.e., from the cauldron) into the ball, will pass' out through the bent tubes towards the lid, causing the ball to revolve after the fashion of dancing figures."^ This machine was called the iEolipile. ^ The principle of Hero's steam-machine depends on the physical law that, when any fluid issues from a vessel in which it has been confined, the vessel is acted on by a force eqixal to that with which the fluid e^apes, but in the opposite direction. Thus, if water issues from an orifice, a pressure is produced behind the orifice corresponding to the force with which the water escapes : hence, the recoil of a gun when fired. If the muzzle were turned at right angles to the length of the gun, the explosive gases would escape sideways, and the shooter, instead of being forced back, would spin round. The orifices in each case are exposed to the atmosphere, which tends to rush in with a force of a little less than 15 lbs. on the square inch : the force, therefore, with which the steam escapes represents the excess of its elasticity over that of the atmosi)here, which furnishes, as it were, tlic fulcrum, and thus SIKi;01JANT SIIIITING. 7 111 these few words we liave a clear indication of" tlie power of steam, of the nature and effect of a vacuum, and of a rotatory engine moved by this force : we thus see that tlie ancients knew more than has been generally admitted of the wonderful power which, in our own time, has brought about the most extraordinary changes in the seats and centres of maritime commerce, affording to mankind a facility of intercourse between different nations, while at the same time increasing the wealth, and, what is of much more importance, promoting the comfort and happiness of tlie liuman race to an extent far beyond the dreams of the most sanguine enthusiast of any age or of any country. From the uncontroverted facts here stated, there can be no doubt that Hero was the first to recoi'd, even if he did not invent, this mighty civilising instrument, and, if so, that Egypt was the land of its birth. But many centuries elapsed before its power was applied to any useful purpose ; indeed, as suggested, there is reason for supposing that this science was Appiira- misapplied by the priests, and used as a means of s[!JI!,,cl, ^ deceiving the people by inducing them to Ijelieve t[ous'^*^,",.- it to be a miraculous power granted only to tlie i'"^''^- professors of the craft of idolatry. " A fire," says Hero (experiment No. 70), " having been kindled on a transparent altar, figures will appear to dance " gives motion to the machine. Mr. Bourne states that tlie principle of the iEolipile is the same as that embodied in Avery and Iluthven's engines for the production of rotatory power. " These engines," ho says, " are more expensive in steam than oidinary engines and travel at an inconvenient speed; but in other respects they are quite as effectual, and their construction is extremely simple and inexpensive." 8 MERCHANT SHIPPING. on a drum driven round by steam, " eTnittIng sounds similar to those of a stringed instrument," ^ wb.ich, according to Pausanias, " resemble the snapping of the strings of a harp ;" thus, while delighting the young people of those days, as the ornaments in churches now do, these experiments became instru- ments of make-belief in the hands of the priests, who propounded as strange theories about their super- natural powers as the so-called philosophers of our own days still do, when they attempt to deal with the unrevealed mysteries of creation and of a still more mysterious hereafter.^ ' In another experiment (No. 37), Hero shows " how temple doors may be opened by fire on an altar." He says, " Let the proposed temple stand on a pedestal, on which is also a small altar. Through the altar insert a tnbe, of which one month is within the altar, and the other nearly at the centre of a globe. The tube must be soldered to the globe in which a bent syj^hon is placed. Let the hinges of tlic doors be extended downwards, turning freely on pivots, and from the hinges let two chains running into one be attached by means of a pulley to a leaden weight, on the descent of which the doors will be shut, let the outer leg of the syjihon bend into a suspended vessel and fill the globe half full of water. When the fire becomes hot, the heated air in the altar expands and, passing through tlie tube into the globe, will drive the liquid through the syphon into the suspended vessel which, descending by its weight, will tighten the chains and open the doors." ^ Although there may be a doubt how far the inventions recorded by Hero were used for superstitious practices, there is no question that, somewhat later, the agency of steam was employed for purposes any- thing but legitimate. Thns Gibbon (c. xl.) gives an amusing account of how Anthemius, the architect of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, avenged himself on Zeno, the orator. "In a lower room," says he, " Anthemius arranged several vessels or cauldrons of water, each of them covered by the wide bottom of a leathern tube, which rose to a narrow top, and was artificially conveyed among the joints and rafters of the adjacent Imilding. A fire was kindled beneath the cauldron; the steam of the boiling water ascended through the tubes ; the house was shaken by the effects of imprisoned air, and its trembling inhabitants might wonder that the city was unconscious of the earthquake they had felt." Still later, Arago, in his "Elogede James Watt," notices an ancient Teutonic god, called JhiKtarkli, on the banks of the Weser, MERCUANT SHIPPING. 9 Although the Romans did nothing towards apply- ing the knowledge of the power of steam to useful purposes, and little enough generally for the mechani- cal arts, the true value of the works of Hero and of the older mechanicians came to be appreciated in the dawn which succeeded the darkness of the Revival of Middle Ages. Then the youths of a generation, which had cast aside many of the superstitions of the ancients, and had found in the doctrines of Christianity a Avider and nobler field for their genius and aspirations, began to study how the power Hero had desci'ibed could be best applied for the benefit and happiness of mankind. Then, indeed, was the advent of an era wlierein the founda- tion was laid of a fabric which, though slow in its erection, and not yet completed, is destined to eclipse all the other works of man. There can be, therefore, no subject affecting the transitory interests of the human race more worthy of the pen of the historian than the development of the power and usefulness of steam traced from that remote period to our own time, when we see in every quarter of the civilised world this power com^^assing land and ocean, afford- ing profitable employment to myriads of the human race, and giving to the people of every nation and tongue rapid and easy intercourse. who was made by the priests to show his displeasure through the agency of steam. The head of the metal God was hollow and had within it a pot of water. Its mouth and another hole having l)een plugged, a charcoal fire was cleverly liglited under it, in such a way as not to be perceived by the expectant worshippers. After a while, the imprisoned steam forced out the plugs, with a loud report, followed by two jets of steam, wliich formed a dense cloud round the god and concealed him from his astonished worshippers. 10 MERCHANT SHIPPING. " Although an old M^ork on China," remarks Mr. MacGregor/ " contains a sketch of a vessel Robertus moved by four paddle-wheels, and used perhaps in Vaiturius, ^|^^ seventh century, the earliest distinct notice of this means of propulsion appears to be by Robertus Yalturius in a.d. 1472, who gives several wood- cuts representing paddle-wheels,"^ one of which is as follows. 1472. There is, however, no mention of any vessel propelled by steam till M. de Navarette directed attention to this subject in a letter^ received by him from Thomas Gronzales, Director of the Royal Archives of Simancas of Spain, with an account of an experiment of the year 1543, in which a vessel is said to have been propelled by some- thing resembling a steam-engine. The substance of this letter is to the effect that, in that year, one Blasco de Graray, proposed to the Emperor Charles Y., the construction of an engine {ingenio) capable of propelling large vessels in a calm, and without the use of sails or oars. In spite of the ' Paper read at the Society of Arts 14th of April, 1858, by Jolui MacGregor, Esq., Barrister at Law. ■ This work in Latin, printed at Verona, 1472, is the first book witlj woodcuts printed in Italy. ^ This letter is written from Simancas, and bears date 27t]i August, 1825. It was published 1826, in Lack's "Astronomical Cor- respondence." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 11 opposition this project encountered, the Emperor con- luaseo de sented to witness the experiment, which was accord- story^Jf ingly made in the Trinity, a vessel of 200 tons, laden Jji^^T^^^"' with corn, in the port of Barcelona, on the 17th June, ^■'^'^• 1543. Garay, however, would not uncover his machinery, or exhibit it publicly : but it was evident that it consisted of a cauldron of boiling water {una gran caldera de agua hirviendo) and of two wheels set in motion by that means, and applied externally on each side (banda) of the vessel. The persons commissioned by the Emperor to report on the invention seem to have approved it, commending specially the readiness with which the vessel tacked. The treasurer Ravago, however, observed that a shi23 with the proposed machinery could not go faster than two leagues in three hours ; that the apparatus was complex and expensive ; and that there was danger of the boiler bursting. The other commissioners maintained that such a vessel might go at the rate of a league an hour, and would tack in half the time required by an ordinary ship. When the exhibition was over, Garay removed the apparatus from the Trinity, depositing the wood- work in the arsenal at Barcelona, but retaining himself the rest of the machinery. Notwithstanding, however, the objections urged by Ravago, the Emperor was inclined to favour his project, but his attention at the time was engrossed by other matters.^ Garay was, however, promoted and received a sum of money, besides the expenses of the experiment made at ^ The iuterview with the Pope took place at Bupeto, 22ncl of June, 1.543, and the campaign against the duke of Cloves, the ally and general of Francis, followed. 12 MEECHANT SHIPPING. Barcelona. The letter concludes with the following- statement : — " This is the substance of the despatches and of the original registers preserved in the royal archives of Simancas, among the State papers of the province of Catalonia, and of those of the Secretary of War (department of land and sea), in the said year, 1543." Mr. MacGregor, greatly to his credit, desirous of ascertaining whether this report (whicli, from the well- known accuracy of M. de Navarette on other subjects, had been accepted as correct) could be depended upon, visited Spain in September, 1857, and made a thorough investigation at Simancas, Madrid, and Barcelona into this interesting subject, but his inquiries (reported, at length, January, 1858, to the Superintendent of Specifications at the Great Seal Patent Office, and printed in Part II., " Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion "), convinced him " that there was not one particle of reliable evidence " in M. de Navarette's assertion.^ ' " On the 23rcl of September last (1857)," remarks Mr. MacGregor, " I visited tlie town of Simancas, near Valladolid in Spain, with Captain John Ussher, to inspect some letters of Blasco de Garay, which arc there preserved among the national archives. " Having obtained the requisite Eoyal permission, 1 was allowed, after much diflSciilty, to read (but not to copy) two letters signed by Blasco de Garay, written clearly in Spanish and well preserved. One of these was addressed from MaUiga, the other from Barcelona ; and both were dated, a.d. 1543. They describe two separate experiments with different vessels, both of them moved hy padiUc-wheds turned by men. " One vessel was stated to be of two hundred Spanish tons burthen, propelled by a paddle-wheel on each side, worked by twenty-five men. The other vessel was moved in a similar manner by forty men (in all). The speed attained is mentioned in the text, and is stated in a side note (written in a different hand) to have been one league, about three and a half English miles per hour. Various calculations, as to the tonnage, the motive power, the cost, and otlicr matters are contained I MEUCHANT SHIPPING. la An attentive consideration of the suoject leads to the conchision at which Mr. INIacGregor has arrived. Even in the present day it would require an engine iu the letters, and it is said that the vessel thus moved was foimd to steer well, but could be propelled more easily for a lon"^ time by oars. Also that, like other inventions, this would probably be improved by tlie experience of further trials. We read the letters carefully through, and neitlier of them contained any mention whatever of the use of steam, or any expression to indicate that this was contemplated. " The officer left in charge of the documents, Don Manuel Garcia, said that he did not know of any other letters of Blasco de Garay, or of any other authentic papers relating to his experiment ; that he believed most certainly Blasco de Garay did not invent or suggest the use of steam for propulsion ; and that the assertion he had made was ' un meiisouf/e histori'iue.' " On October 15th, 1857, and following days, Mr. MacGregor made Disproved diligent inquiries at Barcelona respecting Blasco de Garay, and after hy Mr. : writing a letter inviting information on the subject to the Diurio de J^lacCrre- f^or s 111- Barccloua, 19th October, 1857, Senor Michel Mayor undertook to satisfy vcsti"-a- his inquiries. In the Archives of Aragon, the Director said that no tions. trace of any document relating to Blasco de Garay was to be found, and, that the MSS. in that library were only by order of reigns, and not by dates. With the assistance of Don Gregorio and Fidil Clares, Mr. MacGregor states that he inspected the catalogue of the Bibliotheca Publica and of the Bibliotheca Publica Episcopal without any better result, the keepers of these libraries declaring they knew nothing of any other letter of Blasco de Garay ; one of these officers said he believed that men only had been used to move the vessel, and the Government Inspector of Mines assured him that he was of the same opinion. But a Spanish engineer mentioned that some of the actual steam-engiiie machinery used in the vessels was still to be seen at the School of Artillery; after, however, diligent inquiry there, Mr. MacGregor could find no trace of any of these relics. But after these investigations, it was reported to Mr. MacGregor through Colonel Stopford, of Madrid, that there was another letter of Blasco de Garay, in which he alludes to the steam-boat, and that this document was kept secret at Madrid, which, as Mr. MacGregor adds, " would not probably be the case if by its means the claim of a Spaniard to the invention of the steam-boat could be substantiated;" and he remarks in conclusion that, (/'Blasco de Garay used a steam-engine to propel a vessel, the evidence of this fact is not supported by liis two letters at Simancas, and, further, that it has not been produced, if it is known there or at Barcelona, by the public officers and others interested in supporting such a claim. 14 MERCHAN'r SHIPPING. and boiler of considerable size to propel a vessel of 200 tons three miles an hour ; moreover, the novel and bulky machinery with which the experiment is said to have been made, could not have been erected in the ship or removed from her without attract- ing considerable public attention. Indeed, had such an experiment been made before the Spanish Em- peror, and made successfully as the narrative leads us to suppose, a matter so important could hardly have lain dormant for any great length of time : whatever, therefore, Blasco de Graray's invention may have been, it was evidently not a steam-engine practically applicable for any useful purpose. Witzen, no doubt, in confirmation of Garay's experiment, furnishes an illustration of a " Spanish bark without oars or sails," but as, unfortunately, there is not a single line of letter-press beyond the few words quoted to throw the faintest light upon his drawing, it can only be supposed from the descriptive title that it referred to the vessel which Garay is said to have propelled. Indeed, De Garay's whole story looks very much as if it was an inven- tion of the Spaniards; Mr. Scott Russell,^ as well as Mr. MacGregor, is of this opinion, and Mr. Wood- croft, no mean authority on such matters, states that, having made diligent inquiries at Simancas, he could find no trace of these documents, thus confirming the result of the more minute researches of Mr. MacGregor.^ ' " steam and Steam Navigation ;" and article, " Steam Navigation," Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th cd., vol. xx, p. G3G. ^ Since Mr. Mac^iregor's visit, M. Bergem-oth, who has done so much towards the elucidation of the manuscript treasures at Simancas, has been able at his leisure to copy the documents relating to De Garay, preserved there, they are ; — 1. A holograph from him to the Emperor, MERCHANT SHIPPING, 16 About this period, liowever, frequent mention is made of other modes of propulsion besides those liitlierto in use. J. 0. Scah'ger (who died 1558) published at Frankfort a short notice of a vessel to be propelled without oars. Bourne, in 1578,^ says. Progress of in his own quaint style, " you may make a boate Bourne, to goe without oares or sayle by the placing ofaeCaus^ certain wheeles on the outside of the boat in that JJ'Jiyijl^gJ, sort that the amies of the wheeles may go into the *'-'■' *«• water, and so turning the wheeles by some provision, and so the wheeles shall make the boate iroe." I. Bessoni, in 1582, describes a vessel with two prows, or rather two separate vessels attached to each other (not imlike the Castalia, now running between Dover and Calais), between which a frame is suspended on gimbles carrying at its lower end a circular reel worked by ropes and a winch whereby they can be propelled.^ A. Ramelli, in 1588, furnishes a design of a flat-bottomed boat with a wheel on each side, turned by men working upon a winch handle.^ Indeed, long before this, the celebrated Roger Bacon (a.d. 1214-1296) speaks of a ^'vessel which, being almost dated Malaga, September lOtli, 1540, containing Ms report on the trial of one of his paddle-wheel ships. 2. The report of Captain Antonio Destigasiira on the same trial trip. 3. The report of the Provoedores of Malaga concerning the same trip, dated July 24t]i, 1540. 4. The report of Blasco de Garay to the Emperor, dated July 6th, 1543, concerning the trial trip of another of his paddle-wheel shij)?, made at Barcelona in June, 1543. 5. A letter of Blasco de Garay to Carrs, dated Jimo 20th, 1543. In none of these is any reference to steam-power to be found— thus completely confirming Mr. MacGregor's previous statements. ' " Inventions and Devises," by William Bourne, p. 15 ; London, 1578. ^ Woodcroft's " Manuscript Collection " and " Marine Propulsion," vol. i. p. 7. ^ " Marine Propulsion " from Patent Office, Woodcroft, vol. i, p. 8. 16 MERCHANT SHIPPING. wholly submerged, would run through the water against waves and winds with a speed greater than that attained by the fastest London pinnaces." ^ Bap- tista Porta (the inventor of the magic lantern) pub- lished in his " Pneumaticorum Libri Tres," Naples, 1601, many curious experiments on the power of steam, on its condensation, and on its relative bulk as compared with water. In one of these a vacuum is clearly indicated, the water being forced up by the pressure of the atmosphere from without. David Rivault, Seigneur de Flurance near Laval, published " Les Elements de I'Artillerie," first in 1605 and secondly in 1668 — and in this work he describes the power of steam in bursting a strong bomb-shell partly filled with water, tightly plugged, and then heated. In 1615, Solomon de Cans (Engineer to Louis XIII.) pubHshed a treatise (" Les Raisons des Forces Mouvantes ") in which he shows he was well ac- quainted with the motive power of steam — as, in his fifth theorem, he says, " water will mount by the help of fire higher than its level :" he also shows, by an ex- periment, how a column of water may be driven up a tube to such a height as will balance the elasticity of the heated air confined in the boiler ; and Arago, in his " Eloge de James Watt," considers that this experiment, though of little practical use, " will make a noble figure in the annals of the steam-engine." In 1629, Giovanni Branca, an engineer of Loretto, applied steam to blow against vanes attached to the external rim of a wheel, and, doubtless, machinery with due mechanical contrivances could have been ' Works of Roger Bacon, Hamburg, ed. 1598, pp. 74-75. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 17 impelled by it. He jO'ives a picture of his mncliine in " Le Machine," vol. nuovo, PI. xxv. In 1618, David Ramsay obtained a patent for an invention ^^ to make boates for carriages running upon the water as swift in calmes and more safe in storms than boats full sayled in great windes ;" and in 1630 he patented a plan " to make boats, ships, and barges to goe against the wind and tide;" and " to raise water from lowe pitts by fire "^ (the steam-engine). In 1637, Francis Lin and others patented a plan " to use and exercise upon the River Thames, and any other river within England and Wales, according to their owne way and inventing the sole drauinge and workinge up of all Barges and other vessels without the useof horses ;" and, iii 1646, Edward Ford proposed a similar plan for the navigation of rivers, and one where- by he could " bring little ships, barges, and vessels in and out of havens without or against any small wynd or tide, and transport souldiers and passengers without or against wynde yf the seas be not rough." ^ In 1652 (July 30th), Thomas Grant, Doctor of Physic, obtained a patent " for several instruments, whereof the first is an instrument very profitable when conlon winds fayle for a more speedy passage of calmed shipps or other vessells upon the sea or great rivers, which may be called the wynds maty." In the recital of the inventions of the Marquess of Worcester, 8tli February, 1661, reference is made to one which was " applicable to make a boat that roweth or letteth, even against wind and stream to any part of the compass which way soever the streame runs or wind blows, and yet the force of the wind or stream causetli its motion." But thouo;h ' " Woodcroft on Steam Navigation," pp. 3 and 4, - Ibid., p. 5. VOL. TV. C 18 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the Marquess has generally bad the credit of having applied a power other than mannal or animal labour for the purpose of propulsion, it has been doubted from the description of his invention if it was a steam-engine which could be applied to drive a boat.' Petty, in 1G63, used a double boat with success/-* Chamberlaine and Bushnell, in 1678, had also their plans for propelling boats against wind and tide, while Hooke, in 1661, described windmills in which " we have all the main features both of the screw- propeller and feathering wheel. "^ Morisotns' From about this period much attention was vessel with paddle- wheels. 1 Althougli there is no evidence that the Marqness of Worcester did employ steana to propel any boat, it nni.st be allowed (in spite of the perhaps natural desire of Mr. Mnirhead to exalt the genius of his relative, James Watt) that he was the first to make an actual steam-engine. Certain important points are clear from his de- scription, viz., that the vessel in ■which the water was evaporated was distinct from that containing the water to be raised ; that there were two vessels of similar descrij^tion, the contents of which were alternately raised by the pressure of the " water rarefied by fire ;" and that the water was lifted in a continuous stream by the aid of two cocks communicating with these vessels, and with the boiler. Now this is exactly the agency of steam at the present time, in that it is generated in one vessel, and used for mechanical purposes in another : indeed, it is just this distinction which shows the invention to have been a true one— for had the action of the steam been confined to the vessel in which it was produced, it would have been of no more practical use than were the experiments of Hero, De Caus, or Ri vault. Complaint has been often made of the indistinctness and incom- pleteness of the descriptions furnished by the Marquess in his famous " Scantlings of one hundred Inventions," but it may be doubted whether tlie author's intention was really to convey knowledge of the mechanism he used, or even to indicate the physical principles on which they depend. His statement, however, is sufficient to enable any one possessing a knowledge of the mechanical qualities of steam, to understand the general nature of the machine produced. It ought also to be remembered that many of the ideas of inventions thrown out by the Marquess, as stenography, speaking statues, combination locks, &c., &c., have been since his time carried into eifect. ^ " Buchanan on Steam Propelling," Glasgow, 1(S1G, p. IGl. ^ " Bourne on the Screw-Propeller,'' pp. 5 and *J. MERCHANT SHIPPING. J9 directed to the use of machinery for propidsion. Morisotus^ moreover, Mdio published his views in 1 643/ speaks of the paddle-wheel as a mode of propelling- vessels, known also, as he believed, to the ancients, and states that the simple machinery employed was the same in fact as was in his day used in mining operations in the Spanish Indies. Schefer, in his instructive and interesting work, also makes mention of a remarkable vessel described by Pancirolli (who wrote, in 1587, on naval and military matters) as resembling what he had seen in an old bas-relief of an Illyrian galley, a vessel apparently propelled by wheels similar in character to those in the above wood-cut, from Morisotus. ' Morisotus, " Oibis Maritima,"' Geueralis Historia divisio, fol., 1643. c 2 20 MERCHANT SHIPPING. But, as no such clumsy vessel could have been employed in a seaway, her movements must have been confined to rivers or inland waters. It is just possible that such and similar vessels might at some period have been used for ferrying rivers^ or lakes. Very extraordinary notions, however, appear to have been propounded about, and subsequently to, this period, and, as a matter of curiosity, I furnish one of these taken from Hollar's engravings, which does not appear to have been noticed by any writer on this nin interesting subject. The original engraving, bearing- date A.D, 1653, is to be found in the British Museum. Yarious details^ are furnished by the inventor. Besides the detailed explanation of this extraordi- ' The ferry boats at Quebec plying between tlie opposite sides of the river St. Lawrence w^ere, at a very recent period, if they are not so still, propelled by horses and oxen w-alking along circular platforms so as to produce a power applied to the paddle-wheels of the boat. And a boat of a somewhat similar kind was, in the course of the present century, employed for some time between Yai-mouth and Nor- wich in this country. * 1. The middle beam. 2. The end with iron bars wherein the strength of the ship lyeth both ends alike. 3. Paidder of the ship. 4. The keel. 5. Iron bolts with screws. 6. Depth of the inner beam. 7. The wheel that goeth round it hath its motion. 8. The scuttles or hatchways. 9. The gallery where they walk. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 21 nary looking craft, wlilcli in " length is 72 feet, the height 12, the breadth 8," there is beneath the print the following description: "Tlie true and perfect form of the strange ship built in Rotterdam, 1653. The inventor of it doth undertake in one day to destroy a hundred ships, it can go from London to Rotterdam and back again in one day, and in six weeks to go to the East Indies, and to run as fast as a bird can fly. No fire, nor storme, nor bullets can hinder her unless it please God. Although the ships mean to be safe in their havens, it is in vain, for she shall come to them in any place. It is impossible for her to be taken unless by treachery, and she cannot be governed by any one but himself" (the inventor?). The motive power is not described, and there is no further trace of the ship, of which the illustration is a vertical section. She was built at the time when the Dutch were in the zenith of their power, and most likely proved as worthless as numerous other inventions since produced, though curious as showing the attention devoted at this period to wheels as a mode of propelling vessels. However, we find in the records of our own Patent Office, that Englishmen were not behind the Dutch in curious and frequently very absurd inven- Absm-d tions. Thus, in 1675, one Miller^ patented a windmill ^'"^ ""^ "' fixed to a vessel's deck to turn an endless rope, and thus, by " two toothed wheels," to drive a couple of paddle-wheels. Such commonplace matters as storms at sea or adverse winds, still less the likelihood of tlie whole of the top weight he pro- ' "Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion," Woodcroft, Part I. p. 29. 22 MERCHANT SHIPPING. posed to erect on the deck of bis vessels being- blown or rolled overboard, do not appear to have entered into the fertile and imaginative brain of tbe inventor. Again, in 1701, two gentlemen (whose names are not worth recording) proposed to have " vanes or sails arranged between two wheels on the same shaft,'' the " sails or float-boards being so contrived as to be able to play in a given space, being fixed perpendicularly on the wheel and fastened by a cord or otherwise, so that when the wind blows from any quarter three-fourths of the sails catch the wind, and, by driving the wheel round, the sails, which are forced against the wind, come up edgeways, but when past the centre immediately turn to the breeze, and by that means produce a continued circular motion." ^ About the same period another invention, of a somewhat similar sort, was published by a jDerson Phillips named Phillips, who proposed to erect between wiiuhuiii. two tall masts "a windmill of altogether an original description."^ One is reminded when reading these grave proposals, of Don Quixote's ludicrous exploit with the windmill, and considering the care Mr. Phillips seems to have bestowed upon his invention, he must have been quite as enthusiastic ' AVoodcroi't, Part I. p. 51 ; and see Drawings, " Eepository of Arts," vol. i. (second seriesj, p. 11. " " He was a foolish man," says Dr. Arnott, " who thought he had found the means of commanding always a fair wind for his jjleasure boat by erecting an immense bellows in the stern. The bellows and the sails acted against each other, and there was no motion : indeed, in ti perfect calm, there woiild be a little backward motion, because the sail would not catch all tlie wind from the bellows.'' — Arnott, " Elements of Physics," p. 1'20. MERCIIAN'l' SHTPPINO. 23 and apparently as serious in liis proposal as the bero of Cervantes in his knight-errantry. But all these schemes, and many others too numerous to mention, however impracticable and absurd some of them may have been, had the germ of the great invention more or less developed. During Papin's residence in England, 1G81, he Piijiiu witnessed one of the interesting experiments made Moriana on the Thames, in which a boat constructed from the design of the Prince Palatine Robert, fitted with revolving oars or paddles, " left the King's barge, manned by sixteen rowers, far astern in the race of trial." This experiment suggested to him, in 1G88, the idea of an engine, and led to his proposal of using gunpowder to create a vacmnn under a piston, so that the piston would descend. Two years afterwards, 1690,^ Papin de- scribes a steam cylinder, in which a piston descends by atmospheric pressure when the steam below it is condensed, and among the subsequent uses of such a m.achine he mentions the propulsion of ships by " liames volatiles " or paddle-wheels, the axles of which, he thouglit, might be turned by several of his cylinders acting alternately by the rack work shown in his drawing.^ ^ " Specifications of Marine Propulsion," Woodcroft, vol. i. pp. 16 aud 17. ^ Papin was driven from France by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and was associated with Eobert Boyle in many of his experi- ments on the air-pump — he was elected F.E.S. in 1681, and was for a time, the secretary of the society. He was invited to Germany by the Landgrave of Hesse, was some years Professor of Mathematics at Marburg and died there, 1710; he seems the first to have clearly discerned the necessity of the vacuum under the cylinder, and that the in-essure of the atmosphere alone is enormous. (A cylinder 1 foot in diameter, has a surface of 118 stjuare inches, hence, the almosphcric 24 MERCHANT SHIPPING. In 1G83, a little before Papiii, Sir Samuel Mor- laiid^ Master of Works to Charles IL, wrote a treatise on the " Elevation des Eaux par toutes sortes de Ma- chines," &c., with four pages appended to it called " The Principles of the New Force of Fire, invented Ly Samuel Morland in 1682, and presented to His Most Christian Majesty in 1683." In this work (still in MS. in the Harleian Collection of the British Museum), it is stated that " water being converted into vapour by the force of fire, these vapours shall ^ require a greater space (about 2000 times) than the water occupied, and sooner than be constantly confined would split a piece of cannon." It is remarkable that, so long before careful experiments had been made on the expansibility of water when converted into vapour, Morland should have given so near an approximation to the true amount (about 1750 times). Savory. Tliomas Savery, one of the most ingenious men of the age in which he lived, proposed (1696) a mode of raising water and occasioning motion " to all sorts of mill-work by the impelling force of Fire,'' pressure in it is 113 x 15 = 1695 lbs.). Papin first proposed to exhaust the air by pumps, and in 1687 laid this plan before the Eoyal Society ; but such a plan would only have been a transference of power, the effect being the same in character as that of lifting the water to the water-wheel. His most important invention was that of a method of producing a vacuiim by the condensation of steam — the reversal, in fact, of the process of the previous machines of De Cans and Lord Worcester. He drew the inference that, if water in its conversion into steam swelled many hundred times, it must follow that steam reconverted into water would shrink into its primitive dimensions. He was also the first to suggest the safety-valve, but he did not, strange to say, apply it to the machine subsequently invented. It has been asserted, though not proved, by some writers that Papin derived many of liis ideas from Otto von Guericko,. who liad invented an air-pump as early as 165i. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 25 adding/ " it may be very useful to ships, but I dare not meddle with that matter, and leave it to the judgement of those who are the best judges of mari- time affairs." ^ In 1697, Papin (whose own invention had proved a failure) used Savery's engine, which had been greatly improved by Newcomen in 1705 to propel a steam-boat on the Fulda.^ In that year, too, Papin proposed to drive a vessel by paddle-wheels turned by the stream, and by boat-hooks which somehow pushed against or griped the bottom.* Cha- bert, in 1710, described a vessel with large paddle- wheels working in troughs cut through the hull ;^ and, in 1721, we read of a galley built in France with revolving oars fastened to a drum or wheel with paddle-vanes on hinges, capable of being set to any angle, and of being worked by 200 men, ^ The " Miners' Friend/' &c. A paper published by iSavery in 1702. 2 Thomas Savery was born about 1650, and, in early life, served as a military engineer ; he then gave himself to the study of mechanics, and constructed a clock still in existence. He also made a boat with paddle-wheels, turned by a capstan, his object being, as he says, to enable ships to be moved independently of the wind. He next invented what he called his " Fire-machine," and exhibited it to William III. and the Eoyal Society in 1699. He applied his engine largely to the pumping out of mines, and, though it was found ultimately to have too little power, and was superseded by that of Newcomen, Savery may fairly claim the credit of having constructed the first really practicable steam-engine. He invented also a very ingenious plan for determining the height of the water in the boiler of the steam-engine, which is still sometimes used. ^ Letters to Leibnitz, " Dictionnaire des Inventions," Migne's N. Encycl., Paris, 1852, vol. xxxvi., art. " Velocipedes," p 317. Thomas Newcomen was a working blacksmith in the town of Dartmouth (Devon). He was assisted in his inventions by John Galley, a glazier of the same place, with whom he subsequently entered into partnership, and erected more than one engine which successfully pumped water from mines. ^ " Acta Eruditorum," 1737, p. 80. ■' Ibid., 1709, p. 282. 26 MERCHANT SHIPPING. tlie galley liaving tbree of these wheels on each side.' John Allan, in 1722, proposed a mode of navigating a ship, " by forcing water or some other fluid through the stern or hinder part, at a convenient distance under the surface of the water, into the sea, hy proper engines placed within the ship." He also proposed, as Papin had previously done, a machine with the power of " firing gunpowder in clauso,"" with the view of navigating a ship in a calm.^ Jonathan In 1736, Jonathan Hulls made some prac- tical progress in the idea so long floating vaguely in the minds of his predecessors, and, on the 23rd December of that year, secured a patent for his invention " of a machine for carrying ships and vessels out of or into any harbour or river against wind and tide or in a calm," of which the following is a sketch. Hulls. His sj^ecifi cation^ described how to drive a paddle- ' Gill's " Technical Repository," 182D, p. 2ol. ^ "Specifications of Marine Propulsion," Woodcroft, vol. i. p. 21 ^ The reader will find this plan described at length in Woodcroft 's " Specifications of IMarinc Propulsion," pp. 23 and 34 (note). Hulls " placed a paddle-wheel on beams projecting over the stern, and it was turned by an atinos]tlicric steam-engine acting in conjunction with a coxniterpoise weight ui)on a system of r()i)cs and grooved wheels" (MacGregor). MERCHANT SHIPPING. 27 wlieel hy converting a reciprocatiDg rectilinear motion into a continuous rotary one. But tliougli Hulls' mode of obtaining a rotary motion was new and ingenious, and would, perhaps, enable a steam- boat in a calm to be moved through the water, more- over is the first steam-boat authenticall}' recorded, it was probably not such as could be made practically useful for the general purposes of commerce, and I have been unable to find any record of this or of any such vessel having been so used. At the same time, it must be added that boats not unlike Hulls' may now be seen trading in parts of the world remote from each other, as, for instance, on the Murray in South Australia, where various vessels, of which the follow- ing is an illustration, are employed, and on the upper Thames where one, at least, to my know- ledge is now worked, which does not seem to be any very marked improvement on the boat of Jonathan Hulls/ ' Jonathan Hulls was born at Campdon, in Gloucestershire, in 1G9"J, and made his lirst experiments on the Avon at Evesham. In 1787 he liublishcd a pamphlet entitled " A Description and Draughts of a New 28 MEECHANT SHIPPING. In 1756, Grauthier, a French mathematician, wrote a treatise on " Navigation by Fire," whicli attracted James the attention of the Venetian Repiibhc/ But what- eiigiue. ever merit some oi these ingenious discoveries may liave possessed, it was not till the 5th elauuary, 1769, when James Watt obtained his patent, that any steam-engine could be effectually adopted in marine propulsion. Among various other improvements in the steam- engine patented by him, tlie most important was one for causing the steam to act above the piston, as well as below it, described as the " double impulse," or, now more commonly called, the double acting engine.^ On the old principle, when the weight of the atmosphere had pressed down the piston, a valve opened in the bottom of the cylinder whereby a fresh supply of hot steam rushed in from the boiler, which, acting as a Invented Machine ;" in this he proposed to piit a Newcomen engine on board a tow-boat to work a paddle-wheel placed in the stern. Mr. Smiles (" Lives of Bonlton and Watt," p. 63) observes, " It has been stated that Newcomen took out a patent for his invention in 1705;" but this is a mistake, as no patent was ever taken ont by Newcomen. It is supposed that Savery, having heard of his invention, gave him notice that he would regard his method of producing a vacuum as an infringement of his patent, yet the principle on which Ncwcomen's engine worked was entirely different from that of Savery. 1 He died shortly after his arrival at Venice, and his plans were never put into practical operation. '^ The now well-known principle of a steam-engine is this : there is a cylinder with its rod fixed to one end of a lever, which is worked by the combined pressure of the atmosphere and the steam upon a piston, a temporary vacuum being made below it by suddenly condensing the steam, which had been let into the cylinder where this piston works, by a jet of cold water thrown into it. A partial vacuum being thus made, the weight of the atmosphere presses down the piston and raises the other end of the straight lever, thereby drawing up water from a mine, or, by the numberless improvements made of late years, communicating a mechanical power which may set in motion every description of macliini'ry. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 29 pressure in excess of that of the atmosphere above the piston, combined with the weight of the pump rods at the other end of the lever, carried that end down, and of course raised the piston in the steam cyHnder. The orifice for the emission of the steam having been then shut, and the cock opened for injecting the cold water into the cylinder, condens- ation took place, and another vacuum was made below the piston, which was again forced down by the weight of the atmosphere : thus the work was continued as long as water and fuel were supplied, and the steam-engine rendered capable of successful appli- cation for pum2:)ing purposes, a contrivance used even at the present day/ But the method contrived by Watt rendered the power of the engine much more effective by the use of a detached condenser, whereby the cooling of the cylinders by the injection of water was prevented and considerable economy obtained.^ Matthew Wasborough, however, an engineer of the Matthew city of Bristol, considering that something was still boi-ough. wanting to make the marine engine a proper instru- ment of propulsion in concurrence with Watt's im- provement of the double acting cylinder, obtained, on the 16th March, 1779, a patent for a practical mode of converting a rectilinear into a continuous circular motion ; one of his objects being to adapt his invention "for moving in a direct position any ship or vessel."^ ^ " Woodcroft on Steam Navigation," p. 14; " Cabinet Cyclopaedia," Meclianics, p. 258. ^ Letter to Dr. Small, with a di-awing ; Muirhead's " James Watt," London, 1854, vol. ii. pp. 4, 8, 11. ^ There seems little doubt (see Lardner, p. 18G, and Muirhead s " Life of Watt," p. 273, that Watt was the real inventor of the crank for which Mr. Wasborough obtained the credit. Mr. Watt .says distinctly, 30 MEKCHANT SHIPPING. His invention, liowever, did not answer, and was indeed superseded by that of James Pickard, 23rd August, 1780, who, shortly afterwards entering into partnership with Wasborough, patented a method of working a mill with a rotary motion by means of the present connecting rod and crank and a fly wheel, constituting the second important improvement in the steam-engine, and enabling it to be of really prac- tical service in propelling vessels. In 1781 (25th October), James Watt obtained another patent for his newly invented method of appl^^ing the vibrating or reciprocating motion of steam or fire-engines to procure a continued circular motion round an axis so as to turn the wheels of mills or other machines. This invention is known as the " Sun and Planet " motion.^ Marquis de In the Same year (1781), the Marquis de Jouffroy is ^ ^' said to have constructed a steam-boat at Lyons 140 feet in length, and to have made with her several successful experiments on the Saone near that city. Mr. Mac- • Gregor, however, has made particular inquiries" into the authenticity of the claims of the Marquis, and, as no description of the machinery of this vessel is dis- coverable earlier than that given by himself thirty that, having noticed, in 1778 or 1779, certain defects in the " ratchet wheels" invented by Wasborough, he proceeded to remedy them, but having neglected to take out a patent for these improvements, a workman employed to make Mr. Watt's model told " some of the peo])lc about Mx. AYasborough," on which he took a patent for the application of the crank to steam-engines. ^ In the Patent Museum, London, may be seen now (1875), the same "Sun and Planet" engine (a great curiosity), which Watt constructed in 1788 at Soho, near Birmingham. ^ See " Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion " (Part II.), p. lOD, in which the existing documents arc recapitulated and described. MERCHANT SIIIITING. 31 years afterwards, when he petitioned for the use ex- clusively of steam-boats for fifteen years, these claims are, to say the least, very questionable, wliile, in a report on his improvements, the invention is said to be EumseyX but more likely that of his own country- man Gauthier^ whose death prevented his plans from being practically exemplified by the Venetian Re- public. The French Revolution, however, super- vening, the Marquis had not an opportunity of prosecuting his undertaking. In 1785, Joseph Bramah, a man of great genius, Bmraah's and the inventor of the hydraulic press, obtained a propeller. patent for an hydrostatical machine and a boiler on a peculiar principle, in which the power of air, steam, or any other elastic vapour, might be employed for the working of engines. Another of his inventions is a mode of propelling vessels by the improved rotatory engine described in the specification, through the medium of either a paddle-wheel or what may be called a screw-propeller. Bramah shows a vessel with a rudder placed in the bow, and de- scribes in his specification the nature of the " screw- propeller " and of its mode of action in minute and specific terms. ^ ^ There is more in Bramali's inventions than at first appears, and the scientific reader would do well to study that part of them referring to the " boiler." The following remarks have reference to the screw : — "Instead of the (>paddle-whcel) A, may be introduced a wheel with inclined fans or wings, similar to the fly of a smoke-jack, or the vertical sails of a windmill : this wheel or Hy may be. fixed on tlio spindle C alone, and may be wholly under water, where it would, by being turned round either way, cause the ship to be forced backwards or forwards, as the inclination of the fans or wings will act as oars with equal force both ways, and their power will be in proportion to the size and velocity of the wheel ; allowing the fans to have a proper inclination, the steam-engine will also serve to clear the ship of 32 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Although there is no record of Bramah having- put his proposal into practice, the description lodged by him at the Patent Office is interesting, as show- ing clearly an indication of the now so well-known screw-propeller. Moreover, in this invention, he obviously intended that steam should be used so as to give circular motion to the propeller shaft. Pre- viously, however, to the time when he patented his invention, the rotatory screw as a mode of propulsion had been proposed by Watt, who^ in 1770, suggested the application of a screw-propeller to be turned by a steam-engine.^ But more than half a century elapsed before the screw, now in almost general use, was practically applied ; indeed, the first authentic record we possess of the marine engine itself having been successfully worked by paddle or any other means on board any vessel, dates no further back than 1787, although, between 1774 and 1790, Fitch and Rumsey were experimenting in America on boats (to which I shall hereafter refer) to work against streams. Mr. Miller lu that year (1787) Mr. Patrick Miller, of Dals- wintonT winton in Scotland, a gentleman of position and fortune, j)^iblished a pamphlet (given at length by Mr. Woodcroft^ in his interesting and instructive work on steam navigation^ with copies of Mr. Miller's water with singular expedition, which is a circumstance of much importance." This " apparatus for working the ship " is fixed in or beyond the stern, in or about the place where the rudder is usually placed, and its movement is occasioned by means of an horizontal spindle or axletree conveyed to the engine through tlie stern end of the ship." ^ Sec letter to Dr. Small (who replies he had tried it); Miiirhead's "James Watt," London, 1851, vol. ii. pp. 1, 8, II. ^ " Woodcroft on Steam Navigation," j). 20, ft, scq. MERCHANT SIIirriNCi. 33 drawings illustrative of his scheme), on the subject of proj^elling boats by means of paddle-wheels turned by men, working on a capstan with five bars, each 5 feet long, which drov^e a water-wheel, having the same object in view as Messrs. Fitch and Rumsey, then engaged on similar works on the other side of the Atlantic. This whcgl, of which the following is a sketch, drove the vessel in a calm from 3 to 4 miles an honr ; and, as Mr. Miller judged the capstan tlie best mode of turning the wheel, he re- jected for a time all other modes, beh'eving manual labour so applied more to be dejjended on than any mechanical contrivances. For the purpose of his experiments he built, from first to last, eight boats of different kinds, expending no less than 30,000Z. on them and their machinery. One was a treble vessel, or rather three boats fastened together, of which the following is a transverse representation of the fore part with the lower floats of the wheels at their full dip. According to a written statement laid before the Council of the Royal Society, London, Decem- ber 20, 1787, Mr. Miller made various excursions in this vessel in the course of that year; being VOL, IV. J> 34 MERCHANT SHIPPING. attended in most of these by a Mr. James Taylor, tlie tutor in his family, who, being a man of con- siderable genius, nrged Mr. Miller to apply steam to drive the wheels of his boat. At last Mr. Miller was induced to employ a young hard-working operative engineer, named Symington, to carry out Mr. Taylor's suggestion, and the combination of capital, energy, and genius with practical knowledge soon produced the desired results. Mr. Sym- About tliis time Symington, who was employed fi'iKi''i\ir. at the lead mines at Wanlockhead, had succeeded Taylor. -^^ coustructing a small steam-engine of a new description, originally intended for the purpose of propelling wheeled carriages, which he patented June 5th, 1787.^ His specification, accompanied by drawings, relates, 1 , to heating the cylinder of a steam-engine ; 2, load- ing the piston; 3, placing a fire round the cylinder; 4, a boiler ; and, 5, '• when rotatory motions of what- ever kind are wanted, two ratchet wheels will be placed upon one or the same axis in such manner that, while the engine turns forward one wheel, the other will be reversed without impeding the motion or diminishing the power so as to be ready to carry on the motion by the time the other wheel begins to be reversed." As this engine was considered suitable for the purpose Mr. Taylor had in view, Symington" under- ^ " Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion,'" Part I. p. 36. ^ It is clear that Mr, Symington is entitled to the credit of the application of steam-power to propel the jiaddles. IMr. Miller stuck to the capstan and manual labour, but, on one occasion, having been to see Symington's locomotive, he told him of his own invention, and of the difficulty he had with his paddles for lack of power. " ^^'hy don't you use the steam-engine?" was Symington's immediate remark. i MKIUJIIAXT SHIPPING. 35 took to perform the work and Mr. Miller agreed to employ him. When completed it was mounted in an oak frame and placed on the deck of one of Mr. Miller's pleasure-boats, a vessel 25 feet long and 7 feet wide, with two wheels, to be tested on Loch Dalswinton. The engine performed its work beyond their most sanguine expectations, driving the vessel at the rate of f) miles an hour, though the cylinders were only 4 inches in diameter. After being used in cruising about the lake for a few days, the engine was removed from the boat and conveyed to Mr. Miller's house, where it remained as a piece of ornamental furnitui-e for a number of years. The accounts which appeared in the Scottish news- papers at the time' state that the first experiment was made on the 14th November, 1788, and with such success that it was resolved to repeat it on a larger scale upon the Forth and Clyde Canal. A double engine with cylinders 18 inches in diameter was consequently ordered to be built at Carron Iron Works, and, in November of the following- year, it was fitted on board of another of Mr. Miller's vessels and tried on Dalswinton Loch, ^s, however, the floats of the wheels gave way, it was not until the 2()th of December, by which time stronger wheels Miller at once assented, but first constructed a double vessel, with the paddle-wheels worked by five men at the cajistan amidships, and, in June 1787, the first experiment with her was deemed successful. A short time subsequently steam was directly applied, but, whether in consequence of Symington's remark, is not certain. Mr. Taylor, who is said to have suggested it, was an intimate friend and-fellow-ijupil with Symington at Edinburgh 178G-7. (Smiles' " Lives of Boulton and Watt," p. 438.) ^ Dumfries paper; ]iographie UniverseHe,'' Paris, 185G, art. " Fulton." 42 M EEC H ANT SHIPPING. patent in 1788. The particulars of his plan are given at length by Mr. Woodcroft ^ and will also be found in the Rolls Chapel Reports.^ They were altogether impracticable for any useful purpose. In 1786, Mr. John Fitch, also an American by birth, proposed to use vertical oars worked by cranks turned by a horizontal steam-engine of which the following is an illustration.^ Although the Legislature of the State of Penn- sylvania had, in 1784, turned a deaf ear to the applications of Messrs. Rumsey and Fitch, these gentlemen, in the following year, obtained from tlie Legislatures of Virginia and Maryland the exclusive right to run steamboats on the waters of those States, w^hile Pennsylvania and New York having, in 1786, granted to Mr. Fitch himself similar exclusive rights, he in that year made a trial of his machine at Shepherdstown, Pennsylvania, in a boat of 9 tons, obtaining, it is said, the speed of 4 or 5 miles an hour against the current of the Po- tomac. In 1787, Mr. Fitch* built another vessel, 12 ' "Steam Navigation," pp. 48-51. ' Gth Eeport, p. 179. ^ See Brewster's "Encyclopaedia," extracted from the Columbian Maijazinc, Philadelphia, vol. i., Decemher 1786- ' John Fitfh, who was a remarkable genius, was horn in Con- necticut, U.S., on the 21st January, 1748. His tather, a small farmer, MKRCHANT SHIPPING. 43 feet Ijeain, and 45 feet long', with a 12-incli cylinder, the mode of propulsion being somewhat similar, in which he is reported Mo have made the trip from Philadelphia to Burlington at an average rate of who could not afford to give liim more than a limited education, bouud him apprentice to a watch and clock maker. Afterwards he became a silversmith at Trenton, New Jersey, and, during the early part of the Eevolutionary AVar, he was appointed by the "Committee of Safety '' armourer to that State. Dislodged by the approach of the British, he fled to Bucks County, Pennsylvania; subsequently, he became a sutler, and sui)plied the American camp at Valley Forge with goods and provisions : he was also a land surveyor, and, in that capacity, the idea first suggested itself to him (as, curiously enough, it had done to Symington, in Scotland, about the same time) of pro- pelling carriages by steam, but he soon abandoned it on account of the roughness of the roads in America, and turned his attention to propelling vessels by that power on the livers. In a sketch of his life, which appeared in the " Philadelphia Dispatch "' of the 9th February, 1873, the writer, in describing the difficulties Fitch had to encounter in raising money to finish his second steam-boat, remarks : " In a letter to David Eettenhouse, when asking an advance of fifty pounds to finish the boat, he says, ' This, sir, whether I bring it to i^erfection or not, will be the mode of crossing the Atlantic in time for packets and armed vessels.' But everything failed, and the poor projector loitered about the city for some months, a despised, imfortunatc, heart-broken man. ' Often have I seen him,' said Thomas P. Cope, many years afterward, 'stalking about like a troubled s]iectre, with downcast eyes and lowering coimtenance, bis coarse soiled linen peeping through the elbows of a tattered garment.' Speaking of a visit he once paid to John Wilson, his boat builder, and Peter Brown, his blacksmith, in which, as usual, he held forth xipon his hobby, Mr. Cope says : ' After indulging himself for some time in this never-failing topic of deep excitement, he concluded with these memorable words, "Well, gentlemen, although I shall not live to see the time, you will, when steam-boats will be preferred to all other means of conveyance, and especially for passengers; and they will be particularly useful in the navigation of the river Mississippi." He then retired, on which Brown, turning to Wilson, exclaimed, in a tone of deep sympathy, ' Poor fellow ! What a pity he is crazy ! ' " The same writer states that Fitch, in 1796, affer his return from France, built, under the patronage of Chancellor Livingston, at New York, "a yawl, which he moved by steam with a Hcrcw-propdhr, on the Collect Pond." Poor Fitch died by his own hands in 1798. See also "Life of John Fitch," by Thompson Wcstcott, ]>ublishcd by J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1857. 1 " New York Magazine " for 1790, p. 198. 44 MERCHANT SHIPPING. 7 miles an hour. In 1790, lie completed another and a larger boat, propelled in a different manner : and, by referring to the Federal Gazette and Phila- delphia Advertiser, of 26th July, 1790, the follow- ing advertisement will be found: ^' The steam-boat sets out to-morrow morning at ten o'clock from Arch Street Ferry, in order to take passengers for Burlington, Bristol, Bordingtown,and Fenton :" there is, therefore, no doubt that this boat actually traded with passengers on the Delawai-e. But a glance at the second boat built by Fitch, of which the following is an illustration, will show that the grasshopper paddles which he now em- ployed, however well they may have answered for a time on the smooth waters of the Delaware, were not adapted for the general purposes of navigation any more than the treadles in his first invention.^ Indeed, Fitch himself did not follow up the line of steam service he had commenced at so early a date, but on the invitation, as he alleged, of the French Government, ^ "History of riiiUid(jl])liia," by Thompson Wcstcott. MERCHANT SFlirPING. 45 he soon afterwards visited Paris with the view of coTistructiiig vessels on his plan. As he was not, however, supplied with the necessary funds (no doubt arising from the fact that the French eno-ineers were not satisfied with the practicability or desir- ability of his mode of propulsion) no vessel on his plan was built in France, and he was obliged to return to the United States, at the expense of the American Consul. As no further mention is made of vessels fitted on the plans ^ suggested by Fitcli, ' Fitch himself thus describes the engines of his first boat in a letter which appeared in the Philadelphia newspaper of the period : " FhUadelphm, Bee. 8, 178i>. " Sir, — The reason of my so long deferring to give you a description of the steam-boat, has been in some measure owing to the complication of the works, and an api^rehension that a number of drafts would be necessary in order to sliow the powers of the machine as clearly as you could wish. But as I have not been able to hand you herewith such drafts, I can only give you the general principles. It is in several parts similar to the late improved steam-engines in Eitrope, though there are some alterations. Our cylinder is to be horizontal, and the steam to work with equal force at each end. The mode by which we obtain (what I take the liberty of terming) a vacuum is, we believe, entirely new; as is also the method of letting the water into it and throwing it off against the atmosphere without any friction. It is expected that the engine, which is a 12- inch cylinder, will move with a clear force of 11 or 12 cwt., after the frictions are deducted • this force is to act against a wheel of eighteen- inch diameter. The piston is to move about 3 feet, and each vibration of the piston gives the axis about forty evolutions. Each evolution of the axis moves twelve oars or jiaddles 5^ feet (which wm-k per- pendicularly, and are represented by the stroke of the jjaddle of a canoe). As six of the paddles are raised from the water six more are entered, and the two sets of paddles make their stroke of about 11 feet in each evolution. The cranks of the axis act upon the jiaddics about one-third of their length from the lower end, on which part of the oar the whole force of the axis is applied. Our engine is placed in the boat about one-third from the stern, and with the action and reaction turn the wheel in the same way. " With the most perfect respect, sir, I beg leave to subscribe myself " Your very humble servant, "John Fitch." Stevens. 46 MERCHANT SHIPPING. it may be inferred tliat they were not adapted for practical or useful purposes, or that the machinery was too complicated or too expensive to work re- muneratively. J. 0. In 1791, John Cox Stevens, of New York, com- menced improvements on steam navigation ; but it was not until 1804 that any of these were carried into practice ; and even after an expenditure, as he states, of " twenty thousand dollars," and the constant devotion " of thirteen years of the best period of his life" to the project, he admits that his attempts were on the whole unsuccessful. These consisted of a plan for propelling a boat 25 feet long and 5 feet wide, by a rotatory engine, on the axle of which revolved a wheel, like a windmill or smolce- jack, wT)rked at tlie stern, but he found it impossible to preserve a sufficient degree of tightness in the packing of the engine. A second modification of his rotatory apparatus proving on trial no better than the first, he had recourse to AVatt's engine, omitting the beam^ and having a cyHnder 4^ inches "diameter with a nine-inch stroke ; the boiler, which w^as only 2 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 12 inches high, consisting of no less than forty-one copper tubes, each an inch in diameter. This boat (which is interesting as the first in which w^e have a direct account of the use of tubular boilers) w^as tried in May 1804, and attained a velocity of 4 miles an hour.^ After having made repeated ^ Jn a letter I received (May 2iu], 1875) from Commodore G. H. Preble, Commandant U.S. Navy Yard, Pliiladelphia, to whom I am indebted for much vabaable information, he says, "John Stevens invented the twin serew-st tamer in 1804, which is still preserved in the Stevens' Institute, lloboken, N.Y." MERCHANT SflirriNG. 47 trials with lier, his son undertook to cross from Hoboken to New York, when, unfortunately, as she approached the wliarf, the steam-pipe gave way. The boiler having also been damaged, he constructed another with the tubes placed vertically, and for this, pei'haps the only portion of liis invention wortli securing, he, in- the year 1805, obtained a patent in Eiigland,'^ where he then resided. While Fitch and Stevens were employed in the oiivor manner I have described, another American citizen, '^'^"'"' Oliver Evans, an ingenious meclianic, was endeavour- ing to mature a plan for using steam of a very high pressure, to be employed in propelling waggons on common roads, and in an account of his plans which he published in L78G,^ he suggests a mode of pro- pelling vessels by steam. From this circumstance he has been regarded by some authors as the con- triver of a practicable steam-boat : his pretensions, however, rest solely on his own allegations. He states that, in 1785, he placed his engine, used to cleanse docks, in a boat upon wheels, the combined weight being equal to 200 barrels of flour, which he transported down to the water, and, when it was launched, he fixed a paddle-wheel to the stern, and drove it down the Schuylkill to Delaware and up the Delaware to the city, " leaving all the vessels going up behind me at least half-way, the wind being ahead." In 1791, one Samuel Morey, of Connecticut, is ' The patent bears date 21st May, 1805, and was granted to " John Cox Stevens, of New York, but now residing in New Bond Street, Middlesex." ^ Gill's "Technical Repository ," 1829, vol. iv. p. 251 (for 1823), where a paper by Evans is given, but no furtlua- authority. 48 MERCHANT SHIPPING. said to have built a steam-boat which he propelled at 5 miles an hour on the Connecticut River, and, in 1797, he built another, with side wheels, at Bor- dentown, New Jersey, which was publicly exhibited and made a passage to Philadelphia, but which does not appear to have been afterwards employed. In 1793, Robert Fulton, of whose exertions in the development of steam-engines and their early application to useful purposes^ the Americans are justly proud, is said to liave conceived some time pre- viously the idea of propelling vessels by steam. It was not, however, until 1796 that any of his in- ventions were brought under notice : when, in that year, his plan for using small canals as a means of transit and for raising and lowering vessels on them by inclined planes was published. In the same year, 1796, it is said that he also suggested and used an apparatus for propelling vessels under water, to be employed in war," but it was not until 1798 that he tried successfully to propel a boat with a steam-engine and a four bladed screw-propeller.^ That he had shown an early taste for mechanical pursuits there can be no doubt, and, in 1801, when Napoleon contemplated the conquest of England, we know that Fulton made the friendly proposal to convey the legions of French soldiers who were to invade our shores by means of rafts propelled by steam ; but, though the Emperor rejected the proposal ' Fulton invented the drop and the donl)le-ended steam ferry-boats now in use in all the principal cities of the U.S. "^ Stuart's " Anecdotes of Steam-engines," vol. ii. p. 478. ^ Letter from Ti. Fulton in a memoir by E. Cartwright, London, 1843, p. 142. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 49 as chimerical, Fulton, by his intercourse with the French Government, was afforded an opportunity of becoming intimately acquainted with Mr. Living- ston, at that time Minister of the United States at Paris, with whom he frequently conversed on the subject of steam navigation, these communications having in the sequel very important results. Mr. Livingston, who had previously been asso- Ami Mr. ciated with Stevens in the United States in experi- ston. " ments and in various plans for promoting steam navigation, entered readily into the proposals of Fulton, and, on his suggestion, a boat was built on the Seine, the engine for which was ordered in England. This experimental boat, GG feet long, and 8 feet wide, was completed in 1803. AVhen on the point of making her first trial, the weight of the machinery broke the boat in two and both sank. They were, however, soon raised and the necessary repairs were shortly completed, but, on trial, the boat did not move with as much speed as Mr. Fulton expected. Before describing Fulton's further experiments, Plan really it may be convenient to direct attention to a state- from Eng- ment made by Symington soon afterwards in the pJi-iments newspapers of the period, which remains luicontra- Jo,^^'"'°°' dieted, for the purpose of showing that whatever merit is due to Fulton, his information was derived from others. There is, indeed, no doubt that, in 1802, when Symington was conducting his experiments under the patronage of Lord Dundas, a stranger came to the banks of the Forth and Clyde Canal and requested an interview, announcing himself as Mr. Fulton of VOL. iV. K 50 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the United States/ wliitlier he intended to return, and expressing a desire to see Mr. Symington's boat and machinery, and to procure some inform- ation of the principles on which it was moved, before he left Europe. He remarked that, however beneficial the invention might be to Grreat Britain, it would be of more importance to North America, considering the numerous navigable rivers and lakes of that continent^ and the facility for procuring timber for building vessels and supplying them with fuel ; that the usefulness of steam-vessels in a mer- cantile point of view could not fail to attract the atten- tion of every observer ; and that, if he was allowed to carry the plan to the United States, it would be advantageous to Mr. Symington, as, if his engage- ments would permit, tbe constructing or superin- tending of the construction of such vessels would naturally devolve upon him. Mr. Symington, in compliance with the stranger's request, caused the ^ Robert Fulton is said to have been born in Little Britain, Pennsyl- vania, in 1765. He was trained as an engineer, but having acquired some knowledge of portrait and landscape painting he came to England and studied under his distinguished countryman, "West, with whom he continued to reside for several years ; and, after quitting him, he made painting his chief employment for some time. He afterwards formed an acquaintance with Rumsey, and followed the jirofession of an engineer. He died 1815. — " Biographical Treasury," Longmans, 1873. The following notice appears in the obituary of an American newspaper of the period : " At New York, aged about 34 (50 years?) Robert Fulton, Esq., a gi-eat mechanical genius. He had been ill ten days, arising principally from exposure to the weather, in the pursuit of objects calciilated, as our authority says, to increase the national gceatness. These objects were steam-vessels of war, and a safe and certain method of sulimarine ex- plosion. The first is so far comi)leted, that it may be finished by other hands. Mr. Fulton was the inventor of steam-boats as they are now in use." See note, Appendix No. 1. p. 587. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 51 engine fire to be lighted, and the machinery put in motion. Several persons entered the boat, and along with Mr. Fulton were carried from where she then lay, to Lock No. IG on the Forth and Clyde Canal, about four miles w^est, and returned to the starting- place in one hour and twenty minutes, being at the rate of six miles an hour, to the astonishment of Mr. Fulton and the other gentlemen.^ Mr. Fulton obtained leave to take notes and sketches of the size and construction of the boat and apparatus ; but he never afterwards communi- cated with Mr. Symington. From the concurrent testimony of Mr. Jacob Perkins, and the oaths of those present in the boat during the experiment, it is evident that Fulton availed himself of the informa- tion obtained from Symington, and ordered from Messrs. Boulton and Watt of Birmingham, a steam- engine for propelling a boat intended to be built in the United States." In 1806 Mr. Fulton, in conjunction with Mr. Living- Fulton ston, commenced building a steam-boat in America, in steamers the yard of Charles Brown on the East (Hudson) u„Heti River. She was decked for a short distance only at ^^^tes. stem and stern. The engine was oj)en to view, and a house, like tliat of a canal boat, was raised to cover the boiler and the apartments for the passengers and crew. There were no wheel-guards. The boiler was set in masonry. She was launched in the spring of 1807, and the engines ordered from Boulton and Watt^ were ' Woodcroft, pp. G4-65, Bourne, on " Steam Navigation," p. 14 ; and " Encyclopaedia Britannica" (eighth edition), vol. xx. p. 638. ^ Woodcroft, on " Steam Navigation," pp. G5-67. ^ Woodcroft, on " Steam Navigation," with drawing of the vessel in question, p. GO. E 2 5'i MERCHANT SHIPPING. fixed ill that boat. Tlie engine differed very little from that of the Charlotte Diindas, whose piston had a four- foot stroke, with a cylinder 22 inches in dia- meter, while that of the Clermont (as the American boat was named, after the residence of Mr. Living- ston on the Hudson) had also a piston with a four- foot stroke, and a cylinder 24 inches in diameter. Such similarity in the dimensions of the engines could hardly have arisen from a mere accident. But whatever information Fulton derived from Symington, he claimed no patent for the assumed discovery. On the first trial of the Clermont her speed was 5 miles an hour. Fulton perceiving that her paddles entered too deej) into the water had them removed, and placed nearer the centres of the wheels. He afterwards made a further trip in her, leaving New York at one o'clock on Monday, and arrived at Clermont, the seat of Mr. Living- ston, at one o'clock on Tuesday, performing in twenty-four hours a distance of 110 miles. On the voyage from Clermont to Albany, a distance of 40 miles, the time was eight hours, equal on the average of both passages to nearly 5 miles an hour. The Clermont was soon afterwards leno-thened and considerably improved in appearance and useful- ness — indeed, almost wholly rebuilt. Her hull was covered from stem to stern with a flush deck, beneath which two cabins were formed, surrounded by double ranges of berths, and fitted u^d for comfort in a manner then unexampled. Her dimensions now were, "Length, 130 feet; breadth, 16J feet; with an engine of only eighteen horse-power,^ though her ' The term horse-power is employed to express the magnitude or capacity and power of an engine. It originated with James Watt MERCHANT SHIPPING. 53 burden was 160 tons, the boiler being 20 feet long, 7 feet deep, and 8 feet broad ; the axle of her paddle-wheel was cast iron, but it had no outer support ; the diameter of the paddle-wheels was 15 feet, and the paddles were 4 feet long, dipping into the water 2 feet. It appears from a paragraph in the American Citizen (newspaper) of the 17th August, 1807,^ that Mr. Fulton's original intention was to ply with his boat on the Mississippi ; but the passenger trade on the Hudson then offered greater induce- ments. Various accounts have been given of the performances of the Clermont^ but, without refer- ring to these, it is better to furnish Fulton's own description of the trial, w^iich he gave in a letter addressed to the above newspaper," ^ as this is more from the actual measure of the work which a horse could perform, in raising 33,000 lbs. one foot high \)ex minute ; but as any such measure must, in the nature of things, be vague and fluctuating, it was replaced by what is now known as "nominal horse-power/' a mode of measurement based mainly upon the area of the cylinder, the number of strokes per minute and the pressure. But this method is far from showing the actual horse-power, as some modern engines will give an effective power three, four, and even six times greater than the nominal ; it serves, however, as a commercial unit of cajiacity or power of performance and regulates the price to be paid for an engine. But it is much to be regretted that nominal power is not yet estimated by an uniform standard, as different rules are still applied to condens- ing and non-condensing engines, and these vary in different places. ' " Mr. F\ilton's ingenious steamboat, invented with a view to the navigation of the Mississippi, from New Orleans and upwards, sails to day from the North Run, near States Prison and Albany, the velocity of the steam-boat is calculated at 4 miles an hour. It is said that it will make a progress of two against the current of the Mississijipi and, if so, it will certainly be a very valuable acquisition to the com- merce of the Western States." — American Citizen, 17th August, 1807. " "To the Editor of the American Citizen. " New York, 21st August, 1807. " Sir, — I arrived this afternoon at 4 o'clock in the steam-boat from 54 MERCHANT SHIPPING. likely to be accurate than any other account, and has never been contradicted ; indeed, had his state- ments been exaggerated, they would certainly have been questioned at the time, the more so that his great experiment was bitterly opposed by the owners of all the sailing-vessels then employed on the Hudson. The following is a representation of the Clermont as she appeared on the Hudson after being im- Albany. As the success of iny experiment gives lue great hope that such boats may be rendered of much importance to my country, to pre- vent erroneous opinions, and give satisfaction to the friends of these useful improvements, you will have the goodness to publish the follow- ing facts : " I left New York on Monday, at 1 o'clock, and arrived in Clermont, the seat of Chancellor Livingston, at 1 o'clock on Tuesday ; time, 2i hours ; distance, 110 miles ; on Wednesday 1 departed from the Chan- cellor's at 8 o'clock in the morning, and arrived at Albany at 5 in the afternoon ; distance, 40 miles ; time, 8 hours ! The sum of this is 150 milc'R in 32 hours, equal near 5 miles an hour. " On Thursday, at 9 o'clock in the morning, I left Albany, and ar- rived at the Ciiancellor's at 6 in the evening. I started from thence at 7, and arrived at New York on Friday, at 4 in the afternoon ; time, 30 liours ; space run through, 150 miles, equal to 5 miles an houi'. Througliout tlie wJiolc way, going and returning, tlie wind was ahead ; MERCHANT SlliriMNG. 55 proved/ and where she continued to ply with goods and passengers between New York and Albany for some years. But tliough the Clermont was unquestionably a great practical success, and the first boat in the world regularly and continuously engaged in pas- senger traffic, she encountered many difficulties in her commercial operations.^ In overcoming these Merits cand ,.,-.-,. . .,,. ■,■, demerits of difficulties and persevering with his novel under- Fuitou. taking, much credit is due to Robert Fulton ; and though he was not, indeed he never claimed to be, the inventor of the steam-engine as applicable to marine propulsion, the manner in which various English authors of note have written,^ and the tone in which an eminent English engineer has spoken of him, do not become men in their positions/ if uo advantage could be drawn from my sails. The whole has therefore been performed by the power of the steam-engine. " I am, sir, your most obedient, " Robert Fulton." ' Stuart's Anecdotes of " Steam-engines," vol. ii. p. 488. ^ Fulton's second large boat on the Hudson was the Car of Neptune. Besides these two vessels he constructed steam ferry-boats to run between New York and New Jersey, also a boat for the navigation of Long Island Sound, as well as others for the Hudson, and for the Ohio and Mississippi. * Mr. Woodcroft, in concluding his remarks about Fulton, disparag- ingly says that, " If these inventions separately (those borrowed from AVatt, Pickard, and Symington) or, as a combination, were removed out of Fulton's boat, nothing would be left but the hull ; and, if the hull be then divested of that peculiarity of form admitted to have been derived from Colonel Bcaufoy s experiments, all that would remain would be the hull of a boat of ordinary construction. . . . Fulton's patents and specifications must, therefore, be considered eitlier as mere importations, borrowed (in patent phraseology) from ' foreigners residing abroad ' ' or as barefaced plagiarisms.' " * In this judgment Mr. Woodcroft is supported by Mr. Renuie, who considered " Fulton a quack who traded upon the inventions of others." — Smiles' " Lives," vol. ii. p. 237. 56 MERCHANT SHIPPING. we do not consider it necessary to be generous to the genius or, rather, to the persevering industry of men of other nations, we ought at least to be just, and not to overlook important facts or allow our judgment to be biased, because the man whose labours we are describing was not a countryman of our own. Even when the fact is clearly established, and there is, without doubt, every reason to suppose that Fulton borrowed largely from Watt, Pickard, and Symington, and, it might be added, from his own countrymen, Fitch and Rumsey, this ought not to detract from his merit in putting all the inventions of these men and others together, and in first applying them to practical and useful purposes. He did what no other events, the man had done before him: he commenced and C(??z- run"a° tinuecl to vuTi the steam-ship which now traverses veTsei' every river, every coast, and every ocean, and which, regularly; ^f^n ^j^^ inventions of man, is the mightiest harbinger of peace and good-will among nations the world has ever seen. If his was a combination of the inventions of others, if he were a " quack/' it was only on a small scale compared to those persons who combine the inventions of men of all nations in the magnificent steam-engines of the present day. Do we, however, think less of any one of these engines when we see it in motion, and know that that beautiful machine, more like a living thing than any other work of man, is not the invention of any one man, or of any one nation ? And ought we to think less highly of Robert Fulton when we know the labour he bestowed to collect the inventions of .the age in which he lived, the hardships he endured to put them into MERCHANT SHIPPING, 57 operation, and the difHculties he had to overcome in applying them to useful purposes ? That these difficulties were very great, so great indeed that to most men they would have heen insurmountable, may be known from the fact that the Clermont was often, intentionally, run into by rival vessels on the river Hudson, and that the legislature was compelled to pass a law punishing by fine and imprisonment any person who attempted to destroy or injure her. Nor did his troubles end here. When the State of New York, convinced of the practical utility of his invention, granted him the ex- clusive privilege of navigating its rivers for a certain number of years, he was harassed by numerous law suits, and at last so thoroughly broken down by the oppressive influence of men of -capital, who were either interested in the sailing-vessels, or in other in- ventions, that the State, in deference to the opinions of those sticklers who grudged him the merit of his labours, rescinded its concession, and passed a resolu- tion that the boats built by Fulton were in substance the invention of his countryman, Fitch ; a most unjust decision, as both of Fitch's modes, as I have shown, were valueless, while Fulton's were prac- ticable. But, to whomsoever the invention belon^'ed, the «°'i *" ' \ n 111-- 1 develop merit oi nrst permanently developing its power and its power usefulness belongs to Eobert Fulton. He it was who usefulness, showed how it could be made not merely an instru- ment of vast importance to mankind, but also an immense source of profit to all who adopted it, though he himself, if reports be true, derived no advantage from it, but died in 181-3 very poor and almost 58 MERCHANT SHIPPING. broken-hearted tlirougli the persecution of jealous .and narrow-minded rivals, leaving his family in greatly embarrassed circumstances, but at tlie same time leaving behind him an everlasting memorial of his energy and perseverance, and an enduring stigma on those who had taunted him with a ^'' Fulton s folly .'' The application of the new power to the propul- sion of vessels was rapidly followed up in America, and, in 1809, the first steamboat was launched on the St. Lawrence of which an account at the time appeared in the Quebec Mercury } steam- lu the Spring of 1813, a second boat of increased the St" dimensions was launched from the banks of the St. mT"'''' Lawrence. She was 130 feet in length of keel, and 140 feet on deck with a width of 24 feet, and by the account given by the Mercury she made the passage from Montreal to Quebec in twenty-two and a half ' " On Saturday morning, at eight o'clock arrived here, from Mon- treal, being her first trip, the steam-boat Accommodation, with ten passengers. This is the first vessel of the kind that ever appeared in this harbour. She is continually crowded with visitants. She left- Montreal on Wednesday, at two o'clock, so that her i^assage was sixty- six hours, thirty of which she was at anchor. She arrived at Three Eivers in twenty-four hours. She has at present berths for twenty passengers, which next year will be considerably augmented. No wind or tide can stop her. She has 75 feet keel, and 85 feet on deck. The price for a passage up is nine dollars, and eight down — the vessel sup- plying provisions. The great advantage attending a vessel so con- structed is, that a passage may be calculated on to a degree of certainty, in point of time, wliich cannot be the case with any vessel projielled l)y sails only. The steam-boat receives her impulse from an open, douT)le-si3oked, perpendicular wheel, on each side, without any circular band or rim. To the end of each double spoke is fixed a square board, which enters the water, and, by the rotary motion of the wheel, acts like a paddle. The wheels are put and kept in motion by steam, operating within the vessel. A mast is to be fixed in her, for the purpose of using a sail when the wind is favourable, which will oc- casionally accelerate her headway." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 59 hours, notwitlistaiidiuo- that the wind was easterly the whole time and blowing strong. But though the Swiftsure, for saeh was her name, beat the most famous of the sailing packets on the line (fourteen hours in a race of thirty-six hours), her owners do not seem to have been very confident of her move- ments under all circumstances or of the number of passengers wlio would patronize her, for she was advertised to " sail as the wind and passengers may suit." The success of the Clermont for the purposes of passenger traffic on rivers soon, however, spread to other countries. GO MERCHANT SHIPPING. CHAPTER II. Progress of steam navigation in Europe — Clyde mechanics take the lead — James Watt, 1766 — Hem-y Bell, ISOO — Correspondence between Bell and Fulton — Letter from Bell to Miller of Dalswinton — The Comet steamer, 1811, plies between Glasgow and Greenock, and afterwards on the Forth — Extraordinary progress of ship-building on the Clyde — Great value and importance of the private building yards — J. Elder and Comjiany ; their extensive premises, note — Steam between Norwich and Yarmouth, 1813 ; between London and Margate, 1815 — The Glasjow — Early opposition to the employment of steam-vessels — Barges on the Thames — First steamer between Liver- pool and the Clyde — H. M. steam-ship Comet — The Roh Roy and other vessels, 1818 — The United Kingdom, 1826 — First idea of iron ships, 1830— Proposals of Trevethick and Dickenson, 1809-1815— The Vulcan, 1818— The Aaron Manhy, 1821 — The Shannon Steam Packet Company, 1821 — ]\Ir. John Laird and Sir William Fau-bairn — The Llbnrkah, 1832, and Gamj Owen, 1831— The Rainhoiv, 1837— Messrs. Tod and MacGregor— The Grmt Britain, 1839-1843— Advantages of iron ships — Action of salt water on iron incoasiderable — Durability, strength, and safety of iron — Affords greater capacity for stowage — Admiralty slow to adopt iron for shijDS of war — Mr. Galloway's feathering paddles, 1829 — Story of the screw-proi^eller — Joseph Bramah, 1785— Mr. J. Stevens, 1804— Richard Trevethick, 1815— Robert Wilson, 1833 — Caj^tain Ericsson, 1836— The Francis B. Oyden, though successful, fails to convince the Admiralty — Mr. T. P. Smith — The Archimedes — Her trial with the Widijeon, Oct. 1839, and its results — The Battier and the Alecto, 1843 — 1h.e Rattler noi as success- ful as expected — Captain Robert J. Stockton efficiently supports Ericsson's views — His vessel, a complete success, and the first " screw " used for commerce in America — Superiority of Mr. Woodcroft's " vary-ing " propeller, 1832 — In building fit vessels, the trade in which they are to be employed must be considered. o/Sm During tlie progress in America of the art of iiaviga- practically applying steam to marine propulsion the Europe. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 61 people of Europe were making slow l)ut important improvements in the models of their vessels, and in the development of that art for the purposes of navigation. In these improvements the mechanics on the Clyde ciy.ic ,,,, 1T1' 1 ' c ^ niechanics took the lead, establishing there a reputation lor the take the construction of marine engines and more especially of ^^'^ ' ships adapted to receive them, which they have ever since maintained. In the early part of this century the river Clyde in the vicinity of Glasgow was a scarcely navigable stream, with few or no vessels at its chief port, and these, small craft of not more than 40 tons, drawing, at most, only 5 feet of water when laden. Indeed, my own recollection of that now important river goes back to the time when one could wade across it among the stones at the foot of the old Broomielaw Bridge, and when a small but lucrative salmon fishery was carried on from the two "fishing huts," then the site where a dock now receives ships of the largest description, and where massive quay walls and numerous warehousing sheds occupy the once verdant grass banks of its southern shore. To the energy and intelligence of the Corporation, and, in later years, through the laudable exertion of a Trust, chosen from members of that body and other citizens of Glasgow, may, in a great measure, be attributed the extraordinary rise and prosperity of a city now possessing an inland navigation and a stream harbour unsurpassed, perhaps, in Europe. Indeed, from the time when James James Watt, in 1706,^ erected in Glasgow his first neo.' * It woiild appear from Dr. Eobinson's interesting narrative (Muir- head, " Life of Watt," p. G5), that Watt's first connection with the steam- 62 MERCHANT ^SHIPPING. model of a steam-engine and there laid the founda- tion of a power which has since revolutionized the commerce of the world, its citizens seem to have specially directed their genius to the development of this mighty agency, their first and necessary step being the improvement of the approaches to their city by the deepening of the Clyde. But it was not till the beginning of the present century that any real progress was made in the maritime jDursuits of the people of Scotland. In Henry 1800, Hcnrv Bell, then resident at Helensburs'h, Bell, 1800. 1 • 1 1 "p 1 -r. . . 1 /->, 1 • • nrst laid before the British Government his inven- tions for the improvement of steam navigation. The Board of Admiralty, however, so far from express- ing any desire to promote his views, discouraged them, as they did thirteen years afterwards, when the subject was again urged uj^on their attention. Naturally anxious that his invention should be prac- tically tested on a scale sufficiently extended. Bell forwarded, in 1803, a detailed account of his method of propelling vessels against wind and tide by steam power, to most of the European Governments, and also to the Government of the United States of America. He found, however, that his plans were received no better abroad than at home : while it further seems probable that the Government of the United States had either given or shown them to Fulton, who was then engaged in endeavouring to induce his countrymen to assist him in starting engine arose from his Laving been desired, by the Professors of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, to repair a model of one of Newcomcn's engines in tlie year 1764. (See Smiles' "Lives,"' i\ 121.) MERCHANT SHIPIMNG. (i8 trading steamers on their lakes and rivers, where such vessels were admirably fitted for the profitable de- velopment of their vast natural inland resources. Mr. P\dton evidently knew how Mr. Bell had been Correspon- employed, for he opened a correspondence with him, between and, in the course of it, requested him to call on Mr. }^,i^ito^]^'^ Miller of Dalswinton, and on Mr. Symington, and to send him a drawing and description of their last boat with the machinery. These were sent out, and Fulton, some time afterwards^ answered that "he had constructed a steamer from the different draw- ings of the machinery forwarded to him by Bell, which was likely to succeed with some necessary improvements." This letter Bell sent to Mr. ]\Iiller for his information. As the matter, however, to which it refers is one of considerable importance, it is desirable to state the facts as related by Mr. Bell himself in a letter which appeared in the Caledonian Mercury in 1816, wherein he says, referring to the communication he had received many years pre- viously from Mr. Fulton : " This letter led me to think of {\\q absurdity Letter of writing my opinion to other countries, and not b.ii to putting it into practice in my own country; andpa^'"**^ from these considerations I was [a]roused {sic), to ^"'*""- set on foot a steam-boat, for which I made a number of different models before I was satisfied. When I was convinced they would answer the end, I con- tracted with Messrs. John Wood and Company, shipbuilders, in Port Glasgow, to build me a steam- vessel according to my plan : 40 feet keel, and Tiie 10 feet inches beam, which I fitted up with an steamer. engine and paddles, and called her the Cornet^ because ^^^'' 64 MERCHANT SHIPPING. she was built and finished the year that a comet appeared in the north-west part of Scotland. This vessel is the first steam-boat built in Europe that answered the end, and is, at this present time, upon the best and simplest method of any of them, for a person sitting in the cabin will hardly hear the engine at work. She plies on the Firth of Forth, betwixt the east end of the great canal and New- haven near Leith. The distance by water is 27 miles, which she performs in ordinary weather in three and a half hours up, and the same down." In another communication. Bell says, " when I wrote to the United States' Government on the great utility that steam navigation would be to them on their rivers, they appointed Mr. Fulton to correspond with me." No merit, as the inventor of the present system of steam navigation, can, however, be conceded to Bell more than to Fulton ; nor for any progress beyond the improvements of which he had obtained cognizance from the previous experiments of Messrs. Miller, Taylor, and Symington. In fact, there can be no doubt, from existing drawings, that Syming- ton's Charlotte Dundas was superior in mechanical arrangements to either Fulton's Clermont or Bell's Comet. But what Fulton and Livingston accom- plished in the United States, Bell effected in his own country ; each was, therefore, instrumental in the introduction, for commercial purposes, of steam navigation.' piiea Though Mr. Bell had completed his Comet in Glasgow January, 1812, more than six months elapsed before Greenock * See Tredgold " On the Steam-engine," and Woodcroft, p. 82. MEllCHANT SHIPPING. G5 lie announced to the public, tliroiigh tlie medium of an advertisement in the local papers of the period,^ In's intention to employ her for trading purposes on the Clyde, The notice is a modest but curious and interesting document. He does not profess to make more tlian one passage each day between Glasgow and Greenock, a distance of 22 miles, and, doubt- ful of its pecuniary success, he informs the public that he intends to continue "his establishment at Helensburgh Baths," to which the Comet will carry passengers on her return journey from Greenock ' The following is a cojiy, from " SIcmoi'ials of Jnraes AVatt " by George Williamson, Es.j., late perpetual Secretary of the Watt Club of Greenock, printed for the Club, of Mr. Bell's original advertisement of his new.steamer the Comt to ply between Glasgow, Greenock, and Helensburgh ; — Stkam Passage Boat, The ' Comet/ between Glasgow, Greenock, and Helensburgh, for passengers only. The subscriber having, at much expense, fitted up a handsome vessel to ply upon the Biver Cly.le, between Glasgow and Greenock, to sail by the power of Wind, Air, and Steam, ho intends tliat the Vessel shall leave the Broomielaw on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, about midday, or at such hour tl;ereafter as may answer from the slate of the tide, and to leave Greenock on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays in the morning to suit the tide. The elegance, comfort, safety, and speed of this Vessel require only to be proved to meet the approbation of the public ; and the Proprietor is determined to do everything in his power to merit public encourage- ment. The terms are, for the present, fixed at 4s. for the best cabin, and 3.S, the second, but beyond these rates nothing is to be allowed to servants, or any other i^erson employed about the Vessel. The subscriber continues his establishment at Ilelensburgli Baths, the same as for years past, and a vessel will be in readiness to convey Passengers that intend visiting Helensburgh. Passengers by the ' Comet' will receive information of the hours of sailing, by applying at ]Mr. Thomas Stewart's, Bookseller Sriuare ; and at Mr. Blackly's, East (Juay Head, Greenock; or at Mr. Houston's oflico, Broomielaw. Henry Bell. IMevsI»m/h Brifhs, '^th August, 1812. VOL. TV. F 66 MEECHANT SHIPriNG. Tliis little vessel, of wliicli the following is an illus- tration as she appeared on the Clyde passing Diim- harton, was designed and constructed by Mr. John Wood, shipbuilder, Port Glasgow. She was 40 feet in length of keel, and 10^ feet beam ; her engines (which cost 102/.) were 4 horse-power; and her draught of water 4 feet. She continued to ply for a short time between Glasgow and Greenock, but under many difficulties.^ Though the engine of the Comet was only of 4 horse-power, diiving two small wheels, one on each ' Mr. James Deas, C.E., in his " Treatise on the Improvements and Progress of Trade of the liirer Clyde/' (1873) says, "An old gentleman, seventy-seven years of age, and who has been connected with the Clyde for upwards of fifty years, informed me a short time ago that he made a voyage in the Comet in 1812. He left Greenock at 10 a.m. for Glasgow, but, in consequence of a ripple of head wind, it was 2 p.m. before they got to Bowling, lOi miles above Greenock, where all the passengers were landed and had to walk to Glasgow, owing to the want of water, the tide having ebbed. It was no uncommon occiarrcnce for the passengers, when the little steamer was getting exhausted, to take to turning the flv-whecl to assist lier.'' MERCHANT SHIPPING. 67 side, it must, liowever, liave performed its work, on the whole, exceedingly well to have propelled a vessel of 30 tons burthen at the rate Mr. Bell states in his letter published in the Caledonian Mercury. But the Comet does not appear to have proved and, after- remunerative to her enterprising owner on the line J{fjFor*Jh on which he had placed her.' The prejudice raised against steam navigation by rival interests, which Fulton had previously experienced on the Hudson, was equally strong on the Clyde, and seriously injured Mr. Bell's first undertaking. He was con- sequently obliged to withdraw her from this station and to employ her for some months as an excursion- boat on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, extending his cruises to the shores of England when the weather permitted, to show the superior advantages of steam- boat navigation over other modes of transit to the public, many of whom viewed her with feelings of mingled awe and superstition. Afterwards he trans- ferred her to the Forth, where she ran for a consider- able time between the extremity of the Forth and Clyde Canal and Newhaven, near Edinburgh. Here she seems to have done her work most efficiently, for Mr. Bell states that she made the voyage, a distance of 27 miles, on the average, in three and a half hours, being at the rate of more than 7|^ miles an liour.^ ' Henry Bell, like too many of the pioneers of vast and truly important undertakings, failed to profit by the successful application of steam to naviL;ation ; and in liis declining years he was chiefly suiijiorted by an annuity of .10/. granted him by the Clyde trustees. He died at Helensburgh in 1830, aged 68. (" Treatise " by Mr. JamesDeas,p. 24.) - " Encycloj^ajdia Britannica" (eighth edition), vol. xx. p. 638. In the Patent Office Museum there is now to be seen the engine of the first Comvt which carried goods and passengers on the Clyde. It was erected there in 1862 by the same engineer, Mr. John Robertson F 2 68 MERCHAN'J' SHIPPING. Altlioiigli the Comet at first proved comiiiercially unsuccessful, there is no part of Europe where the progress in the construction of steamers has been either so great or so astonishing as on the Clyde. From a silvery salmon stream it has become in half a century by far the largest and most important shipbuilding river in the world ; but, alas, its once limpid stream has long since ceased to be either silvery or pure.^ Ancient historians have told us of Glasgow, who fitted it in the Comet, exactly fifty years before that time. To this engine I shall again refer. » When Smeaton first officially surveyed the Clyde in 1755, with a "view to certain engineering imirovements, he found tlie depth of the river, between Glasgow and Eenfrew, of not more on the average than eighteen inches at low water — nor did he hope by the improve- ments then contemplated to obtain more than " -Is feet of water at all times up to the Quay at Glasgow; " but, in 17C8, "the river," according to the report of another engineer, John Golborne, " was in a state of nature, and for want of due attention has been suffered to expand too much." He, also, did not expect to secure more "than 4 or perliaps 5 feet of water up to the Broomielaw" at a cost of " ten thousand pounds," a very considerable sum in those days to be raised by the citizens of Glasgow. Nor does Mr. Telford even, in 1820, hold out much hope of improvement, for in his report he remarks : " There does not appear to be any good grounds to expect such increase of revenue as to justify incurring any very considerable expense." But the corporation of the city, who had then the river under their charge, was happily not deterred by these dislieartening reports from attemi^ing further improvements, and, in 1824:, I.Ir. James Picddie, their town clerk, in an able letter, called for fiu'ther reports, which brought wiser engineering counsellors to their aid. By the indomitable energy of the corporation and the river trust, the Clyde was by degrees deepened; and at the BVoomielaw, which only fishing wherries and small barges could reach forty years ago, the largest and most magnificent ships afloat, many of them more than 3000 tons register, di'awing upwards of 20 feet of water, are now moored. See " Picports of the Improve- ment and Management of the River Clyde and Harbonr of Glasgow," See also " Treatise " by Mr. James Deas, C.E., chief engineer to the river Clyde trustees, edited by Mr. James Forrest, C.E. (1873), pp. 31 and 32, where we learn that " during the last twenty-eiglit years, 1844 to 1872, no less than 18,000,000 tons of stuff have been dredged from the river by the Clyde trustees," and that the expenditure for dredging MlOKOtlANT SIIirriNG. (i'J tliat wlieii th'o first Punic war rousca the citizens of liomc to extraordinary exertions in the equip- ment of a fleet lor tlie destruction of the maritime supremacy of Carthage, tlie banks of the Tiber resounded vv^ith the axe and the hammer, and that the extent of the sliip-building operations then carried on was a matter not merely of surprise, but of wonder. How insignificant, however, was that sound when compared with that of the steam hammer and the anvil and the din of the work now to be heard on tlio banks of the Clyde. For miles on both sides of the river stupendous ship-building yards line its banks, Extrnordi- employing tens of thousands of Ijardy and skilled gi-eL^or mechanics earning their daily bread, as God has j||J,',','"^\',g" destined all men to do, by " the sweat of their brow," Clyde, relieved from oppressive taxation, and free fi'om any- thing approaching the thraldom of slavery, the curse of ancient Rome. Along those banks there is now annually constructed a much larger amount of steam tonnage than in all the other ports of Europe com- bined, those of England alone excepted. What a, contrast to the days of Henry Bell !— days nlmost within my own recollection. By comparing the Clyde with the Tibei-, both in themselves comparatively insignificant rivers — the one made important by the power of the Ciesars, the and (lc]iositiiig alouc since the year 1770 has aiiioniited to upwartls of 500,000^. Tlicso drcdgins-macliiiics are so coinpletc and so superior to anything else of llic kind to be found in any other part of tlic world, tliat I furnish, Appendix No. 2, p. 591, an account of thcni, tlieir cost, hor.sc-])o\vcr, and other details. In 1800 the total amount of the annual revenue of the ('lydo Irust was only 3811)/. IGs. h/. In 1871, the revenue for that year, ending oGlh June, amounted to lU^.rJT/. liJ^. 11/. 70 MERCHANT SHIPPING. otlier by the wisdom and energy of the Clyde trustees, it is to be lioped that more than one lesson may be learned from the character of the employment on their respective banks. The clamour on the Tiber when Rome resolved to achieve maritime greatness, in- dicated war, terrible war, with Carthage; but the sounds on the Clyde proclaim a mission of j)eace and good-will among nations, for nearly all the ships con- structed there are destined to carry to otlier lands the fabrics of our workshops and the products of our mills, and with them the civilizing and enlightening influence resulting from the skill and genius of our artisans/ ^ In 1868 the total number of vessels built and launched on the Clyde was 232 of 174,978 tons, including 8 war vessels of 5384 tons ; in 18G9, 240 vessels of 194,000 tons, including 3 war vessels of 9100 tons ; in 1870, 234 vessels of 189,800 tons, including 1 war vessel of 2640 tons ; in 1871, 231 vessels of 196,200 tons, including 6 war vessels of 3050 tons ; in 1872, 227 vessels of 221,000 tons, and no war vessel. (Treatise of Mr. James Doas, pp. 25 and 26.) The vessels launched on the Clyde in the year 1873, are thus analyzed by Mr. William West Watson, the chamberlain of the city of Glasgow, in his report of the statistics of that city : No. ToiiP. Iron steamers under 100 tons 14 1,076 „ from 100 to 500 tons .... 26 .... . 8,382 „ 500 „ 1000 „ ... 13 9,786 „ 1000 „ 2000 „ ... 22 34,315 „ 2000 „ 3000 „ ... 24 60,026 ,,3000 tons and upwards .30 104,188 129 .... 217,773 Tons. Iron sailing ships under 500 tons each . 2 . 328 from 500 to 1000 tons None „ 1000 to 2000 „ 7 . 12,148 — . 12,476 9 Hull or barge for shipment 1 198 Steamers shipped in pieces 3 2,459 1 screw steam yacht 1 20 143 . . . . 232,926 During the year 1873. tlic JhcHa, gross tonnage 4670 tons, was ]^IK!:CliANT ^lIlPl'lNi;. 71 Sh.OLikl, however, the necessity arise, these nume- rous ship-building yards and thousands of mechanics could instantly be made available for the construc- tion of vessels of war. If, therefore, a large naval ^orce be still unhappily necessary, [and I am far from saying that it is not], should we not take into consideration, wlicn we frame our naval estimates, the vast resources we have at our command in our private yards,^ (infinitely greatdt' as these are than those of Great all other nations in Europe combined), for producing impor.'"" on an emergency, whatever extra number of vessels Jhe'jSrh!-it,> of war we may then require ? Our private building ^J^".Y"'° yards are in themselves the bases of a great fleet.