THE AMERK AN PRINTER: Ji panuiil of f spgrnjls, CONTAINING ('O^FPLKTK INSTHrCTIONS FOR BKdlXXKRS. AS WELL AS practical Sirecttoiis for Panaging all gepartmenls of a printing ©ffia. WITH SEVERAL USEFUL TABLES, SCHEMES FOR IMPOSING FORMS IN EVERY VARIETY, HINTS TO AUTHORS AND PUBLISHERS, ETC. ETC. THOMAS .MA('K1:L1.AR. w PHILADELPHIA: \!\(MsM'yiJ;AH, SMITHS A" JOKOAX. 1867. Hereby^ tongues are kno^wtiy knonjjledge gro^weth, judgment increaseth, books are dispersed^ the Scripture is read, stories be opened, times compared, truth discerned, falsehood detected and m:ith finger pointed, and all {as I said) through the benefit of Printing, fox's martyrs. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by L, Johnson & Company, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the ^ Eastern District t»f Pennsylvania. —-d:'^3}er ^ ^^0 ^^^ ^hir^d :Stiition* PREFACE. Usefulness rather than originality has been aimed at in the preparation of the American Printer, which is offered as an improvement on the typographical work formerly published by us. In addition to the results of actual personal experience embodied in the volume, information has been gathered from various publications, such as Ames and Dibdiv/s Typographical Antiquities, Thomases History of Printing, Timperley^s Dictionary of Printers and Printing, Savage's Dictionary of Printing, Johnsoji/s Typographia, Chambers's Encyclopcedia, Bead- neWs Guide to Typography, and the other books referred to in the notes. The work has been prepared amid the manifold interruptions incident to business life; yet we think nothing has been overlooked that is essential for the instruction of the learner or for the assistance of the workman. Besides the matter relating to practical typography, the volume contains a sketch of the discovery of printing, and notices of type-founding, stereotyping, electrotyping, 2 PREFACE. and lithography. The implements employed in typo- graphy are describe i and their uses explained; and complete schemes for imposition are laid down. The valuable tables and the plans of cases for various lan- guages, and for music and labour-saving rule, will be found extremely useful; as well as the extensive Ksts of abbreviations and of foreign words and phrases, and orthographical hints. Special attention has been given in setting forth the functions and duties of the foreman and proof-reader, so that the operations of an office may be prosecuted with efficiency, comfort, and economy. Authors and publishers, as well as typographical ama- teurs, may consult the volume with profit ; and, indeed, any intelligent person will find it a serviceable com- panion. CONTENTS. PAQB Rise and Progress op Printing 9-37 Discovery of Printing — Laurentius Coster — Geinsfleisch — Giitanberg — Faust — Bible printed — Peter Schoeffer — Caxton — Ancient typographical peculiarities — Printing introduced into America— Type-founding in Europe — In America — Stereotyping — Electrotyping — Lithography — Engraving — Walk over a type- foundry. Implements or Tools of the Art 38-102 Types — Roman letter — Italic — Black — Anglo-Saxon — Names and sizes of type — Gradations of type — Table of proportions of type — Fount of letter — Capitals — Small capitals — Points — Apostrophe — Hyphen — Parenthesis — References — Accents — Numerals — Arabic figures — Old-style figures — Cancelled figures — Fractions — Signs — Metal rule — Braces — Spaces — Two-line letter — Quadrates — Quotations and quotation furniture — Hollow quadrates — Circular quadrates — Leads — Flowers and borders — Labour-saving rule — Rule case — Runic alphabets — Anglo-Saxon alphabet and plp.n of cases — German alphabet and plan of cases — Greek — Greek cases — Hebrew — Hebrew cases — Music composition — Music cases. Composition 103-120 Remarks — Requisites in an apprentice — American cases — Posi- tion of a compositor — Laying type — Distributing — Composing — Spacing — Justifying — Head-lines — Notes — Blanking — Para- graphs — Indexes — Titl es — Dedications — Con tents — Prefaces — Signaturing — Errata — Ironical rules — Advice to apprentices. 3 CONTENTS. PAGE Imposition 121-178 General remarks — Tying up pages — Laying pages — Making up furniture — Making margin — Locking up forms — Memoranda — Schemes for imposing, from folio to 128mo. Proof-reading and Correcting 179-195 Corrections essential — Qualifications of a reader — Should be a printer — Indebtedness of authors to proof-readers — Process of reading — Proof record — Errors made in correcting — Two readers desirable — Punctuation — Alterations in proof — Stower's re- marks — Revise — Table of proof-marks, with explanations — Cor- recting in the metal — Capricious alterations — Proper method of correcting — Overrimning — Hints to authors — T^ble of signatures. The Foreman or Overseer 196-209 General duties — Treatment of compositors — Punctuality — Morning duties — Knowledge of all materials on hand — Order — Overseeing w^ork — Regulating takes of copy — Prompt reading and correcting — Memorandum — Press -Book — Press duties — Warehouse — Casting off copy — Managing hurried work — Com- panionships — Rules to be observed in a printing-office. The Press and its Working 210-270 History of the printing-press — Blaeu, its first improver — Ramage press — Stanhope press — Clymer or Columbian press — Smith press — Washington press — Adams's bed-and-platen power-press — Invention of the Cylinder press — Frederick Konig — William Nicholson — Dr. Kinsley — Applegath and Cowper — Account of the house of R. Hoe & Co.— A. B. Taylor & Co.— Richard M. Hoe's Lightning press — Bullock press — Railroad-ticket printing and numbering machines — Job presses — Ruggles, Adams, Hoe, Wells, Gordon, Degener, Seth Adams — Setting up a Washington press and roller-stand — Composition rollers — Covering tympans — Wetting paper — Blankets — Making ready a form — Pulling — Rules and remedies — Ley-trough — Putting up an Adams press — Making ready on cylinder presses — Fine hand-press work — Print- ing wood-cuts — Card printing — Gold printing — Bronze printing — Colour printing — Dry colours — How to multiply colours — Con- trast of colours— How to treat wodd type. CONTENTS. PAGE Warehouse Department 271-270 Warehouseman — Warehouse-Book — Receipt of paper and de- livery of sheets — Giving out paper to wet — Over-sheets — Hang- ing up paper to Ary — Taking down sheets — Filling in and press- ing — Counting and putting away — Sizes of paper — Table for giving out paper for a thousand copies. Orthographical 277-291 Discrepancies — a or an before a vowel or silent h — able and ihle — im or in and em or en — in and un — ise and ize — or and our — sion and tion — Farther and further — Peas and pease — Omission of s in the possessive case — Formation of plural of words compounded of a noun and an adjective — Pointing of numbers, &c. — Deriva- tion of words — Rules for spelling — Plurals of nouns. Law op Copyright 292,293 Subjects of copyright — Writings or drawings — Designs of form — Inventions in the useful arts — Copyright and patent-right— Per- sons entitled to copyright — Privilege of foreigners — Period of copyright — Formalities in securing copyright — Form of notice — Renewal of copyright — Smithsonian Institute and Congress Library not entitled to copies of books copyrighted. Technical Terms 294-298 Abbreviations 299-311 Foreign Words and Phrases 312-326 Index 327-336 1* " " * " " t^ ,^ i P V' U be bi bo hn |/ab ?t) ib o\i m tntl tfltii^^ tt^out trefpaf fe^a^KW |uMi\Mi^6.<)uiJ mot into temtrtfi ' ltifi>mjiL^(i't>er«^ ixm, evil HORN-BOOK OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. ^Kc ^^^Txicvicctn QPrinicr, ^t ^oit0 0f i^i f rinler. Pick and click Goes the type in the stick, As the printer stands at his case; His eyes glance quick, and his fingers pick The type at a rapid pace; And one by one as the letters go, Words are piled up steady and slow- Steady and slow, But still they grow, And words of fire they soon will glow; Wonderful words, that without a sound Traverse the earth to its utmost bound; Words that shall make The tyrant quake. And the fetters of the oppress'd shall break. Words that can crumble an army's might, Or treble its strength in a righteous fight, Yet the type they look but leaden and dumb. As he puts them in place with finger and thumb; But the printer smiles. And his work beguiles By chanting a song as the letters he piles. With pick and click, Like the world's chronometer, tick! tick! tick! O, where is the man with such simple tools Can govern the world as I ? With a printing press, an iron stick. And a little leaden die. With paper of white, and ink of black, I support the Right, and the Wrong attack. Say, where is he, or who may he be, That can rival the printer's power? To no monarchs that live the wall doth he give,— Their sway lasts only an hour; While the printer still grows, and God only knows When his might shall cease to tower! 8 THE AMERICAN PRINTER RISE AND PROGRESS OF PRINTING. DISCOVERY OF FEINTING. HE art which perpetuates the history and achievements of all the arts and sciences has not with certainty preserved the name of its own discoverer. At all events, the point is so dubious that several cities have advanced rival claims to the honour of the invention. We agree with Isaiah Thomas in the opinion that the following points may be regarded as established : — 1. That the cities of Haerlem in Holland, and Mentz and Strasburg in Germany, all claim the honour of being the birthplace of the art of printing. 2. That Laurentius, sometimes called Cos- ter, Koster, or Kustos, has the best claim to the honour of the discovery, which was made about the year 1429, or, as several writers state, not earlier than 1422, nor later than 1436. 3. That he lived at Haerlem, was a man of large property, had a lucrative office under the govern- ment, and there practised printing in its original rude state. 4. That Laurentius, for some time after he began printing, used wooden blocks or plates, on which he engraved, or carved, in pages, &c. the words for several small works; in 9 10 DISCOVERY OF PktNTING, some of which were pictures, cut in the blocks with the words. Tliese he printed only on one side of vellum, or paper, and doubled and pasted the leaves together, thus forming them into books. After practising this way for a few years, he in- vented and used separate wooden types, but never attempted to cut or cast types in metal.* * "About one hundred and twenty years ago, Laurence Zanssen Coster in- habited a decent and fashionable house in%the city of Ilaerlem, situated on the market-place, opposite the royal palace. The name of Coster was assumed, and inherited from his ancestors, who had long enjoyed the honourable and lucrative office of coster or sexton to the church. This man deserves to be restored to the honour of being the first inventor of printing, of which he has been unjustly de- prived by others, who have enjoyed the praises due to him alone. As he was walking in the wood contiguous to the city, which was the general custom of the richer citizens and men of leisure, in the afternoon and on holidays, he began to cut letters on the bark of the beech; with these letters he enstamped marks upon paper in a contrary direction, in the manner of a seal, until at length he formed a few lines for his own amusement and for the use of the children of his brother-in-law. This succeeding so well, he attempted greater things; and, being a man of genius and reflection, he invented, with the aid of his brother or son-in- law, Thomas Pietrison, a thicker and more adhesive ink, as the common ink was too thin and made blotted marks. With this ink he was able to print blocks and figures, to which he added letters. I have seen specimens of his j)rinting in this manner : in the beginning he printed on one fide only. This was a Dutch book, entitled Spiegal enser Behoudenisse. That it was one of the first books printed after the invention of the art, appears from the leaves, which are pasted together, that the naked sides might not be offensive to the eyes ; and none at first were printed in a more perfect manner. As this new species of traffic attracted nume- rous customers, thus did the profits arising from it increase his love for the art and his diligence in the exercise of it. " lie engaged workmen, which was the source of the mischief. Among these workmen was one Jan : whether his surname be that of Faust, or any other, is of no great importance to me, as I will not disturb the dead, whose consciences must have smote them sufficiently while living. This Jan, who assisted at the printing-press under oath, after he had learned the art of casting the types, set- ting them, and other articles belonging to the art, and thought himself suffi- ciently instructed, having watched the opportunity, as he could not find a better, he packed up the types and the other articles on Christmas eve, while the family was engaged in celebrating the festival, and stole away with them. lie first fled to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, until he could establish himself at Mentz, as a secure place, w^here he might open shop and reap the fruits of his knavery. It is a known fact that within the twelve months (that is, in the year 1440) he pub- lished the Alexmidri Galli Doctrinale (a grammar at that time in high repute), with Petri Hispani Tractatihus Logicis, with the same letters which Laurens had used. These were undoubtedly the first products of his press. These are the principal circumstances that I have collected from creditable persons far ad- DISCOVERY OF PRINTING. H 5. That Laurentius employed several servants in his busi- ness ; among whom was John Geinsfleisch, Sr. There were two brothers of that name : the younger was sometimes dis- tinguished by the name of Gutenberg. He was an ingenious artist, and lived at Strasburg. 6. That John Geinsfleisch, Sr., communicated, first, the theory of the art, and, afterward, the practice of it, to his younger brother; whom, for the sake of distinction, I shall hereafter call Gutenberg. 7. That Laurentius followed printing during the remainder of his life; and that, after his death, the business was con- tinued in his family at Haerlem for many years. 8. That John Geinsfleisch, the servant of Laurentius, about the time that his master died, with the aid of a fellow-servant who was his accomplice, took an oj)portunity, on a festival, to steal a considerable j)art of his master's wooden types, with other parts of his printing apparatus, and absconded; and, having conveyed liis plunder to Mentz, liis native place, he there commenced printing, about the year 1440, with the t^^pes he had stolen from his master. 9. That, after Geinsfleisch settled at Mentz, he was assisted with money, &c. by John Fust, alias Faust, alia^ Faustus, a rich and very respectable'- man ; who, consequently, shared the profits with Geinsfleisch. Faust and Geinsfleisch after- ward formed a company, and admitted as a partner John Meidenbachius, with some other persons. 10. That Gutenberg, the younger brother of Geinsfleisch, continued at Strasburg till 1444, and was in various employ- ments ; but he made great efforts toward attaining the art of printing with cut metal types. Ho could not, however, bring the art to any degree of perfection. It is believed by some that he and the partners with whom he was concerned printed a few very small works. Their performances have all disap- peared, and, as far as known, have been entirely destroyed. Although, whilst at Strasburg, Gutenberg had made consider- able progress in improving the art, yet, having quarrelled mth his partners, and being involved in lawsuits, he quitted that city and joined his brother at Mentz. vanced in years, which they have transmitted like a flaminjs; torcli from hand tc hand; I have also met with others who have confirmed the same," &c. &c. — Hadrianus Jiinius, 1578. 12 DISCOVERY OF PRINTING, 11. The two brothers had the management of the printing business at Mentz, and they united their endeavours to form a fount of metal types with cut faces. Their method of making these types was, lirst to cast the shanks, or bodies, to a suit- able size, and afterward to engrave or cut the letters on them. After a labour of several years, they accomplished ihe undertaking; and in 1450 a part of the Bible appeared from their press, which was printed with those types.* The same year, and very soon after they began to work with those types, the partnersliip between the brothers, Faust & Com- pany, was dissolved, and a connection between Faust and Gutenberg commenced ; but, a difference between them arising, an action at law was instituted by Faust for money advanced to Gutenberg, and their joint concern in business ended in 1455. After this, Gutenberg was assisted by Conrad Humery, Syndic of Mentz, and others ; and this new company opened another printing-house in that city. Faust also continued the business, and took into partnership one of his servants, called Peter Schoeffer, an ingenious man, who had become very skil- ful in the printing business. 12. That Schoeffer, in 1456, completed the invention of metallic types by casting them with faces. " He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet ; and, when he showed his master the types cast from these matrices, Faust was so much pleased that he gave Schoeffer his only daughter in marriage." There were at lirst many difficulties with these types, as there had been with those of wood and those that were cut on metal: one was owing to the softness of the metal, which would not bear forcible pressing ; but this defect, as well as some others, was soon remedied. The first book printed with the improved types was Durandi Rationale. It was not finished till 1459. From these facts, it appears that the rudimental discovery of the art may be fairly allotted to Laurentius of Haerlem ; the invention and improvement of metal cut-face types be- long to Geinsfleisch and his brother Gutenberg ; the practical and final completion of the art by the invention of metal types cast with faces is due to Peter Schoeffer, of Mentz.t * Polydore Virgil mentions that metal types with cut faces were first thought of in 1442. t For a more detailed account, see Thomas's Histm-y of Printing, Ames's and Dibdin's Typographical Antiquities, et al. ANCIENT PECULIARITIES, 13 The knowledge and practice of the art were gradually ex- tended over Europe. A press was established at Boulogne as early as 1462 ; one at Paris in 1464 ; and another at Borne in 1466. Iceland had its printing-office in 1530, at which a Bible was printed in 1584. William Caxton acquired a knowledge of the art in Ger- many, carried it into practice at Westminster in England, and in 1474 printed a book entitled The Game of Chess, Though at that time over sixty years old, he was remarkable for his in- dustrious habit. He was possessed of good sense and sound judgment ; steady, persevering, active, zealous, and liberal in his devices for that important art which he introduced into England, labouring not only as a printer, but as translator and author. The productions of his press amount to sixty- four. In the churchwardens' books of St. Margaret's Parish, Westminster, his death is thus recorded : — '' 1491. Item, atte bureyng of William Caxton, for iiii. torches vj5. viijd. Item, for the belle atte same bureyng, vjcZ." ANCIENT PECULIARITIES. The pages were either large or small folios, but sometimes quartos ; the smaller sizes were not in use. The leaves were without running title, direction-word, num- ber of pages, or divisions into paragraphs. The character itself was a rude old Gothic mixed with Secretary, designed to imitate the handwriting of the times ; the words were printed so close to one another that the matter was difficult and tedious to be read, even by those who were used to manuscripts and to this method, and often led the in- attentive reader into mistakes. Ancient printers did not divide words at the ends of lines by hyphens. To avoid divisions, they used vowels with a mark of abbreviation to denote that one or more letters were omitted in the word : e. g, copose for compose, copletio for completion, &c. No punctuation-marks were used, except the colon and full point ; but an oblique stroke ( / ) was after a while intro- ^ duced, for which the comma was finally substituted. Orthography was various and often arbitrary, and syntax was disregarded. Proper names and sentences were often begun with small letters, as well as the first words in lines of poetry. 2 14 PRINTING IN AMERICA. Blanks were left for the places of titles, initial letters, and other ornaments, to be supplied afterward by illuminators, whose ingenious art, though in vogue before and at that time, did not long survive the masterly improvements made by the printers in this branch of their art. These ornaments were exquisitely fine, and curiously variegated with the most beautiful colours, and even with gold and silver ; the margins, likewise, were frequently charged with a variety of figures, of saints, birds, beasts, monsters, flowers, &c., which had some- times relation to the contents of the page, though often none at all. These embellishments were often very costly. The name of the printer, place of his residence, &c. were either wholly neglected or put at the end of the book, not without some pious ejaculation or doxology. The date was likewise omitted, or involved in some cramped, circumstantial design, or printed either at full length or in numerical letters, and sometimes partly one and partly the other : thus. One Thousand CCCC and Ixxiiii ; but always at the end of the book. There was no variety of character, nor intermixture of Ro- man and Italic,— which were of later invention ; but the pages were all printed in a Gothic letter of the same size through- out. About 1469-70, alphabetical tables of the first words of each chapter were introduced, as a guide to the binder. Catch- words (now generally abolished) were first used at Venice, by Vindeline de Spire. The inventor of signatures is unknown. PRINTING IN AMERICA. The first press introduced into America was at Lima, Peru, about the year 1590, and the next into Mexico, in 1600. Cambridge, Massachusetts, is entitled to the distinction of having the first printing-press in ]S"orth America, which was under the charge of Stephen Daye. For this press the colony was mainly indebted to the Rev. Jesse Glover, a noncon- formist minister possessed of a considerable estate, who had left England to settle among his friends in Massachusetts. Some gentlemen of Amsterdam also " gave towards furnish- ing of a printing-press with letters, forty-nine pounds and something more." This was about 1638. The first book issued was the Bay Psalm-Book^ in 1640. ■ TYPE-FOUNDING IN EUROPE. 15 The first book issued in the Middle Colonies was an Almanac, printed by William Bradford in 1685, near Phila- delphia.* Bradford was brought out from England in 1682 by William Penn, who was desirous to give his prospective colony the benefit of a printing-press. As the government of Pennsylvania became very restrictive in regard to the press, Bradford in 1693 removed to New York, and was appointed printer to that colony, where, in connection with his business, he established in 1725 the New York Gazette, the first news- paper published there. He died May 23, 1752, after an active and useful life of eighty-nine years. The first newspaper in America was the Bosto7i News Letter, which was first issued by John Campbell on Monday, April 24, 1704: it was regularly published for nearly seventy- two years. The second was the Boston Gazette, begun December 21, 1719. The third was the American Weekly Mercury, issued in Philadelphia on December 22, 1719. James Franklin, an elder brother of Benjamin, established the New England Cou- rant, August 17, 1721. TYPE-FOUNDING IN EUROPE. For a long period after the discovery of printing, it seems that type-founding, printing, and binding went under the general term of printing, and that printers cast the types used * Two copies of this Almauac are known to be in existence. We give the Address of THE PRINTER TO THE READERS. Hereby underftand that after great charge & Trouble, I have brought that GREAT Art & Mystery of Printing into this part of America; believing it may be of great fervice to you in feveral refpects ; hoping to find encouragement, not only in this Almanack, but what elfe I fliall enter upon for the ufe & fervice of the Inhabitants of thefe Parts. Some irregularities there be in this Diary, which I defire you to pafs by this year; for being lately come hither, my materials were mifplaced & out of order, whereupon I was forced to ufe Figures & Letters of various Sizes : but underftanding the want of fomething of this nature, 8c being importuned thereto, I ventured to make public this ; defiring you to accept thereof; & by the next (as I find encouragement) fhall endeavour to have things compleat. And for the eafe of Clarks, Scriveniers, &c., I propofe to print blank Bills, Bonds, Letters of Attorney, Indentures, Warrants, etc., & what elfe prefents itfelf, wherein I fhall be ready to ferve you ; and remain your friend. W. BRADFORD. Philadelphia, the loth month, 1685. 16 TYPE-FOUNDINQ IN AMERICA, by them, and printed and bound the works executed in their establishments. Type-founding became a distinct calling early in the seventeenth century. A decree of the Star Chamber, made July 11, 1637, ordained the following regulations con- cerning English founders : — " That there shall be four founders of letters for printing, and no more. "That the Archbishop of Canterbury, or the Bishop of London, with six other high commissioners, shall supply the places of those four as they shall become void. " That no master-founder shall keep above two apprentices at one time. *' That all journeyman-founders be employed by the mas- ters of the trade, and that idle journeymen be compelled to work, upon pain of imprisonment and such other punishment as the court shall think fit. " That no master-founder of letters shall employ any other person in any work belonging to the casting or founding of letters than freemen or apprentices to the trade, save only in pulling off the knots of metal hanging at the ends of the letters when they are first cast ; in which work every master-founder may employ one boy only, not bound to the trade." By the same decree, the number of master-printers in Eng- land was limited to twenty. Regulations like the above were in force till 1690. The "polyglot founders," as they have been called, were suc- ' ceeded by Joseph Moxon and others. But the English were unable to compete with the superior productions of the Dutch founders, until the advent of William Caslon, who, by the beauty and excellence of his type, surpassed his Batavian competitors, when the importation of foreign type ceased, and his founts were, in turn, exported to the Continent. TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMEBIC A, A FOUNDRY, principally for German type, was established at Germantown, Pennsylvania, about the year 1735, by Chris- topher Saur (or Sower), a printer, who executed in German the first quarto Bible printed in America, as well as other valuable works in the German language. Three editions were printed of the Bible,— viz. in the years 1743, 1763, and 1776, the latter two by his son. In 1739, Saur published a newspaper in Germantown. TYPE-FOUNDINO IN AMERICA, I7 An abortive attempt was made about 1768 to set up a foundry at Boston, by a Mr. Mitchelson, from Scotland, and another in Connecticut, by a Mr. Buck. In 1775, Dr. Franklin brought from Europe to Philadelphia the materials for a foundry ; but little use was made of them. John Baine, a type-founder of Edinburgh, sent a relative to this country with tools for a foundry at the close of the Revo- lutionary War, and soon after came over himself. They car- ried on the business till 1790, when Mr. Baine died, and his kinsman returned to Scotland. A Dutch founder afterward settled at New York, and cast Dutch and German faces, which Avere considered handsome, though his Roman styles were very poor. Want of money prevented his success.* In 1796, type-founding was commenced in Philadelphia, by Archibald Binny and James Ronaldson, natives of the city of Edinburgh, where Binny had carried on the same business. Their assortment was not extensive, but it embraced the essential founts, — Brevier, Bourgeois, Long Primer, Small Pica, Pica, and two-line letters. They were obliging and attentive, and in twenty years made a fortune, f They im- proved their foundry according to the increase of printing and the consequent demands of the trade, extending their assort- ment from Pearl, of 180 lines in a foot, to 12-line Pica, having 6 lines. Binny made an important improvement in the type- * For the remainder of this article we axe largely Indebted to the venerable George Bruce, of New York. t After the retirement of Binny & Ronaldson, Richard Ronaldson carried on the business of this foundry until 1833, when he in turn was succeeded by Law- rence Johnson and George F. Smith. Mr. Johnson, a man of energy and enter- prise, had introduced stereotyping into Philadelphia, and now both callings were incorporated. Ten years afterward, Mr. Smith retired ; and in 1845 Mr. Johnson associated with him Thomas MacKellar, John F. Smith, and Richard Smith, who had, as it were, grown up with the business. The foundry now quickly grew in importance, and won a mde reputation. A quarterly periodical, entitled the Typographic Advertiser, edited by a then junior of the firm, was (and still is) issued and circulated at home and in foreign lands; while its finely-printed Specimen Books showed that the foundry was making rapid progress, Mr. John- son died in 1860, and was succeeded by his three junior partners, who, with Peter A. Jordan, constitute the present firm, now known as MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, under whose management the establishment has been brought to rank at least equal with the first in the world. Their new Specimen Book may be regarded as a unique mechanical and literary production. 18 TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. mould, by which a caster could cast 6000 letters in a day with as much ease as he before could cast 4000. According to Holmes's American Annals, about 200 news- papers were printed in the United States in the year 1801, of which 17 were issued daily, 7 three times a week, 30 twice a week, and 146 weekly. " There must also have been at the same time as many as 60 offices engaged in miscellaneous printing. The whole business had increased threefold in eleven years. Another type-foundry was put in successful operation in Baltimore, about 1805, by Samuel Sower & Co. It had in it some moulds and matrices which had been used by Christopher Sower, who had printed in Germantown, near Philadelphia, and cast his own types. He printed with Ger- man characters ; but now the foundry was revived with ex- cellent Roman and Italic letters, and among other extraordi- nary things it had the size called Diamond, with a smaller face than had ever been cast before. It was the smallest type in the world. The demand for type was very brisk till the war of 1812 commenced, and the foundries were generally three or four months in arrears in their execution of orders. The names of the newspapers published in the United States in April, 1810, are given in Thomas's History of Printing, and amount to 359, of which 27 were daily papers, 38 were printed twice, 15 three times, and 279 once in a week. Add those required for general printing, and the whole number of offices could not be less than 500, — being an increase of 240 in nine j^ears, and some of them using several thousand pounds of type for book-printing. In 1811, Elihu White established a type-foundry in New York. He had been long engaged, in connection with Mr. Wing, in the manufacture of printing-types, at Hartford, Con- necticut, upon a plan of their own invention, by which 20 or 30 letters were cast at once ; but, abandoning that invention, he adopted the old plan of casting, and, having a good assort- ment of faces and bodies, his removal to New York was a great convenience to its printers, and they gave him a very satisfactory support. But the principal business in type- founding still continued for some years to be done in Phila- delphia. In 1813, another type-foundry was begun in the city of New TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA, 19 York, by D. & G. Bruce, principally to cast types for their own use. They had carried on book-printing for seven years, and had now become acquainted with the stereotype art, — Mr. David Bruce having visited England in 1812 and acquired it by purchase and actual labour. For ordinary printing, it was customary to bevel off the body of the type at the face end, or shoulder, as it is usually called, which unfitted it for making a strong stereotype plate in the most approved way; hence the necessity for casting type expressly for stereotype. Their first fount was Bourgeois, with which they cast two sets of plates of the New Testament (the Common School Testament), and sold one of these to Mathew Carey, of Philadelphia, re- taining the other for their own business. But these were not completed till 1814. In 1815, they cast the plates of the 12mo School Bible, on Nonpareil type, prepared, like-the Bourgeois, at their own foundry expressly for stereotyping. They thus gave the first stereotype School Testament and School Bible to America; but not the first stereotype book. John Watts, of England, also commenced stereotyping in New York in 1813, and completed the Westminster Catechism that year, a volume of 120 pages 12mo. David Bruce invented the planing- machine for equalizing the thickness of stereotype plates, which is now used in every stereotype foundry in the United States. The process of stereotyping is, however, entirely dif- ferent from that of ordinary type-founding, and it is, therefore, generally carried on as a separate business, or connected with the composing department of a printing-office. Twenty com- positors and two proof-readers will furnish full employment for one moulder, one caster, and three finishers, who will, among them, complete, on an average, 50 pages of octavo per day. In 1818, or soon after, a type and stereotype foundry was established in Boston, and another in Cincinnati, principally through the enterprise of the late Elihu White, who, having the means of multiplying matrices with facility, took this method for the extension of his business. Others followed his example, and type-foundries were established in Albany, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Louisville, and St. Louis, with several additional in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The business, in fact, was overdone, and failures and sup- pressions took place, as competition reduced the prices of types. 20 TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA, The mode of type-founding has latterly undergone some im- portant changes, which must no doubt be considered improve- ments. First among them is the introduction of machine- casting, in which a pump forces the fluid metal into the mould and matrix, and gives a sharper outline to the letter than was formerly given by the most violent throw of the caster. The old practice of casting only a single type at a time remains. The first idea of this machine originated with William M. Johnson, who obtained a patent for it in 1828. Elihu White put it into use in his type-foundry, and persevered in using and trying to improve it as long as he lived ; but he did not succeed in removing the greatest fault, which was a hoUow- ness in the body of the type cast by it, that inclined them to sink under the pressure of the printing-press. The first suc- cessful type-casting machine was invented by David Bruce, Jr., of New York, and was patented March 17, 1838. The patent was sold to George Bruce, and the machines were used by him until 1845. David Bruce meanwhile patented another machine in 1843, which, with new improvements, patented two years later, gave entire satisfaction, and is now in general use in American foundries. By Bruce' s machine, three times the quantity of type that was cast by Binny & Ronaldson's improved mould is now cast in a given time, and nearly five times the quantity that was cast by the common hand-mould fifty years ago. This improvement has passed into Europe, and been adopted by most of the German type-founders ; but in Britain for some time it found little favour ; and some kinds of types are still cast there in the same kind of mould as was used two hundred years ago, or in the earliest-known type- founding, at the rate of 4000 letters in a day. The next innovation to be mentioned is the application of electrotyping in making copies of new styles got up by rival or foreign founders. In regular type-founding, the original of each character is formed on a separate steel punch, which, being hardened and tempered, is driven into copper a six- teenth of an inch or more, to form the face of the tj^pe, called a matrix. The matrices thus made are more durable than those produced by galvanism ; the latter being formed by pre- cipitating copper on the face of a type in a galvanic battery. There are now three type-foundries in Boston, eight in the city of New York, one in Buffalo, three in Philadelphia, one in Baltimore, two in Cincinnati, one in Chicago, one in Mil- waukee, and one in St. Louis, — in all, twenty-one. These STEREOTYPING, 21 foundries not only supply the printers of the United States, but most of the printers in Canada, some in the British West India Islands, the Spanish and Danish Islands, Mexico, and South America. The quality of American types is equal— if not superior — to that of any made in Europe. The following are the prices at which they have been sold for the last sixty- six years, given at nine different dates, and naming only the principal and most useful sizes. 1801. 1806. 1811. 1819. 1827. 1831. 18U1. 1850. 1866. Pica I0.35 $0.44 $0.55 $0.44 $0.42 $0.36 $0.38 $0.30 $0.56 Small Pica 40 .48 .58 .48 .46 .38 .40 .32 .58 Long Primer 47 .56 .66 .56 .50 .40 .42 .34 .62 Bourgeois 56 .66 .76 .66 .58 .46 .46 .37 .66 Brevier 67 .76 .86 .76 .70 .56 .54 .42 .70 Minion 1.03 1.13 i.oo .88 .70 .66 .48 .76 Nonpareil 1.12 1.40 1.75 1.40 1.20 .90 .84 .58 .84 Agate 1.44 1. 10 1.08 .72 1.00 Pearl 1.75 1.40 1.40 1.08 1.40 Diamond 1.60 1.80 STEREOTYPING, Stereotyping is said to have been invented by J. Van der Mey, in Holland, about 1698. A quarto Bible and some other books were printed by him from plates, which were formed by soldering the bottoms of common type together. William Ged, of Edinburgh, discovered the present mode, and stereo- typed the Bible and Book of Common Prayer in 1725. He encountered malicious opposition, and the business was aban- doned, the new method dying with the inventor. About 1745, Benjamin Mecom, a nephew of Dr. Franklin, cast plates for a number of the pages of the New Testament. Dr. Alexander Tilloch, of Glasgow, re-discovered the art in 1781. Stereo- typing gradually spread, and became a potent means in the reduction of the cost of books. At present, almost every im- portant work is stereotyped or electrotyped. Several methods of stereotyping are now practised. Many of the leading newspapers of England and America are printed from stereotype plates cast in moulds made of pre- pared paper : this mode is, however, very inferior, and is not applicable to fine books. Matter for stereotyping is set with high spaces and quad- rates. The forms must be small, containing about two pages 22 STEREOTYPING, of common octavo. A slug type-high is put above the top line and another below the foot line of each page, to protect the ends of the plates from injury when they are passed through the shaving-machine. Bevelled slugs, in height equal to the shoulder of the type, are placed on both sides and between the pages, to form the flange by which the plate is to be clasped by the hooks of the printing-block. Before the form is sent into the foundry, the type must be carefully compared with the proof, to detect any errors which may have been left uncorrected. Care must be taken to lock up the form perfectly square and quite tight, to prevent the types from being pulled out when the mould is raised from the pages. It must be evenly planed down, and no ink or dirt or incrustations from the ley be allowed to remain on the surface. The face of the type being clean and dry, and the bottoms free from particles of dirt, the form is laid on a clean mould- ing-stone, and brushed over with sweet-oil, which must be laid on as thinly as possible, care being taken that the entire surface of the types is covered. A moulding-frame, with a screw at each corner (called a flask) ^ and fitting neatly to the form, is next placed around it. The material for moulding is finely ground gypsum, nine parts of which are mixed with about seven parts of water, and well stirred up. A small quantity of the liquid mixture is poured over the pages, and gently pressed into the counter of the types with a small roller, for the purpose of expelling con- fined air ; after which, the remainder of the gypsum is poured in, until the mould is somewhat higher than the upper edge of the flask. In a few minutes the mixture sets, and the upper side is smoothed over with a steel straight-edge. In about ten minutes the mould is gently raised by means of the screws at the corners of the flask ; and, after being nicely trimmed at the sides, and nicked on the surface-edges to make openings for the metal to run in, it is placed on a shelf in an oven, and allowed to remain until the moisture has quite evaporated. The casting-pans may be large enough to hold three or four moulds. The dried moulds are placed in a pan face down- ward, upon a moveable iron plate called a floater. The cover of the casting-pan, which has a hole at each corner for the passage of the metal, is then clamped to it, and lifted by a movable crane and gently lowered into the metal-pot, — con- STEREOTYPING. 