i — iB IW l Btllfcwaiu ii ili il i i l Wil li i iw i MiilMOT t ril l li' i i ii r i W i n i Wr i WW * # « • i^tjt « * # * ^o ••■■■«■* HaMM«AMHHMa*Mti ib DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. preceding, and the following curve, either by following Study of Details. Fig. II. — Objects in Outline and in Detail. the same direction, as the continuous joint (a), or break THEORY. 17 ing and crossing it in a new direction, as the contrasted joint (b), Fig. 10. In continuous joints each curve must preserve unity of direction and inflection, in respect to the adjacent curve, without attention to intervening straight plans, such as slips and listels; whilst in contrasted Angular and Disagreeable Shades. joints care should be exercised to make each crossing as regular as possible. Thus disconnected and broken outlines will be avoided. General outline must be constructed exactly as the Fig- x 3- — Angular and Disagreeable Shapes. drawing of a figure, where preliminary lines are first put in before blocking out the features, Fig. n. The out- line should be firm and characteristic, without hardness, rigidity, or unduly straight lines, resulting in angular and disagreeable shapes, Figs. 12 and 13; nor should soft, c A r r\i? A MANUAL OF DECORATIVE COMPOSITION A MANUAL OF DECORATIVE COMPOSITION FOR DESIGNERS, DECORATORS, ARCHITECTS, AND INDUSTRIAL ARTISTS HENRI MAYEUX ARCHITECT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT AND PROFESSOR OF DECORATIVE AP." IN THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS OF PARIS Translated by J. GONINO AND Ellustnitcb tm ncarlj %\\xn ^uiiuvcb (Engnrtrings LONDON S. VIRTUE AND CO., Limited • "ART JOURNAL" OFFICE, IVY LANE 1 889 LONDON : •ttlKTKD BV J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, A/K/s-/o Mz/z PREFACE. The important questions raised by a subject so vast as that implied under the title of Decorative Composition, would require a volume of far greater bulk as well as a considerable number of coloured plates. Our scope is more modest and purely practical ; we have only aimed at preparing a manual which should serve as a guide to industrial artists, designers, sculptors, and decorators, including young architects, in which they will find, summed up as clearly as possible, knowledge which only comes of experience, and which would have cost them long and tedious research to obtain. Hence the charm of style which attaches to a work aesthetically and exhaustively treated must not be looked for here, and, for obvious reasons, neither should highly finished drawings. On the other hand, we have been careful to make the book as complete as the narrow limits imposed upon us would permit, and have spared neither time nor trouble in seeking information from reliable sources and 992 Vi PREFACE. acknowledged authorities. We owe a debt of gratitude to many of our predecessors for the help afforded us in their books. In conclusion we ask for the indulgence of the reader ; for although our labour has been one of love, we are conscious of our shortcomings, of errors of omission and commission difficult to avoid in a volume which, whilst aiming at a completeness of its own, is but a stepping-stone to a summary of a larger work. CONTENTS. PAGE Preface v INTRODUCTION. I. Decorative Art Composition . I II. Representation by Means of Drawing .... 5 PART L— THEORY. CHAPTER I. Form . . . .11 I. Solids . . 12 II. Planes -25 III. Stability 27 CHAPTER II. Decoration and Sources of Ornament 33 I. Natural Decoration The First Method 34 The Second Method .... $7 The Third Method 39 II. Natural Forms 43 Vlll CONTENTS. III. Invented Forms IV. Geometrical Forms V. Expression in Decoration PAGE 58 61 62 CHAPTER III. Ornamentation applied to Form . I. Symmetry ..... The Principle of Simplicity . II. Division of Surfaces III. Directing Influence IV. Optical Illusions V. Straight and Curved Lines . VI. Size and Proportion in Decoration VII. Variation and Repetition VIII. Relation of Designs to Each Other IX. Aspect of Ornament . X. Principles Common to Ornament 66 66 7i 74 80 92 97 101 118 137 147 152 CHAPTER IV furniiure Other Points Common to Ornament 163 16" PART II.— PRACTICE. MATERIALS USED IN DECORATION. I. Stone, Marble, Granite, and Porphyry II. Wood, Ebony, and Ivory III. Bronze, Tin, and Electro Bronze . JY. Iron V. Br.iss, Copper, Lea 1, and Zinc 171 [ 7 6 184 192 199 CONTENTS. IX 205 217 225 232 237 243 250 SECTION VI. Gold and Silver ...... VII. Metal Engraving, Stone Engraving, Nielling, Damas cening, and Sgrafitto ..... VIII. Marquetry and Inlaid Work, Mosaic, and Coloured Plaster IX. Enamels ........ X. Marble Mosaic and Enamelled Mosaic XI. Blown, Cut, Engraved, and Enamelled Glass . XII. Stained, Painted, and Engraved Glass XIII. Stucco, Plaster, Plastered Canvas, Imitation Stone Imitation Wood, and Lacquered Work XIV. Pottery made on the Wheel, Moulded and Stamped Terra-Cotta, Ornamented Pottery, Kaolin, Stone- ware, and Monumental Teira-Cotta . . . 255 XV. Coloured Terra-Cotta, Painted Pottery, Porcelain and Lava, Architectonic Terra-Cotta, and Glazed Tiles 263 XVI. Wrought, Stamped, and Cut Leather, Binding Leather, Cloth, Wafled Paper, and Saddlery . 274 XVII. Coloured Papers, Coloured Calicoes, and Printed Fabrics . . . . . I . . 279 XVIII. Tapestry Hangings, Furnituie Covers, Rugs, and Worsted 282 XIX. Textiles, Cashmeie Shawls, English and French Shawls, Embroidery, and Lace Trimmings . . 292 XX. Decorative Painting, Monochromes, Curtains, Blinds, and Illuminated and Ornamental Writing . . 303 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION INTRODUCTION. I. — Decorative Art Composition. Decorative, or as it is sometimes called, ornamental art, is too often considered as occupying an inferior posi- tion in the hierarchy of the Fine Arts; as having nothing in common with them, except in outward ap- pearance. This is, however, a mistake which it is neces- sary to correct, since the word decorative is applicable to all the arts, when they are used to satisfy certain con- ditions of usefulness with reference to surroundings or position. There is little difficulty in classifying arts applied to industry or industrial arts,* such as working in bronze, wood, iron, ceramics, enamels, mosaic, tapestry, glass, etc., for decorative or architectural purposes, the latter being readily recognised as one of its finest and noblest * The expression industrial arts has been criticised on the plea that art is debased when applied to industrial ends, and has been replaced by art industries, which is in no way more logical. We shall not enter into a mere question of -words ; what is important is, that, whichever expression is used, it be understood. B 2 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. expressions; but confusion is apt to exist when we approach painting and sculpture, no matter how deco- rative their chief object may be. Do not the frescoes which cover our walls, the pier-glasses, and doors, as well as the bas-reliefs, medallions, busts, and statues, associated with a fine architectural building, and forming part of it, all belong to decorative art? This, their essential characteristic, is not met with in works of art conceived without reference to their surroundings, and consequently susceptible of being displaced at will. There are works, however, which have been, by com- mon consent, called decorative, although they were not executed with a view to any definite destination; but in this case they are possessed of special qualities, and, if necessary, they may be introduced in general decoration j whilst we see works conceived in view of a particular site wanting in such qualities, and thus unfitted for the part assigned to them. The main object, therefore, in decorative composition is the study of those qualities whereby balance between the various parts of a work, whether of form or decoration, is secured, and a whole, attractive in itself and in harmony with its surroundings, is obtained. But before entering into these complex questions we wish to note one or two points : First, with regard to industrial products, we would observe, although they have no bearing upon art, that the practical use for which they are intended should be well kept in view. Are we not right, for instance, to demand that the mouth of a vessel shall allow of water being poured easily, that the handles shall be con- INTRODUCTION. 3 venient ; and the various openings of a piece of furniture disposed with regard to their practical use ? Exceptions will naturally be made of objects fashioned solely to please the eye, with no reference to domestic uses, such as decorative plates and ornamental metal-work. Even practical usefulness, to be complete, should be accom- panied by a certain degree of beauty, so as to give Fig. I. — Artistic and Inartistic Work. to its embodiment something more than mere mechani- cal value. There is, unfortunately, a prevalent idea abroad that the beautiful is attained by complicated forms overloaded with elaborate ornamentation. That this is an error will be made apparent to the most inexperienced eye by the following veiy simple example. Fig. 1 represents two vessels of the same height, made 4 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. of the same clay, and we may assume that the same care was bestowed upon the execution of each. They are each furnished with two handles, and decorated with an equal number of brown stripes painted on the outer surface ; a is the work of a simple potter, without artistic education, whilst b is the work of one of those Greek workmen, whose refined taste is too well known to need comment. There is no one but will feel the superiority of vase b over its companion a ; the purity of outline, the finish of the handles, the division of the stripes, at once establish a wide difference in the artistic value of the two pieces. It will be seen from this example that a knowledge of the laws both oiform and of decoration will raise the standard of any work, from the lowest grade of industry to the highest standard of art. Clearness is another quality which it is no less important to bear in mind, and which will be dealt with in our chapter on decorative composi- tion. The best guide for the attainment of clearness is common sense. In a composition, for instance, it will not be satisfied unless all the component parts, however complicated, can be viewed at a glance, and without effort even at some distance. An undecided method, profuseness of detail, want of truth in the part assigned to the subject of the work, i.e. all the defects most opposed to distinctness (and, alas ! too frequently seen in, current composition), cannot be too severely or too often stigmatized, if it is wished to raise the standard of our art industries from the mere routine which seems to have taken permanent root in our studios. INTRODUCTION. 5 II. — Representation by Means of Drawing. Before we approach the discussion of the laws of decora- tive composition we will pass in review the various ways of faithfully representing, by transcription, the forms or decorative subjects which imagination has conceived. To work in relief, is, doubtless, the most satisfactory treatment for massive objects; but not every artist can model, and if he could, there are scores of composi- tions, even on a reduced scale, which it would be difficult to express by such a method. It is necessary, therefore, for the student to master every appearance of form, and to train himself to allow for height, breadth, and thickness; not to be satisfied with height and breadth only, which any drawing will express, but to note especially thickness, the fictitious representation of which is not easily detected. Sculptors accustomed to clay or wax modelling always bear in mind the third dimension ; thus their drawings, albeit frequently unskilful, are possessed of features peculiarly valuable to artists. This important quality is not always traceable in the work of furniture, bronze, and ceramic designers, and their carelessness often causes producers, in their perplexity, to interpret incomplete drawings after their own light, or to resort to alterations and expedients which debase and but faintly recall the original composition. Objects are represented by projection or perspective. Projection consists in determining on a plane surface the perpendiculars let down on each side of the object to be represented. This conventional view is the only one 6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. which faithfully reproduces the natural or reduced size of forms, whilst preserving their proportions and positions. The example we give is an inlaid casket with drawers Fig. 2. — Coffer viewed in Projection. and handles, seen under various aspects by means of projection, Fig. 2. When projection is straight or vertical, and parallel to the main side, it is called side elevation, a. When the side is shown, it is called lateral or flank b ; if INTRODUCTION. 7 the object is seen obliquely, it is an oblique projection ; if the interior of the object is to be shown in the drawing, we are supposed to indicate this by one or several vertical sections or projections, c. These cuts or sections are longitudinal when they run from top to bottom, or trans- verse when from side to side. If it is the top which is shown- in projection, allowing a view of the interior, with __ bon bon Fig. 3. — Coffer viewed in Perspective. or without horizontal cut, such a projection is. termed plan or ground plan. Perspective is the science by which objects are repre- sented according to their appearance, not according to their actual shape and relative position. It is a natural view, which, if it does not give us the exact shape, will enable us to form a better and more general idea of 8 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. objects as they appear to us from a certain standpoint, seen in Fig. 3. The one stroke drawing, which found great favour in the first half of this century, is a very defective process of representation ; for a single outline, however firm and broad is inadequate to indicate bodies in relief. Forms with curved plans, rounded surfaces, and octagonals, when shown in projection, require additional modelling, if it is wished to avoid dis- agreeable surprises in the results. Forms with square or rectangular plans, associated with curved plans, necessitate an oblique ox flank perspec- tive, because of the different impression received accord- ing as a straight or oblique view of the object is obtained, Fig. 4.* On the other hand, forms with triangular plan, as tripods, for instance, when seen on a certain side, show a kind of inclination, which the student must distrust and allow for, since the regular projections, both at the angle or front, have no trace of such inclination. Another bad habit of frequent occurrence with designers and architects, is to sketch fragments only of their drawings to save time and trouble j whether to show two different surfaces united on the same axis, or to avoid the weari- some rendering of a long symmetrical repetition. Let the student remember that time spent in making a com- plete drawing is time well spent j for thus an accurate and general idea of the object is obtained. No one, not * Cabinet-makers, architects, and workers in bronze are fully aware of the effect of execution of similar forms as compared with their designs. INTRODUCTION. even the most skilled artist, is able to inform himself of the whole from a fraction only. Hence the whole com- position, if but a sketch, should first be carefully outlined, and half roses, mutilated pieces of furniture, bits of fron- Fig. 4.— Object viewed in Oblique and Flank Perspective. tals and ceilings, peremptorily banished from the sketch- book and album. It is true, we see in numbers of ancient collections sets of mutilated drawings, where regard for economy and want of space excuse, to a certain extent, such a mode of procedure, albeit at the cost of part of io DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. the interest and just apprehension of the objects them- selves. What has been said in respect to careful drawing equally applies to compositions dependent on colour for their general effect, where it is essential to notify, if not complete colouring, at least the relative value of the tints. When the student is thus possessed of the requisite materials for a definite composition, which close observa- tion and patient training will have obtained for him, he can confidently proceed to work without fear of failure. Fig. $.—A delicate and cle.uiy -defined Decorative Desig, PART I. — THEORY. CHAPTER I. FORM. In the subject under consideration, form is the ensemble of appearing surfaces which define objects of art. These are composed of forms used as grounds or centres, to which painted or relief decoration is applied. Decora- tion and form are often conceived simultaneously, but we will take up each in turn, so as to establish more clearly the principles of composition. It may be laid down as an axiom in decorative art, that form must be perfect in itself and should not resort to applied decoration, in order to conceal defects and incompleteness. The disregard of this principle explains the reserve so long entertained respecting industrial arts, where a tasteful decoration is often applied to forms ill- constructed or insufficiently studied. Theoretically, we will distinguish forms of three appa- rent dimensions (height, breadth, and thickness), from those of two dimensions (height and breadth), in which thickness is not particularly concerned. Starting with forms of three dimensions applied to objects of art, such as vases turned on the wheel with circular plans and 12 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. their developments,* we shall pass through every variety ot furniture down to architectural subjects, ending with forms of two dimensions, represented by decorative panels, screens, frames, borders, plates, fans, and the like. Section I. — Solids. Good outline and good proportion are essential condi- tions in objects of art. Proportion regulates the various elements of form, and form itself. The first rule to be observed in order to get good pro- Fig. 6. — Objects possessing Dominant Shape. portion, is to provide that one of the elements of form be distinctly doi?iinant, so that the eye, instead of being per- plexed, as to the relative proportion assigned to the various elements of the work, will instinctively rest on the dominant element ; thus much valuable time is saved, resulting in a simpler and more distinct impression.! It * The vase, because of its typical shape and consequent import- ance in decorative art, will frequently occur as an illustration. t Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Mediaeval architecture, and in a less degree, Italian Renaissance, present numerous examples of this principle, too often neglected by French artists of the same period. THEOR Y. 13 is needless to say that Fig. 6 shows a set of objects in which a particular shape is dominant. Consequently, when projections, shapes, and outlines, are dissimilar, equalities of height should not be given to the various Fig. 7. — Shapes of False Equility. parts of form, as in Fig. 7, where all the objects are defective, because apparent equality is assigned to ele- ments which do not demand it. For the same reason equality of projection should not be associated with dis- , A -*-- Fig. 8. — Shapes of Equal Projection. similar outlines. But if the artist had intended to portray symmetrical repetition by means of portions of form iden- tical in outline, then, whatever their position, rigorous equality of height or projection should be allowed to each of the repeated elements. Fig. 8. In other words, dif- 14 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. ference or parity of outlines should accompany parity of heights and projections, and the choice once made should afterwards be unhesitatingly and forcibly affirmed. These principles are equally applicable to secondary parts such Good. Good. Bad. Pedestal Dominant. Good. Bad. Good Bad. Resemblance and Ealse Equality. Resemblance and False Equality. Fig. 9. — Examples of Proportion. as supports, pedestals, small columns, and the like, which should follow the general outline and be proportioned to the objects of art with which they are to be definitively associated, Fig. 9. Outline is the obligatory complement THEORY. >5 of all proportion ; it endows form with its final touch of grace or characteristic impress, whilst its importance in architecture and industrial arts is too well known to require more than simple mention. Fig. 10. — Outlines of Mouldings. a. Continuous Joinings. b. Contrasted Joinings. There are two different kinds of outlines : general out- line, also called shape, and detailed outlines or mouldings. In principle, each curve of an outline joins on to the 1 6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. preceding, and the following curve, either by following Study of Details. Fig. II. — Objects in Outline and in Detail. the same direction, as the continuous joint (a), or break THEORY. 17 ing and crossing it in a new direction, as the contrasted joint (b), Fig. 10. In continuous joints each curve must preserve unity of direction and inflection, in respect to the adjacent curve, without attention to intervening straight plans, such as slips and listels; whilst in contrasted Angular and Disagreeable Shades. joints care should be exercised to make each crossing as regular as possible. Thus disconnected and broken outlines will be avoided. General outline must be constructed exactly as the Fig. 13. — Angular and Disagreeable Shapes. drawing of a figure, where preliminary lines are first put in before blocking out the features, Fig. 11. The out- line should be firm and characteristic, without hardness, rigidity, or unduly straight lines, resulting in angular and disagreeable shapes, Figs. 12 and 13; nor should soft, c iS DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. weak outlines, chiefly composed of curves devoid of rectilinear joints, be cultivated, Fig. 14. These laws of profile or outline govern in an equal degree all acces- sories and definitive parts of an object of art, such as Fig. 14. — Weak Outlines. handles, supports, terminals, and mouldings, in which search after distinct form is essential, Fig. 15. Mouldings, applied on form, have an endless variety of outlines, differentiated by names which have become &*£' r 5- — Proper Outline applied to Details. classical. They are divided into two classes : mouldings having open profiles, i.e. projected and seen in their com- plete development, and mouldings with receding profiles (Fig. 16), exhibiting parts unseen in projection, the effect THEORY. 