^ hiuucbed, being tho largest mercliant steamer ever built on the Clyde. Similar particulars for 1873-74 will bo found, Appendix No. 3, pp. 593-4. ^ See A])peudices Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 5'J3-9, " Shipbuilding Yards on the Clyde and Wear." '^ One firm alone, that of John Elder and Co., Fairfield, Glasgow, who J. Elder employ, on an average, 4000 men, launched in the year 1867 sixteen f,'"^^. *^°-' tl'Oir OX— vessels of a total burden of 10,323 tons ; and, in 1868, there were turned tensive out from the Fairfield shipbuilding yard no fewer than fifteen vessels, of prouiisos. which six were sailing-ships and nine screw-steamers, the latter in- cluding a gunboat for the Eoyal Navy, and W\QMa(;eTlan,wx ii'on barque of 3000 tons and 600 horse-power for the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. The total burden of the vessels launched from this one private yard in 1869 was 16,050 tons. In the following year (1870) fourteen steamers and three sailing-vessels were launched at Fairfield, measuring '25,235 tons, their engines having a total of 4115 horse- power nominal. There were likewise two steamers of 2600 tons transformed in the year. In 1871 tliey launched sixteen vessels of which twelve were steamers, amounting in the aggregate to 31,889 tons. In 1872 32,000 tons of steam shipping were built by this firm, and, in the course of that year, they had as many as sixteen vessels on hand at one time or contracted for, of an aggregate tonnage of upwards of 36,000 tons, six of them being aboiit or above 4000 tons each : one of these was delivered to her owners complete and ready for sea, with steam up, within thirteen months from the time she was contracted for ! These works, as may be supposed, arc gigantic, covering upwards of 60 acres of land, and embracing a wet dock where the ships are placed when launched 72 MERCIIAXT SHIFPIX(;. But the Admiralty are slow to learn. At the commencement of the century they declined even to consider the henefits to be derived by the appli- cation of steam, and even forty years afterwards, when everybody except themselves had become alive to its advantages, they refused to apply this new and now mighty power to our war ships of the line. Happily, however, tlie great inventi(m made its way without Government aid. Private enterprise carried into executic-n what the Admiralty would not even consider. In 1813 a steam-boat was Vault at Leeds, and was started to run between Norwich and Yarmouth in the months of August or September of that year. This was the second steam-vessel launched in British waters. In the same year a steamer was launched at Manchester and another at Bristol. In October 1814 another steamer commenced to ply on the Humber. In December of that year the first steamer was seen on the Thames ; she was put in to have their boilers aucl macliinery fitted on board ; an engine shop, 300 feet square; a blacksmiths' shop 296 feet in length and 102 feet in width containing 44 fires, one large plate furnace and four forging furnaces, six large steam hammers, and various hydraulic cranes. There are also in the yard two bays spanned by travelling cranes, each capable of lifting a dead ■weight of 40 tons ; and among the numerous tools and machines there is one capable of planing armour ])lates of 20 feet in length and G feet in width, and one boring machine which can drill holes 4 inches in diameter, and penetrate a y-inch plate in half an hour. Here we regret to add, for we can ill afford to lose such men, that the bead of this vast shipbuilding firm, and the man by whose remarkable genius it was founded, John Elder, died in September 1869 at the early age of forty-five. His father had been for many years the manager of the well-known works of Robert Napier and Co. There Mr. Elder served his apprenticeship and gained that practical knowledge which, combined with great natural abilities and an enihusiaslic taste iov mechanics, enabled liim to create the very large business I have briefly atteniidul to describe. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 7;) motion on the canal at Limeliousc ; and, early in 1815, a vessel with a side lever engine of 14 horse- power, constructed by Cook' of Glasgow, made lier way from that city to Dublin, and thence round the Land's End to London. Though encoun- tering great opposition from the Thames water- men, from time immemorial an obstructive class of men, she, nevertheless, conunenced and successfully carried on a passenger traffic between that city Between and Margate. Cook had, in the previous year, in ji,°i M.^r. association with Bell, built two other steam- vessels, ^'^*^*'''^'^" one of which, named the Glasgow, became in power The and efficiency the standard at that time for river steamers. The public now began to appreciate the value of steamers. Prejudice vanished and travellers by them increased with such rapidity that, in 181G, it was not unusual for 500 or GOO passengers to enjoy, in the course of one day, water excursions on tlie Clyde. ^ It is, however, not a matter for surprise that Early opposition 1 Mr. Muirhcad (in his " Life of Watt," pp. 428-9) mentions a few *'j„';^',J;p'j|i'' additional jiarticulars which it seems worth while to record. Thus he ^f steam states that the largest steamer built np to the year 1813 was the ves^hcls. (jhmjow noticed above, of 7i tons and 16 horse-power ; and that, in 1815, the Morning Star of 100 tons and 26 horse-power, and, in 1815^ the Caledonia of 102 tons and 32 horse-i^ower, were severally launched. lie adds that, daring his last visit to Greenock in 1816, Mr. Watt made a voyage in a steam-boat to Eothcsay and back, and showed the engineer how to " back " the engine, it having been usual previously to stop the engine f >r some time previously to mooring. He further states that, in April 1817, Mr. James Watt, Jun., purchased the Caleilouia and, having relitted her, took her in October to Holland and up the Rhine to Coblentz ; having thus been the first to cross the Enghsh Channel in a steam-boat. The average speed he obtained was seven and a half knots an hour. On her return to tlio Thames in 1818, Mr. Watt, Jun., made no fewer than thirty-one ex]K'rinKiits willi her on the river, resulting in the ado])tion of many material improvenieiils in tlic construction and adai)tation of marine engines. 7-1 MERCHANT SIIUTING. steamers, when first placed on rivers for passenger traffic, were viewed with great jealousy by watermen, and that, on the Hudson and especially on the Thames, they were strenuously opposed. The traffic on the Thames had for centuries afforded profitable employ- ment to large numbers of semi-seafaring men who, though not " sailors " in the usual acceptation of the terni, could nevertheless be made much more useful on board our ships of war in an emergency than any other class in the community. To suggest any changes whereby their number might be reduced was sure, as has been the case for ages, to rouse the patriotic feelings of the people of England lest there should be a scarcity of men to man their fleets. Thus, on the repeal of the navigation laws in 1849, the special clause inserted in the Bill to reserve the coasting trade from the competition of foreign ships and foreign seamen, was solely on the ground of " preserving a nursery for British sailors," and five years elapsed ere that clause was expunged. When, therefore, the British Legislature, at so recent a period, considered it necessary to pass an enactment for the preservation of seamen in England, as if any law could retain them here if they were desirous of improving their conditi(m by accepting employment elsewhere, it is not surprising that the watermen, bargemen, and others, who obtained their livelihood on the Thames, should have found many sympathisers in 1815, when they affirmed that their " trade would be ruined by the introduction of steamers." Nor can w^e wonder that men, in their humble position of life, could not see that the greater facilities afforded for intercourse between London and Margate and other towns on MERCHANT SHIPPING. tlie banks of tlie river would, so far from reducing their means of employment, tend very materially to increase tliem. Previously to the time when David Napier in- troduced a steamer, the Marjory, to ply on the Barges on Thames, the passenger traffic of the river had been Thames. carried on by rowing boats, and sailing-craft of various descriptions. Those which made the more distant voyages to Margate, Ramsgate, and Deal were sailing-vessels, most of them carrying cargo as well as passengers, while maiiy were merely barges, called Hoys, of which the following is an excellent illustra- TIIASIICS BAlUiE. tion from Mr. E. W. Cooke's interesting collection of the vessels on the Thames. But the great bulk of them were wherries, while \\\q, larger class having a 70 MKRCIIANT «IlIITJNCr. mast and sails, plied between Greenwich, AVoolwicli, Eritli, or Gravesend. A few were state barges — ornate structures — belonging to the Lord Mayor and Corporation, or to the diiferent livery companies or ancient guilds, in wliicli for centuries the members mnde frequent excursions to Ricljmond or Hampton Court on the one hand, and Greenwich or Blackwall on the other. Jovial j^leasant parties they were, especially at that season of the year, when the horse- chestnuts in Bushy Park were in bloom, and wliite- bait was in its prime at Greenwich. One of these richly decorated barges, almost rivalling the cele- brated bucentaur of Venice, I have copied from the drawings of Mr. Cooke as a relic of bygone days. THE STAIION'ERS' HAKfiE. But these have all now passed away, though the cargo barges, and some of the wherries may still be seen on the river, Steamers supply their places, MERCHANT SnirPlNG. 77 ujid iVoin tlio time wlion Napier, in 181 a, started liis "fire-boat," steam navigation on the Thames, as on all other navigable rivers, has made a steady, if not, at first, a rapid progress. On the 28th Jnne, 1815, the first steamer arrived First at Liverpool from the Clyde. She was built for the \KUuvn purpose of carrying on the passenger traffic between ^nn Ji'io ' the Mersey and Euncorn. On her passage round ^'>"'^''- she called at Ramsey, in the Isle of Man, whence she started early in the morning, and arrived at Liver- pool about noon of the same day. This vessel, the particular dimensions and details of which it is dif- ficult now to trace, was noteworthy in more ways than one. Slie was not merely the first regular steamer on the Mersey, but she was, also, in reality tlie pioneer of the fleet of steamers which now ply with so much regularity between Liverpool and the numer- ous ports on the English, Irish, and Scotch coasts. The second steamer, introduced to the waters of tlie Mersey in 1816, was intended to supply communi- cation for passengers and goods between Liverpool and Chester by means of the canal, an object she effectually accomplished. The first application of steam for the purpose of towing vessels — now an important and invaluable part of the numerous services rendered by steam to navigation — was made in October 181G, when the Harlequin was towed out of the Mersey by the Charlotte, a steamer which, in the summer of the same year, had been placed as a ferry-boat to run between Liverpool and Eastham. But the first steamer specially built at Liverpool for the purpose of a ferry was named the J'Jtna, which, early in April 78 MERCHANT SHIPPING. of that year, began to ply between Liverpool and Tranmere. She was 63 feet long, with a paddle- wheel placed in the centre, her extremities being connected by beams, and her deck 28 feet wide over all. This primitive vessel initiated the mode of transit by means of the ferry-boats which now bridge the Mersey. It was not, however, till the year 1819 that the Admiralty of the day became alive to the importance of steam navigation, nor were they likely, even then, to have awakened from their slumbers had not Lord Melville and Sir George Cockburn nrged on the Government the great value of steam-power for towing their men-of-war.^ In that year the first steam-vessel was built for the Royal Navy. She H.M. was named the Comet, and her dimensions were 115 ship feet in length, 2 1 feet in breadth, and 9 feet draught I'sTg!' of' water, being propelled by two engines of 40 horse-power each, manufactured by Boulton and Watt. In 1818, Mr. David Napier, a name more associated than any other in Great Britain with the early development of the marine engine, having for some years previously been giving his attention to Theiioh the propidsion of vessels by steam, launched the oZT'^ i?o^> Roy from the yard of Mr. William Denny, of vessels, 1818, ' At this period, Mr. Pcnnic, who planned the breakwaker at Plymouth and new London Bridge, was "advising engineer" lo the Admiralty, and on every occasion urged the application of steam-power to vessels of war. More than this, he hired at his own cost the Margate steam-boat, the Eclipse, and successfully towed the f,'(i!ifi),(;ii, 74, against the tide from "Woolwich to Gravesend, June llth, 1819. On this the Admiralty, supported by Lord Melville, gave u]) their objections.— Smiles' " Lives," vol. ii. p. '207. MKUCHANT SIIiriMNG. 70 DumbartoTi/ She was only 90 tons biirtlieii, witli engines of 30 horse-power, but, to tlie credit of her builder, she traded between Glasgow and Belfast, carrying with great punctuality the mails and pas- sengers for two consecutive years without requiring any repairs ; and although the first regular sea- going steamer which had be^en built in either Europe or the United States of i\merica, lier success was complete. Subsequently, the Rob Boy was trans- ferred to the English Channel to serve as a packet between Dover and Calais. Soon afterwards Messrs. ^ William Denny, tlio builder of the Roh Roy, as also of the Mnrjorij (noticed p. 75), v.as Lorn in Dumbarton in 1789, where his fore- tathers for some generations had been " wee lairds" (j'eomen) forming their own land. After serving his apprenticeship as a joiner antl ship- earpcnter, and acting as manager of a small ship-building yard on the Elver Leven, Dumbarton, he commenced business on his own account at that place, and was the first to lay down in his yard Morton's patent slips, where he built various sailing-ships for tlie East and West India trades. He died \xv December 1833. Three of his sons, also, "William, Alexander, and Peter, commenced business at that place as iron ship builders in 1814, on a small piece of ground, removing in 1817 to a larger yard, where they continued the business of iron ship builders under the firm of William Denny and Brothers, by which it is still known. In 1851, two other brothers, James and Archibald, having then joined them, they (there were seven brothers, all shipbuilders) commenced the business of engine builders, subse-^ quently adding to this that of founding and forging, so that all the branches of work connected with steam shipbuilding might be done on the spot. AYilliam was a man of remarkable genius and talent, and attained so high a reputation as a marine architect that he and his brother Alexander planned most of the steamers built on the Clyde from 1S;!'J to 1 8-14. He died in 185-1, and the only brother now left is the youngest, ]\Ir. Teter Denny, who, with his son and Mr. Walter Brock, carries on this well-known and extensive business, which, in the years 1873 and 1874, built and fitted with engines 37,000 tons of iron screw-ships. Since 1844 the town of Dumbarton has risen, almost entirely through their exertions, from a population of 4000 to 12,000 inhabitants. But, beyond his fame as an iron ship builder, Jlr. Peter Denny is known in public life, having been appointed a member of the Itoyal Commission in 1872 of which the Duke of Somerset was Chairman, to iii<|ui)-<' into tlie cause of the loss of life and property at sea. 80 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Wood, of Port Glasgow, Iniilt for Mr. David Napier, who had by tliis time removed to London, a boat named the Talbot, of 120 tons. She was fitted with two engines of 30 horse-power each, of his own con- struction, and proved in all respects the most perfect steam-vessel of the period. This was the first vessel placed upon the now celebrated line carrying the mails and passengers between Holyhead and Dublin. The value of the steam-engine having now been fully established as a means of propelling vessels at sea with safety, and of performing voyages with a regularity hitherto unknown, Mr. Napier found comparatively little difficulty in inducing capitalists to join him in the project of constructing various vessels for a regular line of steam traffic between Liverpool, Greenock, and the city of Glasgow. Three vessels were, consequently, built — the Robert Burns of 150 tons, the Eclipse of 240 tons, each being fitted with two engines of 30 horse-power, and the Superb, also of 240 tons with two engines of 35 horse-power each. These vessels proved successful, and the line thus established in 1822 has continued ever since. New coasting lines soon followed, and, in lieu of the Leith smacks, once so celebrated, tlie James Watt was constructed to ply between London and Leith. She was the largest steamer that had yet been built, being 448 tons measurement, fitted with engines of 50 horse-power each, by Boulton and Watt. Her paddles were moved, not directly by the engines, but, through the interposition of toothed wheels, rendering the number of revolutions of the axis considerably greater than that of the paddles, so that, with the exception of the low proportion of her MKIU'H.ANT SHIPPING. 81 propelling' power to the tonnage, she possessed many, if not most, of tlie qualities of the steamers of even the present day. The Soho followed the James Watt on the same line, and proved equally successful. In 1826 the first of the so-called leviathan class Tiie of steamers, the United Kingdom (of which the Kingdom, following is an excellent illustration) was built by THK " UNITED KINGDOM," LONDON AND EDINBURGH PACKET. — FEOM A DRAWING BY E. W. COOKE, K.A. Mr. Steele of Greenock for the trade between Lon- don and Edinburgh. She was 160 feet long, with 26i feet beam, and engines of 200 horse-power by David Napier, and was considered the wonder of the day. People flocked from all quarters to inspect and admire her.^ ' lu this vessel Mr. Napier introduced, for tlie first time in England, a VOL. IV. G 82 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Althongli these two lines of regular steam com- munication between Liverpool and the river Clyde, and between London and Edinburgh were now suc- cessfully established, and proved of considerable im- portance in the encouragement of steam navigation elsewhere, some years elapsed before those rapid strides were made in its adaptation as a propelling power which have rendered it one of the wonders of the present age. Indeed, this power would probably plan for surface condensation ; tlie condenser was composed of a series of small copper tubes, through which the steam passed towards the air- pump, and a constant current of cold water encircling the pipes, the steam was cooled and returned into water, which was again sent into the boiler for conversion into steam, without being mixed with the cold salt water, wliich, in the usual plan, was injected into the condenser. But, Uke Watt, Cartwright, and others who had tried this system, both here and in America, Mr. Napier finding the rapidity of condensation not sufficient, returned to the old system of condensation by jet. Some years afterwards, however, he reverted to the use of a surface condenser under pecuhar circumstances, which rendered it desirable to use flat plates instead of tubes, but the advantages of the system have not been considered sufficient to counterbalance the disadvantages. The first engine of Bell was to some extent a vertical engine, inasmuch as the axis of the cylinder and of the crank were placed in one vertical line ; but there was no direct connection between the cranks and the piston-rod, to the paddle-axle : the communication of motion to it, being effected through the medium of toothed wheels. In the common or lever engine, the piston-rod acts on a cross-head, the cross-head on side rods, the side rods on side levers, the lever on a cross-tail, the cross- tail on the connecting-rod, the connecting-rod on the crank-pin, by which, through the axle, the paddle-wheels revolve. In the engine of direct communication, the side levers and some other parts of the train of communication are removed by a device which enables the piston-rod to be almost immediately attached by a coimecting-rod to the crank of the paddle-shaft. This plan was first adopted by Mr. Gutznur, of Lcith, who built the Athal, and another vessel called the TouriM, on this principle : but as his method, though very simple, was not applicable in ordinary cases, Mr. Napier made several modifications, so that his vertical engine, in the judgment of the most competent engineers, includes almost all the best improvements as yet intro- duced. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 83 never liave made sucli an extraordinary advance had iron not been adopted instead of wood for the con- struction of our ships. Hitherto, and throughout all ages, timber alone had been used in shipbuilding. The forests of Lebanon supplied the naval architects of Tyre with their materials ; Italy cultivated her woods with un- usual care, so that sufficient trees might be grown for the timber, planking, and masts of the ships of its once powerful maritime republics ; and, in our own time, how often have we heard fears expressed that Great Britain would not be able to continue the supply of sufficient oak for her royal dockyards, much less for her merchant fleets ! Yet, when slirewd FujUdea far-seeing men, no further back than the year 1830, ships, talked about substituting iron for the " ribs " of a ^^"^ ' ship instead of "timbers," and iron plates for " planking " instead of oak, what a howl of derision the public raised ! " Who ever heard of iron floating ?" they derisively enquired. It is true they might have seen old tin kettles float on every pool of water before their doors almost any day of their lives, nay, floating even more buoyantly than their discarded wooden coal boxes ; but such common-place instructors were beneath their notice. Timber-built ships had from time immemorial been in use by every nation and on every sea, and had bravely battled with the storm from the days of Noah, and were these, they sneer- ingly asked, to be supplanted by a material which in itself woidd naturally sink ? Such was the reason- ing of the period ; and indeed, the best of the argu- G 2 84 MERCHANT SHIPPING. meiits against the use of iron rested on scarcely more solid foundation.^ It could not be gainsaid that a frame of iron was infinitely stronger than a frame of wood, which, in fact, has no strength in itself, for the longitudinal timber ends are only butted to each other, and obtain their power of resistance solely by means of the horizontal planks and the trenails which bind them together. Nor could the obstructives deny, though they argued the point, that the ribs when welded with the iron plates riveted to them, formed a hull vastly superior in strength, and much less liable to leakage than any similar body of wood, however well constructed. They must also have seen, by its dis- placement of water when afloat, that an iron hull was the more buoyant of the two. But these argu- ments, however unanswerable, were long ere they pro- duced conviction ; the fact that iron does not float, and the impression that it could not be made to do so safely, offered almost insuperable difficulties in the way of building vessels of that material ; and when it was argued that they would " rip up " if they struck upon a rock, or bulgS into a shapeless mass if driven on a sand bank, the opponents of progress ' In an able pamphlet, " The Fleet of the Future," by Mr. Scott Russell, piiblished by Longman & Co. in 1861, the author remarks (p. 20), " A good many years ago I happened to converse witli the chief naval architect of one of our dockyards on the subject of building ships of iron — the answer was characteristic, and the feeling it expressed so strong and natural that I have never forgotten it ; he said, with some indignation, "Don't talk to me about iron shij^s, it's contrary to nnture.'" There was at one time almost as great a prejudice against Indian teak as a material for ship-building, as this wood is heavier than water, and in the form of a log will not float. (Arnott, " Elem. of Physics," p. 305.) MEltCHANT SHIPPING. 85 raised objections which could be answered only by practionl experience. Hitherto only a few very small vessels or barges l,ad been constructed of iron, and these neither on a scale nor of a class to practically refute the obiections which had been raised against the use ot iron for ship-building purposes. It is true tha so far back as 1809 Richard Trevethick and Robert Dickenson proposed a scheme for building "large ships with decks, beams, and sides, of plate iron, and even susrgested " masts, yards, and spars, to be con- structed'' of iron in plates with telescope joints or screwed together:'" and in 1815, Mr. Dickenson Pro,,osaU patented a^ invention for vessels, or rather boats, gi^a^d^ " to be built of iron, with a hollow watertight gun- ,^_isi-,, wale"' But, as these inventors or patentees did not put their ideas into practice, no other person (it, indeed, any other person gave even a passing thought to the subject) was convinced that any craft beyond a boat or a river-barge could be constructed of'iron, much le.s that, if made in the form of a ship, this material would oppose more effectual re- sistance to the storms of the ocean, or if dashed upon the strand, to the angry fury of the waves, than timber, however scientifically put together But though no available ' substance can withstand the raging elements with less chance of destr-uction than plate's of iron riveted together m the form of a boiler (the principle on which ,ron ships are now constructed), the public could not then appreciate ■ ^ 'ir ' ?r^Jt^-T^X^-n-). .>■ 138, and ^X2X^<^' ;tinePropUion»Part T. „. 63. a.a " Steam Navigation," p. 125. 86 MERCHANT SHIPPING. their superior value; and it was not until 1818 that the first iron vessel was built by Thomas Wilson, at Faskine, on the banks of the Monkland (-anal, eleven miles from Glasgow : this vessel, appropri- ately named the Vulcan, is even now (1875) employed on the Clyde in the conveyance of minerals from the Forth and Clyde Canal. Three years afterwards a steam-engine was, for the first time, fitted into a vessel built of iron. She was named the Aaron Manhy, and was constructed in 1821 at Horsley, for the joint account of Mr. Manby and Captain Napier, afterwards Admiral Sir Charles Napier. She was sent in j^arts to London, where they were put together, and when complete was despatched to France under the command of Captain Napier. Another iron steam-vessel, intended for the navigation of tlie Seine, soon followed ; but, in con- sequence of the proliibitory French navigation laws, with respect to foreign bottoms, the different parts of this vessel were, in this case, sent to France instead of to London, and put together at Charenton. Mr. Manby prepared in a similar manner two others, and shortly afterwards the building of iron vessels was commenced by an engineer at Paris for the same trade. The speculation, however, proved unfortunate. The Shannon Steam Packet Company was the next to employ iron steamers in river navigation. Company, rpj^^ g^.^^^ I^^.j^ ^^ ^^^ Horslcy Company in 1824, proving very successful, was immediately followed by others. As the success of these vessels was gradually determining the problem of the suitableness of iron to ship-building purposes, and was drawing attention MKRCHANT SHIPPING. 87 to the subject, Messrs. Fawcett and Preston established at Liverpool a building yard in connection with their engine factory under the direction of Mr. Page, and constructed several small vessels entirely of iron.' Mr. Laird, of Birkenhead, proceeding upon Mr. Johu a larger scale, prosecuted this branch of naval archi- 8ir tecture with uninterrupted prosperity.^ Mr. Fair- JJaJrbaim. bairn, afterwards Sir William Fairbairn, also took part, at an early period, in cultivating the new art ; and raidvs with those to whose influence and skill it was first indebted for public confidence. Removing from Grlasgow, where he had commenced business, he established himself at Millwall, on the Isle of Dogs, and there became one of the principal constructors of iron vessels upon the Thames. His efforts proving successful, other eminent engineers pursued the same branch of ai't with the like results; among them may be mentioned Messrs. Miller and Kavenhill, whose vessels were considered at the time to be of exquisite workmanship and beauty of form ; and Messrs. Ditchburn and Mare, who built a considerable number of iron vessels, including the Fairy, the tender ^ Fiucliam's " Naval Architecture," on tlie use of iron for ship- l)uildii]g. 2 William Laird, father of the late John Laird, M.P., established the Birkenhead Iron Works in 18'24, under the style of William Laird and Sons, and, in 1829, they Iniilt for the Irish Inland Company the first iron vessel constructed on the Mersey. She was a lighter of 60 tons measurement, about GO feet long and 13 feet beam. From that time until 18GI, Mr. John Laird carried on this extensive business of siiipbuilding and eiiginecriug, and when, in that year, he was elected to represent liirkeuhead in Parliament, lie transferred it to liis sons, who now carry it on under the style of Laird Brothers. i\Ir. Laird died in October 1874, about the same time as Sir William Fairbairn, another distinguished worker in the field of ajiplied science, and both men of great eminence in their profession. 88 MERCHANT SHIPPING. to the Queen's yacht, her form and speed gaining them a high reputation. • In 1832, Messrs. Laird were bold enough to carry into practice the theory of iron vessels for ocean navigation ; and in the course of that year the firm, of MacGregor, Laird, and Company built the Tiie Elburkah, of 55 tons, as consort to the Quorra in 1832,' '" ' ber expedition up the Niger.^ These enlightened firms justly considered that, whatever objections might be urged against vessels built of iron, they would at least possess equal sea-going qualities and, in some branches of trade, peculiar advantages. Combin- ing strength and lightness of draught, tlie Elbiirkah would be better adapted than any vessel built of wood for the exploration and navigation of African rivers :^ nor were they deceived in their calculations. Immediately afterwards Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead commenced the construction of another iron vessel, the Lady Lansdowne for the navigation ^ of Lough Derg, Eiver Shannon. In 1834 they built tlie and Garry Owen, destined to run between Limerick and ^;;i Kilrush. This vessel (125 feet long and 21 feet 6 inches wide, propelled by two engines of 45 horse- power each) was unfortunately, or perhaps, under the circumstances, fortunately for the progress of science, driven on shore with various other vessels during a strong gale on her first voyage ; she, however, sustained comparatively little injury, while ' The Elburkah was 70 feet long, 13 feet beam, and 6 feet 6 inches deep. Her plates were a quarter of au inch thick in the bottom, and her sides one-eighth of an inch. She weighed only 15 tons, including her decks, but without engines, boilers, spars, and outfit. (See evidence, Mr. McGregor Laird before Select Committee on Steam Navigation to India (1834), p. 59.) = I-ardner (" Steam Navigation," p. 482) says that, in one of their I8:u. MERCHANT SHIPPING. SO iiearlv all the others, wliicli were built of wood, were totally wrecked or seriously damaged: this important fact, as a practical answer to one of the most reason- able objections raised against iron vessels, gave remarkable impulse to their increase. But strong prejudices, unreasonable doubts, and real difficulties had still to be overcome before the suitableness of iron ships for ocean navigation could be established. Another of the chief and more tenable objections to the extended use of iron vessels was the perturbation of the compass. Moreover, one or two unfortunate accidents had been attributed to this cause, though this more, probabl3^ served as a plausible excuse for bad seamanship or negligence. In the course, however, of a few years iron packets began to be used along our coasts ; and the art of building them advanced gradually towards per- fection. Iron vessels soon afterwards, therefore, acquired a merited confidence. Their superiority had become apparent to the more intelligent persons of the period who directed their attention to engineering and maritime pursuits. In 1833 and 1834, Mr. Fairbairn launched two pas- senger steamers of iron to ply on the Humber between Selby and Hull. Mr. Manby also built one of considerable dimensions for general purposes ; and in 1837 Messrs. Laird built tw^o iron vessels of about 350 tons and GO horse-power each, ordered experimental trials, the Elhurkah got aground and lieelcd over on her anchor, and that in a wooden vessel the anchor would probably have gone through her ; and, further tliat an iron vessel built for the Irish Inland Navigation Company, on being towed across Lough Derg, was driven on the rocks in a gale owing to the rope breaking ; but, thougii she bumped for a considerable time, she sustained no injury. 90 MEECHANT SHIPPING. by the East India Company for the navigation of the River Indus. In the same year Messrs. Laird con- structed for the General Steam Navigation Company Tiie Rain- an iron vessel, the Rainhow,^ to ply between London '""' ■ and the outports. Li that year Muhammed AH placed upon the Nile an iron steamer built by the same firm, while they also launched from their yard the iron vessels in which Colonel Chesney explored the course of the Euphrates, and which, having been shipped in pieces, were put together by Birkenhead artisans on the banks of that river. Though the value of iron was now fully estab- lished for shipbuilding purposes, many years elapsed ere that material came into general use for the construction of over sea sailiny vessels, the prin- cipal objections being the greater liability of the compass to err,^ and the difficulty 4c»f preventing ' The Eainhow was, perhaps, the largest iron steam- vessel then afloat. She was 185 feet long, 25 feet beam, 600 tons bnrclen and 180 horse- power. '^ See a learned and able report on the "Deviations of the Comjiass,'' by Mr. Frederick J. Evans, Master E.N., Superintendent of the Compass Department of H.M. Navy, printed in the " Philosophical Transactions,'' Part II. 1860. In this interesting paper, Mr. Evans calls attention to one or two important facts, certainly not known to the general j)nblic, or perhaps not even to many shipbuilders. He says, jj. 354: " In an iron sailing-ship, built head to south, there will be an attraction of the north point of the compass to the liead, and if built head to north, a like attraction to the ship's stern ; and so far there would seem to be no advantage in one direction over the other. But, in the first case, the topsides near the compass have weak magnetism ; in the second case, they are strongly magnetic : the first position seems therefore preferable. " In an iron steam-ship, built head to the south, tlie attraction due to machinery is added to that of the hull, whereas in one built head to the north, the attractive forces of hull and machinery arc, in tlie nortliern hemisphere, antagonistic, and a position of small, or no ' semicircular ' deviation for the compass may generally be obtained. To iron steam-vessels engaged on tlie lionie or foreign trades in tlie MERCHANT StlllTlXG. 91 auimalcuke and sea-weeds frou). adhering to the hottom. But these difficulties were in time overcome, and iron vessels propelled by sails are now nearly as common as steamers built of that material. Expe- rience by degrees successfully met almost every objec- tion ; and science was again triumphant over prejudice and ignorance. Iron had been made not merely to float, but to ride buoyantly over the crest of the wave, amidst the raging elements. Mr. Laird was followed by other builders of iron Messrs. vessels at Liverpool ; the high estimation in which Mac- they were held having led to a constantly increas- ^^°°^' ing demand for them. About this time Messrs. Tod and MacGregor, of Glasgow, began to take a lead- ing position in this occupation ; the Princess Royal, long engaged on the line between Glasgow and Liverpool, and launched from their yard, having been one of the finest and fastest iron packets of her time. From that period iron shipbuilding on the Clyde increased with great rapidity, but the most magnifi- cent specimen of an iron ship of any description produced at that time was the Great Britain, to The Great Britain, northern hemisphere, this direction of bnilcl is therefore to be pre- ^'^'^•^' ^ **■ ferred." And, again, at p. 355, he remarks : " As every piece of iron not composing a part of, and hammered in the fabrication of the hull, — such as the rudder, funnel, boilers, and machinery, tanks, cooking galleys, fastenings of deck houses, ttc, — are all of a magnetic character differing from the hull of a ship, their proximity should be avoided, and, so far as possible, the compass should be placed so that they may act as correctors of the general magnetism of the hull. "A compass placed out of the middle line of the deck is aifccted by the nearest tojiside, and its deviations must necessarily be much increased if that topside has the dominant polarity, as in ships built cast or west." 92 MERCHANT SHIPPING. which reference will be made hereafter, constructed by Mr. Patterson at Bristol, for the Great Western Steam Packet Company. Advan- For the information of the general reader, I may iron ships, here state that the advantages of iron vessels consist principally in their durability, strength and safety, increased capacity for stowage, greater economy, and. salubrity.' With regard to the perturbations of the compass, Professor Airy, previous to the time when Mr. Evans made his report, had published a very concise series of instructions for correcting the com^oass on board of iron ships ; and the progi'ess of science now bids fair to obviate any difficulty what- ever ensuing from this cause. Prior to experience it was apprehended that the saline property of the sea-water would tend to corrode the iron, and, further, that this metal would be rapidly destroyed by oxi- Action of dation. But experience has shown that the effect of ou iron "^^ Salt watcr on iron alone is so small as hardly to bear Xe°^*'^^'^" a comparison with its effect upon iron in connection with wood. This remarkable difference has been observed in iron vessels in which timber had been used for the keel ; the bolts driven through the keel to form its proper connections having been so rapidly acted on as almost to destroy them before the external iron j)l^tes of the hull had been per- ceptibly diminished in thickness : it is further of importance that the vessel should be kept in use ' " The principal reason of au iron vessel being so much liealthier is on account of her coolness and her freedom from all manner of smell ; in an iron vessel there is no disagreeable smell of bilgewater, which there is in a wooden vessel in a tropical climate ; it is, in fact, the difference between carrying water in a cask, and in a tank." (Evidence of Mr. McGregor Laird, p. 58, " Steam Navigation to India.") MEUCIIANT SHIPPING ^'^ rather than be laid up in ordinary. Vessels bniU in the earliest stage of this art, subsequently to thatot building mere canal-boats, bore many years' service with little need of repair, and remained m a perfectly good condition for a longer period than that to which the durability of wooden vessels ordinarily, and under similar circumstances, extends. But there is a great difference in iron plates, some are inferior and soon oxidize, while others, as will be presently shown, last for many years. As the inner surface of the plates mav be almost wholly protected from oxidation, it is "'only from the external wear that danger may be apprehended. But, though the outer surface of the metal can be protected in a great measure from corrosion, yet iron vessels are subject to the disadvantage of having their speed diminished, after a short period of service, by the adhesion and growth of animal and vegetable matter. A coating of red lead is not a perfect preventive against this mischief, and various other scientific substitutes have been used of late ; so that it cannot be doubted but this inconvenience will disappear altogether before scientific appliances. A perfectly protective varnish for the insides of iron ships and a coating which shall effectually prevent the adhesion of animal and vege- table substances to the exterior, are desiderata of great value,' and will, we may hope, continue to receive the careful consideration of scientific men. All the facts yet known with regard to the supe- d,. lability, ,,,-,. 1 •) iUi'l safety 'Mr Robert Stcplicnsou tlioiifiht it possible, that it you had nmn. a dock tilled with sulphate of copper, you raight treat an u-on vessel as you do a small teapot, and electrotype it with a thin coating of copper. (Evidence, 1K51, 2Gth June, before Committee of the House ot Commons.) 94 MERCHANT SHIPPING. rior diirabllitij'^ of iron ships are highly satisfactory^ It- is a consideration not to be overlooked that large ships may be rendered more durable than small vessels ; for, as the weight of the hull is generally determined in a certain proportion to the whole dis- placement, and the plates of iron are much thicker in a large than in a small ship (the oxidizing causing an uniform waste of metal), the durability will be in proportion to the amount of wear the plates of the respective vessels can bear without danger to the ship. But the superior strength of iron ships depends not merely upon the quality of the material employed, but also on the mode of combining it. The strength of wrought iron is well known and its power of resisting strains in almost every direction is a matter of universal experience, add to which, that its resist- ance to lateral pressure increases in a much higher ratio than the quantity of material. Hence, almost any amount of strength may be given to a large fabric ; certainly, enough to bear the pressures and strains to which ships are exposed, with much less liability to injury than wood. With plates of iron/ of a substance fitly proportioned to the magnitude of the fabric, and with joints properly formed, the sides of ships have been found capable of resisting, in a remarkable manner, forces for which the strength of ' The Liverpool underwriters, in tlieir book of registry for iron vessels (established 18G2), in the edition of that work for 1863 and 1864, offer the following remarks : " Experience has shown that iron ships are much more durable than was at first supposed. By the use of cement inside, and by careful attention to outside coating, a well constructed iron ship can be reckoned upon to \si^i, in first-class condition, i'ov ti period of at least twenty years. Wear and tear of equipment, and of the wood used in their construction, must in all cases be excepted." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 95 timber would be quite insufficient. A substance of plates sufficient to constitute this amount of strength generally, is also able to bear concussions of great force with much less hazard than timber. The un- injured state in which the Great Britain was found in Dundrum Bay, after being wrecked and lying on the beach several months during winter, exposed to various storms, proved the correctness of these views, which more extended experience has since confirmed. Experience has also demonstrated that unless the concussion takes place with extreme violence, mere indentation of the metal is generally the greatest injury sustained. Beyond this, the strain sometimes breaks off the heads of a few rivets without opening the seam, but it is uncommon for the rivets to be drawn if the metal and workmanship are good. In the case where an iron ship strikes upon a sharp pointed-like crag of rock or coral reef with consider- able force, it frequently happens that a hole is made through the plate •, but even when such an accident occurs the damage is generally locals the jiarts not immediately subject to the concussion remaining un- hurt. No general leakage is, therefore, consequent on such an accident, as would be the case in all vessels built of wood. As the hull of an iron ship is both thinner and Affords considerably lighter^ than that of a wooden ship, an capacity for slow- ' Mr. McGregor Laird states iu his evidence (Question 553, p. 59) a^e. before the Select Committee on " Steam Navigation to India," 1834, " A strong iron vessel will not weigh otie-half of tliat of a wooden one, and therefore will draw considerably less water ;" further (Q. 554), " Her capacity for stowage will be much greater, her sides, including strong iron frames, not exceeding 4 inches in thickness, while those of a wooden vessel will be 12 inches tliick." " The average weight of the iron steam vessels is about (> (;wt. per 96 MERCHANT SHIPPING. iron ship of the same external dimensions as a wooden one has both greater capacity for stowage and greater power to support the weights which may be put into her. These differences vary in some degree with the dimensions and form of the ship, being greater in proportion to the increased dimensions of the ship. They may, of course, be determined by computation; but, in all cases, an iron ship will carry considerably more cargo than a wooden one of the same external dimensions. Again, the consideration of economy must not be omitted in any comparison of the merits of ships built entirely either of timber, or of iron. The economy begins with the construction, for the original cost of an iron ship is less than that of a wooden one, and, apart altogether from her superior capacity for cargo, it runs on with the course of the ship's service as the result of several causes ; as, for instance, the smaller amount and less expensive character of re- pairs : moreover, as it is not even yet known how long iron ships will last, the precise saving from their use cannot be estimated. On the other hand, the period of service of mercantile timber-built ships is defined. If they reach or exceed thirty years' service, they must be ships of the very highest class as to quality,' and must, indeed, within that register ton ; a wooden one will weigh about 20 ewt. and uiDwards." — (See evidence of C. W. Williams, Appendix to Report of the above Committee, p. 43.) See note, Appendix No. 5, p. 599. ' The greatest number of years originally allowed by "Lloyd's Eegister " for the classification of any vessel bnilt of wood to remain on the first class, was from four to sixteen years, but seldom more than twelve from the date of construction ; they might be renewed, but the original term never exceeded the periods I have named. MF.IiCIlAN'r SITIPriNPr. 97 period have undergone freqnent and very expensive repairs. As iron ships are not subject to the same decay, at the same time that accidental damages are generally repaired at a much less cost, every item saved by the diminished charge for repairs is clear profit. But with all these advantages, a considerable time Admiiaity elapsed before the Admiralty could be induced to con- fidopt'irou sider the desirability of constructing any Government of'war^^^ steamer of iron, or of even allowing the large private trading vessels engaged in the conveyance of the mails to be built of that material. They had objections of their own applying specially to the ships under their control, and very plausible objections too, in their opinion, compared with those originally raised by an ignorant public. A shot, they said, would pene- trate an iron vessel with much greater ease than a wooden one, while the shot holes could not be as effectually plugged, if indeed they could be plugged at all. Wood, they argued, when pierced, would rapidly contract and leave a very small opening for water to get through, w^hereas a shot would make a clean cut through an iron plate which could not be thus expeditiously filled, and if it did not tear away the whole of the plate, would leave a gap as large as a " barn door." However, a little experience^ soon showed their arguments to be fallncious, and wdien ^ Captain (now Admiral Sir) W. H. Hall, E.N., in his cviclynco before Lord Seymour's (now the Duke of Somerset) Committee on Navy Estimates wliich sat in 1848, stated (p. G48) that, Avhen he commanded the Nemesii^, an iron vessel engaged in the Chinese war, she was in one action struck fourteen times by the shot of the enemy; "one shot went in at one side and came out at tlie other, it went riglit througli the vessel ;" there were " no splinters ;" " it went through just as if you put yoiir finger through a piece of i^aper." " 1 had," he added, ''a favouralile o})inion of it " (iron). " Several wooden steamers," he con- tinues, " were employed ujion the same service, and they were invariably obliged to lie up fi)i" repairs, wlii'st I could npair the .NV/z/fs/.s in VOL. IV. 11 93 MERCHANT SHIPPING. they found that the engines of a paddle-wheel steamer, and, especially, the paddles themselves, offered eon- spiciTous targets to an enemy, and that it was im- ])ossible to make the stern-fiames of their wooden ships sufficiently strong to withstand, without serious leakage, the vibration of the screw, they abandoned, though reluctantly, the paddle-wheel, and at length gave up, also, vessels of wood for the purposes of war. These resolutions were, however, only carried into joractice after vast sums of money had been expended on tlie "reconstruction" of a wooden British Navy, for which, in one year alone, and that so lately as 18G1, when almost everybody except them- selves saw that iron must supersede timber, they demanded from Parliament (and carried their vote) no less than 949,371/. to replenish the stock of wood in the dockyards : a sum far in excess of any j)re- vious vote for tljat material.^ twenty-four hours and have her always i-eady for service; indeed, many steamers were obliged to leave the coast of China and go to Bombay for rejoairs. Repairs which would have taken in a wooden ship several days, would take in ours as many hours only." Cai)tain E. F. Charl wood, who had served in iron vessels "about four or five years," stated, in his evidence before the same Committee, that the Gu'idaJoupe, which he commanded, had been repeatedly struck by shot, and that " the damage was cons^iderably less than is usually suffered by a wooden vessel," and that "there was notliing like the nuniber of splinters which are generally forced out by sliot sent through a wooden vessels side." He added that the shot went clean through (the holes being plugged by the engineer at the time), and did not otherwise injure the plates or leave a rent or displace any of the rivets. "^ The author moved that the vote should be reduced by 3UO,()0Oi(. (see " Hansard's Parliamentary Report " for May 23rd, 18G1, page 30, where his reasons are given), but, after a long debate, he was defeated, only thirty members voting with him, and sixty-six ogainst any reduction. The reader will find what became of this timber (a large portion lay rotting in the dock-yards) if he refers to the Report of the Committee, a])i)ointed on the motion of Mr. Scely, some years afterwards. But, beyond the reasons tlien given by the author, tlio Admiralty oi their MKT^CHANT SlIIPIMXrT. 99 Wliile tlie art of steam navii»-ation made rapid ?''• ^'''i- progress, the ingenuity of engineers liad beenf-athcnng 1 T -1 *i •' iPi pad IKs, constantly (lirected to the nuprovement ot the 1829. paddle-wheels ; and the above drawing of one, with "feathering paddles," patented by Mr. Galloway in in-actical advisers must have known, long before ISGl, that a screw-sliip Iniilt of wood was vastly inferior to one constructed of iron; that the action of the shaft of the screw would prevent wooden vessels from lasting through a succession of long voyages without very considerable repairs from the vibration in the after body ; and that the wood, by frequent concussion and constant working, would gradually lose its power of resistance, the fibres becoming bruised and comiircsscd, which would not be the case with an iron ship, at least to anything like the same extent. Indeed, the naval constructors ought frankly to have told their Lordships that it would be unsafe to send a wooden ship to sea fitted with a very powerful i>ropeller. No stern framework could be built to resist the viln'ation of the largest class of engines now in use in the navy. An iron ship, moreover, affords a much better and more solid foundation for the engines. n 2 100 MERCHANT SHIPPING. 1829/ represents the most perfect of any wheel in use at that period, and has not been materially improved on since then. But, at that time also, a substitute for the paddle was seeking practical solution. The screw, as a means of propulsion, had been suggested long before tlie steamboat had been brought into use. Indeed, its principle was known at a very early period in the use of an oar for sculling, and could, as already explained, be seen in the movements of the tail of a fish, story of Though my faith in the reports of the genius and the strew- , . . r- i /^i • i n ^ ^ propeller, early inventions or tlie Uhinese has irequently been rudely shaken in the course of my investigation of their reputed discoveries, I may remark that Mr. MacGregor, for whose opinions I entertain no or- dinary respect, states, in the papei' he read to the Society of Arts,^ that " the use of the screw-propeller may be of an indefinite antiquity," and adds tliat "a model of one was brought from China in 1G80, which had two sets of blades, turning in opposite directions." It w^as not, however, until 1720, that we have any authentic account of a plan of propulsion, in any way approaching the valuable invention now so largely in use. In that year an ingenious Frenchman, M. Du Quet, described a contrivance by which a screw turned by the water in a stream, wound up a rope for towing vessels, of which the annexed (p. 101) is an ' Dr. Lardner (" Steam-engine," p. 47D) observes that, " when first introtluced by Mr. Galloway, each board was divided into six or seven parts ; this was subsequently reduced, and in the more recent wheels of this form constructed for the Government vessels, the paddle-boards consist only of two parts coming as near the common wheel as is possible, without altogether abandoning the principle of the split- paddle." - Ain-il nth, 1858. MERCHANT SlllPl'IXCr. 101 illustration.^ In 1745, Masson describes an apparatus for working an oar at the stern of a vessel so as to give it a " sculling " motion ; in 1746 Bougner mentions that "revolving nrms, like the vanes of a windmill,'' were tried for the propulsion of vessels, and, in 1770, as already incident- ally noticed, the celebrated Watt speaks of using a screw-propeller, of which the annexed is a sketch, to be turned by a steam-engine.'^ In 1779, Matthew Was- borough, to whose genius we are indebted for many inventions in connection with marine propulsion, patented a " ne\y invented machine or piece of mechanism which, when applied to a steam-engine or any reciprocal movement, produces a circular or rotative motion without the medium of a water- wheel ;" Joseph Bramah, of whose invention I have Joseph already spoken in detail, speaks of (1785) a wheel 178™^ ' with inclined fans or wings, similar to the fly of a smoke-jack, which may be turned round either way under water, causing the ship to be forced back- ward or forward,"^ and, in 1 798, he tested the applica- » See Tredgokl " On the Steam-engine ; " Apixindix D, 1842, p. 292 ; Woodcroft's MS. Collection, p. 22 ; Boiiruo " On the Screw-propeller," p. 8, and other writers. ^ Woodcroft's « Specifications," p. 1, n., pp. 25 and 28. Ibid., pp. 31 and 34. ^ It woiild appear that his experiment was successful if reliance can be placed, as I have no reason to doubt, on the accuracy of a letter from Mr. Fulton, in the memoir by E. Cartwright, London, 1843, p. 142 ^ 102 MERCHANT SHIPPING. tion of a screw in a boat, of which the annexed, copied from Mr. MacGregor's instructive paper, is an ilhistration. ^^^ In 1800, Edward Shorter patented an invention which he called "a perpetual sculling machine," having the action of a two-bladed propeller, and which, two years afterwards, was ex- perimented upon in H.M. Ships Dragon 'dnd Superb.^ Various other experiments followed. But, in May 1804, Mr. J. Stevens, of the United States, put to sea with a steam-boat propelled by a screw, turned first by a rotatory engine, and then by Watt's reciprocating engine ; and, as this small craft steamed from Hoboken to New York, she l)as by some writers been con- sidered the first sea-going screw of which there is any certain account. Richard Trevethick, in 1815, patented " a worm or screw revolving in a cylinder at the head, sides, or stern of a vessel," as also a ^^ stujfing-hoa;, inclosing a ring of water." ^ In the following year Robert Kinder applied for a patent for a shaft and screw (almost on the exact plan now in use) with " a shoulder formed upon it so as to work in a water-tight manner through a stufiing- box of the common or well-known form, which stuffing-box and shaft are made to pass through the end of the vessel, just above its ordinary water-line, and is thereby affixed to it." (See " Specifications of Marine Propulsion," Part I. p. G4.) Many other proposals for propelling vessels by ' Woodcroft " Oil Steam Navigation," p. 54 ; with drawing ; Bourne " Ontlie Sorcw-Propeller/' p. 12 ; and accounts of trials wliicli appeared in the news])apors, LSO'2. ^ Woodcroft "On Steam Navigatifii." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 103 means of the screw were subsequently made and most of them were patented.^ Two were tried on a small scale in France by Captain Delisle, a Frenchman, in 1823, and by a countryman of his, M. Frederic Sauvage, in 1832.' In 1833, Mr. Eob.rt Robert Wilson, a Scotchman, afterwards manager of 1333"°' ^ As one more conspicuous than any other, it must be stated that, in March 1832, Mr. Bennet Woodcroft patented an " increasing screw- propeller," which he thus describes : " A spiral worm blade or screw coiled round a shaft (this resembles the invention of Watt) or cylinder of any convenient length and diameter, in such form that tlie angle of inclination which the worm makes with the axis of the cylinder continu- ally increases, and the pitch or distance between the coils or revolutions of the spiral, continually increases throughout the whole length of the shaft or cylinder upon which the spiral is formed."' (Si-eciiications of "Marine Propulsion," Part II. p. 112.) - The number of claimants to every important invention is remark- able. An impartial student will, however, probably come to the con- clusion that the invention of the screw audits application was, like that of the steam-engine itself, the sole property of no one man, as he finds by research that experiments to discover the means of applying the screw as a motive power to ships were at diiferent periods spontaneously and independently made in various places by inquiring minds, who fre- quently were perfect strangers to each other and to each other's disco- veries or appliancLS ; yet, as time passes on, and the labours of others are forgotten, a nation or a town claims for some one of its countrymen or townsmen who may have experimentalised on an invention which has become of great use to mankind, the sole or the largest share of the credit of the invention, and erects in their midst an enduring monument of his fame. Such would appear to be the case of Frederic Sauvage, who has just (October, 1874) had a statue erected to his memory in the town of Boulogne-sur-Mer, where he was born on the 20th of Sep- tember, 178G. On either side of the moniiment (which is li feet high surmounted by a large bronze bust of M. Sauvage) is an inscription setting forth the date of his birth and of the translation of his remains, together with a list of his inventions. On the front are tlie two words " Frederic Sauvage," and a bronze bas-relief showing a vessel with a screw-propeller. Frederic Sai;vage's life was similar to those of many other inventors, in that he spent his days and fortune in perfecting in- ventions wliich brought him no profit. Having lost liis own money, he borrowed from others, and, being unable to repay, was thrnwn into a debtors' prison, which he afterwards exchanged for a madhouse, where he died on the I'Jth of July, 1857. 10-1 MEKCHANT SHIITING. tlie firm of" NasniytL and Co., at Patricroft near J\Iaochester, brought under the notice of the British Admiralty the screw " perfect in all its details " as a means of propulsion, which he says he invented in • 1827, and wdiich he states^ the officers of the Wool- wich Dockyard, in their official report, rejected be- cause " it involved a greater loss of power than the common mode of applying the wheels to the side." No great efforts, however, seem to have been made to bring the screw into practical use until 1836, when Captain Captain John Ericsson, C.E. (a native of Sweden, 1836. ' who had established himself in London in partner- ship with the Messrs. Braithwaites), fully demon- strated its merits according to a plan which he patented on the 13th of July of that year,^ and carried out successfully. Instead, however, of launching to the public gaze a vessel on a large scale fitted with his plans, he made a model boat of about 20 inches in length, into which he placed a small engine, and floated lier in a large bath over which a steam boiler had been fitted for the supply of hot water. From this boiler a pipe projected to within a foot of the water, where it was branched off by a swivel joint and connected with the engine in the boat. The steam when admitted put tlie engine in motion, and also the propeller, which at once sent the boat forward with considerable rapidity. ' "Tlie Screw- Propeller : who Invented it?" by Kobert Wilson, published by Thomas Murray and Son, Glasgow, 1860. ^ See " Specifications relating to Marine Propulsion," Part II. pp. 127 and 128; London Journal (Newton's), p. 14, conjoined series, p. 34; jVahanirs M(i(ja:Jne, vol. xxvii. p. 130, vol. xxviii. p. 215, vol. xxix. jip. 1 18 and 283, and vol. xlii. p. 225; Avtlzan, vol. viii. pp. 187 and 201) ; jilso BuuriK.' " On the Scre\v-rr()]i(i]( r," jip. MO ami 34. MEIJCIIANT SlilPlMNG. 105 Finding that his invention was likely to succeed when put into practical operation on a larger scale, Ericsson's next step was to order Mr. Gulliver, a boat-builder at Wapping, to construct for him a boat of wood which he named the Frajicis D. Ogden. She The was 45 feet long and 8 feet wide, drawing 2 feet ;^'' o'^^e, 3 inches of water. In this vessel he fitted liis engine and two propellers, each of 5 feet 3 inches diameter. The result of her first trial went far beyond his most sanguine expectations. No sooner were the engines put at full speed, than she shot ahead at the rate of more than 10 miles an hour, a]^d main- tained that speed without a single alteration re- quiring to be made in her machinery ; ^ nor were her capabilities as a tug less surprising. This minia- ture steamer, tested first by a schooner of 140 tons burden, towed her at the rate of 7 miles an hour during slack water on the Thames ; and afterwards by the large American packet-ship Toronto, moving on with her astern at a speed of more than 5 miles an hour. The next experiment was made in the presence of the Lords of the Admiralty, who, accompanied by Sir William Symonds, Sir Edward Parry, and Captain Beaufort, had embarked in tlieir barge to witness the novelty, and judge for themselves as to its efficiency and practical value. They were minute in their in- spection, and as they did not, and in fact could not, offer any valid objections to his invention. Captain Ericsson felt confident that they would soon order the construction of a war-steamer on the new prin- ciple. In this, however, he was disappointed, though ' See Wealc's rapers on "Engineering,"' vol. iii. Tart V. \^\\. 1-7, ■' Steam Naviaatinn." 106 ^ MERCHANT SHIPPING. tiioiio;ii he had given them a very jiractical proof of its value faiisTo' " ' hj towing them in their barge at the rate of 10 theTdmi- ^^^^^ ^^ houY for a Considerable distance — a speed r.tity. which must have astonished their Lordships. The unseen and comparatively noiseless propeller, al- though it had furnished the most convincing proofs of its power, failed to propitiate their favour. Scien- tific theorists had informed the Board that the inven- tion was constructed nj)on erroneous principles, and full of practical defects (one being that a ship thus propelled would be unsteerable), while engineers as a body regarded its failure as an event so certain as to preclude any speculations of its success. In a word, when publicly discussed, the general opinion was that the vast loss of mechanical power would prevent it from being employed as a substitute for the now old-fashioned paddle-wheel ! ^ While Ericsson was making his experiments in i^ii-'f-i'- the Francis B. Of/den, Mr. Thomas Pettit Smith, ^■^"*^- PAT- who, on the 31st of May, 183G, had taken out a ' With regard to the question of the j^rogress of steam-ships in the lioyal Navy since then, Mr. T. H. Farrer, of the Board of Trade, re- marks, Avith great force, in a letter I recently received from him : " We hardly know how fast we move. One of my first colleagues at the Board of Trade, in 1850, was Admiral Beochey, an officer of very superior attainments and intelligence, and one who, having been much employed on surveys, was well acquainted with steam-vessels. And yet I well remember his telling me that he did not believe that the Navy of the future— the Eoyal Navy—ever could consist of steamers ! Nor could he endure iron ships. It was a very few years after this tliat, in company with him, I witnessed one of the most beautiful sights of my life — the Naval Eeview at Spithead, in the first summer of the Russian war, when the last four or more sailing-vessels of the Eoyal Navy formed the attacking s(]uadron. I shall never forget the beauty of the scene, when late in the afternoon these magnificent ships came on with a gentle breeze from the east, and the descending sun shed a ' dying glory ' on their towers of canvas. It was a fit obsequy for the Hearts of Oak of Ivodney, llowc, and Nelson." MiaiCUANT SllUTlNa. 107 patent for a " sort of screw or ' worm,' made to revolve rapidly under water in a recess or open space formed in that part of the after part of the vessel commonly called the dead rising or dead wood of the stern/' ^ was also at work with his invention, and, in tlie following year, put it into practical opera- tion. His first trial, made in a small vessel of (> tons burden, with an engine the cylinder of which was 6 inches diameter and 15 inches stroke, was considered by a few far-seeing persons so satis- factory,^ that they applied for, and obtained on the 29th of July, 1839, an Act of Parliament for incorpo- rating a company called the Steam Ship Propeller Company, to enable them to purchase " certain letters patent," that is, the screw-propeller of T. P. Smith. The first successful application of this screw-pro- peller, on a large scale, was to a vessel called the Archimedes, constructed under the direction of the tiio patentee of the screw, Mi*. Smith. Her burden was medes. *237 tons, and her mean draught of water .9 feet 4 inches; the diameter of the cylinder 37 inches, and the length of the stroke of the piston 3 feet ; her screw-propeller consisted of two half threads of an 8 feet pitcli, 5 feet 9 inches in diameter ; each was 4 feet in length, and the}'' were placed diametrically opposite to each other, at an angle of about 45 degrees on the propeller shaft. The propeller itself passed through a hole cut in the dead wood, im- mediately before the rudder ; the keel being con- tinued under the screw. The performance of the ' " Specifications relatinj:; tu Miivine Piopiilsion," Tart II. p. 1"27. - Mecluuiirs' Mivjd-iiuc, vol. xxxi. p. '225. 108 MERCHANT SHIPPING. engines averaged twenty-six strokes per minute, the revolutions of the screw at the same time being 138f. The calculations of the inventor were that, provided there was no slip or recession, the vessel ought to advance 8 feet for every revolution of the screw, or 12-60 miles per hour. But the utmost speed ever obtained by the Archimedes, under the power of steam alone, was 9*25 nautical miles per hour, showing a loss by recession of rather less than one-sixth under the most favourable circum- stances. The Archimedes was not, however, a fair illustration of the screw-propelling principle, as her steam-power was not great enough to drive a screw Her trial Sufficient for the size of the vessel. Nevertheless, Ivkigmn, i'^ ^^^r subsequcut trials from Dover to Calais against Oct. 18.39. |.|-jQ Widgeon, the fastest paddle-steamer on the station, the superior value of the screw-propeller was proved. Although in the first three or four experiments the Widgeon had. the advantage by a few minutes, in the subsequent trials, both vessels having set the whole of their sails, the Archimedes, carrying much more canvas than the Widgeon, on a run of 26 miles from Dover to Calais, close hauled, accomplished this distance in nine minutes less time than the Widgeon. Upon the return voyage to Dover, with a fresh breeze abeam and all sail set, the Archimedes, with a speed of ten knots per hour, performed the distance in five and a half miiuites less time than the Widgeon. and its Thcsc experiments decided the practical value of the screw. They proved that the Archimedes was slightly inferior to the Widgeon in light airs, in calms, ;ui;n^-:«;x«sv'*? ;«i!7S&T:'"^ V^ V O ^< ^X/^ ><^Vf' B'tft'alo made a similar VOL, IV. M 162 MEKCHANT SHIPPING. the only differeiice between these ships and the one he projected for the European trade consisted in the increased size, and in the application of two distinct sets of paddle-wheels instead of one. voyage, averaging still greater speed in the ordinary course of trade. Nor were Mr. Randall's practical experiments in vessels of similar model and design confined to the lakes, for he commanded the Yanhe Blade, a vessel of still larger dimensions, with a draft of 11 feet of water, on her voyage from New York to California round Cape Horn, encountering, successfully, a gale in which many vessels foundered; afterwards, he continued to ply with her for some years on the station between San Francisco and Panama. MKKCHANT SHIPPING. 163 CHAPTER IV. Strngsvle bet^vecn Great Britain and United States for the Atlantic carrying; trade— English shijiowners cleave to Protection -" Balti- more clippers" and "American liners "-The Savamwh, the first American Atlantic steamer, ISPJ-The C'«r«ro«, 1829-The Boyal William, 1833, from Quebec— Tlie Sirixs and Great Wesfer», 1838 -Successful voyages of these vessels-Details of Great .Western— The noyal William, second of that name, the first steam-ship from Liverpool, 1838, followed by the Liverpool-Ovigin of the Ciiuard Company -Contract for conveyance of mails-Conditions-Names and particulars of the first steamers in this service-The Bntanma -Comparative results of different vessels-Building (1839) and loss (1841) of the Fresideut-BxiMmg of the Great Britain m 1843 -Advantages of iron ships -American auxiliary screw steamer Massachusetts, 1845— American line of steamers to Europe, 1847— Fii-st ocean race won by the English-Not satisfied with Cuuard line, the Americans determine to start one of their own-Eeasons for so doing-American shipowners complain justly of the ' Pro- tective " policy of their own Government-Nevertheless adopted- Collins line established-Original terms of subsidy-Dimensions of their steamers-Mr. Earon's visit to England-Details of the build of these vessels-Engines-Frame sustaining engines and dead weight-Cost of steamers greatly increased by demand for increased speed-Further details of competing lines -Speed obtained and cost —Great competition, 1850-185-2-l!esults of it. Having fiiriiislied a general outline of the rise and strnggie progress of propulsion by steam on the rivers, coasts, EngUuid and'^lakes of the United States of America, and traced u^te.T its advance in Great Britain to the period when "^2^. the superiority of the screw over the paddle-wheel, !;y-';j; and of iron over wood, had come to be generally M 2 164 MERCHANT SHIPPING. acknowledged, I shall now ask my readers to accom- pany me while I endeavour to describe the great contest between these two countries for the carrying trade of the Atlantic. It is a grand story to tell, one far more worthy of record than the wars for maritime supremacy between Rome and Carthage, or than, perhaps, some wars of more recent times which, with- out any apparently useful object, have stained land and sea with the blood alike of the victor and the van- quished, rendering desolate many a once happy home. The wai' I have now to relate was a far nobler conflict, consisting as it did in the struggle between the genius, scientific skill, and industry of the people of two great nations, commenced, too, and, continued thi'oughout without bloodshed and with a fair field, neither country having, in the direct trade, any special legislative advantages. Thoug-h the Americans still retain the whole of their river, lake, and coasting trade, including even the distant voyage between New York and California, for the immediate benefit of their own shipping, the vessels of both nations conduct on equal terms the intercourse between the mother- countries, and have done so for more than half a century. But when, towards the close of the War of Independence, the struggle for supremacy commenced, the shipping of both England and America were, in all branches of their maritime commerce, under the leading-strings of their respec- tive legislators. England would not then allow American vessels to trade with most of her vast possessions and, while thus nursing her shipowners, prevented tlie mass of her people from deriving the MERCHANT SHIPPING. 165 advantnges invariably flowing from a natural and wholesome competition. Nor did she, indeed, confer any real benefit on this favoured class : on the con- trary, she taught them to lean on Protection, instead of English depending on their own skill and industry. The con- owners sequences were apparent in even the earlier results of protec-" this struggle. Having ample fields for employment ^^^^' exclusively their own, English shipowners did not enter with their wonted energy, into the direct carrying trade between their own country and America, which was so rapidly developed after the Americans had become independent ; they remained satisfied with those branches of commerce exjiressly secured to them by law, just as the boy too frequently does who, receiving a small patrimony by his parents, cares not to exert himself to increase it and, con- sequently, leaves others not so highly favoured, to surpass him in the race of competition for wealth and independence. Thus the shipowners of Great Britain did not care to continue their vessels in the trade with America in a competition, on equal terms, with those of that country, especially when they found they would have to produce a superior class of vessel and to use extra exertions, to make this trade pay as well as did their protected branches of oversea commerce without the additional trouble of " improvements." It was otherwise with the ship- owners of the United States, for there was then no other branch of oversea trade where the laws of nations allowed them to compete on equal terms with foreign vessels. Although possessing the advantage of vast forests of timber for the construction of their ships, the 166 MERCHANT SHIPPING. American shipbuilders were obliged to import their iron^ from Great Britain, their hemp from Russia, and many other articles necessary for the equipment of their vessels from other and distant countries ; they did not, therefore, especially as skilled labour was higher at home than in Ein^ope, engage in the vigor- ous though peaceful struggle, I am about to describe, with any special advantages, but, being equal in energy and industry, they had the incalculable advantage of being obliged to depend on them- selves. They, consequently, set to work to construct that description of merchant- vessel likely to yield the most remunerative returns, adopting the best mechanical contrivances within their reach, so as to reduce navigation to the smallest cost consistent with safety and efficiency ; and the world soon saw the results of their labours in their celebrated •Baiti- "Baltimore clijipers" and the still more celebrated °*JJ.g^,,^^^P J " American liners," which for a considerable period •' Ameri- can ^ The Americans are now rapidly developing their large natural resources of iron. " The iron ores of the United States " (London Timei', 2Sth of May, 1875), " are plentiful and various, though some kinds are wanting ; thus the ' spathose ' or spar-like iron ore, scarce even in Europe, is very rare ; and the ironstone of the liassic and oolite scams, which furni.shes about one-third of our British pig-iron, ajipears to be wholly absent. On the other hand, the specular iron ore, the brown and red hematites, the clay and blackband ironstones, are good and abundant ; and some of the deposits of magnetic iron ore — as at Lake Champlain, and at Cornwall, in Pennsylvania— are very remark- able. At Cornwall the deposit consists of a solid hill of ore, measuring roughly 500 feet in diameter, rising from the ground level to a height of 350 feet, and proved by Tarings to a dejDth of 180 feet below ground level. The iron mine at Port Henry — at the south-west corner of Lake Champlain, in the State of New York — is worked in a huge pri.sm of ore, about 200 feet square, and descending at an angle of 26 to 40 degrees, to an unknown depth, the superincumbent rock being sup- ported by pillars of solid ore, 40 feet square at the b;ise and about 20 feet at tlie top, with a height of considerably more than 100 feet." liners. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 167 almost monoj)olised the carrying trade between Great Britain and the States. Yet, strange to say, though the superiority of the merchant-vessels of the United States soon became only too apparent, scarcely any improvements were adopted by Great Britain, or indeed, by any other nation, until wiser statesmen than had hitherto guided the councils of this country swept away the whole paraphernalia of her Navigation Laws, and left her shipowners to rely entirely on their own resources. I have already shown that this superiority consisted mainly in tlie fact that American ships could sail faster and carry more cargo, in proj)ortion to their registered tonnage, than those of their competitors ; but their improvements did not rest here. In considering the current expenses of a merchantman, manual labour is one of the most important items, and, herein, our competitors, by means of improved blocks and various other mechanical appliances, so materially reduced the number of hands that twenty seamen in an American sailing-ship could do as much work, and probably with more ease to themselves, than thirty in a British vessel of similar size. With such ships we failed successfully to compete ; and altliough we have since far surpassed them in ocean steam navi- gation, the Americans were the first to despatch a steamer, for trading purposes, across the Atlantic. In 1701, when the steam-boat was in its infancy — indeed, when it was hardly known — ^fr. Fitch ' of Windsor, Connecticut, boldly j)redicted that sailing- vessels would soon be superseded in the carrying trade between Great Britain and America by ' A I, I,, p. 42. 168 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Tl:(j Sa- raniiah, 1,1 le first Aiiierican Atlantic steamer, 1819. steamers, though it was not till 1819, that the i\merican steam-ship Savannah, of 300 tons, arrived at Liverpool from Savannah, Georgia, in thirty-one days, partly steaming and partly sailing ;' hut as her horse- power was too small, while she was otherwise unsuited for ocean navigation, she did not prove commer- cially remunerative. The questionahle success of the Savannah, combined with the fact that about this time, and for some years afterwards, men of science ^ ' " Encyclopaedia Britauiiica" (eighth edition), vol. xx. p. 639, "Steam Navigation." The Savannah was full rigged as a sailing-vessel with auxiliary steam power, and her paddles were removable. - Dr. Lardner, in his " Encyclopeedia " and elsewhere, had more than once expressed the opinion that no steam-ship would ever be able to make so distant a voyage as that of crossing the Atlantic, without re- coaling. Having entered on details with regard to this important question in a lecture he delivered at Liverpool in December 1835, I consider it desirable to give the following extract from it, as reported ill the Liverpool Alhion of the 14th of that month, the matter being one of considerable historical interest : "Steam Communication WITH Amebica. — Dr Lardner then proceeded to observe that one of the grandest projects which had ever occupied the human mind was at present in the progress of actual accomplish- ment. He meant that of constructing a great highway for steam intercourse between New York and London. Part of the highway was in process of formation. It consisted of several stages — that of the rail- road from London to Birmingham ; that fi'om Birmingham to Liver- pool, and the steam intercourse with Dublin ; but there was another stage — that from Dublin to Valentia — which* had as yet hardly been thought of. Ireland was a country which, with all her political disadvantages, was blest by nature with a vast number of physical advantages, and among the rest he might reckon a vast number of excellent harbours. No country in the world coiild boast of so many fine and sj^acious ports, bays, and roadsteads. She had many harbours on her west coast, which would serve admirably as stations for steam conveyance across the Atlantic; but Yalentia had been selected as the extreme westerly point suitable for tliat purpose. It was a fine anchor- ing ground by an island of that name on the coast of Munster. The distance from Dnlilin to this point was under 200 miles, which might be traversed in about eight hours. The nearest point of the Continent of Nortli America to this jjoint of Ireland was St. John's in Newfound- land. The distance between the two was about I'JOO miles, thence MERCHANT SFIirPING. 1G"J Avere demonstrating, at k^ast to their own satisfaction, tl in t the navigation of the Atlantic by steam power tc Halifax in Nova Scotia there would be another nin of 550 miles, and from that to New York would not exceed the admissible range; but touching at Halifax would be desirable for the sake of passengers, T-he only dilBculty would be as to the run from Yalentia to St. John's ; and the voyage from Dublin to Bordeaux and back, a distance of between 1600 and 1700 miles, with the same stock of coals, came very near this distance. It must be observed that westerly winds blew almost all the year round across the Atlantic. They were produced by the trade winds being the compensating cause that restored the balance which these served to destroy, according to that beautiful principle in nature which always provides a remedy for any derangement in the deranging cause itself. As a last resource, however, should the distance between Valentia and St. John's prove too great, they might make the Azores a stage between, so that there remained no doubt of the practicability of establishing a steam intercourse with the United States. As to the 2»'oject, however, which ivas announced in the.- newspapers of making the voyage directly from New York to Livtrpool, it was, he had iio hesitation in saying, perfectly chimerical., and they might as well talk of making a voyage from New York or Liverpool to the moon. The vessel? which would ultimately be found the best adapted for the voyage between this country and the United States would be those of 800 tons, which would carry machines of 200 horse-power, and would be able to stow 400 tons of coal. To supply a 10 horse-power, daily required an expenditure of a ton of coals, and, consequently, 200 horse-power would require 20 tons of coal daily ; but if the vessel carried 400 tons of coal only, it would not be practicable to undertake a voyage which would require the whole of that quantity. They must make an allowance of 100 tons for contingencies. Thus, in reckoning the average length of the voyage which might be undertaken by such a vessel, we might safely calculate upon 300 tons of coal, whicla would be sufficient for fifteen days, and it might fairly be concluded that any project which calcu- lated upon making longer voyages than fifteen days without taking in a fresh supply of coals, in the presexit state of the steamboat, must be consideretl chimerical. Now, the average rate of speed of the Mediter- ranean packets was 170 miles per day, and the utmost limit of a steam voyage might be taken at 2050 miles; but even that could not be reckoned upon." It is, however, fair to the scientific memory of Dr. Lardner to state that, in the eighth and last edition of his " Steam-engine, Eailways," &c., 1851, pp. 294-309, he declares that he never stated that a " steam voyage across the Atlantic was n physical impossilnlity :" the more so, tliat he was of course well aware of the previous voyages of the Savannah 170 MERCHANT SHIPPING. alone, was the dream of a visionary, prevented, for ten years, the renewal of this bold experiment, the American sailing-vessels continuing to retain the bulk of this carrying trade. The next step in Transatlantic steam navigation was the dispatch, in 1829, of an English-built vessel, the Curafoa, of 350 tons and 100 horse-power, which made several successful voyages between The Holland and the Dutch West Indies. On the 18th of 1829 r"' August 1833, a steam-ship named the Royal William^ ^WiUmm^ sailed from Quebec and arrived at Gravesend on the 1833, from nth of September, having been detained three days at Nova Scotia on her way to England. But it was not until 1838 that the practicability of profitably employing vessels propelled by steam on an Atlantic voyage was fully tested. In that year, an advertise- ment appeared announcing that the " steam-ship Sirius, Lieutenant Roberts, R.N., Commander, would leave London for New York on Wednesday, the 28th of March, calling at Cork Harbour, and would start from thence on the 2nd of April, returning from New York on the 1st of May." Thus a com- pany of merchants was found sanguine enough to and Cura^oa ; what he did say (especially at the meeting of the British Association at Bristol in 1836) was " that the long sea voyages which were contemplated could not be maintained with that regularity and certainty which are indispensable to commercial success by any revenue which could be exjiected from traj/ic alone, and that, without a f/overnmen svbsidi/ (fa considerable amount, such lines of steamers, although they might be started, could not be permanently maintained.'' ^ The Eoyal William was between 400 and oOO tons, built at Tlu:ee Elvers, Canada, and her engines, constructed in England, were fitted into her at St. Mary's Foundry, Montreal. She only made this one Atlantic passage and was subsequently sold to the Portuguese Government. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 171 test the practicability of regular steam navigation with the United States, by advertising, not merely the days of sailing from England, but, also, those of arrival and departure from America. Circumstances, however, delayed the departure of the Sijhus until the morning of the 4th of April, when she started, at ten o'clock, with ninety-fciur passengers. Although not built for Transatlantic navio'ation, having: been Tiie ,S'm«s * ° and Great previously employed by the St. George Steam Western, Navigation Company in their trade between London and Cork, the Sirius was much superior in size to either ol' the three vessels which had previously made the voyage, being about 700 tons register with engines of 320 horse-power, constructed by Thomas Win gate, of Glasgow.^ ' It is only due to the memory of the late Mr. MacGregor Ijaird, who, with his brother, the late Mr. John Laird, M.P. for Birken- head, did so much to encourage Ocean steam navigation in its infancy, to state that the Sirius was placed on the Transatlantic service on his recommendation, and that, so early as 1836^ he was chiefly in- strumental in founding the British and American Steam Navigation Company which chartered this vessel from the St. George Company, See letter from Mr. A. Hamilton of St. Helen's Place, London, "the friend and executor of the late Mr. MacGregor Laird," which appeared in the Shippinfj and Mcrcantiln Gazette of the loth May, 1873 : in this paper, also, appears a copy of a letter which IVIr. Laird, under the signature of " Chimera," addressed to the Liverpool Albion on the 28th December, 1835, in reply to Dr. Lardner's fallacious prog- nostications that a steam voyage across the Atlantic was " perfectly chimerical," from which I take the following extract : " By what process of reasoning Dr. Larduer has fixed the ultimate size of steam -vessels for the Atlantic at 800 tons and 200 horse-power does not appear, which is the more to be regretted, as it must be a peculiar one, from the size of the vessels very little exceeding that of several in the coasting trade, and the power being much less ; but I am not bound to take this for granted, particularly as all my ex- perience has proved that we as yet have never had to complain of the size of the vessel if the power has been proportionately increased; on the contrary, tlie Dublin Iwats have crept Tip from 250 to 5(X) and 600, and thu Clyde from 200 to 400 tons, and otiicr lines in the 172 MERCHANT SHIPPING. But the Sirius was soon surpassed by the Great Western, which three days afterwards (the 7th of April, 1838) followed her with goods and passengers for New York. As the Great Western, the marvel same proportion. In reasoning, therefore, upon a line of steam com- munication between Great Britain and New York, I must reason from analogy, and fortunately Dr. Lardner gives me the data. The Leeds, it appears, makes the voyage to and from Bordeaux, a distance of 1600 miles, with one supjDly of coals. The Leeds is, I believe, 420 tons and 140 horse power, and her displacement between her light and load marks will be about 80 tons to one foot, or perhaps only 70. Now, the distance from Liverpool or Portsmouth to New York is 3000 nautical miles or 3.500 statute miles, a little less to Liverpool. Suppose the Leeds be trebled in capacity, so that her displacement should exceed 200 tons per foot draught, it is not necessary to treble her power, as double power propels more than double bulk : but allow her 300 horse-power, her light draught of water would be about 11 feet with her machinery on board, and with 800 tons of dead weight on board, about 15. I take the consumption of coals at 30 tons per day, and a mean speed of 10 miles per hour, and at an expcnditui-e of 625 tons of common coal, or 420 of Langennich, I land my passengers in New York, Portsmouth, or Liverpool in something less than fifteen days. I have not allowed anything in this calculation for the saving of fuel that would accrue in these large engines by working them expansively, but have taken the consumption at 9:2 lbs. per horse per hour, and with common coal I would have a surplus of 275 tons dead weight for passengers and goods. One objection will, I am aware, be made, viz., that my average speed is too great, and if I admitted that the beau ideal of a steam-vessel was embodied in one of His Majesty's Mediterranean steam-packets the objection would be fatal ; but what is the fact ? (no less wonderful than true), the average sjDeed of private vessels far exceeds them; and, to prove that the average speed of 10 miles per hour is not ' chimerical,' I may state that the average speed of the DuiK/ce and Perth, in all weathers, winter and summer, fair or foul, exceeds 11 miles per hour; that the average speed of the Monarch is IO2 miles per hour; and that the Medea cteam- frigate averaged more than 10 miles per hour on her voyage to Malta. Now, I am of opinion that the Dtuidee, Perth, Monarch, and Medea are to be, and will be, 1 eat, but not by vessels of 800 tons and 200 horse-power. I hope, Mr. Editor, I have proved that it is easier to go from Portsmouth or Liverpool to New York than to the moon ; that it is more convenient to go direct than through the first ' gem of the sea ;' and the last, though not the least consideration, that if we wish to go at all by steam, we had better not wait for the Valentia Railway." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 173 of the period, was tlie first steam-ship specially constructed for the now vast trade between Great Britain and the United States, it may interest my readers to know that she was built of wood by Mr. Patterson, of Bristol, according to his own design, and that her dimensions were 212 feet in length between the perpendiculars, o') feet 4 inches breadtli of beam, and 23 feet 2 inches depth of hold ; register- ing 1340 tons, builders' measurement.' Her engines ^ Builders' measurement, or O.M., is the measurement of a vessel according to the old law of 1773 (13 George III., Chap. LXXIV.) which prescribed as follows : " The length shall be taken ou a straight line along the rabbet of the keel of the shij^, from the back of the main stern-post to a perpendicular line from the fore part of the main-stem under the bowsprit, from which substracting three-fifths of the breadth, the remainder shall be esteemed the just length of the keel to find the tonnage; and the breadth shall be taken from the outside of the outside plank in the broadest place in the ship, be it either above or below the main wales, exchasive of all manner of doubling planks that may be wrought on the sides of the ship ; then multiplying the hiKjtlt of the keel by the hreadth so taken, and the product by half the hreaiith and dividing the whole by ninety-four, the quotient shall be deemed the true contents of the tonnage." Though another Act was passed in 1834 (Act 5th & 6th William IV. Chap. LVI.) which was again amended by the 6th & 7th Victoria, Chap. LXXXIV., and consolidated by 8th & 9th Victoria, Chap. LXXXIX., known as the "new measurement, or N.M." the old law remained in use with all shipbuilders in their contracts until 1854, when the law (proposed and carried out by Moorsora) now in force, was passed. By this law, the internal cubic contents of a ship are ascertained, and the register tonnage (on which all fiscal dues are levied) ascertained by certain calculations wliich produce as nearly as possible the same results in the old measurement of all ships built since 1854 (see ante, vol. iii. note, p. 310), and thus the necessity is avoided of altering the rates charged upon shipping, for light, dock and other dues; under the present law, which is generally approved, aU allowance is made for the space occupied by the engines in steam- vessels, so that the register tonnage on which all dues are levied is the gross admeasurement, less the space occupied by the piopelling power. The mode of arriving at this, adopted by different nations, has of late been a question of much discussion with reference to the dues charged on vessels passing through the Suez Canal. 174 MERCHANT SHIPPINii. (on the side lever principle) were 440 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field, of London, having cylinders 73^ inches in diameter and 7 feet stroke, making twelve to fifteen revolu- tions per minute.^ She was commanded by Captain Hosken. In the interval between tlie sailing of the Sirius and the Great Western and their arrival at New York, much doubt prevailed as to the probability of their accompHshing the voyage in safety, and this uncertainty was increased by the arrival at ports in G-reat Britain, of vessels from America, without having encountered either of them ; it was forgotten for the moment, that, in the immensity of the ocean, vessels may easily miss each other although travers- ing the same zones. They were however at length spoken with by the Westminster, an American sailing packet, the Sirius on the 21st April, within six hours' sail of her destination, and the Great Western on the 22nd. The former reached New York on that day after a passage of seventeen days ; the latter completed the passage in two days' less time, luiving arrived (without any accident in either case), on the 23rd of that month. ' The " Principle of Construction " of this vessel is clearly stated in ilie following note given in Mr. Brunei's life at p. 234: " To enable the ship to resist the action of the heavy Atlantic waves, esj^ecial pains were taken to give her great longitudinal strength. The ribs were of oak, of scantling equal to that of line-of-battle shijjs. They were placed close together and caulked within and without before the planking was put on. They were dowelled and bolted in pairs ; and there were also four rows of li inch iron bolts, 24 feet long, and scarfing about 4 feet, wliich ran longitudinally tlirough the whole length of the bottom frames of the ship. She was closely trussed with iron and wooden diagonals and shelf-pieces which, with the whole of her upper works, were fastened with bolts and nuts to a much greater extent than had hitherto been the practice." MERCHANT SHIPPING. 175 The safe arrival of these ships at New York was Successful hailed with immense acclamation, thousands of per- thei"'^^ ^ sons having gathered early in the morning to bid ^^^*^'^^- them welcome, and, as this, too, is a matter of historical interest, I shall trouble my readers with the substance of the accounts of their arrival as they appeared, at the time, in the public journals.^ The Sirius sailed on her homeward voyage on the afternoon of the 1st of May, her advertised time, and the Great Western on the 7th of that month. The formei' reached England on the 18th of May, the latter on the 22nd, being respectively, sixteen and fourteen days on the ]3assage. The whole dis- tance run from Bristol to New York, by the Gixat DetiUis of ^ the Great Western, was 3125 knots,^ her average speed being Western. 208 miles each day, or 8'2 per hour, consuming 655 tons of coal. Her return passage was accomplished ' "Arrival OF the 'Great Western' and 'Sirius' Steamers at New York. — At three o'clock pm., on Sunday, the 22nd of April, the ,Sini(s first descried the land, and, eai'ly on Monday morning:, the 23rd, anchored in the North Eiver immediately off the battery. The moment the intelligence was made known, hundreds and thousands rushed early in the morning to the battery. Nothing could exceed the excite- ment. The river was covered during the whole day with row-boats, skiffs, and yawls, carrying the wondering people out to get a close view of this extraordinary vessel. While people were yet wondering how the Siriun so successfully made out to cross the rude Atlantic, it was an- nounced about eleven a.m. on Monday, from the telegraph, that a huge steamship was in the offing. ' The Gnat Westn-n I — the Great Wisterii ! ' was on everybody's tongue. About two o'clock p.m. the first curl of her ascending smoke fell on the eyes of tlie thousands of anxious spectators. A shout of enthusiasm rose on the air During the first part of the passage of the Sirius she made slow progress, her speed varying from 4 knots 4 fathoms per liour to 7 ; the latter portion was at the rate of 8 to 11 knots. Tlius the grand experiment has been fairly and fully tested, and has been completely successful. The only question now in the case is that of expense. Can steam-packets be made to pay ? " - Sixty knots are e(iual to sixty- nine geograi)]iical or statute miles. 176 MERCHANT SHIPPING. at an average of 213 knots each day, or close lipon 9 knots an hour, with a consumption of 392 tons of coal (the difference of consumption arising no doubt in a great measure from the prevalence on her home- ward passage of westerly winds) ; her average daily consumption on this occasion varied from 27 tons, with expansive gear in action, to 32 tons without it.^ As the Sirius was not intended for tlie American trade she made only the one voyage across the Atlantic and, on her return to Liverpool, was dis- patched to London to open up steam communication between that city and St. Petersburg, where she was for some years successfully employed. ^oy^^} But another steam-vessel was soon engaged to the t^tcoud take the place of the Sirius. On the 6th of July, name, 1838, a paragraph in the public journals ^ announced the first frora"^ ^^ ' '^^^ ^^^^'^ TI"e.s/er« ran regularly between Bristol and New York Liverpool, till the end of 1846. In 1847 she was sold to the West Indja Eoyal 1838. Mail Steam Packet Company, and was long one of their best vessels. In 1857 she was broken up at Yauxhall, being no longer able to compete profitably with the new class of steamers which, by that time, had been placed on the different Transatlantic lines. 2 " DErARTORE OF THE FIRST StEAM-SHIP FROM LIVERPOOL TO New YoBK.— On Thursday evening the J.oyal William, the property of the City of Dubhn Steam Packet Company, set sail on her first voyage for New York. The Boyal William was announced to sail for New York at half-past six o'clock. At that time Prince's Pier was lined towards the river with a dense crowd from top to bottom, and the rigging of the shipping in the Prince's Dock was densely manned with sailors. Every conceivable standing place on George's Pier was crowded to excess. The deck of the vessel was crowded with passengers and their friends, and those whom curiosity had taken there. Exactly at half past six o'clock the anchor was weighed, and, immediately, as the noble vessel began to move she was greeted with the enthusiastic cheer- ing of thousands of spectators, which were responded to by those on board, whilst from Woodside, Birkenhead, Rock Ferry, the Pier, and the steamboats in the river on all sides, scores of cannon thundered forth the rejoicings of their possessors She is built by Messrs. Wilson and her engines are from the manufactory of Messrs. MERCHANT SHirriNG. 177 the interesting fact that tlie enterprising* merchants of Liverpool, wlio now liold the great bulk of the Anglo-American trade in their hands, had dispatched their first steam-ship, the Royal William, though the second of that name, to New York/ Althougli the practicability of steam navigation across the trouloled waters of the Atlantic had now been triumphantly established, other steam-ships having followed the Royal William in i-apid suc- cession, many years elapsed before the magnificent sailing-vessels which American energy and skill had created, were driven from the trade. In October 1838, Sir John Tobin, a well-known followed merchant of Liverpool, seeing the importance of the Liverpool. intercourse now rapidly increasing between the old and new worlds, dispatched on his own account, a steamer to New York. She was built at Liverpool, after which place she was named, and made the Fawcett and Preston. The vessel is 817 tons burthen, and her engines are 276 horse-power, and work expansively at a 5 feet 6 inch stroke. The consumption of coal is 14 cwt. 2 lbs. per hour. She has furnaces which completely ignite the smoke, and are a saving of 33 per cent, in the consumption. The smoke from the chimney top is scarcely perceptible. She has fuel on board for 4500 miles ; almost sufficient to take her out and bring her back again. Her length is 175 feet ; breadth of beam 27 feet ; and depth of hold 17 feet 6 inches. She is also fitted with four water-tight wroTight-iron bnlk-lieads for safety from foundering and fire. She is fitted iipwith floats, which neutralize the vibration. Her paddle-wheels are 24 feet in diameter, and, owing to the great depth of the vessel in the water from the large quantity of coal on board, the paddles are 6 feet in the water. In smooth water the vessel sails Hi knots an hour. Her cabins, which are exceedingly neatly fitted up, contain accommodation for eighty passengers. There are two principal cabins and several private cabins. Thirty-two passengers went out in her." ' The lioyul William made her first passage from Liverpool to New York in nineteen days and the passage home in fourteen and a half days. VOL. IV. N 178 MERCHANT SHIPPING. passage outwards in sixteen and a half days. It was now clearly shown that the service could be performed, not merely with profit to those who engaged in it, but with a regularity and speed which the finest description of sailing-vessels could not be expected to accomplish. If any doubts still existed on these important points the second voyage of the Great Western set them at rest, she having on this occasion accomplished the outward passage in four- teen days sixteen hours, and the homeward passage in twelve days fourteen hours, bringing with her the advices of the fastest American sailing-ships which had sailed from New York long before her ; and thus proving the necessity of having the mails in future conveyed by steamers. But this idea so far from being new was coexistent with the introduction of steam itself for the purposes of navigation ; nor indeed was it the idea of any one person interested in the trade between Gi-eat Britain and the United States of America, though one man set himself more zealously to carry it into practical and continuous operation than any one else. Origin So far back as 1830, Mr. Samuel Cunard of Cuna^rd Halifax, N.S., contemplated the establishment of a iSs^'^"^' ^^^^ service between .the two continents, his original plan, which he followed up, being to run steamers from Liverpool to Halifax (that harbour presenting unusual facilities for the reception of steam-vessels) and thence to Boston in the United States. About that time the Government of Bombay which had just launched the Hugh Lindsay, and the Ea.'t India Company were considering tlie introduction of larger steam-vessels for tlieir naval service, and, as MERCHANT SlllPPIXrr. 179 Mr. Ciiiiard was personally known to Mr. jSIelvill, then secretary to that Company, he placed himself in communication wnth that gentleman, making known to him his views, and requesting to be favoured with an introduction to any shipbuilder in this country or other persons likely to join him in carrying out his project. Mr. Melvill furnished him with a letter to Mr. Robert Napier, the well- known engineer and shipbuilder of Griasgow, and through him Mr. Cunard was led to discuss this important undertaking with Mr. George Burns of that cit}^, and his friend and correspondent Mr. David Maclver of Liverpool.^ Both those gentlemen ' Mr George Burns, whose family liad for many years held a highly respectable position in the city of Glasgow (his father having lx;en for the very long period of seventy-two years the minister of the Barony l^arish of that city), entered into partnership with his elder brother, James, in 1818, and in that year founded the great business firm still carried on in Glasgow. In 1824 they became ownere, along with the late Hugh Matthie of Liverpool, of six sailing-vessels trading between that port and Glasgow, and in the same year they engaged in steam navigation between Glasgow and Beli^xst. They next substituted steam for sailing-vessels in the Glasgow and Liverpool trade and, in 1830, amalgamated this business with that of the Messrs Maclver of Liver- pool, with whom they afterwards made arrangements to establish the line of steamers with the United States of America from Liverpool, suggested by Mr. Cunard. The business thus created was, in its various branches, carried on by Messrs. G. and J. Burns in Glasgow, by Messrs. D. and C. Maclver in Liverpool, and by Messi-s. S. Cunard and Co., in Halifax, N.S., under the superintendence of Mr. Cunard at Boston, and, subsequently, when New York was embraced in the line, under the management of his son Mr., afterwards Sir Edward, Cunard, Bart. Mr. David Maclver died a few years after the formation of the Cunard line. Mr., afterwards Sir Samuel, Cunard, Bart., and his son. Sir Edward, who died more recently, have been succeeded by Mr. William Cunard, now managing the affiurs of the company in London and Mr. George Burns, alone, survives of the Glasgow r Fast when light, British Queen 2,016 500 1 h.p. = 4 » < and light stern ( breeze. President 2,366 540 1 h.p. = 4i „ t Slow imder any ( circumstances. Liverpool (before) alterations) j 1,150 404 1 h.p. = 2.i >' Slow and crank. See Fincham'.s "Naval Architecture." 186 MERCHANT SHIPPING. were made in her. It should however be remarked that, though the proportion of power and tonnage was the same in the case of the Oriental and British Queen, it was not questioned that, on every point, especially when the vessels were deeply laden, the Oriental had the advantage. It may also be men- tioned that the Liverpool was, after her alterations, 393 tons larger than formerly; and, though her proportion of power was consequently diminished, her speed and weatherly qualities were materially increased,^ showing that more dej^ended on the form and construction of the vessel than on having a large engine power. The President, built by Messrs. Curling and Young a839)"anci ^^^^ ^^^® British and American Steam Navigation Com- ioss(i84i) panv, was launched on the Ttli December, 1839, with of the rre- i ^^ ' i • r sident. great eclat, but her career at sea was very brief, and her end most melancholy. It may be summed up in the few words that, when due from New York, in April 1841, she did not make her appearance; tremendous weather having been experienced in the Atlantic, with unusual quantities of ice in very low latitudes, the most intense anxiety arose both in the mercantile world and among the relatives of the passengers as to the cause of her detention. The arrival of other ships from the same port increased the public anxiety. For a considerable period the appearance of every large vessel was hailed as the missing steamer, and a thousand rumours prevailed as to her wreck in various parts of the world. The hopes long entertained that her engines had broken ' Letter from E in the Civil Kncjiiieer and Architects' Journal, January 1841. MERCHANT SHirPlNG . 187 down and tliat she had sailed for the West Indies or elsewhere to refit, proved fallacious, while the agony of tlie parties interested in her was kept alive by the most conflicting speculations as to the cause and cer- tainty of a catastrophe. The President was never ngain heard of, nor was any trace of her wreck ever discovered. This calamitous event, however it affected the interests of the company of Bristol mer- chants to whom she belonged, did not check the ardour of the people of England for steam navigation across the Atlantic. The Great Western Steamship Company having, so far back as 1838, resolved to build a second ship much larger than their first, aimed at realizing in her the greatest improvements the art of naval construction could then command. Nor were they disappointed in their expectations, the Great Britain when launched being not merely much the largest, but also the finest vessel up to that period built for ocean steam navigation.