23 taining, it may be, a thousand pounds of liquid metal, — till the metal begins to flow slowly in at the corners. When the pan is filled, it is sunk to the bottom of the pot. The metal should be hot enough to light a piece of brown paper held in it. After being immersed eight or ten minutes, the pan is steadily drawn out by means of the crane, and swung over to the cool- ing-trough, into which it is lowered and rested upon a stone so as just to touch the water, in order that the metal at the bottom of the pot maj^ cool first. The metal contracts while cooling, and the caster occasionally pours in a small quantity at the corners from a l^dle, till it will take no more. The plates are carefully removed from the solid mass which comes out of the pan, and the plaster is washed from the sur- face. If, after examination, the face is good and sharply set, the plates are passed over to a picker, who removes any slight defects arising from an imperfection of the mould. They are then trimmed and passed through the shaving-machine, till all are brought to an equal thickness. The flanges are neatly side-planed, and the plates are then boxed, ready for the printing-press. In England, the plates are merely turned on the back, and, consequently, vary in thickness. This must be a source of continual expense and annoyance to the pressman. The flanges, besides, are very imperfectly made, — so imperfectly that they cannot be used on American printing-blocks ; and English plates, when imported into tliis country, are, there- fore, sent to a foundry here, to be brought to an equal thick- ness and to be properly side-planed. The American shaving- machine and printing-block are scarcely known abroad, though far superior to foreign arrangements. In 1804, before the introduction of stereotyping into this country, Mathew Carey, the well-known enterprising pub- lisher in Philadelphia, had the Bible in quarto set up entire, and regularly imposed in chases, to print from at convenience, according to the demand for the volume. The type was cast by Binny & Ronaldson. Stereotyping would have saved a vast proportion of the immense outlay required to carry out the scheme, which, nevertheless, even under these circum- stances, was doubtless highly remunerative. The weight of type must have amounted to 25,000 pounds, to say nothing of the number of chases and column-rules required. 24 ELECTROTYPING— LITHOGRAPHY, ELECTROTYPING. Lately, stereotyping has measurably given way to the appli- cation of galvanism named Electrotyping, and may be super- seded by it, though the former is better for moderate editions. The pages being made ready and laid in a press, a pan of prepared wax, warmed, is placed over the pages and pressed down to the counter of the types. The mould is carefully dusted with plumbago, to give it a metallic surface, and is then suspended in the battery. On this, in a few hours, is deposited a thin shell of copper, which, after being coated with tin solder, is backed up with metal to the usual thick- ness of a stereotype plate. This method of electro-stereotyping is desirable for Bibles and other works of which immense edi- tions are required. Wood-cuts are usually electrotyped, as a stereotype mould cannot be drawn unless the wood-cut has been previously coated with gum, which thickens the lines and injures the effect of the engraving. The same care in preparing the pages for electrotyping must be observed as for stereotyping. For stereotyping, high slugs are placed only at the top and foot of the page ; but, for electro- typing, they must be set around on all sides, and the bevelled flange must be made by side-planing. LITHOGRAPHY. Lithography is the art of printing, by a chemical process, from designs made with a greasy material upon stone. It was discovered about the beginning of the present century by Alois Senefelder, an actor of Munich, Bavaria, whose patience and perseverance under the most disadvantageous circumstances were truly remarkable and praiseworthy. Differing from all other methods of printing, the impressions are obtained (by strict attention to chemical affinity) from a level surface. The stone best calculated for lithographic purposes is a sort of calcareous slate found on the banks of the Danube, in Ba- varia, the finest being found near Munich. A good stone is porous, yet brittle, of a pale yellowish drab, and sometimes of a gray neutral tint. The stones are formed into sl&bs from one and a-half to three inches in thickness. To prepare them for use, two stones are placed face to face with some fine sifted LITHOGRAPHY. 25 sand between them, and then are rubbed together with a cir- cular motion, to jproduce the requisite.- granulation, which is made finer or coarser to suit the purpose of the artist. The principal agents used for making designs on stone are called lithographic chalk and lithographic ink. They are composed of tallow, virgin wax, hard tallow soajD, shellac, sometimes a little mastic or copal, and enough lampblack to impart a colour to the mass. These ingredients are put into an iron sauce-pan, and exposed to a strong fire till the mass is in a state of ignition. When the quantity is reduced one-half, the pan is carefully covered, or put into water to extinguish the flame and cool the mixture. After being well worked up, it is formed into small cakes or sticks. The ingredients ar6 the same in the chalk and the ink, but the x^i'oportions are varied, and a little Venice turpentine is often added to the latter. The chalk is used in a dry state ; but the ink is dis- solved by rubbing in water, and is used in a pen or with a camel-hair pencil. The jiresence of soap renders it soluble in water. The artist completes a drawing with the chalk upon a grained stone as he would make a drawing in i)encil or chalk upon paper. If while in this state a wet sponge were passed over the face of the stone, the drawing would wash off. To prevent this, and to make it capable of yielding impressions, a weak solution of nitrous acid is poured over it, which unites with and neutralizes the alkali or soaj) contained in the chalk, and renders it insoluble in water. After this, the usual course is to float a solution of gum over the whole face of the stone ; and, when this is taken off, the drawing is no longer removable by the application of a wet sponge, because the chalk is now insoluble. The stone is now ready for the printer, who ob- tains impressions by the following process. Having damped the surface of the stone equally with a sponge filled with water which has been slightly tinctured by acid, the printer finds that the water has been imbibed by only those parts of the stone which are not occupied by the drawing, which, being greasy, repels the water and remains dry. A roller covered with ink is now passed over the stone, which will not even be soiled where it is wet, from the anti^ pathy of oil and water. But the parts occupied by the draw- ing, being dry and greasy, have an affinity for the printing- ink, which, therefore, leaves the roller and attaches itself to 3 26 - LITHOGRAPHY, the drawing. In this state it is said to be charged or rolled in. A sheet of damped paper is then put over it, and, the whole being passed through .a press, the printing-ink is transferred from the stone to the paper, and the impression is obtained. Great nicety is requisite in the preparation of all the agents employed in this art, and in the process of printing as well as in making the drawing on the stone. The most important application of this process is in the production of copies of coloured drawings and paintings, — a process known as chromo-lithography. The object here being to produce as nearly as possible fac-similes in colour, touch, and texture, as well as in drawing and light and sha- dow, of pictures from the pencils of painters of the highest standing, it has been found necessary to employ a large num- ber of stones, in order to produce the almost infinite varieties of tints which are found united in a single picture, — eyery stone giving a separate impression in its own particular colour or tint. The mode of procedure is somewhat as follows. First, an outline of the entire subject is made by means of transfer paper, or otherwise, on a. stone which is called the outline or keystone of the work. This stone yields impressions which are transferred as guides to all the other stones. On a second and third stone which serve as the basis of the print the general effect of the drawing is washed in, and from these are printed what may be called the chiaroscuro, in a faint tint of sepia and of a neutral colour or gray, — corresponding, iri fact,* very nearly to the neutral or dead colouring of a water- colour drawing in the method adopted by the early water- colour painters. The stones which follow are each charged with a particular colour or tint, and each leaves its impression on only a particular portion of the print, — one stone printing only the parts which are intended to be yellow or a modifica- tion of yellow, another red, another blue, and so on. Other stones charged in parts with grays or secondary colours serve to blend and harmonize the crude colours ; others follow which modify these ; and, finally, one gives the sharp dark touches, and is usually followed by another which supplies a sort of glaze or finishing wash, and subdues and harmonizes the whole. Of course, we have merely indicated the general method. It will be understood that the sequence of the colours in the printing, the special quality and strength to be given to each particular tint, the effect to be produced by their super- ENGRAVING, 27 position, and many other particulars, have all to be taken into account in planning the arrangement of the colours on the stones; — since a sequence in some respects different, and an entirely different modification of colours, have to be employed for the works of most artists ; and it happens that much of the colour on each of the earlier stones is covered by that of suc- ceeding stones, and that thus only can the broken tints of the original be imitated. It is, in fact, only by watching the pro- gress of a print through all its stages that any clear idea can be obtained of the beauty and accuracy of the whole process, of the prevision that must be exercised, and of the skill, care, and taste required at every step to carry it to a successful ter- mination. For some of the more elaborate prints, from thirty to forty stones have been required to produce a finished print. And in order to produce this print, it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper has to be passed as many times through the press as there are stones, since each stone imprints upon it only its own particular section of the Avork. Of course, in pro- portion to the increase in the number of the stones, does the difficulty increase of making the work upon each fall exactly upon its proper place in the general design ; for, if any one were misplaced only the fiftieth of an inch, the drawing and colour of the whole would be distui'bed. Hence it is found necessary to arrange the regintcr^ or adjustment of the stones, with the utmost care and precision, and to exercise the most careful supervision in the printing (which is entirely a hand process), since the sheet of paper expands considerably in passing through the press, and has to be dried and re-damped before it can be passed through again. But practically this is all accomplished with seeming ease, and a largo and most complex subject will be found, when the last stage has been reached, to bear the most minute scrutiny; and the result, even when the copy is placed alongside the original, will sur- prise and delight equally those who have followed the work through its several steps, and those who may only examine the comx)leted work. ENGRAVING, The origin of engraving on wood, like that of many other useful arts, is obscured by clouds which the learned have in vain endeavoured to dispel. The most probable opinion is 28 ^ WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY, that it is of Asiatic origin. China seems to have the best claim to the invention. Tlie earliest specimen of engraving on wood in Europe is supposed to have been executed about the year 1284. According to Vasari, the important discovery of chalco- graphy was made by Thomas Finiguerra, a Florentine gold- smith of the fifteenth century, whp lived from 1400 to 1460. The manner in which he made this discovery is thus stated by the Rev. T. F. Dibdin :— " Of engraving upon copper, the earliest known impression is that executed by one Tommaso Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, with the date of 1460 upon it. One of the following circumstances is supjjosed to have given rise to the discovery. Finiguerra chanced to cast, or let fall, a piece of copper, en- graved and filled with ink, into melted sulphur; and, ob- serving that the exact impression of his work was left on the sulphur, he repeated the experiment on moistened paper, rolling it gently with a roller. This origin has been admitted by Lord Walpole and Mr. Landseer; but another has been also mentioned by Huber. ' It is reported,' says he, * that a washerwoman left some linen upon a plate or dish on which Finiguerra had just been engraving, and that an impression of the subject engraved, however imperfect, came off upon the linen, occasioned by its weight and moistness.' " As a fitting conclusion to this part, we copy an article, ori- ginally published in L. Johnson & Co.'s Typographic Adver- tiser, entitled A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY, Mr. Typograpii, how are you, sir? Glad to see you. How is business with you? Plenty to do, and customers paying up ? You are so prompt in paying us, that we have no doubt you have a noble set of customers. You wish to add to your stock our new things ? All right, sir. You have a fine office already, but you want to keep up with the times, and give your patrons the best the type-founder can invent? That's the way, sir. The man on the lookout sees the sun the earliest. A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. 29 Mr. Faithful, show our new things to Mr. Typograph, and take his order. You say, Mr. Typograph, that you have never gone over a type-foundry? We shall be happy to show you every thing. This way, sir. Here is the metal-house. These piles of dull lead, these casks of sparkling antimony, this coppoi", and this tin, go to form the grand amalgam of which type is made. The worthy and kind-hearted man who is stirring at the kettle, unites, in bonds stronger than matrimony, some ten to twelve thousand pounrls of those metals every week. Tt may 30 A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. appear to you, Mr. Typograj)!!, to be a simple thing to throw into the kettle certain amounts of lead and antimony, and copper and tin, and produce type-metal. Not so, good friend. It is not an easy matter to compose a metal that shall be hard, yet not brittle ; ductile, yet tough ; flowing freely, yet harden- ing quickly. All these conditions must be — and are — met. Break a bar in two, and examine the grain of our metal : is it not beautiful ? Now, sir, let us up-stairs and see how these bars are fitted for printer's use. This is a punch-cutter — a man of exquisite finger and unerring eye — sitting amid keen and deli- cate tools and accurate gauges. On the end of a piece of steel, he is forming a letter. ^ touch here and a touch there, and frequent testing by gauges, — so he proceeds, till the letter is done; then another, and another, till the alphabet is complete; all the letters harmonizing entirely in height, breadth, aj^pearance, length of stroke, &c. A smoke-proof of the dies is taken, and if apj)roved the dies are one by one placed in a stamping machine, so, — and an oblong piece of copper is set under it, so, — and then this lever is PUNCH brought down, so, — and a i)erfect impression of the die is left, as you see, deep in the copper. This is the matrix. The matrices are passed over to other workmen in the adjoin- ing room. Observe now the carefulness and skill exercised in fitting up these bits of copper, so that, when placed in the mould, the types cast in them liiiUHIIilH ^^^^^"^ range accurately and be of uniform height. The slightest variation would give the zigzag appear- ance which you may have noticed in badly-made type. This we endeavour sedulously to avoid, and with how much success you can judge from our Specimen Book. Look at this drawer full of matrices. You say tlley are triumphs of art? True saying, evincive of good judgment. You wonder what these curious-looking instru- ments are which lie, in dusty repose, on the shelves ...-rn.v, around the room? Those, Mr. Typo^raph, are hand- moulds, and at one time they provoked intense covetousness on the part of rival founders. One of our earliest predecessors, Mr. Archibald Binny (our foundry dates from 1796), added such valuable improvements to the ordinary A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. 31 mould, that no other foundry in the world could rival the expedition and accuracy with which types were cast in the establishment of which he was a co-proprietor. Their day has passed, however. They have been superseded by the machines which you will see in operation in another apart- ment. But they were capital things in their time, sir, and we regard them Avith somewhat of an antiquary's reverence. Now we enter the casting-rooms. These tiny machines, CASTING MACHINE. 32 A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. small as they are, can throw out more type in one day than ypu would be likely to count in a month, even if you could call off one hundred a minute, and occupy ten hours a day. Snug little fellows, are they not? They were invented by a IS'ew- Yorker, Mr. David Bruce, Jr. A very ingenious man, you say? That is true. Look at one carefully. The metal is kept fluid by a little furnace underneath, and is j^rojected into the mould by a pump, the spout of which, you see, is in front of the metal-pot. The mould is movable, and at every revolution of the crank in the hand of the workman it comes up to the spout, receives a charge of metal, and flies back with a fully-formed type in its bosom ; the upper half of the mould lifts, and out jumps a type as lively as a tadpole. You don't see how the letter is formed on the end of the type? True, we had forgotten: well, this spring in front holds in loving proximity to the mould a coj)per matrix, such as you saw just now in the fitting-room. The letter a, for instance, stamped in the matrix, sits directlj^ opposite the aperture in the mould which meets the spout of the pump ; and when a due proportion of a's is cast, another matrix with b stamped in it takes its place; and so on throughout the alphabet. Slow work, you say, one at a time? Well, the world is peopled after that fashion; and it fills up fast enough. But just time this machine : it is making small, thin type. Count the type made in a minute. One hundred and seventy-five, you say. One hundred per minute will probably be the average of the ordinary sizes of printing type. The types are not finished yet? Oh, no. These nimble- fingered boys are breaking off the jets, or waste ends of the type. Quick, a' n't they? Now let us go up-stairs into the dressing-room. An immense beehive? Yes, indeed, it looks like one. The lads clustered around the large circular stones, with leather-protected fingers, rub off the rough edges of the type. But men as well as type require their rough edges taken off before they are good for much in the world. These boys at the tables set up the type in long lines. You think that if you could pick up dollars as fast as they pick up type, you would retire an independent man in a year or two ? We wish you could, Mr. Typograph ; we wish you could. The lines of type now pass into the hands of the dresser. Observe how deftly he slips them into a long stick, shakes them down on their face, screws them up, fastens tliem into a A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. 38 planing-board, and with one or two pushes with a planing tool accurately grooves the bottom of the type, removing entirely the burr left when the jet is broken off, and giving each type a pair of legs to stand upon, till it is worn out and returned to the melting kettle. What is the eye-glass used for? Why, sir, as soon as the types are grooved, the dresser narrowly inspects the face of the type, and if an imperfect letter is discovered by the aid of the magnifying glass, it is incontinently turned out. Ah, sir, if we were all inspected as severely as he criticizes type, some of us, perhaps, would hardly pass muster. The immaculate types are next put up in pages of convenient size, and are ready for the purchaser. Let us drop into this side-room. Here we fit up our ma- chines, make our moulds, repair damages to machinery, Ac. The multifarious uses of these lathes you must be familiar with: this ponderous machine is an iron-planer: how it makes the iron chips fly! What is that curiously-arranged lathe? That is for cutting Labour-Saving Rule, — the rule which you have found so convenient and economical in your job-room. We make it now of nine different styles of face : one single, two dotted or hyphen-lines, two parallel, and four double, of varying thickness. They are all cut to Pica ems in length, and are furnished with mitred corner-pieces, so con- trived, in the case of the three larger sizes, as to allow the rule to be used single or double, and with the fine lines inside or outside. Our brass is carefully rolled by the best manufac- turers in the country, and is sent to us in sheets. That wicked-looking shears yonder cuts up the thinner sheets of brass with as much unction as Commissioner Yeh's execu- tioner slices off heads : the thick brass goes under a circular steam-saw. Now, sir, while we are up here, we will peep into the printers' furnishing-room. Isn't this a beautiful stereotype-* block? Doesn't it do your eyes good to look at it? And these brass galleys, and mahogany galleys and composing- sticks, are they not admirable? Our effort in this depart- ment, as in all others, is to do our work well. All our mis- cellaneous wood-work is done here, — stands, racks, drawers, stereotype and packing boxes, &c. Some curious work has been designed and executed for the Smithsonian Institution, as well as brass ciphering-irames for the blind. Ah, we had forgot to show you our large-type room. On 34 ^ WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. our way to the electrotype department, we will glance in it The types you see here cool too slowly to be cast in a machine, so we continue to pour them. Look over the drawers, and see the multitude of patterns. Some men fancy one style, and some another. So we try to meet all tastes. Feel how solid the type is. You can't squeeze the life out of that type on a power-press. No, indeed. It is made for wear. Now, Mr. Typograph, we enter the grimed and murky electrotype-room. Electrotyping, you are aware, is simply stereotyping in copper. Its advantages over ordinary stereo- typing are, sharpness of outline in wood-cuts, and great dura- bility. We electrotype a book occasionally; but the art is mainly applied to the production of duplicates of cuts, jobs, binders' stamps, &c. The thing to be electrotyped is laid upon a press, and a prepared mould is placed over it, and an exact impression taken. This is well dusted with plum- bago, and then deposited in a galvanic battery. Nature im- mediately takes up her part of the work, and a brilliant coat- ing of copper is deposited upon the mould. When sufficiently thick, it is taken out of the battery, and, as you may notice, presents on the wrong side the appearance of a printed sheet of copper. This sheet is then filled up on the back to the requisite degree of thickness, and fastened to a block, ready to be used with type on a common printing-press. Plumbago, you remark, does not improve the countenances of the opera- tives ? True ; but a little soap and water, vigorously applied, proves the title of these intelligent workmen to rank among white folks. The gas that chokes you is from the batteries ; and so, if you please, we will proceed to the stereotype depart- ment of our business. To you, Mr. Typograph, our composing-rooms present nothing new, except, perhaps, in the enormous size of our ♦founts of plain type, and the great number of jobbing founts. So we will only say, that in ten years we have set up in these rooms and stereotyped more than eight hundred considerable works, — most of them consisting of a single volume, but some of from two to twelve volumes each, — ^besides a multitude of smaller books, tracts, &c. Among the rest we may mention two Quarto Bibles (one of them, published by Peck (fe Bliss, the grandest ever got up in America), Lippincott's two great Gazetteers, Dr. Kane's Explorations, The North American Sylva, Thiers' Napoleon, and Macaulay's England. AUi- A WALK OVER OUB FOUNDRY, 35 bone's magnificent Dictionary of Authors and Books is not yet comj)leted. After the pages have been set and carefully read, they are sent down to the casting-room. Let us go down and see how they fare there. In the electrotype-room, every thing is as black as the brow of a coal-heaver : in the casting-room, all is as wliite as the neck of a belle. Take care, sir, or your coat ^vill commit a larceny of our plaster. The form of tyx3e is laid on this stone, and nicely oiled ; and then a mixture of plaster and water — doesn't it look like a good wife's buckwheat batter ?— is poured over it, and gently rolled in. In a short time the plaster sets, and the mould is removed by screws as tenderly as a nurse handles a baby. It is then dried in this hot-tempered oven, and, after the moisture is all evaporated, it is laid in a pan and fastened tightly, as you see, and plunged into this terrible bath STEREOTYPE CASTING-ROOM. of a thousand pounds of molten tyj^e metal. Phew ! you ex- claim, what warm work ! Yes, sir ; but from that fiery sea of lead soon emerges the pan, and its hissing heat is gradually overcome by the water in the trough into which the pan is lowered. Now, caster, break it out. There, Mr. Typograph, is the plate, fixed, — immovable, — stereotyped. The mould is ruined; but the plate is comparatively immortalized. It is rough yet, and, like an uncouth boy, needs polishing. This next room is the stereotyi^e finishing-room. Here the plates are carefully examined, picked, shaved, trimmed, and boxed, ready for the printer. Take a plate in your hand and examine it: it will bear inspection. You say it is far better 36 ^ WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY. than the untmnmed, uneven plates of English founders ? We know that, sir; for we have often had to re-finish English plates imjiorted by some publisher who imagined he could save a little by ordering a duplicate set of plates of a popular foreign book. A mistake, sir. Both in type-founding and in stereotyping the Americans have driven the foreigner from the field, — and in the only legitimate way, too: simply by surpassing him. In this nook on the left, our engraving is done. The draw- ing is made on the block bj^ the designer, as you see : 'then patiently and skilfully the engraver cuts and digs out, till the lines and shapes and lights and shades are all revealed in the beautiful picture. Our work in this department gives so much satisfaction that we are seldom without orders. Now, Mr. Typograph, we shall admit you into our editorial parlour. Walk in, sir. It is not carpeted, and its principal furnishings comprise a desk or two, a few presses, stands and cases, with multitudinous type-surroundings. Here, sir, we edit and print our Specimen Books and our Typographic Ad- vertiser. Don't you see poetical flies buzzing around, and atoms of wit-dust floating in the air, and odours of sentiment stealing out at the key-holes, • and grains of common sense sprinkled all over the floor. Will you have a few specimens as curiosities? You say you have already a good assortment in our Advertiser and our Book ? Very well, sir ; we hope you will treasure them up. You say truly when you remark, that the printing done in this room is seldom, if ever, surpassed in America. We know that; and we intend to stand on the topmost round of the typographical ladder, and to show our fellow-artists what can be done with type such as we manufacture. We are afraid, Mr. Typograph, that your long excursion over the house has wearied you. Let us get down-stairs again. These, sir, are our warerooms. On these numerous shelves are ranged founts of all the various sorts of types made by us, carefully put up, labelled and classified, and all accessible at a minute's notice. Our customers throughout the country keep actively employed all these porters, packers, clerks, salesmen, and bookkeeper. Many of our customers have never visited us ; but we put up their orders with as conscientious fidelity and care as if they were standing before us and watching our every movement. We are happy to see them, and hope none A WALK OVER OUR FOUNDRY, 37 will visit our city without calling in and taking us by the hand. We like to see them face to face, so that we can hang up their portraits in our mental gallery ; and, when we after- ward receive a letter from them, we can imagine that we are hearing them talk to us rather than reading their writing. The side-door on which your eye has just rested leads to one of our fire-proofs. Enter it. Here, sir, are safely stored many thousand matrices, as well as moulds, when not in use. As it would require the labour of many weary years to replace them if destroyed, we endeavour to keep them secure from the danger of ruin by fire. The upbuilding of a complete type- foundry is a work of generations. You will hardly care to look into the basement, — the store- house of ink and other typographical appliances ? Your time is exhausted? Then, sir, we bid you good-day. A safe return to your pleasant family, Mr. Typograph. IMPLEMENTS OR TOOLS OF THE ART TYPES, HE types or letters generally used for printing in Europe and America are termed Roman, Italic, and Old English, or Black Letter, ROMAN LETTER. Roman letter has long been held in the highest estimation, and is the established character of this country, of England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In Germany, and the kingdoms and states which surround the Baltic, the letters in use are founded on the Gothic cha- racter; but, even in those nations, scientific works are printed in their own language with Roman letters. The Dutch adhere to the black' letter in books of devotion and religious treatises ; while they make use of the Roman in their curious and learned works. All printing down to 1465 was in black letter, when charac- ters somewhat improved were introduced at Venice. In 1466, the style known as Roman first appeared, in a volume printed at Rome : this style was brought nearly to its present degree of j)erfection in Italy as early as 1490. The Roman letters consist of circles, arcs of circles, and straight lines ; and, therefore, on the score of simplicity, pre- 38 TYPES. 39 cision, and elegance, they certainly deserve to be adopted as the standard for all nations. A printer, in choosing type, should not only attend to the cut of the letter, but should also observe that its shank is per- fectly true, and that it lines or ranges with accuracy, and is of equal height. The quality of the metal of which it is com- posed, and the finish of the letter, demand particular atten- tion, as the competition for low prices among some of the smaller foundries (which have sprung into existence through the facilities afforded them of multiplying matrices by the electrotype process) has induced them to use an inferior metal, and to turn out their letters without due regard to the nicety of finish which is indispensable for proper justification. It is important that types should have a deep face, their hollows being in proportion to the width of the respective letters, and that the letters should have a deep nick, which should differ from other founts of that body in the same house. ITALIC LETTER. For the invention of this letter the world is iiidehted to Aldus ManutiuSf by birth a HomaUj who erected a printing-office in Venice in 1490, where he introduced Roman types of a neater cuty and gave birth to that striking letter which is known to most nations by the name of Italic; though the Germans and their adherents show themselves as unfair in this respect as they did with the Roman, by calling it Cursiv, in order to stifle the memory of its original descent, and deprive the Romans of the merit due to the ingenuity of their countryman. In the first instance it was termed Venetian, as Manutius was a resident at Venice when he brought it to perfection; but, not long after, it was dedicated to the state of Italy, to prevent any dispute that might arise from other nations claim- ing a priority. Italic was originally designed to distinguish such parts of a book as might be considered not strictly to belong to the body of the work, as Prefaces, Introductions, Annotations, &c., all which sub-parts of a work were formerly printed in this cha- racter ; so that at least two-fifths of a fount was composed of Italic letter. At present it is used more sparingly, being superseded by the more elegant mode of enclosing extracts within inverted 40 TYPES. commas, and poetry and annotations in a smaller-sized type. It is often serviceable in distinguishing the head or subject- matter of a chapter from the chapter itself, but is still too often arbitrarily made use of in emphasizing sentences or words. The frequent use of Italic words among Roman destroys in a great measure the beauty of printing, and often confuses the reader, who, pausing to consider why such words are more strongly noted, loses the context, and must go back to regain the sense of his subject. BLACK LETTER. Ci)tg letter, U)|)ic]& )xsm usrt in ti)e infancg of ^Printing, tiescentieti from tije ([5otf)tc ci&aracterie; : it 10 calletJ ®otf)ic tg gome, anti ®ltJ ©ngliisi^ bg otfiers ; int printers term it ISlaefe iletter, on aeeount of iX% tatting a larger eompass tf)an eitf)er ISoman or Stalie, tlje full antJ gpreatiing gtrofeeg thereof appearing more filaelt upon paper* On the introduction of the Roman character, the use of black letter began to decline, and it was seldom used except in law works, particularly statute law. It was at length ex- pelled from these, and only made its appearance in the heads of law blanks, and as a general display letter. SAXON CHARACTERS. The Saxon characters originated probably from the Gothic, but were altered or modified after the Latin ones which the Saxons found in use in England in the fifth century. The first Saxon types were cut by John Daye, under the patronage of Archbishop Parker, about the year 1567. We give the Lord's Prayer in modern Anglo-Saxon types : Paebep ujie })u l>e eapt on heojrenum. 8i }?in nama gehalsob. To- becume hm jaice. Lepup^e )?in piUa on eop]?an, ppa ppa on heope- num. Upne bseshpamlicaii hlap Sype up to baeg. 'Kwb pop^yp up upe Syltap, ppa ppa pe popgipa'S upum ^j-lcenbum. "Knb ne gelaebbe j?u up on copcnunge. ac alyp up op yp^le. So 'Slice. NAMES AND SIZES, 41 NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE, The principal bodies to which printing letters are cast in England and America are the following : — 1. Diamond. 11. English. 2. Pearl. 12. Columbian. 3. Agate. 13. Great Primer. 4. Nonpareil. 14. Paragon. 5. Minion. 15. Double Small Pica. 6. Brevier. 16. Double Pica. 7. Bourgeois. 17. Double English. 8. Long Primer. 18. Double Great Primer. 9. Small Pica. 19. Double Paragon. 10. Pica. • 20. Canon. Besides the foregoing, a smaller size than Diamond, called Brilliant, is now cast in the foundry of Mackellar, Smiths & Jordan, the body of which is just one-half of Minion. Even this is surpassed in smalluoss ])y a music type cast in the same foundry, named Excelsior, wiiicli is precisely one-half the size of Nonpareil. Another size omitted in the list is Minionette, which is next above Nonpareil, and is largelj'^ used for the splendid series of ornamental borders lately originated. Canon is conceded to have been first produced by a French artisan, and was probably employed in some work relating to the canons of the Church ; to which the German title, Missal, alludes. Two-line Double Pica, Two-line Great Primer, Two-line English, Two-line Pica, and Double Pica, owe their names to the respective bodies of which the depth of two em quadrates answers to one of the double sizes. Paragon is the only letter that has preserved its name, being called so by all the printing nations. Its appellation shows that it was first cut in France, and at the same time leads us to suppose that the style of letter in that country was at that time but indifferent, and that Paragon happening to turn out a letter of better shape than the rest, it received the name of perfect pattern, which the word Paragon implies. Pica is universally considered as the standard type, and by it furniture is measured, and quotations and labour-saving rules are graduated. 4* 42 TYPES. Great Primer^ called Tertia in Germany, is one of the major sizes of type which were early used for printing considerable works, and especially the Bible ; on which account some persons term it Bible Text. The French name is Gros Romain. English is called Mittel by the Ger- mans, and St. Augustin by the French and Dutch; the word Mittel (Middle) intimating that the former sizes of letter were seven in number, the centre of which was English, with Prima, Secunda, and Tertia on one side, and Pica, Long Primer, and Brevier on the other. The name St. Augustin was probably given because the writings of that Father were the first works done in that letter. Pica is called Cicero by the French and Germans. As the preceding size was distin- guished by the name of St. Augustine^ so this has been honoured with that of Cicero, on account of the Epistles of that writer having been first done in letter of this size. It is doubtful whether the name was given by the French or the Germans, NAMES AND SIZES, 43 Small Pica is a grade below Pica, and is now gene- rally employed in octavo volumes, and is, indeed, almost the only size used for printing legal reports and other law books. The French call this letter Philosophic, which, however, is merely a Pica face on a Small Pica body. The Germans term it Brevier. Long Primer. Upon the supposition that some bodies of letter took their names from works in which they were first employed, we are induced to believe that the Germans gave the name of Corpus to this character on account of their Corpus Juris being first done in this size. The French call this letter Petit Komain. Bourgeois is a very useful and convenient size of letter. It is frequently used in double-column octavo pages. The name indicates that it originated in France ; although type of this body is now called Gaillarde by French printers. Two lines of this letter are equivalent to one line of Great Primer, or four lines of Diamond. Brevier was first used for printing the Breviaries, or Roman Catholic Church books, and hence its name. The Germans call it Petit, and Jungfer (maiden letter). It is an admirable type, and cannot conveniently be dispensed with in any considerable printing-office. Minion follows Brevier, and is commonly used for newspapers, and for notes and indexes in book-work. Its name is due probably to its being smaller than any type in use at the period of its invention. It fills a useful place in a printing-office. Nonpareil came next in order: and its originator, supposing that he had reached the extreme of diiniinitivcness, gave it this triumi)hant title. It is exten- sively used, though mostly on iu;\vspapers, and for notes and indexes for duo- decimo books and smaller. It is certainly the smallest type that should be allowed in book-work. Agate probably arose from the necessities of newspaper publishers. As patronage in- creased, it became desirable to have a type less in size than Nonpareil, for the advertise- ments, shipping news, markets. &c. ; and Agate was made to meet the emergency. It is now extensively used for pocket editions of the Bible and Prayer Books. Pearl may be said to have be'u bdni ot ;n!i!n;i(ai. As punch-cutters became more expert, some one possessed of a keen eye ami a ilclicai'' uiccli iui>-al finger determined to surpass in smalluess the achievements of his predecessors, lieiioe the origin of this type. This type is also emj)ioyed in printing miniature vulumes. Diamond followed, as a matter of course; for human ingenuity, when provoked, seems determined to go to the utmost verge of possibility. This type is so minute that a pound of it will contain more than 3300 of the letter i ; yet, to produce each letter of an alphabet, a steel punch has to be cut, and a matrix made, in which the types are cast one by one, and, being set up in lines, are rubbed and dressed by the founder for the use of the compositor. Brilliant. Expert penmen, it Is said, have succeeded in writing the Lord's Prayer upon the edge o( a sheef of paper. A typt>- cutter in Berlin, mora surprisingly, has'tbrmed a type so minute as to be scarcely readable without a good magnifying glass. The type of this paragraph, tliough not so small as the microscopic letters produced in Prussia, is yet so diminutive that even Diamond is larg» by comparison. Of the letter i nearly 4000 go to a pound. 