19 of which, null in a drawing, is very apparent in reality, ._ J Fig. 16. — Mouldings. and must be carefully established to prevent disappoint- ment in the result, Fig. 17. frig. 17. — Drawing compared with Work viewed in Projection. But what is the relation to be observed between mould- Good. Bad. Good. Bad. 1 W^lI Fig, 18. — Contrast of Artistic and Inartistic Outlines. ings and form ? At the outset, and in accordance with 20 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. the rule laid down a little earlier, the student must provide that some forms, whether of height or projection, shall prevail; consequently, dissimilar outlines should not be made to look similar, if it is wished to avoid a common Y Fig. 19.— Axial Mouldings. and disagreeable aspect, Fig. 18. If, on the contrary, the artist, following an axis, had sought to repeat sym- metrically one or several mouldings, each of them should be identical with the corresponding mouldings, Fig. 19. Fig. 20. — Undecided Outlines. What has been said with regard to shape and outline applies equally to settings, borders, frames, and the like, in which mouldings with insufficient relief or undecided outlines must be rejected as ineffective, Fig. 20. THEOR Y. 21 Sharp and acute arcs should likewise be rejected, on account of their angularity and hardness of outline, and Fig. 21. — Acute Outlines. the care they necessitate in working and preserving the pieces, Fig. 21; small transition plans, such as fillets Fig. 22. — Gliding Surfaces Corrected. and arabesques, will effectually prevent both this, and also the mistake of tangent juxtapositions, which are apt 22 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. to create an impression of gliding surfaces, seen in vase a, corrected in vase b, Fig. 22. When simplicity of shape and uniform treatment are desired, a repetition of naked mould- ings, occurring at stated intervals, may be resorted to with excellent effect, Fig. 23. In conclusion, we advise the student to use the compasses as little as possible in tracing the curved portions of outlines, if he wishes to avoid showing up the joints in a very disagreeable way ; the hand under the guidance of an accurate eye and feeling will achieve graceful, delicate, or characteristic outlines, never attained by mechanical aids, Fig. 24. Exception may perhaps be Fig. 23.— Bare Moulding Repeated. Fig. 24.— Graceful Outlines. made for certain mouldings, such as beads, tores or gorges Fig, 25 _ Circular and Flowing Outlines. -4 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. with circular outlines, which by their disposition require to be joined on to given centres, Fig. 25. The best models for a thorough study of outlines Fig. 26. — Weak Outlines. and mouldings will be found in Greek and Roman architecture, in the Renaissance of all countries, in Oriental, and especially Corinthian, vases, which in Good. Pad. Good. Fig. 27; — Contrasted Exa?nples. grace, simplicity, and perfect shape, have never been surpassed. THEORY. Section II. — Planes. 25 A pleasing shape is essential in forms not dependent on thickness for their expression. The same laws which govern profile are applicable to shape, which also demands firmness and breadth in all its parts to produce character and effect. Although it may seem superfluous, we remind the student that squares should have all their sides of exactly the same dimension, and their angles Fig. 28. — Angles too Acute. right angles ; whilst the lengths and breadtJis of rectangles and ovals should be clearly differentiated, and circles should not be given more than one centre. Yet these very elementary principles are too often neglected by architects and industrial artists, and result in disagreeable, weak outlines, Fig. 26. Partial outlines, such as ancone angles, rounded cusps, festooned borders, oriental arches, scallops, etc., are subject to the same principles. But whilst discarding solids and hollows, some parts should be kept decidedly dominant, Fig. 27. 26 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Here the necessity is once more felt of systematic repetition in symmetrical shapes, ranged on the same axis, whatever their disposition may be, and also of the rejection of false symmetries, i.e. of identical shapes repeated, notwithstanding the absence of an axis. Again, unduly receding, sharp or protruding angles must not be cultivated, because to disagreeable, rigid outlines would be added difficulties of workmanship, and exaggerated Fig 29. — Sojt and Undulating Contours. delicacy, denoting not delicacy, but weakness of the worst kind, Fig 28. Undulating, soft shapes, made up of curves, are equally vicious, Fig. 29 ; whilst whittled edges, showing a mere confusion of disjointed outlines, should not be permitted. Examples of this may be observed in scores of time-piecas of Flemish and German Renaissance, notably those of Dieterlingen, Fig. 30. In a word, in shape as in proportion, perfect truthfulness THEOR Y. 27 must be the ruling principle, and once a style has been chosen, be it regular or irregular, it should be persisted in and applied without the slightest hesitation. Classic, Renaissance, and Arabic art show in their arches, frontels, brackets, escutcheons, tables, couches, and time-pieces the best models for imitation, the shapes of which are marked by great truthfulness and variety. Section III. — Stability. No form, however beautiful, can be perfect which is not Fig. 30. — Disjointed Outlines. possessed of that quality which not only secures objects from falling, but gives them also an appearance of stability ; hence an object that does not fulfil this con- dition, and completely reassures the eye, may have had conscientious mechanical skill bestowed upon it, but artistic in the strict and only true sense of the word it never can be called. Chairs you are afraid to sit down upon lest they should give way, tables and couches which look unsafe for want of strong supports, for all their delicate work, cannot be classed among objects of art. Fig. 31. — Proper Balance. THEOR Y. 29 Irregular forms mounted on narrow bases necessitate still greater care in the distribution of the masses, pro- portionate with the bases, to give them an air of stability. Such are many works of Caravaggio and Lepautre, those of the sixteenth century generally, and the Rocaille style j the ewers, coffee and tea-pots of all styles, where handles are made to balance the mouths or spouts, together with XVIIth Century. Indo-Persian. Fig. 32. — Proper Balance. mediaeval pieces, in which a horn is the primary element, Figs. 31 and 32. Some industrial artists thicken portions of their pieces to steady them ; but these are subtleties not very appa- rent to the uninitiated, and do not compensate for bad distribution of masses, while they cannot redeem works 30 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. so constructed, whatever their finish and technique, from being inferior art. Plain triangular objects, such as tripods, three-handled vases, three-figured plinths, and the like, demand, as a rule, a relief device on the portions facing the angles or Fig. ^.—Example of Good Equilibrium. sides, which, without establishing symmetry in every respect, shall nevertheless bring about some kind of counterpoise. Irregular pendent forms of two dimensions also require a similar equilibrium j such are those time-pieces of THEOR Y. 3i which the spirited decorations found so much favour in the seventeenth century, Fig. 33. The equilibrium of suspension, rather than that of station, is necessary for these forms, which may be supposed to hang by an invisible thread from a point above them, this point being in the prolongation of a vertical line drawn through the point of suspension, and dividing the surface into two parts of apparently equal weight. Hence escutcheon a, Fig. 34, will appear better Fig. 34. — Suspensory Equilibrium. ordered than b, albeit the equilibrium of both lions is the same. Essential in objects of domestic use, stability may be dispensed with in representations of the same objects decoratively figured in painting, bas-reliefs, earthenware, tapestry, marquetry or mosaic ; thus oriental and Renaissance compositions frequently show vases ornamented by foliated masses, with forms and supports so fragile and attenuated, that they are only saved from incongruity by their decorative character, Fig. 35. It will have been observed, that we have made no 32 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. mention of forms and subjects obtained by mathematical or geometric combinations, such as squares, diagonals, equilateral triangles, and the like, extensively used by fs Stiff : 1 1 Fig. 35. — Decorative Use of Forms. Egyptian, Greek, and Mediaeval architects in the treat- ment of their plastic works. We are of opinion that the student will do well to use such methods sparingly, sub- ordinating them to the main subject of the composition. CHAPTER II. DECORATION AND SOURCES OF ORNAMENT. Before we essay to apply decoration on form we will examine decoration per se, i.e. the innumerable assem- blage of subjects known under the generic term of orna- mentation, having for its object the embellishment of the object on which it is applied. If then, the end of orna- ment is to enhance the beauty of form, it is obvious that elaborate and complicated ornamentation which fails to do this must not be encouraged. Three Methods of Decoration. The multitudinous sources from which decoration borrows its inspiration are reducible to three, nature, geometry, and manufactured articles. But as the materials furnished by nature are susceptible of widely dissimilar modes of application, ranging from photography and the perfect imitation of nature, /to the most conventional interpretation, we will take them up successively, dividing them into three methods, starting with nature at one end, and conventionality at the other. 34 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Section I. — Natural Decoration. THE FIRST METHOD. The first method consists in a representation," pure and simple, of decorative material found in nature, or as the artist sincerely thinks he sees it. To nature he turns for all the component elements of a picture: such as modelling of forms, local colour, horizons, skies, land- scapes, and architectural backgrounds. But to this servile imitation of the original a decorative artist is care- ful to add arrangement, by giving prominence to the chief parts, proportioning the lines of outline and general grouping of the masses (too little attended to by painters and sculptors), whilst the colouring of painted subjects may be softened or sharpened, so as to obtain and affirm truthfulness of aspect with reference to the relative positions of the decoration and the spectator. Judicious choice and subtlety of arrangement, rather than exact imitation are the main features to be sought for in this class of subject, seen in the panel, Louis XIV., Fig. 36. As examples of this first method may be quoted mural and ceiling paintings, Renaissance frescoes from Giotto to modern times, * wherein decorative treatment, by its subject, background, modelling, and subtlety of light and colour, nearly approaches a picture in general effect; together with the bas-relief of artists of the same period who sought reality in perspective grounds, viewed in the bas- reliefs of Bernini, d'Algarade, and Puget's works ; whilst * There fire some old paintings, which, by their truthful and sin- ceie treatment, have a light to be classed under the first method. Fig. 36. — Natural Decoration. 36 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. in art industries, stained glass, enamels, mosaics, and Fig. n.— Tapestry Decoration. tapestry, a like representation has been followed resulting in similar effects, Fig. 37. THEOR Y. SI THE SECOND METHOD. The second method holds a middle course between a faithful reproduction of nature and con- ventionality. Natural elements are still employed, but they are now introduced amidst conventional surroundings where designs stand out on gold or coloured grounds, and where landscapes and archi- tecture, rendered perspectively, are subordinated to the general effect of the work. To allow for a certain appearance of stability, festooned wreaths and pendent ornaments are introduced, whilst figures, when not flying, rest on conventional supports of the flimsiest kind. But whatever the devices, be they fixed, pendent, or floating in mid air, they must, at all times, preserve their modelling and natural colour, exemplified in the Regence panel, Fig. 38, and also in Fig. 39. Old Roman modelled-paintings, many Renaissance works, and scores of others executed in our own times belong to the second method ; together with panels, Fig' 3^- — Regence Panel. earthenwares, enamels, stained glass, tapestries, and the Fig 39. — Conventional Treatment of Nature. THEOR Y. 39 like, wherein modelled and naturally tinted subjects stand out on conventional grounds, Fig. 40. In this class may also be ranged sculptured composi- tions, the background of which does not aim at pictur- esque effects; such are many bas-reliefs of Ghiberti, Donatello, and the sculptors of the Italian Renaissance generally. THE THIRD METHOD. The third method is marked by the typical character of the subjects. In it details and modelling are modified to suit the decoration, or, if requisite, so attenuated as com- pletely to disappear, except the outline, which is kept light or sufficiently tinted for the purposes of expression ; when the subjects seem fixed or nailed on the back- ground, with or without apparent relief, and local colour is brightly tinted, modified or shaded in considerable pro- portions. It should be noted, that in works where all the elements are purely conventional, a high standard of excellence and by far the most satisfactory results, are obtained. Among the endless examples of the third method may be noted the early paintings and sculptured decorations of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Etruria; the Byzantine mosaics, mediaeval stained-glass, and other paintings down to the fifteenth century, together with the decora- tive arts of other civilised Eastern nations. With regard to the latter, we may assuredly ascribe to ignorance, rather than to intelligent choice, their peculiarly conven- Fig. 40. — Natural Objects on Convention il Ground. Fig. 41. — Mixed Composition. 42 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. tional interpretation ; but whether through inability to imitate nature, or the natural inclinations of the artists, the outcome in most of their compositions (painted tiles, bricks, and mosaics) is a result eminently satisfactory from a decorative point of view, which a servile render- ing of nature would have failed to obtain. We conclude Jr? ^i^pm^M^imm^^ fM \ Fig. 42. — Mixed Composition. with an example of mixed composition, Louis XIII. style, wherein panels of the first method are inserted amidst surroundings of the second method, Figs. 41 and 42. We will now proceed to a detailed study of the sources of ornament and their various methods of appli- cation. THEOR Y. 43 Section II. — Natural Forms. Nature is a vast repository which yields to the decora- tive artist a boundless variety of combinations and devices. He may emphatically say, " The world is mine," — trees, plants, and shrubs, whether with leaves or with- out, the brilliantly hued families of flowers and fruits ? shapely bulbs, roots, and seeds, all are his to use as he pleases, either in floral masses, foliated scrolls, termini, wreaths, or pendent ornaments. With reference to the first and second methods, a close observation of nature in all her moods is essential, in order to reproduce modelling and local colour with truthfulness and sympathy. In addition to this, judicious grouping and intelligent selection should be aimed at, so that the best points of an artistic decorative composition may be brought out. Such are the floral decoration of the Renaissance, the Lyons school, and those of our own epoch, represented by Rossetti, Holman Hunt, Burne Jones, and others. If we pass onwards to the third method we shall find that the flowers and other natural objects employed cease to be a faithful imitation of nature and are rather "con- ventional representations founded upon it, yet sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind with- out destroying the unity of the object they are intended to decorate." In this latter method, if symmetry or rigidity be the characteristic of the object, the idea will be best conveyed 44 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. if the flower, used in its decoration, shares this character- istic, whilst graceful curves and gentle undulations should Borage. Broom. Ground Ivy. Musk. Fig. 43. — Plants and Flowers. be expressed by flexible and delicate outlines, Fig. 43. In a word, characteristic outline and simplicity of work- THE OR Y. 45 manship should compensate for loss of complete design Fig. 44 — Symmetrical Ornament with Distinctive Outline. and charm of colour, Fig. 44. Admirable examples of this 4 6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. style are seen in Persian and mediaeval art, and also in works of our own times, where a revival of ancient methods has been eminently successful, Figs. 45 and 46. Fig. 45. — Modern Persian Design. From the foregoing remarks it is clear that the artist must feel no compunction in simplifying vegetable forms, when owing to their intricate or minute details, adapta- tion to decorative treatment would be difficult, and the Fig. 46. — Decorative Use of Floral Farms. 4* DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. clearness of the composition destroyed. Single flowers, such as tulips, lilies, narcissi, eucharis, jessamine, etc., should therefore be chosen as more appropriate than lovely roses and gorgeous peonies. Fig. 47 shows the treatment roots and bulbs may receive, and in what manner they may be used in ornament. It is needless to note that exceptional or abnormal elements should be discarded, as, however interesting from a botanical or Indian. XVth Century. Fig. 47. — Decorative Treatment of Roots. other scientific point of view, they would be out of place in a work of art ; unless it should be found that some such accident were eminently appropriate, as we see in a certain class of stalk, which always breaks off at the point needed to interrupt the monotony of a long curve, Fig. 43- Of late years artists have derived their studies and inspiration from nature, and the result has been a remark- able improvement in every art. This is nowhere more THEORY. 49 apparent than in decorative composition, wherein designs of infinite variety, marked by truthful expression and feeling, have been introduced, which leave little, if any, room for criticism, and have superseded, none too soon, the acanthus of classic times. The latter we cannot but admire, when seen on Greek or Roman work of the best period, where its treatment is tender, delicate, and satis- factory in the highest degree. But even in the hands of skilful craftsmen it sadly deteriorated in process of time, until it became at last a frigid, painful object to behold. In illustration of the principle we advocate, the student is advised to examine the admirable examples of floral decoration afforded by the arts of Greece, Persia, Japan Egypt, and the vigorous monumental Gothic ornamenta- tion, Fig. 49, where the Egyptian, Greek, and Gothic forms, though treated conventionally, suggest budding nature, and have a due regard to natural growth. On Persian pottery, on the other hand, on dishes, basins, water-bottles, tiles, etc., very naturalistic representations of plants, such as pinks, roses, and hyacinths, are found together with animal, and in some instances even with human fonns ; whilst Japanese work is sometimes marked by exceedingly realistic treatment, at other times by con- ventional rendering. The richest collections of such works are found in the British and South Kensington Museums, and are easy of access to any one who wishes to study them. Animal representation enters largely into decorative art, for the artist may call to his aid every class of living being, from man and the other mammals down to insects, E So DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. mollusks, zoophites, birds, reptiles, and fishes; for in nature no object is contemptible, and all are capable of expressing beauty if rightly understood. The principle attending the rendering of floral objects, whether in a naturalistic or conventional form, is also applicable here. Fig. 48. — Roman Sculpture. The student should bring out the special character of the animal under observation. Roman sculptures, those of the Renaissance, and scores of modern decorative compositions, will afford excellent examples, Fig. 48. If we turn to the third method, we shall find that the representation must be still further reduced ; since here 52 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. again the animal is only expressed by a sharp outline, Gothic. Arabian. Fig. 50. — Animal Forms. Fig- S 1 ' — Assyrian Animal Form. filled in with a flat tint, whilst accessories are either very THEOR F. 53 much subdued or left out altogether. But no matter how arbitrary in character, the form must always preserve sufficient reality to enable the beholder to know at once what it is meant to portray, Fig. 50. The remarkable animal paintings of Egypt, such as the hawk, eagle, goose, ox, snake, and wrens, those found in Assyria, Fig. 51, and on Greek vases, the symbolic animals of Byzantium, the animal forms of Moorish heraldry, and on Mediaeval suits of arms, were all similarly Fig. 52. — Japanese Ornament. treated; whilst the compositions of Persia, notably in her MSS., and those of India, China, and Japan, are interspersed with conventional animal forms, Fig. 52. Then mention may be made of mythological concep- tions, such as sphinxes, griffins, chimaeras, centaurs, tritons, and those cusped-winged genii whose beauty and charm are so great and real, as sometimes to outvie the creations of nature, Fig. 53 ; and the symbolic, weird monsters of Arabian and Persian literature, which, if less 54 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. strikingly beautiful, are none the less curious, and which, when transplanted to Europe, developed into those fantastic creatures of the Middle Ages, Fig. 54, and still further into the grotesque productions of the Renaissance, Fig* 53- — Mythological Ornament. Fig. 55- Our space forbids entering into more detailed description of them, or of the fanciful, monstrous animal forms of Indian and Chinese art, whose peculiarities, both of form and expression, so frequently border on the grotesque. THEORY. 