^ In proportion to all other vessels hitlierto con- Building . . . - . . ofthe structed of iron, the dimensions of the Great Britain Great^ were altogether colossal and, at the time, she excited iron-shi]), quite as much public interest as that vast leviathan, tlie Great Eastern, did at a later period. She was built at Bristol, and her lines were furnished by Mr. Patterson of that place, who had planned and con- structed the Great Western. Nor was the public interest ' Slie was constructed of iron, and expressly for the Transatlantic trade. Her dimensions were, length of keel, 289 feet; 296 feet li(;t\veeu tlie perpendicnlars; and 322 feet over all. Her extreme iireadth, 51 feet, with 32 feet G inches depth of liold, her main load draught of water being 16 feet; and her measurement 2984 tons, with engines of IdOO horse-power. 188 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Advan- tages of ill her at all lessened when it became known that, thong-h originally intended for a paddle-wheel steamer, her builder had boldly resolved to adopt the screw, then comparatively little known as a meaiiB of propulsion. As there were still many unbelievers in the suit- iron ships, ability of iron, for the construction of sea-going vessels, and still more who had no faith whatever in the value of the screw, this second step in advance on the part of the directors of the Great Western Steam- ship Company led to much discussion among scien- tific men, and created many evil forebodings as to the ultimate fate of the Great Britain, all of which she, however, falsified. On her passage from Bristol to tlie Thames, though she encountered very severe weather, she braved the storm in a manner (see follow- ing illustration,) which ought to have silenced for STEAJIEII "CHEAT BKITAIN " f>FF LIXDY ISLAND. ever the opponents of iron as a suitable material for the construction of vessels of every description, as well as those men of science who still, and for many years MKKCHANT SHIPPING. 180 afterwards, maintained that the screw, under all cir- cumstances, was an inferior motive power to that of the paddle-wheel. So great, indeed, was the interest felt in this vessel that, on her arrival in the Thames, Her Majesty and Prince Albert with great numbers of the nobility, and thousands of other persons, paid her a visit. Nor was her fame confined to England, forming as she did the subject of discussion among the learned and scientific societies of Europe, which was taken up with unusual fervour in the United States of America when it became known that she was to be employed as one of the Transatlantic steamers destined to eclipse the still celebrated American sailing clippers/ Though the Americans continued with undaunted courage their lines of sailing packets, every year, increasing their dimension, and improving by every possible means their speed and seagoing qualities, they saw the most valuable portions of their trade (first-class passengers and fine goods) passing into ^ The Great Britain was launched on the 19th of July 1843. The machinery was constructed in the works of the company, as no engineers could be found willing to undertake the task by contract. But, by putting the engines into the vessel at the works, it was found that she was so dee]:)ly immersed as to be unable to pass out of the dock, and she was, consequently, detained for some months until the requisite alterations could be made for her release. Soon after her experimental trip, made on the 12th December, 1844, she was placed on the American station. Her career, however, was prematurely brought to a close by an accident (stranded on the coast of Ireland) wliich, though occasioning a serioixs loss to her enterprising owners, proved at this early stage tlie great strength and value of iron ships. During the whole winter that she lay on the beach at Dundrum Bay, coast of Ireland, she sustained very little injury, and though frequently altered and under repair since then, the Ormt Britain is still success- fully employed in the trade between Liverpool and Australia, and to all appearance is as sound a vessel as she was when launched thirty-one years ago. 190 MRKCHANT SIIIPPING. the hands of British steamers. Resolving if possible to maintain their position, they, with that genius, and ready adaptation of means to an end pecuHarly their own, fitted a steam-engine into one of their saihng- vessels, and were therefore the first to apply the auxiliary screw to ocean navigation, as they had been tbe first to cross the Atlantic with steam. They knew that when the wind was strong and favourable, their celebrated ships could, with tlieir sails alone, surpass in speed any ocean steamers then afloat, and they thought that if they could introduce, at a moderate cost and with comparatively small current expenses, a steam-engine to ])ropel their sailing-packets when the wind failed, or when entering port or passing through narrow channels, they would be enabled to hold their ground against their now formidable rivals. Consequently, they sent Anioiican forth, in the autumn of 1845, their auxiliary steam- packet ship Massachusetts^^ of which the following is an illustration. iiuxuiaiy screw steamer Massa- chusetts, 18-15. ^ Mr. E. B. Forbes, of Milton, Massaclnisetts, in forwarding to the author the lithograph of his ship, remarks: " The lower yards and the topgallant yard are in the same position as in the ordinary rig; bnt the topsail end topgallant sail are so divided as to make three sails in.stead of two. The topsail being exactly of the size of an ordinary double reefed topsail, the yard being parrelled to the heel of the topmast, where the topmasts are tidded forward of the lower ma.st- head ; and to the head of the lower mast where the topmasts are (as they oi;ght to be) fidded abaft the mast-head ; this renders it necessary to have the lower mast-heads longer, by several feet, than in the old rig. The next sail above the topsail, representing the u])por half of the top=;ail of the old rig and a fraction of the old to]5gallant sail, is called the tofigallant sail, and the old rig topgallant sail is in the new rig called the royal, while the royal of the old rig becomes the skysail of tlie new rig. As I consider it important to have tlic sail as much in tlie body of the sliip as possible, and at the same time to disi)ose of the canvas and spars that the sails can be used in MERCHANT SHIPriNG. 101 From a description given of her in the Mechanics' Maiiazine of January 1841), she appears to have been IGl feet in length on deck, 31 feet 9 inches in breadth of lieam, and 20 feet d(^ptli of hold from inaindeck. AUXILIARY SCKEW-STEAMER " MASSACHUSinTS. She was 751 tons, O.M., and had a full poop extending to the mainmast, in which there was accommodation for thirty-five first-class passengers. Her enterprising owners (Mr. Forbes and others)/ did not contemplate competition so far as regards different places, 1 make the foreyard of the same length (excepting a slight ditYerence in tlic yanhirnis) as the main topsail yard; the fore topsail yard the same as the main topgallant yard, the fore tojigallant yard the same as the main royal yard, and so on witli the mizen, so that the yards and sails on the fore fit on the main one stage higher up, those on the mizen fit on the fore one stage higher and on the main two higher." ' In a letter which I had the pleasnre of receiving from Mr. Forbes (Novendier 1874) tliat gentleman further remarks: "On tlie 15th 192 MERCHANT SHIPPING. speed with the steamers then employed on the Atlantic service, but by using the screw as an auxiliary they hoped to accomplish the voyag:e with so much greater rapidity than an ordinary sailing-ship as to recompense them for the cost of the machinery and the cargo space which it occupied. By insuring greater regularity they also hoped to command a moderate share of the passenger traffic, and of that description of goods which from their nature would not allow so high a rate of freight to be paid as the owners of steam-ships required to cover the greatly enhanced cost of navigation. The passages of the Massachusetts, as compared^ with those of sailing-ships which left Liverpool before and after her, showed a considerable saving in time. Her motive power consisted of a condensing engine, constructed by Messrs. Hogg and Delamater of New York, designed by Captain Ericsson and fitted with September, 1845, I sailed for Liverpool in the steam-propeller ship Massachusetts: she made one other voyage to that port and, in June 1846, she was chartered to carry troops to the Giilf of Mexico. She was afterwards bought by our government and bore the flag of General Scott to the siege of Vera Cruz. She long continued in the navy de- partment, and was known as the Farndoues. Three or four years ago our government sold her when her machinery was removed, and she is now running and is called the Alaska." ^ JKame. Date of Date of At Advantages to credit of Sailing. Arrival. Massachusetts. Massachusetts . Oct. 22 Nov. 18 Holmes Hole * Hhenandoali Oct. 22 Dec. 3 a 4 Sandy Hook 13 days Adirondack Oct. 22 Dec. 3 Sandy Hook 13 days Ihnry Clay Oct. 23 Nov. 26 Sandy Hook 5 days (Jolumhianu Oct. 23 Nov. 30 Boston 11 days St. Patrick . Oct. 23 Dec. 1 New York 11 days St. Petershvrn . Oct. 13 Nov. 27 Boston 18 days :\ii';nciiANT siiirpiNG. i\>s his screw, the blades of which turned up out of the water wlien the vessel was under sail alone. Tlie engine had two cylinders working nearly at right ano:les, each 3 feet stroke and 2(3 inches diameter. There were two boilers, named '' waggon-boilers," each 14 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 9 feet high, with a furnace to each boiler. For the purpose of raising- steam quickly tliere was a blowing-engine and blower, the power of her engine being equal to 170 horses, sufficient to drive the ship about 9 statute miles an hour in smooth water and during calms, with a con- sumption of 9 tons of anthracite coal per day. The whole of the machinery, with the boilers, coal bunkers, &c., which were fitted in the after portion of the lower hold, occupied a space of one-tenth the cubic contents of the ship. Her propeller was made of composition metal, and could be raised out of the water when the steam-power was not re- quired. Its shaft passed through the ship, close to the stern post on the port side and rested in a socket which was bolted to the stern post, and further supported by a massive brace above. Her entire cost was 1G,000/. complete in all respects with machinery. But even the Massachusetts^ did not meet the wishes ^ Mr. Forbes, one of the owners of this shiii, is a remarkable man, and has, during the long period of sixty years, taken so useful and active a part in the development of the maritime resources of his country, that a brief note of his career, for which he has furnished the materials, cannot fail to interest my readers. lu 1811, when a boy of only seven years of age, ho and his mother were captured at sea on their passage to France, and, again, in 1813, on his return passage. lu 1817 he adopted the sea as a profession; and by his genius and industry he obtained the charge of an Indiaman, before he liad reached the age of twenty years, and by 1830 he was in command of a ship of his ovrn VOL. IV. O 194 MERCHANT SHIPPING. of the American people. They saw their most valu- able maritime commerce slowly but surely passing away from them, and though not yet prepared to run steamers to compete on the direct Atlantic line with British enterprise, they determined to secure at least a portion of the first-class passenger and fine goods American trade wlth Europe. Consequently, they established steamers ^ li^e of stcam-ships of their own to run between 1847^^^^' New York and Bremen, calling at Southampton, engaged in the trade witli the East. He retired from the sea in 1832, and, in 1839, he became the principal partner in one of the largest mercantile establishments in China — the still well-known house of Eussell and Co. In November 1814 his Midas (propeller schooner) left New York for China : she was the first American steam-vessel that went beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and the first to ply on the waters of China. He was also interested in the propeller barque Edith, which left New York for Bombay and China, on January 18th, 1845. Sho was the first American steamer despatched to British India, and the first square-rigged propeller to China under that flag. In April 1845 he, with others, built an iron paddle-wheel steamer, nearly 300 feet in length, which they named the Iron Witch : she was designed by Ericsson for great speed, to ply on the River Hudson, but as she did not prove fast enough to compete with the regular Albany boats, her engines were transferred to a wooden vessel named the Falcon ; the Falcon was the first American steamer that plied to Chagres in connection with tlie California route, as the Iron Witch had been the first iron passenger steamer that plied on the North River. In 1845 Mr. Forbes launched the first iron steam-tug, built for mercantile purposes in New England, designed so far back as 1838. In 1847 he loaded the ship Bomhay with a full cargo of ice for Bombay, the first cargo taken there, a small quantity having previously gone in the Paul Jones in 1843. At that period it used to be a joke that the Americans had nothing to offer in return for the j^roduce of India except ice, apples, and bills ! On the 28th of March, 1847, he sailed from Boston to Cork in the sloop of war Jamestown with 800 tons of provisions, nobly con- tributed by citizens of Boston and other inhabitants of New England for tlie famine-stricken Irish — an act in itself which constituted a grand and imperishable monument of their goodness. In 1847 he sent to China on the deck of a ship, a small iron propeller called the Firefly, the first vessel of the kind to ply on the Canton river. He states that when in China in 1839-10, he sent the first cargo of tea to England in an Mp]UCHANT SIIirPING. Uio Ensrlish. and in June 1847 started tlieir first ship, tlie Wash- imjtoii, for Soutlianipton on the same day tliat the Britannia, belonging to tlie Cunard Company, sailed from New York for Liverpool. This was the first FiM^^^--^" ^ , . nice won race between American and British steamers, and by the though the Britannia did not require " to run by the deep mines, and put in more coal " to beat the Wash- ington as the New York Herald anticipated, the other prophecy of the editor of that enterprising journal has been now remarkal)ly fulfilled.^ The Britannia won the race by two full days. The Washington,^ of which the following is an illus- tration (though the Spithead correspondent of the American ship, the Oriental. In 1857-8 he built and despatched from Boston, an iron paddle-wheel steamer, called the Argentina, of 100 tons for the survey of the La Plata, which ascended the Parana beyond where any steamer had previously navigated. In 18C1 he despatched the iron propeller Pembroke for China, where she was sold. She held the only " letter of marque " issued by the United States' Government during the great civil war. Such are a few of the leading points in the active life of Mr. R. B. Forbes, of whom his country may be proud, who still iu his fresh old age continues his career of usefulness. Ho now builds boats for the " good boys " of his native town, and I had great pleasure in executing for him the other day an order for no end of miniature blocks, dead-eyes, anchors, and cables. 1 " \Ye have to say that, if the Britannia beats the Washington over (and they both, we understand, start the same day), she will have to run by the deep mines, and put in more coal. Wo shall have, in two years' time, a system of Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific steamers in operation that will tell a' brilliant story for the enterprise of Brother Jonathan. We are bound to go ahead, and steam is the agent of the age. Wo expect yet to see the day Avhen a traveller will be able to leave New York, and eoing eastward all the time, will be enabled to make the circuit of the earth, coming in by Iluascualco, in the summer interval between two sessions of Congress, spending a month or two in the Mediterranean on the way." ^ 2 "The Washington is stated to be of 2000 horses' indicated power, and is 1750 tons Government measure, or 2000 tons carpenters' measure ; so her steam power is to her tonnage as one to one, while the liritannia ' ^ 2 196 MERCHANT SHIPPING. STEAMER " WASHINGTON.*' London Times does not give a very glowing account of her appearance as she passed before liim on the has only one horse-power to 2| tons.* To go a little, however, more into detail : both vessels have two cylinders, I believe, of the same dia- meter, viz., 72 inches, and both have side beam engines ; the stroke of the Wash inrj toil is 10 feet; her boilers are able to carry (they say) 30 lbs. of steam; biit, if we allow her only '23 lbs. x 13 vacmim, she will be still double the power of the Britannm with 5 lbs. x 13 lbs. i.e., = 900 horses' power (i.^0 x 2). I am now speaking of full steam, or at least both cutting off at the same point. The Ilerahl (New York) says the lVashmgfo)i's wheels are 39 feet in diameter, and Ti feet dip; but the latter is of course an error, and probably means 7 ^ feet face; she has two boilers 36 feet x 15 on the plan ; there are three furnaces, each 7 feet x 4 feet 6 inches x 6 = 189 feet. Well then, there you have data from which you may calculate how many horses' power can be got off that great surfoce with anthracite and blowers. Her recipient heating surface must be large ; she has flues, i3crhaps 12 inches in diameter." _ * The pivipovtion was .nctiially onr t" two ns .igninst one to two anil thiee- (Hiartcrs. MEUCHANT SHIPPlNCr. 197 waters of the Solent'), was welcomed on her arrival at the port of Bremen with great rejoicings; the burgomaster proceeding on board in state to invite the captain to a banquet in the Town Hall, specially 23repared for him by the Senate. Plitherto the American Government had been opposed in principle to all subsidies, but the vast results which accrued to the material interests of the United States from the extensive employment of steam navigation, effected concurrently a great change in the policy of the Federal Legislature and soon rendered it necessary to subsidize vessels of their own for the conveyance of their mails to Great Britain. If, before the period of the introduction of steam, Congress had exhibited an undue parsimony in providing funds in any form for their national navy, it is certain that a more liberal policy now prevailed. Ocean steam navigation was now adopted by the Not satis- Americans for the joint purpose of extending and the ^^^ advancing the commercial and other interests of the H^e'Yi.e country, and more especially to provide a marine Americans ' , . , , . . determine force which might be easily made available for the *» start protection " of American rights ;" and the attainment their own. of this two-fold object was the motive which, in the opinion of Congress, justified the application of public ' " In jioint of size sho looked like an elongated three-decker, with only one streak round her ; Init al)out as i;gly a sjiccinien of steam-ship building as ever went through this anchorage. She did not aiijiear to make much use of licr 2000 horse -power either, but seemed rather to roll along than steam through the water. She excited considerable curiosity, althoiigli her performance, as compared with' the .Uritannia, had evidently taken the edge oif the feeling with which the vessel would have been viewed had a diflercnt result been obtained in her favour." (Spithcad correspoudcJit of the Tiinis.) 198 MERCHANT SHIPPING. funds in aid of private enterprise. Nor was the argument, once so popular in England, overlooked that the money so advanced would ultimately be re- imbursed by saving the expense of a standing fleet to the extent of the number of the vessels subsidized in the conveyance of the mails, while encouraging commerce and the arts during the time of peace. The Americans also now complained (they had not thought of it before) that the ocean mails along their southern coasts had been placed in the hands of foreign carriers,^ sustained and protected by the British Government, under the forms of contracts to carry the British mails ; while the Cunard line, between Liverpool and Boston via Halifax, con- stituted the only medium of regular steam navigation ^ In 1840 and 1841 the British GoYernment entered into contrcacts, to which I shall hereafter refer, for the conveyance of the mails with the West Indies and also with the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies ; and, eai-ly in 1850, they concluded a contract with the Cunard Company for the conveyance of the mails between Halifax, New York, and Bermuda in small vessels of 350 tons and 80 horse-power, fitted with a proper space for mounting an 18- pounder pivot gun. One of these vessels left Halifax for Bermuda and another left for St. John's within twenty-four hours after the arrival of the packet from Liverpool ; a third conveyed the mails monthly between Bermuda and New York, the subsidy being 10,600?. per annum, or at the rate of Ss^. per mile ; on the main line it was lis. Ad. per mile. In 1851, the British Government made another contract with the Cunard Company for a monthly conveyance of the mails between Bermuda and St. Thomas each way upon such days as might be fixed by the Admiralty, the provisions as regards the size, power, and arma- ment of the vessels being the same in all respects as those in the other STibsidiary service, only that the ju-ice was to be equal to 4s. per mile, or 4,100/. per annum. This service connected the West Indies with the United States and the North American provinces. The departure of the one vessel engaged in it took place immediately after the arrival of the homeward mail West India packet, so that she carried the correspon- dence of the West Indian Colonies and of Her Majesty's officers on the station from that island to Bermuda. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 19'J between the United States and EiiroY)e. In this way it was alleged that the commercial interests of Rcasoud the United States were on one side entirely at the doing, mercy of British steamers which plied along the southern coast of the United States, entering their ports at pleasure, and thereby acquiring an intimate knowledge of the soundings and other peculiarities of the American harbours, a process which might prove highly injurious to America in the event of a war with Great Britain : while, on the other, danger was incurred by a foreign line of steamers carrying the ocean mails, under the liberal encouragement of the British Government, and thus threatening to monopolize by steam the mail postage and freight between the two countries. Under these somewhat hazardous circumstances to the commercial and political interests of the United States, it became necessary to decide whether American commerce should continue to be " thus tributary to British maritime supremacy," or an American medium of communication should be established through the intervention of the Federal Government in the form of loans in aid of individual enterprise. The Americans now felt that unless they departed from their previous policy, they could not contend successfully against the Cunard line of packets, which received a large subsidy from the English Government. It was humiliating, they also argued, to their pride as a great maritime people, that foreigners and commercial rivals should wrest from them the virtual monopoly of ocean steam conveyance, especially between the United States and Europe, as well as 200 MERCHANT SHIPPING. between tlie West Indies and South America. But, in reviewing this question, their statesmen and poli- ticians might have perceived without prejudice, that England has acted upon the same liberal policy in furnishing means to establish ocean lines to other parts of the world where American rivalry has no place ; therefore, the paragraph about the " Queen of the Ocean levying her imposts upon the industry and intelligence of all the nations that frequent the high- way of the world," ^ is merely a rhetorical flight, with no foundation in fact, apparently introduced into their official reports in order to reconcile the ignorant people of the Western States to the payment of a tax for services performed, by which they would be but indirectly and remotely benefited. Moreover, it was urged, in favour of the princij)le of subsidies, that the American sailing packets, though undoubtedly vessels of unrivalled beauty and swiftness, were fast losing the most valuable portion of their trade through the competition of steamers under a foreign flag ; but^ so far from this being an argument in favour of subsidizing vessels of their own of a similar description, the shipowners of New York and Boston and in all the leading American ports, American wlio held the saiHug-ships ns a property, naturally manors complaiued that the United States' Grovernment histfy of should imj^roperly interfere by a protective system, uSi'v!''"' ^^'^iich would inflict a double injury upon them, and poHc-y c.r insisted that such matters should be left entirely to tiKMr own ... . ^ (Jovom- individual enterprise, which, in their opinion, becomes paralyzed under the effects of Government patronage bestowed upon some to the exclusion of others. To ' Vide Official Reports from the SeUcitc, 1800 and 1852, 2>"ssim. lueiit. MERCHANT SHirPING. 201 all tliese, and similar complaints from other quarters, the Government answered that the system was deemed to be not only calculated to awaken and reward the enterprise of American citizens, but avoid the expense of keeping on hand, in time of peace, a large and useless military marine, which could only be preserved in a condition of efficiency by a vast annual outlay of public money. The Government therefore came, perhaps reluctantly, to the opinion that these ocean facilities should exist through their intervention, more especially as they were beyond the capabilities of private means. But apart altogether from any of the reasons assigned in favour of subsidizing a" line of mail steamers of their own, the national pride of the Americans had been touched by the success of the Cunard and other lines of steam-ships frequenting their ports, or trading, if not along their coasts, at least on seas they considered their own, and they attributed this success (not altogether without reason) to the annual grants for mail services from the British Crown. Nor is it surprising that their national pride should have been touched. American genius and skill had sent forth steamers to trade on their coasts, lakes, and rivers which were marvels of naval architecture, unsurpassed in speed and in the splendour of their equipment — their sailing packets, as we have seen, were the finest the world had then produced, while their perfection in the art of shipbuilding had even reached so high a point that they constructed steamers to ascend rivers where there was hardly dejDtli of water for an Indian canoe ; indeed it was proverbially 202 MERCHANT SHIPPING. said, in honour of their skill in the art, that their vessels would traverse valleys if only moistened hy the morning dews. No wonder they should have felt annoyed at the progress of British shipping in those branches of maritime commerce they had loug considered peculiarly their own. Collins It was under such circumstances as these that I'lished. Congress resolved to make their postal arrangements altogether independent of foreign and rival agencies. They had subsidized to advantage a line of steamers between New York and Chagres, via New Orleans and its auxiliaries ; and had repossessed themselves of the power of transport of their mails for Mexico, South America, and their possessions in the Pacific, which, in consequence of the discoveries of gold in California, had become of no ordinary importance. As the steamers for this line were of the highest class, possessing great speed and superior passenger accommodation, and capable, besides, of being con- verted at a small expense into war-steamers, they estimated that similar successful results would attend the establishment of another line of steam-ships of their own between New York and Liv.erpool. There was no difficulty in finding men, whose experience and practical knowledge rendered them eminently qualified to j^repare and conduct a mail service across the Atlantic to compete with the Cunard Company, and Mr. E. K. Collins, of New York, who undertook the responsible task of esta- blishing the line which bore his name, was perhaps more competent than any other man for the work ; relying as he could on the experience gained in his previously successful establishment of the Collins MERCHANT SIIIPPINCr. '203 line of sailing packets between Liverpool and New York. To ensure the most perfect description of vessels, he nevertheless sought the assistance of the most competent shipbuilders and engineers, who had not only the proper knowledge of marine engines and boilers, but who, having also seen their opera- tion at sea, would be able to avoid previous errors, and to construct vessels and machinery well fitted to vie with the best that England could produce. When, therefore, Mr. Collins and other American citizens, who had associated themselves with him, offered to enter into a contract with their Grovern- Original ment for the conveyance of its mails between New subsidy. York and Liverpool, their proposals were favourably entertained and, in the sequel, an agreement was entered into with them to perform twenty voyages in each year, with five first-class steam-vessels ; for which important services Mr. Collins and his col- leagues were to receive $19,250 per voyage. Immediately the contract was completed, arrange- ments were entered into for the construction of four such vessels, to be named the Ai^ctic, Baltic, Atlantic, and Pacific, each to be about 3000 tons register and of 800 horse-power. These vessels, built chiefly of live oak, were Dimon- planked with pitch pine and were in strength equal, thdr" if not superior, to any vessels constructed of wood steamers then afloat. The timbers, which were solid and bolted to each other, were further strengthened by a lattice work of iron bands, wood and iron being so united as to derive the greatest advantage from each : wood for its elasticity, and iron for its greater power of resistance. They were beautiful models, and could 204 MERCHANT SHIPPING. at a small expense have been easily converted into ships of war. The Arctic, which was considered the finest of the fleet, familiarly known as the " clipper of the seas," was built by Mr. William H. Brown of New York, under the superintendence of Mr. George Steers, who modelled the famous yacht America. She was 2856 tons register.^ Her equipment was complete and of the highest order, as I can testify from inspection, while her cabin accommodation in comfort and elegance surpassed that of any mercliant- vessel Grreat Britain then possessed. " To enter," exclaims Mr. Bayard, a member of the Senate, "the contest with England for the supremacy of ocean steam navigation required talent, energy, and faitli of the highest order known to our countrymen, for to fail would involve a loss not only of the vast sums necessary to make the effort, but, what is of far more value to every lover of his country's reputation, it would insure national disap- pointment, more deeply felt from the fact that England had already been vanquished by our sailing- ships, and gracefully j^ielded to us the palm of victory, since more brilliantly illuminated by the ' The general dimensions of these celebrated steamers were : length of keel, 277 feet; length on main deck, 282 feet; depth from the maindeck, 24 feet; depth under the spar deck, 32 feet; breadth of beam, 45 feet. They had rounded sterns, three masts with suitable spars ; a lower deck, main deck, and spar deck, as well as an orlop deck extending from the engine-room forward and aft. The area of transverse section of the Arctic, for instance, was 772 square feet- Launching draught aft, 10 feet ; average displacement per inch, from launching to load line, 20^ tons; area of load line, 9369"10 square feet; whole displacement to its circumscribing parallclopipcdon, 601 per cent.; weight of hull, 1525 tons; weight of spars and rigging, 34 tons ; ordinary load line aft, 20 feet ; ordinary load line forward, 19i feet. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 205 yacht America, and the cHpper ship Witcli of the 117" " I \ ave. Such were the expectations and warnings of those wlio guided public opinion in the United States, when it was resolved to undertake this great ocean race. Before giving out the contracts for the machinery, Mr. ColHns obtained from Messrs. Sewell and Faron, chief engineers of the United States' Navy, full specifications of the engines and boilers the latter had designed, and subsequently made use of, for the steamers Arctic and Baltic.^ At that time it was believed, from the best in- formation that could be obtained, that the Canard steamers carried an average boiler pressure not exceeding lOlbs. to the square inch, and that, to equal them, it would only be necessary to have for the Collins vessels, cylinders of 90 inches dia- meter and 9 feet stroke with the same boiler pressure, although Mr. Sewell (it is understood) originally advocated 9 5 -inch cylinders. After the contracts were given out to the Novelty and Allaire Works of New York, Mr. Collins procured permis- sion of the 2:overnment to allow Mr. Faron to visit ^^i"- Grreat Britain and examine the marine engines visit to and boilers in use there. On his return in the Niagara, he discovered that the safety-valves of that steamer were weighted with 13lbs. per square inch, and that with every plunge of the vessel, the valve would open slightly, at once indicating the pressure ' I have not room fov tlicsc very valuable historical documents, so much wanted in our own merchant navy, but the reader interested will find them in exf^nso in note, Appendix 0, in Mr. C. B. Stuart's work, " On Naval and IMail Steamers ;" U.S., published in New York, 1853. 206 MERCHANT SHIPPING. was equal to the load on the valve. The moment this was communicated to Mr. Collins, he conveyed the intelligence to his engineers, giving a cross section of the Niagara and the dimensions of her cylinder, with 13lhs. of boiler pressure, together with the cross sections of the Atlantic, and the STEABIEE " ATLANTIC." Pacific then building. The engineers accordingly recommended that, to equal the Canard vessel, the dimensions of the cylinder should be 95 inches diameter and 9 feet stroke, the size originally sug- Dotaiis of gested by Mr. Sewell, to which Mr. Collins at once ot'tiiose' agreed. The engines of the Arctic, like those of her vissois. sisfej. vessels, were of the "side-lever" kind, with solid cast iron beams, and wrought iron columns and braces. The cylinder, air pump, feed-pumps, shaft- bearing columns, &c., rested upon tlie bed-plate ; tlie ordinary parallel motion was used to guide the MERCHANT SHIPPING. 207 piston-rod, as in the British engines, and the motion was communicated to the cranks by the ordinary arrangement of cross-head, cross-tail, side-rods, and single connecting-rod. The most essential difference from the Britiwli method was in the steam and exhaust valves, which were of the "balance poppet" variety, the steam valve being also used for expansion, and working in the several vessels, under the following patents :— on Allen's cut-off in the Arctic and Atlantic ; Stevens's in the Pacific; and Sickles's in the Baltic. These engines were greatly admired at the time. The boilers of the Arctic were peculiar to the Collins line, and their merit was principally due to Mr. Faron, who acted as chief engineer of the com- pany. They were arranged with double furnaces, and lower water-spaces connected by a row of vertical tubes, around which the heated gases circulated, with a hanging bridge or plate, which checked their other- wise rapid flow to the chimney and rendered the combustion more perfect. The lieating surface was principally confined to the tubes and consequently vertical, the height of the smoke-pipe above the grates, 75 feet, insured a strong natural draft, and the proportion of heating to grate surface, was un- usually large, being 33J to 1. The ratio of evapora- tion of sea water, during the quick trip of the Baltic in February 1852, was 8*55 pounds of water per pound of anthracite.^ Mr. Collins, under the advice of his engineer, originally intended to use fresh water entirely in 1 A description in detail of these boilers is p;ivcn in the note, Appen- dix 0, already mentioned. 208 MERCHANT SHIPPING. these boilers, previously condensed from sea water, and an arrangement was made with J. P. Pierson, the inventor of the " double vacuum condenser," to furnish condensers. But the tubes, which had been manufactured in England, were lost at sea, and the vessels were equipped without them. Bituminous coals alone were used until the superior qualities of anthracite were in several particulars shown to be of great importance in ocean steamers, when it was determined to use the former only 07i the return trips; and such became the established practice, resulting from an extended and careful series of experiments.^ The Pacific was a three-decked ship, very high on the water, and consequently much more comfortable for passengers than the other vessels ; while the straight line of her bows, and freedom from encum- brances on her upper deck, offered less resistance to the wind. Her model under the water-line resembled somewhat the river boats ; she had a flat bottom, her immersed section being not far from a parallelo- gram. Her bows and stern were formed by nearly plain surfaces, which, joined together, constituted an ^ The respective diameters of -wheels in these steamers from outside to outside of floats, were as follows, viz., Arctic, 35 feet G inches ; Baltic, 36 feet; Atlantic, Z^ feet; and Pacific, 35 feet. Those of the Arctic and Atlantic had thirty-six floats; the Baltic, thirty-two; and the Pacific, twenty-eight. The average performances of the engines of the Arctic were as follows : pressure, 16'9 pounds ; revolutions, 15'8 per minute with an average consumption of 83 tons of anthracite coals per day of twenty-four hours, giving an average speed of 816'-i knots per day. Her maxi- mum pressure was 17-5 ])ounds ; revolutions, 16'7 per minute ; con- sumption, 87 tons, and speed 320 knots per day. The consumption of coal \)cx day in tlie Ada (Cunard line) was, on an average, 76 tons, and her speed with this consumption 303 knots per day. MEIiCHANT SHIIMMNG. 209 angle miicli more acute than was considered safe for adoption in ocean navigation some years ago. The Pacific was provided with two engines, each Engines, supported upon a large and solid bed-plate 32 feet long, and 9 feet broad, which was fastened to the keelson and ship's bottom by bolts of large dimensions previously fixed in the wood ; it was a single casting having a channel below in wdiich there was a foot valve, and above it the cylinder bottom, the air-pump seat, and also a great part of the condenser, through which the side-lever shaft passed : it also had upon it sockets for the different pieces of tlie frames. On the cylinder bottom, at the extremity of the bed-plate, the cylinder itself was bolted, the largest at that time ever cast : its diameter being 96 inches, calculated for a stroke of feet, and length, flange to flange, 10 feet 6 inches. The lower steam-opening being cast with the bed-plate, the upper one alone belonged to the cylinder. The steam exhaust valves were on the plan generally adopted in the United States and arranged with Stevens's "cut off," so as to let the steam expand one-half its volume. The steam passed from the boiler to the upper steam-opening by a large pipe 2 feet in diameter and about twenty feet long, and after doing its duty in the cylinder, escaped by the middle of the exhaust side pipe, and reached the condenser, which was not more than 1 foot distant, through a pipe of the same section. The condenser and the reservoir were formed by a single casting inside wliich was a partition between them of the same casting. This piece was orna- mented in the same style as the steam-chest, and VOL. IV. P 210 MERCHANT SHIPPING. supported a beautiful turret used as an air reservoir, which rather resembled an old castle of the Middle Ages than a steam engine of the nineteenth century, and gave an imposing appearance to the whole structure. The steam, arriving in the condenser between two horizontal iron plates, which were pierced over the whole surface, causing the con- densing water to fall in small streams through them, so as to be soon condensed ; then passing throuirh the foot valve under the condenser, it reached the air-pump, which was situated on the other side of the condenser. The condenser was so much elevated that the steam required to make a vertical descent of 11 feet, mixed with cold water, before reaching the channel way, thereby furnishing the means of quick conden- sation with a condenser of comparatively small size. All the pieces of the engine, cylinders, levers, con- necting rods, &c., were calculated upon the best rules then known,^ and the straps, keys, gibs, ribs, mould- ings, &c., were so disposed as to produce the maximum of strength and security against accidents : but the pre-eminent success was in the design of the frame. Frame Any Scientific engineer can calculate the thick- en?^>Ts^°° ness of a cylinder or diameter of a connecting rod we?-hr'^ necessary to resist the force they have to resist, but the disposition of the frame becomes difficult when the action of dead weight, and ihe various pressures produced by the working of the engines are com- plicated through the motion of the ship herself, ^ The plates of this splendid engine will be found in tlie second volume of Tredgold's " Steam-Engine," and well deserve the attention of professional readers. Mr. Victor Beaumont's account of the ship and engine will be found in the same volume. MERCHANT SHIPriNG. 211 which alters their modes of action. Tlie usual practice had been to sustain the engines by a frame so massive as to present ten times the strength necessary, and accordingly a useless and costly weight took permanently the place of cargo : but in the engines of the Pacijic, the difficulty was com- pletely overcome : two large hollow pillow-blocks which sustain the paddle-wheel shafts on each side of the cranks were supported in each engine by four wrought iron columns on the forward extremity of the bed plate, the centre of the shaft being 23 feet above the keelson. The pillow-blocks thus supported were connected by two strong inclined braces to the cylinder, by means of solid facings cast with it, on each side of the steam opening. To maintain this skeleton, a number of braces, small in appearance, were so disposed as to effect the purpose. No expense having been spared to render the ships of the Collins Company complete in all respects, the cost so far exceeded the estimates tliat the govei'n- ment found it necessary not only to make an advance to the company, while the vessels were in course of construction, but also to relieve theni from their obligation of building a fiftli vessel as originally contemplated, and to increase the subsidy from $19,250 to $33,000 per voyage, or to the sum of $858,000 (about 178,750/.) per annum. But increased rates of speed were required in return. Th^re seems an almost insane desire for increased Cost of speed in locomotion by land and by sea, especially greatly in- by persons who are not aware, or who do not con- ^eumnd ^ sider that high speed involves increased danger, and ^^^l^^^^^ p 2 speed. 212 MERCHANT SHIPPING. greatly increased cost in ocean navigation. The attainment and maintenance of high speed depend upon the exertion of a high power. High speed and power require stronger parts in everything : in the materials for the ship's build, the boilers, the machinery, and in all the working arrangements. High speed and power demand a larger outlay in prime cost for the adequate resistance required by such power, and lead to more frequent and costly repairs. High speed and power need more watch- fulness, more prompt action, and consequently more persons, whether engineers, firemen, or coal-stokers ; moreover, they cause the consumption of more fuel. These propositions have been evident to all prac- tical men in America, as they must be to those on this side of the Atlantic. In the construction of the hull, greatly increased strength is obviously requisite. The resistance to a vessel, or its concus- sion against the water at a low rate of speed, will not be sensibly felt, but if that speed be considerably increased, and the concussion made quicker without a corresponding increase in the strength of the frame and hull of the ship generally, the ship will creak, strain, and yield to the pressure until she finally works herself to pieces, at the same time disarranging the engines, whose stability, bracing, and keeping- proper place and order depend first and essentially on the stability of the hull. If the resistance to a vessel in passing through the water increases as the square of the velocity, and if, in addition to this outward thrust against the vessel, she has to sujDport the greater engine power within the hull, which has increased as the cube of the velocity, then her strength MERCHANT SHIPPING. 213 must be made adequate to resist without injury these two combined forces against which she has to contend. The same increased strength is also necessary in the engines and boilers. It is evident that if the boilers have to generate and the engines to employ twice the power and exert twice the force, they must also have twice the strength, and there is no working arrangement in any way connected with the propulsion of the ship that does not partake of this increase : every pump, every valve, every bolt is connected, directly or indirectly, with the engine economy of the shijD. All this is equally applicable to the ship's hull, though in a less degree in the case of iron vessels than in those of wood It is unnecessary to dwell upon the cost of repairs : in- deed, the rapid motion of heavy parts of machinery and the necessarily severe concussions and jarrings cannot fail to destroy the costly working parts of the engine, entailing heavy and expensive repairs and substitutions. But first cost and current expenses do not for the moment appear to have been considered by any person interested in the Collins line. One thought, and one only, prevailed, and that thought was embodied in the resolution to run the Cunarders off the Atlantic, or at least to " neutralize," as was expressed in the discussions of the period, " an existing foreign mono- poly." The enterprise they proposed " was one of a national character, and the semblance or reality of monopoly on their side was lost,'" they alleged, in the stipulation of the contractors themselves to transfer their ships at cost price with their contracts, and all the additional facilitie-; that might be extended 214 MERCHANT SHIPPING. to them by Congress " to any person who might be acceptable to the United States' Government, and capable of carrying out an enterprise of such vital importance to the nation." By this plausible but transparent mode of reasoning Congress attempted to disguise the real features of an undertaking which eventually became a great failure. From the spirit, however, which then prevailed, cost was not considered either by the projectors or by the majority of the members of Congress in their deter- mination to surpass in speed and in splendour of equipment, any steamers which Great Britain could send afloat. " We must have speed," exclaimed Mr. Bayard, "extraordinary speed, a speed with which they (Collins steamers) can overtake any vessel which they pursue, and escape from any vessel they wish to avoid ; they must be fit for the purpose of a cruiser with armaments to attack your enemy (if that enemy were Great Britain) in her most vital part, her commerce." HapiDily, the Collins steamers were never required for any such purposes, and, in 1850, just ten years after the Cunard vessels commenced to run, they started against them in their great contest for the commercial maritime supremacy of the Atlantic Ocean, a much more sensible struggle than that which Mr. Bayard so glowingly pictured when he spoke about their " sweeping the seas." Further Bcfore the Collins line was established, the Cunard con?i.othig steamers were receiving 11. 10^. sterling per ton, freight, whicli was so much of a monopoly rate, that in two years after the Collins line had commenced, the rate of freight fell to 4/. sterling per ton. Arguing lines. MERCHANT SIIUTING. 215 from this fact the Americans held that the excessive freiglits charged for transport by the Cunard Company were paid by the United States' consumer, in most instances, on articles of British manufac- ture carried to America by British vessels. But now the American consumer paid only 4:1. per ton, and this sum for the most part was paid to their own people, thus increasing their national wealth. Their acute political economists discovered " that formerly the American consumer paid veri/ nearly twice as much for the service, and enriclied the British capi- talists : whereas, subsequently to 1850, he not only saved one-half of the former cost of freight to him- self, but in paying the remaining half, benefited his fellow-citizens who, in return, aided in consuming perhaps the very merchandise which he had im- ported." ^ Arguments such as these, too frequently honoured Speed ob- .r^.- P -, T taiued and With the title oi political econom}^ are often emjDloyed cost. to hide direct taxation ; so, insteajd of attempting to refute them, I prefer inviting my readers to inquire with me into the practical results. Now, there can be no doubt that the Collins line of steamers did honour to the naval architecture of the time, and in their performances equalled the expec- tations of their most sanguine friends. Mr. C. B. Stuart, with feelings of national pride, jjlaces upon record that, in May 1851, the Pacific accomplished the passage from New York to Liverpool in nine days, twenty hours, and sixteen minutes, and that, in July 1852, the Arctic made the same passage in nine days, seventeen hours, and twelve minutes, which consider- * See Eeports of Proceedings in Congress. 216 MERCHANT SHIPPING. ably exceeded in swiftness any voyages hitherto made across the ocean by the vessels of any nation. But while this determination to surpass every otlier vessel afloat is one which commends itself to our admiration, if not to our better judgment (as speed unless it is combined with safety should always be condemned), it was attended with enormous extra outlay, for, by a statement afterwards laid before Congress, it appeared " that to effect a saving of a day or a day and a half in the run between New York and Liver- pool costs the company nearly a million of dollars annually."^ So eager, however, are the public to make rapid passages (and this applies to I'ailways as well as ships) that the Collins line for the time had a decided preference with passengers.^ Nor was there any lack of valuable goods ; the gross earnings of the company by freights and passage money alone amounting in the two first years to $1,979,760. But while the Grovernment during these two years psrid the Collins line for mail service $770,000, they only recovered $513,540, showing a pecuniary loss of $256,453, so that, so far as the ^ The comparative cost of driving a steamer on the average of 7 knots lip to an average of 9 knots is very small compared to what it would be to increase the speed from 9 to 11 knots an hour, and it becomes enormous when that rate is increased (as the resistance increases with the square of the velocity), but my readers must take the very large sum mentioned as the extra cost of one extra day's saving of time with very considerable qualifications, as the statement was made in Congress with the object of obtaining for the Collins line further assistance either in the shape of a vote of money or an en- lianced anm;al subsidy. - From a return which appeared in the New York Herald on the 1st of January, 1853, tlie number of persons carried in the course of eleven months, January to November inclusive, 1S,52, was : P>y Collins line to Liverpool, 2,420, to New York, 1,886. By Canard lino to „ 1,783, to „ 1,180. MEECHANT SHIPPING. 217 public was concerned, tlie establishment of the Collins line of steamers can only be regarded as a costly and doubtful experiment ; and, as will here- after be shown, the establishment and maintenance of a costly Transatlantic line was not merely an equivocal success on the whole, but to the share- holders resulted in a vast loss of capital. The owners of the Cunard steamers were, however, ^^^^l^^^' not listless spectators of the great preparations which i850-is52. the Americans were making to run them oif their ocean lines, and, in 1850, they added two new vessels to their fleet, the Asia and Africa ; they were sister ships ' but, though magnificent vessels, they were not • The dimensions of the Africa, built of wood by Messrs. Steele and Company, of Greenock, were as follows : Builders' Measurement. Ft. in. Length of keel and fore rake 267 Breadth of beam 40 6 Depth of hold 27 6 Tonnage 2128 78-94ths New Measurement. Length on deck 265 Breadth on ditto at midships 37 2 Depth of hold at ditto 27 2 Tonnage 2226 24-lOOths She had a pair of side-lever engines, by Eobert Napier of Glasgow, of 814 horse nominal power. Diameter of cylinders, 96 inches by 9 feet stroke; paddlewhcels, diameter, extreme, 37 feet 7 inches, and 30 feet 10 inches effective; twenty-eight floats, 9 feet 2 inches by 3 feet 2 inches, three sets of twenty-eight arms, eight floats in the water at 19 feet draft of water. Four flue boilers, twenty furnaces; bunkers to hold 890 tons of coals; thirty-eight hands m the engine-room. The Africa wa* built of the best British oak, and planked double outside and inside, and the space between the frames was fllled up, from the keel to the gunwale, with rock-salt, to preserve the vessel from the di-y rot. The number of her berths enabled her to carry 180 passengers. She was manned by a full crew of chosen men, giving about one-third to each department. She was estimated to carry 900 tons of coal ; and 218 . MERCHANT SHIPPING. equal in speed to those which the Collins Company had sent forth. The competition between these two great lines of steam-ships excited extraordinary public interest at the time on both sides of the Atlantic, and indeed in all parts of the world ; numerous records were kept for twelve months of the length of the respective voyages of the ships of the contending companies, and large sums of money were expended in bets on the result of each passage. Dividing the year into two parts it appears that the average length of passage from Liverpool to New York of the Collins steamers during the last half of 1851 was eleven days eighteen hours, while the average time of the Cunard boats was eleven days, twenty- three hours, thirty minutes ; but, in the last quarter of that year, they were respectively, on the return passages from New York to Liverpool, ten days, twenty-three hours, and ten days, thirteen hours, seventeen minutes. Results of During the first half of 1852, the ColHns line made the passage from Liverpool to New York, on an average of eleven days, twenty-two hours, and the Cmiard Company on an average of twelve days, thirteen hours, and fifty-two minutes, while the return passages to Liverpool were respectively eleven days, one hour, and ten days, twenty-one hours, fortj^-four it she had capacity for the transit of 600 tons of cargo, not including the stores of sliip and passengers. Fitted up for carrying guns, the Africa could at any time be transformed, from the peaceful original, into an Admiralty ship of war. The saloons and berths were fitted with an evident regard at once to elegance and utility : there was nothing the most refined taste could desiderate, as there was nothing wanting which could add to the comfort, convenience, and pleasure of the passengers. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 219 minutes, sliowiiig', on the whole, an average gain eacli passage of fourteen hours, twenty-three minutes, in favour of the Collins line.^ It must, however, be mentioned that the Cunard line had only two of their new, or best boats engaged in the race, and that had their old boats, the Canada^ Niagara, and Europa, been equal in speed to the Asia"^ and Africa, the gain of the Collins line would have been reduced to nine hours and ten minutes each passage. Still, in that great ocean race, the Americans were triumphant, and the rejoicings which spread throughout the United States, were, to our credit, re-echoed on the shores of Great Britain, for the struggle was one which, up to that time, had involved no loss of life, and the triumph honestly gladdened the hearts of every lover of pro- gress on both sides of the Atlantic, encouraging as it did two great nations to extend the benign influence of art and science to their legitimate object — the advancement of the human race. But though the Cunard Company were thus far behind in the contest, they were far from vanquished, ' See Appendix No. y, ]). 601. I give the authorities from whom these returns were obtained, and all the figiares on both sides of the question, so that my readers may judge for themselves, but, having had the log-books of the Cunard Company examined with great care, I can vouch for the accuracy of the conclusions in my text. ^ Mr. C. B. Stuart computes the power of the Asia at eight hundred andsixteen H.-P.,andthe^l^/fm .)/ fmJ.TOrtm.n/ mi thr Ciiiiuri) SInm PABTIOULAES OF SHIP. PAKTICULABS OF ENGINES. GENERAL BEMABKS. n™. Bout. ' Toantt. ofS WhcnlM It«j.l.. ra burnt. DeltomlFu «™s. rttme-fomr. Oal 0>™nn.»l. Mila - ""^ 1th Dcptb P*Mle fommon Ujp. dillon. ^.-isr Si.lp. sftpsclly. Eiiiaai!. b™«. I B.M. Displace- Doscrlptlou Acadlii 01vm™"L,. Aroi. IT poww. 425 710 -* 4. 88 610 WKlBht. 225 90 knou. J. Wood! w 624 eis 1139 207 34 2 22.4 16.10 520 2050 Pnddle.' Common. Side Layer. Jol. 721 S2 Flue. 4 12 222 2698 S3 B. DuncnQ Caledonia . Hlbomln . ]K4X G31 791 219 ■6i 17. 3 549 77i 90 16 247 3788 500 1040 4.3 4.2 44 710 300 1H4II 811 721 82 900 4750 670J 4. no 840 450 140 Ni,.g«ra . 817 »H 314 4796 689) 1450 61 ;; Iftll 1012 1214 2226 266 40 27.2 18. 9 657 3620 96i 108 20 417 7032 824 lo'o'o 3.92 0.2 76 930 500 1010 .. 828 1474 285 411 8 27.7 19. 103 108 TubuUr. 4 24 642 B. Nnpicr Iron 1221 2070 33011 45 828 1001 120 « 40 800 20080 3600 9.3 So«tm m/. 1746 37.1 , 1 100 IH 9741 4200 10. 164 Cliinn .. Tod t McGrWor J.AG.Tho^™ 090 5i 27.7 Sorew. , ,OGCiU. geared 80} 66 4 24 432 11920 484 2200 3.3 5.4 82 1100 10.-iO im 1133 82 72 520 2300 3.3 5.5 83 JniB mb X760 2I'.;(7 337 798 4120 In». Direot 85 42 465) 2440 85 1KB7 1709 mi.'il) 358 42 6 28.0 4750 87 43 13910 2800 00 1180 1260 180 13. RUMia 1171 1731 29112 331 42 ., 22. 796 72 48 24 11020 350 2480 3.4 86 1100 150 Qdabria Abjuinia . IK71) ,, I 32,V3 363 34,0 20. 4950 3.4 1600 180 12.5 AbvMinin Algeria . .. Algeria m74 1012 4.™ 425 35.0 6080 Compound.' , , ld4'.C< 54 8 444 11758 507 2780 2.2 940 3000 Seythia ,, 1 1050 2900 OompoundJ , , a.2 Scytbia ANALYSIS OF DIFFKRKNCE BETWEEN 'BRITANNIA" AND -ItOTHSIA." Though those celGbrnU)d BteomCTB the course of tho 35 ycnra, two pessegos across the AtUntic, tUey e a letter entniateil to their eliargi', so-called ordinary disa^turs of Ihe ee Ymr Built Cargo Ciipncity Paesunger AccomiiioiJatioa . Average speed por hour ... Consumption of fuel per indicatcil liors 1'4G times fiuter. Mr. Mctiri'gur Lninl, in hi« rcinnrkuhly pmphctif luUer on TraiiBJillnnti- -<■■1<•^' >-„,'- <-■■ vA-. t^Tt, p. 171), which rLIi|..:>ri,l immI, I II ,,. ( "Chimera" in th- / i i r 1835, estimated till' I'l'K '.'.] I' ■ ■' ■''■ i- r reduced by wurhlng Inrgo cnginca (.■xpnnsivijlj. The Hrst steamer of the Ciiiiard Company in 1840 ootieumod close upon 5 lbs. ; tbe latit a little over 2 lbs. If wo can still only convert one-sixth of Uie lieut ffo oronte into st«am (see toit, p. 58 1 ), we may liopo to be able to reduce tlio consumption to } lb. of coni por hur«vpower per hour ~) £) MPJRCHANT SIIirPlNG. 239 increased knowledge for still more extraordinary results at the expiration of another thirty-five years ? The Cunard Company have now afloat, and engaged in their Transatlantic service alone, no less than twenty-three magnificent steam-ships and two steam- tenders of a gross registered tonnage of 64,718 tons, and 10,000 horse-power/ And here I must state that, though they have for thirty-five years been traversing that stormy ocean, now almost daily, with surprising regularity and during the most tempestuous weather, they have only lost two vessels ; Cunard but it is still more remarkable, — indeed, it is an extra- never lost ordinary fact, — that neither life nor letter entrusted to their better ""^ '* care has been lost through shipwreck, collision y fire, or^^F^^^^^^ any of the too frequent causes of disaster, during ^/ig years. numerous voyages made by the Cunard steamers across the Atlantic. How is this? Here is a problem well worthy of Reasons, solution, and one too of great national importance. When we consider the terrible loss of life and property at sea, as revealed by the returns of casualties annually published by the Board of Trade, and observe the mass of legislation to j)revent or lessen, ^ See Appendix No. 10, page 608*. Not?. — The Cunard Company, consisting, as I have explained, of only a few private individuals who started business just half a century ago, now own a fleet of steam-ships whose tonnage is greater by far tlian the whole mercantile steam shipping of the German Empire, and nearly half as great as that of France, Holland (once our greatest rival), and Hamburg put together. Since they commenced they have had no less than 1G4 steam-ships under their flag. They employ GOOO men, sliipping and discharging in the coui'se of one year, 42,000 seamen. See evidence of Mr. John Burns before the Eoyal Commission on Unseaworthy Ships, 1874. In 1871, France owned (including the vessels of the IMcssageries Maritimcs) 160,478 tons ; Holland, 30,644 tons ; and Hamburg, 45,669 tons of steam shipping. 240 MEllCHAA'T SHIPPING. but in vaiiJ, these ever increasing, and too frequently most lamentable casualties, we cannot but feel that a noble work has yet to be achieved. What a boon would be conferred on mankind if this great problem could be satisfactorily solved ! I cannot hope to do so, but I shall endeavour to show that, in the success of the operations of the Cunard Company, in the regularity of the voyages of their ships, and in the safety of life and property entrusted to their care, there exists a wise power of control which might be advantageously applied to vessels in other trades. Now, regularity in itself, though perhaps more applicable to transit on land than sea, is a means of safety, while irregularity or rather want of punc- tuality has been the cause of an untold number of accidents involving destruction of property beyond estimation, with a sacrifice of life which no mathema- tician would attempt to value. Indeed it may safely be affirmed that the number of persons who have lost their lives through irregularity alone while travelling by land and sea during the present century, would exceed that of the occupants of a town of considerable size. Value of With the Cunard Company punctuality is a matter fuaiity. of the highest consideration, for their ships sail as is the rule with tlie Transatlantic lines in all weathers, not merely to the day but to the hour and even to the minute of the time advertised. On board every man has his allotted station and his special duty to perform. Nor is this all, every commander and officer must show that he is tho- roughly competent, in all respects, for his duties, while attention to these duties is rigidly enforced. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 241 From my own experienco I can state (for I have on two occasions crossed the Atlantic as a passenger in their steamers) that I found prevaihng on board a A^ery superior state of things to what I have noticed in too many steam-vessels in other trades. The captain was seldom to be seen, excej^t at his Admirable duty, nor was he ever to be* found mingling ov li-^'^lj'^.i^^ gossiping with the passengers when any duty, ^^^^^^' however trivial, required his attention, even though the regulations laid down by the owners for his guidance might have allowed him to do so. No officer was ever seen speaking to the passengers except perhaps to answer a question. If you entered the engine-room, the engineers in charge were in- variably at their stations ready to stop the ma- chinery at a moment's notice, while all the assistants, down to the furnace-men and coai-trimmers, were at their respective posts attending to their individual duties. Going aft, you would find the men at the helm with an officer by their side to make sure that the steering course was adhered to, and, whether you walked to the bridge or the forecastle, you would find men on the " look out," alike in fine weather and in foul, with their attention steadily directed to the ship's course, and with the means of instant communication with the officer of the watch, and, through him, with the engineer in case of danger. In approaching land, when in soundings, seamen in both chains were to be found casting or prepared to cast the lead, or with the deep sea line on the weather bulwark ready to be run out according to circumstances or the anticipated depth of water.^ ' The cliiof-niatc of tlic stoam-sliip Srii i//cr, a German steamer engaged in the Transatlantic trade, wliich was lost, with 833 ]iorsons on board, VOL. IV. R 242 MERCHANT SHIPPING. " If you looked around you would find everything in its place ready for instant action ; if you glanced at the boats you would find their tackles in order and the boats themselves clear and free from all encumbrances with the plugs, oars, and rudder ready for immediate use ; if you looked below you would observe the night-lamps carefully guarded from ac- cident, and the hose stretched out and attached to the engine so that water could be instantly applied to quench any fire that might accidentally arise in any part of the ship. Everywhere the most perfect order and quietness prevailed. Reguia- That my readers may understand more thoroughly the Com- the uaturc and value of these regulations, I furnish ^ pany. on rocks contiguous to Scilly, in thick weather during the night of the 7th of May, 1875, states in his evidence: "The SchiJhr was out of her reckoning: they thought they were 25 miles from the land. They had had fog for three days, had been unable to take observations, and HAD NOT ONCE CAST THE LEAD." (See report of official inquiry ordered by the Board of Trade, Times, 2nd June, 1875.) If any of my readers will look at the soundings marked on a Channel chart they will see that this steamer would most probably not have been lost had only one cast of the lead been taken diu'ing the three days of fog. ^ The instructions to the captains are in print and of considerable length, but the leading points in regard to the disciphne and safety of the shijD and all persons on board are as follows : " We rely on yoiu- keeping every person attached to the ship, both officers and people throughout the several departments, up to the high standard of discipline and efficiency which we expect in the service. Your own practical knowledge may be your best guide, but we will allude to the following things : — • " The charge of the ship, in all its departments, is put under the command of the captain. " The departments on board are classed under three lieads : " Sailing, engineers, stewards and servants. " The captain to divide the sailors and officers into two watches only, so that two officers may be always on deck." "Keep good look-outs. — The trust of so many lives uiider the captain's charge is a gi-eat responsibility; requiring vigilance night and day. MKl!CHAN'r SIIIIMMNG. 243 for their in formation the more important lieads of tlie instructions given to all the commanders of the Cunard ships. They are clear and to the point " Be most careful as regards fire and tlie use of naked lights — See the rules in cabin regulations on tliis point attended to. " Good steering is of great value. — Pick out the best helmsmen for this duty. " We beg your especial care to the drawing-olf of spirits. The spirit-room should, if possilile, be entered diiring the day only. Sec instructions to the purser under this head, and enforce them. " Avoid familiarity with any particular set or portion of your passen- gers; avoid national observations and discourage them in others; keep yourself always a disinterested party ready to reconcile differences ; be civil and kind to all your passengers— r^coZ/ec^ thoj will value your services on deck loulciii;! after their safety more titan talkiny ivith fliem in the saloons. "■ The engine store-room (the place where the waste and oil are kept) should have the engineers' close attention, so as to prevent fire, or even the alarm of it, not only on the passage but in port. " It is to be Iwrnc in mind that every part of the coast-board of Eng- land and Ireland can be read off by the lead ; and, on making land, you should never omit to verify your position by soundings ; rather lose time in heaving the shii? to, than run the risk of losing the vessel and all the lives on board. " You are to understand that you have a peremptory order, that, in fog or snow-storm, or in such state of the weather as appears attendant with risk in sailing, you are on no account whatever to move the vessel under your command out of port or wherever she may be lying in safety, if there exists in your mind a doubt as to the propriety of proceeding ; and, at the same time, you arc particularly warned against being influenced by the actions of other captains who may venture to sail their vessels in such weather. " In any case when, in sailing, you are overtaken l)y thick weather, fog, or snow-storm, the most extreme caution is to be exercised, and you are not to be actuated by any desire to complete your voyage, your sole consideration being the safety of your ship and those under your charge ; and we caution and instruct you in such circumstances to make constant use of the leah, and to enter in your log the fact of your having done so. " In the navigating of our vessels generally, wo have entire con- fidence in the ability of our captains, and full reliance upon their judgment and discretion, knowing, by experience, the fitness of each man for the responsibility of his post ; but in the matter of fog, the best of officers become infatuated, and often attempt to push through, u 2 244 MERCHANT SHIPPING. and, though every person on board is subordinate to the commander, the engineer also receives printed instructions for his guidance. Distinct regulations are laid down for exercising the boats and fire-pumps, and for their prompt and efficient use in case of acci- dent : ^ even the duties of the stewards and servants are as clearly defined, so that in the cabin the same quiet and order prevails as in all other parts of the ship. Neorlect of these or similar orders has too often led to the most serious consequences ; hence, in all the ships of the Cunard Company, as on the Transatlantic ships, generally, they are enforced even to the most minute detail. Any negligence with regard to them would be severely reprimanded, and any second offence or any wilful neglect, would be punished by disrating or dismissal from the sdS-vice. Every person on board from the captain to the cook's mate knows this : con- sequently, these regulations do not hang neglected on the walls as regulations of the same kind too frequently do in too many other vessels, they are carefully studied, as every man on board knows full well that they must be attended to. Nor does the care of the Company for the safety of their shij^s and the lives of their passengers end here. To avoid as when common sense and prudence would teach them to exercise patience. " You will bear in mind that we are now impressing upon you stringent rules, long laid down by us for the guidance of our captains, the terms of which are plain and unmistakeable, and can leave no doubt as to your clear course of action in the circumstances referred to, and we expect them to be implicitly obeyed ; but, if otherwise, the conduct of those who disregard them can only be looked upon as extremely culpable, and deserving the severest censure." 1 Apixsndix No. 12, pp. 609-10. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 245 far as possible collision at sea they have within the last two or three years issued a notice, which is adver- tised almost daily in the leading public journals, of the course their ships will pursue in their passages across the Atlantic/ Though the " dangers of the sea " are proverbial, they might be reduced by at least two-thirds of their present amount. This is neither an exaggerated nor a haphazard statement, for upon a close exami- nation of the wreck returns, it will be found that a still larger ])roportion could be prevented. A large volume might be indeed written to advantage on this important subject. But as our space is limited, and, having already (vol. iii. chap, xvii.) directed the attention of my readers to it, I shall only now ask them to turn over in their minds the too frequent accounts of shipwrecks which appear in the j^ublic journals, and such expressions as "drunkenness," "overloading," "negligence," "incompetency," " fire," " collision," and " unseaworthy ships and sailors," ' " Cunarcl line. — Notice. — With the view of diminishing the chances of collision, the steamers of this line will henceforth take a specified course for all seasons of the year. " On the outward passage from Queenstown to New York or Boston crossing meridian of 50 at 43 lat., or nothing to the north of 43. " On the homeward passage, crossing the meridian of 50 at 42 lat., or nothing to the north of 42." iVo^e.— In July, 1871, the late Mr. William Wheelwright laid before Mr. Chichester Fortescue (now Lord Carlingft)rd), then Prcsitlcnt of the Board of Trade, a large and beautifully executed chart, " showing an eastern and western route for steamers crossing the Atlantic, whereby collision may bo avoided, and the fleet of fishing-vessels on the banks of Newfoundland jn-otcctud."' Mr. Wheelwright appears to liavc been the first person to make known this valuable suggestion (which might with advantage be cnforcctl on all passenger steamers engaged in the northeni branch of the Transatlantic trade), as he published a pamphlet on the subject .so far back as 1846. 246 MEECHANT SHIPPING. Most will recur to their recollection as tlie alleged causes m^^bT ot" too many of these disasters. This is no over- byTdi"!'''* drawn picture, it is hut too true} sight, &c. Witli these facts in view, and having before them the regulations of the Cunard Company with the knowledge, also, of the perfect safety with which their ships have traversed, at the highest rate of speed for a long series of years, one of the most stormy oceans ; one, too, wdiere icebergs abound, and where far more ships navigate than anywhere else, they may ask themselves with advantage this ques- tion and study it in their own minds : Cannot this melancholy list of maritime casualties he materially re- duced? It can and must. Opinions may differ widely as to the most effective mode of carrying into practice the means at our disposal for bringing about a more satisfactory state of things than exists at present. But the work has to be done, and ought to be done, when the great fact, which cannot be too often repeated, is considered that the Cunard Com- pany's steamers have for thirty-five years constantly traversed the Atlantic without the loss of the life ^ If my readers will refer to the Report of the Eoyal Comiaisfsioii on Unseawortliy Ships (1873-7-i), they Avill tind the following summary of the losses of ships at sea from 1856 to 1872 inclusive, wliicli have been the subject of enquiry at the instance of the Board of Trade : — Losses attributable to unseaworthiness of hull, compasses, equipment, and outfit, within the power of the owners to remedy, 4^ per cent. ; losses to be attributed to carelessness, drunkenness, ignorance, incompetency, and absence of discipline, 05 per cent. ; losses from stress of weather, and causes not apparently preventable, 30^ per cent. This last item includes 38 wrecks of which no cause is assignable. See also article, " Merchant Shipping Legislation,'' in the ' Westminster Eeview ' for April, 1875, by Mr. Charles Lamport; and a very able article by his brother, tlu^ late INfr. W. J. I,amport, of Liverpool, entitled the " Plimsoll Agitation," which appeared in tlu> ' Theological Eeview ' for Janiiarv, 1874. MERCHANT SUirPlNG. 247 of a passenger, or of a letter entrusted to tlieir care. Some persons may say that this arises from extra- ordinary •' good liiek." As a rule, I liave no faitli in such old sayings ; good or bad luck are expressions only applicable to games of chance where no skill, genius, industry, or prudence are required, and where every man has an equal opportunity of winning a prize. In all otlier matters success depends on the Success ^ _ _ _ ■» depends means a])i:)lied to obtain it. And there can be no on fitting lUGilllS doubt that the freedom from accident on board of the ships of the Cunard Company may be attributed, almost entirely, to the wise measures adopted to pre- vent casualties, and to the rigour with which they are enforced. If this conclusion is sound and borne out by the facts, why should we not make the rules of that company or similar rules adopted by other steam lines, the bases of our maritime legislation, especially in passenger ships, and enforce them by legislative enactments ? We could thus dispense with a large portion of the confused mass of maritime legislation now in force, and from its extent, in too many cases, practically worthless.' With regard to the seaworthiness, of a ship and the competency of her crew, it would, while maintain- ing the valuable existing laws for the examination of * It is satisfactory to note by the official returns, that, with respect to ships carry iit(j passcmjers, the loss of life is not so great as is generally supposed. Between 1847 and 1873 inclusive, 22,186 vessels left the United Kingdom, with 5,388,163 passengers and 847,550 of crew — in all 6,235,713 persons. Out of the above number, 103 ships were lost, and 6129 lives, giving a percentage in the loss of ships of 46, or not one- half per cent., and in the loss of life "09, or less than one person in the thousand thus conveyetl. This retiu'n refers to ships wliicli come under the " Passenger Act." Sec " Japort vi Royal Commission of 1873-74." 248 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the officers, and the engagement and discbarge of the seamen, be desirable to sweep away the great bulk of the legislative technical details, which even Parliament in its wisdom knows little about, and require shipowners to produce vessels in all respects seaworthy, under heavy penalties for negligence, while leaving them to m.anage their own affairs as to the best mode of construction, number, and efficiency of crew, outfits, load line, and so forth. Such matters cannot be effectually dealt with by Act of Parlia- ment ; but, if they could, is it just, is it proper, that the nation should be required to take upon itself re- sponsibilities^ essentially, belonging to individuals? If it does, we shall most assuredly create greater dangers and bring about greater misfortunes and calamities, than those we attempt to obviate by well- meant but injudicious legislation. Cunard The case of the Cunard Company is a striking wiiatcan iustauce of what individuals can do. Legislative enactments are not required to regulate the conduct of such men as constitute the managing owners of this company, nor of that of the great majority of British shipowners. They know that a good sln'p, well managed and well found, is a much better investment than a bad one. But they likewise know, and therefore the Government can always depend upon the support of such men in any wise and necessary legislative measure, that there are inter- lopers in their trade who " go down to the sea in ships and do business on the mighty waters " of quite as knavish a character and, even more heartless, than the swindlers who concoct joint stock under- takings on shore to rob the widow of her mite and MERCHANT SHIPPING. 249 the fatherless children of their daily bread : they know, also, that there are very bad men who send their ships to sea to be lost, and villains who actually scuttle them. Nor are they iniaware that, among their number, there are men who smile when their ships are lost because they are well insured.^ There- fore, so far from objecting to general laws of even a much more stringent character than those at present in force, they would welcome them if, by their rigorous enforcement, the perpetration of crime could be more effectually checked. If, for instance, punishment was made more certain and severe, bad men would hesitate before they over-insured their shij^s in the hope of realising profits out of disasters, especially where loss "of life occurs. It is only a question of degree between the man who smiles when his ship founders, and the rogue who dis- ^ There are probably very few shipowners who actually over-insure ship or freight with a view to their loss, but when these are fully covered, so that a loss may become a gain, it is not in human nature to be, under such circumstances, as careful as if a loss were r&iJhj a loss ; and, when times are bad or ships unprofitable, the temptation to carelessness is very great. Not long since a shipowner of high reputation and on whose word I can implicitly rely, met another shipowner, who, complaining of the bad times, in the course of conversation said : " And to make matters worse I have also had a bit of very bad luck." " What was it ? " enquired my friend. " Oh ! " said he, " a ship of mine I had just sold was lost the first voyage after I parted with her." "Well," replied my friend, " and where was the bad luck there ? " " Where f " ex- claimci I tliis " unfortunate " shipowner, " why I bought her twenty years ago, and insured her at her full value, and had kept her so insured till I parted with her." "And what made you do that?" enquired my friend. " Oh ! " replied he, " she was an old ship, and an old-fashioned ship, and I thought that if she di'i ha])pen to goto the bottom I might as well have a good and a new one in her place." In relating this incident, my friend added that he was not less taken aback by the naivefc and apparent innocence with which these remarks were made, than by the story itself. 250 MERCHANT SHIPPING. patches her for the purpose ot being cast away ; and Parliament, when it again deals with the loss of life and property at sea, might do well to direct its attention more than has hitherto been done to over- insurance, and to the insurance laws of our own and other countries. To limit the amount insured to the honest value of the article thus protected from loss, may appear a simple enough matter, but the whole subject is surrounded with difficulties. It must not, there- fore, be hastily dealt with, and before any legislation is attempted, should be fully investigated, either by a committee of the House of Commons or by a Royal Commission. MEKCUANT SHIPPING. 251 CHAPTER Vr. Liverpool, New York, and Philadel[)liia Steamship Company — Cify of aUmjoir, 1850— C'<7^ of Manchester, 1851— Speed of Cify of Paris and at}/ of Urussels — Exertions of Mr. Inman to improve and facilitate cheap emigration to the United States— Large numher of emigrants carried in the Inman steamers — City of Chester, 1S73— City of />e?V/», 1875— Ocean steamers to Canada, 1853 — First mail contract, 1852— Allan line of steamers, 1856 — Extent and capacity of its fleet — Speed of these vessels — Galway line a failure — Loss of Connanght, 1860 — Eai:)id passage of Adriatic, 1861 — Struggles between sailing- clippers and iron screw-ships — National Steam Navigation Company, 1863 — Their splendid ships — Old Black Ball lino — The Guion line, 1863 — Mississippi and Dominion Company — Wliite Star line, 1870 — Strict regulations for safety — Britannic and Germanic — Their great speed — Details of Britannic and form of her screw— Difficulty of estimating real cost of steamers — Pennsylvania Company, 1873 — Anchor line from the Clyde, 1856 — Prodigious range of their trade operations — The Victoria — Hamburg American Steam Packet Com- pany — North German Lloyd's. The year 1850 proved somewhat remarkable in the Liverpool, history of steam navigation. But among the various a„";fph'iia' undertakinG:s commenced in the course of that year, ^^'/ipi^'* o . . ' !^team- tlie Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia Steam- ship . ^ 1 -I ITT Company. snip Company, better known as the Inman Inie, was perhaps the most important. Mr. William Inman, the managing owner, by whose energy their present large fleet of iron screw- steamers was created, had for some time given his attention to the application of the screw, for the purpose of pi'opelling ocean-going steamers. Im- 252 MERCHANT SHIPPING. City of Glasgow, 1850. City of Manchester 1851. pressed with its superiority over the paddle-wheel, he entered into communication with the late David Tod, of the firm of Tod and Macgregor, iron ship- builders and engineers in Glasgow, who had formed, in common with the owners of the Great Britain, the idea of starting a continuous service of voyages across the Atlantic with vessels built of iron and driven by screws, an experiment at that time considered rather hazardous, and, with that object, had in 1850 launched the City of Glasgow, a vessel of 1600 tons, and 350 horse-power. Subsequently, she was purchased by the Inman Company, and sailed from Liverpool for Philadelphia on the 17th of December, 1850, con- tinuing in that service for many years. In 1851, the Inman Company purchased the steam- ship City of Manchester, of which the following is an " CITY OF MANCHESTER." illustration, built also by Messrs. Tod and Mac- gregor,^ and with these vessels a fortnightly service ' The dimensions of the City of Manchester are as follows : — Length on deck, 274 feet with 38 feet breadth of beam. She registers 21'25 tons, and is propelled by engines of 400-horse power, driving a thi'ee- Madcd screw. Her two foremasts are of tubnlar plate-iron. MERCHANT SIIirPING. 253 between Liverpool and Philadelphia was established and continued up to the year 1857. Between 1851 and 1856 the Citij of Baltimore, the Kangaroo, and the City of Washington, all iron screw-ships, were added to this line. In the year 1857 the Inman Company enlarged the area of their operations by making New York one of their ports of arrival, and establishing^ a regular fortnightly line thither. In 1860 they in- creased the service of their steamers to once a week ; in 1863 to three times a fortnight, and in 1866 they sent forth their steamers twice every week during the summer months. To some extent the failure of the Collins line proved the fortune of the Inman, for, when that un- fortunate undertaking collapsed, Mr. Inman at once assumed their dates of sailing, and carried the United States' mails between England and America for some time afterwards with great regularity. Nor were the vessels of the Inman line less swift than their predecessors. Indeed, their City of Paris,' of |peedof 3081 tons gross register, and 500 nominal horse- Pam, ami power, and their City of Brussels, of 3747 tons, and c% o/^ 600 horse-power, far surpassed the fastest steamers of the Collins Company, and they in turn- were sur- passed by the City of Richmond.'' 1 The City of Paris conveyed, in 1869, His Eoyal Highness Prince Arthur (now Duke of Connaught) to America in six dmjs tx-cdu-one hours, the quickest passage ever made to any port of the New World from Cork. The Prince attended Divine Service at Quccnstown on Sunday, embarked at four p.m. that day, and was landed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, at half-past ten a.m. on the following Sunday in time for Morning Service at that place, which he also attended, much to his credit. . , ^,. . „ , •^ The following is an extract from the logs ol the Ctn of Brussels and (hi If if Uirhmoml. 254 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Exertions But whatever aclvanta2:es may have heen dei'ived of Mr. . , , . inmau to by Carrying the United States' mails, Mr. Iiimaii, andXdii- apart from these, specially directed his attention to emi-ratioa the Conveyance of emigrant passengers (who found to the United States. "City ob Brussels." Sandy Hook to Is •§ Queenstown. a,W December, 1869. Wind. Courses. S^ M Remarks. Dist San Lati J^ Saturday, 4 Soutlierly East. 37 1 40 -30 73 -09 /a.m. — 9.15, passed \ Sandy Hook. Sunday, 5 „ N. 85 E. ,S30 41 -27 66-00 (Moderate breeze and \ calm. Moderate breeze. Monday, 6 Easterly N. 69 E. 320 43-2159-15 Tuesday, 7 s. s. w. N. 67 E. 336 45-32 52-00 Light breeze. Wednesday, 8 ^^ N. 68 E. 346 47-4444-14 Light breeze. Tluirsday, 9 s. w. N. 72 E. 371 49-42 38-18 Moderate breeze. Friday, TO West. N. 85 E. 365 60-11J25-51 Moderate breeze. Saturday, 11 N. W. N. 80 E. 353 61 -15,16 -44 Fresh gale. (a.m.— 6.20, past Fast- Sunday, 12 To Fastiiet 266 1 n(t; 10.10, Queens- 1 town. " City of Eichjiond." Queenstown to i . Sandy Hook. ?. •S 3 December, 1875. Wind. Courses. a S Remarks. (p.m. — 4.10, Received Saturday, 17 Calm. S. 84 W. 2901.50-58 15-417 Mails. ( Calm and Cloudy. Sunday, 18 Variable. S. 80 W. 362 49-56 25-01 Liglitair.s. Monday, 19 Variable. S. 72 W. 360 48 -08 33 -43, Light airs. Tuesday, 20 S. E. S. 68 W. 380 45-4242-18 Moderate breeze. Wedn'sday,21 Variable. Variable. 366 43 -25,50 -14 Light and Variable. Thursday, 22 Calm. S. 81 W. 363 42 0058-11 Light airs and calm. Light airs and fog, 9.25 A.M. Eeceivcd Friday, 23 Variable. 361 41 '03 66-07 I Pilot. p.m. lO.flO stopped and sounded. Saturday, 24 Variable. 361 /p.m. 10.30 Sandy \ Hook. MERCHANT SHIPriNG. 255 in his ships greater comfort, and a ranch more rapid means of reaching the United States than conld be obtained in the fastest of the American saihng packets), and thus laid, at the outset, the foundation for the future prosperity of the company he had formed. It was he who first gave to the masses from the overcrowded cities of Europe, more econo- mical and rapid means than they had hitherto enjoyed of reaching a country where their labour was in demand, and, by wise and judicious arrange- ments in his steamers, supplied what had hitherto been to a great extent wanting, the more complete separation of the sexes on the voyage to the land of their adoption. While reaping the reward to which his meritorious services were justly entitled, he conferred a boon worthy of remembrance on myriads of poor people, and I should ill perform the duty I have undertaken, were I not to specially notice his exertions on behalf of those of the industrious working classes, who felt it necessary to seek for themselves and their children, the means of obtaining: honest employment in other and in distant lands/ ^ Mr. Inmau was the first to start a regular line of steamers across the Atlantic consisting entirely of iron ships propelled by the screw ; and as he and Mrs. Inman, greatly to their credit, made a voyage in one of their earliest emigrant steamers, expressly for the piirpose of ameUoriiting the discomforts and evils hitherto but too common in emigrant shijis, my readers may naturally desire to know something of Mr. Inman's history. In a few words therefore I may state that he was born at Leicester in the year 1825, where his father (a partner of Pickford and Co.) then resided. Educated at the Collegiate Institution at that place, and at the Liverpool Royal Institution, he, in 1841, preferring busine-ss to a profession, entered a mercantile office; passed through various grades of clerkship under the late Mr. Nathan Cairns (brother to I^ord Cairns), Messrs. Cater and Co., and Messrs. Ricliardsou Brothers, (all merchants of Liverpool): of tlio latter firm he became a partner in January IStO, and had the entire management of their fleet of American 256 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Large 111 1856 and 1857, the Inman Company conveyed emigrants i^ tlieir steamers eighty-five thousand passengers, to the™uman ^"^ from the United States of America, or about one- steamers. third of all the ]3ersons who crossed the Atlantic in steamships during these two years ; and that this company long maintained the favourable prestige they had at first secured, may be seen by the official returns of emigrants landed in New York for the year 1870.' sailing packets then trading between Liverpool and Philadelphia. Here he first gained an intimate knowledge of the emigrant business which he has since pursued with so much success and public ad- vantage. Mr. Inman having watched with considerable interest the perform- ances of the City of Glasgow on her first trip to America, was convinced of the advantages she possessed over, not merely their sailing-ships, but over paddle-steamers for the purposes of navigation, and therefore recommended her purchase to his partners. Acting on his advice, they bought and dispatched her with 400 steerage passengers in the winter of 1850 across the troubled waters of the Atlantic, very much to the dismay of that numerou.s body of men who had still no faith in the screw, and who dreaded the performances of any vessel thus propelled in so stormy an ocean, even though they had seen what the Great Britain had done years before. But the City of Glasgow did her work right well, and completely falsified the prophecies of the foreboders of disaster. The City of Manchester, which followed, " left a j^rofit in the fii'st year of her movements of 40 per cent." to her enterjirising owners, and hence no more has been heard since that time of the in- feriority of the screw to the paddle-wheel. One is often surprised to see a man so fully occupied, as he must have been, with his own aifairs taking an active j^art in public matters ; but we find Mr. Inman in his useful and busy career (like numerous other active men of business) a member of the Local Marine Board, a member of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Trust, a member of the first Liverpool School Board, a captain of the Cheshire Eifle Volunteers and the holder, too, of prizes, a magistrate for the county of Cheshire where he resides, the chairman of the Liverpool Steam Shipowners' Association of Liverpool, and an active politician, frequently called on to give evidence before Eoyal Commissions and Committees of the House of Commons. His life indeed afibrds an excellent example for the rising generation to follow. ' Passengers landed at New York from the United Kingdom in IbTO by the following steamers : — MKIICIIANT .silirnXC^. 257 In 1873 this Company added two magnificent c% o/ screws to their fleet, the Cltij of Chester, of which 1873.*^'' an illustration will be found on the following page, and the City of Richmond, each of 4700 gross, or 3000 net register tonnage, and 800-horse power. These vessels were built by Messrs. Caird and Co.^ of G-reenock, and by Messrs. Tod and jNFacGregor, of Glasgow, and are each 453 feet G inches in length over all, with a beam of 43 feet, and a depth of hold of 36 feet. They are spar-decked, have iron masts and solid iron bulwarks, and they are ship- rigged. In midships, there are long rows of centre and side houses, for a j^ortion of the pas- sengers and crew, and whS71 2 4,. ■(>',) 10 ' On the avcnigo of Uio lirst seven voyaj^es \hc < 'if 1/ uf c/irsUr -pvr- rornii'd tlie i>af-siiire lium Now York to Qiiccnstown in cij;ht days, eleven vol.. W. !^ 258 MERCHANT SHIPPING. fill!l|i!!l!!l!|!lli;!liililiF''!:i"lli'!!l"''!'';;"''™ !aill!iilPli!li!i!il!!iillliil«li^^ ! I M MUCH AM' SllirriNG. 259 But tlic liunaii Coin}){iiiy lias recently laiiiielied from the yard of Messrs. Caird and Company a still larger and more magnificent vessel, tlie City ofcunof ImtUu, being the long-est and perhaps the largest 1S75."' merclianl steam-vessel afloat, the Great Kd-steivi alone excepted. Her dimensions are: length over all, 520 feet; breadth 44 feet; and depth to spar deck, .'>7 feet; her gross register is 5500 tons; she is supplied with two direct-acting high and low pres- sure engines (compound condensing) of 900 nominal, but indicating, as proved on trial, 4790 horse-power; her cylinders being 120 and 72 inches diameter res[)ectively, with a piston sti'oke of 5 feet 6 inches ; she has twelve boilers and thirty-six fnrnaces ; and she has acconnnodation for 202 first-class passengers, and 1500 intermediate passengers aild emigrants.^ A list of the Inman Company's vessels on the 1st of January, 1875, will be found in the Appendix.-^ The success which had attended the British steamers engaged in the trade with the United States, led to further projects for extending this liours, and tweuty-six minutes. The City of Ukhriunnl, too, in lior first seven voyages made the same passage on an average of eight days, eleven hours, and fifty-eight minutes; the hxst-named ship, having on one occasion (April 187-4) made the ruu from Sandy Hook (New York) to Fastnet (GO miles from Cork Harbour) in seven days, twenty-three lionrs. ' To thtso ])articulars Mr. Inman, iu his evidence l)efore the Com- mittee of the House of Connnons (Session 1874, ]). 185) on tonnage measurement, adils, "the Citij of Ikrlin is about -10 feet (depth) to the hurricane dt.'ck, and about seven feet six inches in addition to the poop, and about, seven feet to the captain's bridge above that. . . The depth from the main deck is about twenty-four feet." This ship on her trial trij) over tlie measured mile indicated 5'2U0 horse-power, and an average speed of Il-8"2o knots per hour. * Tlio Vily of Ik I ill has just (Sept. 1875) made the two fastest pas- sages across the Atlantic \vi on record. See Appendix No. 13, pp. Gll-2. S 2 260 MERCHANT SHIPPING. beneficial agency to the British North American Colonies, and induced the attempt to introduce a regular line of steam-ship communication between Liverpool and Canada by means of the natural estuary of the St. Lawrence. Magnificent, however, as this river unquestionably is, when looked on as an artery of commerce between the rich agricultural and mineral districts along its margins, and the vast tracts of fertile country around its lakes, its naviga- tion is attended with many difiSculties and presents numerous dangers. Not the least of these arises from the ice, which, on breaking up, is apt to choke the river, and at the same time to cause tlie elimina- tion of quantities of watery vapour, wliich, partially condensed by the surrounding low temperature, is converted into dense fog, so thoroughly impervious to the sun's rays, as to bewilder the most skilful mariner, and incalculably to increase the dangers to which voyaging in these waters is otherwise exposed. Ocean But the indomitable spirit of British shipowners to^Canada, rcfuses to rccognisc dangers or to acknowledge diffi- 1S5.S. culties save with a resolution to combat and overcome them; and so it has fared with the suggestion made in June, 1852, for applying steam-ships to carry on the mail and other rapid traffic with British North America. Previously, the trade between this country and Canada, had been carried on by a superior class of sailing-ships, many of which during its early history were commanded by tlieir owners or their sons. Among these early merchant traders to Canada, Mr. Alexander Allan, the father of the family that gives its name to the present Allan line of steamers, had a prominent place. ^ When the success of screw- ' The founder of this firm, Mr. Alexander Allan, a native of Salt- MERCHANT SHIPPING. 261 steamers upon the Atlantic had been assured, the members of the ARan family turned their attention to the advantages to be derived from tlieir employ- ment of sucli vessels, and established a line of them to run between Liverpool, Quebec, and Montreal during the period of open navigation, and between Liverpool and Portland when the St. Lawrence is icebound/ Before, however, their vessels were finished, the gi;\*^^Jf Canadian Government advertised (June, 1852) for i852. the conveyance of their mails between this country and Canada in sununer, and Portland in winter. For this service a contract was concluded with Messrs. McKean, ^McLarty, and Lamont of Liver- pool, who formed a company and opened the line in the spring of 1853, with a vessel of 500 tons register named the Genova : the Hne was continued for about eighteen months by means of the steamer Cleopatra, of 1467 tons, and two smaller vessels, the Ottawa and Chanty, and the Canadian, the first steamer built for Messrs. Allan, who had chartered her to the company. coats, North Britain, afterwards removed to Glasgow, and owned a numerous fleet of sailing-sliips, one of wliich in early life he himself commanded. His eldest son, James, followed his example, as did also his third son, the late Bryco Allan, of Liverpool. Other two, Hugh (now Sir Hugh Allan) and Andrew, established themselves in Montreal, where they managed the shipping business of the family, and James, when he retired from the sea, formed with Bryce and their youngest brother, Alexander, the now important branch of their business at Liverpool. ' The first four steamers of this firm were built by the late Mr. ^Villiam Denny, of Dumbarton, and the skill of this eminent builder is evinced by the fact that one of these early steamers, the Aiu/lo-Sajon, although designed, for economy of fuel and capacity, for cargo and passengers, rather than for speed, made the passage from Quebec to the Kock Light, Liverpool, in the tlien altogethei unprecedented short time of nine days and live liouvs. 262 MERCHANT SIIlPFINd. But the service, which was conducted with vary- in"; regularity, proving unprofitable, was transferred to the Allans, who undertook with the fleet they were building, specially for this trade, to carry on a fortnightly service to Quebec in summer, and a monthly voyage to Portland (Maine) in winter, for the annual subsidy of 24,000/. The Crimean war, however, occurring in 1854, offered more remunera- Aiian tive employment to the steamers of the fleet of steiimis, both contractors. And, consequently, the regular mail service by the Allan line (which at the first was designated the Montreal Ocean Steam-ship Company) was not commenced until April, 1856. Since then it has been maintained with unbroken regularity, with the exception of various serious losses, which might almost have been anticipated in the early history of the service, considering the dangerous character of the navigation. From a fortnightly line in summer, and a monthly line in winter, the operations of the company have been expanded into a regular weekly service, supple- mented by an additional fortnightly mail service between Liverpool and Halifax, extending during Extent summer to St. John's, Newfoundland, and continued, f^'"! . monthly, during; winter by means of an iceboat, capacity or * ^ ° *' its fleet, between Halifax and St. John's, when the latter port cannot be approached by ocean steamers. Steamers of the Allan fleet also trade between Liverpool and Baltimore, and a weekly line of this company is maintained between Glasgow and Canada in summer. A list of the Allan steamers will be found in the Appendix:' and I must add that they ^ Appendix No. 11, p. 612. Mi'.iicHAX'j" siiirrixi;. 2G3 are now unsurpassed in their efficiency and regularity by any of the Atlantic lines. Their steamer, the Hibernian, built in 1861 , was the first in the Atlantic trade, where the deck-houses were covered by a promenade deck, stretching from stem to stern, which prevents a sea, when it breaks on board, from filling the passages between the deck- houses and bulwarks. Indeed, so highly was the plan approved by Government, that the unpro- ductive spaces nnder this deck were made, by order of tlie Board of Trade, the subject of a special exemption from tonnage measure by the deck- shelter clause of the Merchant Shipping A.ct of 1854. Other Atlantic lines adopting this protection obtained like privileges, hut, difficulties arising in connection with ships of somewhat different construction which however claimed the same exemption, Government was obliged to abolish all such immunities. Some of the vessels of this line are remarkable for Spcod of tlieir speed. For instance, in October, 1872, the vessels. Polynesian o]i her first voyage, made the passage between Quebec and Londonderry in seven days eighteen hours and fifty-five minutes ; while her sister ship, the Sarniafian, was engaged by Government to convey the 42nd Highlanders to the Gold Coast, iu the recent Ashantee war. The Hungarian, one of the earliest of these steamers, made the passage from Quebec to the Ivock Light in nine days six hours and thirty-five minutes, or from land to land in six days. Another, the Peruiiian, completed one of the fastest round voyages on record in any Atlantic line; on the 10th of December, 1S(M, she loft Moville (port of call, near Londonderrv iu 264 . . MERCHANT SHIPPING. Ireland, for the Allan boats) at G.24 p.m., discliarged her cargo at Portland (State of Maine, United States), took in lier homeward cargo, and sailing, arrived back at Moville on the 10th of January, 1865, at 9.15 a.m., thus making the passage out and home, including detentions at Portland, while discharging and loading her cargoes, in twenty-four days fifteen hours. In the limited space at my disposal it would be impossible for me to notice all the lines of steamships now traversing the ocean, and I must, therefore, in a great measure, confine my remarks to those which have led the way and have become either famous by their success or conspicuous by their failure, so that my readers may, it is to be hoped, learn in their day and generation, wisdom from them both, seeing, in the former, what they ought to imitate or if possible im.prove on; in the latter, what they had better avoid and condemn. Thus, in the Parliamentary Report ^ on the "Royal Atlantic Steam Navigation Company," better known as the " Galway line," will be found an account of the brief career of one of the most un- fortunate and disastrous of these undertakings. Having in view the success of the three British lines of steamers to which I have just referred, but at the same time paying no heed to the warning- presented by the Collins Company in their endeavours to traverse, with unusual speed, the fickle and stormy Atlantic, a company of English and Irish gentlemen, most of whom had little knowledge and, certainly, Galway ^^^ experience of the business they were about to undertake, proposed to the British Government, in line a lailure ' Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 23rd of July 18G1. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 265 Jannnry 1850, to carry Her Majesty's mails from Gal way to Portland, Boston or New York, via St. John's, Newfoundland, or otherwise, for the sum of 3000/. per voyage, " such voyage being the passage out and home." The great attraction, however, of the offer lay in the further condition that "they would undertake to convey telegraphic messages from the United Kingdom to British North America and the United States in siic days, casualties excepted," the Atlantic cable being then only in contemplation : that is, they offered to make the passage between Galway and St. John's, Newfound- land, at all seasons of the year, in the unprecedented short time of six days. A contract based on this proposal was entered into on the 21st April, 1859, to which a table was annexed ^ of the time in which this company further agreed to deliver letters at New York and at G-ahvay. With the object of ^ Time Table. — (A.) Galway to America. Summer Service — Outward Voyages. From Galway to New York, during the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, and October 11 days 2 hours From Galway to Boston, during the like months . 11 „ 16 „ Slimmer Service — Homeivard Voyages. From New York to Galway, during the like months 10 days. From Boston to Galway, during the like mouths . 10 „ 4 hours. Winter Service — Outward Voyages. From Galway to New York, during the months of November, December, January, February, and March 13 days. From Galway to Boston, during the like montlis . 13 „ 12 liours. Winter Service — Ilomenard Voyag(s. From New York to Galway, during the like months 10 days 10 hours. From Boston to Galwav, during the like raontlis 11 ,, 2 . 2G6 MERCHANT SHIPPING. carrying out tliis contract, the '" Royal Atlantic Steam Navigation Company concluded, on the lOtli June, 1859, an agreement with Messrs. Palmer of Newcastle, for the construction of two ships at a cost of 95,000/. each, and, on the 15th June, they entered into another contract with Messrs. Samuelson of Hull, for the construction of two other ships at a cost of 97,500/. each. These vessels were to be built according to lines, plans, and specifications ap- proved by the Admiralty, and were to be delivered within eleven months from the date of the agreements, the commencement of the postal service according to contract having been fixed for June 1860." ^ The dimensions of these ships were 360 feet long, 40 feet beam, and 32 feet depth of hold. They were each 2800 tons measurement, with engines of about 850 nominal horse-power ; in model and equij^ment they were somewhat similar. Indeed, the Connaught and the Hibernia, built by Messrs, Palmer, were "pre- cisely the same;"^ a clause in their agreement with the company requiring, " that each of the said vessels when completed was, on a fair and proper trial thereof, to accomplish a speed at the rate of 20 statute miles per hour in smooth water, and to consume not more than 8800 pounds of fuel per hour." ^ But, on the trial of the Connaught, the Government inspector reported that the speed of this " vessel was about thirteen knots ; the average re- volutions of the engines, 16*6 ; the average pressure ' Sec Report of Committee, 1861, p. iii. •^ See Evidence, Questions 1583 and 1587, p. 189. =• Question, 1573, Ibid. MKIICIIANT STIIPPING. 