44 TYPES, GRADATION OF TYPES. The following specimen shows the proportion which one size of type bears to another in tvidth; but it is necessary to observe that it must be taken with certain limitations, because each founder has letter of every size that will either drive ovit or get in with others of the same body; therefore it is im- possible for us to present our readers with a regular grada- tion of the different sizes from Great Primer to Brilliant inclu- sive. The limitation of each line is marked by an inverted full-point. When in the course of human* When in the course of human * events When in the course of human* events it b When in the course of human* events it becomes When in the course of human- events it becomes ncce When in the course of human* events it becomes necessary When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary f When in the course of human* events it becomes necessary for one When in the course of human- events it becomes necessary for one people to When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve When in the course of human* events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the pol ■When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands wh When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected th PROPORTIONS OF TYPES. It is important for a printer to be acquainted with the exact proportion which one body of letter bears to another in depth. Without this know^ledge, he cannot form an accurate judgment as to the size of the type most suitable for a work intended to be confined to a given number of sheets ; neither can he form a correct opinion as to the extent of a work, after casting otf the copy, unless he possess a rule whereby to guide his calculation as to the quantity of copy which the proposed type may take in. We, therefore, give a scale showing the relative proportions of various letters. Anj^ printer may form a scale by setting up the figures of his various founts, and printing them on a card or d rv paper. PROPORTIONS OF TYPES. 45 J^ ib i:a si- 3^ 6 It- 7 6 2§; 2i 39 34 30- 9 10 11 12 13 -14- 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2-4 25 26 27 -28- 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 _41_ 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 9 10 11 12 "13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24_ "25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 _36_ 37 3^ 4 5 6 7 Ibj 4^ 5 6 7 1§ 2^ 3| 3^ 9 S 10 9_ "ii—io 12 11 13 12 14 13 15 14 It 15 16 17 18 21 19 22 20 23 21 24 22 25 23 26 24 H 26 10 9 }f 11 10 M 12 11 15 13 12 16 14 13 .17 15_14 }^ 16 1^ 19 17 1^ 20 ^^ n 2' 3 4 5 6 ' 7~ 8 9 10 II 2P 3 4 5 6- 7 8 9 18 19 16 17 26 .27_ -30—^1—: 31 28 51 56 52 57 >3 58 't 59 56 60 7 61 8 62 39 63 ro 64 n 65 J2 66 ^3 67 97 84 74 68 °°""'''~;^ 69 77 ''0 78 71 79 72 S 73 52 46 54 ^a -55- 32 29 33 30 34 31 35 32 36 33 37 34 38 35 41 ^' 42 ?? 43 39 44 40 45 41 46 42 47 43 48 44 -^?— 45_ 21 22 -- -10 23 20 ]l 24 21 1^ 25 22 20 .26-23-21- % 24 22 99 25 23 30 26 24 31 27 25 32 28 33 29 97 .g-30jL 36 37 X- 30 11 10 12_11_ 13 12 13 14 14 15 16 26 31 60 51 52 53 46 47 48 28- 32 29 38 33 39 34 31 40 35 32 41 36 33 42 37 34 ■44-38-35- 45 39 36 46 40 37 17 15 18_16 19 17" 20 18 21 19 22 20 23 oi 24_ o_ 25 26 23 27 24 28 25 29 26 .30_27- 31 28 32 29 25 3^ 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 46 TYPES. A BILL OF PICA, The following is reckoned by the founders a regular fount, perfect in all its sorts : — A BILL OF 800 LBS. OF PICA. a . 8500 , 4500 A ... 600 A . 300 b .. 1600 800 B ... 400 B 200 c 3000 : 600 C ... 500 C . 250 d .. 4400 2000 D ... 500 D . 250 e . 12000 - 1000 E ... 600 E 300 f .. 2500 ? ... 200 F ... 400 F 200 g 1700 ! 150 G ... 400 G 200 h 6400 ' 700 H ... 400 H 200 i 8000 ( - 300 I ... 800 I 400 ,j •• 400 [ - 150 J ... 300 J . 150 k .. 800 -;:c 100 K ... 300 K . 150 1 .. 4000 X ■■'■ + 100 L ... 500 L . 250 m .. 3000 100 M ... 400 M 200 n 8000 'i ... 100 N ... 400 N 200 o .. 8000 1 ... 100 ... '400 200 P •• 1700 If ... 60 P ... 400 P 200 q .. 500 Q, ... 180 Q .. 90 r 6200 1 ... 1300 R ... 400 R 200 s 8000 2 ... 1200 S ... 500 S 250 t .. 9000 3 ... 1 100 T ... 650 T . 3^6 u 3400 4 ... 1000 U ... 300 U . 150 V 1200 5 ... 1000 V ... 300 V . 150 w .. 2000 6 ... 1000 W ... 400 W .. 200 X 400 7 ... 1000 X ... 180 X 90 y •• 2000 8 ... 1000 Y ... 300 Y . 150 z 200 9 ... 1000 Z ... 80 Z 40 & .. 200 ... 1300 M ... 40 M .. 20 ff .. 400 CE ... 30 CE .. 15 fi 500 200 e 200 fl .'; a ... 200 Spaces. ffl .. 100 a ... 200 Thick 18000 ffi .. . 150 e ... 200 Middle 12000 8e .. 100 Thin .8000 oe .. 60 All other Hair 3000 accents , 100 em Quads 2500 — .. . 150 each. en Quads 5000 IZ Large Quadrates, 80 lbs. about Italic, one-tenth of Roman. Owing to the varying styles of authors and the diverse sub- jects of books, there will generally be found a number of par- A FOUNT OF LETTER, 4tl ticular sorts deficient in a fount, whateA^er the proportions may have been at first. A new fount of letter may run evenly on a work in general literature written in the third person, while a novel filled with dialogues in the first person will rapidly exhaust certain letters, and require sorts to render the fount serviceable to its full general capacity. So with scientific and other books. Even in the case of two authors writing on the same subject, there is no certainty that the fount will run alike. The master-printer, therefore, to keep the entire letter in use, is compelled to order sorts, and his fount is thus con- stantly growing larger. A FOUNT OF LETTER. A COMPLETE fount of letter is comprised under nine heads, in which is contained the following sorts : — 1. Capitals. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX Y Z .E 05 S. it will be to the advantage of the compositor to find not a single point in his copy, unless to terminate a sentence, rather than have his mind confused by commas and semicolons placed indiscriminately, in the hurry of writing, without any regard to propriety.* The Comma [9] marks the smallest grammatical division, and commonly represents the shortest pause in reading. Commas are used to denote extracts or quotations from other works, dialogue matter, or passages or expressions not original, by placing two of them inverted before the first word of the passage quoted, and ending with two apostrophes. A thin space is used to keep the inverted commas free from the matter. The method of running them down the sides to the end of the quotation has been found inconvenient, particularly where a quotation occurs within a quotation, or a speech within a speech; the proper method of distinguishing these is by placing a single inverted comma before such extra quotation, and concluding with a single apostrophe. Where both quota- tions close together, put three apostrophes, observing after the first to place a thin space. Inverted commas were first used by Guillemet, a French- man, to supersede the use of Italic letter. As an acknow- ledgment, his countrymen call them after his name. French founders cast them double, thus [((»]. MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, Philadelphia, furnish them in this way when desired. A single comma inverted is used as an abbreviation of the word Mac, as in M'Gowen. The Semicolon [;] is used to separate such parts of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. The CoiiON [ : ] is employed in a sentence between parts less connected than those which are divided by a semicolon, but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. The Period or Full-point [,] serves to indicate the end of a sentence which is independent of any following sentence. * Wilson's Treatise on English runduation is a full and explicit work on this subject, and should be studied 1>y every printer and author. POINTS. 51 When used in abbreviations, it loses its effect as a full stop in the punctuation, unless at the end of a sentence. In some works this point is discarded as a mark of abbreviation, as in Mr Dr &c. Full-points are sometimes used as leaders in tables of con- tents, figure- work, (jiaiat('d; as, ab-bey, ac-cent, vel-lum, ab-ject, gar-den, laun-dry, pam-phlet ; hh.i>^-]>h(iii( . 'lis-irrss, min-strel. It is desirable that compound and (b'livativc words should, at the ends of lines, be divided in such a manner as to indicate their piincipal parts. Thus, school-master is prefera))le to school nut s-ln\ dia-apjn-ore. to disap-prorf, rescnt-ment to resentment ortho-doxy to or-tliodox;/ : thoui;h. as regards the analysis of woids 54 TYPES. PARENTHESIS AND BRACKET. The use of the Parenthesis ( ) is to enclose interpolated words or sentences which serve to strengthen the argument, though the main sentence would read correctly were the en- closed matter taken away. Parentheses are not now so generally used as formerly: authors place their intercalations between commas, which make them quite as intelligible as though they were en- closed between parentheses, and look much neater in print ; but, where parentheses are used, if a point be requisite, it should be placed after the parenthesis, the intercalation not being reckoned any part of that sentence ; as, for instance, My lord {said I), I ivill tell your lordship, &c. Brackets [ ] are seldom made use of now, except to indicate an omitted word inserted to make sense by an editor who scruples to amend some rare composition. REFERENCES. References are marks and signs employed to direct the reader to the observations which are made in notes at the bottom of a jjage upon passages of the text to which they are applied. into syllables, the latter mode is unobjectionable. From the narrowness of the printed line, however, in some books, the principle recommended cannot always be adhered to. The terminations tim, sion, cial, tial and many others, formerly pronounced as two syllables, but now only as one, must not be divided either in spelling or at the end of a lino. A syllable consisting of only one letter, as the a in cre-ation, should not com- mence a line. This word would be better divided crea-tim ; and so all others of a similar kind. But such a syllable, coming immediately after a primitive, is by some pi'inters brought to the beginning ; as, consider-ahle. , A line of print must not end with the first syllable of a word when it consists of a single letter; as, a-bide, e-normous; nor begin with the last syllable when it is formed of only two letters; as, nation-al, teach-er, similar-ly. For regard should be had to the principles of taste and beauty as well as to the laws of syllabication. Three or more successive lines should not end with a hyphen. A little care on the part of the compositor will, in general, prevent an appearance so offensive to a good eye. Divisions, indeed, except for purposes of spelling and lexico- graphy, should take place as seldom as possible. BEFEREXCES. 55 References used in works witli notes are variously repre- sented, though oftener by letters than other characters. The neatest references, however, when many are required, are either superior letters or superior figures, — thus, i, 2, 3^ q^. thus, % ^, <'. Superior letters are used chiefly in Bibles and other books which have more than one sort of notes, and therefore require various references. When thus used, the letter J should be omitted, as, from its similarity to the \ the reader miglit at times be led into error. The characters technically known as references by i^rinters are the following : — Asterisk '^ 1 Double Dagger J I Parallel || Dagger t j Section ^ | Paragraph % The Asterisk is the chief reference, and presents itself most readily to the eye. In Roman church-books, the Asterisk divides each verse of a psalm into two parts, and marks where the responses begin, which in the Book of Common Prayer is denoted by a colon i^laced between tlie two parts of each verse. Asterisks also denote an omission, or an hiatus by loss of original copy; the number of asterisks being multiplied ac- cording to the largeness of the chasm. The Dagger, originally termed the Obelisk, or Long Cross, is frequently used in Roman Catholic church-books, prayers of exorcism, at the benediction of bread, water, and fruit, and upon other occasions, where the priest is to make the sign of the cross; but the long cross is not used unless for want of square crosses ( )5B)» which are the proper symbols for the pur- pose. The square cross is used, besides, in the Pope's briefs, and in mandates of archbishops and bishops, who put it im- mediately ])efore the signature of their names ; but it is not reckoned among references. The Paragraph was formerly prefixed to such matter as authors designed to distinguish from the mean contents of their works, and to give the reader an item of some particular subject. At present, paragraphs are used chiefly in Bibles, to show the parts into which a chapter is divided. In Common Prayer Books, paragraphs are put before the matter that directs the order of the Service, and which is called the Rubi'ic because those lines were formerly printed in red. 56 TYPEK ACCENTED LETTERS. Those which are called accented by printers are the five vowels, marked thus : — Acute a e i 6 ti Grave a o i o u Circumtlex a e i 6 il Diaeresis a e i' o ii Long a e 1 6 u Short it e 1 o u We may include the French 5, the Spanish n, the Portu- guese o or e, and the Welsh w and f. NUMERAL LETTERS, The Greeks at first employed the letters of the entire alphabet to express the lirst twenty-four numbers; but the system was cumbrous, and they adopted the happy expedient of dividing their alphabet into three portions, using the first to symbolize the 9 digits, the second the 9 tens, and the third the 9 hundreds; and, as their alphabet contained only twenty- four letters, they invented three additional symbols. Their list of symbols then stood as folloAvs ; — I Tens. . 1 . 2 4 I . 5 i t represents.. i s- (introduced).. I C 7 I o. »7 0or.9-.. 5 or A (introduced) 90 Hundreds. p represents 100 o- 200 T 300 V 400 <|) 500 X 600 \ii 700 ui 800 -5, A, 7^ (introd'd) 900 By these symbols, only numbers under 1000 could be ex- pressed ; but, by putting a mark called iota under any symbol, its value was increased a thousand-fold : thus, a = 1000, li = 20,000 ; or, by subscribing the letter M, the value of a symbol was raised ten thousand-fold. For these two marks, single and double dots were afterward substituted. This improve- XUMERAL LETTERS. 57 inent enabled them to exj^ress with facility all numbers as high as 9,990,000, — a range amply sufficient for all ordinary purposes. It has been supposed that the Romans used M to denote 1000, because it is the first letter of Mille, which is Latin for 1000; and C to denote 100, it being the first letter of Centum, the Latin term for 100. Some also suppose that D, being formed by dividing the old M in the middle, w^as therefore appointed to stand for 500, — that is, half as much as the M stood for when it was whole; and that L being half a C, was, for the same reason, used to denominate 50. But the most natural account of the matter appears to be this : — The Romans probably put down a single stroke, I, for one, as is still the practice of those who score on a slate, or with chalk; this stroke they doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, to exi:)ress two, three, and four; thus, I i, i i I, 1 1 i I. So lar they could easily number the minums or strokes with a glance of the eye ; but they found that if more were added it would be necessary to number the strokes one by one: for this reason, when they came to five, they expressed it by joining two strokes together in an acute angle, thus, V, which will appear the more probable if it be considered that the progression of the Roman numbers is from five to five,— that is, from the fingers of one hand to the fingers of the other. After they had made this acute angle, V, for five, they then added single strokes to the number of four, thus, VI, VII, VIM, Villi, and then, as the minums could not be further multiplied without confusion, tlicy doubled tlicir acute angle by prolonging the two lines beyond their intersection, thus, X, to denote two fives, or ten. After they had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled this double acute angle, thus, XX, XXX, XXXX, they then, for the same reason which induced them t ) make a single angle first, and then to double it, joined two single strokes in another form, and, instead of an acute angle, made a right angle, L, to denote fifty. When this was doubled, they then doubled the right angle, thus, C, to denote one hun- dred, and, having numbered this double right angle four times, thus, EC, C C C, C C C C, when they came to the fifth number, as before, they reverted it, and put a single stroke before it, thus, ID, to denote five hundred; and, when this five hundred was doul)led, then they also doubled their double right angle, setting two double right angles opposite to each 58 TYPE^. other, with a single stroke between them, thus, C I D, to denote one thousand ; when this note for one thousand had been re- peated four times, they then put down I Zl 1 for five thousand, C C I I] 13 for ten thousand, and I D 3 13 for fifty thousand. The corners of the angles being cut off by transcribers for despatch, these figures were gradually brought into what are now called numerical letters. When the corners of C I H were made round, it stood thus, CIO, which is so near the Gothic C) that it soon deviated into that character ; so that I H having the corners made round, stood thus, I O , and then easily de- viated into D. C also became a plain C by the same means : the single rectangle, which denoted fifty, was, without any alteration, a capital L ; the double acute angle was an X ; the single acute angle, a Y consonant ; and a plain single stroke, the letter I. And thus these seven letters, M, D, C, L, X, V, I became numerals. As a further proof of this assertion, let it be considered that CIO is still used for one thousand, and I O for five hundred, instead of M and D ; and this mark, C), is sometimes used to denote one thousand, which may easily be derived from this figure, CID, but cannot be deviations from, m* corruptions of, the Roman letter M. The Romans also ex- pressed any number of thousands by a line drawn over any numeral less than one thousand : thus, V denotes five thou- sand, LX sixty thousand; so, likewise, M is one million, MM two millions, &c. Upon the discovery of printing, and before capitals were invented, small letters served for numerals; not only when Gothic characters were in vogue, but when Roman had become the prevailing character. Thus, in early times, t i x I t Jj m were, and in Roman type are still, of the same signification as capitals when used as numerals. Though the capital J is not a numeral letter, yet the lower-case j is as often and as sig- nificantly used as the vowel i, especially where the former is employed as a closing letter, in if iij bj iif biij Irtij, &c. In Roman lower-case numerals, the j is not regarded, but the i stands for figure 1 wherever it is used numerically. During the existence of the French Republic, books were dated in France from the first year of the Republic: thus, Ann. XII. (1803), or twelve years from 1792. FIG URE>S~FRA CTION>S. 59 ARITHMETICAL FIGURES, The arithmetical or Arabic numerals are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Properly they should be styled Hindu or Indian numerals; for the Arabs borrowed them, along with the decimal system of notation, from the Hindus. They were probably first introduced from the East into Italy about 1202; yet they did not come into general use before the invention of printing. Accounts were kept in Roman numerals up to the sixteenth century. OLD STYLE FIGURES. Though uniform in height and appearance, we do not deem the modern figures an improvement on the variously-lining figures formerly in vogue, and now happily coming again into use. The latter can be caught by the eye with greater ease and certainty, just as lower-case letter can be read with more facility than continuous lines of capitals. In the new style the 3 and 8 may easily be mistaken for each other, and so with the 6, 9, and 0; but in the non-lining figures such errors are quite unlikely to happen, as some of them occupy the centre of the body only, and others are ascending or de- scending characters. The example here given will show the justice of our remarks : 1234567890 1 2 8 4 5 G 7 8 9 SCRATCHED OR CANCELLED FIGURES I 2 ^ i ^ Are used in arithmetical matter when the divided and dividing figures require to be crossed over in an operation. FRACTIONS. Common Fractions, or broken numbers in arithmetic, are cast to all sizes of type solid. A great improvement has re- cently been introduced by casting the numerator and denomi- nator separately, on bodies of half size, wath the line on the under figure, so that odd fractions of any amount may be easilv formed. 60 TYPEK SIGNS. COMMERCIAL SIGNS. 3- . Per, each. $ . .. Dollar or dollars. @. . At or to. £ . .. Libra, lihrw, pound or %■ ..Per centum. pounds sterling. %■ .. account. / . .. Solidiis, solidi, shilling / • . cent. or shillings. MATHEMATICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, AND GEOMETRICAL. -f plus, or more, is the sign of real existence of the quantity it stands before, and is called an affirmative or positive sign. It is also the mark of addition : thus, a + 6, or 6 + 9, implies that a is to be added to h, or 6 added to 9. — Tninus, or less, before a single quantity, is the sign of nega- tion, or negative existence, showing the quantity to which it is prefixed to be less than nothing. But between quantities it is the sign of subtraction ; thus, a — b, or 8 — 4, implies b sub- tracted from a, or 8 after 4 has been subtracted. = equal. The sign of equality, though Des Cartes and some others use this mark, oo : thus, a=b signifies that a is equal to 6. Wolfius and some others use the mark = to denote the identity of ratios. X into or with. The sign of multiplication, showing that the quantities on each side the same are to be multiplied by one another : as, a x ^ is to be read, a multiplied into b; 4x8, the product of 4 multiplied into 8. Wolfius and others make the sign of multiplication a dot between the two factors: thus, 7 . 4 signifies the product of 7 and 4. In algebra the sign is commonly omitted, and the two quantities put together : thus, bd expresses the product of b and d. When one or both of the factors are compounded of several letters, they are distin- guished by a line drawn over them : thus, the factum of a + 6 — c into d is written, d x a + b — c. Leibnitz, Wolfius, and others distinguished the compound factors by including them in a parenthesis : thus, (a + 6 — c) d. ^ by. The sign of division : thus, a-^b denotes the quantity a to be divided by b. Wolfius makes the sign of division two dots ; 12 : 4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided by 4 = 3. If either the divisor, or dividend, or both, be composed of several ^sigNjS. 61 letters, for example, a .. b ^ c, instead of writing the quotient like a fraction. 7 or \z~ are signs of majority : thus, ay b expresses that a is greater than b. ^ or ^ are signs of minority, — when we would denote that a is less than b. xfi is the character of similitude used by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others. It is used in other authors for the difference between two quantities when it is unknown which is the greater of the two. ; : so is. The mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is usually placed between two pair of equal ratios : as, 3 : 6 : : 4 : 8 shows that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. ; or .'. is an arithmetical equal proportion : as, 7 . 3 : 13 . 9 ; i.e. 7 is more than 3, as 13 is more than 9. D quadrate, or- regular quadrangle, — viz. D AB = D BC ; i.e. the quadrangle upon the line AB is equal to the quadrangle upon the line BC. A triangle : as, A ABC = A ADC. Z an angle : as, z ABC = Z ADC. JL perpendicular ; as, AB _l BC. □ rectangled parallelogram, or the product of two lines. II the character of parallelism. + want of parallelism. y= equiangular, or similar. i equilateral. /Z7 rhomboid. ^ concentric. O circle. L right angle. ° denotes a degree : thus, 45° implies 45 degrees. ' a minute : thus, 50' is 50 minutes ; ", '", "", denote seconds, thirds, and fourths; and the same characters are used where the progressions are by tens, as it is here by sixties. ^ the mark of geometrical proportion continued, implies the ratio to be still carried on without interruption : as, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 ^ are in the same uninterrupted proportion. l/ irrationality. The character of a surd root, and shows, according to the index of the power that is set over it or after it, that the square, cube, or other root is extracted, or to be ex- 6 62 TYPES. tracted: thUvS, j/16, or y -^16, or y (2)16, is the square root of 16; ]f 25 the cube root of 25, &c. ^ dilierence equal. * — : the ditference, or excess. Q or q, a square. C or c, a cube. QQ,, the latio of a square number to a square number. In algebraical works, authors should be very exact in their copy, and compositors as careful in following it, so that no alterations may be necessary after it is composed ; as changing and altering work of this nature is very troublesome to the compositor. Hence very few compositors are fond of algebra, and rather choose to be employed upon plain work, though loss profitable to them than the former. CELESTIAL* AND ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS. The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac. <^ Aries, y Taurus, n Gemini. T2 Cancer. a Leo. np Virgo. £b Libra, ni Scorpio. ^ Sagittarius. 1^ Capricornus. t^ Aquarius. ^ Pisces. The Sun and Planets. © Sun. © Earth. \i Saturn. $ Mercury. d Mars. § Uranus. 9 Venus. '^ Jupiter. tjr Neptune. Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Astrsea, Hebe, Iris, and all the other asteroids, are now commonly designated by a circle O enclosing a number which indicates the order of their dis- covery. Seven of the Planets sometimes imply the seven days of the week. Dies Solis — Sunday. Dies Mer cur ii — Wednesday. Dies Lunce— Monday. Dies Jovis — Thursday. IHes Martis — Tuesday. Dies Veneris — Friday. Dies Saturni — Saturday. Q The Dragon's Head, or ascending node, and y The Dragon's Tail, or descending node, are the two points in which the eclipses happen. .siGXK 63 Aspects of the Planets. (5 Conjunction; happens when two planets stand under each other in the same sign and degree. S Opposition ; happens when two planets stand diametri- cally 0]3posite each other. A Trigonus ; happens Avhen one planet stands from another four signs, or 120 degrees; which make one-third of the ecliptic. D Quadrile; happens when two planets stand three signs from each other, which make 90 degrees, or the fourth part of the ecliptic. * Sextile ; is the sixth part of the ecliptic, which is two signs, and make 60 degrees. Lunar Signs. ® New Moon. i © Full Moon. D First Quarter. | d Last Quarter. Many signs and s^nnbols have been invented by astro- nomers to impose upon the credulity of the ignorant; among which are signs which give notice on what day it is proper to let blood, to bathe and to cup, to sow and to plant, to take physic, to have one's hair cut, to cut one's nails, to wean cliildren, and many other absurdities ; as well as symbols that serve to indi- cate hail, thunder, lightning, or any occult phenomena. MEDICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS, p; stands for Recipe, or Take. a, a a, of each a like quantity, lb a pound, g an ounce. 5 a drachm. 3 a scrui)le. j stands for 1 ; ij for 2 ; and so on. ss. signifies senii, or half, gr. denotes a grain. P. stands for particuJa, a little part, and means so much as can be taken between the ends of two fingers. P. seq. stands for partes cequales, or equal parts, q. s. quantum sujfflcit, or as much as is sufficient, q. p. quantum placit, or as much as you please. s. a. secundem artem, or according to art. 64 TYPES. METAL RULES OR DASHES. Metal Rules or dashes, like quadrates, are commonly cast from an em to three ems in length. When cast to line . and join accurately, they may serve instead of brass rule. BRACES. Braces are chiefly used in tables of accounts, botanical and geological tables, and similar matter. They stand before and keep together items of similar import, or subdivisions of the preceding article. They sometimes stand after and keep to- gether such articles as make more than one line, and have either pecuniary, mercantile, or other posts after them, which are justified to answer to the middle of the brace. Braces are sometimes used horizontally in the margin, to cut off a chro- nological or other series from the proper notes or marginal references of the work. Braces are generally cast to two, three, and four ems of each fount. Middles and ends are also cast, which can be filled out with dashes to any length required for the brace. Middles and ends are convenient in genealogical works, where they are used the flat way, and where the directing point is not always in the middle, but has its place under the name of the parent, whose ofl*spring stands between corner and corner of the brace inside, in order of primogeniture. Brass braces of any length, for music and jobbing purposes, are furnished by type-founders. SPACES. Spaces are short blank types, and are used to separate one word from another. To enable the compositor to space even and to justify with nicety, they are cast to various thicknesses, — viz. five to an em, or five thin spaces ; four to an em, or four middle spaces ; three to an em, or three thick spaces ; and two to an em, or two en quadrates, which may with propriety be reckoned among the number of spaces. Besides these, there is what is called the hair-space, cast remarkably thin, and found particularly useful in justifying lines and assisting uniformity in spacing. Q UADRA TE^—il UO TA TIOX>S. 65 TWO-LINE LETTERS ARE equal in depth to two lines of the type in which they are to be used, and of proportionate width. They form the almost only proper tyi)e for title-pages, and are used at the beginning of chapters and newspaper advertisements. QUADRATES. An em quadrate is a short blank type, in thickness equal to the square of the letter of the fount to which it belongs ; an en quadrate is half that size. In casting em and en quadrates, the utmost exactness is necessary ; they also require particular care in dressing, as the most trilling variation will instantly be discovered when they are ranged in fminv-work, and, un- less true in their justification, the arrangi-nient will be so irregular that all the pains and ingenuity of a compositor cannot rectify it. The same observation will hold good with resjject to figures. The first line of a paragraph is usually indented an em quadrate ; but some printers prefer using an em and en, two, or even three ems for wide measures. An em quadrate is the proper space after a full-point when it terminates a sentence in a paragraph. En quadrates are generally used after the semicolon, colon, (fee, and sometimes after an overhanging letter. They are useful in spacing. The inconvenience arising from founts of the same body not agreeing in depth is great, where the quadrates, through neces- sit3% are sometimes mixed. The founts cast by L. Johnson . 0^ o i^ ^ GO ^ 4^ S5 1 g 72 RUNIC. RUNIC ALPHABETS. Runes were the earliest alphabets in use among the Teu- tonic and Gothic nations of Northern Europe. The exact period of their origin is not known. The name is derived from the Teutonic r'dn, a mystery; whence runa, a whisper, and helrnln, divination ; and the original use of these charac- ters seems to have been for purposes of secrecy and divination. Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon tradition agree in ascribing the invention of runic writing to Odin or Wodin. The coun- tries in which traces of the use of runes exist include Den- mark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Germany, Britain, France, and Spain ; and they are found engraved on rocks, crosses, monumental stones, coins, medals, rings, brooches, and the hilts and blades of swords. Runic letters were also often cut on smooth sticks called riln-stafas, or mysterious staves, and used for purposes of divination. But there is no reason to be- lieve that they were at any time in the familiar use in which we find the characters of a written language in modern times, nor have we any traces of their being used in books or on parchment. We have an explanation of the runic alphabet in various MSS. of the early middle ages, prior to the time when runes had altogether ceased to be understood. The systems of runes in use among the different branches of the Teutonic stock were not identical, though they have a strong general family likeness, showing their community of origin. Tlie letters are arranged in an order altogether dis- tinct from that of any other alphabetical system, and have a purely Teutonic nomenclature. Each letter is, as in the Hebrew-Phoenician, derived from the name of some well- known familiar object, with whose initial letter it corresponds. Runes, being associated in the popular belief with augury and divination, were to a considerable extent discouraged by the early Christian priests and missionaries, whose etforts were directed to the supplanting of them by Greek and Roman characters. But it was not easy suddenly to put a stop to their use, and we find runes continuing to be employed in early Christian inscriptions. This was to a remarkable extent the case in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, Mer- cia, and East Anglia, where wo have traces of runic writing of dates varying from the middle of the seventh to the middle RUNIC, 73 of the tenth century. Runes are said to have been laid aside in Sweden by the year 1001, and in Spain they were officially condemned by the Council of Toledo in 1115. The different systems of runes, all accordant up to a certain point, have been classed as the Anglo-Saxon, the German, and the Norse, each containing different subordinate varieties. The Norse alphabet is generally considered the oldest, and the parent of the rest. It has sixteen letters corresponding to our /, u, th, o, r. A:, /i, w, i, a, 5, ^, 6, ^, m, 2/, but has no equiva- lent for various sounds which existed in the language, in con- sequence of which the sound of k was used for g^ d for ^, b for p, and u and y for v : o was expressed by au^ and e by a/, i, or ia; and the same letter otherwise was made to serve for more than one sound. Other expedients came, in the course of time, to be employed to obviate the deficiency of tlie sys- em, — as the addition of dots, and the adoption of new charac- ers. But the runic system received a fuller development among the Germans and Anglo-Saxons, particularly the lat- ter, whose alphabet was extended to no fewer than forty cha- racters, in which seem to have been embraced, more nearly than in any modern alpiiabets, the actual sounds of a lan- guage. The table on the following i)age exhibits the best known forms of the Anglo-Saxon, German, and Norse runic alphabets, with the names and the power of the several letters. The Anglo-Saxon runes, as here given, are derived from a variety of MS. authorities, the most complete containing forty characters, while some only extend as far as the twenty-fifth or twenty-eighth letter. Neither the name nor the power of some of the later letters is thoroughly known, and they are without any equivalents in the Norse runic S3^stem. The Ger- man runes are given from a MS. in the conventual library of St. Gall, in Switzerland. Though the various runic alphabets are not alike copious, the same order of succession among the letters is preserved, excepting that, in the Norse alphabet, laugr precedes madr^ although we have placed them other- wise, with the view of exhibiting the correspondence of the three sj^stems. The number of characters in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet is a multiple of the sacred number eight ; and we have the evidence both of a Swedish bracteate containing twenty-four characters, and of the above mentioned St. Gall MS., that there was a recognised division of the alphabet into classes of eight letters,— a classification which forms the basis 7 74 RUNIC, i 1 -< l.a f 1 § i R-l /- -:/'^- X 0< Zz_ 2a. M 1- 'S5 'SJD "£ d S o r2 ^ -S >• 3 < 1 ..^ 1 1 .^ 1 ^ 1 .1 1 1 1 1 ^l-DCC2:oCZ^^ Zri— ^:z^-6ll ^NOc^ii^L KESS-^- o o 1 ^ § -^1 sol tyr biarkan Zi_^^^xc-^i^v^ ^^^^ ^ \X <:r- ^^ r- a X 1 i 11^ el i e ^ f CO -P rO / T ... c t r. ... s or |> th (^Ain), and D or '5 th (eAine). The Anglo-Saxon letters wliich vary from those now used were doubtless mere corruptions of the Roman forms, — viz. the capitals A, C, E, G, H, ]\I, S, and W, and the small letters d, f, g, i, r, s, t, and w. Several notes of abbreviation w cic used by the Saxons, as !> that, -j and, ttc. The notes of al)l)re- viation are not original members of tlie alphabet : they were the result of later reflection, and were introduced j^robably for despatch. ^i About the year 1567, John Daj^e, who was patronized by Archbishop Parker, cut the first Saxon ty^jes which were used in England. In this year, Asserius Menevensis was published by the direction of the archbishop in these characters ; in the same yeai-. Archbishop ^Ifric's Paschal Homily; and in 1571, tlie Saxon Gospels. On the two following pages will be found a plan of cases for Saxon types. 7* >SAXON. i r ^ ■|| I -=i 3 SI 3 1 1 SJ ;ii. ? >J ■ O 3 - fe= ^ ;?. £i. -^ --== CD B H & eSNs Q ^ 00 Q -Hi- r^ vJ ^ tf N - PQ - O* >H * W ^ ^ X! >S.1X0^. 79 I 00 C5 o cr s 1 1 1> ■s !> CO K) ^ ! lO '#4^ - •-^ tH C^ ;-. p. CO •>. c^ o cfi ^ ^ =» -- 5i± :0 - Q « --« a« >0 ^ JQ « - ii >f^^ H 3 II '3 oj - -- f> -♦ 0V3. ■ - tei j:> K ' 84 GREEK ALPHABET, GREEK, A SMALL amount of Greek types is indispensable in every considerable book printing-office. The Greek alphabet con- tains twenty-four letters, which we give in the following table, with the name of each character expressed in Greek and Eng- lish, and its sound and numerical value. THE GREEK ALPHABET. Forms. Names in Greek and English. Sounds. Nume- rical Value. A ... a B ... /3g r ... y A ... 6 E ... e Z ... ^ H ... ,, © ... ^e I ... I K ... K A ... A M ... fji N ... V E ... $ O ... n ... 77 p ... p S ... o-s T ... T Y ... V 4> . . (^ X ... X * ... ^ il ... (O "AA^a Alpha BrjTa Beta rdfxfxa Gamma AeAra Delta *E\(jl\6v Epsilon ZiJTa Zeta •Hra Eta ®rJTa Theta 'Icora Iota KaTTTra Kappa Aa/j,j85a .... Lambda MD Mu NG Nu 31 Xi 'Ojat/cpov ... Omicron nr Pi •P(o Rho 2ty/xa Sigma Tav Tau *Yv/^iA6i/ .... Upsilon *e Phi XZ Chi *r Psi ''CLfxeya Omega a b g d e short z e long th i kc m n X short P r s t u ph ch ps long 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 From a desire, probably, to imitate Greek manuscript, a multitude of ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions of letters, as well as duplicates, were cast by the early type- founders. These, however, with two or three exceptions, have been quite discarded; and a fount of modern Greek is readily accommodated in a single pair of cases. The only duplicated ' Lenis. ^' Lenis acute. ' Asper. '^ Lenis grave. ' Acute. ^' Asper acute. ^ Grave. ** Asper grave. " Circumflex. GREEK. 