55 The degree of civilisation, the form of government, but above all the religion of different peoples, have been 4*$ Fig. 54. — Mediceval Fanciful Ornament. powerful influences in the fashioning of the human figure used in art. We are struck with its formal and rigid Fig. 55. — Renaissance Grotesque Ornament. character, whether on Assyrian or Egyptian sculptures (noble though the latter may be), in the mosaics of 56 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Byzantium, or on the stained glass, paintings, and tapestry of Mediaeval art; whilst its simple, graceful outline on Greek vases, enlivened solely by a few cunning touches, never fails to excite our admiration. This conventional treatment, as was observed before, began to disappear towards the fifteenth century, when painters and sculptors, encroaching on the domain of the decorator, sought expression in finished modelling and realistic colour. And here we may note that artists have, at all times, sought to stiffen the human figure, when it ■&'£• 5 6- — Cameos. forms but a component part of a great unit. This has been achieved in various ways ; sometimes, as in caryatides, by simple omission of the arms ; at other times it is the legs that disappear within some ingenious device j some- times the form is reduced to a mere bust, mask, or cameo, the section at the neck being covered with a band, Fig. 56 ; at other times they have dispensed even with this, and given us a gaping neck which seems to belong to a decapitated head. In our opinion these modifications have not struck deep or far enough. If the end of art is to please, the impression produced by THEORY, 57 figures, standing in uncomfortable positions, supporting weights which would crush them in reality, is to say the least very unpleasing, and therefore must be artistically untrue. But the resources of nature are far from being exhausted with floral or animal forms ; heavenly bodies, for example, the sun, moon, stars ; natural phenomena, such as the thunderbolt, rainbow, clouds, and mist ; striking features of our planet, as lakes, seas, and rivers, have from the earliest times, entered into decorative composition. At first their application, doubtless from lack of knowledge, was very arbitrary or symbolic ; in Egypt, for instance, the representation of water was a mere zig-zag. But now the treatment is a faithful transcript of nature, save that when such elements are introduced, the representa- tion should be generalized, the apportioning of the masses reduced, so as to call the imaginative faculty into play, and assist the expression and sentiment of the picture. When the second method is applied, realistic repre- sentation is still the governing principle — albeit in a less degree — as we see in the nimbus and clouds, so com- monly used in Renaissance art. The abuse of clouds as a means of decoration is easily explained on the score of their usefulness in hiding awkward joints or deficiencies of arrangement. We cannot but admire them in great painters, who introduced them to lighten their immortal pictures ; but it must be confessed that they fared badly at the hands of second and third-rate artists, and fre- quently became soft, formless, immovable masses, or distended balls thrown for little or no purpose across the 58 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. sky. They are fortunately a thing of the past, and now- a-days no artist could be found who would resort to expedients so obviously bad. A well-defined outline should be associated with natural phenomena conventionally treated, as we see on coats of arms, in stellated arrangements, set out in geometric patterns of great precision, or in solar rays forming the glory of saints and martyrs. Sometimes, indeed, they have a symbolic meaning, such as the crescent moon of Diana, or thunderbolt of Jupiter. Section III. — Invented Forms. The rich storehouse of human industry has supplied the artist from the earliest times with accessories as varied as they are pleasing to the eye. Thus, tapestry, scrolls, dress, drapery, couches, chairs, vases, and candelabra; the appropriate tools and badges of commerce, art, and science ; the arms, prows, anchors, rigging, and such-like used in warfare or in navigation, have all been pressed into service. Ornamentation forms a conspicuous feature in decorative composition. Out of this abundance of materials, the artist can evolve trophies, groups, friezes, escutcheons, shelves, etc., and apply them naturally or conventionally, as the require- ments of the composition may suggest. It is not neces- sary to remind the student that simple objects, capable of a distinct outline, lend themselves to decorative treat- ment more easily than complicated ones. Thus tam- bourines, lyres, violins, and trumpets should be chosen THEORY. 59 in preference to modern wind instruments, with their intricate arrangement of valves. The same holds good in respect to ancient weapons and costumes, as compared with those of the present time ; but the student must not infer from this that we wish all modern elements excluded from decorative art; on the contrary, we think their application highly satisfactory if introduced in as simple a manner and with as few details as the subjects them- selves will admit, Fig. 57. Architecture has occupied from the earliest times a prominent position in decorative art. This we see, whether in the admirable paintings which recent re- searches in Egypt have revealed to us, in the bas-reliefs, mosaics, and ivories executed under Byzantine influence, in the mosaics brought to light by excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or in Mediaeval sculptures, paintings, and Oriental MSS. ; and its unfitness in psalter or missal is condoned in consideration of its realistic character and quaintness of expression. In warm regions, and at an epoch when the conditions of life were different from our own, this style of decoration was appropriate, and suited dwellings that had little or no furniture to interfere with it ; but in our houses, and with our style of furnishing, the case is very different. It is still less to our taste in the shrines and pyxes of the fifteenth century, wherein portals of cathedrals are represented with due accompani- ment of towers, steeples, buttresses, and gargoyles, and extremely objectionable in the lanterns, candelabra, and censers of the Italian Renaissance, where, for no apparent reason, porticoes and whole colonnades are introduced, 6o DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. and their various orders clearly indicated. This faulty style was again revived under the First Empire, when grotesque imitations of Greek and Roman temples entered into the decoration of furniture, and were con- spicuous everywhere. This, bad as it may seem, is not Fig. 57. — Decorative Use of Musical Instruments. much worse than when we are bidden to tread, lean, or sit on vividly portrayed animal or floral forms. In conclusion, I would remind the student that if his taste leads him to use architecture in ornamentation, it should not be made to look an imposing pile of stone, brick, or marble ; he should take care to keep its texture delicate, hazy, and vaporous, so as to seem a fit habita- THEORY. 61 tion for fairies and celestial beings ; and by due attention to works handed down to us by different nationalities, he will inform his judgment and acquire taste which will enable him to pronounce at once on the merits or demerits of any composition. Section IV. — Geometrical Forms. Geometry, as a science, is as ancient as civilisation itself; its adoption as a basis or accessory in decorative art has been, and though in a less degree, still is, almost universal. The charm that a geometric basis is able to impart to any design has no doubt been a powerful motive in determining its selection, while its aptitude for evolving complex and beautiful combinations out of simple forms, such as the lozenge, the pentagon, the hexagon, the square, the triangle, etc., is a further recommendation. Elaborate interlacing of bands and lines are favourite devices in Celtic work; the chief ornamentation of Gothic buildings, both on the Continent and in this country, is dependent upon, and springs from, combinations markedly geometric in character; whilst with nations, such as the Arabs, Hindus, and Moors, who are debarred by their special religions from the use of human, animal, or vegetable forms, its applica- tion to architecture and every art product is almost universal. Geometric forms are seen in crystals, and in some kinds of star-fish ; a large number of our common flowers are found to be pentagonal in plan, the elder, the 62 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. primrose, the cockle, columbine, and bittersweet, for example; whilst the triangular, the hexagonal, or the square arrangement is seen in others. The student will find some of the most typical arrange- ments placed with their diameters in contact, and based on straight or curvilinear lines, in Figs. 58 and 59. Section V. — Expression in Decoration. Expression is a principle dependent for its realisation upon the same laws as those governing general effect, which, although incidentally treated in the course of this work, we must now notice. Balance and harmony between the component parts, whether of modelling, colour, or design, are important, nay, essential qualities in order to obtain expression. Thus a composition will be inharmonious, and therefore fail in expression, if finished modelling and natural colour are applied to rude and sketchy design j it will be equally incongruous if fantastic colour is associated with complete design and a realistic interpretation. Objects, too, should preserve their character so as to be easily understood; and any straining after recondite or mysterious significance, which is difficult of solution, should be avoided. If the student will consult the decorative productions of Mediaeval and Renaissance art, those of such painters as Diirer, Holbein, Du Cerceau, together with the floral compositions of Ros- setti, H. Hunt, Burne Jones, and others, as against nearly all those of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he will find that these last, despite their undoubted Square k Octagon [ S J Rectangular X^'jiZ Triangle jnimLmif ^-eek ^mmm m^m Jimif y Equilateral Fig. 58. — Geometrical Fontis. Circle. Ogive. Trefoil. Quatrefoil Curves. ^f\*f\^ Cycloid. "X" *X Spiral. f(o)) ^T jwmm -^g^&s Ionian volute. Double spires. ^^f^S' \ ^^^k@^S) mm Grseco-Roman. Fig. 59. — Geometrical Forms* Oriental accolades. DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. 65 qualities, both as regards technique and skill of work- manship, fail to interest us or win our sympathy, because neglect of this principle makes them at best frigid pro- ductions utterly devoid of expression. A decorative artist, a painter, a sculptor, an engraver, an architect or a designer, should train himself, by constant use of pencil or chalk, to reproduce as faithfully as may be, vegetable, animal, or human forms, as they occur in nature, noting -carefully the character of each, which he may afterwards imitate or modify according to the style he shall select. In obedience to these rules, manufactured objects should also receive his attention j his drawings being made from the objects themselves, rather than from the drawings of other artists. His knowledge should be further increased by a due apprehension of geometric forms and their consequent development into combinations, as varied and rich in general effect, as they are pleasing to the eye. Perseverance and untiring practice will insure him proficiency as a draughtsman, and, what is far more important, an intimate and general knowledge of natural form and colour, which will be of the greatest utility. Upon the truthfulness of this he will have mainly to depend when he comes to paint on a large scale. We will end these remarks by suggesting frequent refer- ence to good works, rich collections of which exist in all our museums and in many private dwellings; the unfinished designs of great masters, such as Raphael, Titian, Holbein, Turner, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others, will initiate the student into their methods, and indue time enable him to produce good work of his own. F CHAPTER III. ORNAMENTATION APPLIED TO FORM. Our remarks have been, hitherto, confined to form and decoration, each separately ; we will now consider them together, and dwell on some principles governing the production of ornament applied on form. Section I. — Symmetry. Perhaps the most important of these is symmetry ; respecting which Mr. Ruskin says, " I only assert that it is necessary to the dignity of every form, and that by the removal of it we shall render the other elements of beauty comparatively ineffectual ; though, on the other hand, it is to be observed that it is rather a mode of arrangement of qualities than a quality itself, and will have no power over the mind unless it should possess all the Other constituents of beauty. A form may be symmetrical and ugly, as many Elizabethan ornaments, yet not so ugly as it would have been if unsymmetrical." Symmetry has been largely employed by ornamentalists of all periods and nationalities. Good illustrations are found in the works of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Rome, those of the Renaissance and of modern times. Symmetry THEORY. 67 may be absolute or relative ; it is absolute when a design is composed of devices rigorously similar, disposed Axis. \ijmiLi/mwimsLimm^is^ix^ Axis. Fig. 60. — Absolute Symmetry, inversely on each side of one or more imaginary lines termed axes, Fig. 60. It is relative when it admits of variety in the sub- ordinate parts ; such would be a decorative panel, with figures, caryatides, drapery, and pendents of diversified position, in which a just balance of the masses has been 68 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. regarded, Fig. 64. Obviously the principle of variation, or Fig. 61. — Relative Symmetry. relative symmetry, Fig. 61, demands more thought and ^sR^^&c? ■ * ^ J?^ *%? \- ^yiSf^4V % Af// %^m$My f J %^S f'-J$m^£ki \^\^^^^J) M «T^^ \MLv\ ^5^ ^yt^Vj^^^^^S t^Jpb ^^^^^i^? : ^^^^^= K --& Rig. 62. — Unsytrmietrical A rrangement. subtler handling than is required in absolute symmetry. THEORY. 69 This may be developed by substituting for somewhat rigid symmetrical arrangement of strict similarity the free play of fancy agreeable both to the mind and eye, Fig. 62. But undue variation is apt to result in confusion and disorder; thus one side only of a design should not be filled up to the entire exclusion of the other ; some Fig. 63. — Fanciful Decoration. appropriate device, however small, should be thrown in to avoid the appearance of incompleteness, Fig. 63. Chinese and Japanese art is frequently unsymmetrical ; lateral balancing of parts, due harmony, and proportion of masses being purposely discarded.* Hence close * The same may be said of the rocaille style of Louis XV., which, though not plastically like Japanese art, is marked by such an utter absence of symmetry, that it would not be tolerated but for the spirit and skill of its execution. Hence the student should first thoroughly master those art productions which are marked by a principle of symmetry ; this done, reference to a more erratic style will form a useful and fitting supplement to his knowledge. 70 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. imitation of Japanese work is not to be recommended ; despite great merit both as regard finish of execution and exquisite natural rendering, its faulty composition cannot Fig. 64. — Mixed Decoration. be overlooked. For instance, flowers, fruit, birds, or figures, are scattered haphazard on forms, without regard to curved surfaces, or edges defining plans, showing an THEORY. 71 absence of symmetry not compensated for by qualities of make, however excellent these may be. By Japanese art, we do not mean the cheap products which have glutted our markets, and are to be seen in shops and in many private houses, which, though disclos- ing much productive skill, have little else to recommend them. And if this is true of the green tree, what shall be said of the dead tree; of second and third-rate imitations of Japanese pots and pans; Japanese textile fabrics, redeemed by none of the charm and grace of the originators? True, we tolerate the commonplace produc- tions of the seventeenth century, but that is because we are forced into something like admiration for the consummate knowledge displayed by the artist, in the dexterous handling and just harmony of his composition, qualities conspicuous by their absence in Japanese art. PRINCIPLE OF SIMPLICITY. Besides symmetrical arrangement as opposed to an irregular or unsymmetrical one, there are other principles which we must now consider; the first of which is simplicity. The principle of simplicity is the chief feature of all early art, and is mainly dependent upon another simple element for its decorative effect, the horizontal line. This is very well seen in Egyptian temples, in Assyrian, Doric, Roman, and early Gothic structures of all countries, marked by great simplicity of treatment. Good illustrations are afforded in the cathedrals of Winchester and Salisbury, Westminster 72 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. Abbey, and many other buildings, wherein simple forms and details are conspicuous features. Simplicity of treatment imparts a marked character to the buildings to which it is applied ; hence its frequent occurrence when 5' (Y/'J~''r* Fig. 65. — Simplicity and Complexity. massive importance and dignity are required. Perhaps the best examples of this principle are in Early English work, notably the churches, which at once strike us by reason of their massive and noble proportions. If the artist adopts simplicity of treatment, he first THEOR Y. 73 apportions his design into one or more grand divisional sections which may embrace secondary divisions, sub- divided in their turn by details j but if his choice should fall upon complexity of arrangement, he begins by dividing the whole composition into successive parts, each possess- ing its particular details. Fig. 65 shows two front bays, each having similar dimensions and each pierced with smaller bays of like character and disposition, affording good examples of these principles. The principle of complexity is a development of the principle of simplicity. It is met with in the later monu- mental works of India, Greece, and China, in the first period of French and Italian Renaissance, especially in the church of St. Mark at Venice, and the Duomo at Milan. In England it is the chief characteristic of Later or Decorated Gothic ; Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster affording a good illustration of complexity of treatment and over- loading of ornament, not to be found in earlier works. Monumental bas-reliefs, mural paintings, tapestry, stained glass, flooring, or any large surface, may receive either treatment. Both principles are good and useful in their different ways, and both may be applied with perfect propriety and fitness according to the nature and the position of the object decorated. It is clear that an object on a level with the eye may be more elaborately ornamented than one viewed from a distance, and the nobler parts of a building receive greater care than those destined for less important uses. More care should be bestowed upon the drawing-room, for instance, than upon the kitchen. 74 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Section II. — Division of Surfaces. The general forms being duly considered, these should be divided and ornamented in leading lines on the face of the work, either slightly sunk, flat, or in relief; the inter- vening spaces may then be subdivided and filled with similar ornament until the whole surface is covered. In ( Fig. 66. — Divisions in Height and Breadth. a rectangular form, in a panel, for instance, such lines will be horizontal and vertical ; in round pieces, such as vases, small columns, and the like, they will follow the outer edge or pattern and the bisection will be horizontal and circular ; whilst flat pieces will admit of radiating and con- centric divisions, Fig. 66. To make our meaning clear, we will call the intervals dividing the concentric and horizontal sections height THEORY, 75 divisions, and those occurring between the radiating and vertical cuts or sections, width divisions. The student, having divided the surface to be decorated into principal sections, must next consider the kind of effect he wishes to produce, and be careful to allow for the relative position of all the members, so as to obtain a clear, well-proportioned, and harmonious whole. These principles, as will be observed, are the same which regulate good proportion of form. Hence height divisions should only be applied to symmetrical, pentagonal and urn Fig. 67. — Height Divisions. round forms, or surfaces with rectangular outlines, each member or section affording a similar development, Fig. 67. But if, on the other hand, we had to deal with out- lines bulging out and contracting in turn, or surfaces of circular and diversified contour, then height divisions should be unequal, one being treated as the dominant, Fig. 68. In obedience to this principle, it is obvious that equidistant sections would be faulty if applied on irregular forms, a similar repetition, or "repeat," as it is termed, 7.6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. being out of harmony with the inequality of the corre- sponding outline, Fig. 69. Fig. 70 illustrates the appropriate section of the Fig. 68. — Dominant Divisions. symmetrical form a, which would be inartistic in form B, bulging out towards the top. Height divisions may be used in ovoid and conical forms, affording gradual regular contractions, of frequent occurrence in vases, horns, the outlines of sheaths, and ( i Fig. 69. — False Equality. the like ; but care must be taken to follow the scale or gradation of the outline, Fig. 71, whilst width divisions may be associated with forms of continuous outlines or rect- THEORY. 77 angular surfaces, presenting regular or uniform outlines J such an arrangement is seen in circular discs, in panels, A JB ^7c=v3CTorxrcr 73/ fi «j J4J/-U /^jr-'i-Jooijiji^iW^ ^nu i lll, 1 ^M^waac^aKiy 1 ' \ 1 jhjii imn jf/ltllMUUi Fig. 70 — Good and Bad Sections. and other like forms, wherein each member is but a repetition of the other, Fig. 72. When surfaces are possessed of different heights, or jagged outlines, width divisions should be wiequal and Fig. 71. — Height Sections graduated to Outline. follow the variations of form, Fig. 73. In spiral, serpen- tine, or helical forms, presenting circular, flat, or raised 78 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. surfaces, the bisection is horizontal and vertical, and the divisions, although regular, become oblique or slanting and may be treated with great freedom ; but care must be taken to make spiral forms converge regularly towards a Fig, 72. — Width Divisions of Uniform Outline. common centre, whilst oblique and twisted forms must be strictly parallel to one another, Fig. 74. Common-sense and the inherent feeling in man of a striving after the beautiful, will be the best counsellors in Fig. 73.- — Divisions necessarily Unequal. the selection of appropriate objects not derived from nature, whilst a just apprehension of the fitness of things will prevent errors of judgment in the working out of forms in materials not properly belonging to them. From THEORY. 70 the foregoing remarks, the student may perceive that orna- ment which appropriately divides the surfaces, be it a band, fillet, or any other simple device, well applied on the object, will at once raise its artistic character. This is exemplified in Greek vases, seen in our Fig. i. As we observed before, the disregard of the Chinese and Japa- nese for any kind of division which may fairly be con- sidered as symmetrical is carried so far, that their orna- ments are scattered broadcast over the whole surface Fig. 74. — Oblique Divisions. without consideration for plans or outlines. But it cannot be denied that many of their decorative pieces would gain in having some band or divisional section, as may be seen in vase a, corrected in vase b, Fig. 75. In conclusion we would remind the student, that whether he adopts a symmetrical, unsymmetrical, or alternating mode of ornament, he must above all things avoid uncertainty of expression and meaning in the division of surfaces, under penalty of violating the true 8o DECORATIVE COMPOSITION.' laws of decoration and marring the effect of the composi- tion. Section III. — Directing Influence. Division of surfaces leads naturally up to the principle Fig. 75. — Contrast of Undivided mid Divided Surface. of order which ought to prevail in decorative art, and the fitness of ornament to its scale and position. Thus square, rectangular, or elliptical forms should be differently THEORY. 8 1 treated ; ornament appropriate to flat surfaces, if applied to ovoid or conical shapes, will lose part of its charm and peculiar character from the mere fact of its misplace- ment. Hence, it is necessary that the artist should 'jJIJlVililUI l *"^^ 1( "' »'»^'>rcrrniTivi|"yrgTr -. A W ; <^^Mra i^W>' 'mm \m T Fig. 76. — Appropriate and Faulty Ornament. compose and study every decoration in view of one par- ticular form, and one only. If we turn to flat surfaces, such as rectangular panels, wherein the ornament alone is un symmetrical, we find that the prevailing dimensions should be vertical, and the main lines of the decoration G 82 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. and general arrangement run parallel to the leading outlines of the panel, exemplified in Fig. 76, a showing appropriate ornament, b, faulty. The case would be reversed in a panel with horizontal lines, whilst it is self-evident that a square panel having all its sides equal, cannot be governed by any directing influence. Ornament applied to flat surfaces presenting curved outlines should follow their flow, or, at any rate, not impede it. Thus the main lines of the decoration of a circular or oval piece should be so managed as to avoid awkward crossings of the border line, and, by skilful inflec- tions, glide in a tangential or parallel direction to the outline, except in cases when they follow naturally a concentric or radiating direction, and sharply cut the border. The Persians, in the floral treatment and com- positions of their ceramic vessels, have left models for us to imitate, Fig. 77. Had a like balance and harmony of form and ornament marked Japanese work, their art would be almost perfect. The same principle applies, though in a less degree, to human and animal forms, but as they cannot be subjected to the same modifications as floral ornaments, they will require thoughtful care when introduced in narrow fields, in order to avoid ungrace- ful postures or encroachment upon boundaries. Many examples of mediaeval work exhibit figures tortured into painful positions from want of consideration to ways and means. The Greeks themselves have not always adhered to this golden rule, notably in their religious vessels, wherein the appearance of figures extending over the deeply inflected curve of the neck of the vessel, is not THEORY. 83 proper to the human form, Fig. 83. This error of judg- ment was reproduced by ceramists during the Italian and French Renaissance, especially the schools of Urbino and Nevers. Nevertheless, no one viewing Fig. 84, a fine specimen of Rouen strapwork ware, in which Fig. 77. — Persian Treatment of Flowers. the principle of the fitness of ornament to the form is strictly kept in view, will fail to perceive the superiority of the Urbino example, marked by inimitable grace, subtlety of colour, purity and richness of design. It is a marvel of ceramic art, which, though faulty in 84 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. construction, may well be held up for our admiration, but which should not be rashly imitated by the novice, lest his efforts should result in woeful disaster. The old Italian medallion, Fig. 78, is a good illustration of a subject kept strictly in harmony with the outline. Fig. 78.— Subject in Harmony with Outline. Rustic and picturesque objects, though admitting of greater freedom of treatment, must likewise be conceived with reference to the form they are to decorate, Fig. 80 ; whilst shields, covers, medallions, bosses, and fans, in fact every form of ornament which may be divided into circular bands, should follow the general outline, Figs. 63 and 81. Forms in relief present an immense variety of curves and THEORY. 85 scrolls, yielding great richness of effect, very well seen in the shafts of columns, in plinths, and the like, and, owing to their close proximity to the spectator, may receive elaborate ornament, Fig. 79. Simple curvilinear surfaces, with concave or convex outlines, admit of rich decoration, but care should be exercised in the selection of ornament Fig. 79. — Ornament suited for near point of View. that will readily adapt itself to the irregular outlines of the work. To make our meaning clear we will take an example. Fig. 82 shows a form with a double curve, the lower con- vex and the upper concave answering to the cyma reversa of classic architecture, on which a spiral device a has 86 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. been applied. It is seen at a glance that the ornament, good in itself, has become bad simply because it is applied to the wrong form j but if a device affording in its outline a distinct analogy with the outline, as in section b, had been chosen, the application would at once seem natural Fig. 80. — Rustic Ornament. and appropriate. The same may be said of subjects applied to a section with leading vertical outlines, pos- sessed of inflections in harmony with the form. These assist in bringing it out and emphasizing it. The orna- ment met with in narrow partitions, such as fillets, is necessarily simple in character and affords hardly any THEOR Y. 87 scope for bad section. Small mouldings, such as the ovolo, bead, jewel, and the like, very delicate in their curvature, are found throughout classic and Renaissance art, whilst minute patterns are largely introduced in scores of antique vases. The cause of their universal acceptance is to be sought for in their adaptability to every Fig. 81.— Inartistic and Artistic Application of Ornament. form, and their easy reproduction. Thus the ovolo (egg) will fit a quarter round ; the ogee, the cyma recta, the double spiral, any hollow groove, civetto, or otherwise ; whilst the outlines of anti- spirals will suit flat cornices, Fig. 85 ; and sectional mouldings, such as the billet, the cable, bead, plait, chasing, etc., will fit every form, Fig. 86. 88 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Objects observed in nature, such as the peculiar habits and the dress of foreign people, etc., are sometimes intro- duced into decoration, and are always well received because they are easily understood and appeal to the sense of observation in the beholder \ such are floral, fruit, and Bad Good Fig. 82. — Suitable and Unsuitable Ornament for Curved Surfaces. verdure wreaths ; stems tied into fasciae ; plaits, olive ber- ries, pendents simulating looped-up drapery, and the like, Fig. 87, whilst leaves, owing to their natural grace and richness of outline, have been largely employed from the earliest times. The Egyptians with true instinct chose, not strange plants they knew nothing about, THEOR Y. 89 but the acanthus, the lotus, papyrus, and the other native plants of free growth always to be found on the banks of the Nile. Laurel, oak, and parsley leaves, on the other hand, are of frequent occurrence in all classic and Fig. 83. — Inartistic Inflection of Figure. modern art, whether on architecture, ceramic, wood, or metal-work. Bands are introduced on vessels in order to avoid undue redundancy of form, and to invest them at the same time with an appearance of solidity. This impor- tant principle was never absent from the Greek or Etruscan artist's mind, and is also well remembered in most work of our own days. It need hardly be go DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. said that their application on retreating forms would be most incongruous. The lower portions of objects too, are often ornamented with devices of great variety and of Fig. 84. — Rouen Strap-work Ware. pleasing effects, which have an appearance of affording support to such objects, Fig. 89. Sometimes the form is very minute, sometimes it is merely a reticulated veil, and sometimes it resembles a basket in which the vessel is THEORY. 91 placed. In a word, the whole storehouse of nature, as well Ovolo. Ogee. Double spire. Anti-spire. Fig. 85. — Mouldings. as man's products, are open to the artist, but he must not 9 2 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. forget that ornament is an accessory and is to be used to enhance the beauty of form, but never to hide or stultify it. T&xxxh WSS& % Fig. 86. — Moulding Designs suitable to any Form. Fig. 87.— Forms suggested by Nature, &c. Section IV. — Optical Illusions. The soundest eye is subject to errors of vision, com- monly known under the name heading this chapter, one of which we will now notice as affecting decorative composition. A very simple example will suffice to make THEORY. 93 the subject perfectly plain. Here are two rooms of equal height and dimensions j horizontal and flowing forms iflgfigTO -sssssssss- . ^jge3s- Fig. 88. — Horizontal Bands applied to Form. are freely introduced in the wall paper of No. i, whilst perpendicular lines are marked features of No. 2. Every- one will feel the difference of the two rooms, for whereas Fig. 69. — Ornament giving an Appearance of Support. the first will seem low and oppressive, the other will appear lofty and airy, because in the first instance the 94 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. eye travels from each successive section, in the latter it is carried over the whole extent of the vertical line. Hence, when it is wished to reduce the height of an object, hori- zontal or oblique lines should be employed, and per- pendicular lines when height is required. This is well understood by upholsterers, decorators, and milliners, who, by the simple exchange of forms, can elongate or give breadth to the work in hand, Fig. 65. The repetition of oblique lines, parallel to one another, Fig. 90.— Decoration of Solid and of Weak Appearance. produces a warped, slanting impression, well exemplified in the three vases, Fig. 90. We might also cite a certain class of so-called Oriental edifices, such as the spiral, gadrooned, bulb-like domes of Russian churches and twisted Roumanian steeples. But oblique or slanting lines have so obviously a feeble appearance, that forms like the serpentine, spiral, etc., should be used sparingly, as apt to create weariness and a feeling of unrest if per- sisted in. Oblique lines, moreover, when covering a THEOR Y. 95 surface of any length, should not be left to themselves ; vertical and horizontal forms, or details in which these elements form the chief feature, should be introduced as a framework, thus investing the composition with strength and solidity. The finials met with throughout. Roman. ilf P. XVth Centurv Italian. %gmimg^ Arabian. Fig. 91. — Examples of the proper use of Form. Hellenic, Roman, and Italian Renaissance architecture show that their designers paid attention to this principle ; the Arabs were equally careful to introduce inverted angular fonns in the roof of their edifices, whilst the absence of similar details on the gabled buildings of the 96 THEORY. Middle Ages produces an appearance of incompleteness, Fig. 8 1. The knobs found at one or both ends of the banisters are due to the same principle. A curious effect may be observed in geometric figures composed of a number of parallel lines by simple change of position one to another, producing combinations of so different a character as to seem scarcely possible that they have been formed out of the same material, Fig. 82. The Arabs, at little cost of mental effort, it must be Fig. 92. — Geometrical Ornament. admitted, are very ingenious in evolving most complex and elaborate ornament out of simple geometric forms; but these sink into a subordinate place as we rise higher and make flowers and animals the chief feature of the ornament. When the form is divided into squares, particular attention should be exercised in drawing the outline with great precision and accuracy; its natural form should be so apparent as to need no testing with the compass. Prominent features in the inner ornament should be THEOR Y. 97 discarded as interfering with the general effect; hence art-subjects, a, b, c, Fig. 93, will be appropriate in equi- lateral rectangles, and f, g, h will work well in squares The angles of square forms or panels are generally fur- nished with ancones, knobs, and the like, to set off their natural outline ; but if the repetition only occurred at two of the angles their character would be destroyed, Fig. 94 j albeit, they would harmonize with the irregular contour of rectangular forms. * This principle does not impede the freedom of action of the ornamentist ; it serves rather to show the resources Pig- 93- — Ornament suitably treated in Squares. placed at his disposal and the consequences resulting from different arrangements. The appearance of form is so deeply modified by interior and exterior ornament, that we might almost say that it only possesses the propor- tions it seems to have. Be that as it may, we hope to have convinced the student of the importance of preserving its distinct and entire value. V. — Straight and Curved Lines. As these form the sole element of ornamentation it will not * Diversity of inner subjects need not be observed in such panels occurring in ceilings, wainscoting, etc., because the forms being contiguous set off one another, notwithstanding the repetition of identical general outline. 98 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. be deemed superfluous if we try to show in what propor- tions they enter decorative work. In principle it is not easy to understand how the use of one could be adopted to the entire exclusion of the other; since curves alone would produce a plastic, soft appearance, unsatisfactory Fig. 94. — Decided and Undecided Squares. to the mind and eye. Hence filleted, moulded entabla- tures, encirclings, or set borders, should have their length of straight lines relieved by some curvilinear detail, yielding variety and softness of aspect, Fig. 95. Short, straight lines of different direction, slanting or perpen- Fig. 95. — Straight Lines combined with Curves, and singly. dicular, would, indeed, do this, but would fail to remove their rigid character (see design in Fig. 95 marked a). If, on the contrary, the decoration consisted of a series of flowing lines, concentric and parallel to one another, fre- quently met with in vaulted or double-faced arches and THE OR Y. 99 circular-headed portals, the introduction of straight forms would be of excellent effect, Fig. 96. The multitudinous concentric or double-faced arches and archivolts of Romanesque and Anglo-Norman archi- tecture would be objectionable, had not the builders relieved the monotony of identical lines by enriched mouldings extensively introduced in the chancels, door- ways, etc. Windows of this kind may be studied in the cathedral of Peterborough, the Chapter House of Bristol, and many more. Straight lines are the supporting prin- ciple of the general structure ; to them are due columns, Fig. 96.— Combination of Curves and Straight Lines. lintels, imposts, cross-bars, pedestals, etc., and upon these rest the more flexible and graceful curved lines, forming arches, circular headings, medallions, pendants, roses, and scrolls of every kind. Fig. 97 shows two mirrors, with an oval border round the glass, capped by finials and scrolls, whilst scallops and termini occupy the lower portion, a, an imitation of the Regence style, consists of curvilinear forms ; b, on the other hand, is a pleasing combination of straight and curved lines. It will be readily admitted that construction b is superior to construction a. ioo DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. This principle might be applied to furniture, bronzes, decorative panels, and the like, wherein details, often of high quality, look incongruous, because they are unsup- ported by a rectilinear element. This want of construc- tion is very apparent in the rocaille style of Louis XV., whilst the compositions of Louis XVL, despite common- places in some of their details, are always well balanced Fig. 97.. ■Curvilinear Forms pure, and in combination with Straight Lines. and of pleasing effect. A nice combination of straight and curved lines is found in Italian Renaissance, Ghi- berti's doors of the Baptistery in Florence being a con- spicuous example. In England the " Early decorated " affords many noble specimens, both in churches and buildings, in which proportion and just balance of the two elements are observed. Persia is another instance THEORY. i oi where great — perhaps too great — a use of straight lines is employed, as settings for ornament in structural work ; whilst it forms the basis of all Arabian art, be it in ceilings, wainscotings, windows, doorways, or the like. Polygonal and stellate forms, disposed at stated intervals, are sometimes introduced to relieve monotony- and the latter, owing to their numerous points, produce at a dis- tance the appearance of repetition of circles, affording enrichment and great variety, which may be increased when roses, scrolls, inscriptions, etc., are used, their elegant curvatures investing the whole with finish. From the foregoing remarks it is seen that decoration to be attractive must be possessed of variety ; therein lies the secret charm which attaches to a large proportion of Classic, Mediaeval, and Renaissance art, marked by careful selection of geometric, floral, and zoomorphic subjects. The ideal is reached when the human form is introduced, either in painting, architecture, or sculptured work. The eye is an exacting organ, requiring strong and subdued contrasts to relieve monotony j i.e. subjects placed in juxtaposition, some of which may be viewed from a distance, whilst others will bear closer inspection. VI. — Size and Proportion in Decoration. There is another principle of the utmost importance in decorative art which we must now consider at some length. Before doing this, however, it will not be deemed irrelevant if we warn the beginner that decorative scale, as it is sometimes called, must not be confounded with 102 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. scale of proportion, by means of which a design may be reduced or enlarged almost to any extent, whilst rigorously preserving the relative dimensions of the various members, and which is familiar to every artist ; whereas decorative proportion, like everything exclusively pertaining to art, is far more complex in character, and embraces the whole decorative scale, and should be determined by the size and position of materials at command, its general aspect, as well as with reference to man's stature. Art is created by man and for man ; of this we see indications everywhere : in the steps, pews, lecterns, and pulpits of churches, where, no matter what the dimensions of the building, be it Westminster Abbey, York Minster, or a small country church, their average size is appre- ciably the same. In like manner the chairs, tables, and cabinets of our houses, the books we read, the carriages in which we drive, the umbrellas, fans, etc., we carry, are all proportionate to our use and size. As resulting from the principle, when faithfully carried out, that the com- ponents of a drawing or plaque must be proportionate to the unit, it will not be difficult to determine the approximate dimensions of the work presented for in- spection. Thus, Fig. 98 shows two arches with an appearance of equal height, but where the relative size of the balustrades indicates a notable difference in the real dimensions of each. Objects of ordinary use should be made beautiful and useful ; for a thing, however lovely, if it is unpleasant to use will be set aside, even for one less beautiful, and thus fail in its purpose. Therefore, the hilt of a sword, the THEORY. 103 handle of a screen or ewer, should be so formed as to fit the hand which is to use them. All the objects of larger dimensions in Fig. 99 have been purposely represented smaller ; but notwithstanding this inversion they maintain their superiority of size, and indicate that they were executed in view of the human hand. The size of the materials is another way for testing the gassBlLilasbah Fig. 98. — Arches of apparent Equality of Scale whose Balus- trades indicate relative Dimensions. dimensions of an object. Given two buildings with bricks showing externally, it will be easy to determine the relative proportions of the structures by counting the number of courses. In like manner the number of panels of a door or wall, despite the diversified latitude of the woods employed, will indicate the probable measure of their dimensions. Another principle, scarcely less important, consists in so ordering a decorative composition that its primary 104 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. designs may be viewed at the distance required for embracing the whole at a glance, and which we will call normal distance, because it is instinctively adopted by every beholder.* So that if to get a good view we are not perpetually obliged to shift our position backwards and forwards in order to read the details or judge of the general effect, the amplitude of ornament will not be proportioned to the dimensions of the work, but to the Fig- 99- — Objects whose real Scale is apparent. normal distance. The object to which ornament is applied must determine its character j thus a necklace, locket, bracelet, or small furniture, meant for close inspection, admits of elaborate enrichment and finish ; whilst panels, vases, tables, chairs, etc., which are seen * Within this mean distance the eye sees the designs one by one, and beyond it they disappear into indistinct masses. Exception is not made of short-sighted or long-sighted people, as such infirmities are corrected by glasses. THEOR Y. 105 at a certain distance, may be less ornamented and on a larger scale. The ornamentation of a dessert-plate, for instance, should be on a smaller scale than that of a decorative plate, which is to hang on a wall and be viewed from a certain distance, although both may be of the same dimensions. Respecting plates, Dr. Dresser says : " Little ornament should be placed in the centre j but if there is a central ornament it should be radiating in character. The border should also consist of simple members repeated, for if portions are covered it will not look well. Ornament that has a right and wrong way upwards should be avoided, for it would be inappropriate in such a position." But the scale of ornament should be increased for wall-papers, stained-glass, or architectural decorations, which are destined to be viewed at a greater distance, whilst the proportion of interiors should be less than that of exteriors. In monumental buildings of great altitude, the ornament, whether painted, sculptured, or in bas-relief, must increase from the base to the top, as the details of the upper portions will only be seen from a very great distance ; well exemplified in the frieze which stood round the Parthenon at Athens, portions of which are now in the British Museum. As offshoots of this principle there are some curious points which we will now notice. A certain class of compositions, presenting circling lines, multitudinous divisions, and profusion of details, executed without reference to the human scale, always imply somewhat larger proportions than those which are more simply treated, Fig. 100. Nevertheless, io6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION, every large composition need not be complicated, nor details multiplied in the same ratio as the former; on the Fig. IOO. — Contrasted Effect of Ornament on Objects not refer- rable to Human Scale. contrary, this may be very simple and plain in character, Fig. ior. — Simple Decoration. provided the ornament is always proportioned to it, Fig. 1 01. Care should also be exercised to maintain the THEOR Y. 107 relative proportions existing in nature, and which are essential in a picture, bas-relief, etc., where human figures, animal and floral fonns, and inanimate objects must all be proportioned to one another. When a composition is uniform, i.e. undivided, as a Admissible Variety in Proportion. single panel, the border of a plain surface, etc., unity of arrangement should be the rule; but if the work is divided into distinct parts, such as a frieze, decorated shutters, vases of multiform belts, a tripartite panel, medallion, and the like, the proportion may vary for each of them, Fig. 102. Similar variety of arrangement ioS DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. is of constant occurrence in most compositions present- ing wide borders, Fig. 41. The principle of complexity may also exist with objects formed of various materials, such as bronze, ivory, and wood, all of which may be of different size j Fig. 103. — Reuitive Proportions of truncated and whole Figures. but the ornament of works of one or two colours only should be subdued and far less elaborate than that of multi-coloured compositions j truncated subjects also, such as busts, thermae, lion muzzles, bull and chimaeras' heads, masks, and the like, either carved or painted, THEORY. 109 should not be given the same measure as whole figures or flowers of natural growth introduced into the same work (Fig. 103). In order to secure clearness and harmony for the whole composition, small objects should receive simple treatment, and relative complexity reserved for larger details; in other words, simplicity of ornament should accompany diminutive forms, so as to avoid puerile minutiae or a confused and blurred aspect. Exceptions are made for a certain class of decorative Figs. 104, 105, ic6. — Si?nple Symbolic Ornament. elements introduced as accessories in a composition j thus the sun, the moon, the stars, prows, masts, as well as guns figuring in military trophies, are generally much reduced as compared to anchors, pullies, harpoons, and rigging with which they are associated, and which retain their natural proportions, whilst no difference is made between the size of fortified towers and simple martlets. The reason for this arbitrary difference is two-fold, and doubtless first arose from the impossibility of giving them all a like degree in the same work, and also from their no DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. symbolic character, which allows the greatest freedom of treatment, fully exemplified in old Bibles and missals (Figs. 104, 105, 106). Enlargement may also be resorted to, but for reasons of another kind : thus, as the ornament of minute objects would often entail great difficulties of fabrication, certain details are enlarged to make the subject clear. This is seen in numbers of ancient coins, exhibiting proportion- ally much larger dimensions than the human form, Fig. 107. But such emblems should always be isolated and at some distance from the figures, for if they come in con- tact their dimensions would be incongruous. The ancients car- ried this license very far in their glyptics, where human heads are kept larger than is legitimate, so as to make the features more distinct. In like manner, but from mere adulatory reasons, the principal characters of decorative compositions have been purposely given larger proportions than those with whom they are associated. This is well exemplified in Assyrian and Egyptian bas-reliefs, portions of which are in the British Museum, in which Sennacherib, Ramses, or Seti tower far above the grandees by whom they are surrounded. With the Greeks this is also observable, although in a less degree; thus, in the Laocoon and the Niobe groups, the father and mother respectively are invested with gigantic statures j in the latter case, Niobe is not Fig. 107. — Enlarged Subject. THEORY. in only taller than the tallest of her sons, but also taller than the long-bearded and well-proportioned tutor. There is no doubt that this mode has the advantage of securing both clearness of aspect and monumental out- line so essential in decorative compositions. More examples might be adduced, but these will suffice to illustrate the principle, and to show the direction in which the student can open out for himself new fields for observation; whether in Pagan or early Christian work, notably Byzantine, or in sculpture, bas- reliefs, painting, coins, and, in fact, throughout the whole range of art production. We do not mean to imply that similar license should be maintained in its integrity; it was not only justifiable but right in the early stages of art. But as with civilisation so with art also: as it progresses and rises higher, the laws governing its production become more stringent and severe, so that the artist should strive more and more to clothe his pictorial conceptions with a truthful and harmonious reflex of the manifestation observed in nature and around him, basing his mode of action upon a superabundance of exemplars both in the past and the present day. Reduction is sometimes applied to secondary details to gauge the proportion of the subject. The size of a large, single figure, for example, may be indicated by its accessories, which should be minute, clear, and well defined. It was in obedience to this principle that Pheidias represented the whole conflict between the Centaurs and the Lapithae round the sole of the sandals of his colossal statue of Pallas-Athene. 112 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. It may be interesting to note that no deco- rative subject can be reduced or enlarged in notable proportions, without part of its character being de- stroyed ; hence, the minute details of statues and other art-objects, reduced by mechani- cal means, become effaced and of no effect when enlarged ; whilst the reverse takes place when summary details are elongated, resulting in lifeless and common expression. To make our mean- ing somewhat clearer, we will suppose that we are going to decorate a large room with a series of panels, no matter whether mosaic, painted, or carved, all of the same height but of different width, Fig. 108. The first thing to con- sider is the nature of THEORY. 113 the room, and being satisfied that the ornament of the panels, to be in harmony with it, must be uniform in character, we select No. 2 of the series, which from its medium size will best serve as a type and adapt itself almost anywhere. The ornament consists of two half- circles and a similar number of nodules, the centre being occupied with a fleur-de-lis and a ribbon knot. The next thing is to find out how to place this design in the other panels without destroying the character and harmony of the composition. For example, let us select Panel 1 : we at once see that the arrangement we have chosen as a type cannot very well fit the space allotted to it, and that it would appear, moreover, out of place and infringe upon the sides of the background. We may not reduce it, for that would alter its proportions ; but if we maintain the characteristic details, such as the ribbon, fleur-de-lis, and nodules, in their integrity, we may sup- press the circles, and then the design will fit the frame. We now pass on to No. 4, where the design, being too large for the ground, leaves the sides bare; but as we may not alter its proportion, we are only left the choice of repeating the design, adding a detail for the centre. Next comes No. 3, the largest of all, where the preceding device, although very much developed, is insufficient to fill up the surface; hence a special arrangement which shall unite the two devices and maintain the nature of the subject becomes necessary. To this may be added some interesting details ; for example, a label, crown, and ribbon knot. We have one more panel, No. 5, which, owing to its 1 ii 4 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. narrow dimensions, will require greater subtlety of ar- rangement in order to preserve harmony of proportion, as here the type-device cannot possibly fit the space even if reduced to the simple expression of No. i. To leave it alone would be one way of solving the difficulty, and not a bad way either, small surfaces being often left bare to set off enriched ones ; but in this case a similar treatment might argue poverty of invention ; we proceed, therefore, by still greater simplification of type-device, Fig. 109. — Proportional Ornament on Panels of Different Dimensions. and succeed in preserving to this Liliputian panel some reflex of the unit. In principle, abstract subjects should receive very simple treatment, whilst floral, animal, and especially the human form, require greater subtlety of arrangement when in- troduced in a composition. Thus, if a series of panels of different size were to be decorated with wreaths, brackets, masks, leafage, etc., the form could not well be too simple, and by adopting the same method as before would result in Fig. 109. But if analogy both of dimension and relief in the details, analogy of space division and identical THEORY. "5 disposition of the subjects were presented in a series of panels of equal size, then greater freedom would be allowed in the form of ornament, Fig. no. Great care must be exercised too, in reducing the human figure, so as not to give it a cramped position ; hence, if the space is too small for the whole form, a bust or cameo might Fig. no. — Different Forms applied to Panels of same Size be substituted with advantage. In cases, however, where it is necessary to maintain the whole, a youth or a child may be thrown in, whose proportion being the same as would be given to an adult in that position will indi- cate enlarged scale ; whilst a bird may be replaced by a butterfly, or a simple gnat, thus securing proportion and satisfactory aspect for the whole work. n6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Conformably to the principle of unity of proportion, it is self-evident that the same ornament must not be applied to borders of different width forming part of the same composition ; nevertheless, without altering the nature of the ornament, some details might be omitted or super- added, resulting in agreeable effect, Fig. in; in which the upper designs, while suited to the widths represented, would have a bad effect if reduced to suit the widths of the lower designs. For equilateral, triangular, ovoid, or conical forms, gradually fining into a point, the details .lasBiss^ssiss^ Fig. III. — Proportion of Ornament to Width. should be proportionate to the general outline ; i.e. sim- plified from the base to the top, Fig. 113. The Greeks and Grseco- Romans are our masters in the art of propor- tioning their ornament to the size of their vases ; the neck exhibiting very delicate foliated scrolls, repeated with adjunctions on the body; the chief characteristics of the ornament being maintained throughout, Fig. 112. This important principle is too often neglected in archi- tecture, and conspicuous by its absence in all art in- dustries. Thus, we daily see different mouldings applied THEORY. ii7 Fig. 112. — Proportion of Ornament to Vase. on members of the same furniture; and different pro- u8 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. portion given to the various pieces of a breakfast or dinner service ; whilst a little care could so easily remedy such unpleasing faults. In like manner, the earrings, necklace, brooch, or bracelet of a set must have identical details, which may be enriched with additional designs, but without altering their dimensions. To sum up, if the student will adhere to the rules laid Fig. 113. — Proportion of Omatnent to General Outline. down in this chapter, he will secure that good aspect and harmony so essential in decorative composition. VII. — Variation and Repetition. If we could take up successively the details of a com- position, we should find that the principle advocated in the chapters treating of proportion, profile, and outline, are applicable to details presenting characteristic forms. We will limit ourselves, however, to the consideration of the THEORY. H9 laws governing them, and notably in what degree repeti- tion or variation is desirable in a given composition. • P! « • • sffl Fig. 1 14. — Repeated Ornament : Artistic and Inartistic A rrangements. Ornament repeated at similar distances is set off and emphasized by intervening spaces differing in size from SSm^!SS!^SSBSS!S!R l ! ii : 'I j - ,':■!',■■!■:: N ,!>!:■ . ,H-. '■ ■'■ ! lW|||l|lj Fig. 115. — Alternation of Fillets of different Character. it as much as possible. Sometimes richness of effect is obtained by diversified forms of ornament in juxtaposition ; 20 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. such as Greek and Roman modillions and dentels, of far better aspect than Byzantine forms distributed at long in- tervals, Fig. 114; sometimes by alternating enriched fillets Fig. 116. — Inartistic Decoration : Analogy of Details. with plain, Fig. 115. But no matter how complete the scheme of ornament the artist selects he must keep well in view the important fact that primary subjects should be Fig. 117. — Panels of One and of Two Centres. brought out, and their characteristic features emphasized so as to render similarity or analogy of aspect in details of different nature, even at a distance, impossible. Fig. 116. THEORY. 121 Panels of one centre or vertical line should not have ornament repeated in an upward and transverse direction, but such ornament would be legitimate in panels of two centres, Fig. 117. Upward and symmetrical ornament can only be Fig. 118. — Improper Repetition of Ornament. applied on a rounded form, when this is likewise symmetrical, i.e. presents a similar surface ; whilst identical detail should not be placed in works of different form and modelling, such as the centre and Fig. 119. — Artistic Repetition of Ornament. border of a plate, the neck and body of a vase, the frame and handle of a mirror, the foot and back of an arm-chair, etc., Fig. 118; but repetition would be right on the parts of the same surface; for example, 122 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. a plate-border, the neck, body, or foot of vessels, and also on a certain class of symmetrical forms of vertical direction, Fig. 119. If, however, the composition afforded isolated objects, an ewer and its basin, for example, or detached pieces of the same set, they should be united by repetition of one or more designs ; as in this case, similar repetition would in no wise be opposed to the principle we advocate. False analogies have, moreover, this disadvantage, that they reveal poverty of imagination, and result in monotony imriTiiftiiiiiiii *mmm Fig. 120. — Contrast of Monotonous and Varied Decoration. Such would be a decorative panel where classical scrolls and strapwork, differing somewhat in detail, but exhibit- ing uniformity of aspect, should be repeated throughout, Fig. 120. And here, we may warn the student to guard against the abuse of volute terminals on trusses, capitals, and the like, which he will, unfortunately, too often see around him. A volute or spiral is a decorative element at once elegant and easily manufactured, but it fails in its purpose if employed without discrimination. The grave misapprehension of ill-understood analo- gies is frequently met with in monumental facades, the THEORY. 123 cabinets of the Renaissance and those of the Middle Ages affording unequal parts ; where caryatides, chimeras, and saints of almost identical position are superimposed with utter disregard as to their unfitness and incongruity. The necessity of variation is even felt throughout the same detail not requiring continuous and uniform size, hence the outline of wreaths, scrolls, ribbon-knots, and the like should be as varied as possible, Fig. 121, in which the Fig, 121.— Examples of the Effect of good Variation in Outline. designs b are heavy and unpleasing, compared with the designs a, albeit their proportion is the same. This principle of variation and repetition is applicable to reliefs ; thus in details of different nature, true or coloured relief found in sculpture and painting should follow the inflections of outlines, and by orderly distribution of salient points coloured expression would be secured, well seen in a, Fig. 121. We feel that this principle was fully 124 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. kept in view in the art of the Renaissance, exhibiting scrolls, ribbons, wreaths, clustered fruit and foliage ; as well as figures, palms, escutcheons, etc., often of exceeding beauty and rich- ness of effect; subdued parts being contrasted by forms standing out in bold relief (Fig. 122). Repetition is of frequent occurrence in nature; for example, in the ring of petals in the primrose, the anemone, the buttercups, and a host more; and variation may be observed in the transition of form in the leaves of many plants, such as the columbine, the fern, etc. ; whilst contrast both of form and colour may be witnessed in the unfolding of the horse- chestnut bud, in the scarlet and white camellias with their green glossy leaves, in the yellow stamens of the red japonica, the scarlet Fig. 122.— Renaissance Relief. THEORY, 125 berries and green leaves of the holly — and indeed throughout the whole of nature. Fig. 123. — Exa?nple of good Early Gothic Work. Many late Roman and Byzantine bas-reliefs present scrolls, floral, animal and human forms, often of excellent Fig. 124.— Debased Gothic. execution, but they fail to interest us, owing to their sameness and want of contrast (see ante, Fig. 60). The truth of this principle may be illustrated by the treatment 126 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. foliage has received at various epochs: thus the leaf of Figs. 125, 126. — Contrasted Decoration, and Romanesque Capital. the maple divided in bold masses is exceedingly satisfac- Fig. 127. — Gothic Ornament. factory when viewed in English Decorated architecture, Fig. 128. — Contrasted Decoration. where its rendering is marked by truthfulness and tender- THEORY. 127 ness j whilst on the buildings of the debased Gothic style of architecture the gouge or chisel marks too often remind Fig. 129. — Contrasted Decoration. us, if that were necessary, of its laboured and unnatural appearance, Figs. 123, 124. " Contrast," says a great authority, "is as necessary for effect in form, quantity of detail, and the position of lines, as it is in colour; this is well exemplified in Fig. 125, Fig. 130. — Contrasted Decoration. wherein contrast is produced not only by reversing the unit, but emphasized by variation of colour." 128 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. The form of the acanthus, met with throughout the monuments of antiquity, the deeply indented leaves of the parsley, those of the fig and oak trees, etc., are m IJL- » Fig. 131. WMililimr ■-•■ t*~r< — l " ,rn ^' -Ornament not Flexible in Outline. allowed their varied and rich outline and due regard for natural growth, at the hands of mediaeval artists; that this is not the case with Byzantine, Romanesque, or SS3 MWj\ WpfjSR HI -. fli Iff 1 : fill' bSeS! 1 " If lw!f I Mr M$. 1 j III $P*| [1 • 'if fil M fpifr ■ Fig. 132. — Ornament not Flexible in Outline. English Norman work, the student can see for himself if he will compare Fig. 126, a foliate capital of Romanesque character, with Fig. 127, from a Gothic church. THEORY, 129 The naturally flexible outlines of flowers should be carefully maintained, as nothing more obnoxious can well be imagined than when their mode of treatment is stiff, uniform, and rigid, Figs. 131 and 132. Artists and skilful sculptors have at all times felt the value of contrast, and by a just distribution of contrast, repeti- tion, and variation, have secured warm and diversified aspect, Figs. 128, 129, 130. Exception should be made for flat foliates, interlacing and the like, where equality of outline must be followed Fig. 133- ■Ornament in which Equal Outline is given Equal Relief. by equality of relief; this mode when juxtaposed with prominent and modelled subjects is pleasing and satisfac- tory, Fig. 133. On the other hand, the calm and digni- fied expression of the human figure met with on the monuments of the Egyptians, and which never altered during the whole course of their art history, was imposed upon them by a powerful priesthood. Did we not know that such laws were less stringent with the Babylonians, the nature of their bas-reliefs would alone enlighten us. With the former the difficulty of working hard mate- K »30 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. rials, such as granite, may have had some influence in bringing about reliefs so low as to appear almost flat, Fig. 134. This mode of treatment was reproduced in France by vtpj iiii L JL, r..'.-^... . ■J., to ,-/,-, Fig. 134.— Egyptian Bas-relief. Goujon and his school ; whilst in England Flaxman and others, by reverting to earlier and purer methods, did much to bring discredit and contempt on the Rocaille style, which had originated with France, and thence taken strong foothold everywhere. THEOR Y. 31 There is another class of relief which may be achieved by the application of almost flat ornament on to a raised ground. The light falling on the space seems suddenly to wake up the uneven portions, which reflect back all the prismatic colours with truly gorgeous effect. This pecu- liar relief is first met with on Byzantine work, and requires great subtlety and refinement in its elaboration, Fig. 135. Fi g> ^ZS.—Pyza? merit. We see it also on the armoury, the gold and bronze work of the Chinese, in the repousse brass-work of the Persians executed under the influence of Hindu art, as well as in the Arabic and Renaissance fabrications, wherein the highly polished portions of the raised form are dotted on the surface of the work with marvellous effect. The value of contrast finds good illustration in Fig. 136, from which 132 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. it may be deduced that a shield with a plain, flat surface, but furnished with central boss and some reliefs sprinkled on the border, will be more pleasing than one overloaded with bas-reliefs, allegorical figures, scrolls, masks and Fig. 136.— Contrasted Effect of Sparing and Excessive Relief. trophies of equal richness of detail throughout. Many of the most famous works of Bellini and his school posi- tively lose in effect by the excessive richness of their ornamentation. This error of judgment was not com- mitted by his fellow countryman Ghiberti in the friezes on 137 .—Moorish Interlaced Design, 134 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION, the doors of the Baptistery in Florence, nor on those of the Baptistery of St. Mark, in Venice, by Sansovino. Casts of these remarkable gates may be seen in the South Kensing- ton Museum. If we except details of the highest quality, Lombard fabrication of the same period will not bear com- parison with that of the Tuscan and Venetian schools. Ornament is said to have value of colour when it is marked by complexity, brilliancy, and movement, which may be obtained by opposing monochrome and subdued parts to multicoloured and shaded designs, Fig. 115; in which the design to the left is a Perso-Arabic, and that to the right a Moorish example. This important feature Fig. 138. — Ornament possessing Value of Colour. is of easy application on small surfaces ; large works, however, will tax the powers, the knowledge, and the subtlety of arrangement of the artist to the utmost. The form of ornament of the Arabs and Moors (Alhambra) affords systems of interlacing lines exceed- ingly rich and beautiful, yet governed by a principle of order banishing any idea of confusion. This is achieved by superimposing on flat intricate scroll designs a diver- sified and somewhat raised string pattern; over this is placed a plain broad ribbon device, of lighter colour than the rest, to regulate the composition, and by judicious sprinkling of glittering buttons, scarlet buds, THEOR F. 135 pomegranate blossoms and escutcheons, they succeed in producing work of eminent art quality, Figs. 137, 139. The same may be said of the floral Hindu-Persian art, Fig. 139. — Rich Interlaced Design. ana of that of the Renaissance ; whilst the intricate and exuberant ornament of Indian work, as well as that of late or debased Gothic of all countries, exhibit an excess of richness and want of repose which are somewhat objectionable. 136 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. As we have before observed, the law of contrast is applicable to plain and enriched mouldings of every form >>>-^^> >>r-^/y>^^>y>^>f r >^>>^>>.^ig^e±^ mumf Fig. 140. — Byzantine Sunk and Relief Decoration. and design. In exceedingly complicated work this is obtained by opposing enriched patterns of different forms, THEORY. m frequently met with in compositions of the Byzantine period, in which ornament is slightly sunk, flat or in bold relief, Fig. 140. The Greeks felt the want of contrast when they combined the acanthus and water- lily leaf, the former having its foliage much divided, whilst the latter is without sections. Adherence to this principle is apparent in the art-work of modem times ; &MM& &$§§&> Fig. 141. — Linear, Flat, and Modelled Ornament. notably in the style known as Louis Seize, and in the productions of Flaxman, Wedgewood, the brothers Adams, and others. VIII. — Relation of Designs to Each Other. Before we take up the relation of the various forms of ornament when juxtaposed to one another, it will not be out of place to define the floriated expressions by which they are known, Fig. 141. Ornament is called linear when it is expressed by simple lines without breadth a j flat, when indicated by parallel lines dividing a plain surface, b j and modelled, 133 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. when possessed of real or floriated relief of diversified direction, c. These various renderings may be united in the same detail. The vast stores of nature, as an inexhaustible mine, are open to the artist, and from the floral and vegetable kingdoms, as also from inorganic objects, he can devise forms of exceeding beauty. Thus, besides leaves, flowers, buds, fruits and seeds, many of which are of rare excel- lence as ornamental forms, yielding innumerable modifi- cations of outline, there are objects of less interest, such as thread, string, iron bars flattened or twisted, ribbons, bands, strips of paper, etc., and the complete scheme of modelled ornament, carrying the mind over a boundless array of products differing in texture or material. Attentive observation of the natural growth of floral and vegetable forms will prove a better guide in regulating the relation that one design should bear to another, than when this is achieved by mere "inward consciousness." Ornament may be accomplished: (i) by curvilinear and radiating lines, divided by variously formed spaces, united either by intervening or by tangential lines, with or without interlacing; (2) and (3) by crossings and intersections. In the first case, the ornament should be composed of lines flatly treated, as best adapted to the material it recalls ; whilst with crossing of lines and tangential junc- tions, narrow bands and ribbons will be appropriate, Fig. 142. The junction of tangential lines should be straight and well defined over the curvilinear form, and carried THEORY. U9 beyond it ; whilst slanting junctions should be discarded as exceedingly obnoxious. Bare angles are frequently furnished with small details, and crossing of bands, either simulating tying of knots, loops, links, or any forms Fig. 142. — Examples of T?^te and False Junctions. of binding ; they are valuable as investing the ornament with an appearance of solidity, reassuring both to the mind and eye, Fig. 143. With regard to the love of all early nations for interlacing and woven involution of lines, Mr. Ruskin says : " It is not often that any idea of utility Fig. 143. — Good and Bad Tangential Junctions. has power to enhance the true impression of beauty ; but it is possible that the enormous importance of the art of weaving to mankind gives interest if not actual attractive- ness, to any type or image of the invention to which we 140 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. owe our comfort and our pride. But the more powerful reason lies in the joy that the human mind has in contemplating any kind of maze or entanglement, so long as it can discern through its confusion any guiding clue or connecting plan. Fig. 144. — Scotch Brooch with Interlaced Decoration. "We are never tired of contemplating this woven interlacing, and that, in some degree, is the secret of the sublime pleasure which we have in watching the branches of the trees, the intertwining of the grass, the tracery of the higher clouds, the fine meshes of the THEORY, 141 robe, the braiding of the hair, and the various glitterings of the linked net or wreathed chain. Byzantine orna- mentation, like that of almost all nations in a state of progress, is full of this kind of work : but it occurs most conspicuously, though most simply, in the minute traceries which surround their most solid capitals; sometimes in a reticulated veil, sometimes resembling a basket, on the edges of which are perched birds and other animals." Interlacing of lines and narrow bands is of constant occurrence in early Irish, Runic, and Anglo-Saxon art, both in illumination and carving. Ancient Irish and Runic crosses and brooches show beautiful examples of interlaced patterns of exquisite make; sometimes the pattern is formed by mere lines, alternated with snakes and other animals, entwined into endless variety. This is well seen in our Fig. 144, showing an ancient Scotch dagger, which forms part of one of the "Hunstertan brooches," with inscriptions in Runic or Icelandic characters; as well as in Fig. 145, a magnificent specimen from an ancient Irish brooch. Interlacing patterns are frequently met with in classic and mediaeval work of all countries, and examples of Assyrian and Roman mosaic pavements may be studied in the British Museum. The plait or patera and netting patterns are also found throughout the whole range of art. Fig. 146 is a series of border arrangements with a band more or less diversified, showing appropriate junctions a, b, c, and obnoxious at d, because the latter junction is only effected at one point. When this is the case, the f42 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. design may be maintained by carrying it under or over Fig. 145.— Irish Brooch with Interlaced Decoration. the border or frame, Fig. 147. Nevertheless, if the nature THEOR Y. H3 of the ornament should recall neither strip or ribbon, but was destined to figure in mosaic, marquetry or flooring, <>^±-i #> ^ l\( J3 m gj> fa Fig. 146. — Border Arrangements showing True and False Junctions of Bands. tangential junctions might be resorted to with good effect, as owing to the flat position of the form a gliding appearance could not be apprehended. Fig. 147. — Byzantine Inlaid Design. The respective effects of confused and clearly defined interlacing will be seen in Fig. 148, in which the supe- 144 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. riority of the ornament to the left over that to the right will be readily apparent. In order to avoid acute contacts, false tangential junc- tions, confused angles, and uncertain lengths of line, the crossing of one form over another should follow a direction resembling as near as possible a straight angle, Fig. 148. Interlacing bands also should imitate hair, cord or Fig. 148. — Contrasted Effect of Well-defined and of Confused Interlacing. any other plaiting ; i.e. should alternately pass over and under the bands in contact. This principle is applicable in a less degree to verdure, ornament and arabesques ; to modelled details, such as plaited ribbons, flowing drapery, palms, wreaths, labels, armour, instruments, and even animal and human forms, when associated in the same composition, Fig. 150. Figures 149, 151, 152, 153, are good examples of Oriental interlacing work, and though rigidly conven- tional in their treatment, yet show their indebtedness to nature for their effect. THEORY. 145 Fig. 149. — Oriental Interlaced Ornament. We will close this chapter with two more examples of Fig. 150. — Complex Modelled Ornament. Arabic and Moorish elaborate interlacing, with vivid 146 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Fi&> 151* — Oriental Interlaced Ornament. colouring, red, blue, black and gold, profusely orna- Fig. 152. — Moorish Interlaced Ornament. mented, yet appearing to rise naturally from the circum- stances of the case, Fig. 153, 154. TI-IEOR Y. ■4; IX. — Aspect of Ornament. Pcrely imaginative compositions must yet contain some degree of probability in their general appearance, so as to be acceptable to reason. Thus the wing- less figures met with on mural and Pompeian vase paint- ings look so natural and well equipoised, that we do not stop to inquire by what agency they are able Arabic Interlaced Ornament. to keep their elevated attitude in defiance of the law of equilibrium. The same cannot be said of isolated Byzantine figures, resting generally on some ground, or what is meant to be such, or leaning on one side; because they assume an attitude of repose wholly at variance with their real position. The flimsiest support will satisfy the eye, provided it carries some kind of reality with it ; either a ground line, or a rectangular 148 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. slab, of frequent employment in early paintings, Fig. 155. Further to illustrate this principle we give Fig. 156, representing an Italian decorative plate with a central subject of vertical direction. Round the border are disposed small figures (putti) supporting wreaths and labels. As the whole subject is treated conventionally and painted in one or two subdued colours, the abnor- mal position of the figures, some of them head down- Fig. 154. — Moorish Interlaced Ornament. wards, and also the wrong way upwards of wreaths, are not particularly noticeable ; but were they to receive exces- sive modelling and natural colour, they would at once become incongruous and exceedingly disagreeable.* We will yet take another subject, this time a panel created after the second method, exhibiting a central * " Ornament on plates, around a cup or vase." says Dr. Dresser, " should be such as will not suffer by perspective." THEORY. ^49 figure which stands on a bracket with lateral foliated consoles and colonnettes supporting a dais, Fig. 157. No one will seek to know the degree of solidity or the mate- rials of this composition; we readily admit its fanciful character, yet we feel that it might easily become improb- Fig. 155. — Early Figure Paintings. able if a faint echo of reality were not provided in the general balance and proportion of the design. Should bracket a, for example, be too small, the attitude of the figure would immediately seem constrained and unnatural ; the case would hardly be improved by making bracket b larger than proportion will justify. On the other hand, if the consoles c were small relatively 150 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. to the colonnettes, they would appear to bend under the weight they support ; inversely, their heaviness and exaggerated solidity d, in proportion to the object superimposed, would be made apparent. If the junction of the colonnettes be tangential to the volutes and carried on in the lower portion by a recall, as in our figure, the sense of balance is excellent and satisfactory ; but if the Fig. 156. — Italian Decorative Plate. bisections were effected on the slope of the volutes, all impression of equilibrium would at once be destroyed. In like manner, perfect balance must exist between the small columns and the dais; this should be neither too large, e, nor too scanty, /, in relation to the figure, or the eye will not be satisfied. The measure, therefore, to be maintained, and the THEOR Y. 5> thickness which should be accorded to details, is a question not so easily answered, and may be affected by the material at command or other considerations. J)is/nopo'rlion S Fig. 157. — Examples of Proportion and Disproportion. An intimate knowledge of nature will alone enable the student to produce brilliant and ideal works, which shall yet be attuned to the dictates of common-sense. 152 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. X. — Principles Common to Ornament. Space is a feature in ornament which deserves our atten- tion, all the more that little or no heed has been bestowed upon it, albeit on its surface are disposed the decorative designs belonging to the second and third methods. After the artist has supplied the primary and secondary forms and lines, he should think of the masses of the orna- mental scheme and the greater or less magnitude or pro- minent strength of colour, together with the relative lightness or depth the tint must occupy in relation to the space ; whether the former should be dark on a light ground, or, inversely, the space toned down and sombre in colour ; for upon the adoption of one of these methods much of the aspect of the composition will depend. We mentioned before that a black detail on a white ground will appear smaller than a white one on black ground. This curious optic effect is well understood in commerce, and large firms, desirous to introduce variety in their wall-papers, keep in their employ an artist, entrusted with the modification of colours of the same plate ; but, however skilful such adaptations may be, it cannot be expected that all the details will harmonize with the general tone of the composition. The finest pottery of the Persians is of a white ground, with designs in azure blue, and inscriptions in black letters, freely drawn and standing out in bold relief. The designs on early Greek vases were traced in black on a light red or white surface j and a large proportion of silver and ivory work inlaid with niello, the sgrqffitti or black THEORY. 15 j engraving on white glaze of the sixteenth century, were due to the same principle. Every one who reads knows how much clearer are black letters on white ground than white letters would be on a black surface. As springing from this principle, light- coloured ornament applied to a dark ground is apt to become confused, as part is absorbed, especially when the design is very fine and delicate. Perhaps the finest specimens of damascening in silver applied to black metal, mother-of-pearl inlay on ebony, etc., are to be found in India at the present time. The outline of Italian majolica of this period was likewise traced in black or zaffer blue, shaded off with the latter colour, whilst the flesh of the human figure is left white ; or the borders are ornamented with grotesque designs, reserved in white on a dark blue ground, and central sub- jects painted in a similar tone ; thus testifying to the appre- ciation felt by nationalities the most diverse, to the value of contrasting one colour with another. The British and South Kensington Museums contain very fine collections of these various works. Dark borders should be selected in preference to light ones ; especially when the general tone of the masses is pale in colour; but when both ground and designs are dark the border should be light and narrow, so as not to interfere with the subject which it surrounds. Sometimes sharp contrast between ornament and space is the chief characteristic of the composition j in that case, care must be exercised to throw in some details, which will add refinement and softness to the outline of the subject. A simple black fillet, which should follow a large border of 54 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. similar tint, surrounding a white space, will be found valuable in bringing about the desired effect. Many Faenza tazze also afford dark blue ground, on which are etched white figures, their outline softened by flowing ribbons, leafage, and ringlets about neck and face, Fig. 158. Similarly, in early paintings light-tinted figures on dark space are given an accompaniment of sceptre, birds, Fig. 158. — Ornament contrasted with Space. foliage, drapery, and outstretched wings, &c, in order to relieve length and rigidity of outline, Figs. 159 and 155. The builders of the Middle Ages were no less clever in providing their parapets, spandrels, etc., with pierced panelling, ornamented with trefoils, quartrefoils, or with foliated tracery; thus lightening their edifices and also investing them with perfection of form, by a THEOR Y. 155 F ~ 1 ftl£- ^ilfl SISpi '"i&FtyjjiW ^Bk '"' 1 9 ■S-^^SoP^aH^ J " 1S9B WB^SjBgsS&'jj^^M^HS. .- ' w -^| " T^MilpSft^^^' 1 ^- MJIll '•^•- ; BKa^^^^P^^^^ i * ,i, ^% ^1811 ^■fll E v^^ "J '^^Ht^^^^xL^Mm.- W^MvT^ii 1 ^B BjjR F' ; ^Bvl] I vwl •rV»'2i v ^»lfi-- ^%Ti^^F J^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^t j .^H"'.-^^ ■V" ■■- « M£>' '^B, ' IIP* **'* *-JKfijl : :£ ^^ ,r fc& 1 Ai ■* .^41 SS ft ft '* — — Fig. 159. — Ornament contrasted with Space. subtle combination of straight, curved and diagonal lines. i 5 6 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. The student need hardly be told where to look for examples of work of this period j England is richer than any other country in beautiful churches and houses, abounding in rich and admirable ornament, to which access, in most instances, is free and easy. In a different sense, and from a wider artistic standpoint, the Albert Hall is well worthy his attentive consideration, as the outcome of intimate knowledge and illustration of all styles, both OIlIIIllMIlllfllW]]™ IIIIIIIIIMI'N. TmnTTiTTrniiittii- ; *tiiiitii%iw»ii#riiiiitf'MitiM?n*»>>ii»tiij/tifj»*»iiti»#»^iiiiM*ii>>tiiiiitf Fig. 1 60. — Ornament in imitation of Matting. ancient and mediaeval, but yet displaying the vigorous individuality of its creator. Let us now examine the relative extent of space and ornament, and note the various aspects produced according as the former predominates over the latter, or inversely the decorated parts over plain ones. When plain surfaces predominate over decorated ones, the result is a refined delicate ornament, such as is seen on THEOR Y. IS! Greek and Pompeian vases, in the arabesques and nielling of Italian and French Renaissance, in much of the work of Louis XVI., Wedgwood, Adams, and others. This, how- ever, may easily become mere fining and finiking of lines. Fig. 161. — Interlaced Celtic Ornament. When form predominates over space, the ornament is ample and rich in its effect, but if indulged in it is apt to end in heaviness and confusion of aspect ; exemplified in late Roman sculpture, in Celtic interlacing, in Arabic, Figs. 162, 163. — Space identical with Ornament. Moorish, and Hindu ornament, as well as in the florid English style of architecture and much of the present French art, Fig. 161. There is a class of ornament, however, made to 158 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. simulate matting, under which the ground entirely dis- appears, except at the crossings, Fig. 160. In Fig. 5 we give a very pleasing decorative design, produced by a judicious apportionment of space and ornament. | i:ii;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiniiiii[ii)illllliihlillll",lllllilllilllliiiliiiiiiii)iii'iii Fig. 164. — Space identical with Ornament. A judicious alternation of space and ornament is in some cases resorted to from motives of expediency in the production of articles of industry; illustrated in 162, where ornament and ground are similar in form, varia- tion being obtained in the colouring of white against black. THEORY. 159 It need hardly be observed that similar combination Arabic (symmetrical). Chinese (unsymmetrical). Fig. 165. — Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Ornament. Fig. 166.— Ornament of Twofold Effect. is produced at very little expenditure of labour. Some- i6o DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. times, as in damask fabrics, the form is so arranged as to call the attention over the whole surface ; this expression, in a higher order of ornament, is very much to be sought after by the student. The ground has not at all times been considered as the visible surface, resulting from intervals left by orna- ment j Byzantine artists were the first who used space as Fig. 167. — Corner Ornament parallel to Outline. an element of decoration by giving it ornamental outline. This was followed by Arab and Italian artists in their compositions, in which ornament and space are identical in form, and present admirable gradations of colour, resulting in rich and pleasing effects, Fig. 163. The Moors, Arabs, Italians, and Hindus more especi- cally, delight in this class of forms, known as " counter- change ; " the pavements and mural ornamentation of THEORY. 161 Italian churches, the mosques of Constantinople, of Cairo, and the court of the Alhambra at the Crystal Fig. 168. — Composition depending for its effect on subtle arrangement of Colours. Palace, etc., afford many beautiful examples, some of great richness and intricacy of design, Fig. 1 64. What we have said of primary divisions will apply in part to corners, where an easy and simple mode should be the rule. There are two ways of treating the corner. M 1 62 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. In the one case, the angle is treated as such, Fig. 166; in the other the ornament is parallel to the outline, exemplified in Fig. 167, showing two panels of the sixteenth century with circular medallions and span- drils. These should be slightly sunk so as to dis- appear in the general mass a, for if it is in relief b, its angular form of outline will be emphasized in a very objectionable manner. The marked difference between a symmetrical and unsymmetrical construction is well seen in the Arabic and Chinese panels, Fig 165. These might be multiplied almost ad infinitum, but they will suffice to illustrate our meaning, and lead the student to seek fresh fields for himself. There is also a peculiar kind of decorative ornament first met with in Graeco-Roman paintings, reproduced by the Italian Renaissance, and again taken up towards the end of last century. In this class of composition, a floral ornament simulating an inner border forms part of the composition, which is kept low in tone, brilliant colouring being reserved for the ground found towards the real border. Similar arrangement will require much subtlety, and tax the resources of the artist to the utmost, in order to ensure satisfactory aspect to the parts immediately bordering the ground. Its want of truth, however, renders it at best but an ingenious expedient. (Fig. 168.) CHAPTER IV. FURNITURE. The relation of form and detail to each other which has been noticed in another place, naturally leads up to the principle of ornament as applied to objects of com- mon use. With the Greeks, beautiful and good were synonymous terms ; we would alter it thus : a thing to be beautiful must also be useful — a principle we have endeavoured to set forth in our earlier chapters. Hence glasses and silver cups should have their parts propor- tioned and such as can be easily handled. If the stem is too short the equilibrium of the vessel will suffer; if too long, it will be equally obnoxious and wearisome of aspect. Care, too, should be taken to make the lip suffi- ciently prominent, for if this is neglected the liquid will run down the sides of the vessel and soil the adjacent objects, such as table-cloth, carpet, etc. This principle is well observed in ecclesiastical silver pieces, notably chalices, exhibiting stems furnished with a round form upon which the hand may rest. Many Persian bottles also present a similar feature. (Fig. 169.) In like manner, it should not be forgotten that a lamp is a receptacle intended to hold inflammable matter; its foot or base, therefore, should be sufficiently large not to be easily upset ; while its mechanism must be good 164 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. and conveniently placed. Similarly, the probable des- tination of an object should be remembered in its selection j and if the choice lies between two lamps, for instance, one very beautiful and rare, but likely to prove useless, whilst the plain and more common one promises well, preference should be given to the latter. Vessels exhibiting angular handles, which were much in vogue towards the end of the eighteenth century Fig. 169. — Chalice and Bottle of good design. and the beginning of this, are obnoxious in every respect, Fig. 170. That forms may be beautiful, simple, and commodious is well seen in Fig. 171. Jugs, flagons, and ewers should be provided with han- dles which will not hurt the hand that grasps them, and mouths that will pour out well. A small projection for the palm and thumb, such as is seen on German Seidels, is valuable. THEORY. .65 Many Renaissance productions, and a number of those of the seventeenth century, present handles which should not be reproduced ; for although great freedom of treat- ment is permissible, if not legitimate, in show pieces, this must not be so exaggerated as to destroy completely its primary character. If a vase is disfigured past recognition, Figs. 170, 171. — Good-shaped and Ill-shaped Handles compared. why not have some other form that will do as well ? It follows therefore that when a particular shape has been selected, it should be pursued honestly and consistently throughout. The same may be said of decorative plates, and the difficulties of working the hollow and border, when a simpler and easier mode can be found in a medallion. 1 66 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. On the other hand, the shape and fittings of a piece of furniture should indicate its probable use ; for if it looks one thing while its purpose is another, the construction is sure to be weak or incorrect in some points, so that the sham wardrobe, chest of drawers, or whatever else it may be, will not work well. And in what terms shall we stigmatise those uncomfort- able chairs and arm-chairs, exhibiting backs with such deep carving as to bruise the unfortunate person rash enough to lean against them ? Or the jewels, necklaces, bracelets, and earrings with multitudinous points, catching everywhere, tearing everything, and last, not least, hurting the wearer? The various parts of a clock, too, should be propor- tioned to each other ; the pedestal should be of a size that will set off the statuette it supports, and so on with the other portions of the timepiece. The mistaken idea that a white surface is not artistic accounts, doubtless, for the dark-faced clocks we so often see. This is followed up by another wrong notion, that you cannot have too much of a good thing; and so ornament of the most elaborate and intricate description entirely covers the surface, accompanied by characters that are unknown to all but a few antiquarians. After hopelessly trying to find a clue to the hieroglyphics, we inwardly wish for the homely clocks of our young days. They could boast, it is true, no artistic value, but they had the merit of answering the purpose for which they were made, and their black legible Roman characters could be read by everybody. THEORY. 167 Other Points Common to Ornament. While these have already been treated in another part of this work, we wish here to add a few remarks on some minor points, especially the human figure, which formed so distinguishing a feature of the art- subjects of the Renaissance, under Louis XIV. and the Tudors. The artists of this period, proud of their knowledge, were eager to display it in its most exalted expression, and introduced the human form wherever a place could be found for it, forgetting that the mind soon wearies of contemplating a series of parts which require a certain effort to be read and all of equal importance, and seeks unconsciously a quiet corner, where to rest awhile, that it may go back with renewed zest to the more complicated portions. This exuberance of the human form, already apparent in the Loggie of Raphael * as well as in the art-products of Michelangelo, runs riot with the brothers Carracci and Benvenuto Cellini, whilst the school of Fontainebleau was marked by the same error of judgment. Similarly, the Hindus have made undue use of the animal and human form in the facades of their pagodas, exhibiting moreover a perfect maze of patterns of extraordinary intricacy j whilst in late Gothic architecture multitudinous figures look out from every nook and corner. Ornament should be conceived in view of the position * Raphael was a great painter, but not a decorator, who treated walls and ceilings as he would canvas. The same holds good with painters of this and later periods. 1 68 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. it will ultimately occupy. Thus a panel representing Agriculture, for example, should not be constructed on the same lines as one portraying the Arts and Sciences. In the former, a few wild flowers, some clustering hops and ears of corn, accompanied by rustic implements, will sufficiently indicate its character ; but a more Fig. 172. — Faulty Decoration : Main subject not predominant. elaborate and subtle treatment will be appropriate for the latter. It may be laid down as a principle, that in a sym- metrical composition, the most prominent surface, or that which is on a level with the eye, should be occupied by the primary subject. This, to a certain extent, is applicable to unsymmetrical compositions, for if the form is placed in a corner much of its interest will be THEORY. 169 destroyed. This principle is well illustrated in " Annun- ciation," and other pictures of like description, wherein the angel or secondary subject, at the other side of the canvas, helps to set off and concentrate the attention on the principal figure. But a frieze surrounding a vase may have its parts repeated, for here the eye will naturally follow the ornament over the whole surface. Further, it is self-evident that the main subject must receive more care than the accessories surround- ing it; hence the mode of treatment exemplified in Fig. 172 is to be discarded as violating the principles we have set forth. PART II. —PRACTICE. MATERIALS USED IN DECORATION. The first part of this work deals with the theoretical side of decorative art; it remains now to note the various materials used in ornament, as well as the effect they produce, according as this or that material is selected. This important principle, touched upon before, must be studied both in relation to a just conception of the object to be represented, as well as the nature of the material at command, since this will greatly modify the form, whilst neglect of its potentialities will result in disaster. Consequently the artist should guard against painfully imitating the effect that strictly belongs to another material, and which will not have the same fitness out of its natural place. Such would be a gate, Fig. 173, where, from a mistaken notion of unity, all sense of fitness would be discarded by carrying the design on stone and wood alike ; seen in a, corrected in b. These remarks particularly apply to designers, who, to considerations of usefulness, of expediency, and of the limitations imposed upon them by the material at hand, PRACTICE. 171 must also aim at clothing their ideas with interest and with as much grace as these restrictions will permit, so as Fig. 173. — Suitable and Unsuitable Ornamentation. to raise their compositions above the level of mere indus- trial products. I. — Stone, Marble, Granite, and Porphyry. Calcareous stone, either hard or soft, is one of the materials most generally used in buildings, fountains, columns and balustrades, in monumental vases and finials of every kind. It is first cut into large blocks by- heavy blows dealt with a pickaxe and sledge-hammer, and then hollowed out with gentle blows so as not to split the mass, and cut, moulded, carved, and polished off on the surface with a chisel, etc. Hard stone and marble admit of higher polish and more elaborate work than softer and looser materials. With patience and gentle well-regulated blows the DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. chisel is driven by a light hammer, producing the broader or heavier lines ; with the borer, deep or shallow channels are cut, as well as minute and delicate patterns of great beauty, the effect of which may be enhanced by opposing highly polished or filled parts to dull or plain ones. The greater or less degree of ornamentation must be regulated by the material employed and the destination of the art object. Thus, in a vase of solid stone intended as a finial in a building of a certain importance, and which we know will be viewed from afar, refine- ment of make would be superfluous and lost to the sight ; hence if the general effect of outline and the details are pleasing and appropriate to the material, the artist will have done Fig. 174. — Stone Vase: Appropriate design. enough to satisfy decorative requirements, Fig. 174. In this spirit were conceived the stone monuments of the PRACTICE. 173 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and if their outward aspect is somewhat heavy, it undoubtedly harmonizes better with stone than the sunk delicate details of the perforated pinnacles of the fifteenth and sixteenth Fig. 175. — Marble Vase: Good Roman design. centuries ; for their ruinous state is sufficient proof of the absurdity of fine work in such a position. Roman marble work is marked by breadth of expression and make which are exceedingly satisfactory. This is very well seen in their funeral urns, bowls, monumental vases, 174 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Fig. 175, tripods, Fig. 176, and in the fine decorative candelabra which have come down to us. The traditions of imperial Rome were continued in Italy throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Italian work of this period is distinguished by exquisite taste and consummate knowledge of the capabili- ties of the material used, a principle which is not observable in the art pro- ductions of Italians of the present day, in which minute and over-delicate execution are the chief character- istics. In window-frames care must be exercised to make the openings sufficiently large to let in as much light as possible, leaving plain and strong bands uncut to support the work. This is well seen in the Roman claustra, in the Byzantine, Arabic, and especially Moor- ish window-frames, in which pretty patterns are carved in soft plaster easy of repair, and often of marvellously delicate workmanship, Fig. 177. Fig 176.— Marble Tripod. Good Roma?i design. PRACTICE 175 Hard stones, such as granite, porphyry, and jasper, require much patient labour, and details can hardly be obtained away from the mass. Fine-grained marble is not found in Egypt, therefore hard and soft calcareous stone, or the harder porphyry, basalt, and especially granite, were used in her monumental works. The rigid and almost flat treatment of most Egyptian compositions is accounted for by the constant danger the artist was in of shivering the work he wished to represent to pieces. Conse- quently, statues were planned so as to run the least risk of such catastrophe j their pose was gene- rally quiet, the hair fast to the shoulders, the arms and legs reserved, Fig. 178, or they disappear in the drapery, whilst a pilaster-like stand supports the whole, yielding a convenient space for inscriptions. Similar supports are not used in bronze statuettes, for they are of easier execution and in no danger of breakage. As might be expected, their modelling is finer and their treatment marked by a degree of freedom never found in those worked in hard stone. Roman imitations of Egyptian monumental works are incongruous, like all imitations, lacking the very quali- wsm tiara Asm 5SSS mm SB •Fig' 1 77- — Arabic Window -frame. 76 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. ties which it was intended to secure, and which make the monoliths of Egypt so imposing and satisfactory. Fig. 178. — Egyptian Statue II. — Wood, Ebony, and Ivory. It is almost superfluous to mention that woods are of very different quality and usefulness. In Europe the oak has the pre-eminence, for if it cannot be cut in every direction, nor so finely carved as walnut, it is of much longer duration, and the only one susceptible of being worked into scrolls, foliates, floral and animal PRACTICE. 177 forms, whilst retaining its beautiful massive aspect. These characteristics of the oak were fully recognised by the Romans, with whom one of its names, robur, was synonymous with strength, hardness, power, and endurance. In England oak panelling, oak flooring, oak chests, and other pieces of furniture were extensively used during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, when a large proportion of this country was covered with oak forests. Of the old pieces still preserved, a chest of the time of King John may be mentioned. We have some curious records of the endurance of particular wood structures. The cedar roof of the famous temple of Diana of Ephesus was intact at the end of four centuries. The roof beams of the temple of Apollo at Utica were of cedar, and still sound after twelve hundred years. The beautiful open roof of Westminster Hall, said to be of chestnut, dates from Richard II., and is still in good preservation. Woods have not escaped the whims of fashion ; thus in olden times our furniture was chiefly made of oak and walnut, which were replaced by mahogany, and in rare instances by satin-wood, ebony, rosewood, etc. ; now the list of ornamental woods is much enlarged, including grey maple, Hungarian yew, olive, ash, Amboyna, and many more. Fine woods, used in the form of veneer, i.e. cut in very thin sheets, such as the citron, apple, cherry, plum, holly, beef-wood, Coromandel, locust-tree, zebra, yacca, Palmyra, nutmeg-wood, bamboo, cane, Japanese woods, etc., N 1 78 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. owing to their costliness are only found in the houses of the wealthy. Among the common tools used for working woods are the plane, beam-compass, the gouge and chisel ; to these may be added the lathe, which seems to have been employed from the earliest times, and is met with in Egypt, in Babylonia and other countries. Our space forbids us to do more than merely draw attention to the various modes by which beams, wood furniture, panelling, and the like are pieced together. Framing joints, used in the construction of roofs and centres of bridges, are always made on the principle of a tenon and mortise ; that is, one of the pieces to be joined is cut away so as to have a small projection called tenon, and a cavity called mortise formed in the other piece to receive this tenon. Sometimes tenons are cut very short, so as not to pass through the other piece ; when, to prevent lateral displacement, notably when the pres- sure is oblique, a bolt or iron strap is commonly used. Timbers may be connected longitudinally by simply bringing the two pieces end to end, placing a short piece on each side, and bolting through these short pieces and the main beams. But when nicety is required beams are connected lengthwise by scarfing, i.e. by cut- ting away half of the substance of each portion or beam, and the cut portions being brought together, are fastened by screws, bolts, straps or wedges. In constructing the scarf, care must be exercised to provide for the strain the piece is likely to sustain, either lengthwise or in a transverse direction. PRACTICE. 179 Beams may be connected by cogging, when a shallow notch is cut out of the under surface of the beam, and a similar notch is cut in the wall-plate to receive the beam. Two pieces are said to be lapped together when a Fig. 179. — Examples of Framing Joints. portion of each is cut away and the cut surfaces brought together. Joints of every, description, whether brought to bear on beams, the framework of doors, lintels, sills, cabinets, caskets, and the like, must be thoroughly mastered if it is wished to produce artistic furniture, Fig. 179. Carved and foliated subjects should be well kept together by judicious ties, and the finer parts framed within the more solid ones. i8o DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. The artist should not strive to invest wood fabrication with unduly fine and delicate details, which would be inappropriate, and at best can only please the ignorant; nor should the general structure of any composition disappear under elaborate and rich ornament. In the case of pattern-making and cabinet-work, it is most important that the wood should be well seasoned and of proper dimensions, so as to avoid warping, split- ting, and twisting, which will ruin the best work. This is well exemplified in the large panels of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, where unsightly splits and shrinkage are of frequent occurrence. These defects are never met with in mediaeval work. As a lule, bolts, straps, screws, and the like should be employed in preference to glue; which looks better at first, but is apt to get out of order in a damp climate, causing the pieces to fall out. The Egyptians, with true instinct, used wooden joints in their furniture ; seen in a chair preserved in the Louvre collection, a cast of which is in the South Kensington Museum. The British Museum is rich in specimens of Egyptian chairs ; while on the monuments of Khorsabad, unearthed by Sir H. Layard, " we find representations of chairs supported by animals and by human figures, sometimes prisoners. In this they resemble the arm-chairs of Egypt, but seem to have been more massive." Veneering, or the art of covering a cheap wood with thin slices of a more ornamental character, laid down with care, must be referred back to the time of Pliny. It was doubtless suggested by the extravagant prices that PRACTICE. 181 Cicero is were given for solid tables of precious woods, said to have paid .£9,000 for one table only. Northern countries are very rich in wood-panelling and wainscoting of all kinds, but the most beautiful examples met with in various collections are of Eastern origin. The South Kensington Museum possesses A i I il "'J I ' I 1 Fig. 180. — Arabic Frame-work. numerous specimens, distinguished by delicate carving and seeming intricacy in the arrangement of their geometrical designs of excellent effect. Our cut shows an Arabic frame-work, where woods prepared by the saw or turned in the lathe have been employed, Fig. 180. To give an account, however summary, of the elaborate and extensive wood- work of the fifteenth century, such «# DECORATIVE COMPOSITION fl$ lift Fig. 181. — Sixteenth, Century Wood-work. PRACTICE. 183 as screens, posts covered with tracery, coffers, stall-ends in churches, cupboards, and benches in baronial halls, with which England abounds, and which were designed after patterns of window tracery, would carry us far beyond our scope ; and for the same reason we cannot do more than mention the re- markable wood furniture and panelling of the Renaissance, conspicuous for bold design and rich ornamentation, Fig. 181. In Fig. 182, representing an Italian bellows, this boldness and surety of hand are well exemplified. The form of ornament on wood and other furniture on the continent during the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries, are the egg and tongue and other classical mouldings. In England, a more natural style was introduced by Grinling Gibbons. This artist carved birds, foliage, flowers, fruit, pieces of drapery, and so on, with rare truth and excel- lence of execution. Examples of his work may be seen over the altar of St. James's Church, as well as in the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral and in many private houses. Fig. 182.— Bellows, Italian design. 1 84 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Ivory inlay, almost restricted in Europe at the present time to small fancy objects and show pieces, was extensively used by artists of the Renaissance. It is still in great demand in the East, where it originated. Mouldings, foliage, scrolls, wreaths, pendants, and fruit, either carved separately and fixed with glue or clamps to cabinets, sideboards, wardrobes, and other pieces of furniture, admit of the smallest pieces of wood being used, and great division of labour ; but they are not satisfactory, despite undoubted qualities of execution, for they cannot be made to spring from nor harmonize with the background to which they are applied The moderate cost of such work alone accounts for its exten- sive use j and that is the best that can be urged in its favour. Long pieces of wood should be held together by numerous joints, whilst the outline of turned wood should not be made to look like thin metal. Admirable examples of the artistic furniture of all countries, from the earliest times, may be seen in the collection at South Kensington, which should receive the studious attention of the artist. III. — Bronze, Tin, and Electro-Bronze. Bronze is an admixture of copper mixed with small quantities of tin, zinc, and lead. We do not propose entering into the various methods practised by artists at different times for casting in bronze, but will confine PRACTICE. 185 ourselves to the simple statement that after the metal has been duly mixed and fused in the furnace, and the requisite " conduits " have been formed, the glowing metal is slowly poured into the mould where it will receive its final shape. The polishing, chasing, filing, chiselling, punching, etc., which the work may require after removal from the mould should be done by the artist himself. That this was the usual practice of artists of the Renaissance is very apparent in their work. Groups and complicated figures are cast separately and in different pieces, which are afterwards joined by soldering or dovetailing. Works in high relief, such as the members of a figure, the handles of a vase, clock cases, and all important masses of ornament, are treated in the same manner. And here we may note that machine stamping with a die is unduly practised in the manufacture of light brass fittings and ornaments of all kinds, which can only result in dry and rigid outlines, no matter how much care is afterwards lavished on the work to soften and polish its surface. There is no doubt that the earlier method of working bronze into shape was by cold hammering and cutting, which in process of time was aided by heating. Admir- able implements, both in make and beauty of form, are found in every collection, and belong to what has been called the Bronze Period. The best examples, perhaps, are those of Egyptian, Greek, and Etruscan origin. Circular pieces, such as clock-wheels and the like, 1 86 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. requiring great nicety and precision of outline, are pro- duced by means of a lathe j with art objects, however, casting should be resorted to as more satisfactory. lig. 183. — Bronze Tripod. Iia<<<<<4<<< Fig. 215. — Opus Alexandrinum. naturally ascribes its origin to them. The best examples of tesselated work occur at Pompeii and Rome ; but very fine specimens are found in this country, and wherever Roman colonisation extended. The most beautiful specimen of sectile pavement is seen in the Pantheon at Rome, 30 B.C., where the principal marbles are arranged, 22 4 DECORA TIVE COMPOSITION. each of considerable size, in alternate round and square slabs. A third variety commonly used in Italian churches from the fourth or fifth century to the thirteenth, is called " Opus Alexandrinum." It consists of an arrangement of small cubes, generally of porphyry or serpentine, com- Fig. 216. — Saracenic Pavement. posing geometrical designs, cut in the white or black marble slabs, Fig. 215. It is the direct forerunner of the richer and more beau- tiful curvilinear designs and arabesques of the Saracens, Fig. 216, who knew how to unite excellence of form to the sense of flatness essential in a surface destined to be trodden upon. This principle is set at nought in the celebrated pavement executed by Beccafumi, for the cathedral of Siena, representing biblical subjects in PRACTICE. 225 coloured marbles of white, grey and black ; a certain amount of modelling being obtained by shading and hatching some of the parts. Beautiful though it be, it would have been more appropriate on the walls and ceilings, where everybody could see it, whilst now it must be covered for the greater portion of the year in order to protect it from the feet of the visitors. Near it are also compositions by Duccio, which, though inferior to Beccafumi's in style and conception, are more fitting the place and surroundings for which they were exe- cuted. Indian palaces too are generally enriched with marble inlay and carving of exquisite ornament, whilst coloured plaster, applied on a ground of stone or other plaster, is sometimes used in floor covering ; but as few mineral colours will combine with lime, the designs must of necessity be very simple and strictly conventional. IX. — Enamels. Enamel is a compound fused and vitrified by being passed through the furnace, and is generally applied to metal. Enamel may be either embedded, cloisonne, the oldest of all, champleve, translucent and painted. Cloi- sonne enamel, also called "encrusted," is obtained by filling with the enamel, reduced to fine powder, small cells formed by means of slender strips of metal fixed or welded on to a ground likewise of metal. The piece is then placed in the furnace, and when the fusion is com- plete each compartment appears set in thin bright wire, retaining the enamel and slightly raised upon the plate. Q 226 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. It is then withdrawn and allowed to cool slowly ; and when thoroughly cold it is ground and polished. The old artists were very careful in the preparation of their Fig. 21 j. — Cloisonne Chinese Enamel. enamels, using none but the purest gold, so that the plate might not be injured from the action of the fire. Cloisonne enamel must not be confused with glass or PRACTICE. 227 precious stones, carefully shaped and set in gold cells, found in Egypt as early as 2000 B.C. This system is also met with in Assyria and Persia, whence it was introduced to Byzantium, whose artists supplied the West, especially the Italian peninsula and Sicily, for hundreds of years with mosaic and inlay work, enriched with gold Fig. 218. — Champleve Enamel. grounds and figures gorgeously draped in true Byzantine style. In the embedded enamels of the Middle Ages, the out- line of each figure is formed by the thickness of the me- tallic wire. This form is also practised by the Chinese, whose work, including animals, flowers, foliage, the rich plumage of birds, the metallic glitter ®f serpents' scales 228 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. undulating water, etc., are encircled in a bright rim, what- ever their distance, Fig. 217. In champleve the cells for the reception of the enamel are sunk or cut by means of the graver in the plate, itself generally of copper. This process is much more labo- rious, and the design cannot be made as flowing as with the flexible gold wire. Cham- pleve is generally applied on large surfaces ; intervening spaces may be left in the metal and afterwards engraved, forming a pleasing contrast with the enamelled designs, Fig. 218. Another form of embedded enamel, very soft and of charming effect, is obtained by placing two or three gra- duated tints of coloured enamel in the same cell. This, though satisfactory in small objects, cannot be ap- plied to those of large dimensions such as vases, basins, and the like. There is a very subtle mode of decoration occasionally met with in mediaeval work. The outline of the design is first carefully marked out ; the portion composing the principal subject is struck up, bosses in the round, half or quarter-round being reserved for the high light, such Fig. 2 19. — Repousse Enamel. PRACTICE. 229 as the face, neck, hands, feet, etc., which receive a light flesh tint j rich colouring being applied to the accessories, such as the tunic, mantle, and portions of the dress, whilst the sunken background is inwrought with a delicate network of monochrome floriated scrolls, Fig. 219. The enamelling now practised inEngland is modelled or moulded with ornaments and set on gold or other metal, and is almost identical with that of the Chinese. Beautiful specimens in this style have been produced by our metal workers. The composition of the enamel is glass made of lead, sand, and borax, coloured by means of metallic oxides. The enamel can be rendered translucent or opaque at will. The varieties of colour exceed two hundred, and new acquisitions are made every day. The working palette of an enamel artist is almost as rich as that of an aquarelist or oil painter, and well adapted to delicate designs, modelling of forms and fine- ness of detail. Nevertheless, it is well to remember that the best enamels produced in France during the reign of Francis I., under the influence of Benvenuto Cellini and other great Italian artists, were distinguished by sober, harmonious colouring, almost monochrome, of excellent effect. Painted enamel is applied in successive layers over the whole surface of the metal plate, and decorated, as was notioed earlier, with fusible metallic oxides. The plate is then subjected to the furnace, when the colouring matter sinks into the subjacent paste. Enamels are 230 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. sometimes covered with a thin transparent layer which lets in the light at the back, throwing up the whole colouring. Dark enamels may be " touched up," or out- lined with a gold or silver rim. Enamels were painted by the Italians in the fourteenth century ; at first exceedingly rudimentary, they improved in process of time, and reached their highest perfection at the hands of Penicaud, Courtois, and notably Leonard, surnamed Limousin, from Limoges, his birthplace, 1532 — 1574. The figures of Leonard are generally painted with bright hair and pink cheeks, standing out on a dark ground. His high repute was shared by his countryman Raymond, whose works rank almost as high as his, and fetch enormous prices. A coarse kind of enamel on brass was made in England in the reign of Elizabeth ; its colour is light and dark blue with white, the interstices being inlaid with a pattern in relief. Two candlesticks of this work are preserved in the South Kensington Museum, as well as a beautiful specimen of translucent enamel upon relief, marked Italian, dr. 1580 ; interesting from the fact that it seems to have been obtained by the process so minutely de- scribed by Benvenuto Cellini in his Memoirs. Painted enamel applied on a surface previously struck up in relief corresponding with the designs, has almost the effect of an enamelled bas-relief; the mingled bril- liancy of its rich blues, reds, greens, and yellows upon the shining metal is highly effective and pleasing. The art of applying enamel to gold and silver was practised in China and India at a very early period, whence it passed into Assyria, Persia, probably Egypt PRACTICE. 231 and Europe. The old Etruscans and Greeks used ena- mel to enrich their ornaments ; and exquisite specimens have been found in their tombs, representing birds, doves, peacocks, flowers, and foliage executed with a degree of skill and dexterity, making it clear that the handicraft had long been in use. A fine collection is preserved in the British Museum. Brooches, crosses, bracelets, rings, and the like have also been found in England and Ireland, showing that the art was known during the Roman occupation, if not before. Enamel was applied from the tenth to the sixteenth century to all manner of things, such as armour, caskets, candlesticks, ewers, basins, croziers, book-covers, rings, etc. In the present day vases, chalices, chasses, flagons, can- delabra, and jewellery are so enriched. Of enamels applied to glass or made to imitate jewellery and precious stones, the earliest and best examples that have been preserved are a blue cup, enamelled and gilt, in the Murano collection, cir. 1440, and two fine pieces in the British Museum. The value of enamels as a means of decoration has been felt from the earliest ages by every civilised nation ; but, however beautiful, its adoption should be confined to designs and "fillings," leaving the metal foundation very apparent. This is what makes cloisonne and incised enamels so satisfactory, wherein the forms are introduced upon a plain metallic ground ; on the other hand, had they extended over the whole surface, the sharp outline would have been destroyed, and with it much of its effectiveness, Fig. 220. 232 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. Unfortunately, these enamels are only for the wealthy, for they involve great expenditure of skilful and patient labour ; on the other hand, ample opportunity to study them and to compare the various methods by which they were achieved are offered to the student in the rich collec- tions of Eastern and European art enamel, preserved in the South Kensington and British Museums. X. — Marble Mosaic and Enamelled Mosaic. Marble mosaic is the art of put- ting together small cubes varying in size and colour, so as to pro- duce a design, care being taken to fill the joints with cement in order to obtain a smooth surface. In good fine work these joints are not seen even with the mag- nifying glass. Old Roman mosaic is entirely composed of hard substances, as opposed to Byzantine and Venetian mosaic, formed of small pieces of plain or enamelled glass, usually set in gold, sometimes covered with it;* which superseded the former from the fourth century, and was introduced in the decoration of churches and the houses of the wealthy. Fig. 220. — Cloisonne and Champleve Enamel. * The tesserae found at Pompei are cov< red with gold. PRACTICE. 233 Roman mosaics are divided by a learned authority into tesselated and sectile, applied to pavements generally; fictile and vermiculated or pictorial, applied to walls and ceilings. Fictile mosaic is formed of a compound of silex and alumina, coloured by metallic oxides and cut to the required size to form the design or picture.* This material offered many advantages; it could be obtained of any variety of colour or form, and was far less costly than the precious marbles. Hence its popularity with the Romans from the earliest times in decorating their houses with it. The best specimens of glass mosaic are found in St. Sophia at Constantinople, Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome, St. Vital at Ravenna (some time the seat of the Western Empire), St. Marc in Venice, and the Cathedral of Moscow. A very fine specimen of this work, 1270, decorating the tomb of Edward the Confessor, is pre- served in Westminster Abbey. The mode of execution of this kind of mosaic is generally large and coarse ; the cubes are irregular in shape and divided by very apparent joints, wholly in- appropriate to subtle modelling and pictorial treatment. " Yet," says Sir D. Wyatt, " the effect is splendid, luxurious, and solemn withal, and unattainable by any other means which have been employed in architectonic decoration." The mosaics decorating the walls of St. Peter's at Rome date from the fifteenth century ; they are copies of well- * The small enamelled cubes used in this work are called " smalto " by the Italians. 234 DECORATIVE COMPOSITION. known pictures, which took years of patient labour and much technical skill in their reproduction. The result, however, is scarcely satisfactory ; the uneven and rugged surface being ill adapted to represent the fine texture, the variety of tones, and the half tints of an oil-painting. But whilst we condemn, we should remember that but for the durability of mosaics, no ancient pictorial work would be known to us ; and that some of these very mosaics in St. Peter's are all that remains of paintings teYjgfe/.'jffi fF.'.WF.V