2Vu of stefim in the boilers being 22h lbs. on tlic sqnare inch, and the vacuum in the condensers 24^ inches."^ DitHculties and differences of various kinds having arisen, none of these vessels were delivered within the time agreed upon, and the company was consequently obliged to start the service with a hired vessel — the Parana — which sailed from Galway on the 27th of June, 18 GO, arriving at St. John's in seven days thirteen and a half hours, and at New York in eleven days seventeen and three-quarter hours after her departure, or fifteen hours and three-quarters beln'nd the contract time for the delivery of the mail bags at her final destination, and one day thirteen and three- quarter hours beyond the stipulated time for delivering the telegraph messages at St. John's. The Connaught followed, in her case direct for Boston, on the 11th of July, and was twenty-two and a half hours over time in reaching that place. But serious disasters Loss of soon befel these steamers : the Connaught was \iaufju' totally lost on her second voyage in October, of this ^^^^• year when approaching Boston, she having, on this occasion, been one day and twenty and a half hours behind time in reaching St. John's. One voyage had, consequently, to be omitted altogether. The second ship belonging to the company, tiie Ilibernia^ encountering a severe gale on her way from the Tyne to Galway was so thoroughly disabled that she never entered the service at all," wliile their > Question 243, p. 25. ^ The government inspectors, in their Report, state (Question 256, p. 26): " Wc survcyctl the Hihemia in dry clock at Messrs. Laird's yard, at Birkenhead," in refercneo to the Postniaster-Generars communication respecting the leaky st«to of that vessel, " and wc found the whole of 268 MERCHANT SHIPPING. third new ship, the Columbia, which sailed for the United States on the 9th of April from Galway, returned in May disabled by ice/ after making the slowest passage outwards of any of the fleet, having been ten days seven and a half hours in reaching St. John's, and seventeen days twenty and three-quarter hours before she arrived at Boston.^ Eapidpas- The stcamship Prince Albert was chartered to ^Adlkdic^ take the place of the Connaaglit, and in February 1861. 1861 the Company purchased the Adriatic, one of the most famous ships of the Collins line. The transfer of this ship to the British flag does not seem to have reduced her speed or detracted from her celebrated sea-going qualities, for she made the run from Galway to St. John's in six days, the speci- fied time, and, having completed the passage to New York in one day fifteen hours and a quarter less than the contract time, returned from St. John's to Galway in five days nineteen hours and three- quarters, perhaps the quickest passage on record from port to port across the Atlantic.^ But, having, within six months, -lost one of their vessels, while another was disabled by storm, and a third rendered unfit for the itiail service in her encounter with ice off Newfoundland, the Company, finding it impossible to raise fresh capital in the face of such disasters, had no course left but to abandon the ' bolts of the flat keel ' and bottom plating, for about 150 feet amidships, very much strained." ^ Report of Committee, page iv. - Appendix to Report of Committee, page 298, " Table of Voyages.'' ^ See Appendix No. 6 to the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 269 their iindertakiiig and terminate their contract in May 1801. Tlie return^ of the earnings and costs to Government of tlie Galway line of mail steamers shows a heavy loss to the public, but, thougli I have no means of knowing- the amount of the losses of the company itself during its brief career, these must have been far greater ; indeed, it was currently reported that the shareholders lost in eighteen months nearly all, if not the whole, .of their capital. f^; But, however disastrous the results to the American shareholders of the Collins line on the one hand, or to the British shareholders of the Galway line of steamers on the other (both these undertakings being, it should be remembered, largely subsidized), the ardour of private and unsubsidized energy in no way abated. The ocean race for supremacy in the carrying trade of the Atlantic was still maintained ; and the struggle continued with quite as much spirit 1 Paper delivered in by Sir Rowland Hill, K.C.B., 12th July, 1861 :— Statement of (he Earnings and Costs of the Galway Line of Mail Steamers. Sea postage of correspondence (including newspapers £ and transit letters) from 2uth June to 23rd October, 18G0, inclusive, when the voyages were suspended (estimated) 1,400 Trips : Out, 7 ; home, 6 . . Total, 13. Earnings, 108?. jjer trip. Cost to rout-Office in same time. £ Contract payment (less penalties) 14:,76-t Incidental payments 500 £ 15,264 (Signed) Frank James Scuilarnure, 12th July, li^Gl. Eeceivor and Accountant-General. 270 MEJICIIANT SHIPPING. Struggles betwei 11 the " cli'iJ- pcrs " and the iron ycrew- ships. Niitioual Steuiii Navigii- tiou Coiu- I'iiny, 1 808. as ever between the American owners of sailing-- clippers and the British shareholders of iron screw- steamers. It was a brave h'glit : but the wooden clijipers of America had no cliance against the iron screws of Great Britain, altliough the race was not then so unequal as might appear, arising from the fact that the current expenses of the clippers were far less then than those of the steamers, while their capacity for cargo was far greater. Indeed, for a time, it was questionable whether the clippers did not yield their owners quite as good I'eturns on the capital invested as the steamers. The wooden cli^iper, however, had reached perfection, (the world having never previously seen a more spleiidid class of sailing-ships than the " Yankee liners of that day,") whereas the screw, being still in its infancy, moved onwards with the progress of science, improvements in machinery tending to reduce tll^e current expenses and to increase the capacity of the ship by reducing the consumj^tion of fuel, so that the sailing-ships were obliged to succumb. At last, the screw-steamers slowly but surely obtained an almost complete sujDre- macy, and have now no competitors (except among themselves) in the more valuable portion of the carrying trade across the Atlantic. The success which had attended the Inman and the Allan lines of steamers induced others to follow their example ; and various undertakings of a sinn'lar character were started in rapid succession. Thus, with the view of availing themselves of recent legis- lative measures for the encouragement of mercantile associations, a number of Liverpool merchants and shipowners established, in 18035 the National Sleaiii MKltClIAN'l' SIIIIMMNG. L'Tl Navigation Company witli a capital or' 700,000/. Tlie original intention of the promoters of this nndertaking was to provide for the large trade tliey felt assured mnst arise between this conntry and the Confederaie States whenever the lamenlable war then raging in America should have exhausted itself, and when peace returning should have show- ered down its many blessings on that fertile and teeming land ; their first plan, therefore, was to carry on a regular periodical line of first-class steam-ships between Liverpool and the Southern States. The anxiously hoped for peace between the contending parties in America did not, however, arrive so soon as they had anticipated, and, as the requisite capital had been obtained, and their ships were ready for service, they sent forth their steamers to compete for a portion of the passenger and goods trade of the Northern States, which the Cunard, Inman, and Allan lines were now carrying on with great success. The first vessels of the National Company dis- patched to ply between Liverpool and New York, were the Louisiana, the Virginia, and the Pennsyl- Tiuir , . ,, . sj>l('ii(lilied the title " \Vhite Star " to their New York lino of steamers. T 2 276 MEKCHANT SHIPPING. These vessels, which are nearly uniform in size and speed, were designed and built with a view of affording the public an extra supply of steamers, such as would best attain the three-fold purpose of safety, speed, and comfort ; and certainly their per- formances have realised the objects and expectations of their enterprising owners. Built of iron with watertight and fire-proof compartments, they afford in their strength every guarantee for safety, nor are their owners behind their rivals in the caution ex- ercised to avoid the ordinary dangers of rapid navigation.^ But speed with them, as with all well- regulated navigation companies, appears to be only a secondary consideration, for, not satisfied with a general regulation, Messrs. Ismay and Imrie, in their own interest, as well as in that of the public, have wisely issued to the commanders of their ships a strict re- special manuscript letter^ reminding them, in the tor safety, most distinct manner, that the safety of the ship under their charge and of all on board of her must ' Extract from " Book of Eegulations " of the White Star line of steamers : " The commanders must distinctly understand that the issue of the following instructions does not, in any way, relieve them from entire responsibility for the safe and efficient navigation of their resi^ective vessels ; and they are also enjoined to remember that, "whilst they are expected to use every diligence to secure a speedy voyage, thty must run no risk which mi'jht hy any possihilify result in accident to their ships. Jt is to he hoped that they will ever bur in mind that the fafe'y of the lives and property entrusted to their care is the riding principle that should i,overn them in the navigation of their ships, and no suppxtsed gain in ex- pedition, or saving of time on the voyage, is to he purchased at the risk of accident. The company desires to establish and maintain for its vessels a reputation for safety, and only looks for such speed on the various voyages as is consistent with safe and prudent navigation." ^ See Appendix No. 15, p. 618. MKUCIJANT SHIFPIInG. 277 ever be tlieir first consideration. That their ships have attained an average rate of speed In'therto i]nrivalled, combined with great regularity, may be seen by tlieir logs/ Their Adriatic'^ has far surpassed ' T/ie First Eleven Passages of the "Baltic." QUEENSTOWN TO NeW YoKK. Voyiige. 1. September, 1871 2. February, 1H72 3. March, 4. April, „ 5. May, (>. June, „ 7. August, „ 8. September, „ 9. October, 10. November, „ 11. December, W iOKK. Days. ir. jr. 8 19 52 9 19 22 8 18 32 9 3 52 8 14 35 9 4 52 8 13 57 8 14 40 8 17 52 10 17 12 10 8 11 1871 1872 New York to Queenstown. ^'oyage. Day--, h. m. 8 15 3 9 3 38 8 3 58 8 20 10 8 22 20 8 19 8 8 12 8 8 10 53 8 11 50 7 23 22 7 20 9 1. October 2. ]\rarch, 3. April, „ 4. May, 5. June, „ 6. July, „ 7. August, „ 8. September, „ 9. Octobtir, 10. December, ,, 11. January, 1873 - Copy of the "Adriatic's" Lo(j. Queenstown towakd New York. Date. Winds. Courses. Dis- tance. Latitude. Longi- tude. Weather. 1872. ' May 16 Left Liverpool |5.10 P.M., Keck 1 Light abeam. „ 17 Left Queenstown 1' -05 i^ *^" Koche's \ Point abeam. „ 18 E.N.E. w. 381 North. 51-22 18-12 /^I'csh la-eeze ami \ iine weather. „ 19 Northerly S. 87 W. 348 51-13 27-27 J-'^l'^*^- bretzo and [\ fine weather. „ 20 Nortlierly 75 306 49-31 36-42 1 Calm. ij Light breeze; „ 21 N.N.W. 72 353 37-44 45-11 I dense fogs at ( times. UlNIod. breeze; „ 22 N.N.W. «2 362 41-57 52-57 < dense fogs at ( times. Light breeze; „ 23 W. l.y N. 78 333 43-20 60-21 < dense fogs at ( times. » 24 68 357 41-08 67-51 1 Ditto, ditto. „ 25 To S. Hook, 278 |Anchd.oir Sandy \ Hook, A.M. 278 MKKCHANT SHIPPING. MKliCJIA^'T SllUTlKG. 270 tl)e famous Aniei'icaii stenmsliip of tliat name \vliich once Leloiiged to the Collins line, she having attfiined the extraordinary speed of 455 statute miles in one day/ Nor ha« the comfort of the passengers heen in any way neglected. At page 278 I furnish a drawing of their newest 5«7a/m/f vessel ; and for the information of my nautical readers Germanic. I may state that the Britannic and Germanic '^ are similar in all respects. These vessels were huilt of iron by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, Belfast.'^ The engines of the Britannic are by Maudslay, Their Sons, and Field ; they are 760 nominal, but indicated speed. 50^0 horse-power on the trial trip. They have four imerte^l cylinders, the high pressure above the low ; the diameters of the cylinders are 48 inches and 83 inches respectively, and the length of stroke 5 feet. The pressure of steam is 70lbs. jDer square inch, and the boilers, eight in number, are fired at both ends with thirty-two furnaces. The propeller has four blades, and is 23 feet G inches in diameter, with 28 feet to 31 feet (> inches pitch. The mode of lifting the screw is novel, as may be seen by the drawing on the following page. * See Appendix No. 16^ p. 614, for particulars of this passage. ^ The Germanic (June 1875) made the passage from Queenstown to Sandy Hook in 7 days, 23 -hours, and 7 minutes actual time. Sec details of her log, Appendix No. 17. ^ The following are some of the principal dimensions of the Jiritiniiiii:: Feet. In. Length between perpendiculars 455 „ overall 468 Ih-eadth of bean^ 45 8 Depth of hold 34 Net register tonnage . . . . 3,174i'j'^,, tons. She has accommodation for 1,800 passengers, and 150 crew. ::80 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Details of Britannic, and form of her screw. The plan is that of Mr. Harland, the senior partner of the firm by wliom the Britannic was built. His reasons for introducing this new principle (whicli he st^des, " a lifting-propeller ") are, that in long ships, the pitching in a heavy sea way and the vertical motion of tlie waves tend to expose the upper portion of the screw as usually fitted, the evil effects arising from this being the ' racing ' of the engines and its attendant dangers, together with a diminished speed of the vessel.^ It is possible, also, that a further advantage maybe derived from the fact that, as one-half of the propeller works below the vessel's bottom,^ there is a somewhat denser medium of water for it to work against, con- ' Engineering, weekly journal, London, 20tli November, 1874. '^ On arriving in shallow water or nearing a port the screw is raised, so that the bottom of it is above the leA^el of the keel, and when the blades require examining or replacing, the shaft can be raised still higher, thus exposing the boss and allowing ready access when the ship is in light trim. The last two lengths of shafting are connected with an universal joint which works in a chamber in the after end of the tunnel and is at all times accessible to the engineers. The bush is guided by two cheeks on the stern-post, and raised by means of rods witli gearing on the middle deck either by a steam-engine or by a hand winch i)laced on the upper deck, additional power being always at command through the medium of the capstan. The want of the cus- tomary keel i)ieces joining the inner and outer stern-post conveys an MERCHANT SHIPPING. 281 seqiiently affordiDg (but to what extent, my limited scientific knowledge will not allow me to offer an opinion) the means of obtaining, as I conceive, an in- creased power of propulsion.^ But into such questions as these 1 will not enter, as I prefer stating the facts appearance of weakness, but this is amply compensated by the increased width and additional thickness at the head of the screw aperture ; and the centre of effort of the rudder being raised above the ordinary height. A false foot is fitted to the bottom of the rudder-post and this foot can be readily removed, allowing the screw boss to be changed without disturbing the shaft, which is another very important feature." —Ibid., 20th November, 187-1. 1 Messrs. Ismay, Imrie, & Co. state : " With regard to the Britannic's screw propeller, it can be worked at any depth, and need not be stopped whilst the lowering or raising is being proceeded with." 282 MERCHANT SHIPPING. and furnisliing an account of what lias been done, leaving others more competent than I am to deal with them. As scientific men may consider an- other question of still greater importance, the best form for the midship section of a steamship, to which I have already 'referred, I furnish (see page 281) a sketch, drawn to scale and supplied by her owners, of the midship section of this magnificent vessel, and, without further comment, give an account of her performances on lier first voyage across the Atlantic.^ " The average speed of the Britannic is fifteen knots per hour on a consumption of 75 to 80 tons of coals per day, and her approximate cost, built without contract, is 200,000/." - ^ Ahstracf of Log, S.S. " BiliTANNlc." FlUST YOYAGE FROM LlVERFOOL TOWARDS XeW YoRK. 1 late iJinctioii of <•'■"-• t^^. L;lt. L'ing. Remarks. 1874. June 25 „ 26 •• Miles Left Liverpool, 5 i-.m. Aiiciiored in Quee'is- town Harbour, 11.35 1 A.M. Proceeded at „ 27 N.W. Various. o50 51- -JO 17-16 ( noon. j Moderate breeze and \ fine weather. „ 28 S.E. S. 87 W. 3.51 51-05 26-34 (Moderate breeze, \ e]oiid3-,witli Lead sea. „ 29 „ 30 N.E. to S. AVN.W. S. 76W. oo2 ^.TiyX. 3,1 49-38 47-49 35 -25 43-39 (Light breeze, with \ cloudy weather. jModerate breeze, \ cloudy, with head 1 sen. July 1 „ 2 4 N. to N.E. S. i:^ii "\V N.E. JModerate breeze, with I *1 dense fugr. c. i-i' i\^ 0-- lo -o -n.oi (Moderate breeze, and Kb6A\. 3,0 42-02 09-34 | ^,^,,^5^ ES.E. S.72W. 376 4056 <.7-32 {^jS'^* Z""^^^^' '^'"^^ ( ilciisc tog. -.J ■ t ,.^ fSaiidv Hook abxejist ( at 9.1.) .\.Ji. ^ Lettei- from Messi-s. Ismay, Imrio, and Conii^any, '6vd December, ISTi. MEUCIIAXT >11!1'1'IXG. 283 Tliese steamers run in coiniection witli tlie Erie Hailway fiom New York (as do also otlier of the lines) booking- their passengers tlirongli to all parts of tlie United Stntes, as far as Aspinwall and San Francisco, and also to Canada. As their an'ange- nients and scale of provisions for steerage passengers aie, in nearly all respects, the same as that of the otlier Transatlantic lines, a copy is fnrnished for the inlbrmation of my readers, together with the con- ditions on which alone passengers are received/ Recently an American Company have with great spirit sent ibrth from their own country, a line of ' " Passengers will be provided with berths to sleep in, each adult liaving a separate berth ; but they have to provide themselves with a plate, mug, knife, fork, sjDoon, and water-can, also bedding. Mnrried. conijles, with their cliildren, w'ill be berthed together ; females will be berthed in rooms by themselves. ''Bill of fun. — Each passenger will be suj^plied with three quarts of water daily, and with as much provisions as he can eat, which are all of the best quality, and which are examined and put on board under the inspection of her Majesty's Emigration Officers, and ccuked and served out hy the ronipanija fitrvuntf. " Brealfdst at eight o'clock.— Coffee, sugar, and fresh bread and butter, or biscuit and. butter, or oatmeal porridge and molasses. " Dinner lit one o'clock.— Sonp and beef, pork, or fish, according to the day of the week, with bread and jwtatoes, and, on Sunday, pudding will bj added. " t^vjip r (d ii.r. o'clock — Tea, sngar, biscuit, and butter. Oatmeal grnel will be supplied at eight p.m. when necessary. " l.ii'jrwje.—Tcn cubic feet will be allowed for each adult steerage passenger, and twenty for each adult saloon passenger, free ; for all over that quantity a charge of Ls. 6'/. for each cubic foot will be made. "vMI passengers are liable to be r'jected wlio, upon examination, arc found to be lunatic, idiot, deaf, dumb, blind, maimed, infirm, or above the age of sixty years; or any woman witliout a husband with a child or children ; or any i)erson unable to take care of him.self (or lur.self) without becoming a public charge, or who, from any attending circumstances, are likely to become a public charge. Sick persons or widows with children cannot be taken, nor lame persons, unless full security be given to the United States' Government, that the parties will not become cliariicalile to the State." Difficulty 284 MERCHANT SHIPPING. steamers to trade between Philadelphia and Liverpool.^ They consist at present of the Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, each of about 3100 tons gross, or about 2000 tous nett register ; they are all built of iron, on the Delaware (U.S.), and are fitted with screw-propellers. The Pennsylvania, launched 1873, cost, according to the statement of her owners, " ready for sea, about 600,000 dollars " (120,000/.) ; who add that, " if built on the Clyde of as good ofesti- ' materials, the saving would have been trifling." real cost of In any attempt, however, to estimate the cost of a " ^'^'"®^^- steamship I may state, for the information of non- nautical readers, that the outlay on one vessel, even of a similar grade or class, w^hen built for the con- veyance of passengers as well as cargo, gives but an imperfect idea of the cost of another vessel, of the same tonnage but not so appropriated. If we take simply the hull, the power of the engines, and the ordinary outfit for a sea-going ship of a particular class, the comparative cost of constructing such a vessel in different countries, or even at different ports in any one country, may be easily ascertained, but, in a passenger-ship so much depends on the quality of the outfit and furnishing, and, especially, on the cabin accommodation, varying as these do almost as much as from a cottage to a palace, I should cer- tainly mislead my readers were I to attempt to supply a comparative cost of passenger-ships built in America and in England. ^ In 1866, an American company started a line of steamers between Boston and Liverpool. Two large and elegantly fitted wooden screws built in Boston, named the Erie and Ontario, were the precnrsoi's of this line, but were so unfortunate that, after making two or three pa.ssagcs across the Atlantic, tlie enterprise had to be abandoned. MEKCHANT SHIPPING. 285 The vessels of this line are each 355 feet in length, Pennsyi- with 43 feet beam, and 83 feet depth of hold. They ^^^JP^^^' have each accommodation for 76 first class, and for 800 intermediate and steerage passengers. The actual steam-power of each of these vessels is given as "2800 horse-power indicated," but this furnishes, as I have before stated, but a vague idea of the nominal power on which the cost is based, as the actual power depends on the dimensions of the engines, the mean pressure on the piston, and the speed with which the eno-ines move. On the other hand, nominal horse- power is fixed by certain arbitrary rules. Though the Philadelphia line of steamers has much to contend against, owing to duties imposed by the American Government on all articles required for their construction and outfit, and may, consequently, find it difficult to rival successfully the steam-ships of Europe engaged in the Transatlantic trade, they are supported, if not owned, by one of the largest railway undertakings in the United States of America. The lines of this company cover more than 6000 miles of communication within the interior, extend- in o- over States which produce the breadstuffs of the north as well as the tropical fruits of the south with a teeming and almost virgin soil, sufficient in itself to produce cargoes for a fleet of ships far in excess of that it as 3^et possesses, and afibrding fields of remunerative employment for hundreds of thousands of persons now huddled together in many of the over-peopled countries of Europe. Indeed, from the accounts which reach us, the valley of the Mississippi in itself still affords room, and, in time, will give profitable em[)loyment tV)r 28(5 MKi;riIAXT SHIPPING. 100,000,000 persons, and if tiie industrions and frngnl of our own people and of Europe, are unable to gain a living' by honest means in the land of their birth, they will find, sailing daily from the port of Liverpool, alone, at the present moment, as also from other ports, steam-ships ^ of the finest desci'iption, ready to convey them in a hitherto incredibly short space of time, to the United States of Americn, and at a cost very little more than they would require for their main- 1 In the Appendix Ko. 17, pp. 617-632, will be found a table of the several passagesof the steamers of some of the lines employed inthe Trans- atlantic trade during the years 1873 and 1874. I must, however, add (as 1 am anxious to be impartial and strictly accurate), that the steamers of three of these lines, the " Cunard," " Inman," and " National," adopt the " Lane route,'' that is, the route to the south of the Newfoundland banks, which increases the distance of each passage by about 90 miles, or allowing for the favourable Gulf stream by from 50 to 60 miles. I must also direct the attention of my readers to certain figiires in these returns where I have placed an asterisk. For instance, one of the Cunard steamers (the Cuha) was on the passage of the 19th January, 1873, about seven days beyond her usual time, no doubt arising from some uncontrollable cause, which would increase the average passages outwards of the steamers of this line for that year by about 3 hours 10 miniites. Similar remarks apply to the steamers of the other lines, as the increased time there noted affects the annual average length of their passages, also, in a greater or less degree. The Canada (National line), 16 January, 1873, was, for instance, about seven days, while three other vessels of this line were three and a half, six and a half, and six days respectively behind their usual time. The Am'rka (Bremen line) was on one passage more than eleven days. A steamer of the White Star line, on one occasion, four and a half days; while the Guion line, on four occasions, four, five, six, and ten and a half days respectively ; and the luman line, four and a half, three and a half, four and a half, and ten days respectively longer than their usual time, occasioned, 1 am informed, by serving ships in distress and other laud- able or unavoidable causes. Though some are faster than others, the speed and regularity with which all these lines of steamers travel se the Atlantic is very remarkable, and no better illustration could be given tlian this table of the perfection we have reached in ocean navi- gation. Indeed, the time of the arrival of these vessels can Tie depended on with almost as much certainty as a railway train. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 2S7 teiiance at liome, daring a similar period of time to that occupied on the passag-e. But, besides the magnificent lines of steamers Anfimr which now connect, via Liverpool, the Old and New uie ciytU-. Worlds together by a ferry, easier of accomplish- ment, and attended with less danger than was even the passage between England and France half a century ago, there are other important lines of steamers from Glasgow and London, as well as from, vnrious continental ports, which I must notice. Not the least important of these is the Anchor line from the Clyde, one of the many extraordinary develop- ments, during recent years, of our maritime power, and entirely due to individual energy. Within only a few years Messrs. Henderson Brothers, the managing owners of the Anchor line, have created a fleet of steamships of 71,328 gross tons and of 15,147 horse-power.^ Tliough this line was established by Messrs. Handyside and Henderson in 1856 (their vessels then sailing from Glasgow to Quebec and the Medi- terranean ports), it was not until 1865 that their owners commenced regular communication, every ibri night, between Glasgow and New York. Since then the service has been gradually increased, and a steamer is now dispatched, at all seasons, weekly each way, and, during summer, twice, and occasion- ally three times a week, according to the demands of the trade. Like many other gigantic concerns, this one had a very humble beginning. Commencing with only one or two vessels, they were steadily and rapidly increased on the well-founded anticipation ' See Appendix No. ] These steamers arc each 400 feet in length, 40 feet breadth, and 33 f.et depth from ni.per ritish influence and l>ritisli commerce was, doubtle.=!S, the chief inducement for supporting this 318 MEECHANT SHIPPING. communication between the republics of New Grenada, Bolivia, Peru, and Chili ; the nature and extent of that traffic rendering it necessary for the English to maintain mercantile establishments in the chief ports and towns on the western coast of the Pacific, and thus justifying Government in incurring this expense/ The capital of the Pacific Company at first was limited to 250,000/. in 5000 shares of 50/. each. Though the whole capital, after a good deal of labour, was subscribed, only an amount was called up sufficient at the time to enable the directors to provide two boats, the Chili and the PerUy which were dispatched to commence operations towards the close of the year 1840. First These vessels were built of wood by Messrs. Charles vessels. ^ '^ the Chili Youug and Co. of Limehouse, London. They were sister ships, each of about 700 tons gross i-egister, though with a capacity of not half of that tonnage, and with engines of about 150 horse-power con- structed by Messrs. Miller and Ravenhill. Through the courtesy of the directors, I am enabled to furnish the following illustration of the Peru, whose dimen- sions were 198 feet extreme length and 50 feet 1 " A broader and more promising field for steam oj^erations than that which the Pacific affords, does not exist in any part of the world. The prevailing south winds, the calms, and the currents of that ocean render navigation by sailing-vessels tedious and uncertain in the extreme ; while the nature of the whole country, from Valparaiso to Guayaquil — presenting a succession of mountains and deep ravines, intersected by sandy deserts— offers every imaginable obstacle to land travelling; and, yot, there are four millions of inhabitants within the proposed line of intercourse ready to participate, to a greater or less degree, in the benefits to arise from the proposed undertaking." — Pamphlet on 'Steam Navigation in tlie Pacific,' by jMr. "Wheelwright: London, 1838. MEmniANT SHIPPING. 319 extreme breadth. They were at tliat time considered fine vessels and certainly they have a comfortable business-like appearance. No wonder, therefore, that, on their arrival at Valparaiso, they were re- w.um ceived with great rejoicing and with "salvoes otatViii- artillery, everybody wishing to visit them, the '^'^''"^■'^"' President of the Republic, nccompanied by his " rnai.' ministers, being among the first to welcome the steam-ships to the shores of the Pacific." Rut here again, Mr. Wheelwright had many diflficulties to overcome, the scarcity of fuel, as in the case of the Tel lea, being one of the greatest. Under these circumstancev«, the Company, during the first five years of its operations, sustained a loss of no less than 72,000/. u]ion a paid-up capital of 94,000?. In the face, however, of these heavy losses, the 1850. 320 MERCHANT SHlPPINa. sliareholders resolved to persevere witli their bold undertaking, seeing in it the germs of future success. Tiie Under the impression that tlie business of the Com- Companv iiti i i • t • ii persevere, panj couid be better conducted m Liverpool, where most of the shareholders resided, the directors, on the 4tli May, 1846, obtained a supplemental charter to remove from London to tliat city, where the head office and general management, have since been con- Appnint- ducted by Mr. William Just, who, in January of the M^Just, following year, was appointed its managing director. ^^^^" Li December 1847, the directors were enabled to give to the shareholders for the first time a dividend, though only 2 J per cent., on their paid-up capital. Extension In 1850, the Company obtained an extension of tract, its mail contract of ] 845-46, whereby the directors were required to provide not less than six steamers, of at least 170 horse-power each, but, at the suggestion of the Company, the Government, in November of that year, allowed four steamers of 1000 tons and 300 horse-jDower to be substituted for the six smaller vessels originally contemplated.^ The prospects of the undertaking were, however, still far from encouraging, and when, in February 1853, the directors represented to the Board of Admiralty that the expense arising from the greatly increased price of coals rendered the portion of their service between Callao and Panama altogether mi- remunerative, and asked for an increase of subsidy, they were refused. The directors then solicited i^er- mission to employ between these two places vessels ' The four steamers supplied (at a cost of 140,000?.), in pursuance of the company's contract witli the Admiralty, were the Lima, Suniiaf/o, Quito, and JJot^oic : they were to be employed in the bi-monthly service between Val))ftrais(> and Panama. MEllCHANT SHIPriNG. 321 of only 100 horse-power and 400 tons, which tliey considered would be sufficiently large for the pas- senger traffic, and would restore the balance of profit by reducing .the cost of' fuel. They also undertook that these vessels should be capal)lc of maintaining an average speed of 10 knots an hour, and that tlie mail service should not suffer. This proposal Grovern- ment acquiesced in, temporarily, reserving to itself the right of reverting to the original agreement. The more frequent and more speedy services had, indeed, become, if not necessary, at least 'desiiable, since the West India Mail Packet Co. had doubled the services of their ships between England and Colon. The Pacific Co. therefore felt that, if they did not run their vessels to and from Panama in connection with the steamers from England, those of the United States of Amercia, now rapidly in- creasing in the trade of the Pacific, might soon monopolize the lines they occupied from the Isthmus to the soutliern ports. Consequently, the directors of the Pacific Company were glad to accede to the proposal of the Admiralty to run steamers with the mails monthly from Panama, for the small increase of 5000/. per annum to their original contiaet of 20,000/. This Company had now in its service seven vessels of 5719 tons and of 239G horse-power; but, though they touched at no less than thirteen ports between Panama and A^alparaiso inclusive, tiie average annual amount of receipts for postage, for five years pre- viously to 1860, amounted to only 5441/. In 1850, Mr. Just visited the west coast, and re- organized the management and the service generally with very successful results. Towards that success vol.. IV. Y 322 MERCHANT SHIPriNG. Marked improve- ment in his adoption of the compound engine/ then uhnost a novelty, materially tended, effecting as it did, an enormous saving in the consumption of fuel and, con- sequently, in the current expenses of the Company. From 1860, the trade of the Pacific rapidly deve- loped itself. The inhabitants of the coast now saw p^ectrof" the incalculable advantages to be derived from regular ^^° and increased intercourse between other countries. Company, I860. Steam here, as it has done everywhere else, opened up new and hitherto un thought of branches of commerce ; the natives learned what other nations required, and, to meet these demands, they turned to cultivating their fields instead of fighting among themselves. Consequently, the Pacific Company soon found it necessary to increase the number of their fleet. In December 1859, a second supplemental charter was obtained, which extended the incorpora- tion of the Company for twenty-one years from the 17th of February, 1861. On the ^Sth of June, New lines. 1865, a third supplemental charter was applied for and obtained, extending the powers of the Company, to the establishment of lines of communication * "between the west coast of South America and the River Plata, including the Falkland Islands and such other ports or places in North and South America, and other foreign ports, as to the said Company shall seem expedient." ' The directors of the Pacific Co. by degrees applied the compound engine after 185G to all their steam-ships, and it is worthy of record that they were not only among the first, if not the first, to adopt the compoiind engine for ocean-going steamers, but were almost singular in this respect for upwards of fourteen years. This description of engine has now entirely superseded all otliers for the purposes of steam navigation. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 323 During these years tlie profits of the undertaking Vast ia- had been steadily increasing, and at a special meeting caplitai, of shareholders held in December 1867 it was deter- ^^^'^" mined to add to the operations of the company by establisliing a monthly line from Liverpool to the west coast of South America, via the Strait's of Magellan. This entirely new and important, though hazard- ous, branch of the service necessitated an increase of the capital of the company to 2,000,000/. In furtherance of their views the directors sent their steamer Pacific, of 2000 tons register and 450 horse- power, from Valparaiso, in May 1868, as the pioneer of the new mail line. The bold undertaking of dispatching steamers on so distant a voyage, and at so high a rate of speed as that maintained, proved for some years more successful than could have been anticij)ated, and, in 1869, the profits of the four new steamers, which had made nine voyages from Liverpool to Valparaiso, were so satisfactory that the directors in 1870 determined to make the line bi-monthly, and extend the voyage from Valparaiso to Callao. Seventeen voyages made in the course of that year with still greater success, induced the directors to recommend that the departures thenceforward should be three a month ; and, in December 1871, the Farther shareholders authorized a further increase of the i"'"'>''^e of capiial to capital to 3,000,000/., so that the company might :''[l>",»oo^ be enabled to dispatch every week one of their steamers on this distant voyage. Considering the then comparatively limited amount of the trade it was a very bold experiment. AVhile Y 2 324 MERCHANT SHIPPING. directors of undertakings of this nature very pro- perly consider it their duty to meet and even to anticipate the requirements of the puhlic, so as to prevent others occupying their field of operations, and thus avoiding injury from competition, it may well* he questioned if this extraordinary increase of steamers could he justified hy any reasonable an- ticipations of the increase of the trade to he de- veloped by these additional facilities, and within so limited a space of time. The result, indeed, soon showed that they were now too far in advance of the requirements of commerce. Though, in 1871, twenty-nine round voyages were performed between Liverpool, Valparaiso, and Callao, the profits, so far from being increased, gave signs of falling off; and, in 1872, thirty-seven round voyages were made with, as the result proved, a further diminished rate of profit, the directors having, in January of that year, recommended at a special meetiiig of share- holders the addition to their fleet of four more steamers at a cost of 500,000/. In the course of the following July, a further charter had been obtained authorizing an additional 1,000,000/. of capital to be raised, and thus, with power to draw on the shareholders to the extent of Capital 4,000,000/., the whole capital of the company, the to directors did not hesitate to still further increase 187'!?'^ • their already gigantic fleet ! lOxtmiof The company now owns no less than fifty-four steamers, of an aggregate of 119,870 tons, and 21,395 horse-power.^ Two of these, the Iberia and iijpriua.nA Lifjuria, built and supplied with eiigincs by Messrs. Lhjnria. ' Sec Appendix No. 20, jip. G3j-G. MERCHANT SHIPPING, 325 Jolm Elder and Co., of Glasgow, in 1873, are each 4671 tons gross register with a capacity for 4000 tons of cargo, besides space for 916 tons of coals, and accommodation for no less than 800 third-class passengers. They are each of 700 horse-power nominal, and attained a speed on tlieir trial trips of 15 knots per hour.' But, though inferior in power and dimensions, the vessels the company had built previously to this time for their Liverpool and Valparaiso line were equal in other respects to the new ones. Indeed, as may be seen by the followinf? representation of the Chimho- CMmbo- ^ rajo, 1871. " CHIJIISOKAZO." razi), launched in 1871, also from the yard of Elder and * The length of these steamers is 425 feet between perpendiculars and 449 feet over all. Their breadth is 44i feet, and their depth of hold 85J feet. The engines, which are compound, have each three cylinders, one of 4 feet 8 inches diameter and two of G feet 6 inches diameter, with 5 feet length of stroke. 326 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Companv, tliey were not surpassed by any steamers afloat. She is a sister ship of the Cuzco, built by the same firm, as also of the Garonne built by Robert Napier and Sons and launched the same year. They are each 370 feet in length between perpendiculars, 41 feet beam, 35 feet depth of hold, and about 3850 tons gross register tonnage. They perform their passages on the coast with remarkable speed and regularity, while the voyage from Liverpool to Toornpid Valparaiso is usually made in forty-two days. But, for the time being, the company has found itself over- taken by severe competition and depression in tlie west coast trade, and has been obliged to reduce the services on the line from Liverpool to that coast to two voyages each month instead of one weekly ; in consequence of which nine of their steamers are, at present, laid up for want of employment. Loss Although the loss thus sustained may be attributed thla^elrom. i^i HO Small degree to the over-sanguine views of the directors in regard to the development of the trade between Great Britain and the west coast of South America, some portion of it is also due to the com- petition on the coast and to the opposition they met in performing the weekly service for which they had obtained a postal contract from Her Majesty's Government in December 1872. Bound to a speed in excess of what had been required of other com- panies, and with a grant of only the sea postage, it was impossible for them to hope to compete suc- cessfully with such highly subsidized companies as the Royal Mail and the French Messageries Mari- times, both of which maintain an opposition race to those ports of the Brazils whence the Pacific Steam MERCHANT SHIPPING. 327 Navigation Company hoped to derive some advantage by the conveyance of passengers on their way to Valparaiso. Indeed, where a high rate of S23eed is requir(;d, Modifica- and where heavy penalties are inflicted for any mail con- irregularity in the performance of the stipulated leduoeli service, it is very questionable, unless when highly ^'^'■^^^^^- - subsidized, if any advantage whatever is to be gained by the conveyance of mails on so distant a voyage as that which the Pacific Company had undertaken to perform. But, by reducing the num- ber of services and modifying the rate of speed, which the Government at last consented they should do — requiring, however, a reduction in the amount of subsidy — the directors, on the one hand, may hop(i to secure a sufficient amount of remunerative freight ; and, on the other, to effect a saving in the con- sumption of coal — a matter of the highest considera- tion on such distant voyages. Although the anticipations of the directors, in the more recent and expensive portion of their great undertaking, have not been realised, while the services of the steamers on the West Coast have periodically, and especially of late, been sul)jected to considerable depression, the trade of the Pacific has steadily and, compared with any previous develop- ment, marvellously increased since first opened out by the energy of Mr. Wheelwright. Moreover, this trade is likely to go on increasing, especially as the company has now a class of Ncssels admirably adapted for its still increasing wants, and affording many comforts to ])assengers who, induced by nume- 328 MERCHANT SHIPPING. West Coast steamer, BoUiia. rous attractions travel either for business or pleasure, along the shores of the Pacific. The following is an illustration of one of the steamers now engaged on the Pacific coast line ; but the Santa Rosa and the many similar vessels belonging to the Pacific Company now trading along these shores/ have been greatly surpassed by their screw-steamer Bolivia^ of 1925 tons, launched from the building yard of Messrs. T. Wingate & Co., Glasgow, in 1874, and which is perhaps the finest, Futme ])ri)spect.s of the company. " SANTA-ROSA." or at least, one of the finest vessels now afloat on the Pacific. The details of this handsome ship, which has an average speed of 14 knots an hour, as have also those of the other vessels of the company, will be found in the Appendix, together with interesting and instructive returns of the cost of each ship com- plete for sea.^ With the losses this company have sustained ' The Santa Bom is 320 feet in length, 38 feet in breadtli, and 28 feet deep to the main deck on which a range of cabins extend for nearly the whole length, as may be seen from the drawing, affording the perfect system of ventilation so much required in steamers employed in tropical climates. She is 1816 tons gross register, and is propelled by a screw, although some others of smaller class still use the paddle- wheels. 2 Appendix No. 20, p. G37. MERCHANT SHIPriNG. 329 during the last few years, the differences between the sharelioklers and directors, and the charges of mismanagement and extravagance wln'ch have been alleged, it is not my province to deal. Companies and nations, like individuals, are frequently too prone to spend more than they ought, if unusual success has attended their efforts, or they find more money at their disposal than they can prudently or wisely expend. It has been so throughout all time and in all countries, and we daily see it in the case of in- dividuals managing their own affairs. It is, therefore, not surprising, and certainly nothing new to learn that, when the directors of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company were favoured with many years of unusual prosperity, after many years of hard up-hill work, and were able to divide an average of over 20 per cent, per annum among their share- holders, they should have followed the example of individuals, of companies, and of nations throughout all history ; and that, in the sanguine hope of being- able to maintain this prosperity, they should have expended money in the construction of ships not required, and for, perhaps, even less justifiable purposes. It should, however, be remembered, of this great undertaking when its failings are noticed, that it has rendered very important services in developing British commerce and that, in bringing so many civilizing influences to bear upon the people of various I'epublics, who, from their constant warfare with each otlier, ■ were little better than tribes of semi- barbarians, the Pacific Company has essentially aided the cause of progress and the happiness of mankind. 330 MERCHANT SHIPPING. These advantages will be felt long after its mishaps are forgotten. The field which the directors have chosen for their operations, is still only very ^^^.rtially developed, and there is, consequently, a great future for this company, if wisely and prudently conducted. It requires no prophetic vision to see that, as the commerce of the world moves westward, the principal highway to the ever envied and far famed East will be by the route which Columbus sought in vain across the Pacific Ocean. Indeed, San Francisco will soon be a greater entrepot for trade than ever Venice was, and may, even before long, rival in many respects the now. gigantic commerce of Great Britain. Trade The stcady increase of trade along the whole ot Mexico, the western shores of the Pacific has already rendered necessary greatly increased means of intercourse with Europe and the United States of America, which the line of railway across the Isthmus has assisted to develop with extraordinary rapidity. Other channels of trade in that quarter have like- wise been recently opened, rich in themselves and capable of vast extension, through the medium of steam. Although many schemes had been set on foot during the last three centuries, for re-opening the commerce of Central America, and, especially, of that portion of it which has its outlet into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, — among these none being so con- spicuous as the unfortunate Darien expedition — all attempts proved abortive until the latter half of the present century. Indeed, till the completion of the MERCHANT SHIPPING. 331 railway, none of these were worthy of any notice. So rapid, however, has been its increase since then, tliat the undertakings of more recent years liave been attended with considerable success. Perhaps the most important of these is the line of steam navigation First line between Liverpool and ihe West Indies, and, thence, f,^'*^''™'"'^ by the Isthmus of Panama, to the Pacific Ocean, orio-in- i-iverpooi •^ ' ^ ' o toChagres. ally due to Mr. Alfred Holt, of Liverpool, who about the year 1855, dispatched steaniers to trade between that port and Colon (the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railroad) and other ports on the Spanish Main. His first was a vessel of only 535 tons burden, but she was then more than sufficient for any surplus commerce, which the American boats, on the one hand and those of the West India Mail Packet Co., on the other, could not convey. The regularity, however, with which this additional service was performed, created increased sources of employment, so that within a very sliort time, Mr. Holt considered it desirable to establish a monthly line of steamers of increased size and power, and so rapid was the rise of trade that other steam-vessels were soon engaged in similar traffic. In 1863, Messrs Leach, Harrison, and For- wood of Liverpool, large importers of produce fiom the West Coast, found it necessary to establish a line of steamers in a great measure for their own require- ments, and about the same time, Messrs Imrie and Tomlinson, in association with Messrs Duranty and Co., of Liverpool, who had long been engaged in the trade with Mexico and the West Indies, formed another line of steamers on the limited liability prin- ciple. The trade in its various I'amifications had now become so large that, towards the close of that vear. 332 MERCHANT SHIPPING. it was considered desirable to form a public company to amalgamate these three undertakings, and thus more thoroughly to conduct the rapidly increasing commercial intercourse between Liverpool, Mexico, Honduras, Venezuela, and the Windward Islands. West The capital of 1,250,000/. was at once subscribed, and and this new undertaking now known as the West sfeanf India and Pacific Steam Navigation Company Naviga- ^Lii^ited), finding it necessary to re-organize the whole Company. ]jusiness and, in addition, to embrace the Colon trade, and other lines of traffic, subdivided the services into five separate branches — one to Belize, one to Tampico, one to Colon, one to St. Thomas, and one to Trini- dad.^ It was also arranged to dispatch steamers to Barbadoes and Demerara. The trunk or principal line of the company is that to Colon, in connection with the Panama railroad, and, by it, with the various steam lines on the Pacific, tlie company signing through bills of lading for no fewer than seventy ports, at sixteen of which their vessels call to land goods and passengers. This undertaking, which has met with consider- able success, conveys the British mails to Honduras and Mexico. It now owns thirteen steamers of 24,680 tons gross register. Though inferior in size and power to the steam-ships of the other Trans- atlantic lines, they are a very fine class of iron screw propelled vessels, maintaining an average speed of more than 10 knots an hour, and performing the passage with great regularity from Liverpool to St. Thomas in eighteen, and to Colon in about twenty- two days. ' " steam Linos of Liverpool," page 37. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 333 Besides tliose I have mentioned, various other lines of steam-ships now traverse the Atlantic north and south, as well as casual steamers and laige numbers of sailing-vessels, most of the former being the property of associations carrying on business, either under the old law or under the Limited Liability Act. Among the largest of these may be mentioned Liverpool, the Liverpool, Brazil, and River Plate Steam-ship inuriiiver Company (Limited), which was formed in 18G5, |Jg*^ tlie principal shareholders being Messrs. Lamport Company. and Holt, of Liverpool, by whom the steamers are managed, and a few of their personal friends. There is nothing, however, in their fleet of vessels requiring special notice, except that they are a very fine class of business steamers and have per- formed their work with great regularity. They are now thirty-one in number, of a gross tonnage of 40,294 tons,^ and have excellent accommodation, combined with every comfort which passengers can desire, offering all the means of safety in their pru- dent management, and regularity of system, which can be hoped for in Transatlantic voyages. Although the vessels of this company are princi- pally engaged out of Liverpool, some of them sail from London and Antwerp, calling frequently at Havre and Lisbon in the course of their trade with the ports of Brazil and River Plate, Pernambuco, and Buenos Ayres. One of them proceeds monthly, up the River Parana to Rosario, and, occasionally, others return from Brazil to the United States with cargoes of coffee. Three are permanently engaged in the service of the Government of Brazil for tlie ' Sec Appendix No. 21, p. 637. 334 MEECHANT SHIPPING. conveyance of mails between Rio de Janeiro and the southern ports, while others maintain a direct line of communication with Brazil and Antwerp. The Company is also under contract with the British Government to dispatch, on the 20th of each month, a steamer with the mails from Liverpool to Bahia, Rio Janeiro, Monte Video, and Buenos Ayres, returning with a monthly mail from each of these ports. Steamers are likewise dispatched on the 3rd, 10th, and 12th of each month to the other ports, with extra vessels at such dates as the requirements of the trade may demand. The last new steamer, the Herelius, of 2610 tons register, was built by Messrs. Andrew Leslie and Company, Hebburn-on-Tyne, and her engines, of 300 horse-power nominal, are by Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Co., Newcastle; she is an excellent specimen of a merchant-steamer, being 345 feet in length, 37 feet in breadth, and 27 feet depth of hold from maindeck, with a large capacity for cargo, and a speed on the measured or trial mile of from 11 to 12 knots an hour, on a moderate con- sumption of fuel. Though, by an ancient Act of Parliament, the responsibility of shipowners has been limited — no doubt for the purpose of encouraging navigation — to the value of the ship and freight, numerous com- panies of shipowners have been formed, under the Limited Liability Act of 1862, consisting of a few individuals, as in the case of Messrs. Lamport and Holt's line, for the purpose of conducting different branches of maritime commerce. Many of these are larger and more important undertakings than the great bulk of the public steam navigation companies, MEKCHANT SHIPPING. 335 and luive generally proved more successful from the fact tliat tlieir managing directors usually bold tliemserves a very large amount of ca})ital invested in them. To some of these I shall have occasion to refer hereafter. In the meantime, I must invite the attention of my readers to the trade with the East, as now conducted by steam-vessels. 336 MERCHANT SHIPPING. CHAPTER IX. steam to India and overland routes — East India Company establish a Tatar post between Constantinople and Baghdad — First public meeting in London to promote steam communication with India, 1822— Captain Johnston— Calcutta meetings, 1823 — The Enterprize, first steamer to India by Cape, 1825 — Sold in Calcutta to East India Company — Other steamers follow — Pioneers of overland route via Egypt— Sir Miles Nightingall in 1819 and Mount- Stuart Elphin- stone in 1823 return home by this route— Mr. Thomas Waghorn visits England to promote the Cape route, 1829-30 — Eeturns to India by way of Trieste and the Eed Sea — Still advocates Cape route, 1830 — Mr. Taylor's proposal — Eeply of Bombay Government and discussion of the question — Supineness of the Court of Directors — Their views — Official report of the first voyage of the Hugh Lindsay, 1830 — Ecport of the Committee of 1834 — Decision of the House of Commons Committee influenced by political considera- tions — Admiralty packets extended from Malta to Alexandria — Steamers of the Indian navy — Modes of transport across the Isthmus of Suez — Great exertions of Waghorn in the establishment of this route — Suez Canal — Poi)ular errors on this subject — M. de Lesscps — His great scheme — Not fairly considered in England — Commence- ment of M. de Lesseps' works in 1857 — General details — Partial opening of Canal, April 18th, 1869 — Finally opened by Empress Eugenie, November 17th, 1869. Steam to Hayixg ill the early portions of tliis work endeavoured overknT to trace tlic various commercial routes to the East by land and sea in the most remote periods as well as in the Middle Ages, I now invite my readers to accompany me while I attempt to furnish an outline of the modes hv which commercial intercourse is routes. MERCHANT .SHIPPING. 337 maintained with India and China at the present time, and of the transport service employed in conveying this commerce. Although nearly the whole of the European ti-ade with the East has, since the time of Yasco de Gama, been conducted by sea round the Cape of Good Hope, caravans through Arabia and Asia Minor and along the shores of the Red Sea, as well as by the more fre- quented route of the valley of Mesopotamia and the River Euphmtes to the Persian Gulf, have never, since the days of Herodotus, altogether ceased. Indeed, during the reign of Elizabeth, and for some- time afterwards, many English merchants preferred the Eu])hrates route to the sea voyage, the course they then adopted, being apparently through Syria or Asia Minor to Bir, where a fleet of boats or barges, resembling those described by the Father of History, was at all seasons ready to convey them and their merchandise down the Euphrates to Hillah, near the site of Ancient Babylon, or by Mosul to Baghdad, the chief Eastern centre of commerce during the early part of the Middle Ages. From Baghdad their course was down the Tigris to Bussorah, where they embarked in native sailing- vessels for various parts of India. An overland route between Europe and India had Kast iDdiu thiis from time immemorial been sustained ; and, SaBf a thouG-h there was no established service between '^''*:H" ^ ^ ^ post be- England and the East until a comparatively recent *^^''^*^"C'^"- • Till TTi-1 fi • stautino- period, the East India Company, irom the tune they p'e ami first became possessors of land in India, frequently ^'^ sent despatches by tlie way of the Persian Gulf, thus creating at length a regular monthly comuiu- V(tl.. IV. z 338 MERCHANT SHIPPING. nication between Constantinople and Baghdad, by- Tatars, maintained at the cost of the Indian Govern- ment. Thus, at last, private letters as well as official despatches, were transmitted by these means, while, on important occasions, special despatches were for- warded by the same route at other than the monthly periods. This, so far as the East India Company was concerned, was the original, and the only official overland line of communication ; and so it continued to be till it was superseded by the route through Egypt. Another generation may see it resumed by an iron highway.^ First It was not, however, until steam-vessels began to meeting attract attention that any regular postal service to promote othcr than by sailing- vessels was seriously considered. steam communi- ' Various plans for reacliing India by means of railway communica- cation tion throughout have been proposed. So early as 1850, Sir E. Mac- y , . donald Stephenson brought this matter fully under the notice of the 1822.' Government. In the Calcutta Ileview for March 1856 his views are given at length ; and his article therein, " The World's Highway," was republished in the same year by Weale. In 1859, the same publisher brought out a pamphlet by Sir Macdonald, entitled "Eailways in Turkey, &c.," with beautifully executed plans (the most complete yet in existence) showing the course of these lines from Constantinople to Aleppo, Baghdad and Bussorah, thence along the shores of the Persian Gulf to Bunder Abbas, and thence to Kurachi, Hydrabad, in Scinde and Bombay. Sir K. Stephenson estimated the distance from London to Bombay via Paris, Vienna, and Constantinople at somewhere about 5200 miles. He bestowed many years' labour on this important subject ; and had ho23ed to make it a great international highway, constructed under the s\ipervision of the diiferent states interested. Tliough unable to overcome the difficulties such a com- bination would entail, the works he proposed, or others somewhat !-iinilar, ai*e being rapidly carried into execution by diiferent persons who have obtained concessions from the respective Governments ; more than 2000 miles of the World's Highway is already made, and when complete the journey from London to Bombay by rail would, at the rate of 30 miles an hour, be accomplished in less than seven and a half days. See also plan of route by Mr. E. IT. Galloway, ]mblished by Wyld, 1875, in which the distances are given. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 339 But on this subject opinion? differed widely, the prevailing one at that time I ing at first in favour of the Cape route, transferring the conveyance of the mails from the old East Indiamen to steamers. Nothing, however, was definitely proposed till 1822, when a public meeting was held in London with the view of forming a Steam Navigation Company to trade with India, the result of which was the despatch of Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) J. Johnston, to Calcutta to see what could be done to prosecute the Captaia object in view. Johnston went through Egypt and became subsequently one of the ardent supporters of the route by Suez, though his own employment and the intention of those for whom he then acted, was more especially the promotion of the Cape route. Soon after his arrival in Calcutta, several meetings Calcutta fi'i 111- meetings. took place, the most important ot which was held m i823. the Town Hall of that city, December 17th, 1823,' with Mr. Harrington in the Chair. Various routes were then considered. At the meeting it was announced that the proposal of a more speedy com- munication with England by means of steam-vessels had met with the cordial approval of Lord Amherst i n Council, who was prepared to recommend towards the promotion of the enterprise a " gift of 20,000 rupees " by way of premium " to whoever, whether in- dividuals or a company, being British subjects, should permanently, before the end of 1826, establish a steam communication between England and India, either by the Cape of Good Hope or Red Sea, and make two voyages out and two home, occupying not more ^ Full details of this iiioetinf? will he t'ouiid in the Jloir/al llurkura, Uectnil'tr I'Jtli, 1828. z 2 340 MERCHANT SHIPPING. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 341 than seventy days on each passage." For this object somewhere about 80,000 rupees were raised in India, of wliich 12,000 were subscribed by the Rajah of Oude ; and, on the news reaching Enghmd, another meeting was held in London, at which more money was collected, sufficient on the whole to justify the promoters to order as an experiment, the con- struction of the Enterpize, the first steamer destined to double the Cape of Good Hope. Captain Johnston having completed the object for The which he had been despatched to India, returned to f^^^^'P'^''^^^ England in the Eliza by way of the Cape, and, on ^^^X^"" his arrival in London, the Enterprize,^ which had ^^^p^' 1^25. been laid down in tlie yard of Gordon and Co., Deptford, was two-thirds finished. On her com- pletion she was placed under his command, and sailed for Calcutta on the I6th of August, 1825, where slie arrived on the 7th December following. Although 113 days on the passage, she was only 103 days under way, as ten were spent in stoppages to replenish her stock of coal ; but her greatest average speed, during any twenty-four hours, not exceeding 9*36 miles per hour, accounted for by the large quantity of coals she was obliged to carry ,^ disappointed the expectations of the seventeen pas- sengers who had embarked in her. (An illustration of this vessel is furnished on p. 340.) ' Tlie dimensions of the I-'nferpn'zc were 122 feet length of keel and 27 feet breadth of beam ; her paddle-wheels were 15 feet in diameter. She was 479 tons register, 120 horse-power. She was supjilicd with a copper boiler in one ])iece, weighing 32 tons and costing 7000/. Her total cost was no less than 43,000'. ! ' The greatest run the J.'nlerprize made by sail in twenty-four hours, was 211 miles, the least 39 miles; the greatest by steam assisted by sail, 225 miles, the least 80 miles; the greatest heat in the engine- 342 MERCHANT SHIPPING. The voyage of the Enterprize, ought to have con- vinced the advocates of the ocean route that it was not advisable, commercially, to persevere in such an undertaking, moreover, though this steamer was admittedly unsuited for so distant a voyage, other considerations, especially at that early period of steam navigation, made it doubtful whether vessels thus propelled, and by a route so long as that round the Cape, could yield remunerative returns. However, the Enterprize, though she did not receive the 20,000 Sold in rupees premium, was sold when she arrived at tJ^East'' Calcutta, to the Indian Government for 40,000^., Company, who then required every ship they could get for the first Burmese war. She was at once appropriated by the East India Company, who employed her in carrying despatches from Calcutta to Rangoon, a service in which she proved of great value in aiding the operations of that campaign. Other The success thus far of the Entejprize encouraged foiiow"^ the introduction of steam-vessels into the local trade of India ; the comparatively narrow seas, excellent harbours, and safe inlets, as well as the many large and important navigable rivers of that part of Asia affording almost as large and remunerative fields for the employment of such vessels as the coasts, rivers, and lakes of North America. To this branch of commerce I shall hereafter refer. In the meantime room during the voyage, was 105 degrees, that of the air at the same time being 81 degrees and a half; the total distance was 13,700 miles, and the consumption 580 chaldron of coals, being 9 chaldrons per day for Gl days, the rest being under sail ; " the speed of the engines, in calm weather, was 8 knots an hour, the log giving 9 from the wash of the paddles." Evidence, Mr. T. L. Peacock, Select Committee on Steam Navigation to India, 1834. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 343 I must ask my readers to accompany me in an attempt to trace the means of" more rapid communi- cation between Great Britain and her vast dominions in the East, with some notice of the persons to whom we are indebted for the advantages we have thus derived. As in other important changes and inventions, I Pioneers. find in my researches many claimants for originaHty ; land^route, and though it may appear scarcely necessary to wade ^^'^ ^-yp*- through the mass of 2:)apers^ published by persons claiming for themselves or their friends the merit of an overland route which has existed since the dawn of history, I shall endeavour to furnish within a brief space the leading facts relating to the routes which, in our own time, have produced such marked changes in our commercial intercourse with India. Though not so much frequented as that by the Euphrates route, travellers have found their way from time immemorial between Europe and India through Egypt, availing themselves of native vessels ^ Despatches of Sir Mile? Nightingall, 1819 ; Mount-Stuart Elpliin- stone, 1823-26; Lord William Beutinck, 1828 to 1835; "Annual Eegister ;" Colonel Chesney's Ecport, 1832 ; Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Captain F. Head's " Eastern and Egyptian Scenery," 1888 ; J. A. St. John, " Egypt and Muhammed Ali," 1833 ; Report of the Committee of the House of Commons " On Steam Navigation to India," 1884; "Egypt in 1837," by T. Waghorn ; Ibid. 1838; Waghorn and Co., " Overland Route to India," 1844 and 1846 ; " On Steam Navigation to India," by Captain Grindlay, 1837 ; Report of the Committee of House of Commons "On Steam Navigation to India," 1837; Mr. W. D. Holmes' plan in connection with the J5cngal Steam Committee, 1839; "Modern Egyptians," by Sir Gardner AVilkinson, 1843; "Facts con- nected with the Origin and Progress of Steam Communication between India and England," by J. H. Wilson, Commander, Indian Navy, London, 1850 ; Letter from Mr. R. W. Crawford, M.P. for London, to the Tim'^s, November 22nd, 1869 ; and from Mr. R. H. Galloway to the Illustrated London Nev?s, 28rd October, 1872, as well as other communi- cations on the same subject to various journals and periodicals. ?,U MERCHANT SHIPPING. for tlie Red Sea or along its coasts to the once far- famed lands of Yemen and thence to the ever coveted " Cathay " of the East. The first authentic record, in recent times, however, of any journey from India to Great Britain by the Isthmus of Suez, with the object of ascertaining whether that route could be renewed as a pathway of commerce, or, if not, for the transmission of despatches, was a passage made in Sir Miles 1819, by Sir Miles Nightingall, then Commander-in- gaU, *"^" chief of the Bombay army (for whom, however, no Lnd^^^' claim of originality has been made), who, on relin- Mount- quishing that command, returned to England via Eiphin- the Red Sea accompanied by Lady Nightingall.* Sir ib23,'ic- Miles and his wife left Bombay in the East India Com- bTthir''' pany's cruiser Telgnmouth, and after many troubles '"''"*^' reached Suez and thence found their way home. But the first distinct official proposal of this route as one practicable for the regular conveyance of despatches and the mails was made by the Hon. Mount-Stuart Elphinstone, who, when Governor of Bombay in 1823, recommended steam communication between that place and England, remarking that the passage *' might he done in thirty-four days, all stoppages inclwUd!' The Court of Directors, however, paid no heed to this suggestion ; and as these sagacious rulers of our Eastern Empire paid quite as little attention to his further communication to them on the same subject in 1820, he thought it advisable to give them a practical illustration of the value of this route by returning home, when he relinquished the Govern- ' See " Facts connected with the Origin and Progress of Steam Communication between India and England," by J. II. Wilson, Com- mander Indian Navy, London, IBoO. MERCHANT SHIPPING. .'H'. ment of Bombay in tlie following- ye.ir, with liis staff and other friends, by way of the Red Sea and Mediterranean.^ His immediate successor in the Government of Bombay, Sir John Malcolm, by returning home via Suez (to wdiich reference shall hereafter be made), followed up the good work of his predecessors ; and was zealously seconded by his brother. Sir Charles Malcolm, then superintendent of the Indian Navy ; while another brother, Sir Pulteney Malcolm, naval connnander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, also took an active part in promoting the isthmus of Suez route. The fact of such men having thus personally and practically directed their attention to the subject, natm-ally led merchants and others interested in the trade of India to direct their attention with increased vigour to the best means of obtaining more rapid communication with the East. In their researches they were materially assisted by the report of Major C. F. Head,' who made the voyage from India to England through the Red Sea early in the year 1829, as again in 1830, being, at the same time, still further encouraged by the successful performances of the ' Captain Wilson says (page 7), writing of this jonrncy, " He (Mr. Mount-Stnart Elphinstone) started from Bombay on the lotli November, 1827, in the Honourable Company's brig I'aUnums, and was ac- companied by Mr. C. Lnshington, secretary to the Government of Bengal, Mrs. lAishington, Mr. Steele of the Bombay Civil Service, and Messrs. Wallace and Gordon of the Bombay Medical Service. Mrs. Lnshington published an interesting account of the journey, tluis creating a considerable, though limited, public interest in the route." - See his evidence before Committee of the House of Commons, 1884, on steam navigation to India ; and his book, " Eastern and Egyptian Scenery, &c.,"' with notes, maps, and plans, &c., intended to show the practicability of steam navigation from England to India, 346 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Enterprize and other steam-ships by this time employed in India. Nor did they relax their efforts, dragging with them the Court of Directors, until this great object was accomplished by the establishment of a regular overland mail service. Among the most zealous supporters of steam com- munication with the East, and subsequently one of the most arduous and conspicuous agitators of the Mr. overland route, was Mr. Thomas Waghorn.' He \\Shom ^^ad been a mate in the Bengal pilot service, and, \'^ij^ , having piloted the Enterprize on her arrival at Cal- to promote cutta, at oucc saw the advantages to be derived from router^'' the extension of steam-ships to India. In 1827 he 1829-30. i^g^^^^j^g associated with the committee which had been formed in Calcutta for the prosecution of steam communication with England, and in the following year was accredited by that tissociation to persons in authority at Madras, Ceylon, the Mauritius, the Cape, St. Helena, and London. Failing, how^ever, to obtain ' Mr. Waghorn, born at Chatham in the year 1800, was brought np in the Eoyal Navy, where he served four years. He was afterwards, for twelve years a pilot in Bengal in the service of the East India Company, somewhat later rejoining the Eoyal Navy, wherein he re- mained till he passed as Lieutenant. Mr. Waghorn had piloted the Enterprize soon after her arrival in India, and from that time devoted his especial attention to steam-vessels. In his evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1834 (page 209), he says with regard to himself, " I was selected in 1827 by the Indian Government (Calcutta Steam Committee) for the purpose of estabhsh- ing steam navigation between England and India. ... My first object was the Cape of Good Hope. ... I went to London, Liverpool, and to Manchester; I stated my plans in various parts of the kingdom, and all the success I received after three years' toil, was the Jwtn of two fifty horse-power engines from the East India Company." In 1842 he recommended the European route now in use by way of the Adriatic, dying, at length at Pentonvillo, January 7th, 1850, utterly broken down, and leaving his widow without any means beyond a small pension allowed to her by Government and the East India Company. MEPvCHANT SHIPPING. 347 sufficient patronage for a regular service by way of the Cape of Good Hope, he resolved to return to India by the Isthmus of Suez, as he had heard that the Enterprize was to be despatched up the Red Sea. With that object in view, he waited upon Lord Ellen- borough, then President of the Board of Control, and also upon Mr. Lock, at that time Chairman of the Court of Directors of the East India Company, and offered to act as a courier to the East. His services having been accepted,^ he left London on the evening Ri turns to of the 28th of October, 1829, crossed the continent way^of^ of Europe to Trieste, and arrived at Alexandria on l^^f^^ the 27th of November, at 8 a.m., passing through five ^^^ ^*^''- kingdoms of Europe in nine and a half days ; three days and seventeen hours of this arduous journey having been spent in stoppages. His orders were to meet the Enterprize at Suez, and to convey in her despatches for Sir John Malcolni, then governor of Bombay, but, this steamer having broken down on the passage, did not reach her destination. Though much disconcerted by this misfortune, Mr. Waghorn at once hired an open native boat, and, without chart or compasses, sailed down the Red Sea to Jiddah, a distance of 628 miles, in six days, and, passing on thence, arrived at Bombay, March 21st, 1830, in the P]ast India Company's sloop Thetis, which had been sent to meet him.^ Though Waghorn was probably convinced in his still ad- own mind by the experience thus obtained of the cipe^^ superior advantages of the Red Sea route so far as Jg^g'jJ''' ' See " Annual Eegister," October 1829. ^ Mr. Waghorn, in his evidence before the Committee of 1834, says that, had he met the Kntcrprize at Suez as lie expected, he would have conveyed his despatches from London to Bombay in fifty-three days. 348 MERCHANT SHIPPING. regarded speed, lie continued to advocate the estab- lishment of a line of steam-vessels by the Cape in preference to any other,^ no doubt feeling that, in supporting the views of the people of Calcutta, he was honestly performing his duties to those persons by whom he was employed. But whatever may have been the cause, he did not publicly support the over- land route until some time afterwards. However, when free to act as he pleased, he took up the cause of the Red Sea route with his usual warmth and energy, and advocated it with more vigour and, certainly, with greater success than he had done that by the Cape of Good Hope. In the meantime other persons were steadily pur- suing their endeavours to induce the East India Company to adopt the overland route, and among these may be mentioned Mr. J. R. Taylor,^ who had ' In the Bombay Courier of the 10th April, 1830, there will be found the following miotics from Mr. Waghorn : " The undersigned feels it his duty to state, for the information of the public throughout the Presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, that he is not in any way connected with any scheme for steam-packet navigation with India, except that which he had the pleasure to lay before the Madras and Calcutta Committees in the year 1828, and that any use of his name in reference to it in any prospectus, &c., is perfectly unauthorized by him. " His motive in wishing this to be generally known is that it may not be supposed by those, on whom lie depends for encouragement and support, that he has in any degree departed from his former engagements." (Signed) " Thomas Waghorn."' See also liomhay Gazette, 2lst April, 18o0, where there will be found the report of a public meeting held on the 17th of that month, where Mr. Waghorn advocated the Cape route in preference to that via Red Sea. ■'' Mr. Taylor was one of the earliest proposers and founders of the Red Sea route, and had, in 1823, been associated with Lieutenant Johnston, who subsequently commanded the Enterprize, and with the Calcutta Steam Committee, from whom he seceded because they relinquished the Red Sea route for that of the Cape of Good Hope. Indeed, he was the first tn adventure capital on this route, and MERCHANT SHIPPING. 349 long been as zealously labouring to form a company in London for the esta])Iishment of a regular com- munication by means of steam-vessels on the Medi- terranean and the Red Sea. " The experience," he remarked/ " afforded by passages made by steam- vessels in certain parts of the route selected, justifies the expectation that intercourse between the two countries may thus be effected in from fifty-four to sixty days ;" and, in his letter forwarding a copy of his prospectus to Sir John Malcolm, he adds, " I beg Mr. leave respectfully to inform your Excellency, that proposal. the requisite number of steam-vessels being already built and equipped, a commencement may be made on the line of communication within three months from the period, when the assent of your Excellency's Government to my proposition may be made known to me. If, then, I should be honoured by such assent, it is my intention, within the period ah-eady specified, to be the means of introducing into British India such a number of first-rate steam- vessels, unexceptionable in point of size and equip- ment, as will enable me to propose myself to become a general carrier to all the Indian Governments, both for England and in India, and will admit of those Governments maintaining a constant and regular communication with Great Britain, and all principal parts of British India, on the first and fifteenth of every month." '^ is said to have lost not less than 12,000/. in an endeavour to combine steam-tugs and sailing-vessels. ' Prospectus of an establishment of steam-vessels, dated 1st Decem- ber, 1829. ^ Letter from Mr. J. W. Taylor, to Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay, 1st December, 11520. 350 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Reply of The result of this and other communications ijomb;iy Govern- addressed by Mr. Taylor to the Government of Bombay, was an official letter from tliera to the Court of Directors stating that while they considered the Court alone " competent to pass a decision on his proposals," they strongly commended the project he was endeavouring to accomplish. "We beg to add our opinion that no doubt can exist of the practic- ability as well as the utility of extending steam navigation to Egypt from Bombay ; and that we should consider it a most fortunate circumstance if our attempts to promote this desirable object shall, by indicating such to be the case, induce men of enterprise and capital to embark in an undertaking of the nature proposed by Mr. Taylor." an«i "The plan proposed by Mr. Taylor " they con- discussiou . ^ ' "^ . i i • i of the tmued, "evidently requires great and combined question. , • •, , r» means to give it even a prospect oi success ; we are of opinion that his calculations are far too sanguine and that his plan is on too large a scale. These are, however, objections to his scheme which may be easily obviated. In the first instance, we must give our opinion as relates to India that the under- taking may and should be conducted on a more limited scale, and subsequently extended according to circumstances. In transmitting these proposals for your consideration, we cannot avoid expressing our decided opinion that almost incalculable advantages may be anticipated from a well established steam communication by the Red Sea, and our earnest hope that, unless other proposals from individuals have been entertained and their plans put in progress, and in case Mr. Taylor's schemes are viewed as either MERCHANT SHIPPING. 351 inexpedient or impracticable, that every support will be afforded by your Honourable Court to maintain this desirable communication by vessels in the public service." ^ But the temper of the Court of Directors was still ^"gP'"f' striking-ly in contrast with the earnestness of the Court of " -^ Directors. Bombay Government. They do not seem to have cared much about the development of the com- mercial resources of their empire, and so the recom- mendations of the Grovernor and Council at Bombay were laid aside for future consideration ; indeed, it was not until, after nearly two years, that they even acknowledged the letters they had received. The exj)ense, they averred, exceeded the amount they cared to risk ; while, in the proposed undertaking, they had evidently little confidence, as they urged that " the loss from defective vessels and engines is as likely to occur as ever." They, nevertheless, at last affirmed that they were not insensible to the advantages of rapid communication with India nor of the importance of steam for that purpose. " We are also disposed to believe," they added, Their " that a steam communication by the Red Sea, and still more, if it should be found practicable, by the Persian Gulf and the River Euphrates, would open the way to other improvements, and would ultimately redound to the benefit of this country as well as of India ; and, if our finances were in a flourishing- state (they were always poor, though ever rolling in wealth), we might probably feel it a duty to incur even the enormous outlay which we have specified * Letter from the Bombay Govornmont (the Marino Department) to the Court of Directors, dated IBtli April, 1830. ^52 MERCHANT SHIPPING. (100,000/.). In the present condition of our resources, we cannot, however, think the probable difference of time in the mere transmission of letters a sufficient justification for the exjoense. We cannot anticipate that the return in postage and jDassengers would pay more than a very small portion of the charge." But happily, after other observations, they concluded by saying that, " at the same time we deem the subject too imj^ortant to be lost sight of or hastily dismissed." ^ OfiSciai In the meantime the Hugh Lindsay (a war steam- the first vessel, built of teak at Bombay in 1829 for the ]\l^Hugh service of the East India Company), had fortunately 1830^'^' ^6en despatched^ by the Bombay Government under command of Captain J. H. Wilson, from Bombay to Suez and back — a voyage, I may add, which was ' Letter from the Court of Directors to the Governor in Council at Bombay, Public Deiiartment, 14tli March, 1832. To this opinion of the Coiu't I may add that Mr. Peacock, the " senior assistant examiner in the East India House," in his evidence before the Committee of 1834 (pp. 8 and 4) when asked, if he thought any retiu-us might be anticipated for postages anf^ passengers to justify an expenditure of 100,000/. per annum in establishing and maintaining a quarterly steam service overland by way of Suez between England and India, would pay, replied : " I think nothing to pay the expense ; somethinr/ certainly, hut not above one-fourth of the amount:' The gTOSS earnings of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company alone between 1856 and 1874, inclusive of the amount received for the conveyance of mails, passengers, and cargo, amoimted to 41,546,818/'. - The Hugh Lindsay sailed for Suez on her first experimental voyage on the 20th of March, 1830, the day before Mr. Waghorn arrived at Bombay in the Thetis ; and she continued in that service under command of Captain Wilson, making one voyage annually, during the north-east monsoons till April 1836, when Captain Wilson was appointed Controller of the dock-yards at Bombay as an acknowledg- ment of his services, for it is unquestionable that he did much to "educate "the Governments of England and India on the importance of the overland route, as appears by tlie official correspondence of the period. MEltCIIANT SllirriNG. 353 twice repeated before the Court of Directors gave any instructions on the subject, though one, too, materially tending to solve some at least of the diFHculties they had contemplated. It was on the second of these occasions that Sir John Malcolm and his suite made the overland passage to England. " When it was determined," remarks Captain Wilson, " that the Hugh Lindsay should attempt the voyage to Suez, it became necessary to put on board double the quantity of coal the vessel was built to carry, to do wliich, a great part of the space originally intended for accommodation was appropriated to the stowage of coal ; w^ater also was necessary, sufficient for use until the vessel should reach land in the event of a break-down between Bombay and the first depot ; as also stores and provisions for the whole voyage to and from the Red Sen." ^ Captain Wilson, however, accomplished the passage from Bombay to Aden, a distance of 1641 miles, in ten days nineteen hours, though only six hours' coals remained on board when he arrived at that port. At Aden the Hugh Lindsay obtained a fresh sup])ly, coal depots having been established in anticipation of her arrival at that place, as well as at Jiddah, Cossier, and Suez. Other difficidties, however, had to be overcome, as scarcely a day passed without it being necessary to stop the engines to put the ])addle-wheels in order, the boards of which were constantly getting loose. At Aden, Captain Wilson was detained five days and twenty hours in receiving the necessary supply of coal, owing to the want of means at the ])Iace for shipping it and othei' ' Sec note (-), ]). ;!VJ. VOL. I\. '1 A 354 MERCHANT SHIPPING, obstacles. The passage from Aden to Moclia roads, where he had despatches to land, was accomplished in twelve hours, and thence to Jiddah, a distance of 557 miles, in four days twelve hours. Here his vessel was detained four days nnd a half in obtaining' a supply of coals ; in five days more he reached Suez, having performed the voyage from Bombay to Suez in twenty-one days six hours' steaming, or, including stoppages, in thirty-two days sixteen hours. Had a steamer been ready at Alexandria the mails (consisting of 306 letters, the postage on which amounted to 1176 rupees), which could have been conveyed thence in three days, would in twenty-five more days have reached England. Thus, in spite of the delays at the depots, the communication between India and England could have been accomplished in sixty-one days. The return passage of the Hugh Lindsay to Bombay occupied thirty-three days, includ- ing stoppages of nineteen days, or fourteen days' steaming ; and, under all the circumstances, the whole voyage was considered far from unsatisfactory;^ one of the subsequent voyages, to Cossier^ (300 miles below the Isthmus), was accomplished in twenty-two days, including five days' detention at the coaling stations. Yet, though the practicability of the Red Sea voyage during the north-east monsoon was now de- monstrated, it Avas not certain that the passage could be made irrespectively of the seasons ; nor could any argument be drawn from the performances of ' For an account of the voyages of this ship in detail see Heport of the Committee of the House of Commons, 1834. ^ Cossier, whicli is about 100 miles from the Nile, was one of the ports of departure for the vessels of ancient times engaged in trade with the East. MERCHANT SHTPriNG. 355 this pioneer ship, as her construction and power were not suited to contend ao-ainst the south-west mon- soon between Ceylon or Bombay and the Arabian Gulf. Again, as a large number of persons connected with the East India Company, and various merchants interested in trade with the East, many of whom had advocated the Cape route, were now in favour of the Euphrates route, though the public in general preferred the establishment of a mail service by way of Egypt, the discussions, ultimately arising, led to the appointment of the Parhamentary Committee Kepmt of of 1834, the resolution of the House simply re- otTssf '" quiring its members " to inquire into the means of promoting communication with India by steam." But the report of the Committee, after a very full inquiry, was not definite on the point of the really best route. It was, however, resolved, and the Commitlee could hardlj^ have done otherwise, notwithstanding the lukewarmness of the Court of Directors, that a regular and expeditious communi- cation with India by means of steam-vessels was an object of great importance both to Great Britain and to India ; that the practicability of steam navigation between Bombay and Suez duritig the north-east monsoon had been established by the Ilw/h Lindsay ; but that further experiments were necessary to establish the practicability of the Red Sea route at all seasons of tlie year. They further recommended that a grant of 20,000/. should be made " with the least possible delay," to examine and test the steam capabilities of the Euphrates route ; the line con- templated })eing that from Scanderoou on the coast 2 A 2 356 MEECHANT SHIPPING. of Syria to Aleppo, and tlience to Bir on the Euphrates, the distance between these towns (170 miles) being not greater than that across Egypt. From the evidence adduced and from the cor- respondence in the public journals of the period,^ it is, however, evident that political rather than com- mercial reasons favoured the Euphrates route. It was then thought, looking to the probability of the opening up of the Indus, to the state of our relations with Persia, and to the necessity of maintaining a squadron, as we then did, to protect our interests in the Persian Grulf, that this line could, while increasing the safety of our East Indian possessions, be main- tained at less cost tlian the Red Sea one.^ ' The reasons for preferring the Euphrates route, are given at great length in the Bomhay Gazette, 7th August, 1833. ^ To question 64, p. 6 (Committee, 183i) " Would there be any political or other advantages in our opening the line of the Euphrates ?" Mr. Peacock replies : " I think it would he highly serviceable, if possible, to prevent Eussia pre-occnpyiug it and excluding us ; it would be ex- ceedingly easy for Eussia to follow the steps of Trajan and Julian, construct fleets in Armenia, and float them to Bussorah ; they have the possession, at least the command, of the Armenian part of the Euphrates now." " Would there not (question 65) be more danger to be apprehended from the Eussians from their making use of the Oxus and Caspian, than by making use of Bussorah, where they would be met by the nation which happens to have the pre-eminence at sea ?" — " But the \)xe- eminence at sea," Mr. Peacock rej^lies, " is not a talisman ; it is to be kept up by constant watchfulness, and the exertion of adequate force. I know there is danger by the Oxus, but there is also danger by the Euphrates, and I would stop both doors, if I could." In reply to further questions (66) he says : " The first thing the Eussians do, when they get possession of, or connection with, any country, is to exclude all other countries from navigating its waters;" and in reply (question 67) to " IIow the establishment of steam along the Euphrates would serve in any respect to counteract Evissia ?"' he says, " It would give us a vested interest and aright to interfere ;" adding " they (the Eussians) liave been long supposed to have designs on Baglulad ; tlioy have had emissaries there a good while; the Paslialic of Baghdad is a very MERCHANT SHIPPING. 357 The other reasons assigned in favour of the Eu- D( oisiou , , . •, . , of House of phrates route were the comparative cheapness with commons which this object could be accomplished, the channel iiXen.ed^ of the Persian Gulf and the River Euphrates being J^^deJa-^ preferable to that of the Red Sea for steam conimuni- 1'^^^. cation between Bombay and the Mediterranean ; moreover, in the then existing state of things it was thought that the route by Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia would be safer than by way of the Red Sea and Egypt. In reference to tlie dangers which might be encountered from the wandering tribes of Arabs who had so long infested a large portion of the Euphrates route, it was stated that arrange- ments could easily be made by negotiations with the Porte, Mohammed Ali, or the cliiefs of the tribes, who, at a small annual cost, would insure the necessary protection, while it was held that an armed mail- steamer with only letters and ordinary stores on board, would offer no attraction to ma- rauders, as it was not then contemplated to carry either treasures or valuable merchandise by the overland route/ As the Committee of the House of Commons had recommended immediate action for the establishment •valuable possession, and would pay for protecting it, either to them or to us." Mr. William J. Bankcs (and others) entertained similar opinions. In reply to (question 2626) " What is your opinion of the political advantages between the one and the other ?" he says, " It is vcrij much in favour of the Euphrates." " Will you state in what respect ?" (question 2G27) "I think by anticipating the Russian, you will exclude him; I think he will afterwards, perhaps, do that by force which you could now, perliaps, do by treaty." ' For Colonel Chesney's elaborate report on the advantages of the Euphrates route, I must refer my readei-s to the Appendix of the Report of the Committee of 1831. 358 MERCHANT SHIPPING. of a regular overland mail service, the Court of Directors were compelled to take the matter into their serious consideration ; but they had determined to leave for future consideration the important ques- tion whether the communication should be, in the first instance, from Bombay or from Calcutta, or according to the combined plan suggested by the Bengal Steam Committee, in which case the nett charge should be divided equally between the Grovernment and the East India Company, so as to include the expense of the land conveyance from the Euphrates and the Red Sea respectively to the Mediterranean. After reviewing the relative advantages on the one hand and the physictll diffi- culties on the other of the two routes, with the view of securing a regular communication throughout the year, the Committee suggested an extension of the line of Malta packets to such ports in Egypt and in Syria as would enable the communication between England and India to be tested experimentally by both routes. Aimiiaity In accordaucc with these recommendations the cxteMdtd Admiralty extended, in February 1835, the service of jTaUa to ' ^^^^i^' mail-packcts from Malta to Alexandria ; while Aicxau- the Court of Directors sent out instructions to the driii. Governor-General of India to forward the Ilwjh Lindsay at appointed peiiods to Suez. The character of the Euphrates route was also still further explored by Colonel Chesney,' under the direction of the East India Board, to whom this work had been entrusted, ' In furtherance of these instructions Colonel Chesney niadi! a most elaborate survey, and wrote a voluminous book with maps, for wliicli he, some lime afterwards, was compensated I\v a grant of lOOU/. MERCHANT SHIPPING, 359 and, not long afterwards, tlio liome authorities estab- lished a dromedary post from Baghdad to Damascus and Beyrout for tlie transmission of such mails as might be sent by that route. The beneficial effects of these arrangements were soon felt in India, as would appear by a despatch from the Bombay Government to the Court of Directors (September 183G), wherein it is stated "that the three last overland mails have brought despatches from London to Bombay in thirty-eight, forty-five, and sixty-four days, and those intended for Calcutta have been forwarded in ten days more." But as the despatch of the 16th of Septembei-, which conveyed this information by way of Egypt, did not reach England till the beginning of the following year, owing to various delays between Bombay and Suez, it was resolved to place larger and more powerful steamers on the Red Sea route — chiefly, as it would seem, because neither the Hugh Lindsay nor tlie Enterprize could perform the passage against the south-west monsoon. Tlie result was that the Court of Directors placed steamers on this station (that by the Euphrates presenting indiau greater difficulties) two vessels of much superior ^^^■^' power, the Berenice and Atalantn, which had been laid down in 1835 for their naval service. The par- ticulars of these vessels and of their cost, as well as those of the steamers on the Red Sea sei-vice which followed, will be found in the Indian navy list sup- plied by the East India House to Lord Jocelyn's Committee of 1851, from which see extract.' ' Ivcturn of tlie number, cost, ages, i)ower, tonnage, and speed of steam vcs.sels lurniing the Indian Navy, distinguisliiug the vessels 360 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Modes of transport across the Isthmus i.f Suez. A regular steiiiii service iiaving now been estab- lished between England and her Eastern empire by ships of the East Indian navy on the one side of the Isthmus of Suez, and by the Admiralty packets on the other, I shall glance at the various means of transit across this neck of land, before describing the o-reat mercantile steaui lines wdiich now main- o tain tlie communication throughout. At the outset they were of the most oi'iginal and multifarious description, and the few pas- sengers who then made the overland passage found their way as best they could on camels, dromedaries, or donkeys. Towards the improvement in all its stages of this rude mode of transport there was no one more conspicuous than Thomas Waghorn. He was the moving genius of the whole undertaking, and its most zealous aiid successful agitator. Whatever' may employed on the Bombay mail line, so far as the same can be made out. (They were all built of wood, and propelled by paddle-wheels) : Names of Vessels. Cost. Ages. Horse Power. Tonnage. jSpeed| Knots per £ x. d. Hour. Acbar . . . 76,373 9 8 built 1841 350 1,143 8* 1 Employed on Ajdaha . . 80,515 16 5 „ 1847 500 1,440 8" > the Bombay Atalanta . . 36,651 17 10 „ 1835 210 616 n Mail Line. Auckland . 43,052 3 2 „ 1840 220 946 iGeneral Ser- ( vice. Berenice . . 40,123 11 6 „ 1835 230 664 .. [ Employed on Feerooz . . 67,219 „ 1846 500 1,440 8^ i 1 the Bombiiy 1 Line. Medusa (iron) 9,972 18 1 „ 1840 70 432 Moozuffer . Queen . . . 81,576 44,409 9 17 6 11 „ 1816 „ 1839 500 220 1,440 760 '.'. General Ser- Seitiiramis . 43,447 12 8 ,. 1840 300 1,000 vice. Sesostris . . 52,388 8 2 „ 1839 220 876 ■' (Employed on Victoria . . 39,820 15 6 ., 1839 230 714 6i 1 the Bombay 1 Mail Line. MERCHANT SIIII'PIXG. 361 Le said ot" liis prudence, or however much we may Great cx- lament his failings, his industry was unwearied and wauhom his zeal unbounded. It may be that he was only a j"|j*i^,j^''*" convert to a scheme long contemplated by others ; ["^^''^j.^^^^^ but, when once undertaken, his efforts never ceased until the object he had in view was accomplished. Though the first resting-places across the desert were constructed at the expense of the Bombay Steam-fund Committee by Hill and Raven,' under the orders of Colonel Barr,^ the route itself was organized by Waghorn, and he was the first ivJio undertook and carried on by a reciular system for three yenvs the con- veyance of the mads across the Isthmus of Suez.^ Sir Grardner Wilkinson ('Modern Egypt,' pp. 306-7) and various other competent witnesses bear ample testi- mony to this important fact, and it is one which must ever hold a prominent place in the records of the origin of the modern overland route to India. Though camels are capable of carrying a weight of from 9 to 10 cwt. each at a rate of 24 miles an hour* for twelve or sixteen consecutive hours, it became necessary to adopt other modes of transit as the traffic increased. Two-wheeled vans drawn ^ Hill was an enj:,-incer, and Raven a wheelwright in the service originally of Galloway Bey, and, subsequently, in that of the Paslia of Egypt, Muhammed Ali, who, when they were in difficulties to carry on their work, rendered them pecuniary assistance. ^ Mr. Waghorn, in his evidence before the House of Commons Com- mittee of 1837, says (question 53), " I can send Mr. Hill and other men of the service at an hours notice from Cairo," &c., by which it appears they were then, at least, under his orders. 3 In a note I received from Sir Daniel Lange (12th March, 1875), he remarks: " M. de Lcsseps often told me how he met ^^'aghorn struggling with man and beast in the desert to carry his mails across, and that it served as an example to him in after-life with the Suez Canal." * Sec evidence before Committee of 1831 l)y ]\[r. Peacock, pp. 2 and 3. 362 MERCHANT SHIPPING. by four horses, and fitted to carry eiglit persons, were therefore introduced to transport the passengers from Suez to Cairo, whence they were embarked in sailing; boats on the Nile to Alexandria; Mr. Waghorn subsequently organizing, in connection with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, a line of small steamers which took the place of these boats. In course of time caravansaries and hotels were substituted for the original stations and resting-places on the route. These were completed in February 1843, and received the passengers from the H'mdostan steamer on her first trip in the regular mail service from Calcutta, Madras, and Galle to Suez, by which time this branch of the business had been undertaken by the Egyptian Transit Company. But, in the organization of all these im})ortant works, Mr. Waghorn took the leading part, and their com- pletion, imder many difficulties, was in a great measure due to his indefitigable exertions. So early as 1834, Muhammed Ah, seeing the ad- vantages to le obtained by a railway between Cairo and Suez, instructed Mr. Thomas Gallow^ay to make arrangements for its construction, and, with this object in view, the rails, locomotives, and plant, were ordered from England ; ' but, owing to the ojDposition of France, the formation of this line was continually postponed,^ and subsequently abandoned. ^ Messrs. Galloway Brothers (see evidence before Committee of 1837) had established at Boolak (a suburb of Cairo) an extensive iron manufactory, and were in a position to carry out the Pasha's railway, for wliich they had imported plant by liis orders to the value of 200,000/. Whether any portion of this was used by Mr. Stephenson, who subsequently constructed the railway, does not appear. - Pamplilet by Mr. R. H. (lalloway (jip. 15 and 17), ])ublished by Willis, Sotheran, and Co., Lo: don, 1871. MKRCHANT SlIirPlNG. 3G3 A railway was, liowever, commenced in 1852 by Robert Stephenson from Alexandria to Cairo, and completed in 1857. Subsequently, it was continued from that city to Suez, branching off at Benlia to Zaga-Zig, and following the course of the old canal to Suez, by which a considerable saving of distance was effected over the Cairo route as originally proposed. The line throughout was completed and opened for traffic in 1870. But the o'rand work, the greatest and ^Tandest Suez connected with maritime connrierce, either in ancient or modern tiniL-s, was the cutting of the Suez Canal, between the town so named at the head of the Red Sea and the sliores of the Mediter- ranean at a place in the Bay of Pelusium, now known as Port Said : this gigantic undertaking" is about 100 miles in length, and runs in nearly a straight line almost due north from Suez, passing through various lakes, marshes, or swamps, the prin- cipal of which are called Birket Menzaleh, Birket- el-Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes. Previouslv to the commencement of this ffreat woik, at least two erroneous impressions had pre- vailed: of these the first, that the Mediterranean was from 25 to 30 feet below the level of the Red Sea at Suez,' has been exploded by the completion of the canal; but, as the second (reflecting on the originality of M. de Lesseps' undertaking), though a much less important one, seems still to exist, I may state that the course of his canal is quite different from that of the fresh-water one said to have been naviicable in o ' Evidence of Major Uvad, !Mr. T. T. Peacock, and otliers, Itcforc the Select Committee of I'SSl. 364 MEKCHANT SHIPPING. MERCHANT SIIIPPING. 365 the reign of the Pliaraolis (its course is still traceable here and tliere), which ran from a point on the Nile a little below Cairo in a north-easterly direction, towards Lake Timseh, and, thence, almost due south by tlie west side of the Bitter Lakes to Suez. This canal had no connection, or rather water connnuni- cation, with the Mediterranean except by the easternmost branches of the Nile below Cairo, and, though the Nile at that city is ten feet above the Red Sea at Suez, it may be doubted whether this ancient canal was ever used except during the rainy season, though Herodotus states thei'e was width on it for two triremes to row abreast. Certainly, no mention, direct or indirect, records the passage of any craft worthy of the name of a ship between the Mediterranean and Red Sea.^ The great ship- canal (see map, p. 304), now in use, does not go near ^ The truth about these ancient canals seems to be as follows : 1. According to Herodotus, Pharaoh Necho commenced one from the Nile to the Eed Sea (ii. 158) which he says was completed by Darius the son of Hystaspes (iv. 39). This canal, we may fairly presume, was open when Herodotus was in Egypt, as he states it was four days' journey in length, and wide enough for tM'o small triremes to row abreast; it is doubtless the one attributed by Aristotle, Strabo, and Pliny to Sesostris — an identification confirmed by the fact that, in recent times, tablets bearing the name of Eameses (Sesostris) have been found on the site of its present dried up bed. As far as can be now ascertained, it would seem that this canal left the Nile at or near the city of Bubastis (now Tel Basta). The discovery of a Cuneiform in- scription of Darius near Suez, gives colour also to tlie traditional story which refers to him. Diodorus, notices the proverbial opinion of the height of the waters of the Bed Sea (i. ;58) and adds, tluit this canal was completed liy Ptolemy when he built Arsinoe. '2. There is no doubt that this canal continued in some use under the Roman Emperors, as Trajan formed a new connection for it by a cutting at Babylon (Old Cairo) (Ptol. Geogr. iv. s. 54), and, further. Sir Gardner Wilkinson has shown that the whole line from the Nile to the Gulf was restored by tlic Khalif Omar, and was in use for a century and a half after his time. The work of Necho a])pears also to have 36fi mp:rchant shipping. Cairo or the Nile, but cuts through the narrowest part of the isthmus at a point about 100 miles east of Alexandria. Popular A popular error also prevails that this vast under- this sub- taking was only contemplated a few years ago. Nor ^"^^' do these popular errors here end, for everybody M. de supposes that M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, to whose esseps. g.gj^j^^g r^-Q(j energy the world is indebted for this great W'Ork, was an engineer, whereas he was really a dijAomatisi,^ and was obliged to make himself master of the art of engineering to be in some measure able to cope with the host of engineers, pro- fessional and theoretical, who opposed his marvellous scheme. The idea of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez by the route adopted by M. de Lesseps is a very old one. So far back as a.d. 638-40, Amrou, soon after the conquest of Egypt,^ wrote to his master the included a canal from tlie head of the gulf to the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile, as of this considerable remains still exist. 3. It may be further remarked, that the bed of the Bitter Lakes was, even in the time of Strabo (x\ii. p. S04), filled with Nile water, as the same fish were noticed in both. At the same time, we may be sure that nothing like a ship (in our sense of the word) ever passed through the isthmus lantil M. de Lesseps completed his great work. ' Ferdinand de Lesseps in his youth was attached to the Consulate at Lisbon, and then, in 1828, to the Con.sulate-General at Tunis. In the following year he was appointed Yice-Consul at Alexandria, and in 1832 he was advanced to be Consul at Cairo, where he remained for seven years. In 1842, he received the appointment of Consul- General at Barcelona ; in 1848 he went to Madrid as French IMinister Plenipotentiary ; and later on, to an important mission in Eome, after which he retired to Berri (France) to mature his plans for the Suez Canal, which had been the almost constant subject of his thoughts since his residence in Cairo. ^ See a very interesting paper read by Mr. (now Sir Daniel) Lange before the Society of Arts, London, April 27tli. 1870. mF':hchant siiipriNG. se? Klialif Omar recommending the estal)li8hmcnt of a communication between the two seas, the in- tervening country being, as he describes it, " an imdulating green meadow with ploughed fields — such is the delta of the Nile ; a dusty desert, a liquid and clayey plain, a black slush — such is the isthmus to cut through." But the Khalif objected to the piercing of the isthmus, " fearing it would open out the country to the influence of foreigners," a fear that prevailed also with one or two leading statesmen of our own country and in our own time. Though the project had been occasionally men- tioned, the work itself was never seriously con- templated except in one instance ' until M. de Les- seps, about the year 1840, conceived a definite plan for carrying it out. Scientific men, indeed, in most parts of the world, considered the undertaking alto- gether impracticable. They alleged that the dif- ficulties of the desert could never be surmounted, and that nothing stable could be erected on treacherous sands doomed by nature to sterility and desolation.^ ^ It is fair to recollect that my old frieud and colleague on the Har- bour of Eefuge Commission, Captain Vetcb, E.N., more than thirty years ago (and therefore before M. de Lesseps) proposed a ship canal from Suez to Tineh, on the Mediterranean, a distance of about 75 miles, to be carried out by British capital. At that time the idea of the height of the ■water at Suez above that of the Mediterranean prevailed. Captain Vetch therefore calculated that, with a canal ISO feet wide at the top, 96 feet at the bottom, and 21 feet in the depth, the steady descent of the water along this gradient would produce scourago suffi- cient to clear away tlie sand and mud accumulated at the Mediter- ranean end. No doubt Captain Vetch's observations and details tended to satisfy M. de Lesseps of the feasibility of some such canal. - Some jjreparatory steps had also been taken which, by getting rid of unscientific hypotheses, facilitated in some degree M. de Lesseps' views. Thus, at the suggestion of the Viceroy, the English, French, and Austrian (iovornincnts had scnl in IS 17 a joint conunission of scientific -368 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Indeed, Sir Daniel Lange/ the oldest and most earnest friend and colleague of M. de Lesseps in this country, and, from its commencement until now, the representative of the Suez Canal in England, remarks that so general was this opinion, that the captains of the small craft who first received orders to proceed to Pelusium with materials for the prosecution of the work, smiled with incredulity, but resigned themselves to what they thought a fool's errand. His great Nor w^crc tliesc doubts surprising, for the site of ancient Pelusium is upon a low flat shelving sandy coast where sea and land seem to blend with eacli other, and where tlie long roll of the surf over a flat beach forbids even the approach of a boat. No wonder therefore that the indefatigable M. de LessejDS was unable for years to induce either govern- ments or individuals to provide the requisite means ; indeed, his own countrymen, when he issued the prospectus in 1857, were nearly if not quite as luke- warm about it as foreigners, while in England on the men to take the various levels on the isthmus of Suez, csi3ecially as regarded the relative lieights of the water in the two seas. Mr. Robert Stejiheuson represented England; M. Talabot, France; M. Kegretti, Austria; and Linant Bey, the Pasba. Stephenson watched the rise and fall of the tide at Suez and Negretti at Tineh, the result being the demonstration that the two seas have exactly the same level within a few inches. A full account of the plan develoijed by M. Talabot from the observations of this commission will be found in the " Eevue des Deul Mondes," and there seems little doubt that, but for the determined opposition of Mr. Eobcrt Stephens )n, whose imagination (to the day of his death) was perpetually haunted with ideas of the sand, silt, and mud with wliich he maintained any canal must be filled \\\), the great work, which was tlie glory of M. de Lesseps, would have been carried out by English enterprise soine years earlier than 1869. ' Sir Daniel Lange was knighted after the opening of the Suez Canal. He is a native of London, and the holder of various foreign bonnui-s. He unsuccessfullv contested Midhurst in 1868. MERCHANT SIIirPlXG. 309 other hand, a great outcry was created, mainly by Lord Pahnerston, against the project on poHtical grounds. It is not, however, my province to enter Not fahiy upon these ; but, surely, England, with her vast pos- in sessions in the East and with the command of the °°*^ * sea, was far more interested than any other nation in removing Egypt from the envy it had long been of powerful European nations, and, in cutting a ship canal — a great highway — through it, which would be open to the vessels of all nations like the Sound or the Dardanelles. Indeed, every increased facility for reaching our Indian possessions must be a far greater gain to us than to any other nation. But strange to say the political opposition raised by England^ proved the chief means of enabling M. de Lesseps to raise the requisite capital, and secured him support he would otherwise not probably have obtained. Foreign capitalists, especially in France, now came forward to subscribe, not that they liad much faith in the commercial success of the canal, but because they felt grieved or annoyed that an undertaking, which could not fail to benefit mankind, even if it did not pay the original subscribers, should be opposed on narrow and jealous grounds by one of the most conspicuous, if not in all matters the most enlightened, of English statesmen. But, even with the requisite capital at commaiKl, com- M. de Lesseps had a most arduous and herculean "l|!"t^of task to perform. It was necessarv, remarks Sir ^^ '^"^ , A " ' Lesseps works, IS")?. ' Not howevor by .ill her statesmen, for Mr. Gladstone, Lord Ixussell, .Sidney Herbert, Mr. Cobden, Mr. Bri^'ht, I\rr. IMilner Gibson, and otliers strenuously objected to any hostile interference on the part of Government with the project. VOL. IV. 2 i; 370 MERCHANT SHIPPIKG. Daniel Laiige, previously to entering on a work of sucli magnitude, to prepare dwellings, store- houses, factories, forges, and a lighthouse ; iiideed, all the accessories indispensable for putting in motion the huge mechanical appliances intended to be used. All this was done in the newly erected " Town of Port Said." But before this jDlace could be formed, the marshes had to be raised 10 feet above the sea- level, so as to form an area of sixty-seven acres of solid land; and from this basis piers had to be carried out into the open sea, tlie western one for a distance of one and three-quarter miles, and the eastern a mile and one-third in length, composed of not less than 250,000 blocks of concrete, weighing about thirty tons each. Between these piers a harbour was formed with a surface of 132 acres, the excavations from it amounting to 4,669,943 cubic metres.^ General But amoug the many obstacles encountered, none were half so formidable as the formation of the channel through Lake Menzaleh, which extended 21 miles from Port Said to Kantara. The sands and other insur- mountable obstacles which had been prophesied were as nothing to this work, arising from the fact that the mud and slush had actually to be thrown up by the hands alone (just as children in their amusements make mud-heaps) of the thousands of natives employed to form a dyke ;^ indeed, had it not been for the * My readers will fiud an excellent account of the early works of the Suez Canal, in a little book published by Mr. A. K. Lynch, entitled " A Visit to the Suez Canal," Lond. 8vo. 1866, with several excellent litho- graph drawings of Port Said, Ismailia, and other places on it. A French metre is 39 English inches or l-19th more than an English yard. ^ Herodotus (132) speaks of the vast amount of forced labour cm- ployed in the construction of the great Pyramids ; hence various writers, recalling the hardsliips these " slaves '' had to endure, protested against MERCHANT SUli'riNCr. 371 powerful Egyptian sun, which dried up the mud so exposed in a few hours, the task would have been impracticable, as ordinary mechanical appliances must have failed to overcome such an obstacle. When something like an opening had been made through many miles of " black slush," and clear water began to flow in, rafts were constructed, and on these the men slept under tents made of mats. In this work, about fifteen thousand fishermen from the neighbourhood were employed, a class of men who, from time immemorial, had been accustomed, in their ordinary avocations, to spend a large portion of their time half immersed in the water. When a passage of sufficient dimensions had been scooped out with their hands, dredging-machines were introduced. By degrees this trench was widened until it reached the dimensions of 330 feet wide, and 26 feet deep ; tlie sides, from the rapid drying of the mud, soon becoming almost as solid as walls of masonry and quite as durable. It was between these new banks that floating dredging-machines of a novel construction, with shoots 220 feet in lengtli, were placed, thus enabling M. de Lesseps to dispense with tlie previously expensive mode of conveying the silt raised by the dredgers in hopper-barges to sea ; the new machines discharged the stuff excavated from the channel over the eniployinent of " similar bodies of men" in the construction of the Suez Canal, commcntinf? on the sciandalous treatment to M-hicli they were subjected. But I ha.e enquired minutely into this questiou, and I cannot find any just grounds for these complaints. On the contrary, tlie men employed ajipear to have been free labourers, fairly remunerated according to the work they performed, and, on the whole, kindly treated. 2 H 2 372 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the embankments on to the low and marshy land on either side :^ by these means two good results were attained ; the channel of the canal was economically cleared, and the mud thus excavated employed in greatly strengthening its banks on each side. The cutting of the channel through Birket-el-Ballah, which was more of a swamp than a lake, for a distance of twelve miles, though in itself a very difficult work, was comparatively easy to the excavation of Lake Menzaleh, nor were there any serious obstacles to encounter except in clearing a passage through various mounds of earth extending for a distance of 6 miles, all of which had to be removed or pierced. This difficulty, however, was overcome, after a passage had been cut, by the aid of an ingenious machine called ail elevator, which lifted the soil to a height of 56 feet, and carried it along a kind of railed bridge to the places of deposit on either side of the excavated mounds. P]ighteen of these elevators, with 700 boxes, were employed on that portion of the works where the banks of the canal were too high to allow the earth cut from the channel to be otherwise disposed of One of these mounds, that of El Gruisr, 61 feet in height, presented a most formidable rampart, which had to be removed in order to allow the waters of the Mediterranean to flow into the vast local depression immediately beyond it known as Lake Timsah, by Ismailia, the interior port of the canal, so named in honour of the Khedive. Here a flourishing new town has been built, surrounded by gardens growing ^ Besides the dredging-macliines and men employed, there were at work upon the canal during the last six months of 1864, 42,921) camels, 9350 horses, 2189 mules, and 2835 donkeys. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 373 in a fruitful soil, on a site for many centuries a bleak and sterile desert. In the work of reraovin"' tliesc mounds, or cuttincf through them, so as to form the channel of this great maritime highway, where ships of 4000 tons now safely navigate, every conceivable description of machinery suitable for tlie purpose had to be pre- pared beforehand, together with not less than 20,000 workmen, including a perfect army of Fellaheen, the usual designation of the rural population which the Government of Egypt had agreed to supply, and various tribes of Ai-abs and Bedouins from the countries bordering the Syrian deserts. These men were divided into gangs, and their work apportioned with great order and regularity ; in each division a notice in Arabic was posted indicating the quantity of earth to be dug, and the wages paid per cubic metre for its completion. Nor wei'e the wants and social comforts of these men overlooked. Large en- campments were provided, and arrangements made for an abundant supply of provisions and fresh watei", the latter alone during some portions of the work having to be brought twenty miles, thus aifording constant employment to 2000 camels, each of which carried about 50 gallons or about 500 pounds weight of fresh water. From Timsah to the Bitter Lalces tlie excavations through the district called Serapoum, wei'c hardly less formidable. " Historians," remarks Sir Daniel Lange,^ " tell us that these lakes were in ancient times, the limit of the Gulf of Suez. One thing is certain, that the sliells and fossils found liere are of the same species as those in the Red Sea. ' Paper read to Socioiy of Arts, p 7. 374 MERCHANT SHIPPING. The conjecture the least contradicted is, that an earthquake caused the upheaving- of these parts and the sea to recede to Suez, leaving the lakes and interior hasin which in process of time have evapo- rated." These lakes are 16 and 9 miles in length, re- spectively : the first descending from the heights of Serapeum, being 34 feet below sea-level, and the second 24 feet. In both, isolated water lines of high and low tides are easily discerned, with remains of gravel, and of a horizontal bank of agglomerated fossil shells about 7 feet thick. M. de Lesseps found them completely dried up, with the exception of the lowest portion, which still retained enough humidity to make the earth moist and in some parts swampy. To fill these deep basins, water was drawn, by means of sluices from the Red Sea and from the Mediter- Partiai raueau ; and, on the 18th of April, 1869, when these Canal ' weYQ opcued in the presence of the Khedive of 1869. "^'' Egypt, the waters of the two seas, for the first time embraced each other, though it was not till the 15th of August that the g-reat maritime canal w^as open throughout. The inauguration of their complete union was celebrated at Suez, and, on the 28th Sep- tember, M. de Lesseps steamed from sea to sea in fifteen hours, having accomplished by his genius and unwearied industry one of the g'reatest engineering works the world has ever seen, and given to posterity, as a great benefactor of the human race, another imperishable name, finally Qn the 17th of November, this important maritime Empress caual Avas formally opened for ships of all . nations No?ember with much state by the Empress Eugenie of France, 17tli,lS00. MERCHANT SHIPPING. :>.7r> in the presence of numerous distinguished men from all countries. The cost complete, was somewhat about 20,000,000/. sterling, consisting of 8,000,000/. subscribed capital, 4,000,000/. debenture stock, and 8,000,000/., in further loans and indemnities paid by the Khedive for retrocession of lands, &c. To the traffic now engaged upon it I shall here- after refer. In the meantime, I must trace the rise and progress of the first mercantile steam-ship com- pany which developed the trade of England with her Indian possessions by way of the Isthmus of Suez. 376 MERCHANT SHlPriNG. CHAPTER X. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company — Its fonndcrs and origin — Messrs. Willcox and Anderson— Mr. James Allan — How the Peninsular mails were originally conveyed — Proposal of Peninsular Company for their conveyance — Contract concluded August 29tli, 1837 — Conveyance of mails to India previously to 1839— Govern- ment applies to the Peninsular Company and accepts their proposals, though reluctantly — Projjosed direct line from Falmouth to Calcutta —First vessels hence, on Indian postal service to Alexandria — Original postal service from Suez to Bombay — Contract for mails between Suez and Calcutta, September 1842 — Further proposals made by the East India Company and Government, but finally rejected by the East India Company — Further contracts for mail service to China and Singapore — Peninsular and Oriental Company undertake the line between Bombay and Suez, 1854 — House of Commons Committee on Australian mail service, 1849 — Eastern Steam Navigation Company and Peninsular and Oriental Company tender for it, but the Peninsular and Oriental succeed — The Hima- laya built — New contract with Peninsular and Oriental Company, January 1853— Failure of service during the Crimean War — Pro- posals for an independent Australian mail service — Tender of Euro- pean and Australian Company accepted — Their entire failure — Speecli of Lord Overstone, March 24th, 1859 — Eoyal Mail Company under- takes the Australian service and fails — New tenders invited— That of Peninsular and Oriental Company accepted, 1859 — Consolidation of services in the Peninsular and Oriental Company — Its present condition and fleet of ships — Terms of the contract now in force — Ecvenue and expenditure— Coals required — Descriptions of vessels — Screw steamer KJiedive — Particulars of this ship — Uniform and regulations of the company. Peninsu- The Career f)f tlie Peninsular and Oriental Steam Oriental Navigation Company, the first commercial under- MERCHANT SHIPPING. 377 taking which conveyed the mails overhind to the steam East is interesting and instructive. It is the more so, tion com- as the impression that this company owed its origin p*"^* to Government grants, and that it has been entirely maintained by subsidies for the conveyance of the mails, is not supported by facts. Indeed, during the earlier portion of its career, the company, by agreeing to carry the Peninsular mails, shortly after it had been started, for a sum considerably less than the cost of maintaining the Admiralty packets then employed, with a speed, too, and regularity previously unknown, conferred an undoubted boon on the public. AVhether the company would have continued to maintain its career of prosperity without Government subsidies is a problem too speculative for me to solve ; but it may well be questioned whether the grants of public money subsequently voted to it year by year, in so far as they prevented wholesome competition, and tended to damp the individual energy which brought it into existence, have been of much service towards its success. During one portion of the company's career, when the advantages of the overland route had been fully established, it might, and I think it would, have been to its advantage to have been relieved from every incumbrance as to time and speed. Free from these, and the many other conditions required by Govern- ment, the company would probably have done better for its shareholders had it been, also, at liberty to build and sail its ships as it pleased, despatching them on sucli voyages and at such rates of speed as paid it best ; and, in support of this opinion, I may remark that various other shipping companies with no 378 MERCHANT SHIPPING. assistance whatever from Grovernment have yielded far larger dividends than the Peninsular and Orien- tal, and, further, that private shipowners, who never had a mail bag" in their steamers, have realized large fortunes. With these remarks, I shall now endeavour to furnish a brief history of this impor- tant undertaking from its commencement, and to show that its rise was by slow degrees, and alto- gether unlike that of the Royal West India Mail Steam Packet Company, with which it has been fre- quently compared. Its In the year 1815, Mr. Brodie McGhee Willcox/ :.nd origin, then a youug man with no influence and but limited pecuniary means, opened an ofidce in Lime Street, London, and commenced business on his own account as a shipbroker and commission agent. To assist him in his business he shortly afterwards engaged as clerk a youth from the Orkney Islands, Arthur Anderson,^ subsequently his partner, whose only capital was a plain but sound education, good moral and Cliristain training, a clear head and great in- dustry. In 1825, the firm adopted the title of Messrs. ^Villcox and Anderson, and removed their offices to and'An- ^ ^t. Mary Axe, where they carried on their busi- ckrs:m. j-^ggg ij]] j^ ^j^g absorbed into tliat of the gi'eat ^ Mr. Willcox was born at Ostend, but of Englisli and Scotch paren- tage. Ids second Christian name, McGhee, being tliat of liis maternal grandfather. He, however, spent his boyhood at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he received the chief portion of his education. He represented the borough of Southampton for some years in Parliament, and died, 1862, at the age of 79. ^ Mr. Anderson became member for liis native borough, which ho represented from 184G to 1852. He took a great interest in develojiing tlie northern fisheries, and especially in forming a Shetland fishery Company, and in improving the condition of the people there. He died in IHOS at the age of 77. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 379 company whose progress I am about to describe. Originally, it was simply a small shipping commission business, with the addition of the part-ownership of a few vessels chiefly trading with the Peninsula, with which they in time opened up, first a regular sailing, and then a steam line of communication, this service having been started solely by Mr. Willcox. At first, Messrs. Willcox and Anderson had a good deal of up-hill work, but they were plodding and industrious, and, consequently, overcame every diffi- culty, soon insuring that success -which industry, honesty, and economy must ever command. In 1834, the Dublin and London Steam Packet Company, one of the early undertakings of that descrii)tion, of which Messrs. Bourne of Dublin, the well-known stage-coach contractors for the con- veyance of the mails in Ireland, were the chief proprietors, chartered one of their vessels, the Royal Tar (see illustration, p. 380), to Don Pedro, and subsequently for the Queen Regent of Spain, through Messrs. Willcox and Anderson as brokers. Soon afterwards, M. Mendizabal, at that time Spanish Minister in London, induced Messrs. Boiu'ne to put on a line of steamers betw^een London and the Peninsula, for wliicli Messrs. Willcox and Anderson were appointed agents. A small company having been thus formed to carry out this undertaking, Mr. James Allan ' a native of Aberdeen, then a clerk Mr. James Allan. ^ When I commenced Inisiness in liondon, Mr. Allan was one of my earliest friends, and our friendship remained unbroken until his death in September 1874. I can therefore, of my own knowledge, speak of the diificulties he had to encounter, and of the numerous obstacles to be overcome in establishing the vast business with which he was so long and so ijitiniatoly associated. To establish agencies at the leading ports 880 MERCHANT SHIPPING. MEEOIIANT SIIirriNG. 381 in tlie office of the Dublin and London Steam Packet Company, was sent to London to assist Messrs. AVillcox and Anderson in the management of the ships. He afterwards became secretary, and when the company had materially extended its operations, Mr. Allan, on the death of Mr. Carleton in 1848, was apj)ointed a managing director in conjunction with Messrs. Willcox and Anderson. Previously to September 1837, the Peninsular How the mails were conveyed by sailing post-office packets n'S weJe which left Falmouth for Lisbon every week, " wind ""^'''''^L^ ' conveyed. and weather permitting." Their departures and arrivals, as must ever be the case with sailing-vessels, were very irregular, and it was no unfrequent occur- rence for the mail from Lisbon to be three weeks old on its arrival at Falmouth. The mail communica- tion with Cadiz and Gibraltar was, however, carried on by a Government steam-packet, and, though of course with greater regularity than the service |)erformed by the sailing-packets, was, nevertheless, much slower than any of the steamers under the management of Messrs. Willcox and Anderson, who, feeling themselves in a position to effect considerable improvements in the transmission of the mails, sub- mitted an offer to Government for a more regular of India and China, open depots for coals, erect docks and factories for tlie repairs of tlieir ships, to bring the -s^'holc into systematic and harmonious working order, and, above all, to keep agencies remote from each other and far from home, under proper control, required a master mind of no common order, the more so that the system he organized was then entirely new. Mr. Allan Avas, however, in every way equal to this arduous duty ; his industry was unwearied, his love for truth ever conspicuous, and, with these he combined the most imassuming and pleasing manners. His only failing consisted in believing all other men to l)e as upright as himself. 382 MERCHANT SHIPPING. transport of letters. But this proposal was coldly received, and their suggestions at first disregarded. Vested interests here, as in so many other cases, for a time prevented any improvement. Tlie Peninsular Company, however, continued to prosecute their inidertaking with vigour, the speed and regularity with which their steamers performed their passages soon attracting public attention. Loud complaints of the inefficiency of the transmission of the mails by sailing-packets at length arose, and, indeed, were so earnest and persistent on the part of the merchants engaged in the trade, that Government at last con- sidered it expedient to inquire ofiicially of the managers of the Peninsular steamers if they had any plan or proposals to submit for an improvement of the mail service, as, if they had, their views would now receive favourable consideration. Pronosai A frcsh proposal was, consequently, made for a suiarCom- ^vcckly mail between Falmouth, Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, SiSrlon- Cadiz, and Gibraltar, for which purpose efficient veyauce. steam-vessels were to be supplied, to perform the service, monthly, between these ports, and at a lower rate than half the cost to the country of the steam and sailing-packets of the Admiralty. Though Government now received the proposals of tlje compan}^ with favour and were prej)ared to act on the plan submitted for consideration, the company was informed that the service, neverthe- less, must be put up to public competition. An ad- vertisement was, accordingly, soon afterwards issued, inviting tenders from owners of steam-vessels for the conveyance of the mails between Falmouth and the Peninsula, in conformity with the plan submitted by MERCHANT SHIPPING. 383 tlie Peninsular Company ; so that the managers of tliis struggling undertaking had to compete against others for the due performance of this service, though on plans drawn up by themselves at the request and with the entire approval of Government. But though another company, which had a short time previously started under the name of the British and Foreign Steam Navigation Company, tendered for the conveyance of the mails, it was soon found that they were not able to carry out the service either within the time or on the conditions required. Time was, however, allowed them to perfect their arrangements, and, a month afterwards, fresh adver- tisements were issued by the Admiralty for the con- veyance of these mails. The British and Foreign Steam Navigation Com- pany, however, having again failed to show that they had adequate means for the efficient perform- ance of this service. Government entered into private negotiations with the Peninsular Company with the view of reducing the amount required by them, and, on the 29th of August, 1837, a contract was contract cone hided by which this company agreed to convey, Au^^lotiV monthly, the whole of the Peninsular mails for ^•'^37. 29,600/., a sum subsequently reduced to 20,500/. per annum. The service was performed with much regularity, and it may be considered to have been the nucleus of the great company which now conveys the mails to all parts of the Eastern world. The Iheria, built by Messrs. Curling and Youug, was tlie first steamer despatched with the Peninsular mails. She sailed in September 1837, the benefits thus conferred on those who were engaged in the 1839. 384 MERCHANT SHIPPING. trade becoming at once apparent. Another step in advance soon followed. Convey- The inode in which the mails were conveyed to and mails to from India up to September 1840, was by means of viousiy to steamers plying monthly between Bombay and Suez, and thence by Government steamers from Alexandria to Gribraltar, where they met the mails brought out by the Peninsular Company from England. As the steamers of this company had to call at Yigo, Oj^orto, Lisbon, and Cadiz in their passages to and from Gibraltar, and as the Government packets employed between that port, Malta, and Alexandria were of inferior power and speed, the transmission of mails by this route was necessarily slow, and generally occupied from three weeks to a month between England and Alexandria.^ But, however imperfect this mode of transmission, it would probably have continued for many years longer had not circumstances occurred rendering an alteration imperative. In 1839, the British Govern- ment having entered into a convention w^ith the French Government for the sending of letters to and from India through France by w^ay of Marseilles, an ' The mean rate of the sailing-packets on the average for a consider- able number of voyages to the Mediterranean had been 2'7 miles per hour, the average length of the voyage from Falmouth to Malta, Corfu, and back to Falmouth being three months. The first of the Admiralty s^e«?7i-packets, the Meteor, left Falmouth on this service 6th February, 1830, and she performed the rotmd in about half the time of the sailing- packets. The African, Curron, CoJumhia, Confianre, Echo, Firebrand, Hermes, and Messengrr followed and were regularly employed in this Mediterraiiean mail service. The average length of the voyages of steamers during a period of two and a half years to Corfu and back to Falmouth, was about forty-seven days including all stoppages — twice at Cadiz, Gibraltar, and Malta — which consumed about thirteen out of the forty-seven days engaged on tlic voyage. MERCHANT SIITI'PING. 385 Admiralty j^nolcet was stationed to ply between that port and Malta. Thence, these letters, together with the larger and heavier mails forwarded by the Penin- sular and the Admiralty packets via Gibraltar, were conveyed from Malta to Alexandria by another of Her Majesty's ships. That portion of the mails forwarded through France was despatched from the post-office on the fourth of every month, while the heavier portion continued to be sent from Fahnouth every fourth Saturday by the Peninsular packets. As might have been expected, this plan was soon found to work awkwardly, inasmuch as the mail sent via Gibraltar every four weeks was in advance of that via Marseilles each calendar month, and had, therefore, to await at Malta the arrival of the Marseilles packet. Irregularities such as these, increased as they were by each successive mail, together with the fact that tlie British despatches then ran some risk of loss in tlieir transit through France, led Government to consider the advisability of establishing some quicker means of conveyance, via Gibraltar, for the main portion of the mails. The managers of the Peninsular Company having Govern- been again applied to, submitted for the approval of applies to Government a proposal to establish a line of superior gj^far' "^' " steamers to run direct from England to Alexandria, Company. and vice verm, touching only at Gibraltar and Malta ; the steamers to be of sufficient power to perform this voyage in not more than three days beyond the time then occupied in the conveyance of the mails via France, and at a cost not exceeding what was lequired for the maintenance of the VOL. IV. 2 c 386 MERCHANT SHIPPING. small and inefficient Admiralty packets then similarly employed. Their plan having met the appj-oval of Govern- ment, public advertisements were again issued for lenders to carry it into effect, and no less than four competitors tendered for the contract at sums ranging andac- from 34,200^. to 51,000/. per annum. As the tender proposals, of tlic Pcuinsular Company was not only the lowest, luctantiy? ^^^^t Contained, also^ an offer to convey at a reduced rate all officers travelling on the public service, and bond fide Admiralty packages gratuitously, it was accepted by the Government. The tender, however, was accepted with reluctance, various people of influence having, strange to say, almost convinced Government of the desirability of Proposed subsidizing a line of steam-vessels between Falmouth from Fai- and Calcutta via the Cape of Good Hope, which was Calcutta, intended not merely to supersede to a great extent the sailing-vessels then employed, but to convey the Indian mails : indeed, it will be found b}^ reference to the public journals of the period, that a steamer of then unusual size had been constructed specially for the purpose.^ It was, however, wisely decided ' " Scarcely has the wonder created in the world by the appearance of the Great Western and British Queen, begun to subside, when we ai"e called upon to admire the rapid strides of enterprise by the notice of an iron steam-ship, the first of a line of steamers to ply between Eng- land and Calciitta, to be called 'The Qv/en of the Eayf, 2618 tons, and GOO horse-power. This magnificent vessel is designed by Mr. W. D. Holmes, engineer to the Bengal Steam Committee, for a communication 1)6tween England and India Great praise is due to Ca])tain Barber, late of the Honourable East India Company's Service, the agent in London for the Steam Committee in Bengal, who has afforded every encouragement to Mr. Holmes in carrying forward his splendid undertaking. When the.'^e vessels are reidy we understand the voyage between Falmouth and Calcutta will bo made in thirty days." — Times, llth November, 1838. i MERCHANT SHIPPING. 387 that no dej)endence could »be placed on the due performance of the service within the "thirty days" stipulated ; nor am I aware that the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, has yet been performed by vessels of any description in a space of time so limited. The vessels offered by Messrs. Willcox and Anderson First and approved by the Admiralty, were the Oriental of ieifce^ou IGOO tons and 450 horse-power, as also the Great^^'l\^x Liverpool oi 1540 tons and 464 horse-power, which, ^f™*" originally intended for the Transatlantic service, '^i'"- was now despatched with the mails from England to Alexandria, thus combining the two mail services, and constituting tlie Peninsular and Orierdal Steam Navigation Company. To complete the service, the directors were re- quested to provide a subsidiary vessel of not less than 250 horse-power, and another of 140 horse- 230wer, for the Malta and Corfu branches, which they did at a cost of 10,712/. per annum less than the charge to the country for the Admiralty packets previously employed.^ Up to this period, as we have seen, the mails Origmai between Bombay and Suez were conveyed by vice^from" steamers belonging to the East India Company. Bm^^biy. It soon, however, became apparent that these vessels were as unsuited to the Indian portion of the service, as those of the Admiralty had proved to be for that between Alexandria and England. But so reluctant were the Directors of the East India Company, to allow " interlopers " into their service, that some years still elapsed before their vessels were superseded ^ See Evidence, Committee of House of C(>mmons, 1840, questiou 1411. 2 c 2 388 MERCHANT SHIPPING. by others of greater speed, and in all other respects more adapted to the increasing wants of the public. Although the Home Government was so strongly impressed with the necessity of establishing a line of steamers between Calcutta and Suez, as well as from Bombay, it was only after considerable pressure had been brought to bear on the Court that the East Contract India Company reluctantly consented to a contract between witli the Pcninsular Company for this special service; cSith^ and, on the 24th September, 1842, its new ship ^ll2^''^^^ J^inclostan, of 1800 tons and 520 horse-power, was sent from Southampton to open a line between Calcutta, Madras, Ceylon, and Suez. It may be desirable to state here that this originally small concern had, two years previously, been formed into a joint stock company with a charter of in- corporation from the Crown, which enabled the directors to obtain the additional capital required for the Indian services ; and, as they had now received the co-operation of most of those parties who, under the designation of the East India Steam Naviga- tion Company, had been endeavouring to effect the same objects, they proceeded with all possible speed to fulfil the conditions and carry out the objects of tlieir charter of incorporation. Further Though the Hindostaii proved vastly superior to the Ina^irbv*' vessels of only 250 horse-power employed by the East tiio East India Company in the mail service between Bombay Company and Sucz, which cost no less than 105,200/. per annum Govern- to maintain, the Court of Directors declined to listen to the further suggestions of the Home Government but finally to transfer this branch of the postal service into i.Tthe' the hands of any private undertaking and, indeed, MERCHANT SHIPPING. 389 retained it until 1854. In tlie meantime Government Eastintiia entei'ed into another contract with the Peninsular and ^"P'^"^" Oriental Company for a monthly service from Ceylon to Penang-, Singapore, and Hong Kong. For the Further service between Suez, Ceylon, Madras, and Calcutta, for mail the company received 115,000/. per annum or at the chhla^ami rate of 205. per mile, and, for the latter, 45,000/. per Si^^'^po^'e- annum or about 126'. per mile. When it became known that the Peninsular and Oriental Company had engaged to perform a service to India and the leading ports of China at the average rate of 17^. per mile in vessels of 500 horse-power, while the service between Suez and Bombay was costing upwards of 30-s. per mile in vessels of not half that power, and, at the same time, of greatly inferior speed and accommodation, the public natu- rally demanded that the Bombay branch of the service should be placed in the hands of persons competent to carry it out more efficiently and economically than had been done by the East India Company. But the Court of Directors successfully resisted all Peninsular sucli demands until the Parliamentary Committee of oriental 1851 reported that this service—in point of economy, unXrSe the comfort of the passengers, and the requirements of}J^^^J[^°^ trade — could be performed to greater advantage by Bombay ^ 1 > 1 T T ^ buez, private enterprise than by the vessels of the Indian issi. navy. It is, however, questionable if the Directors would even tlien have given up the service had not the Bombay mails been, soon afterwards, lost in a native sailing-craft into which they had been trans- ferred at Aden, the P]ast India Company having no steamer ready to convey tliem thence to Suez. The Peninsular and Oriental Company having been applied 390 MERCHANT SHIPPING. to, then found that, by means of the arrangements they had entered into for the performance of the other services, they could undertake this particular branch for the sum of 24,700/. per annum, or at the rate of 6s. 2d. per mile, thereby effecting a saving of about 80,000/. as compared with the expense incurred in the far less efficient service of the Indian navy. In the meantime Government had, on the 6th January, 1848, given notice to the company to ter- minate their contract between Southampton and Alexandria on the 18th January of the following year, and, soon afterwards, advertised for tenders for the execution of this service. But, the other tenders being less advantageous to the public than the terms on which the Peninsular and Oriental Company was willing to continue the service, a new contract was entered into, for three years, at 24,000/. per annum or at the rate of Gs. 9c?. per mile. House of Meantime also, the increasinj^ trade with Australia Commons ,..,.. Committee Created demands tor greater lacilities oi intercourse lian mail witli the mother-couutry and more regularity in 1849!"^' conveyance of the mails, so that the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1849 to inquire and report on the then existing system of mail com- munication with the East, was instructed also to consider the best mode of conveying the mails between India and our Australian colonies. In this Report, dated July 1851, these different services were divided into five distinct heads,^ one of which, recommended ' 1st Line. — A line from England to Alexandria and back monthly, leaving England in the beginning of every month, and railing at (liln-.iltar iind Malta, with a bi'aiich from ^birseilles to Malta and back, MKRCHANT SHIPPING. 391 the establishment of a line between Sino^apore and Eastern Sydney, in reply to the advertisements issned on Navi- tlie recommendation of the Committee, two tenders comp'^'iy were delivered on the 26th February, 1852, one by p^^^i^g^ii.^,. the Peninsular and Oriental Company for the whole of 2^].^^^^^^^^^ the services (their contracts of 1844 and 1849 beinp; Company •\-ii IT- PI IT tender tor about to expire) with the addition of a branch line it, between Bombay and Point de Galle, not named in tlie conditions, for the annual sum of 109,600/., to be reduced by 20,000/. per annum six months after the completion of the railway across the Isthmus of Suez ; and the other, by the Eastern Steam Navigation but the Company, for a line once a month between England^ iar"a"ci"' Calcutta, and Hong Kong for the annual sum of ^^^^^J^J^^^ 110,000/., or for 100,000/. should Trieste be substi- '" tutcd for Marseilles as tlie port of embarkation, and couveying between those two ports the mails which are carried across France. 2nd Line. — A similar line from England to Alexandria and back monthly, leaving England in the middle of every month, with a similar branch between Marseilles and Malta. 3rd Line. — A line from Suez to Calcutta and Hong Kong and back monthly. This line will take the mails which have left England in the beginning of each month, and will touch at Aden and Point de Galle, whence one steanjer will proceed by Madras to Calcutta, and another by Peuang to Singapore and Hong Kong. ■ith Line. — A similar line from Suez to Calcutta and Hong Kong and back monthly, convoying the mails which have 'eft England in the middle of the month, and proceeding in like manner to Point do Galle, and thence by Madras to Calcutta, and by Penaug to Singapore and Hong Kong. 5th Line. — A line from Singapore to Sydney and back. Every alternate month a steamer to leave Singapore on the arrival of the outward packet at that port with the mails which have loft England in the middle of every alternate month, and to leave Sydney so as to meet at Singapore the homeward packet, which will arrive there from China after the lapse of two months. These steamers are to touch l)oih ways at Batavia, Swan River (or King George's Sound, as may here- after be doteiniincd), Adelaide, and Port Phillip. 392 MERCHANT SHIPPING. a further contract tor the service between Singapore and Sydney on an annual subsidy of 166,000/. (which, however, was not mentioned in their tender), being 276,000/. for both services. A hhough the tender of the Peninsular and Oriental Company was evidently much more ftivourable to the public interest than that of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, tbe latter, nevertheless, peti- tioned Parliameiit to appoint another Conniiittee to inquire into the whole sul)ject, to which, however, the then Chancellor of the Exchequer declined to accede, at the same time furnishing (as appears from the Parliamentary debates) valid reasons for the course he considered it his duty to adopt. ^ Though a good deal of complaint was about this time raised against Government with regard to favours said to be conceded to the Peninsular and Oriental Company, yet they seem to have hitherto fought their way, step by step, against much opposi- tion, and to have redeemed their character for speed, [which was somewhat overshadowed by the superior performances of the Cunard and Colhns line of Tiie steamers, then in the midst of tlieir great Trans- bui'it" " ' atlantic race], by the construction of the Himalaya^ a steamer of larger dimensions than any other then afloat, and of extraordinary speed. ' See " Hansard's Parliamentary Debates," May 28th, 1852. - The Himalaya was 3-10 feet in length, -14^ feet width of beam, and iier engines were 2050 indicated horse-jjower. Sho was 35-10 tons O.M., and cost 132,000/. complete for S(;a. The company at the same time built the Candia, of 1898 tons, at a cost of 69,200/. and the Nuhia, Pera, and Co/umho, each of 1840 tons O.M. ; also the Simla and Bengal, of 2417 tons and 2232 tons respectively, as well as the Vahtta and I '( ctis. The whole cost of these vessels, addeil txj their existing fleet, and destined to carry out the double service of a semi-monthly communi- cation with the East, involved an outlay of 650,000/. MEHClIAN'r SHIPPING. 393 Nor did the Company receive any favour at the hands of Government when, about this period, they were seriously embarrassed for the want of a suflScient supply of coal ' at their Eastern stations, and an appeal was made for a temporary relaxation of some portion oi' the service. Indeed, when the Company, on that account, found it impossible to carry on a portion of the second monthly service between India and China, the Government threatened to inflict the penalty of 35,000/. for its non-performance, and would have enforced the strict fulfilment of the conditions of the contract in all its details, had other arrangements not been made to meet the emergency. On the 1st January, 1853, the company entered New con- -^ ' ' 1 1 tract with into a Iresli contract with Government, whereby Fcniusuiar they undertook to carry mails twice each w^ay in oriental every month between England and Alexandria, and janlJuy'^' twice each way in every month between Suez, i^^^- (^alcutta, and Hong Kong. Two vessels were also to be furnished to run between Marseilles and Malta, twice each way, in each month. The company further engaged to carry mails between Singapore and Sydney, once each way each alternate month. Tables of routes were attached and formed part of the contract. There were also certain stipulations as to proper machinery ; a medical officer was to be placed on board each vessel, and provision was made for carrying pivot and broadside guns. The vessels on the main line were required to attain a speed on trial of 12 knots an hour, the ' lSliii)piiig was so hicarcc that tliu avt'i'agc jiricf of coal deliverod at the different stations of the conii)any rose from 3Gs. 8f/. to 6().s. Sd. per ton, and was witli great ditViculty Dlitaincd at even tliese exorbitant rates. 394 MERCHANT SHIPPING. others 10^ without the aid of sails, or they were not eligible for employment. The average speed of each vessel throughout the voyage was required to be not less than 10 knots an hour, excepting in the case of those betw^een Singapore and Sydney, whicb were to make the passage at a rate not less than 8^ knots. If the company failed to provide vessels ready to put to sea from any of the ports, viz., Southampton, Alexandria, Suez, Calcutta, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Sydney, at the time appointed, the forfeit in each case was stipulated to be 500/., and a further sum of 500/. for every successive day up to the fourteenth day inclusive which might elapse before the vessel actually put to sea. And, if any vessel, in breach of the contract, delayed starting or put back or deviated, except from stress of weather, without the sanction of Government, the company was to forfeit 200/. and a further 200/. for every day's delay, unless from circumstances not under its control. The Admiralty agent had power to survey the vessels, and the Admiralty itself, to compel such alterations as might be needed so as to keep pace with the advancement of science ; while there were various provisions for the conveyance of naval, military, or civil officers, baggage, and victualing, as in other contracts. In the event of accidents occurring to any of the vessels, the mails were to be conveyed by Her Majesty's or by the East India Company's ships: and an abatement made from the contract service money, at the rate of Cs. 2c/. per nautical mile. For a consideratioi), the Admiralty reserved the privilege of clianging the port in the channel, with the right MKRCHANT SHIPPING. 395 also of purchasing the vessels at a valuation ; or of chartering tliem at a rate to be mutually agreed on or settled by arbitration. Any submission to be made a rule of court. In the possible case of an entire stoppage of the route through Egypt, the Admiralty were to act as the case might require ; the whole postage remaining at the disposal of the Post- master-General. But these mail services were soon sei'ioiisly dis- Faiiuro of SCI" V iCC turbed. The urgent requirements of Grovernment during the for the means of conveying troops to the Black Sea war!^^" and the Baltic on the outbreak of the Crimean War, obliged the company towards the close of 1854 to discontinue the branch line to Australia, and to re- duce the Bombay and China service to a monthly instead of a fortnightly line.^ The withdrawal of the company's steamers from the mail service between Singapore and Sydney, which had so recently been established, again created a large amount of discontent amongst the merchants in England connected with the trade and still more with the Colonists. The company was charged with selfish motives, and though obliged to relinquish the annual subsidy of 17,475/. for the performance of their service, it was alleged that tlic profits of the company, by the employment of its ships in the war, much more than compensated it for the reduction of the mail revenue. Thus con- siderable prejudice was raised against the company, and, in the discussion of the plans for the renewal of • During the Crimean War this company had eleven of their steamers, measuring 18,000 tons, engaged in the transport service, wliich con- \eyod during the continuation of liostilities, LSOO olhccrs, 60,000 men, and 15,000 liorses. 390 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the service after the war, it became clear that the colonists were anxious to have, if possible, a mail service of their own and altogether independent of the Peninsular and Oriental Company ; hence, when the company offered to enter into a contract for the monthly conveyance of the mails between Ceylon and Sydney by steamers of an average speed of 10 knots an hour, touching at King George's Sound and Melbourne, at an annual subsidy of 84,000/., the offer was peremptorily declined, though a greatly enhanced subsidy was subsequently paid, for the worst performed mail service that was ever undertaken. Proposals In the meantime liberal grants of money having iudcpeu- been voted by the legislative assemblies of the dif- Ausira- fercnt colonies towards the maintenance of a postal tiervica' Communication with the mother-country, advertise- ments were issued by the Admiralty, in May 1856, inviting tenders for a " monthly direct and inde- pendent service " between Suez and Australia. The conditions of tender contained many clauses of a novel character. The ships to be employed were to be full power screw steam-vessels of not less than 2200 tons each ; the tenders were to specify the maximum number of days to be consumed on the passages ; and a " penalty of 100/. to be incurred when the contractors failed in providing a vessel, in accordance with agreement, ready to put to sea at the appointed hour; and also the sum of 100/. for every successive day which should elapse until such steam-vessel should actually proceed to sea ; and alao {from ir/iatever cause aridmf) 50/. for the jirst Ol. for the first day, 1001. for the second day, 1501. for the third day, and so on^ Four tenders were lodged in reply to this adver- tisement, but only two, that of the Peninsular and Oriental Company, and that of a new undertaking, the European and Australian Steam Navigation Company, were considered by the Government : the former offering to perform the service, provided the new and very onerous penalty clause was omitted, for 1 40,000/. ; and the latter accepting all the clauses, but requiring 185,000/. per annum for the work to be performed, and stating that, should their tender be accepted, it was intended to lay on an independent line of steamers between England and Alexandria, and to perform the service between Suez and Mel- bourne in thirty-nine days outwards and thirty-five days homewards. As the Peninsular and Oriental Company " declined to be held responsible in penalties for failure as to the length of a voyage arising from causes beyond their control^'' and submitted that such penalties were unnecessary as the vessels they offered " had already been surveyed, and tested for an average speed of ten knots an hour at sea," the Government ac- Temier of cepted the tender of the European and Australian iulir^^^'^ Pomi-itanxr ^ Australian l^Ompany. Company * About this time, the unfortunate mutiny in India naturally ' creating great anxiety that every possible means should be used to increase our communication Avith that country, combined with the rapidly increasing conuuer(dal intercourse, led to a modification and at tlie same time to the increase of the existing services. Hence, in November 1807, arrangements iinder tlie contract of 1854 were made to extend the line between Bombay and Aden to Suez and to establish, in connection with it, a fortnightly service ])ctween Marseilles and 398 MERCHANT SHIPPING. So very large a concession as 185,000/. per annum for the work to be performed created at the time considerable surprise, and led to a good deal of dis- cussion in the public press as well as in Parliament. With such an enormous subsidy the directors of the new undertaking would have had no difficulty in raising the requisite amount of capital in the open market for a service apparently so tempting, but they considered the margin for profit so ample that, instead of offering tlieir shares to the public, they raised among themselves and their friends all the money that was considered necessary, anticipating no doubt a very handsome return upon the outlay. Their g^^f, the whole undertakino" proved one of the most fTitire failure. ruinous of its kind on record, the Gal way steam navigation scheme not excepted. A volume might be written, and to advantage, on the mistakes com- mitted by the directors, all of whom were business men of wealth and position, though few of them were conversant with maritime affairs, or witli the difficul- ties they had to encounter at every stage, and with the causes wliich ultimately led to the loss of some of their ships. Suffice it to say tliat, when the company had to commence operations in March 1857, its ships were not ready, and the directors were obliged to Alexandriii ; the arrivals and departures of the Bombay mails being made to alternate with those of the Calcutta line, instead of being co- incident with them as had previously been the case, so as to afford a weekly connnunication with India which has ever since been kept up. It was at the ?amc time considered desirable to increase the vojages of the Marseilles packets, which were now rimning with the Calcutta and China mails, from Malta to Alexandria as their port of destination, for transit to Suez by means of tlie railway, which had by this time been opened across the isthmus. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 3li9 enter into nriang'cments with the Royal Mail (West India) Steam Packet Company and other companies for the performance of the service; and indeed, when their own ships were ready, they either broke down or were found unfit to perform, within the specified time, the work they had undertaken. In less than two years the whole capital of tliis new company was lost, but as the result has been fully described by Lord Overstone in a speech he delivered in tlie House of Lords on the 24th of March, 1859,^ I prefer reproducing his statement, especially as it remains unquestioned, to offering any remarks of my own. "This company," his Lordship remarked, " origi- Speech of nated \evy much through the success of some in- Overstone, fluential parties in Glasgow, w^ho realized a large 24th, 1859. sum by chartering two screw steamers to Govern- ment during the Crimean War. These vessels were named the European and the Columbian^ and the company was named the ' European and Columbian Company.' Soon after the close of the Russian War, Government advertised for tenders for the Australian mail service. One given in by the European and Columbian Company was preferred to a cheaper one by the Peninsular and Oriental Company, the annual subsidy for carrying the mails being 185,000^. with monthly services, the contract to endure for five years. The penalty for the non-fulfilment of the contract was heavy, increasing prodigiously with eaeli day's delay. In consequence of this great undertaking it was necessary to enlarge the company, ' See " HiUisai-d " for Marcli, 18V.), and tlic Times of the 2-jtli of that month. 400 ' MEECHANT SHTPPTNCJ. and great!}' to increase tlie number of its vessels ; and, accordingly, a new company was formed on the limited principle, under the name of the ' European and Australian Royal Mail Company (Limited),' whom Government accepted for the contract. The nominal capital was 500,000^., but I believe not more than 420,000/, were subscribed, the balance being purposely reserved, as the promoters expected it to command a large premium. The list of proprietors is one of the best I have seen of any company, all the shareholders, eighty-four in number, being selected men, residing chiefly in Glasgow and neighbourhood, London, Liverpool, and Manchester. 400,000/. were ultimately paid up. The first meeting of the new company was held on the 3rd of Sep- tember, 1856 ; but it was, of course, some months before their plans got developed, and time was lost in negotiation with other companies to sell their contract for a bonus, or to get some other advantage. As this was not arranged, the European and Co- lumh'ian were taken over from the old company ; other vessels were chartered for immediate require- ments ; a vessel called the Oneida, by which G0,000/. were ultimate^ lost, was purchased ; and two other vessels contracted for at 100,000/. and 120,000/. It was soon apparent that the company had started with too small a capital, and that there was a total want of experience in the management. . . . After borrowing considerable sums upon the security of their vessels and otherwise, the directors found that it was necessary to make arrangements with another company to work the service, which they ultimately did with the 'Royal Mail (West India) Company.' MERCHANT SHIPPING. 401 All niiangement for an amalgamation of the two concerns was also very nearly completed, wlien tlie sliareholders of the latter company refused to confirm the bargain made l)y the directors. This and the events of last autumn (1857) brought matters to a crisis, so that almost within a twelvemonth of the formation of the company, it was known that they were practically insolvent, and they have since placed themselves under the Act, and gone into voluntary liquidation. Besides the loss of 400,000/. of capital, the debts, including mortgages, appear to be about 270,000/., against which they have the steamers, subject to some disputed claims of the Royal Mail Company, in whose hands some of them are. There is some hope that the steamers may realise sufficiently to pay the debts, but, in the present state of shipping and aspect of the questions with the Royal Mail Company, this seems to be doubtful. The following appear to be the heavier items of expense and loss : Abandoning steamers, 25,000/. ; placing steamers on stations, 37,000/. ; loss on voyages, 70,000/. ; interest, management, and depreciation, 77,000/.; loss on Oneida and expense of bringing home, 01,000/.: total 270,000/.; but there will be a further heavy loss in realising the four steamers still belonging to the company, and the plant they have at Sydney, King George's Sound, Aden, and Point de Gralle. These stand in the books at about 370,000/." When, in February 1858, tlie shaielujlders of this unfortunate undertaking were obliged to seek the j)io- tection of the Limited Liability Act under which it had been formed, the Royal Mai! (West India) Com- Royal paiiy entered into arrangements with (ioveinmeiit Com'.any VOL. IV. 2 I) 402 MERCHANT SHIPPING. iindeitakes to cariy oiit tliG servicG on the terms of the con- traiian' tract, provided it was guaranteed against loss to an and'faiis. ©^tent Hot exceeding 6000/. per month. Diffei'ences, however, soon arose between this company and the Admiralty whicli resulted in a lawsuit, whereby it appeared that the West India Company had sustained a loss far in excess of 6000/. per montli, and that the service had altogether cost the country close upon 260,000/. per annum during its brief existence/ Ni^^^' In September 1858, Grovernment again advertised invited, for tenders " for the monthly conveyance of the mails between Glreat Britain and the Australian Colonies, with a branch between Marseilles and Malta." Two oifers were made, one by the Royal Mail (West India) Company for 250,000/. per annum, and the other by the Peninsular and Oriental Company for 180,000/. Timtof The latter was accepted, and the new service com- menced in February 1859. It may be desirable here to explain that this accepted, company had previously midertaken a monthly service between Mauritius and Aden for a subsidy of 24,000/. per annum, and, an arrangement having been made that the route for the Australian mails should be via Mauritius, the performance of the mail service to both places was included in the 180,000/. But that route was soon afterwards abandoned, and a fresh agreement entered into between Government and the Peninsular and Oriental Company for a monthly line between Galle and Sydney, which, in conjunction with the Calcutta, Suez, and China lines, CoiKsuiiiia- brought the Australian Colonies into direct commu- > The same service was taken in 1865, at . . I'J d ,, And tlie directors offered to doi;ble it for a sum that would reduce the rate to . . .13 (i „ India, China and Japan contract . . .67,, Australian, Ceylon to Melbourne . . 14 4 „ ' The following return gives the annual receipts and expenditure of the Company from 1856 to 1874 inclusive, by which it will bo seen 408 MKRCHANT SHIPPING. Coals required. great that less balance is left for the shareholders than is usually divided among those of under- takings of a similar character, which receive no assistance from Government, but are free to employ their ships in whatever branch of commerce they can be most profitably engaged. Coal, as may be supposed, is one of the company's heaviest items of expenditure, and one, also, that has greatly increased during the last few years ; but when the price was comparatively moderate, the accounts of this company, from 185G to 1865 inclusive, showed an expenditure for coal alone of no less than 5,250,000/. sterling, or, on the average, 525,000/. per annum : that, while the revenue was less in 1874 than in 1860, the expenditure had increased, and that there was a deficiency in 18G7 of no less than 177,047/. Expenditure. Balance. 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 18(37 1868 186i» 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 41,546,818 1,494,435 1,645,748 1,714,374 2,006,363 2,247,328 2,131,432 2,064,865 2,060,849 2,120,554 1,976,999 2,094,493 2,261,440 2,313,817 2,390,518 2,174,672 1,923,881 1,953,551 2,007,761 2,047,899 38,630,909 £ 197,153 231,772 170,119 170,227 103,033 156,857 159,104 235,454 225,649 159,077 148,583* 177,047 172,148 169,109 142,344 168,775 169,205 165,610 138,764 Deficiency. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 409 moreover, a large stock must be constantly kept^ to meet the demands of the steamers emj)loyed on their various lines of communication ; to maintain this stock, the company employ 170 sailing-ships an- nually, a trade which, in itself, would have been considered of no mean importance in the days of our forefathers. It has not been the least interesting portion of my Descrip- labours, to describe the different modes of commercial vessels. intercourse with India from the dawn of liistory, and, from the scanty fragments of very ancient records, to attempt to afford information, however imperfect, of the ships of the first traders by sea to the far East, their dimensions, the routes they followed, the lengtli of their voyages, and something about their crews and internal economy. I have also traced their progress, as best I could, through the period of the I\oman Empire to the Middle Ages, when the vessels of the proud Italian re- publics, in connection with the Muhammedans, retained for centuries in their hands that rich and ever envied commerce, thence onward to the period when the Portuguese and the Dutch were masters of the Indian seas, and, still further, to our own days, when a company of traders ruled alike the land and ocean of these vast and much prized terri- ^ About 90,000 tons of coal are nsually kept in stock at tlieir different coaling stations, distribnted somewhat in the following proportions : Tons. Southampton . . . . 2,000 Malta r),(K)0 Alexandria and Suez . . G,000 Aden 20,900 Bombay 8,000 Point deGallo .... 12,000 Madras 500 Tons. Calcutta 4,000 Singapore 8,000 Hong-Kong .... 10,000 Shanghai 6,000 Yokohama 2,200 King George's Sound . . 4,000 Sydney 1,200 410 MERCHANT SHIPPING. tories ; and I have, at the same time, given minute details of the ships and maritime services of this once all-powerful comjiany. Screw I now siipplj the following illustration of one of tlie Khedive, most modem vessels, helonging* to the Peninsular and Oriental Company, engaged in that trade (she was built for the new line of commerce through the Suez Canal, by Messrs. Caird and Company, of Greenock, by whom her engines were also cori- structed) ; so that my readers may see the progress made in the mode of conducting maritime intercourse with India from the earliest period to our own time. The Khedive is built of iron and propelled by the screw, combining all the qualities which modern science can suggest to secure with safety the greatest speed and capacity with the smallest current ex- penses.^ ' The dimensions of the K/iu'Iive are as follows: — Length, 380 feet; breadth, 42 feet ; depth, 36 feet. Her builders' measurement is 3329 tons ; her gross register, 37-42 tons ; and her net register, 2092 tons. So far as regards capacity, she is fitted so as to accommodate with the space and style now required for Eastern travel (how different to the space allotted to passengers in the ships of Nearchus !) 164 first-class and 53 second-class passengers. Besides this, she has store-rooms of varioiTS kinds to hold 380 tons, rooms for mails and baggage to contain 142 tons; bunkers to hold 846 tons of coals calculated at 45 cubic feet per ton, and holds which can receive 2003 tons of cargo of 50 feet to the ton. Her (iirraf/e speed is 10 knots per hour on a consumption of 32 tons of coal iicr diem, but " she can be driven at a much higher speed with a proportionate increase of expcntliture of fuel." The contract specifies a speed to be guaranteed on trial of not less than 13 j knots an hour on the measured mile, with dead weight on board of coals or cargo to the extent of 1500 tons. Her engines are compound, " vertical direct acting," of 600 nominal liorsc-powcr, with 4 feet 6 inches length of stroke. The diameter of her cylinders is 69 and 96 inches respectively, and that of her screw, which consi.sts of four blades, 17 feet 6 inches ; its jiitch being 22 feet 6 inches and 24 feet. She lias 4 boilers and 16 furnaces. Tlie :\ii;i!(iiAN'i' smi-riNG. 411 lliJIlliiillii'iriill.iWiiiliM 412 MERCHANT SHIPPING. It would weary my readers were I to furnish a specification of the hull and outfit of the Khedive. more especially as somewhat similar specifications are to be found in numerous treatises on modern ship- building, with which I do not profess to deal, and as it would, in itself, occupy forty or fifty pages of this volume. It may be sufficient to state, in the con- cluding words of the contract, " that the whole of the materials and workmanship are to be of the best quality, and the vessel, with the exception of bed and sofa mattresses, curtains, plate, cutlery, glass, china, linen, and bedding, to be entirely fitted and ready for sea at the cost of the contractors ;" the contract price for the ship thus fitted complete for sea, including her machinery, was 110,000/., or a little more than 33/. per ton builders' measurement. Of course the price of all ships, as previously stated, depends on their class, power^ and equip- ment, so that the cost of one vessel ready for sea may be very different from that of another ship). For instance, sailing-ships, when new, range from 8/. to 22/. per ton, and steamers from 15/. to as high as 40/. or even 45/. per ton if the engines be very powerful, highly finished, and mounted, and if the passenger accommodation be of an unusually superior and extravagant description. In comparing this ship with the illustrations I have given of vessels of even comparatively modern times, my readers will be struck with the difference. Instead of the great hull towering high out of the fire-bar surface is 320 square feet, and the heating and condensing surface 11,7'iO, and 6059 square feet respectively. The loaded pressui-e is 55 pounds on her hollers. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 413 water, with poops and top-gallant forecastles re- sembling- the towers or castles on shore from which thej derive their name, we have the h^ng, low, yacht-looking craft offering the least possible resist- ance to the winds and waves against which she has to contend, yet affording more safety, as experience has shown, and far more comfort, with vastly increased capacity, in proportion to her register, for cargo and passengers, than the ships of any nation of any previous age. In other respects it would be useless to attempt a comparison. We have nothing in ancient times to compare with the steam-ship, unless it be the row- galley, and to propel a vessel of the size and weight of the Khedive at the rate of four miles an Particu- hour through the smoothest water would require at this sMp. least 2000 rowers. I may however state, for the infor- mation of my readers, that the Khedive will perform the vo3^age from Southampton to Bombay in thirty days (an abstract from her log will be found. Appendix No. 22, pp. G37-8), or in one-third of the time which Dr. Vincent, when he wrote at the commencement of this century on the commerce of the East, con- sidered extraordinarily short between Bombay and England ; indeed, is short, too, for a sailing-vessel of even our own times. A list of her crew, arranged according to their different departments, is furnished herewith.^ 1 Europeans. Natives r Commander . . . , . .1 ! OflBcers 5 Navigating \ ^^^^^^^ \ \ . \ . \ '. \ . \ I Boatswain 1 L Quartermasters 3 414 I^IKRCHANT SHITI'ING. rnifonii Folio wiiif)' tliG example of the old East India and re- . . guiations Company, the directoi's of the Peninsular and Oriental cfiiiiiuny. Company, as well as of many other similar under- takings, require their officers to wear uniform. They also issue regulations for the guidance of the en- gineers and for the general management of their ships (especially with reference to safety and economy). These regulations are similar in many respects to those of other companies, though not so complete us those of the Cunard, nor, we fear, from yarious accidents which haye occurred, so rigidly enforced. Upon this all-important point — the ■'safety of the ship — it would be impossible to impress too strongly upon shipowners the duty they owe to the public, since, by the vigorous enforcement of such regula- tions, numerous valuable liyes might be sayed and many terrible calamities preyented. To uniforms I haye no objection, but such matters are of yery secondary consideration to the safety of the vessel, and while holding the opinion that polite and well- Kuroin-jus. Natives. Brouglit forward . .12 C Carpenter's mate (Chinese) 1 ■v; • , ■ J Gig's crew (do.) G I beamen (Lascars) 4-! I Assistants of different sorts G Engines . J Engineers G (Coal trimmers, (tc 4U f Purser 1 ! Clerk, Head Steward, Cook, Baker, \ I Butcher, Pantryman, Storekeeper, > . 8 Cabins ^ and Barman j j Stewards 22 j Stewardesses .2 I Purser's department 21 Total l'hu'()]ieans ... 51 Natives 12() MERCHANT SlIllTlXG. 415 dressed officers are an acquisition, cs})ecially to a passenger sliip, their acts of courtesy must never be permitted to interfere in the slightest degree with their paramount duties as seamen, wliicli require them, considering the varied and increasing dangers to which steam navigation is exposed, to he ever on the alert. I liave ventured to offer these few conchiding remarks because some of tlie losses of the vessels of the Peninsular and Oriental Company, which occurred in fine weather and in smooth water, might have been avoided. The directors have, however, since then issued (March 14th, 1874) to the commanders of their ships more stringent instructions, and have intimated that any neglect of duty, especially as regards "lookouts," will be "severely visited."^ ^ For fleet of Peuiiisular and Oriental Steam Navigation Comjjany, Jan. 1875, sec Appen-lix No. 28, pp. 639-40. 4W MEKCHANT SilllTING. CHAPTER Xr. Changes produced by the opening of the Suez Canal — Sailing fruit- clippers — Introduction of steamers into the Mediteranean trade, 1840 — Establishment of various steam lines, 1850 — That of Messrs. Frederick Leyland and Co., &c. — Their fleets — Messageries Rlaritimes Company— Its origin and management — First contract for the convey- ance of the oversea French mails, 1851 — Extension of contracts, 1854- 56 — Brazil line, 1857 — Vast extent of its fleet — Largest vessels — Trade via the Suez Canal — Presumed advantage of auxiliary engines — Not borne out by the results — Conveyance of the Australian mails — Peculiar conditions of contracts — Failure of the service — Stringent penalties — Australian steam services — Mr. Alfred Holt's line of steamers to China — Its success — Messrs. Gellatly, Hankey, and Company — Messrs. Green and Company— Messrs. Eathbone Brothers — Messrs. George Smith and Sons — Letter from Mr. George Smith — Messrs. Smiths' ships and their voyages to and from India — Changes in the mode of conducting commerce with India and China — Number of vessels through Suez Canal since its opening, and their nationality. Changes ]N^Qr,, ^\^q least interesting of the many chane-es in produced i i i i i - n by the maritime commerce brought about by the opening of thrsufz*' the Suez Canal, has been the restoration, though as ""^" yet to a limited extent, of the earliest commercial intercourse recorded in history between the Mediter- ranean and the once far East, and of the trade the merchants of the Levant and the Adriatic carried on with India by the agency of the Muhammedans in Egypt during the Middle Ages. Directed to a different route by the re-discovery of the passage to the Eastern world by way of tlie Cape of Good Hope, this ever envied trade has, since MERCHANT SHIPPING. 417 the close of tlie fifteeiitli century, been conducted as we have seen from the Atlantic and northern ports of Europe, and during moie recent years, from those of Grreat Britain. Consequently, the vessels belonging to the Mediterranean ports have been obliged to seek other and much less remunei^ative employment, which, since the decline of the great Italian Republics, has dwindled into comparative insignificance. Nor has the Mediterranean trade itself occupied a position of any importance during the last three centuries, indeed ir has only revived since steam-vessels have given new life to those inland seas, which, throughout all time, have been so familiar to the mariner. It has been, hence, confined chiefly to that carried on between the inhabitants of the different countries bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, who, having little or no encouragement to export their surplus produce to other nations, never thought of employing vessels of a superior class to those which for ages had sufficed for their coasting trades. The first measure, which gave renewed existence Sailing to the maritime commerce of these peoples, was the clippers, repeal of the British corn laws, encouraging, as this did to an extent hitherto unknown, the impoi'tation of wheat from the ever luxuriant lands of Egypt, and from the numerous corn-growing countries border- ing the shores of the Black Sea, the Marmora, and the steppes of Russia. Soon afterwards, the repeal of the duties on the fruits grown in sucli rich abundance in the islands of the Levant and along tlie coasts of the Mediterranean, gave new life to another branch of trade which had long lain dormant, and, while the former afforded greatly increased employment to the ships of all nations, the latter VOL. TV. 2 E 418 MERCHANT SHIPPING. encouraged the production of vessels so superior to those previously in use, as, in speed, to outrival the once celebrated Baltimore clippers. introduc- Curiouslj cnough, however, the introduction of steamers thcsc fast fruit schooucrs, seldom exceeding in size intothe 200 tons register, retarded the introduction of Mediter- ci ' ranean steamers to the trade of the Mediterranean till a 1840.' much later period than would otherwise have been the case, considering their early and rapid extension in all other branches of commerce. Growers and merchants engaged in the fruit trade, as was the case with the shippers of tea from Chinaat a still later period, were under the impression that steam would injure the flavour of their fruits ; hence, for a time, declined to ship their produce in vessels 23ropelled otherwise than by sails. They likewise preferred to export their raisins, figs, and currants in small quantities, convinced that they would thus obtain higher prices and a readier market, and consequently engaged vessels of 80 and 100 tons rather than those of greater dimensions. Many of my readers cannot fail to recollect the fleets of beautiful small Mediter- ranean clippers which were wont to crowd our docks at certain seasons of the year. Moreover, as these vessels made their voyages with extraordinary rapidity and regularity, the inducements to employ vessels propelled by steam were less urgent than in most other branches of trade. Although steamers occasionally visited the Medi- terranean, it was not till 1840 that any attempt was made to establish a line or succession of voyages in the trade with Great Britain, much le.ss among the islands of the Levant, and along tlie shores of the Black Sea and the Adriatic. Among the earliest MERCHAiNT SHIl'i'ING. -119 attempts may be mentioned that of tlie Rattler^ of 350 tons and 50 horse-power, despatclied by Messrs. Vivian, Jones, and Chappie, of Liverpool. About 1840 the Peninsular Company also extended the operations of their steamers to Malta and Alexan- dria, and soon afterwards to Corfu, the Levant, and Constantinople. Li 1845 Mr. A. Mong-redian, of Estabiish- Liverpool, attempted to establish a legular line vadous between that port and the Levant with the steamers Jf^^J"" nes. Osmanli and Levantine, but being unsuccessful, they i^^*^- wei-e transferred in 1849 to Messrs McKean, McLarty, and Lamoiit, who employed them between Liverpool, Marseilles, Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, Messina, Palermo, and the Adriatic, where they appear to have yielded more remunerative returns. From about this period, steam in those trades, as it has done everywhere else, made its way when fairly established ; and, afterwards, increased with extraordi- nary rapidity, affording greatly improved facilities for the development of ancient branches of maritime commerce, which had long lain dormant, as well as for the creation of others hitherto unknown. Various associations and companies were now formed to carry on the trade of those inland seas by means of steam- vessels from both London and Liverpool. Among the most important belonging to Great Britain, were the lines of steamers sent forth by Messrs. Bibby, Sons, and Company, now Messrs. Frederick Leyland That of and Company, and by Messrs. Burns and Mclver ; fkhIoiu-Iv while the Austrian Lloyd's Steam Navigation Com- nnJ ''"^ pany trading from Trieste, and the French Messa- ^^-^ ***• geries Maritimes from Marseilles, were tlie chief foreign inidertakings established to carry on the coasting trade in which the protective character of 2 E 2 420 MERCHANT SHIPPING. pilill|!llllilllliill!f(i|illl!ill!llllll!ll!li!lllllli MERCHANT SHIPPING. 421 the Austrian and French navigation laws conferred on them exclusive privileges. In the trade from Liverpool, including- the Penin- Tiieir sular service, Messrs. Frederick Leyland and Com- pany alone now employ' no less than twenty-three large iron steamers, seventeen of them varying in size from 1500 to 3000 tons gross register, bound direct to the Mediterranean ports. These are all propelled by the screw, and are surprising specimens of purely cargo steamers. In this respect, considering their capacity in proportion to their admeasurement, ton- nage, and small current expenses, these vessels are, perhaps, unsurpassed by any steam-ships afloat. For instance, the Bavarian, of which an illustration may be seen on the previous page, takes 4800 tons of cargo exclusive of her coal bunkers, though of only 3052 tons gross register, and is navigated by the comparatively small number of forty-eight persons all told.^ The steamers of this firm and of Messrs. Burns and Mclver, as well as those of various other companies, now run in regular lines from London, Liverpool, and elsewhere, to the numerous ports of the Mediterranean, Levant, Adriatic, and Black Sea. Gibbon, in his brilliant description of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, speaks of the terror of its Senators lest the supply of corn should fail in meeting the requirements of the once all-powerful capital, and create, as usiial, violent tumults among the people ; but, with the fleet alone of Messrs. Leyland ' Besides the Jiavarian, Messrs. Leylauel employ in this trade tlie /W»(?TOOTn and ^?////rtrm??, similar in all respects, each of which is 400 feet in length, 37 feet wide, and '28 feet in depth, with engines of 350 nominal horse-power. They liavc also in the same trade other three sister ships, the Iherinn, lUijrian., and Istrinn, each 2890 tons gross register and carrying 4400 tons of cargo, dimensions 3'JO x 37 x 29. 422 MERCHANT SHIPPING. and Company at their command, all apprehension on this score would have vanished, as either of the three vessels I have mentioned could, with the present appliances for loading and discharge, have transported from Egypt to Rome in the course of twelve months, no less than 500,000 quarters, or 4,000,000 bushels, while the whole fleet could have taken 10,000,000 quarters, had Egypt been able to produce within the year that quantity of grain. Such are a few of the changes the application of the motive power of steam has produced within our own time. Messa- ]3^|. u^iiqIi the lar2:est maritime undertaking: en- genes _ ^ _ '^ Maritimes gaged in the trade of the Mediterranean and else- where, is that of the Messageries Maritimes, recently the Messageries Imperiales, monojDolizing, as this does, nearly the whole of the steam tonnage of France. Indeed, apart from the vessels owned by this association, and one or two other highly subsi- dized shipping companies in that country, the French may be said to have no steamers.' Their protective policy, combined with the depressing influence which large grants of public money to special undertak- ings must ever exercise on individual energy, has effectually overpowered all private enterprise of this description. It may be true, as has been frequently alleged, that the French people have no natural aptitude for maritime pursuits, and that their children, who are not employed in their vineyards, or in tlie manufacture of those special articles for which they have long been celebrated, take naturally to the fife and the drum with somewhat of the same avidity that the boys of England seek enjoyment in navigation ; ' The whole steam toiniix.^o of Friinco amounted in LS73 to 185,160 tons net register. MEFiCHANT SHIPPING. 423 but, certain it is that, owing to restrictive laws and enormous subsidies to favoured individuals, the French people, generally, have never yet been al- lowed the opportunity of showing what they could do in the peaceful paths of maritime commerce. The Messageries Mavitimes, their greatest shipping its origin undertaking, though exceedingly well managed, is manage- after all, a pure creation of the Government — one, too, nursed with the greatest care from its infancy, and maintained throughout by large grants from the public purse, which were materially increased on the accession of the third Napoleon to the Throne of France, wdio, tliroughout the whole of his reign, displayed a marked anxiety to promote and encourage maritime undertakings. Previously, indeed, to 1851, the company had been chiefly engaged as carriers by land, and was under contract for the conveyance of the mails throughout a considerable portion of France. In July of that year this company entered upon ^''^st X t/ 1 contract its first oversea contract with Government for the for the conversance of the French Mails to Italy, the Levant, ance*^ Greece, Egypt, and Syria, and in 1852 spontaneously oversea added to their services the principal ports of Greece fj^^^^ and Salonica.^ is.^^.' In 1854, the managers of the Messageries Company Extension concluded arrangements with the Minister of War ibr tmcts, the transport of all troops and military stores between ^ "• • France and Algeria, besides the conveyance of the mails, and, having very materially increased their fleet owing to the requirements of the Crimean cam- paign, they were, in 1855, enabled to open between ' The Greeks, strange to say, considering their shrewdness and keen business habits, stopped the coasting trade of foreigners, thereby doing incalcuhible injury to their own commerce, not having capital themselves to supply the deficiency or perform adequately the service. 424 MERCHANT SHIPPINa. Marseilles, Civita Yecchia, and Naples, a direct weekly line of steamers, independently of the postal service, principally intended to meet the requirements neces- sary to be maintained between the War Department and the army of occupation at Rome. When the Crimean War happily came to a close, and the military lines of steamers to the Black Sea were no longer necessary, the directors, in 1856, employed their disposable vessels in increasing the frequency of services to Algeria, and in establishing a postal service between Marseilles and the ports of the Danube and along the east coast of the Black Sea, for which they obtained a contract from Government Brazil j^ 1857. In that year they, likewise, entered into line. -^ -' ^ ' 1857. arrangements for the conveyance of the French mails between Bordeaux, the Brazils, and La Plata. Vast The fleet of the Messageries Company had now l^s^fleet. reached fifty-four ships of 80,875 tons, and 15,240 horse-power, afloat or in course of construction, evidently iDore than they could profitably employ : they, therefore, applied for and obtained from their Government, in 1861, a contract for the conveyance of the French mails to India and China, requiring for this purpose only an additional steamer. But the increase of trade to the East, brought about in no small degree by the increased facilities and by an anxious desire on the part of the company to meet the w^ants of the travellers of all nations, very soon enabled the directors to double the services of their steamers to the East. In 1871 their fleet measuring 137,334 tons, of 20,885 horse-power, per- formed services on the India and China routes of 230,135 French leagues; on the Mediterranean and Black Sea, 153,47.^ ; and, on the P>i-azilian, 50,004 : in MERCHANT SHirPINO. 425 all, 423,607 leagues annually, independently of various extra services. Since then their Brazilian and La Plata lines have been doubled, and now (1875) the company employs 175,000 tons of steam-ships, besides chai'tering' numerous sailing-vessels.^ When first the Messageries Company became car- riers by sea, they had nearly all their vessels built in England, but they now possess large establishments of their own, where the}' construct screw-steamers of iron, rivalling in most respects, and very much re- sembling those of, the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, of which I have furnished an illustration. Their two largest ships employed in the trade with ves^eTs* India and China are the Anadyr and the Irairaddy, of 3671 and 3471 tons gross register respectively, and each of 600 nominal horse-power. The other sixteen vessels in that service range from 3017 tons and .500 horse-power, down to 1035 tons and 280 horse-power. Their six steamers employed on the Brazilian and River Plate line are from 3417 tons and 600 horse-power, to 2115 tons and 400 horse- power, w^liile the thirty-five engaged in the Mediter- ranean and Black Sea services range from 2524 tons and 500 horse-power to 430 tons and 160 horse- power. They have also three steamers of 1500 tons and 250 horse-power engines on the compound ]U"in- ciple trading between London and Marseilles, and ' My readers will perceive that this company api)ai"cntly owns within 10,OOU tons of the whole of the steam-sliipping of France, but this arises from the gross tonnage being given in the former returns, and only the net registered tons in the latter. Nevertheless, tlie Messa- geries Muritimes is now the largest steam-ship company in the world. A list of the steamers of this comjiany, and how employed, will be found in tiic Ai)pendix No. 24, \t. 641. 426 MERCHANT SHIPPING. four magnificent screw-steamers in course of con- struction, each of 4000 tons and 600 horse-power. The trade of this large Company now embraces all the chief ports of the Mediterranean and Black Sea, and those of India, China, Java, and Japan, as well as of Algeria and the Brazils; and the excellent man- ner in which the different lines are conducted and navigated by Frenchmen is the best answer that can be given to the old saying that the French never were and never will be a maritime people. That they do not equal the English on the ocean is likely enough, nevertheless that they would become much greater as shipowners than they now are there can be little doubt, were they governed by wise laws and left to depend upon their own energy and resources rather than on government grants. Throughout all time " protective " laws seem to have retarded the natural development of commerce, as they have been too fre- quently the ruin of nations as well as of individuals. The ships of the Messageries Maritimes Company, Trade via n t • ■ n i i the Sue?, like those of their great competitors tor the trade of the East, the Peninsular and Oriental Company, now pass through the Suez Canal. But, besides these two companies, the former of which receives nearly double the amount of subsidy of the other,^ there are now numerous other steam lines following the same route, all bidding for the ever envied trade of the once mysterious Cathay ; and these have in- creased enormously since the waters of the Red Sea, passing through the desert, mingled with those of the Mediterranean. ^ The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company for a service of 1,171,092 miles, rec(!ives 430,000/., while the Messagei-ies Maritimes is paid at present (June lvS75) 399,838/. for a service of G3] ,514 miles. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 427 Hitherto steam to India by the way of the Cape of Good Hope has proved an unprofitable under- taking : nor, with all the improvements tending towards increased economy on the one hand, and greater capacity for cargo on the other, does it offer many more inducements now, than it did when the Enterpinze first found her way to Calcutta. Nor, indeed, has any better success attended steam navigation undertakings to the distant colonies of Australia. From the time that the trade with India was thrown open, sailing-ships thither, as well as to Australia, have been the chief means of transport, and these still carry by far the largest proportion of the goods traffic, though first-class passengers prefer the more expeditious overland routes : but steam-boats, even though largely subsidized, especially to India by tlie way of the Cape, have found it impossible to compete successfully with the sailing-ships of Messrs. Green of Blackwall, Messrs T. and W. Smith, and other private shipowners long engaged in the trade. The two steam companies, formed nearly simulta- neously about the year 1852 to run via tlie Cape of Good Hope : one, the General Screw Steam Company to Calcutta and intermediate Indian ports ; and the other, the Australian Royal Mail Steam Company, though eacli received large grants of public money, alike proved signal failures. Nor can the failure of these undertakings be altogether attributed to mis- management. A good deal of it was, doubtless, due to the description of vessels employed, and to their un- suitability for the services undertaken, but still more to the fact that neither auxiliary steam-ships, nor full-powered steamers, have hitherto been profitable on distant voyages. 'ines. 428 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Presumed About that period many shipowners were under orauxiii-*^ the impression that full-rigged ships, such as the ary cii- Massachusetts, with an auxiliary steam-engine, to be used only in calms and light winds, would in them- selves combine all the best qualities of a sailing-ship and steamer : nor was this surprising. On the voyage, for instance, from England to India a sailing-vessel during the ftxvourable trade winds and monsoons, which can always be depended upon for a considerable part of the voyage, would, under sail alone, make almost as much progress as a steamer ; while, in the calms, which are invariably met with for from five to ten degrees on each side of the Equator, and, where sailing-vessels frequently are long detained, the small steam-engine could be applied to great advantage; as also on entering as well as on leaving harbours. Indeed, so strongly impressed was I with the value of auxiliary steam- vessels for distant voyages, that, in 1856, 1 undertook, even after these failures, to convey in seven such steamers, three-fourths of which belonged to myself, the monthly mails, within a given time, between London, the Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius, Ceylon, Madras, and Calcutta. The vessels thus employed were built entirely of iron, and ship-rigged, as may be seen by the follow- ing illustration of one of them ; more fully so, in pro- portion to their size, than those of the General Sci^ew Company, and, as their engines were only from 80 to 120 horse-power nominal, on a tonnage of from 800 to 1500 tons gross, they were purely auxiliary vessels. Under sail their speed was from 10 to 11 knots, with a favourable wind, and, under steam alone, from 6 to 7 knots an hour in light breezes MKKCHANT SHIPPING. 429 or calms, l)iif, in atlvcrse winds, they made little or no progress, a fact arising in great measure from their small steam-power and from the resistance their heavy spars presented to the winds: consequently, though they met with no accidents, and were more to be depended npon, as to time, than ordinary sailing-vessels, they could not maintain the regu- larity essential for the mail service ; so, after twelve months' experience, I relinquished the undertaking. Since that time no mails have been carried in any description of steam-vessels from England to ports eastward of the Cape of Good Hope by the Atlantic AUXILIARY STEAMEn TO CAPE AND INDIA. sea route, except it may be to Natal, and occasionally to the Mauritius, or to Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa. In full powered steamers the space required for „ ^ coals and machinery on these distant oversea voyages, ""* ^^v the <■' JO' IVSllllS. over and above their first cost and current expenses, prevent them carrying cargo sufficient to afford 430 MERCHANT SHIPPING. remunerative returns, and their owners are not recouped by the extra rates of freight obtainable for the time saved on the voyages. In the case of the auxiliary steamers the results are the same, arising in a great measure from similar causes, for, though such vessels had greater space for cargo, yet the advantage thus gained is coimter- balanced by the maintenance of a staff of engineers and firemen who, during the greater portion of the voyage are unemployed, and by the fact already stated that, though the auxiliary engine is valuable in calms, it has not power enough to be of service against strong and adverse winds. As a rule, there- fore, it is in most cases more profitable to employ either a steamer with only light spars and a few fore ai]d aft sails, or a full-rigged vessel which depends entirely upon her sails. Anything between the two has not hitherto been found to answer so well, though there may be exceptions depending on the trade in which such vessels are employed. Convey- From the time of the opening of the overland route, all the mails to the East Indies have passed through Egypt, except those despatched by the two lines of auxiliary steamers round the Cape of Good Hope, to which I have just referred ; and even by these vessels few or no letters were sent except to the intermediate ports ; but, for many years after the overland route had been opened, the British mails to Australia and New Zealand were conveyed almost entirely by sailing-vessels, except during the two or three years the Australian Royal Mail Steam Packet Company carried on its operations. When the steamers of that company were unable any longer to continue the service, the Peninsular and ancc of the Austra- lian tuails MERCHANT SHIPPING. 431 Oriental Company undertook, as v/e have seen, the conveyance of these, the more important mails by way of Ceylon ; but, when the service was re- linquished for a time, as some of their steamers were required as transports for the Crimean War, the conveyance of the whole of the Australian mails, greatly to the annoyance and discomfort of the colonists, reverted again to sailing-vessels. To obviate as far as practicable the delay and un- certainty in the time of the delivery of the letters, Grovernment, instead of contracting for their con- veyance by any one line of sailing-vessels, considered it expedient to throw the contracts open to the com- petition of all suitable vessels engaged in the trade with Australia. But this, too, was merely an ex- periment, and one which proved alike unsatisfactory to the public and Government. It was tried, however, for a year or more and, as it so happened, the trial was made just between the time when the steamers of the General Screw Company and those of the Australian Royal Mail Company had ceased to run, and of my own experiment with the Cape and Indian mail services. To insure speed and, if possible, regularity, the Peculiar Post Office authorities stipulated that from the amount conditious ^ oi cun- to be paid to each ship thus employed, there should tracts, be deducted a penalty of 20/. for every day's delay in the delivery of the letters beyond the time specified in the tender. Instead of leaving the sum, as had hitherto been and now is the invariable practice, to be named by the person who tendered. Govern- ment fixed it at 1000/. for the passage, accepting the offer whicli contained the fewest number of days for tlie performance of the service. Thus, a 432 MERCHANT SHIPPING. shipowner wlio could reckon with tolerable certainty, that his vessel would make the voyage to Australia in 100 days, which most first-class ships conld do, might safely tender to do it in, say, seventy-seven days, because after the deduction of the 20/. per day for the twenty-three days in excess, he would have a balance of 540/. to receive (besides other advan- tages which " mail-packets " derived), and as that sum would further cover an additional excess of twenty-seven days, or say altogether fifty days beyond the time contracted for, the speculation was an exceedingly safe one to a sailing-ship, even if the tender were made for the shortest time in which the fastest steamer had been known to accomplish the voyage. Hence this system of tender proved altogether illusory as regarded the securing a rapid communication. The very first ship, the Stratfoixl, despatched under the new arrangement, occupied on her outward passage a period of thirty-seven days in excess of the time stipulated ! Failure If the colonists had been loud in their previous complaints they were still more so now ; but the Treasury and Post Office authorities, considering that they had done their best to secure speed, were, for a time, immovable and indisposed to make any further experiments. Steamers and sailing-vessels on so distant a voyage having alike failed, Govern- ment thought there was now a good answer to all complaints, and, consequently, treated them with indifference. They argued, referring to the then recent failure of the Australian Royal Mail Packet Company, that, as the steam- vessels between England and Sydney had varied from seventy-six to 120 days, while the length of passage by fast sailing-ships of the service. i MERCHANT. SII I PPlNa. 433 between England and Port Phillip wasfrom eighty-two to 1 10 days, the difference was not really of any serious disadvantage. Nevertheless, while Government re- fused increased grants for the conveyance of the mails, it adopted and enforced much' more rigorous pen- alties^ against owners of sailing-ships to ensure a more speedy performance of the mail services. This «trinL-ont fresh experiment, however, from its extreme rigour also failed, and some time elapsed before the colonists obtained what they had long demanded, a direct and independent line of steam-vessels by way of Suez and Ceylon ; and that, as we have seen, proved in the hands of the European and Australian Steam Navi- gation Company the most signal failure of all the experiments which had been made. ^ An amusing incident occurred at this time to myself not altogether nuwortliy of notice. Wlien tlie discussions were going on about the irregularity of the sailing-ship mails, the late Mr. James Wilson, then Secretary to the Treasury, one day asked me how these irregularities could best be remedied. " Oh," I said, half in joke and half in earnest, " adopt the horse-shoe nail mode of levying your jjenalties : inflict, as you do now, 20/. for the first day's delay, but increase it to 40/. for the second, 80/. for the third, 1(50/. for the. fourth, 320'. for the fifth, 640/. for the sixth, and no pay at all for the conveyance of the mails if the shijjs are seven days beyond the time stipulated in their contract, and you will be no longer troubled with tenders professing to deliver your letters in less time than the pas.^age, under ordinary circumstances, can be accomplished." A scheme of penalties, somewhat after this fashion, was immediately afterwards adopted ; but I had unwittingly prepared a stick to break ray own back. The second contract for the Cape and India mails, to which I have referred in the text, was one of the earliest to whicli this new principle was applied, and I could not of course object to the stringency of this new fashioned penalty clause, as it was of my own creation. Nor did the Government hesitate to put it in foi-ce when my ships were beiiind time, as also in the case of the unfortunate Euro- pean and Australian Steam Navigation Company. But though the new principle promptly and effectually put a stop to all tenders of Ihc class of which Mr. "Wilson comitlainod. it was much too riccu-oiis to be continuoil and was abolished. VOL. J v. 2 V 434 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Among the instances where anything Hke success has attended steam voyages direct to Austraha, Australian may he mentioned the services performed by Messrs. services. Gibbs, Bright, and Company, in their steamship Great Britain from Liverpool, and in the steamers belonging to Messrs. Money Wigram and Sons, of London, which now trade to these colonies. Occa- sionally other steamers are despatched to Australia and also to New Zealand, and recently a company was formed — the Australian Direct Steam Naviga- tion Company — with the intention of maintaining a regular monthly line from London to Melbourne, calling at Falmouth, the projectors anticipating the performances of the passage in " under forty-five days." But though this undertaking failed at the outset, and exjDerience can alone test the realization of the sanguine expectations of its jDromoters, it may be said in favour of their views, that the diffi- culties previous pioneers of steam-vessels on long- oversea voyages have had to encounter are being rapidly surmounted by the new compound engines, where the consumption of coals required to attain a given speed is not one-half of what it was twenty years ago. Mr. Alfred So far as regards the trade with India and China hneVf by way of the Cape of Good Hope, the steam-line steamers started bv Mr. Alfred Holt of Liverpool in 18G5 is the only one within my recollection, which has hitherto proved successful. Though the steamers of this line now proceed to China by the Suez Canal, their performances were remarkable when engaged in the former route. Starting from Liverpool they never stopped till they reached Mauritius, a distance of 8500 MERCHANT SHIPPING. 435 miles, being uiuler steam the whole way, a feat hitherto considered impossible ; thence they proceeded to Penang, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Shanghai, and, though unaided by any government gj-ants, performed these distant voyages with extraordinary legularity. In forwarding the particulars of his first three vessels, Mr. Holt ' remarks : " Since the Suez Canal was opened I have found that tlie square sails of tlie A'jainemnon, Ajax, and Achilles'^ were of little use, and, therefore, I have converted these three ships into what the Americans call ' barquen- tine rig' (i.e. no square yards on mainmast), and have constructed all m}" new shij^s with pole-masts only." ' Mr. Alfred Holt is the third son of my old friend, the late Mr. George Holt of Liverpool. He is an engineer by jn-ofession, having served his aiDprenticesliip to Mr. Edward Woods, the engineer of the Liveri^ool and Manchester Railway. Afterwards, he became the in- specting engineer of my steamers and of those of others; and when he himself, in time, became the owner of steam-ships, in partnership with his brother, Mr. Philip H. Holt, he showed what knowledge, practically gained, could achieve, and, thoroughly beating his old em- ployers by the production of the vessels to which I refer, he now ranks high, and deservedly high, among the great shijjowners of his native town. Though he has no claim to be considered the inventor of the compound engine, for that is almost as old, in one form or another, as the present century ; he was the first to apply the prin- ciple on Jong oversea vo>/ai Cross, and the Lanccfichl, built on the Clyde, and owned by Messrs. Jardine, Matheson, and Company These vessels invariably called at Singapore on their way to Hong Kong, where they waited for desimtches from England by the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navi- gation Company. Thus the owners of these vessels, which were much faster tlian the Mail boats, not merely realized large profits in their regular trade, but, with earlier information from home, than theii- competitors, had a great advantage in all other branches of commerce, as well as in tliat of opiiun. 456 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the coasts of India and Persia, so as to embrace, at the present time, a continuous coasting service between Singapore on the one hand, and the island of Zanzibar on the other, with an extension from the latter port to the French settlements of Mayotte, Nossi Be, and Its fleet Majunga. The i3eet of this company now consists of its^'^*''°* of forty-two iron screw-steamers, varying in size operations, fi-om 350 to 2600 tous gToss register, their aggregate gross tonnage being about 57,000, employed on thirteen different lines/ showing the vast extent of commercial intercourse now maintained by the vessels of this one undertaking alone. One is amazed at the rapidity of the growth of steam-ship companies throughout the world, within the last quarter of this century. It seems only the other day when Mr. Mackinnon of Glasgow, a merchant engaged in the trade with India and the founder and managing director, as well as one of the chief owners of this large fleet of steamers, men- tioned to the author his intention of running a couple of small steam- vessels between Calcutta and Burmah. 1 Lines of communication maintained by the steamers of the British India Steam Navigation Company (Limited) : Line 1. Between Calcutta, Chittagong, Akyab, and Kyouk Phyoo, fortnightly. 2. Between Calcutta, Akyab, and Eangoon, fortnightly. 3. Between Calcutta, Eangoon, and Moulmein, weekly. 4. Between Calcutta, Chittagong, Akyab, Kyouk Phyoo, Sandoway, Bassein, Eangoon, Moulmein, Tavoy, Mergui Pakchan, Kopah, Junkseylon, Penang, Malacca, and Singai^ore, every four weeks. 5. Between Moulmein, Penang, Malacca, and ►Singapore, fortnightly. 6. Between Calcutta, Port Blair, Camorta, and Eangoon, fourweekly. 7. Between Madras and northern jjorts to Eangoon, fortnightly. 8. Between Calcutta and Bombay, calling at ports in the Coromandel and Malabar coast ports, weekly. 9. Between Bombay and Karachi, twice a week. 10. Between Bombay, Karachi, Muskat, Bunder Abbas, Linga, Bushiro, and Bussorah, weekly. 11. Between London, Lisbon, Algiers, Eed Sea ports, Karachi, and Persian Gulf, every four weeks. 12. Between Aden and Zanzibar every four weeks. 13. Between Zanzibar, Mayotte, Nossi Be, Majunga, Mozambique, and other East African ports, every four weeks. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 457 Nor was he then very sanguine of success. With the shrewdness, however, characteristic of his countrymen, he saw, beyond the difficulties he would have to encounter (which men of his deter- mination and perseverance alone know how to overcome), an important and valuable opening for the employment of steamers, and having overcome every obstacle, his hopes have been more than realized ; indeed, mucli sooner and to a far larger extent, than he or any one else could at the first have anticipated. This now important undertaking had its origin Origin of in an advertisement by the East India Company company. in 1855, for steam-vessels to convey the mails between Calcutta and Burmah, a service hitherto conducted by their own vessels, the Enterprize being the fiist to do so. Mr. Mackinnon and his partners, having agreed to accept the contract, despatched for its fulfilment the Baltic and CajJe of Good Hope, but these vessels, being unsuitable for the purpose, and having made long and expensive passages to India, their enterprising owners would have suffered a heavy loss by them, had they not, soon after their arrival, been engaged for the trans- port of troops at the outbreak of the mutiny. Nor was the new company more fortunate with its early the first vessels they built on the Clyde for this ciities, trade. One of these, the Calcutta, of 900 tons, was totally wrecked off the coast of Wicklow soon after she left Greenock, while another, the Caps of Good Hope, was simk in the Hooghly, having come into collision with one of the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company. The losses thus 458 MERCHANT SHIPPING. and rapid sustained Were, however, vigorously overcome ; other new vessels were supplied and, in 1862, a fresh con- tract was entered into with the Grovernment of India, including conditions for the transport of troops and stores at a mileao;e rate, and for the conveyance of the mails, not merely every fortnight, between Cal- cutta, Akyab, Rangoon, and Moulmein, but also once a month, vAa the two latter ports, to Singapore ; a similar service to Chittagong and Akyab ; another to the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal ; a fortnightly one between Bombay and Karachi ; another, once a month, between Madras and Rangoon ; and a further service, every six weeks, to various ports in the Persian Grulf, along nearly the same route Nearchus had followed three centuries before the Christian era. Improving prospects now accompanied this spirited undertaking at every stage of its rap)id progress. Steam here, as it has done everywhere else, opened up fresh branches of commerce, developed others, or gave new life to occupations for ages dormant, conferring, by its civilizing influence, immense benefits on the dense and often poverty-stricken and oppressed inhabitants of lands at once envied and far-famed. Numberof As might have been anticipated, the British India ships lost, g^gj^j^ Navigation Company met with various losses, in the development of so extensive a, range of ser- vices ; but, though the wreck of their Burmah. on the Madras coast, the loss of the Bussorah on her voyage to India, the stranding of the Coringa in the harboui- of Muskat, and the foundering of the Persia on her voyage from Rangoon to Calcutta, MERCHANT SHIl'PJJsd. -l.-,n during- one of" these fearful c^'clones which, periodi- cally, sweep the Indian Ocean, crippled for a time the resources and retarded the operations of the company, they did not qnell the spirit or even damp the energies of Mr. Mackinnon and his co- directors, who thus, at last, achieved that success which industry and perseverance, in the right direc- tion, must ever command. The opening of the Suez Canal, in 1860, gave Effect of renewed vigour to the company. While producing opening of an entire revolution in the shipping trade of India, canai on it afforded facilities for its economical conduct, ofliS^*^ hitherto unknown. Of these the directors at once ^°"^P*°y- took advantage, and their steamer India, requiring new boilers, was the first vessel to arrive in London with a cargo of Indian produce, through the new maritime highway, which the genius and energy of Lesseps had constructed across the barren isthmus of the land of the Pharaohs. In 1873, the company entered into still more extended arrangements with the Government of India, by doubling some of its existing lines, and, in 1872, the directors arranged with the Home Government to organize a mail service every four weeks, between Aden and Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa, so that the distance annually traversed under its contracts, now exceeds 1,100,000 miles. In tracing the different lines used by the vessels of this company, it is interesting, as I have just mentioned, to note that their courses, especially those along the Arabian shore of the Red Sea, the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of Hadramaut and Persia as far as Bussorah, and by way of Beluchistan and 460 MEECHANT SHIPPING. the western shores of Inditi as far as Ceylon, are, as nearly as possible, the same as those which, from the scanty records of the past, I have endeavoured to trace on a map, so as to show the ancient routes of com- merce pursued by native vessels long before the Christian era/ The Holy ^ See Frontispiece, first voUime of this work, "Without entering into Ship. the vexed question of the antiquity of Indian naval architecture, it is certain that native-built vessels, dedicated to commercial purposes, have always been constructed with considerable skill and possess remarkable durability. One of these vessels, built in Surat, called the Holy Ship, as she was employed by the Muhammedans in going to and returning from Mecca on their pilgrimage from India, though, so far back as 1702, she was described as the Old Ship, continued to make an annual voyage for three-quarters of a century, subsequently, from Surat to Mocha, where her owners had the special privilege of taking on board a certain number of chests and cases of coffee and other produce, a privilege the more valuable, as the export duties were excessive. The Holy Ship was lost at last in a violent afflux of the river at Surat in the year 1777, but there is reason to believe that she had navigated the Indian seas for much more than a century, tlras proving the superiority of her construction, and the durability of her timbers and planking. In constructing such vessels, the planks are not put together in the European manner, with flat edges towards each other, but they are rabbeted, and the parts are made to fit into each other with the greatest exactness, much time and attention being- bestowed upon this operation. For this purpose the builders smear the edges of the planks, as they are set up, with red lead, and those which are intended to be placed next, are put upon them and pressed down, in order to be able to discern the inequalities which are marked by the red lead. These are afterwards removed, and the test is repeated, until the whole exactly fits ; they then rub both edges with a sort of glue, which becomes by age as hard as iron, and they cover this with a thin layer of capoc, after which they unite the planks so firmly, and closely with pegs, that the seam is scarcely visible, and the entire frame seems to form one single piece of timber. The beams and ribs are fitted in the same way to the planks, so that a piece of wood is sometimes put in and taken out more than ten times before it is finally fixed. The knees, or crooked timbers, are generally by natural growth of the bent form required, without being forced or warj^ed by fire, especially where special care is taken in the construction and no expense spared. Instead of bolts, pieces of iron are used, forged like spikes, the point of which is driven through, clenched on the inside, and again driven into the wood. The iron employed for this MERCHANT SHIPPING. 461 In 18G3, the Dutch East India Government Nether- offered a liberal subsidy for the conveyance of their steam mails in the East, but, as one of the conditions of the tion'^*" contract required the steamers so engaged to be ^g^^f°^' under the Dutch flag, the requisite capital would not have been raised had not the shareliolders of the British India Steam Navigation Company, indi- vidually, supplied tlie greater portion of it for this new undertaking. In 1866, the Netherlands India Steam Navigation Company commenced oj3erations, having for its directors many of the members of the board of the English Company, but, in all other respects, distinct. These two companies, hoM^ever, work together in perfect harmony, and now carry on between them a large portion of the maritime commerce of the East. The Netherlands Company its fleet, own twenty-three steamers of an aggregate of 20,000 employed, tons, interchanging their traffic at Singapore, with the vessels of the British India Company, and extending their operations from that place and Batavia to the principal ports in the Dutch East Indies, and, again, thence, through Torres Straits to Brisbane, Sydney, and Melbourne, thus affording another fine of steam communication to our Australian colonies, along the whole of the shores of which regular steam communi- cation is now maintained. But perhaps the most extraordinary, and certainly not the least interesting, inland route for steamers (the Ganges and the Indus not excepted), is the navigation of the River Irrawaddy through Burmah purpose is previously made very rough and flexible. A peculiar method is also employed for the preservation of ships' bottoms, by occasionally rubbing them -with an oil, called wood-oil, whereby the planks, imbibing this preparation, are greatly nourished and protected from decay. 462 MERCHANT SHIPPiNG. to the confines of China, a route greatly developed of recent years. It was, as I have stated, on this river, that the second steamer, the Diana, belonging to the East India Comj)any, made her first voyage, and, from that time until 1865, tlie Govern- ment of India maintained, with more or less regu- larity, communication by their own steamers between Calcutta, Rangoon, and Upper Burmah, as far as Mandalay, a city said to contain at one time half a million of inhabitants, and situated on the banks of the Irrawaddy, about 500 miles from the sea. irrawaddy Finding, as Grovernmeuts often do in such and undertakings, that the receipts from tliis line of steam^'' communicatiou fell very far short of the disburse- Navipa- i-nejifg thev, in 1865, made a contract with the pauy. 1865. Irrawaddy Flotilla and Burmese Steam Navigation Company, constituted under the Limited Liability Act " for the conveyance of H.M.'s troops, stores, and mails to the different stations of British Burmah on the River Irrawaddy, and for carrying on general traffic between the towns and villages on that river from Rangoon to Mandalay, the capital of Upper Burmah,"^ at the same time making over to the company four Government steamers and three flats previously engaged in the river service. But these vessels, having been found altogether unsuited for the successful carrying on of the company's opera- tions, were soon replaced by other and new vessels, ' ]\Ir. James Galbraith, the managing director of this company, is in every respect competent to carry out witli success tliis interesting and important undertaking. He is the chief partner of the firm of Messrs. P. Henderson and Co., of Glasgow, and the senior partner of the firm of Messrs. Galbraith, Stringer, Poml)rokc and Co., of 8 Austin Friars, London — successors to the firm of W. S. Lindsay and Co., wliich I established, and from wliich I retij'ed in 18G2. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 463 better fitted for the efficient and ecoDomical perform- ance of this service. When the original contract with the Indian Services Government expired in 1868, the company entered company, into a fresh agreement, whereby its services were extended from Mandahiy to Bliamo, 1000 miles by river from Rangoon, and within 50 miles of the Chinese frontier. Bhamo, for centuries celebrated among the inland commercial cities of the East, was, at one time, the dej)6t of an enormous imjDort and export trade to and from western China, con- veyed by trains of caravans between that city and Yunnan, the south-western province of the Celestial Empire. But, though long-continued rebellions and civil wars have almost extirpated this important traffic, it has of recent years received a fresh impidse by the introduction of improved steam com- munication on the Irrawaddy, and by the effoi'ts of English merchants, supported by Government, to explore the country and to re-open vast fields of wealth long comparatively unproductive.^ Previously to the establishment of steam comrnu- Extent of nication, the trade of the Irrawaddy, studded along trade. its wliole length with towns and villages, with a dense, active, and industrious population, was con- ducted by native craft of various kinds, whose number has been estimated at 25,000. But steam-vessels, ^ It was in these researches that Mr. Margary, of the China consular service, a young gentleman of great enterprise and promise, recently (February 1875) lost his life, and where, also, various employes of the English Mission, which left Calcutta, in December 1874, to explore the country lying between Bhamo and Hankow on the Yang-tse river, were killed by the treachery of the natives, the mission itself having been forced to return before it reached the Chinese frontier. the com pany 464 MERCHANT SHIPPING. by their speed, regularity, and safety, are gradually superseding these native craft, which, in time, will become, as they have done everywhere else, simply auxiliaries to that great power which, in so large a measure, now regulates the commerce of the world. Fleet of The fleet of the Irrawaddy Company now consists (1st of January, 1875) of fifteen steamers and twenty-five " flats," the whole built expressly for this trade. The steamers, resembling in many respects (though they are inferior in size) those employed on the Ganges and the Indus, are about 250 feet in length, with 32 feet beam, and only 8i feet depth of hold. They are built of iron, and their draught of water, with 100 tons of fuel on board, is 3 feet 9 inches. They do not take any cargo, but only passengers, having accommodation for thirty first-class, and from 250 to 300 steerage or native passengers; but each steamer tows a couple of flats or barges fastened on either side. The steamers have engines of 250 nominal horse-power, and can attain a sj)eed of fourteen knots an hour, in still water, and without anything in tow. Though their hold is only Si feet in depth, the houses and awning-deck rise to about 18 feet above their hull. The largest of the barges is 195 feet in length, with a beam of 25 feet, and can each carry 300 tons measurement of cargo, weighing about 160 tons, with a draught of not more than 3 feet of water. There is now a weekly steam service between Rangoon and Mandalay, while every month a steamer ascends to Bhamo, which, though now a wretched place of not more than 75,000 inhabitants, may yet be restored by means of steamers to some- MERCHANT SHIPPING. 465 thing approaching its former importance. As the delta of the Irrawacldy embraces an area of 94,000 «(|iiare miles, with an alluvial and fertile soil through- out, producing in great abundance rice, cotton, cutch, teak, minerals, and mineral oils, and, as not more than 3000 miles of this rich district of country is as yet under cultivation, it presents an enormous field for the development of maritime and other branches of commerce. But, as we proceed further to the East, we find still larger and richer fields gradually being opened out by means of steamers. In China there are vast interior regions with teeming millions of industrious people cilina. who could never have been reached by the traders of Europe and America without the intervention of steam ; countries hitherto unknown, yet exhibiting a high state of civilization. With all the necessaries and many of the luxuries of life, their inhabitants have little or no knowledge of any other country beyond their own : favoured by a superior soil and excellent climate, they have, however, become rich by their own genius and unwearied industry : not one out of every hundred thousand of those in the interior having ever seen the ocean, and knowing as little about England as the people of ancient India knew about Greece, Babylonia, and Macedonia when Alex- ander made his celebi'ated march across the Panjab. Nor, indeed, are the descripl-ions of its civilization, wealth, and refinement, as given to us by occasional travellers who have penetrated the interior, wholly unlike those Arrian has handed down to posterity, with reference to the great cities of ancient India. If my readers will take the trouble to glance ThcYanp tsc-Kianf VOL. IV. 2 H 466 MERCHANT SHlPPiX ■. over a map of China and trace the windings of the great Yang-tse-Kiang to its outlet near Shanghai, they will see the extent of territory watered by this mighty stream, together with its various navigable branches. Rising in the southern slope of north- eastern Tibet, and, thence, flowing to the south-east, the Yang-tse at first passes through a country of lofty snow-covered mountains, the drainage of which in warm weather largely increases the volume of its waters, and produces at the same time, in great mea- sure, the vast floods which, in the months of July and August, inundate tlie widely extending valleys near Hankow and the lower portions of the river.^ Its source From thcsc mountain ranges, the Yang-tse winds its extent. way through others of less magnitude and through fertile plains for 800 miles to Chong-kin-foo, forming the northern boundary of the provinces of Yunnan and Kweichow, and greatly increased in its volume by various tributary streams, two of which are of considerable magnitude. Through the province of Szchuen its course extends, for many hundred miles, in a north and north-easterly direction. Thence, passing onwards through numerous gorges and passes, at present altogether unnavigable, it debouches on the plain of Hupeh, where it is about half a mile in breadth ; thence again, it proceeds for about 250 miles to Yo-choo-foo, at the Lake Tongting, where the upper Yang-tse ends, and where the lower or greater river of the same name, commencing its course, passes the important city of Hankow, receiving near this city ' See an interesting paper on the inundation of the Yang-tso-Kiang, by E. L. Oxenham. — Eeport of the Proceedings of the Eoyal Geogra- phical Society, 1875. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 467 the waters of the Han river, its greatest tributary, and the Chin-kiang : at this place, it is a mile and a half wide, but, at its mouth, near Shanghai, the Yang-tse extends to a width of 12 miles, its whole course being upwards of 3000 miles in length. This great river is subject periodically to floods, some of these, as that of 1870, converting the country for miles on either bank into a vast sea submerging many villages, whose position can only be traced by the roofs of the houses, as the highways are by the tojDS of the willow trees lining them. In February 1860, the Yang-tse was for the first Opened to time opened (by treaty) to the ships of other nations ; isoo.' and one of my own, tlie Scotland^ an iron auxiliary screw steam-ship of about 1100 tons gross register, commanded by Captain A. D. Dundas, R.N. , was the first foreign merchant-vesseP which loaded a cargo from Shanghai to Hankow,^ brin":in2: back teas for First ° ' ? , . steam-ship transhipment to Europe and America ; but it was not direct until 18G3 that any English vessel loaded a cargo nankowto direct from Hankow for Grreat Britain. On the ise^.**" ' 8th May of that year, another of my auxiliary steam- ships, the Robert Lowe, of 1250 tons, commanded by ^ When, in September 1858, the question arose as to how far it was possible to dechxre tlie River Yang-tse navigable for Enroi)cans, the late Admiral Slierard Osborn undertook to test it Ity taking Her Majesty's shij} Furious,\\'\v\Q\\ he then commanded, accomijanied by the Cruiser and two gun-boats, up the river as far as she would go. He was the first to navigate a foreign ship of any kind to Hankow, and the service he thus rendered was a very important one, for it enabled Lord Elgin to insist on this great river being opened to foreign commerce. — See address at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Geographical Society by its President, Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, 24th of May, 1875. ^ The Scotland sailed from Shanghai with a full cargo for Hankow in June 1860. She drew 17 feet of water. Two light-draught trading steamers preceded her : one an American river-boat, and the other a Russian vessel from the Amuor. 2 II 2 468 MERCHANT SHIPPING. William Congalton, left Shanghai for Hankow for the 23iirpose of loading a cargo of teas direct for London : two other English vessels had, however, preceded her. The navigation of this river was then very little known, and there were many difficulties to encounter which have since heen removed ; under Passage of thcsc circumstauces, and as the engines of the Robert \tohert Lowe werc only 80 nominal horse-power, her passage fndher hctweeu Shanghai and Hankow, a distance of 608 cargo. miles, occupied ten days: one day, however, was lost in changing her propeller, while she had to anchor every night. The current against her averaged three knots an hour, but in some parts ran fully five knots. The least depth of water (the river being- then at its ordinary height) found by soundings was 4f fathoms on the bar of the Longshan crossing: the average depth being from 8 to 9 fathoms, but, in many places, Captain Congalton did not obtain soundings at a depth of 14 fathoms, and, in long reaches, where the waters were contracted, the depths were from 20 to 30 fathoms. At Hankow, where the Robert Lowe anchored to receive her cargo (about 300 yards from the bank), the depth of water was 14 fathoms, with a current running at the rate of 3^ knots an hour. The new teas generally arrive in boats (chops) about the 10th of June, and, on the 23rd of that month, she sailed with a full cargo ^ for Shanghai and London. She was fifty-seven hours under weigh on her pas- ^ The cargo of tlie lloJiert Loire from Hankow for London consisted of 95G8 chests, 231 half chests, and 2064 boxes of black (Honor) teas ; 535 bales of cotton, 192 packages of sundries. Her freight amounted to 10,315/., and 480?. passage money. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 469 sag-e from Hankow to Shanghai ; the current, the ri\ er being then fuller, running at from four to, in some places, seven knots an liour. In 18G3-4 tliere were nine steamers employed Number of trading between Hankow and Shanghai, five British cmpiiyed and four American, some of these having a capa- ya^^^tse city for 2000 tons of tea, and all of them vessels i^'^^°; of great speed. Sailing all night as well as during the day, they, in fine weather, made the passage to Hankow in four days, returning under favour- able circumstances in less than half that time. Freights then ranged either way, from 3/. to 4/. per ton, treble what they are now, but the current ex- penses were very heavy, arising from the high price of coal, an increased scale of wages, and exorbitant port charges. Since 1864, the trade has greatly and in increased both in goods and passengers, large nura- ^ ^^' bers of emigrants are now conveyed in the steamers from the interior to the coast, whence they embark for voyages, many of them so distant as California, the Mauritius, and the West Indies.^ ^ It may, however, be stated that the chief emigration is from the southern parts of China, and, rarely, north of Amoy. This, on the whole, is a well-regulated trade, and generally carried on in British, American, and (xerman ships, specially chartered for the purpose ; all of which, while thus engaged, are under the Hong-Kong Passenger Act, which has been adopted by the consuls at the diflferent Treaty ports. Tlie coolie trade from the Portuguese settlement of Macao, with which it is sotuetimes confounded, is of an entirely diflferent character, and resembles much more the old and iniquitous slave-trade than free emigration. At Macao and in its vicinity, the coolies are collected, often in large numbers, by coolie-brokei's, who are, invariably, men of very questionable, if not of the mo.st depraved, character. These scoundrels, for the most part Cliinese and Portuguese, stow these poor creatures away in well-guarded barracoons, ready for ship- ment ; many, jierhaps, most of them, not knowing for what purpose they have been collected. Some of them have been actually sold by 470 MERCHANT SHIPPING. S. S. Han- koic. There are few finer gteamers to be found in any part of the world than the Hankow ^ (belonging to Messrs. Swire and Company), now employed in the trade of the Yang-tse. (See illustration, page 471.) Steamers of her type now leave Hankow and Shanghai daily — one despatched by Russell and Company, the other by Butterfield and Swire, by whom the bulk of the carrying trade between these places is now conducted in steamers. thefr relatives to the brokers, or decoyed away from home by false repre- sentations ; indeed, cases might be produced, where fathers have even staked their children and themselves at gambling-tables, and, on losing their stake, have been, summarily, transferred or exchanged for their price in coin to these still more depraved dealers in human beings. The most usual destination of these unfortunate creatures is Peru, where they are employed on the Guano Islands, and from which, alas, they seldom return. Her power i The Hankow and three other steamers of a similar class were built «ul '^^^^' for Messrs. Swire by Messrs. A. and J. Inglis of Glasgow, expressly for the trade of the Yang-tse; their dimensions are as follows : — city Pekin and Slianghai. Ichang. Hankow. Gross t 'image Length on load-water line Breadth, moulded Depth „ Load draught Dead weight capacity . . ' . Measurement capacity in tons of 40 feet Passenger accommodation, Europeans „ „ Chinese, 1st „ „ Chinese, 2nd Speed on trial Diameter of cylinder Stroke Indicated horse-power .... Pressure of steam Consumption of fuel at full power (per hour) 3076 292 feet 42 „ 15 „ 10 ,. 661: tons 3668 14 16 164 13 knots 68 inchi s 12 ffct 1450 27 lbs. 33 cwt. 1781 • 242 feet 36 „ 12 ft. Gin. 9 feet 460 tons 1972 10 6 106 12 knots 62 inches 10 feet 1200 33 lbs. 27 cwt. 3168 308 feet 42 „ 16 „ 11 „ 840 tons 3800 14 18 170 12| knots 72inci;es 1 1 feet 1840 35 lbs. 40 cwt. The Ptkin was finished' in May 1873 ; the Shanghaim July 1873 ; the Jchanrj, October 1873 ; and the Hankow in April 1874. The hulls of these vessels are of iron to the main-deck, and of Kl«iMliiilif^^ lllillfflllllllllliillltlfT MERCHANT SliirriXU. 471 llilll.|i|i|i:iillinillliil«'ai:ii!Biwi.i;ninii 472 MERCHANT SHIFriNG. Chinese Biit the inost interesting fact connected with the |]^^J"^a- maritime progress of the Chinese has been the esta- tionCom- bhshinent of a line of steam-ships by a company pany. . x •/ of Chinese merchants, and under their own flag. the most substantial construction, every precaution being talven to give them sufficient strength to make the voyage to China in safety, as well as to withstand the severe strains they are occasionally subjected to in the river, by being left agrouny folding-screens or doors, with the floors covered with fine mats. The outer cabin is always considered the best, and is accordingly assigned to the most distinguished passengers. The roof, or upi^er deck, is flatfish, and constructed of neat boards, curiously joined together. In rainy weather, the mast is let down upon the upper deck, and the sail extended over it for the sailors and the people em- ployed in the ship's service to take shelter under it, and to sleep at night. Sometimes, the better to defend the upper deck, it is covered with straw mats, which, for this purpose, are kept at hand. There is but one sail, made of canvas, and very large; and one mast, standing up about midships, but somewhat towards the stern. This mast, which is of the same lengtli as the ship, is wound up by pulleys, and again lowered upon deck when the ship comes to anchor. The anchors are of iron. Ships of this burden have commonly thirty to forty hands to row them, if the wind fails. The rowers' benches are towards the .'^tern. They row in unison with the air of a song, or tune with words, which serves at the same time to direct and regulate their work, '"^^"' . and to encourage each other to exertion. They do not row after the y,,^^.^,,,, European mode, extending their oars straight forwards, with the blades just below the surface, but they let them fall down into the water almost perpendicularly, and then lift them up again. This way of rowing not only answers the same purpose as our own, but is performed with less labour, and seems to be more adapted to circumstances, considering the narrowness of the passage through which ships sometimes pass, or when vessels pass each other, or when the benclies of the rowers are raised considerably above the surface of the water. The oars are made in a jieculiar manner, suitable for this mode of rowing, being not all straight, like the Europeans' oars, but somewhat bent. 2 r 2 4«4 MERCHANT SHIPPING. opened to the advantages of foreign trade/ and they are moving onwards in a manner which conld hardly have been anticipated from what is known of their previous history; indeed, they have recently (Feb- ruary 1875) announced the establishment of a regu- lar line of steamers imder the Japanese flag. The sharesof this undertaking, which tliey have named the " Mitsu-Bishi Steam Navigation Company," are held almost, if not exclusively, by Japanese. Tli is company already possesses four steamers, the Tokio-Murin (late New YorK), the Kunayana-Murin (late Madras), the Tahar-Murin (late Acanthia), and the Zazon, while others are in course of construction in Great Britain, wliich are to form a "weekly line" letween China and their own ports of Nagasaki, Hiogo, Imioseki, and Yokohama. ^ In January 1861, I sold to the Prince of Satsnma one of my auxi- liary steam-sbips, the England, which had been employed in trade between India and China, and had made one or two voyages to Japan, soon after the ports of that coiintry were opened to the Tessels of foreign nations. Captain A. D. JDundas, E.N., who commanded her, and was a part owntr with me of this ship and of a sister-ship, the Scotland, which afterwards became the property of the same prince, informs me he is under the impression, that the Em/land was " the Jirst foreign vessel j^urchased in Japan, except by the Government proper." If so, her sale may be considered the introduction of the thin edge of the wedge which has rapidly led to a very general introduction of foreign bottoms. As an instance of the remarkable skill and inge- nuity of the Japanese, they made new boilers of copper for this ship, within twelve months of the time when she came into their possession (1 believe they had never before seen a boiler), but I am uncertain whether these boilers were ever fitted into the ship. If they were, I fear the small pieces of copper of which they were made (Japanese mechanical knowledge not having as yet learnt the art of constrncting plates of the necessary size) would render them useless. The England was seized and scuttled by the British fleet in August 1863, at the time of the bombardment of Kagosima, and, having been sunk in very deep water, was never raised. The Scotland was still in the service of the Japanese in 1870. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 485 What an advance on the rude craft of which the following is an illustration ! * -t^l When we consider the enterprising character of the Japanese, we cannot hut feel surprised that such vessels as this clumsy hulk, should, in spite of their restrictive laws, have heen found sufficient for all their wants, and that through countless ages. But now the spirit of progress in maritime affairs guides their councils, and though, at present, their steamers are commanded by Europeans or Ameri- cans, anl have foreign engineers, in other respects they are manned by Japanese. Ere long the junks, alike of China and Japan, will be things of the past, strange toys to the children of these countries, as they have long been to the children of Europe. ^ Though the above drawing represents one of the largest of the Japanese junks, she, like all the others, had only one mast, its place being opposite the vacant space shown at tlio gangway. The apparent bulwark of trellis-work before this gangway is meant to break the sea and allow the water to wash through. Besides, as nearly all the junks carry deck cargoes (covered with water-tight mats where jierishable) the gratings serve the purpose of ])rotection to the goods thus stowed, and aft'ord facilities for lasliing and securing them in their places on deck 48 .1 construe- now concluded provisional arrangements tor the con- tion. struction of the screw-engines with Messrs. James Watt and Co., of the Soho Works, near Birmingham, and for the paddle-engines and hull with Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., of London. But, considering is that of builder of the ship for the Eastern Steam Navigation Com- pany. I designed her lines and constructed the iron hull of the ship, and am responsible for her merits or defects as a piece of naval archi- tecture. I am eqiially responsible for the paddle-wheel engines of 1000 horse-power, by which she is to be propelled. " But Messrs. James Watt and Co., the eminent engineers of Soho, have the entire merit of the design and construction of the engines of 1500 horse-power, which are to propel the screw. " It is to the comi)any's engineer, Mr. I. K. Brunei, that the original conception is due of building a steam-ship large enough to carry coals sufficient for full steaming on the longest voyage. He, at the outset, ani long before it liad assumed a mercantile form, communicated his views to me, and I iiave participated in the contrivance of the best means to carry them into practical effect. I think, further, that the idea of using two sets of engines and two propellers is original, and was his invention. It was his idea also to introduce a cellular con- struction like that at the top and bottom of the Britannia Bridge into the construction of the great ship. It will be seen that these arc the main characteristics which distinguish this from other ships, and these are Mr. IJruuers. Her lines and her structure in other respects are identical with tlioso of my other shifts, which are constructed like this on a principle of my own, which I have systematically carried out during the last twenty years, and which is commonly called the ' wave ' principle. In other respects, also, her materials arc put together in the manner usual in my other ships." ' See article in the ' Encyclopaidia Britannica,' 7th edition, on " Steam Navigation." 494 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the novelty and magnitude of the undertaking, it may be interesting and instructive to review, still further, the grounds on which the projectors antici- pated its success. The ship, the directors said, " would Le built in the Thames, to be completed in eighteen months ; and would fulfil certain conditions, the most im- portant of which was that she should not be obliged to stop at any place on the way to take in coal, stoppages for coal not only causing great delay by the time required for taking it on board, but com- pelling the vessels to deviate widely from the best route, in order to touch at the necessary coaling stations ;" and, in avoiding the delay of coaling on the voyage, the ships would also escape the great cost of purchasing coals at a foreign station. "These ships," they added, "will carry, besides their whole amount of coals for the voyage (out and home'), upwards of 5000 tons measurement of mer- chandise, and will have 500 cabins for passengers of the highest class, with ample space for troops and lower class passengers. These the company will carry at rates much smaller than those of any existing steam-ships and, moreover, with an unprecedented degree of safety, comfort, and con- venience which the great size of their vessels will ^ Whatever may be gained by not requiring to stop at any inter- mediate port, I consider it a mistake, in a commercial point of view, to suppose any advantage is to be derived from talking on board a steam-ship, especially when engaged on distant voyages, sufficient coal to carry her out and home. The space the coals occupy in a steamer ought to be of more value, for the reception of cargo, than the cost of sending coals in sailing-vessels to the ports abroad where required, and than any loss sustained by tlie expense and detention of shipping them there. MERCHANT SHIPPING.". 4!)5 afford." In tlms increasing tlie size of their ships, the directors said, "they believed they ^Yere also obtaining the elements ofa speed heretofore unknown : and if, hereafter, coals applicable to the pui-poses of steam navigation could be supplied from the mines of Australia, their carrying capacity both for cargo and passengers would be proportionately increased. The great length of these ships will undoubtedly, according to all present experience, enable them to pass througli the water at a velocity of 15 knots' an hour, with a smaller power in proportion to their tonnage than ordinary vessels now require - to make 10 knots." These views were, however, not allowed to pass unquestioned by many scientific men, and more especially by Mr. Atherton, who rejoined that, Mr.Ather- whatever pride the projectors might reasonably feel sijers'the in the production of such an extraordinary vessel as ^j^^^^^j^^* _ the Great Eastern, the data relied on by them did addle ami screw. workmanship, combining vast strength with great beanty and apparent lightness of design. When these, combined with the screw engines (to which reference will presently be made), are at work 502 MEECHANT SHIPPING. the mind is lost in wonder at the amount of me- chanical power which is thus brought to play in the propulsion of one vessel, and the smoothness and harmony with wliich that duty is performed, in a space necessarily confined and limited, and amid the violent turmoil of the ocean. No work of art ever yet produced furnishes more exalted ideas of man's genius and skill than the unceasing and regular motion of these gigantic engines, especially, when we consider the tremendous shocks to which they must be at times subjected, and the delicate nature of some portion of the machinery, resting as this does, not upon solid granite as is the case with land engines, but on the ever straining ribs of a ship. Paddle- The paddlc-wheel engines have a nominal power of wheel, 1000 horses, they have four cylinders, the diameter of each being 74 inches, with a stroke 14 feet in length, giving 14 strokes per minute. Each cylinder with piston and piston-rod weighs no less than 38 tons, while each pair of cylinders with its crank, condenser, and air-pimips, forms in itself a complete and separate engine, and each of the four cylinders is so con- structed that it can be, at once, disconnected when required, from the other three, so that the whole forms a combination of four engines^ altogether complete in themselves, whether worked together or separately. The two cranks are connected by a friction-clutch by means of which the two pairs of engines can be connected or disconnected, by a single movement of the hand and at a moment's warning. All the engines are provided with expansion valves, and their combined force, when working 11 strokes per minute, indicates 3000 horse-power, with steam in MERCHANT SHUTINO. 503 the boilers at i5 lbs, on tlie inch and the expansion valve cutting off at one -third of" the stroke. But as all the parts of the engines are so formed and pro- portioned that they will work safely and smoothly at 8 strokes per minute, with the steam at 25 lbs. and fully open without expansion (beyond what is un- avoidably effected by the slides), or at IG strokes per minute, with the steam in the boiler at 25 lbs. and the expansion valve cutting off at one-fourth of the stroke, they can be made to give a power of 5000 horses. The paddle-shafts are each 38 feet long and weigh 30 tons, while the intermediate cranked shaft, 21^ feet in length, weighs 31 tons. Two auxiliary high pressure condensing engines Auxiliary, are fixed, adjacent to the paddle engines, for working the pumps and performing other necessary duties on board of the ship ; these auxiliary engines are equal to 60 horse-power and can be worked to double that power if necessary. But the screw engines are even more surprising and Screw than those of the paddles : they are also of 1000 horse-power with four oscillating cylinders each 84 inches in diameter with 4-feet length of stroke and performing 50 revolutions per minute. They can work up to 4500 horse-power with steam in the l)oiler at 15 lbs. and revolving at 45 strokes a minute, the expansion valve cutting off at one-third of the stroke ; but, with steam at 25 lbs., without expansion, and cutting off at one-fourth of the stroke, they can propel with a power of GOOO horses, so that the combined force of paddle and screw engines gives the tremendous power of 11,000 horses! The pro- peller shaft, in two parts, is 1(10 f^et in length and 504 MERCHANT SHIPPING. weighs 60 tons, while the screw-propeller itself is 24 feet in diameter with 44 feet pitch. The paddle- wheels are, however, still more stupendous, being no less than 58 feet in diameter with a boss which alone weighs 16 tons, each wheel w^hen complete weighing 90 tons. Abaft the bulkhead of the screw engine-room are placed two auxiliary engines of 20 horse-power each for moving the screw-propeller, when the larger engines are disconnected, at such a velocity as will prevent the speed of the vessel from being retarded when the ship is under weigh with paddles alone, or when under sails and paddles. There are, also, two auxiliaiy high pressure engines, each of the nominal power of 10 horses, for working the pumps, shafting, or other parts of the machinery, and for hoisting sails, taking in or discharging cargo, lifting the anchor, and for performing many other services usually carried on by the crew. Donkey. Each Set of boilers is provided with donkey- engines. ej5gines, with independent boilers, and pumps of power sufficient to feed both sets of boilers, and are capable of being connected or disconnected, so that one donkey-engine may supply any set of boilers. These are each of about 10 horse-power. Propoecd Tliis mighty vessel was destined to afford accom- Sonfor modation for 4000 passengers, viz., 800 first class passen- 2000 sccoud class, and 1200 third class, independently gers, &c. ^ ' . of the ship's complement of crew, amounting to about 400. The series of saloons, Avhich were elegantly fitted and furnished, together with the sleeping apartments (as will be seen by referring to the longi- tudinal section in the frontispiece to this volume) MERCHANT SHIPPING. r>03 are situated iu the middle of the sliip and extend over 350 feet of her length. As everything about this vast ship is really view of of historical interest, I present my readers (see frontispiece) with a view of her deck as seen from the bridge between the paddle-wheels, looking to- wards the stern, a sight which affords a more im- posing appearance of her magnitude than any other view. The first skylight covers the passage to the eiigine-rooni and the captain's cabin, which is in itself a moderate-sized house, consisting of several rooms ; behind it thei'e are other two companions or staircases leading to the after saloons. As the old-fashioned speaking trumpet would be useless in such a ship, the captain signals his orders either from his cabin or from the bridge by semaphore arms during the day and by coloured lamps at night ; wliile electric telegrams convey his wishes, not merely to the engine-rooms, but to other places below the decks where it may be necessary that his instructions should be instantaneously communicated. With re- gard to the main or upper deck itself, there is ample clear space to drill a full regiment of soldiers. The lofty saloons and cabins are very imposing, differing as they do in most respects from those of ordinary passenger steam-ships, indeed, more resem- bling the drawing-rooms of the mansions of Belgravia of London or of the Fifth Avenue of New York. The one of which an illustration is furnished (page 506) bears the name of the " Grand Saloon." The illustra- Suioon. tion, however, show^s only one half of this magnificent apartment, which is 62 feet long, 36 feet in width, and 12 feet in height, with a ladies' cabin, or rather nOfi meecha:nt shipping. MERCHANT SllirPINU. 507 boudoir, adjoining, 20 feet in ]eng-t]i. Massive looking-glasses in highly ornamented gilt frames decorate its sides ; the strong iron joists (beams) overhead are encased in wood, the mouldings being delicately painted and enriched with gilt beading. Around two of the funnels which pass through this gorgeous apartment are large mirrors, with alternate highly ornamented panels, nnd at their base are groupings of velvet conches. The columns (staun- chions) which support the beams are richly decorated, while the iron work of the railings of the staircases leading to the lower cabins, or surrounding the open spaces necessary for more perfect ventilation, are, by some particular process, made to resemble oxidized silver, which is relieved by gilding. The walls (sides) are hung with rich patterns in raised gold and white, and at the angles are arabesque panels ornamented with groups of children and various emblems of the sea ; other illustrations personify, in graceful forms, the arts and sciences connected with the construction and navigation of ships, while sofas covered with Utrecht velvet, buffels of richly carved walnut wood, carpets of surpassing softness, and portieres of rich crimson silk to all the doorways, give an elegance to the whole, combined with a display of taste and beauty far surpassing, and an extravagance almost equalling, the gigantic toy ships of ancient monarchs.* Nor are the dining-rooms and family cabins much inferior in style, while the bed-rooms, in space, fittings, and comfort are all that the most fastidious voyager could expect, if not all they would desire. ^ The decorations of this saloon, which wore exceedingly boantifnl, wore oxornted by Messrs. Grace, of Wiirmnre Street, T^ondon. 508 MEECHANT SHIPPING. Intended The Great Eastern was planned to cany twenty twenty^ ^^i^® boats on lier deck or hanging from the davits. steamers. Com- passes. large boats gQj-^g of these boats are patents on very ingenious and two .... ./ o principles. In addition, it was intended she should carry, suspended abaft her paddle-boxes, two small steamers, each 100 feet long and of between 60 and 70 tons burden. These were to be raised or lowered by small auxiliary engines and kept in all respects completely equipped for sea, but to be principally used for embarking or landing the passengers with their luggage. The compasses were placed at a height of 24 feet from the deck on a staging, in order to remove them from the disturbing influences inherent in the vast masses of iron below ; and it was proposed that strong: shadows of the needle should be cast down a tube so that the steersman might by watching the shadow of the points at once follow the move- ments of the compasses above. Besides the mizen-mast, which is of wood, there are five other masts of hollow wrought iron. Two of these carry large square sails, the others fore and aft sails, the fore-mast having a jib as well as trysail, there being neither bowsprit nor jibboom. The standing rigging consists of iron wire rope, and the lower mast shrouds of this material are 8^ inches in circumference. The running gear, manufactured chiefly from Manilla hemp, is beautifully made. Instead of the ordinary dead-eyes and lanyards, an ingenious contrivance has been devised for letting go the shrouds instantaneously on an emergency. When under full sail the Great Eastern yv'iW spread 6500 square yards of canvas. The magnetic apparatus or floating compass in- Size of sails. MEUCHANT SHlPPlNa. 509 vented and patented by Mr. Jolm Gray, of Liver- Magnetic poo], is to the navigator, perhaps not the least interest- of MnV.''^ ing instrument of the great ship. The binnacle ^'''^^' consists of an isolated battery of magnets adjusted by vertical screws, which move them in proportion to the ' deviation of the compass arising from the influence of the iron used in the construction or equipment of the ship. The original error having been ascertained by careful observations (a duty invariably devolving on the makers of the instru- ment) and the compass thus adjusted and regulated, the process of readjustment, when necessary, is so simple that, by the officer of the ship merely placing her head in two positions — north and south, east and west — the compass in the northern hemisphere can be made perfect. If any alteration takes place in the ship's magnetism of an opposite character in the southern hemisphere, by reversing the position of the magnet and by adopting the same process, the instru- ments will be found as correct as in the northern. 'J'here are other applications all calculated with the " utmost precision for navigating the ship, one of which is highly important, in that it corrects the dangerous influence arising from heeling. A vertical magnet is made moveable in the centre of the appa- ratus so as to obviate errors arising from this cause, — errors sometimes amounting, by the deflection of the needle, to 50 or even a greater number of degrees. As these disturbances produce considerable oscilla- ting of the card when the vessel rolls, their repetition often causes a momentum that ultimately makes the card revolve with such velocitv as to render it useless to the helmsman. 510 MERCHANT SHIPPING The patent floating compass, constructed to prevent vibration from affecting the centres of action, consists of an inner bowl floating- in an outer one, the object being to render the former insulated in its water bed, the exterior being solely influenced by the action of the ship. Through a very ingenious mechanical arrangement in the interior of the inner bowl the hardest gems and the finest centres may be applied without fear of oscillation of the card. The entire combination of these essential points insures steadiness of action, perfect indication, and great durability. There is also a vertical double disk to register the ship's course and to show whether the man at the helm has attended strictly to his instructions with regard to the course to be steered. On each side of the binnacle there is a metal box containing soft iron for the adjustment of any small amount of deviation in the quadrants, which remains station- ary with its contents throughout every change of latitude. Apparatus Nor must I omit notice of the mode of directing _oi^s eei- ^j^^ course of the ship. On one side of the platform between the casements of the paddle-wheels (the deck most in use by the commander and officers of all steam-ships), stands an ingenious apparatus, in which there is a compass, the duplicate of the one in the binnacle, and before it an officer stands when the ship is under weigh, who is under the immediate eye of the captain. This pedestal is covered with a brass cii'cular slide, with an aperture sufficiently large to permit of one ot" the points on the card being seen through it. The captain or officer in charge of the ship, by turning a handle, exposes the point at which MEltCHANT SHiri'lNG. 511 lie wishes the ship's head to be kept, and by means of connecting rods a coincident point is disclosed on the compass in the binnacle, which is watched by the steersman, who thus knows in a moment the course he has to steer, so that, without verbal orders (which are frequently indistinctly heard and sometimes mis- understood, even when the officer is close to the belm) the ship is directed on her course with more ease than an ordinary sized vessel. Beyond the original plan contemplated of manu- facturing gas on board to be laid on to all parts of the ship, it was further intended to carry the electric light so as to secure a perpetual artificial moonlight around tbe vessel. The rudder^ is constructed of two plate-iron Rudder cheeks framed together on a wrought-iron rudder- anchors, post, tapering from 14 inches diameter downwards, ^ As I have been frequeutly asked when the " rudder " was invented, I may here state that I really do not know, and I shoiild be disposed to question the accuracy of any writer who fixed any epoch or any age for its invention. Before me I see, at this moment, a swan in pursuit of other swans which have evidently been poaching uidou its manor on that portion of the River Thames where, on its banks, I now revise the proof sheets of this volume. It is in full chase, with its wings so arranged as best to gain advantage from the breeze ; its feet are paddling it onward with great vigour, but to turn the corner opposite to where I sit, I see that the swan sweeps itself round by the operation of one of its feet, which has been brought close to the surface, and is performing exactly the same part, only in a more rapid and perfect manner, which the rudder, attached to a boat, performs, when sweeping round the same bend of the river. Perfect rudders may, therefore, be said to have existed from the creation, for nothing could be more complete in the shape of a rudder, than this action of the swan's foot in the water. A similar action may be seen in the fins and tails of fish. Turning to mechanical contrivances which had this object in view, it will be found that, during the earliest historic ages, the paddle of tbe canoe was used, not merely to propel, as in the case of tlie gondola ot the middle ages as well as in tlic gondola of to-day, but also to guide. 512 MERCHANT SHIPPING. tlie frame being 9 feet wide from back to belly. The space between the 2 plate-iron cheeks within the rudder-frame is filled with solid blocks of w^ood, bonnd together and bolted through the plates, combining great strength with lightness. There are ten anchors on board which, with their' stocks, weigh 55 tons, and 800 fathoms of chain cable weighing 98 tons, the capstan and warps weighing 100 tons, so that there are 253 tons weight of appliances on board devoted exclusively to the and was, in itself, one of the most powerful mechanical rudders which have yet been produced. The oar over the qviarter followed, and if my readers will refer to the sculptured illustration of a vessel on the leaning Tower of Pisa (see ante, vol. i. p. 521) erected a.d. 1178, they will find, that that was the only description of a rudder represented at that com- paratively recent period. At a later period, by referring to the con- tracts still extant which Louis IX., King of France, entered into, a.d. 1268, with the Venetians and Genoese for the construction of various skips (arde, vol. i. p. 510), " two rudders " for each vessel (one on each side) " nine palms long " are required to be provided, showing that this mode of steering, which is no advance upon what may be found on the ancient sculptures of Egypt, was, then, the only one known, or at least in use, among the most celebrated navigators of the middle ages ; and from their dimensions, the vessels which Louis IX. ordered to be built were large ships, not boats, which the one represented on the Tower of Pisa may have been. In the drawings of some vessels of a subsequent period, a hole is shown in the stern above the stern post, through which an oar, sweep or "rudder" was i^assed for guiding the course of the vessel, its lower extremity being probably worked by tackles from each quarter ; from this appliance the Jiangiug rudder now in use no doubt originated, being improved on by slow degrees, and gradually assuming a more and more perpendicular position; thence, the transition to hanging it by a second ligature was easy and natural ; thence, the gudgeons and pintals, by which the rudder now swings from the stern post; and, hence, tlie tiller and, subsequently, the wheel to move the tiller, the blade of the riidder itself being increased in size according to the force required to turn the vessel. Thus, the foot of aquatic birds first gave the idea of the paddle, and this, in time, was displaced by the oar, from which the rudder evidently sprung. The Dutch and German word for oar is now and always has been " Ivudor." MKRCHANT SHIPPIXO. 513 purpose of anclioring or mooring tlie great sliip. Through the centre of her stem there are two hawse- holes each 18 inclies in diameter, so that tlie large cable runs straight out from the stem ; and, besides these, there are additional hawse-holes on each side of the cutwater. Such is or, rather, was the Great Eastern in all The ship the leading features of her construction and equip- marvii ment, and, however fallacious many of the calculations comlfe,'. of the directors and designers may have proved, ^^,i,\^,^j," (and none were more so than those referring to the project as a commercial undertaking),^ they and the ' In the summer of 1857, the late Eobert Stephenson and I paid a visit to the ship. We were accomiianied by Brunei. The hull was then drawing towards completion, and ]n-eparations for launching were about to be commenced. After thoroughly inspecting everything about the vessel, Brunei asked me what I thought of her. "Well,"' I replied, she is the strongest and best built ship I ever saw and she is really a marvellous iiiecc of mechanism. " Oh," he said, rather testily and abruptly, " I did not want your opinion about her build. I should think I know rather more about how an iron shiji should be put together than you do. IIoio ivill she 2)ay f " Ah," I replied, " that is quite a different matter ;" and, seeing that I did not care to answer his question, he rejDeated it, adding, " If she belonged to you in what trade would you place her ? " " Turn her into a show," I said, with a laugh, " something attractive to the masses; for, if you insist on having my opinion about her commercial capabilities, it is only in that direction where you can look for profit. She will never pay as a ship. Send her to Brighton, dig out a hole in the beach and bed her stern in it, and if well set she would make a substantial jiirr and her deck a splendid promenade ; her hold would make magniticient salt- water baths and her 'tween decks a grand hotel, with restaurant, smok- ing and dancing saloons, and I know not what all. She would be a marvellous attraction for the cockneys, who would flock to her in thousands." And, as I saw he was far from pleased with my answer — no wonder — though given lialf in joke and half in earnest, I added," As you would insist on having myojiinion, I have given it to you candidly, for I really do not know any other trade, at present, in which she Avill be likely to pay so well." Stephenson laughed, but Brunei never forgave me. V<)[.. IV. 2 L 514 MKRCHANT SHirPING. constructors have produced a sliip which is not merely a marvel in size, but, in beauty of symmetry, strength of hull, completeness of machinery, organi- zation, and arrangement of details, equals, if she does not surpass, any vessel that has yet been constructed for ocean navigation. It is to be regretted that the plans for launching the monster were not (for the credit of science and the great mechanical knowledge of the age) as perfect as the ship herself. Instead of constructing a dock, wherein she could have been built witli less labour than upon piles, and which would have been valuable as a graving-dock when she was floated from it, they built her in a yard, and, contrary to the estab- lished custom, built her broadside to the element into wdiich she had ultimately to be launched. Prepara- The apparatus for launching the ship consisted of anddetai'is two inclined plaucs, each about 200 feet long by launching 80 fcet broad, and nearly 140 feet apart, falling %reai ^^ ^^ inclination of one in fourteen, to low^-water Eadern. nQark. On these ways two cradles, each 80 feet square, were destined to slide, the object being that the great ship should be moved sideways into the river on two massive platforms, imderlaid w^ith transverse bars of hard iron, and corresponding in length to the width of the launching ways upon which they rested. The cradles were provided with two enormous chains, with crab blocks and tackle, the standing part fastened to the further bank of the river and the ends carried through tw^o portholes, and under the ship's bottom. Two small steam-engines in the yard worked the crabs nnd blocks attached to the chains MKHCHANT SHII'PING. 515 wliereby the sliip was, if necessary, to be dragged down the launching ways, which were prepared with an anti-attrition composition to facilitate the movement of the enormous mass. Besides these powerful tackles, there were two hydraulic presses, each of one thousand tons lifting power, placed behind the cradles, to which they could be applied to set the vessel in motion should the engines jjrove inadequate for that purpose. But, in order to regulate the descent of the vessel, and check her progress, should it become too rapid, two immense friction drums or capstans were con- structed, and fastened firmly by means of piles into the earth, so as to resist any possible strain that might be placed upon them. These drums, seven feet diameter in the barrel by twenty feet in length, were furnished with iron cables, each link of which weighed seventy pounds, attached by a double purchase to the cradle, and regulated by two gigantic break-levers worked by blocks and pulleys, a gang of men being at hand ready to apply instantaneously on receipt of signal this powerful check to the mo- mentum of the vessel should it be found too great. Such were the vast preparations made to launch the Great Eastern. I. 2 516 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Com- mence- ment of launch of the Great Eastern, November 3rd, 1857. CHAPTER XIV. Commencement of lanncli of the Great Eastern, November 3rd, 1857 — Christened by Miss Hope— Comparative faihu-e— Renewed efforts scarcely more successful — Hydraulic ram bursts — Floats of her own accord, January 31st, 1858— The whole scheme of this launch a thorough mistake— Difficulties of the company — Offer to Government wisely declined — Further proposal to employ her as a cable layer — Makes her first sea trip, September 9th, 1859— Accident off Hastings, and the opinion of the pilot — Eeaches Holyhead ; and details of her voyage— Makes her first voyage across the Atlantic, June 1860 — Second voyage, May 1861 — Thii-d voyage to Quebec, July 1861 — Fourth voyage, September 1861— Heavy gale off S.AV. coast of Ireland, and compelled to return to Cork — General remarks on the sea-going qualities of different ships, and on the effect of wind in causing " rollers " — Real truth about " momentum " — Very large ships not so safe as smaller ones, as their damages are less easily repaired — Chief later use of the Great Eastern as a cable layer, but, not even here, remunerative — Concluding remarks. After various unavoidable delays rendered neces- sary by such an unexampled experiment, the day for the launching of the Great Eastern was fixed for the 3rd of November, 1857. A vast concouise of people assembled on land and river to witness the launch. Crowds of naval and scientific men from all parts of the world were there, and, in spite of the inclement season of the year, numerous members of the aristocracy came to see this marvellous feat ; nor indeed was ro>'alty, itself, un- represented. Probably no such multitude had on MERCHANT SHIPPING. 517 any previous occasion congregated on the banks of the Thames. It was a magnificent sight, but one, also, the practised e3'e could not survey without ap- prehension of danger. The preparations for her launch were, it is true, made wdtli the object of lowering the vessel slowly into the water by means of cradles erected on the launching ways, but if the huge mass had received the impetus which in all similar cases is given to vessels when the re- taining and supporting shores are removed, the cables, though of unusual strength, would have proved altogether insufficient to restrain so ponderous a weight when once in motion ; they must have snapped asunder like hempen cords, and, considering the number of small boats and steamers full of people at the time on the river, and the crowds on its banks, no one can contemplate without a shudder the loss of life which, under such circum- stances, would have probably occurred. By reference to the following illustration the reader will better understand the nature of the danger ai)prehended, and, also, isee at a glance the position of the great ship as she lay on the cradles ready for launching. The ceremony of christening the vessel was per- christened formed by Miss Hope (now Duchess of Newcastle), ho^'^**^ daughter of the Chairman of the Great Eastern 518 ■ MERCHANT SHIPPING. Steam Navigation Company. When the moment for launching arrived, the interest of the vast assembly of people who had gathered together to witness the operation became intense, increasing as ^le shores were one by one struck from under her and the last cable fastenings loosened. But the leviathan did not seem to move, and it was, only, when the stationary engines tightened the chains which passed from the vessel to the opposite shore, that any motion be- came perceptible. A tremendous cheer then burst from the excited multitude. Immediately afterwards, however, there was a pause : silent suspense again prevailed, with increased anxiety blended now with evil forebodings. A whisper passed along the dense crowd that the slide down the inclined plane of 3^ feet at the stem and 7 feet at the stern thus effected, was of an alarming character. It was one, too, which had not been anticipated ; and, when it became known that the rapid revolution of the drum and fly-wheels caused by the sudden motion of the vessel had seriously injured several of the men em- ployed upon these ponderous machines, there were grave apprehensions of further danger. C()mi)ara- Somc delay in the operations now necessarily failure. occurrcd, but, at a quarter past three p.m., the time of high water, when the engines were again set to work, expectation was once more raised to the highest pitch. Every eye was now directed towards the cradles, but this time they did not stir an inch, and, as the chains tightened it became too apparent that if the vessel was not forced towards the water they must break. At length, subjected to a strain greater than ouglit to have been applied, tli<' pon- MERCHANT SHIPPING. 519 derous cliaiii attached to tlie fore part of tlie vessel snapped asunder, and then all hopes of launching the levinthan were ended for that day. It would be superfluous- to dwell on the many speculations as to the cause of this failure ; certain it is that it was great and lamentable, and, as it was impossible to repair the injury the launching machinery had sustained, in time for further operations on the following day, no time was, then, fixed for resuming action. • However, on the 19th of November, these opera- tions were again begun, the alleged object on this occasion being to move the great sliip 40 feet lower down than the position she then occupied, so as to be ready for launching when the tide suited; but this effort equally proved abortive. The immediate cause of this second failure is accounted for by the abutments of the piles, against which the bases of the hydraulic rams rested, yielding under the enor- mous pressure exerted between them and the ship's cradle, in many cases giving way or breaking down altogether. Most of the subsequent operations of the company ifenowcd • 1 1 11 eftorts were kept as lar as possible secret, and the presence scarcely of the public, which had been courted to witness an cessfui"" anticipated triumph, was now as studiously avoided, under the prudential plea of avoiding accidents, in- volving loss of life, by tlie too rapid motion of the ship towards the river. But a fresh experiment, after prodigious efforts, and the snapping of one of the 3-inch chains, proving likewise unsuccessful, the report of it soon got mooted abroad, and the public, always fluctuating between extremes, now 520 MERCHANT SHIPPING. began to entertain serious doubts whether the Great Ea-'^tern would ever get afloat. A third attempt, on Saturday, November 28th, proved however more successful than the previous efforts. On this occasion the Great Eastern was gradually lowered down the launching ways some 25 feet in a slow but satisfactory manner ; while, on the 1st December, when the tedious process of moving the gigantic structure was recommenced, she moved steadily, for a time, at the rate of half an inch a minute, but, suddenly, soon after slipped 5 inches forward and 9 inches aft, to the terror of every person engaged in the operation ; and, when renewed efforts were made in the course of the Hydraulic aftemoou, oue of the ten-inch hydraulic rams burst, imrsts. as might have been anticipated, under the tremendous pressure of 1300 pounds to the square inch of its cylinder : consequently, the work of launching was suspended for that day. Six weeks elapsed ere the operations were re- sumed, and, this time, with the most sanguine hope on the part of Mr. Brunei that the great ship would reach her destination by the spring tides of the 28th or 30th of January, 1858. On this occasion the plans could not be kept secret. Crowds of people were again in attendance, among whom were the Duchess d'Orleans, the Comte de Paris, and various other distinguished personages, as well as many men of science. The Great Eastern was, indeed, not merely the wonder of this age, but she created more sensation among men of scientific and maritime pursuits in all parts of the world than any vessel )iad ever done in any age. Nor was she an object of MERCHANT SHIPPING. 521 iiiiicli less interest at the time to the g'eiieral public, wliile the difficulties of her launch and the appliances for this purpose were freeh^^ discussed, often in no friendly spirit, at the meetings of the learned in- stitutions, as well as in the gay gatherings of Belgravia, and in the more humble homes and work- shops of Mile End and Poplar. The subject was one of hardly less interest throughout Europe and the United States. But shrewd practical men, while en- vying the superabundant wealth of the shareholders, and admiring their boldness in investing in her as a commercial undertaking with so questionable a chance of profit, quietly sneered at the futile attempts to launch the leviathan. Though of un- usual weight and size, they said, that- had the ordinary process been adopted, she would have found her way to the water with as much ease and safety as a vessel of ordinary dimensions. There was no need, they remarked, to launch her brondway to the Thames, as, in their opinion, she might have been so built that when started from her ways she would shoot either up or down the river, as hundreds of vessels launched from the banks of much nai'rower streams had done before her. However, on this occasion, the efforts at launching were so far attended with success, . an average advance of 20 feet having been obtained in the course of the day, so that when the fide reached its height, the monster was 7^ feet in the water ; but the only distance accomplished on the following day, was one solitary slip of "2J- inches," and in Floats of this state she lay until Tuesday, the 31st January, !;;,'„^^7'' when the a'rcjit shin (iiiietlv floated of her own •['^»"a>"y ' ' • olst, 18o8. 522 MERCHANT SHIPPING. accord, the tide having risen sufficiently high to lift her from the cradles on which she had &o long lain. The whole The striiggle of hydraulic power with the monster tfiSmdi ^1^6 company had created, and other appliances ^ *.''PJ"^"si' proved most expensive, the launch of this ship having cost no less than 120,000/. when 10,000/. or even 5000/., it was said, might have sufficed ;^ nor, indeed, is it easy to understand how, with all the data before them, the tons weight to be lifted, the angle of inclination, and the well-known rate of friction, dynamic science could not have calculated with the utmost accuracy the amount of force re- quisite to move the Great Eastern on her launching ways. No adequate consideration, however, seems to have been given to these important matters, for additions were made, day by day, to the force ap- plied, and these, too, experimentally, and not, as might have been expected, as the result of careful, previous calculations. No doubt the chief cause of this expensive failure is attributable to the fact that Mr. Brunei (it was well known at the time that Mr. Scott Kussell stiongly opposed Mr. Brunei's plan of launching) was permitted to try the almost in- sane experiment of launching the ship on ^ron instead of wooden ways, as has, hitherto, invariably been adopted in the launch of all other vessels. The expenses attending the launch exhausted the I'unds of the Great Eastern Com^xany ; and brought it to the briidv of dissolution. Nor was this the only trouble to wbich the Great Eastern was exposed. ' Mr. Brinicrs rstiiiiiitc to the tliroctors of the cost of the laiuicli was 1 J ,()()( )/. MEUCIIANT SIIlPlMXr:. 523 Oil the Stli of April, 1858, a sliarj) iiortli-easterly squall, which swept the. river with considerable violence, subjected her moorings to a strain so severe, that one of the chain cables on the port-bow parted about 20 feet below the hawt;e-hole, and for a time exposed the vessel to great danger ; for- tunately, however, this unfair weight snapped, also, the second stern-chain, and thus allowed the vessel's bows to swing in towards the Deptford shore, there- by saving the Great Eastern from more serious loss. The difficulties, however, in which the company Difficulties were involved had now become a matter of public company, notoriety ; the more so, that the vessel remained for more than a year equally unfinished as on the day she launched herself, and was in fact nothing more than a vast iron hulk lying on the waters of the Thames. Ineffectual efforts were made to induce the public to come forward and subscribe the extra capital requisite to complete her, but the launch, and other circumstances, had increased the doubts long entertained by men of business with regard to the prospects of the ship, as a commercial undertaking ; hence, the public could not be induced to re-invigorate the exchequer of the company with sufficient money to equip her for sea. The various suggestions made to persuade the share- holders of the company to come forward with ad- ditional capital, were of no avail and they all, alike, failed in raising the requisite funds. A negotiation otfer to was even opened with the Government with a mcnr"' view to the purchase of the vessel, the press, all ^'iJ^J^^J ^''^" at once, teeming with articles to the effect that, whether import;int or not as a m(M-caiitilo adventure, 524 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the great slii23, as a vessel of war, would be " almost invaluable." ^ This discovery, it is true, had been previously overlooked, but it soon became the theme of general discussion. The difficulties of the existing means of oceanic communication it was said, compelled Government to maintain larger forces at all points of the empire, and at the same time, than were actually requisite ; consequently, it was argued that, with two or three such stupendous vessels as the Great Eastern, such a necessity would be obviated, and Government would really have increased strength, even though her present military establishments were greatly reduced. It was, further, urged that continental nations were well aware that the secret of England's weakness, as a military power, is not so much from the small - ness as from the wide dispersion of her army. Once show that means exist for obviating this neces- sity, and that she is able, in a few days, to transport an army of 10,000 men to any part of Europe, and England's position, as a military empire, would be established. It was asserted that the political results, accruing from any Government having at its disposal such a class of ships, would be equally important; while the lacility provided for the transportation of large numbers of soldiers across the seas would necessarily consolidate more closely the power of Great Britain with that of her distant jDossessions. Tlie revolution a squadron of such vessels would effect in war would be as great as their results ' " What fleet (exclaims the writer of a leading article in one of the London daily papers) could stand in the way of such a mass, weighing some 30,000 tons, and driven through the water by 12,000 horsc- ))o\vtr at tiic rate of 2'2 or '1'6 miles an hour?" MERCHANT SIIH'PINCt. 525 in commerce ; moreover, for the first time, steam would achieve on the ocean what it had already achieved on land. But the arguments employed by the negotiators, backed as these were by suggestions artfully thrown out by a portion of the public press, to the effect that foreign powers might become possessed of this invaluable ship to the prejudice, disadvantage, and dishonour of Great Britain, terminated in failure. Government decid.ed against the proposal, and no alternative remained, but to wind up the affairs of the existing company and to endeavour to make some arrangement whereby fresh capital could be raised to complete the vessel. The Atlantic cable, which was to form a telegraphic communication between Euro23e and the United States, was completed in the summer of 1858, and the vessels of war employed in laying it across the Atlantic having made an unsuccessful voyage on the first occasion, it was strongly urged upon Government ^ that the Great Eastern should be Further fitted up by the Admiralty for the purpose offJ°P^"*^i, layino; it down, as the whole of the cable could be ^^^ "» ^ contamed m this one vessel, thus dmiinishmg the li'yer- risks of failure necessarily inseparable from employing two ships, each starting in opposite directions from the middle of the Atlantic. But the prevailing opinion then was, though it changed a few years later, that the Great Eastern from her height out of the water was unadapted for such a service, and, further, that there were no public grounds on which the application of the necessary sum from ' Hee IMr. Griffitlis' .s]>cec'h in the House of Commons, 9tli July, 1S58. 526 MERCHANT SHIPPING. the Exchequer to assist the operations of a private company could be justified : therefore, Government distinctly refused to entertain the proposal. Renewed endeavours were now made to re- organise the undertaking, and after much difficulty the affairs of the original company were wound up, the sum of 160,000/, having been accepted for the sale and transfer of the vessel to a new company, which came into possession of her in the beginning ofthe year 1859. Somewhere about 300,000/. having been subscribed for the new undertaking, which received the name of the Great Ship Company, the directors, after paying for the ship, had 140,000/. left to equip her for sea ; but it was not until September 1859 that the Great Makes iier Eastem was sufficiently complete to make her first frip, Sep- ^I'^^l ^^^'ip- On Wednesday, the 9th of that month, she S'^Ssg ^^^^ ^^®^ departure from the Thames under the most favourable circumstances, the weather being very fine with a light breeze of wind and blue sky overhead. Starting with four tugs, two on the bow and two at the quarter, to guide her through the narrow parts of the river, she, after some delay and a few slight mishaps, reached Purfieet, where she anchored for the night. At daylight, on the following morning she started for the Nore, where she arrived about noon, having obtained a speed of "13 knots " an hour, thougli only at "half-speed, her engines making not more than eight revolutions a minute. From the Nore the Great Eastern proceeded suc- cessfully to AVhitstable, where she anchored, getting under weigh, thence, at a quarter past nine on the followino- morning' with a fiesh breeze. iVftei" MERCHANT SHIPPING. 527 passing Margate she eneonntered a stiff gale, wliere, as represented in tlie following woodcut, slie appears " quite at ease," when " large ships were under double reefed topsails " and small vessels were obliged to " lie to." But an unfortunate accident occurred to her, wdien Accident off Hastings, through the explosion of one of her Hastings funnel-casing's, causing the death of six men em- "°!^ ?'^° - o ' o opinion of ployed in the engineering department, injuring ti^e pilot, various others, and destroying nearly all the mirrors and other ornamental furniture in the grand saloon. SS. "GKEAT eastern," under pull sail and steam, passing DOVER. Though appalling enough at the time, no injury was done to the hull or machinery of the vessel sufficient to prevent her proceeding on lier voyage to Wey- mouth, which she reached without any further mis- fortune on the afternoon of Friday, within the time anticipated for her arrival. On her arrival, the pilot who had been in charge of the Gi^eat Eastern fiom Dej)tfbrd to Portland (Weymouth Bay), made an official report of her performances to the company,' confirming, in some ' Extract from the pilot's report : "On arrivinc; at Sea TJoacli I t'onnd tlie vessel so coni])l('t('ly under 528 MERCHANT SHIPPING. measure, the glowing accounts in many of ' the public journals and realising the sanguine ex- pectations of the directors, though their hopes of profit had been somewhat damped by the accident which, apart from the loss of life, entailed an Reaches outlay of 5000/. The necessary repairs having iid details been completed, the Great Eastern proceeded from Portland to Holyhead, but without passengers as originally contemplated. Starting at noon of the 8th of October, she made the run to Holyhead in forty hours at an " average speed of close upon 13 knots or more than 15 statute miles in the hour," having on some occasions attained a speed of 15 knots an hour, the engineers and other experienced men on board feeling " thoroughly convinced that, when in the condition which the company has a right to expect, she will make easily 18 knots or 21 miles an hour." of her voyage, command witli the use of her own paddle-wheels and steam-engines, that I decided on casting off the steam-tugs altogether, and proceeding afterwards without any assistance. On reaching the Nortli Foreland, we experienced a stiff double-reefed topsail breeze, during which other vessels were j^itching and tossing a good deal, and, on passing the Downs, the wind increased to a close-reefed breeze, and many large vessels were lying with two anchors down. Throughout, the vessel steered with the greatest ease, and, literally, witliout any jierceptible motion, and for some time I have no hesitation in stating that, computing our distance by points on land, which admit of no mistake as to distance, we were making fully 14 knots an hour with both i^addle-wheels and screw-engines working fully one-third under their i^ressure. The misadventure, which occurred off Hastings, in no way interfered witli the working or ])rogress of the vessel, and, with the single engineer- ing accident in question, we made the voyage from Deptford to Portland without any check or interfiireiicc of any kind. The vessel is, in every respect, an excellent sea-boat, and I may state without any hesitation that, with sufficient sea-room, she is even more easily handled and under command than an ordinary ship, either sailing- vessel or steam." MI']KCIIANT SHIPPINCr. 529 The paddle-engines, during one portion of the ]);issnge where a careful record was kept, appear to have made from 8| to OJ revolutions per minute, and the ticrew from 32 to 33J revolutions in the same time, the pressure being 20 pounds per square inch in both cases with the throttle-valves half closed and both engines working on the second grade of expansion, giving an average speed of 12 knots an hour, but with an outlay of" 10 tons of coal per hour." On another occasion when the sails were set, and the weather more favourable, she is said to have attained a speed of 15 knots, with the screw making from 38 to 40, and tlje paddles from 10 J to 11 revolutions per minute, and, at this rate of speed, the screw boilers consumed on the average at the rate of 170 tons per day, and the paddle-engines on the average 110 tons, giving a consumption of 280 tons of coal each day under favourable X3ircumstances, During the highest rate of speed the engines made 11 revolutions for the paddles per minute and 43 for the screw. A special trial gave the speed of the ship under paddle- wheels alone 7|, and under the screw alone 9 knots an hour. Having made the trial trip to Holyhead to the satisfaction of her directors, the Great Eastern left that harbour shortly after noon on the 2n(i of November for Southampton, but did not leave that port on her first voyage across the Atlantic until iMi.kos htr the morning of the 17th of June, 1860, reaching vo>^.e New York on the 28th of that month. The greatest IXnti^ speed attained during the passage was 14^ knots an ^"?i> , . ^ J 8(jO. hour, and the greatest distance run in any one day VOL. IV. 2 M 530 MERCHANT SHIPPING. 333 knots. ^ Only thirty-six passengers were found bold enoug-li to accompany lier on this voyage, besides two of the directors. But tlie Americans gave her a warm and hearty reception on her arrival at New York ; hundreds of small vessels crowded with people having gone out to meet her and bid her welcome, the scene in the North River, where she moored, being described^ as a " perfect ovation." In the report which the directors issued to the shareholders^ shortly after the Great Eastern returned to ]\Iilford Haven (where she was placed with great skill on a gridiron and had her bottom cleaned and painted) they state that 14,000/. had been remitted from tlie agents at New York, and, though they had not then furnished their accounts, the directors expressed a hope that the receipts would cover the expenses of the trial trip to America without trench- ing on the capital ; they, however, stated that heavy outstanding claims remained unsettled, and that they would require, to meet these demands and put the ship into good working order, an additional capital of from 30,000/. to 40,000/. ' Her daily performances were as follows : 17th June 285 knots 18th „ 296 „ 19t.h „ .' . . 29G ,. 20th „ 276 „ 21st „ 301 „ 22nd „ 280 „ 23rd „ ■ 302 „ 21th „ 299 „ 25th „ ' .... 325 ,, 26th „ 333 „ 27th „ 254 ,, - Letter from jjassenger in tlie Great Eastern. » 11th Octoher, 1860. MERCHANT SIIIPPJXG. 531 The re{]uisite sum having been provided, the Second Great Eastern left Milford Haven on lier second Mnvlsei. passage for New York on the 1st of May, 1S61, with 100 passengers. On this occasion she consumed from 159 to 295 tons of coals per day; the entire distance (3093 miles) being accompHshed in ten days, though the wind, by her log, appears to have been ahead during a considerable portion of tlie voyage. In one day, she accomplished a distance of 348 nautical miles, her greatest speed being 14J knots an hour, or one half knot per hour less than the average speed anticipated on a voyage to India.^ On tlie return of the Great Eastern to England TJiini in the following month of June, the apprehension QiSfec," of war with the United States occasioned by the "^"'^^^^^' Trent aftair induced the British Government to engage her, with other steamships, to transport troops and munitions of war to Oanadn. But those embarked (or rather, for prudential reasons, allowed to embark) fell far sliort of the number her designers had contemplated ; they had estimated 10,000, but the Crovernment wisely limited the number to 2079 men, 46 officers, 159 women, and 244 children, besides ' In the various newspapers and reports I have searched for information about this sliip, and other inquiries, I have never had any reason assigned for the Great Eastern not having been placed, when ready for sea, on the India line, from which so much was expected of her, and for which she was specially built ; or why her now directors sent her, on ha])-hazard and expensive cruises, down channel and across the Atlantic, when every trip showed a ruinous loss. But I suppose the true reason is to be found in the fact, that they could not obtain for cither India or Australia sufficient goods and i)assengers to justify the heavy outlay necessary for such long voyages (the cost of outfit may in itself have been an obstacle), and that, in truth, there was no branch of maritime commerce wherein she could then be pro- fitably employed. 2 M 2 532 MERCHANT SHIPPING. 40 cabin passengers who were civilians. Having landed her troops at Quebec, she left that place on her return to England at four o'clock on the morning of the Gth of August, and, though detained twelve hours in crossing the bars in the Eiver St. Lawrence, she arrived at her moorings in the Mersey on Thurs- day at 8.30 P.M. of the 15th of that month. Fourth Early in the course of the followins; montli, voyage, -^ _ o 7 September the Great Eastern sailed from the Mersey on her fourth Transatlantic voyage with 400 passengers of different classes for New York. On this occasion she encountered, on the 12th and 13th of Sep- Heavy tember, a heavy gale of wind when about 280 i^w'^foast ™l6S off Cape Clear, and sustained so much damage of Ireland, ^hat she was oblie-ed to put back and seek shelter compiled . to return in Cork Harbour. Yarious accounts of this disaster appeared, at the time, in the daily journals. Her paddles, it would appear, were seriously injured, and her rudder "rendered useless." Nor do the writers of these accounts speak very highly of the anticipated- superior sea-going qualities of the great ship, or of her freedom from that violent motion in a gale, to which ordinary vessels are sub- jected. Indeed, one of her passengers on this occasion, in a letter he addressed to the Times, gives the most melancholy account of her, but this descrip- tion of the disaster and the imminent danger to which her passengers were exposed, is probably exaggerated.^ Landsmen in a gale, especially when 1 " T/awscZa?/.— This morning we have a fresh gale, with a good sea. Noon: A heavy gale; wind, from north to west; sea, tremendous. We roll very heavily, and ship many seas. I now begin to understand the true meaning of a gale in the Atlantic. The captain looks anxious, but the passengers have faitli in the 'big ship.' The 'rolling' is MERCHANT SHIPPING. 533 anything goes wrong, generally, take the most gloomy view of matters ; they picture to themselves dangers which have no reality, and, when they see the seamen hurrying to and fro to rectify, as far as possible, any damage the ship may have sustained about her spars, rigging, or bulwarks, they too fre- quently give themselves up for lost. So long as the hull of a sliip keeps sound the action of the ocean, however disturbed, does not, fearful, and quite upsets all persons' notions of the steadiness of the Great Eastrn. Two o'clock: Things look worse. The caj^tain tries to put our head to the wind. The port paddle gives way with a great crash in the attempt. The jib is set, I presume to aid in steering, but it is blown to ribands in a few moments. The rolling increases; the deck presents an angle of 45 degrees, and none but experienced seamen can walk about. Attention is suddenly drawn to the boats ; they are suspended on either side, but mostly on fixed davits. The heavy rolling brings the boats in violent contact with Ihe waves. The tackling of the long boat becomes deranged ; a man and a boy enter it to remedy the evil, but the wind strikes the boat, and gives the occupants forcible ejectment, hapj^ily upon the deck, and in a moment it is floating fsir away from us. Four other boats share a similar fate in rapid succession. Continued efforts are made to bring the ship to the wind. I watch the men at -tlie wheel — there is almost an army of them. 5.45 — Our position is indeed critical. A tremendous sea has just struck our stern. It has broken her rudder head. Still, we are not quite at the mercy of the waves ; we have our screw, and we have our starboard paddle. The wind is now getting to the south-west. " Fridtuj, 6 A.M. — "We are drifting before the wind at the rate of 3 or 4 knots an hour. We have never been more than 300 miles from land. We are drifting eastward now; but, even if the wind does not change, it will be many days before we can reach laud in this manner. The pumps are all going. I do not like the sound, but am assured they have complete mastery over the water. The water has got iu through the ports and by way of the deck. " There is scarcely a cabin in the ship to which the water has not found its way. Many require a change of clothes, and the hatchways of the l)aggage stores arc opened. The scene that presents itself defies all description. The water has got in, and in sufficient force to float even many of the larger articles. The rocking of the ship has set the whole mass in motion." 534 MERCHANT SHIPPING. materially, affect her safety, but, in this actioii_, the landsman, too frequently, sees just that kind of danger which the sailor is said to have dreaded during a gale on land, from falling slates and broken chimney- pots, congratulating himself that he was at sea and not on shore in the midst of the storm. General On the other hand, the anticipated ease and safety oTtiiV^ of the (rreat Eastern during a gale was about as much ^uTmies° exaggerated, as the discomforts and danger the ofdifiFereut narrator of the e:ale has described. One enthu- snips, _ . ^ siastic Avriter, among numerous others equally sanguine, in his description of wliat might be ex- pected from the great ship in a storm, remarks " she will set circular sailing at defiance," as if circular sailing has anything whatever to do with the sea- going qualities of a vessel. He then exclaims : " The line which in a tornado is said to make a • • steady but resistless run of 20 miles will be counter- acted by the ' wave line,' which Mr. Scott Russell has adopted as the principle on which she has been built. Storms and tempests will be looked upon as merely sublime phenomena, in nowise menacing peril as things scarcely affecting the ship, but to be gazed upon out of snug cabin windows as interesting episodes of the voyage." So much for the two extremes, but from these glowing anticipations on the one hand, and the ex- aggerated account of the actual event on the other, some lessons may be learned. The wave line (whatever may be its advantage, if any, over the lines usually ado2:)ted by shipbuilders) can produce no sensible difference in the violent motions of a sliip at sea, even if it tends to promote greater speed. MERCHANT SHIITING. 535 Waves are of greater length and height, according to the force of the gale and its extent of sweep over the ocean. ' In channels, where broken by projecting points of land or promontories, they are short and disturbed. When crossing the whole breadth of the Atlantic during a westerly gale, they are long, and on the and, as they roll between the headlands forming the xfil,a ^1 Bay of Biscay, they are also disturlied, rendering a f,'"j|"j?g., voyage across that part of the ocean a proverbially unpleasant and, with deeply laden and badly found ships, a somewhat dangerous one. To insist, there- foie, as some writers appear to have done, that the lines of a ship should be in conformity with the length and action of the waves, or that, by a careful study of tlie law of fluids, they can be so drawn as to render, under all the varied circumstances of a long voyage, one ship more easy or even more swift than another, is, I fear, attributing to science more than it can reasonably claim ; for though, by its general application to the models of ships, great improvements have of late years been made, 1 can hardly suppose that lines, based on the action of fluids, which must be more or less disturbed by the weight and velocity of a vessel passing through them, and by the action of the winds on their surface, do really possess any superior advantages so far as regards greater ease, speed or safety.^ ^ " From a ]iaper of gi-eat interest it would seem that, approxi- matively, the cube of the height of the waves is proportional to the square of the velocity of the wind. Most of the conclusions drawn in this paper are from observations made during the voyages of the Bun ite and Astrolabe." (" Naval Science," October 1874, Part II., p. 159.) ^ See paper on " The Difficulties of Speed Calculations," by Mr. Denny, read at the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 23rd March, 1875, pp. 2, 3, and 4. 536 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Nor had the idea, which prevailed at the time, that a sliip of the vast dimensions of" the Great Eastern would bid defiance to the danger of the ocean, much more foundation in fact. No doubt a vessel of 1000 tons is a much safer mode of conveyance across the Atlantic than one of 100 tons, and a vessel of 2000 tons may be still more so, but not to either the same degree or extent. Moreover, a ship of double that size, or say 4000 tons, is no safer, though she may be more comfortable, for various self-evident reasons, such as being less liable to receive on deck the crest of the waves, or by affording more space and better ventilation in her cabins ; but anything be3^ond that size will, assuredly, not realize much greater speed, though she may afford greater comfort. A vessel of 100 tons is lifted by every large wave, and, consequently, the distance she has to traverse is increased. As the size is enlarged this particular description of motion diminishes, in pro- portion to the length of the vessel. But there is a limit to this advantage, as there is to most other things, and a vessel of 5000 tons and 400 feet long, will be, similarly, borne on the crest of two or more of the largest waves as a vessel TOO feet in length, and, therefore, would lose nothing in speed from the ascending and descending motions : this fact has, indeed, been satisfactorily proved, as the ships of the Ismay, Cunard, Inman, Allan, and other lines of steamers employed in Transatlantic voyages have made more rapid passages than ever the Great Eastern did.' Speed, beyond a certain size, is determined by the model, and tlie power of pro- ' See Appendices Nos. 10 and 17, pp. (lUG and G17. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 537 piilsfoii, due regard being had to the weigiit to be propelled and the resistance offered by the depth and extent of immersion. The momentum, about Real which a great deal was said and from which so much about was expected in the case of the Great Eastern, though l^^^"^^' of some importance, when vessels of 100 tons are compared with those of 1000, is of much less con- sequence in the case of vessels of unusual weight and dimensions. It is at best only transitory, while, to drive a vessel of 20,000 tons through the water at the rate of 15 miles an hour, somewhere about four times greater power would be necessary than to secure the same speed in a vessel similarly con- structed, of 5000 tons, although less power in propor- tion to tonnage would suffice in smaller vessels. But, with regard to the first and by far the most Very important consideration, the safety of a vessel at ships not sea, I am disposed to think, though contrary to the smJiitr'^'^ generally accepted view, that ships of vast dimensions °^'^?: ^^ are less safe, in exceptional circumstances, than those damages of ordinary size. Take for instance the case of the easily re- accident to the Great Eastern, to which I have just referred, in which she lost her rudder, or when, at all events, it was so seriously injured as to be ren- dered ineflficient. I need say nothing of the difficulty, or it might be of the impossibility, of providing a tem]3orary mode of guiding a vessel of such huge dimensions. The loss of the rudder of any vessel in a gale of wind is no doubt a serious matter and one which must ever cause peril, but that peril in- creases with the size of the ship, for, when thus rendered helpless, the greater the bulk, the greater is the resistance offered to the action of the waves as )38 MERCHANT SHIPPING. tliey strike her sides. This is exemplified, though to a far greater degree, by the fact that a strong ship, on whicli the beating of the waves in the open sea would make little or no impression, would be dashed to pieces by the same waves if she was stranded on a lee shore. A large ship without rudder and, consequently, helpless in the hollow or trough of the sea would offer resistance to the stroke of the wave in proportion to her w^eight, and the wave would, consequently, strike with the greatest force on the body of the greatest weight. This, in some measure, and not \vithout reason, accounts for the alarm created in the mind of the passenger on board of the Great Eastern during the gale he so graphically desciibes. From the time of this disaster, the movements of the Great Eastern are not of much historical interest, i^^a cable ^^ ^^^' ^^ regards merchant shij^ping. It is true, that layer, ^^q proved of great value and importance in laying the Atlantic telegraph cable during the summer of 1865, and, in the very skilful feat of picking uj) from the depths of the ocean the broken ends, and in laying another Atlantic cable during the summer of 18G6, when no other ship of sufticient dimensions could then have been found to perform that difficult and hazardous undertaking.^ She has also proved very useful since, in other similar operations, in India and elsewhere ; but, for ordinary commercial opera- ' 1000/. per month was paid for the use of the sliij? alone. When the agreement expired in 1867, she was chartered by a French Com- pany to carry passengers between New York and Brest for the Paris exlaibition. Her cabins were then altered and redecorated, and new boilers fitted to the screw engines. But the French Company was un- successful, and the Great Eadcni only made one voyage in its service. Chief liiter use of Great MERCHANT SHIPPING. 539 tions as various persons predicted/ when she was first projected and long before she was sent to sea, she ' Towards the close of the year 1857, when the prospects of the dreat Eastern were exciting much public attention, the author ventured to offer to his constitxients at Tynemouth, nearly all of whom were interested in ships, the following remarks (reported in the newspapers of the period) with regard to her : " Very shortly there will be launched a ship of vast and hitherto unparalleled dimensions : I allude to the Great Easfer/i. If that ship answers, I do not know where we shall be with our small vessels. As this is a subject, upon which opinions have been greatly at variance, perhaps you would like to liear mine. It must be a matter of deep interest to all present, because you are all directly or indirectly inter- ested in the shipping trade, to know whether such a ship as the Great Eastern is, or is not, likely to answer in a commercial point of view, and I venture on this topic because I have heard strong opinions ex- pressed to the effect that, commercially, she will be a great triumph. For my part, I believe her to be a great triumph of mechanical skill, I believe that no liner or stronger vessel has ever been put together : so far as regards her formation, I think she is a very splendid model : but, with reference to the speed she is expected to attain, I doubt very nuich whether she will ever realise the anticipation of her builder, though I think that we, as a nation, ought to be proud of having men who can produce so marvellous a piece of mechanism. But we must look, also, to the commercial element, because in this, I, and most of you are deeply interested. If such a ship as the Great Eastern be found to answer commercially, most of our property will go to the wall, for, in a fchort time, our small vessels will be of very little use to us. The course of commerce is this : If a Manchester merchant has 1000 bales of a particular description of goods to send to Calcutta, he does not send the whole of them in one bottom, because he might thus over- stock the market. On the contrary, he sends them in from four to six different vessels, and he does this for two reasons : first, that by so doing lie feeds the market; and, secondly, that he gets, thereby, quicker returns. The |n-inciple of commerce is to send out supplies in relays. Then again, we find that passengers do not go out in masses, but, at such intervals, as suit them best And, in times of war, statesmen find it the Misest plan to Send out not 1000, much less 10,000 men in one bottom, but from -100 to 600, at the utmost, in one ship. And this must appear to be sound policy, when we picture to ourselves what might be the result of sending out a wliole army in the Gnat Eastern. 1 do not take into consideration the contingency of the ship going to the bottom. I shall not ask you to imagine so fearful a calamity, but, snp])osing anything hayipcned to her machinery and occasioned a tivo. 540 MERCHANT SHIPPING. has been a ruinous, though not a lamentable failure/ bill uot, Even the work of layins; cables was not remunera- even hero, , n i r \ t • ^ • lemuucr..- tive, for, by a report of the directors issued m March 1869, it appears that the great ship had been arrested for a debt of 35,000/., that the current ex- penses had, considerably, exceeded the receipts, and that there were other claims which had to be met, before she could again proceed to sea. These diffi- culties were, however, overcome. The debt of 35,000/. was settled for the comparatively moderate sum of "4000/.!" and the other demands, though not nearly so extortionate, were amicably adjusted. In 1868 the Great Eastern was again chartered by the Telegraphic Construction and Maintenance Com- pany, for the- purpose of laying a telegraph cable between Brest and Ducksburgh near Boston ; and for the same company she laid a telegraph cable between Aden and Bombay in the spring of 1870." In 1873 and 1874 she laid other two cables between serious stoppage, when expeditiou was necessary to the attainment of a certain object, the effect would be that the whole army would be detained. No Government would dare to send so large a force in one vessel. Therefore, looking at the question, politically as well as from a commercial point of view, I am of opinion ijiat we have nothing to fear from the competition of leviathans such as the Great Eastrrn" ^ If any further proof was required that the Great Eastern proved a failure in the two points, speed and comfort at sea, on which her pro- tectors mainly built their hopes, it will be found in a small and amu'-ing book by M. Jules Verne, translated from the French, and published by Messrs. Sampson Low and Co. (1875), entitled " The Floating City." M. Verne, who made a voyage in this ship in 1867 from Liverpool to New York, records, from the oflBcial retuj-ns, her speed as not exceeding 250 nautical miles each day on the average, and he describes her movements during strong winds as " rolling frightfully, her bare masts describing immen.se circles in the air." ^ It has been stated that the loss upon the Great Easttem up to this period amounted to close upon 1,000,000/. sterling! MERCHANT SIliri'lNG. 541 Yaleiitia and Heart's Content in Newfoundland ; and on the 25th of July, 1875, she completed her charter (20,000/. per annum), and was handed over to her owners. Since then she has been placed upon a gridiron to have her bottom cleaned, and I daresay her owners are now at a loss to know how she can be profitably employed. But it will hardly be gainsaid, that the building, Con- launching, and navigating such a ship are events remarks. in the history of merchant shipping, sufficiently imjDortant to justify the extent of space devoted to her in these pages ; and, should my imperfect record survive for the next hundred or fifty years, there may be found in these pages a collection of facts relating to a ship, more marvellous than that of Hiero, King of Syracuse, or of the PentC' center of Ptolemy Philopator. Perhajjs, too, this record may contain more details of value, than the historians of those ships have handed down to pos- terity, for it may be that, a hundred or fifty years hence, the maritime commerce of the world may have grown to an extent sufficient to justify, with reasonable prospects of profit, another ship of the dimensions of the Great Eastern. I can only write of the past and the present, leaving the future to be dealt with by those who may follow me, and, perhaps, all that posterity will be al)le to say against the enterprising promoters of the Great Eastern may, hereafter, be condensed in the flattering eulo- gium, " their ideas in regard to dimensions were in advance of their age — they were only before their time." Though far from realizing the expecta- tions once entertained with regard to speed and 542 MERCHANT SHIPPING. small consumption of fuel, her failure is, mainly, to be attributed to the fact that, at the time she was con- structed, there were no lines of traffic on which a vessel of such huge capacity could procure, with despatch, the amount of freight or passage money necessary to insure a profit. But, from first to last, even when the faihn^es of her launch had become too apparent, the people of England were proud of her, and this is not surprising, for no other country could have raised, by voluntary subscription, and without any aid from Government, the capital re- quisite to construct and equip this monster ship for sea. That their pride should have found vent in nume- rous paragraphs in the public press is only what might have been expected, for, though shrewd men shook their heads, and cautious men declined to invest their capital in the ship, she was a marvellous piece of workmanship, even the Americans admitting, that England might well feel an honest pride in having produced such a triumph of mechanical skill, and welcoming her as they did to their shores, as a characteristic evidence of the genius, energy, and pluck of their fatherland. Although I have not hesitated to expose the want of forethought, which rendered the Great Eastern a commercial failure, and the grave mistake in her launch, I cannot refrain from admiring the extension of the spirit of national pride to private under- taking's such as these. Much has been learned and o much has still to be learned from hei-. Various me- chanical contrivances, now in use, were first adopted in this great ship. In herself she indicates the most MERCHANT SHIPPING. 543 nstonnding j)rogTess. Indeed, when I consider that oiilv forty years had ehapsed since the small engines of the Comet wliicli, though they puffed and strained, and made noise enough to frighten tlie ])eople who watched the little vessel in her progress down the Clyde, were the finest of the period, and compare them with the vast engines of the Great Eastern, working in their combined action without the slight- est jerlc, and almost noiselessly, my mind is lost in wonder at the prodigious advance made, within my own time, in this mighty civilizing instrument. Mi MERCHANT SHIPPING. CHAPTER XV. Eiver and coast trade of Great Britain — The lona, paddle steamer — First screw collier Q. E. Z*.— The King Coa7 collier — Her dimensions and crew, iiote — Improvement in care of seamen — Leith and London traders — Dublin and Holyhead Mail-Packets — Their great fepeed and regularity — Dimensions, power, cajDacity, and cost — Dover and Calais Mail-Packets — The Victoria — Her speed — Proposed tunnel and other modes of crossing the Straits of Dover — Mr. Fowler's plan — The Castalia — The Bessemer — Her swinging saloon — The cigar-shijD built at Baltimore, 1858— Similar ship built on the Thames, 1864 — Per- kins's economical steam-engine and proposed fast boat — The Engine of the Comet — Modificatious in the construction of Marine Engines — Eatio of speed to power — The Compound Engine more economical than the simple — Great skill required for building perfect ships, andj especial importance to England of having the best ships — But her ships not yet perfect, though gi-eat progress has been made during the last half century. Eiver and ALTHOUGH Great Britain supplies from its rivers of Great ^ ''^^^ coasts three-fourtlis of the ocean-going steamers Britain. q£ ^|-^g world, its own coasting and inland navigation affords but a very limited field for the employment of vessels of any kind compared with the shores and rivers of America, India, and China. Before the introduction of steamers, a few row- boats, sailing wherries, and barges were sufficient to conduct the whole of the river traffic. This new ex- pedient, however, though soon met in another form by the competition of railways, has vastly developed even this comparatively limited trade. Steam-boats now, MKh'CHANT SlUPl'JNG. 545 whetlier on business or pleasure, are to be found in great numbers on every navigable stream, and are still on the increase ; indeed, the improved facilities for intercourse on land, so far fiom retarding that increase, gives fresh life to the swarms of passenger- boats, yachts, steam-launches and steam-barges, which |)Iy wherever they can find the means of flotation, and, especially, on the Thames and Clyde. Offering, as it does, greater inducements than any other I'iver in the United Kingdom, there are now to be found on the Clyde many elegant and commodious steam-boats. Although generally inferior in size, equipment, and speed to those of the Hudson or Long Island Sound, one of them, the lona, a paddle- The loan wheel boat, employed in the passenger traffic between steamer. Glasgow and the Western Highlands, is almost un- rivalled/ This beautiful vessel affords deck and cabin accommodation for no less than 1200 passen- gers, and her long range of saloon houses, with plate-glass windows extending right fore and aft, gives her a graceful and imposing appearance. Fleets of similar vessels, though of inferior dimen- sions, now ply between Glasgow and the numerous watering places which line the shores of the estuary of the Clyde, presenting a striking contrast to the times of Henry Bell's Comet. Equally marked has been the improvement in the ' The dimensions of the lona arc 250 feet in length and 25 feet breadth of beam. She is propelled by a pair of oscillating engines, with a combined nominal power of 180 horses. Her draught of water, when fully laden, does not exceed 6 feet, and her speed vinder favourable circumstances is from 20 to 21 statute miles per hour. She is the fastest vessel in Great Britain, or perhaps in the world, one Ml' two (if the steamers of the United States excepted. vol;. IV. 2 N 546 MERCHANT SHIPPING. vessels now employed in the coal and coasting trades of Great Britain. From the sailing-vessels of tlie north-east coast, of which an illustration has been furnished/ we advanced to the screw, and, in 1844, First built of iron the first screws-collier, the Q. E. />., (omer, foi' "the conveyance of coal from Newcastle to London. Q. E. 1). g-j^g ^g^g heavily barque-rigged, and, in style and form, somewhat resembled the fast Baltimore clippers, the intention of her owners being to depend chiefly for speed upon her sails, and to use her engine as an auxiliary power. Her mizen mast, a hollow tube of iron, was made to serve tlie purpose of a funnel, and the whole of her standing rigging consisted of wire rope. She had a double bottom, divided into separate chambers, so that any injury to the one would not affect the other, each being covered with a false floor and hermetically closed. Into these vacant spaces between the bottom and the floors, water could be admitted by means of cocks, for the pur- pose of ballast, and, at the same time, easily pumped out again by an engine when not required. The Q. E. D. therefore, in herself, contained many inventions then little known, the more important of which, as the wire rope and water ballast, are now in general use. But the auxiliary engine and full sailing rig did not answer in the coal trade better than it had done for distant voyages, the sails in this, as in all cases^ having become auxiliary to the engine as a propelling power. Steamers of light rig and comparatively full power, now carry on the largest proportion of this trade, although there is still room for a considerable number ' Vol. ii. pp. 536-7. The Q. F. D. was 120 feet long, and 27 feet wide. She regi.stcrod 272 tons. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 547 of the old sailino--colliers. An illustration of one of the finest steam-colliers will be found on the following page, and I am enabled through the courtesy of The King her owners to furnish not merely a drawing, but the coiHer. particulars of this vessel, which bears the appropriate name of King Coal} We see, here, another instance of the vast progress of the last forty years. The ordinary collier of that period, of 230 tons register, or with a capacity of from 16 to 17 keels of coals, required^ a crew of ten men, and from a month to five weeks for the round ^ The King Coal, which was contracted for in the latter end of the Her di- year 1870, cost complete for sea 15,000/. She carries 900 tons coal '"ensious cargo, with bunker space for 100 tons more, and has extra water- ballast for making a passage when she has no cargo on board ; against strong winds her speed is Si- knots an \\o\\x when loaded, and from % to 10 knots when light in fine weather ; her power, 90 horse nominal. She has an excellent saloon cabin on deck for the captain, with four berths and accommodation for the chief mate and steward at the entrance ; her crew consists of 17 persons all told. The master and crew find themselves in provisions ; their respective duties and pay are as follows : — Master . . £17 per montli, with 2s. GcZ. per day subsisteicc money. 1st Mate . . 7 10 , 2nd „ . . G 10 Chief Engineer 12 7 6 2nd „ 8 15 Steward . . 5 10 5 Able Seamen G In 4 Stokers . . G 15 „ „ 1 Boy ... iJ 1 Carpenter .850 ., „ „ The voyage from Newcastle to Londoia and back usually occujwes from six to eight days. Hoisting sails, lifting anchor, and other heavy work is done by steam winches. The crew are accommodated in a roomy and well ventilated forecastle level with the main deck, the seamen occupying one side of it, the stokers the other, with a bulkhead between them. The engineers have cabins on deck in the bridge- house, the wheel-house stands on the i)latforni which spans the deck in midships, and is so arranged that, while the helmsman can see every- thing ahead, he is protected from the inclemency of the weather. "^ See (irt/e, vol. ii. p. £36. 2 N 2 » 2 „ 1 6 „ 2 G „ 2 „ 1 G m full each man. 548 MERCHANT SHIPPING. seamen. MERCHANl^ SHIPPING. 549 voyage to London. In tlie conrse of tlie year she delivered, under tlie most favourable cironmstances, 3500 tons of coals ; but the screw-collier of to-day, requiring- a complement of only seventeen men, in- cluding the engineers and stokers and a steward (a luxury wholly unknown to the collier skipper of bye- gone days), conveys, annually, on the same round, 50,000 tons; while the deck-houses for the protection of her men in wet and stormy weather are comforts the crew of a sailing-collier never would have dreamt of. Nor are the seamen less cared for in other respects, improve- The accommodation provided for the collier sailor of "areor to-day is of an order very superior to that afforded him forty years ago. Thus he can make sure of a dry bed and a fire to cook his victuals during the stormiest weather, comforts too frequently unknown to liis predecessors ; if he may still have causes for com- plaint, they are incomparably few to those his fathers had before him, and if this service does not now produce the same class of hardy men, who helped to crown the ships of England with laurels of im- mortal fame in the days of Duncan and Nelson, this arises, in some measure, from the fact that the good living and comforts of modern times teiid to render them less willing to endure, or perhaps less disposed for, the prompt and resolute action which, in most achievements, alike of war and peace, insures success. But, even, if it be true that the seamen of to-day are too much pampered and nursed, they have, un- questionably, in their profession many hardships still to endure, witli discomforts and even dangers, which might be avoided. The philanthropist, however, who advocates changes likely to weaken the Inspired 550 MERCHANT SHIPPING. maxim that man was born to live by the sweat of his brow, forgets his caUing and injures those whose cause he advocates. Leith and In every other branch of our coasting trade, the traders^ chauge has been quite as marked as in that of the coal trade, steamers, on all the important lines, having superseded sailing-vessels. A few of my readers may remember the celebrated Leith smacks which derived their name from trading between that port and the Thames, carrying on, before the in- vention of railroads, a great portion of the passenger and goods traffic between Edinburgh and London.' Although the line of maritime communication, thus opened in 1809, was conducted in these smacks with considerable success, they were, subsequently, in part, replaced by clipper scliooners, vessels of great speed, which maintained their position for some years against the steamers of the General Steam Naviga- tion Company ; but the London and Edinburgh Shipping Company, to whom they belonged, were obliged, in 1853, to adopt the new mode of propul- sion, so that all the most valuable portion of this trade is now conducted by steamers. Indeed, they 1 These celebrated smacks were from IGO to 200 tons register. In the early part of this century (before the close of the great war) they sailed in company for protection. On one occasion they were attacked by a French privateer, heavily armed, to wliich they gave'action, and, after a severe encounter, beat her off in gallant style; the senior captain, Nesbitt, acting as " Commodore " of the little fleet. Each of these smacks had accommodation for about twenty first-class passengers. The passage between Leith and London, a distance of COO miles, usually occupied from three to five days, but has been made in fifty hours, although it was not, unfrequently, protracted from eight to twenty days. The first-class fare, including a table "groaning with food," but ex- clusive of wine, s])irits, or beer, was only two guineas each person ; a rate which must liave left little profit on long passages. I MERCHANT i^HlPPINCI. r,51 now encircle the whole of the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and there is hardly a port in the kingdom which has not its steam-ship commnnication either with the respective capitals or elsewhere. Although constructed chiefly for the conveyance of goods, most of these lines have excellent accom- modation for passengers, especially those I have just specified. This is also the case with the steamers plying between London, Dundee, and Aberdeen, Glasgow and Liverpool, and with many of the lines connecting Ireland with England and Scotland. Among the most celebrated are the Dublin and Dublin Holyhead packets, whose work is confined exclusively ilea.i mJi' to the conveyance of the mails and passengers. ^^' ^^^' Before the introduction of steam-vessels, it was no unfrequent occurrence for the sailing-packets, then engaged in this service, to be three or more days in crossing the Irish Channel ; and, from a Parliamentary return issued in 1815, we learn that, for the space of nine days in the previous year, only one packet could sail owing to adverse winds. In 1819, the passage of the sailing-cutters then employed averaged twenty hours from Holyhead to Dublin. In the summer of that year, however, the Talbot, of 156 tons, built l)y Wood of Port Glasgow, with engines of 30 horse-power each, by Napier, was placed on the station ; and the Ivanhoe, of somewhat the same size, by Scott of Greenock, with engines also by Napier, followed in the course of the ensuing year. The unexpected success of these steamers overcame the professional prejudices of the commanders of the sailing mail-packets, who had recently recorded as their opinion " that no vessel could perform the 552 MERCHANT SHIPPING. winter passage with safety but sailing-cutters." The wish alone in this ease must have been father to the thought, for, when the steamers Royal Sovereign and Meteor soon afterwards took np their station on the line, the cutters disappeared from it for ever.. In fact, these steamers had so fully established the numerous advantages to be derived from the employment of vessels of this description, that, as early as 1823, a company was formed to carry on the communication regularly throughout the year by means of steam-vessels only. Subsequently, vessels superior to those of the class of the Meteor were constructed for this important service, and Their there were no faster or finer vessels of the period speed and than the Banshee and the Llewellyn^ which, in 1848, regii an y. ^g^,g placed on this station, having on their trial trips attained a speed of npw^ards of 18 statute miles per hour.^ But the public soon required still faster and more commodious steamers ; and a committee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the subject recommended the construction of A^essels of 2000 tons each, with power sufficient to attain a speed of upwards of 20 statute miles the hour. Consequently, four ships were built, the Connaught^ Ulster^ and Munster by Messrs. Laird and Sons of Birkenhead, nnd the Le'mster by Mr. Samuda of London." The ' After the cessation of the sailing packets, and before the opening of the Holyhead Railway, the T)ul)lin Mail was for some years carried via Liverpool by the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company. - These celebrated ships are bnilt of iron. The length between the perpendiculars is 331 feet; the beam is 35 feet, and de]ith 21 feet. There is a centre keel plate, 3 feet deep and | inch thick, with two bars, 9 inches deep by ^ inch thick, on each side at the bottom forming also the keelson; the plate, with the two garboard strakes, ^r inch thick MERCHANT SHIPPIKG. 553 engines of all these vessels are on tlic oscillating pi'inciple. In the two pairs constructed by Messrs. Ravenhill, Salkeld, and Co., for tlie Leinster and the Connaught, the cylinders are 98 inches diameter Dimcn- with a length of stroke of 6 feet 6 inches. The power, eight boilers are multitubular, four being at each ZS7oIi. end of the engine-room space, arranged in pairs. each, care secured together with iron bolts riveted and countersunk. On the top of the centre keel plate, two angle-iron bars are riveted, 5 inches by 4 inches by I inch, and to these angle irons, and to the angle irons on the top of the floorings tlu'oughout the entire length of the vessel, as far as the fine ends will allow, is riveted a strong plate, 4 feet wide amidships, and 2 feet G inches wide at the ends. There are, also, two very strong box keelsons, secured on the floorings at each side of the keel, and another in each bilge. The engine bed-plates, paddle and spring beams, and all other beams for the main and lower decks, are of iron. Timber has been used only for the decks and cabin fittings. There are nine principal iron water-tight bulkheads, which not only provide for the safety of the ship in case of accident, but add greatly to her strength in a seaway. The bulwarks are of iron plates, in continuation of the sides of the vessel to the rail, and without any break for gangways, such not being required for landing either at Holyhead or at Kingstown. To give additional strength in the centre of the vessel, where the weight of the engines, wheels, and boilers has to be carried, the insides of the paddle-boxes are also formed of iron plates, continued from the sides and bulwarks of the vessel, with a strong bow girder, formed of an iron plate 15 inches broad and I inch thick, so as to provide ample means of resistance to the severe shocks which these long vessels must encounter in rough seas, when driven at their high rate of speed. The gunwale is formed of angle-iron bars, 4 inches by 4 inches, riveted to the sheer strake and to a plate whicli is riveted on the top of the beams. At a distance of about 15 inches from this, an inner angle bar is riveted, against which the wooden waterway is fitted, so as to leave the outer part, between this and the gunwale, to form a drain to take the water off the deck, and to discharge it throagh the scuppers. This arrangement, whicli was introduced by the late Mr. John Laird, has been found very convenient in freeing the decks quickly from water. These iron gunwale i)latcs are 5 feet wide by 4 inch thick amidsbij^s, tapering gradually to about 2 feet 6 inches by i inch at the ends, with a system of diagonal tie plating from side to side, securely bolted or riveted to the deck beams. Between the paddle-boxes an upper deck, about 50 feet h\ length, lias been placed. 554 MERCHANT SHIPPING. with one funnel to each pair. The paddle-wheels are on the feathering principle, and are each 31 feet extreme diameter. On the trial trips the engines worked at the rate of 25| I'evolutions per minute, under a steam pressure of 25 lbs. per square inch. The mean of the runs of the Leinster at the measured mile in Stokes Bay was at the rate of 20 1 statute miles an hour, a greater speed bj one mile an hour, than had up to this time (1860) been obtained by any other vessel in this country: — but the Con- naught, when subsequently tried at the measured mile, attained a still higher result, the mean of her runs showing the speed of 20f statute miles per hour.^ The engines of the Ulster and Munster (constructed by James Watt and Co.) as well as their lines, very much resemble the other two, the main difference being that the diameters of the cylinders are each 96 inches, with 7-feet length of stroke. The in- ternal arrangements of all the vessels are planned, with the object of providing for the comfort and accommodation of the public, in the way best cal- culated to mitigate, and, as far as possible, to pre- vent, the sufferings often accompanying the passage of the Irish Channel. In this and in most other respects, great success has attended the objects their designers had in view. Their saloons and cabins are large, lofty, and well ventilated ; the principal one being upwards of 60 feet in length by 17 feet in breadth, and 9 feet 6 inches in height. Nor have these magnificent vessels failed to meet the require- ' Each of these vessels cost soincwliere about 80,000/,, complete in all respects foi* sea. MERCHANT SHIPPING. ments of Government. The regularity of tlieir voyages has been surprising-/ and I am not aware of any loss of life or property which has occurred in connection with them since they started in 18G0. Among the numerous other steamers now" employed Dover nn.i in the short voyage mail service, may be mentioned MaiV the small swift vessels running between Calais and "''''*"• Dover, Folkestone and Boulogne, Dover and Ostend, as well as between Southampton and the coasts of France, the Channel Islands, Jersey and Gruernsey. They are beautiful boats of their class, and, con- sidering their size and the rough weather they are frequently obliged to encounter, they perform their respective passages with remarkable speed and regularity. It is a rare occurrence for these packet- boats to be detained by a storm ; and the manner in which they dash out of Dover or Calais harbours, at almost full sjDeed, against a strong gale and an angry cross sea, shows that, if the British sailor lias, from want of 23ractice, deteriorated in seamanship, he has lost none of his native pluck. I know no more tik; spirited and daring men than the masters of most of "•'"■'"• these small mail steam-packets, unless it be tlie Deal boatmen. They are cool and unruffled, while the smart little craft under tlieir cliarge forces its way through the waves at the rate of twelve or thirteen iioi- spcod. miles an hour in the face of a gaie which a landsman would describe as a " violent storm." On the next page is an excellent illustration of one of these vessels on her passage from Folkestone to Boulogne. Tin's smart vessel, the Victoria (well known no ■ Sec Appendix No. "in, p. G44. 556 jVIERCHANT SHIPPING. doubt to ma7iy of my readers), was bnilt by Samuda, and lier engines by Penn. On her trial trip over the measured mile, she attained a speed of IGh knots or upwards of 18 statute miles an hour, which has been well maintained on the service in which she is engnged.' Pfopospfi These boats, however, are in their turn about to be superseded : at least, various other means have been suggested for crossing the English Channel between Calais and Dover. The two most gigantic schemes are a bridge over the channel and a tunnel below it, both having one chief object in view, relief from sea-sickness during that short, and, to most lands- men, very unpleasant passage. The bi-idge, though it had a few influential and enthusiastic supporters, ' The dimensions of tlie Vidoria are as follows : length 200 feet, breadth 24: feet, and depth 12i feet ; she is 566 tons gross or builders' measurement ; her engines arc 220 horse-power nominal, and her draught of water 6i feet. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 557 appears to have been abandoned as wholly impracti- cable ; but the tunnel is still contemplated, and ex- periments are now being made to ascertain the nature of the soil beneath the bed of the sea at the requisite dejDtli. Its projectors, who are men of influence and experience, are sanguine of success, but as its cost will be enormous, though estimated at not more than one-half that of the Suez Canal, and, as it cannot be completed for many years, other plans have been in the meantime suggested^ two of which have been already partially put in operation. It would be entirely beyond my province to offer and other any opinion as to the practicability of either a bridge crossing or tunnel, but I shall endeavour to furnish my readers of Dover*'' with a brief outline of the novel description of vessels now prepared to cross this narrow strait. The question of bridging, tunnelling, or otherwise crossing the channel by easier modes than the exist- ing mail packets has long occupied the attention of men of science, however much they may have differed with i-egard to the best mode of effecting the object in view. Among various modes, the one suggested by Mr. Fowler, C.E., in 1864, for which plans were deposited in 1805 and 1867, and which was fully brought before Parliament in 1872, seems to be well worthy of further consideration, embracing as it does the extension of the " through traffic " without change of carriage to all parts of the continent. This is one of the important objects sought to be achieved by the tunnel, but at four times the cost. Mr. Fowler proposes to build a steam-boat fit to ^\Jr. receive a railway train complete, and carry it bodily plan, across the channel from the South Eastern and 558 MERCHANT SHIPPING. London and Chatham lines to those of the North Eastern of France. To effect this object^ it will be necessary to increase, materially, the existing facilities of Dover Harbour, and to construct a new harbour on the French coast, of sufficient depth of water to receive, at all times of the tide, vessels of the dimen- sions he suggests. The transport of railway trains, by means of vessels across broad sheets of water, has, already, been proved to be practicable. The opera- tion may be seen, not merely in various parts of the United States and on the Lake of Constance, but in Scotland, where " the North British Railway Company carry trains across an arm of the sea, five miles in width." ^ Nor is the plan suggested for connecting the steamers with the lines of railway, so that the carriages may run on board, either novel or impracticable. The ferry-boats of New York dove-tail, if I may so express it, into the end of a street and carry the whole of its traffic in one continuous line of passengers, carts, and waggons to Brooklyn, or across the Bay of New York to Staten Island and other more remote places : so that, in this respect, there is nothing visionary or impracticable in the scheme proposed by Mr. Fowler. Nor, so far as my nautical knowledge extends, are there any valid objections to it in other respects except the cost. There is no doubt that these vessels, from their immense weight, size, and speed, will realise every comfort by way of stability that can be attained in crossing the English Channel at its narrowest part, while their vast dimensions afford ample space for ' See evidence, Mr. Hamnel Jack Mason, before the Committee of Lords on the International Communication "Bill, 1872, pp. 4!), 50, and 51. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 559 P=Tf ii I I ! la^-^ ff o Q Z < Q. tf u '-' LJ U U <£ C -I m Q Q u. 5* ^ oGO MERCHANT SHIPPING. every possible convenience to passengers, and, even, luxuries, if desired. But in order that my readers may more clearly understand Mr. Fowler's proposal, I furnisli (page 559) longitudinal and transverse sections of the boat he contemplates, with an illustration of the mode by which the carriages are to be transferred from the lines of railway on board the vessel, and, in a foot- note/ his explanatory remarks. Further explanations will be found in detail by reference to the evidence given before a Committee of the House of Lords, but the more important points of that evidence with the number of the question is supplied herewith.^ ^ The trains will come in from tlie South Eastern Railway and the London, Chatham, and Dover systems by independent lines to a central station. They will then be run on a hydraulic hoist, eight to nine carriages at a time, and this hoist will be lowered until the rails on it are exactly level with those on the steamer ; a fla]) is then let down completing the commimication between the rails on the hoist and the rails on the steamer, and the carriages are immediately hauled on to the steamer. When the steamer enters the dock to receive the trains, she is run between rollers, fixed two on each side of the dock and allowing the least possible movement of the paddle-boxes sideways. Movements fore and aft of the steamer are prevented by buffers (similar to ordinary locomotive buffers) fixed at her end, which butt against recesses at the end of the dock, and also by blocks fastened to the dock wall which receives her end a little further aft, ordinary mooring a])paratias keeping the ship tight up against the buffers. In rough weather there may be a slight vertical movement when the head of the ship is next the hoist, but the flap which is let down, as before described, will be sufficient to accommodate this slight differ- ence of level, which will be little more than is met with in jiassing over a turntable as in many railway stations. No. of C;ue.stion. - 49. Length 450 feet to 470. BLiim di)' 0" fiver paddle-boxes. 128. Beam 57' 0" not including p iddle-boxes. 156. Depth 14 feet in liold from fioor to ceiling. l.'io. ., olj feet inner .'-kin lo liuri'icancMleck. MERCHANT SHIPPIKG. 561 Tlie other boats, wliicli liave been already built, do not contemplate the transport of tbe railway carriages, but are simply meant to afford an easier mode of transit for passengers than at present exists. The first, planned by Captain Dicey, formerly Master Attendant at the port of Calcutta, proposed, according to the j)i'ospectus issued by the company, " To provide ample accommodation for all classes of passengers under shelter as well as on deck ; to reduce the motion of rolling and pitching of the vessel to a minimiun ; and to keep the draught of water of the vessel to 6 feet, so that she may enter the ports on either side of the channel at all hours of the tide." To accomplish these objects, the company has The built, at the Thames Iron Works, a ship named the Castalia, which may be roughly described as the two halves of a longitudinally divided hull, 290 5 1 . Power No, of Questioi). 50. Draught 12 to 13 feet. 513. Freeboard . . . . . 21'0" to hurricaue deck ; 8' 0" main duck. I 'Two iudei^endent pairs of engines, one to each paddle, Cfillectively of 16 JO to 1800 nomiual horse-power, 12,000 in- dicated horse-power. 167. ypeed Twenty knots or 23 miles. 130.1 _ j Seventeen carriages, containing 330 pas- 27'1.> Oapaclty for passengers . | sengers ; or 2000 passengers, neglecting 278.) I carriiiges. 132. Cargo 22 trucks, say 180 tons goods. 68. Cost of boats .... £500,000 for three. 00. Estimate for constructiou of harbour at £ Andrecelles, coast of France 700,000 63. „ for extension of Dover Harbour, Ike. 1,000,000 £ 1.700,000 Cost of tliree steamers . , . 500,000 ' ? ) £2,200,000 VOL. IV. 2 562 MERCHANT SHIPPING. feet long, placed 26 feet apart, and strongly bound together by a system of girders upon which is erected, as may be seen by the following woodcut, a raised deck inclosing cabin space. Under this deck in the water-way between the halves of the hull, work a pair of paddle-wheels side by side upon two separate shafts so that each wheel can be worked independently ; these wheels are driven by two pairs of engines, one pair in each half of the vessel. The division and separation of the hull provides a deck of no less than 60 feet in width, with a stability much greater than any ordinary vessel possesses. Before and behind CHANNEL PACKET " CASTALIA." (BETWEEN DOVER AND CALAIS.) tlie engine, there are various state saloons inclosed by th6 hurricane deck, running the whole width of the vessel. These spacious rooms are handsomely deco- rated, and provide various comforts seldom attain- able at sea, while the top platform affords a magni- ficent promenade 14 feet above the level of the water-line. There are, also, decks below running fore and aft to within a few feet of the double bow or stem in the separate hulls. The Castalia has accommodation for somewhere about 1000 pas- sengers. Her estimated cost was only 60,000/., but the actual outlay must have been considerably in excess of that sum. Captain Dicey states that, in MERCHANT SHIPPING. 563 designing this vessel, lie was in some measure guided by the performances of the " outriggers " that ply in the harbour of Galle — " long cranky boats hollowed out of tree-trunks, and steadied in the water by a log of timber fixed to the end of two wooden outriggers which project some way from the vessel's side."^ The other vessel, the Bessemer, is in many respects tuu as different from all other steam-ships afloat as the ■^^***"'^''- Castalia ; but was constructed with exactly the same objects in view, viz., to insure great speed, light draught of water, and, more especially, the smallest possible rolling or pitching motion. In a word, to afford to passengers crossing the channel the quickest means of transit with the greatest amount of ease, at an immersion so small, that the vessels could enter tlie existing English and French harbours at all times of the tide. This was the problem to be solved, and each inventor set about it in a wholly different way. Nor was this surprising, considering that each had ' Such vessels are well-known to Indian navigators; and, while carrying between 100 and 200 tons, ride steadily on a heavy swell that causes a large steamer to roll its ports under water. They are extraordinary looking craft, and are frequently to be found, not merely in the vicinity of Ceylon, but about the islands of the Pacific, and along the coasts of Northern India, as well as on the shores of Java and Sumatra, though nowhere else. The Indian boat, however, so far as I can judge, most resembling the steamer which Captain Dicey has built, is the Janf/dr (not the cataniarun), — a double platform canoe of the Cochin China backwater. The pontoons at Chatham are of a similar construction. To form the jangar, a floor of boards is laid across two boats, with bamboo railings 10 to 12 feet broad and 16 feet long ; in these boats, native regiments, cattle, &c., are ferried across rivers. I may add, that the catamarans proper are con- structed of three logs lashed firmly together, the centre one being the largest. They are usually from 20 to 25 feet in length, and from 2^ to '6i feet o)ily in width. 2 o 2 56-t MERCHANT SHIPPING. been trained in an entirely different school. The projector of the Castalia is a sailor of great nautical experience ; the designers of the Bessemer are an engineer and iron worker together witli a scientific shipbuilder. Perhaps, bad the originators of the two schemes consulted, amicably, instead of entering on a needless rivalry, they would have produced a better and much swifter ship than the Castalia ; and a considerable sum of money expended on experiments would also have been saved. The Bessemer, of which an illustration is given on next page, was designed entirely by Mr. E. J. Reed (late Constructor to the Royal Navy), with the exception of the so-called '* swinging saloon," and was constructed at Hidl by Earle's Shipbuilding and Engineering Company : she is built entirely of iron, is a vessel of immense strength, and has, as may be seen from the illustration, very much the appearance of a breastwork turret ship of war. Her form is the same at bow and stern and, for 48 feet from each end, she has a freeboard of about 3 feet only. Her ex- treme length at the water-line is 350 feet, and the raised central portion, rising 8 feet above the low bow and stern, is 254 feet long, and, extending the whole width of the vessel, is 60 feet over all. The ends, as will be perceived, are very sharp and low. The engines and boilers, which drive the two pairs of paddle-wheels, are fitted in the hold at either end of the raised portion of the vessel. A series of deck- houses for private parties, refreshment bars, and other rooms are carried fore and aft of the paddle-boxes on the breastwork deck ; there is, also, a covered walk between these and the windowed sides of tlie " swine:- MERCHANT SHIPPING. 565 566 MERCHANT SHIPPING. iug saloon," which rises about 8 feet tlirough the breastwork deck, with a flat roof pierced by two companion hatches. The nominal horse-power of the engines of the Bessemer is 750, but they can work up to an indicated power of no less than 4600, and were calculated to drive the vessel at a speed of from 1 8 to 20 statute miles an hour. The two pairs of paddle-wheels are placed 106 feet apart, and each wheel is 27 feet 10 inches in diameter, fitted with twelve feathering floats. Many of the inventions first produced in the Great Eastern have been adopted also in the Bessemer, such as hydraulic gear for starting the engines and for steering, telegraphic wires leading from the bridges to the engine-rooms, and various other ingenious contrivances to facilitate the working of the ship and her machinery. Her swing- The "swinging saloon," the invention of Mr. ' Bessemer, is in the centre of the vessel, and is entered by two broad staircases leading to a landing connected with the saloon by a flexible flooring. The saloon itself is upheld on its axis by four steel supports, one at each end and two close together in the middle. The aftermost of the two central supports is hollow, and serves as part of the hydraulic machinery for regulating the motion of the saloon itself, a spacious and elegant apartment 70 feet in length, 35 feet wide and no less than 20 feet high. It is presumed, that the hydraulic machinery will enable the person in charge of it to keep the floor of this cabin perfectly level, even when the ship herself is rolling violently in a heavy sea.^ ' On Saturday May 8th, 1875, the Beftnemer underwent what may MERCHANT SHIPPING. 567 Such are the vessels contemplated to supersede the existing Dover and Calais packets. Although the CastaVia has not realised the anticipated speed, and the Bessemer has been found altogether unsuitable for the service for which she was built, it would be prema- ture to condemn even her as a failure, while the Castalia, from the comparative comfort she aifords, is daily increasing in public favour. I have not, however, hesitated to furnish my readers with full particulars of these vessels, because they are interest- ing from their novelty, and no great strides have, hitherto, been made, as we have seen, in the art of ship-building or in the mode of propulsion, without the aid of men, who have been bold enough to enter on novel and, frequently, very costly experiments. In these novelties, the Americans have, during The cigar recent years, taken the lead, and, on this subject, at Baiti- I cannot omit to mention one of the greatest mari-™"^*^'^^''^^' be called her first trial — that is, she crossed from Dover to Calais and back again. It would appear from the narratives in the different journals that she had nothing to contend with, on this occasion, in the way of weather or sea, and that, starting at 11.17 a.m. and reaching Calais Harbour at 12.45, her speed was about the same as that of the ordinary boats. Her greatest novelty, the saloon, was, however, not tried on this occasion. On this point Mr. Bessemer remarked, at a dinner given to him in Calais on the same day : — " I never dared to hope that, at first, this sliip would be completely successful, so much depends on skill, and you must remember that there are no means whereby absolute automatic action can be given to the saloon, because there is no absolute point of stability. Within the ship we are like Archimedes who wanted a fulcrum for the lever that was to move the world ; what we want is to place our fulcrum in an absolutely quiet sjiot. ... In port the machinery will move with a degree of steadiness that is all that can be desired, the very reverse of this will take place at sea when the vessel itself moves and the cabin is required to be quiet: and, just as we require more practice to move the cabin in still water, so we require more practice to keep the cabin still in the moving ship." r.r,S MERCHANT SHlL^riXG. time curiosities of this age, tlie cigar ship built at Baltimore in 1858 by Messrs. Winans of that city/ Similar who also, subscqueiitly, built another somewhat on the"^ similar vessel on the Thames. Her model in all ?8fi4"^^ ™ respects resembled a cigar, or, in other words, she is a great iron tube tapering away to a point at each end, and presenting perhaps the strongest possible form for a ship, her deck being merely the arc of a circle, on which were riveted staunchions for rails, and between these a raised platform with seats on each side. She had neither keel nor cutwater, and, in the language of the inventors, there was " No blunt bow standing up above the water-line to receive blows from heavy seas, no flat deck to hold, or close bulwark (as in the case of ordinar}^ vessels) to retain the water that a rough sea may cast upon the vessel ; neitlier mast, spars, nor rigging." The absence of sails," they add, " not only renders the 2:)arts thus abandoned by us useless, but their abandonment in such a vessel as ours, will, we believe, most materially promote safety, easy movement, or diminished strain of vessels in rough weather ; will save dead or non- paying weight, insure simplicity and economy of construction^ and will give greater speed in smooth water, less diminution of speed in rough water as well as diminished resistance in moving power at all speeds in all water, and result in shortening the average time of making sea voyages. The length of our vessel," they continue, " is more than eleven times its breadth of beam, being 16 feet broad and 180 i'eet ' See L'arjier'K Wei-kly lllnslratal Netuspaper, New York, October 28th, 1858, where drawings arc given. I visited the cigar slnji whicli was built at Milwall, London, in 186^, wlien she was ready for laniicliing, and inspected her carefully. MEIU^HANT ftlllPPrXd. 569 long-. This whole lengtli i.s made available to secure water-lines, which are, materially, more favourable to fast speed, and also to diminished resistance to moving jwwer of all speeds, than the water-lines of any of the sea-going steamers now built, the best of which, looking to speed and ease of movement, have a length of only eight times their breadth of beam : the portion of our vessel not immersed, has the same lines as that immersed, so that it will pass through the heaviest sea ; while, from its form and construction, no water can be shipped that will sensibly affect the load, or endnnger the safety of the vessel, which may, we believe, be propelled at its highest speed in rough weather with an impunity which is far from being attainable with vessels as now built, to be joiopelled wholly or in part by sails." She was fitted with high pressure engines, and her boilers were on the jirinciple of those used in railway locomotives. With regard to the propelling power it was a very novel application of the screw, being a ring to which blades were attached at certain angles to strike the water, the ring being itself made to revolve round the vessel with great rapidity by the engines fitted in the centre of the vessel ; but Messrs. Winans do not furnish any further explanation beyond stating that " Its position is such that its minimum hold of the water will be much greater in proportion to the toniiage of the vessel than the maximum hold of the propelling wheel or wheels in ordinary steam- ships." In the illustration to which I have referred there will be found cross and longitudinal sections of this curious vessel. 570 MERCHANT SHIPPING. These " cigar " ships appear to have failed through want of sufficient stability, or, more es- pecially, on account of the novel and complicated character of their machinery, yet the facility with which they can be driven through the water may suggest a clue to further improvement in the con- struction of ships or at least in their form. There is, frequently, only a narrow line between the sublime and the ridiculous, and, in the scheme of a madman (called mad because he proposes something apparently wild and useless), there may be found the germ of really useful and grand inventions. Such fancies, therefore, ought not, in all cases, to be cast aside with contempt, even though tliey may create a smile from their novelty. Columbus was pronounced to be mad by the most learned men of Spain, when he talked of exploring the Atlantic in search of a world to the west. If Franklin, when he drew a spark of lightning from the clouds by means of his kite, had spoken about controlling that spark and rendering it the means of communication with other parts of the globe, all men would have called him mad.^ Even the steam- boat herself was long considered the dream of a schemer. Something useful may therefore still be learned from the plan of the " cigar ship," absurd as she may appear to the practical seaman. With these feelings I read the other day with great interest a prospectus brought casually under my notice of a plan ' Though lightning from the heavens has never yet been usefully employed, and is not likely to be so, the electricity generated in galvanic batteries and used for telegraphy is i>rccisely the same as lightning. mp:rchant shipping. 571 for applying an improved steam-engine (patented by Perkins's Messrs. Perkins and Sons, Engineers, London), to a steam™^"^ engine, vessel very similar in design to the cigar ship. The value of this " economical steam-engine," as it is termed, would seem to be the greatly improved principle adopted by the patentees in the construc- tion of the boilers, w^hich, they say, " will work with a pressure of steam of 300 lbs. to the square inch, and on a consumption of coal not exceeding 1^ lb. to the indicated horse-power per hour when working at full speed." ^ If anything like this can be really achieved, another surprising stride will be made in the path of progress. The Loi-ds of the Admiralty, who have not hitherto been prone to adopt " novelties," appear to be of opinion that it can^ as I understand that an engine has been ordered from the Yorkshire Engineering Company on Messrs. Perkins's principle, and is now in course of construction to be fitted on board her Majesty's ship Pelican, a sea-going ship of war. Combining this new princijDle with a form of hull and pro- somewhat resembling the cigar, Messrs. Perkins boat! propose " to construct and run an experimental fast express steamer from England to New York for the speedy crossing of the Atlantic, by passengers and mails as well as parcels and light goods . . . with a light draught of water, great length and stability, and possessing steam power greatly in excess of any steam-vessel now afloat." ^ Among other advantages the projectors offer an almost absolute safety of boilers from explosion, as they are made of 3-inch wrought- iron tnbes | inch thick ; the boilers when put together are proved to '2500 lbs. hydraulic pressure on the square inch, are worked from 300 lbs. to 500 lbs. per square inch as desired, and their bursting l)ressurc is '20,000 lbs. per square inch. 572 MERCHANT SHIPPING. The general design of the steamer they propose is represented as follows. , It is proposed that she should he 800 feet in length with 40 feet heam, and, having a flat bottom, it is calculated that she will not draw more than 11 feet of water with her cargo, passengers, and 500 tons of coal on l)oard — the quantity estimated to he sufficient to take her from Liverpool to New Yorlc. The midship part of the ship, of which the following is a transverse section, will, Messrs. Perkins state, be " 400 feet in length, or about ecpial to that of a first- class Atkantic steamer of the present day ; she is to have every modern convenience " to accommodate " 1000 first-class passengers." " This vessel," the projectors add, " is to be fitted with four separate and distinct engines, working independent screws, two of which will be at either end of the boat ; they are to be of the collective working power of 12,500 horses, calculated to make tlie passage either way in 100 liours;" at the average rate of 30 knots an hour.^ ' Messrs. Perkins and Son base tlieir calculations for speed on the fact that the vessel tliey propose will have 30 horse-power to a i'oot of ^lEllClJANT tSHlPIMNG. oTS Considering tlie great resistance which the displaced fluids must offer to a speed on the ocean so enormous, it is not easy, with our present state of knowledge, to conceive its realization ; but the projectors are sanguine of success, and, therefore, while recording the results of the past, I place before my readers such information as is likely to be interesting, or may proveuseful for the future. History is of little value, unless it teaches lessons to those who are to fill our vacant places, and, even at the risk of wearying my readers, I have for this reason gone more into detail than I should otherwise have done on such subjects, with a full conviction, that we have still very much more to learn, and especially as regards ships, than one man can hope to teach. Though the different stages of improvement on the steam-ship have been carefully and fully recorded, it may be interesting to notice briefly the progress which has been made in the marine steam-engine itself. With that object I present my readers with a woodcut of the engine of the Comet constructed by The James Watt and fitted into that boat by Mr. Eobert- f^fcoml midsliip section, the best Atlantic steamers having only from 4 to 5 horse-power to each foot of midship section. 1 have submitted these particulars to a gentleman of great scientific and practical knowledge of marine projiulsion, who remarks: "This large steamer is, I fear, a wild idea, until the form of the present steam- ship is very much improved. It will require a great deal more power than what Mr. Perkins proposes to drive such a vessel 30 knots an hour-; and marine engines must be very much improved to get any- thing like this power in a ship, and to maintain it for 100 hours on a consumption of 500 tons of coal." But as everybody admits that we have not yet reached perfection, it is solely with the object of furthering improvement, that I furnish my readers with the plans and proposals of Mr. Perkins. 574 MERCHANT SHIPPING. soil, who is still living, and whose photograph ac- companies the illustration. This famous machine is now exhibited at South Kensington, in the Museum of Patents. This engine, which was a "high pressure" one, is simple in construction and light in w^eight, and, " comet" ENGIKE. though many improvements Lave been made since it fii'st drove the Comet, to the wonder of the people on the Clyde, few of these changes have embodied any important principles. Although great strides have been made in the economy of fuel, and in the harmonious working of engines, the general principle of their action has undergone no change. By the MERCHANT SHIPPING. 575 reciprocating movements of a steam impelled piston within a closed cylinder, the motive power of the modern steam-ship is obtained, as in the Comet ; yet, probably, on no other subject has more mechanical ingenuity been lavished than on the marine engine. Twenty years ago, almost every engineer had his own peculiar type, comprising the " side lever," the " steeple engine," the " grasshopper," the " trunk," the " oscillating," and the " direct acting engine," with an endless variety of sub-combinations ; but, after all, these were only variations in the engine left to us by Watt, which, a few years ago, might be seen in some of the small coasting craft plying between the Mersey and the Dee and elsewhere.^ It was only when surface condensation and the Modifica- compound principle were adopted, with improved the'con'- boilers, and superior modes of raising steam and of f/ MaHne more effectually applying its power, that the marine Engines. engine made any substantial advance. Thirty or forty years ago the usual pressure in a marine boiler seldom exceeded from 3 to 4 lbs. above that of the atmosphere, and, consequently, one of its most neces- sary fittings was a safety-valve opening inwardly, and called a " vacuum valve," so as to prevent the boiler collapsing if the steam pressure should chance to fall below that of tlie atmosphere,^ but now the ' It will be remembered that the earliest application of the steam- engine was for the jiurpose of iDumping water ; hence, when applied to turn machinery, the great lever of the pumping engine was retained. The same thing took place on the apjilication of the steam-engine to navigation ; and, even now, the beam or lever engine is in common use both here and in America. - A practical engineer, with whom I had recently some conversation on this subject, informed me that when, many years ago, he was superintendent of one of the oldest Steam Navigation Comi^anies, it was 576 MKRCIIANT SHIPPING. usual working pressure is 60 lbs., and 300 lbs. is the pressure to which many men of science think we are now advancing. In a condensing engine, the effective pressure on either side of the piston is the steam boiler pressure />/z<.s the weight of the atmosphere due to the vacuum produced on the opposite side thereof.' The boilers for this description of engine, being- supplied with water from the sea, required frequent " blowing out " in order to prevent incrustation, and keep the water at a safe and regular density. But this " blowing out " process, which occasioned a very considerable loss in fuel, was to a great extent over- come by the introduction of the surface condenser, which produced fresh water ; and this water is pumped back into the boiler to be again and again evaporated and condensed, thus dispensing with feeding from the sea. When the marine engine arrived at so comparative a stage of perfection, the public demanded increased speed, and when steam navigation was extended to distant stations, where fuel was costly, it became a matter of the greatest importance to still further economize its con- sumption ; but considering that the speed of a steam- Ratio of ship in relation to the power of the engines is subject speed to . t ^ • / ^ ^ i ^ -in power. to a ratio peculiarly its own (to double the speed or a scarcely possible to maintain a pressure sniMcient to keep the air out of the boilers, and the hissing noise it made, when rushing into the boiler through the reverse valve, was a not unfrequent tell-tale of the slackened efforts of the over- worked fireman. ^ To convert a quantity of water at 32 degrees into 10 lbs. of steam, requires 1 cwt. of coal ; but to convert it fiirther into steam at -10 lbs. pressure, would only require 1U12 cwt., and to raise it into oven !JU lbs. not more than 1'024 cwt. of coal >\ould be required. MERCHANT SHlPriNG. 577 ship the engines liave to exert eight times the power necessary for the slower rate), the energies of the engineering world were severely taxed to obtain a greater speed on a less consumption. Higher pressures were introduced, and the principles of ex- pansion more thoroughly worked out. It was known that, when steam from the boiler was cut off after the piston had traversed any desired portion of the cylinder's length, its expansive energy still enabled it to exert a considerable, though a necessarily de- creasing, motive force upon the piston : that is to say, if steam of 50 lbs. absolute pressure were cut off at one-half the stroke, its elastic energy at f^ths of the stroke would be 28 lbs., while the mean of its force throughout the whole of the stroke would be 42 lbs. : in other words, if the whole volume of steam in the cylinder, at the initial pressure, pro- duced 50 lbs. per square inch, one-half of that • volume, used expansively, would produce 42 lbs. per square inch. To more effectually work out these principles and utilize the steam at high pressures, the compound . engine was introduced, and is now, almost univer- sally, adopted in the steamers of the mercantile marine. The following woodcut shows an ordinary pair of direct acting inverted cylinder compound engines, as usually fitted in screw steamers.^ It will be seen that they consist of two steam cylinders, one of ^ The following illustration is from a photograph furnished by Messrs. T. Eicharclson and Son of West Hartlepool. It is exactly the same in principle as those supplied by Messrs. J. and G. Thompson of Glasgow, to the Bothnia and Scythia, belonging to the Cunard Company, which 1 liave already descrilied, and represents the usual construction of modern marine engines of the best class. VOL. IV. 2 P 578 MEECHANT SHIPPING. The Com- small, and the other of large diameter. The steam Engine from the boiler, at a high pressure, enters the small cylinder, and, thence, at the end of the stroke, passes, through an intermediate receiver, into the large cylinder acting upon its piston entirely by its COMPOUKD SURFACE ENGINE. expansive force. At the conclusion of its double work, it passes into the surface condenser, and is there condensed into fresh water, producing the vacuum effect in the large cylinder. The distinctive difference between the simple and the compound engine is that, in the former, the MERCHANT SHIPPING. 579 work of the steam is begun and ended in the same cylinder, whereas, in the latter, it is begun in the small or high pressure c_ylinder and completed in the large or low pressure one; the work obtained in the small cylinder with the high pressure, and con- sequently the hotter steam, should be about equal to that in the large one with the lower pressure and cooler steam : in fact, it is the aim of engineers in designing a compound engine to proportion the cylinders and arrange the details of eiFecting the admission, expansion, and eduction of the steam, so that its pressure may be thoroughly utilized and as much work as possible obtained from it. Some engineers consider the simple engine to be more eco- nomical than the compound engine with the same pressure and total expansion ; but I am informed, by those who have had opportunities of witnessing the performance of engines made on this principle, that, after a thorough trial in large ocean-going steamers, the anticipated results were not obtained from them, and that they were, consequently, re- placed by compound engines. But when the compound engine itself was first in- more ceo troduced, the high pressure and with it, necessarily, "i^^"/°the high temperature steam, together with surface con- ^i"'Pi<^- densation, caused serious drawbacks to its efficiency, so that great changes had to be made in the internal arrangements of both engines and boilers. For instance, the high temperature produced gieat wear and tear in the cylinders, valves, valve faces, and so forth, while the boilers rapidly corroded under the in- fluence of the feed water taken from the condenser. These evils, however, when niore thoroughly inider- 2 r 2 580 MERCHANT SHIPPING. stood, were provided against; and the enormous saving in fuel induced shipowners to adopt the compound engines : under careful engineers, they last as long as, and cost very little more for repairs than the ordinary common condensing engines which consumed twice the amount of fuel. It will, thus, be seen that the great stride in economy in the marine engine is due to high pressure steam expansion, and surface condensation : and, with a view to further economy, pressures are still advanc- ing, the difficulty now being to construct a boiler that will withstand these pressures, and, at the same time, fulfil the other requirements of a marine boiler at sea. With these objects in view a number of patent water tubular boilers have been made. In 1870 and 1871 three ocean-going steamers were fitted with Howard's and one with Roots' patent boilers to work at a pressure of 120 lbs. per square inch, but they were not very long at sea before they failed, and were condemned. Again, in 1870, two very large steamers, each of 800 nominal horse-power, built for one of the Atlantic lines, were fitted with improved water tubular boilers to work at 120 lbs. j)ressure, but the trial of the first set of boilers, which completely failed, led the owners to condemn them and supply both vessels with those of the ordinary type to work at a pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch. The failure of these boilers entailed an immense loss to the owners, and detained the vessels over twelve months, besides rendering the large engines, which were designed to work at 120 lbs., much less efficient at the lower pressure than they were in- tended to be. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 581 It will, thus, be seen that the primary obstacle to advancement in economy appears to be the boilers, and although their construction, for very high pres- sure, is an expensive experiment, there are no less than four different descriptions (all of them patented) now beii]g built in tins country for marine purposes, any one of which, if thoroughly successful, will be another great step in advance. However great the saving, hitherto, effected in fuel, there is still a wide margin between the means used and tlie effect produced, and great room, in other respects, for improvement. Indeed, Mr. Froude's late experiments, at the instance of the Admiralty, on the actual resistance of ships, show that, in the case of the Greyhomid., the ship he experimented on, the efficiency, at a speed of lOj knots, was only 51 per cent., showing a loss of 49 per cent, of the motive power, which was even greater when the speed was less.' There remains, therefore, a very large and deeply- interesting field of research ; for, of all the heat produced, we utilise in the steam engine only a small proportion for the purposes of propulsion.- Nor liave we yet reached perfection in our ships, so far as regards the best form for obtaining the ^ Soc details in the Transactions of tlie Institution of Naval Archi- tects, 1874. - It may be stated, generally, that 1 lb. of coal can, under the most favourable circumstances, be made to evaporate from 12 to 16 lbs. of boiling water, the evaporation of each pound being equivalent to 745,800 foot-pounds of mechanical work. At this rste 1 lb. of coal ought to give out from nine to twelve million foot-pounds of work, while, in reality, no steam-engine does so much as two million foot- pounds for a pound of coal, so great is the loss from the want of proj^cr means of utilizing the whole work produced by the combustion of the coal.— Vide Text-Books of Science, p. 174; by C. W. Merriacld, F.R.S. 582 MEECHANT SHIPPING. greatest speed. I have already shown ^ that, in river navigation, the American steamers surpass in speed anything we liave as yet accomplished ; and that they have made various attempts towards the adoption of the flat floor or " skimming " process — in other words, to sail over the surface of the water rather than to force the ship through it, as in the case of the cigar ship and others. Great skill To construct a perfect ship is itself a problem of fOT bufid- the highest order, to which the attention of mathe- sbfpr^^^^*^ maticians and the knowledge, skill, and tact of naval architects have of late years been constantly directed, with as yet no examples of complete success, how- ever much the ships of our own time surpass those of our forefathers. Nor can the construction of safe, effective, powerful, profitable, and durable engines and boilers for marine purposes be a matter of easy determination, as shown from the fact, that there are still continual failures, revealing many difficulties yet to be overcome. Again, the means of propelling • the vessel through the water suggests questions as to the resistance of fluids, which hydro-dynamic science has hitherto failed fully to resolve. Finally, the com- bination of all these, so as to bring about to the greatest advantage the effect desired, is a still more arduous task which the skill of the naval architect, the mechanician, and the sailor, even when combined, has not yet overcome. To the perfecting of our steam-ships we must still continue to apply ourselves, if w^e would maintain the high maritime position we now hold ; for it is, only, by the unwearied exertions of all who are employed in our varied branches of ' See ante, vol. iv. p. 150. MERCHANT SHIPPING. 583 industry, and with the aid of wise and just laws, that England can liope to keep aliead of all other nations. We have already, it is true, made extraordinary progress in the model and propulsion of our ships, and but we have not yet approached perfection, nor impor- shall we reach it, unless we continue earnest in our Eno-Lni endeavours to do so. We know the properties of air, jfj^J^g"" water, and electricity, and we have discovered the ^^"p^- means of utilizing and directing these powers and of applying them to the most valuable purposes ; yet, it is still necessary to carry in our steam-ships vast stores of coal — so great, on certain voyages, as to occupy much of the space otherwise available for cargo. So long, tlierefore, as this necessity exists, But iier it cannot be said that we have reached anything yet^pjr- like perfection. ^^^*' Nevertheless, we have made surprising advances, and have derived many inestimable advantages from the application of the power of steam to sea and river navigation, far exceeding the most sanguine anticipations, whether as the means of extending commerce with the various producing and manu- facturing portions of the globe, or in promoting the advancement of civilization to less cultivated regions.' By steam navigation, the intercourse between mari- time nations has already been facilitated to an almost incredible extent ; v/liile postal communication has been established between Great Britain and her extensive possessions in India, East and West, as well ^ In the Appendix No. 27, p. 645, will be found the number of iron steam- vessels built and first registered in the United I^ngdom in each year from 1861 to 1874 ; and the amount of British tonnage, steam and sailing, from 1850 to 1873, as compared with the United States, France, Holland, and Norway. 584 MERCHANT SHIPPING. as with tlie United States of America, and, indeed, with all other countries. Even the most remote regions of Australia, China, and Japan have now a regular postal steam communication with Great Britain ; we have doubled Cape Horn in our steam- ships, reaching the once distant shores of the Pacific in a space of time so short, and with certainty so unerring - that, only a quarter of a century ago, the work performed would have been considered altogether impossible, thouoh To enable us to secure these important advantages fless has" wc havc been greatly indebted to the invention and dudng'^'^^ application of the screw to marine propulsion, for, the last without it, wc sliould not have been able to undertake ball ' century, such rcmotc voyagcs by means of steam, and without it, also, we certainly could not have successfully main- tained them with profit and regularity ; but there is still much to be done, and were we, in the pride of our achievements, however great they may be when compared with those of our forefathers, to assume that we have reached anything like perfection in Ocean navigation, our children would very likely have reason in their day to smile at our vanity. LIST AETICLES AND TABLES IN APPENDICES. No. PAGE 1. Egbert Fulton, his Origin and Place of Birth . . . 5^7 2. Dredcung Machines of the Eiver Clyde Trust, with their Dimensions, Cost, and Power 591 3. Ships launched on the Clyde, 1863-4: 593 4. Shipbuilders on the Clyde, from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1871 59-1 5. Shipbuilding on the Wear for 1874, and for the Quarter OF 1875 ending 30th September, with Names of Builders 595 6. PiELATivE Weight and Strength of Wooden and Iron Ships 599 7. Dimensions of Machinery and Boilers of the American Coasting Steamers " Bristol " and " Providence " . . 600 8. Comparative Statement of the Average Sailings of THE Cunard and Collins Lines of Steamers during the Great Race of 1851 and 1852 601 9. Passages of the Cunard Steamer " Persia " between Liverpool and New York, 1856 to 1868 603 10. Steam-ships (Cunard Line, &c. (fee), belonging to Messrs. Burns, MacIver, and Cunard, 1875, and the '1'rades in which they are engaged 606 11. Table showing the Progress in the Cunard Steamers FROM 1840 to 1875 to face 608 12. Cunard Company's Regulations 609 13. Steamers of the Inman Company, 1875 611 14. Steamers of the Allan Line, 1875 612 15. Letter of Instructions, " White Star "' Line .... 613 16. Passages of the "White Star" Stkam-shit.s .... 614 586 LIST OF ARTICLES AND TABLES IN APPENDICES. No. PAGE 17. Table of the Passages of Transatlantic Steam-ships, 1873-74, BETWEEN Liverpool and New York, with Ave- rage OF each Line 617 18. Particulars of " Anchor " Line of Steamers .... 633 19. Steamers of the Royal Mail West India Steam Packet Company, 1st January, 1875 634 20. Steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company (1st January, 1875), with the Tonnage, Dimensions, AND Cost of each 635 21. Steamers of the Liverpool, Brazil, and River Plate Steam Navigation Company, January, 1875 .... 637 22. Log op the Peninsular and Oriental Company's S.S. " Khedive " 637 23. List of Steamers belonging to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company, June, 1875 639 24. List of Steamers belonging to the French Messageries Maritimes Company, and how Employed in 1875 . . 641 25. Statement of the Number of Vessels, with their Ton- nage, which have passed through the Suez Canal, FROM 1870 TO 1874 inclusive 643 26. Average Time of Passages of the Mail Packets between Kingstown and Holyhead, for Fourteen Years, ending 30th September, 1874 644 27. Number and Tonnage of Iron Steam-ships built and registered in the United Kingdom from 1861 to 1874, AND the total Tonnage, Steam and Sailing, as compared with four other Nations 645 APPENDICES. APPENDIX No. 1. Vol. iv., p. 50. Robert Fulton. In the life of Henry Bell by E. Morris (Glasgow, 184-i), ihere is the following letter from Mr. Bell to a Mr. John McNeill. It is dated, Helenshurgh, 1st March, 1824, and is as follows : — " Sir, I this morning was favoured with your letter. In reply to your enquiry respecting tlie late Eobert Fulton the American engineer, liis father was a native oi Ayrshire, but of what town or district there 1 cannot say. He went to America, wheie his son Eobert was born." As Ayrshire is my own native county, I was curious to ascertain if the Eobert Fulton of whom Henry Bell writes was any connection of an old man named Fulton vvho rented a farm belonging to Lord Ailsa in the district of Carrick about four miles from the town of Ayr where I was born, and where also I was educated under a very dear nncle, the Eev. William Scbaw, after whom I was named. Old Fulton (or rather old " Ballig," which was the name of his farm, and that by which he himself was better known) and his family were members of the United Presbj'tcrian Church, of which my uncle was minister. On his ministerial visits to Ballig, I used, as a boy, frequently to accom- pany him, perhaps, more for the good fare which was produced on these occasions, than for anything else. Old Ballig or Fulton would be then (1827-1829) a man of somewhere about 80 years of age, and I remember he frequently spoke of an elder brother who had settled in America whose son became a ''great man." What that greatness consisted of, I do not recollect, but as it was s )mething which in my boyish days had, 588 MERCHANT SHIPPING. with the good fare, made a lasting impression on my mind, it came fresh to my recollection when I read the letter I have just quoted in the life of Henry Bell, and I wondered if the "great man," the nephew of old Ballig, was the Eobert Fulton of world- wide fame. Through my friend Mr. T. M. Gemmell, of Ayr, I ascertained that the grandson of the old man whom I knew now occupied the farm of Ballig. From this person, however, no reliable information could he obtaijied as to the j)Osition or fate of his ancestors. Perhaps, that was not surprising, as the schoolmaster does not appear to have paid many visits to Ballig since the days of my boyhood. Eesolved to trace the matter still further, I applied to my friend and school companion, Mr, H. G. Eeid, of H. M. Stationery Office, who, from his literary tastes as editor of his father-in-law's great work ' McCulloch's Commercial Dic- tionary,' readily lent me a helping hand. He, in tuin, applied to his friends in Scotland, and among others to Mr. Cochran Patrick, of Woodside, in the parish of Beith, Ayrshire, where the Fulton family appear to have had their origin. Mr. Patrick himself, a gentleman of considerable literary acquirements and fond of antiquarian research, heartil}^ joined us on our voyage of discovery and, after some trouble, found a Mr. James Stevenson, residing on his own property in Loch- winnoch, who said he knew all about the Fulton family, and who made the following statement in writing, which I give in his own words as follows : — " Knows, dlst March, 1875. " Eobert Fulton was born at Mill of Beith, parish of Beith, Ayrshire, in the year 1765. His father, William Fulton, was born at Threepwood, also in the parish of Beith, about the year 1720. He took a lease of Brownmuir and Mill of Beith, corn mill, about the year 1742. He married Eose Mitchell, a native of Dumbarton, in the year 1744. He had issue five daughters and two sons. The eldest son, William, was born about the year 1747 or 1748; he beiame a partner in the firm of Fulton, Buchanan, and Pollock, who erected a large cotton mill in Lochwinnoch. William Fulton was manager, and carried on the engineering connected with the mill. Among the workmen employed were the late William Dunn of Duntocher, and Henry Bell of Glasgow. Eobert Fulton, when young, was educated in the hio-hest branches of learning, being master of nine different APPENDIX No. 1. 589 languages. He had a cousin, Henry Fulton, in London, who had a warehouse, and Hubert's father intended him to go there. He was educated so that he might be able to ti*ansact business with foieign merchants. He went to London about the year 1788, but he did not like to be confined in the warehouse or office. He went to sea many different voyages, was at Greenland, America, and the Indies. He was often in London, and came ditierent times to Scotland to see his father, mother, and his brother and sisters, and also got models and machines made by his brother's workmen at Lochwinnoch for some of his inventions. He vras in Scotland about the year 1801, and visited a steam-boat in the Forth and Clyde Canal along with Henry Bell. He was about London after that. He had inventions of different things, which he made offer of to the British Government, but they would give him no encouragement, after that he went to Paris and made oHer of them to Bonaparte. The British Government, hearino- that he had made oifer of them to Bonaparte, issued an order for his apprehension. He was in Paris about the year 1803, and left for America in company with the American Consul Living- ston. He got acquainted with his daughter or niece, Harriet Livingston, in the vessel, and was married to her in a short time after. It was aftei" that that ho started the steam-boat on the Hudson Eiver. He had been at great expense and got into difficulties for want of money. He left America and went to Antigua, and commenced business, and remained there, except when visiting his friends in Scotland. I recollect him being here, in this house, visiting my father and mother, my sister and elder brother very well recollect the same ; it was in the year 1821. He returned to Antigua and died in about a year after that ; also his wife died about a year after him. His will and settlement came home and was in the hands of Martin and Simpson, writers, Paisley ; the way I know this he was uncle to both my father and mother, their mothers being both sisters of Robert Fulton. "The few statements heiein contained are within my own knowledge. "JOIIX SriiVKNSON." By this very distinc^t statement, it appeared we had dis- covered that the celebrated Robert Fulton was not merely of Ayrshire paientage, but was himself born in Ayrshire, a fact, if substantiated, of no ordinary importance to us as Scotsmen, who, proud of our countrymen Watts and Symingtcui, could now 590 MERCHANT SHIPPING. rank with them as a countryman also of our own, ihe only rival claimant, of note, to the invention of the marine steam engine. It may have been the case that he was a renegade, who having propounded to Napoleon a scheme for the invasion of England, had disowned the land of his birth, and sought protection as an American subject — an opinion, however, which tended to confirm our belief that the Kobert Fulton of engineering fame was really a Scotsman. Indeed, considering the statement made by Mr. Stevenson, there were many reasons for supposing that such was the case ; and our belief was strengthened when, on searching the parochial regi-S. Co., L.,! Glasgow j J. & G. Thomson, Govan .... A. Stephen & Sons, Liutliouse . Henderson, Coulburti, & Ci>., Renfrew Aitkcu & Mansel, Whiteinch . Blackwood & Gordon, PortGlasgow . Barclay, Curie, & Co., Stobcross and"* Whiteinch .... . . j Eobert Duncan & Co., Port-Glasgow It. Napier & Sons, Govan . Charles Connell & Co., Scotstoua . Tod & M'Gregor, Patrick . . . William Simons & Co., Renfrew Scott & Co., Greeaock .... J. G. Lawrie, Whiteinch John Reid & Co., Port-Glasgow Robert Steele & Co., Poit-Glasgow A. & J. Inglis, Pointhouse Henry Murray & Co., Port-Glasgow Dobie & Co., Govan Thomas Wingate & Co., Whiteinch William Hamilton & Co., Port-Glasgow J. & R. Swan, Dumbarton . Cunlitfe & Dunlop, Port-Glasgow . Tliomas B. Se.ith & Co., Rutlierglen Irvine Shipbuilding Co., Irvine John FtiUarton & Co., Paisley . Robert M'Lea, Rothesay J. & J. Fife, Rothesay .... Scott & M'Gill, Bowling . . . William Fyfe & Sons, Fairlie . Peter Barclay & Sons, Ardrossan . 31,889 18,400 14,921 9,720 8,740 8,715 8,529 7,386 6,760 6,284 6,070 5,726 5,709 5,560 5,5(10 5,450 4,900 4,760 4,620 4,389 4,322 3,780 3,445 2,947 2,304 2,000 1,381 1,000 973 916 700 200 175 117 5,275 ::,o20 1,810 500 1,220 1,040 965 1,200 840 870 500 1,528 860 385 710 1,050 710 800 611 730 569 450 395 308 230 210 100 173 20 Note. — No reliable return similar to the above has been compiled since 1871 of the names of the builders, and the number of ships built liy each firm, biit the aggregate amount of tonnage launched on the Clyde each year since then, inclusive of 1874, has been quite as great (see preceding page), though the proportion to each builder has of course materially varied. APPENDIX No. 5. 595 APPENDIX No. 5. Vol. iv.. p. 71. Shipbuilding on the Wear, from the 1st January to the 31s^ Deremhrr, 1874. Tlie following return from the ' Sunderlimd Times' includes all the vessels built at Sunderland and places in the immediate vicinity on tlic Hiver Wear for the above year. IRON SHIPS. Builders' Names. Sliips' Names. Tons. aass A 1. Port of Kepi.stor. Austin and Hunter Barambio .... 754 90 Bilboa. 1 ? 1 ^ Knight Templar . 1546 90 North Shields. Bartram, Haswell & Co. Clumbria .... 675 100 Scarbro'. » 5 ) ' Clan MacLeod. 671 100 (Glasgow. T y 1 * Stag 1558 90 North Shields. Blumer, J., and Co. St. Peter .... 753 90 Sunderland. 7 1 ) ) Waikato .... 1053 100 London. 5 5 » ' Dacca ll.')3 100 J ) Waitangi .... 1161 100 9 J yi » ) Blyth 751 90 North Shields. 5 ) Waimate .... 1157 100 London. » I P'ernglen .... 850 100 Sunderland. Doxford, W., and Sens Yen-tai 947 100 London. 5 T J ? Broomhall .... 14o0 100 Dundee. Laing, James . Kashgar .... 2621 100 London. St. Lawrence . 2220 100 ) ) Formosa .... 1024 100 ^ J Mounsey and Foster . Roderick Dhu 1723 100 Liverpool. J » ) J Santunder .... 709 90 Newcastle. 11 19 Imbro 1222 90 Sunderland. Eastern Monarch . 1769 100 London. ? t If Senator .... 1768 100 Liverpool. J • » » Duchess of Edinburgh 1766 100 London. ) ? f f Dunalistair. 1756 100 Dundee. Linguist .... 1601 100 Liverpool. Osborne, Graham & Co. Lolland .... 557 90 JNakskov, Den- \ mark. Hull. Andes 866 100 Alexandra .... 797 90 Newcastle. Oswald and Co. Idomene .... 1424 100 Liverpool. Respigadera . 1629 100 , , Foyle 1662 100 Ijondon. Fitzclarence . 917 90 Glasgow. Pile'/vV., a'u'dCo. . . Barossa .... 1019 100 London. ) ) ) J Rodney .... 1519 100 » » Olive 885 100 » J " Plassey 1764 100 Short Brothers . Arizona .... 1288 100 North Shields. Simey, A., & Co. Stag 1048 90 W. Hartlepool. Thompson, J. L. Florence Richards 1051 90 Marvport. S. W. Kelly . . . 1064 100 Cardifl'. ) > Romulus .... 1442 9 'J Sunderland. 2 Q 2 596 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Shiphuilding on the Wear, from the 1st Jcumary to the Slst December, 1874. IKON SHIPS. Btiilders' Names. Ships' Names. Tons. 1 Class 1 Al. j Port of Register. Thomijson, J. L. Eemus 1447 90 Sunderland. John Howard 1237 100 Cardiff. Thompson, R.jjun. Lochuagar . 1597 90 Aberdeen. Theseus 1041 100 London. Mia . 1411 100 Rayner . 11.55 90 Newcastle. Watson (creditors) . Ballochmyle 1511 100 Greenock. > ) 1 > Baron Abenlare 1708 100 ) ) There are several large vessels at present fitting out, but as they have not yet been classed, they are not included in Lloyd's List for this year. Classed at Lloyd's only. WOODEN SHIPS. Builders' Names. Ships' Names. Crown, John Gardner, James Gibbon, N. . . Gibbon and Sons Gill', John . " . Pickersgill, Wm. Richardson, W. > > Thompson, Rich. Unkomanzi Robina Dunlop Transvaal . Truth . . Campsie Glen Ay don Forest Nancy Holt Lanercost . Tonga . ]\Iaiy Frost Coomassie . Glen Ville . Violet . . Emily McLaren Zeeburg Thomas C. Seed Florence and Margaret William D. Seed Emma Crook Pauline Swallow Chittagong Adeliza Silver Cloud Our Annie . Where sold to. 333 11 Aberdeen. 512 12 Glasgow. 384 12 Aberdeen. 527 13 Liverpool. 510 12 North Shields 522 12 328 12 Liverpool. 562 12 Sunderland. 314 12 London. 325 12 Liverpool. 428 12 South Shields. 325 12 London. 170 11 Sunderland. 445 12 Greenock. 533 12 296 12 Fleetwood 302 12 757 12 305 12 472 11 Newcastle. 309 11 Dartmouth. 335 11 London. 297 11 Fleetwood. 304 12 London. 377 12 Fleetwood. APPENDIX No. 5. S97 Ships building on the Wear, for the Quarter ending September 30, 1875. Intended for classification in LloycFs Eegister of British and Foreign Shipping. WOODEN SHIPS. Name of Builder. Procrrcs.-;. Class A. Crown, John 700 Planked and caulking *13 Dunn, G. . . . 50 Planked 8 Gardner, J. 650 100 Nearly framed Planked 12 10 Gibbon, N. . . 3i0 300 ?) Laying down 12 12 Gibbon, J., and Sons 250 12 Pickersgill, William 300 Lauuclieil 12 u 300 Keel laid *12 Richardson, W. 280 Fitting out 12 Thompson, Eichard 5) 330 490 Nearly ready to launch . Framed 12 12 COMPOSITE SHIPS. Name of Builder. Tons. Progress. Class A. Laing, James Thompson, R., jun 1200 800 Planked and decked . Keel laid 16 16 IRON SHIPS. Name of Builder. Progress. Class A. Austin and Hunter )) )) • ■ Bartram, Haswell, and Co. J) )' '» » )> '> Blumer, J., and Co. . Doxford, W., and Sons )> )» )j )> )> » Gulbton, G. S. . ". . 900 I Launched . . . 700 j Building frames . 1000 Commencing . 900 Launched . . . 1200 Plated .... 800 i Framing . . . 650 Commencing . 1100 i Preparing to launch 500 Plating .... 2700 ' Nearly ready to launch 2700 Plating .... 650 Ready to launch . 1700 Frjiming . . . 700 Not commenced . 700 j Ready to launch . 100 "100 100 100 90 100 100 90 100 100 100 100 90 100 90 598 MERCHANT SHIPPING. IRON 8U.1PS.— continued. Xame of Builder. Tons. 1 Progress. Class A. Laing, James 2700 Framed and standing *100 2700 Not commenced .... *100 1400 Ready for sea 90 620 Not commenced .... 100 Mounsey and Foster 800 Launched 100 > )) 800 Plated 100 800 Plated 100 Osbourne, Graham, and Co. 1320 Ready to launch .... 100 )' 780 In frame 100 1340 Laving down 100 Oswald, T. K 1470 1420 In frame Fitting out 100 100 Short Brothers 1500 Plating 100 Simey and Co. 875 Finishing 90 Thompson, Robert, jun. . 500 Finishing 100 Thompson, J. L., and Sons 600 Preparing material 100 Watson, W. (creditors) . 1600 1 Framed 100 Vessels sold . 41 „ *unsold . 5 „ building 46 Tonnage .... 44,115 tons Total last q uarter, 57 vt ssels, of . . . .57,803 „ Liverpool Underwriters' Kegistrt for Iron Vessels. List of Vessels huilding on the Wear, for the Quarter ending September 30, 1875. Name of Builder. Ton.s. Progress. Jas. Laing 1164 S. S. Completing. lOOO S. S. Completing. 1250 900 900 S. S. S. S. S. S. Completing. Plating. Plating. 800 600 s. s. Barque Plating. Commencing. T. K. Oswald 1900 1830 1630 Ship Ship Ship Fitting out. Completing. Plating. Short Brothers 1200 S. S. Completing, Wm. Doxford and Sons 1000 Barque Completing. Mounsey and Foster . i 900 Baiquo Completing. Austin and Hunter . 900 Barque Completing. Osborne, Graham, and Co. 1200 Ship Commencing. G. S. Gulstan .... 900 S. S. Completing. APPENDIX No. 599 The following table s-hows the miraber of ships built each year on the Wear since 1858, with the aggregate and average tonnairc'. Year. Xo. Tons. Average Tons. Year. No. Tons. Average. Tons. 1858 110 42,003 381 1867 128 52,249 408 1859 100 37,184 371 1868 138 70,302 509J 1860 112 40,201 358 1869 122 72,420 585 i 1S61 126 46,778 371 1870 103 70,084 680i 1862 160 56,921 355 1871 97 81,903 844 .\ 1863 171 70,040 410 1872 122 131,825 1,080J 1864 153 71,987 470 1873 96 100,324 1,045 1865 172 73,134 425 1874 95 99,731 1,049| 1866 145 62,719 432 APPENDIX No. 6. Vol. iv., p. 96. Relative Weight and Strength of Wooden and Iron Ships. Forty years ago the relative general difference between the weight of wooden and iron vessels may be fairly taken as slated by Mr. Laiid in his evidence; but, inasmuch as iron sliips have gone on since that date incre^ising in length, and wooden ships rarely exceeded 5^ times their beam, the weights relatively have increased, and may now be taken in a vessel of the same tonnage as 6-10 against wooden ships of a high class wliich woiild be built of timber of high specific gravity. As the weight of timber varies from 45 to 64 lbs. per cubic foot, the weight of a ship is consequently regulated by her class, as also by her length ; and as a ship of ten times her beam must necessarily be built of heavier scantling than one of the same register tonnao^e, a long and high-class ship will necessarily be of greater weight than a short vessel of inferior description. In an interesting paper on the strength of iron ships, by Mr. William John, Assistant Surveyor of Lloyd's Registry, which will be found among the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1874, that gentleman gives the weight of iron ships of superior class, under 340 feet in length, and of 2500 tons burden, as 1596 tons. 600 MERCHANT SHIPPING. APPENDIX Ko. 7. Vol. iv., p. 146. Description of Machinery and Boilers of the American coasting Steamers ^'Bristol" and '^ Providence." Beam Engine. — Cylinder, 110 in. diameter, with a stroke of 12 ff. Balance, puppet valves, with adjustable drop cut off. Surface condenser, with 8500 square ft. of tube surface. Bucket and plunger circulating pump connecteil with beam. P addle-W heels. —Oi iron, 39 ft. 6 in. diameter, with a face of 12 ft. Wheel- shaft, 21 in. diameter. Boilers. — Three in number, extending fore and aft the vessel in the hold. Fire-room, athwart ship. Boilers of the flue and tubular type ; with double tier of furnaces, one above the other, on the plan for which the constructing engineer has a patent. Sliell of boilers, back of furnaces, ciicular. Extreme length, 35 ft. Diameter of round shell, 12 ft. 5 in. Width of fiunace front, 12 ft. 7 in. Nvunber.of furnaces in each boiler, four. Interior of boilers, flues below, and 5-in. tubes above. Total amount of fire-surface . . . 13,800 square ft. Grate-surface . . . . . . 510 „ „ Pressure of steam carried, 25 lbs. to square inch. Effective horse-power, 3000. Speed, 18 to 20 miles per hour. Engines and boilers designed by Erastus W. Smith of New York. The engines of the Bristol and Providence are believed to be the largest single marine engines afloat in any part of the world. \ APPKNDIX No. 8. 601 APPENDIX No. 8. Voi. iv., p. 219. (TltANSATLANTlC StEAM.) Comparative Statement of average Sailings of Collins and Ciinard Lines for the second half of the Year 1851. The following is extracted from York Courier and Engineer:' — ■The New Collins Line — 14 trips, Liverpool to New York. Total time occupied . Average time per trip . Quickest trip by "Baltic'' . Longest trip by " Atlantic " Itavs. Hrs. 158 21 11 8 9 13 13 17 15 30 Cunard Line — 13 trips, Liverpool to New York. Total time occupied . Average time per trip . Quickest trip by " Africa ' Longest trip by " Europa " Collins Line — 13 trips, New York to Liverpool. Days. Hrs. 161 4 i 12 9 10 6 ! 16 20 Min. 15 Total time occupied . Average time per trip . Quickest trip by " Baltic" Longest trip by " Baltic " Days 142 10 10 12 Hrs. 10 23 4 9 Min. 45 45 Cunard Line — 14 trips, New York to Liverpool. Total time occupied . Average time per trip . Quickest trip by " Africa " Longest trip by "Europa" Djvs 160 11 10 I 14 Hrs. 18 11 9 3 Min. 44 20 But the Cunard Com- pany themselves give the following returns of the sailings of their steamers : — Diiys. Hrs. 155 17 11 23 "Africa" 10 10 " Europa " 17 2 Min. 26 30 50 50 Days. Hrs. 147 18 10 13 'Africa" 10 5 ' Canada " 12 21 Min. 1 17 35 20 The following are the names and voyages of the Cunard Steamers making the above averages : — Asia . Africa Asia . Africa Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Niagara Africa Asia . Niagara Africa Days. Hrs 13 14 14 13 13 1 12 1 10 23 11 19 10 21 10 21 12 22 11 1 11 12 9 10 10 155 17 26 Days. Hrs. Asia . 10 15 Africa 10 17 Asia . 10 6 Africa 10 8 Asia . 10 6 Europa . 10 19 Africa 10 17 Asia . 10 2 Niagara . 10 21 Africa 10 4 Asia . 10 20 Niagara . 10 20 Africa 10 5 Asia . 10 18 147 18 Min. 11 28 40 50 37 35 47 50 30 28 40 35 50 602 MERCHANT «HIPP1XG. Comparative Stntement of average Sailings of Collins Line and Cunard Line for the first half of the Year 1852. The followiiit;; is extracted from 'Huntz's But the Cunard Com- Merchant's Magazine,' September 1852 : — pany themselves give ; the following r eturns of the Collins Line — IB trips, Liverpool to New York. sailings of their steamers: — D;ivs. Hrs. , Mill. Total time occnpied . . . ,15'4 20 ! 15 Average time per trip 11 22 Quickest trip by " Atlantic ' 10 3 Longest trip by '' Pacific " . ' 15 i 4 30 Cunard Line — 13 trips, Liverpool to New York. Days. His. Min. Days. Hrs. Min. Total time occupied . . . 170 15 45 163 12 18 Average time per trip . . 13 3 1 3 .. 12 13 52 Quickest trip by " Asia ' . 10 19 1 .. "Asia' . 10 22 10 Longest trip by " Niagara" . 20 1 19 i .. to Liverpool. " Canada " 17 22 30 Collins Line — 13 trips. New York J)ays. Hrs. Min. Total time occupied . 143 17 50 Average time per trip . 11 1 .. Quickest trip by " Arctic " . 9 13 30 Longest trip by " Baltic " . 12 21 .. Cunard Line— 13 trips, New York to Liverpool. Days. His. Min. Days. Hrs. Min. Total time occupied . . . 145 13 30 .. ;i4i 18 32 Average time per trip . n 5 10 21 44 Quickest trip by " Asia ' 10 5 : 10 "Asia" . 10 •• Longest trip by " Asia " 12 21 30 "Asia" . 12 16 41 The following are the names and voyages of the Cunard steamers making the above averages : — Asia . Canada Afiica Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Days Hrs. Min. 13 12 50 17 22 30 14 40 12 23 50 12 4 11 11 10 45 11 3 40 12 9 26 11 23 30 10 22 10 11 a 20 11 15 16 11 20 10 163 12 18 Asia . Canada Africa Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Europa Africa Asia . Euroim Africa Asia . Days, lb 11 12 12 11 10 10 11 10 10 10 10 10 141 Hrs. 5 17 5 16 8 14 i 4 10 20 10 18 Min. 40 41 40 40 5 45 45 3 13 32 APTKNDIX No. 1). t)03 APPENDIX No. 9. A' OL. iv., p. 227. Persia's " Passages (out and home) Livei^iool and New York. j j CDiisuniption Date. Outward. Homeward. IX ten lion at Queenstown, *>• Coal per Bar, &c. Indicated II.P. per hour. 1856. D. H. M. I>. H. M. IbB. Jan. 26 1 14 3 3-47 Mar. 8 2 12 1 25 9 12 7 Apr. 19 3 10 1 30 9 8 50 July 12 4 10 19 13 9 4 35 Aug. 23 5 10 22 7 9 18 .37 Oct. 4 6 10 2 32 9 7 2 Nov. 15 7 10 3 9 11 20 1857. ■ . - 1 Jan. 10 8 14 5 12 9 6 20 Feb. 21 9 13 7 58 10 16 1 June 13 10 9 21 41 9 2 55 July 25 11 11 1 9 10 38 Sept. 5 12 10 2 6 9 11 43 Got. 17 13 11 7 15 9 17 5 Dec. 12 14 12 21 40 9 21 40 1858. Mar. 20 15 10 19 56 9 17 15 May 1 16 10 7 9 17 5 June 5 17 10 16 9 6 28 3-47 July 24 18 10 6 20 9 16 55 For Newfoundland for " Europa" Passengers. Sept. 4 19 Oct. 16 20 Nov. 27 21 1859. Mar. 19 Apr. 30 June 11 July 23 Sept. 3 Oct. 15 Nov. 26 1860. Mar. 31 May 12 June 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 12 9 9 22 30 15 7 20 11 4 30 11 4 47 10 9 25 10 21 50 15 18 10 10 21 8 12 1 45 29 11 17 45 30 11 6 10 31 12 6 18 9 21 10 10 8 22 9 19 10 17 20 9 7 40 4 30 16 45 17 2 11 49 20 12 9 19 12 9 15 43 9 8 45 3 Days — liroke crank-pin 604 MERCHANT SHIPPING. For Newfoundland for '' Europa" Passengers. 1 Consuuiption Date. Outward. Homeward. J)etention at Queenstown, liar, &c. of Coal jter indicated H.P. per hour. 1860. D. H. M. D. H. JI. lbs. Au?. 4 32 11 1 35 9 7 41 8ept. 15 33 12 8 13 9 18 30 Oct. 27 34 10 18 30 10 19 5 ' Dec. 8 35 12 3 10 10 8 57 3-47 1861. IMar. 30 3(i 10 1 30 9 17 50 May 11 37 10 13 50 10 10 25 Juue 22 38 11 1 9 18 5 Aug. 3 39 11 1 30 10 12 27 Bell Buoy 12 hours. Sept. 14 40 10 22 10 19 47 Oct. 20 41 10 3 13 11 16 17 ' Bic Bic to Halifax Halifax Home. Dec. 15 42 10 22 15 2 2:5 .55 8 Days, 1 hour, 4 min. 1862. Ai)r. 12 43 11 15 45 9 17 17 Queenstown 10 hrs. out. May 24 44 11 19 8 9 16 40 July 5 45 11 2 25 9 19 33 Aug. 16 46 11 3 5 10 4 35 Queenstown 6J hrs. out. Sept. 27 47 12 8 53 9 13 -^8 Nov. 8 48 12 14 5 13 13 55 1863. Apr. 11 49 11 2 28 10 5 45 May 23 50 10 23 45 9 22 30 July 4 51 10 14 17 10 55 (Queenstown Aug. 15 52 11 3 30 10 11 45 I H M. H. yi. I Out, 4 20. Home, 1 45. Sept. 26 53 11 5 5 10 10 5 , , 5 53. ,, „ Nov. 7 54 11 19 10 9 22 2 (Bar. 1 Dec. 19 55 11 22 44 10 5 40 I H. M. H. M. > (Out, 3 0. Home, 4 0. ) 3-47 18C4. ! Mar. 26 56 11 10 45 1 10 1 20 1 Out, 7 5. (Queenstown. May 7 57 1 11 10 30 10 10 50 \ H. M. H. M. (Out, 7 10. Home, 2 10. July 30 58 11 13 20 9 20 15 (Bar. Sept. 10 59 1 11 8 20 10 8 30 \ H. M. 11. M. (Out, 4 15. Home, 9 40. APPENDIX No. 9. 605 For Newfoundland for " Europa " Passengers. Consumption Date. Outward. Homeward. Detention at Queenstown, of Coal per Bar , &c. Indicated H.P. per hour. 18G4. n. H. M. 1). H. M. I Queenstovm . lbs. Oct. 22 60 10 23 47 920 { H. M. (Out, 5 17. H. M. Home, I 0, 1865. Apr. 8 61 11 10 15 10 4 45 , , 7 30. ,, 1 25. May 20 62 11 10 40 10 6 5 , , 3 10. ,, 1 .30. July 1 63 11 1 10 5 8 , , 5 35. ,, 1 20. Aug. 12 64 11 30 9 21 10 , , 5 15. Sept. 23 65 10 18 45 9 22 ,,7 0. , , 37. Nov. 4 66 10 23 11 40 , , 7 30. 1866. Apr. 7 67 12 12 20 9 21 20 ,, 6 17. May 19 68 10 11 55 9 15 55 ,,7 0. 3-47 June 30 69 12 3 35 9 20 20 , , 6 45. Aug. 11 70 11 4 10 9 18 20 , , 6 35. Sept. 22 71 13 11 55 9 20 15 , , 8 25. Nov. 3 72 10 23 35 9 21 55 , , 35. ,, 15. Dec. 29 73 13 55 10 5 ,, 1 20. 1867 Apr. 20 74 12 11 50 11 19 55 ,, 5 15. June 1 75 11 21 35 10 4 25 ,,9 5. ., 17. July 13 76 10 23 25 9 9 10 , , 55. , , 20. Aug. 24 77 11 2 55 9 13 15 , , 2 30. Oct. 5 78 11 23 30 10 12 20 ,,4 5. 3-47 Nov. 16 79 10 4 25 11 19 ,, 7 15. Dec. 28 80 13 7 10 10 17 25 , , 6 55. 606 MERCHANT SHIPPING. APPENDIX No. 10. Vol. iv., p. 237. Accoimt of Steamers belonging to the Canard Company, in 1875. (The vessels of tliis Company, which is a private tmdeitakiug, belong solely to Messrs. Burns, Glasgow, Messrs. Mad ver, Liverpool, and Mr. William Cunard, London.) Between Liverpool and United States. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ., 7 ^ 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 22 123 24 25 Atlas Calabria Hecla Marathon Olympus Scotia China Cuba Aleppo Java Malta Tarifa Palmyra Kussia Siberia Samaria Abyssinia Algeria Batavia Parthia Bothnia Seythia Saragossa Jackal 1 , I I Tenders . . . { Satellitef I Year Built. Gross. Nett. H.P. IStiO 2,393 1,552 300 , , 2,901 1,730 409 , , 2,421 1,578 1 270 ) 1 2,403 1,552 300 J J 2,415 1,585 270 1862 3,871 2,124 i 1,000 ) > 2,638 1,613 i 420 1864 2,668 1,534 560 1865 2,056 1,398 280 , , 2,696 1,760 600 ) > 2,132 1,449 280 1 » 2,058 1,399 280 1866 2,043 1,389 260 1867 2,960 1.709 600 1868 2,497 1,698 300 1870 2,605 1,694 300 3,253 2,075 500 3,298 2,104 500 2,553 1,627 450 3,166 2,035 450 4,535 2,923 600 1874 4,557 2,923 600 > > 2,262 1,429 300 1853 180 111 100 1848 157 82 80 64,718 41,073 10,009 APPENDIX No. 10. (507 Between Liverpool, Havke, anto the Mediterranean. 1 Balbec . . 2 British Queen 3 Stromboli . 4 Kedar . 5 Sidon . . 6 Morocco 7 Trinidad . 8 Dem -rara . 9 Nantes . 10 Brest . . 11 Cherbour"; . Year Built. Gross. Nett. II.P. 1853 774 484 130 , , 763 565 150 1856 734 619 120 1860 1,875 1,215 212 1861 1,853 1,198 212 1,855 1,193 212 1872 1,899 1,228 300 ^ ^ 1,904 1,231 300 1873 1,472 949 160 1874 1,472 9-19 160 > J 1,614 919 170 16,215 10,580 2,126 Halifax and Bermuda Trade. Delta Alpha Beta Year Built. Gross. Nett. ! H.P. 1 2 3 1854 1863 1874 644 653 1 1,087 1 428 . 513 677 120 112 160 2,384 1,618 392 Glasgow and Liverpool. Year Built. Gross. 1 I Penguin 2 I Raven . 3 Owl Nett. 1864 680 439 180 1869 778 490 150 1872 914 502 ; 230 2,372 I 1,431 560 608 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Glasgow and Belfast. Buffalo Year Built. Gross. Nett. H.P. 1 1865 686 391 280 2 Llama ^ ^ 686 391 280 3 Camel 1866 691 393 280 4 Kacoon 1868 831 479 300 5 Hornet 1874 548 322 100 6 Wasp ) 1 550 320 100 3,992 2,296 1,340 Glasgow and Londonderry. Bear Year Built. Gross. Nett. H.P. 1 1870 691 331 150 Summary. Transatlantic 64,718 41,073 10,009 Mediterranean and Havre 16,215 Halifax and Bermuda Glasgow and Liverpool , , Belfast . , , Londonderry I 49 vessels ' 90,372 56,329 14,577 APPENDIX No. 12. 009 APPENDIX No. 12. Vol. iv., p. 244. Mules for exercising Boats and Fire-Pumps, on hoard all Ships icith eight Boats in the Cunard Service. 1st. Every officer in cliarge of a boat shall be conversant witli the names and number of the crew tliereof. ami have a muster-roll of the i:ame ; ami in exercising boats when mustered at " boats' stations," shall j»laco his men, sailors forward, firemen amidsliips, stewiirds, &c,iift; and shall see that his men wear the badge with the nuir^ber of the bf)at. 2nd. Each officer shall [ilace two of sailing dej arfment, who will attend the outside chocks, gripes, and davit-lockings, lower the boat when swung out, and remain to belay the falls, when hoisted up. No boat to be lowered until the order is given, " lower away." 3rd. Each officer shall station two of sail iig department to take cover off, and fore and aft spar out of the boat, and remain in her. 4th. In hoisting up, tiie crews of opposite bnats assist each other, the star- board boat taking the after falls on both sides, and tl.e port the forward. Fire Stations. In case of fire the crew of No. 8 boat shall attend to the port-hose, and No. 7 to the starboard : the crews of Nos. 5 and 6 working the main-deck pump, Nos. 3 and 4 the pump on the saloon, as.-ibted by Nos. I and 2. The steward department to att-nd tlie fire-buckets and blankets; a certain number to be told-off to each. Bilge Pimps. The crew of No. 8 boat shall rig and man the bilge pumps on port-side, forward, No. 7 taking the starboard forward, No. 6 the port amidships, No. 5 the starboard amidships, and No. 3 the starboard after-pump. Water-tight Doors. Carpel. ter to stand by to shut any water-tight doors which mry be required, and all water-tight doors must always be kept in perfect order. Every officer in the Cunard service is expected to know and act up to these rules. Rules and Begulations of the Cunard Company (applicable to the Cabin). It being obvious tl.at, on a passage of some days' duration, the comfort of a numerous body of passengers must very much depend upon tiie manner in wliich they themselves assist in promoting it, a cheerful acquiescence is expected in the following rrgiilations and suggestions, which, if in any instance at variance with the opinions, habits, or inclinations of the few, are framed with a regard to the comfort of the whole. 1. — In case of dissatisfaction with any of the servants, it is requested that the head steward may be informed, and, if the grievance be not imme- diately redressed, that the captain be appealed to, and, if of a serious nature, that it be represented in writing, in order that it may be brought before the agents at tljc conclusion of the voyage. VOL. IV. 2 R 610 MERCHANT SHIPl'lKG. 2. — The stewards and boys are engaged on the express understanding that at table they attend in becoming apparel. 3. — The state-rooms to be swept and carpets to be taken out and shaken, every morning after breakfast. To l)e washed once a week, if the weather is dry. 4.— The saloon and ladies' cabins to be swept every morning before break- fast, beginning at 5 o'clock. 5. — Bedding to be turned over as soon as passengers quit their cabins. Slops to be emptied and basins cleaned at tiie same time. Beds to be made once a day only, except in cases of illness, &e., and within one hour after breakfast. 6. — Bed linen to be changed on the eighth day. Boots and shoes to be cleaned and put back into the state-rooms every morning at 8 o'clock. 7.— Two towels to be hung up for each passenger, and to be changed eveiy other day, or as often as required. 8. — Passengers are requested not to open their scuttles when there is a chance of their bedding being wetted. The head steward to see tliat the scuttles are open when the weather will permit. 9. — The stewardess only is to enter the ladies' cabin and state-rooms, and to make the beds at the time before stated. 10. — The wine and spirit bar will -be opened to passengers at 6 a.m., and closed at II p.m. 11. — Breakfast to be on the table at half-past 8, and cloths removed by half-jjast 9. 12. — Luncheon to be on table from 12 to 1 o'clock. 13. — The before-dinner bell to be rung at half-past 3 — dinner to be on the table at 4 — the cloths to be removed the instant it is over. 14. — Tea to be on the table at half-past 7. 15. — Supper, if required and ordered, to be before 10 o'clock. 16. — Lights to be put out in the saloons at half-past 11, and in the state- rooms at 12. 17. — As the labour of the servants must be very great, and the space required for a larger number absolutely preventing an increase, the passengers are requested to spare them as much as possible between the meal hours, and particularly preceding dinner. 18. — Xo passenger is allowed to change his state-room or berth without the knowledge of tlie purser ; and it is understood that the passage tickets are to be given up to him bL-fore the termination of the voyage. 19. — With or without their owners, dorjs are not allowed to come abaft the foremast. APPENDIX No. 12. GU APPENDIX No. 13. Vol. iv., p. 259. Inman Company — Transatlantic Fleet, 1st Jan. 1875. Number Names. Year Gross Reg. Nett Reg. Horse of Ships. built Tonuage. Tonnage. I'ower. 1 Ajax 1856 163 133 30 2 Bosplinrus . 448 333 30 3 Hercules 211 174 30 4 City of Bnslnl . 1860 2655 1,805 350 5 City t)f Liinciick 1863 2536 1,724 250 6 City of London . 2765 1,880 450 7 City of Durham 1865 697 538 120 8 City of New York , , 3,499 2,380 350 9 City of Paris 1S66 3,081 1,975 550 10 City of Antwerp 1867 2,391 1,626 350 - — 11 City of Brooklyn 1869 2,911 1,980 450 12 City of Bru.ssels ^ ^ 3,747 2,. 323 600 13 City of Montreal 1872 4,451 3,027 600 14 City of Chester . 1873 4,700 3,000 800 15 City of Riclimond , , 4,700 3,000 800 16 City of Berlin . 1874 5,000 3,500 1,000 Total . . 43,955 29,398 6,760 Abstract from the Log of the S.S. " City of Berlin," from Qucenstomi (Roche's Point) to New York [Saiidy Hook). 7 Days, 18 Hours, 2 Minutes— Mean Time. n F o Date, >Vind. Courses. sil ■3 3 T3 3 Rekakks. September, 1875. 5 & 2 p .3 Thursday, 10 9.20 p.m. left Liverpool Bar, j 11.39 a.m. arrived at Friday, 17 Southerly Channel N. w. < Quccustown. 4.50 p.m. 1 left Queen&towu. Saturdny, IS Variahlo S. 81 W. 303 50-45 15-58 Calm. Sunday, 19 Easterly S. 79 W. 367 49-37 25-19 Lit^ht airs to light brcczo. Monday, 20 Easterly S 77 W. 376 48 -OS 34 -35 Lii;;ht airs to liglit breeze. Tuesday, 21 Easterly S. 74 W. 368 46-1843-11 Lii;ht airs to light breeze. Wedne.sday 22 N.E. to S.W. S. 70 W. 3S0 43-59 51-34 Moderate bn ezo to ealm. Thursday, 23 Varial)Ie S. 77 W. 374 42-37 59-49 Light varial)le airs. Friday, 24 N.N.W. S. 72 W. 381 50-52 67-55 Light to moderate breeze. Saturday, 25 To Sai idy Hook 280 •• •• (6.30 a.m. arrived at Sandy \ Hook (Now York). 2 K 2 613 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Abstract from the Log of S.S. '• City of Berlin''— Continued. From New York (Snuh/ L'ook) to Queenstow'/ {Iioc'.es Point). 7 Days, 15 Hours, 28 Minutes— Mean Time. Da'e. Wind. Courses. 1 ^ 2 5 — •e 3 3 Remarks. October, 187 b. ■3 "2 5 1 a S3 o 9.0 a.m. passed Sandy Saturday, 2 Westerly N. w. Hook C^cw York). 9.15 discharged pilot. 9.20 ahead full speed. Sunday, 3 Westerly N. 80 E. 388 41 -25 65-37 Light breeze. Monday, 4 Variable N. 74 E. 3t;2 42 -55 57 -45 Calm to moderate breeze. Tuesday. 5 S.W. N. 70 E. 3t;6 '44 -57(49 -51 Liglit breeze throughout. Wednesday, 6 S.W. N. 68 E. 361 47 -15 41 -53 Light breeze tliroughout. Thursday, 7 S.W, toN.W. N. 71 E. 381 J49-20 32-54 Fresh breeze throughout. Friday, 8 North N. 79 E. 347 50-2324-06 1 1 Fresh gale and heavy ( beam sea. Saturday, 9 North N. 82 E. 362 51-17 14-43 1 Strong breeze and luavy 1 beam sea. /5.10 a.m. arrived at Queenstown; 6.10 left Sunday, 10 ToQi leenstowii 253 Queenstown; 5 p.m. Holy- he.id; 9.20 passed Ruck I Light, Liverpool. AITENDIX No. 14. Vol. iv., p. 262. Allan Line — Transatlantic Fleet, 1st Jan. 1875. Names. Gross Nett Horse-power Cabin ac- Tonnage. Tonnage. Nominal. modation fur. Sardinian 4,200 2,300 675 120 Polynesian . 3,98.1 2,023 675 120 Sannatian . 3,911 2,175 650 100 Circassian 3,200 1,845 550 100 Scandinayian 2,840 1,811 500 100 Prussian . 2,794 1,776 500 90 Austriiin . 2,458 1,650 450 115 Nestorian 2,466 1,677 455 115 Moravian 3,323 2,014 500 80 Peruvian 3,038 1,845 500 100 Hibernian . 2,752 1,7-26 400 80 Nova Scotian 3,305 2,082 400 80 Caspian . 2,728 1,788 400 80 Manitoban . 2,395 1,543 300 25 Canadian j 2.401 1,531 280 25 Corinthian . 1,517 959 170 40 Phoenician . . ; 2,350 1,550 275 30 Waldensian . 2,300 1,500 275 30 Acadian . 931 596 100 Newfoundland 900 550 100 40 Rocket . 350 175 100 Meteor . 250 150 75 Mersey . 227 51 20 54,619 33,317 8,350 1,470 APPENDIX No. 15. 613 APPENDIX No. 15. Vol. iv., p. 270. " White Star " Line of Steam Skips. (Copy of Manuscript Letter of Spooial Instructions.) CAPTAIN * ♦ * * s.S. ♦ • * * Dear Sir, lu the Book of Instructions handed to you some time ago, and with the contents of which we do not douLt you have made yourself familiar, we dwelt with particular emphasis upon the supreme importance wliich we attached to the exercise of extreme and unvarying caution and prudence in the navigation of the Company's vessels. This subject has so constantly impressed itself upon us, that we have dfteiniined to address you again upon tliis most vital matter, and we shall be glal to know whether, in your opinion, and suggested by your exijerieuce of the steamers and their trade, there is any matter con- nected with their outfit, apiwintments or discipline, which you conceive mi>«-ht be supplemented or improved upon, in which case we shall gladly receive and consider any suggestions which you may make. The consideration of the subject generally has impressed us with a deep sense of the injury which the interests of the Comi^any would sustain in tlie event of any misfortune attending the navigation of the vessels: — First, from the blow which such would give to the reputation of the line; Seccmd, from the pecuniary loss which would accrue — the Company buing their own insurers to a very large extent; and. Third, to the interruption of a weekly line, upon which much of the success of the present organization must depend. Under all tliese circumstances of paramount and engrossing interest to the Company, whose property is under your charge, we invite you to dismiss from your mind all idea of competitive passages with other vessels, the advantage of success in which is merely transient, concentrating your whole attention upon a cautious, 'prudent, and ever-watchful system of navigation — which shall lose time, or suffer any other temporary inconvenience, rather than run the slightest risk whic'.i can be avoided. We remain, yours faithfully, ISM AY, IMRIE, & Co. 614 MERCHANT SHIPPING. APPENDIX No. 16. Vol. iv., p. 279. "WHITE STAE" LINE. Abstract of Log. — Screw Steam-Ship " Adriatic," H. II. Perry, Commander. From Liverpool, via Queenstown, towards New York. Voyage No. 10. 1 :3 u Thermo- sr meter. •o a ^-< ■^ ej o fO ^ >> "S O Direction. Force to 12 April 3 trj C oJ aj C 3 c hJ o ^1 iJ 1 2 . 50 p.m., weiglied anchor. 3 . 18 p.m., Kock Light abeam. 4 . p.m., off Bell Buoy. 2.20 a.m , off Tuskar. 8.25 a.m., abreast Koche's Point. 8.40 a.m., anchored Queenstown Harbour. 10.20, received passengers. 0.30 p.m., weighed 0.50 p.m., Koche's Point. 5.08 Fahr. anchor and proceeded. s. 53 52 N. W. 5 C. B. s. 54 52 W. 3 0. B. F. 55 53 S. 4 M. 0. F. 47 53 s. w. 5 P. D. E. 32 34 N. W. 4 P. O. K. 31 34 N. ti C. B. F. R. 43 41 Var. 4 R. B. F. 40 37 do. 4 M. S.85-37W.51 85-57 84-00 78-17 G5-36 61-05 72 -.50 84-00 - 04 W. 16-00 W.l.SOl -40 •01 •58 -46 .38 -52 -.34 24-44 33-54 41-40 48-52 56-57 64-40 72-31 331 355 .309 318 396 356 3631 5.05 p.m., anchored off Bar, 3.15 a.m., received pilot. 5.25 a.m., weighed anchor. 5.52 a.m , off Sandy Hook. 6. 46., anchored, quarantine. 7.35 a.m., hove up anchor. 8.45 a.m., dock. I (Signed) H. II. Perky, Commander.^ Explanation of Columns. Barometer. — Letters — r., rising; f., falling; and s., steady. Extreme wind is the strongest wind experienced in past twenty-four hours. Weallier. — Beaufort scale is n., blue sky ; c, detached clouds ; D., drizzling rain ; F., fog ; G., dark, gloomy ; H., hail ; l., lightning ; M., misty, hazy ; o., overcast ,• p., passing showers ; q., squally ; R., rain ; s., snow ; T., thunder; u., ugly, tlireatening ; v. visibility ; w. wet, dew. ' As will be seen by the above abstract of log, the Adriatic sailing west, made 396 knots, or 455 miles, in (calculating the actual time) 24^ hours, or equal to 18-55 miles per hour; but on her return passage on the same voyage (May 1872), she made (sniling cast) 384 knots, or 441 ^ miles in 23 J- hours actual time, which is equal to 18-9 miles per hour. APPENDIX No. lG.~Contmued. 615 But however great the speed of the Adriatic, the regulariti/ of the passages of this ship is equ illy surprising ; tliey are as follows : — From !Sanuy Hook (New Youk) to Queenstown. D. H. M. D. If. M. Voy. No. 1 April 1872 8 21 58 Voy. No 15 October 1873 8 9 32 2 June „ 8 12 3 k; November „ 8 22 28 H August „ 8 3 18 17 December „ 8 22 18 i Sept. „ 8 19 2(j 18 Ja'.uary 1874 8 (J 18 5 October „ 8 7 5i 19 INIaroh 8 13 23 6 November „ 8 8 18 20 April „ 8 6 28 7 Decimbi.r „ 8 23 38 21 May 8 4 5G 8 Feb. 1873 8 17 „ 22 Jiuie „ 8 10 6 9 March „ 8 10 28 23 July 8 6 33 10 April 8 12 28 24 October „ 7 23 12 11 May 8 9 11 „ 25 January 1875 8 2 53 12 June „ 8 10 46 2(3 February „ 8 10 42 lA August ., 9 1 13 " 27 April ,, 8 14 28 U Sept 8 10 18 » 28 29 M"y June „ 8 9 52 8 3 12 Average — 8 Days, 10 Hours, 57 Minutes. But the Adriatic has been surj^assed by the Germanic, whose last log is as follows : — 0U1\S'AKDS. 1875 July Aug. 31 1 w •o g c: ■§ o S •s a a O hJ ►J Northerly Variable Variable Westerly N. Westerly S. W. s. w. To S. Hook s. W. 87 34i 81 11 77 00 68 •37 6(i-19 72-52 74-00 Left Liverpool 4.50 Bell Buoy, 6.42 p.m. jLeft Queenstown 11-35 a.m. Roche's (_ point iibeaiii. West 17-46 27-18 367 367 360 348 373 364 361 260 North. 51-9 50-13 48-52 36-19 46-45 44-22 44-15 42-29 40-50 52-31 60-29 68-12 Fine. Overcast. Overcast, with head sea. Cloudy, with head st-a. Fine. Cloudy. Cloudy. Arrived off Sandy Hook. 6.20 a.m. Mean Time — 7 Days, 23 Hours, 7 Minutes. 616 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Abstract of Log of S.S. " Germanic " — (continued.) HOMEWAHHS. 1 Wind. Courses. 1 3 J Weatber. 1875. Aug. 14 Left New York. Sandy Hoak aLeam 5.11 p.m. N. E. North. West. 15 Southerly. 87-33 278 40-40 68-20 Overcast. 16 , Southerly. 69-00 343 42-24 61-12 Overcast. 17 Souther! J'. 65-33 341 44-45 54-4 Overcast. 18 Southerly. 65-23 341 47-7 46-39 Overcast. 19 S. W. 68-18 357 49-19 38-21 Overcast. 20 Westtrly. 75-00 364 50 -.53 29 • 13 Moderate. 21 Westerly. 84-48 342 51-24 20-10 Fine. 22 S. W. 88-34 360 51-15 10-46 Fine. To Queenstown. 105 Arrived 7.41 pm. „ 23 In Channel Holyhead ? 1 .22 a.i n. Liverpool 1.20 p.m. 1 1 Mean Time— 7 Days, 22 Hours, 8 Minutes. APPENDIX No. 17. Vol. iv., p. 286. 617 Table I.-^Ovtnvards, ISTd.-Statement of Passages made to the Westward during 1 s/.-J bij Steamers of the Whit^ Star, Cunard, Invian, National and GmoH Lines from Quecnstown (2777 Miles), and of Bremen (N. German Lloyds) LinejTom Southampton (2995 Miles), and of Hamhurg-American Line from Havre to Sandy Hook (xV. Y.). ' "WHITE STAR" LINE. Thursday Steamers. Celtic . Atlantic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Atlantic Republic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Adriatic . Baltic . . Celtic . Oceanic Adriatic . Baltic . . Celtic . Oceanic Adriatic . Baltic . . Celtic . Oceanic Gaelic . Adriatic . Baltic . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Adriatic . Baltic . Celtic . . Republic . Gaelic . Adriatic . Baltic . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Adriatic . Baltic . . Celtic . Oceanic . Republic . Adriatic . Celtic . . Baltic . Oceanic . Sailed. Day. Mou 1873. 3 Jan. 10 ,, 17 ., 31 , , 7 Feb. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 7 Mar. 14 ., 4 Apr. 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 9 May 16 ,, 23 ,. 30 ,, 13 Juuei 20 ,, 27 ,, 4 July 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 1 Au- 8 ,,■ 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Sept. 12 ,, 20 ,, 26 ,, 3 Oct. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 7 Nov. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 5 Dec. 12 ,, 19 ,, 20 ,. Mean Time. 9 9 9 10 11 9 8 9 10 9 9 9 8 9 10 8 8 9 9 9 10 9 8 10 10 9 10 10 11 2 49 10 39 12 38 22 47 9 32 8 14 18 57 3 42 14 22 15 52 5 4 5 39 17 24 8 37 10 46 9 30 17 29 1 37 22 47 22 22 13 22 14 53 7 53 15 38 23 22 "CUNARD" LINE. !>. n. M. 11 12 27 11 22 2 12 17 10 27 2 10 7 8 11 12 14 13 10 8 9 10 8 14 10 19 22 9 2 2 8 8 37 8 7 36 9 1 9 12 46 8 17 41 8 21 15 9 13 17 9 10 45 Saturday Steamers. Calabria Alfieria Cul)a . , Partliia Java . , Abyssinia Algeria Calabria Partliia I Cuba . i Abyssinia , t Algeria i Russia . Java . [ Cuba . Scotia , Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia , Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Abyssinia . Algeiia Russia . Java . Cubii . Calabria . Algeria Sailed. Day. Moil 1873. 5 Jan. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 2 Feb. , ^ " 16 ,, 23 ,, 2 Mar. i 9 ,, ^Q ,. 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Apr. 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 4 May 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 1 June 8 15 22 : 29 : 6 July 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 3 Aug, 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 7 Sept. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 5 Oct. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ., 2 Nov. 9 ,, J6 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 7 Dec. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ., Mean Time. 10 37 8 47 Sailings Average . 401 18 53 9 19 48 11 11 55 13 1 52 "17 5 12 12 9 10 20. 31 9 9 32 10 17 27 11 18 25 12 10 1 11 54 9 14 2 11 18 25 9 9 53 9 5 9 6 9 17 10 18 49 10 3 56 9 3 56 10 12 27 9 9 17 9 10 5 22 15 20 43 8 20 17 12 8 16 19 53 15 58 22 39 18 43 4 12 7 8 17 55 9 12 24 9 17 40 12 22 2 8 20 28 8 22 32 11 4 10 10 5 47 10 15 2 9 20 21 10 22 24 11 7 34 11 57 12 19 21 9 13 18 11 20 28 11 20 26 14 5 42 13 2 50 9 9 10 9 10 9 9 9 9 10 10 9 52 Sailings . 556 14 23 Average . . 10 l(i 54 618 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Table I. — Outwards, 1873. — Continued. "IN. MAN" LINE. "(iUIOX" LINK. Thursday Steamers. Sailed. Mean Tr>iE. ! Wednesday Steamers. Sailed. Mean Time. Day. Mon. D. H. M. Day. Mon. D. H. M. 1873. 1873. City of Brussels 3 Jan. 11 18 56 Idaho . 2 Jan. *16 6 52 , , Antwerp 10 ,, 15 1 42 IMinnesota . 9 ,, *17 22 30 , , London , 17 ,, *16 14 12 Manhattan 16 ,, *18 9 17 , , New York 24 ,. 14 4 22 Wisconsin . 23 ,, 12 14 42 , , Paris 31 ,, 10 7 43 Nevada 30 ,, 13 20 22 , , Montreal 7 Feb. 9 15 17 Wyoming . 6 Feb. 9 21 22 , , Brooklyn 14 ,, 11 20 20 Idaho . 13 ,, 13 13 22 .. Minnesota . 20 ;, 12 6 37 , , Antwerp 28'",, 14 2 31 Manhattan 28 ,, 15 14 22 , , New York 8 Mar. 15 2 7 Wisconsin . 6 Mar. 12 10 22 , , Paris 14 ,, 9 17 55 Nevada 13 ,, 10 18 52 , , Montreal 21 ,, 12 8 17 Wyoming . 20 ,, 13 22 12 , , Brooklyn 28 ,, 10 5 16 Idaho . 27 ,, 11 3 37 , , Antwerp 4 Apr. 10 12 7 Minnesota . 3 Apr. 11 20 47 , , London . 11 ,, 10 15 36 IManhattan 10 ,, 11 8 42 , , Paris 18 ,, 9 14 51 Wisconsin . 17 ,, 10 4 2 , , Montreal 25 ,, 10 2 39 Nevada 24 ,, 10 4 52 , , Brooklyn 2 May 10 16 42 Wyoming . IMay 12 10 32 , , Antwerp 9 ,, 10 8 7 ' Idaho . 8 ,, 10 12 32 , , London . 16 ,, 10 10 38 Minnesota. 15 ,, 11 21 42 , , Paris 23 ,, 10 2 39 , Manhattan 22 ,, 16 42 , , Montreal 30 ,, 10 3 27 1 Wisconsin . 29 ,, 9 20 37 , , Brooklyn 6 June 9 22 12 ; Nevada 5 June 11 2 7 , , Antwerp 13 ,, 10 16 43 ; AVyoming . 12 ,, 10 21 52 , , Paris 20 ,, 10 53 Idaho . 19 ,, 11 10 7 , , London . 27 ,, 10 15 11 1 ISIinnesota . 26 ,, 12 1 5 , , Montreal 4 July 12 8 7 Wisconsin . 3 July 11 5 42 , , Chester . 11 ,, 9 6 7 Nevada 11 ,, 11 17 52 , , Brooklyn 18 ,, 10 21 37 1 Manhattan 17 ., 12 19 57 , , Paris 25 ,, 9 3 57 Wyoming . 24 ,, 11 11 21 , , London . 1 Aug. 11 4 45 Idaho . 31 ,, 11 11 48 , , Montreal 8 ,, 11 19 20 IMinnesota. 7 Aug. 11 16 17 , , Chester . 15 ,, 9 4 11 Wisconsin . 14 ,, 10 12 12 , , Brussels 22 ,, 8 20 34 Nevada 21 ,, 10 4 52 , , Paris 29 ,, 9 18 7 IManhattan 28 ,, 12 22 50 , , Richmond 5 Sept. 9 6 52 Wyoming . 6 Sept. 13 4 22 , , Montreal 12 ,, 10 1 2 Idaho . 13 ,, 12 12 2 , , Chester . 19 ,, 8 19 29 Minnesota . 18 ,, 11 3 47 , , Brussels 26 ,, 8 9 58 Wisconsin . 25 ,, 9 21 22 , , Paris 3 Oct. 9 2 Nevada 2 Oct. 10 13 22 , , Richmond 10 ,, 9 13 30 IManhattan 10 ,, 12 23 7 , , Montreal 17 ,, lO 7 2 W^yoming . 17 ,, 10 14 37 , , Chester . 24 ,, 8 17 48 Idaho . 24 ,, 11 9 52 , , Brussels 31 ,, 10 12 51 Minnesota. 30 ,, 14 5 48 , , Paris 7 Nov. 9 11 7 AVisconsin. 6 Nov. 10 13 34 , , Brooklyn 15 , , 10 4 3 Nevada 13 ,, 11 7 7 , , Montreal 21 ,, *15 1 32 IMaidiattan 24 ,, *15 4 2 .. Wyoming 27 ,, 11 16 22 , , New York 5 i)ec. 12"2r*47 Idaho . , 4 Dec. 11 3 42 , , Chester . 12 ,, 10 1 Minnesota. 11 ,, 13 2 2 , , Antwerp 19 ,, 13 21 36 Wisconsin . 18 ,, 12 16 32 , , Brooklyn 26 ,, 12 11 21 Nevada . 52 Sail Averap 25 ,, iiigs . 'e . 13 14 22 50 Sailings 515 23 12 638 9 1 Average . 10 22 4 12 6 38 APPENDIX No. 17. 619 Tahle I.— OiTWAUDS, 1873. — Continued. NATIOXAL" LINE. Wednesday Sailings. Sailkd. Mean Time. Day. Moil. u. 1873. 4 Jan. 12 10 ,, *15 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Feb 15 ,, 1 52 2 37 *18 10 22 15 4 42 11 14 47 1 2 7 7 14 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 3 Apr. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 1 May 8 ,, 16 ,, 22 ,, 30 ,, 5 June 12 ,, 19 ,. 26 ,, 3 July 9 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 7 Aug. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 4 Sept. 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 2 Oct. 11 ,, 16 ,, 24 ,, 30 ,, 6 Nov. 16 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 11 Dec. 18 ,, 25 11 12 27 ,, I 14 6 Mar. 14 11 14 11 10 11 11 9 11 9 11 12 9 10 10 12 12 10 11 10 11 11 10 11 9 11 11 10 10 9 10 12 9 11 12 10 14 14 13 18 52 18 22 8 2 1 32 16 37 2 52 3 37 12 27 22 2 21 22 11 32 22 17 16 47 14 12 21 22 1 42 8 57 1 57 19 47 23 42 6 7 42 16 57 3 32 14 57 19 3 11 1 5 21 17 2 7 49 2 10 32 16 27 17 22 7 21 57 9 37 1 22 2 13 17 5 22 12 18 2 12 12 22 *14 18 32 50 Sailings . 595 8 21 BREMEN" LINE. Tuesday Steamers. Mosel . America . Wescr . Bremen Douaii . Main . . Hansa . Deutschland Mosel . . Ehein . Weser . Donau . Main . . | Deutschland Mosel . . Rhein . Weser . Donau . Main . . Deutschland Hermann . Mosel . . Rliein . Donau . Main . . Deutschland Hermann . Mosel . . Rhein . Weser . Main . , Deutschland Hermann . Mosel . . Rhein . Weser . Main . . Deutschland Donau . Mosel . . Rhein . Weser . Hansa . Main . . Deutschland Donau , Mosel . . Hermann . Rhein . Weser . New York. Main . . Mean Time. Dav. Mon. 1873. Average 11 21 36 52 Sailin Average 7 Jan. 12 20 20 14 ,, *22 22 50 21 ,, 13 4 35 28 ,, 13 10 35 5 Feb. 9 23 10 11 ,, 13 18 50 18 ,, 13 8 .20 25 ,, 13 16 50 5 Mar. 11 2 50 11 ,, 10 10 35 18 ,, 10 18 50 25 ,, 10 21 50 1 Apr. 10 6 50 8 ,, 9 18 20 15 ,, 10 20 50 22 ,, 9 17 50 29 ,, 10 20 35 5 May 10 12 50 13 ,, 9 16 50 20 ,, 11 18 20 27 ,, 10 19 20 3 June 9 22 50 10 ,, 10 13 20 17 ,, 10 8 50 24 ,, 10 11 20 1 July 11 10 33 8 ,, 11 12 50 15 ,, 10 17 50 22 ,, 10 1 50 29 ,, 10 21 20 5 Aug. 10 1 50 12 ,, 10 17 50 19 ,, 11 14 35 26 ,, 10 20 2 Sept. 9 16 20 9 ,, 10 13 50 16 ,, 10 5 23 ,, 10 1 50 30 ,, 9 16 50 7 Oct. n 18 50 14 ,, 9 20 50 21 ,, 11 4 50 28 ,, 14 21 20 4 Nov. 10 17 50 8 ,, 10 8 50 18 ,, 11 7 50 26 ,, 12 6 50 2 Dec. 10 19 9 ,, 10 19 50 16 ,, 11 19 50 23 , 15 13 50 30 ,, 12 2 50 Qgs . 593 20 43 11 10 5 620 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Tahle I. — Outwards, 1873. — Continued. "HAMBURG" LINE. Saturday Sailed. Mkan Time. Day. Moil. D. H. M. 1873. Silesia . 4 Jan. 12 17 26 Frisia . 11 ,, 13 9 56 Westphalia 18 ,, *15 15 56 Thiiringia . 25 ,, 12 17 56 Hamnionia 1 Feb. 11 19 56 Cimbria . 9 ,, 10 10 56 Silesia . 15 ,, 11 13 56 Fiisia . , 22 ,, 12 6 26 Westphalia 1 Mar. 12 16 51 Thuringia . 8 ,, 11 14 56 Hammouia 15 ,, 11 8 26 Silesia . 29'",, 10 9 "56 Frisia . 5 Apr. 10 56 Westphalia 12 ,, 10 56 'rhuringia. 19 ,, 10 14 41 Hainmoiiia 27 ,, 10 10 Holsatia . 3 May 11 3 11 Silesia . 10 ,, 9 22 39 Fii.sia . . 17 ,, 11 5 54 Westphalia 24 ,, 10 21 14 Thuringia . 31 ,, 10 1 39 Cimbria . 7 June 11 14 39 Haiumonia 14 ,, 11 1 41 Holsatia . 21 ,, 10 7 56 Silesia . 28 ,, 11 2 56 Frisia . 6 July 10 2 26 Westplialia 12 ,, 11 26 Tlmriugia . 19 ,, 10 21 56 Cimbria . 26 ,, 10 23 56 Hammonia 2 Aug. 12 13 26 Holsatia . 10 ,, 10 18 56 Silesia . 16 ,, 12 1 56 Frisia . 23 ,, 10 22 50 Westphalia 30 ,, 10 16 20 Thuringia. 6 Sept 10 22 30 Cimbria . 13 ,, 12 2 20 Holsaiia . 20 ,, 10 15 50 Silesia . 27 ,, 10 10 50 Frisia . . 4 Oct. 12 2 50 Westphalia 11 ,, 11 2 56 Thuringia. 18 ,, 10 18 35 Cimbria . 26 ,, 10 14 50 Holsatia . 2 Nov. 10 20 50 Silesia . 8 ., 10 20 20 Frisia . 15 ,, 10 8 20 Westphalia 23 ,, 12 18 20 Tiuiving'a . 30 Nov. 10 8 50 Poniciania 6 Dec. 11 13 56 H- C5 *-0 h-" 1— ' h-i W -J to 05 -J 1— ' h- ' ►K^ 03 05 CH Over 10 and under lOJ days Over lOi and under 11 days ^ ^ ^ O h-i i;i I Over 1 1 and UHiter \\i days. C5 tn yt CO OS rf^ 03 Over \\\ and under 12 days W 03 O CS ►*>■ h^ bS Over 12 and under 13 days. to vitr. H- I-' to • Over 13 and under 14 days. 1 1 l-i K-" H' C; to h-" • Over 1-t and under 15 days. j h-« H-" to ta 03 • • Over 15 and under 1 6 days. • • bS • H-i ■ • Over 16 and under 17 daj-s, ••!-'••>-'• Over IT and under 18 days. • • I— h-" • • • Over 18 and under 19 days. 1 ::::::: Over 19 and under 20 days. Over 20 and under 21 days. Over 21 and under 22 duys. : ^•. : : : : Over 22 and under 23 days. No. OF Sailings IN- 1873. tn tn Ci d Ot Oi ■ 00 CO 03 ^ •*- SJi < O 03 CC Cl iJI O I o; o ;c cc 03 hf- to ■ ^ p— to >— o o o ; APPENDIX No. n- Continued. 621 Tadi-k II. — Outwards, 1874. Sfafcmrut a/ Pifnnagcs mwle to the Westward (lurimj 1874 hi/ Staamers of the White Star, Canard, Iitiiian, N(ifio)i , Antwerp . 25 ,, ings . *15 6 17 Denmark . 47 Sail Averag 24 ,, ings . 'C . *19 16 37 51 Sail 556 19 574 18 19 Average 10 22 1 12 5 30 APPENDIX No. 17. G23 Table II. — Oltwards, 1S74. — ContiiMed. "GUION" LINE. "BREMKN" LINK. Sailkd. Mean Time. Sailed. Mean Time. Wednesday Tuesday Steamers. { Steamers. \ Day. ^ron. D. II. M. Pay. ^foii. D. H. M. 1874. i 1874. Wyoming . 3 Jan. 11 18 22 Donau 6 Jan. 10 19 50 Idaho . 9 ,, 12 1 22 Mosel 13 ,, 11 17 50 ]\Ianhattan 15 ,, 14 15 37 Hermann 20 ,, 12 6 5 Minnesota . '-^2 ,, 12 1 22 Hansa 27 ,, 13 13 50 Wisconsin . 29 ,, 11 14 47 Weser 3 Feb. 11 23 5 Nevada 5 Feb. 13 11 22 Rheiu 10 ,, 11 11 50 .. INIain . 17 ,, 12 18 50 Idaho . 19 ,, *14' 8 22 Donau . 24 ,, 12 9 50 Manhattan 27 ,, 13 22 52 Mosel . . 3 Mar. 10 17 50 Minnesota. 6 Mar. 13 2 America . 10 ,, 11 3 50 Wyoming . 12 ,, 11 3 37 i Hansa 17 ,, 15 10 5 Nevada 19 ,, 14 17 42 Weser 24 ,, 11 21 20 Rhein 31 ,, 13 1 35 Idaho . 3 Aor. *14 3 4 Main . . . 7 Apr. 11 13 50 Wisconsin . 10 ,; 11 6 17 Donau 14 ,, 12 9 35 Minnesota . 16 ,, 13 20 37 Ntckar . 21 ,, 11 15 25 Wyoming . 23 ,, 11 11 52 Mosel . . . 28 ,, 10 10 40 Weser 5 May 11 2 20 Nevada 7 May 13"l5"52 llhein . . 12 ,, 10 14 50 Idaho . 14 ,, 11 8 22 I Main . . . 19 ,, 9 20 50 Wisconsin . 21 ,, 10 5 2 Oder . . . 26 ,, 12 4 20 Minnesota . 28 ,, 12 15 12 Neckar . 2 June 10 8 50 Wyoming . 4 June 10 17 22 Mosel 9 ,, 9 20 50 Nevada 12 ,, 9 20 52 America . 16 ,, 10 22 50 Rhein 23 ,, 10 7 45 Idaho . 25"",, 10"'l7*"42 Main . IJuly 10 18 40 Wisconsin . 2 July *15 7 42 , Oder . . . 7 ,, 11 7 50 Minnesota. 9 ,, 11 15 2 Neckar . 14 ,, 10 2 10 Wyoming . 16 ,, 9 17 32 Mosel . . . 21 ,, 10 9 36 America . 28 ,, 12 50 Nevada 30"',, ll"l5"52 Deutschland. 4 Aug. 11 3 45 Idalio . 6 Aug. 11 9 45 Weser 11 ,, 10 19 35 Wisconsin . 13 ,, 10 12 32 Main . 18 ,, 9 14 20 Minnesota. 20 ,, 11 2 45 Neckar . 25 ,, 10 16 5 Donau 1 Sept. 10 13 50 Wyoming . 3 Sept 10"20"32 Mosel . . . 8 ,, 11 20 Nevada 10 ,, 10 12 17 Heimann 15 ,, 11 3 20 Idaho . 17 ,, 10 16 12 Rhein 23 ,, 9 19 20 AVisconsin . 25 ,, 10 14 42 Main . 29 ,, 9 22 50 Minnesota. 1 Oct. 13 21 22 Oder . . . 6 Oct. 11 50 Neckar . 13 ,, 11 4 Wyoming . 15 ,, 11* 5 " 2 Donau 20 ,, 10 19 10 Nevada 23 ,, 10 22 22 Hohenstaufen 27 ,, 12 11 30 America . 3 Nov. 11 18 55 Wisconsin . 5 Nov. 10 2l" 2 Hermann 10 ,, 11 12 20 Dcutscldand. 17 ,, 11 20 45 Minnesota'. 19 ,, 13' 18 7 Hansa 24 ,, 14 17 5 Oder . . . IDec. 10 G 20 Wyoming . 3 Dec. 12 3 10 Neckiir . 9 ,, 12 20 .. Ilohenzollern 15 ,, 12 20 50 Wisconsin . 17 ,, 13" e" 7 Hoheuslaufen 23 ,, *15 19 55 Idaho . 24 ,, ings je . . *15 3 22 America . 52 Sailin Average 29 ,, gs . . 13 18 50 41 Sail 497 23 8 600 3 16 Averaj ! 12 3 29 11 13 G24 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Table II. — Outwards, 1874. — Continued. •HAMBUKG" LINE. Saturday Steamers. Frisia . Thuringia. Westphalia Silesia . Holsatia . Hammonia Frisia . Thuringia . Westphalia Pomerania Holsatia . Silesia . Frisia . Thuringia. Westphalia Pomerania Holsatia . Silesia . Hammonia Frisia . Thuringia. Westjilialia Pomerania Holsatia . Cimbria . Hammonia Frisia . Thuringia. Pomerania Silesia . Holsatia . Cimbria . Frisia . Thuringia. Sue via. Westphalia I'omerania Silesia . Holsatia . Ciml)ria Frisia . We.'itphalia Suevia . Pomerania Sailed. Silesia . Frisia . Westphalia Thuringia. Pomerania Holsatia . Hammonia ,*14 Day. Mon. 1873. 3 Jan. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 7 Feb. 28 ,, 7 Mar. 14 ,, 24 ,, 28 ,, 4 Apr. 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 2 May 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 June 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 4 July 12 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 1 Aug. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Sept. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 3 Oct. 10 ,, 17 ,, 25 ,, INov. 7 ,, H ,, 21 ,, 30 ,, 5 Dec. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 51 Sailings Average Mean Time. D. H. M. 1 11 13 16 11 3 56 ' 12 12 36 10 16 56 11 1 56 11 22 56 14 6 56 11 " ' 3' 56 10 9 56 11 16 56 12 12 56 13 5 50 12 11 56 12 3 56 11 17 26 11 jj 56- 10 8 56 11 7 56 10 3 56 11 2 56 11 7 56 11 3 56 10 9 5J 11 3 56 n 5 56 12 7 56 10 56 10 13 56 11 7 36 11 2 56 11 4 56 12 11 26 11 1 56 10 22 56 10 4 41 9 21 56 10 18 26 12 2 21 11 19 56 11 12 56 11 15 56 12 8 56 10 11 11 11 12 11 *15 12 2 56 17 56 11 56 5 11 14 56 20 56 3 56 586 11 13 11 12 K w Q :^ t^ O :^ ■ p p a a a> ~ 3 '^ !-• CD 3 • 3- ^ g ^ tH CD CD Over 8 and under &i days. Over fi and under 9 days. Over 9 and under 9f days. H-i oi ta i-i w 05 ix> Over fli and under 10 days. *»• ^ o -a «o bs o» tit Over 10 and under lOi days. Over 104- and under 11 days. Over 11 and under Hi days CO 00 rf»- Crt Ol 05 (-i Over IH and under 12 days. © CO >*>- 00 *>.„ C5 -4 4- J-. crs ^ H-1 tc I-" i-i t-i a > p ososoocoocooo.^ H-il-'tOtSOOCoP > l_i l_i bS h-i N3 „ bS050Je;it«C5b3* OOCDO^OOJK APPENDIX No. 11. —Continued. 625 "WHITE STAR" LINK. .Saturday Steamers. Oceanic Baltic .' Celtic . Atlantic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Atlantic Republic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Oceanic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Oceanic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Oceanic Gaelic . Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Oceanic Repuldic Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . Republic Gaelic . Adriatic Baltic . Celtic . , Oceanic Republic . Adriatic . Baltic . . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Adriatic . Celtic . . Sailed. Mean Time. "CUNARD" LINE. ! Day. Mon. 1873. 4 Jan. lli, 19 ,, 25 ,, , 8 Feb. 23 ,, I 2 Mar. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 .. 10 14 47 7 20 9 8 17 38 9 10 44 17 3 38 13 8 33 3 7 10 28 5 21 22 28 28 ,, 5 July ? " 26 ,, 2 Aug. 9 ,. 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Sept. 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,. . 4 Oct. , 10 11 ,, ,8 18 ,, , 8 25 ,, ; 8 INov, 8 ., 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 6 Dec. 14 ,, 21 ,, 27 .. 10 46 15 10 17 18 10 48 19 38 1 13 8 11 11 2 30 42 15 49 10 18 12 28 40 23 45 15 58 9 32 19 56 15 58 47 Sailings Average VOL. IV. 9 4 53 9 7 48 1 8 22 28 , 8 18 38 8 18 41 9 5 7 8 17 14 8 22 18 8 16 28 420 8 43 8 22 m Wednesday Steamers. Cuba . rurthiu Java Calabria 19 Apr. X 12 28 26 ,, I 8 13 3 3 May! 9 5 33 12 ,, I 9 58 24 ,, , 8" 9'"ll 31 ., I 8 12 42 7 June 8 18 36 1-t ,, I 8 23 34 A lp:eria Cuba . . Partliid Java . Abyssinia . Algeria Calabii.i . Parthia Cuba . Abyssinia . Algeria Rus.sia . Java . Cuba . . Scotia . Algeria Rus.sia . Java . Cuba . Scntia . Algeria Russia . J:tVa . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cul)a . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Scotia . Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Abyssinia Algeria Russia . Java . Cuba . Sailed. Day. Jlon. 187;!. 4 Jan. 8 ,. 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 8 Feb. 13 ,, 19 26 5 Mar. 12 ,, 20 ,, 26 ,. 2 Apr. 10 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 7 May 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 4 June 11 ., 18 ,, 25 ,, 3 July 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Aug. 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 3 Sept. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, lOct. Mban Time. 9 9 53 9 12 8 8 19 58 10 17 28 9 3 9 6 46 11 10 26 8 21 8 18 9 4 9 4 17 1 1 9 22 53 56 6 3(1 51 4 4 17 49 8 21 43 8 22 23 9 31 8 9 45 9 4 9 6 9 1; 9 8 5 43 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Nov. 12 ., 19 ,, 26 ,. 8 18 51 8 21 26 8 17 8 19 18 9 33 9 23 9 6 53 8 18 14 8 20 25 10 6 9 5 48 9 14 56 8 11 50 9 5 38 9 18 38 9 15 28 4 18 33 5 49 10 58 20 58 2 3 10 37 8 58 5 4 Dec. 10 11 10 ,, ; 9 9 18 ,, I 9 5 24 ,, 9 8 31 ,, 9 9 13 35 10 3 37 10 53 Sailings Average 494 13 59 9 2 S 57 626 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Table III. — Homewaeds, 1873. — Continued. "INMAN" LINE. NATIONAL "LINE." Sailed. Mean Time. 1 Sailed. Mean Time. Saturday Saturday I Steamers. Steamers. Day. Mon. D. H. M. Day. Mon. D. H. M. 1873. I 1873. City of New York 6 Jan. 10 7 8 Greece . . 1 2 Jan. 10 10 8 , , Brooklyn . 11 ,, 8 19 28 : Egypt. . 1 8 ,, 9 4 18 , , Washington 19 ,, 10 14 25 France 17 ,, 11 9 18 , , Brussels . 25 ,, 8 20 8 Sjiain . 23 ,, 10 7 23 , , Antwerp . IFeb. 10 5 42 Italy . . 31 ,, 10 23 3 , , London . 8 ,, 9 6 47 Canada 7 Feb. 10 12 38 , , New York 15 ,, 11 14 55 Greece . 13 ,, 12 14 18 , , Paris . 22 ,, 12 16 14 E-ypt . . 1 19 ,, 9 3 1 ,, Montreal. 1 Mar. 9 9 38 i The Queen 23 ,, 13 38 , , Brooklyn 8 ,, 9 7 8 i France 28 ,, 10 11 43 , , Antwerp . 18 ,, 10 5 Spain . 5 Mar. 9 15 58 , , New York 27 ,, 10 13 53 1 . • , , Paris . 29 ,, 9 2 8 Italy . . 20"',, 10 14 8 ,, Montreal. G Apr. 11 12 47 Egypt . . 29 ,, 10 4 21 , , Brooklyn 12 ,, 10 1 3 1 Canada 8 Apr. 11 5 48 , , Antwerp . 19 ,, 9 23 1 Fiance 14 ,, 11 17 58 , , London . 26 ,, 9 15 28 Spain . 19 ,, 9 22 23 , , Paris . 3 May 8 19 8 Italy . . 26 ,, 10 17 3 ,, Montreal. 10 ,, 9 20 33 Greece. 3 May 10 15 28 , , Brooklyn 17 ,, 9 20 23 Egypt . . 10 ,, 9 12 38 , , Antwerp . 24 ,, 10 1 25 Canada 1" ,, 10 13 8 , , London . 31 ,, 9 12 54 Spain . 24 ,, 10 9 18 , , Paris . 7 June 9 2 18 Italy . . 31 ,, 10 20 8 , , M' )ntreal . 14 ,, 10 7 15 Greece . 7 June 10 17 8 , , Brooklyn 21 ,, 9 14 28 Egypt . . 14 ,, 9 19 58 ,, Antwerp. 28 ,, 9 18 50 Canada 21 ,, 10 19 23 , , Paris . 5 July 9 9 39 Spain . 28 ,, 8 19 53 , , London . 12 ,, 9 23 22 France . 5 July 11 3 45 , , Montreal . 20 ,, 10 20 1 Greece. 12 ,, 10 9 58 , , Chester . 26 ,, 8 9 38 Egypt . . 19 ,, 9 18 48 , , Brooklyn 2 Aug. 9 18 38 Canada 26 ,, 10 4 28 , , Paris . 9 ,, 8 22 50 ' Spain . 2 Aug. 9 12 23 , , London . 16 ,, 10 11 13 Italy . . 9 ,, 10 10 58 , , Montreal. 23 ,, 11 9 13 Greece. 16 ,, 11 3 13 , , Chester . 30 ,, 8 2 28 ' Egypt . . 23 ,, 9 18 13 , , Brussels . 6 Sept. 10 23 28 ! .. .. , , Paris . 13 ,, 9 14 9 Spain . 6 Sept. 9" 4"58 , , Richmond 20 ,, 10 2 32 Italy . . 13 ,, 10 23 3 ,, Montreal. 27 ,, 9 21 33 France . 20 ,, 13 20 58 , , Cliester . 4 Oct. 8 15 18 Egypt . . 27 ,, 9 20 48 , , Brussels . 11 ,, 8 19 58 Greece. 4 Oct. 11 6 38 , , Paris . 18 ,, 9 14 53 Spain . 11 ,, 9 7 58 , , Kichniond 25 ,, *20 2 45 Italy . . 18 ,, 10 19 13 , , Montreal . 1 Nov. 12 20 5 France. 28 ,, 12 3 8 , , Cliester . 8 ,, 9 3 28 i Egypt . . INov. 10 10 18 , , Brussels . 15 ,, 9 5 42 Greece. 8 ,. 11 6 13 , , Paris . 22 ,, 8 20 23 Spain . 15 ,, 10 9 26 , , Brooklyn 29 ,, 9 5 9 Italy . . 22 ,, 10 4 5 , , London . 6 Dec. 10 3 21 . . , , Brussels . 13 ,, 8 9 10 Canada 3 Dec. ll"22"*58 ,, Montreal. 20 ,, 10 8 37 Egypt . . 10 ,, 9 21 43 , , Chester . 27 ,, 8 1 35 Greece. 18 ,, 10 21 8 ings Italy . " " . 50 Sail Avcrap 28"',, ings . 10*15" '39 52Sai 520 7 15 529 17 9 Avera 10 3 10 14 16 APPENDIX No. 17. Taui.e III. — lIcMKWARDS, ISl'^.— CunU'tiuecl. (]27 "G UJON" LINE. Sailed. I Mkan Tijie. "HAMBURG" LINE. i ml 1 Sailed. 1 Mean Time. Wednesday 1 Thursday Steaviers. Steamers. Day. Moil. I). H. M. D.iy. Mon. I>. H. M. ' i87;-5. 1873. \Viseon.^iu. 2 Jan. 10 5 38 Hammonia Ciml)ria . 9 Jan. 16 ,, 10 12 51 9 20 21 Nevada s",, 10 5 8 Silesia . 23 ,, 11 2 1 Wyoming . 15 ,, 10 5 8 Frisia . 30 ,, 9 20 51 Idaho . . 22 ,, 11 Ifi 2:5 Westphalia 6 Feb. 10 14 1 Minnesota . 29 ,, 11 5 28 Tliuringia 13 ,, 10 G 51 Miiuhattan 7 Feb. 12 21 38 Hammonia 20 ,, 10 6 46 Wisconsin. 13 ,, 10 2 34 Cimbria . 28 ,, 10 1 G Nevada 19 ,, 10 16 28 Silesia . 6 Mar. 10 6 51 Wyoming . 26 ,, 10 16 13 Fiisia . 13 ,, 9 21 36 Idaho . 5 Mar. 1 '1 16 53 AVestplialia 21 ,, 9 16 26 Minnesota. 12 ,, 11 11 53 Thuriiigia. 27 ,,. 9 14 21 Manhattan 19 ,, 11 14 53 Hammonia 3 Apr. 11 15 21 Wisconsin . 26 ,, i 9 58 Nevada 2 Apr. 10 20 18 Silesia!' . is'",, 9' 19' 21 Wyoming . 10 ,, 10 20 53 Fri»i I . 24 ,, 9 20 21 Idaho . "1(5 ,, 12 14 8 Westphalia 1 May 9 17 56 Minnesota. 2:^ ,, 11 5 38 Thuringia. 8 ,, 10 4 21 Manliattan 30 ,, 11 11 8 Hammonia 15 ,, 10 5 1 Wisconsin. 7 May 10 8 53 Holsatia . 22 ,, 9 13 41 Nevada 14 ,, 9 18 23 \ Silesia . 29 ,, 9 21 21 Wyoming . 21 ,, 10 22 8 Frisia . 5 June 10 5 1 Idaho . 28 ,, 10 58 Westphalia 12 ,, 10 19 31 Minnesota. 4 June 11 11 48 Thuringia. 19 , , 10 51 Manhattan 11 ,, 11 3 28 Cimbria . 26 ,, 10 8 21 Wisconsin . 18 ,, 9 8 48 Hammonia 3 July 9 21 41 Nevada 25 ,, 10 8 Holsatia . 10 ,, 9 12 21 Wyoming . 2 July 9 1 38 Silesia. 13 ,, 10 5 51 Idaho . 9 ,, 10 6 8 ; Frisia . . 24 ,, 9 17 51 Minnesota. IK ,, 11 10 23 Westphalia 31 ,, 9 14 31 Wisconsin . 23 ,, 10 15 38 Thuringia. 7 Aug. 9 12 51 Nevada 3U ,, 9 22 13 Cimbria . 14 ,, 10 5 6 Manhattan 6 Aug. 11 1 28 Hammonia 21 ,, 12 5 51 Wyoming . 13 ,, 10 18 8 , Holsatia . 28 ,, 9 19 51 Ididio . 20 ,, 10 13 30 Silesia . 4 Sept. 9 23 51 Minnesota. 27 ,, 11 15 38 i Frisia . 11 ,, 10 31 Wisconsin . 3 Sept. 9 15 23 Westphalia 18 ,, 10 9 31 Nevada 10 ,, 10 7 23 Thuringia. ; 25 ,, 9 21 36 Manhattan 17 ,, 12 6 58 1 Ciiubiia 2 Oct. 10 3 41 Wyoming . 28 ,, 10 22 38 Holsatia . 9 ,, 10 3 51 Idaho . lOct. 10 14 18 Silesia . 16 ,, 10 5 59 Minnesota. 8 ,, 12 9 33 Frisia . 23 ,, 9 17 1 Wisconsin . 15 ,, 10 1 38 I Westphalia 30 ,, 10 7 31 Nevaihx 22 ,, 10 9 38 ! Thuringia. 6 Nov. 10 13 21 ]\ranhattau 29 ,, *I5 8 53 Cini]>ria . 13 ,, 10 13 51 Wyoming . 5 Nov. 10 23 8 ■ Holsatia . 20 ,, 9 6 11 Idaho . . ; 12 ,, 10 11 8 Silesia . 27 ,, 9 17 51 Minnesota. 19 ,, 10 6 38 Frisia . 4 Dec. 10 10 21 Wisconsin . 2G ,, 9 IS 58 Westiilialia 11 ,, 9 20 1 Nevada 4 Dec 10 10 28 Thuringia. 18 ,, 9 14 21 IManhattan 1-1 ,, 12 21 13 Pomerania 25 ,, 9 10 1 Wyoming . 18 ,, 9 17 58 . . Idaho . 24 ,, 10 10 38 • • Minnesota. 31 ,, ngs . 10 12 53 : 50 Saili Averag Dgs . 53 Saili 574 20 2 505 10 33 Averagf 10 20 18 10 2 37 2 g 2 628 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Table III. — Homewards, 1873. —Coidinued. ■BREMEN" LINE. Saturday Steamers. Saii-ed. Mean Time. Bremen Rhein . Main . Haiisa . Mi»sel . Weser . America Bremen Don an . Main . Deutschlau Mosel . Eliein . Weser . Donau . Main . Deutschland Mosel . Eliein . Wesir . Donau . Main . Deutschland Hermann Mosel . Ehein . Donau . Main . Deutschland Hermann IVIosel . Ehein . Weser . Main . Deutschland Hermann Mosel . Ehein . We.ser . Main . Deutschland Donau . Mosel- . Hermann Ehein . Weser . Hansa . Main . Deutschland Donau . Mo.sel . Hermann Day. Mon. , d. h. m. 1873. 4 Jan. ' 10 8 40 Feb. Apr. 15 ,, 22 ,, 1 Mar. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 5 12 19 ,; 2fj ,, 3 May 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 7 June H ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 5 July 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 2 Aug. 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Sept. 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 4 Oct. 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, INov. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 6 Dec. 13 ,, 20 ,, 28 ,, 52 Sailings Average 9 10 10 10 9 12 10 9 10 10 9 9 10 10 9 10 9 9 9 10 9 10 10 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 9 10 9 10 10 10 11 10 9 10 10 11 11 10 10 11 9 10 9 10 10 8 30 7 40 4 10 21 55 19 20 40 15 SO 17 5 23 10 10 30 21 50 21 50 18 50 10 20 18 10 2 40 23 45 18 50 22 10 25 13 40 2 35 10 40 19 8 10 9 10 17 55 10 40 18 5 10 13 55 10 20 19 55 9 40 7 25 15 35 13 30 1 17 25 16 55 7 1 7 8 5 1 20 20 15 40 13 10 11 25 7 50 20 10 40 20 10 5 ^ 2 o' S ^ 5-' (^ ^ -^ ri D ^ ^ t^K g- ^ ^. n — 5' tr' cf t.. S 5 ^ « 5- 5 "" i^ OS hS CO *■ CD tf^ 03 OJ to «» to bS OS !-■ t>0 1— ' 1— " 1— ' h- ' O OC tX I-* O 05 to 00 Ot to W rf^ I-' to Over 1i and under 8 days. Over 8 and under 8^^ days. Over 8^ and under 9 days. Over 9 and under 9i days. Over 9i and under 10 days. Over 10 and under lOJ days. Over 10^^ and under 11 days. 05 H-i CO 05 1-' t-" 1-1 )-■ hF>. to to Over 11 and under Hi days. Over 11^ and under 12 days. Over"12 and under 13 days. Over 13 and under 14 days. Over 14 and under 15 days. Over 15 and under 16 days. Over 16 and under 17 days. Over 17 and under 18 days. Over 18 and under 19 days. Over 19 and under 20 days. Over 20 and under 21 days. Over 21 and under 22 days. Over 22 and under 23 days. No. OF VOTAGES. w o ^i »o to -.o to .- 05 Ci 4» » O ►+- O 533 11 45 10 ooooocooo? 14 !l ^t:^^ ►+- ^1 a, c: ! APPENDIX No. 17.- Continued. 629 rf!«/««j7 J 8, 4 /;,/ Sh-awers oj ilu- H /„^. star, Cunurd, Inman National a,ul Guion Unes to Qucenstown (2777 Mile., and of BrJn(Xa^^ Lloyds) Lme to Southampton (2995 Miles), and' of UanLrt'^lZean Lzne to l'l,j,nouih, all from Sandy Hook (X.Y.). (See fo..lnot, pane^S 'WHITE STAR" LINK. 'CUNARD" LINE. Saturday Steamers. Baltic . Oceanic Republic Adriatic Baltic .' Oceanic Repulilic Celtic . Adriatic Baltic . Oceanic Republic Celtic . Adriatic Baltic . Ocennic Republic Celtic . Adriatic Baltic . Oceanic Republic . Celtic . Adriatic . Oceanic Biitannic . Celtic . Adriatic . Republic . Baltic . Britannic . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Baltic . . Britannic . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Baltic . . Adriatic . Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Baltic . Gaelic Celtic . . Oceanic Republic . Bel-ic . . Sailed. Mk.\n Time. Day. :\Ioii 1874. 4 Jan. 10 ,, 17 ,, 2i ,, 7 Feb. 11 ,, '^^2 ,, 28 ,, 7 3Iar 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, .■5 Apr, 11 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 2 May 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 31 ,, 6 June 13 ,, 20 ,, 4 July 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, I Aug. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Sept 12 ,, 19 ,, 2(i ,, H Oct. 10 ,, 17 ,, 28 ,, 31 ,, 7 Nov. 14 ,, 21 ,, 29 ,, 5 Dec. 12 ,, 19 ,, 25 ,, Wednesday Steamers. Sailed. 8 12 13 9 12 48 9 11 16 8 6 18 8 1 48 9 12 38 9 12 8 9 4 33 8 13 23 8 15 8 9 7 4 8 22 12 9 2 58 8 6 28 9 9 48 9 6 18 9 6 58 8 15 50 8 4 56 8 4 17 9 12 13 8 13 30 8 15 11 8 10 6 9 12 14 18 21 46 33 8 12 57 23 19 14 28 5 53 22 38 8 18 17 28 17 58 8 43 2 56 6 38 23 12 50 Sailings Average . 8 15 42 9 2 46 8 22 23 8 10 21 10 3 11 8 12 43 9 8 53 8 23 48 10 1 33 443 3 7 ! ' Calabria ' Algeria Russia Java . Abyssinia ! Calabria Algeiia ! Russia . Cuba . Abyssinia Calabria Algeria Java . Cuba . Abyssinia , Russia Calabria , Scotia . Cuba . . Abyssinia . Ru.ssia . Calabria . Scotia . Cuba . Abyssinia . Russia . Calabria . Scotia . Cuba . . Abyssinia . Russia I Calabria . Scotia . Botlinia Abyssinia . Russia . Cuba . Scotia . . Algeria Abyssinia . Russia Bothnia . Cuba . Algeria Abyssinia . Russia Java . I'iirtliia Algeria Abyssinia . IiU.ssia Java Mean Time. l>a.v. Moil 1874. 8 Jan. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 4 Feb. 11 ,, 18 ,, 26 ,, 4 Mar. 11 ,, 20 ,, 25 ,, 1 Apr. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 29 '' 6 May 13 ,, 20 ,, 27 ,, 4 June 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 1 July 15 ,, 22 29 ,, 5Aug. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 2 Sept. 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 7 Oct. 14 ,, 21 ,, 28 ,, 4 Nov. 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 2 Dec. 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 9 6 28 9 6 8 22 2 9 6 45 8 17 53 8 23 30 9 15 31 2 5 1 53 19 56 1 31 10 II 16 48 9 9 9 9 4 8 19 3 38 11 28 5 14 25 3 9 14 38 9 9 13 8 21 38 9 9 58 22 23 10 24 1 45 51 3 48 19 18 6 34 2 23 6 15 2 8 15 58 9 7 47 8 23 43 8 15 19 2 31 15 13 8 23 58 9 11 43 8 15 56 3 7 3 4 19 4 3 6 33 43 52 10 10 3 9 12 18 9 1 8 17 3 23 9 23 S 20 42 52 Sailings . Isil 22 34 A vera ''c . . |9 5 TiT 630 MEHCHANT SHIPPING Table IV. — Homewauds, 1874. — Cuntinued. "INMAN" LINK. "NAT Saturday ateamers. lO.VAL" LINK. Satitnlay Sailed. Mean- Tisie. ■ Saiiep. Mean Time. Steamers. IXiv. Mon. D. H. M. J I)av. Mon D. H. V. 1874. 1874. City of New York 4 Jan. 10 5 31 Spain . 4 Jan. 9 17 38 , , Antwerj) 10 ,, 10 8 49 Canada 13 ,, 11 2 48 , , Brooklyn 17 ,, 10 9 56 1 Egypt . . 17 ,, 10 1 8 , , Brussels 2i ,, 8 16 33 i Greece 24 ,, 10 22 8 , , Montreal 31 ,, 12 26 : Italy . . 31 ,, 12 8 8 , , Chester . 7 Feb. 8 5 58 !! Spain . 7 Feb. 9 9 41 , , New York 14 ,, 10 3 58 ! Canada 17 ,, 12 38 , , Brooklyn 22 ,, 9 14 36 Egypt . . 21 ,, 9 8 38 , , Brussels 28 ,, 9 17 1 Greece 6 Mar. 11 7 28 , , Montreal 12 Mar. 11 8 28 1 Italy . . 11 ,, 11 2 8 , , Baltimore 14 ,, 9 21 31 I Spain . 15 ,, 10 8 8 , , Hichmoml 21 ,, 8 12 17 ; Canada 26 ,, 12 3 58 , , Brooklyn 28 ,, 9 9 53 Egypt . . 28 ,, 9 22 53 , , Brnsseis 5 Apr. 9 6 10 , , Paris 11 ,, 9 2 8 Greece 18 ",, 11 20 18 , , Montreal 23 ,, 10 20 43 Italy . . 23 ,, 11 17 53 , , Kichmond 26 ,, 8 2 38 Spain 26 ,, 9 21 38 , , Brooklyn 2 May 9 15 43 Egypt . . 2 May 9 11 38 , , Brussels 9 ,, 9 3 38 The Queen 9 ,, 10 4 28 , , Chester . 16 ,, 8 11 28 Canada 16 ,, 10 14 58 , , Richmond 23 ,, 8 9 43 , , Paris 31 ,, 9 13 Spain . 31",, 10 9'"l3 , , Brooklyn 6 June 9 13 4 Greece. 7 June 10 15 38 , , Brussels 13 ,, 9 4 41 Egypt . . 13 ,, 9 22 38 , , Chester . 20 ,, 8 1 58 The Queen 20 ,, 9 22 53 , , Richmond 27 ,, 8 18 23 Italy . . 27 ,, 11 2 23 , , Paris . 4 July 9 4 38 Spain . 4 July 10 7 13 , , Montreal 11 ,, 9 15 58 Canada 11 ,, 11 4S , , Brooklyn 18 ,, 9 19 5 Greece 19 ,, 11 7 38 , , Chester . 25 ,, 8 4 33 Esypt . . 25 ,, 9 10 18 , , Richmond 3 Aug. 8 7 23 The Queen 1 Aug. 9 23 2 , , Paris « ,, 9 6 8 Italy . . 8 ,, 10 23 58 , , Montreal 15 ,, 9 15 13 Spain . 15 ,, 10 3 13 , , Brussels 22 ,, 8 21 20 Canada 22 ,, 11 3 38 , , Chester . 29 ,, 8 5 38 Egypt . . 29 ., 9 17 43 , , Richmond 5 Sept. 8 22 38 The Queen 5 Sept. 10 2 28 , , Paris 12 ,, 9 12 8 England 12 ,, 11 12 13 , , Montreal 19 ,, 10 4 33 Spain . 19 ,, 10 8 23 , , Brussels 26 ,, 8 23 1 Erin . . 26 ,, 10 16 8 , , Chester . 3 Oct. 8 8 38 Egypt . . 3 Oct. 9 12 38 , , Richmonc 10 ,, 8 3 1 The Queen 10 ,, 10 4 53 , , Paris 17 ,, 9 10 5 Denmark . 21 ,, 12 2 58 , , Montreal 24 ,, 10 14 43 England . 27 ,, 10 13 26 , , Antwerp 31 ,, 10 5 22 Spiin . 31 ., 9 17 8 , , Brooklyn 7 Nov. 9 1 21 Erin . . 11 Nov. 10 21 8 , , New York 14 ,, 10 11 31 Kgypt • • 14 ,, 9 21 28 , , London . 22 ,, 11 11 13 Italy . . 21 ,, 11 19 43 , , Montreal 3 Dec. 9 21 25 The Queen 29 ,, 9 23 5 , , Antwerp 8 ,, 9 23 48 England . 10 Dec. 10 20 43 , , Brooklyn 12 ,, 9 6 28 Spain . 12 ,, 10 10 8 , , New Yorli 22 ,, 10 3 14 Helvetia . 19 ,, 11 1 3 1 Erin . 50 Sa A vera 26 ,, lings ge . . 10 19 13 .■>1 Sailings 482 31 530 3 17 Average . ' 9 10 50 10 14 28 APPENDIX No. 17. 631 Table IV. — Hojiewadds, 1874. — Conthmed. "GUION" LINE. Thursday 1 Steamers. KM EN" LINE. Tuesday Sailed. Mean Time. Sailki). Mean Time. I)av. Jlon D. H. M. Day. Mod. d. ii. m. 1874. 1874. Wisconsin . G Jan. 9 13 48 Ehein . . 4 Jan. 9 12 20 Nevada 13 ,, [> 19 23 AVeser . . 10 ,, 9 17 55 Wyoming . 20 ,, 9 21 8 New York . 17 ,, 12 5 25 Id:, ho . . 27 ,, 10 19 43 Main . 24 ,, 9 18 Manhattan 4 Feb. 10 11 13 Donau 31 ,, 12 11 5 Minnesota. 10 ,, 10 2 18 1 Mosel . . 7 Feb. 9 18 40 Wisconsin . 17 ,, *21 4 3 Hermann 14 ,, 10 13 Nevada 24 ,, 11 1 38 Hansa 21 ,, 11 6 50 Weser 28 ,, 10 20 25 Idaho . 10 Mar. 9'"23"38 Rhein 7 Mar. 10 7 40 Manhattan 18 ,, 11 9 28 Main 14 ,, 9 22 55 Minnesota. 24 ,, 10 8 53 Donau 21 ,, 9 22 25 Wyoming . 31 ,, 9 11 8 Mosel . . 28 ,, 10 5 Nevada 8 Apr. 10 20 38 Hermann 4 Apr. 10 13 35 Weser 11 ,, 10 5 40 Idaho . 2l",, 11 " 2 "33 Kiiein 18 ,, 10 10 40 Wisconsin . 28 ,, 9 14 38 Main 26 ,, 9 20 40 Minnesota. 6 May 10 22 38 Donau 2 May 9 18 35 Wyoming . 12 ,, 10 15 58 Neckar . 9 ,, 10 3 10 Mosel 16 ,, 9 19 40 Nevada 26"",, 10 " 8"'38 Weser 23 ,, 9 21 10 Idaho . 2 June 10 6 38 Rhein 30 ,, 10 55 Wisconsin. 9 ,, 10 12 8 Main 7 June 10 19 40 Minnesota. 16 ,, 11 4 8 O.ler . . . 13 ,, 10 Wyoming . 23 ,, 9 20 28 Neckar . 20 ,, 10 4 10 Nevada 30 ,, 11 13 38 Mosel . . 27 ,, 9 8 50 America . 4 July 11 23 45 Idaho . 14 'July 10 "le" 8 Rhein 11 ,, 10 1 45 Wisconsin . 22 ,, 11 4 8 Main 18 ,, 10 5 Minnesota. 28 ,, 10 14 38 Oder . . 25 ,, 10 8 5 Wyoming . 4 Aug. 9 21 18 Neckar . lAug. 10 7 40 Mosel 8 ,, 9 20 55 Nevada is'",, 10" 3 "38 America . 15 ,, 10 20 55 Idaho . 25 ,, 10 21 13 Deutschland . 22 ,, 10 5 10 Wisconsin. 1 Sept. 9 12 38 Weser 29 ,, 10 5 50 Minnesota. 8 ,, 10 13 38 Main . 5 Sept. 9 21 10 Neckar . 12 ,, 10 2 50 Wyoming . 22*",, 9 "23"38 Donau . 19 ,, 9 17 30 Nevada 30 ,, 9 16 8 Hoheustauffen 26 ,, 11 3 35 Idaho . 6 Oct. 10 19 38 America . 3 Oct. 10 23 20 Wisconsin . 13 ,, 9 18 38 Hermann 10 ,, 11 Minnesotii . 20 ,, 11 3 38 Rhein 17 ,, 9 23 40 Main . . 24 ,, 10 8 Wyoming . s'Nov. 10' 2 "28 Oder . . , 31 ,, 9 12 10 Nevada 12 ,, 10 16 23 Necker . 7 Nov. 9 17 50 1 Donau 14 ,, 9 18 30 Wisconsin. 25'",, 9 "20'"38 Hoheustauffen 21 ,, 11 20 45 America . 29 ,, 11 1 10 Minnesota. 10 Dec. 10 15"33 Hermann 5 Dec. 10 5 40 Deutschland 12 ,, 9 22 20 Wyoming . 22",, 9'"l5"58 ; Hansa 19 ,, 12 25 ngs . . Oder . . . 52 Sail Averag 26 ,, ngs . c . 9 15 30 41 Sail] 457 13 28 539 10 35 Averag 10 16 8 10 8 58 632 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Table IV.— Homewakds, l87i.—Co7itinued. 'HAMBURG" LINE. .'Saturday Steamers. Holsatia . Cimbria Hammouia Silesia . Frisia . Westphalia Thuringia . Pomerania Holsatia . Hammouia Frisia . Thuringia. Westphalia Silesia Holsatia . Hammouia Frisia . Thuringia . Westphalia Pomeiania Holsatia . Silesia Frisia . Thuringia. Westphalia Pomerania Holsatia . Silesia . Hammouia Frisia . Thurinf;ia. Westphalia Pomerauia Holsatia . Cimbria . Hammonia Frisia . Thuringia. Pomerania Silesia . Holsatia . Cimbria . Frisia . Thuringia. Suevia Westphalia Pomerania Silesia . Holsatia . Cimbria Frisia . Westphalia Sailed. Day. Jlon. 1874. 1 Jan. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Feb. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 5 Mar. 20'",, 26 ,, 2 Apr. 11 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 7 May 14 ,, ?1 ,, 28 ,, 4 June 11 ,, 18 ,, 25 ,, 2 July 9 ,, 16 ,, 23 ,, 30 ,, 6 Aug. 13 , 20 , 27 , 3 Sept. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 1 Oct. 8 ,, 15 ,, 22 ,, 29 ,, 5 Nov. 12 ,, 19 ,, 26 ,, 3 Dec. 10 ,, 17 ,, 24 ,, 31 ,, 52 Sailings Average . 9 14 51 9 1 9 20 56 9 17 21 9 7 6 10 10 9 9 10 9 9 10 10 9 10 10 521 8 51 10 11 9 20 21 9 21 21 10 16 51 9 15 21 9 19 21 9 16 46 10 9 19 3 10 17 51 9 18 51 17 4 6 18 51 9 31 1 51 16 51 15 54 8 36 21 12 11 3 6 3 11 9 17 6 9 17 51 51 56 17 21 13 10 10 10 9 22 16 11 21 23 51 12 50 15 31 12 6 10 13 41 11 3 36 9 18 24 10 12 21 9 15 36 9 10 58 9 21 21 9 15 6 10 22 36 10 31 g. B 2 5- 2 " S-- STo - S P :5 ft! 5 «■ S * t7^ Over 7 J and under 8 days. Over 8 and iiuder 8i days. Over Si and Oi -.J 00 to Over 9i and under 10 days. Over 10 and under 10^ days. Over lOi and under 11 days. Over 11 and under Hi days. Over 11. J and under 12 days. 0« tn !^ in rf^ rf^ >*k bStOWCOODOOt+'-O l-i CO ^ O hS o to 00 O W CO o to w oooocotooo .- Over 12 and under 13 days. Over 13 and under 14 days. Over 17 and under 18 days. Over 18 and under 19 days. Over 19 and under 20 days. Over 20 and under 21 days. Over 21 and under 22 days. No. OP Sailings IN 1874. APPENDIX No. 18 633 APPENDIX No. 18. Vol. iv., p. 287. Particulars of the " Anchor " Line of Steamers. Tonnage. Dimensions. Screw Steamships. Horse Power. Gross. Nett. Length. Breadth. Depth. Acadia . 1,081 697 264-8 26-4 20-2 200 Alexandria . 1,629 1,055 300 5 33 2-5 22-6 424 Alsalia . 2,820 2,024 355 36 22x29 800 Auehoiia 4,206 2,880 408 40 26x34 1,120 Anglia . 2,253 1,412 325 3 35 22-5 400 Assyria . 1,623 1,052 300 5 33 2-5 22-6 424 Australia 2,243 1,384 324 6 35 2 22-5 400 Bolivia . 4,050 2,625 400 40 25-l-5x33 1,120 Caledonia . 2,125 1,595 310 6 33 3 21-4-5 424 California . 3,287 2,096 361 5 40 5 24-2-5X3I-6 1,047 Castalia . 2,200 1,660 306 6 34 6 21-8x29-2 424 Columbia 1,697 1,367 •283 3 33 6-5 22-2-5 400 Concordia . 4,206 2,880 408 40 26x34 1,120 Dorian . 1,038 667 237 5 30 2 19-9 100 Elysia . . . 2,733 1,753 351 35 0-5 22-1X20-7 678 Ethiopia 4,004 2,604 402 40 2 24-8-5x33-0-5 1,120 Europa . 2,277 1,7.37 338 5 33 7-5 221-5x29 424 India 2,289 1,444 311 6 36 7 23-6 500 Italia 2,245 1,451 306 34 4 21-9x291-1 424 Macedonia . 2,272 1,452 315 34 24x31-2 486 Napoli . 843 672 252 4 25 2-5 16-5-5 100 Nubia . 4,206 2,880 408 40 26x34 1,120 Olympia. 2,050 1,527 307 1 34 6 21-8x29 424 Scandinavian . 1,135 918 258 2 26 1 15-9x23-5-5 96 Scotia 1,103 844 261 1 26 2 20-7 120 Sidonia . 1,235 799 258 32 21- 203 Trinacria 2,107 1,342 306 34 4 22x29 424 Tyrian . 1,038 667 237 5 30 2 19-9 100 Utopia . 2,731 1,753 350 2-5 35 2 22'2x29-5 678 Victoria . 3,242 2,081 360 40 1 24-0-2x31-91 1,047 Dispatch 167 106 119 21 1 10-6 70 Sailing Ship ' Shamrock j' 1,193 187 5 37 24-2 Totals . . 71,328 47,474 15,417 634 MEKCHANT SHIPPING. APPENDIX Xo. 19. Vol. iv., p. 312. The following is a List of the Fleet of the Boyal Stearn-Packet Company, 1st January, Name. Reg. Ton. 1. Shannon 3,472 2. Boyne (screw) 3,318 3. Tagus (screw) 3,252 4. Moselle (screw) 3,252 5. Elbe (screw) 3,063 6. Neva (screw) 2,999 7. Nile (screw) 2,994 8. Tasmanian (screw) 2,9.56 9. Douro (screw) 2,824 10. Moudego (screw) 2,564 11. Minho (screw) 2,540 12. Tyne (paddle) 1,916 13. Dee 1,857 14. Essequibo (screw) 1,817 15. Severn (screw) 1,736 16. Lame (screw) 1,664 17. Tiber (screw) 1,591 18. Eider (paddle) 1,564 19. Ebro (screw) 1,509 20. Corsica (screw) 1,134 21. Arno (paddle) 1,038 22. Belize (screw) 1,015 23. Mersey (paddle) 1,001 51,076 Mail West India 1875. H.P. . . . 800 . 500 . 600 . 600 . 600 . 600 . 600 . 600 . 500 . 450 . 450 . 400 . 220 . 170 . 220 . 180 . 350 . 300 . 350 . 200 . 250 . 160 . 250 9. 350 24. Parana (coal-hulk) 2,730 APPEMDiX No. 20. 635 I— I o 'T3 l'i ^ o 00 S ^ ?^ (Ti ta u ^ p~,r ^ O »o g^ ^ ■-e 2 ^ 5 lO O O i(t «5 CO in '^ ■* -H CS O i.O i« O C O — ' 1- CO X CO Con- sump- tion per hour. •nl*--< HfH-* ,'t^^Hi (XHi nW-^W. HNH-l'KI^-lNHMHlN •| 2" o "3 3 l^ 1^ I- l> O O O -h O -ti lO iC '.-; IC O O S CO ^ 00 00 C» 00 00.00 00 CO •O0COCJCJ5 3;Q0t-ci-HoGC- • . lO lO^'ClC ar<»^"» •' 00 O-t^'-^-H CO 00~ 00 S' m'oT C^ iM ^'-<_-H^-< <» CO 00__t- • 00 -tl I- t^ r- -t< O » .^ CO •+< • • eocococot^t^t^cs t^ '^ -i^ -i^ •t> t^ a^ ci CO ci ^ OiOlOCiCOCOCOCO COCOCOCOCOC'JtNC'linCO^ Hi; OOCOi-HI>OOOlOCO C-IOOLICOOO-^IM-HOCOOiniO (M 1- O I- — • CO CO CO 'O lO ifS -M ri t »C O C5 (M — CO c^j CO t- CO Si el>r^l>t^ CCCCCOOOCOCOOOCO -oooocooooooooooocooooooooo d d' S 'S i3 jj jj -w I ij b fe" ^ ^ c5 t> > > tic o' rt' a c c a S i i-(io ioc-i!Mcoeo CO «o-*i COCOCOCOlOlOi-'TlOlOlOlO'ti-H-fCOCOCOCOCOCOt^t^ CM(M(MOrt lO 00 CO 00 .rt lo i-H-HrHi-Hi-lr-li-<^i-Hr-lrH(MC-*l-t>-+lTtiC0-tlCD'OiOlO-+l-tl-t ; rHr-lr-l-^(NW(M(M»O^IOC;^l^CCt- . COOOOOODCOa)XOOrtCO^O=;OCOOOMiMlOOX) . (MS^(M(MC0C0C0C0-^C0TlTtH-^-+ICOC0C0-tlC0-*l'^ 3 a Magellan , Patagonia . Araucauia . Cordillera . Chimborazo Cuzco . Garonne John Elder. Lencjihened Lusitania , Aconcagua . Sorata . lUimani Cotopaxi Galicia . . Cnrcovado . Puno Valparaiso . 15ritannia . Iberia . Ligaria . \ \ 636 MERCHANT SHIPPING. i-1 r2 c . ■ u a ^ i P. 5C-ICO rHi-H I-H(Ml-ll-l— li-( l-(i-lr-II-lr-tF-(i-ICvl(M •« o >> 1 o c^ ooooooo eo lo o lo »o >o "o -h oio t^ o m co o t- i> -n tn « O t-l>t-iO O MH O O .-1 CO -H ^ (» OOOOOOOOi-HO o •f- • -00005 • '(M •■<+IC50CI>-*II>a:ir5 .lOO'^'-HO^— •ti'-IlM •-- •N • • CO M CO Cq • -^ • rH IM (M I>-*l^'^t>O — COI^COr-l?tO'-Cl---MOO!M — XI>0-f-fi-tiC»-tOC;-J?5CC»i-irMt^C0l^OOt^t^l0O'tHi>05C»oio»ooc;i>oiMO«t> CO o f-H o CO CO in -i*! (N CO I-l lo o t> t» co w 2 '3 n • ■ 5 . . .6. : ^ . . _ 1 :^. 6 olio o" 6 -o- Id. -^6 -6 -6 'i .€ ^ si o (M O-*l-*lOC0-H •IM05C0— aiOiOSO --hO-^C^IOO'M— ii-IC001(NO« CO i^ to o --C CO CO CO o CO CO CO CO -o i^ t^ 1^ t^ t^ t> o t^ i> I-- i-~ t^ r^ t- I- •00 •XCOQOCCOOOO OtOOaOOOCCGOOOOO COOOCC0030aOXQO'XCCQOXOO« : > : r^' = 'S £f -^ =■ = > S "S. b i3 > >' c 3^ ii "S. !3 -^ > > a > >" a 'S >i >■ - 5l ^4<<>^4ai<^^ii:i,^4^^si4^.^4^i^t^t^-t<<0'-r-(r-(---^^TtlOlO"0 — -HCOt^ — „rHrti-l^i-lrt— lrtrtr-li-li-Hi-li-ICt^i>ooo — ■*05io-*-H-H-JO(Nico5eoococoooo-JOOJ>o — C-imN — Ot^l~-iOrC(N'*<'n C0t>C0KlS^C0-t"Ttr>-H© — lori OCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCDt^COX-*-Cl«aSXCOi-ir> 1 Jg s . APPENDIX No. 21. 637 APPENDIX No. 21. Vol. iv., p. 333. Liverpool, Brazil and Biver Plate Steam Navigation Company (Limited), 1875. Register Tonnage. Hegister Tonnage. '^ Nctt. Gross. Nett. Gross. Kepler 1,759 2,257 Brought forward 15,707 22,718 Newton 839 1.324 Tvcho Brahe 1,256 1,848 Ptolemv 758 1,115 Hipparchus . 1,251 1,840 Halley . . 994 1 , 347 Biela . . 1,401 2,169 Humlxildt . 994 1,346 Olbers . 1,388 2,161 Copernicus 950 1,397 Galileo . 1,445 2,262 Memnon . 822 1,209 Leibnitz . 1,455 2,280 Rubens 1,266 1,707 Gassendi 800 1,249 Teniers 1,017 1,597 Delambre 988 1,308 Vaiidyck . 1,098 1 , 686 Thales . 964 1,487 Memling . 632 1,007 Hevelius 1,681 2,610 Maraldi 638 1,002 Maskelyne 1,677 2,605 Lalaiitle 678 1,047 Camoens ' 659 1,053 Laplace 901 1,409 Calderon j 659 1,053 Donati 946 1,392 Cervantes ! 698 1,131 Pascal 1,415 1,876 Archimedes 966 1,520 Carried forw ard 15,707 22,718 1 32,995 49,294 APPENDIX No. 22. Vol. iv., p. 413. Abstract of Log of the P. (t- 0. Skip ^^ Khedive," on her Voyagefrom Alexandria to Southampton. — October, 1873. S . 3 TotuL Winds 5 S 3 ^ Q^ *3 § ►J Miles. Hrs. M. N. K. Oct. 5 1 N.W. Various 10 31 -15 29-45 \ ., 7 ,, ,, 8 N.X.W. N. 66° W. N. 74° W. N. 70° W. 254 32-.57 25-11 2.54 34-28 20-02 27035-4715-11 823 77-30 (■Moderate winds and ( weather throughout. , , 8 N.W. Various 35 At Malta. (Date of arrival.) Oct. 9 S.E. Various N. E. 153 37 00 11-04 ,, 10 ,, 11 ,, 12 N.W. Variable S. 82° W. S. 85° W. 234 37-31 6-59 251136-55 1-40 260 36-32 West 989 93-55 fModerate winds and \ weather throughout. ., 12 > » Various 291 3-30 (Date of arrival.) 638 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Winds. Courses. Oct. 13 E. ,, H N. ,, 15 N.E. ., 16 ,. 17 ,. 18 E Calm Various N. 5° W. Various N. 32° E. Various I N. 1 W. 135 36-37 7-54 I 210 39-32 9-46 I 1 138 42-25 10-03 ! 209 44-571 8-12 252 48-35 5-10 2261 .. Remarks. Miles. ,Hrs. M. 1812 171-25 1170 127.55 . . Brought forward. Light Minds and fine. Strong head winds at sea. , Strong head gale and sea. Same weather. Light winds. (Date of amval.) 2982 299.20 Or at the average rate of about 10 knots an hour. Sailed from Alexandria, October 5th, 10.25 a.m. Arrived at Maltu . , . „ 8th, 3.55 p.m. ,, Gibraltar . . „ V2th, 8.8 p.m. „ Soutliampton . „ 18th, 7.45 a.m. Abstract of Log of the P. c£- 0. Companfs Ship " KJiedive," on her Voyage from Soutliampton to Alexandria. — October, 1873. 4 Total. Winds ;3 .ti 2^ c8 v3 Miles. Hrs. M. N. W. I Oct. 31 S.W. Various 210 48-44 5-22) /Left Southiinipton at 3 p.m. Oct. 30. Nov. 1 w. S. 17° W. 233 45-01 7-02 Moderate gale — squalls. ,, 2 N.W. Various 240 41 -.59 9-59;il74 |111.45 ( Strong breeze and fine. ,. a 1 , S. 7i° E. 273 37-30 9-10 Sloderate and fine. ,. 4 " Various 218 Arrived at Gibraltar at *■ 7 a.m. N. W. Nov. 4 VVIy. Various 17 36-09 E. 1 Left Gibraltar atlOA.M. ,. ^ , , N.81J^W. J94 36-52 0-53 1 Fresh breeze and fine. ,, 6 S.-Wly. N. 8-2° E. 293 37-32 12-88^ ^8^5 83.45 J ditto. ditto. ., 7 Sothly. Various 276 36-44 1 Light ditto. ,, 8 " ) ' 107f 1 Arrived at Malta at 9.45 p.m. N. E. l^ Nov. S s.w. Various 46 35-4415-22 /'Left Malta at 7. 10 A.M. ,, 9 E.N.E. S. 7-2° E. 255 34-2620-23! g^.^J 75.50 1 Modei-ate breeze and X fine. ,, 10 Calm S. 68° E. 267 32-4625-20 i Calm and fine. ,, 11 E. Various 257J 1 Arrived at Alexandria at 11 a.m. 2987^271.20 Or at the average rate of about 11 knots an hour. APPENDIX No. 23. 639 APPENDIX No. 23. Vol. iv., 394. Fleet of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, with Particulars of their Employment, Januari/ 1875. Horse No. Names of Vessels. Tonnage. I'ower Nominal. ■ Remakes. 1 Australia 3,663 600 2 Avoca .... 1 1,482 250 8 Bangalore 1 2,063 500 4 Biiroda 1 1,874 400 5 Bokhara . ! 2,9.32 450 i 6 Cathay 2,982 450 1 7 Delhi .... 2,178 400 8 Geelong . 1,834 2.50 1 9 Golconda . 1,909 450 10 Gwalior 2,725 450 11 Hindostnn 3,113 600 12 Hydaspes . 2,984 450 13 Indus .... 3,470 500 14 Kiishgar . 2,621 450 1.5 Khedive . 3.742 600 16 17 18 19 Khiva .... Lorabardy Malta .... Malwa ' 2,609 I 2,723 1,942 2,933 450 450 500 450 Mediterranean, Adriatic, India, and China Services. 20 Mirzapore 3,763 600 21 Mongolia . 2,s:-^3 530 22 Mooltan . 2,257 4.50 23 Nizam .... 2,725 450 24 Pekin .... 3,777 600 25 Peshawur . 3,781 600 26 Simla .... 2,441 630 27 Sumatra . 2,488 450 28 Surat .... 3,141 530 29 THnjore 2,245 400 30 Teheran . 2,589 400 31 Thibet . . . 2,593 400 32 Travancore 1,900 400 33 Venetia 2,726 450 34 Zambesi . 2,431 370 35 Ceylon 2,111 450 36 Nubia .... 2,096 450 37 Pera .... 2,119 450 .Australian Service. 38 T?ii.^v„ /between Melbourne) , _„_ ^"•^'^n and Sydney. / ^'^27 300 1 39 Behar 1,723 300 40- 41 IJombay Malacca . 1,327 1,709 275 300 Chinaand Japan local Service. 42 Masteilia . 1,640 400 43 Orissa .... 1,647 300 Carried forwarc I . 107,568 19,135 640 MERCHANT SHIPPING. Fleet of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, icith Particulars of their Employment, January 1875. — Continued. Horse | No. Names of Vessels. Tonnage. Power Nominal. Rfmarks. Brought forward . 107,568 19,135 44 45 Adria Columbian 1,225 2,283 110 500 [Cargo Vessels. 46 Simda 1,682 300 \\ 47 Poonah 2,152 600 ( Under alterations and 48 Deccan 3,128 600 ( re-fitting. 49 China 2,010 400 50 Candia St] 1,982 450 Laid-up. 122,030 22,095 EAM-TUGS. 51 Ansari 146 40 ) 52 Gabari 34 20 Egypt. 53 Timsah 271 120 54 Pauline 20 14 55 Sirsar 55 30 Aden. 56 Parell 24 12 57 Colaba 145 60 58 Hf>wrali 70 25 Bombay. 59 Bandera 128 20 i 60 Sewree 128 20 61 Saada 99 60 Hong Kong. 62 Dragon 89 24 : Shanghai. 63 Stork Cargo an 31 15 Yokohama. 1,240 460 D Coal I lULKS. 64 Fort William 1,800 . Hong Kong. 65 Larkins 1,000 . King George's Sound. 66 Tiptree 1,617 . Yokohama. 4,417 APPENDIX No. 24. 64 L APPENDIX Ko. 24. Vol. iv., p. 425. Fleet of the Messageries Maritimes Company, January 1875. India, China, Japan, Batavia, and Mauritius Lines. Gross H. P. Gross Tonnage. Tonnage. H. P. English. Sindh . screw English. Nominal. Anadyr . . screw 3671 600 3005 500 Iraouaddy . , , 3471 600 Amozone . , , 3005 500 Hooghly . . , , 2820 500 Meinan . . , , 1380 280 Tigre. . . ,, 3017 500 Menzaleh . , , 1592 280 Provence . . , , 2524 500 Tanais . . , , 1584 280 Donnai . . , , 2524 500 Dupleix . , , 1380 280 Pei-ho . . ,, 3050 500 Volga . . , , 1502 280 Ava ... , , 3050 500 Godavery . , , 1423 280 Meikong . , , , 3050 500 Newa . . , , 1035 370 River Plate and Brazil Lines. Niger Se'ne'gal Gironde Gross Tonnage. H. P. 3417 3417 2981 1 600 600 500 Rio Grande Mendoza Erynianthe Gross Tonnage. 2739 2735 2015 500 500 400 Mediterranean ani Black Sea Lines. Gross Tonnage. H. P. Gross Tonnage. H. P. Cambodge . screw 2524 500 Hermus . . screw 778 240 Amerique . , , 1697 450 Ilissua . . , . 1587 240 Peliise . • , , 1750 400 Simois . . . . 970 240 Mceris . . , , 1750 400 Mersey . . , , 886 240 Said . . . ,, 1750 400 Emirnc . . , . 1000 240 Alpli^e . , , 1725 400 Mozambique , , 1000 240 Cydnus . . , , 1196 370 Tamise . . , , 729 200 Danube . . , , 11 8G 370 Clyde . . ,, 749 200 Phase . . , , 1200 370 Copernic . . . 1217 200 Scamandie . , , 1761 300 Cheliff .... 992 180 La Bourdonnais , , 1632 280 Delta . . ,, 932 150 Niemen . . , , 1584 280. Sinai . paddle 888 370 Tibre • . ,, 1729 280 Carnicl . . , , 958 370 Eridan . , , 1584 280 Aunis . . , , 1025 250 Tage . . . ,, U91 1 280 Saintonge . , , 1025 250 Ebre ..... 1701 280 Balkan . 1 430 160 Arethuse . . . , 1121 250 1 Taurus . . , , 497 ! 160 Meandre 969 ■iOO VOL. IV. 2 T (J42 MERCHANT SHIPPING. London and Marseilles Line. Gross I'onnage. H. P. Euplirate 1507 . . 250 compouucl. Indus 1523 .. 250 do. Gange 1446 .. 250 do. Building. Djemuah . Orenocjue Gross Tonnage. 4000 4000 600 (iOO Gross ■I'onnage. Equiiteiir . tciew 4000 4000 GOO 600 APPENDIX No. 25. G43 6 ^ (M t-i ft § ^ cc •>*i:~.-HTtio5<35ooaoo ^ CO o;'t*^l^»-^C2-Tt<0'*<'005i30 05 CO a o i^(>j-*<«occs30 -H~co r^'rT co" c^rt" • • • CO J* H OS'MXCOO^eOOrt i-c (M 00 I- C^I i-l "^^ Im f^ IM e3 ;2 1 a 3 flot^— <(MeoiCi--r^t^o ■* 05 00 CO »0 "O "-H CO IM CO CO • • CO 05 in Ci'-'^'n-z>^ l^ O OS CO (C t^CCOSr-iC — COlMCOI^'^igMasOOlM CO (M(M © a o cr-rcrcrcfo"«:r-H ^"co'w'cf-^'to ^i?r r^ iC *3 H 0>(M010l>(NCCCOr-l oo 00 o h ^H (M e3 >i 1^ s MeCO00OC000t>05l>i«i0-*'>+iC^Srt CO t^ (M'Mooc^c;c»occ-Hi^oco o ^ c^ CO M .o 0'X!00-*'0^t>^05iOOiO CO eo t>^ 'i^'" • {xT -i-H^ r^ lo ;o lo -^ c^ CO i-i i-H eo x: o ^ '^ ^ ,_1 r-l C8 iS iZ a 3 — < o -J :o CO CO CO CO o CO i-H :o 1-1 o in tH (M OG0»CDi-iC0— r—rt .1-1. CO I- o !?; ^ co-r^ooco-*4 CO --0 1-1 O C-l l-~ CO ^• e2 •r a> t^ ~t< t^ ■n '-' y. n ^X) n •-tiCi .^ "^ CO oftXt-Tco CC (N CO TjTcO r4~ TjT i^ 00 ■«♦< CO CO oa 1-1 1-1 CO >-^ l> u r** iM CO CO i> in 'M o in lo iM i-( rH •* (m eo in AJ O -O CO rf* CO 0» CO s lO c- 3 i^ -fi t^ n "O ^: -o (M o CO o i-i co CO ^ oo w CO '.t CO c; — c^ CO CO lo CO i^ o •^ OO o c 3 C^ --0 CO^l-- CO 05_ .|>Tt ^ 1 •^l«COO(Mt~ CCr-ieOi-l rt 1-1 r-t r^ CO a — I- IM -^ 1-H . CO ... CO CO • .... ^ 3 ^ - « ^ 33 • ^ .S o I 3 CJ 3! '5 ' * ■_: ■ >> ■ ■ ' -^ ■ ■ r-"^ 'M %^ "3 S5 Is ' ~ -- a = 1 1 r1 J CO ,__,'^H ^ ^ ^ 'T: '^. Z2 i-t o j^ ^ - .— ^ ^ u* z ',^ < ;^X^ 'X '/. ciu: -'^. V. X, :i^ '^. -^ 22 w pH S!--i 'J 1' 1^ 644 MERCHANT SHIPPING. APPENDIX No. 26. Vul. iv., p. 554. Average Time of Passages of the Four Mail Packets hetioeen Kingstown and Holyhead (^Distance 56 Knots, or 65 t Statute Miles'), for 14 Years, ending dOth September, 1874. Winter Half Years . Summer Half Years , Whole Years. . T^'pir^'T Trips jTrips Leinster. Time H. M. Coiinaught. Trips Time H. M. Four Packets. Trips I^Time 10,1973 58-5 26314 1-622403 59-123873 57629393 56-0 I I I I I I I I 2379,3 56-026673 52*827193 53*024783 52-210,2433 53-7 5010 3 58-9 4907 3 55-6 5106 3 55-15417 3 54-3 20,440 3 56-1 Note. — When two of the vessels, the Leinster and the Ulster, were completed and ready for duty, it was thought advisable to make a trial with them, by way of practice, in the peff irmmce of the old contract. Each performed the diot.mce between the lighthouse on Kingston Pier to the lighthouse at Holyhead, upwards of 65^ statute miles, in nenrly the same time on the average, namely, the Leiitder, in three hours and thirt\-one minuti's, and the Ulster in three hours and thirty-two minutes, being respe'tively thirteen and twelve minutes less than the shortest monthly average of the Bniishee in 1848-49, and twenty and nineteen minutes less th m the Llewellyn, when the distanee between the lights was one mile less than in 1860 — the Holyhead breakwater not having been then in existence. The gain in speed realized by the new vessels was therefore ut the rate of from 1 • 2 to 1 - 7 mile per hour. The shortest passage of the Leinster was made in three hours and twenty minutes ; that of the Ulster in three hours and eighteen minutes, and of the Munster in three hours and twenty-six minutes. But the average pertbrmance of the vessels for the first two years and five months during which they had been on service was still closer. Inclusive of all passages made in fogs, gales, &c., H. M. Tiie Coiinaught made 1,064 passages in the average time of 3 51-5 'Vh% Leinster . . 919 „ „ 3 52-5 The Ulster . . 925 „ „ 3 55 And the Munster . 920 „ „ .'5 58-1 So close a performance by four vessels, not identical and not all from the same builders and engineers, could scarcely have been anticipated. The longest passage made in the severest giJes had to that time not exceeded five hours and forty minutes, anScreivs, presumed advantage of, fallacious, as the machinery takes up too much room pp. 428-9 Bacon (Roger) describes a boat capable of obtaining greater speed than the "London jjinnaces," a.d. 1214-1296, p. 15. Baltimore Clippers and "American Liners,^^ the result of the efforts towards improvement by American shipbuilders, p. 166 Batture, the name technically applied to tlie alluvial soil of the Mississippi at New Orleans, p. 137 Bavarian, The, tine steam-ship be- longing to Messrs. Leyland, employed in Mediterranean, p. 421 Bayard, Mr., absuid notions of, with reference to high speed, p. 214. Bell, Henry, lays before the English and other Governments his plan for the improvement of Steam Naviga- tion in 1800, p. 62 gives, in letter to Mr. Miller, 1816, an account of his steamer the Comet jjp. 63-4 , no more than Fulton, can claim to be the inventor of the present system of Steam Navigation, p. 64 Bell, Mr. Lothian, estimate of the amount of pit coal in America, p. 139 BentincJc, Lord W., arrives at Calcutta on July 3, 1838, and at once takes up the cause of Steam-vessels on Indian rivers, pp. 449-50 Bergenrvth, M., gives a list of the letters of Blasco de Garay, found by him at Simancas, pp. 14-15, mdes. Berlin, The City of, s[ilendid ship belonging to the Inman Company, 1875, p. 259, note. Bessemer, The, built by Mr. E. J. Reed, details of her construction, pp. 563-6 Bessemer, The, the " swinging saloon " of, her most important feature, not available on her first trial, May 8, 1875, p. 566, note Bessori, J., describes a vessel with two prows (not unlike the Castalia'), (1582), p. 15 Black Bull Line, Old, ultimately merged in the Guion Line of sailing- ships, p. 273 , still, as of old, a line of sailing- packets, so called, but under the management of Marshall and Co., p. 273, note. Boilers, Marine, of which, now, four different patents, hard to make strong enough to withstand the great pressure required, p. 580 Bombay Government, letter approving of Mr. Taylor's plan for Steam com- munication with India, \\ 350 Boston, Shipoivners of, comjilain that individual enterprise is paralysed by the unfair giving of Government patronage, p. 200 , and, therefore, protest against the adoption, by the American Govern- ment, of a protective system, ihid. Bothnia and Scythia, The, mag- nificent steamers built for Cunard Line, 1874, by Messrs. J. and G. Thomjison of Glasgow, pp. 232-7 and note , of 1874, compared with the Britannia of 1840, p. 238 Bougner, M., in 1746, uses " revolving arms, like the vanes of a mill," to propel vessels, p. 101 Bourne, W., proposes a "boate Avithout oares or sayle" (1578), p. 15 Brumah, Joseph (the inventor of the hydraulic press), invents also (in 1785) the "screw-propeller," pp. 31-2, note , in 1798, tesis the application of the screw to a boat, pp. 101-2 Branca, G., applies steam to blow against vanes attached to the external rim of a wheel (1629). p. 16 Bright, John, The, Parsee trader between Bombay, Calcutta, and China, p. 455 and note Britannia, The, one of the four first ships of the " Cunard Line ;'' details of her construction, p. 183, note 650 INDEX. Britannic, The, one of the "White Star Line," engines of, by Maudslay, Sons, and Field, p. 279 ,• further de- tails of, p. 279, note British and Indian Steam Naviga- tion Company, originally, and till 1862, called the Calcutta and Birmah Steam Navigation Company, p. 455 ■ now own 42 iron screw-steamers, p. 456 and note , vessels of, now traverse 1,100,000 miles annually, p. 459 , and is now the most important of all the Indian Companies, pp. 455-60 Brunei, Mr. I. iC, proposes to Eastern Steam Navigation Company the building of a ship of enormous di- mensions, p. 487 Builder's Measurement, meaning and mode of calculating the old and the new, p. 173, note Burhampooter, TJie, and the Hooghly sent to India in 1828 ; details of the, p. 449 and note Burns, Mr. John, valuable table pro- vided by, of the work done by all the Cunard vessels, p. 238, note Burns, Mr. Oeorge, and Mr. Maclver, sketch of their commercial history, p. 179, note Busterich, an early Teutonic god, noticed by Arago in his " Eloge de James Watt," p. 8, note Calcutta, Meeting at, Dec. 17, 1823, to promote Steam Navigation with India, p. 339 Canadian Oovernment contracts with Messrs. McKean «& Co. for line be- tween Canada and England, 1853, p. 261 Cape Route to India, at first proposed for steam in 1822, p. 339 Carrying Trade, Transatlantic, great struggle between England and the United states to secure, pp. 163-7 Castalia, The, jilans and details of, pp. 561-3, and note. Caus, Solomon de, shows clearly in 1635 his acquaintance with the " motive " power of steam, p. 16 Chabert, M. (in 1710), describes a paddle-wheel vessel, p. 25 Chain cables of iron, used by the ancient 'J'yrians, p. 1 Charlivood, E. ¥., B.N., CajA., evidence in favour of iron ships as splintering less when struck by shot, p. 98, note Chesney, Col., makes an elaborate sur- vey and report of the Euphrates Route, p. 358, note Chicago, sketch of the history of, p. 123, note , first steamer to, in 1832, p. 132 Chimborazo, The, launched in 1871 from the yard of J. Elder & Co., for Pacific Company, p. 325 China, character of the country and of the inhabitants of the interior of, p. 465 , tea-boats of, on Canton Elver and Yang-tse, p. 481 Chinese Merchants, Steam Navigation Company established under the Chinese flag, pp. 472-3 Cigar Ships, The, of Messrs. Winans, built at Baltimore, 1858, and on the Thames in 1864, pp. 567-70 Clermont, The, built by Mr. Fulton for Mr. Livingston, p. 52 Clyde, the mechanics on the, at Glasgow, take the lead in the con- struction of marine engines, p. 61 , remarkable improvements in the navigation of, pp. 68-9, note , return of the number of ships built on its banks between 1868 and 1873 inclusive, p. 70, note , dredging machines on, Append. p. 591 , sliips launched on, 1863-4, ibid., p. 593 , shipbuilders on, 1871, ibid., p. 594 Coal, the carrying of, for long voyages, commercially, a mistake, p. 494, note Collins, Mr. E. K., undertakes to es- tablish the well known "Collins Line " between New York and Liver- pool, p. 202 arranges for the construction of the Arctic, Baltic, Atlantic, and Pacific steamers for the " Collins Line," p. 203 " Collins Line,'' details of the steamers of, p. 204 , enormous cost of the ships on the, p. 211 INDEX. 651 '' Collins Line,'"' finally started in 1850, just ten years after the Cuiiard had commenced, p. 214 at length relinquished, 1858, ]ip. 228-9 Colquhoun, Sir Fatrich, idea of, that guilds (a form of trades' unions) came from the East, ]i. 479, note Comet, The, (Henry Bell's steamer), completed in Jan. 1812 ; di tails of, pp. 64-7, and notes not remunerative to her enterpris- ing owner, p. 67 , original engine of, now in Patent Museum, p. 67, ««<«, and p. 574 Comprmiid Emjines, introduced in order to utilise steam at high pressures, p. 577 , principle of the construction of, pp. 577-8 , how distinguished from simple, pp. 578-9 , much more economical than simple, pp. 579-80 Condensing ^»(7tHe, distinguishing cha- racteristics of, p. 576 Coolie C'himse Emigration (as con- ducted by the Portuguese i'rom Macao), no better than a slave-trade, pp. 469-70, note Cram, Capt. (I860, July 11), points out the advanta2;es of the "Truss" plan on which Mr. Randall's steamer was to have been built, p. 159, 7iote Cunard, Mr. Samuel, so early as 1830, contemplates the establishment of mail steamers between Liverpool and Halifax, p. 178 obtains the contract for the con- veyance of the mails between Eng- land and America, p. 180 commences a regular service be- tween Liverpool, Halifax, and Boston in 1840, p. 183 adds, in 1844, the Cambria and Hihernia, p. 184 Cunard Line, all the first ships built on the Clyde, with engines by Mr. Robert Napier, p. 181 , vessels of, clearly shown to be superior in many lespects to any others, p. 185, r^ote , but, at first, slightly beaten in speed, by the Collins Line, j>. 219 Cunard Line now (1875) own 90,208 tons of shipping, p. 237 , comiuvrative statement of the consumption of coals in, p. 237, note , in thirty-five years, have never lost one life or one letter entrusted to their charge, p. 239 , chief reasons of this remarkable success, pp. 240-4 , strict regulations on board, and special orders for the course to be taken by the ships of, according to the season of the year, pp. 242-5 , ships of Burns, Maclver, and Co., Append, p. 606 Cunard Company, a striking example of what can be done, p. 248 , regulations of. Append, p. 609 Cunard and Collins Lines, comparison of. Append, p. 601 Cunard Steamer, the Persia, passages of 1856-1868, ibid., p. 603 Cunard Steamers, progress of, 1840- 1875, ibid., p. 608 Curar^oa, The, crosses the Atlantic, several times in 1829, between Hol- land and the Dutch West Indies, p. 170 Darien Expedition, illustrates the dif- ficulty of trade with Central America, ]). 330 Denny, W., the builder of the Rob Roy, and of the first steamers of " Allan Line ;" sketch of the life of, with account of his firm, p. 79, note Diana, The, second steamer in India, takes Mr. Crauford, the Resident, up to Amarapura, p. 448 Dicey, Capt., ]ilans the new Channel steamer Castalia, p. 561 Ditchburn and Mare, Messrs., build the Fairy, the tender to yacht of H.M. the Queen, p. 87 Dreiv, Daniel, The, surpasses even the New World in speed, and attains 25 miles per hour, p. 150 Dublin and Holyhead Line of Steam- packets, first started in 1819, p. 551 , earl}' success on, of the Meteor, Banshee, and Llewellyn, p. 552 , splendid new steamers of, the Connamiht, Ulster, Munster, and Leinster, built 1860, pp. 552-5 652 INDEX. Duhlin and tlolyJiead Line of Steam- packets, details of the construction of the new steamers for, pp. 552-5, and note Dundas, Lord, his vessel, the Charlotte Dundus (fitted with engine by Sy- mington), " the first practical steam- boat," p. 37 Dundas, Charlotte, the machinery of, mechanically superior to that of either the Clermont or the Comet, p, 64 Duquet, M., invents a kind of screw- propeller, in 1729, p. 100 Eastern Steam Navigation Company, proposed in reply to circular from the Admiralty after Lord Jocelyn's Com- pany, of 1851, p. 486 East Lndia Company, Directors of, establish a Tatar post between Con- stantinople and Baghdad, p. 338 take no interest in steam to India, p. 351 are compelled at length to act on the Eeport of the Committee of 1834, p. 358 for years insist on carrying the mails in their own vessels, between Bombay and Suez, p. 387 Economy, Political, erroneous reasoning about, in America, p. 215 Elder, John, andCompany, details of the vast shipbuilding business, conducted by, pp. 71-2, note Elevator, The, a peculiar machine in- •■ vented by M. de Lesseps, during the making of the Suez Canal, p. 372 Elizabeth, during Reign of, and some time alter, English merchants trade by Syria, with Baghdad and India, p. 337 Elphinstone, Hon. Mount-Stuart, as Governor of Bombay, in 1823, re- commends steam communication with England, p. 344 , to prove his views, returns (o England, via Isthmus of Suez, in 1827, p. 345 Emperor, The, yacht presented to Japanpse by Lord Elgin in 1858-9, and, tims, the first Japanese steamer, p. 482. England more interested than any one else in securing a route for her ships to the East, p. 369 , the wisest statesmen of, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. S. Herbert, Mr. Cob- den, Mr. Bright, &c., support M. de Lesseps' scheme, jx 369, note England, Tlie, a ship sold to Japanese by W. S. Lindsay, in Jan. 1861, p. 484, note Enterprize, The, first steamer to India in 1825, is 113 days on her passage to Calcutta, p. 341 , showing thereby, that, com- mercially, the Cape route would not pay, p. 342 proves of great value to the East India Co., in first Burmese war, p. 342 Ericsson, Capt., in 1836, fully demon- strates the merits of the screw, p. 104 , exhibits successfully his screw steamer to the Lords of the Admi- ralty, pp. 105-6 Euplwates, Route to Lndia, reasons advanced in its favour by Committee of 1839, pp. 356-7, note European and Australian Mail Com- pany, tender of, accepted, p. 397 proves a failure more disastrous than even that of the Gal way Line, p. 398 Evans, F. J., R.N., able report by, on the " Deviations of the Compass" in iron ships, Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 90, note Evans, Oliver, tries a plan for pro- pelling vehicles by steam on common roads, in 1786, p. 47 Farrer, T. H., letter from, noticing the Naval Keview of 1853, p. 106, note Ferry-boats at Quebec and between Yarmouth and Norwich, propelled, till recently, by oxen walking on a circular platform, p. 20 Fins of fish suggest the idea of a paddle, or oar, as their tails do that of sculling, p. 4 Fitch, Mr. F., sketch of his life, and boat built b}', pp. 42-3, 7iot,e, and p. 44 " Flat fioor." advantages of this con- struction for steam- vessels, as advo- cated by the Americans, p. 160 Forbes, R. R., Mr., sketch of his com- mercial life, pp. 193-4, note Fowler, Mr., i)roposes a steam-boat to carrj"- a railway train from Dover to Calais, jip. 557-8; with details, pji. 559-60, and tiote INDEX. 653 France, now, 1875, owns (inchulinf; Messacjerles Maritimes) 160,478 tons of steam shippin;:, p. 239, note Froude, Mr. W., experiments on H.M.S. Greyhound, show a loss of . 49 per cent, of motive power to attain IO2 knots, p. 581 Fruit Schooners, in tlie Mediterranean, fur a while maintain their ground against steamers, p. 418 Fidton, liobert, conceives, previously to 1796, the idea of propelling vessels by steam, p. 48 , sketch of his life, p. 50, note pays a visit to Mr. Symington, and studies his boat and its ma- chinery, ]i. 50 (\\\ 1806) builds the Clermont steamer on Kast (Hudson) River, p. 51 never claimed any patent for his assumed discovery, p. 52 , engine of, for his Clermont, nearly the same as that of the Charlotte Dundas, p. 52 not fairly spoken of by such men as Sir J. Rennie and Mr. Woodcroft, p. 55, note , unquestionably, the first to keep a steam-boat regularly running for purposes of trade, p. 56 , vessel launched by, on July 4, 1815, the exact copy of that of Mr. Miller of Dalwinston, p. 131, note , note of origin and place of birth. Append, p. 585 Gcdloway, 3/r., patents, in 1829, apian for " feathering " paddle-wheels, still in use, pp. 99-100 Galway Line, or Royal Atlantic Steam Navifjation Company, pro- poses (in 1859) to carry H.M. mails in SIX days from Galway to St. John's, Newfoundland, &c., p. 265 , contractors for, fail to deliver the vessels at the time agreeil on, ]). 267 — — , .ships, built for, always Ixhind their time, pp. 267-8 compelled to terminate their contract. May 1861, p. 269 Gamjes, length of journey up, previously to steam, Calcutta to 15euares 2^ months ; Calcutta to Cawnpoie 83 months ; Calcutta to Agra 6 m. 437 Hindostan, The, st-ut, in 1842, to open the line between Calcutta, Madras, Ceylon, and Suez, p. 388 Hooghly Tug Company, and Bombay Steam Navigation Company, among the first private Comiianies in India, p. 452 Eolland now (1875) owns 36,644 tons of steam shipping, p. 239, note Hollar, curious drawing by (a.d. 1 653), of a Dutch vessel, preserved in the British Museum, p. 20 Holt, Mr. Alfred, notice of his life, with particulars of the line established by him, to Colon and West Indies, p. 331, and p. 435, note , steamers, run in 1865, from Liverpool to the Mauritius, 8500 miles without stopping, p. 434 , the first to use the compound euiiine in long oversea voyages, p. 435, note , steamers to China, details of fnight by, p. 436, note Holyhead and Kingston, average pas- sage between, for 14 j-ears to Sept. 30, 1874, Append, p. 644 Holy Ship, curious native pilgrim vessel, so-called, with notes of the model, her construction, p. 460 Hongs, The Chinese, not unlike the " Guilds " of the Middle Ages, pp. 478-9 Horse-power, technical meaning of, pp. 52-3, note Hugh Lindsay, The, sent to Suez from Bombay, March 20, 1830, under command of Capt. Wilson, p. 352 makes one voyage annually from 1830, p. 352, note , details of her first voyage to Suez, pp. 354-5 [lulls, Jonathan (in 1' 36), plan by, for converting reciprocating rectilinear into a continuous rotary motion, p. 27 , sketch of his life, p. 27, note , boats resembling the one he made still to be seen on the Upper Thames in England, and on the Murray in Australia, p. 27 Iberia, The, the first ship of the P. and O. Company, sailed Sept. 1837, p. 383 Independence, War of, at the close of, ships of America and England alike under the leading strings of protec- tion, p. 164 India, steam navigation to, meeting in London for, 1822, p. 339 , report of Committee, 1834, in favour of Euphrates route much in- fluenced by political considerations, pp. 355-6 , method adopted for the convey- ance of mails to, previously to 1839, pp. 383-4 , postal service with, remains under the control of the Directors of East India Company till 1854, p. 39 , steam to, by the Cape even now is not very remunerative, p. 426 IndianProduce, the bulkiest articles of, as jute, &c., generally brought home in sailing-vessels, p. 444,' note Indian, Steam Committee of 1857, at length arouses people to the advan- tage of steam in Indian trade, p. 452 Indian Trade, no private steam com- panies started for, till 1845, p. 452 Indus, steamboat for, designed by Mr. Wiudus, and built by Pearce and Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, details of, p. 454, note Inglis and Co., builders of the Hankow, Pekin, &c., for Yang-tse trade, note from, about these ships, p. 472, note Inman, Mr., the first to start a regular line across the Atlantic, consisting of iron screw-steamers only, p. 255, note , sketch of the life of, pp. 255-6, note himan Line, or Liverpool, Neiv York, and Philadelphia Steam-ship Com- pany, commencement of, in 1850, p. 251 , splendid ships of, the City of Paris, the City of Brussels, and the City of Richmond, p. 253 , logs of the City of Brussels, and the City of Richmond, pp. 253-4, note convey, in 1856-7, 85,000 pas- sengers to and from the United 656 INDEX. States, or about one-tbii"d of all who then crossed the Atlantic, p. 256 Inman Line, details of the voyages of the City ofCheder, and the City of Eichmond, pp. 257-8 , the City of Berlin of, the longest, and probably the largest, merchant ship afloat, except the Great Eastern, p. 259 , steamers of, Append, p. 611 Insurance of Vessels, going to sea, note on, pp. 248-!) lona, The, successful paddle-wheel steamer between Glasgow and the Western Highlands, p. 545, details of, 7wte Iron, as a material fur shipbuilding, first used partially in 1830, p. 83 at first objected to by many because heavier than water, p. 84 successfully used by Messrs. Fawcett and Co. at Liverpool, Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, Mr. (Sir William) Fai^airn and others, on the Thames, p. 87 long objected to, owing to the difficulty in adjusting the compasses, p. 90 Iron ores of America, now being largely developed (' Times,' May 28, 1875), p. 166, note Iron ships, general consideration of their superiority over wooden vessels, with reasons for this, pp. 92-7 , various reasons why more econo- mical, pp. 96-7 , accidental damages in, more easily repaired than in the case of wooden ones, p. 97 liable to lose their speed by the adherence to them of animal and vegetable matter, p. 93 Iron Steam Ships, total built in United Kingdom, 1861-74, and total tonnage compared with four otlier nations, Ajipend. p. 645 Irratvaddy Jiiver, great fertility of the country it drains, p. 465 , before introduction of steam, more than 25,000 native craft en- gaged on, p. 463 Irrawuddy Flotilla and Burmese Steam Navigation Company, started in 1865, one of the most remarkable commercial undertakings in India, pp. 462-5 Irrawaddy Flotilla and Burmese Steam Navigation Company, Mr. Jas. Galbraith, tlie managing Directoi", chief partner of the firm of Hen- derson & Co., p. 462, note now run their steamers up to Bharao, 1000 miles above the mouth of the Irrawaddy, p. 463 , peculiar character of the vessels employed bj', p. 464 , fleet of (in Jan. 1875), consists of 15 steamers, and 25 " flats," p. 464 Jujmnese, now have several merchant steamers and iron-clads built for them in l^mgland, p. 482 Japanese boats, original form and character of, p. 483, note Jersey, New, llie, her value shown, as able to tow through drift ice, where paddle-wheel steamers were useless, p. 115 , many years a steam-tug on the Delaware and Schuylkill, ibid. Jocelyn, Lord, Indian Xavy List supplied to the Committee of 1851, pp. 359-60, note Johnston, Capt. (then Lieut.), sent to Calcutta in 1822 to promote steam navigation with India, p. 339 commands the Knterpirize by Cape to India, 1825, p. 341 and, in lcS28-30, the Huoghly to Allahabad, p. 450 Jouffroy, Marquis de, said to have constructed (in 1781) a steam-boat 140 feet long, p. 30 Junks, Chinese, general character of, pp. 473-4, note Just, Mr. J, as Manager of the Pacific Comi^any, adopts, in 1856, the com- jx)und engine, and, thereby, saves much fuel, p. 322 Khedive, The, splendid new steamer of the P. and U. Company, details of, pp. 410-14 , log of, Append, p. 637 Kinder, R., in 1816, patents a shaft and screw, nearly the same as at present used, p. 102 J INDF.X. G57 King Coal, The, collier so named, details of, p. 547, and note Laird, Mr. MacGregor, states that wooden ships are more than twice as heavy as those of iron, p. 95, note , under signature of " Clumera," replies, in Liveriwol Albion, to Dr. Lardner's objection against Trans- atlantic Steam Navigation, pp. 171-2, note Laird, William, sketcli of his life, p. 87, note Laird, Messrs., carry out the plan of iron vessels for ocean navisation in 1832, and build the Elbzcrkah and LMdy Lansdowne, p. 88 ■ build two iron steam-vessels in 1837 for the navigation of the Indus, and those for the Euphrates Expedi- tion, ]>. 90 Lanqwrt, C, article by, on " l\Icrchant Shipping Legislation" in Westminster heview, for April 1875, p. 246, note Lange, Sir Daniel, the warm supporter of M. de Lesseps from the commence- ment ; paper read by, to the Society of Arts, on the nature of the ground through which the Suez Canal was cut, p. 373 Lardner, Dr., Report of lecture at Liver- pool, December 1835, from Liver- pool Albion, pp. 168-9, note 2. Laiv, Roberts & Co., Messrs., undertake to carry U. S. mails between New York, California, and Oregon monthly, in 1847, p. 156 Ljcacli, Harris and Fonvood, Messrs., build boats and extend line started by Mr. Holt, 331 Ljeith Smacks, an early mode of com- munication, between Leith and London, commenced in 1809, p. 550 , a fleet of, successfully repel an attack of French privateers, p. 550, vote Lessrps, De, M., sketch of the life of, p. 366, note Levees, a peculiar kind of wharf on the western rivers of America, and, especially, at New Orleans, p. 136 Leyland, Messrs., and Co., now einploj' twenty-three large steamers in the Mediterranean trade, p. 420 , the fleet of, alone could bring all VOL. IV. the corn from E.:ypt required by Ancient Rome, p. 421 Lin, F., patents an invention (1037) for working vessels *' without the use of horses," p. 17 Lindsay, Mr., moves the reduction by 300,000?. of the vote for the recon- struction of a wooden navy. May 23, 1861, p. 98, note , address to his constitutents at Tynemouth, on the Great Eastern, pp. 539-40, note Liners, Yankee, The, the perfection of sailing ships, p. 270 Liverpool, Brazil, and, liiver Phde Com- pany organized in 1865, chiefly by Messrs. Lamjiort and Holt, p. 333 now own 49,294 tons of steam- ships, ibid. , particulars of, Jan, 1875, Append. p. 637. Livingston, Mr., enters into Fulton's plans, and builds a boat on the Seine, in 1803, which, however, fails, p. 49 Lloyd^s, North German, an old esta- blished Compan}' between Bremen, Baltinure, and New "York, p. 291 Lowe, liohert, The, account of her voyage up the Yang-tze, p. 468 and note loads at Shanghai for Hankow, May 8, 1863, and brought tea thence direct to England, pp. 468-9 Ltick, good or bad, applicable only to games of chance, requiring no skill or genius, p. 246 Ljynch, A. A'., excellent account by, of the early works in connection with the Suez Canal, p. 370, note MacGregor, J., investigates the story of the invention of a steam-boat, by Blasco de Garay, pp. 10-14 arrives at the conclusion that De Garay did not invent any steam- boat, ]\ 13, note visits Simancas and IVu'celona, to investigate the story of Blasco de Garay, ])p. 12-14, and notes Markinnon, Mr., the founder and Managing Director of the Ikitisli Indian Steam Navigation Companv, pp. 455-6 Midcolm, Sir J., and bis brothers, Sir Charles Malcolm and Sir Pulteney 2 u 658 INDEX. Malcolm, support Mr. El phius tone's views for steam communication with India, p. 345 Manlnj, Mr , fits a steam-engine, for the first time, into an iron vessel, the Aaron Manhy, in 1821, p. 86 Manchester, The City of, fine screw- steamer, purcbaserl for the Inman Line in 1851, p. 252 and note Margary, Mr., nnudered (Feb. 1875) in an attempt to explore the country between Bbamo and Hankow, \>. 463, note Marine Steam Engine, history of the progress of, since the days of the old Comet, pp. 573-8 Maritime Casualties, can and must be reduced, p. 246 Massachusetts, The, auxiliary screw- steamer, sent out by the Americans in 1845, details of, pp. 190-1, and note still running, under the name of tlie Alaska, pp. 191-2, note McKean, McLarty, and Lamont, Mi'ssrs., successfully employ the Osmanli and Levantine in the Medi- terranean ])orts in 1849, p. 419 Mediterranean, trade in, revived by the introduction of steana-vessela, p. 417 Melbourne, Lord, ] resent of 5( 7. granted by the Administration of, to the four dau2;hters of James Ta^'lur in 1837, p. 36 Merrifield, G. W., F.B.S., statement of the amount of work to be obtained Irom 1 lb. of coal, p. 581, note Messaijerits Maritimes, the largest existing Steam Xavigation Coiiipany, but, altogether, the creation of the Govertmient, p. 422 , originally carriers by land, make their first oversea contract with Government in 1851, p. 423 own now (1875) 175,000 tons of steam shipping, p. 424 now run over more than 423,607 French leagues annually, p. 424 ■ , details of the vast trade con- ducted by, pp. 425-6 , list of all steamers of, and how employed (1875), Append, p. 641 Mi. 24 Mvritiotus, stranse and clumsy paddle- wheeled vessrcl, described and fiiiured in his work entitled " Urbis Mari- tima," p. 19 Muhnmmed All suggests to Mr. Galloway a railroad between Cairo and Suez, i>. 362 Napier, Mr., in 1815, starts his first " fire-boat" on the Thames, p. 77 builds the liub Hoy in 1818, INDEX. (!50 "tbe first sea-going steamer" to trade betvveeu Glasgow and Belfast, pp. 78-9 Najjier, Mr., introduces a plan for "surface condensation," in the United Kinfjdom steamer, 18'JG, p. 82, note Napier, Caid., li.N. (afterwards Sir Charles), commands the Aaron Maiihji, the first iron steam-vessel, in 1821, p. 86 Niitional Steam Navigation Company, first started in 1863, between Liver- pool and New York, pp. 270-1 , like the Canard Line, has never lost a passenger by any negligence or act of the sea, p. 272 ' now maintains a weekly service between Liverpool and New York, and Rirtnightly between Havre and NfW York, ihid. Nautilus, The, jjossesses in itself • powers of propulsion by pi'ojecting Avater, p. 3 Navurrette, M., publishes the account of the experiments of Blasco de Ciaray in 1543, p. 10 Netherlands Steam Navigation Com- ■ ^w?;?/, started in 1863, now own twenty-three steamers of 20,000 tens, p. 461 run their steamers through Torres " Straits to Biisbane, Sydney, and Mel- bourne, p. 461 Newcomeii, Mr., a working blacksmith at Dartmouth, greatly improves Savery's engine in 1705, p. 25 New World, The, details of her . construction and equipment, pp. 146-50 , type of, as of other similar vessels, wholly different from those in England, ]>. 148 New York, destined to rival (perhaps surpass) any city, Londuu not ex- ce])ted, owing, in P'irt, lo its extra- ordinary natural advantages, p. 129 New York and New Orleans, first steamer between, 1818, p. 132 Nightingale, Sir Mites, the first to return to England by the lied Sea and Suez Route, p. 314 Ocean-race between Cunard and Collins Line, general results of, in 1852, pp. 218-9 Ogden, Francis JJ., The, a screw- steamer built for Captain Ericsson, at V/apping, p. 105 Ohio, Navigation of, greatly impeded by rapids formed over bars or chains of rocks, 1). 135 Ontario, Lake, thirteen screw-projwUed vessels on, so early as 1846, p. 115 Orleans, The, the first steamer on any American lake in 1811, p. 132 Osborn, Capt. Sherard, Ji.N., takes H.M.S. Furious up the Yang-tse to . Hankow in September 1858, p. 467, tiote 1 Over-insurance of Ships, a matter re- quiring the careful investigation of farliament, p. 249 Overland Route to Indi't, various de- tails connected with, ])p. 360-3 , papers and books on, from 1819 to 1872, p. 343, note Overstone, Lord, speech of, March 24, 1859, giving full details of the failure of the European and Australian Steam Company, pp. 399-401 Oxford, City of, steamship belonging to. Messrs. Smith, details of, pp. 443-4 and note, p. 444 Pacific, The, general character and con- struction of, as distinguished from other Transatlantic steamers, p. 208 , loss of, Irom causes unknown, Jan. 1856, pp. 224-5 Pacific Mail Steamship Compaiiy (American), great cost and difficulty of starting and maintaining in 1847, p. 151 by far the greatest of all American maritime undertakings, p. 153 undertakes the service between San Francis^co, Yokohama, and China, pp. 153-4 (English), early details of, 1840, pp. 314-7 , value of the trade obtainable by, as shown in a ])amplilet by Mr. Wh'jelwright, Ijondon, 1836, j). 318 , great difliculties in its early career, pp. 319-20 accept the proposal of the Ad- miralty to run steamers monthly to Panama, p. 321 , the first to prove the value of the compound engine, p. 322, note 660 INDEX. Pacific 3Iuil Steamskip Cs, impossible to compare accurately the cost of different, p. 284 Pharaoh Necho, the works of, as re- corded by Herodotus, p. 365, note Philadelphian Company establish a new line from Philadelphia to Liver- pool, managed by Americans only, P11. 284-5 have much to contend against, owing to the heavy duties imjiosed by their own Government, p. 285 Peacock, Mr., thinks that steam to India will not paj', \). 352, note Pehin, City of, The, and City of Can- ton, the finest vessels that have ever carried American flags, p. 155, note Pelican, IF.M.S. The, one of Messrs. Perkins's " ccnnomical " engines to bo fitted in, p. 571 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navi^ gation Company, earlv history of, pp. 376-7 propose a weekly mail from Fal- mouth to Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, &c., pp. 382-3 , contract by Government with, Aug. 1837, to carry the mails, p. 383 , Oriental and Great Liverpool, the first ships of, p. 387 , Parliamentary Committee of 1851, report strongly in favour of, p. 389 obtain (mstead of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company) the tenders for mails to India, Hong Kong, and Sydney, pp. 391-2 — — , various details of their contract of Jan. 1853 for carrying mails to Singapore and Sydney during alter- nate months, pp. 393-5 , eleven of their ships engaged during the Crimean War in the trans- poit service, p. 395, note , arrangements made in 1857, under contract of 1854, for extend- ing its services between Bombay, Aden, and Suez, pp. 397-8, note contract in Feb. 1859 for trans- port of the mails to Australia, p. 402 , ]n-esent enormous range of the services of, pp. 404-6 , more than one-third of its share- liolders are ladies, p. 404 , details of the rates per mile paid to, pp. 406-8, notes , present condition (1874) and fleet of. pp. 404-10 employ 170 sailing-vessels to carry coal to their different stations, p. 409 keep '90,000 tons of coal in stock at their different stations, p. 409, note , for some time, have had a practical monopoly of the trade of the Eastern seas, p. 454 , list of all vessels belonging to (June 1875), Append, p. 369 Perfection not yet attaiiieil by English or any other ships, although there has been great improvement, p. 584 Perkins, Jacob, asserts that Fulton, having witnessed Symington's ex- peiiments, ordered an engine of ISoulton and Watt for the United States, p. 51 INDEX. C6l Ferkins, Messrs., propose a new ship of extraordinary power, which they call " tiie economical engine," i)p. 571-2 and notes Fe)-si(i, The, the first iron ship of the Canard Line — launch of, lb55, and details, p, 22G and note , four times in 1856, runs from New York and Liverpool in less than nine days and a half, p. 227 Feruviun, The, one of the Allan Line, crosses the Atlantic and back from N. of Ireland, with cargo, in twenty- four days and fifteen hours, pp. 263-4: Fickard, James, invents (Aug. 1786) the connecting rod and crank and flywheel, so as to produce rotary motion, p. 30 Fierson, J. P., the inventor of the " double vacuum condenser," p. 208 Flombiere, Guyon de la, suggests a steam-engine for the propelling of a boat, p. 41 Preble, Com7nander, states that Stevens inventeil, in 1804, the twin screw- steamer, p. 4(!, note Presideut, The, and The Padfic, have left no record of their fate, probably owing to their having foundered in deep water, \i. 225, note Frinceton, The, Captain Ericsson's ex- periments in, quite successful, p. 113 Q. E. D., first screw-collier, p. 546 Queen of the East, TJie, proposed in 1838 to run between England and C'alcutta, p. 386, note Queen Maryaret, The, runs (Sept. 1875) from London to Calcutta in thirty days, including forty hours' detention in the Suez Canal, p. 438, note JiamelU, A., gives a design for a boat with a wheel on each side (1588), p. 15 Famsay, D., jiatents an invention (1630) for making boats go against the tide, ibid. Bandall, Mr., projects the next largest steamer to the Great Eastern (1860), p. 157 , detailed account of, and beauty of her model, pp 157-61 Fanddl, Mr., brief sketch of what he has accomplished since 1833, and of the various ships he built or com- manded, pp. 161-2, note Riitltbone and Compuny, Messrs.^ details of ships belonging to, and of their passages to India, pp. 438-9 Fattier, The, built, specially, for the purpose of testing the s-crew-pro- peller, p. 110, anAnote , river trials of (1843-5) showed that, in smooth water, the screw was equal to the paddle-wheels, pp. 110-11 , but, not so successfully as expected, in a heavy sea in 1845, between Portsmouth and Pembroke, p. Ill tows the Erebus and Terror, in 1845, entirely to the satisfaction of Sir John Franklin, p. 112 Bed Sea, early popular notion that the waters were 25 to 30 feet above the Mediterranean, p. 363 Reyister at Lloyd's, wooden ships, never allowed by, to exceed twelve years as A 1, though renewable, p. 96, note 2 Rennie, Mr., services of, in advocating the employment of steam in the navy, p. 78, note Rivault, D., publishes (1605, 1668) " Les Elemens de L'Artillerie," and describes the power of steam in bursting a strong bombshell, p. 16 Robertson, IF. J., sets up, at the Patent Onice, in 1862, the engine of the Comet he had placed in her, 50 years before, in 1812, p. 67, note Royid William, The, crosses from Quebec to Gravesend in 1833, p. 170 , the first steamer from Liverpool July 1838, ))i). 176-7, and note Rudder, no real evidence as to when it was invented, pp. c-11-12, 7iofe Russell, Scott, Mr., conversation be- tween him and a naval architect, on the subject of iron for sliii)- building, p. 84, note , letter from, to the * Times,' stating his share in the construction of the Great Eastern, pp. 492-3, note 7i'(/.s.s/Y/, The, first Cunard so-ew-stearaer (1862), p. 231 CC2 INDEX. Said, Port, enormous prejiaratory works required for, and harbour of 132 acres, excavated, p. 370 SaU-wattr, chemical action of, on iron , alone, less than on wood, p. 92 Snmpinis, technical name of the small commcrcal craft on t!ie Chinese ' rivers, pp. 480-1, note ■isauvage, F. (one of the claimants, in 1832, to ihe invention of the screw), p. 10:^, note Savannah, The, the first American steam - vessel, which crossed the Atlantic to Liverpool in 1819, p. 168 ' -, riii^ed as a sailincr-sliip with . auxiliary steam-power and removable t paddles, p. 168, note-1 Savery, T., ]iropiises (in 1696) givinp; motion to mill- work by the agency of tire, ]i. 24 , sketch of the life of, p. 25, note Schiller, The, evi lence of chief mate, • showing that the lead had not once been cast during three days of fog, • (May 1875), p. 241, note S'otia, The, magnificent Cunard steamer (1862), ^details of, p. 228 and note Scotl'ind, The, belonging to Mr. W. S. Lindsay, the first foreign vessel (in June 1860) to load a cargo at ■ iShaughai for Ilatdvow, p. 467 ScreicprojielUr, not possible to decide ihe absolute inventor of, p. 116 , Messrs. Woodcruft, Ericsson and Smith, ]iractically, the chief authors of, pp. 117-8 Sea, dangers of, might be reduced by two-thirds with exercise of sufficient foresight, &c., p. 245 Seumen, great additional care of, as shown especially in the coal trade, pp. 549-50 Sn-uffino Serrati ]ilans a steam-boat on the Avon, in j.796, \) 41 Shanghai Chamhtr rf Vomnurce, inter- esting reports irom the delegates of, with reference to the trade of the - Upper Yang-tse, p. 476, note Shannon Sttam I'ucktt Comjiamj, the first to employ iron steamers in river navigation in 1824, p. 86 Shipbutld rs {American) resolve to , build the cheapest and ni' st re- munerative merchant vessel, ibid. S1iiph(ilde)-s (American) make many great improvements, especially in the mechanical details of their ships, p. 167 Shijibuilders (English) slow, at first, to improve their ships, ibid. Skip-building yards, private, great importance of, in cases of sudden emergency, p. 71 Shipoivners of America not allowed to compete on equal terms with the vessels of any foreign country, p. 165 Shipowners (English) having ]ilenty of fields for employing their ships, cling to protection, ibid. do not care to compete with Americans on equal terms, but with inferior ships, ihid. Shipoivners of all countries. on^^t to be compelled, under heavy penalties, to send seaworthy ships to sea, ji. 247, note Shorter, E., in 1800, invents " a perpetual sculling machine," which was tried in H. M. S. Dragon and Superb, p. 102 Siriits, The, leaves London for New York, on the suggestion of JMr. MacGregor Laird, April 4, 1838, pp. 170-1, and note Smith, G., Esq., letter from, giving an, account of the rise and progress of his- firm, pp. 439-43 Smith, T. S., takes out a patent (May 1836) for a "sort of screw or wonii," pp. 106-7 Smith, Messrs., send twenty-four sailing ships to Calcutta in 1871, and sixteen to Bombay, p. 442, vote "Snags'' and ">S'a?r2/ers," peculiar cha- racter of, and danger arising fiom, p. 134 " Soma" technical name given to the Chinese tea-boats, p. 475, and iiote Sp>eed, high, greatly increased danger Irom the desire to attain, pp. 211-13 , enormous cost of, shown in statement that to save a day or day and a-half, cost Collins' Company a million of dollars, p. 216 , relative, of Cuiuud, Liverpool and New York, aiid P. and U. Lines, ])]). 403-4, note Stnnhopc; Lord, is saiil to have built INDEX. 603 a small steamer, in 1790, witli a high pressure engine, )). 38, note Steam, the ancients certainly were acquainted with the power of, p. 4 (irst api)licd for towing purposes on the Mersey, October 1816, ]). 77 in early i\se, let ween Norwich and Yarmouth \\\ 1813; and London and Mar.;ate in 1815, p. 73 , on the Thami s, long and bitterly opyiosed by tlie watermen, p. 74 Steam-boat, the fii'st from the Clyde to Liverpool, on June 28, 181"), p. 77 , the Etna, the first built as a s|>(cial feny-boat at Liverpool in April 1816, pp. 77-8 , I he Comet, tlie first built by the Admiralty in 1819, p. 78 . . Ste'im-eiifjines, general principles of all, p. 28, imfe , first aiiplication of, for pumping water out of mines, p. 575, note [ Steamers, owned, respectively, by the ' Uuiled States and Canada, ainounttd in January 1875 to 258,980 tons, pp. 124-5, note Ste'tmers of the Cuvard, Inman, and National Companies adoj^t the " Lane route," i. e. to the south of the Newfoundland Banks, p. 286, note , by the Cape to India and Aus- tralia, cannot profitably compete with Messrs. Green's sailing-vessels, p, 427 Steamers (^Mail), not employed, since • 1856, east of the Cape, except perhaps to Natal and Mauritius, p. 429 Stea7n-f.ower, ingenious jjlans for in- creasing, p. 577 StLain-Ship Fropellei Company, incor- porated by Act of Parliament, July 29, 183^, p. 107 Steam-shij) buildinf/, carried out by private enter|)rise for forty years before the Admiralty recognised tlie value of steairi-ships, p. 72 Stters, Mr., the builder of the yacht Ameridi and su|)erintendent, also, of the construction of the Arctic, p. 204 Stejihenson, Robert, suggests the idea of covering the bottom of an iron ship with sulphate of copper, p. 93, note ' completes, in 1870, the railway from Alexaniier to (.'airo, p. 363 Stephenson, I?. MacDonakI, Sir, pub- lishes in Calcutta lieview his plans for railway commmunication with India, p. 338, note Steoetis, J. C, devotes much time and m' ney to the iminovement of steam navigation in America, p. 46 , the first (in 1804) to ])lace on the sea a steam-boat propelled by a screw, p. 102 Stevens, li. L. S., ingenuity of his improvements, and the shape and speed of steam-boats, ])p. 142-3 St. Lawrence, lUver, the first stean>- boat launched on, in 1809, nam(d the Accommodation , p. 58, and note Stocliti-n, Cupt., orders two boats to be built (on his own account) on Capt-. Ericsson's f rincii)le, p. 112 , unlike the Lords of the Admiralty, at once takes up the cause of Capt. Ericsson, ]). 113 , but, not able for tw^o jeiirs, to persuade the United States of the value of Capt. Ericsson's plans, ibid. Stockton, Bobert /'"., Brig, 2'// p, sails from England to America, April 1839, and under the command of Captain Cram, p. 114 , subsetjuently plies on the Delaware, under the name of New Jersiy, till 1840, p. 115 Stuart, C. B., valuable work by, entitled "On Naval and Mail Steamers," New York, 1853, p. 205, note Suavia, TJie,oi the Hambiu'g American Line, details of, p. 290, notes Subsidies, relative value of those paid to the P. and O. and Messageries Maritimes, p. 426, note Suez Canal, general details of, unques- tionably the greatest maritime work of any time, pp. 363^74 , notices of an ancient one, across the Isthmus, p. 366 , no rea>on to suppose that the men employed on, were in any sense " slaves," pp. 370 and note , great ingeniuty of the works, pro- vided lor, hy M. de Lesseps, p. 372 partially opened, April 18, 1869, p. 374 more completely opened, Sept. 28, 18G!l, when ^\. de Lesseps 664 INDEX. steamed through it, from sea to sea, ibid. Suez Ca»r(Z formally opened by the Em- press Eugenie, Nov. 17, 1869, ibid. , the Avhole cost amounted to about 20,000,000/., p. 375 , more than three-fourths of the Avhole tonnage now passing through, belongs to England, and, therefore, cannot be prejudicial to English interests, p. 445-6 , its great value to India; notice in Friend of India, ibid., note , if foreign nations wish to com- pete through it successfully, they must adopt English " Free Trade," p. 446. , list of vessels that have annually ]iassed through it between 1870 and 1874, Append. ]>. 043 Symington, Mr. [if he did not suggest the use himself], employed to carry out Mr. Taylor's proposal to propel Mr. Miller's paddle-wheels by steam, p. 34, niite ■ employed by Thomas Lord Dun- das, in 1801, to place an engine in the Charlotte IJundas, p. 37 , the important points which his experiment established, p. 39, note Szchuen, Province of, remarkably rich in grain, tobacco, hemp, sugar, &c., p. 477. Talbot, The, the first mail steamer between Holyhead and Dublin, p.80 Tatar Post, between Baghdad and Constantinople, established by East India Company, p. 338 Taylor, James, a tutor in Mr. Miller's family, said to have suggested to him the use of steam for propelling boats, p. 34 Taylor, Mr. J. P., said to have lost 12,000?. in his efforts to promote steam communication with India, p. 3i8, note .'sends the plan of his scheme to Sir John Malcolm, ibid. Teak, at one time, like iron, objected to, as a material for shipbuilding, as it will not float, p. 84, note Tdica, Tlie, first steamer actually cm- ployed on the Pacific Coast, in 1825, p. 315 Thames, early traffic on, before the invention of steatn-buats, chiefly by rowing-boats, barges, hogs, &c., p. 75 Tubin, Sir John, warmly takes up the cause of Ocean Steam Navigation, October 1838, p. 177 Tod and MacGregor, Messrs., of Glas- gow, build the Princess Poyal, for line between G'a^gow and Liverpool, in 1840, p. 91 Transa'lantic Steam Navigation, the Committee of House of Commons report (1846) in favour of Messrs. Cnnard, Burns, and Maclver, p. 185 Transatlantic Steamers, average speed of, in 1856, p. 227, note. 'J'able of passages of, between Liverpool and New York 1873-4, Append, p. 617 Trevethick, P., and Mr. Dickenson, i:)!opose, in 1809 and 1815, to build ships of iron, but do not carry out their patent, ]>. 85 Trevethick, P., in 1815, patents a worm or screw, p. 102 Underwriters, Liverpool, remarks by, on the superior durability of iron ships, p. 94, note United Kinrjdom, T/ze, steamer built by Mr. Steele of Gieenock, 1826, p. 81 ,' Unseaivorthy Ships, Tc\^oxt of theEoyal Commission on, 1873-4, -p. 246, note Valturius, a.d. 1472, cives several re- presentations of paddle-wheels, p. 10 , his work, a.d. 1472 (published at Verona), the first in Latin, con- taining woodcuts, ibid. Van der Capellen, The, the first actual steamer built in India, about 1811, p. 448, note Verne, M. Jules, considers the Great Pastern a failure, both in speed and comfort, p. 540, note Vessels, very large, not so safe as smaller ones, pp. 537-8 Vetch, Captt., P.N., proposes, thirty years before RL de Lcssejjs, a ship canal from Tinch, p. 307 Victoriu, Tlie, of the Anchor Line, details of, p. 290, note , Dover and Calais steam-boat, details of, p. 556, note JNDKX. G65 Vincent, ilf/-., intrepidity of, and dread- ful story by, of the fate of the Amazoti, pp. 309-10 Vivian and Co., Messrs., the first to establish a line of Mediterranean steamers from Liverpool in 1840, p. 419 Wayhorn, Lieut., one of the most energetic early supporters of steam communication with India, p. 346 , sketch of his life, ibid., note commissioned by Lord Ellen- borough and Mr. Loch, leaves London Oct. 28, 1829, and reaches Bombay, March 21, 1830, p. 347 , rapid journey across Euro^je, and boat voyage for 628 miles on Ked Sea, 1829-30, ihid. , as the paid agent of the Calcutta Company, at first, naturally, sup- ports the route of the Cape, p. 348 , evidence of, before Committee of House of Commons, 1837, p. 361, note , the first to organize, systemat- ically, the conveyance of the Mails across the Isthmus of Suez, [). 3fil Walk-in-the- Water, The, trades on Lake Erie in 1819, with cargoes of furs, p. 132 Wasborough, 31., patents (March 16, 1779) a plan for converting recti- linear into circular motion, p. 29, and note, ihid. p. 101 Washington, The, steamship from New York to Bremen, detailed comparison of, with the Britaniiia, pp. 195-6, note Watt, James, by patents (of January .5tb, 1769), first shows how the steam-engine can be employed effectively for marine propulsion, p. 28 invents the " double impulse" or double-acting engine, ibid. renders his engine more effect ive by using a detached condenser, p. 29 invents (1781) the form of engine known as the " Sun and Planet," now preserved at South Kensington, p. 30 , in 1770, speaks of using a screw- propeller to be turned b}' an engine, p. 101 Watt, James, Jan., in 1817, takes the VOL. IV. steamer Caledonia up the Rhine as lar as Coblentz, p. 73, note Watt, James, Tlie, constructed to take the place of the Leith smacks, p. 80 Waves, deep sea, approximative mea- surement of the height of, ji. 535, note Wear River, shipbuilding on, 1874-5, Append, p. 595. Wetland Canal, the bond between the other lakes and Ontario ; its great value thereby, p. 124 and note West India Itoyal Mail ISteam racket Company inaugurated, 1841, p. 292 , their vessels to carry guns, and to be like H.M.'s war steamers, p. 293 , subsidy granted to, at the rate of 240,000/. jier annum, p. 294 , error of, in selecting, at first, as their commanders, naval men, with no special knowledge of steam, &c., ibid. , the public complain, not un- naturally, of the heavy subsidies granted to, pp. 295-6 , improved state of, in 1851, aris- ing, chiefly, from improved manage- ment, pp. 298-9 , contract with, in 1857, requires acceleration of the mails between England and liio Janeiro, i)p. 299- 300 , conditions of the services of, in 1864, details, &c., p. 301, note , contract for, renewed, 1874, on a greatly reduced subsidy, ji. 301 , the Fortli, steamship, details, pi) 302-3 , no fewer than six of their vessels lost in their first eiglit years as a Company, p. 303 , return of vessels added to, 1851 to 1860, p. 311, note , details of present services of, i>p. 312-13, note arrange witli Government, Feb. 1858, to perform the services of the European and Australian Company, p. 401 , jiarticnlars of, Jan. 1875, Append. 11. 634. Wist India and Pacijic Company now conveys the British mails to Honduras and jNfexico, p. 322 organized, in 1863, by union of several smaller companies, ibid 2 X 0(j(i JNDKX. Wheelwright, Mr., the first, in 1846, to point out the best eastern and western route for Transatlantic steamers, p. 245, note , as United States Consul of Guayaquil, sees the advantages ot steam communication along the coasts of the Pacific, p. 316 •, sketch of his life and history p. 316, note obtains a charter with some peculiar conditions, Feb. 1840, for the Pacific Steam Navigation Com- pany, p. 317 White Star Line, conducted by Messrs. Ismay, Imrie, and Co.,adopt, in 1870, the name of this famous line of sail- ing packets, p. 275 , originally, a line of the fast-sailing American clipper ships, to Australia, now continued in steamships by Messrs. Ismay & Co., p. 275, note , very strict regulations that no risks are to be run, safety of life and property being always the first consideration, p. 276, note , logs of their sliips, the Baltic and Adriatic, p. 277, note now run in connection with the Erie Railway from New York, booking through to San Francisco, p. 283 , Letter of Instructions, Append. p. 613 , passage of steamships of, ibid, p. 614 Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, supports the view that Mr. Waghorn, more than any one else, made the Oriental route to Suez a success, p. 361 Willcox, Mr. B. McGhee, sketch of his early life, p. 378, note practically the starter of the Com- pany since known as the Peninsular and Oriental, pp. 378-9 greatly improves the Peninsular Mail Service, p. 382 Wilson, T., of Faskine, builds the Vulcan, the first iron vessel in Scotland, which is still (1875) in use, {). 86 Wilson, Robert, brings, in 1827, under the notice of the Admiralty a screw " perfect in all its details," pp. 103-4 - Wilson, C'lpt., note of the Journey of Hon. Mr. Elphinstone to England by Red Sea and Suez, in 1827, p. 345, note , as Captain of the Hugh Lindsay, did much to " educate " the Govern- ment of England and India, with regard to steam to India, p. 352, note 2 Wind, the effect of, as producing long rollers at the Cape and elsewhere, p. 535 Winter, T. B., Mr., designs a very effective steam-vessel for the Indus, pp. 453-4 Wood, much of the, for H.M. Ships, ob- tained by the vote of 1861, left to rot in the Government Dockyards, p. 98, note Woodcroft, Mr. Bennet, in 1832, patents "an increasing screw-propeller" of special value, p. 103, 7iote , " value of his varying pitch " ])ropeller, patented Feb. 1849, p. 117 , his invention accepted by the Admiralty, in the case of the Royal Yacht Fairy, and H M. Ship Dwarf, ibid. Wooden and iron ships, relative strength and weight of. Append. p. 599. Worcester, Marquess of, no reasonable doubt that he was the first to make a steam-engine, p. 18 , but might not have succeeded if he had applied it to drive a boat, ibid. " World's Highway, TAe," pamphlet on railway communication with India, by Sir D. MacDonaid Stephenson, p. 338, note Ya>ig-tse-Kiang, notice of the course of, for 3000 miles from E. Tibet, to Shanghai, pp. 465-7 opened to Western Trade Feb. 1860, by Treaty, p. 467 , navigation on, for boats drawing H ft., to Ichang, 363 miles above Hankow, p. 480 END OF VOL. IV. 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