85 characters in the preceding table are (5 and 6, i9 and 0^ and c and g. /? looks best when used as an initial letter, and 6 as a medial. -& and B are used indiscriminately ; but q is employed as a final letter only. There are twelve diphthongs or compound vowels in Greek, viz. Six proper, — aiy af , et, ev, ol, ov ; and Six improper, — a, ??, w, rjVy vi, uv. The point under the first three letters denotes the iota, and is therefore called the sub- sc7'ipt iota. ACCENTS AND ASPIRATES. "^ Circumflex lenis. ^ Circumflex asper. Diairesis. * Diseresis acute. '• Diaeresis grave. Accents are nothing more than small marks which have been introduced into the language to ascertain the pronuncia- tion of it, and facilitate it to strangers. Wherefore the ancient Greeks, to whom it was natural, never used them, as is demon- strated from Aristotle, old inscriptions, and ancient medals. It is not an easy matter to tell what time the practice of writing these accents first prevailed, though it is probable not till after the Romans began to be more curious of learning the Greek tongue and to send their children to study at Athens, — that is, about or a little before the time of Cicero. Accents — by the Greeks called tovoc^ tones — are the rising or falling of the voice in pronouncing; which may be con- sidered either separately in distinct syllables, or conjunctively in the same syllable. Wherefore there are two sorts of accents : two simple, viz. the acute, b^vg, figured thus ['], which denotes the elevation of the voice; and the grave, papvg^ shaped thus [^], to signify the falling or depression of the voice: and the circumflex, TrepLaiTufiEvog, which was formed first of these two lines or points joined together thus ["], and afterward was changed into a round sort of a figure like an inverted upsilon, thus [^], but at length came to be figured like an s drawn crossway ["]. — BelVs Greek Grammar. 86 GREEK, The acute accent raises the voice, and affects one or mor© of the three last syllables of a word, if it has so many. The grave depresses the voice, and affects the last syllable only. The circumflex lengthens the sound, and affects either the last syllable of a word, or the last but one. There are two spirits, or breathings: the asper ['], which the Greeks use instead of the letter h ; and the lenis ['], which denotes the absence of the asper. All the words that begin with a vowel have one of these breathings over them; but the vowel upsilon admits of no other than the spiritus asper at the beginning of a word. In diphthongs the spiritus is put over the second vowel : as, avTOQ, not avTog, The letter p, at the beginning of a word, has an asper over it, as, pfw; and where two /js meet in a word, the first has a leniSy and the other an asper. The apostrophe ['] is used for cutting off the vowels a, e, i, o, and the diphthongs at and o^, when they stand at the end of a word and the next word begins with a vowel : as. Trap' avrfy for TTopa avrC) ; ttcivt' zkeyov for Trao^ra eXeyov. Sometimes the apostrophe contracts two words into one: as, /ca'yo) for Kal kyo); kyof/LLai for kyo) oljuai; Ka'Keivog for kqI EKeivor. Sometimes an apostrophe supplies the first vowel begin- ning a word : as, o 'yade for w ayade ; ivov 'r^ for ttov eg-i. This is chiefly used in poetry. But the prepositions Trepl and Tvpo suffer no apostrophe though the next word begin with a vowel ; for we write irepl v/Lt6)v, Ttpo e/LLov ; Tvepl avrov, rrpb etcjv, &c. The diuresis ["] separates two vowels, that they may not be taken for a diphthong : thus, dvry with a diaeresis makes three syllables ; but without a diseresis av is a diphthong, and makes ai'T^ two syllables. Diastole [,] is put between two particles that would bear a different sense without it: thus, b,rE b,Tt signify whatever; whereas ore stands for as, and bri for that. To, re with a dias- tole implies and this; but when without, it answers to the adverb then. UREEK. 87 Tiie sign of interrogation, in (ireek, is made by a semi- colon [;]. The colon is made by an inverted full-point [*]. All other points are the same as in English. The compositor will find it advantageous to bear in mind the following rules :— 1. No accent can be placed over any other than one of the last three syllables of a word. 2. The grave accent never occurs but on the last syllable ; and, this being the case, the asper grave [' ] and lenis grave [^] can be wanted only for a few^ monosyllables. X Xo vowel can have a spirit, or breathing, except at the beginning of a word. 4. The letter p is the only consonant marked by a breathing. 5. Almost every word has an accent, but very seldom has more than one ; and, when this happens, it is an acute thrown back upon the last syllable from one of those words called enclitics {leaning hack), which in that case has none, unless it be followed by another enclitic. In no other case than this can a last syllable have an acute accent, except before a full- point, colon, or note of interrogation, when the grave accent of the last syllable is changed to an acute, — a circumstance which has often led printers, who wore ignorant of the rea- sons for accenting the same word diliorently in different situa- tions, to think that there was an error in their copy, and thus to make one in their proof. Most errors, however, proceed from those who do not think at all about the matter. PLAN OF GREEK CASES, The following plan of cases for Greek type is probably more convenient than any other. A Roman case may readily be altered to accommodate the lower-case sorts. Compositors who aspire to a full knowledge of their art should by all means make themselves familiar with Greek and Hebrew letters and cases. 88 GREEK. r = JCO -*?> -eO -i?j ^3 -iCO -^?> -:0 -:?J ^3 :Co '?> - ••o :?J =3 .CO •-§=- "" i-O "?> -3 »-w •■?> ^O •-Si -3 ecu •=s> .. SO •=?> ^3 =.co >?> »«* »o »?i -3 ceo •S> c. O '?> '3 £«0 'S^ .. to '?s *3 ♦CO -?> ... -o '?> «3 "CO *-?> '- -o -?J -3 ICO '?> ... !0 t?5 '3 'Co 'S^ '- /O /-^i -3 vco ^*> - N3 3- ^?> ^ w w •e -^e ■'Q tS3 "^ ^ ??• :C3 -O W ^ H t!> "O ■^Q < < W »C3 cQ Ph M Ph C3 C3' 'G ' -« " w H-t c » s- -<3 - '« ■ < < -^- CO Q. ' ^ - - ;^ S? fe 3 to - O o 1 CO . ;^ i a. § ':5> •o 5L ^ U li ^H c^ P ag ^ i I * Q^ u. il 1 90 HEBREW ALPHABET, HEBREW, The Hebrew alphabet has twenty-two letters. Column No. 1 of the following table indicates the force of Hebrew let- ters when read without points. Column No. 2 gives their force when the language is printed with the Masoretic points or vowels, which are of later date than the letters. The names and numerical value of the characters are also shown. THE HEBREW ALPHABET. Names. No. 2. Numer. Value. K Aleph 3 Beth J Gimel 1 Daleth n He 1 Vau T Zaiu n Cheth D Teth "• Jod 3 *1 final.... Caph 7 Lamed 12 D final... Mem J I final Nun Samech ^ Ain £3 n final ... Phe 2^ Y final... Tzaddl p I' Koph ■^ Resch ty Shin or Sin n Thau Sounded a in war {vowel) g hard a in hate {vow.) u vowel, or be- fore a vowel, w Like ee in Eng- lish {vowel) k or c hard o long {vowel) j soft q or qu A gentle aspirate Bh Gh Dh A rough aspirate Ds Hh j consonant, or the softer y hg, or hgh, the roughest aspirate ? hard 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 HEBMEW. 91 LETTERS THAT HAVE A LIKENESS TO OTHERS. Beth Caph Daleth 1 Caph 1 Resch Vau Zain 1 r Jod ^ Nun Mem Samech D Gimel Nun He n Cheth n Thau n Teth £2 Mem Ain Tzaddi The dividing of Hebrew words not being permitted, the five following letters are cast broad to enable fhe compositor to justify the lines without irregular spacing ; — Aleph He Lamed Mem Thau i< n ^ Oi n Hebrew has no capitals, and therefore letters of the same shape, but of a larger body, are used at the beginning of chapters and other parts of Hebrew works. Hebrew reads from the right to the left, which is the case with all other Oriental languages, except Ethiopic and Arme- nian. In composing it, the general method is to place the nick of the letter downward, and, after putting the points to the top, to turn the line and set the points that come under the letters. If the letter has but one leg, the point is placed im- 92 HEBREW. mediately under it ; but where the letter has two legs, it is put under the centre. The Masoretic points or vowels are subjoined under the consonant 3 (beth). 1. The Long Vowels. Kanietz t aa ^ ^^^ T Tzeri - ee Tj bee Long Chirek... *f ii t^ bii Cholem *j oo 'J33 ^^^ Shurek ?| uu ?j3 buu 2. The Short Vowels. Patach -a '^hsi Soegol V e 3^® Little Chirek i 3 bi Kametz-chataph... t o 3 ^^ T Kibbutz •., ?fc 2 bu 3, Shevas, which imply a Vowel to be ivanting. Simple Sheva.. Patach furtive. n n Chataph Patach.. Chataph Soegol... Chataph Kametz f^ o The last three are called compound shevas ; and, in fact, they are only the short vowels, to which the simple sheva [ : ] is joined. Hebrew accents are either mere points, or lines, or circles. Those which are mere points or dots consist of one or two or three such points, and are always placed above the middle of the accented letter, thus. One, called rehia^ 3> !•©• sitting over. Two, called royal zakeph katon, 3, or, the little ele- vator^ from its figure, which is composed of upright points. .Three, called royal segolta, 3, an inverted ['•']. The lines are either upright, inclined, or transverse. The upright is either solitary or with points or dots. That con- sisting of HEBREW, 93 'between two words, ^l^* termed pe^ic/i;, or musical pause, and terminating a song. Metheg, 3 or hridlej an euphonic accent at the beginning of a word. Royal silluky 2> ^^^> which is placed before [:], sophpasukj i.e. toward the end. or under a ^ word, With points, namely, two, above the letter, royal zakeph gadhol, 2> ^^^ great elevator^ strains the sound, one, below the letter, royal iehhir, 3, broken sound, from its figure and tone. '^ Inclined lines hang either above or below. the right Leader pashta, 2» extension^ extends the voice or sound, and is placed above the last letter of the word. Subservient kadma, 2> cintc- cedenty to the leader geresh; and is placed above the penult or antepenult letter. the left the left -Leader gereshj 3, expulsion^ is sung with an impelled voice. (( Gereshajim, 2» t'^o expellerSy from the figure* being doubled, the right — laeadev t(2:>hcha, ^^ fatigue ^ from the song or note. Of subservient Merca, 3, lengthening outj from its lengthening out the song or note. Merca kepkula^ 2> ^ double lengthening out, from its music and figure. The transverse line is either right or curved : thus, " "^ . The right line is placed between two words, connecting them together, thus, 3"D' ^"^ ^^ called maccaph^ i.e. con- nection. The curved or waved line, 3, is called leader, zarka, or, the disperser^ from its modulation and figure. Circles are either entire or semi. The entire circle is placed always above, and has a small inclined line attached to it. 94 IIKBliKW. Either on the left, when it is placed at the head of the word, P 3, and is called leader telisha the greater, or, the great evulsion, Q Or on the right, when it is placed at the end, 2> ^^^ is called subservient telisha the less. QP On both together, 3, called leader karne para, the horns of the heifer, from its modulation and figure. The semicircle is either solitary or pointed. The solitary is either angular or reflected. J f Subservient hillui, 3, elevated, from the eleva- on I , . , -} tion of the voice. [ Mmiach, 2, placed below, from its position. r 'Leader jethith, ^, drawing back, from its figure, on < the left 1 ^'^^t)S6i*vient Tnahpach, *2> inverted, also from [ its figure. r either single subservient darga, ^, a degree. The reflected j i '^ is 1 or double, leader, shalsheleth, 3, ct chain, from I its figure and modulation. When joined with other points, it is either above or below the letter. When above the letter, it has a small line attached to it on the left, 3> leader paser, the disperser, from the diffusion of the note. When below the letter, it is pointed either downward, 2, called royal athnach, respiration, as the voice must rest up(ni it, and respire; or upward, *^, B\ibserYient,jerah-ben-jomo, the V moon of its own day, from its figure. PLANS OF HEBREW CASES. The first plan shows a common case for Hebrew without points ; the second exhibits a pair of cases with points. HEBREW. 95 -n JJ — -U ^U ^ -1 i - i^ D 1 V:: U u U u 1 tl nX* B c 1 li S 3 1= p3 i 1 c; -i u % ^ ^ -. ^ - :j -l - H ♦ Is 15" - \D I •• ^a u: 1 1 c - n \ ■ |5 a l-r I O I 96 HEBREW. i ^ c a - ;& '- c: ^ 2 ^ ^ D o -. !u ■- s < ^ :^ ^ E V - .& - n -l o ^ z - n. n: ^^ a rr% ^ r r r :r 13 f: r- - .- - -- .J^ Q n- n n n ii n. r r r r - ■r X. % ::^ n n G\ HEBREW. 97 ■^^■^■■^p - II! "<2 III •sjaiod joj saiT3ap«n^ 3 1 ""^^ 3'i *-« - 1 o - ♦ ^ ill r >« H - :^ % n n 1 e CO n. r *-• c £) ag n Q .J^ i| n - f~ a # ■T* T^ - 98 MUSIC. In no department of letter-founding has the progress of improvement been more decided and satisfactory than in the production of music type. The finest work of the music- stamper cannot surpass the ingenious combinations of the type-founder and printer. The music of which specimens are here given is cast on the centre of the body, and any intelli- gent workman may learn to compose it with facility. EXCELSIOR. DIAMOND No. 1. ^ ^^m^^ - ^* PS #-|-i*-^-^-H* — ^ — F?^ :t=t &=fe DIAMOND No. 2. T f T T ^^ b 4 ^—^—^—^— "p L 1 1^ AGATE No. 3. ta I I -(5>-- A 'tt-4-r- ^r=r- t MUSIC. 99 MUSIC COMPOSITION. A KNOWLEDGE of the rudinients of the art is essential to the correct and expeditious composition of music type ; for, unless the compositor is acquainted with the relative time- values of the notes and rests, he cannot apportion them properly. The manuscript copy is given to the compositor, with direc- tions regarding the dimensions of the page required and the size of type to be employed. He counts the number of mea- sures in the piece, and allots to each measure the amount of ems in length which the page will permit, so that there shall be a general equality of space throughout the piece. In instrumental music, and in pieces which are not inter- lined with poetry, the compositor will set two or more staves simultaneously, ranging the leading notes in the under staves precisely under the corresponding ones in the upper staff; that is, a certain amount of space in each staff", in a brace, must contain the same amount of time-value. Where lines of poetry are interspersed, as in ballads and in church music, the staves are necessarily set singly; and in composing the second staff the workman must therefore constantly refer to the first, in order to make the staves correspond, proceeding in like manner with the tliird and fourth. A good compositor will l)e careful to make the lines overlap each other, brick-wise, and not allow a joint to fall directly under another. Masters who aim to do cheap rather than good work have the music lines cast double or triple, to ex- pedite composition. Such work has a very slovenly look, as the joints of the lines, coming under one another, are apparent in the entire depth of the staff. We have seen books set in this manner, in which all the lines seem to be composed of dotted rule, instead of a continuous stroke. The compositor should be careful to make the stems of all the notes in a page of the same length, except those of grace- notes, which should be about half as long. PLAN OF CASES. The following plan of cases is adapted to L. Johnson * CM 1 s V £ r s I g \ CM r 5 J ^ tH IL S \ S / s ^ CM ( 5 i— S o 1 ?^ I s /r s MUSIC. 101 ' 1 CO 1 I - (M y 00 1 / W 1 # o #■ o / S / S / a / 2 '- 1 * £ \ I \ S V a \ I CVJ \ o V % * £ \ I 1 \ I V o - GD cs i s ! ' - 1 I % -1 s ;?? J z -u S _J^ l^ 1- 2 t* 1 CO CM JJ-- ^ 1 2 JLiJ. ?3 -LL ;;; -L- S i 1 - 1 . i -Li±l ^ *- 5 * g 1 CQ 1 CO CD u-mS . ^ 0- t « s 1 IJJJ4 B hh-hS CO • s •- 3 « S tt s J !: J t J s (TN 2 • 5 1 t I s ( I jommiMBmmam 9^:j 102 Mvisia l> 00 ( eo CO CM i ^ 00 (L o 00 (O 1 CO 1 w 1 CO 1 w CM CM a CM O (L CO o iD 09 00 1 '^ 1 eo o o CO t o CO o 00 lO u * 00 • i c CM l>-l i 05 05 CM (} M 00 o 00 00 ■ s II o: eo CM « M 00 OS CM CO Oi CM W o OS 00 il 1 ^ — — —— _ * a o CO I- Oi CM t-( 05 00 CO 00 \i Jj ^ r^ CM ^ CC CO 4- CO « CM iST 00 CO CM --^v CM jOT CM 05 \ *!- 00 ^ CO CM ' CM ^&i. O CM ^ CO CM M CM CO ^ CO i 00 CM CO 1 00 CM <*< ::&<». Oi CO CM ff _Dr- CO Oi %. CM - lO 00 CM CO CM ^ ^ a iT w ^ 05 sv a. Oi 00 *- *- O 00 CM CM - cG *« CM =**- 05 « CC 00 *L CO CM - o: Cv} — iC CO CV) - CM ^ o CO CM Oi CM =**= o « r- ^ 4 lO 5 - CC CM ^ m 00 &s - CO CO § CM 1 S i CO o lO -I CO CO m CO * 00 ^^ CO V, t- «l CM CO i±± o * I- .. s t-? « <© KD ^ + CO < CO kO «0 Oi CO 4 o CO Oi >0 to 8 CO »o Su CO — It a 2 lO •s^ CO tH 05 CM 4 * Oi 00 * * 00 « »* ** + 1- ^ Cb >J5 THE ART OF COMPOSITION. GENERAL REMARKS, ■pXPERIENCE proves that the approiitice foreshadows the workman, just as surely as the bend of the twig foretells the in- clination of the tree. The up- right, obedient, industrious lad will graduate a steady, skilful, and capable man, as unmis- takably as the perverse, idling, careless boy will ripen into a lazy, dissolute, and worthless fellow. The fact is, a boy is measurably the maker of his ow^n destiny; and if he fails to acqtiire a master-knowledge of the trade to which he is put, it will mainly be because he did not at his outset determine to be a master-workman. Good morals and steady industry are indispensable. When a lad who possesses these qualities proposes to learn the art and mystery of printing, it should be inquired of him, Has he had a fair common-school education? Is he a perfect Speller? Has he a turn for reading? Is his ej^esight good? Is he tinder fifteen years of age? A true affirmative answer to all these queries, will entitle him to the position of reading and errand boy. He is told the hours at which he is to come and go, and a strict punctuality is enjoined upon him. He 103 104 COMPOSITION. sweeps the room, — he sorts out the pi, — he learns the position of the various letters in the case. A year spent in this way is an excellent preparative for '* going to case," or learning the art of composing type. When he is put to composition, he is told to set up one line and show it to the foreman or to the journeyman under whose care he may be placed. The errors in the line are pointed out to him, and he is required to correct them himself. When the words are perfectly correct, he justifies the line tight enough to prevent it from falling down when the composing-stick is slightly inclined, and yet sufficiently loose to enable him to lift it out with ease. In thus spacing out the line, the blanks between the words must be so graduated that, when the matter is printed, all the words will ajD^^ear at equal distances apart. No matter how impatient he may be to get on, he must be drilled at this exercise till he becomes a thorough master of it. The grand doctrine to be instilled into him at first is, to do his work well and correctly ; swiftness will follow as a natural consequence. He sets a second line; and after it has been made faultless he proceeds with the third, and so on till the stick is full. The utmost care must be taken to keep every letter and every line in an exact vertical position ; and when he essays to empty the stick he must be taught to lift the entire mass in one square solid body, and to place it squarely and vertically on the galley. If the lines are allowed to slant either backward or sidewise, it is difficult afterward to make them stand accurately. After the apprentice has become thoroughly conversant with the shape of every type, and can distinguish "u" from *'n," '^b" from "q," and " d" from " p," he is allowed to dis- trilnite type for his own use. He is taught to take up at one time no more matter than he can conveniently grasp in his left hand, which he holds so that the light falls on the face of the type, and his eye can readily read it. In distributing the various letters, he takes a word or two between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, and the types are lightly dropped \ into their respective boxes. At the outset, and as he proceeds, the novitiate must be cautioned against the acquisition of bad habits ; such as swing- ing the body as the types are picked up, nicking the type against the stick several times before placing it in line, stand- ing on one leg, &c. COMPOSITION, 105 While avoiding these ridiculous practices, a learner must acquire (if he does not possess them already) certain habitudes or principles which lie at the foundation of successful effort. The first is Punctuality, He must conscientiously observe the time- rules of the office in coming and leaving. The early hours are the best for work; and the mind being cheered by the con- sciousness of doing right, the body feels the influence, and is strengthened ; and when the quitting hour arrives, the amount of work accomplished will satisfy himself and his master too. The most successful masters have been distinguished for punctuality. The apiirentice's time is not his own, but his master's property; and wasting it by Avant of punctuality, or idling during his master's absence, is simply equivalent to stealing. The second point is Obedience, The apprentice has no right to question orders given by the master or his deputy. His duty is promptly to do as he is told, without grumbling or dissatisfaction. Let him remember that he is under orders, and that, if he ever expects to learn how to command, he must learn in his youth how to obey. He will promote his own interests by seeking to anticipate his master's wishes, and l)y endeavouring to make himself so useful that his services cannot well be dis- pensed Avith. Akin to this is Courtesy. Good manners in a youth are wonderfully pleasing, and effectively aid in his advancement. Courtesy toward his master is a matter of course, and deserving of little commendation ; but he must be courteous to customers when sent out on an errand, and courteous to the workmen in the office. By this means he will secure good-will, and many a friendly hint will be given to him in acquiring a knowledge of the art. The habit when fixed will bless him and others as long as he lives. PLAN OF CASES, The following schemes show the order in which the letters are kept in cases in this country. In some offices, however, slight deviations will be found, — such as the transposition of the comma and w, y, p, &c. 106 COMPOSITION. i o f 8 c o ^ ^ - ■1 ^ f^ ^ !> •si ^ L «« K g H p ^ ll i Pi h; m 1-5 (§) II s O M « S3 ^ ^ 1 M H G? >^ €©= 1 -^ w Ph "A ot» 8 - O o ^ - t= u*0 $ ^ ^ {> - = Mix e a H P c I M r—l ^ - n o s ;i ^ rO - J> '^ - 5^. ►• N y. cr* 108 COMPOSITION. 00 O) o i 2 l:^ c^. - >• CO &X1 ^ 1 lO «fH - .. • Tt^ ft CO t^ cq o c3 -^ © ^ i M Kg Ti fl o< 1 •r-S S8 II ^ o a -)-» 5« q:! rO - f3 ^ - N M o^ 1 POSITION— LAYING TYPE. 109 POSITION. The standing position of a compositor should be perfectly upright, without stiffness or restraint ; the slioulders thrown back, the feet firm on the floor, heels nearly closed, and toes turned out to form an angle of about forty-five degrees. The head and body should be kept perfectly steady, except when moving from the Roman to the Italic case, the operations of distributing and composing being performed by the various motions of the arm, from the shoulder-joint alone ; and if, to reach a box placed in the further part of the cases, to put in or take out a letter, he should incline the body by a slight motion, he should immediately resume his erect position. The height of a compositor and his frame should be so adjusted that his right elbow may just clear the front of the lower case by the a and r boxes, without the smallest elevation of the shoulder- joint; his breast will then be opposite the space, h, and e boxes. Sitting at work should be rarely permitted, except for lameness, weakness, old age, or other infirmity ; and then the stool should be a small piece of board fastened to a single leg. Habit will render a standing position familiar and easy ; per- severance in conquering a little fatigue will be amply repaid by the prevention of knock knees, round shoulders, and ob- structed circulation of the blood and respiration of the lungs. LAYING TYPE. Unwrap carefully the page received from the type-founder, and, laying it on a galley, soak it thoroughly with thin soap- water, to prevent the tyjDCS from adhering to one another after they have been used a short time. Then, with a stout rule or reglet, lift as many lines as will make about an inch in thick- ness, and, placing the rule close up on one side of the bottom of the proper box, slide off the lines gently, taking care not to rub the face of the letter against the side of the box. Proceed thus with successive lines till the box is filled. Careless compositors are prone to huddle new types to- gether, and, grasping them up by handfuls, plunge them pell- mell into the box, rudely jostling them about to crowd more in. This is an intole-rable practice. The type left over should be kept standing on galleys, in 10 110 DISTRIBUTING, regular order, till the cases need replenishment. A fount of five hundred pounds of Pica may have, say, four cases allotted to it ; the same amount of Nonpareil, from eight to ten cases. DISTRIB UTING, When a learner can infallibly distinguish from each other the letters b and q, d and p, n and u, and 1 and I, he may be allowed to distribute type for himself. The head of the page being turned toward him, the learner sets a composing-rule behind the portion to be lifted, and then, placing his thumbs against the rule and his forefingers against the top line, while his remaining fingers press together both sides, he raises the matter quickly. Then, inclining sidewise his right hand, he removes the left, and allows the matter to balance momentarily in his right, while he doubles in the third finger and stretches out the thumb of the left for the re- ception of the matter, which he at once places in it, the rule lying as a support on the third finger, while the thumb and other fingers embrace the sides. He should take up but a few lines at a time, until he acquires facility in lifting. Large handfuls should always be avoided, as the weight is fatiguing and weakening to the wrist. Keeping the handful in an inclined position, so that he may readily read the lines, he takes up as many letters as he can conveniently hold between his fingers, — an entire word, iJ practicable,— and drops the tj^pes slantingly, but with face up- ward, into the several boxes. The first aim of the learner must be accuracy, even though his progress be slow. Correct distribution aids in clean com- position. In time he will be able to drop his types rapidly, with hardly a glance at the boxes ; and, while his fingers are flying about correctly and expeditiously, his eyes will take in the next word to be distributed; thus proceeding without cessation. In distributing, the utmost care should be taken in placing the various spaces in their appropriate boxes. A mixing of spaces characterizes the botch. The letter-board should always be kept clean, and the bot- tom as well as the face of the form well washed before it is laid on the board and unlocked ; for, if any dirt remain from the ley-brush after the form is unlocked, it will sink into the COMPOiSING, 111 matter instead of running otf. This precaution taken, the pages should be well opened, and the whole form washed till the water appears to run from it in a clean state. If the form is very dirty, it is best to lock it up again and rinse the bottom of it, and proceed as before. It is sometimes necessary to dr^^ the letter at the fire after distributing. In this case, the tyxje should not be used until it is perfectly cold, as very pernicious eflects arise from the anti- mony in the composition of which the type is made. The noxious vapour which arises is sufficient warning of the efi'ects. The compositor ought always to avoid it as a pesti- lence which will equally affect his respiration and his sinews, inducing lung-complaints, and causing paralysis of the hand or contraction of the fingers. Where it can be conveniently managed, it is better to distribute at night, or before meals, so that the letter may dry without artificial heat. COMPOSING. Composing is a term which includes several exercises, as well of the mind as the body; for, when we are said to com- pose, we are at the same time engaged in reading and spelling what we are composing, as well as in taking care to space and to justify our matter. WJien copy is put into the hands of the compositor, he should receive directions respecting the width and length of the page ; whether it is to be leaded, and with wdiite lines be- tween the breaks ; and whether any particular method is to be follow^ed in the punctuation and in the adoption of caj^itals. These instructions being given, the compositor will make his measure to the number of ems directed, which is done by lay- ing them flatwise in the composing-stick, and then screwing it up sufficiently tight to prevent the slide from moving. He then fits a composing-rule to the measure, and, his case being supplied with letter, he commences his work. The left hand, which contains the composing-stick, should always follow the right, which takes up the letters. If the left be kept stationary, considerable time is lost in bringing each letter to the stick, because the right hand has, conse- quently, to traverse a much greater space than is necessary. The eye should always precede the hand, constantly seeking for the next letter while the fingers are picking up one just 112 COMPOSING, selected. Each letter should be taken up by the upper end. This method will effectually prevent any false motion, and preclude the necessity of turning the letter when in the hand. If possible, a sentence of the copy should be taken at one time, and, while putting in the point and quadrate at the end of the sentence, the eye may revert to the copy for the next. It is to dexterity in these particulars that compositors are indebted for swiftness. The time thus gained is very considerable, while all appearance of bustle or fatigue is avoided. By taking a sentence into the memory at one time, the connection . of the subject is preserved, and the punctuation rendered less difficult. Those who are careful in distribution find the advantage of it in composition. Foul or slovenly workmanship is dis- graceful. To avoid this, a compositor should accustom him- self to glance over each line as he justifies it, and correct any error as he proceeds, which he may do with little impediment to his progress. Uniformity in spacing is, unquestionably, a most important part of a compositor's occupation ; this requires both care and judgment, and, therefore, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the beginner. Close spacing is as unwork- manlike as wide spacing, and neither ought to be permitted except in very narrow measures ; and, frequently, even then with care it might partly be prevented. What is commonly called the thick space is the proper separator between each word ; though this rule cannot always be adhered to in nar- row measures when large type is used. It is not sufficient merely to have a line here and there uniformly spaced: a careful compositor will give every page that uniformity of appearance which is a chief excellency. The beginner should remember that it is better to do little, and to do that little well, than to put together a great number of letters without any regard to accuracy and uniformity. Where a line is evenly spaced, and yet requires justifica- tion, the additional space should be put between those words in the line where it will be least observable : viz. a d and an h, being tall, perpendicular letters, will admit an increase of space between them, but not more than a middle and thin space to a thick-spaced line ; and an additional space may be COMPOSING. 113 placed after a kerned letter, the beak of which may bear upon the top of an ascending letter,— as the f and the h, i, 1, &c. The same rule should be observed where it is necessary to reduce the spacing of a line, less space being required after a sloping letter than after a perpendicular one. The comma requires only a thick space, but the other points should have a hair space before and an en quadrate after them, except the full-point, which should have an em quadrate, as terminating a sentence. Should it be necessary to reduce the spacing gene- rally, the spaces after the points must be altered in the same proportion. Spaces are now cast to such regular gradations, that the compositor can urge no reasonable excuse either for bad justification or improper spacing. JUSTIFYING. Accurate justification is absolutely essential, as the letters will be warped sidewise in a loose line, making it impossible to get a fair impression from the type. Besides, the letters are liable to be drawn out by the suction of the rollers, to the detriment of the form and the press. The instructor of an apprentice should occasionally pass his finger along the side of matter set by him ; and if the lines should not i^rove evenly justified, they should be put into the composing-stick again and properly corrected. HEAD-LINES. Head-lines are generally set in small capitals of the same fount, or in Italic, and sometimes in capitals. Italic capitals of letter somewhat smaller than the body of the work, with folios of a proportionable size, have a neat appearance. The usual rule for note-type is two sizes less than the text of the work : thus, to Pica work. Long Primer ; Small Pica, Bourgeois; Long Primer, Brevier. Side-notes are usually smaller in proportion. When side-notes or references drive down below the lines of the text to which they refer, the ex- pedient of cut-in notes must be resorted to. This is a difficult part of a compositor's business, and requires skill and patience to adjust all parts, so that every line of note and text riiay have proper and equal bearing. The reglet or lead between the lines of matter and the side-note must be cut with as much 10* 114 COMPOSING. nicety as possible to the length of the text, as far as where the note is to run under; and, having accurately adjusted, by means of the quotations and justifiers, the situation of the first line of the note, such lead or reglet is added to the text as will make it precisely correspond in depth with the lines of note that stand on the side before turning : the remainder of the note is then set in a long measure, to correspond in width with the text, reglet, and side-note; and the page is made up with note, or the text begun again after the note is finished. In Bibles with notes and annotations, in law- books, and other works, it frequently happens that a page exhibits several of these alternate frameworks of note and text, which, if done well, display a workman's skill to great advantage. BLANKING. If the work is very open, consisting of heads, whites, &c., the compositor must be particularly attentive to their depth ; so that though the white may be composed of different-sized quadrates, yet their ultimate depth must be equal to the regu- lar body of the type the work is done in ; otherwise the register of the work will be incomx^lete. The pressman cannot make the lines back if the comjoositor is not careful in making up his matter. PARAGRAPHS. The first line of a new paragraph is indented an em quad- rate, of whatever type the work may be ; though, when the measure is very wide, two or even three ems are preferable. By this means the paragraph is more strongly marked, the indention of an em only being scarcely perceptible in a long line. Authors vary materially in \he mode of making para- graphs. Some carry the argument of a position to a great length before they relieve the attention of the reader ; while others break off at almost every place that will admit only of a full-point. But the author's plan is to be followed, unless he direct otherwise. Authors should always make the begin- ning of a new paragrajoh conspicuous to the compositor, by indenting the first line of it far enough to distinguish it from the preceding line in case it should be quite full. It is a practice too i)revalent among compositors to drive out a word at the close of a paragraph, or even to divide it, in order to reap the advantage of a break-line. Part of a word, COMPOSING, 115 or a complete word, in a break-line, if it contain no more than three or four letters, is improper. It should be the business of the proof-reader to notice and check this irregularity. The last line of a paragrapli should not on any account begin a page, neither should the first line of a paragraph come at the bottom of a page if the work has white lines between the breaks: to prevent this, the compositor may make his page either long or short, as most convenient, always taking care that the odd and even pages back, so that the extra length or shortness of the page may escape observation. The index is generally placed at the end of the volume, and set in letter two sizes less tlian that of the work. It is always begun upon an uneven page. In setting an index, the subject- line should not be indented ; but, if the article make more than one line, all but the first should be indented an em. In preparing the copy of an index, care should be taken that the subject-words are ranged alphabetically, as the com- positor will not transpose his matter afterward without re- muneration. Where several index-figures are used in succession, a comma is put after each folio; but, to save figures and commas, the succession of the lormer is noted by putting a dash between the first and last figures : thus, 4-8. Again, if an article has been collected from two pages, the folio of the second is supplied by 57., or sequente^ and by sgg., or sequien- tibus, when an article is touched upon in succeeding pages. A full-point is not put after the last figures, because it is thought that their standing at the end of the line is a sufficient stop. Neither is a comma or a full-point placed to the last word of an article in a wide measure and open matter with leaders; but it is not improper to use a comma at the end of every article where the figures are put close to the matter, instead of ruiming them to tlie end of the line. TITLES. Ornamental type may be used to good purpose in fancy jobs, and without violating any of the canons of a correct taste. The universal eye is pleased with ornament ; and it is well to foster this ftmcy, just as we cultivate a poetical feeling, or a passion for music, or flowers, or any beautiful thing that God lie COMPOSING. has made. But, as life should not be all music, or flowers, or poetry, so printing should not be all ornament. And as men whom nature puts in the fore-front of all other men are noted for an intellectual simplicity bf life and style, so the title-page that heralds all the inner pages of a book should be printed in a style of elegance severe and unadorned : no fancy type, ex- cept a line of Scribe Text, or Old English, — no italics, unless perchance a single-line motto in Pearl caps, — no bold -face type, nor Antique, nor Gothic, — but plain, clear, light-faced letters that seem the embodiment of the soul of thought. All experienced printers incline to this simple style; but pub- lishers sometimes interfere with this province of art legitimate only to a typographer, and insist on the indulgence of a taste which certainly owes no allegiance to any of the laws of beauty ; and the printer or stereotyper who executes the book receives credit for a title-i3age which he would fain utterly repudiate. We add a few hints which may assist the learner. 1st. ' Having divided the title into lines, and decided upon the size of type suitable for the principal one, begin by composing those of the second and third class, both in ascending and de- scending order. 2d. Avoid having two lines of equal length to follow or come in contact with each other. 3d. Catch-words should be set on a very reduced scale, and proportioned ac- cording to the strength of the preceding and succeeding lines ; for bold catch-words detract from the general effect of the title. 4th. Close attention should be given to those title-pages which are acknowledged to be displayed with true taste and judgment. Authors should endeavour to make their title-pages as con- cise as possible; for a crowded title can never be displayed with elegance or taste. DEDICATIONS. The dedication generally follows the title, and seldom ex- ceeds one page. It should be set in capitals and small capitals, neatly displayed. The name of the person to whom the work is dedicated should always be in cajDitals, and the terms. Your very humble and very obedient, &c., should be in a smaller tvpe, and the signature or name of the author in capitals of a smaller size than that in which the name of the personage is printed to whom the book is dedicated. COMPOSING, 117 CONTENTS. The contents follow the preface or introduction, and may- be set either in Roman or Italic, generally two sizes smaller than the body of the work; the first line of each summary full, and the rest indented an em quadrate, with the referring figures justified at the ends of the respective lines. PREFACES. Formerly, the preface was uniformly set in Italic ; at present Roman is used, one size larger or smaller than the body of the work. The running title to the preface is commonly set in the same manner as that of the body of the work. If the work has been printed with folios only, then the preface should be paged in like manner. SIGNATURING. The title, preface, &c. of a volume are commonly left till the body of the work is finished, as circumstances may arise in the course of its progress through the press which will induce the author to alter his original preface, date, &c., or the work may conclude in such a manner as to admit of their being brought in at the end, in order to fill out a sheet, and thus save both paper and press- work. For this reason, it is well to begin the first sheet of every work with signature B (or 2), leaving A (or 1) for the title-sheet. It was formerly the custom to omit the letters J, V, and W in the list of signi^tures. But the greater convenience attend- ing the use of twenty-five letters has recently induced several of our largest establishments to omit the letter J only. The errata are put immediately before the body of the work, or at the end of it. They should consist only of such cor- rections as are indispensably necessary^ without noticing any defects in the punctuation, unless where the sense is per- verted. It is strongly to be wished that works could be pro- duced perfectly free from errors; but this is almost a vain hope while imperfection clings to humanity, and while every form is exposed to accident and every additional proof may be productive of fresh error. 118 COMFOSINQ. HINTS HONOURED IN THE BREACH, 1. When you lay a fount of new type, don't open the papers carefully, and place the lines evenly with a brass rule in the cases, nick up; but show your skill by tumbling over each package rapidly, and bringing it down with a rush on the imposing-stone; then, roughly throwing the a's into a chaotic pile, grab them uj) by handfuls and work them well down in the appropriate box. The harder you jostle them down, the more you will get in. Proceed thus with each letter ; and, if the operation has been vigorously performed, the value of the fount will have been reduced, say ten per cent. 2. While you set out one case, let your galley lie on the overheaped type of another case. 3. If a line is rather too tight to permit the last letter to get in easily, push it down hard with your rule or a quadrate. The type may be injured ; but why didn't it fit in just right at first ? 4. Empty your matter at a gentle inclination on the galley, and make it up at the same angle. You can bring it right afterward — perhaps — by the energetic application of mallet, shooting-stick, and planei:. 5. When the case is half set out, shake up the type ener- getically, and do so very often. The exercise will strengthen your muscles. 6. Don't brush off the stone before you lay the matter down. If any sand happens to get under, the type will show its im- pression beautifully deep and clear on the face of the planer,—, perhaps a whole word or two. 7. Don't plane till the form is locked up, as thus you save the trouble of the first planing. But, now that you do plane, hammer away, and show your musical ability in playing a tattoo on the form. Don't lay the planer tenderly and lovingly on the types, as if you were afraid to hurt their feelings, and gently tap it ; but hold it off about a quarter or three-eighths of an inch, and then bring down the mallet with a will. Phew ! how the planer will descend obedient to the stroke, and rebound again, and perhaps again. If the form is not smooth on the surface now, it is not your fault. Repeat this each time when the form is locked up, till it goes to press ; and you may de- pend on it the impression will gain in boldness, if not in looks. TO THE APPRENTICE, 119 8. When correcting yonr numerous errors, don't trouble yourself to lift the lines carefully at the ends, but dig right into the head of the erring letter, and, resting your bodkin on the type below it, pry up the sinner : it does not n^atter if you demolish two or three types in the under line. 9. Wash your form energetically, and apply the ley bounti- fully with a good stiff wiry brush. Never mind rinsing : clean type is an old-fogy notion. 10. When the type is out of use, let it lie around promis- cuously, — on a table, or board, or any place where it will be occasionally convenient to lay on it a mallet or tin basin. If one strip of matter is placed on another, room will be econo- mized. Moreover, the under layers will be safe from dust. 11 (comprehensively). Do every thing in a loose way gene- rally, letting matters go as they list, throwing your pi into spare boxes or secretly placing it on the letter-table or some out-of-the-way place, stealing sorts from your neighbour, overcharging time-work and extras, fishing for fat takes, J9qi9q« -pjcyj 9qj Jo 9ai83 -CTui MoH axn vt\{\ m»\^■^ o\ -9j 94 iinqs amtw eq't 'maop laeipoqo oq 'maBijeg g i V.l SXYISailJ-J •lA 8KYIS3IU3 9 8 EPHESUNS ri. CHAPTER VI. 12 For we wrestle not pIllLDREN-, obey your v^ parents in the Lord: against flesh and blood. but against principalities. against powers, against the ^°2 'nonour^thy' father and rulers of the darkness of mother; which is the Brst this world, againstspiritual commandment with pro- wickedness in high placrt. 13 Wherefore taL unto 3 That it may be well you the whole armour of God, that ve may be able with thee, and thou mayest live long on the earth. to withstand in the enl day, 4 And. ye fathers, pro- and having done all, to Toke not your children to stand. wrath: but bring them up H Stand therefore, hav- in the nurture and admo- ing your loins girt about nition of the Lord. ^ with truth, and haring on 1 5 1 c OMPREHENDS a knowledge of placing the pages so that they may regu- larly follow each other when printed and the sheet is folded up ; and also the mode of dress- ing chases and the man- ner of making the pro- per margin. As many pages as are required for a whole or half sheet being made up, the compositor lays them upon the im- I posing -stone, placing the first page with the signature to the left hand facing him, and then proceeds according to one of the schemes on pp. 129-178. These will be found to contain every necessary imposition, viz. folios, quartos, octavos, twelves, sixteens, eighteens, twenties, twenty-fours, thirty-twos, thirty-sixes, forties, forty- eights, sixtj^-fours, seventy-twos, ninety-sixes, and one hun- dred and twenty-eights. We also introduce schemes for im- posing from the centre, by which means the blank or open 11 121 122 TYING UP PAGE^. pages may be thrown in the centre of the form, leaving the solid pages on the outside to act as bearers for the rollers, as well as for the better regulation of the impression. All odd matter, for any form, should be divided into fours, eights, twelves, and sixteens, which is the groundwork of all the impositions except the eighteens, which differ from all the others; for instance, sixteens, twenty-fours, and thirty- twos are only octavos and twelves doubled, or twice doubled, and imposed in half sheets : for example, the sixteens are two octavos imposed on one side of the short cross ; the twenty- fours are two twelves imposed on each side of the long cross ; and a thirty-two is four octavos imposed in each quarter of the chase. Thus, a sheet may be repeatedly doubled. By this division, any form or sheet may be imposed, always bearing in mind that the first page of each class must stand to the left hand, with the foot of the page toward you. Having set down the first page, then trace the i-emainder according to the scheme which applies to its number ; in proof of wliich, the standard rule for all other impositions may be adopted, — namely, the folios of tivo pageSy if placed properly beside each other, will make, when added together, one more than the number of pages in the sheet: that is, in a sheet of sixteens, pages 1 and 16 coming together will add up 17, and so 9 and 8 will make 17, &c. In half sheets, all the pages belonging to the white paper, and reiteration, are imposed in one chase. So that when a sheet of paper is printed on both sides with the same form, that sheet is cut in two in the short cross if quarto or octavo, and in the short and long cross if twelves, and folded as octavo or twelves. TYING UP PAGES. In tying up pages, use fine twine, winding it four or five times round it, and fastening at the right-hand corner, by thrusting a noose of it between the several turnings and the matter with the rule, and drawing it perfectly tight, taking care always to keep the end of the cord on the face of the page. While tying it, keep the forefinger of the left hand tight on the corner, to prevent the page from being drawn aside. The twine being fastened, the compositor removes the page from the ledges of the galley, to see if the turns of cord lie about the middle of the shank of the letter ; if they lie too high, — as LAYING PAGES, 123 most coramonly they do, — he thrusts them lower ; and if the page be not too broad, he places the fore and middle finger of his right hand on the off side of the head of the page, and his thumb on the near; then, bending his other fingers under, he presses them firmly against the head of the page ; he next places the fingers of his left hand in the same position at the foot of the page, and, raising it upright, lays it on a page- paper ; then, with his right hand he grasps the sides ol' the page and the paper, w^hich turns up against the sides of the page, and sets it in a convenient spot under his frame, placing it on the left hand, with the foot toward him, that tlie other pages that are in like manner set down afterward may stand by it in an orderly succession until he comes to impose them. If the page be a quarto, folio, or a broadside, it is, of course, too wide for his grasp ; and he therefore carries the galley and page to the imposing-stone, and turns the handle of the galley toward him, and, taking hold of the handle with his right hand, he places the ball of the thumb of his left hand against the inside of the head ledge of the galley, to hold it and keep it steady, and by the handle draws the slice with the page upon it out of the galley, letting the slice rest upon the im- posing-stone ; he then thrusts the head end of the slice so far upon it, that the foot of the page may stand an inch or two within the outer edge of the stone, and, placing his left hand against the foot of the page, he quickly draws the slice from under the bottom of the page. LAYING PAGES. In taking up his pages for imposition, the compositor tightly grasps the paper on both sides of the page, in order that it may be kept firm to the bottom of the page ; lor if it be left slack, the letters will be liable to slip out, unless it be par- ticularly well tied up. Having conveyed it to the stone, he next places the last two fingers of his right hand under the head of the page, but not under the page-paper at the head of it, still grasping the sides with his forefingers and thumb ; he then slips his left hand so that the palm ol it may turn toward the bottom, and, lifting the page upright on his right hand, with the left he removes the paper; he next grasps again the foot-end of the page with his left hand, in the same manner as 124 MAKING UP FURNITURE, tlie right holds the head of it, and, turning the face of the type toward him, lays it squarely and quickly down, so that the whole page may come in contact with the face of the stone at the same time. As this method, in inexperienced or careless hands, would frequently endanger a page containing intricate matter, it will be safer to place the pages at first on good, strong, but not coarse and rough papers, and, when they are brought to the stone, instead of lifting them up as just noticed, slide them off the papers in the same manner as before directed respecting a folio page on the slice galley, being careful that no particles of dirt remain under the page. MAKING UP FURNITURE, Having ascertained that his pages are laid down right, the compositor proceeds to dress the chases, which we will sup- pose to be for a sheet of octavo. Accordingly he selects a good pair of chases that are fellows as well in circumference as in other respects ; and, having laid them over the pages for the two difiterent forms, he considers the largeness of the paper on which the work is to be done, and puts such gutter-sticks be- tween page and page, and such reglets along the sides of the two crosses, as will give the book proper margins after it is • bound. To ascertain the proper distance, and to prevent wastage of furniture, he takes short pieces of furniture, or quotations, and quadrates or reglets, to fit the space between two pages ; then, pushing the pages close to them, he finds the exact width of the furniture necessary, by trying the ends of various pieces, always measuring from the edge of the lines of type above the page-cords. By observing a proper method in cutting up new furniture, the same will be serviceable for other works as well as the one for which it is intended, even though the size of the page may differ, provided it agrees with the margin of the paper. The gutters should be cut two or three lines longer than the page ; the head-sticks wider; the back furniture may run nearly down to the rim of the chase, but must be level with the top of the page, which will admit of the inner head-stick running in; the difference of the outer head-stick may go over the eide-stick, and the gutter will then run up between them. MAKING THE MARGIN. 125 The side-stick only need to be cut exact, and the furniture will completely justify. MAKING THE MARGIN The next business is to arrange the margin, so that eacli page may occupy one side of a leaf, and have the proper pro- portion of white paper left at the sides as well as at the head and foot. The page when printed should be a little higher than the middle of the leaf, and have a little more margin on the outside than in the back. One mode of making margin is the following : — For octavos, measure and mark the width of four pages by compasses, on a sheet of paper designed for the work, beginning to measure at one extremity of the breadth of the sheet. The rest of the paper divide into four equal parts, allowing two-fourths for the width of two separate gutter-sticks ; the remaining two- fourths divide again into four equal parts, and allow one- fourth for the margin along each side of the short cross, and one-fourth for the margin to each outside page. But as the thickness of the short cross adds considerably to the margin, reduce the furniture in the back accordingly-, and thereby en- large the outside margin, which requires the greatest share to allow for the unevenness of the paper itself, as well as for pressmen laying sheets uneven, when the fault is not in th© paper. Having thus made the margin between the pages to the breadth of the paper, proportion the margin at the head, in the same manner, to the length, and accordingly measure and mark the length of two, pages, dividing the rest into four parts, one-fourth of which is allowed for each side of the long cross, and one-fourth for the margin that runs along the foot of the two ranges of pages. The furniture on both sides of the long one must be lessened to enlarge the bottom margin, for the reason assigned for extending the side margin. Go the same way to work in twelves, where, for the outer margin along the foot of the pages, allow the amount of two- thirds of the breadth of the head-sticks, and the same for the inner margin, that reaches from the foot of the fifth page to the centre of the groove for the points ; and from the centre of that groove to the pages of the quire, or that cut off, allow half of the breadth of the head-stick. The margin along the long cross is governed by the gutter-sticks ; and it is common 126 MAKING THE MARGIN. to put as much on each side of the long cross as amounts to half the breadth of the gutter-stick, without deducting almost any thing for the long cross, since that makes allowance for the inequality of the outer margin. Another plan, more simple, is the following : — Having laid the pages as nearly as possible in their proper places on the stone, with a suitable chase around them, fold a sheet of paper which has been wetted for the work, or one of the same size, into as many portions as there are pages in the form, and, holding the sheet thus folded on the first or left-hand page of the form, one edge even with the left-hand side of the type, place the adjoining page so that its left side may be even with the right-hand edge of the folded paper, which will leave a suflicient space between the two pages to admit the gutter- stick, which should then be selected of a proper width to suit the form in hand, as follows: — In octavos, about a Great Primer less in width than the space between the pages, as determined by the above rule; in duodecimos, about a Pica less; in sixteens, about a Long Primer; and proportionably less as the number of pages are increased. Having thus secured the proper width for the gutter-sticks, cut them some- what longer than the page, and, holding one of them between the two pages, above the page-cord, close the pages up to it ; tliuu open the folded sheet so as to cover the two pages, and, bringing the fold in the paper exactly in the middle of the gutter-stick, secure it there with the point of a pen-knife or bodkin ; the right-hand edge of the paper thus opened must be brought to the centre of the cross-bar, which determines the furniture required between it and the pages. Having thus arranged the margins for the back and fore edge of the book, proceed in like manner to regulate the head and foot margins, by bringing the near edge of the folded paper even with the bottom of the first page, and so placing the adjoining off page that its head may be barely covered by the off edge of the folded paper, which will give the required head margin. All other sections of the form must be regulated by the foregoing measurements, when the margins for the whole sheet will be found correct. The greater the number of pages in a sheet, the smaller in proportion should the margin be : the folded paper, therefore, should lie i3roportionally less over the edge of the adjoining page, both for gutter and back, in a form of small pages than LOCKING UP FORMS, 127 in one of larger dimensions. A folio may require the page to be half an inch nearer the back than the fore-edge ; while a duodecimo may not require more than a Pica em. In imposing jobs where two or more of the same size, re- quiring equal margins, are to be worked together, fold the paper to the size appropriate for each, and so arrange the type that the distance from the left side of one page to the left side of the adjoining one shall be exactly equal to the width of the folded paper, as before described. Having dressed the inside of the pages, next place side and foot sticks to their outsides ; being thus secured bj^ the furni- ture, untie the pages, quarter after quarter, the inner page first, and then the outer, at the same time forcing the letter toward the crosses, and using every precaution to prevent the pages from hanging or leaning ; and, in order to guard against accidents, when the quarter is untied, secure it with a couple of quoins. LOCKING UP FOUMS, First, carefully examine whether the pages of each quarter are of the same length ; for even the difterence of a lead will cause them to hang. Test their exactness : place the ball of each thumb against the centre of the foot-stick, raising it a little with the pressure, and, if the ends of both pages rise equally with the stick, it is a proof they will not bind ; then fit quoins between the side and foot-stick of each quarter and the chase. After pushing the quoins as far as possible with the fingers, make use of the mallet and shooting-stick, and gently drive the quoins along the foot-sticks first, and then those along the side-sticks, taking care to use an equal force in the strokes, and to drive the quoins far enough up the shoulders of the side and foot sticks, that the letter may neither belly out nor hang, and the lines be kept straight and even. Quoins should be slanted on one side only, but the edges should not be bevelled. The several quarters of the form should be par- tially tightened before either quarter is finally locked up; otherwise the cross-bar may be sprung. Before locking up the form, plane the pages gently over all the face. If this be properly done, a second planing is hardly necessary, provided the justification is perfect and the pages are all of the same length. But, as this is seldom the case, the second planing can hardly be dispensed with. 128 MEMORANDA. It often occurs that the quoins, when locked up wet, stick so tight to the furniture as to render it troublesome to unlock them : in such cases, drive the quoin uj) a little, and it after- ward unlocks with ease. Before lifting a form after it is locked up, raise it gently a short distance, and look under it, to ascertain whether any type are disposed to drop out. If all is right, carry it to the proof-press, and pull a good proof. Then rub it over gently with a ley-brush, rinse it well, and place it in a rack, and deliver the proof, with the copy, to the proof-reader. MEMORANDA, Each part of the furniture should be in one piece, where it is practicable, — as, for instance, the gutters, the backs, and the heads ; but sometimes pieces will be wanted of a width that is not equal to any regular size, and then two must be used. All the gutters of one sheet should be cut of a precise length ; so also with the backs and the heads ; but each sort should be of a different length from that of the others : thus they would be easily distinguished from each other, and mistakes would be prevented. The sheet being imposed, the stone should be cleared ; the saw and saw-block put in their places, the shears, the mallet, planer, and shooting-stick, the surplus furniture, the leads, the quoins, and every other article. The compositor will tie up his page-cords, and, if he has any companions, will return to them their proportion. The chase and furniture of one form should always be used for a similar form ; that is, the chase and furniture of the outer form should be again used for an outer form, and the chase and furniture of the inner form should be again used for an inner form ; they should also be put round the pages in the same order in which they were put about those of the pre- ceding forms. For want of care or thought in these apparently trifling circumstances, trouble, inconvenience, and loss of time ■^Irequently occur; for the register will be almost sure to be wrong when this is neglected, and then the forms must be unlocked and the leads changed, to correct the fault. IMPOSITION. 129 ' Abstract Title-Deeds of Estates. I Abstract Title Deeds of Estates are printed with blanks at the back, with all the margin on the left ^ 1 side, and on single leaves, which are stitched together at Ji o the corner. •? W This method of imposing the form is to save press-work and the compositor's charge. 1 z A Single Sheet of Polio. Inner Form, z 8 1 4 / Outer Form, r^' A 130 IMPOSITION. Two Sheets of Polio, Quired, or lying one in another. Outer Form of the Outer Sheet, 1 ' ' Outer Form of the Inner Sheet, 6 Imposing in quires may be carried to any extent, by ob- serving the following rule: — first ascertain the number of pages, then divide them into so many sheets of folio, and commence laying down the first two and last two, which form the first sheet, and so on to the centre one, always re- membering that the odd pages stand on the left and the even on the right ; the folios of each two forming one more than the number of pages in the work : for example, let us sup- pose the work to consist of thirty-six pages, which is nine sheets of folio, then they should be laid down according to the scheme at the foot of the opposite page. p IMPOSITION, 131 Two Sheets of Folio, Quired, or lying one in another. Inner Form of the Outer Sheet, 7 Mi 2 Inner Form of the Inner Sheet, 5 I M 4 o 1 36 7 30 13 24 35 2, 1st 29 8, Ath 23 14, 1th O P 3 34 33 4, 2d 9 28 27 10, 5th 15 22 21 16, 8th O GO 5 32 31 6, 3d 11 26 25 12, 6th 17 20 19 18, 9th The furniture must be reduced in the backs of the inner sheets, to allow for stitching. 132 IMPOSITION. A Sheet of Oommon Quarto. Outer Forin. A of Quarto, the Broad Way, commonly used in Works of Music. I Outer Form. IMPOSITION, 133 A Sheet of Oommoii Quarto. Inner Form. A Sheet of Quarto, the Broad Way, commonly used in "Works of Music. Inner Form, 12 134 IMPOSITION, Two Half-Sheets of Quarto, worked together. Outer Form, Half a Sheet of Oommon Quarto. IMPOSITION. 135 Two Half Sheets of Quarto, worked together. .Inner Fartn, Half a Sheet of Quarto, the Broad "Way. 136 IMPOSITION. buter Porm of a Sheet of Oommon Octavo. 16 13 Outer rorm of a Sheet of Octavo, the Broad Way. CO I 1 r-H 00 J I '-t <\ IMPOiSITION, 137 Inner Form of a Sheet of Common Octavo. ei 10 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Octavo, the Broad Way. i w. 12* 138 IMPOSITION. Outer Porm of Two Half-Sheets of Oommon Octavo, worked together. Half a Sheet of Oommon Octavo. 9 j 8 r IMPOSITION. 139 Inner Porm of Two Half-Sheets of Common Octavo, worked together. Two Quarters of a Sheet of Octavo, worked together. 140 IMPOSITION, Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, 12 of the Work, and 4 of other Matter. Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, of Hebrew Work. t-T 16 IMPOSITION. 141 Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, 12 of the Work, and 4 of other Matter. "1 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Octavo, of Hebrew Work. IT 14 142 IMPOSITION, Outer Porm of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from tlie Centre. Z\ 1.J A Half-Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre. 7 2 1 1 8 i IMPOSITION. 143 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from tlie Centre. 01 1 \ 9 u ■ 15 2 3 • 14 Two Quarters of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre. r 144 IMPOSITION. ^\ \^ O pi 02 H ^ < g <1 CD IMPOSITION, 145 13 146 IMPOSITION, U2 H ^ OO \ f CD o IMPOSITION, 147 ^ \ < ^ ^2 I I Oi 1 $ B B CD ro i CD - -^ i3 I oi 1 I > 1-3 o pi 148 IMPOSITION, J »f^ J I T-. ^ EZZIL_Z] < Si o CfQ t?' IMPOiSITION, 149 I >- O) (N U2 H ^ K) \ 00 < 1 CO I JO ISj 2 Li B »t3 o B CD la* 150 IMPOSITION Outer Porm of a Sheet of Long Twelves. o One-tMrd, or 8 pages, of a Sheet of Twelves. To be imposed as a slip, or in the off-cross. 1 1 FoTtn.] IMPOSITION, 151 Inner Form of a Sheet of Long Twelves. CO 0^ 1 '^ i in 5 i 1 o i Oi 3 00 i ?5 One-third, or 8 pages, of a Sheet of Twelves. To be imposed as a slip, or in the off-cross. 3 j 6 7 2 a2 Inner Form. 152 IMPOSITION, ^ CJb ; <^ o W H ^ t o cr<5 IMPOSITION, 153 K) \ 1 > ^ 00 ^^,.,.V1*«/^,.,.X,. Oi Oi 00 2 154 IMPOSITION, is„>^,^ < 1 CO i^^.. 0\\ ICM ocj jo^ tOi 1 00 i ", ^ > t3- 1 F Jv^xxx^ i ; Sco pi 1 Si io J O CO I-"- IMPOSITION. 155 A Half-Sheet of Eighteens.^ Containing 16 pages. A Half-Sheet of Eighteens.t rrn 17 1 * The white paper of this half-sheet being worked off, the centre pages muMt be transposed, — viz. pages 7 and 10 in the room of 9 and 8, and pages 9 and 8 in the phice of 7 and 10 : when this is done, your imposition will be true. f When the white paper is worked off, transpose the form, — viz. pages 11 and 8 in the room of 7 and 12, and pages 7 and 12 in the place of 11 and 8 : this being done, the sheet will then fold up right. 156 IMPOSITION, Outer Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, to be folded together. \ 5 32 ^^■V^^^^V^^* ? fw^-W^W^^^ ty t 1 i se j 8S I 36 25 i J 17 1 20 H 91 13 24 Outer Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, with One Signature. i I OTJ \!Z\ \ 9S \ r 1 Z2 36 I 33 III \ oz\ I l\ I j j j 14 IMPOSITION, 157 Inner Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, to be folded together. 19 1 18 SSj ' 23 ■ 91 i 01 11 SO 31 I i 6 \ \ LZ \ f'S 26 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, with One Signature. 1 n 13 S 24 I 3 1 a3 ^Z 8r, T8 \ 08 34 35 \ 14 158 IMPOSITION Outer Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Two Signatures. Z\ 1 81 ^ 1 91 OS 6 I I™LI 1 \ 24 \ 12 B ^ I ^ Outer Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Three Signatures. 1 A 12 \ \ ^1 f \ \ t 1 m 1 1 J 12 IMPOSITION. 159 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Two Signatures. or 11 f Sa \ 9 \ \ 01 i i i. 1 r .JJ L ^ ^ 1 rr\ a2 \ 61 i 22 tT 11 81 ^ \ n Inner Porm of a Sheet of Eighteens, with Three Signatures. ! z^ s \ z^ 9 \ IIIA \ A 11 \ \ 2 OT 11 \ \ Z^ \ 160 IMPOSITION, A Half-Sheet of Eighteens, without Transposition.- I I \ I 81 j 91 \ 12 ,. Z^ ei 01 11 A Half-Sheet of Twenties, with Two Signatures. W ''^ i i ^ 1 *^ CO G^ Oo i^ : 00 O : — ' ^ 1 <^ ^ 1 .||. 1 i:^ "SO ^ V _.| * This mode of imposition is very objectionable, as there will be, when the paper is cut up, three single leaves. IMPOSITION. 161 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Twenties. [___ll \lJ\ L Ci I I CO CO 1 '^ \ -A\-- Outer Form of a Sheet of Twenties. ^ 00 K) 1 CO ►f^ : CO .— CO { l\ ;^j [f I |j^ j S!iS5 14* 162 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Pours. Z'lJ [SI I [91] ! 6 I li 1 iOT j IGl 1 I^T IT 6T J L8LJ 1 Jl 22I 123 1 12 Outer Porm of a Sheet of Twenty-Pours, with Two Signatures. ; Z\ 1 S 8T i i 91 : 6 n [241 T^r r 4 98 I UsJ jOI- j 1 88 ' ^^S 1 LILJ f ^^ 1 1 6S : 25 B 48 '45 i 128 IMPOSITION. 163 A Half-Sheet of Twenty- Pours, the Sixteen-way. 8J [ZM [Og^ 1 1 n '^4 M 21 91 n 6 6 1 I 13 n 12 ill ! LlJ LiLJ LiLi r-n \T^\ \W Inner Porm of a Sheet of Twenty-Pours, with Two Signatures. ^e i \ 68 1 ?•* 108 j j St 1 UtJ j T8 j 1^1 rjel ufl \W \ 1 9 j J6LJ j 8T j j.Z rri [221 [231 ,^™ 164 IMPOSITION, A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Pours, without Inset. 1 1 1 161 I 2. ! 181 6 I rr9i s 22 Jj jQgJ Ul I I f a2 A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Pours, without Inset. j 8T j isgj L5§J L6Li 6 J LiLJ La 16] i 13 1 i 4 jog j j Ig j \}Z\ \ L\ 9^ I LLLJ LfijJ La, f^n rm rrr? rr IMPOSITION, 165 A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours, mthout Cutting fT] TW\ jTr] rri i iw \.^\\i9 w e UlJL t h I?'- hoT I 1.6 J A. TPi 14 S 1231 i 2 A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos. 2Z \ \ 9 13 I I 20 1 I 21 1 {TPi Z^ 08 \ 11 \ a6 T9i \ 14 .9IJ lilJ j IgJ MS rn n2] psi [^ 7 I j 26] I 31 i \ 1 i \ i i 166 IMPOSITION. Outer Porm of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos. t' I 1 19 J i 98 i tS^J 451 r^oi I 13 j I 52 a7 [5 I I 2( L9LJ LSLi L^Li L-AI. \ \ rw\ rw\ r32" I { n ^ 1 8s n Z8 n 09 Li_ »^'>v».»»-vv» »-»^.v^.,i,-»>.»^ »^»-«.<~<~»vv W«.'»i<.'«,.»w4 21 1 rT^i 44 i 1 5: |i¥l ^^ ' Ul L9gJ 6 i L^^J ^ J L, Outer Form of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Pour Sigs. i Loii U9J L^' h§J 55 I I 58 i ! 59 i ! 54 IUlIU 161 113 { I 4 I I ^ 8f I I 88 1 ef^i 7 i 1 44 f RTS 1 40 ^^ i U^ i I 9r, n 8?; 19 I [30] 1 311 ! 18 IMPOSITION, 167 Inner Porm of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos. 9 i S 6G ! i 88 i Lii 11 n 54 n 43 22 1 1 08 n ^8 N e^9 i I 8 19 n 46n 5U 1 14 Vw-^^^vw^-v^ 31 I [^34l \W\ r"2 !0T j L££j ULJ LM ■Tl f58] f39] f26^ Inner Porm of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Four Sigs. ?^^ r—i — Liii ulJ imI LilJ 39 I I 42 I j43i ! 38 — . i t^ I i er, 1 i 8r^ i t^^ 17 B 32 n 29 H 20 191 L19 a 53 n 60 i 57 i ! 56 i 9 M 11 r \ I 3 11 14 I I 15] I 2 II II i I 168 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Two Signatures, r — 1 81 n TS i 08 161 23 I pel [27 I I 22 I sJ LeJ 1^ Lx A pr ,5^i J-ALJ 6S 1 28 I [25 f ? 24 UUL 9 i 111 0[ \ I y«>^i'^.'«i^^^W« ^^i^t.^'^.^b^^t.'k^ •v^'^^t.'t^.^v^.w^ v*x«^«-v« FTl 14 15 n 2 A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos, 20 pages of the Work, 4 pages of Title, &c., and 8 of other Matter. ^^p-j T I ! 0^ j lalI ILi iJlLl L£J LL rri 1 6 h^\ ^ \\z\\\ ^ 9j [nj LoM La 141 i 15 1 1 IMPOSITION. 169 d A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Sixes. ur~~\ E [J [£^1 1^ ] ir ! 3t Q i E™ J f. ^1 L J Ld LJ ED A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Sixes, without Gutting. oo — 1 .!1 •~0 00 c^ !— • 1 OO: iC jo:) j 4^ CO CO -a: ^ JO: =" 1 s j; GO §1 15 170 IMPOSITION, A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Sixes, with Two Signatures. > — ao CD \ J 1- 1 '^ 1 ^ c 1 ►^ lO i t- 1 1 G^ 00 CO z 1 ^ A Half-Sheet of Porties. Tl fsel 1^31 r 8^1 \ \ \ I 81 J ijrj uy isL i~ fsT] 1^ r^ ' L ,91 J j 9Z\ [s?i\ Ul Tl 1^^ f29l \W a2 ij I 40 I I 37 I I 4 I ^ i i i t i ^ . IZ 11 i i 30 I S 31 9^J L?l 10 39 n 2 ! IMPOSITION. 171 A Quarter- Sheet of Porty-Eights, with Two Signatures, 1 5 i \ ' i. \ I \ 81 1 1 8S \ U^J i 61 \(^'^' \\\o\\\Z I S^l l\ n TBI fiT e 1 r ^ J I Hi j.OT j U 14 I {15] [2 'J i A Half S'leet of Forty-Eights, with Two Signatures. Z \ 9Z ZZ i \ 8 7 1 risl iTF] re ? 1 < Til v^\ mh r^o L 9Z \ if l9^ ^ze^ ^^31 \ S"42l M3l rSO 35 \ rSsl fST] I 34 ;S1 J [9lJ 1 6 1 ULi I zi j S o^^vj i g [Tl 124 ! \2{ \l 4 U8 J L.oL LM| I OR 25 I 48 i 45 ! 28 \f\ in f>Z B 5 172 IMPOSITION, A Quarter-Sheet of Porty-Eiglits, without Cutting. 181 [T^ Pel 20 i i 17 n r2ll [TTl fiF A 11 1 1 14 i S23 1 rri A Half-Sheet of Porty-Eights, with Three Signatures. l9l !l2l 1*431 ITs \ 81 i i T8 i j 08 j I 61 23 n 26 n 27 i 1 22 n 6 J LMi Li IS i 16 1 f 131 r4 Uli UlJ btJ LSL. ?^^ pTj m pfT] I 1 1 \ \ ] 2SJ L§Li L J i\ \ 2ii pq pn m 9 n U ! lOT 3^ nT] { 15 11 2 IMPOSITION. 173 A Commoii Quarter-Sheet of Porty- Eights. kl IUt I 1^1 H T) '\^\ \ r i OT ! i ei \\\\ i 1 If Lis ^^^^^. 9 I \i\\ \ jgT j S Z \ o.\\ 22 23 I r 2 A Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Pours, with Two Signatures. 08J Lfil 23 S i 26 i i 2fl ! 22 'i r^ — n ' • a j 06 j LQ? i i 68 j LJJJ 21 I ! 28 I 1 251 1 i 24 r ^ loll r.i W ^ \ pi 1 I i6l I 13^ M ^^ p 9 M 1 iOl 14 i 15 m 15* 174 IMPOSITION, A Oommoii Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Pours. A§J loe r TT] rsoi r2i f 112 ^ i \ i iTTI f 22l 1 19 n 14 1 jgij [8^ L§iJ 111 A Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Pours, 20 pages of the Work, 8 of Title, and 4 of other Matter. pin mm [20 1 6 i I e;T 11 9 1 H 16 i M3 A z I j I I V tA Lz: J biil Li iv 19 \ jis] 1 V i \ 5 \ IT T\ \u] 15 i i 2 IMPOSITION, 175 A Half-Sheet of Sixty-Pours. nnnn -tiJ Lid L§iJ Ui Tl r 62 1 ! 35 ! r?5 L n 96 i S 68 I I 89 23 H 42 L 10 1 55 1 ^'^^ i UlJ Li§J 1 n 27 ! i 38 i ! 59 i 6 l±J j 19 1 \9?. \ Mj^^ S^TF] \W\ uSl [20^ 9T i SjjJLi LSLi Uii r^n 1*611 r^n r^ ^rj UfJ J09 j 9 I te; 99 i 6 I 25 I I 40| { 57 I I 8 1 t.x....J ^ ( I 176 IMPOSITION, A Half-Sheet of Seventy-Twos, witli Three Signatures. P — Lljsl tJ 11 ^ To [ C^A {go ^\ jo cr. p? 00| jiO col E o o ^ \'p — ^ ioo I ^ \o^x E F"j n F~i [HO ^ ^ rz — 1 r CO J 5 ol I- J ^1 IMPOSITION. 177 Lr„l \J^\ jr.. J J i IZD Ej I -i L£J i f 1 1 ODJ i^ 1 r ^1 i ^^ i^l L£j Q bO { ] Oi ra mi 13 , i rzr •I V I ^i i^ \ I H- I ] r Llj W 5' CD I CQ I-'- M CD oa & CQ I ^J [_^ 1^ i i -» 1 ri«i 178 IMPOSITION. BED QE3 [3 Ell CZlEHCllE] L^J 00 M c^ 2_i i.r^... , ^ r~ii jg 1 Lll LU Ejllllili fi""j fTj fil ltIDl3][D io Li™iLLiil„i i CO { s I fa» -.1 ? < rs» » to i S CO filF " iLJ [3 ED ED CO J i u:) LrJLU ^ o 111 ED Lll [O t3- o CD PJ td ^ ^^Ll CD J i CO L <^ n J = is L.-=_ Ld ED LU liU E?D I L_E-i IS § i J ^ts J PROOF-READING AND CORRECTING. PROOF-BEAniNG. 7JNDENIABLE as is the fact that a book marred by typo- graphical errors and gram- matical blemishes is a scandal to the profession, it must be admitted that a careful, steady, and competent reader is indis- pensable in every printing- office. It is eminently desirable that a reader should have been previously brought up a compositor. By a practical acquaintance with the me- chanical departments of the business, he will be better able to detect those manifold errata which, unperceived by the man of mere learning and science, lie lurking, as it were, in a thousand different forms, in every sheet; and which, if overlooked, justly offend the taste and discernment of all appreciators of correct and beautiful typography. Some of the principal imperfections which are more easily observed by the man of practical knowledge in the art of print- ing are the following: viz. imperfect, wrong-founted, and in- verted letters, particularly the lower-case n, o, s, and the u, as well as p, d, b, and q; awkward and irregular spacing; un- even pages or columns; a false disposition of the reference 179 180 PROOF-HEADING, marks ; crookedness in words and lines ; bad making-up of matter ; erroneous indention, &c. Tliese minutise, which are rather imperfections of workmanship than literal errors, are apt to be overlooked and neglected by mere literary readers. Long and frequent habits of reading proof-sheets for the press, a quick eye, and a steady mind, will certainly enable a person, though not a compositor, to detect those minor devia- tions from correctness which the inexperienced and the care- less are apt to overlook. But, while these habits are acq^Uiring, without which no person can be safely intrusted to read a sheet for press, the labours of the printer are liable to go forth into the world in a manner that will reflect discredit on the employed and give offence to the employer. No form, there- fore, ought to be put to press until it has been read and revised by an experienced reader. A first-class proof-reader, in addition to a general and prac- tical acquaintance with typography, should understand clearly the grammar and idiomatic structure of his mother-tongue, and have, as it were, an encyclopedic knowledge of the names, times, and productions of its writers, as well as a thorough familiarity with the Bible especially, and with Shakspeare. He should be, in fact, a living orthographical, biographical, bibliographical, geographical, historical, and scientific dic- tionary, with some smattering of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German. Yet all these accom- plishments are valueless unless he also possess a keen and quick eye, that, like a hound, can detect an error almost by scent. There are eyes of this sort, that with a cursory glance will catch a solitary error in a page. The world is little aware how greatly many authors are indebted to a competent proof- reader for not only reforming their spelling and punctuation, but for valuable suggestions in regard to style, language, and grammar, — thus rectifying faults which would have rendered their works fair game for the petulant critic. Although no corrector of the press can strictly be required to do otherwise than to follow his copy, — that is, faithfully to adhere to the original, with all its defects, — yet every one must perceive that he performs a friendly, and perhaps a charitable, service, by pointing out, in proper time, imperfections and mistakes which have escaped the observation of a quick or voluminous writer. With the spirit, the opinions, the whims of an author, no corrector of the press has any business to PROOF-READING, 181 interfere. In reprints of old and standard works, no license of alteration ought to be granted to either correctors or editors. Strict uniformity should always be preserved in the use of capitals, in orthography, and punctuation. Nothing can be more vexatious to an author than to see the words honour ^ favour, ' Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiving ^^ ^^ 11 \y his master Fausts design, and being himself ^' ^(yii^ ^2^^ fdesirous\ ardentl^ to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the 13 method of cutting ( ineidcndi ) the characters ^^/. in a matrix, that the letters might easily be ^// singly cast I instead of bieng cut. He pri- ^^^^' / ^*| vately cut matrices] for the whole alphabet: ai5 Faust was so pleased with the contrivanp<^ /that he promised Peter to give him Ins'^nly 'Zi^^. 16 /daughter Christina in marriage aXpromise3 ^ / /^l^ich he soon after performed^A^ jg ^^ a^)! C^^* there were many dijffiLCulties at first ^^ || with these letters, as the;re had been before ^ ^^o7n. 20 _i_ "with wooden ones, t)te metal being too soft^^^^^^ to support the fojX^ of the imTpression : but 9 ^^ / this defect wscs soon remedied, by mixing 3 / "^ ^ . 12 a substance with the metal which sufficiently ^. EXEMPLIFIED. 187 Though a variety of opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered ; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types^ having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Guttembergs : he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of AschefFenburg : ' Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv- ing his master Pauses design, and being him- self ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in a matrix^ that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- trivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Christina in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup- port the force of the impression : but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it.' 188 TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS EXPLANATION OF THE CORRECTIONS. A wrong letter in a word is noted by drawing a short per- pendicular line through it, and making another short line in the margin, behind which the right letter is placed. (See No. 1.) In this manner whole words are corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong word and making the right one in the margin opposite. A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it, and writing the mark No. 2 in the margin. If letters or words require to be altered from one character to another, a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter, — viz. for capitals, three lines ; small capi- tals, two lines ; and Italic, one line ; and, in the margin oppo- site the line where the alteration occurs. Cops, Small Caps, or Ital. must be written. (See No. 3.) When letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark No. 4 placed opposite in the margin. Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the correct point, marked in the margin, should be encircled. (See No. 5.) When a space is omitted between two words or letters which should be separated, a caret must be made where the separa- tion ought to be, and the sign No. 6 placed opposite in the margin. No. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and ellipsis line are marked. When a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the place of omission, and the letter marked as No. 8. Where letters that should be joined are separated, or where a line is too widely spaced, the mark No. 9 must be placed under them, and the correction denoted by the marks in the margin. Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sen- tence. (See No. 10.) No. 11 shows the way in which the apostrophe, inverted commas, the star and other references, and superior letters and figures, are marked. Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and below the other, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin; but where several words require to be transposed, EXEMPLIFIED, 189 their right order is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in the margin. Where words have been struck out that have afterward been approved of, dots should be marked under them, and Stet written in the margin. (See No. 13.) Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn under it, and the mark No. 14 placed opposite, in the margin. Where several words have been left out, they are tran- scribed at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place of omission to the written words (see No. 15) ; but if the omitted matter is too extensive to be copied at the foot of the page, Out^ see copy^ is written in the margin, and the missing lines are enclosed between brackets, and the word Out is in- serted in the margin of the copy. Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line (see No. 16) ; but, where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part affected. When a smaller or larger letter, of a different fount, is im- properly introduced into the page, it is noted by the mark No. 17, which signifies wrong fount. If a paragraph is improperly made, a line is drawn from the broken-off matter to the next paragraph, and No \ written in the margin. (See No. 18.) Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a caret must be made in the place where it should come in, and the word written in the margin. (See No. 19.) Where a faulty letter appears, it is marked by making a cross under it, and placing a similar one in the margin (see No. 20) ; though some prefer to draw a perpendicular line through it, as in the case of a wrong letter. CORRECTINO IN THE METAL, Correcting is the most disagreeable part of a compositor's business, diminishing as it does his earnings, and causing great fatigue, and, by leaning over the stone, prejudicing his health. A foul proof, however, is a fault without extenuation, and seems to deserve some punishment. The noise and con- fusion which prevail in badly governed printing-offices, from light and frivolous conversation, not only retard business, but distract the attention of the compositor from the subject he has 190 CORRECTING IN THE METAL, in hand, and cause him to make many mistakes. Some men, no doubt, can support a conversation and at the same time compose correctly ; but their noise confuses those who are un- able to preserve accuracy except by close attention to their copy in silence. The first proof should contain merely the errors of the com- positor ; but it frequently happens that the corrector heightens them by his peculiarities, When this is unnecessarily done, it is an act of injustice to the compositor: it is sufficient for him to rectify such mistakes as arise either from inattention to his copy or want of judgment. The compositor ought not to suffer from the humour of a reader in capriciously altering commas and semicolons m the first proof (unless the sense is perverted), which he not unfrequently re-alters in the second, from a doubt as to the propriety of the points to be adopted. When a proof is handed to the compositor, he should im- mediately correct it ; and the reader, correlatively, should be equally prompt in his department. Can it reasonably be ex- pected that the compositor will feel inclined to forward his proof, when he knows that the reader will delay it for hours ? Should a compositor have transposed two or more pages, either from an error in the folios or any other cause, he must unlock the quarter containing them, and, loosening the cross or crosses from the furniture, he lifts the chase and the remain- ing quarters off the stone. Should he have furniture sufficient round each page, he may move them into their proper stations by pressing the balls of his thumbs and fingers against the furniture at the head, foot, and sides of each page. If the let- ter be small, it will be advisable to wet the pages, because few imposing-stones are horizontal, or so steady that they will not shake when touched, or by the motion of the floor, occasioned by persons walking or dragging forms. Should a compositor find that his pages hang, he must un- lock the quarter, and pat the face of the type with the balls of his fingers until he gets it into a square position. When a compositor unlocks a form, he should be careful not to leave the unlocked quoins too slack, as the force neces- sary to loosen the others may squabble the matter, or occasion it to hang. A compositor should possess the following requisites before he begins to correct : — ** What is required of a compositor when he goes about cor- CORRECTING IN THE METAL. 191 reeling a foul proof, is a sharp bodkin and patience ; because, without them, the letter cannot escape suffering by the steel, and hurrying will not permit him to justify the lines true. No wonder, therefore, to see pigeon-holes in one place, and pi in another."* When the compositor has as many corrections between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand as he can conveniently hold, or, what is better, in his composing-stick (beginning at the bottom of the page, in order that they may follow regu- larly), and an assortment of spaces on a piece of paper, or, what is more convenient, in a small square box with parti- tions in it, — let him take the bodkin in his right hand, and, instead of raising each letter he may have to alter, place the point of the bodkin at one end of the line, and, with the fore- finger of his left hand against the other, raise the whole line sufficiently high to afford him a clear view of the spacing ; he may then change the faulty letter and alter his spacing be- fore he drops the line. By this method he will not injure the type, which he must do if he force the bodkin into their sides or heads ; a greater degree of regularity is insured where there may be occasion to alter the spacing, and no more time is taken up than by the other method. In tables, and other matter, where rules prevent the lines from being raised, the letters must be drawn up by the bodkin ; this is done by the compositor holding the instrument fast in his right hand, with the blade between his forefinger and thumb within about three-quarters of an inch from the point : thus guiding it steadily to the faulty letter, he sticks the point of the bodkin into the neck of the letter between the beard and the face, and draws it up above the other types, so that he can take it out with the forefinger and thumb of his left hand. In performing this operation, the blade of the bodkin should * The following epitaph was no doubt written by a printer while performing the most disagreeable task attendant on his profession : — No more shall copy bad perplex my brain, No more shall type's small face my eyeballs strain ; No more the proors foul page create me troubles, By errors, transpositions, outs, and doubles : No more my head shall ache from authors' whims, As overrunnings, driving-outs, and ins ; The sturdy pressman's frown I now may scoff. Revised, corrected, finally wrought off. 192 CORRECTING IN THE METAL. be kept as flat as possible on the face of the type, but it should not touch any of the surrounding types, as the slightest graze imaginable will injure their face, and they will consequently appear imperfect in the next proof, when he will have the trouble of altering them, his employer suffering the loss of the type. The bodkin blade being held almost flat to the form, a small horizontal entrance of its point into the neck of the letter will raise it above the face of the form ; but, if the bodkin be held nearly upright, it will not have sufficient purchase to draw the letter up, because the weight of the type and its close confine' ment will have greater power than the sharp point of the steel. By pressing sidewise, the bodkin blade acts as a lever, even though it has no other purchase than the slight motion of the hand. The most careful compositor cannot at all times avoid leaving a word out, or composing the same word twice. When this happens, he should consider the best mode of recti- fying the accident, by driving out or getting in, either above the error or below it. This ascertained, let the matter be taken upon a galley, and overrun in the composing-stick. Overrunning on the stone is an unsafe, unworkmanlike, and dilatory method, destroying the justification, and rendering the spacing uneven. In correcting, care should be taken to avoid hair-spacing a line, by overrunning either back or forward. In overrunning the matter, the division should be used as little as possible ; • for, though the compositor may carefully follow the instruc- tions laid down in this work on the subject of spacing and dividing, yet the effect of his attention will be completely de- stroyed if not followed up at the stone. We here emphatically remark that, if authors were careful to spell properly the names of persons and places, technical and scientific terms, &c., and to write legibly, marking the end of sentences clearly, the work of the compositor would be facilitated, many errors would be prevented, and time, tem- per, and expense greatly economized. Further. Let us remind authors that every correction made on their proof that is a variation from the copy as furnished to the printer is charged for according to the time required to make it. The justice of the charge is obvious ; yet, strange to say, there is probably no item so frequently disputed by pub- TABLE OF SIQNATUBES. 193 lishers. A man employs a mechanic to build a house accord- ing to fixed specifications ; but, in the course of its erection, he improves or changes the plan, and orders certain portions to be torn down and rebuilt: is the mechanic to bear the loss? Certainly not. So, when a compositor builds up his page of type according to the copy furnished, he is right m requiring compensation for alterations made in it. He is not to suffer for the author's desire to improve his intellectual edifice. TABLE OF SIGNATURES, On the two following pages will be found a complete list of t5ignatures for books in octavo, twelves and eighteens, six- £eens, and twenty-fours. The 24mo signatures in this table are arranged to bring the second signature on either the 9th or 17th page of the form. If the slieet is to be folded as an 8vo and 16mo, the figure sig- natures may be used; but if as two 12mos, the letter signa- tures will be used. 17 194 COMPLETE TABLE 8vo. 12mo. and I 1 A 481 61 3L I 1 A 313 27 2B 9 2 B 489 62 3M 5 1* A2 317 27* 2B2 17 3 C 497 63 3N 13 2 B 325 28 20 25 33 4 5 D E 505 513 64 65 30 3P 17 2* B2 329 28* 202 41 49 6 F 521 66 3Q a5 3 C 337 29 2D 7 G 529 67 3R. 29 3* C2 341 29* 2D2 57 8 H 537 68 3S 37 4 D 349 30 2E 65 9 I 545 69 3T 41 4* D2 353 30* 2E2 73 10 K ^P 70 3U 49 53 5 E 361 31 2F 81 89 11 12 L M 569 71 72 3V 3W 5* E2 365 31* 2F2 97 105 13 N 577 73 3X 61 6 F 373 32 2G 14 585 74 3Y 65 6* F2 377 32* 2G2 113 15 P 593 75 3Z 73 7 G 385 33 2H 121 16 Q 601 76 4A 77 7* G2 389 33* 2H2 129 17 R 609 77 4B 85 8 H 397 401 34 21 137 145 18 19 S T 617 625 78 79 4C 4D 89 8* 112 34* 212 153 20 u 633 80 4E 97 9 I 409 35 2K i6i 21 V 6^r 81 4F lOI 9* 12 413 35* 2K2 169 22 W 649 82 40 109 10 K 421 36 2L 177 23 X 657 83 4H "3 10* K2 425 36* 2L2 185 24 Y 665 84 41 121 11 L 433 37 2M 193 25 Z 673 85 4K 125 11* L2 437 37* 2M2 201 26 2A 681 86 4L 209 Z17 27 2B 689 87 4M 133 12 M 445 38 2N 28 2C 697 88 4N 137 12* M2 449 38* 2N2 225 29 2D 705 89 40 145 13 N 457 39 20 233 30 2E 713 90 4P 149 13* N2 461 39* 202 241 31 2P 721 91 4Q 157 14 469 473 40 2P 249 32 2G 729 92 4R 161 14* 02 40* 2 P 2 257 33 2H 737 93 4S 265 34 21 745 94 4T 169 15 P 481 41 2Q 273 35 2K 753 95 4U 173 15* P2 485 41* 2Q2 281 36 2L 761 96 4v 181 16 Q 493 42 2R 289 37 2M# 769 97 4W 18S 16* Q2 497 42* 2R2 297 38 2N 777 98 4X 193 197 17 R 505 509 43 2S 305 313 39 40 20 2P 785 793 99 100 4Y 4Z 17* R2 43* 2S2 32.1 41 2Q 801 101 5A 205 18 S 517 44 2T 329 42 211 80Q 102 5B 209 18* S2 521 44* 2T2 337 43 2S 817 103 50 217 19 T 529 45 2U 345 44 2T 825 104 5D 221 19* T2 533 45* 2U2 353 361 369 45 46 47 2U 2V 2W 833 841 849 105 106 107 5E 5F 5G 229 233 20 20* U U2 541 545 46 46* 2V 2V2 377 48 2X 857 108 511 241 21 V 553 47 2W 385 49 2Y 865 109 51 245 21* V2 557 47* 2W2 393 50 2Z 873 110 5K 253 22 W 565 48 2X 401 51 3A 881 111 5L 257 22* W2 569 48* 2X2 409 52 3B 889 112 5M 265 23 X 577 49 2Y 417 53 3C 897 113 5N 269 23* X2 581 49* 2Y2 425 433 441 54 55 56 3D 3E 3F 905 913 921 114 115 116 50 5P 5Q 277 281 24 24* Y Y2 589 593 50 50* 2Z 2Z2 449 57 3G 929 117 5R 289 25 Z 601 51 3A 457 58 3H 937 118 5S 293 25* Z2 605 51* 3A2 465 59 31 945 119 5T 301 26 2A 613 52 3B 473 60 3K 953 120 5U 305 26* 2A2 617 52* 3B2 OF SIGNATUBES, 195 625 629 6j7 641 649 653 661 665 673 677 685 689 697 701 709 713 721 725 731 737 745 749 757 761 769 773 781 785 793 797 805 809 817 821 829 833 841 845 853 857 865 869 877 893 901 905 913 917 925 929 53 3C 53* 3C2 54 3D 54* 3D2 55 3E 55* 3E2 56 3F 56* 3F2 57 3G 57* 3G2 58 3H 58* 3H2 59 31 59* 312 60 3K 60* 3K2 61 3L 61* 3L2 62 3M 62* 3M2 63 3N 63* 3N2 64 30 64* 302 65 3P 65* 3P2 66 3Q 66* 3Q2 67 3R 67* 3R2 68 3S 68* 3S2 69 3T 69* 3T2 70 3U 70* 3U2 71 3V 71* 3V2 72 3W 72* 3W2 73 3X 73* 3X2 74 3Y 74* 3Y2 75 3Z 75* 3Z2 76 4 A 76* 4A2 77 4B 77* 4B2 78 4C 78* 4C2 I 17 33 i^ 65 81 97 "3 129 145 161 177 193 209 225 241 257 273 289 305 321 337 353 369 385 401 417 433 449 465 481 497 513 529 545 561 577 593 609 625 641 657 673 689 705 721 737 753 769 785 801 817 833 849 865 881 897 913 929 945 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2 A 27 2 B 28 2 C 29 2D 30 2 E 31 2 P 32 2 G 3:3 2 11 :34 21 35 2 K 2L 2M 38 2 N 39 2 40 2 P 41 2 Q 42 211 43 2 S 44 2 T 45 2 U 46 2 V 47 2W 48 2 X 49 2 Y 50 2 Z 51 3 A 52 3B 53 3 C 54 3D 55 3 E 56 3 P 57 3 G 58 3 H 59 31 97 105 "3 121 129 137 145 153 161 169 177 185 193 201 209 217 225 233 241 249 257 265 273 281 289 297 305 313 321 329 337 345 353 361 369 377 385 393 401 409 417 425 1 A 1* A 2 433 441 449 19 T 19* T2 2 B 2* B2 465 473 20 U 20* U2 3 C 3* C2 481 489 497 21 V 21* V2 4 D 4* D2 505 513 521 22 W 22* W 2 5 E 5* E2 529 537 545 23 X 23* X2 6 P 6* P2 553 569 24 Y 24* Y2 7 G 7* G2 577 58s 593 25 Z 25* Z2 8 H 8* H2 601 609 617 26 2 A 26* 2A2 9 I 9* 12 625 633 641 27 2B 27* 2B2 10 K 10* K2 649 657 665 28 2C 28* 2C2 11 L 11* L2 673 681 689 29 2D 29* 2D2 12 M 12* M2 697 705 713 30 2E 30* 2E2 13 N 13* N2 721 729 737 31 2F 31* 2F2 14 14* 2 745 753 761 32 2G 32* 2G2 15 P 16* P2 769 33 2H 33* 2H2 16 Q 16* Q2 793 801 809 34 21 34* 212 17 R 17* R2 817 ^^ 833 35 2K 35* 2K2 18 S 18* S2 841 849 857 36 2L 36* 2L2 THE FOREMAN OR OVERSEER. GENERAL DUTIES. QVERSIGHT, vigilant ^^ and conscientious, is the price of profit and success. An overseer or foreman of a print- ing-office should be of more than ordinary capacity, and possess an even and unruffled temper. His conduct should be guided by justice and equity in regard to the interests of the employer and the employed. A strict impartiality should be observed in his treat- ment of the workmen, and no favouritism should be displayed. He should make himself acquainted with the capacity of the men, and appor- tion work among them accordingly. Some men are valueless except for plain, straightforward composition; others, distin- guished for taste and skill, delight in intricate work or matter requiring ingenuity and delicacy, such as tables, music, and algebra. Put one of the first class on this sort of composition, and he will "botch'' it-, and earn small wages; while a work- man of the latter class will become restive and dissatisfied with 196 GENERAL DUTIEJS, 197 plain, solid matter. While dealing justly with the men under his charge, the foreman should see to it that the employer suffers no detriment from negligent or dishonest practices of unconscientious workmen, whether from careless correcting, allowing dropped types to lie upon the floor, or overcharging, or other methods well known in a printing-office. He should be the first and the last in attendance, in order to satisfy him- self that every person does his duty in coming and leaving at the proper time. The office having been thoroughly swept at an early hour, and the type found in any alley having been placed in the stick of the compositor occupying it, the foreman should pass around the room and see that it is immediately distributed, instead of being thrown on the window-frame «r table. The type found in the body of the rooms should be sorted out and distributed at once, and not be allowed to accumulate. No pi should be permitted to remain over till the next day. This is an essential point to secure a tidy and well-regulated office. The foreman should keep himself thoroughly informed of the amount and condition of the materials in the office, not only in gross, but in detail, including every style of type, every variety of accents and peculiar sorts, leads, chas6s, furniture, rules, borders, comer-pieces, ea5e-pudding," *'_pea5e-soup," or "pea-soup," &c. The Omission of s in the Possessive Case. It is not uncommon with some persons to omit the s after the apostrophe in the possessive case of nouns, if the name itself ends in s; as, ^^James^ hook," ^^ Barnes'' Notes." But this is incorrect; for if we ask. Whose book? we should directly answer, James's. The only case when the s can be judiciously omitted, and this solely to avoid the too hissing sound of so many s's in succession, is when the first word ends with the sound of s in its last two syllables, and the next word begins with s; as in Misses' spectacles, righteousness' sake, conscience'' sake. Formation of the Plurals of Words compounded of a Noun and an Adjective. Adjectives have no plural number. Therefore, in a word compounded of a noun and an adjective, the s denoting the plural number is attached to the end of the noun, as follows '.— Governor-general Governors-general. Attorney-general Attorneys-general. Court-martial Courts-martial. But where the adjective is taken substantively, the mark of the plural will properly follow it. For example : Brigadier- generals, major-generals, lieutenant-generals. ORTHOORAPHICAL. 283 Words compounded of a noun and the adjective full form their plurals thus; spoonfuls^ cupfulSy bucketfuls^ handfuls, mouithfuls. Pointing of Numbers, Weights, Measures, &c. No comma should be placed between the constituent parts of the same number, however long it may be. Thus, we say, ** One million one hundred thousand five hundred and twenty- one," without any interpunction. The reason is, that there is no more than one numerical aggregate intended, or but one complex notion ; and, consequently, no separation of parts or members can take place. The same reasoning holds good as respects values, weights, &c. For instance, when we say, *'Six dollars and ten cents," we merely mean that aggregate amount, but not necessarily any one of the coins indicated. If we did so intend, then two commas should be introduced, — one after "dollars," and the other after "cents." In like manner we should act with such sentences as, " Five tons three hundred- weight two quarters and fifteen pounds ;" or, " Ten acres four roods and twenty-seven perches;" and for the same reason; no division of parts is intended, but merely one aggregate amount. When figures are used to express amounts, a comma should not be inserted to cut off the tens unless the sum requires five figures ; e. g, ^10,600, 20,000 men, (fee. In column matter this rule will not apply. Derivation of English Words, Of course the Saxon forms the basis of our language in its essential parts, and is the source whence we derive the greater part of our ordinary and most emphatic words. Nevertheless, various other languages have been put under contribution, especially the French, Latin, and Greek. This will be evident from the following statement of derivations, which will show the unlearned reader how important it is to him that he should acquire some knowledge of those languages, if he desires to attain to a thorough proficiency in his business as an educated printer. I. From the Greek are derived — 1. Words ending in gram, graph, and graphy ; as, telegram. 284 OBTHOQBAPHIGAL. telegraph, geography, y Georg:p W. Childs. Pliiladflphia, ^^^ TECHNICAL TERMS OF THE CRAFT. Alley, — The space between two stands. Ascending letters. — Letters that ascend into the upper shoulder: as, b, d, 1, &c., and all the capitals. Author^ s proof. — The clean proof sent to an author after the compositors' errors have been corrected. Bank. — A table about four feet high, to lay sheets on at press. Bastard title. — A short title preceding the general title of a work. Bastard type. — Type with a face larger or smaller than its appropriate body : as. Nonpareil on Minion body, or Minion on Nonpareil body. Baiter. — Types accidentally injured in a form. Beard of a letter.— The outer angles supporting the face of a type and ex- tending to the shoulder. Bearer. — A strip of regie t to bear off the impression from a blank page. A long piece of furniture, type-high, used in working jobs. A solid-faced type interspersed over the blank parts of a page, in composing for stereotyping, to resist the force of the knife when the plates are shaved. Bearer-lines. — The top line and bottom line in a page prepared for stereo- typing. Bed. — The flat part of the press on which the form is laid. Bevels. — Slugs cast nearly type-high, with a bevelled edge, used by stereo- typers to form the flange on the side of the pl.ates, 294 Bite. — An irregular white spot on the edge or corner of a printed page, caused by the fi-isket not being sufii- ciently cut out. Blanket. — A woollen cloth used in the tympan. Blank-line. — A line of quadrates. Blocks. — The mahogany frames on which stereotype plates are aflSxed for printing. Bodkin. — A delicate awl-like tool used for correcting errors in type. Body. — The shank of the letter. Botch. — A bungling, incompetent work- man. Bottle-arsed. — Type wider at the bottom than at the top. Boxes. — The compartments of a case in which the types are placed. Brayer. — A wooden or glass rubber, flat at the bottom, used to bray or spread out ink on the ink-block. Break-line. — A short line. Broadside. — A form of one page, printed on one side of a whole sheet of paper. Broken matter. — Pages of type disrupted and somewhat intermingled. Bundle. — Two reams of paper. Bur. — Rough edge of a type which the founder neglected to take off" in dressing. Caret. — A character [ A ] used to denote the place where an omission in the proof should be inserted. Case. — The receptacle for type, divided into numerous compartments. TECHNICAL TERMS. 295 Cassie paper. — Formerly, the two out- side quires of a ream, consisting of defective sheets. Oasting off. — Estimating how many pages a certain quantity of copy will make in type. Ceriphs. — The fine lines and cross- strokes at the end of a letter. Chapel. — A printing-office. Chase. — A rectangular iron frame in which pages of type are imposed. Clean proof. — A proof containing few faults. Clearing away. — Properly disposing of materials after a work has been com- pleted. Close matter. — Solid matter with few break-lines. Companionship. — All the hands on a work. Composing. — Setting type. Composing-rule. — A steel or brass rule, with a beak at one end, used in tj'pe- setting. Composing-stick. — An instrument in which types are arranged in words and lines. Correct. — A compositor is said to correct when he amends the faults marked in a proof. Corrections. — The alterations or errors marked in a proof ^ Cut-in letter. — A type of large size ad- justed at the beginning of a line at the commencement of chapters. Cut-in note. — A note justified into the side of a page. Dead horse. — Matter charged before it is set. Dtle, ^. — A proof-reader's mark, signi- fying to take out. Devil. — The errand-boy of a printing- office. Dished. — A defect in electrotyped plates, the centre of a letter being lower than Its edges. Distributing. — Returning type to their various boxes after having been printed from. Spreading ink evenly over the surface of a roller. Double. — Among compositors, a repeti- tion of words; among pressmen, a sheet that is twice .pulled and mackled. Dressing a chase or form. — Fitting the pages and chase with furniture and quoins. Drive out. — To space widely. DucTc's-bill. — A tongue cut in a piece of stout paper and pasted on the tympan at the bottom of the tympan-sheet, to support the paper when laid on the tympan. Duodecimo, or 12mo. — Twelve pages to a form. Em. — The square of the body of a type. En. — Half the dimensions of the pre- ceding. Even page.—'Yl\\e 2d, 4th, 6th, or any even-numbered page of a book. Fat. — Poetry and leaded matter. Fat face, or Fat letter. — Broad-stemmed letter. First form. — The form first printed, which generally contains the first page of a sheet. Fly. — The person or apparatus that takes off the sheets from the press. Folio. — Two pages to a form. Foot-sticks. — Sloping pieces (if furniture placed at the bottom <<\' pams, be- tween which and tin- t base the quoins are driven to fasten the pages. Form. — The pages when imposed in a chase. Foul proof. — A proof with many faults marked in it. Fount. — An assortment of type in de- finite proportions. Friar. — A light patcli in a printed sheet, caused bj' defective rolling. Frisket. — An iron frame fastened by a hinge to the upper part of the tym- pan, to hold the sheet of paper fast as it goes in and comes from the press. Fu/ige. — To contrive without proper materials. Full press. — When two men work at the press with hand-rollers. Furniture. — Strips of wood or metal placed around and between pages when imposed. Galley. — A wooden or brass flat oblong tray, with side and head ledges, for holding type when composed. Galley-slaves. — An ancient term of de- rision applied by pressmen to com- positors. 296 TECHNICAL TERMS. Gauge. — A strip of reglet with a notch in it, passed with the make-up, to de- note the length of the pages. Get in. — To set close. Good colour. — Sheets printed neither too black nor too light. Guide. — A piece of metal frequently used to denote the last line set. Gutter-sticks. — Furniture used in im- position to separate the pages. Half press. — When but one person works at the press. Half-title. — The title of a book inserted in the upper portion of the first page of matter. Head-sticks. — Furniture put at the head of pages in imposition, to make mar- gin. Hell. — The receptacle for broken or battered letters; the old-metal box; the shoe. High-line. — Term applied to a type that ranges above the rest in a line. High {or low) to paper. — Applied to a type cast higher or lower than the rest of the fount. Horse. — The stage on the bank on which pressmen set the heap of paper. Horsing. — Charging for work before it is executed. Imposing. — Arranging and locking up a form of type in a chase. Imposing-stone. — The stone on which compositors impose and correct forms. Imprint. — The name of the printer or of the publisher appended to jobs or title-pages. Inferior letters. — Small letters cast near the bottom of the line. Inset. — Same as offcut. Jeff. — To throw for a choice with quad- rates instead of dice. Justifying. — Spacing out lines accu- rately. Keep in. — To crowd in by thin spacing. Keep out. — To drive out or expand mat- ter by wide spacing. Kerned letter. — Type of which a part of the face hangs over the body. Laying cases. — Filling cases with a fount of new type. Laying pages. — Placing pages on the stone in a proper order for imposi- tion. Leaders.— -Dots, or hyphens placed at in- tervals of one or more ems in length, to guide the eye across the line to the folio in tables of contents, &c. Leads. — Thin strips of metal cast of various thicknesses, quadrate-high, to separate lines of type. Lean. — Close and solid matter. Lean face.— Light, thin type. Letter hangs. — When the page is out of square. Letter-press printing. — Printing from types. Ligatures. — Two or more letters cast on the same shank, as ff, fi, fl, flB, fla, 83, oe. Locking wjp.— Tightening up a form by means of quoins. Logotypes. — The same as ligatures. Long cross.— The bar that divides a chase the longest way. Long pull.—\Nhen. the bar is brought close to the cheek of a press. Low case. — When the compositor has set almost all the letters out of his case. Lower case. — The case containing the small letters of the alphabet, figures, points, &c. Lou)-line. — Applied to a type that ranges lower than the rest in a line. Mackle. — When part of the impression appears double. Make-up. — To arrange the lines of mat- ter into pages. Making margin. — In imposition, ar- ranging the space between the pages of a form so that the margin will be properly proportioned. Making ready. — Preparing a form on the press for printing. Mallet.— ^A wooden hammer. Matter. — Composed type. Measure. — The width of a page. Monk. — A black spot in a printed sheet, owing to the ink not being properly distributed. leaked form. — A form without furni- ture. Nicks. — Hollows cast in the front of the lower part of the shank of a type, to show the compositor how to place it in his stick. Octavo, or 8vo. — Eight pages to a form. TECHNICAL TERMS. 297 Odd page or folio. — The 1st, 3d, and all uneven-numbered pages. Off. — Signifies that the pressman has worked off the form. Offcut. — A portion of a sheet that is cut off before folding. Off its /ec«.— When matter does not stand upright. Open matter. — Matter widely leaded or containing numerous break-lines. Out. — An omission marked in a proof by the reader. Out of register. — When the pages do not back each other. Overlay. — A scrap of paper pasted on the tympan-sheet to bring up the impression. Overrunning. — Carrying words back- ward or forward in correcting. Page-cord. — Twine used for tying up Passing the make-up. — Passing to the next hand in order the lines remain- ing (if any) after a compositor has made up his matter, together with the gauge and proper folio. Peel. — A broad, thin board with a long handle. Perfecting. — Printing the second form of a sheet. Pi. — Type promiscuously intermingled. Pick. — A particle of ink or paper im- bedded in the hollow of a letter, fill- ing up its face and occasioning a spot. Pigs. — An ancient nickname given in derision by compositors to pressmen. The press-room was called a pigsty. Planer. — A smooth block of wood used for levelling the surface of pages of type when imposed. Planing down. — To bring down types evenly on their feet, by laying a planer on the page and striking it firmly with a mallet. Platen. — The part of a printing-press which, under the influence of the lever, gives the impression to a sheet. Point-holes. — Fine holes made by the points to register the second im- pression by. Points. — Two thin pieces of steel with a point at one end, adjusted to the tympan with screws, to make re- gister. Quadrate. — A low square blank type, used to indent the first line of a para- graph, and to fill up blank spaces. Quarters. — Octavos and twelves are said to be imposed in quarters, not from their equal divisions, but because they are imposed and locked up in four parts. Quarto^ or Uto. — Four pages to a form. Quire. — Twenty-four sheets of paper. Quoins. — Small wedges for locking up a form. Quotation furniture. — Quotations cast of various sizes in length and width, to be used for blanking and as furni- ture. Quotations. — Large hollowed quadrates. Rack. — Receptacle for cases. Ratting. — Working at less than the established prices. Ream. — Twenty quires of paper. Recto. — Right-hand page. References. — Letters or characters serv- ing to direct the reader's attention to notes at the foot of a page. Register. — To cause the pages in a sheet to print precisely back to back. Register sheet. — The sheet used to make register. Reglet. — Thin furniture, of an equal thickness all its length. It is made to the thickness of type. Reiteration. — The form printed on the second side. Revise. — The last proof of a form before working it off. Riding. — One colour falling on another. Type at the end of a line catching . against a lead. Rise. — A form is said to rise when, in raising it from the correcting-stone, no letters drop out. Roller. — A hollow wooden cylinder covered with composition, which, set in an iron frame, revolves upon a rod, and is used for inking type. Rounce. — The handle for running in and out the carriage of a hand-press. Round pick. — A dot in a letter in a stereotype plate caused by an air- bubble. Running title. — The title of the book or subject placed at the top of the pages. 298 TECHNICAL TERMS, Runs on sorts. — Requiring an inordinate proportion of particular letters. Saw-block. — A box similar to a carpen- ter's mitre-block, to guide in cutting furniture, &c. Schedule. — A list passed with the make- up, containing folios on which the compositor marks his name opposite to the pages set by him. Set off. — When sheets that are newly worked off soil those that come in contact with them, they are said to set off. Shank. — The square metal upon which the face of a letter stands. Sheep's-foot. — An iron hammer with a claw-end. Shooting-stick. — A wedge-shaped instru- ment for locking up a form. Short cross. — The short bar which, cross- ing the long bar, divides the chase into quarters. Shoulder. — The upper surface of the shank of a type not covered by the letter. Side-sorts. — Types in the side and upper boxes of a case, consisting of letters not frequently used. Side-sticks. — Sloping furniture on the outside of the pages next to the chase, where the quoins are inserted. Signature. — A letter or a figure used at the bottom of the first page of a sheet, to direct the binder in placing the sheets in a volume. Slice galley. — A galley with an upper false bottom, called a slice, used for large pages and jobs. Slug. — A thick lead. Slur. — A blurred impression in a printed sheet. Solid pick. — A letter in a stereotype plate filled up with metal, resulting from an imperfect mould. Sorts. — The letters in the several case- boxes are separately called sorts, in printers' and founders' language. Space-rules. — Fine lines, cast type-high, and of even ems in length, for table and algebraical work. Spaces. — Low blank types used to sepa- rate words. Squabble. — A page or form is squabbled when the letters are twisted out of a square position. Stand. — The frame on which the cases are placed. Stem. — The straight flat strokes of a straight letter. Stereotype printing. — Printing from Stet. — Written opposite to a word, to signify that the word erroneously struck out in a proof shall remain. Sub. — A compositor occasionally em- ployed on a daily paper, to fill the place of an absentee. Superior letters. — Letters of a small face, cast by the founder near the top of the line. Table-work. — Matter consisting partly of rules and figures. Take, or Takitig. — A given portion of copy. Token. — Two hundred and fifty sheets. Turn for a letter. — When a sort runs short, a letter of the same thickness is substituted, placed bottom up- ward. Tympan. — A frame covered with parch- ment and attached to the press-bed, to lay the sheet on before printing. Underlay. — A piece of paper or card placed under types or cuts to improve the impression. Upper case. — The case containing capital and small capital letters, fractions, &c. Verso. — Left-hand page. Wayz-goose. — A term given in England to the annual dinner customary among printers there during the summer months. White line. — A line of quadrates. White page. — A blank page. White paper. — Until the second side of a sheet is printed, pressmen call the heap white paper. Working in pocket. — When the hands share equally their earnings on a work. ABBREVIATIONS. A.— Acting. A. or Ans. — Answer. A. A. G.— Assistant Adjutant-General. A.A.P.S. — American Association for the Promotion of Science. A.A.S. — Academise Americanse Socius, Fellow of the American Academy (of Arts and Sciences). A. A. S. ^.-^Americanse Antiquarianse So- cietatis Socius, Member of the Ameri- can Antiquarian Society. A.B.-f-Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts. A. B.C. P.M.— American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Missions. Abp. — Archbishop . Abr. — Abridgment. A.C. — Ante Ohristum, before the birth of Christ. A. C. — Archchancellor. Acct. — Account. A. C. S. — American Colonization Society. A. D. — Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord. A. D. C. — Aide-de-camp. Adj . — Adj ecti ve. Adjt. — Adjutant. Adj t.-Gen. — Adj utant-General . Ad lib. — Ad libitum, at pleasure. Adm. — Admiral ; Admiralty. Adm. Co. — Admiralty Court. Admr. — Administrator. Admx. — Administratrix. Ad V. — Ad valorem, at (or on) the value. Adv. — Adverb. ^t. — ^tatis, of age; aged. A. F. B. S. — American and Foreign Bible Society. A. G. — Adjutant-General. Ag. — Argentum (silver). Agr. — Agriculture. A.G. S.S. — American Geographical and Statistical Society. Agt. — Agent. A. H. — Anno Hegirse, in the year of the Ilegira. A. H. M. S. — American Home Missionary Society. Ala. — Alabama. Aid. — Alderman. Alex. — Alexander. Alg, — Algebra. Alt.— Altitude. A.M. — Anno mundi, in the year of the world. A. M. — Artium Magister, Master of Arts. A.M. — Ante meridiem, before noon; morning. Amb . — Ambassador. Amer. — American. AMM. — Amalgams, amalgamation. Amt. — Amount. An. — Anno, in the year. An. A. C. — Anno ante Christum, in the year before Christ. Anat. — Anatomy. Anc. — Ancient ; anciently. And. — Andrew. Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon. Anon. — Anonymous. Anth. — Anthony. Aor. or aor. — Aorist. A.O.S.S. — Americanse Orientalis Socie- tatis Socius, Member of the American Oriental Society. Ap. — Apostle; Appius. 299 300 ABBREVIA TIONjS. Ap. — Apud, in the writings of; as quoted by. A. P. Gr. or Ast. P. G. — Professor of Astro- nomy in Gresham College. Apo. — Apogee. Apoc. — Apocalypse. App. — Appendix. Apr. — April. A. Q. M.G. — Assistant Quartermaster- General. A. R. — Anna Regina, Queen Anne. A. R. — Anno regni^ year of the reign. A.R. A. — Associate of the Royal Aca- demy. Arch. — Archibald. Arg. — Argumento, by an argument drawn from such a law. Arith. — Arithmetic. Ark . — Ar kan sas . A.R.R. — Anno regni regis, in the year of the reign of the king. A.R.S.S, — Antiquariorum Regise Socie- tatis Socius, Fellow of the Royal So- ciety of Antiquaries. Art;— Article. A.S. or Assist. Sec. — Assistant Secre- tary. A.S.A. — American Statistical Associa- tion. A. S. S. U. — American Sunday - School Union. Astrol . — Astrology. Astron. — Astronomy. A. T. — Archtreasurer. A. T. S. — American Tract Society. Ats. — At suit of. Atty. — Attorney. Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General. A.U.A- — American Unitarian Associa- tion. Aub. Theol. Sem. — Auburn Theological Seminary. A. U. C. — Anno urbis conditse, or, ah urbe conditd, in the year from the building of the city (Rome). Aug. — August. Aur. — Aurum, gold. Auth. Ver. — Authorized Version (of the Bible). Av. — Average; Avenue. Avoir. — Avoirdupois. A.Y.M. — Ancient York Masons. b. — Born. B.A. — Bachelor of Arts. Bal. — Balance. Bait. — Baltimore. Bar. — Baruch. Bart, or Bt. — Baronet. Bbl.— Barrel. B. C— Before Christ. B.C.L.— Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. — Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bache- lor of Divinity. Bds. or bds. — Boards (bound in). Benj. — Benjamin. Bk.— Book. B.LL. — Baccalaureus Legum, Bachelor of Laws. B. M. — Baccalaureus Medicmse, Bachelor of Medicine. Bost. — Boston. Bot. — Botany. Bp. — Bishop. B. R. — Banco Regis or Reginse, the King's or Queen's Bench. Br. — Brother. Brig. — Brigade ; Brigadier. Brig.-Gen. — Brigadier-General. Brit. Mus. — British Museum. Bro. — Brother. Br. Univ. — Brown University. B. S. — Bachelor in the Sciences. B. V. — Beata Virgo, Blessed Virgin. B.V. — Bene vale, farewell. C, Ch. or Chap.*— Chapter. C. or Cent. — Centum, a hundred. caet. par. — Cseteris paribus, other things being equal. Cal. — California; Calends. Can. — Canon. Cant. — Canticles. Cap. or c. — Caput, capitulum, chapter. Caps. — Capitals. Capt. — Captain. Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. Cash. — Cashier, ca. resp. — Capias ad respondendum, a legal writ, ca. sa. — Capias ad satisfaciendum, a legal writ. Cath. — Catherine. C.B. — Companion of the Bath. C.B. — Communis Bancus, Common Bench. C.C. — Caius College; Account Current. C. C. C— Corpus Christi College. C. C. P.— Court of Common Pleas. C.E.— Canada East. ABBBEVIA TIONS. 301 C.E. — Civil Engineer. Cel. or Celt.— Celtic. Cf. or cf. — Confer, compare. C.G. — Commissary -General ; Consul- General. C. H. — Court-house. Ch.— Church ; Chapter; Charles. Chanc. — Chancellor. Chap. — Chapter. Chas. — Charles. Chem. — Chemistry. Chr. — Christopher. Chron. — Chronicles. Cin. — Cincinnati. C. J. — Chief- Justice. Clk.— Clerk. C. M. — Common Metre. C.M.G. — Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. Co. — Company ; county. C.O.D. — Cash (or collect) on delivery. Col. — Colorado; Colonel; Colossians. Coll. — Collector; Colloquial; College; Collection. Com. — Commerce; Committee; Com- mentary ; Commissioner ; Commo- dore. Com. Arr. — Committee of Arrangements. Comdg. — Commanding. Comm. — Commentary. Comp. — Compare ; Compound. Com. Ver. — Common Version (of the Bible). Con. — Contra, against ; in opposition. Con. Cr. — Contra, credit. Conch. — Conchology. Con g. — C on gr ess . Conj. or conj. — ^Conjunction. Conn, or Ct. — Connecticut. Const. — Constable ; Constitution. Cont. — Contra. Cor. — Corinthians. Corol . — Corollary. Cor. Sec. — Corresponding Secretary. C.P. — Common Pleas. C.P.— Court of Probate. C.P.S. — Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the Privy Seal. C.R. — Custos Eotulorum, Keeper of the Rolls. Cr. — Creditor; credit. Crim. Con. — Criminal conversation; adultery. C.S. — Court of Sessions. C. S. — Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal. Ct., cts. — Cent; Cents. C. Theod. — Codice Theodosiano, in the Theodosian Code. C.W.— Canada West. Cwt. — Hundredweight. Cyc. — Cyclopedia. d. — Denarius or Denarii, penny or pence, d.— Died. D. — Five hundred. Dan. — Daniel; Danish. D. B. or Domesd. B. — Domesday-Book. D.C. — Da Capo, again. D. C. — District of Columbia. D.C.L.— Doctor of Civil Law. D.D. — Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. Dea. — Deacon. Dec. — December ; Declination. Deg. — Degree or degrees. Del. — Delaware ; Delegate. Del. or del. — Delineavit, he (or she) drew it. Dep. — Deputy. Dept. — Department. Deut. — Deu teronomy . D.F.— Dean of the Faculty. Dft. or Deft.— Defendant. D. G. — Dei gratid, b}' the grace of God. D. G. — Deo gratias, thanks to God. Diam. — Diameter. Diet. — Dictator ; Dictionary. Dim. — Diminutive. Disc. — Discount. Diss. — Dissertation. Dist. — District. Dist.-Atty. — District-Attorney. D. M. — Doctor of Music. Do. — Ditto, the same. Dols. — Dollars. D.O.M. — Deo Optimo maximo, to God, the best, the greatest. Doz. — Dozen. D. P. — Doctor of Philosophy. Dr. — Debtor; Doctor. D. S. — Dal segno, from the sign. d.s.b. — Debit sans breve. B.T.— Doctor Theologise, Doctor of Di- vinity. D. V. — Deo volente, God willing. Dwt. — Pennyweight. E.— East. ea. — Each. 26 302 ABBBEVIA TIONS, E. by S.— East by South. Eben. — Ebenezer. Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus. Ed. — Editor; Edition. Edm. — Edmund. Edw. — Edward. E. E. — Errors excepted. e. g. — Exempli gratioi, for example. e. g. — Ex grege, among the rest. E. I. — East Indies or East India. Eliz.— Elizabeth. E. Ion. — East longitude. Encyc. — Encyclopedia. E. N. E.— East-Northeast. Eng. — England; English. Ent. — Entomology. Env. Ext. — Envoy Extraordinary. Ep. — Epistle. Eph. — Ephesians; Ephraim. E. S. E.— East-Southeast. Esq. — Esquire. Esth.— Esther. et al. — Et alii, and others. et seq. — Et sequentia, and what follows. etc. or &c. — Et cseteri, et cseterse, et csetera, and others ; and so forth. Ex. — Example. Ex. — Exodus. Exc. — Excellency ; exception. Exch. — Exchequer. Exec. Com. — Executive Committee. Execx. Executrix. Exr. or Exec. — Executor. Ez. — Ezra. Ezek. — Ezekiel. E. &0.E. — Errors and omissions ex- cepted. Fahr. — Fahrenheit. F.A.M. — Free and Accepted Masons. Far. Farthing. F. A. S. — Fellow of the Antiquarian So- ciety. fcap. or fcp. — Foolscap. F.D. — Fidei Defensor or Defensatrix, Defender of the Faith. Fe. — Ferrum (iron). Feb. — February. Fee. Fecit, he did it. Fem. — Feminine. F.E.S.— Fellow of the Entomological Society ; of the Ethnological Society. Ff.— The Pandects. F.G.S.— Fellow of the Geological So- ciety. F.H.S.— Fellow of the Horticultural Society. fi. fa. — Fieri facias, cause it to be done. Fid. Def.— Defender of the Faith. Fig. — Figure. Fir. — Firkin. Fla.— Florida. F. L. S. — Fellow of the Linnaean Society. FoL— Folio. For. — Foreign. F. P. S.— Fellow of the Philological So' ciety. Fr. — Franc; francs. Fr. — Fragmentum, fragment. Fr. — Francis. F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal Astro- nomical Society. F.R.C.S.L.— Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, London. Fred. — Frederick. F.R.G.S. — Fellow of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. Fri. — Friday. F.R.S.— Fellow of the Royal Society. Frs. — Frisian. F.R.S.E.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh. F.R.S.L.— Fellow of the Royal Society, London. F.R.S.L.— Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. F.S. A.— Fellow of the Society of Arts. F. S. A. E.— Fellow of the Society of Anti- quaries, Edinburgh. Ft.— Foot; feet; Fort. Fur. — Furlong. F. Z. S.— Fellow of the Zoological So- ciety. G. or g. — Guineas. G.A. — General Assembly. Ga. — Georgia. Gal. — Galatians; Gallon. G.B. — Great Britain. G.C.— Grand Chapter. G.C.B.— Grand Cross of the Bath. G. C. H. — Grand Cross of Hanover. G.C.L.H. — Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. G.E. — Grand Encampment. Gen. — Genesis; General. Gent. — Gentleman. Geo. — George. ABBBEVIA TIONS. 303 Geog. — Geography. Geol. — Geology. Geom. — Geometry. Ger. — Germany; German. G. L. — Grand Lodge. Gl. — Glossa, a gloss. G. M. — Grand Master. G.O. — General Order. Goth.— Gothic. Gov. — Governor. Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General. G. R. — Georgius Rex, King George. Gr. — Greek; Gross. Gram. — Grammar. Gro. — Gross. Grot. — Grotius. h.a. — Hoc anno, this year. Hab . — Habakkuk . Hab. Corp. — Habeas corpus, you may have the body. Hab. fa. poss. — Habere facias possessio- nem. Hab. fa. seis. — Habere facias seisinam. Hag. — Haggai. Ham. Coll. — Hamilton College. H.B.C. — Hudson's Bay Company. H.B.M. — His or Her Britannic Majesty. H.C.— House of Commons. Hdkf.— Handkerchief. h.e. — Hoc est, that is, or this is. Heb. — Hebrews. Her. — H eral dry . Hf.-bd.— Half-bound. Hg. — Hydrargyrum, mercury. Hhd. — Hogshead. Hist. — History. H.J.S. — Hie jacet sepultus, Here lies buried. H.L. — House of Lords. H.M. — His Majesty. H.M.P. — Hoc monumentum posuit, erected this monument. Hon. — Honourable. Hort. — Horticulture. Hos. — Hosea. H. R. — House of Representatives. H.R.E. — Holy Roman Emperor. H. R. H. — His Royal Highness. H. R. I. P. — Hie requiescit in pace. Here rests in peace. H. S. — Hie situs, Here lies. H. S. H. — His Serene Highness. h.t. — Hoc titulum, thia title; Jtoc tituli, in or under this title. h. V. — Hoc verbum, this word ; his verbis, in these words. Hund. — Hundred. L II. III. — One, two, three, or first, econd, third. la. — Iowa. lb. or ibid. — Ibidem, in the same place. Ich. — Ichthyology. Ictus. — JuriseonsuUus. Id. — Idem, the same. Id. T.— Idaho Territory, i.e. — Id est, that is. I.II. M. — Jesus hominum mundi, Jesus the Saviour of the world. I.H.S. — Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of men. ij. — Two (med.). 111.— Illinois. In. — Inch; inches, incog. — Incognito, unknown. Incor. — Incorporated. Ind. — Indiana; Index. Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory. Indef. — Indefinite. Inf — Infra, beneath or below, in f. — In fine, at the end of the title, law, or paragraph quoted, in lim. — In limine, at the outset, in loc. — In loco, in the place; on the passage, in pr. — In principio, in the beginning and before the first paragraph of a law. . I. N.R.I. — Jesus Nazarenus, Rex Judsea- rum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inst. — Instant, of this month ; Institutes. In sum. — In snmma, in the summary. Int. — Interest. Interj . — In terj ection. in trans. — In transitu, on the passage, lutrod. — Introduction. I. O.O.F.— Independent Order of Odd- Fellows. 1. 0. U. — I owe you. I. q. — Idem quod, the same as. Isa. — Isaiah. Isl. — Island. Ital. — Italic; Italian. IV. — Four or fourth. IX. — Nine or ninth. J. — Justice or Judge. JJ. — Justices, j. — One (med). J. A. — Judge-Advocate. 304 abbhevia tionjS. Jac. — Jacob. Jan. — January. Jas. — James. J. CD, — Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil Law. J. D. — Jurum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. Jer. — Jeremiah. Jno. — John. Jona. — Jonathan. Jos. — Joseph. Josh. — Joshua. J. P. — Justice of the Peace. J.Prob. — Judge of Probate. J.R. — Jacohus Hex, King James. Jr. or Jun. — Junior. J. U. D. or J. V. D. — Juris utriusque Doc- tor, Doctor of both Laws (of the Canon and the Civil Law). Jud. — Judith. Judg. — Judges. Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate. Jul. Per. — Julian Period. Jus. P. — Justice of the Peace. Just. — Justinian. J. W. — Junior Warden. K.— King. K. A. — Knight of St. Andrew, in Eussia. ^^. A. N, — Knight of Alexander Nevskoi, in Russia. Kan. — Kansas. K.B. — King's Bench. K.B.— Knight of the Bath. K.B. A.— Knight of St. Bento d'Avis, in Portugal. K.B.E.— Knight of the Black Eagle, in Russia. K.C. — King's Council. K. C— Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey. K.C.B. — Knight Commander of the Bath. K.C.H. — Knight Commander of Ha- nover. K. C. S.— Knight of Charles III. of Spain. K.E.— Knight of the Elephant, in Den- mark. K.F.— Knight of Ferdinand of Spain. K.r.M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily. K.G.— Knight of the Garter. K.G.C.— Knight of the Grand Cross. K.G.C.B.— Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. K.G.F.— Knight of the Golden Fleece, in Spain. K.G.H.— Knight of the Guelphs of Ha- nover. K.G.Y. — Knight of Gustavu^ Vasa of Sweden. K.H. — Knight of Hanover. Ki. — Kings. Kingd. — Kingdom. K.J. — Knight of St. Joachim. K.L. or K.L. A.— Knight of Leopold of Austria. K.L.H.— Knight of the Legion of Ho- nour. K.M.— Knight of Malta. K. Mess. — King's Messenger. K. M. H.— Knight of Merit, in Holstein. K.M.J. — Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria. K.M.T.— Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria. Knick. — Knickerbocker. K.N.S.— Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden. Knt. or Kt.— Knight. K. P.— Knight of St. Patrick. K.R.C.— Knight of the Red Cross. K. R. E.— Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia. K. S. — Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. K.S. A. — Knight of St. Anne of Russia. K. S. E.— Knight of St. Esprit, in France. K.S.F. — Knight of St. Fernando of Spain. K. S. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples. K. S. G.— Knight of St. George of Russia. K.S.H. — Knight of St. Hubert of Ba- varia. K.S.J. — Knight of St. Januarius of Naples. K.S.L. — Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia. K.S.M. & S.G.— Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Ionian Islands. K.S. P. — Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland. K.S.S.— Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils. K.S.S.— Knight -of the Sword, in Swe- den. K.S.W.— Knight of St. Wladimir of K.T.— Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar. Kt.— Knight. ABBBEVIA TIONS. 805 K. T. S.— Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal. K. W.— Knight of William of the Nether- lands. K.W.E.— Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland. Ky. — Kentucky. L.— Fifty or fiftieth. L. — Liber, book. L, £, or 1. — Libra or librse, pound or pounds sterling. L. or £, s. d. — Pounds, shillings, pence. La. — Louisiana. Lam, — Lamentations. Lat. — Latitude ; Latin. Lb. or ft). — Libra or librse, pound or pounds in weight. L.C. — Lord Chancellor; Lord Chamber- lain. L. C, — Lower Canada. Liv. — Livre, book. 1.0. — Lowercase. L.C. J.— Lord Chief-Justice. L.D.— Lady-Day. Ld. — Lord. Ldp. — Lordship. Leg. — Legate. Legis.^-Legislature. Lev. — Leviticus. Lex. — Lexicon. L. I. — Long Island. Lib. — Liber, book. Lieut. — Lieutenant. Lieut.-Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel. Lieut.-Gen. — Lieutenaut-General. Lieut.-Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor. Linn. — Linnaean. Lit. — Literally ; Literature. LL.B. — Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. — Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 1.1. — Loco laudato, in the place quoted, loc. cit. — Loco citato, in the place cited. Lon. — Longitude. L. S. — Locus sigilli, place of the seal. Lt. — Lieutenant. LX. — Sixty or sixtieth. LXX. — Seventy or seventieth. LXX.— The Septuagint (Version of the Old Testament). LXXX.— Eighty or eightieth. M. — Meridies, noon. M. — Mille, a thousand. M. or Mons. — Monsieur. M. A. — Master of Arts. Mace. — Maccabees. Mad — Madam. Mad. Univ.— Madison University. Maj. — Major. Maj .-Gen. — Maj or-General. Mai. — Malachi. Man. — Manasses. Mar.— March. March. — Marchioness. M arg. — Margi n . Marg. Tran. — Marginal Translation. Marq. — Marquis. Masc. — Masculine. Mass. — Massachusetts. Math. — Mathematics ; Mathematician. Matt.— Matthew. Max. — Maxim. M. B. — Medicinie Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Medicine. M.B. — Musicse Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Music. M.B.F. etH. — Great Britain, France, and Ireland. M.C. — Member of Congress. Mch. — March. M. D. — Medicinse Doctor, Doctor of Medi- cine. Md. — Maryland. Mdlle. — Mademoiselle. M.E. — Methodist Episcopal; Military or Mechanical Engineer. Me. — Maine. Med. — Medicine. Mem. — Memorandum. Mem. — Memento, remember. Merc. — Mercury. Messrs. or MM. — Messieurs, Gentlemen. Met. — Metaphysics. Metal. — Metallurgy. Meteor. — Meteorology. Meth . — Methodist. Mex. — Mexico or Mexican. M.-Goth. — Moeso-Gothic. M. H. S. — Massachusetts Historical So- ciety. M. H. S. — Member of the Historical So ciety. Mic. — Micah. Mich. — Michigan. Mil.— Military. Min. — Mineralogy. Min. — Minute. Minn. — Minnesota. 26* 306 ABBBEVIA TIONS, Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipotentiary. Miss. — Mississippi. M. L. A. — Mercantile - Library Associa- tion. MM. — Their Majesties- MM. — Messieurs, Gentlemen. MM. — Two thousand. Mme. — Madame. M. M. S. — Moravian Missionary Society. M. M. S. S. — Massachusettensis Medicinse Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Massa- chusetts Medical Society. Mo. — Missouri; Month. Mod. — Mpdern. Mon. — Monday. Mons. — Monsieur, Sir. Mos. — Months. M. P. — Member of Parliament ; Member of Police. M.P.P. — Member of Provincial Parlia- ment. M.R.— Master of the Rolls. Mr. — Mister. M. R. A. S. — Member of the Royal Asiatic Society; Member of the Royal Aca- demy of Science. M.R. CO.— Member of the Royal Col- lege of Chemistry. M.R.C.S.— Member of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. M.R.G.S.— Member of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. M.R.I. — Member of the Royal Institu- tion. M.R. I. A.— Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs. — Mistress. M. R. S. L.— Member of the Royal So- ciety of Literature. M.S. — Memorise sacrum, Sacred to the memory. M. S. — Master of the Sciences. MS. — Manuscriptum, manuscript. MSS. — Manuscripts. Mt. — Mount or mountain. Mus. B. — Bachelor of Music. Mus. D. — Doctor of Music. M. W.— Most Worthy ; Most Worshipful. Myth. — Mythology. N. — North; Number; Noun; Neuter. | n. — Note. I N.A. — North America. Nah. — Nahum. i Nat. — Natural. I Nat. Hist. — Natural History. Nath. — Nathanael or Nathaniel. N.B. — New Brunswick; North British. N. B. — Nota bene, mark well ; take notice. N.C.— North Carolina. N.E.— New England; Northeast. Neb. — Nebraska. Neh. — Nehemiah. n.e.i. — Non est inventus, he is not found, nem. con. or nem. diss. — Nemine ccmtra- dicente, or nemine dissentiente, no one opposing; Unanimously. Neut. — Neuter (gender). New M. — New Mexico. New Test, or N.T. — New Testament. N. F. — Newfoundland. N. G. — New Gi'anada ; Noble Grand. N. H. — New Hampshire; New Haven. N.H.H.S. — New Hampshire Historical Society. Ni. pri. — Nisi prius. N.J. — New Jersey. n.l. — Non liquet, it does not appear. N. lat. — North latitude. N.M. — New Mexico. N. N. E.— North-northeast. N. N. W. — North-northwest. N.O. — New Orleans. No. — Numero, number. Nol pros. — Nolle prosequi, unwilling to proceed. Nom. or nom. — Nominative. Non con. — Not content; dissenting (House of Lords). Non cul. — Nrni culpabilis, Not guilty. Non obst. — Non obstante, notwithstand- ing. Non pros. — Non prosequitur, he does not prosecute. Non seq. — Non sequitur, it does not follow. Nos. — Numbers. Nov. — November. N.P. — Notary Public. N.S.— New Style (after 1752); Nova Scotia. N.T. — New Testament; Nevada Terri- tory. N.u. — Name or names unknown. Num. — Numbers; Numeral. N. V.M. — Nativity of the Virgin Mary. N. W. — Northwest. N.Y.— New York. ABBBEVIA TIONS, 307 N.Y.H.S.— New York Historical So- ciety. 0.— Ohio. Ob. — Ohiit, he or she died. Obad. — Obadiah. Obs. — Obsolete; Observatory; Observa- tion. Obt. or obdt. — Obedient. Oct. — October. O. F.— Odd-Fellow or Odd-Fellows. Old Test, or O.T.— Old Testament. Olym . — Olympiad. Opt. — Optics. Or. — Oregon. Orig. — Originally. Or ni th . — Or ni thology . 0. S.— Old Style (before 1752). O.T.— Oregon Territory; Old Testa- ment. O.U. A. — Order of United Americans. Oxf;— Oxford. Oxon. — Oxonia, Oxonii, Oxford. Oz. — Ounce. P. — Pondere, by weight. P. or p. — Page ; Part ; Participle. Pa. or Penn. — Pennsylvania. Pal. — Palaeontology. Par. — Paragraph. Par. Pas. — Parallel passage. Pari. — Parliament. Pathol . — Pathology. Payt. — Payment. Pb. — Plumbum, lead. P. B. — Philosophise Baccalaureus, Bache- lor of Philosophy. P.O. — Patres Conscriptiy Conscript Fa- thers; Senators. P. C. — Privy Council ; Privy Councillor. P.D. — Philosophife Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Pd.— Paid. P.E. — Protestant Episcopal. P.E.I. — Princ^Idward Island. Penn. — Pennsylvania. Pent. — Pentecost. Per, or pr. — By the, or per lb. Per an. — Per annum, by the year. Per cent. — Per centum, by the hundred. Peri. — Perigee. Pet.— Peter. P.G.— Past Grand. Phar. — Pharmacy. Ph. B. — Philosophise Baccalaureus, Ba- chelor of Philosophy. Ph. D. — Philosophise Doctor^ Doctor of Philosophy. Phil. — Philip; Philippians; Philosophy; Philemon. Phila. or Phil.— Philadelphia. Philem. — Philemon. Philom. — Philomathes, a lover of learn- ing. Philomath. — Philomathematicus, a lover of the mathematics. Phil. Trans. — Philosophical Transac- tions. Phren. — Phrenology. - P. H. S . — Pennsylvania Historical So- ciety. Pinx. or pxt. — Pinxit, he (or she) painted it. PI. or Plur.— Plural. Plflf.— Plaintiff. P.M. — Post meridiem, afternoon, even- ing. P.M. — Postmaster; Passed Midship- man. P.M.G. — Postmaster-General ; Professor of Music in Gresham College. P.O.— Post-Office. Poet. — Poetical. Pop. — Population. Port. — Portugal or Portuguese. P.P. — Pater Patrice, the father of his country. P.P.C. — Pour prendre conge, to take leave. Pp. or pp. — Pages. Pph. — Pamphlet. P.R. — Populus Romanus, the Roman people. P.R. A. — President of the Roj'al Aca- demy. P. R, C. — Post Romanum conditum, from the building of Rome. Pref. — Preface. Prep. — Preposition. Pres. — President. Prin. — Principally. Prob. — Problem. Prof. — Professor. Pron. — Pronoun ; Pronunciation. Prop. — Proposition. Prot. — Protestant. Pro tem, — Pro tempore, for the time being. Prov. — Proverbs ; Provost, prox. — Proximo, next (month). 308 ABBREVIA TIONS. P. R. S.— President of the Royal Society. P. S. — Post scriptum, Postscript. P. S.— Privy Seal. Ps. — Psalm or Psalms. Pt. — Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port. P. t. — Post-town. P. Th. G.— Professor of Theology in Gresham College. Pub. — Publisher; Publication; Pub- lished; Public. Pub. Doc. — Public Documents. P. V. — Post-village. Pwt. — Pennyweight ; pennyweights. Pxt. — Pinxit, he (or she) painted it. Q. — Queen. Q. — Question. q. — Quasi, as it were; almost. Q. B. — Queen's Bench. Q.C. — Queen's College. Q.C. — Queen's Counsel, q.d. — Quasi dicat, as if he should say; quasi dictum, as if said; quasi dix- isset, as if he had said, q.e. — Quod est, which is. q. e. d. — Quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be proved. q.e.f.—Quod erat faciendum, which was to be done. q.e.i. — Quod erat inveniendum, which was to be found out. q.l. — Quantum libet, as much as you please. Q. M. — Quartermaster, qm. — Quomodo, how; by what means. Q. M. G. — Quartermaster-General, q.p. or q.pl. — Quantum placet, as much as you please. Qr. — Quarter. Q. S. — Quarter Sessions. q.s.—Quantu7n sufficit, bl sufficient qiian- tity. Qt.— Quart. qu. or qy. — Qusere, inquire; query. Quar. — Quarterly. Ques. — Question, q.v. — Quod vide, which see; quantum vis, as much as you will. 1^. — Recipe, take. R. — Regina, Queen ; Rex, King. R.— River; Rood; Rod. R. A.— Royal Academy; Royal Acade- mician. R, A. — Royal Arch. R.A. — Royal Artillery. RC. — Rescriptum, a counterpart. R.E. — Royal Engineers. Rec. — Recipe or Recorder. Reed. — Received. Rec. Sec. — Recording Secretary. Rect, — Rector ; Receipt. Ref. — Reference. Ref. Ch. — Reformed Church. Reg. — Register ; Regular. Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor. Regr. — Registrar. Regt. — Regiment. Rel. — Religion. Rep. — Representative ; Reporter. Rev. — Reverend ; Revelation (Book of) ; Review; Revenue; Revise. Rhet. — Rhetoric. R. I.— Rhode Island. Richd. — Richard. R. I. H. S.— Rhode Island Historical So- ciety. R. M. — Royal Marines ; Royal Mail. R. M. S.— Royal Mail Steamer. R.N. — Royal Navy. R.N. 0. — Riddare af Nor dstj erne. Knight of the Order of the Polar Star. Ro. — Recto, right-hand page. Robt. — Robert. Rom. — Romans (Book of). Rom. Cath. — Roman Catholic. R. P. — Regius Professor, the King's Pro- fessor. R.R. — Railroad. R. S. — Recording Secretary. Rs. — Responsus, to answer. R. S. A. — Royal Society of Antiquaries ; Royal Scottish Academy. R.S.b.— Royal Society of Dublin. R. S. E.— Royal Society of Edinburgh. R.S.L. — Royal Society of London. ^.^.^.—Regise Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society. Rt. Hon. — Right Honourable. Rt. Rev.— Right Reverend. Rt. Wpful.— Right Worshipful. R.W.— Right Worthy. 'R.^Y.O. — Riddare af Wasa Orden, Knight of the Order of Wasa. S. — South; Saint; Scribe; Sulphur; Sunday; Sun; Series. S. — Solidus, a shilling. S.A. — South America: South Africa; South Australia, ABBREVJA TIONS, 309 s. a. — Secundum artem, according to art. Sam. — Samuel. Sansc. — Sanscrit. S. A. S. — Societatis Antiquariorum So- cius, Fellow of the Society of Anti- quarians. Sat. — Saturday. Sax. — Saxon. Sax. Chron. — Saxon Chronicle. S. C. — Senatus Cmisultum, a decree of the Senate ; South Carolina. Sc. — Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. sc. or scil. — Scilicet, namely. Scan. Mag. — Scandalum magnatum, great scandal. S. caps. — Small capitals. Schol. — Scholium, a note. Schr. — Schooner. Sci. fa. — Scire facias. Sclav. — Sclavonic. Sculp, or sculp. — Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. S.D. — Salutem dicit, sends health. S.E.— Southeast. Sec. — Secretary ; Second. Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Legation. Sec. leg. — Secundum legem, according to law. Sec. reg. — Secundum regulam, according to rule. Sect. — Section. Sem. — Semhle, it seems. Sen. — Senate; Senator; Senior. Sept. — September ; Septuagint. Seq. — Sequentia, following; sequitur, it follows. Ser. — Series. Serg. — Sergeant. Serg.-Maj. — Sergeant-Major. Servt. — Servant. S.G. — South Georgia; Solicitor-General. Shak. — Shakspeare. S.H.S. — Societatis Historise Sodus, Fel- low of the Historical Society. Sing.— Singular. S. Isl. — Sandwich Islands. S.J. — Society of Jesus. S. J.C. — Supreme Judicial Court. Skr. — Sanscrit. S. L. — Solicitor at Law (Scot.). S. lat.— South latitude. S, M.— State Militia ; Short Metre ; Ser- geant-Major; Sons of Malta. S.M. Lond, Soc. Cor.—Sociefafis Medicse Londonensis Socius Cor., Correspond- ing Member of the London Medical Society. s.n. — Secundum naturam, according to nature. Soc. Isl. — Society Islands. Sol. — Solomon; Solution. Sol.-Gen. — Solicitor-General. S. of Sol. — Song of Solomon. S. P. — Sine prole, without issue. S.P. A.S. — Societatis Philosophicse Ame- ricanx, Socius, Member of the Ameri- can Philosophical Society. S. P. G. — Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sp. gr. — Specific gravity. S. P. Q. 'R,.— Senatus Populusque Eomani, the Senate and people of Rome. Sq. ft. — Square foot or square feet. Sq. in. — Square inch or inches. Sq. m. — Square mile or miles. Sq. r. — Square rood or roods. Sq. yd. — Square yard. Sr. — Sir; Senior. S.R.I. — Sacrum Romanum Imperium, Holy Roman Empire. S. R. S. — Societatis Jtegise Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society. S. S. — Sunday-school. SS.— Saints. SS. or SS. — Scilicet, to wit. SS. — Semis, half. S.S.C. — Solicitor before the Supreme Court (Scotland). S. S. E.— South-southeast. S. S. W.— South-southwest. St. — Saint; Street; Strait. Stat.— Statute. S. T. B.—Sacrse Theologise Doctor, Doctor of Divinity. Ster. or Stg.— Sterling. S. T. P. — Sacrse Theologise Professor, Pro- fessor of Divinity. Su. — Sunday. Subj . — Subj unctive. Subst. — Substantive. Su.-Goth.— Suio-Gothic. Sun. or Sund. — Sunday. Sup. — Supplement ; Superfine. Supt. — Superintendent. Surg. — Surgeon ; Surgery. Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General. Surv. — Surveyor. Surv.-Gen.— Surveyor-General. 310 ABBBEVIA TIONS, Sus. — Susannah. s.v. — Sub verbo, under the word or title. S.W.— Southwest. Syn. — Synonym ; Synonymous. T.— Territory. T.—Tutti, all together. T. or tom. — Tome, volume. Ta. — Tantalum (Columbium). T. E. — Topographical Engineers. Tenn. — Tennessee. Ter. — Territory. Tex. — Texas. Text. liec. — Textus Receptus, the Re- ceived Text. Th. or Thurs. — Thursday. Theo. — Theodore. TheoL— Theology ; Theological. Theoph.— Theophilus. Thess. — Thessalonians. Tho' .—Though. Thos. — Thomas. Thro'.— Through. Tim.— Timothy. Tit.— Titus. T.O. — Turn over. Tob.— Tobit. Tom. — Volume. Topog.— Topography ; Topographical. Tr.— Transpose; Translator; Transla- tion. Tr. — Trustee. Trs. — Trustees. tr. — Trillo, a shake. Trans.— Translator; Translation; Trans- actions. Treas. — Treasurer. Trin.— Trinity. Tues. or Tu. — Tuesday. Typ. — Typographer. U. C. — Upper Canada. U.C. — Urbe condita, year of Rome. U.E. I.e.— United East India Company. U. G. R. R.— Underground Railway. U.J.C. — Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of both Laws. U.K. — United Kingdom. ult— Ultimo, last; of the last month. Unit. — Unitarian. Univ. — University. U. S.— United States. U.S. — TTt supra or uti supra, as above. U. S. A, — United States Array. U. S. A. — United States of America. U.S.M.— United States Mail. U. S. M. — United States Marines. U. S. M. A. — United States Military Aca- den;iy. U.S.N.— United States Navy. U.S.N. A. — United States Naval Aca- demy. U.S.S. — United States Senate. U.T.— Utah Territory. v.— Five or fifth. v.— Violin. VV.— Violins. V. or vid. — Vide, see. V. or vs. — Versus, against; Versiculo, in such a verse. Va. — Virginia. Vat. — Vatican. V. C. — Vice-Chancellor. V.D.M. — Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of God's Word. Veru — Venerable. Ver. — Verse. V. G. — Vicar-General. v.g. — Verbi gratidf as for example. VI. — Six or sixth, VII. — Seven or seventh. VIII.— Eight or eighth. Vice-Pres. or V. P. — Vice-President. Vise. — Viscount. viz. or vl. — Videlicet, to wit; namely; that is to say. Vo. — Verso, left-hand page. Vol. — Volume. V.R. — Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria. Vt. — Vermont. Vul. — Vulgate (Version). W.— West. Wash. — Washington. Wed. — Wednesday. West. Res. Coll.— Western Reserve Col- lege. w.f. — Wrong fount. Whf.— Wharf. W.I.— West India. Wise. — Wisconsin. Wisd.— Wisdom (Book of). Wk.— Week. W. Ion. — West longitude. W. M. — Worshipful Master. Wm. — William. W.M.S.— Wesleyan Missionary Society. W. N. W.— West-northwest. Wpful.— Worshipful. W. S.— Writer to the Signet. W. S.W.— West-southwest. W. T.— Washington Territory. Wt.— Weight. ABBREVIA TIONS. 311 W.Va.— West Virginia. X.— Ten or tenth. XI.— Eleven. XII.— Twelve. XIII.— Thirteen. XIV.— Fourteen. XV.— Fifteen. XVI.— Sixteen. XVII.— Seventeen. XVIII.— Eighteen. XIX. — Nineteen. XX.— Twenty. XXX.— Thirty. XL.— Forty. XC— Ninety. X. or Xt.— Christ. Xmas or Xm. — Christmas. Xn. or Xtian. — Christian. Xnty. or Xty.— Christianity. Xper or Xr. Christopher. Yd.— Yard. y. or ye — The. ym — Them. yn — Then, yr — Their ; Your. ys. —This. yt. —That. Y.M.C.A. — Young Men's Christian As- sociation. Yrs. — Years; Yours. Zach. — Zachary. Zech. — Zechariah. Zeph. — Zephaniah. Zool.— Zoology. &.— And. BRONSTRUP PRESS. PBI MMMMMm^M ^ ^ i ^^ m ^ M M (3 1 /^ ^ 1 ^ FOREIGN "WORDS AND PHRASES, WITH TRANSLATIONS. A has. — ^Down with. A capite ad calcem. — From head to foot. A Jin. — To the end. A fortiori. — With stronger reason. A Vahandon. — At random. A la honne heure. — Luckily; in good time. A la derohie. — By stealth. A la mode. — According to the fashion. A main armee. — With force of arms. A mensa et thoro. — From bed and board. A posteriori. — From effect to cause; from the latter. A priori. — From cause to effect; from the former. A vinculo matrimonii. — From the tie of marriage. A votre sante. — To your health. Ah extra. — From without. Ah initio. — From the beginning. Ah origine. — From the beginning. Ah ovo. — From the beginning. Ah urhe conditd. — From the building of the city (Rome) ; abridged A. U. C. Ahsit invidi-a. — All offence apart; let there be no malice. Ahsit omen^ — May it not prove ominous. Ac etiam. — And also. Actum est de republica. — It is all over with the commonwealth. Ad ahsurdum. — To show the absurdity. Ad arhitrium. — At pleasure. Ad astra per aspera. — To the stars through dilficulties. Ad captandum vulgus. — To catch the mob or the vulgar. 312 Ad eundem. — To the same point or de- gree. Adjinem. — To the end. Ad Grsecas Calendas. — An indefinite postponement. (The Greeks had no calends.) Ad hominem. — To the man (that is, to the interests or the passions of the man). Ad infinitum. — Without end. Ad inquirendum. — For inquiry. Ad interim. — In the mean while. Ad lihitum.- — At pleasure. Ad litem. — For the action (at law). Ad nauseam. — To a disgusting degree. Ad referendum. — For further considera- tion. Ad rem. — To the purpose. Ad unguem. — To the nail; exactly; nicely. Ad valorem. — According to the value. Addendum. — An addition or appendix. Adhuc suh judice lis est. — The affair is not yet decided. JEgrescit medendo. — The remedy is worse than the disease. JEquam servare mentem. — To preserve an equable mind. JEquo animo. — ^With an equable mind. ^re perennius. — More lasting than brass ; enduring ever. Affaire du coeur. — A love-affair; an amour. Afflatus. — Inspiration. Agenda. — Things to be done. Aide-de-camp. — Assistant to a general. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES, 313 Aide-toi, et le del f aider a. — Help thy- self, and Heaven will help thee. Aleve Jiammam. — To feed the flame Alfresco. — In the open air. Alga. — A kind of sea-weed. Alguazil. — A Spanish constable. Alias. — Otherwise ; elsewhere. Alibi. — Elsewhere ; not present. Alis volat propriis. — She flies with her own wings. Aliunde. — From some other qxiarter or person. Allemande. — A kind of German dance. Alma mater. — Benign mother (applied to a university). Alter ego. — A second self. Amende. — Compensation ; apology. Ami dupeupU. — Friend of the people. Amicus curise. — A friend of the court. Amor patrise. — Love of country. Amour propre. — Self-love ; vanity. Ancien regime. — Former administration ; ancient order of things. Anglice. — In English. Anguis in herbd.—A snake in the gi'ass. Animis opibusque parati. — Ever ready with our lives and property. Animo et Jide. — By (or with) courage and faith. Animo facto. — Really and truly. Animus fur andi. — Felonious intent. Anno Domini. — In the year of our Lord. Anno lucis. — In the year of light. Anno mundi. — In the year of the world. Annus mirabilis. — Year of wonders. Ante bellum. — Before the war. Ante Jucem. — Before light. Ante meridiem. — Before noon. Aperfu. — A brief sketch of any sub- ject. Apropos (Fr. d propos). — To the pur- pose. Aqua vitse. — ^Water of life ; brandy. Arbiter elegantiarum. — Master of cere- monies; an umpire in matters of taste. Arcana imperii. — State secrets. Arcanum. — A secret. Argumentum ad wumenam. — An argu- ment to the purse. Argumentum ad fidem. — An appeal to faith. Argumsntum ad hominem. — An argu- ment to the person-. Argumentum ad ignorantiam. — An argu- ment founded on an adversary's igno- rance of facts. Argumentum ad judicium. — An appeal to the common sense of mankind. Argumentum ad populum. — An appeal to the people. Argumentum ad verecundiam.-r— An argu- ment to modesty. Argumentum baculinum. — Club law. Armiger. — One bearing arms; an esquire. Arriere-pensee. — Mental reservation. Ars est celare artem. — True art is to con- ceal art. Assumpsit. — It is assumed or taken for granted. Astra castra, Nwnen lumen. — The stars my camp, the Deity my light. At spes n&n fracta. — But hope is not broken. Aufait. — Well instructed; master of it. Au fond. — To the bottom, or main point. Aupied de la lettre. — Literally. Aupis alter. — At the worst. Au revoir. — Farewell. Audi alteram partem. — Hear the other side. Aura popularis. — The gale of popular favour. Atiri sacra fames. — The accursed thirst for gold. Aut vincere aut mxtri. — Victory or death. Auto-dafe^ Auto-deft. — An act of faith ; burning of heretics. Auxilium ah alto. — Help from on high. Avant-coureur. — A forerunner. Badinage. — Light or playful discourse. Bagatelle. — A trifle. Bas bleu. — A blue-stocking; a literary woman. Bateau. — A long light boat. Beaurideal. — A model of ideal perfec- tion. Beau monde. — The fashionable world. Bel esprit. — A brilliant mind. Bella-donna. — The deadly nightshade; fair lady. Belles-lettres. — Polite literature. Bellum intemecinum. — A war of exter- mination, Bellum hthale. — A deadly war. 27 314 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Benigno numine. — By the favour of Pro- vidence. Ben trovaio. — Well found ; an ingenious solution. Billet-doux. — A love-letter. Bis dat qzd cito dat. — He gives twice w^ho gives promptly. Bis peccare in hello nan licet. — To blun- der twice is not allowed in war. Bis vincit, qui se vincit in victorid. — He conquers a second time, who controls himself in victory. Bizarre. — Odd; fantastic. Blase. — Surfeited. Bon grS mal gre. — Willing or unwilling. Bon jour. — Good-day ; good-morning. Bo^i mot. — A witty saying; a jest; a qiiibble. Bon soir. — Good-evening. Bon ton. — High fashion; first-class so- ciety. Bon vivant. — A high liver. Bona fide. — In good faith. Bon-bon. — A sweetmeat ; confectionery. Bonhomie. — Good-natured simplicity. . Bonis nocet quisquis pepercerit malis. — He hurts the good who spares the bad. Bonne houche. — A delicious morsel. Bonus. — An extra payment for a service rendered or a thing received. Boreas. — The north wind. Boudoir. — A small private apartment. Bourgeois. — A citizen of the trading class ; a printing type. Bourgeoisie. — The body of citizens. Bravura. — A song of difficult execution. Brevete. — Patented. Brutum fulmen. — A harmless thunder- bolt ; unreasoning bluster. Burletta. — A musical farce Cachet. — A seal. Cacoethes. — A bad habit or custom. Cacoethes carpendi. — A rage for finding fault. Cacoethes loquendi. — An itch for speak- ing. Cacoethes scrihendi — A passion for writing. Cadenza. — The fall or modulation of the voice, in music. Cfeca est invidia. — Envy is blind. Csetera desunt.-'~The remainder is want- ing. Ceteris paribus. — Other things being equal. Calibre. — Capacity or compass; mental power ; a term in gunnery. Camera obscura. — A dark chamber used by artists. Campus Martins. — The field of Mars; a place of military exercise. Canaille. — The rabble. Candida Pax. — White-robed Peace. Cantata. — A poem set to music. Cantate Domino. — Sing to the Lord. Gap-drpie. — From head to foot. Capias ad satisfaciendum. — You may take to satisfy. Capriccio. — A fanciful irregular kind of musical composition. Capriole. — A leap without advancing; capers. CapiU mortuum. — Dead head ; the worth- less remains. Caret. — Is wanting or omitted. Caret initio et fine. — It wants beginning and end. Carpe diem. — Enjoy the present day. Carte blanche. — Unconditional terms. Casus belli. — An occasion for war. Casus foederis. — A case of conspiracy; the end of the league. Catalogue raisonne. — A catalogue of books arranged according to their subjects. Cause celebre. — A remarkable trial in a court of justice. Caveat actor. — Let the doer beware. Caveat emptor. — Let the purchaser take heed or beware. Cavendo tutus. — Safe through caution. Cen^est que le premier pas qui coute. — It is only the first step which is difficult. Cedant arma togse. — Let military power yield to the civil. Cede Deo. — Submit to Providence. Certiorari. — To be made more certain. Cessio bonorum. — Yielding up of goods. C^est une autre chose. — That is quite a different thing. Chacun d son goUt. — Every one to his taste. Chanson. — A song. Chansonnette. — A little song. Chapeau. — A hat. Chapelle ardente.— The place where a dead person lies in state. FOBEION WORDS AND PHRASEiS. 315 Chaperon. — An attendant on a lady, as a guide and protector. Charge d'affaires. — An ambassador of second rank. Chateau. — A castle ; a country mansion. Chef-d'oeuvre. — A mastei-piece. Chevalier dHndustrie. — A knight of in- dustry ; one who lives by persevering fraud. Chi tace confessa. — Silence is confession. Chiaro-oscuro or Chiaroscuro. — Light and shadow in painting. Chose qui platt est d demi vendue. — A thing which pleases is already half sold. Cicerone. — A guide or conductor. Cicisheo. — A dangler after a lady Ci-devant. — Formerly ; former. Cito maturum, cito putridum. — Soon ripe, soon rotten. Clarior e tenebris. — More bright from obscurity. Clique. — A party ; a gang. Cognomen. — A surname. Comme ilfaut. — As it should be. Commune honum. — A common good. Communia proprii dicere. — To express common things with propriety. Communibus annis. — One year witli an- other. Compos mentis. — Of sound uilnd. Cmi am/)i-e. — With love or hearty in clination. Concio ad clerum. — A discourse to the clergy. Cong6 d'elire. — Permission to elect. Connoisseur. — A skilful judge. Consensus facit legem. — Consent makes the law. Contour. — The outline of a figure. Contra. — Against. Contra bonos mores. — Against good man- ners. Contretemps. — A mischance ; disappoint- ment. Coram nobis. — Before us. Coram non judice. — Before one who is not the proper judge. Cornucopia. — The horn of plenty. Corpus delicti. — The whole nature of the offence. Corrigenda. — Corrections to be made. Coryphseus. — A leader, or chief. Cotillon. — A lively dance. Couleur de rose. — Rose-colour; an aspect of beauty and attractiveness. Coup de grcLce. — The finishing stroke. Coup de main. — A bold and rapid enter- prise. Coup de pied. — A kick. Coup de soleil. — A stroke of the sun. Coup d'etat. — A master-stroke of state policy. Coup d'ceil. — Rapid view or glance. Coitte qu-il coute. — Cost what it may. Credat Judseus. — A Jew may believe it. Crescit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecu- nia crescit. — The love of i»«ney in- creases as rapidly as the money itself increases. Crescit eundo. — It increases by going. Grescite et multiplicamini. — Iiuiias',' and multiply. Crimen falsi. — Falsehood ; perj ury . Crux criticoi'um. — The cross or puzzle of critics. Cui bono? — To what good or advantage? Cui malo? — To what evil will it tend? Cul de sac. — The bottom of the bag; a difliculty; a street or lane that fias no outlet. CuDi gratio salis. — With a grain of salt ; witli some allowance. Cton „uilli.< ,/^,/s'.— With many others. Cum pricileijio. — With })rivilege. Curia advisari vult. — The court wishes to be advised- Curiosa felicitas. — A felicitous tact. Currente calamo. — With a running pen ; written off-hand. Custos rotuUrrum. — Keeper of the rolls. Da capo. — Over again. Damnant quod non inteJlignni. — They condemn what they do not compre- hend. Data. — Things granted (sing, datum). De bonis non. — Of the goods not yet ad- ministered on. De die in diem. — From day to day. De facto. — In fact; in reality. De gustibus non est disputandum. — There is no disputing about tastes. Dejure. — By law or right. De mortuis nil nisi bonum.— Say nothing but what is good of the dead. De novo. — Anew. Deprofundis. — Out of the deptlis. 316 FOREIGN WOMDS AND PHRASES. De trop. — Out of place ; not wanted. Dehito justitise. — By debt of justice. D6hut. — Beginning of an enterprise; first appearance. Deceptio visHs. — An illusion of the sight. Dedimus potestatem. — We have given power. Deficit. — A want or deficiency. Dei gratid. — By the grace of God. D^jeitner d la fourchette. — A breakfast or luncheon with meats. Dele. — Blot out or erase. Delenda est Carthago. — Carthage must be blotted out. Delta (the Greek letter A), a triangular tract of land toward the mouth of a river. Denouement. — An unravelling or wind- ing up. Deo adjuvante, nan timendum. — God helping, nothing need be feared. Deo favente. — With God's favour. Deo gratias. — Thanks to God. Deojuvante. — With God's help. Dlo, non fortund. — From God, not for- tune. Deo volente, or D. V. — God willing. Depot. — A store ; the recruiting reserve of regiments. Dernier ressort. — The last resort. Desideratum. — Something desired or wanted. Desunt csetera. — The other things are wanting. Detour. — A circuitous march. Detur digniori. — Let it be given to the more worthy. Deus ex machind. — A god from the clouds; unexpected aid in an emer- gency. Devoir. — Duty. Dexter. — The right hand. Dictum. — A positive assertion (pi. dicta). Dictum de dicto. — Report upon hearsay. Dies faustus. — A lucky day. Dies irse. — Day of wrath. Dies non. — A day on which judges do not sit. Dieu et mon droit. — God and my right. Dieu vous garde. — God protect you. Dii majorum gentium. — The gods of the superior class; the t\velve superior gods. Dii penates. — Household gods. Dilettanti. — Persons who devote them- selves to science merely for amuse- ment or relaxation. (Sing. Dilettante.) Diluvium. — A deposit of superficial loam, sand, &c. caused by a deluge. Dirigo. — I direct or guide. Disjecta membra. — Scattered parts, limbs, or writings. Distrait. — Absent in thought; absent- minded. Distringas. — A writ for distraining. Divide et impera. — Divide and govern. Doce ut dtscas.— Teach, that you may learn. Docendo dicimus. — ^We learn by teaching. Dolce. — Soft and agreeable. (Music.) Dolce far niente. — Sweet nothing-to-do. Doli incapax. — Incapable of mischief. Doloroso. — Soft and pathetic. (Music.) Domicile (L. domicilium). — An abode. Do/mine dirige nos. — Lord, direct us. Dominus vobiscum. — The Lord be with you. Double entendre. — Double meaning (cor- rectly written double entente). Douceur. — A present or bribe ; sweetness. Draco. — A dragon ; a constellation. Dramatis personse. — The characters in a play. Duet (Ital. duetto). — A song for two per- formers. Dulce est desipere in loco. — It is pleasant to jest, or revel, at the proper time. Dulce et decorum est pro patrid mori. — It is sweet and pleasant to die for one's country. Dulia. — An inferior kind of worship. Dum spiro, spero. — Whilst I breathe, I hope. Dum vivimus, vivamus. — While we live, let us live. Duo. — Two ; a two-part song. Duodecimo. — A book having twelve leaves to a sheet. Durante placito, or dti^ante beneplacito. — During pleasure. Durante vitd. — Duiing life. Dux foemina facti. — A woman was the leader to the deed. E pluribus unum. — One out of many ; one composed of many : the motto of the United States. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 817 Eau de vie. — Brandy ; water of life. Ecce homo. — Behold the man. Ecce signum. — Behold the sign. Eclair cissement. — The clearing- up of an affair. Eclat. — Splendour ; applause. Editio princeps. — The first edition. Elan. — Buoyancy ; dash. Elegit. — He hath elected; a wTit of exe- cution. Eleve. — A pupil. Elite.— ThQ best part. Embonpoint. — Roundness; good con- dition. Emeritus. — One retired from active offi- cial duties. Emeute. — Insurrection ; uproar. Ehnpressement. — Eagerness ; ardour. Eki ami. — As a friend. En avant! — Forward! En flUte. — Carrying guns on the upper deck only. En grande tenue. — In full dress. En masse. — In a mass ; in a body. En passant. — By the way ; in passing. En rapport. — In communication E7r revanche. — In return. En route. — On the way. Kiifans 2')erdus. — Lost childi'en; the for- knn hope. Ki( n It I. — Weariness ; lassitude. E use petit placidam sub libertate quietem. — By his sword he seeks the calm re- pose of liberty. Ensemble. — The whole taken together. Entente cordiale. — The cordial under- standing between two countries. Entre nous. — Between ourselves. Entree. — Entrance. Entremets. — Small and dainty dishes set between the principal ones at table. Eo nomine. — By that name. EquilibHum. — Equality of weight ; even balance. Ergo. — Therefore. Eripuit coelofulmen, sceptrumque tyran- nis. — He snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, and the sceptre from tyrants. Erratum. — A mistake or error (pi. errata). Espieglerie. — Waggish tricks. Esprit de corps. — The animating spirit of a collective body. 27' Est modus in rebus. — There is a medium in all things. Esto perpetua. — May it last forever. Et csetera. — And the rest. Eureka. — I have found it. Ex. — Out of; late (as, ex-consul). Ex animo. — Heartily. Ex cathedrd. — From the chair; with high authority. Ex concesso. — Frojn what has been granted. Ex curid. — Out of court. Ex fumo dare lucem. — Out of smoke to bring light. Ex nihilo nihil Jit. — Nothing can come of nothing. Ex officio. — By virtue of his office. Ex parte. — On one side only (before a noun, exparte). 'Ex pede HercuUm. — We recognize a Hercules from the size of the foot; that is, we judge of the whole from the specimen. Ex post facto. — After the deed is done. Ex tempore. — Without premeditation. Ex uno disce omnes. — From one learn all; from one judge of the whole. Excelsior. — More elevated ; onward. Excerpta. — Extracts. Exempli gratid. — As for example. Exeunt omnes. — All retire. Experimentum crucis. — A decisive ex- periment. Experto credo. — Believe one who has experience. Expose. — An exposition ; recital. Faber suie fortunse. — The architect of his own fortune. Facile primus, facile princeps. — By far the first or chiefest. Facilis est descensus. — Descent is easy. Fac simile. — Make it like: hence, an exact copy. Fac totum. — Do all : a man of all work. Facta est lux. — There was light. Fas est ab hoste doceri. — It is allowable to learn even from an enemy. Fata obstant. — The fates oppose it. Fauteuil. — An easy-chair. Faux pas. — A false step. Felo de se. — A self-murderer. Feme couverte. — A married woman. Feme sole. — A woman unmarried. 318 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES, Festina lenU. — Hasten slowly ; advance steadily rather than hurriedly. Fete. — A feast or celebration. Fete champetre. — A rural feast. Feu dc joie. — A bonfire ; a discharge of musketry on days of rejoicing. Feuilleton. — A small leaf; a supplement to a newspaper; a pamphlet. Fiat. — Let it bo done. Fiat justitia, mat ccelum. — Let justice be done, though the heavens should fall. Fiat lux. — Let there be light. Fide, ncn armis. — By faith, not by arms. Fide, sed cui vide. — Trust, but see whom. Fides et justitia. — Fidelity and justice. Fidus Achates. — Faithful Achates (that is, a true friend). Fieri facias. — Cause it to be done (a kind of writ). FClius nullius. — A son of nobody. Fille-de-chambre. — A chambermaid. ^Finale. — The close or end. Finem respice. — Look to the end. Finis. — The end. Finis coronat opus. — The end crowns the work. Flagrante hello. — While the war is raging. Flagrante delicto. — In the commission of the crime. Fldneur. — A lounger. Flecti, non frangi. — To be bent, not to be broken. Fleur-de-lis. — The flower of the lily (■pi. fleurs-de-lis). Forte. — In music, a direction to sing or play with force or spirit. Fortes fortuna juvat. — Fortune assists the brave. Fortissimo. — Very loud. Fortiter in re. — Resolute in deed. Fracas. — Bustle ; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the thing than it is worth. Fruges consumer e nati. — Born merelj' to consume the fruits of the earth. Fugam fecit. — He has taken to flight. Fuit Ilium. — Troy has been. Functus officio. — Out of office. Furore. — Excitement. Gaiate de coeur. — Gayety of heart. Gallici. — In French. Gardez hien. — Take good care. Gardez lafoi. — Keep the faith. Gaucherie. — Awkwardness. Gaudeamus igitur. — So let us be joy- ful. Gendarme. — A military policeman. Gendarmerie. — The body of the gen- darmes. Genius loci. — The genius of the place. Genus irritdbile vatum. — Irritable trib« of poets. Gloria in excelsis. — Glory to God in the highest. Gratis. — Free of cost. Gratis dictum. — Mere assertion. Gravamen. — The thing complained of. Grisette. — Dressed in gray (a term ap- plied to French shop-girls, &c.). Gusto. — Great relish. Habeas corpus. — You are to have the body: a writ of right, by virtue of which every citizen can, when im- prisoned, demand to be put on his trial. Habitue. — A frequenter. Hsec olim meminisse juvabit. — It will be pleasant hereafter to remember these things. Haricot. — A kind of ragout ; a kidney- bean. Haud passibus sequis. — Not with equal steps. [Wrongly quoted : see Non, &c.] Haut gout. — High flavour. Hauteur. — Haughtiness . Helluo librorum. — A book-worm. Hie et ubique. — Here, there, and every- where. Hicjacet. — Here lies. Hinc illse lacrymse. — Hence proceed these tears. Hoc age. — Do this ; attend to what you are doing. Homme d'esprit. — A man of talent, or of wit. Homo multarum literarum. — A man of much learning. Honi soil qui mal y pense. — Evil be to him that evil thinks. Honores mutant mores. — Honours change men's manners. Horafugit. — The hour or time flies. Horresco referens. — I shudder to relate Hors de combat. — Disabled for fighting ; vanquished. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 319 Hortus SICCUS. — A collection of dried plants. Hostis humani generis. — An enemy of the human race. Hotel de ville. — A town-hall. Hotel- Dieu. — The chief hospital in French cities. Humanum est errare. — It is human to err. Hunc tu caveto. — Beware of him. Ibidem, contracted ibid, or id. — In the same place. IcJi dien. — I serve. Id est. — That is ; abridged i. e. Id genus omne. — All of that sort. Idem, contracted id. — The same. {Id. ib., the same author; in the same place.) Idoneus homo. — A fit man. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat. — Igno- rance of the law excuses no one. II ale diable au corps. — The devil is in him. Imitatores, servum pecus. — Imitators, a servile herd. Imperium in imperio. — One government existing within another. Impransus. — One who has not dined. Imprimatur. — Let it bo printed. Imprimis. — In the first place. Impromptu. — A prompt remark with- out study. In articulo mortis. — At the point of death. In capite. — In the head. In ccelo quies. — There is rest in heaven. In commendam. — In trust. In conspectu fori. — In the eye of the law; in the sight of the court. In curid. — In the court. In duplo. — Twice as much. In equilibrio. — Equally balanced. In esse. — In being. In extenso. — At full length. In extremis. — At the point of death. In formd pauperis. — As a pauper. Inforo conscientise. — Before the tribunal of conscience. In hoc signo vinces. — In this sign thou Shalt conquer. In limine. — At the threshold. In loco. — In the place. In medias res. — Into the midst of things. In memoriam. — To the memory of. In perpetuum. — Forever. In petto. — In reserve; in one's breast. In posse. — In possible existence. In posterum. — For the time to come. In propria persond. — In his person. Inpuris naturalibus. — Quite naked. In re. — In the matter of. In situ. — In its original situation. In statu quo. — In the former state. In te, Domine, speravi. — In thee, Lord, have I put my trust. In terrorem. — By way of warning. Tn totidem verbis. — In so many words. In toto. — Altogether. In transitu. — On the passage. In utrumque paratus. — Prepared for either event. In vacuo. — In empty space, or in a vacuum. In vino veHtas. — There is truth in wine. Incognito. — Disguised ; unknown. Index expurgatorius. — A list of pro- hibited books. Infra dignitatem. — Beneath one's dig- nity. Innuendo. — Covert meaning; indirect hint. Inops consilii. — Without counsel. Insouciance. — Carelessness ; indifference. Instar omnium. — One will suffice for all ; an example to others. Inter alia. — Among other things. Inter arma leges silent. — In the midst of arms the laws are silent. Inter nos. — Between oiirselves. Inter se. — Among themselves. Ipse dixit. — He himself said it; dog- matic assertion. Ipsissima verba. — The very words. Ipso facto. — By the fact itself; actually. Ipso jure. — By the law itself. Ira furor brevis est. — Anger is briel madness. Ita lex scripta est. — Thus the law ia written. Item. — Also. Jacta est alea. — The die is cast. Jamais arriere. — Never behind. Je ne suis quoi. — I know not what. Jet d'eau. — A jet of water. Jen de mots. — Play upon words ; a pun. Jell d''esprit. — A witticism. 320 FOREIGN WOMDiS AND PHMASE/S, Judicium Dei. — The judgment of God. Juniores ad labores. — Young men for labours. Jure divino. — By divine Ijaw. Jure humano. — By human law. Jus civile. — Civil law. Jus gentium. — The law of nations. Jus gladii. — Right of the sword. Juste milieu. — The golden mean; a just medium. Justitise soror fides. — Faith is the sister of justice. La critique est aisee, et Vart est difficile. — Criticism is easy, but art is diflB- cult. Labor ipse voluptas. — Labour itself is pleasure. Labor omnia vincit. — Labour conquers all things. Laissez-nous faire. — Let us alone. Lapsus calami. — A slip of the pen ; an error in writing. Lapsus linguse. — A slip of the tongue. Lapsus memorise. — A slip of memory. Lares etpendtes. — Household gods. Uargent. — Money, or silver. Laudator temporis acti. — A praiser of . time past. Laus Deo. — Praise to God. Laus propria sordet. — Praise of one's own self defiles. Le beau monde. — The fashionable world. Le bon temps viendra. — The good time will come. Le grand ceuvre. — The great work ; the philosopher's stone. Le pas. — Precedence in place or rank. Le savoir-faire. — The knowledge how to act; address. Le tout ensemble. — All together. Lege. — Read. Leges legum. — The law of laws. Lhe majeste. — High treason. L'etoiU du nor-d. — The star of the north. Lettre de cachet. — A sealed letter ; a royal warrant. Levee. — A morning visit or reception. Lex loci. — The law of the place. Lex magna est, et prsevalebit. — The law is great, and will prevail. Lex non scripta. — The unwritten or common law. Lex scripta. — Statute law. Lex talionis. — The law of retaliation. Lex terrse, lex patrise. — The law of the land. Lliomme propose, et Dieu dispose. — Man proposes, and God disposes. Libretto. — A little book or pamphlet. Licentia vatHm. — ^A poetical license. Lingua Franca. — The mixed language spoken by Europeans in the East. Liqueur. — A cordial. Lis litem general. — Strife begets strife. Lis subjudice. — A case not yet decided. Lite pendente. — During the trial. Litera scripta manet. — The written let- ter remains. Literati. — Men of letters or learning. Loco citato. — In the place cited. Locum tenens. — One who holds a place for another. Locus sigilli (L.S.). — The place of the seal. Longo intervallo. — At a great distance. Ludere cum sacris. — To trifle with sacred things. Lusus naturse. — A sport or freak of na- ture. Made virtute. — Proceed in virtue. Mademoiselle. — A young unmarried lady. Magna Charta. — The great charter of England. Magna civitas, magna solitudo. — A great city is a great desert. Magna est Veritas, et prsevalebit. — The truth is great, and will prevail. Magni nominis umbra. — The shadow of a great name. Magnum opus. — A great work. Magnus Apollo. — Great Apollo ; one of high authority. Maison de ville. — The town-house. Maitre d'hotel. — An hotel -keeper; a house-steward. Majordomo (Ital.maiordomo). — One who has the management of a household. Malcifide. — In bad faith ; treacherously. Malapropos^ — Out of time ; unbecoming. Malaria. — Noxious exhalations. Malgre. — In spite of. Malum in se. — Bad in itself. 3Iandamus. — We command : a writ from the Queen's Bench. Manege. — A riding-school. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 321 Mania a potu. — Madness caused by- drunkenness. Manuforti. — With a strong hand. Mardi gras. — Shrove-Tuesday. Mare clausum. — A closed sea ; a bay. Mater familias. — The mother of a family. Materia medica. — Substances used in the healing art. Matinee. — A morning party. Mauvais goUt. — Bad taste. Mauvais sujet. — A worthless fellow. Mauvaise honte. — False modesty; bash- fulness. Maximum. — The greatest. Maximus in minimis. — Very great in trifling things. Me judice.—l being judge; in my own opinion. Medio tutissimus ibis. — A medium course will be safest. Meditatione fugse. — In contemplation of flight. Memento moH. — Remember death. Memorabilia. — Things to be remem- bered. Memoriter. — By rote. Menage. — Household. Mens Sana in corpore sano. — A sound mind in a sound body. Mens sibi conscia rcSor-c/isaw«.— Self-styled ; pretended. Soiree. — An evening party. Souvenir. — Remembrance ; a keepsake. Spectas et spectaberis. — You will see and be seen. Spes mea Christus. — Christ is my hope. Spolia opima.— The richest body. Stans pede in uno. — Standing on one foot. Statu quo, or in statu quo. — ^In the same state. Stet. — Let it stand. Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re. — Gentle in manner, resolute in deed. Sub'judice. — Under consideration. Sub rosd. — Under the rose ; privately. Sub silentio. — In silence. Subpoena. — Under a penalty: a sum- mons to attend a court as a witness. Succedaneum. — A substitute. Sui generis. — Of its own kind; pecu- liar. Summum bonum. — The chief good. Super visum corporis. — Upon a view of the body. Suppressio veri, suggestio falsi. — A sup- pression of the truth is the suggestion of a falsehood. Supra. — Above. Suum cuique. — Let every one have his own. Table d'hdte. — An ordinary at which the master of the hotel presides. Tabula rasa. — A smooth or blank tablet. Tsedium vitse. — "Weariness of life. Tale quale. — Such as it is. Tant mieux. — So much the better. Tantpis. — So much the worse. Tapis. — The carpet. Tartuffe. — A nickname for a hypocritical devotee, derived from the principal character in Molidre's comedy so called. Tejudice. — You may judge. T-'mpora muiantur, et nos mutamur in ilHs. — The times are changed, and we ar* changed with them. Tempus edax rerum. — Time the de- vourer of all things. Tempus fugit. — Time flies. Tempus omnia revelat. — Time reveals all things. Teres atque rotundus. — Smooth and round ; polished and complete. Terrafirma. — Solid earth ; a safe footing. Terra incognita. — An unknown country. Tertium quid. — A third something; a nondescript. Tete-d-tete. — A conversation between two parties. Tirade. — A tedious and bitter harangue. Ton. — The fashion. Torso. — The fragmentary trunk of a statue. Tot homines, quot sententise. — So many men, so many minds. Totidem verbis. — In just so many words. Toties quoties. — As often as. Toto coelo. — By the whole heavens ; dia- metrically opposite. Toto corde. — With the whole heart. Toujours pret. — Always ready. Tour d tour. — By turns. Tout bien ou rien. — The whole or nothing. Tout ensemble. — The whole. Tria juncta in uno. — Three united in one. Tu quoque. Brute! — And thou too, Brutus ! Tuebor. — I will defend. Tutto e buono che vien da Dio. — All is good which comes from God. Tuum est. — It is your own. Ubi ju^ incertum, ibi jus nullum. — Where the law is uncertain, there is no law. ITbi libertas, ibi patria. — Where liberty dwells, there is my country. TJbi supra. — ^Where above mentioned. Ultima ratio regum. — The last argu- ment of kings; military weapons; war. Ultima Thule. — The utmost boundary or limit. Ultimatum. — A final answer or decision. Un bel esprit. — A wit ; a virtuoso. Un sot d triple Uage. — An egregious blockhead. Und voce. — With one voice; unani- mously. 28 326 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Unique. — Singiilar ; the only one of its kind. Usque ad nauseam. — To disgust. Usus loquendi. — Usage in speaking. Ut infra. — As below. Uti possidetis. — As you possess; state of present possession. Utile dulci. — Utility with pleasurj. Vade-mecum. — Go with me; a constant companion. Vse victus. — Woe to the vanquished ! Vale. — Farewell. Valet-de-chambre. — A servant who assists his master in dressing. Varix lectiones. — Various readings. Veluti in speculum. — As in a mirror. Fern, vidi, vici. — I came, I saw, I con- quered. Verbatim et literatim. — Word for word and letter for letter. Verhum sat sapienti. — A word is enough for a wise man. Verdad es ver'de. — Truth is green. Veritas vincit. — Truth conquers. Versus. — Against; toward. Vertu, Virtu. — Virtue; taste; art; skill. Veto.—l forbid. Vi et armis. — By force and arms. Vid. — By the way of. Via media. — A middle course. Vice. — In the room of. Vice ve7'sd. — The terms being ex- changed; reversely. Vide. — See. Vide et crede. — See and believe. Vide ut supra. — See as above. Videlicet. — To wit ; namely. Videttes. — Sentinels on horseback. Vignette. — A name given to slight en- gravings with which books, bank- notes, &c. are ornamented. Vincit amor patrise. — Love of country prevails. Vinculum matrimonii. — The bond of marriage. Virtuoso. — One skilled in matters of taste or art. Virtute officii. — By virtue of office. Vis inertise. — Inert power ; the tendency of every body to remain at rest. Vis medicatrix naturse. — The healing tendency of nature. Vis poetica. — Poetic genius. Vis vitse. — The vigour of life Vis-d-vis. — Face to face. Vita hrevis, ars longa. — Life is short, and art is long. Vivd voce. — By word of mouth ; by the living voice. Vivant rex et regina. — Long live the king and queen. Vivat regina. — Long live the queen. Vivat respuhlica. — Live the republic. Vive la bagatelle. — Success to trifling. Vive la reine. — Long live the queen. Vive Vempereur. — Long live the em- peror. Vive le roi. — Long live the king. Vive Vimperatrice. — Long live the em- press. Vive, vale. — Farewell, and be happy. Voild tout. — That's all. Voild une autre chose. — That's quite a different matter. Volens etpotens. — Willing and able. Volga gran bestia. — The mob is a great beast. Vox, et prseterea nihil. — A voice, and nothing more. Vox populi, vox Dei. — The people's voice is God's voice. Vox stellarum. — The voice of the stars : applied to almanacs. Vulgo. — Vulgarly ; commonly. Vulnus immedicabile. — An irreparable Injury. Vultus est index animi. — The counte- nance is the index of the mind. Zonam solvere. — To loose the virgin zone. wmm MP INDEX. Abbreviated syllables, 13. Abbreviations, list of, 299-311. Accented letters, 56. Accents and asjnrates, Greek, 85, 86. Hebrew, 92-94. Acids used in making paper spoil the effect of ink, 255. Adams, Isaac, inventor of the bed-and- platen power-press, 212. Adams press, directions for putting up an. 236-244. illustrated, 213. Adams's, Seth, job-press, 220. Admiration, sign of, 51. Agate type, specimen of, 43. Alcfrid, Runic memorial of, 75. Almanac, first book printed in the Middle Colonies, 15. Alphabet, Anglo-Saxon, 77. English, 47. German, 86 Greek, 84, Hebrew, 90. Runes, 72-76. Alterations in a proof justly charge- able, 183, 184, 192. not allowable in reprints of old and standard authors, 181. Amber ink, how to produce, 266. Ambiguous and compound words to be set uniformly, 181. American job presses unrivalWd, 220. type, superior quality of, 21. Weekly Mercury, third news- paper in America, 15. Ancient ornaments, exquisite and cu- rious, 14. press, clumsy, 210. typographical peculiarities, 13. Anglo-Saxon characters, how originated, 40. alphabetical table of, 77. cases for, 78, 79. Lord's Prayer in, 40. runes, table of, 74. Apostrophe, how used, 52. Applegath and Cowper, improvers of the cylinder press, 214. Apprentice, how to instruct an, 104. must be punctual, obedient, ana courteous, 105. qualifications required in an, 103. ridiculous practices to be avoided by, 104. Apprentices, advice to, 119, 120. Arithmetical figures, when introduced, 59. Article, the indefinite, rule for using, 277. Ascending letters, 48. Asterisk, use of, 55. Astronomical signs, 62, 63. Authors, detention of proofs by, 184. hints to, 192, 193. impatience of, 184. Backing long or short pages, 115. Baine, John, sets up a type-foundry in Philadelphia, 17. Bay Psalm-Book first book printed at Cambridge, 14. Bearers on hand-presses, how prepared, 230, 256, 257. Bed-and-platen jobber, cut of Hoe's, 221. power-press, cut of, 213. invented ])y Isaac Adams, 212. Bewcastle cross, Runic inscription on, 75. Bible, first, printed at Mentz in 1450, 12. German, printed in Germantown, 17. printed in Iceland in 1584, 13. quarto, in standing type, 23. Bill of type, 46. Binny, Archibald, first successful founder in Philadelphia, 17. improver of the type-mould, 17, 30. Blaeu, Willem Jansen, early inventor of a press, 210. Blankets for wood-cut printing, 260. India-rubber, 243, 245. thick paper, 246. 327 328 INDEX. Blankets, Welsh flannel, 245. •■ when to be used, 228. Blanking, remarks concerning, 114. Bleaching powders deleterious, 255. Blue ink, how to make, 264, 266. Bodkin, how to use the, 191, 192. Books, cheapening of, due to steam- presses, 216. early, printed in Gothic charac- ters, 14. first, printed on one side of the leaf only, 10. Borders, 69. Boston Gazette, second newspaper pub- lished in America, 15. News- Letter, first newspaper published in America, 15. Boulogne, press introduced in 1462, 13. Bourgeois, specimen of, 43. Boxwood liable to warp, 261. Braces, use of, 64. Bracket, how used, 54. Bradford, William, first printer in the Middle Colonies, 15. Brass rules, remarks concerning, 69. Break-lines improperly driven over, 114. should never begin a page, 115. Brevier, specimen of, 43. Brilliant, smallest type in America, 41. specimen of, 4;3. British founders reject American cast- ing-machines, 20. Bronstrup press, represented, 311. Bronze printing, how executed, 263. Brown ink, how to produce, 266. Bruce, David and George, founders in New York, 19. Bruce, Jr., David, type-casting machine invented by, 20. Bullock, William, printing machine in- vented by, 219. Bundle of paper described, 272. Cabinet of cases, illustrated, 209. Cambridge, first press in North Ame- rica at, 14. Cancelled figures, 59. Capital, good character is, 120. Capital letters, 47, 48. Card-printing, directions for, 262. Carey, Mathew, 23. Cases, American plan of Roman, 106, 107. proposed improvement on, 108. German, 82, 83. Greek, 88, 89. Hebrew, 95-97. labour-saving rule, 71. music, 100-102. number of, to a fount, 110. Saxon, 78, 79. Caslon, William, 16. Cassie quires, why so called, 272. Casting off copy, methods of, 199 202. Catch-words first used at Venice, 14. Catch-words in titles, how to be set, 116. Caxton, William, introduces printing into England, 13. Chalcography, inventor of, 28. Chromo-lithography, 26. Cicero, French and German name for Pica, 42. Circular quadrates, 67-69. Clicker, or maker-up, duties of, 202-204. Clymer, George, inventor of the Colum- bian press, 211. Colon, use of, 50. Colour, unifoMuity in, 234, 257. Coloured inks, how to make, 264, 265. printing, instructions for, 263-265. Colours, contrast of, 266. how to multiply, 266. how to use dry, 265. Columbian press, illustrated, 211. introduced into England, 212. Combination borders, 69. Comma, use of, 50. Commercial post paper, size of, 275. signs, 60. Companionships, how managed, 204-208. Composing, directions for, 111, 112. how to avoid errors in, 112. position in, 109. Composition rollers, to make, 223-225. how to wash, 224. melting-kettle for, 223. Compositors, differences in, 196. ironical rules for, 118, 119. rules to be observed by, 208, 209. Compound words, 53. Contents, rules for, 117. Continuous sheet, printing from a, 219. Contrast of colours, 266. Conversation improper in a printing- office, 189, 190. Copy, casting off, 199-20?. to be carefully prepared, 183. takes of, should l)e small, 197. Copyright, form of notice of, 293. • — how renewed, 293. how to secure a, 293. persons entitled to, 292. subjects of, 292. term of. 293. Cork bearers, 2.30. Corpus, German name for Long Primer, 43. Correcting in the metal, 189-193. directions for, 191, 192. rules for, in a companionship, 206. Coster, Laurentius, discoverer of prints ing, 9-12. prints from wooden type, 10. Counting out sheets, 275. Courtesy, importance of, 105. Creases and wrinkles in paper, how to remove, 234. Cross-bar, how to avoid spiinging, 127. Crown paper, size of, 275. INDEX. 329 Cut-in notes, how adjusted, 113, 114. Cuts, how to make ready, 258-262. Cylinder ^ress, invention of the, 214. ■ presses, making ready on, 244- 253. Dagger, or obelisk, use of, 55. Dash, use of, 51. Dates, method of, during the French Republic, 58. Dayo, John, Anglo-Saxon types first cut by, 40. Daye, Stephen, first printer in North America, 14. Dedications, how displayed, 116. position of, 116. Degener's job-presses, 220. Delicate impression, how to produce, 260. Demy paper, size of, 275. Derivation of English words, 283-285. Descending letters, 48. Diamond type, specimen of, 43. Diphthongs, Greek, 85. Distributing, directions for, 110. how to wash matter for, 110. pernicious effects from heating type for. 111. proper times for, 111. Dividing words, rules for, 52-54. Double cylinder printing machine, cut of, 215. imperial paper, size of, 275. letters, 48. medium paper, size of, 275. super-royal paper, size of, 275. Drawer of an Adams press, material for covering, 243. Drawing paper, how to be wet, 227. Dry colours, how to use, 265, 266. Duck's-bill, to prevent paper from slip- ping on the tympan, 257. Duodecimo, or twelves, scheme for im- posing sheet of, 144. the same, without cutting, 145. the same, two signatures, 146. half-sheet, 147. the same, without cutting, 147. the same, from the centre, 148. sheet of, from the centre, 149. the same, long way, 150, 151. one-third of a sheet, 150, 151. two half-sheets, together, 152. half-sheet, two signatures. 153. Durandi Rationale, first book printed with cast metal type, 12. Earl Stanhope's printing-press, 211. Earliest printing-press, 210. Eighteens, scheme for imposing half- sheet of, 145. the same, with two blanks, 145. sheet of, folded together, 146, 147. ■ the same, with one signature, 146, 147. Eighteen!!, scheme for imposing sheet of, with two signatures, 158, 159. the same, with three signatures, 158, 159. half-sheet of, without transposi- tion, 160. Electro-stereotj'ping, 24, 34. Electrotyping, method of, 24. Emerald green, 266. Enamelled card, to be printed dry, 262. English type, specimen of, 42. Engraver's proof useful to a pressman, 262. Engravings, copper, 28. how to print,. 259, 260. wood, 27. Epitaph, printer's, 191. Errata, list of, where placed, 117. Errors inevitable, 117. made in correcting a proof, 182. Even impressions on a hand-press, how to o])tain, 255-258. Exclamation, sign of, 51. Explanation of proof-reading marks, 188, 189. Explanations of technical terms, 294- 298. Faust, John, partner of Gutenberg, 10-12. Figures, arithmetical, 59. old-style, 59. scratched or cancelled. 59. Filling the standing press, 274, 275. Fine hand-presswork, remarks concern- ing, 253-258. Fine printing, character of ink required for, 254, 255. paper suitable for, 228. why difficult in the United States, 255. Finiguerra, Thomas, discoverer of chal- cography, 28. Firefly press, Gordon's, 220. Flat cap paper, size of, 275. Flowers and Ixjrders, remarks on. 69. Fly on cylinder presses, how to be set, 253. ^ Folio, imposing single sheet of, 129. two sheets quired, 130, 131. Folio paper, size of, 275. Foolscap paper, dimensions of, 275. Follow copy, the compositor's rule, 183. Foreign words and phrases, translated. 312-326. Form, how to make ready for press, 229-231. of Warehouse Book, 271. Forms, directions for locking up, 127,128 how to impose, 121, 122. how to Avash, 235, 236. precautions in unlocking, 190 Foreman, duties and qualifications of 196-209. 28* 330 INDEX. Forties, scheme for imposing lialf-sheet of, 170. Forty-eights, scheme for imposing quar- ter-sheet of, with two signatures, 171. « the same, without cutting, 172. half-sheet of, 171. the same, three signatures, 172. quarter-sheet of, 173. Foul proof a grieA'ous fault, 189. Founders, English, ancient regulations concerning, 16. Fount of letter, complete, described, 47. Founts, irregularities of, 47. Full point, use of, 50. Furniture, how to make up, 124. Fractions, 59. Franklin, Benjamin, attempts type- founding, 17. James, establishes the New Eng- land Courant, 15. Franklin presses, Gordon's, 220. cut of, 221. Friars, how to obviate, 234. Frisket, directions for preparing, 229. catch of, how to place, 230. Gaillarde, French term for Bourgeois type, 43. Gallows, how to be placed, 230. Game of Chess, first book printed in England by Caxton, 13. Ged, William, inventor of stereotvping, 21. Geinsfleisch, servant of Laurentius, ab- sconds and settles at Mentz, 11. Geometrical signs, 60-62. German alphabet, 80. plan of cases for, 82, 83. similar letters elucidated, 80, 81. Runic alphabet, 73, 74. Germantow^n, first quarto Bible printed at, 16. foundry at, 16. Giving out book paper to wet, 272. paper for jobs, 272, 273. Glover, Jesse, introduces printing into Cambridge, Mass., 14, Gold preparation, how to use, 266. printing, how practised, 262, 263. size for gold printing, 262. Good habits inculcated, 103, 105, 119, 120. Good presswoi-k. conditions for securing, 253. Gordon's job-presses, 220, 221. Gothic characters, early books printed ia, 14. Gradation of types, 44. Grant Thorburn, benevolence of, 214. Great Primer, specimen of, 42. Greek accents and aspirates, 85-87. alphabetical table of, 84. ■ letters, numerical value of, 56,84. ligatures now discardQd, 84. numeral letters, table of, 56. Greek, plan of cases for, 88, 89. rules for composing, 87. types, 74. Green ink, how to make, 266. Gros Remain, French title for Great Primer, 42. Guillemet's quotation marks, 50. Gutenberg, 11. Gutter-sticks, directions for cutting, 128. Gypsum in paper, effects of, 255. Haerlem, the birthplace of printing, 9. Hand-mould improved by Binny, 17. old, still used in Britain, 20. Hand-press, how to prepare impression on, 255-258. how to overlay on, 256. Hand-press, bearers used on, 256, 257. Hand-presswork, fine, how to produce, 253-258. Handwriting, erroneous notion con- cerning, 202. Hanging pages, how to rectify, 190. up paper to dry, 273. Hansard's receipt for making rollers, 224, 225. Hard roller best for fine work, 246. Head-lines, how displayed, 113. Heap of paper, how to treat, 230. Heated type, pernicious effects from distributing, 111. Hebrew accents, 92-94. alphabetical table of, 90. letters, numerical value of, 90. letters of similar appearance, 91. masoretic points or vowels, 92. method of composing, 91. plan of cases with points, 96, 97. lower case without points, 95. scheme for imposing 8vo sheet of, 140, 141. spacing letters, 91. Hinderanfies to fine printing in Ame- rica, 255. Hints honoured in the breach, 118. Hoe & Co.'s cylinder presses, 214-219. Hoe, Richard M., inventor of type-ro- A'olving printing machine, 216.'^ Hoe, Robert, account of, 214-216. Hollow quadrates, use of, 66. Horn-Book, illustration of, 8. Hurried work, how to expedite, 202. Hyphen, how employed, 52. not used by ancient printers, 13. Imperial and half paper, size of, 275. paper, dimensions of, 275. Imposing forms, directions for, 121, 122. Imposing in companionships, rules for, 206, 207. memoranda concerning, 128. abstract tit] e-deeds, 129. Folio, single sheet, 129. two sheets, quired, 130, 131. INDEX, 331 Imposing, scheme for, Quarto, com- . mon, sheet of, 132, 133. for music-books, 132, 133. two half sheets, together, 134, 135. half-sheet, broad w^ay, 134, 135. Octavo, sheet of, 136, 137. the broad way, 136, 137. half-sheet, 138. two half-sheets, together, 138, 139. two quarters, together, 138, 139. sheet, mixed, 140, 141. ^ — Octavo, sheet of Hebrew, 140, 141. sheet, from the centre, 142, 143. half-sheet, from the centre, 142. two quarters, from the centre, 143. Duodecimo, or 12mo, sheet, 144. the same, without cutting, 145. the same, two signatures, 146. half-sheet, 147. the same, without cutting, 147. the same, from the centre, 148. sheet of, from the centre, 149. the same, long waj', 150, 151. one-third of a sheet, 150, 151. two half-sheets, together, 152. half-sheet, two signatures, 153. Sixteens, half-sheet of, 153. sheet of, 154. Eighteens, half-sheet of, 155. the same, with two blanks, 155. sheet of, folded together, 156, 157. sheet of, one signature, 156, 157. the same, two signatures, 158, 159. sheet, three signatures, 158, 159. half-sheet of, without transposi- tion, 160. Twenties, half-sheet of, with two signatures, 160. sheet of, 161. Twenty-Fours, half-sheet of, 162. sheet of, 1625.163. half-sheet of, sixteens way, 163. half-sheet of long, 164. half-sheet, two signatures, 164. TiiiRTY-Twos, half-sheet of, 165. sheet of, 166, 167. the same, two signatures, 166, 167. half-sheet, two signatures, 168. half-sheet of, mixed, 168. Thirty-Sixes, half-sheet of, 169. the same, without cutting, 169. the same, two signatures, 170. Forties, half-sheet of, 170. Forty-Eights, quarter-sheet of, with two signatures, 171. the same, without cutting, 172. half-sheet of, 171. the same, three signatures, 172. Sixty-Fours, quarter-sheet, 174. the same, two signatures, 173. the same, mixed, 174. half-sheet of, 175. Seventy-Twos, half-sheet of, 176. Ninety-Sixes, half-sheet of, 177. Imposing, scheme for. One Hundreb and Twenty-Eights, half-sheet, 178. Impression on cylinder presses, how to regulate, 248-253. Indenting paragraphs, rule for, 114. Index, directions for preparing copy of, 115. rule for setting, 115. where placed, 115. India paper suitable for overlays, 259. India-rubber cloth, good qualities of, 243, 245. Ink-block, how to be placed, 223. Ink, coloured, 264, 265. requires a hard roller, 246. for cylinder presses, 246. for fine work, indispensable qua- lities of, 254, 255. how to remove surplus from the roller, 233. how to produce amber, 266. blue, 264-266. brown, 266. green, 266. lilac, 266. pink, 265. red, 264, 265. scarlet, 265. Ink-fountain, how to manage, 247. Interleaving necessary, in fine press- work, 257. Interrogation, sign of, 51. Ironical rules for compositors, 118, 119. Italic letter, invention of, 39. abuse of, 40. Job presses, American, uumi! i)a> 20. Type-founding a distinct calling in the seventeenth century, 16. early, in New York, 17. early, in Philadelphia, 17. in America, 16. in Europe, 15. Type-foundries in the United States, 20. Type-foundry, first American, at Ger- mantown, Pennsylvania, 16. walk over, 28-37. Type-metal, 30. Type-revolving printing machine, Hoe's, 216-219. cuts of, 217. Types, bill of, 46. Black or Old English letter, 38, 40. directions for choosing, 39. fount of, 47. gradations of, 44. Italic, invention of, 39. names and sizes of, 41-43. prices of, since 1800, 21. process of manufacturing, 29-33. proportions of, 44, 45. Roman, invention of, 38. specimens of, 42, 43. Typographic Advertiser, 17. Typographical errors, a blemish, 179. peculiarities, ancient, 13. TJNDERLAYiNa old Stereotype plates, 250. Underlays, when proper on cylinder presses, 249, 250. Uniformity in colours, how to secure, 234. in ipacing essential, 112. Unlocking forms, precautions in, 190. Upper-case sorts, 48. Van der Mey's method of stereotyping, 21. Variations from copy chargeable, 192. Varnish, the common menstruum for colours, 264. Vignettes, how to prepare on the press "Warehouse Book, form of, 271. department, 271-275. Warehouseman, duties of, 271. Warping of a cut, how to cure, 261. how to prevent, 261. Washing forms, directions for, 235. Washington press, how to set up, 222 invented by Samuel Rust, 212 illustrated, 212. 336 INDEX. . Watts, John, 19. "Wells's job pro sses, 220. W-ot paper, how to be protected over- night, 235. Wetting paper, directions for, 226-228. drawing and plate paper, 227. Wetting, rules for giving out paper for, 272, 273. Wetting-trough, how to be made, 226. White, Elihu, founder in New York, 18. White pages, how to be treated, 230. Wood-cuts, how to prepare on the press, 258-262. Wood-cuts, how to wash, 261. how to take proof of, 261, 262. Wood type, how to be cared for, 270. Woollen blankets, needless when new type is used, 228, 245. Words and phrases, foreign, 312-326. Working in pocket unsatisfactory, 203. Works, how to manage hurried, 202. Wrinkles in paper, how to remove, 234. Yellow ink, how to produce, 265. Zodiacal signs, 62. ET FACTA EST LUX. ELECTROTTPED BY L. JOHNSON ft CO. PHILADELPHIA. PRINTSD BY JAMES B. R0DGER8. ETURN O LIBRARY SCHOOL LIBRARY 2 South Hall 642-225; DAN PERIOD 1 2 3 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS - _ DUE AS STAMPED BELOW DtU 7 i"f" ^07 1973 SEP 17 1982 MAR 18 1983 ^^fi 1 1 1983 MAY 1 1 1984 DRM NO. DD 18, 45m 6'76 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERK! BERKELEY, CA 94720 t^ 1 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY