* LI SAN DIEGO Studies of the Great War By Newell Dwight Hillis Each I2mo, cloth, net, $1.20 STUDIES OF THE GREAT WAR What Each Nation Has at Stake LECTURES AND ORATIONS BY HENRY WARD 15EECHER Collected by Newell Dwight Hillis THE MESSAGE OF DAVID SWING TO HIS GENER- ATION Compiled, with Introductory Memorial Address by Newell Dwight Hillis ALL THE YEAR ROUND Sermons for Church and Civic Celebrations THE BATTLE OF PRINCIPLES A Study of the Heroism and Eloquence of the Anti-Slavery Conflict THE CONTAGION OF CHARACTER Studies in Culture and Success THE FORTUNE OF THE REPUBLIC Studies, National and Patriotic, upon the America of To- day .and^To-morro w GREAT BOOKS AS LIFE-TEACHERS Studies of Character, Real and Ideal THE INVESTMENT OF INFLUENCE A Study of Social Sympathy and Service A MAN'S VALUE TO SOCIETY Studies in Self-Culture and Character FAITH AND CHARACTER lamo, cloth, gilt top, net, 75 cents FORETOKENS OF IMMORTALITY izmo, cloth, net, 50 cents DAVID THE POET AND KING 8vo, two colors, deckle edges, net, 75 cents HOW THE INNER LIGHT FAILED 181110, cloth, net, 25 cents RIGHT LIVING AS A FINE ART A Study of Channing's Symphony izmo, boards, net, 25 cents THE MASTER OF THE SCIENCE OF RIGHT LIVING ismo, boards, net, 25 cents ACROSS THE CONTINENT OF THE YEARS i6mo, old English boards, net, 20 cents THE SCHOOL IN THE HOME Net, 50 cents. Studies of the Great War What Each Nation has at Stake By NEWELL DWIGHT HILLIS NEW YORK CHICAGO TORONTO Fleming H. Revell Company LONDON AND EDINBURGH Copyright, 1915, by FLEMING II. REVELL COMPANY New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 125 North Wabash Ave. Toronto: 25 Richmond Street, W. London: 21 Paternoster Square Edinburgh: 100 Princes Street Foreword NOT since 1861, when the Union was threatened, has our country witnessed days so dark. War vultures, with black wings, brood the earth as couriers of poverty, sorrow and death. During many months, multitudes have known but one colour black, have had but one song a funeral dirge. More men were killed on the field of bat- tle during the first twenty weeks of war than there were people in the whole world in the time of the Flood. History holds the story of many wars, but history tells us that this is the first one that has involved all of the five continents of our earth. Already fifteen million men are in battle, or preparing for conflict. The results of the war are manifest through the crippling of international trade and banking, and the practical destruction of Twentieth Century commerce. The time has not yet come for entire moral appraise- ments, with distribution of praise and blame. The ideal is neutrality, and the postpone- ment of judgment until all the facts are in. 5 Foreword It is easy to preserve that attitude of mind so long as one nation charges crime and an- other denies the charge ; but the moment one nation, through its Prime Minister, " con- fesses " guilt, saying, " We have done a wrong in breaking our treaty, but later on we will repair it," then it becomes logically necessary to bring the verdict up to date. In general terras, war is the negation of the Ten Commandments. Alchemy, witch- craft, astrology, duels and war belong alike to the cave-man, and the era of savages. God made Europe as an Eden garden, where the tree of life ripens purple clusters for hungry pilgrims, but to-day men have split the boughs of the life-giving tree into spears, and fed its blossoms to their war horses. Rulers have despised peace, and refused good will to their brother men. When hate and war are rampant, the one duty of the hour is to teach love, peace and justice. When the fur- row is open, even though by the hot plough- shares of war, that is the time to sow the seed. When Jesus was in Jerusalem, He did not talk about the events that once happened to Moses in Egypt, He studied the signs of the times, and interpreted the way of God to men in Jerusalem. In the interests of 6 Foreword busy men whose life is crowded, during ten successive Sunday nights, from October 4 to December 27, 1914, I roughly sketched the stories of the nations now engaged in the greatest battle that ever shook our earth. Keports of the addresses were published in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. The fact that one of them called forth over five hundred letters, and hundreds of clippings and edi- torials, from practically every State in the Union, indicates that American people are deeply interested in the moral interpretation of the events of this great war. I have somewhat revised the published re- ports, confessedly hasty and incomplete, but have not attempted to chronicle the rapid changes of events to the present time, since the object was rather to picture certain large features of history, to gain general views of the characteristics of the warring nations, and to set forth some moralities of the crisis. NEWELL DWIGHT HILLIS. April, 1915. NOTE. Of course, the Army estimates, in lists of "Resources" closing each chapter, are far below the actual numbers gathered under war pressure. Contents I. Germany's Growth : Her Problems of Expansion . . . . .n II. France : Her Contribution to the World ; What Her People Are Fighting For 43 III. England's Place Among the Nations : Her Relations to Germany . . 71 IV. Brave Little Belgium : Why the World Sympathizes With Her . . .'97 V. The New Russia : Her Ambition for a Seaport . . . . .117 VI. The Unspeakable Turk : An Alien in Europe . . . . .139 VII. Italy Old and New: Her Ambitions . 161 VIII. Holland and Germany: The Mouth of the Rhine . . . .189 IX. Austria-Hungary and the Coming United States of Balkany . .215 X. The Verdict of the American People Upon Militarism and Autocracy . 239 Index 263 Germany's Growth: Her Problems of Expansion Germany, as known to the older generation, was a country peopled with philosophers, poets, composers, slow and sleepy officials and backward peasants ; it was an aesthetical, sentimental, day- dreaming land. Modern Germany is matter-of- fact, hard-headed, calculating, businesslike, totally devoid of sentimentality, and sometimes even of sentiment, and very up-to-date. . . . New Germany is an enlarged Prussia. ... It should not be forgotten that those Germans who used to be considered typical representatives of Germany, such as Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Wieland,Jean Paul, Schlegel, Uhland, Lenau, Hegel, Fichte, Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, belonged to old Germany, and were non-Prussians. J. ELLIS BARKER. " Modern Germany" 1909. GERMANY'S GROWTH : HER PROB- LEMS OF EXPANSION CENTURIES ago Plato made a distinc- tion between the occasions of war, and the causes of war. The occasions of war lie upon the surface, and are known and read of all men, while the causes of war are embedded in racial antagonism, in political and eco- nomic controversies. Narrative historians portray the occasions of war; philosophic historians give us the secret and hidden causes of conflict. Thus the spark of fire that fails upon powder is the occasion of an explosion, but the cause of the havoc is the relation between charcoal, nitre and salt- petre. The occasion of our Civil War was the firing upon Fort Sumter ; the cause was the collision between the ideals of the Union presented by Daniel Webster, and of States Rights, taught by John C. Calhoun. The occasion of the American Revolution was the Stamp Tax ; the cause was the conviction of 13 Germany's Growth our forefathers that men who had freedom of worship carried also the capacity for self- government. The occasion of the French Revolution was the purchase of a diamond necklace for Marie Antoinette at a moment when the treasury was exhausted ; the cause of the revolution was a revolt against Feu- dalism. To-day, thoughtful men must discriminate between the occasions of the great European war and the causes of that awful conflict that is now shaking the whole earth. The spark that fell into the powder magazine was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, but the causes and roots of the war are in far-off racial antagonisms and economic conflicts. As for Germany, the cause of the war is found in the desire of her people for a larger " place in the sun," through control of the Belgian Scheldt and the mouth of the Rhine, possession of the iron mines of the French Briey, and in her conviction that England has no right to claim to be the mistress of the seas. As for France, the cause of the war is the instinct of self-preser- vation, a desire to recover the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, and her determina- tion to develop her iron mines and become a 14 Her Problems of Expansion manufacturing nation. As for Austria, the cause of the war is her fear of the coming United States of Balkany, with the certain progressive slicing away of her territory. As for Russia, the cause of the war is her desire to obtain the Bosphorus, with a port open all the year round. As for England, our motherland is fighting to recover her sense of security. During the Napoleonic wars, the second William Pitt explained the quadrupling of the taxes, the increase of the navy, and the sending of an English army against France, by emphasizing the necessity of " preserving England's sense of security." Five years ago England lost her sense of security, and began to fear a German invasion. To-day, England is seek- ing not to preserve but to recover that lost sense. England and France and Belgium propose now to secure their ends by destroy- ing Germany's ironclads, demobilizing her army, wiping out her forts, and enlarging Belgium as a buffer state between France and Germany. The occasions of the war vary, as stated in each White Paper, and Blue Paper and Yellow Paper, but the causes of the war abide in economic struggles and racial antagonisms. 15 Germany's Growth Because Germany set the battle-lines in array, it seems logical that we should begin these studies with a review of the rise of the New Germany. In the realm of industry, it is possible that Germany now leads the rest of the world. She produces larger harvests for a given number of acres, manufactures her goods with less waste, maintains a wage that is not higher but is steadier than that of other peoples, secures a higher rate of longevity among her workers, has succeeded in safeguarding her toilers against the wor- ries incident to accident, illness and old age, and has lifted her working people out of illiteracy to a higher average intellectual level than that known to any other nation. At the same time, strangely enough, under the influence of Prussia, the German people still cling to the divine right of kings, clothe the Kaiser with autocratic power, and while giving the elected representatives of the peo- ple in the Reichstag the outer form of government, limit the Reichstag to the work of a debating society. Nearly three cen- turies have passed since Oliver Cromwell won for England the essentials of democracy, and one hundred and twenty years have passed since the fall of feudalism in France, and yet 16 Her Problems of Expansion now, in 1914, Germany is not within sight of the day that will bring full manhood suffrage. In the industrial realm Germany is creating wealth faster than any other nation in Europe, and this notwithstanding the handicap of thin, sandy soil in Prussia, low grade ore and coal, and the fact that she is, comparatively with others, shut off from the sea and surrounded by active competitors. The story of Germany's growth makes up a fascinating page in the world's industrial history. Her efficiency is indicated by the fact that, if the United States sells raw cot- ton to Germany, Germany sells us finished products. Her foreign trade is nearly twice as large as ours, and yet our Republic has thirty millions more people and twelve times the territory. What is more surprising is the fact that having no ocean port but only her two outlets on the North Sea, Germany has built up a vast navy, and made her shipping lines second only to those of England, while we have an enormous coast line, and what with two oceans, the Gulf, and the St. Law- rence River is to all intents and purposes an island, and yet we are a nation without ships. So rapidly has Germany developed that to-day twice as many people in Europe 17 Germany's Growth speak German as French, while one hundred years ago four times as many people in Europe spoke French as German. All iron and steel men are agreed that if Germany had as good coking coal and iron ore as our Connellsville coal and the Mesaba ores, she would drive our iron men either into bank- ruptcy or into new and more efficient methods of smelting. In this country capital and labour have not yet learned to do team work, while in Germany the people are disciplined, trained in intelligence, and they know how to appreciate and follow steadfast leader- ship. The German industrial host marches, not as a mob but as a solid army ; our work- ing people through the jealousy of labour leaders are broken up into separate guerilla bands, until the union men and the non-union men fight almost as bitterly as the German and the French soldiers now struggling unto death in the trenches of Northern France. Suddenly, Germany's competitors have waked up to discover that the typical Ger- man is not only a thinker, but also a sturdy young manufacturer, an excellent business man, and a soldier, whose chief prowess has not been exerted in warfare. Indeed, the progress of Germany since 1870 is the won- 18 Her Problems of Expansion der of the world. Forty years ago, Russia was the outstanding European power, but her war with Japan left Russia weakened, and Germany became the great Continental force. In 1870 she had forty millions of people, she now has sixty- eight millions. In 1870 she had an army about equal to that of France ; to-day she has three million men in her First and Second Reserves and two million in the Third Reserve. Her army of trained citizen-soldiers is larger than that of Alexander, plus Julius Caesar's, plus Na- poleon's, with a million of Grant's men. In 1870 Germany had no navy worth talking about. To-day her North German Lloyd and her Hamburg-American fleets are the largest in the world, while at the rate at which she is building battle-ships she may, within ten years, have a navy equal to that of England. Forty years ago Germany was an agri- cultural country that did a little manufac- turing : to-day she is essentially an industrial nation. England still leads in the cotton and woolen industries and in ship-building, but Germany leads England in the produc- tion of steel, machinery, chemicals, and elec- tricity, and is rapidly rivalling England in 19 Germany's Growth all European markets. She now has fifty per cent, more man-power than England, which means fifty per cent, more wealth-pro- ducing power. But what is more important is that her population is growing nine hundred thousand a year, while England is growing very slowly. Moreover, in Germany work is so abundant and wages so steady that she loses only thirty thousand people a year through emigration ; while Great Britain's sons are migrating in an army of four hundred and fifty thousand every year. Within ten years, Germany's population bids fair to equal that of France and England combined. Her army is already larger than that of the two countries, and she believes that in a very few years her army and navy will give her two strong hands where she now has one. Be the reasons what they may, a wave of patriotism has swept over the German people. These sixty-eight millions, during the past months, have had but one mind and one heart, and that heart is beating high with hope and ambition. When France erected her great motto, " Liberty, Fra- ternity, and Equality," that motto wrought itself out through the French Revolution, 20 Her Problems of Expansion and, despite reactions towards imperialism, has resulted in a stable republic. There was a time when England had a motto, " No Bishop, No King " ; when that watchword had worked its way through, Charles had lost his head, feudalism had gone down, and democracy in England had taken the place of autocracy still maintained through roy- alty ruling under law. There came a time also in our country when the colonists took up a watchword, "No Taxation without Kepresentation," and it ended with the Declaration of Independence and the Re- public. Germany now has a watchword, " Duty, Obedience, Work for God and Na- tive Land." This is the most serious motto that any nation ever adopted ; the words are the greatest words in the vocabulary of human life. Duty ? The path of duty is the way of glory. Obedience ? Obedience to natural law makes man the ruler of every force in land and sea and sky. Work ? That builds factories, enriches fields, founds cities, spreads commerce over the earth. When these great words have fully wrought out their destiny the Kaiser thinks Germany may have a hun- dred millions of people. A nation that is 21 Germany's Growth scientific in its industry, that saves waste, and is rearing its boys and girls upon such words as " Duty, Obedience and "Work for God and Native Land " must be reckoned with. And now that Germany is producing more goods than her own people need, she wants colonies to which she can sell her surplus goods. Although the Americas and the European colonies are open to her trade, es- pecially those of Great Britain, which are free to all the world, Germany yearns to control as well as to benefit by colonial com- merce. And she craves also greater outlets for her goods. Yet for years Germany has been shut off from the sea at Trieste on the Adriatic and at Marseilles on the Mediterranean ; shut off from the North Sea by Holland on the west. Hitherto neighbouring nations have wanted Holland and Belgium as buffer states, and France, England and Prussia with Russia and Austria agreed so to main- tain them. True, Germany has the great ports of Hamburg on the Elbe, and Bremen on the Eser, but the Rhine, her greatest river, flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam, Holland. Of course, our people could not carry on their 22 Her Problems of Expansion trade with Canada owning the mouth of the Hudson and Manhattan Island. We could not do our work with Mexico owning the mouth of the Mississippi Kiver, and all the Mississippi states paying tribute to Mexico at New Orleans. France could not survive with the mouth of the Seine owned by Spain or the mouth of the Khone owned by Italy. "What, then, is Germany to do ? Consider what is involved in a growth of nine hundred thousand people a year ! Think of the manufacturers of Germany who are so busy that she has to import seven hundred and twenty thousand working people in the summer to reap her crops ; let- ting these Kussians and Hungarians and Italians return home in the late autumn. If the steam piles up in the kettle and there is no vent there is apt to be an explosion. The steam put to nine hundred thousand pounds pressure per year is piling up in the German teakettle, and when the Czar, King George and the Queen and the President climb on top of the teakettle, they may not be tempt- ing Providence, but they certainly are tempt- ing steam and water and fire. South and southeast of Munich are two Austrian provinces whose people speak the 23 Germany's Growth German language. Will the expansive forces of Germany push these provinces aside until Germany has access for her commerce to the Mediterranean and the Adriatic ? Will Ger- many, when she has her navy completed, put her soldiers into Holland and send the Rhine "unvexed to the sea"? Will Hol- land grant an economic and customs agree- ment ? Or will there be, ultimately, political union of Holland and Germany? Soon Germany will have one hundred millions, and at that time England will have fifty, and France thirty-five. The question now is this : How long will one pound continue to weigh as much as two pounds ? Germany says she must have room to expand. The land around Berlin is a sandy plain, her coal is of low grade, her soil is of poor quality ; and yet by her saving of waste, by untiring industry, thrift, and economy, she is creating wealth each year fifty per cent, more rapidly than England. Mean- while, she is building a railroad down to Bagdad and wants to reach the Persian Gulf. ISTo man who has travelled through the Balkan country can but realize that many things are to happen after the death of the Emperor Francis Joseph. Who knows 24 Her Problems of Expansion but that the Germanic provinces of Austria, including Vienna, may become the Kaiser's provinces, so that the Hungarian Empire will have its capital at Budapest ? For observant men, who have eyes to see, Kussia at this moment is elbowing the little province aside and moving steadily towards the Bosphorus, to crowd the Turk. After a while, the Turk will move bag and baggage out of Europe. London has been so long the financial centre of the world, and England the richest country, that it seems impossible to imagine that Germany is, or soon may be, the rich- est state in Europe. But when an English economist, Barker,' analyzes the property of his own country, England, and puts over against that estimate the property of Ger- many and arrives at the conclusion that Germany is the richer country, it gives the shock of surprise. The reasons for the con- clusion are not far to seek. England has forty-five millions of people, and Germany sixty-eight millions, and this means that Germany has fifty per cent, more man- power, or wealth-producing power. England's forty-five millions of people are " Modern Germany," by J. Ellis Barker. 25 Germany's Growth poorly employed, and nine per cent, of her population are practically always out of work. Germany's sixty-eight millions of people are practically fully employed. Dur- ing the past summer, rather than take her workmen out of her factories, she imported seven hundred and twenty thousand men out of Kussia, Hungary, Austria, and Italy and adjacent states. And this is not a mere estimate, because Germany compels the regis- tration of every visitor immediately upon crossing the German frontier, and every Saturday night Germany knows to a man the precise number of foreigners within her borders. And while Germany's workmen are probably the best educated working people in the world, she has the biggest machines, the healthiest human tools, and is the best organized. But there is another test still more de- cisive. France's public debt represents one hundred and fifty-three dollars per man, woman, and child, and France has only a few state railroads to pay her debt, being dependent upon the taxation of her people for her income. Britain owes a national debt of ninety dollars per capita. While a judicious combination of paying off and re- 26 Her Problems of Expansion funding has kept her obligations strong in the market, they are a constant drain on the nation's wealth. Now Germany's debt is only sixty dollars per individual, but the German state government owns the railways and forests and mines. The value of her government railway stock is established by the dividends the state makes the railroads pay. These state railways have so high a value that after half of her railways and forests were sold, Germany could pay every dollar of her indebtedness, and have the other half left to support her army and build her navy. What did England and France do with the four billions of dollars that they have borrowed and used? They invested it in battle-ships that will soon be scrap-iron, in fortresses, cannon, and guns that will rust out. And what has Germany done with her billions that she borrowed ? She put much of the money into factories, forests, railways and mines that are steadily enhanc- ing. During the last twenty years, England's income, through taxation, has decreased, and Germany's has more than doubled. These are important facts. Another test of the greatness and pros- 27 Germany's Growth perity of a nation is found in an analysis of its work, wages and immigration. When work is abundant, wages firm, and times good, men do not migrate. When work is scarce, wages low, and times are bad, the working people migrate by the ship-load. Now the survey of the industrial condition of England shows that during the last twenty years, nine per cent, of the people have been always out of employment. It is estimated that there are always two per cent, of the people out of work, in connection with tran- sition, removal from one city to another, or change of occupation. But during these twenty years, Germany has had only two per cent, of her people unemployed. Also, the average migration from Germany is thirty thousand per year. Since 1900, Ger- many has lost to her foreign colonies and to the United States four hundred thousand, but during the same time Britain has lost two million, five hundred thousand people ! The savings of the working people are indicated by the deposits in savings-banks. During the seven years between 1900 and 1907, the savings of the working people of Germany increased from a little over two billions of dollars to three and a half bil- 28 Her Problems of Expansion lions. During the same seven years, the savings and deposits of the working people in England advanced from nine hundred millions of dollars to ten hundred millions. That is, the deposits of the German working people have grown exactly nine times as fast as those in the British savings-banks; thus for every dollar deposited in the poor man's bank in England, the German work- ing classes have deposited nine dollars. And this is the more remarkable because the German working people, in addition, have been pouring their savings into lots, lands, cottages, and houses, while the English workingman finds it almost impossible to obtain freehold land. Professor Barker thinks that the larger part of the savings of the German working classes has gone into fields, houses, and cottages. The prosperity of Germany is further in- dicated by the lessening number of paupers. The most terrible memory that an American brings home from England to-day is the recollection of the " hunger brigade " on the Victoria Embankment. Poverty in England is like the water in a swamp. "When the hunter puts down his foot, the mire oozes up all about with every step, and when you go 29 Germany's Growth from the "Whitechapel district in London to the poorer regions of Liverpool or of Manchester, that problem of poverty, rags, squalor, and wretchedness is always present. But you may travel for weeks and months in Germany without even seeing a beggar or having a hand stretched out for assistance. You look in vain for any tenement region. Every German town and city has a farm on the outskirts, and there the man out of em- ployment can have his bean soup, his por- ridge, his bread and coffee. For a man out of employment to beg would be for the beg- gar to go to jail, while the man who gave him the silver coin also goes, being equally culpable. Moreover, every employer has to keep back a cent or two daily, to which the state adds another cent and invests it wisely, thus making possible a workingman's old- age pension, his sickness pension, and his ac- cident pension, such a system as England's Liberal administration has recently been in- troducing into that country. But the German workingman pays much of his own pension and does not receive it as a free gift, as does England's workingman in her hothouse scheme for growing paupers. England has a million people who receive support as 30 Her Problems of Expansion paupers, invalids, or criminals, and two mil- lions more who receive an occasional gift of flour or a little coal. As Germany has fifty per cent, more population, Germany ought to have four and a half million people who receive occasionally a little coal or flour. As a matter of fact, the people who are in her poor-farms, either permanently or for a short time, are only about one million. The pros- perity of Germany, therefore, seems incon- trovertible. That her method of handling the problems of poverty, crime, and drunk- enness is little by little doing away with their unfortunates, is equally certain. Ger- many has taught the people of the earth much as to what the state can do and what the state cannot do to assist the working people. Some men trace the new industrial epoch in Germany to the influence of the Kaiser. But, when the full summer is come, and the rain and the warm air have ripened the fruit on the bough, and the peach and the plum are ready to fall, we must not suppose that the man who stretches up his hand and shakes the tree created the fruit. The Kaiser of Germany entered the scene at a strategic and ripe moment, but he has also been a good husbandman. The great news- Si Germany's Growth paper clipping bureau in London is respon- sible for the statement that the Kaiser is the most talked of ruler in the world, in that there are two clippings about the Emperor William to one about any other ruler on earth. His versatility is indicated by his speeches, filling some ten volumes and cover- ing every conceivable subject. He writes as the soldier, the sailor, the theologian, the philosopher, the dramatist, the banker, the railroad man. He discusses music, painting, sculpture, architecture, archeology, and even makes occasional excursions to heaven and hell. He is certainly one of the best equipped men in the world to-day. One enormous advantage he has always had, namely, that experts in every depart- ment of science are always out as scouts to bring him back the latest achievement. AVhen Professor Roentgen announced the discovery of the X-ray, and the first hint of it was given out in a Berlin morning newspaper, the first congratulatory telegram that came to the scientist was dated at six o'clock in the morning and came from the Emperor's palace. No ruler in the world has been so hard a worker or such a traveller. His people say that their Kaiser spends one week out of every 32 Her Problems of Expansion four on his private car, travelling over his empire. His knowledge of the leaders of finance and commerce in the different cities, of the condition of every board of trade in every town and village, and of the work carried on in every factory, is first-hand knowledge. No Englishman or Frenchman can read those volumes containing the Em- peror's speeches and articles of the last seven- teen years without realizing that Frederick the Great has had a successor, a man of intel- lect, imagination, initiative, boundless energy, courage, a man with world dreams and visions. The Kaiser has more power over his people, more influence over the legislative and finan- cial departments of his government, than any ruler on earth ; and he has the ability and the strength of hand to hold the reins, and to use the sceptre. Any statement re- garding Germany's prosperity, her growth, and her future, must make a large place, therefore, for the figure of this Emperor, who is the most interesting ruler of his generation. One of the enthusiasms of the Kaiser is the new Navy League. It stirs the note of wonder that at the very moment when Eng- land is passing through a political revolution over raising her taxes, or maintaining her 33 Germany's Growth navy at its present point of efficiency, a movement is on in Germany to hasten the increase of her battle-ships, and, therefore, increase her taxes. The foremost aristo- crats, the highest military officers, and the richest bankers of Germany are back of this league, that now includes a million members, and is said to be the largest voluntary asso- ciation for patriotic purposes in the world. The organization has four thousand branches in as many German towns and cities, and an army of lecturers go up and down the land, with stereopticon and moving pictures show- ing the fleets of foreign nations, and the present condition of the German fleet. Dur- ing 1910, twenty thousand lectures were given, to stimulate interest in the increase of the German navy, against the hour when the nation might come to close terms with England. The Navy League has published a book containing sixty songs on the subject, " Our Future Lies upon the AVater." In this extraordinary campaign for the rapid increase of the German navy, more than seven million books and pamphlets have been distributed in a single year, until now the sky is raining books and appeals to the German people. The result of this un- 34 Her Problems of Expansion ceasing agitation has been that Germany became navy mad. Where twenty years ago the shops at Christmas were filled with boxes of tin soldiers, and later with tin au- tomobiles, now every German boy wants a tin battle-ship. Contracts have been let for sixty battle-ships, invincibles, and battle- ships of the first and second class, all to be completed within sixty months. Already Germany has thirteen slips in which she can build the largest dreadnoughts, where Eng- land has only nine. The result is, that within the next few years Germany may have twenty invincibles, " each one of which is to be larger and more powerful than our own dread- nought," writes Professor Barker. One thing is certain, Germany has the money, she has the men, and the determination, and she has decided to see to it that, before 1920, the battle-ships under the control of the Kaiser are equal in number and size to the battle-ships of England. For the past few years, however, England has built two to Germany's one. Only the traveller who has made many trips to Germany and spent months and even years there during the last twenty years can appreciate the change in Germany's system of military education. Americans have been 35 Germany's Growth taught that the fort and the military post are centres of idleness, temptation, intemperance. There is a conviction in this country that the best way to make a soldier is to make a man, and then when the national crisis comes he will soon master military tactics. There is, therefore, bitter opposition to the withdrawal of a youth for one or two years from produc- tive industry to expose him to the tempta- tions of an idle camp. But in the last few years, Germany, scientific in everything, has organized the life of her soldier boys. It may be doubted whether any nation has as good a system of technical education for the manufacture of good workingmen and good farmers real work, for transforming peasants into citizens of Germany and of the world. When two years have passed these boys will know about Germany's industrial and manufacturing life, her herds and flocks, the best way to cross and breed her animals; about her soils and fertilizers, about the care of the horse, the plough, and the reaper ; how to guard against the wastes, and how to make the farm that has been yielding six per cent, yield twelve per cent, on the investment. They will know about the weakness and the strength of Russia and Austria, of France and 36 Her Problems of Expansion England. They enter the array stooped and weak physically, they leave it well set up, and soldiers every inch. They enter the array uncertain and vacillating, and they leave it with fixed habits, men who work by the clock. They enter the army peasants, with a narrow outlook ; they leave it citizens of Germany, of Europe, and of the world. Indeed, if every boy of eighteen in the United States could be put through such a rigorous physical, intellectual, patriotic, and moral drill for twelve months, it would be of immense value to the property interests of this Kepublic, altogether aside from its military uses. This explains the fact that the farmhouses of Germany have new roofs, new barns, and new outbuildings ; that the land is steadily growing richer and more productive. It is this scientific method that enables the Ger- man workingman to take the smoke out of his chimney-stack, to cleanse it of carbon, and to explode it in his gas engine. A woman with white gloves can go through some Ger- man steel plants, and come out with a spot- less garment. Indeed, if Pittsburgh had as poor coal and iron as Germany, its steel-mak- ers would be forced to better their methods 37 Germany's Growth or go out of business. As it is, the United States Steel Company has made a gain in its foreign export trade of steel during the last ten years, but Germany has increased her ex- port of steel to foreign countries just eight times as fast as the United States, so high is the price for our steel. And the Germany that is making science to solve the problem of poverty, and is re- building her towns on scientific lines, saving the wastes in her factories, and guarding the lives of her working people, has outstripped the people of this Republic, despite their un- developed natural resources, in at least ten departments of human industry. Whether or not, therefore, all Europe is to be Germanized, one thing is certain : all the nations of the earth may well go to school to Germany, and study her methods of lighten- ing industrial burdens and saving industrial wastes; to the end that property may re- deem all people out of drudgery and want, giving them leisure to grow ripe and an op- portunity to become wise and self-sufficing. Now for all lovers of Germany, the attack upon Belgium has been all but unexplain- able. Germany's wealth, Germany's in- creasing efficiency, her growing investments 38 Her Problems of Expansion in the farm lands of Eastern France and Belgium, have made it certain that she had the money with which to slowly purchase the land she needed. Germany had two hundred miles of frontier line bordering on France : and she had given her solemn pledge to maintain the neutrality of Belgium. The publication of the Belgian Paper has shown conclusively to all the nations that the right of England and France to cross her territory was expressly denied by Belgium, except upon one condition, namely, that Germany had first of all violated her solemn pledge and had already invaded Belgium. In his chapter on the " Duty to Make War " Bernhardi explains how he would justify an unprovoked attack upon Bel- gium : " We must not think merely of ex- ternal foes, who compel us to fight ; a war may seem to be forced upon a statesman by the state of home affairs." Within one week after Belgium had been laid waste, and the whole land had been turned into a grave- yard, the local Anzeiger referred to Belgium as " this quarry which has been laid low by the German army, and which now belongs whole and undivided to the German people." In the same paper, ignoring the solemn treaty 39 Germany's Growth obligations with Belgium, a German general adds, " All Belgium must become German, not in order that a few million rascals may have the honour of belonging to the German Em- pire, but so that we may have her excellent harbours, and be able to hold the knife under the nose of perfidious, cowardly England." The explanation is found, doubtless, in Germany's undue emphasis of militarism. The ideals of force first lifted up by Fred- erick the Great and carried forward by Bismarck, have culminated in this war led by William the Second. What an indi- vidual desires, he prepares for. When a man wants a duel, he buys a pistol. When a nation wants a war it prepares for war ; is ready when war comes ; or seizes an op- portunity to start the war. And the nation that wants a war and is ready for war, and starts a war, would seem by self-confession to have been responsible for the war. One thing is certain, ideals shape individuals and states. What man thinketh in his heart to-day, that he will perform to-morrow. All crimes and all heroisms are rehearsed in advance upon the stage of the imagination, and later on reproduced in practical life. An ideal is as real as a paving-stone. In- 40 Her Problems of Expansion dustrial ideals and military ideals have been for forty years struggling for the mastery in Germany, and now at last it would seem as if the military ideal has become uppermost. Drill a boy for battle to-day, and you will have a Louvain to-morrow. If therefore we take the lesson of the great war for to-day, we shall find the conclusion of the whole matter in that law of moral sequence, stated long ago, the individual and the nation that soweth to the wind shall reap the whirlwind, and they that sow to the flesh through lust shall of lust reap corruption. What, then, shall Germany look for ? EESOURCES OF GERMANY Area, 208, 780 square miles. Population, Jan. 1, 1913, 64,925,99s. 1 Estimated wealth, Barker's estimate, $90,000,- 000,000. Annual revenue, $924,000,000. National debt, $1,200,000,000. Army budget, 1913, $265,000,000. Navy budget, 1913, $115,000,000. German army, official report, Jan. 1, 1913. Standing army, - - 790,000. First reserve, - - - 450,000. Second reserve, - - 2,600,000. Total, 3,840,000. 1 Latest returns give 68,000,000. 41 Germany's Growth Germany has second largest navy. Germany has second largest commercial fleet. Germany leads the world in iron and steel. Germany leads the world in chemical products. United States has three commercial travellers in Switzerland ; Germany has four thousand eight hundred. In 1909 the State owned 34,142 miles of rail- roads. Private individuals owned 1,987 miles of rail- road. In proportion, our railroads kill ten times as many passengers as Germany's. Freight rates in Germany one-third what they are in England, although higher than with us. Within twenty years Germany has spent $150,000,000 upon canals. Germany owns the telephone and telegraph lines. These lines pay a profit to the gov- ernment of ten million dollars a year. People emigrate when dissatisfied. During ten years Germany has lost an average of only thirty thousand immigrants each year. Germany's strength : team work. Germany's weakness : lack of individual in- itiative. Germany's peril : the belief that knowledge and instruction are culture. 42 II France : Her Contribution to the World The newcomer in England sees our solidity ; the newcomer among the French is dazzled by their mobility. . . . Only in Paris life sparkles like that, free from extinguishing cares, responsibili- ties, conventions, prejudices, and commonplaces : it dazzles for months, then the amazing discovery begins the finding of a solid Paris, a Paris of the old earth, with roots in deep custom, a Paris of rock-like consistency and iron faithfulness, a sim- ple, straight, ordered, long-headed, and earnest Paris. . . . It can be said that the national French trait is the combination of mobility with solidity mobil- ity of thought and feeling with solidity of char- acter. LAWRENCE JERROLD. " The Real France," 1911. n FRANCE: HER CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLD ; WHAT HER PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING FOR THE news that the French armies had crowded the Germans back from their advance within twenty miles of Paris, to where the nearest point of fighting was sixty miles from the capital filled the whole world with astonishment. Germany's army represents sixty-eight millions of people, France's, thirty-eight millions. Germany had prepared her can- non, rifles, bombshells, automobiles, and her military machine moved like an invincible Juggernaut over brave little Belgium. France was not expecting war, and was not prepared for war, and has about three soldiers to Germany's five. When the Kaiser and his generals announced that within three weeks from August first they would dine in the palace of Versailles, mili- tary critics were impressed, knowing that 45 France sixteen ounces of powder outweigh ten ounces. Strictly speaking, no artist has any physical right to beat a trained soldier. And no artistic and literary nation, giving itself to paintings, marbles, the city beauti- ful movement, literature and finance, has any physical right to hold at bay and then defeat a nation that has given itself to bomb- shells, 42-centimeter guns, rifles, and the drill that turns the nation into an armed regiment. The unexpected happened. What the French soldier has lacked in the way of weapons and drill, he has more than made up through initiative, courage, and strategy. Every war has its high- water mark ; at Gettysburg the wave of Southern invasion was at its highest point, and afterwards the tide began to ebb, and died away on the sands at Appomattox. Scores of military critics, on the basis of a lifelong study and personal experience, have agreed that the high-water mark of this war was at a point twenty miles north of Paris, and that however severe may be the task it prom- ises to be but a question of months when the last invader is expelled from French territory, while France may hope to see the 46 Her Contribution to the World tri-colour float once more over Alsace and Lorraine. American citizens to-day are asking why Germany attacked France, and have in vain sought a reason for the German soldier's hatred of the French people. Some scholars have said that the stationary birth-rate of France indicated the decline of that great nation. But it is evident that this judgment must be reversed. The French republic is probably the most stable government in Europe. The assassination of an autocrat may usher in a revolution, in those countries that stand for the principle of imperialism. But many people could be assassinated in France without imperilling their republic and their self-government. The present President also, Poincare, is doubtless one of the ablest statesmen and diplomats that modern France has produced. And what Bismarck did, Delcasse, as recent minister of foreign affairs, undid. The whole purpose of the diplomacy of Bismarck as to France was to secure and maintain its isolation. After Sedan, Bismarck taxed France one billion dollars, and took the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. So mar- vellous were France's reserves of thrift and 47 France manhood that the republic recovered itself within five years. Out of adversity and Sedan, a new France was born. In his anger and disappointment, Bismarck fo- mented a new war with France, and would have attacked the republic had England and Russia not interfered. From that hour, Bis- marck stirred up jealousy on the part of Italy and Spain and England against France. In 1898-1905, Delcasse came to power, and the great diplomat strengthened the alliance between Russia and France, and then brought about the closest possible understanding be- tween France and England. Thus, while Bismarck succeeded in isolat- ing France, and leaving her apparently with- out a friend, Delcasse overthrew Bismarck's plans, and actually succeeded in isolating Germany, until Germany is without a friend, except the poor old Dual Monarchy, and the Unspeakable Turk. One morning William the Second awoke to discover that Ger- many was caught between the upper and nether millstone of Russia and France, with England the close friend of both countries. Thinking that Italy, Spain and England would object, and therefore develop a hatred against France, ' Bismarck, thirty-five years 48 Her Contribution to the World ago, gave out the word that Germany would not object if France began to develop her colonies in Africa and Asia. Now, the Kaiser is chagrined to find that France, with England and the United States, owns practically all the good colonies of the world, with the richest undeveloped natural resources, while Germany has only two small colonies in Africa and one in China ; and through Japan's aid has now lost all these. Bismarck was the great demiurgic force of 1870. But France has developed statesmen and diplomats who have undone Bismarck's work, recovered the ground lost forty years ago, and left Germany practically alone in Europe. To reasons based upon ambition to domi- nate, self-defence and fear of rivals, must now be added Germany's desire to possess herself of the newly discovered iron deposits in Northern France. This is an era of steel. Other ages have been called the age of stone, and the age of bronze, but the Twentieth Century is the era of steel. German dread- noughts mean hematite iron. Forty-two cen- timeter guns mean high grade steel. Ger- many's leadership in steel means iron ores. In " Problems of Power," "William Morton 49 France Fullerton says that " by the middle of the present century the German iron mines will be exhausted. Within thirty years the same fate will have befallen those of Luxembourg. When the iron famine comes, the vast foun- dries and steel industries of Westphalia, Silesia, the Rhenish provinces, arid the valley of the Sarre will have to put out their fires. Twenty millions of Germany's population will be driven to look elsewhere for a livelihood. Now the iron ore deposits, which in the Twentieth Century are as indispensable an asset as wheat fields for a civilized commu- nity, abound just over the Franco-German border in the department of the Meurthe and the Moselle. In the basin of Briey there is iron enough to last for two hundred and fifty years. Germany thought she had included in the provisions of the Treaty of Frankfort all the iron mines of Eastern France. The discovery shortly afterwards of the mines of Briey revealed on French soil undreamed sources of wealth, which became a veritable torture of Tantalus to the Germans over the border." In the judgment of the best European mining engineers, statesmen, and diploma- tists, Germany, after a twenty years' hunt So Her Contribution to the World for iron ores throughout the world, has finally grown desperate, and decided that with her armies she would seize the iron de- posits near Namur in Belgium, and the vast hematite ores of Northern France. The war between France and England in 1776 was a war over the northern furs found in Canada ; the war between England and South Africa was a war over gold and diamonds ; the revolution in Mexico is a struggle for the possession of farm lands and oil fields ; and Germany's army invaded Belgium and Northern France with an eye to possess herself of the iron ores that are to control Europe for the next two hundred and fifty years. In his fascinating study of the new inter- nationalism, Fullerton comments upon the statement found in "L'Allemagne aux Abois," that " France seems destined, if all goes well, to become the most powerful nation of met- allurgists in the world." This prophecy is apparently based upon the new financial pol- icy that has been manifest for several years on the part of French financiers. It is well known that the French people have used their enormous wealth in loans to build up the manufactories of other countries that were .51 France willing to pay a high rate of interest. Ful- lerton uses the figure of the reservoir with reference to the eight or nine large credit companies who have later " canalized " the wealth of France, and made enormous loans to Germany, Turkey, Russia, Japan, the Argentine Republic and the United States. But this policy of loaning money to foreign manufactures resulted in the starving of French inventors, French enterprises, French foundries. This method explains the fact that for years the American traveller in crossing France passed through hundreds of villages that had no chimney stack emitting smoke, no foundry or factory sending out the hum of industry. But a new era has dawned for France ; gone forever the day when French money will be used to fertilize foreign deserts. France has begun to loan her money to her own men. A sound banker incidentally se- cures safety for his depositors, and dividends for his stockholders, but the really great banker is he who selects young men and young businesses, and has the genius to recognize men and institutions that have growth in them. And the thing upon which such a banker prides himself is that he has 52 Her Contribution to the World built up men and institutions and made them great. Now that France has awakened to a new recognition of the value of her own iron industries, and now that Germany is within sight of the exhaustion of her ores, France has started in upon plans that ultimately will enable her to lead all the nations of Europe in the production of steel ; and steel means dreadnoughts, cannon, railways, factories, tools, immeasurable wealth. The rejoicing of the civilized world that France, with the aid of her staunch allies, Great Britain and the indomitable Albert and his Belgians, has been progressively push- ing back militarism and is not to be destroyed is because the destruction of France would be a blow at the very heart of civilization. What Florence once was to Italy, that and more Paris is to the Twentieth Century. The great contribution of France to society has been the diffusion of the beautiful. The common life there is made increasingly to minister to taste and imagination. The mis- fortune of the early ages was that all art and beauty were concentrated in Parthenons, palaces and, later, in Gothic cathedrals, while the people lived in mud huts, walked on dirt floors, wore sheepskin garments, ate 53 France black bread, and lived in squalor, ugliness and misery. It was France that was the apostle of the new order, and Paris was the stage from which the new spirit spake. For the first time in history a great people deliberately set themselves to the task of making the instruments of the dining-room, parlour and library appeal to the imagination, and as the movement spread, they made dresses that were warm to be beautiful, books that were wise to be also alluring, houses that kept oil the rain and snow to have perfect lines, until at length Paris be- came the most beautiful city in the world. Men make money in San Francisco in the West and Petrograd in the East, but they go to Paris to spend their treasure. And whoever has lingered long within the gal- leries is familiar with Paris drives and parks ; whoever has entered into the spirit of her school of the Fine Arts, her painting and sculpture and architecture ; whoever has at- tended her Salon year after year, and has then turned his back on Paris, and journeyed to the remotest corners of France, only to find that the whole nation is interested in the beautiful; that the porter and waiter know more about great pictures, and the 54 Her Contribution to the World reasons why the artist is supreme, than do educated people in other countries of the world that traveller will know that France has vindicated her method of education at the bar of intellect and judgment. And so long as Paris continues to lead the world in the beautiful, she will continue to draw into her galleries the people of wealth and leisure, as certainly as an oasis with fountains and fruit trees will draw the birds of paradise from the desert, with its dust and glare. The French nation was the first to recog- nize also the commercial element in the beautiful. With a sure instinct they saw that the time had come when men were re- volting from ugliness, and were thirsting for a more beautiful life in the great city. Man- chester appealed to men through its cotton and wool, Berlin through its chemicals, Lon- don by her trading and wealth and finance, but Paris decided to make an appeal to the imagination through the fine arts. Fortu- nately for the city, the man at the head of the government, the Emperor Napoleon the Third, was a dictator, and brooked no oppo- sition. "With his architects he laid out a scheme to tear down a very large percentage of the houses in the business centre of Paris. 55 France If Brooklynites would realize the compre- hensive destruction, imagine every building in Brooklyn from Columbia Heights on the west, between Orange Street and Atlantic Avenue on to the corner of Flatbush and Fulton, levelled to the ground to-morrow. And then imagine other houses and stores on one side of Flatbush Avenue razed to the ground to make an avenue twelve hundred feet wide, until the man who stands under MacMonnies' arch at the entrance of Pros- pect Park could look straight down a splen- did driveway, from arch to arch, with noble buildings flanking either side, until the eye rested upon a central arch, crowning Columbia Heights, and looking out on Manhattan Island. For several years Paris was filled with the dust of falling buildings, but at last the great opera house was built and endowed by the State; splendid streets ran out from the Place de 1'Opera, like spokes from the wheel's hub. Bankers and merchants shook their heads in despair. Business men in- sisted that the city would be ruined by the burden of taxation. Mutters were heard in the cafes, where the common people said that the Emperor must be destroyed by an- other revolution, like Louis XYI. 56 Her Contribution to the World Meanwhile, the Emperor's agents began to sell the lots on the new streets, and the property on the new avenues. Visitors, also, began to come in from all quarters of the world, to see the new gardens of the Tuiler- ies, the new Arc de Triomphe with great avenues radiating from it like a star, begun by Napoleon I, but completed by his nephew the great Champs Elysees that connected the two, until a day came when the people discovered that all their hotels were crowded with strangers from every quarter of the world. The vistas of Paris are superb. Every great avenue, every noble bridge across the Seine, is faced at its end by some splendid church or other public edifice some of them venerable with age, towards which the avenues or bridges have been di- rected, some of them parts of the new con- struction. The result of this was amazing. Land be- gan to go up in the outskirts of the city, where gardeners were raising vegetables and fruits for the foreign visitors. Merchants worked day and night in looking after their trade with their new customers. Poor men found work, drivers of carriages were never without passengers. Parks were filled ; Paris 57 France entered upon an era of commercial pros- perity. The metropolis had no factories, no foundries, no chimneys belching smoke. The great city lay like Yenus upon the bank of the river, the island being the eye, and Notre Dame the pupil thereof, looking up towards the stars. Hundreds of millions of dollars had been expended, but it had all returned, in a way that the people had never understood. "We all have heard Frenchmen place a monetary value upon the new Paris created by Napoleon the Third, estimating it at two hundred and fifty millions of dollars a year. Some authors have said that Paris was re-, ceiving a twenty per cent, annual dividend on her investment in the beautiful. In our country the universal theory is that government exists for the protection of life and property. Rulers are chosen for the purpose of safeguarding the factory, the shop and the market-place. An exception is made, indeed, of the intellect, because the State does concern itself with education, to the end that boys and girls may be self-supporting. But if our people think it perfectly proper to train the intellect, they think it inconceiv- able that the State should be taxed to train the taste and the imagination. Instead of 58 Her Contribution to the World asking what faculties are in the soul, and then trying to educate all those faculties, and produce an all-round man, our Government selects the intellect and memory and decides to ignore the rest of the human soul. For that reason our Congress will spend a hun- dred millions of dollars in digging mud out of the mouth of the Mississippi Kiver and the Miami and alas ! out of a hundred other streams that seem to exist only for the pur- pose of enabling Congressmen to get public moneys to spend in their own little districts. Nobody knows what is done with the mud, nobody cares about the names of the hundred- odd petty rivers that are dug out, and nobody seems to dream that the best way to take care of the mud in a river is to train the people on the banks of the aforementioned stream ! But the rulers of France decided to train the hand towards the useful, the intellect towards the true, and the imagination towards the beautiful ; and her people responded. In every primary school in France drawing is taught with a b c's. Every town of a thousand inhabitants has its little museum, the works of art being supplied partly by the commune or township, and partly by the national Government. Any boy who shows 59 France the slightest aptitude above the average for any form of graphic art, architecture, sculp- ture or painting is sent at the expense of his town to the nearest provincial city and given a small pension for expenses. If he contin- ues to show progress, then the county sends him to Paris, with a certain allowance from the county funds. If he takes certain prizes in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he can compete for the Grand Prix de Home four years in Rome, lodged in the Villa Medici free and one thousand dollars per year ex- pense money. Every French student of art, who shows even a second or third rate talent, is forever taken care of by the Government through commissions for decorations and public improvements. The Government ex- pends millions of francs annually in pur- chasing works of art, not only of the high- est grade, to be placed in the Gallery of the Luxembourg in Paris, but also from the young artists solely to encourage them. These latter paintings so purchased are dis- tributed among the small towns all over France. The value is obvious. First, en- couragement to young artists ; second, fa- miliarization of the people with the beautiful. In no city of France can the owner of a 60 Her Contribution to the World lot or plot of land erect his own fancies. The Ministry of Fine Arts steps in to warn and supervise. For instance, if the houses right and left of his plot are French Renais- sance of three stories, material Caen stone, height of windows eight feet, the owner of the lot cannot erect Norman Romanesque or Gothic ornament ; nor can he use brick ; nor can he make the windows larger or smaller than his neighbours'. The result is unity lead- ing to harmony. Further, every architect in France receives a license from the Govern- ment. He is in every case an architect of eight to twelve years' training, and also a sculptor and a painter. Every tree in Paris is planted by direction of the Fine Arts Ministry no one can cut as much as a branch without permission. Every furniture worker, lock- smith, carpet- weaver, plasterer, potter, etc., can draw, and sometimes amazingly well. In Paris, in the Faubourg St. Antoine the furniture makers' district the Government maintains museums for the workmen, where the finest examples of furniture are shown ; and they are open evenings. The working- man, craftsman, is encouraged to come in the evenings, without fuss or feathers, to see masterpieces of .woodworking models for 61 France his own work. He can borrow photographs and drawings bearing on his trade ; he can obtain free lessons in drawing, in carving, in every detail of his work. This is true in every line of craftsmanship. The State maintains the famous Sevres porcelain works solely to keep alive French supremacy in porcelain. The greatest chemists are here at work, ever seeking new ingredients to make improvements in pigment, and great artists work on the decorations. All discov- eries are at the service of French porcelain makers; any French porcelain or pottery establishment can obtain skilled, trained art- ists and artisans from Sevres, trained at the expense of the nation. France trains crafts- men in jewelry teaches them the sculptural and art side then the metallurgical, and gives them practical experience. All the world's womankind go or want to go to Paris for clothes. A French dressmaker of the first class is always an artist in her department. They combine line and colour with the height, width, colour of hair, com- plexion of a woman, and literally create a work of art, evolving out of these simple materials a vision of loveliness. Further, in the very heart of the city, 62 Her Contribution to the World Paris condemned residences and shops upon a tract along the Seine, equal to twenty of our city blocks. There she erected, at the expense of many millions of dollars, one enormous palace and another, smaller, where annual and permanent exhibitions could be held of everything that has to do with the life of the common people, the Grand Palais and the Petit Palais are the perennial art centres of the city. Models of every kind of architecture, domestic and civil, models of the ideal parlour, the ideal library, and dining-room, and bedroom and hall. Models of every known comfort and convenience in a house. Models of all con- ceivable styles of dress, in every country and generation. Every youth, therefore, and girl, planning marriage and a little home, can go thither and find the standard, just as an artist uses the sapphire and the ruby to tone his jaded colour sense up to standard. Near the greater is the smaller permanent palace for the spring exhibition and the autumn exhibition. Twenty-five hundred canvases were on exhibition at the Salon last spring, with twelve hundred pieces of marble and bronze. Prizes were given also to workers in gold and silver. 63 France It was my fortune to see the great artists, sculptors and literary men of France on a platform one afternoon, distributing prizes to the men and women who had painted the best pictures, carved the best statues, or won supremacy in architecture. The Republic was represented through its President. Har- pigny, the painter, was there, and Rodin, the sculptor ; Rostand, the poet, and Anatole France, the author and literary critic. Name after name of artist and architect was struck off, as the harper strikes the note, and with wild cheers men acclaimed the successful aspirant. What the people admire deter- mines what boys and girls will do and be. When the women clapped their little white hands and cheered the knight, the boys became crusaders and soldiers. When in Florence women cheered the young artist, the people closed their shops and carried the youth on their shoulders up and down the streets, and men threw purses at his feet. To-day in many lands women applaud the money-maker who can buy them gowns and automobiles and equipage, and even a vulgar Croesus is the idol ! Whoever carries a big bag full of yellow mud can go through the life garden, deciding what flower he will 64 Her Contribution to the World wear in his lapel, knowing that every mother stands with a pair of scissors to snip off a young bud to adorn the dollar-spotted coat. But France has made the atmosphere warm and genial for the artist. Paris admires the sculptor and the architect, and gives enor- mous rewards for the beautiful. The result is her supremacy, the supremacy of her city, and the millions that crowd in from every corner of the world to the great art centre. The returns of this universal artistry to France are all but immeasurable. Enor- mous wealth is poured into the coffers of France, for which in terms of raw material France gives little return. For example, the dividend on the manufacture of cotton is, say, six per cent. But Millet's canvas and colours cost him scarcely more than ten dollars, while France has received as high as a hundred thousand dollars for a single painting of Millet, ten dollars raw material, and ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety dollars profit. In the same way the French artist will take ten dollars' worth of wood and turn it into a piece of artistic fur- niture, which will sell for a hundred dollars, which means nine hundred per cent, profit. 65 France She has attracted twelve thousand five hun- dred American students thither, who spend on an average eight hundred dollars to a thousand dollars a year. She attracts visit- ors from all the nations of the earth, who wish to forget the roar and din and dirt of their own capitals, and rest in the sunshine of the accumulated loveliness and beauty of Paris. To understand the superiority of her rulers, one has only to contrast the fact that the government of Paris is now planning Lo expend a hundred and fifty million dollars in making more beautiful one of the neg- lected quarters of the city. But look at the way our Tammany Hall would receive a proposition of that kind ! There are more American art students abroad pursuing the beautiful than there are art students of all the other nations of the world put together so says an art journal in Paris. Now it is proposed by the mem- bers of the New York Art Societies to raise a million five hundred thousand dollars for a building like the French Salon, with a spring exhibition of painting and sculpture, with an autumn exhibition, and with a per- manent exhibition. The real object of such an exhibition would be the development of 66 Her Contribution to the World the imagination of American youth, in the hope of a great art movement. The indirect result would be the drawing to New York of millions of visitors every year prosperous fathers and mothers bringing their children to see the spring and autumn exhibitions. Our rulers properly would not allow a foot of land in our great parks, already owned by the people, and consecrated to their use for health and recreation, to be used for such a purpose. Paris can use many, many blocks in the most valuable centre of the great city for such a building and exhibition, but New York or Brooklyn hesitates to condemn commercial property for the higher uses of art. The cry is, " Think of the taxes ! " " Let well enough alone ! " " Paternalism ! " " The government should confine itself to the life and property of its citizens!" Our rulers believed in exercise, in sweat, and are not quite sure whether there is such a faculty as imagination, and prefer perspiration to inspiration. So the ground will have to be purchased by private subscription, and the new building erected by private gifts. But stupidity, thank God, cannot live for- ever! Death, after a while, will remove 67 France these obstacles to progress and the beautiful, while the higher intelligence will grow and spread. For the spirit of the beautiful has been poured out upon the American people. It is not enough any longer that the house is proof against the snow ; it must be a beau- tiful house : it is not enough that the book holds the truth; the magazine must have beautiful type and drawings : it is not enough that the garb is warm ; the dress must have beautiful lines. Our Kepublic owes a great debt to the motherland, England, for the Pilgrim Fa- thers, for our political liberties, for a great inheritance of literature. But we must never forget our indebtedness to France. It was Paris that welcomed our first am- bassador at the Court of Versailles Benjamin Franklin. It was a French gov- ernment despite a reluctant king that fur- nished money loans and military stores to our Kevolutionists. It was a French marquis Lafayette who cast his life and his for- tune and his honour with the fortune of Washington. It was a French admiral, Count de Grasse, who cooperated with the colonial forces at Yorktown. It was France that stood by us at a critical epoch, when 68 Her Contribution to the World the English king turned his guns upon the young Republic. And when in our poverty the Government turned to foreign countries for loans, it was brave little Holland and France that bought our bonds, and made it possible to fight the war through to a suc- cessful issue. Our scholars have gone to Pascal's "Thoughts" for some of their greatest principles, and to a French scholar, Calvin, for the mother ideas of democracy and representative government. It was a Frenchman, De Lesseps, who gave us the first of the great canals, at Suez, and inau- gurated the enterprise of the great Amer- ican achievement at Panama. It was a Frenchman, Pasteur, who made the human race his benefactor by the discovery of the germ theory, as it was the French Professor and Madame Curie who gave us radium. The people of the Fifteenth Century turned to Florence and Rome, but to-day the lovers of the beautiful turn their eyes and their steps towards that Mecca of the fine arts Paris, and long for one vision of the Venus di Milo, and Mona Lisa and the Winged Victory, that seem like angels of loveliness, leaning from the battlements of heaven to allure us upward towards the in- 69 France accessible heights where they have their permanent dwelling places. The world's debt to France is along the higher lines of life, in science and art, while her new developments are bringing her also into the more fundamental domain of ma- terial usefulness in metallurgy and mechanical production. Her people, artistic and pleasure- loving, are also brainy, thrifty, earnest and brave; they are fighting to preserve their splendid achievements from destruction, with an added fervour of determination to redeem their Alsace-Lorraine compatriots lost to Ger- many in 1870. BESOTJRCES OF FRANCE, 1913 * Area in square miles, 207,054. Population, 39,601,509. Wealth, $65,000,000,000. National debt, $6,510,000,000. Annual revenue, $1,074,703,595. Army budget (1913-1914), $287,298,300. Navy budget (1913-1914), $104,238,815. Army : Standing, 750,000 ) 2 i * 000 Eeserves, 1,400,000 J 4 10U > UI 1 Estimates from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Evening Post Company, Copyright. Ill England's Place Among the Nations : Her Relations to Germany As in a body when the blood is fresh, the spirits pure and vigorous not only to vital but to rational faculties ... it argues in what good plight and constitution the body is ; so, when the cheerfulness of the people is so sprightly up, as that it has not only wherewith to guard well its own freedom and safety, but to spare, and to bestow upon the solidest and sublimest points of controversy and new invention, it betokens us not degenerated, nor drooping to a fatal decay, by casting off the old and wrinkled skin of corrup- tion. . . . Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks. JOHN MILTON. *' Areopag itica," 1644. in ENGLAND'S PLACE AMONG THE NATIONS : HER RELATIONS TO GERMANY THOUSANDS of years ago Egypt and her City of Thebes led the world in finance and trade. Six hundred years later Greece and Athens took the lead and guided the world movement in finance, politics, art and literature. At the beginning of the Christian era Rome obtained the sceptre, that long afterwards passed into the hands of Venice. Now, for more than one hundred years England and London have been the outstanding forces in the world's civilization. In the realm of commerce Lombard Street, London, has been the centre from which all the threads of trade move out like a golden web to the uttermost ends of the earth. The United States, Germany and France have made striking contributions to human progress, through tools, arts, science and the increase of comforts and conveniences, not to mention what they have done for democ- 73 England's Place Among the Nations racy and liberty. But when everything has been said in praise of other nations, our motherland of England still has a supremacy that cannot be challenged. It was from England that the founders of our Kepublic received the seed corn of liberty that has ripened unto these new harvests. It was England's Cromwell, Pym and Hampden who destroyed that citadel of iniquity, the doctrine of the divine right of kings. It was the English Bacon who for- mulated the true mode of scientific investi- gation. It was an English poet who gave us the plea for the liberty of the printing-press. It was an English philosopher, Isaac New- ton, who discovered the law of gravity and started the whole world of science upon its upward movement. And these glories are ours. Hawthorne calls his Travel Notes in Great Britain " Our Old Home," but speaks of his visits to Spain and Italy and Greece as " travels through foreign lands." For what- ever England was, before 1620, belongs to the Puritans who founded the New England, just as truly as to the Puritans who remained in the home nest and gave themselves to the task of making the Old England more demo- cratic. Their language is our language, and 74 Her Relations to Germany Harapden, Cromwell and Pym are our pa- triots and theirs. Milton and Shakespeare are their poets and our poets. Newton and Bacon belong to the Puritans on both sides of the Atlantic. But, in later years, it was an English scholar, Charles Darwin, who discovered the law of evolution as the seminal theory of progress, in the world vegetable and animal, and in the world of man. The engine lifts coal out of mines, and redeems man from drudgery, but the engine is the gift of James Watt. Too long the world shivered in cold, for lack of raiment, and Englishmen, named Arkwright and Jenney, gave us the looms that clothed Asia with garments of cotton and wool. It was the English Stephenson who gave us the loco- motive that has multiplied every German, Frenchman and American unto fifty man- power. England's contribution to social progress has been altogether unique and her influence is beyond all measurement. In the realm of vineyards and orchards, if you were to take the sun and the summer out of the sky there would be nothing left but frozen clods. And in the world of civilization, if you were to take England and 75 England's Place Among the Nations all Englishmen for the last three hundred- years out of history, you would have little left save a group of serfs, plebeians and forest children, wearing skins and riding in an ox cart. Let us recognize the world's indebted- ness to our motherland. Any adequate conception of England's place among the nations must begin with a full recognition of her work as an architect of States and a builder of Commonwealths. During the last dozen years Germany lost four hundred thousand of her sons through emigration, but England sent, during the same ten years, nearly two million five hundred thousand of her children to the colonies. It may be doubted whether any other nation could have survived the draining away of so much good blood, her strong boys, her hand- some girls. Long ago Sir Charles Dilke, one of the best equipped statesmen of his century, said, in his study of the Greater Britain, that if a scholar was to understand England, he must leave England and spend a month in Egypt ; then he must leave Egypt and spend three months in South Africa ; that he must leave South Africa and journey a thousand miles up the Uganda into East Africa and Lake Nyanza ; that he must leave Uganda and 76 Her Relations to Germany make his way to India and Ceylon ; that he must leave Ceylon and study Burmah ; that he must leave Burmah and study Australia and New Zealand ; that he must leave New Zealand and study England's islands in the Pacific ; that he must leave these islands and study Canada. It is literally true that the sun never sets on the English Empire. With sublime im- agery Daniel Webster spoke of the morning drum-beat of the English soldier, greeting the rising sun, and sounding with the ad- vancing hours around the globe. Britain controls no less than one-fifth of all the good farming land of the world. Within the limits of her Empire live four hundred and thirty millions of people. Nothing tests a nation and its greatness like the affection and loyalty of its colonists. When the motherland is unfair in the distribution of the burdens of taxation, or harsh and cruel in the adminis- tration of its laws, then rebellion always seethes, and the Governor-General goes to bed at night never knowing what form the revolution will take in the morning. This test is searching and pitiless, and to the honour of England be it said that since the revolt of her American Colonies a, hundred 77 England's Place Among the Nations and forty years ago she has met the test. England has built many States, founded Commonwealths in many continents, but to- day the four hundred and thirty millions have but one heart, and that heart is full of love to the motherland. Soon England will have but one mind, and then the stroke of her foot will be the stroke of an earthquake, and the stroke of her hand like the stroke of omnipotence. Long ago Turgot said that colonies are like fruits ; when they ripen they fall from the bough. Doubtless Turgot meant us to understand that in 1776 the American fruit was ripe, and dropped from the mother bough. Some Germans have recently thought that Canada, Australia and India were ripe, and like fruits, would drop away. But there is a new thing under the sun. Germany miscalculated, and the Kaiser was poorly advised when the members of his cabinet concluded that England and Ireland were on the verge of civil war, and that British colonies would take the first op- portunity of deserting Great Britain. As Americans, we have all known from the be- ginning that, while now and then there was a warm discussion between the parent and 78 Her Relations to Germany her children, when the moment came for an enemy to attack the parent, the children would enter the discussion. Now Germany understands that when England is at war, Canada is at war ; that when England is at war, Australia and New Zealand are at war, South Africa and India are at war. Let no man think that the hundreds of millions liv- ing under the British flag are either a sense- less multitude or a mob. When danger comes, the multitude become a regiment, and march with armed feet. And the very thing that Germany thought to be impossible, she has herself brought about. When England's colonies have helped her to fight this fierce war through to a suc- cessful issue, the world will awaken to dis- cover two bands of " United States," the one the United States of America, and the other the United States of Great Britain. To-day Canada and Australia elect no mem- bers to the House of Commons. But to-mor- row, after they have shared in the heat and burden of the day, who knows but that Ontario and Winnipeg and Manitoba, Mel- bourne and Sydney, will be invited to send their representatives to the Imperial Parlia- ment ? And then they will not be a loose 79 England's Place Among the Nations confederation of widely separated colonies, but a closely bound Empire, stretching around the globe, while the links that bind these scattered States together will have been forged by Germany in red heat on the anvils of war. For cities and nations, not less than indi- viduals, it is the unexpected that happens. So enormous are the resources of England, France and Eussia that, despite Germany's great power, no thoughtful man can now have much doubt about the ultimate issue of the great struggle. One of the most im- portant results to be hoped for will be the defeat of militarism, and the final emancipa- tion of the young men of all the world from the iron yoke of war; but another result, hitherto unexpected, seems to be this prob- ability and almost certainty of the United States of Great Britain, with foundations for the empire that cannot be shaken. In the debate on free trade, Cobden once said that the results of that economic conflict were so far reaching that the influence started by the Free Corn Laws would make itself felt upon the axe that some Canadian woodsman would lift upon a tree thousands of miles distant from the House of Commons. And not 80 Her Relations to Germany otherwise is the unanticipated influence of Germany's attack upon England that of strengthening England and her influence over her colonies. But yesterday Treitschke sneered and called England's colonies a rope of sand ; to-day the fire of war has turned them into a compacted sandstone. What is the explanation of this uprising of the people of India to defend Britain? But yesterday I stood with the distinguished editor of the University Magazine of Canada and watched the students of McGill Univer- sity drilling upon the campus. "What force is it that drew thirty thousand young men from the harvest field and the forest to the plains of Quebec ? "What is it that is pulling another hundred thousand out of the plains of the great Northwest and turning all steps towards Salisbury Plain ? Looking at these splendid fellows one exclaims : " What re- strained strength ! What manly men ! What quietness filled with fire ! No ordinary stuff is here." From nothing, nothing comes. It means something that Australians, and South Africans, and the people of India are turn- ing ships towards England. But friendship means an exchange of gifts. Devotion has to be paid for. Love to the parent is bought 81 England's Place Among the Nations and paid for by love and devotion to the children. And when these colonists are willing to live and die for England, England must have given them great stores and put them under immeasurable obligation. Years ago I stood in Trafalgar Square and from a window looked down upon King Edward and his Queen. More than five millions of people were assembled along the line of march. In that vast coronation procession were native Princes from India, Governors and Judges from East Africa, and South Africa, and Australia, and New Zealand, from the South American colonies, and from the Chinese colonies. There, too, were lead- ers and rulers, white, brown, yellow, black, red. But the striking thing was that these Colonists felt that the new King and Queen were not England's rulers alone, but were also their rulers. And when the hats went up and the air shook with cheers, no dele- gates or visitors showed more enthusiasm or loyalty than these men from foreign lands ! When we come to analyze the reasons for colonial enthusiasm we shall find one cause in the high standard of civil service. For England has had during nearly one hundred and fifty years Governor-Generals in India. 82 Her Relations to Germany Among the great names that are found on the roll of her colonial service are those of Lawrence, Clive, Canning, Dufferin, and Curzon. In the offices at home and abroad are the names of some of the most distin- guished scholars and patriots of whom his- tory has any knowledge. The high standard of excellence can readily be explained. In the first place the position of Governor-Gen- eral or Judge in an English colony has been looked upon as an opportunity to serve the motherland. The office has been considered a form of unique honour. Social position has been attached thereto. The highest standards of scholarship have been set for applicants. Loyal service has been rewarded with consideration, public recognition, rank, money-gifts, pensions. The aim of the colonial service has been man-making and state-building. The fairness and incorruptibility of the colonial courts and judges explains the en- thusiasm of the colonists. England has so surrounded her judges in India and Africa and British Guinea and the South Sea Islands with safeguards, that any suspicion of influence in connection with a colonial court is almost unheard of. In these foreign 83 England's Place Among the Nations capitals, the judge and governor is not ex- pected to make friends among those who have to appear before him. Recently, the story of the decision of an English court was widely commented upon. There was a law in British Guiana for safeguarding the rights of the poor. This law provided that wages in no case are to be withheld. It so hap- pened that an Englishman had erected a factory and hired a watchman to guard the works at night. One day the watchman had had no sleep, and when night came he was overcome with fatigue and slept ; when he was awakened the factory was on fire. The owner was so indignant that he refused to pay the watchman the four shillings due him for his work. The native appealed imme- diately to the English court. The owner was called in, severely rebuked, and the decision given against him. Not less swift and certain is the execution of English justice. Witness the mounted police of Canada. Their fame has gone out to all the earth. The history of the gold mines in Alaska, just this side the British line, is a history of the jumping of claims, of threats, intimidation, arson and murder, by reason of the wild character of the miners. 84 Her Relations to Germany It has generally taken one or two years to organize these new camps and institute the machinery of our courts and justice. Not so on the English territory. Almost before the miners have come to the newly discovered camp, the mounted police arrive. They do not wait for the organization of a town. The machinery of justice arrives with these horse- men. Justice is meted out with even hand, but with instant and decisive energy. And the result is loyalty to the motherland that has given fair play to the honest miner. But the inevitable consequence of England's work for the world as a builder of common- wealths in other countries has been at home the lack of young men, whom she has sent out into the ends of the earth. When Ger- many proclaimed war, her sons had but a step to take from the factory and the field to the arsenal and barracks. Meanwhile, in saving the lives of her colonies, England for the moment was in danger of losing her own life, for her sons were four thousand miles away on the wheat fields of Canada ; seven thousand miles away in North Africa ; twelve thousand miles away in Australia. England was unprepared also, because she scarcely believed that war was possible, in 85 England's Place Among the Nations this era when all other nations save Ger- many have practically committed them- selves to the settlement of international dis- putes by an appeal to arbitration. We know that Germany expected the war, because she prepared for the war. Germany has become a military nation, making all things else subordinate and incidental. What Frederick the Great sowed, the present-day Germany has reaped. The German officer at all social functions takes precedence before the university professor, the physician, the jurist, the author, the inventor, the financier. The German student is a recruit for the mili- tary camp. The peasant, splendidly trained by his enforced military service, resulting in a marked efficiency in all his work in civil life thereafter, is yet a military slave to his officer. Go where you will, you are never out of sight of the German fort, arsenal, bar- racks, parade, review. It is not only " Ger- many over all," but the Army over all. As a nation thinketh in its heart, so it is. Go where you will in England, and you see factories, foundries, ship-building, working- men, and the signs of manufacturing are as evident in England as the symbols of the military in Germany. England has been en- 86 Her Relations to Germany gaged in the manufacture of comforts and conveniences, raiment and foods for her colonies and the world. Despite her lapses in industrial and economic conditions as compared with the new German efficiency, she has earned her place as the leading force for good in modern civilization. As to ship- ping and commerce, it need only be said that England is the world's common carrier, han- dling even our passengers, and carrying Amer- ican goods everywhither. As to her navy, her battle-ships have been, until recently, equal to those of France and Germany combined. It is not too much to say that as things go in England, they are to go for the world. For the time has come when Freeman's prophecy has become history: England through her commerce and shipping has become a Twentieth Century Venice, in which oceans and seas are the canals, while her treasures come from the world. And envy of this is Germany's frank and open complaint. Every unprejudiced man, also, must be deeply impressed by England's fairness to her industrial rivals. Germany imposes a customs tax of an average twenty per cent, against England. She has built this com- mercial wall so high that she thought that no 87 England's Place Among the Nations English manufacturer could climb over it. But England allows the German manufacturer to come into her towns and sell his goods as freely as in Germany. The Kaiser has left nothing undone that he could do to keep English commercial travellers out of Ger- many, with the result that they are few and far between, while England fairly swarms with German commercial travellers and traders. More striking than all else, Eng- land gives a free port in all her colonies to German goods and German, merchants. To all intents and purposes, it is as if Germany owned England's colonies and had all the privileges of ownership, with the single ex- ception that she is free from the necessity of paying the bills for supporting the govern- ment of that colony. As a matter of fact, if all the English colonies were to-day turned over to Germany, that country's merchants and manufacturers would have no freer access to the markets of those colonies, though she could burden them with new taxes. There is only one possible thing to be gained by Germany in attacking, and, if it were pos- sible, overcoming, England. She would be able to say that she is the first naval and the first military power in the world. 88 Her Relations to Germany But another development in British con- ditions needs mention. Our travellers, Eng- lish visitors who have been addressing us, English reviews, speak of the political revolu- tion that has swept over England in recent years. By revolution these English writers mean the impending change of the House of Lords from an hereditary Chamber to an elective and democratic Chamber. Subject to certain conditions, the will of the House of Commons is now supreme. The common people of England are now in practical con- trol. It seems strange that England should so recently have made her government democratic, in view of the fact that the Englishmen on this side of the water, in 1787, made both their First and Second chambers elective. France always makes her changes by revolution, England by evolution, and our Republic partly by revolu- tion and partly by evolution. During the last one hundred and twenty-two years Eng- land by slow changes of sentiment has gone towards a democratic House of Lords. Now it is hardly possible to overestimate the importance of this change in the status of the House of Lords. Hitherto the House of Lords had an Eng- 89 England's Place Among the Nations lish people, now the English people have a House of Lords. Kemember that England still denies the equality of men. Nothing can be more absurd for an English Tory than the statement that " a workingman or trades- man is equal to a peer." England looks on the titled class and the patrician as separated from the working plebeians of England by an abyss as deep as that which separated Dives from Lazarus. No people ever loved a lord more devotedly than the English people. Now in view of the fact that English society still revolves around the king, the horse and the hunting, and that no trades- man could break into society, how is one to explain the coming change of the House of Lords from an hereditary to an elective chamber ? The answer is simple : The lord's eldest son succeeded to his title and estates, while the four younger sons in the lord's family needed some recognition. So, the brightest boy out of the four younger sons entered Parliament, and the eldest boy entered the House of Lords. It became a strife between the brightest boy of the four younger sons and the eldest boy, and the cleverest son steadily won. A little later 90 Her Relations to Germany the most gifted boys out of the forty millions of Englishmen were elected to the House of Commons, and they were competing still against the eldest son in the family of the lord. Of course, now and then the eldest son, like Rosebery, carries genius. But if you will put the brightest men out of forty millions over against the eldest son of six hundred lords, you have genius pitted against mediocrity, and genius wins. The House of Commons represents the selected genius of Great Britain ; the House of Lords represents whatever the stork happens to leave in the cradle on the occasion of his first visit to the castle. The one thing that has saved the House of Lords was the in- jection of new blood. Men of commanding intellect, like Alfred Harms worth, now Lord Northcliffe, like Lord Cromer of Egypt and Lord Curzon of India, have come in by sheer weight of personal ability, and achieved a place and rule, and these new men restore the note of genius to the Chamber that was heavily handicapped by heredity. The battle has been long and severe, but this political revolution was accomplished by evolution, and, in the long run, it doubtless will make for the stability of the British empire. England's Place Among the Nations Thus, England, from several points of view, being in a state of transition, is at dis- advantage compared with the compacted efficiency of the New Germany ; but her people are steadfast and tenacious, her re- sources immense, and she will give grand account of herself in the present conflict. All the discussion about who began this war is meaningless, when it is considered that there was only one nation that was ready for the war Germany ; while the rest were unprepared. It is this that lends mean- ing to Bernhardi's statement: "We must not in any case wait until our opponents have completed their arming, and decided that the hour of attack has come. Even English at- tempts at a rapprochement must not blind us to the real situation. "We may at most use them to delay the necessary and inevi- table war, until we may fairly imagine we have some prospect of success." Think of a man and a nation uttering such words ! And then accusing England of perfidy ! Germany thought the hour had come. The Kaiser was advised that Ulster and England were in peril of civil war any moment. France was quite unprepared; and a large proportion of her recruits had no rifles with which to drill. 92 Her Relations to Germany Serbia was exhausted through the Balkan war. Kussia was discredited through her defeat by Japan. Belgium was utterly help- less. Plainly, " The Day " had arrived ! Frederick the Great when he stole Silesia from Austria said that a military state like Prussia must take what she wanted and ex- plain afterwards. For seven years the na- tions of the world fought Frederick, and reduced Prussia to starvation, and wrung the king's heart with anguish. And what has been, shall be again. Neither life nor property nor liberty can be safe in the Twentieth Century if any ruler or any army is allowed to seize a land or a city because it is fruitful and rich, through the labour of another race. There are many poor men who have succeeded and built a house and stuffed it with treasures, but civilization is at an end if burglars are to be allowed to or- ganize, found a factory for a burglar's kit, and loot the house, saying, " Get what you want, and explain afterwards." Little Bel- gium with her coal and iron, the new hema- tite iron deposits of Northern France, re- cently discovered, are like jewel boxes. In the Twentieth Century steel is king. If Germany can seize those hematite ores in 93 England's Place Among the Nations Northern France, with Belgium's coal and seaports, she will have what will build navies, locomotives, trains. Then, no matter who owns Gibraltar and the Suez Canal. If she can own the best hematite iron ores in Europe, she can blow up Gibraltar and des- troy the Suez Canal. The lure of iron and coal owned by her rivals made a powerful ap- peal to Germany, just as Mexico's treasures have tempted American capitalists to exploit Mexico. The envious man's finger twitches when he perceives a piece of gold or a jewel in the possession of some honest man who has first earned, and then saved, the treasure. In view of all these facts concerning Eng- land and her colonies abroad, together with our own close relations with that great mother- land of civilization and freedom, it is of the first importance that all American citizens should familiarize themselves with the causes, the course, and the issues at stake in this gigantic conflict. And it is especially important that the working people of America should con- sider these matters : first, because the poor men pay the bills ; second, because it is chiefly the working people that are killed on the battle-field ; third, because it is the goods they have produced that must be destroyed 94 Her Relations to Germany by war; fourth, because there have been many great disputes between nations that have been successfully decided by an appeal to arbitration, making war unnecessary. The time has come when the workingmen of the world, united in one brotherhood, should refuse to kill one another ; they must recognize that they are in a moral universe, and take to heart that fateful truth : The nation that lives by the sword must perish by the sword. EESOUECES OF GREAT BRITAIN, 1913 l Area in square miles (European), 121,633. (Whole Empire), about 10,218,500. Population (European), 45,370,530. (Whole Empire), about 404,629,000. Wealth (Barker's 1914 estimate), $90,000,000,000. National debt, $3,581,442,105. Auimal revenue, $972,125,000. Army budget (1913-1914), $141,100,000. Navy budget (1913-1914), $231,546,500. Army : Standing, 125,000 ") 7Q ,, ftnn Eeserves, 669,000 } ' 1 Estimates chiefly from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Even- ing Post Company, Copyright. 95 IV Brave Little Belgium: Why the World Sympathizes With Her Behind the revolution of 1830 lay ten centuries of recorded history. There are dark periods in that record, when it looked as if the nationality that owed its name to Cssar had expired ; but a little research suffices to show that below the sur- face, whatever the ruler's name on the current coin, there survived the pride of race which is the surest foundation of independence. . . . To those who admire the display of courage and for- titude under difficulties the tenacity of the Belgians throughout their chequered history should serve as a model of how an arduous fight for all that men hold most dear may be won in the teeth of adversity and against seemingly hopeless odds. DEMETRIUS C. BOULGER. " Belgium of the Belgians" 1911. IV BKAVE LITTLE BELGIUM : WHY THE WORLD SYMPATHIZES WITH HER OUR present study concerns little Bel- gium, her people, and their part in this conflict. Be the reasons what they may, this tiny land stands in the centre of the stage and holds the lime-light. Once more David, armed with a sling, has gone up against Goliath. It was an amazing spectacle, this, one of the smallest of the States, battling with the largest of the giants ! Belgium has a standing army of 58,000 men, with reserves not mobilized of 282,000, and Germany, with three reserves, perhaps 7,000,000. Without waiting for any assistance, this little Belgian standing army took its stand against two million invaders. It is as if a honey bee had decided to attack an eagle come to loot its honeycomb. It is as if an antelope had turned against a lion. Belgium has but 110,000 square miles of land, less than the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Her popula- tion is 7,500,000, less than the single State 99 Brave Little Belgium of New York. You could put twenty-two Belgiums in our single State of Texas. Much of her soil is thin ; her handicaps are heavy, but the industry of her people has turned the whole land into one vast flower and vegetable garden. The soil of Minnesota and the Dakotas is new soil, and yet our farmers there average but fifteen bushels of wheat to the acre. Belgium's soil has been used for centuries, but it averages thirty- seven bushels of wheat to the acre. If we grow twenty-four bushels of barley on an acre of ground, Belgium grows fifty ; she produces 300 bushels of potatoes where the Maine farmer harvests ninety bushels. Bel- gium's average population per square mile has risen to 645 people. If Americans practiced intensive farming; if the popula- tion of Texas were as dense as it is in Belgium 100,000,000 of the people of the United States, Canada and Central America could all move to Texas ; while if our entire country was as densely populated as Bel- gium's, everybody in the world could live comfortably within its limits. And yet, little Belgium has no gold or silver mines, and all the treasures of copper and zinc and lead and anthracite and oil 100 Why the World Sympathizes With Her have been denied her. Her treasures are nobly built cities, beautiful civic and ecclesi- astical edifices, world-famous paintings. As for the gold, it is in the heart of her people. No other land holds a race more prudent, industrious and thrifty. It is a land where everybody works. In the winter, when the sun does not rise until half -past seven, the Belgian cottages have lights in their win- dows at five, and the people are ready for an eleven-hour day. As a rule all children work after twelve years of age. The ex- quisite pointed lace that has made Belgium famous is wrought by women who fulfill the tasks of the household performed by American women, and then begin their task upon those laces that have sent their name and fame throughout the world. Their wages are low, their work hard, but their life is so peaceful and prosperous that few Belgians ever emigrate to foreign countries. Of late they have made their education com- pulsory, their schools free. It is doubtful whether any other country has made a greater success than they of their system of transportation. You will pay fifty cents to journey some twenty odd miles out to Roslyn on our Long Island railroad, but in 101 Brave Little Belgium Belgium a commuter journeys twenty miles in to the factory and back again every night and makes the six double daily journeys of the week at an entire cost of thirty-seven and one-half cents, less than the amount you pay for the journey one way for a like distance in this country. Out of such things has come Belgium's prosperity. She has the money to buy goods from other countries, and she has the prop- erty to export to foreign lands. Last year the United States, with its hundred millions of people, imported less than two billion dol- lars, and exported two billion five hundred million dollars. If our people had been as prosperous per capita as Belgium, we would have purchased from other countries twelve billion dollars' worth of goods and exported ten billion. So largely have we been dependent upon Belgium that many of the engines used in digging the Panama Canal came from the Cockerill works that produce two thousand of these engines every year in Liege. It is said that the Belgians have the best courts in existence. The Supreme Court of Belgium has but one Justice. Without wait- ing for an appeal, just as soon as a decision 102 Why the World Sympathizes With Her has been reached by a lower court, while the matters are still fresh in mind and all the witnesses and facts readily obtainable, this Supreme Justice reviews all the objections raised on either side and without a motion from any one annuls or sustains the decision of the inferior court. On the other hand, the lower courts are open to an immediate settlement of disputes between the wage- earners, and newsboys and fishermen are almost daily seen going to the judge for a decision regarding a dispute over five or ten cents. When the judge has cross-questioned both sides, without the presence of attorneys, or the necessity of serving a process, or rais- ing a dollar, the poorest of the poor have their wrongs righted. It is said that not one decision out of one hundred is appealed, thus calling for the existence of an attorney. To other institutions organized in the in- terest of the wage-earner has been added the national savings bank system, that makes loans to men of small means, enabling the farmer and the workingman to buy a little garden and build a house, while at the same time insuring the workingman against accident and sickness. Belgium is a poor man's country, it has been said, because in- 103 Brave Little Belgium stitutions have been administered in the in- terest of the men of small affairs. But the institutions of Belgium and the industrial prosperity of her people alone are not equal to the explanation of her unique heroism. Long ago, in his Commentaries, Julius Ca3sar said that Gaul was inhabited by three tribes, the Belgse, the Aquitani, the Celts, " of whom the Belgas were the bravest." History will show that Belgians have cour- age as their native right, for only the brave could have survived. The southeastern part of Belgium is a series of rock plains, and if these plains have been her good fortune in times of peace, they have furnished the battle-fields of Western Europe for two thousand years. Northern France and West- ern Germany are rough, jagged and wooded, but the Belgian plains were ideal battle- fields. For this reason the generals of Ger- many and of France have usually met and struggled for the mastery on these wide Belgian plains. On one of these grounds Julius Caesar won the first battle here re- corded. Then came King Clovis and the French, with their campaigns; towards these plains also the Saracens were hurry- ing when assaulted by Charles Martel. On 104 Why the World Sympathizes With Her the Belgian plains the Dutch burghers and the Spanish armies led by Bloody Alva, fought out their battle. Hither, too, came Napoleon, and the great mound of Waterloo is the monument to the Duke of Wellington's victory. It was to the Belgian plains, also, that the German general, last August, rushed his troops. Every college and every city searches for some level spot of land where the contest of athletic sports between op- posing teams may be held, and for more than two thousand years the Belgian plain has been the scene of the great battles between the warring nations of Western Europe. Out of all these collisions there has come a hardy race, inured to peril, rich in forti- tude, loyalty, patience, thrift, self-reliance and persevering faith. For five hundred years the Belgian children and youth have been brought up upon the deeds of noble re- nown, achieved by their ancestors. If Julius Cassar were here to-day he would wear Bel- gium's bravery like a bright sword, girded to his thigh. And when this brave little people, with a standing army of fifty-eight thousand men, single-handed defied two millions of Germans, it tells us that Ajax has come back once more to defy the lightnings. 105 Brave Little Belgium Perhaps one or two chapters torn from the pages of Belgium's history will enable us to understand her present-day heroism, just as one golden bough plucked from the forest will explain the richness of the autumn. You remember that Venice was once the financial centre of the world. Then, when the bankers lost confidence in the navy of Venice they put their jewels and gold into saddle-bags and moved the financial centre to Franconian Nuremberg, because its walls were seven feet thick and twenty feet high. Later, about 1500 A. D., the discovery of the New World turned all the people into races of seagoing folk, and the English and Dutch captains vied with the sailors of Spain and Portugal. None were more prosperous than the mariners of Belgian Antwerp. In 1568 there were five hundred marble mansions in that city on the Scheldt. Belgium became a casket filled with jewels. Then it was that Spain turned covetous eyes northward. Sated with his pleasures, broken by indulgence and passion, the Em- peror Charles the Fifth resigned his gold and throne to his son, King Philip. Finding his coffers depleted, Philip sent the Duke of Alva, with ten thousand Spanish soldiers, out 1 06 Why the World Sympathizes With Her on a looting expedition. Their approach tilled Antwerp with consternation, for her merchants were busy with commerce and not with war. The sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards makes up a revolting page in his- tory. Within three days eight thousand men, women and children were massacred, and the Spanish soldiers, drunk with wine and blood, hacked, drowned and burned like fiends that they were. The Belgian historian tells us that five hundred fine residences were reduced to blackened ruins. One character- istic incident will make the event stand out. When the Spaniards approached the city a wealthy burgher hastened the day of his son's marriage. During the ceremony the soldiers broke down the gate of the city and crossed the threshold of the rich man's house. When they had stripped the guests of their purses and gems, unsatisfied, they killed the bridegroom, slew the men guests, carried the bride out into the night. The next morning a young woman, crazed and half clad, was found in the street, searching among the dead bodies. At last she found a youth, whose head she lifted upon her knees, over which she crooned her songs, as a young mother soothes her babe. A Spanish officer 107 Brave Little Belgium passing by, humiliated by the spectacle, or- dered a soldier to use his dagger and put the girl out of her misery. Having looted Antwerp, the treasure chest of Belgium, the Spaniards under pretence of religion set up the Inquisition as an organized means of securing property. It is a strange fact that the Spaniard has excelled in cruelty as other nations have excelled in art or science or invention. Spain's cruelty to the Moors and the rich Jews forms one of the blackest chapters in history. Inquisitors be- came fiends. Moors were starved, tortured, burned, flung into wells. Jewish bankers had their tongues thrust through little iron rings ; then the end of the tongue was seared that it might swell, and the banker was led by a string in the ring through the streets of the city. The women and the children were put on rafts that were pushed out into the Mediterranean. When the swollen corpses drifted ashore, the plague broke out, and when that black plague spread over Spain it seemed like the justice of outraged nature. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was one of the deadliest blows ever struck at science, commerce, art and literature. The historian tracks Spain across the continents 1 08 Why the World Sympathizes With Her by a trail of blood. "Wherever Spam's hand has fallen it has paralyzed. From the days of Cortez, wherever her captains have given a pledge, the tongue that spake has been mil- dewed with lies and treachery. The wild- est beasts are not in the jungle ; man is the lion that rends, man is the leopard that tears, man's hate is the serpent that poisons, and the Spaniard entered Belgium to turn a gar- den into a wilderness. Within one year, 1568, Antwerp, that be- gan with one hundred and twenty-five thou- sand people, ended it with fifty thousand. Multitudes were put to death by the sword and stake, but many, many thousands fled to England, to begin anew their lives as man- ufacturers and mariners; and for years Belgium was one quaking peril, an inferno, whose torturers were Spaniards. The visitor in Antwerp is still shown the rack upon which they stretched the merchants that they might yield up their hidden gold. The Painted Lady may be seen. Opening her arms, she embraces the victim. The Span- iard forced the merchant into the deadly em- brace. As the iron arms concealed in velvet folded together, one spike passed through each eye, another through the mouth, another 109 Brave Little Belgium through the heart. The Painted Lady's lips were poisoned, so that a kiss was fatal. Another instrument of torture was the dun- geon whose sides were forced together by screws, so that each day the victim saw his cell growing less and less, and knew that soon he would be crushed to death. Lit- erally thousands of innocent men and women were burned alive in the market-place. There is no more piteous tragedy in history than the story of the decline and ruin of this superbly prosperous, literary and artistic country, and yet out of the ashes came new courage. Burned, broken, the Belgians were not beaten. Pushed at last into Holland, they united their fortunes with the Dutch ; together they cut the dykes of Holland, and let in the ocean, and clinging to the dykes with their finger-tips, fought their way back to the land. Yet, no sooner had the last of the Spaniards gone than out of their rags and poverty the brave men founded a uni- versity as a monument to the providence of God in delivering them out of the hands of their enemies. The Sixteenth Century, in the form of a brave knight, wears little Belgium and Holland like a red rose upon his heart. But some of you will say that the Belgian no Why the World Sympathizes With Her people must have been rebels and guilty of some excess, and that had they remained quiescent, and not fomented treason, no such fate could have overtaken them at the hands of Spain. Very well. I will take a youth who, at the beginning, believed in Charles the Fifth, a man who was as true to his ideals as the needle to the pole Count Eg- mont, who had bravely fought in the armies of Charles, but who opposed the despotism and " religious " cruelties of Philip. One day the " Bloody Council " decreed the death of Egmont and his associate, Count Horn. Immediately afterwards, the Duke of Alva sent an invitation to Egmont to be the guest of honour at a banquet in his own house. A servant from the palace that night deliv- ered to the Count a slip of paper, containing a warning, to take the fleetest horse and flee the city, and from that moment not to eat or sleep without pistols at his hand. To all this Egmont responded that no monster ever lived who could, with an invitation of hospi- tality, trick a patriot. Like a brave man, he went to the Duke's palace. He found the guests assembled, but when he had handed his hat and cloak to the servant, Alva gave a sign, and from behind the in Brave Little Belgium curtains came Spanish musketeers, who de- manded his sword. For instead of a ban- quet hall, the Count was taken to a cellar, fitted up as a dungeon. Already Egmont had all but died for his country. He had used his ships, his trade, his gold, for right- ing the people's wrongs. He was a man of large family a wife and eleven children, and the people loved him as to idolatry. But Alva was inexorable. He had made up his mind that the merchants and burghers had still much hidden gold, and if he killed their bravest and best, terror would fall upon all alike, and the gold he needed would be forthcoming. That all the people might wit- ness the scene, he took his prisoners to Brus- sels and decided to behead them in the public square. In the evening Egmont received the notice that his head would be chopped off the next day. A scaffold was erected in the public square. That evening he wrote a letter that is a marvel of restraint : "SiRE I have learned this evening the sentence which your majesty has been pleased to pronounce upon me. Although I have never had a thought, and believe myself never to have done a deed which would tend to the prejudice of your service, 112 Why the World Sympathizes With Her or to the detriment of true religion, never- theless I take patience to bear that which it has pleased the good God to permit. There- fore, I pray your majesty to have compas- sion on my poor wife, my children and my servants, having regard to my past service. In which hope I now commend myself to the mercy of God. From Brussels, ready to die, this 5th of June, 1568. " LAMORAL D' EGMONT." Thus died a man who did as much prob- ably for Flanders as John Eliot for England, or Lafayette for France, or Samuel Adams for this young Republic. And now out of all her glorious past comes woe to Belgium once more. Deso- lation has come like the whirlwind, and de- struction like a tornado. But ninety days ago, and Belgium was a hive of industry, and in the fields were heard the harvest songs. Suddenly, Germany thrust at Belgium to strike France. The whole world has but one voice, "Belgium has innocent hands." When the lover of Germany is asked to explain Germany's breaking of her solemn treaty upon the neutrality of Belgium, the German pleads the necessity of his own in- terests. Merchants honour their written ob- ligations. True citizens consider their word Brave Little Belgium as good as their bond. Prussia gave treaty, and in the presence of God and the civilized world, entered into a solemn covenant with and for Belgium's neutrality a covenant afterwards confirmed by the new German Empire. To the end of time, the German must expect this taunt "Worthless as a German treaty ! " Scarcely less black are the few perfectly ascertained examples of cruelty wrought upon non-resisting Belgians. In Brooklyn lives a Belgian woman. She planned to return home in late July to visit a father who had suffered paralysis, an aged mother and a sister who nursed both. When the Germans decided to burn that village in Eastern Belgium, they did not wish to burn alive this old and helpless man and his wife, so they bayonetted the old man and woman, and the daughter that nursed them. But, let us judge not, that we be not judged. This is one example of atrocity that you and I might be able to person- ally prove. But every loyal German in the country may make answer : " These soldiers were drunk with wine and blood. Such an atrocity misrepresents Germany and her sol- diers. The breaking of Germany's treaty 114 Why the World Sympathizes With Her with Belgium represents the dishonour of a military ring, and not the perfidy of sixty- eight million people. We ask that judgment be postponed until all the facts are in." Meanwhile, the man who loves his fellows walks across the fields of broken Belgium at midnight in his dreams. All through the night air there comes the sob of Kachel, weeping for her children, because they are not. In moods of bitterness, of doubt and despair the heart cries out, "How could a just God permit such cruelty upon innocent Belgium ? " No man knows. " Clouds and darkness are round about God's throne." The spirit of evil caused this war, but the Spirit of God may bring good out of it, just as the summer can repair the ravages of winter. Yet the heart bleeds for Belgium ; for Brussels, the third most beautiful city in Europe; for Louvain, once rich with its libraries, cathedrals, statues, paintings, mis- sals, manuscripts now a ruin. Alas ! for the lost harvests and the smoking villages ! Alas, for the Cathedral that is marred, and the library that is a ruin. Where the angel of happiness was, there stalk Famine and Death. Gone, the Land of Grotius ! Per- ished or " conveyed " away the paintings of Brave Little Belgium genius ! Where the wheat waved, now the hillsides are billowy with graves. But God reigns. Perchance Belgium is slain like the Saviour, that militarism may die like Satan. Without shedding of inno- cent blood there is no remission of the sins of tyranny and greed. There is no wine without the crushing of the grapes of life. Soon Liberty, God's dear child, will stand within the scene and comfort the desolate. Falling upon the great world's altar stairs, in this hour when wisdom is ignorance, and the strongest man clutches at dust and straw, let us believe, with faith vic- torious over tears, that some time God will gather broken-hearted little Belgium into His arms and comfort her as a father com- forteth his well-beloved child. EESOUECES OF BELGIUM, 1913 l Area in square miles, 110,659. Population, 7,571,387. Wealth, $9,000,000. National debt, $741,891,615. Annual revenue, $161,462,705. Army budget (1913-1914), $20,219,250. Army : Standing, 58,000 ) o in Oftn Eeserves, 282,000 j diu ' ui 1 Estimates from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Evening Post Company, Copyright. 116 The New Russia : Her Ambition for a Seaport Russians often single out laziness and the want of practical energy as a national failing [of theirsj. Well and good : but the defence of Sevastopol, the creation of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and the transport of troops over a single line during [the Russo-Japanese] war time, are examples of abnormal energy in the domain of achievement. . . . The Russian Empire is the result of some- thing, and it is there. . . . While as to the general category of faults and qualities, virtues and vices, the Russians are on a par with other nations, they have a peculiar and unique gift of goodness and faith, in the nature of their people, which is difficult to match in any other country. MAURICE BARING. "The Mainsprings of Russia," 1914. THE NEW RUSSIA : HER AMBITION FOR A SEAPORT TOLSTOI once said: "Russia is not a state ; Russia is a world." England has vast colonies, but Russia's farming lands in- clude one-sixth of the resources of our earth. These lands also are compact, making her the most closely knitted country of which we have any knowledge. England controls nearly as much territory, but England's em- pire is loosely united because her colonies are scattered over five continents. Never was there a moment when the war eagles of Rome made a flight of more than 2,500 miles from east to west. Even to-day the American eagle journeying from the easternmost point of Maine to the western- most point of Puget Sound compasses but 3,400 miles. It would take three times the territory of the United States to cover Russia. Her eagles, starting on the Baltic Sea, jour- ney seven thousand miles to that port on the 119 The New Russia Pacific where the Russian railway has its ter- minus. It is more than three thousand miles also between Russia's northern boundary on the Arctics and her cotton fields on the shores of the Caspian. Western Russia holds more than half of the good farming land of Europe. Scandinavia and Great Britain, Germany and France, Spain and Italy, Austria and the Balkans, with the lesser nations thrown in, have smaller pastures and meadows than European Russia. As to Russian resources in Asia, remem- ber that the great forests and the wheat and corn and grazing lands of Asia are on the north of the Himalayas and above the north- western mountainous ranges separating China from Turkestan and Siberia. This Republic prides itself on the black corn land in Illinois and Iowa, but Russia has ten corn States in the " black-earth belt." This Republic and Canada have certain wheat lands in the Dakotas and Manitoba, but Rus- sia has twelve such wheat States. This country expects much from the developments of its forests in the Puget Sound, but the world's great forests of pine, spruce and cedar, of oak, maple and elm are in Siberia. From nothing, nothing comes. Back of 120 Her Ambition for a Seaport this vast land, this mighty people with their vast resources, lie many historic forces. Among the builders of Russia we must make a large place for that wonderful man, Peter the Great. All that Cromwell did for Eng- land or Washington for America, Peter did for Russia even more. He took a mob of races, differing in blood, language and relig- ion, and began the work of compacting them into a nation. His life reads like a veritable romance. Like Moses, he was con- demned to death by political enemies and was saved by the wit and courage of his mother. Like David, he once became the champion of his people. Like Horatius, single-handed he once defended a bridge. Coming to the throne, he met the ambas- sadors of other nations, and decided that something was wrong with his own country. Without national vanity he determined to go out in the world and see what he could learn about ways of improving his realms. For a year he travelled in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands and England. To know his own land, he went on foot, in city and coun- try, disguised as a Russian student ; went into the field to talk with peasants ; lingered on the wharves with sailors, hung around the 121 The New Russia wine-shops, where the poor congregate ; met business men in the market-place. He had a hungry mind, and every fact was grist to his hopper. Having seen the Dutch fleets, he determined to learn ship-building, and soon possessed himself of the drawings of the best ship-builders in Holland. He went into the iron foundries and mastered the processes ; into the rope- walks, and learned that trade ; into the spinning mills, and studied the looms. He went into the hospitals and began to study medicine and surgery. One day he found a dentist, and being crowded for time he gave only one hour to the investigation, but before he went away he bought all the dentist's instruments, and one of the first things he did when he went to his capital was to tie down in a chair a noble whom he disliked, and Peter filled his teeth by force. No difficulty could daunt his courage, and no obstacle could stop his progress. A mon- arch, Peter was not afraid to ask questions, but among more cultivated people his frank- ness was often embarrassing. One night in London, after he became well known, the great Kussian went to a diplomatic dinner. Across the table sat a lord, wearing a wig ; standing up, Peter reached across the table, 122 Her Ambition for a Seaport and, with an "Excuse me," lifted the wig from the noble's bald head, and having studied it a few minutes, threw it on the floor, saying, " It is not fit for a gentleman's wearing." One day he saw twenty barris- ters, lawyers and judges, with their gowns and wigs, crossing the green in front of Temple Bar. When the procession had dis- appeared in the court room, Peter asked who these twenty men were. " Lawyers," was the instant answer. " What ? Twenty lawyers and only one England ! Why, I have only two lawyers in all Russia, and I am going to behead one of those as soon as I get home." In Sweden, Peter was impressed by the solidity of regiments trained in the land of Gustavus Adolphus. Going home he told the queen that the only way he could learn how to develop soldiers was to have a fight with the Swedes, so that he might master their methods. Accordingly he proceeded to pick a quarrel with these soldiers, who were then the leaders of the world. When the news came that the Swedish regiments had defeated his generals, he shouted, " Ex- cellent ! Now that will wake up my sol- diers." Hurrying to the front Peter waited until the day had ended. Then the Russian 123 The New Russia spent the night with his generals, studying just how the Swedish generals had moved their troops and won their victory. A few days later he wrote home saying, " At last I have beaten the Swedes ; to be sure I have four Kussians to one Swede, but to-morrow or the next day I will beat them man for man." His letters to the queen are self -revelatory. One day he learned that during his absence his wife had given the children certain liberties that he had forbidden. That night he sent her a letter by a special messenger : " My dear, I love thee like mine own soul, but I will dust thy jacket upon my return." Once he returned from Holland by water and explored the shores of the Baltic ; far to the north he sailed into the mouth of his own River Neva ; he found waters as blue as the Rhone where it leaps like an arrow from Lake Geneva. The whole scene, as far as the eye could reach, was one vast swamp, filled with reeds and rushes ; but there he determined to build a city. He brought in an army of flatboats and dredges, and drove piles from thirty to fifty feet in length ; upon these piles huge slabs of granite were placed. He multiplied 124 Her Ambition for a Seaport workmen until there were a hundred thou- sand men labouring upon that swamp. At last the foundations were ready for a vast city, and here he founded St. Petersburg. He reared his palace in the midst of the workingmen's sheds. One summer he ordered a census of all the large towns in Russia. From this census he selected the names of a hundred thousand bankers, merchants, manufacturers and work- men, all picked men. Shortly afterwards each one of these men received a notice com- manding him to remove to St. Petersburg ; and they moved. Suddenly St. Petersburg rose like an exhalation from the seas. No visitor to the Russian capital but exclaims as his first remark, " "What folly to build a great city in the midst of these marshes ! " Peter knew that he had land enough, and that what he needed was water, but he over- looked the fact that the ice locked his harbour for six months every year, and that it is impossible for ships to compete with ice and snow. Half convinced of his defeat, Peter's mind began to teem and seethe with new schemes. He \vanted to cover Russia with a network of factories and shops, but, overworked, he broke down nervously. One 125 The New Russia morning, suddenly overtaken by the keenest torture, he shouted to his secretary : " I am dying. Bring me pen and ink." He wrote three words : " Give all to " gasped twice, and fell back dead. But, having found his country a mere field, a group of unorganized races, Peter left a mighty people, awake, and started upward along the paths of social progress. Then came the great Catherine, his widowed Empress, whose nervous energy seemed inexhaustible, whose youth was al- most eternal, and who at sixty-five went through her most passionate experience in love. The Eomanoffs culminated in Alexander the Second, who came to the throne in 1855, following his father, Nicholas the First. One day this monarch discovered that he had been deceived by his officers. A reception had been arranged for him in one city lying to the east. But an ambitious under servant frustrated the plans of the Prime Minister, and deflected Alexander's journey to the west. That morning the monarch saw his people as they were, naked, shoeless, bitter, wretched beyond words. Apologizing for the mistake, the officer then drove his Emperor 126 Her Ambition for a Seaport to the village for which the visit had been planned, and lo, drawn up on the sidewalk were people well dressed, with children well kept. It was a select exhibit, while soldiers in the alleys and side streets kept back the poor, that the ruler might not realize the facts concerning his people. In that hour the scales fell from the eyes of Alexander. It became impossible for him to feast in his palace while the peasants famished. His ambrosia turned to ashes and soot, and the wine upon his lips became gall. In 1861 he emancipated twenty million serfs. But there were those who did not want these reforms. Alexander was slain by a bomb. Lying upon his table was the draft of a new bill breaking up the vast estates, and distributing the land among the people. Just at the moment when his reforms were ripened, assassins carried him off. The crime was attributed to Nihilists ; there are some who believe that it was planned by aristocrats, who did not want to have their heel lifted from the neck of the serf. The land question is still the great problem of Russia. It was the land question that pro- duced the English Revolution under Cromwell, that broke up the estates, and gave the English 127 The New Russia peasant and yeoman a chance at the soil. In France two classes, including a little hand- ful of aristocrats and bishops, owned two- thirds of all the lands of France, while the fifteen millions owned almost nothing, and the land question produced the French Kevo- lution and destroyed the Bastile. In Mexico the revolution will never be settled until the land question is settled. There are single families in Mexico who own from one to ten million acres of rich land, while there are twelve million Indians who have no stake in the soil and are wanderers upon the face of the land, the prey of any adventurer, ready to follow any revolutionist. In the upheavals incident to this discussion, of late the Eussian Government has vested the land in the Mir or village community. The head trustee of a township apportions to the peasant his plot of ground. The in- justices are so grievous that when one trustee became angry because the peasants were quarrelling over who should have the rich farms in the valley, he cut all the farms into strips, and gave each peasant in the township a strip in the farm, until each family had a strip three and a half feet wide. Meanwhile, under this new law, the upper class, that has 128 Her Ambition for a Seaport had education and experience, has lost its leadership. In our own South, after the slaves had been emancipated, the Southern States were at first without leaders. The planter returned to his five thousand acres, but he was with- out slaves, without workingmen, without money, without tools, until his farm grew up in weeds and many a man died of a broken heart. Meanwhile the coloured people, be- coming rulers, voted in one year to bridge all streams, rebuild all schoolhouses, buy fine furniture for all city halls, and in a little time certain sections were knee-deep in mortgages, and the land bankrupt. Just now Russia is passing through a simi- lar transition period. The gentleman class has decayed. The peasants are not yet pos- sessed of capacity and experience. And these two problems, the land question and how to find leaders in the new era, are big with destiny for the Russian people. Fortu- nately, at last the . people are beginning to learn and to be allowed to take the right path. No thoughtful man can fail to ob- serve that time and events will cure these ills in Russia. The faults are the faults of inexperience, and the barrenness is the bar- 129 The New Russia renness of a new vineyard, just planted. Time is the husbandman who will ripen the fruits of liberty, prosperity and intelligence. Yet the obstacles, even in recent years, have been almost insurmountable. Out of the enormous expanse of territory and people have bred seething conditions giving rise to the evils of bureaucracy. The Czar who rules over 170,000,000 of people, and whose sceptre extends over a land three times as large as the United States, must of necessity delegate much even the most of his au- thority. In little lands it is quite possible for the Mayor to understand all the people of his village, and for the Governor to under- stand his State but not in Eussia. Slowly, therefore, as a concession to distance and space, the system of bureaucracy has devel- oped. Were it possible for you to rise in some aeroplane above Kussia and look down upon the land, you would see a vast web of governmental powers stretching its spider- like lines into the remotest corners of the land. Along the lines of this spider-web vibrates the behest of an iron ruler like Plehve who, as minister of the interior, exercised such cruel severity to the Jews, the Armenian Church, the liberal-minded nobility, and the 130 Her Ambition for a Seaport peasants, that in 1904 he was assassinated. Under this system, also, spies of faithless duplicity and merciless policemen are de- veloped, whose type is Victor Hugo's Javert. Reformers, therefore, soon pass under sus- picion. Every town has its suspected list. Liberty of speech is impossible. Witness the Russian student from Munich, who returned home to criticize from his paper the government, and, pursued by spies, found a hiding place. When his aged mother would not give up her son, the police stripped the woman to the back, tied her to a two- wheeled cart and flogged her up and down the village street, to terrorize the commu- nity. Witness the indignities wrought upon Madame Bereshkovsky, because she taught the peasants on her own estate how to read, and founded for them schools for the better- ment of the health and happiness of children and women. Witness the ten thousand ex- amples of cruelty found in the history of the Siberian convicts. Witness the persecutions of the Mennonites, a pure and spotless people, if our earth has ever known such, but hounded out of the land because they will not con- form to the Greek Church. Witness the ex- communication of Tolstoi, the one outstand- The New Russia ing Russian of genius and heroism in his era. "Witness the tragedy of the patrician Peshkoff. Taking his family to London for a winter's season, this Russian aristocrat passed under the influence of a Christian minister. Listening to a sermon on the love of God to sinful men, he began to feel, and then to weep. Going to London to scoff, he remained to pray. His conversion was dra- matic. Going to the Ambassador's house he told his story. One of the richest men of Russia, everywhere men listened to his words. Returning to St. Petersburg he opened his city house, and filling his draw- ing-rooms with rich men and servants he be- sought them to accept Christ and lead a Christian life. Passing under suspicion, he was arrested, expelled from the Greek Church, peeled of his goods, sent to Siberia as an exile. Escaping from the convict mines, Peshkoff finally reached Paris, where he died in extreme poverty. Such things take us back to the days when Tyndale was burned for distributing the Bible in England, and when the Waldenses were persecuted in Italy for their new vital faith. But at last the fire is kindled. The 132 Her Ambition for a Seaport Y. M. C. A. building in St. Petersburg has become a centre of light and learning. The university students have the fire that burns and will not be extinguished. Successive legislative Dumas, representing the people, although checked, dissolved, reconstituted, working under discouragements, have begun the slow march towards a larger liberty. Nothing can stay this movement. God is abroad in Russia. The new era is on, and there is no enemy that can stay the chariots divine. True it is that, ten years ago, great Russia was defeated in war by little Japan. The reasons for that were in the distance at which Russia worked, the impossibility of trans, porting armies, food, military equipment three thousand miles with promptitude, the inefficiency of her old guns and cartridges, the graft of her commissary department, the inefficiency of her ignorant peasant soldiers, and finally the feeling of the men that they had nothing to fight for since, if successful, the aristocrats obtained the reward ; and if defeated they themselves had nothing to lose because they had nothing. Yet let no man mistake that there is a new Russia. This great people cannot be talked 133 The New Russia down. Bead these books fresh from the printing-press, telling of the reorganization of the Russian army within the last three years. Remember that for every dollar Germany has been spending on her army Russia has been spending three dollars. Not of a tall physique, the Russian is wiry, com- pact, sturdy. Like the Chinaman, also, he has one advantage he is a vegetarian for centuries ; three pounds of black bread and a little soup makes his meal upon the march. Inured to cold for centuries, he is not dis- turbed by snow or frosty nights. It was this that accounted for Napoleon's defeat in Russia. For several days the French Em- peror lived in the Kremlin in Moscow, and from its banqueting hall sent his orders out into the world. One morning he awoke to find that his men's feet were freezing, and their hands too cold to pull a trigger. Then these Russians, with their long coats, closed in upon Napoleon, and when a few weeks had passed the great conqueror, with twenty servants, having fled by night and day, crossed the frontier into Germany, while in a single Russian valley were buried one hun- dred thousand Frenchmen. Moreover, the Russian resources in men 134 Her Ambition for a Seaport are colossal, in food boundless, in warlike munitions vast ; and, while her pecuniary re- serves are not equal to some of the Western European nations, her wealthy allies will supply all that she needs. She has not the wonderful strategic railroad systems of the Germans, which will at times put her at dis- advantage, but her numbers will enable her to line the frontiers. Her Polish territory thrusts out westwardly between East Prussia on the north and Austrian Galicia on the south, and that eastern war-territory must mean a terrific struggle for Germany while at the same time she is at grips with France, Belgium and Great Britain in the West. Now winter is at hand and the Russian is at his best. In his hands he carries a new Crag-Jurgensen rifle. In his heart is kindled a great hope that he is to have the Bos- phorus and a chance at commerce. Most in- fluential of all is the fact that the Russian believes this his chance to retrieve the repu- tation he lost at Port Arthur and Mukden. Men are never defeated when they do not know that they are defeated. Every day now intensities the conflict. Grown desper- ate, all the armies are fighting like demons. Dispatches from London and Berlin alike '35 The New Russia agree that on the entire battle line tens of thousands are being killed each day. It is as if there were seven Gettysburgs being fought every week. What means this desperation ? "We understand, when a king or a kaiser, angry because his generals have been de- feated, orders three officers to be shot, that that is the flash of the thunderbolt. But there is something more terrible than the thunder- bolt ; it is the ground-swell of the earthquake. Unmoved, men watch the lightning, but when the earth heaves, the cheek goes white. Kaisers and kings are in the way to discover that the result of this is to be the uprising of the poor. Begun by rulers and diplomats, this war is arousing vast populations, who will learn their power. Weary of centuries of militarism, cruel taxation and absolutism, they will find the determination to be free. Let monarchs beware the ground-swell of democracy ! ' EESOUECES OF EUSSIA, 1913 l Area in square miles (European), 1,862,524. ( Whole Empire}, 8, 764, 586. Population (European), 122,550,700. (Whole Empire), 171,059,700. 'Estimates from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Evening Post Company, Copyright. 136 Her Ambition for a Seaport Wealth, $40,000,000,000. National debt, $4,422,858,884. Auuual revenue, $1,779,130,749. Army budget (1913-1914), $388,900,000. Navy budget (1913-1914), $121,247,270. Army : Standing (European}, 949,000) (Asiatic), 124,000 [-5,400,000. Beserves, 4,327,000 } 137 VI The Unspeakable Turk: An Alien in Europe The Turk came in as an alien and barbarian, encamped on the soil of Europe. At the end of five hundred years he remains an alien and barbarian encamped on soil which he has no more made his own than it was when he first took Gallipolis [in Thrace, 1356; Constantinople, in 1453]. His rule during all that time has been the rule of strangers over enslaved nations in their own land. It has been the rule of cruelty, faithlessness and brutal lust ; it has not been gov- ernment, but organized brigandage. His rule cannot be reformed. While all other nations get better and better, the Turk gets worse and worse. . . . For an evil that cannot be reformed, there is "one remedy only to get rid of it. Justice, rea- son, humanity demand that the rule of the Turk in Europe should be got rid of. EDWARD A. FREEMAN. " The Turks in Europe." VI THE UNSPEAKABLE TURK: AN ALIEN IN EUROPE BUT yesterday the cable flashed the news under the sea that Turkey had entered the European conflict, and ordered a Holy War. The history of the Moslem faith during the years of religious conflict is a record of massacre, attended by such ferocity as to send the blood from the cheeks of the out- side peoples. There are 180,000,000 Mo- hammedans in the world. Of this number but 20,000,000 are Turks ; and of these Turks who hold the Moslem faith, only 2,500,000 live in Europe. Unfortunately, Constanti- nople is not only the capital of Turkey, but the seat of the Caliphate, the dominion over all Mohammedans, long held and still claimed by the Sultans. The world holds no city sur- passing Constantinople in beauty of situation or in strategic importance, commanding as it does the narrow waters between Southern Europe and Asia. The time was when it 141 The Unspeakable Turk looked as if the great majority of Mohammed- ans would refuse to be still governed by a little group of European Turks, and in the critical year 1878 many statesmen believed that if the Turk lost Constantinople the seat of the Caliphate would be taken to Cairo or Mecca, and that the Mohammedans living round about the Mosque of St. Sophia would be thrown from their place of power in Europe. In the physical system the body is large, and the spinal cord small, but that tiny nerve thread from the brain controls the bulk of Samson and Goliath. For centuries Con- stantinople has been the brain and nerve controlling the Mohammedan populations. But, little by little, the steamship, the rail- way, the printing-press and commerce have created an atmosphere around the Moslems hitherto impervious to approach through re- ligious teaching, and now has come a time when it seems unlikely that a handful of Turks can send into a Holy War the eighty millions of their co-religionists in India and the hundred millions in Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia and Persia. Yet, even if the announcement that Tur- key has at last cast in her lot with Germany 142 An Alien in Europe and Austria simply means the Turkish in- crease in fighting force, the news brings with it the fear of a new Balkan insurrection and a possible world conflagration. Already there are eleven nations at war, and ours is the only one of the first rank in population and wealth that stands aloof. Behold how great a matter a little fire kindleth ! When that woman, on an October night in Chicago, upset her lamp, no one thought that the burning of her little frame stable meant anything to foreign nations. But, unfortu- nately, Chicago was built of wooden houses ; for two months there had been a drought and not a drop of rain ; the whole city was dry as tinder ; the wind was from the south- west ; within one hour the block was aflame ; within two hours six blocks were blazing ; at midnight the flames leaped a river three hundred feet in width ; within twenty-four hours the West Side was a mass of flames, and then there came a moment when the wind swept the flames into the North Side. Could you have been lifted up into the air above and looked down upon the spectacle, you would have gazed upon a furnace of red-hot coals a mile and a half square, with the blue and crimson and white tongues 143 The Unspeakable Turk of fire brooding upon the coals. When the third day came, there was panic in the streets of foreign cities, where great insurance com- panies had their head offices, so far did that distant fire send its heat. In hours of de- pression the lover of his fellow men must sometimes confess to an awful terror lest the whole world become involved in this present conflict that will leave Europe in a desola- tion as terrible as that which followed the Thirty Years' War. Jealous hate is a fire. Passion is the wind that fans the flame. Civilization holds the material for a conflagration that can make the whole earth desolate. The time has come when we can no longer put any confi- dence in statesman or diplomat. We have only one hope left for society the entrance of an Infinite God into the battle-field. More than four hundred and fifty years have now passed since the " Unspeakable Turk " conquered Constantinople and entered Europe as an alien. More than one thousand years have come and gone since the Mo- hammedans swept like a flame northward and westward from Arabia. With Thomas Carlyle let us confess the genius of Mo- hammed, and joyfully acknowledge his sin- 144 An Alien in Europe cerity and earnestness during the first twenty years of his career. But history compels us to add that, embittered by his failure to spread his faith by religious appeal, at last he decided to advance his cause by the sword and by promising his followers the grossest physical rewards in return for every disciple they coerced out of their own faith into that of the Moslem. The spectacle of a little lamp spreading until it consumed a great city but faintly illustrates the spread of Mohammed's faith from six followers to a day when outlaws, adventurers and soldiers of fortune assembled to travel like a column of fire across the world, forcing men to say with their lips at least, "There is but one God, and Mo- hammed is His prophet." In those wars of propagation, millions of persons who re- fused to forswear their convictions were massacred, but at last, the conflagration hav- ing blackened all Asia Minor, North Africa, Spain, and the Byzantine Empire as far west as Vienna, it was stopped in the central part of France by Charles Martel, and before Vienna by John Sobieski. The history of Mohammedanism throws a flood of light on the present situation. The Unspeakable Turk Mohammed was born about the year 570 in Mecca, and was reared in the home of an Arabian aristocrat. Early left an orphan, he was adopted by a wealthy uncle, and given an opportunity to travel with his caravans all through that ancient world. He married the richest widow of the time, and his wife put her fortune at his disposal, just as Disraeli's wife forwarded the ambi- tions of the Hebrew statesman. After fifteen years of contemplation in the desert, like Moses, Mohammed returned to the city. He brought to men his belief in one God, personal, and infinite. That he found in the old Hebrew Scriptures of Moses and Isaiah his theory of theism no scholar doubts. In an era when the Epicurean said, " There is no God," when irreligion was eating out the heart of decadent Greece and Rome, while idolatry ruled Arabia, Mohammed in soli- tary meditation had visions of the higher truth, and returned to the world to revive men's faith of the reality and omnipresence of God. For three years he stood upon the corners of the streets, proclaiming his faith, and won thirteen disciples. When his fortune began to suffer, his relatives urged silence, but the 146 An Alien in Europe hero answered: "If the sun stood on my right hand and the moon on my left, order- ing me to hold my peace, I would still de- clare there is but one God." Finally the people began to be irritated, and one day the mob covered him with dust and ashes, and he barely escaped from the riot with his life. Then, on the 20th of June, 622, he fled to Medina. That date, known as the Hejira or Flight, marks the Era of Mohammedan- ism, as the birth of Jesus denotes the Chris- tian Era. In Medina he wrote the Koran, fulfilling a life of asceticism and retirement. At last his health gave way and he became the victim of ecstasies and visions, and in an irritable spirit turned bitter. Thus, then, he decided to adapt his religion to the people about him. He was ambitious for success, and he decided to win it at whatsoever cost. Having failed by his ap- peal to conscience, he now determined to win men by the use of the sword and a religion founded on sensuality. He went over to the vice of the East, polygamy, and painted Heaven as a land flowing with wine and honey, all of whose houses were palaces, where all wore gar- ments of gold thread, and where the warrior The Unspeakable Turk remained young and was endowed with passions that could never be exhausted, and with an infinity of black-eyed wives. A regiment of soldiers came one day and offered their services. He set forth like a conquering hero and made himself terrible to all who would not acknowledge that there was but one God, and Mohammed was His prophet. His military forces grew with fierce rapidity. Within eleven years he had con- quered the East. He died in 632, but his successors for some time descendants from his family vigorously carried on the prop- aganda. Their armies marched into Syria and gave the inhabitants their choice of the Moslem faith or the grave. Later came the victory over Egypt, and the burning of the largest library in the world, in Alexandria. Moving westward around the Mediterranean, they soon conquered more than thirty thou- sand cities, towns and castles. At last, in 1453, they won also a permanent hold in Eastern Europe through the conquest of Constantinople. That wonderful hill looking down upon the Bosphorus, and across to Asia on the south and to Europe on the north, has been likened unto a warrior's steed, with Mo- 148 An Alien in Europe hammed in the saddle, and controlling the destinies of three continents, laved by the waters of the sea at the rider's feet. But what if the Turk should be unseated from his saddle ? What if that alien to our civilization is thrust back into the desert? So dark and depressing are the Mohammedan lands that a traveller who went by horse- back across the Turkey of thirty years ago says that when he reached the edge of Austria he saw a gibbet with a dead body held by a rope and swinging to the wind. "The sight of that scaffold," says the traveller, " was depressing, but after Turkey, I felt that at last I was in a civilized land." It stirs the wonder of the Twentieth Cen- tury man that the Moslem dominates the old centres where civilization, with the arts and sciences and laws, had their rise. For four and a half centuries Mohammedanism has ruled the Near East, and starved the soul al- most to death. Mention one contribution that Turkey has made to art, finance, phi- losophy, religion, or the home. True, the Arabian conquerors of Spain in the Eighth Century brought Saracenic science and manu- facturing skill to that land, where they held a varying power until expelled in the Fifteenth 149 The Unspeakable Turk Century. But in the Orient, Islamism has destroyed science and fine working. It is an Eastern proverb that the hoof of the bullock and the swine leave barrenness, and certainly wherever the Turkish hoof has been set down, beauty and prosperity have been trampled into nothingness. But remember that when you sail from Athens towards Constantinople, you see the crescent flying over the little town where Homer made his Iliad, over the island where " Sappho loved and sung," that Mohammed controls that storied route along which passed Xenophon and his Ten Thousand. Remember that Ephesus and all the Seven Cities where Paul founded his churches have been lost to the Christian faith ; that the Mohammedan con- trols Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, Jerusalem, the centre of His ministry, the Jordan, once pressed by the feet of Joshua and John the Baptist. The Moslem rules Damascus, on the road to which Paul beheld the heavenly vision. Egypt is the mother of the arts and sciences, but in Cairo there is a Mohammedan University with thousands of pupils, who sit in semicircles on the marble pavements learning to repeat the Koran. 150 An Alien in Europe Islam originally meaning Submission to the will of God now stands for two crimes polygamy and slavery. Polygamy is a cancer that eats out the very heart of society ; slavery is a foul ulcer that the surgeons of this Republic cut out with sharp knives. Islam journeys forward, carrying these two fatal diseases in itself. But take away polygamy and slavery, and you have taken the heart out of the Koran, and with- out the Koran, there is no Islam ism. Asia Minor and Palestine are a bridge connecting Europe and Asia, but that bridge is in the hand of the Turk ; and the Turk hath now formed his alliance with Austria and Germany ; the plan being that the bridge shall stretch from the Kiel Canal to the Persian Gulf and be protected by rows of bayonets as bulwarks for the bridge. To defend this structure a Holy War has been declared. But there are the best of reasons for believing that the Mohammedans under the varied rule of .Russia, England and France, will pay no heed to the religious summons from the long-discredited Sultan, but will stand loyal, and that when the conflict is over this impossible Turk will have been bundled bag and baggage out of Europe. The Unspeakable Turk For the symbol of the Moslem is a waning crescent : The moon of Mahomet Arose, and it shall set ; While, blazoned as on heaven's im- mortal noon, The Cross leads generations on. Now, every man who loves Greece, as the land from whence we have our ideas of the drama, of the poem, of eloquence and phi- losophy, will be conscious of the stirring of a great hope from this news that Turkey has started to commit suicide. It is nearly eighty years since Daniel Webster stood up in the United States Senate and made his plea for Greece. Our greatest statesman was fully conscious of his indebtedness to Athens, and he was not the man to owe an obligation and not to repay it. In the hour when Greece was struggling to escape from the Turk and his bloody hand, the Grecian patriots appealed to this Republic. In his reply to the appeal, Daniel Webster re- minded our people of what France as a lover of liberty had done for us during our dark days. What marvellous genius in that plea of Webster's ! What an argument for the 152 An Alien in Europe solidarity of the race ! How near he made Greece seem to us ! With what little cost of assistance might Greece have been free ! Lord Byron was under a similar sense of obligation : The isles of Greece ! The isles of Greece ! Where burning Sappho loved and sung ; Where grew the arts of war and peace, Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprung. Eternal sunshine gilds them yet, But all except their sun is set. At last Greece escaped from the Turkish yoke, and consider what her condition was in the hour when the stained hand was lifted. Then, not a book could be bought in Athens ; now, after fifty years, the whole nation is in school. Then, Athens was a town of hovels ; now, it is a royal city of nearly 100,000 peo- ple. Under liberty, she has founded fifteen new cities, restored forty ruined towns, built a fleet of nearly ten thousand vessels, founded fifty printing houses, thirty newspapers, a university, with nearly one hundred profess- ors and two thousand students. Then a slave of oppression, now Greece stands in the front rank of self-educated J53 The Unspeakable Turk nations. To-day, the Greeks, in southeast- ern Europe, outnumber the Turks ten to one. Estimating their wealth, they are as fifty to one, and on this day, when Turkey has drawn the sword against the Allies, a sword upon which Turkey herself shall fall, it is for all lovers of liberty to realize that the day for which Daniel Webster pleaded and Byron sang has come the day of release from Turkey's bondage, the day of liberty for all the Greek people in the southeast, for most of the " Isles of Greece " in the ^Egean are still held by the Turk. But the imminence of Turkey's fall and the loss of Constantinople bring into recogni- tion a new hope for Asia Minor. For more than a generation Turkey has stood against the railroad that would join Constantinople to the Persian Gulf. The Sultan feared to let in the sunshine of commerce. But Kus- sia and England now have common interests. Kussia has the northern half of Persia, and England controls the southern part. Al- ready the alliance has been entered into look- ing to the construction of a railroad on the east bank of the Euphrates Kiver. This road, beginning at Constantinople, would shorten the European path to India. This 154 An Alien in Europe road would simplify the exchange of the markets of Asia and Europe. This road, joined to the railway of North India, would bring London within six days of Calcutta. Germany already largely controls a railway beginning near Ephesus that would have been shortly completed through to Bagdad, four hundred miles to the Persian Gulf. A third great enterprise has been proposed, looking to a canal that will connect the Mediterranean and the Red Sea by way of the Valley of the Jordan. Sometimes, as in the case of the Panama Canal, the longest way around is the shortest way across. It is but twenty-five miles across the Plain of Esdraelon from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. Through this canal the waters would flow down the slope through and from the Dead Sea into the Red Sea. A lake hundreds of feet deep would be created, a lake whose northern shore would extend to the Lake of Galilee, a lake whose western shore would come within ten miles of Jeru- salem, a lake whose waters would flow by a natural channel from the Dead Sea into the Red Sea. The strategic importance to Eng- land of two sea routes in times of war is self- evident. The influence of such an enterprise 155 The Unspeakable Turk upon the agricultural development of these lands would be incalculable. But yesterday such a plan was impossible, because of Turkey's opposition. Who knows whether there will be any Turkey to-morrow ? When Turkey goes there will be a new agri- culture in these sacred lands, new engineer- ing, new railways, new shipping, new cities and new civilization. Egypt and Persia, with the Suez Canal, are the key to the whole British Empire. Napoleon used to say that whoever governs Egypt will govern both Europe and Asia. He wrote to the French Directory : " By seizing and holding Egypt I grasp and command the destinies of the whole civilized world." When the great soldier began to realize the strength of Mo- hammedanism, as an opportunist he straight- way went over to the Mohammedan faith, and this alliance with the priests at Cairo was to be the first step in a gigantic scheme to control the one hundred and more millions who then cherished the Moslem faith. Burke's famous cautionary statement " I do not know the method of drawing up a.n indictment against a whole people " should perhaps guard us against too sweeping a con- 156 An Alien in Europe demnation of the Turks, despite the tre- mendous weight of evidence against them. Accredited visitors have found their official classes hospitable, courteous and cultured. One of the encyclopaedias says that they are " handsome, courageous, honest and dignified, but inclined to indolence, fanaticism and ar- rogance. Polygamy is confined almost en- tirely to the rich classes." And that may all be true, without invalidating the awful record of cruelty to subject races, and gen- eral inhumanity to man and woman, with repression of all popular attempt to improve in civilization. Doubtless there is a new Turkey, that has broken with the old regime. From the Young Turks and their new dreams spring the hopes that men cherish for the followers of Islam, although they have shown much reactionary influence in all directions, and the weakness of divided counsels in this great crisis, and have allowed their nation to be coerced by Germany. Cyrus Hamlin, of our American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, is called the father of modern education in Turkey. More than seventy years have passed since he landed at Constantinople. At that time 157 The Unspeakable Turk there was not a school-book in any of the languages spoken in the Sultan's empire. At last Robert College is founded, in the year that witnessed the beginning of our Civil War. This and other American schools and larger institutions have been called the American lighthouses on a dark coast, where the hungry surf still roars. Their many Turkish, Bulgarian and other Balkan grad- uates have had great influence in the upris- ings of recent years. Our own Howard Bliss is still president of the Beirut College in the far northern corner of Palestine, and Dr. Gates of Robert College. Several thousand teachers have gone out from these two in- stitutions to start public schools in Turkey. American physicians have still further strengthened the spirit of Christianity and freedom. And it is only fair to say that the Turkish Government, even under the old despot Abdul Hamid, has always treated the American missionaries and their edu- cational labours with consideration and pro- tection. After many years of service as a physician, the late Dr. "West so completely won the confidence of the Turks that when the news spread that he was critically ill, prayers for his recovery were offered in 158 An Alien in Europe Mohammedan mosques and Armenian churches. This is in striking contrast with that ex- perience recorded by the captain of an American battle-ship. While anchored off the Sultan's palace, a valuable object was lost over the ship's side. When a diver was sent down, he jerked the rope, and when brought to the surface, exclaimed in words of terror. He said that he found himself in the midst of sacks, each of which held a corpse, tied to a stone, while all about him were skeletons. It is a gruesome tale, and, unfortunately, there are many reasons for believing it, and none that throw doubt upon the accuracy of this story. Of course, Great Britain's possibility of damage from Turkey is the accessibility of the Suez Canal to attack, a vital matter, which doubtless the British are clear-eyed enough to foresee and provide against. On the other hand, if England and France should make a determined effort to force the splen- did fortifications holding the Dardanelles against approach to Constantinople, and Rus- sia should join them through the Black Sea, the heart of Turkish rule in Europe would be in dire peril. In any event, it would 159 The Unspeakable Turk seem that Turkey has little to gain and risks all, in her foolish yielding to the cajolery of Germany. As to the resources of Turkey, it must be recognized that both the army and the navy are now under the command of German officers, who doubtless precipitated the open- ing attack by the Turkish fleet on Kussian port and ships in the Black Sea and thus made it impossible for Turkey to withdraw from the conflict that they had themselves brought on. EESOURCES OF TURKEY 1 Area in square miles (European), 11,000. (Asiatic), 699,224. Population (European), 1,892,000. (Asiatic), 19,382,000. Wealth, not estimated. National debt, $675,654,000. Annual revenue, $134,262,000. Army : Standing, 230,000 1 , Q9S 71K Eeserves, 1,698,715 ] 1 > was > 7J Available Unorganized From " The World Almanac," 1915. ) { 4 1 60 VII Italy Old and New : Her Ambitions Beyond question the errors of the Italian Gov- ernment since the too early death of Cavour, the only Italian statesman endowed with real practi- cal aptitude, have been many and great. The fact is, that Italy was made too quickly, the revo- lution was too suddenly successful : there had not been time enough to allow of the training of free- born citizens. . . . [But] if we look at what Italy was little more than fifty years ago, we have reason to be astonished at the striking advance she has made in so short a time, and may well place high hopes upon a people who have given proof of such exuberant and recuperative vitality. HELEN ZIMMERN. " Italy of the Italians" 1906. VII ITALY OLD AND NEW : HEK AMBITIONS ROME is called the Eternal City, and Italy might well be called the abiding leader of the States and of civilization. " O Rome, my country ! city of the soul ! " ex- claimed Byron in his famous apostrophe. " The orphans of the heart must turn to thee, lone mother of dead empires. The Niobe of nations ! " No other land has maintained the leadership of the world for so long a time. Remember that the Egyptian Thebes city of twelve gates on every side, city of art and eloquence, city of philosophy and literature, city of wealth, commerce, and the most grandiose architecture of history main- tained its supremacy for but about four hun- dred years. Florence and Venice carried the torch for only two hundred years. London and England have been the world leaders since the defeat of Napoleon, while Rome had led the world for 1,700 years. 163 Italy Old and New It was Italy that first dreamed its dream of uniting all the provinces and states into a world empire, where there should be no war. It was in Italy that a statesman first cher- ished his vision of a unity where justice should be administered through a Digest of Universal Law. It was in Italy that plans were made for a language that should be a world language, and a commerce that should be without barriers between states, and there- fore a world trade. It has been said that the Past, the Present and the Future are three moods of one and the same verb to Live. And it would seem as if Rome and Italy had lived in the three realms at one and the same time. Feeling the pull of the Eternal City upon his heart-strings, Crawford ex- claimed, "The years move on, but Rome waits ; the cities fall but she stands ; the old races lie dead, but Rome lives. At last, as a gladiator of life, the world pilgrim bows his head before her, wondering how his own fight shall end, while his lips pronounce the submission of his own mortality to her abid- ing endurance : All hail, Eternal Rome ! We who are about to die salute thee ! " Back of abiding institutions stand the great men whom we must call the makers of states 164 Her Ambitions and the builders of institutions. Yonder in the shadows of the past stands the greatest Puritan of them all, the man of oak and rock Scipio Africanus. If ever there lived, outside of Christianity, a twin brother of Socrates, the seer and man of God, that brother was the sturdy old Puritan, Scipio. His enemies were accustomed to sneer at this statesman, because in the midst of an important debate in the senate, touching the future of Rome, he was seen to withdraw into his office, and there to fall upon his knees. The truths written in the old Hebrew Scriptures seem to have been revealed by God to the heart of Scipio. It is true that he was a strong nationalist ; that his motto was, " My country," and that he led the movement against Carthage. But Scipio felt the same fear of Carthage that Joshua experienced towards the polytheists, polyg- amists, and bestial folk in the land of the Philistines. Never lived there a man in pagan times of strength more rugged, of simplicity more sincere, or of loyalty that endured more stress in its adherence to the great convictions of justice and duty. His daughter was the mother of the Gracchi, and the hidings of the power in these two dis- 165 Italy Old and New tinguished statesmen was in their grand- father. The bust of the old hero still stands in the gallery of the Vatican a lion-like head, a scar across the forehead, eyes deep as caverns, thin, firm lips, square but del- icately carved chin the kind of man that can bear the world upon his shoulders. It is said that recently a cluster of grapes was plucked from a vine in Florida and sent across to Spain, and lo, men found the very vines from which that root and seed and graft had been carried nearly four hundred years before by Ponce de Leon to this new continent. Not otherwise, the character, the spirit, the rugged virtue, the stern simplicity, the insistence upon soul liberty and absolute justice for others, journeyed on for centuries, propagated in Italy, from the original soul stock of Scipio Africanus, a builder of the Eternal City. And then came Julius Cassar, the most myriad-minded man that was ever produced on the banks of the Tiber. He was a soldier who never suffered defeat. He was a states- man who planned roads. One ran along the northern shores of Africa two thousand miles, around the eastern end of the Mediterranean to Syria and Asia Minor, a road that crossed 1 66 Her Ambitions from the Bosphorus to the lagoons of Venice and from thence leaped like an arrow on to Nice and thence through Calais to York in England. He was an author, and wrote the most charming, sunny, simple, clear, strong histories of his wars, now translated out of ancient times in American colleges. Though nearly twenty centuries have passed, Julius Caesar's supremacy among the five or six great generals of all time still stands un- challenged. These two men are the makers of old Rome, and though their bodies sleep in peace their names are among those that live forever and forevermore. In Rome dwelt Yirgil, one of the five great epic poets ; in Rome dwelt Lucretius, the father of mod- ern Evolution ; in Rome dwelt Marcus Aure- lius, the ethical emperor, and Epictetus the philosopher-slave; to Rome came Constan- tine, to proclaim Christianity, and from Rome went Augustine, to transform North Africa. Antiquity gave place to the Middle Ages, when all civilization was controlled by Roman popes, while Italian art and literature illumined the world. Dante, father of the Renaissance, was of Italy, as was Galileo, father of modern science ; and Columbus, 167 Italy Old and New our great discoverer. The world's greatest architect, Michael Angelo, was Italian, as was Raphael, its greatest lyric painter. Ar- nold of Rugby, on the morning after his arrival, wrote : " Again this date of Rome, the most solemn and interesting that my hand can ever write." Hawthorne found his heart-strings mysteriously attached to the Eternal City, and drawing him thither more strongly than did the spot where he was born. For the stones that crumbled under his feet spoke to him, and the dust under his feet rose upon associations of human grandeur, as if from broken thrones and em- pires. Later centuries have seen the strug- gles for liberty and unity among their prov- inces, in which Italian statesmen and soldiers have finally won great triumphs. And now emerging out of the mist of obscurity there stands forth a New Italy, pulsating with life and throbbing with power. Concerning the ruins of Ephesus, Babylon and Carthage, one of our philosophic his- torians has said that no great dead city ever comes back, and no nation has ever fallen out of the race to enter the lists again. The statement seems to have its contradiction in the renaissance of Nineteenth and Twentieth 1 68 Her Ambitions Century Italy. During the past thirty years her population has kept pace pro rata with that of Germany, until she now has 37,500,000 people. Her wealth has grown by leaps and bounds, until she has become a great power in the councils of the earth. She now has fourteen universities, thirty-four schools of agriculture, fifteen great art institutions and foundations. Her new science applied to agriculture is making old fields, worn by thirty centuries of farming, to rival in pro- ductivity the lands of the New World. In the number of volumes on political economy, Italy leads Germany, England and the United States. The world owes to Italy one of the greatest of all the discoveries of the ages wireless telegraphy. She now owes, within the last thirty days, to an Italian priest and electrician the discovery of a wire- less pocket instrument of telegraphy. Italy's Navy is the fourth fleet in Europe. Her whole land is throbbing with new life, through a new art, a new Italian literature, a new political economy, a new agriculture, a new cooperative movement in the produc- tion of wealth, a new modernism in the realm of theology. And now suddenly Italy has startled the world by breaking away 169 Italy Old and New from Germany and Austria and asserting her independence. The Kaiser of the "mailed fist" sent a telegram to the Koyal Palace in Rome, say- ing, " I will never forget and I will never forgive you," but instead of being cowed by the threat the Italian King answered that the remembering henceforth that Italy was independent would do the Kaiser good, and that as to forgiveness it had neither been asked nor desired. In that hour the spirit of the new Italy broke into voice, for there is a new world power in existence that must be reckoned with in the councils of Europe. Now if we are to understand the upward progress of the nations under the guiding providence of God, in these thrilling days when history is making so fast, we must survey the national movements during the last generation. In 1871, when Bismarck dissolved the council held in the palace of Versailles, where King William of Prussia had been crowned German Emperor, he returned with Yon Moltke and Emperor William to Berlin, and carried with him the cession of Alsace and Lorraine and $1,000,000,000 in gold. It is said that at that very time an Italian 170 Her Ambitions statesman warned Bismarck that there was such a thing as demanding too much, with the certain result of creating a reaction with an organized antagonism that would wax more and more during the future. But Bis- marck, who often ranked with Napoleon as the demiurgic creator of modern Europe, did not see ten years ahead. He scoffed. Yet the very result foretold by the Italian fell out. Little by little France on the west of Germany, Russia on the east and England on the Northern Sea, began to realize that Bismarck was an opportunist, whose guiding principle in diplomacy was " anything to en- hance Germany's greatness and power." Be- coming alarmed, France and Russia entered into a compact, defensive and offensive, against Germany, a compact into which England later cast her pledge and power. The genius of the agreement was that the balance of power should be maintained in Europe, that Germany should not be allowed to seize any other provinces, and that her frontier should be made permanent. The pressure was like being caught between two millstones. From that moment, it was recognized by all students of international politics that if Germany tried to break 171 Italy Old and New through to the sea at the mouth of the Rhine or the Rhone, Russia and England would interfere ; that if she tried to break through at the head waters of the Adriatic or the Dardanelles, all three nations would put a naked sword between the Kaiser and the sea. When it was too late, Bismarck discovered that he had gone too far by over- weening ambition. Alarmed, he overawed Austria-Hungary, coaxed Italy, and formed the Triple Alliance. But in saving himself and his Emperor, Bismarck had destroyed Europe. For now the three nations France, Russia and England not in formal alliance, but in what was called the Triple Entente or Understanding, stood over against three other nations Germany, Austria and Italy as three forts bristling with cannon stand over against three fortresses of granite and steel. In the summer of 1914 Austria and Ger- many assumed the offensive against Serbia, and Germany attacked Belgium and France. Italy promptly proclaimed neutrality on the ground that her support was pledged to the defence of Germany and Austria, but that she was not under the slightest obligation to support them when they were waging wars 172 Her Ambitions of offence. In that decision Italy carried the conscience of the whole civilized world. It must not be forgotten that the new Italy has developed new interests. Forty years ago there were many flags flying over the dissevered and hostile States in the Italian peninsula. But out of the long series of revolutions came Italian unity, compacting the separate governments that had been dis- tributed between Sardinia, Venice and Sicily, with one Italian flag flying over all the land. There are still provinces Trentino and Trieste at the head of the Adriatic, largely Italian in language, blood, literature and history, which, despite the regained in- dependence of other Italian provinces, while still essentially Latin, remain under Austrian control. Italians call them Italia Irridenta Unredeemed Italy. In the hamlets and streets of their cities revolution is always smouldering. The people want to break away from the court of Vienna and return to the flag of Italy. A century ago Austria's rule extended to Genoa, but one by one Aus- tria lost her Italian provinces, until she was finally driven out of Lombardy and the sev- enty islands on which Venice is built. Now at last it may be that Italy has found her 173 Italy Old and New opportunity. If when the Emperor dies the dual monarchy divides, and the Hungarians move their capital to Budapest, and set up a separate establishment, Italy would have only the western part of Austria to meet, and her people long to recover the lost province and cities. Her government down to the present has firmly held in check the popular desire to enter the war on behalf of the Allies, and may be able to maintain neu- trality. But a new hope inspires her army, that includes 250,000 drilled soldiers, be- sides reserves bringing it to a million. In- deed, an American general who has recently returned after a year in Italy, in reviewing his experiences, has likened the Italian sol- diers during the month of October to the hunter's hound, tugging at the leash, and no man knows when the restraints will give way. It was the appearance on the horizon of a single army corps that crushed Napoleon and saved Wellington at Waterloo, and it may well be that, if Austria proves a broken reed, an Italian army from the south, on the undefended frontier of Germany, may sud- denly end what is rapidly becoming a world conflagration. Kecent events brought a new element into 174 Her Ambitions the international situation. "When Turkey, under German pressure, declared war against the Allies, the declaration in the nature of the case carried with it the antagonism of Italy, for scarcely two years have passed since Italy and Turkey were at war. Re- call now all those events involved in Italy's seizure of Tripoli. Remember that during the contest, Turkey fought bitterly against Victor Immanuel. During that struggle the Turkish Sultan closed the straits of the Dar- danelles against Italy and her war-ships, but in doing so shut out the food transports of the world. That act cost Italy heavily, but involved all the nations in serious losses. England, that lives always within two weeks of hunger, found it impossible to obtain wheat from Russia. Lord Lansdowne made his way to the Bosphorus. He found one hundred and eighty-five English ships tied up by the closing of the Dardanelles, some of them en route from the wheat elevators of the Black Sea. Some were stopped on ap- proaching the Isles of Greece, and diverted through the Suez Canal to pick up chance cargoes in the Indian Ocean. But most of these ships were shut up in the Black Sea, where their wheat suffered through heat, and 175 Italy Old and New spoiled. Liverpool merchants lost at the rate of $100,000 per day, while the farmers of Koumania and the wheat merchants of Rus- sia suffered in a far greater degree, as did the farmers and merchants of Turkey. Italy, as well as England, realized that no nation controlling " narrow waters, which form a great trade avenue to the commerce of the world, is justified in entirely closing such an avenue to facilitate hostile opera- tions in which that power might find itself involved." The result of the acute crisis was a formulation of the international agreement, that " the life and death interests of two nations must be sacrificed to the interests of the trading community of the world." The bearing of all this upon the America of to-morrow is most significant. In a re- cent address before a university, by ex-Pres- ident Taft an address widely quoted that statesman referred to the Panama Canal as " an extension of the coast line of the United States," and plans were formulated by the President, and in part executed by our Gov- ernment, to fortify the Panama Canal. To protect the canal against a declared enemy of the United States would be fully justified, but to close it against all nations in our own 176 Her Ambitions military interest would be unendurable by neutral powers. The day is gone forever when even the life and death interests of a belligerent power controlling narrow waters which form a trade avenue for the com- merce of the world can be used for the saving of the life of that nation to the loss of the life of the other nations of the world. The problem, which began in an acute dis- tress incident to Turkey's closing of the Dardanelles against Italy, has widened in its application until it will involve ultimately the recognition that the Panama Canal the fortification of which has not been pro- tested against by any foreign power is an avenue that belongs to the trading com- munity of the planet. So wide-stretching are the far-off results of Italy's relations to Turkey in this international situation. To all other motives influencing Italy's neutral position must now be added the motive of fear, partly military and partly industrial. The leaders of German thought have now openly declared their position. No words can be more emphatic or startling. There has been a clear, straightforward, and emphatic declaration by one of the leading German generals, Von Disfurth, not to men- 177 Italy Old and New tion the other two voices, that Germany not only confesses that she has gone over to the theory that might makes right, and that the decisions of war are the decisions of right, but that she is proud of this allegiance to might. " Frankly, we are and must be barbarians, if by this is meant those that wage war relentlessly to the uttermost de- gree." As to Belgium and Louvain, he says, " there is nothing for us to justify and noth- ing to explain away. It is of no consequence whatever if all the monuments ever created, all the pictures ever painted, all the build- ings ever erected by the great architects of the world be destroyed, if by their destruc- tion we promote Germany's victory over her enemies." As to the judgment of Amer- icans, he says, " Let neutral people cease their empty chatter, which may well be compared to the twitter of birds. And of all the churches and all the castles in France which have shared its fate, these things do not interest us. They call us barbarians. What of it ? "We scorn them and their abuse. For my part I hope that in this war we have merited the title of barbarians." Does all this mean that Germany has broken with Twentieth Century ideals of 178 Her Ambitions peace and justice, and a binding obligation of solemn treaties between nations ? No man and no nation can serve two masters. The merchant must keep his financial obli- gation with his banker, or else when more convenient repudiate them ? A nation must keep its solemn treaties with other nations, or else when more convenient sneer at them as " scraps of paper " ? To nations, as to in- dividuals, come the great hours of decision. Of the nations it must be said that the em- pire that saveth its life by brute force shall lose it ; and that the nation that loses its life rather than do injustice shall, at the bar of history, save its life. Nations are made up of individuals. The greatest thought that comes to the individual is the thought of his responsibility to God. An unjust war in the Twentieth Century has ceased to be thought of as war by Christian men. The most sig- nificant thing in the attitude of the civilized world to-day is the cynicism with which the educated classes and leaders of public opin- ion regard the so-called decorations of men who pillaged neutral Belgium. But a mur- derous nation can become a Cain, in danger of being expelled from the court of civilized peoples. 179 Italy Old and New And at the present time may be seen the conscience of Italy in revolt. No man can read the speeches of her statesmen, the articles of her writers in their reviews, the editorials in her newspapers, without feeling that the soul of Italy is horror-stricken, and stands back in utter revulsion from the desolation in Belgium. The real motive that has led the soul of Italy to break with Austria and Germany is the moral motive, and the might of the spiritual imperative. The three chief builders of the new Italy were Mazzini the agitator, Garibaldi the soldier, and Cavour the organizer. Fifty years ago Italy was a broken and dissevered land, the fragments having been distributed. Sardinia held Piedmont. Austria ruled Northern Italy, the French Emperor another fragment, the Pope had four small States, where he was a temporal king, and Ferdi- nand was King of Naples and Sicily. A map of Italy, with its different colours, standing for foreign governments, made it look like a patchwork quilt, and gave mean- ing to Mazzini's word, " Let us wipe all these colours from the map and stain the map one colour if need be, red." All government imposed from without is more or less unjust, 1 80 Her Ambitions by reason of a failure to understand the peo- ple. To be just and fair, government must be based on self-control. Mazzini was the Wendell Phillips of the new Italy. His voice was the trumpet that called the peasants to arms. He began his work about 1830. His influence as a revolu- tionist was almost miraculous. Imprisoned, Mazzini escaped to London. There the lead- ers of the literary set, Carlyle, Froude, Grote, Macaulay, Lewes, John Stuart Mill, became his close friends. His organization was secret. Under various disguises he managed to visit Italy at least once each year. Mazzini's writings became a kind of Bible to the revolutionists. His movement spread like a contagion. Then came Garibaldi as a soldier to make the revolution practical. Beginning his career as a sailor, Garibaldi fought in various revolutions in South America, not as a soldier of fortune, going up and down the world in search of adventure, and fo- menting discontent, but as a helper of peoples struggling to be free. And Gari- baldi was good as gold, true as truth, brave as a lion, simple as a child ; and, exiled, with a price upon his head, in 1850 he came to 181 Italy Old and New New York. He lived on Staten Island for three years, and made and sold tallow candles. He was often found in the pews here in Plymouth Church, on the winter Sunday nights. In New York he organized his society of Italian patriots. In 1859 he returned to Italy. One night he announced his conviction that if a handful of patriots in 1776 could achieve independ- ence of England, five million ought to win a united Italy. One morning, when the people awoke in Rome and Naples they found this proclamation : " Soldiers What I have to offer you is this : Hunger, thirst, cold, heat, no pay, no barracks, no rations, frequent alarms, forced marches, charges at the point of the bayonet. Whoever loves honour and fatherland, follow me ! " And to the bitter end his soldiers, ragged and bloody, followed him. As an illustration of his people's devotion to this leader, we may recall an incident of the time when Garibaldi was in hiding be- cause of a price set on his head. His wife was ill and dying, and Garibaldi was hidden in the mountain fastness. To visit his wife it was necessary to ride straight across the land, through country, village and town. 182 Her Ambitions For an Italian to see Garibaldi and not de- nounce him was to suffer imprisonment. The hero started, boldly, across the land. "Word went on in advance that he was coming. The farmers beside the road turned their backs and shielded their eyes, speaking only words of affection as the silent soldier passed. The people in the villages went in the houses and pulled down their blinds, and at high noon Garibaldi rode through the de- serted towns that were as silent as grave- yards. He closed the eyes of his wife in death, and returned in safety to his hiding place. History holds no finer tale. What Garibaldi gave the people in devotion, they returned in loyalty, and were willing to suffer unto blood, striving against tyranny. Then entered the scene, to organize into constitutional form the agitations of Maz- zini and the victories of Garibaldi, Count Cavour, prime minister of the gallant soldier Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, who had privately encouraged Garibaldi. Cavour was born a patrician, the owner of rich estates. He fell heir to all the wisdom of Italy, was widely travelled, knew every foreign capital. He was essentially a man of intellect, cold, shrewd, far-sighted, courageous, of great Italy Old and New initiative, of marvellous resources. What Bismarck did for Germany, that and more Cavour did for Italy. The Iron Chancellor won many victories by mailed hand and sheer brute force. Cavour relied upon the intellect and superior wisdom for his great diplomatic battles and victories. Few men have ever tried so patiently to fit themselves for a great mission. He went to France, and to England, to study at first hand the revolution in both countries. He met every man in Europe whom he could possibly meet, who could give him any guidance and counsel. Finally he adopted the policy of playing the interests of one nation off against another. Cavour finally succeeded in forming an alliance of the strong nations against the enemies of Italy. He detached both England and France from their relations with Austria. The task seemed impossible. There were Austrian armies to be expelled, French armies to be induced to withdraw, the armies of Naples to be de- feated, the Pope's temporal power and his soldiers to be broken down. Cavour had but the unorganized revolutionists of dis- severed Italy to support him, and yet with these, chiefly under Garibaldi and finally 184 Her Ambitions with Victor Emmanuel's forces, he was victo- rious. It was a marvellous achievement. And when at length Italy was one nation and free, and the capital was moved to Rome, and instead of four foreign banners the peo- ple followed one flag, Italy went into trans- ports of gratitude and joy. This is the ex- planation of the glowing enthusiasm of the Italian people during the summer of 1911, when they celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of their Italian independence. The Countess Cesaresco (in " The Libera- tion of Italy ") records two fine things : "By Cavour's advice Victor Emmanuel offered Garibaldi a dukedom and the Collar of the Annunziata, which confers the rank of Cousin to the King, besides riches to sup- port these honours. He refused everything, and retired to Caprera [where he had a farm], poorer than when he left it." The overmastering movement in Italy of late has been an economic movement. The first thing that strikes the scholar is the num- ber of books that Italians are publishing on economic problems. The reason of this is not far to seek. Up to recent years all the resources of Italy, with its lands, were in the hands of a few aristocrats and titled people 185 Italy Old and New and of the Eoman Church. The peasants owned no land. Transfers of property were difficult. The few had everything, owned Italy, and the many had nothing. Poverty was all but universal, and very bitter. The poor and their leaders raised the question how the lands could be broken up and sold to the people ; how the tax burden could be lifted from the shoulders of the poor, who were least fitted to bear them, and transferred to the rich landowners who were best fitted to carry them. It was found that no civilized country was so burdened with taxes. Men were taxed for every bullock and goat that was slain ; taxed for every bushel of wheat that was raised and for every litre of oil and wine. The landlord was taxed for each electric light, and on the basis of every servant that assisted his guests. The weight of taxes crushed the people. The schools also were unsatisfactory and the people ignorant. Books were expensive and news- papers too high for the poor to read. Every- thing went into a state of flux. Added to the movement against the aris- tocratic centralization of land, property and privilege and law in the hands of a few, came a similar movement against the, 1 86 Her Ambitions Pope claiming temporal power. Autocracy is the government by one man ; aristocracy is the government by a few ; democracy is the government by the many ; anarchy is the negation of all government, in that every citizen is a runaway orb. Now if you adopt democracy, you must apply it to all the de- partments of human life. In this Republic we diffuse liberty, giving political and indus- trial democracy ; we diffuse knowledge, giv- ing educational democracy ; we diffuse relig- ion, giving ecclesiastical democracy. But how can Italy have political, educa- tional and industrial democracy, and yet per- manently maintain ecclesiastical autocracy, which is the government by one ? Democ- racy is in the air. It is a world movement. Like a beautiful summer climate, it is changing the world. Free on three sides of life, men wish to be self-governing on the fourth. Out of that great struggle came the New Italy, not yet working altogether smoothly with its combination of monarchical and democratic institutions, but marvellously transformed by the spirit of free unity. And we see with wonder its universities, its new art movement, its new political economy, 187 Italy Old and New its new monetary system and its new patriot- ism. Whether she enter the war or stand neutral, Italy's influence in this world crisis will be great. RESOURCES OF ITALY, 1913 ' Area in square miles, 110,659. Population, 35,238,997. 2 Wealth, $20,000,000,000. National debt, $2,776,089,420. Annual revenue, $530,399,180. Army budget (1913-1914), $71,110,000. Navy budget (1913-1914), $50,789,230. Army : Standing, 250,000 ) , ft9ft Oftft Reserves, 770,000 { l ww w 'Estimates from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Evening Post Company, Copyright. ' Latest estimate, 37,500,000. 1 88 VIII Holland and Germany: The Mouth of the Rhine They [Belgium and Holland] control the out- let of the Rhine, and therefore can prevent Ger- many's complete utilization of the splendid natural highway. . . . The possession of these two countries, moreover, would at once give Germany the great colonial empire of which she dreams. Holland owns Java and the Celebes, admirably fitted for colonization, from whom for three cen- turies she has drawn a princely revenue : she owns a fertile section of Guiana and rich islands in the West Indies. . . . Belgium owns the vast Congo Free State, one of the wealthiest of European dependencies. ... If their colonies alone could be retained, Germany could restore the autonomy of those states in Europe, pay a heavy war indemnity, and yet find the war worth while. ROLAND G. USHER. ' ' Pan- Germanism, " 1913. VIII HOLLAND AND GERMANY: THE MOUTH OF THE RHINE THE indebtedness of this Republic to Dutchmen cannot be doubted. We can never forget that when our Pilgrim Fathers were exiled from England it was Holland that gave them succour and protec- tion. Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth and King James were harsh with brigands, traitors and murderers, but England's rulers reserved the uttermost of harshness for her independ- ent teachers, who were the founders of our Congregational faith and order. In 1610 there were already several thousand fugi- tives who had been stripped of their goods, and threatened with personal mutilation, who succeeded in evading the soldiers, and making their way to Holland. The centre of their settlement was Delfthaven, a suburb of Rotterdam. An old Dutch minister offered the exiles the use of his church on Sunday afternoons. 191 Holland and Germany Standing up in this pulpit, late in July, 1620, John Eobinson looked down upon a hundred and twenty men and women who had been under his pastoral care but had determined to seek in America freedom to worship God, and claimed for the devoted band of Pilgrims the promise given to Abraham : " Get thee out from thy country and thy people to a land that I will show thee ; and in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will multiply thee ; and in thee and thy children after thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed." A few hours later, the leaky Speedwell sailed away to England, and finally at Plym- outh the Mayflower took the adventurers and bore them across the ocean. Thus the enterprise that ended with the founding of this Republic was indissolubly linked, not only with England, but also with Holland. It was a group of Dutchmen, too, who founded New York, the greatest of our com- monwealths and the greatest of our cities. It was Holland that harboured the English Tyndale and his printing-press, and made possible a Bible in the language of the English people. From Holland, too, came Erasmus, with the new culture. The Nine- 192 The Mouth of the Rhine teenth Century Holland has given us optical instruments and the new horticulture; nor must we forget that Holland gave the world its greatest artist, for Rembrandt is first, and there is no second. By common consent, "The Night Watch" of Rembrandt is the world's greatest masterpiece. The world owes an immeasurable debt to the little States. When nature has anything precious, she wraps it up in a small package. Sunflowers have bulk ; the tiny arbutus and the wee violet have intensity of perfume. Not the vast desert of Arabia, but the little isolated Palestine gave us ethics and religion. Not the plains of Asia Minor, but that little emerald strip of verdure around Athens gave us intellect and literature. Little Venice, little Switzerland, little England, little Hol- land these are the brave builders of States, the founders of Commonwealths ! So small is Holland that I might almost call her the royal postage-stamp stuck on the corner of Europe. Her lands number about thirteen thousand square miles, her people six million. Her great cities are few, Amster- dam, Rotterdam and The Hague. But the average wealth in Holland and the level of intelligence are quite unique. For centuries 193 Holland and Germany the neighbouring States and powerful rulers have turned covetous eyes upon Holland, and with sufficient reason. I. Holland's rich farming lands are unequalled because they are at the mouth of one of the greatest rivers in Europe. It is proverbial that lands at the head waters of a river are poor, with scant soil : witness the lands on the hillsides of the Alps, whence the Ehine takes its rise. But lands at the mouths of great rivers are always rich : wit- ness the Deltas at the mouths of the Nile, the Amazon, and the Mississippi. Mountains and hills are vast mineral compost heaps that dissolve through snow and rain and con- tribute their stimulants to the hungry fields at the mouth of the river. From thence the Mississippi Valley has its richest lands, now scarcely better than swamp land, in Louisi- ana and Arkansas. These lands have a wash of a thousand miles eastward from the top of the Rockies, and eight hundred miles westward from the Alleghanies. The far- ther away you travel from the hills in which a river takes its rise, the richer the banks of that river and the more generous the harvests reaped from field and meadow. For two thousand years the peasants have sown and 194 The Mouth of the Rhine reaped and gathered into barns in that rich delta formed by the three mouths of the Kiver Ehine. Covetous kings have turned eager eyes towards that land, just as men in the olden time looked longingly towards the Nile, that was the wheat granary for the ancient world. II. When Bernhardi speaks of the warn- ing given Holland, that her territory would be occupied, if she took one single step that was unfriendly to Germany, there was an- other motive, doubtless, in the mind of the man who believes that might makes right, that the voice of cannon is the voice of God and that if his country wants anything it should " first take what it wants and after- wards make the explanation." The Ger- many that wants the newly discovered and all but inexhaustible iron mines of Northern France, and the coal and iron mines of South Belgium, wants the oil fields of the Dutch colonies. Holland owns Java, Sumatra, Borneo and a multitude of rich islands. From those colonies come not only sugar, coffee, rice, tea and indigo, but, above all, these great colonies are rich in coal, natural gas and oil. The estimates that Dutch bank- ers placed upon the fortune of Queen Wil- 195 Holland and Germany helmina's uncle represent hundreds of mil- lions of dollars, and yet that descendant of "William the Silent owned but a tithe of the edge of one of these colonies. To-day these vast islands are still to be developed. The far-off Eastern world goes to Java for its oil to-day, while the refineries in Rotterdam are all fed by the oil fields in the Far East. Therefore the country that possesses itself of the Dutch colonies will have motive power for its steamships, and for its citizens wealth that is quite beyond the dreams of avarice. III. Thus, if Germany wants the har- bours and seacoast of Belgium she has been for a hundred years still more anxious to ob- tain the mouth of the Rhine at Rotterdam. There was a time when Hamburg grew more rapidly than any city in Germany, but now, for some years, Rotterdam has increased in shipping so rapidly as to outstrip her rival. Think of all the treasures of the fields that come down the Rhine out of the heart of Ger- many, and pay tribute to Holland. Remem- ber that in that river and harbour hundreds of ships have often been seen at anchor. But despite the fact that Holland is surrounded by strong nations, for some reason she has succeeded in maintaining her independence. 196 The Mouth of the Rhine Prussia seized Silesia, coerced Bavaria, con- quered Saxony, took Schleswig-Holstein, and forced them into an alliance. Where are the hidings of power in these Dutchmen ? In one of the most fascinating books ever written, " The Rise of the Dutch Republic," John Lothrop Motley explains the continu- ance of Holland by the heroism of her peo- ple. To begin with, in a way, they created their own land. One of the dykes builded against the North Sea is sixty feet high, and standing on the top, one turns to look down upon steeples, the roofs of houses, banks, factories. There are peasants on the steep hillsides of the Rhine who carried the dirt that they thrust into the crevices between the rocks, in which they have planted vines, and upon which they have their sustenance. But Holland did a greater thing. She wrested the delta of the Rhine from the hand of the ocean, and by vigilance and engineering skill created one of the richest and most fruitful of all the lands of the earth. For the explanation of Holland and the rise of the free institutions in the first United States of which history has any knowledge, we must go back to William the Silent. 197 Holland and Germany Thrilling indeed the story of his romantic and tumultuous career ! Born in a castle, he was hereditary Prince of Orange and Count of Nassau. He was educated as a Roman Catholic in the court of the Emperor Charles the Fifth of Spain (who at that time owned the Netherlands), and became commander of the Xetherland Army, and in 1555 stadt- holder or governor of Holland, Zealand and Utrecht, serving in the war with France, and being prominent in negotiating peace conditions. His youth was amidst luxury, wealth and splendour, and his early man- hood distinguished with honours and titles. But if in youth he dwelt in a palace, and had princes for his companions, he soon became like David, the champion of the people against the despot. Yea, more: the hero of a lost cause, the victim of an assassin's hate. Like Robert Bruce, Prince William was a wanderer, hiding from his enemies. Like Dante, he knew the weariness of an exile's lot, and ate the bread of charity. He was the heir to titles and vast estates, and to-day his blood flows in the veins of almost all the monarchs of the earth, and yet, slain at fifty-one years of age, he spent his last years in poverty and left his children less 198 The Mouth of the Rhine than one hundred guilders. In physique he was a striking figure ; in person, most elegant ; in manners, gentle and accom- plished. Strictly speaking, he was the fore- runner of all the modern leaders of liberty. Long before John Pym and Oliver Cromwell denied the divine right of kings, "William the Silent made his protest against King Philip. In an era when the rest of the world had not dreamed of toleration and liberty in religion, this prince wrote these words, that are now recorded on a tablet in the great square of The Hague words that shaped the thinking of our Pilgrim Fathers, words that climbed above the entrance of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893 : " We declare to you that you have no right to interfere with the con- science of any one, so long as he has done nothing to work injury to another person or public sentiment." Far to the south of Holland was Spain, with its king, Philip II., son of the Emperor Charles, and still controlling the Nether- lands. At that time Spain was the richest and most powerful nation in Europe. By the merest .accident the Genoese Columbus won the favour of Queen Isabella. Three little ships, scarcely larger than the oyster 199 Holland and Germany boats in Jamaica Bay, were put at his dis- posal, but never did a king and queen make an investment that brought returns so vast. A single Spanish ship returning home brought $15,500,000 in gold, not to mention the treasures of silver, and this, too, at a time when gold was worth ten times what it is now. Prescott tells us that when the Spanish soldiers took the capital of Peru they spent weeks in bringing together the vessels of gold and silver which they found in the temples and palaces. When Cortez approached the palace of Mexican Monte- zuma, that king's messengers met the gen- eral, bearing gifts from their lord. These gifts included two hundred pounds avoir- dupois of gold for their leader and two pounds of gold for each soldier. The full value of the treasures that Spain carried away from the cities of the new continent will never be known. The Pilgrim Fathers found a wilderness and turned it into a garden. The Spanish soldiers found towns and cities and turned them into a wilder- ness. Our fathers came seeking for God ; the Spaniards sought gold. For fifty years these adventurers went through Mexico, looting the towns, pillaging the cities, 200 The Mouth of the Rhine butchering the people, lifting the torch upon cottage and palace alike. The awful anguish wrought upon these helpless people makes up one of the bloodiest chapters in history. The eagle, pouncing upon the dove ; the panther, leaping upon the fawn, faintly interpret to us the savage cruelty of the Spaniard, raging through this New World. And when the Spanish ships came home, laden with treasure, the Emperor Charles hired soldiers of fortune, bought weapons, marched with his armies into Africa and Sicily, conquered a part of France, took over what is now Southern Germany, and dreamed his dream of a world empire. When a cen- tury had passed, after Columbus' discovery of the New World, Spain had obtained treasures sufficient to conquer many poorer States and to organize and equip the best-trained army of veterans then in the world. But at last there was nothing left in the New World but agriculture, and the Span- iard was a brigand and a looter. Then it was that King Philip cast about for fresh fields of exploitation. To the north were the Netherlands, under his own sway, rich as a treasure-chest in a king's palace. While Spain had been looting lands, Flemings and 201 Holland and Germany Hollanders had developed the shipping in- dustry. For fifty years they had been the carriers of the world's commerce. Their navigators were the boldest, their ships the largest and the swiftest, their merchants the most enterprising in Europe. Amster- dam became the commercial centre of the world. Her merchants built a stock ex- change in which five thousand members met daily to buy and sell. Within the city walls were included some of the most splendid edi- fices in Christendom. Paris alone exceeded Amsterdam in splendour. Sailing vessels then were small, in comparison with our ocean steamers, but often a single day wit- nessed the clearing of five hundred ships, and not infrequently 2,500 boats were an- chored in its harbour. Its linens, its tapes- tries and woolen goods were famed through- out the world. The homes of its burghers were models of comfort and luxury. By reason of this intelligence and enterprise, the peasant classes of Holland became more prosperous than the upper classes of other nations. Small was the land, but within its limits were two hundred and eight walled cities, sixty-three hundred villages, guarded by a belt of sixty fortresses. 202 The Mouth of the Rhine Little wonder that omnivorous Spain looked longingly towards this land and meditated plans for breaking down its inde- pendence, crushing its Protestantism, looting its cities and transferring its treasures from the chests of the Dutch burghers to the vaults of the Spanish cavaliers 1 For at the con- clusion of the Council of Trent, in 1563, King Philip of Spain was intent upon spread- ing the Catholic faith by persecuting the Protestants, and had made his stern sister, Margaret of Parma, Regent of the Nether- lands, where she vigorously carried out his evil will. Prince William, with the Flemish Counts Egmont and Horn although Cath- olics united in protests against the sub- version of their civil and religious liberties, but to no avail. For in 156T Philip sent a fit agent to enforce submission and to exact plunder. The man whom Philip placed at the head of his army was the most accomplished and capable general in Europe. Alva had been victorious in campaigns in Africa, Italy, France and Germany. He had been called the most bloodthirsty man who ever led his troops to battle, and therefore he was sent to the Netherlands then including the north- 203 Holland and Germany era Holland and the southern Flemish prov- inces later called Belgium, and other lands to satiate his wolfish instinct. His army in- cluded at first 10,000 veterans, thoroughly drilled and splendidly equipped, and later were added 6,000 horsemen, notorious for the cruelty with which they had treated their captives in the Italian campaign. Alva promised to turn these human wolves loose upon the Netherland sheep. In the chapter on Belgium we have noted the inhuman administration of Alva, who united civil, religious, and treasure-seeking persecution with frightful ingenuity and malice. Thousands killed, thousands taking refuge in England, and thousands fleeing from the Lower Provinces to Holland helped to depopulate and ruin the unfortunate Flem- ish land, while Amsterdam at first actually gained advantage from the capable refugees. The Southern Provinces, beaten down, re- mained under the Spanish dominion, and after passing through Austrian and French rule were finally combined by the European powers into a Kingdom now called Belgium. The Northern range, although persecuted and harassed, were, through the valour, wis- dom and persistence of William of Orange, 204 The Mouth of the Rhine his patriotic associates, and the hardy cour- age of the people, enabled to carry on the unequal contest for independence with the strongest nation in Europe. Outraged by Alva's cruelty, "William the Silent resigned his titles, fled from his palace and crossed the frontier. Alva at once pro- claimed the prince an outlaw and set a price upon his head. For seven years William toiled tirelessly to defeat the bloody Span- iard. He seemed to have the strength of twenty men, and was at once general, states- man, diplomat, financier, admiral. Like David, he went through the forest collecting outlaws, the men who had grievances, and organized a score of little bands, who preyed upon Alva's army. With peasants armed with pikes he fought veterans who had guns and six thousand horsemen. He put out to sea, and offered prizes to freebooters, bid- ding them warn the home-coming ships, bidding them go to English harbours, lest they enrich the Spaniards. In 1566, an alliance of patriotic noblemen had gone to the Regent Margaret with a " Request " to be relieved from the intoler- able conditions and persecutions of the gov- ernment. As the delegates approached her, 205 Holland and Germany a minister said, " What, Madame, is your Highness afraid of these beggars ? " And on the contemptuous rejection of their peti- tion these men proudly adopted the title, and organized a league of marine rovers who really were the pioneers of Holland's sea- power. To these " Beggars of the Sea," in 1570 William issued letters of marque. In 1572, under cover of night, they captured Brill, and Flushing at the mouth of the Scheldt, and maintained a safe port of issu- ance and refuge. Saddened by the infamous trial and execu- tion of Egmont and Horn ; depressed by the defeat and death of his two brothers ; heart- broken by the capture of his eldest son, held as a hostage in Spain, and betrayed by Span- ish subtlety, William kept his hope and fed his courage. The spring of 1572 brought his project of alliance with Admiral Coligny, but when Bloody Philip discovered the plan he formed an alliance with Charles the Ninth of Paris to exterminate the Huguenots. In August, while William the Silent was wait- ing upon the frontier for news from Coligny, that brave man was murdered and the streets of Paris ran red with the blood of the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew. On that day the 206 The Mouth of the Rhine sun was turned into darkness and the earth reeled beneath the feet of the prince, and for his followers the last star fell from the sky. That night William, with a handful of followers, retreated towards the Zuyder Zee. Fired by the news from Paris, Spaniards pursued him with cruelty that was almost incredible. Capturing Neearven, they butch- ered every man, woman and child and burned every building to the ground. Driven out of their homes, the peasants were overtaken by winter. Then Alva or- dered seven thousand pairs of skates, that his soldiers might the more readily pursue the suffering people. But now it became evident to even the greedy Philip that victory meant the ruin of the land, and with ruined land there would be no treasure left for future looting ; and the Spaniard made overtures of peace to Prince "William. To these the hero replied : " Peace only on these conditions : freedom of worship, the land dedicated to liberty, all Spaniards in civil and military employment to be withdrawn." As an answer, in 1573- 1574 the Spanish troops concentrated around Leyden, holding it in strict siege. Months later, while suffering from fever, William the 207 Holland and Germany Silent decided upon a bold step. The starv- ing city was six miles from the sea. Racked by pain, lying at death's door, in the inter- vals of his stupor he dictated dispatches and sent out messengers, and finally decided to have the dykes cut. There came a three days' storm from the northwest, and the ocean swept in over the drowning land, while ships sailed along the streets of the city and flung bread to the burghers on the housetops. The story of that siege, with its horrors and its heroisms, is among the mar- vels of history. In 1579 William succeeded in consoli- dating the " Seven United Provinces " for the common defence. Gradually, they were popularly called by the name of " Holland," their largest member. But, like Moses, hav- ing led the people out of the wilderness, this nation-builder was not allowed to see the Promised Land. He was now fifty-one years of age. For years his steps had been dogged by hired assassins, but he had escaped the club, the dagger and the assassin's bullet. His portraits exhibit him as a man whose lips were locked with iron ; whose face was fur- rowed with care, while his look was that of a man at bay, having staked life and life's 208 The Mouth of the Rhine work. And yet he was one of the most charming of companions, of such winning address that it was said that " every time he took off his hat he won a subject from the King of Spain." Philip had offered a reward of eighty thousand guilders for the assassina- tion of William. One day, a traitor shot him through the throat, and for weeks, through hemorrhages, he was at the point of death, but by sheer force of will he recovered. The end, however, was inevitable. One morning, July 10, 1584, a determined young Spaniard who had forged the seals obtained access to the Prince's house ; having first been searched by the guard, he was with- out weapon. The traitor delivered his forged letter, and then asked the Prince for a Bible and the loan of a few crowns. Having re- ceived the gift of twelve pieces of silver, he went down into the courtyard, and, with the Prince's own gift, purchased a pistol from the guard, and returned to fire three shots into that kindly breast. Falling, in his death struggle, "William commended his soul unto God, exclaiming, " What will now become of my poor people ! " Hearing of his death an hour later, says the historian, " the little chil- dren stood and sobbed in the streets." 209 Holland and Germany " Habit, necessity, and the natural gifts of the man," says Motley, "had combined to invest him at last with an authority which seemed more than human. There was such general confidence in his sagacity, courage and purity, that the nation had come to think with his brain and act with his hand. . . . The ban of the Pope and the offered gold of the King had [by assassination] ac- complished a victory greater than any yet achieved by the armies of Spain, brilliant as had been their triumphs." But the struggle was not merely one for political independence, dear as is such a cause ; it was the determination of the people of that barren little seacoast land to win civil and religious liberty freedom of conscience. And the hearts of the Hol- landers and their brethren of the United Provinces were firmly set. On the very day of "William's assassination the Estates of Holland passed a resolution " to maintain the good cause, with God's help, to the uttermost, without sparing gold or blood." And they sent out letters of information and encouragement to various civil and military chiefs, urging them "to bear themselves manfully and valiantly, without faltering 210 The Mouth of the Rhine in the least on account of the great mis- fortune that had occurred, or allowing them- selves to be seduced by any one from the union of the States.'' We cannot follow the details of the long and varied contest, which before its close involved France and England ; but in 1609, forty-three years from the day when the " Beggars " petitioned the Spanish Regent to relieve their people from the oppressions of the Inquisition, Spain signed a treaty recognizing the United Provinces as an in- dependent Protestant republic, and, more- over, asked the States-General to deal kindly with their Catholic fellow citizens. And this request, consistently with their principles of religious freedom, the Netherlander freely acceded to. The rise of the present Dutch institutions is traceable to the States-General, organized by William the Silent. The government is a limited monarchy, presided over by the queen, with an assembly of two Houses, of which the lower House initiates all impor- tant bills. William Elliott Griffis, in " The American in Holland," thus condenses their political changes : " From 1568 the House of Orange- 211 Hollarid and Germany Nassau furnished rulers who were princes in their own right but in the Dutch Republic were stadtholders or presidents. From 1579 until 1794 [except during twenty years] the Dutch rulers were of the House of Orange. The Republic fell in 1794 under the invasion of the French. ... In 1814 'the Dutch took Holland,' drove out the invaders, and founded a national constitution. Then they invited the princes of Orange to be Kings or constitutional executives. At the present day Queen Wilhelmina reigns, by the grace of God and the love of her people." The attitude of Germany towards Holland thus far is one of threat, while Holland holds herself in an armed neutrality. What Ger- many may yet do for the mouth of the Rhine, despite her treaty obligations to Holland, may perhaps rest on two ques- tions : as to whether it is worth risking the marvellous assistance which Holland, forced into the war, could render the Allies in the invasion of Germany ; and whether Germany herself could lose her soul and her conscience, as an individual can do, until moral issues become obscure, and the needle of the moral compass refuses to answer to the pull of the Divine influence. 212 The Mouth of the Rhine EESOUECES OF HOLLAND* Area in square miles (Continental), 12,648. (Colonial), 981,870. Population ( Continental) , 6, 102, 000. (Colonial), 38,225,885. Wealth, $5,000,000,000. National debt, $461,649,000. Annual revenue -(Continental), $91,823,000. (Colonial), $111,865,000. Army : Standing, 23,000 ) Eeserves, 177,000 j Available, Unorganized, 1 From " The World Almanac," 1915. 213 IX Austria -Hungary and the Coming United States of Balkany A Pan-Slavic union would mean the predomi- nance of Russia, or a great federation of the Slavic lands. But the Slavs are a very demo- cratic people, and exceedingly fond of liberty. For that reason they are not disposed to yield to Russian absolutism. And Pan-Slavism in any form would mean the disruption of Austria. So the idea seems at present a visionary one. Still, it is in the line of the political union and inde- pendence of nationalities which has characterized the century [XIX], It may be an achievement of the Twentieth Century ; but if realized it will involve profound rearrangements of the present social and political condition of Eastern Europe. HARRY PRATT JUDSON. " Europe in the Nineteenth Century" igo8. IX AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND THE COMING UNITED STATES OF BALKANY SIXTY years ago William H. Seward looked towards the cotton-field and the slave-market, and thinking of the justice of God began to talk about the coming conflict as irrepressible ; while the country lawyer, Abraham Lincoln, declared that the Repub- lic must become all slave or all free. During the past four hundred years students of in- ternational politics have been saying in their books that a conflict in the Balkans was in- evitable, and that the whole region must become all Christian or all Turk. During these centuries war has been almost continuous. The eras of the eruption of Ve- suvius, when the mountain pours forth lurid lava and buries cities, come at intervals occa- sional, and separated by long years ; but even at the time when the volcano is quies- cent, the lava is always boiling in the crater, 217 Austria-Hungary and tossing from side to side. "Wars between England and France have been occasional, but the Balkan volcano is always simmering, and throwing off deadly gases. In 1912 the repressed revolt burst into an open flame. Representatives of the different Balkan States came together secretly and prepared a rebellion against Turkey. Diplomats said that agitation was ever-existent, but that an open alliance between the Balkan States was impossible, just as men said in 1775 that co- operation between the Thirteen Colonies was an impossibility. The forecast was wrong, and the Balkan war of 1912 proved to be the beginning of the most terrible conflict that has ever shaken our earth. All students know that the Balkan revo- lutionists in planning for the United States of Balkany steered their course by the story of the American Revolution. Magazine men and newspaper correspondents who followed the fortunes of the Balkan army have had much to say about the unceasing references to the Confederation between the Thirteen Colonies, and about their plans to make the capitals of the different Balkan States to be the centres of State government, preparatory to the founding of a new capital and the or- 218 The Coming United States of Balkany ganization of a republic like our own. Other nations for the most part have been deeply and sympathetically moved by the ambitions and patriotism of the Balkan leaders, while Germany and Austria-Hungary have been just as deeply disappointed. For many years Germany has been shut away from the open coast by the buffer states, Hol- land and Belgium. Ambitious for trade with Asia, Germany planned for a treaty with Turkey, the right of railway through to the Bosphorus, with another German railway carried straight through to the Per- sian Gulf. For the last twenty years Ger- man statesmen have been thinking, not in terms of Germany, but in terms of the world, and have looked longingly towards foreign colonies and foreign trade. Then, at the very moment when it seemed as if Germany was about to realize her ambition, events culminated in the Balkan revolution, all but expelling the Turk from Europe, while the new United States of Balkany, that is still a dream and on the lap of the gods, threatened to interpose a barrier that would shut Ger- many and Austria away from the Bosphorus, and the Bagdad railway, and Asiatic trade, just as effectively as Belgium and Holland 219 Austria-Hungary shut Germany away from the most favorable seaports. From one view-point the country most seriously affected by the Balkan revolution was Austria-Hungary. The Dual Monarchy is the largest empire in Europe west of Rus- sia. Her possessions cover 261,000 square miles of land, the empire being about the size of Texas. Her population includes 52,000,- 000 of people, her wealth $55,000,000,000, while her diplomats feel that Austria-Hun- gary has the key to all the problems of Southeastern Europe. The strength of the empire is in the loyalty of the Austrians and Hungarians to the aged Emperor, Francis Joseph. The weakness of the empire is in the fact that ten races are ruled by one sceptre, while four religions the Roman, and the Protestant faith, the Greek church and the Mohammedan are all active in the Dual Monarchy. Rich in iron, coal and forests, blessed with great rivers, fat valleys, and majestic mountains, and covered with roads, canals and railways, Austria-Hungary has for centuries maintained a unique posi- tion among the governments of Europe. The roots of this great conflict for the Dual Monarchy are in the history of the old 220 The Coming United States of Balkany " Holy Roman Empire." Through eighteen centuries of time that empire had journeyed forward, until men came to think its power and influence even eternal. After the fall of Rome, Constantino carried the archives of the empire to Byzantium, which became his City of Constantinople ; and when, in 1456, Constantinople fell before the Turks, the capital of the Roman Empire was carried up the Danube to the city of Vienna. Called " Holy " from its combined powers of church and state, " Roman " from its origin, this empire was from the time of Charlemagne for a thousand years Germanic in territory, population and rulers. At last, overthrown by Napoleon, the Hapsburg Francis II. of Austria, in August, 1806, formally abdicated the empty title of Emperor over an empire that had ceased to exist, retaining the impe- rial crown of Austria. In that hour the Holy Roman Empire, with all the wonderful events and institutions of more than eighteen hundred years' time, came to an end. Since 1806, the Emperors of Austria have chosen to exercise a real power over living millions, and to settle the problems of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, rather than to sur- round themselves with the figment that they 221 Austria-Hungary were the successors in power of that long line of emperors that began with the Caesars in their palace on the banks of the Tiber. The outstanding figure in the Austria of to-day is the old Emperor Francis Joseph. For nearly seventy years this monarch has been upon the throne and has held the sceptre during all the crises that have swept over Europe, and reconstructed the map of that continent. In retrospect he seems the most tragic figure in modern history. When Queen Victoria celebrated her diamond an- niversary she was called " the happy queen," having lived most of her life under sunny fates, while the aged Emperor of Austria has described his own career in the words of the Psalmist : " For though my years be four- score years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow." Francis Joseph suffered the loss of his Empress at the hand of an assassin ; his son and heir came to a most tragic and violent end ; left solitary in his palace, he prepared to transfer his treasures to a dis- tant heir, only to find that again the hand of an assassin had intervened. A strong, self-willed, aggressive man in his youth, he has remained aggressive and strong into his old age ; while his misfortunes, his age, his 222 The Coming United States of Balkany upright personal life and his fidelity to his exacting duties have endeared him to his peo- ple. But in these days his armies and his interests are being shattered, and his hopes are now dissolving like snowflakes in a black river. The makers of Austria include many names striking and brilliant, but it was an Austrian Empress, Maria Theresa, who led the historic fight against Germany's ruler, Frederick the Great. It was Carlyle's hero who turned Prussia into one vast military camp. It was Frederick who taught the German people to look upon the army as the centre of all pride, ambition, and hope. It was Frederick who made the scientist and scholar, the artist and orator, the banker and manufac- turer, the prophet and the priest, to wait at each banquet until a general had gone in. It was Frederick who made of Prussia and Germany a group of camps, arsenals, for- tresses, and led the people to expect military schools and military reviews, until, being ready for war, for Germany war became a logical and a moral necessity. Thus in the middle of the Eighteenth Century, in 1741, Frederick looked with covetous eyes towards Silesia. That fertile and beautiful province 223 Austria- Hungary contained twenty thousand square miles, and being girt about with mountains, it repre- sented a treasure-chest the treasure of Austria. One morning the people of the capital awoke to discover armed men dash- ing down the streets, and within a few days the unsuspecting and undefended country was in the hands of Frederick's veterans. But what Queen Elizabeth was to England in her struggle against the empire of Spain, that Maria Theresa was to Austria. Taking her babe in her arms, the Empress called a Diet of the Nation, and after her address, in which she told the story of the wrongs that Austria had suffered at the hands of Prussia, she lifted up the babe, and with streaming eyes called upon them, as brave men, to stand between Frederick the Great and the infant heir to the throne. One hour before the Em- press began her plea, the Diet had been di- vided into discordant and belligerent camps, but under her appeal the nobles stood, flung up their arms, shouted forth their allegiance, and proclaimed their undying hostility to Frederick. The Prussian king was amazed at the anger of Europe. Concerning the Empress' plea, Carlyle said, " It was the little stone, broken loose from the mountain, 224 The Coming United States of Balkany hitting others, big and little, which again hit others, with their leaping and rolling, until the whole mountainside was in motion under the law of gravity." Victorious, in his first war of resistance, when the Austrian Em- press tried to recover the possessions from the robber Prussian, the time came in 1756 when the nations of Europe united to com- pel Frederick to let go his grasp upon the treasure he had seized. Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and the lesser States united to crush the man who held that if he saw anything that looked good, he had the right of might and force to seize it. No outlawed bandit ever defended himself and his stolen booty with more skill, energy, and enthusiasm than did Frederick. After seven years, Prussia was all but ruined. The whole land was devastated, the people staggered under the burden of taxation, women and widows did their own work and that of their dead husbands and fathers ; the people lived on crusts and wore rags ; Eng- land deserted Frederick ; while wave after wave of famine, disease, and sorrow swept over the land like sheeted storms. Prussia became one of the poorest states of Europe. During the latter part of Frederick's career 225 Austria-Hungary the historian tells us "it was rare to see there either a silver fork or a silver spoon, to say nothing of the cheap and frugal fare of the great mass of the people and their com fortless kind of life with hardly any luxuries except tobacco and beer." Nothing is more costly than military vic- tories. The fruit that Frederick plucked from the Austrian tree proved to be not the apples of paradise, but the apples of Sodom, stuffed with ashes and soot. Germany lost Silesia, but for one hundred years the succes- sors of Frederick were always on the offen- sive, and, so to speak, slept on their arms. It was England that gained by that war, for while France and Prussia and Austria struggled on through seven bitter years, England developed her manufacturing in- terests, built a navy, and became the first sea-power in the world, a position she has never lost from that day to this, just as it now looks as if the United States has her chance, while the nations of Europe are at war, to develop her shipping interests, es- tablish her trade with South America, found new factories and shops, and become what Gladstone once prophesied she would be- come, " the market-place of the world." 226 The Coming United States of Balkany Many stars shine in the constellation of genius that have shed their light upon the Dual Monarchy, and these stars are brilliant and enduring. If literature is the greatest of the fine arts in terms of instruction, music is the supreme art in terms of inspiration and healing influence. We must ne\ r er forget that the great names in the realm of music are associated with the opera house of Vi- enna, the names of Mozart, Haydn, Bee- thoven and Liszt. In the realm of religion, from the view-point of modern liberty, it was the Austrian hero, John Huss, who was the Morning Star of the Eeformation. Though he was often spoken of as a Bohe- mian, it must be remembered that Bohemia was soon to become an Austrian province. Many years before Savonarola made his plea for liberty in the palace of Lorenzo the Mag- nificent, and rode from the public square of Florence in his chariot of flame up into the sky, John Huss stood forth in the University of Prague, and proclaimed the Bible as hav- ing an authority above that of any man who sought to interpret the Scriptures, whether that man be cardinal, archbishop or pope. Promised a safe conduct by the Emperor Sigismund, the distinguished scholar made 227 Austria-Hungary his way to the city of Constance. Martin Luther himself did no finer, braver deed in his sublime utterance than did John Huss, who suffered unto death and beyond it. Having tortured the scholar, they broke his sword, tore the spurs from his heels, tied him to the stake, and lighted the flames, it has been said, with the safe conduct a mere " scrap of paper " signed by an em- peror ! And when only charred fragments remained, soldiers gathered up the ashes and sprinkled them upon the river ; but the stream carried into all the world the news that it was unsafe for any scholar in Austria to do his own thinking, or to refuse to sub- mit his will to men of authority, who claimed the right to do the thinking for the whole world. For nearly eight hundred years Hungary had been practically independent, and had shown splendid valour in many wars; but about the beginning of the Eighteenth Cen- tury, between the Turks and the Austrians her territory was divided, and at last all came under the Austrian power. Yet, even so, she was allowed her separate Diet, and from a patriotic member of that arose the struggle which led to her recognition as a 228 The Coming United States of Balkany separate coordinate kingdom in the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The realm of statesmanship owes a great debt to a noble Hungarian orator, states- man, and reformer, Louis Kossuth. That was a dramatic moment in Italy when a mil- lion Italians went forth to meet and greet Garibaldi, and bring in the soldier who fought for the New Italy, just as Mazzini was the agitator and Cavour the statesman, of the new age. That was a wonderful scene in Washington, when the Army of the Potomac marched through the streets of our national capital, preparatory to returning to their homes, after the Civil War. And the enthusiastic reception given Kossuth by the people of New York was scarcely less striking. Kossuth was a lump of fiery lava flung up by the Hungarian revolution of 1848, against the imperial oppression of Austria, when everywhere in Europe revolts against autocracy were organized. Member of the Diet 1832-36, an Austrian political prisoner 1837-40, a liberal editor 1841-44, again in the Diet 1847, and in 1848 financial minister of the separate Hungarian ministry, Kossuth could no longer brook the imperial despotisms, and sounded the bugle 229 Austria-Hungary of revolt. Exiled from Budapest, the capital, Kossuth fled into the mountain fastnesses, and soon there gathered about him a group of revolutionists. Like King David, he or. ganized men who were discontented, and turned his little mob into a victorious regi- ment. Defeated in one valley, Kossuth fled to another. Unable to assemble the people that he might plead with them face to face in the interest of liberty, Kossuth organized a secret propaganda. One morning the peo- ple in ihe capital went into the streets, to find Kossuth's call to liberty. Then the government sent spies to join themselves to his army. Betrayed by men who were as false as Judas, overwhelmed by Austrian armies aided by Russian cooperation, at last Kossuth was defeated, and fled. He lived in exile in Turkey, and in 1851-52 came to this country. Here the outlaw was treated like a conqueror, made the guest of honour in civic banquets, and became the idol, for a time, in Washington. Unable to return to his native land, Kossuth went to London, and then to Turin, an exile followed by spies, stripped of his estate and his prop- erty, and for nearly forty years he fought on, into extreme old age. During the last 230 The Coming United States of Balkany epoch of his life, his garret in Italy was a veritable tower of liberty. Through his pamphlets and books he spoke to all the peo- ple of Austria and of Europe. Not once did he lose his faith that his cause would triumph. If ever a man stood for patience, fortitude, and firmness, that man was Kossuth. Now his name has become a word by which to conjure. He has his place among the endur- ing men of all ages, and his fame shines the brighter against the black background of in- tolerance, cruelty and despotism furnished by Austrian emperors. About twenty years after the outbreak of Kossuth, under the inspiration and skill of Ferencz Deak, a Hungarian diplomat, in 1867 the Dual Monarchy was formed; and the Emperor of Austria is also King of Hungary. In this hour of conflict, when Austria is fighting Serbia on the south and defending Hungary on the north from the advancing Russians, the problem of the aged Emperor is rendered the more difficult by reason of her relations to Italy. A century ago the Austrian Emperor was under the influence of his son-in-law, Napoleon. In that far-off time the conflict between Italy and Austria was almost incessant. For five hundred 231 Austria-Hungary years after the empire was established, Italy had been not only the richest but the quietest country in the world. Then came the Huns and the Vandals to sack the Italian cities, to loot the palaces, destroy the ships, overthrow the government, break down the aqueducts and kill the people. It took a thousand years for Italy to recover her losses, but in the Eighteenth Century she found herself, and began to push the Austrians back from the northern provinces, and once more to possess herself of lands in Africa. When the long struggle was over the Austrian army withdrew from Italy and the Italian penin- sula, but the Emperor still held an Italian prov- ince on the north, called the Italian Tyrol, and by Italians Trentino, with its splendid city of Trent, famous in history, and Istria on the northeast, along the shores of the Adriatic. Austria held on the more tena- ciously because the beautiful city of Trieste and the Italian province represented her sole access to the sea, and gave the people their chance for trade with all the world. The people of those provinces speak Italian, think in Italian, dream about the glories of Rome, and never tire of singing the praises of the palaces and churches on the canals of Venice. 232 The Coming United States of Balkany Quiet without, revolt is always burning within. Of course, after these many years, there are also Germans in the Trentino and Slavs in Istria ; but the great majority of the popu- lations remain Italian, in aspiration and in fact. The Countess Cesaresco, in her book on "The Liberation of Italy" (1902), says: " Istria was marked out by Dante as the frontier province of Italy. ... It forms, with the Trentino, what is called Italia Irredenta. Although the feeling of Italians for unredeemed Italy is not what their feel- ing was for Lombardy or Yenetia, it is a mistake to imagine that they have renounced all aspirations in that direction. . . . The aspiration always exists, and cannot help existing. It has always been shared by patriots of all denominations. An English statesman who called on Pius IX was some- what surprised by the Pope saying that Italian unity was very well, but it was a pity it did not include Trento and Trieste." And now at last Austria has aroused to the peril of being expelled from Italian Tyrol and her Istrian seaport, and all possibility of commerce and seagoing destroyed. Pop- 233 Austria-Hungary ular rumour tells us that Germany's Ex- Chancellor Yon Buelow is offering bribes to Italy to keep out of the war and urging Austria to give up some treasure on the south to save a far greater treasure that Russia is trying to obtain on the north. Meanwhile Italy is boiling like a volcano. Her two million men are like dogs of war, straining upon the leash. No man knows when the thong will be cut, and the war dogs let loose. Should Italy hurl her two million men upon Southern Austria, at the very moment when Russia is throwing two million men upon Northern Hungary, it needs no skill of prophet to foretell the crushing defeat that must overtake the old Emperor and the people of the Dual Mon- archy. The lesson of these events is that the law of the moral harvest holds for cities and empires not less than for individuals. What Austria has sown Austria must reap. Au- tocracy of every kind makes the autocrat strong, but weakens the people and saps the strength of the millions. That nation is great that welcomes great men. Ecclesi- astical autocracy burned John Huss at the stake ; and from that hour men in Austria 234 The Coming United States of Balkany have not dared to do their own thinking. The political autocracy has been not less severe. Intellect can grow only in an atmos- phere made warm and genial through liberty. Little by little the springs of greatness dried up at the fountain-head. Having starved her great souls, through every form of autoc- racy, the Austrian Emperor found it easy to control weakened men who did not dare assert themselves. The result was inevi- table, as in Gladstone's dictum, "I do not know where upon the map of the "world you can place your finger, and say, ' Austria has brought a blessing to this spot.' ' The Dual Empire is like a statue broken into two pieces and held together by a band of iron, a band that may shortly be broken by a hammer in the hands of a Czar who smites on the one side, and the hand of an Italian king smiting on the other. There is a Nemesis that pursues religious intolerance, political tyranny and social in- justice. That Nemesis is now whispering to the rulers of the Dual Monarchy, " He who sows to the flesh shall of the flesh reap cor- ruption." " "Whatsoever the city and the nation sow, that shall they reap." Several years ago it was given some of us 235 Austria-Hungary to meet an Austrian Ambassador, and to listen to his address at Ellis Island, New York harbour, in connection with the land- ing of a ship from Trieste, bringing several thousand Austrian immigrants. No one who heard that brief address can ever forget its pathos. We were reminded that Austria was sending us more immigrants each year than any other European nation ; that these immigrants were the picked boys and girls out of the rural districts of Austria ; that they brought Austria's highest average of health and physical strength, of industry and of morals. In substance the speaker said that if these Austrian immigrants had been phys- ical feeblings, or moral imbeciles, their leaving their native land might rejoice the people of Austria ; but instead, these new- comers were Austria's bravest, strongest and best. Then came the charge by the repre- sentative of Austria forecasting the day when as American citizens they would achieve wealth, with the suggestion that they should return from time to time to visit their native land, and tell the story of the American schoolhouse, and the American suffrage, and the American wage and market-place, of the American books and magazines and libraries, 236 The Coming United States of Balkany and thus carry the seed corn, gathered upon the American plains, back to the valleys of Austria and there sow the land with the wholesome germs of American ideals and in- stitutions. What this Austrian gentleman suggested that these immigrants do, multitudes have already done. Having achieved a competence here, these people from time to time returned to Vienna and Budapest, and in the streets of many a little Austrian village have told the story of this Republic and what its liberties have done for Austrian immigrants. Thus the leaven of democracy spreads. Who knows but that this mighty war with red-hot ploughshares will tear up the soil of despot- ism and tyranny, and open the ground to the good seed of liberty, intelligence, and sound morals. It is a singular fact that when long time has passed the blackest years and eras have in retrospect proved to be the brightest. God's plans are long plans. With Him a thousand years are as one day. The millions are hungry, and the Austrian valley is a bread-pan, and Providence is kneading a large loaf, and fire is burning out the acids, and the bread will come forth edible, and full of nutrition. Upheavals, 237 Austria-Hungary losses, destructions there must be, but we can work and hope if only we can believe that the destroying is for the sake of saving ; if only the twilight is not the evening twilight leading into the dark, but the morning twi- light opening into a glorious noon of peace and intelligence, righteousness and prosperity, for the millions of people who live in the Dual Empire. BESOURCES OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1913 * Area in square miles, 261,491. Population, 52,000,000. Wealth, $55,000,000,000. National debt, $2,598,156,145. Annual revenue : Austria, $653,641,985. Hungary, $431,835,215. Army budget (1913-14), $124,960,000. Navy budget (1912-13), $ 30,032,755. Army : Standing, 424,000 ) 9 99n mn Eeserves, 1,796,000 } 2 > 220 > 000 - 1 Estimates chiefly from the War Gazetteer, N. Y. Even- ing Post Company, copyright. 238 X The Verdict of the American People Upon Militarism and Autocracy The Kaiser on Militarism I would direct your gaze to my grandfather, who stands before the eyes of all of you, the glo- rious war lord, worthy of all honour a spectacle more beautiful than any other. ... So are we bound together I and the army so are we born for one another, and so shall we hold together indissolubly, whether, as God wills, we are to have peace or storm. To the Army on the Day of his Accession, June 15, 2888. The only pillar on which the empire rested was the army. So it is to-day. Speech at Dedication of Regimental Flags, Berlin, Oct. 18, 1894 The Kaiser on Autocracy It is now your task to stand faithfully by me and to defend our highest possessions, whether against enemies from without or from within, and to obey when I command and never to forsake me. Administering the Oath to Recruits, Berlin, Nov. 18, In the next ten years, faithfully bound together, let us seek further the unconditional fulfillment of our duty in old and unremitting labour, and may the main supports of our army remain forever in- tact ! They are courage, sense of honour, and unconditional, iron, blind obedience. 7i> the Regiments of the Bodyguard, Potsdam, June 16, i8g8. From " The German Emperor, as Shown in His Public Utterances" PROF. CHRISTIAN GAUSS. THE VERDICT OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE UPON MILITARISM AND AUTOCRACY NEARLY five months have now passed by since the German army invaded Belgium and France. These one hundred and forty days have been packed with thrill- ing and momentous events, not the least important being the publication of diplo- matic papers exchanged between the Euro- pean Governments immediately before the outbreak of war. While from their safe vantage ground the American people have surveyed the scene, an old system of balanced Powers has crumbled under our very eyes. Europe is a loom on whose earthen framework tremendous forces like Frederick the Great, Napoleon and Bismarck once wove the texture of European civilization. Now, the demon of war has, with hot knife, shorn away the texture, and a modern czar and kaiser, king and president, with generals and 241 Verdict of the American People admirals, are weaving the warp and woof of a new world. One hundred years ago the elements that bred wars were political forces ; to-day, the collision between nations is born of economic interests. The Twentieth Century influences are chiefly the force of wealth and the power of public opinion. These are the giant steeds, though the reins of the horses may be in the hands of kings and kaisers. In Napoleon's day antagonism grew out of the natural hatred between autocracy and de- mocracy, between German imperialism and French radicalism. To-day, Germany is not even interested in France's republican form of government, nor is France concerned with Germany's imperial autocracy. But all Europe is intensely concerned with the question of economic supremacy or finan- cial subordination. Ever since Oliver Cromwell's day England has been the mistress of the seas, and Ger- many, having grown wondrously in pro- ductiveness and oversea commerce, believes that she has a right to supplant England in this naval leadership. France has long been the banker of Europe, and Germany with her new wealth covets financial leadership. 242 Upon Militarism and Autocracy From whence come wars ? Come they not from men's lusts ? If the history of great wars tells us axiy- thing, it tells us that the first qualification of the statesman and diplomat is an intuitive knowledge of a future that is the certain outcome of the present. Now that long time has passed, it is quite certain that neither Napoleon nor Bismarck nor William the Second understood the future. It is a proverb that yesterday is a seed, to-day the stalk and to-morrow is the full corn in the ear. Napoleon was a practical man, but he could not see the shock in the seed. When Napoleon said, " One hundred years from now Europe will be all republican or all Cossack " Napoleon was quite wrong. Forty years ago Bismarck said that he had reduced France to the level of a fourth-class nation, and that henceforth France did not count ; while as for the Balkan States, " the whole Eastern question is not worth the bones of a Pomeranian grenadier." But Bismarck was quite wrong. The present Kaiser has no imagination. A man of any prevision of the future might have foreseen that the Twentieth Century man is so incensed by hostile trespass upon 243 Verdict of the American People his property, that Belgium would have re- sisted encroachment, and so cost Germany the best three weeks of the entire war upon which she so masterfully entered. There has been small foresight on the part of the makers of this war, except as to their own preparedness for a mighty struggle. Years ago, when the Austrian Emperor visited Innsbruck, the Burgomas- ter ordered foresters to go up on the moun- tainsides and cut certain swaths of brush. At the moment, the man with his axe did not know what he was doing, but when the night fell, and the torch was lifted on the boughs, the people in the city below read these words written in letters of fire, " Wel- come to our Emperor." To-day the demon of war has been writing with blazing letters certain lessons upon the hills and valleys of Europe, and fortunate is he who can read the writing and interpret aright the lessons of the times. I. The people of this American Republic now realize for the first time what are the in- evitable fruits of imperialism and militarism. One of the perils of America's distance from the scenes of autocracy is that many of our people have come to think that the forms of 244 Upon Militarism and Autocracy our government are of little importance. We hear it said that climate determines government, and that one nation likes autoc- racy and another limited monarchy, that we like democracy and self-government, and that people are about as happy under one form of control as another. This miscon- ception is based upon a failure to understand foreign imperialism. Superficially, the fruits of a modern, intelligent autocracy are effi- ciency, industrial wealth and military power. But now, after nearly five months of practical exposition, our people understand thoroughly the other side of imperialism. The six million German-Americans living in this country, with their high type of character millions who have left their native land to escape service in the army, the burdens of taxation involved in milita- rism, and the law of lese majeste should have opened our eyes long ago. During the past five years I have lectured in more than one hundred cities on " The New Germany," and the lessons derived from her industrial efficiency, with the ap- plication of science to the production of wealth, but I have not until recently appre- ciated fully the far-off harvest of militarism. 245 Verdict of the American People Lest an American overstate the meaning of militarism, let me condense the German Treitschke's view. He holds that the nation should be looked upon as a vast military engine; that its ruler should be the com- mander of the army ; that his cabinet should be under generals ; that the whole nation should march with the concentered aim of an armed regiment ; that the real " sin against the Holy Ghost " was the sin of military impotence; that such an army should take all it wants and the territory it needs and explain afterwards. Manufac- turers are in his view essentially inventors of cannons and guns and dreadnoughts, incidentally self-supporting men. Bankers exist to finance the army, and incidentally to make money. Physicians are equipped to heal the wounded soldiers. Gymnasiums are founded to train soldiers. "Women are here to breed soldiers, and militarism is the path that will bring Germany to her place in the sun. The youth is first of all to be a soldier, and, incidentally, to be a man. No one has indicted Germany's militarism in stronger language than that distinguished German-American, Carl Schurz. In words that literally burn, the great statesman ex- 246 Upon Militarism and Autocracy pressed his hatred of the imperialism and militarism against which he helped to organize a revolution that led to his flight to this country. Of late, Americans have been asking themselves certain questions, among them the following : What will be the result if Germany is allowed to seize any smaller state whose territory and property she covets? Is all Europe to become an armed camp ? What is the meaning of the German professor's article in the North American Review, written two or three years ago, in which he says that once Germany is victorious the Monroe Doctrine will go and the United States will receive the " thrashing she so richly deserves " ? Must we then also go over to the military ideal? If Germany supports 8,000,000 soldiers out of 66,000,000 people must we withdraw from industry 12,000,000 men for at least two or three of the best years of their young life ? Must we start in on a programme of ten dreadnoughts a year instead of building ten colleges and universities for the same sum of money ? In this fashion, of late, have Americans who love their country been searching their own hearts. Merchants hitherto busied with 247 Verdict of the American People commerce are asking themselves whither this country is drifting. Is Germany to compel us to become a vast military ma- chine? This military question is a subject of discussion on the street cars and in the stores, at the dining-room table. No articles in paper and magazine are so eagerly read and analyzed as those dealing with the subject. Now the American ideal is not a military machine, but a high quality of manhood. To make men free, with the gift of self- expression ; to make men wise through the public school and the free press ; to make men self-sufficing and happy in their homes, through freedom of industrial contract ; to make men sound in their manhood through religious liberty for Jew and Gentile, Catho- lic and Protestant these are our national ideals. America stands at the other pole of the universe from imperialism and milita- rism. So far from our being willing to desert the political faith of the fathers, this war has confirmed our confidence in self-govern- ment. Liberty to grow, freedom to climb as high as industry and ability will permit, liberty to analyze and discuss the views of President, Congress, Governor these are 248 Upon Militarism and Autocracy our rights. In a military autocracy there can be no liberty of the printing-press. If a man criticizes the Kaiser, he goes to jail. In this Kepublic, if Horace Greeley criticizes Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln does not send the great editor to jail, but writes the latter, " My paramount object is to save the Union," and vindicates himself at the bar of the nation. An American editor or citizen would choke to death in Germany. He could not breathe because of the mephitic gases of imperialism and militarism. For a long time some of us did not realize what was involved, but the events of the past few months in Europe have compelled us to realize the difference between the fruits of democratic self-government and the fruits of military imperialism. II. The last five months, too, have brought to American citizens a new realization as to the rights and liberties of small states. In this Republic, the sin of trespass is one of the blackest of sins. Here we hold to the sanctity of property. A man's home is his castle, a citadel that cannot be invaded even by the power of the State. So deep is the American hatred of trespass against property rights that imperialism finds it impossible to 249 Verdict of the American People understand this. Here the individual is a king among kings in his native right, and takes out an injunction against the city that wishes to trespass upon his property. This antagonism manifests itself in the laws that safeguard the small shopkeeper against the big firm, and the small manufacturer against any company with its billion dollars of capital. This antagonism to the sin of trespass has lent a peculiar sanctity to treaties between Canada and the United States. We have one hundred millions of people, and Canada nine millions. We need many things that Canada has, but it is intellectually unthinkable that " we should take what we want and explain afterwards," or that we should violate our peaceful treaty with Great Britain. The frontier line between us is three thousand miles long, but there is not a fort from Maine to Yictoria. If we adopted Germany's posi- tion we would have to build one thousand forts, withdraw two million young men from the farm, factory, store and bank, and load the working people with taxes to support them ; and Canada would have to follow our example. In a free land, and in God's world, there should be a place for the poor man and 250 Upon Militarism and Autocracy for the small nation, since Canada, with a magnificent territory, has but begun her manning of it with her energetic population. In the olden time, there was a king who had herds and flocks, and a poor man who had one pet lamb. It came to pass that a stranger claimed the right of hospitality at the palace, and the king sent out and took the poor man's one lamb and gave it for food to the stranger. But the prophet showed the king his meanness, and he was ashamed. And, soon or late, the time will come when history will tell the story of Germany's tak- ing little Belgium, and Conscience, like the prophet, will indict the militarism that seized the one lamb that belonged to the poor man. That episode is not closed. The German rep- resentative who says that Belgium is a part of Germany may be right in terms of future war and government, but the incident has only begun in the memory of the soldiers who never can forget that Germany first broke their sacred treaty, and then, when the Belgian defended his home as his castle, butchered the man, who died with that treaty in his hand. Why, all over this land teachers, fathers, editors, authors, have found it necessary to say to the young men and 251 Verdict of the American People women of the Republic, " Do not sign your name to an obligation unless you intend to keep it." " Keep your faith. Remember that your word given should be as good as your bond." " Swear to your own hurt, and change not." All this is inevitable, as the result of Germany's trespass upon the prop- erty and the homes of Belgium. In some European lands, the State is everything and the individual nothing. In this Republic the individual is first, and the State is here to safeguard his rights, and see to it that no one trespasses upon his property. The time will come when the nation that breaks its treaties and sows to the wind shall of that wind reap the whirlwind. It is an awful thing for a nation to make it inevitable that hereafter when that country negotiates a treaty with other people their representatives shall say : " Before we sign this treaty with you, we wish to ask one question : If later it is to your interest to break this treaty, is the document to be sneered at as a scrap of paper ? Or does this treaty mean the faith of a nation that will die rather than break its word, given before the tribunal of civilized States ? " III. This great war and one or two of 252 Upon Militarism and Autocracy the leaders thereof have finally killed the old tribal idea of God. In the Twentieth Cen- tury it seems almost ludicrous to find that the conception of the ancient Hebrews is still held by some rulers. Be the reasons what they may, of late there has been a strange recrudescence of the tribal God idea. This is the Twentieth Century, not the Third ! God is the God of the whole earth, a dis- interested God, a God who makes His sun to shine and His rain to fall upon all His chil- dren, without regard to race or clime or colour ! Why, all this assumption not prayer for Divine help, but assumption that the Supreme Being of the universe is a part- ner in the savage deeds of a single nation is as artless as the way the old Hebrew peas- ant called on Jehovah to blast his enemy's field, and drown his children with floods, and smite his herds with the plague. No: the tribal idea of God belongs with the ox-cart, the medicine man, the cave-dweller. This is an era of science. "Whatever is true is uni- versal, not racial. If the heart beats and the blood circulates in a German soldier's veins, the blood also flows in the veins of the peo- ple of England and France. If the earth goes around the sun in Berlin, the earth goes 253 Verdict of the American People around the sun in Petrograd and Edinburgh. If there are seven rays in the sunbeam, then the discussion is closed, and it is a universal fact. And if Jesus was right when He said, " God is our Father, and all the races are our brothers, and the world has been fitted up by God as an Eden garden for His children," then no man or ruler should ever adopt the view of the peasant and the cave-man, and try to make the Eternal God a tribal deity. The unconscious humour in the statements of one or two men as to their tribal God idea has added to the gayety of nations ; and when any view is laughed at, it is doomed. From the very moment when the doctrine of election, that made God love a few aristocrats and pass the non-elect by, became a matter of joke in the comic papers, that theory was dead. Not otherwise is it with this idea of a tribal God. "When Barry Paine begins to say, Led by William, as you tell, God has done extremely well, the tribal idea has been relegated to the theological scrap-heap. The peasant's view must go. In this age men must adore the God of all countries and of the universe. God is a sun who shines for the poor man's 254 Upon Militarism and Autocracy hut as truly as for the rich man's palace. The Judge of all the earth is also the Father of all the races, and He will do men good and not evil. IV. In view of the events of the last few months, all Americans now realize, as never before, the futility of war as a means of set- tling disputes. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any war has ever setted any ques- tion. Defeat did not convince the South that they were wrong in their idea of State sovereignty and slavery. If the South has given up both to-day it is because time, events and social progress have changed their view, not because the sword convinced them. Yon Moltke's victory at Sedan and Bismarck's triumph at Versailles did not settle the dispute with France. To keep one billion dollars of indemnity Germany must have spent five billions on forts and armies and the government of Alsace and Lorraine. Ger- many's apparent victory simply put Ger- many's trouble with France out at compound interest, and left the next generation of Ger- mans to pay several billions of dollars of accrued debt through hatred. Plainly, it is folly not to reconstitute the map of Europe. The frontier lines of the 255 Verdict of the American People geographer should coincide as nearly as may be with the racial lines, and certainly, in some form, should be submitted for judg- ment to " the consent of the governed." The German race with their peculiar ideals ought not to try to govern the French race. It is an expensive experiment. It is an impossible attempt. The plan is doomed to failure in advance. And when the day of payment comes, it is quite certain that the questions at issue will not have been settled by regiments of soldiers. They must finally be settled by an appeal to some court of arbitration that will do justice and love mercy ; that will insist upon the rights of the smaller States and make it impossible for the great ones of the earth to trespass upon the property and the liberties of brave little peoples. V. Out of the smoke of battle another les- son is written for all who have eyes to read. In view of the mistakes made by men who have absolute power, it is now certain that ex- emption from criticism is a bad thing for any man and that endless adoration destroys the ruler's power to think in straight lines. There never lived a man who was not injured by perpetual compliments. Strong men are 256 Upon Militarism and Autocracy willing to pay cash for criticism. Flattery will conceal weakness, and they know that pitiless criticism will expose the danger and perhaps save them. No man is so unfortunate as the man who is put on a throne lifted up beyond the reach of plain truth-telling. It is doubtful if so many blunders were ever made by statesmen and diplomats as were made at the beginning of this war. Just think of one government being wrong in so many particulars at the same time ! Lincoln said, " You can't fool all of the people all of the time." Yes, that may be true in a re- public, but you certainly can fool all the diplomats and generals of an empire, and do it all the time during July and August, in any event. Call the roll of Germany's diplomatic blunders, and the list is long. First, England will be neutral, for Ireland will keep her from going to war. Second, Italy will be our ally. Third, Belgium will be neutral and allow us to trespass upon her property and her homes. Fourth, France is unprepared and Paris will fail within three weeks. Fifth, an alliance with Turkey, despite her polygamy, and butcheries in Armenia, and the civilized world's hatred for her cruel tieSj 257 Verdict of the American People will help us. Sixth, Japan will hold Kussia in check. Seventh, the Czar will be attacked by Bulgaria, Italy and China. It seems in- credible that any ruler and group of dip- lomats could be so entirely wrong all the time, on every question, for a whole summer! Was there no man as diplomat who had the wisdom to see that an attack upon England would end the disputes in Ireland and bind together Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, into a new United States of Great Britain '? Was there no statesman with enough prevision of the future, and with courage to tell the people in Wilhelm- strasse that the certain result would be the United States of Balkany, to stand hence- forth as a barrier between Germany and the Bosphorus ? Was there no one to remind Berlin that Italy had just completed a war with Turkey and that any treaty with Turkey meant inevitably the breaking of friendship with Italy ? Alas for the man who is ele- vated to a throne, in whose presence men burn incense, pour forth flattery, that he may breathe its perfume, and sing songs of praise that he may slumber ! In concluding our brief survey of the na- tions and the stake each country has in the 258 Upon Militarism and Autocracy war, there is one reflection that must be ob- vious to all thinking men. This little fire of last August has become a world conflagra- tion. The nation that first sent out her armies was Germany. There is a high- water mark of battle in every war, and after that, the invading waves begin their retreat. The high-water mark of Napoleon's was Auster- litz, and the waves ebbed away at Waterloo. The high-water mark of our Civil War was Gettysburg, and the tide ebbed out at Appo- mattox. Belgium's defence cost Germany the three most important weeks of the war, and her high- water mark was when she was within twenty miles of Paris. Occasional eddies and returns of the tide there may be, but nothing is more certain than that there are ten nations and six hundred millions of men that had rather die than have Ger- man militarism imposed upon themselves and their children. Americans, who admire German efficiency, the German people, and want to see German literature, art and sci- ence preserved, and feel an immeasurable debt to Martin Luther as Americans gener- ally do certainly do not want Germany destroyed. But Germany will not listen to England, 259 Verdict of the American People nor France, nor even to America. There is only one voice that can reach Germany- it is the voice of the German- Americans in this country. They are six million strong. They are among the most honoured and esteemed folk in American life. Their achievements are beyond all praise. The Germans have built Milwaukee and have done much for St. Louis. The Germans have been great forces in Cincinnati and Chicago and New York. What wealth among their bankers! What prosperity among German manufacturers! What so- lidity of manhood in these German Luther- ans ! Was there ever a finer body of farm- ing folk than the German landowners of the Middle West ? This Eepublic owes the German- American a great debt as to liberty through men like Carl Schurz. Many of these German- Americans own great estates and have investments in the Fatherland. To-day these six million German- Americans have the centre of the world's stage. This war is a conflagration that will in time burn itself out. But if the six million German- Americans organized themselves and held meetings of protest in New York and Brook- lyn and Chicago and Milwaukee, in St. Louis 260 Upon Militarism and Autocracy and Cincinnati ; if German- American editors and bankers and business men united their voice as Americans, for peace, and not as Germans, for war they would be heard. Do they not owe something to this Re- public ? And having come to such a crisis as this, should they not use their influence with the Fatherland ? Having escaped con- scription and years of military service, with heavy taxation, and enjoyed the liberty of the press; having become convinced that militarism does not promote the prosperity and manhood of the people, why should they not as one man ask the Fatherland now to present its cause to arbitrators? To no body of American citizens has there ever come a more strategic opportunity, or a re- sponsibility so heavy. Some of the most thoughtful men in this land believe that the destiny of Germany rests now largely with the leaders of the six million German- Ameri- cans in our country. But no matter what the present course of events, let no man think that God and jus- tice are not fully equal to this emergency. The great vine of Liberty was planted by Divine Hands in the Eden garden. Just now the storm roars through the branches of 261 Verdict of the American People the tree of life. But the storm will die out. Better days are coming. It may be that the convulsion of war will do for Europe what the earthquake did for the rude folks of Greece cracked the solid rock and exposed the silver veins that gave the wealth with which rude men built Athens, with its art, its literature, its law and its liberty. Take no counsel of crouching fear ; God is abroad in the world. With Him a thousand years are as one day. When a long time has passed let us believe that self-government will be found to be the most stable form of govern- ment, and that these golden words, Liberty, Opportunity, Intelligence and Integrity will be the watchwords not only of this Republic, but of all the nations of the earth. 262 Index ABDUL HAMID, 158 Adams, Samuel, 113 Adriatic Sea, 22, 24, 172 Ajax and the lightning, 105 Alexander II., of Russia, 126, 127 Alexandria, 148 Alleghanies, 194 Alsace and Lorraine, 47, 170 Alva, Duke of, 104, 107- 113, 204, 205 Amazon River, 194 American, Civil War, 13 ; government for protection of life, property, and edu- cation, not beauty, 58-59 ; students of art in Paris, 66; indebtedness to France, 68 ; capitalists in Mexico, 94 ; workmen and this war, 94 " American in Holland, The," quoted, 21 1; Amsterdam, 193, 202, 204 Anatole France, critic, 64 Antwerp, 106-113 Anzeiger on Belgium, 39 Appomattox, 46 Arabia, 146 Arc de Triomphe, Paris, 57 " Areopagitica," quoted, 72 Arkansas, 194 Armenian Church, 130 Arnold of Rugby, 168 Aquitani, 104 Asia Minor, 145, 151, 166 Augustine, 167 Australia, 77, 79 Austria, cause for war, 15 ; German provinces of, 23 Austria-Hungary.drawn into Triple Alliance by Bis- marck (1882), with Ger- many began war of 1914 attacking Serbia, 172; present dangers to, 174 ; and the Coming United States of Balkany, Chap- ter IX, 217 ; threatened by Balkan revolution 219; Dual Monarchy of, strength and weakness, 220 ; remainder of Holy Roman Empire, 221; Maria Theresa, 224-226; musicians, reformers, 227, 228 ; relations with Hun- gary, 228-231 ; retained Italian provinces, 233 ; Italian people hot to in- tervene in war, 233, 234 ; Austrian intolerance, 235 ; immigrants from, in America, 236 ; resources of, 238 BABYLON, 168 Bacon, Francis, 74 Bagdad, 24 Balkan Countries, 24 ; rev- olution against Turkey, 217-219 ; plans for feder- ation threatened to bar 263 Index Austria and Germany from East, 119 Balkany, United States of, 217-220 Barker, J. Ellis, quoted, 12, 25- 35- 41 Beethoven, 12, 227 Beggars of the Sea, 206 Belgium, fortitude of her people, 98 ; Why the World Sympathizes with, Chapter IV, 99 ; small area and population of, 99 ; intensive agriculture of, 100 ; social and indus- trial conditions, 101 ; man- ufactures, 102 ; courts, sav- ings banks, 103; inherited bravery of people, 104 ; plains of, Europe's battle- ground, 104, 105 ; mari- ners and wealth of, in 1568,106; Alva sent from Spain to despoil, 107; mis- eries endured by, 108- HO; refugees from joined Dutch in cutting dykes, 1 10 ; Egmont and Horn heroes of, 111-113; new miseries of, at Germany's hand, 1 14 ; guaranteed neutrality broken, 1 14 ; resources of, 116; at- tacked by Germany, 172 " Belgium of the Belgians," quoted, 98 Bereshkovsky, Madame, 131 Berlin, 55 Bernhardi, General, quoted, 25, 39, 92, 173 Bethlehem, 150 Bismarck, 40, 47, 149, 170- 172, 241, 243 Black Sea, 175 Bliss, Howard, in Beirut, 158 Borneo, 195 Bosphorus, The, 148, 175 Boulger, Demetrius C., quoted, 98 Bremen, 22 Briey iron deposits, 50 British Guiana, 84 ; Guinea, 83 Brooklyn, N. Y., 56 Bruce, Robert, 198 Brussels, 115 Budapest, 25, 173 Burke, Edmund, quoted, '56 Burmah, 77 Byron, apostrophe to Greece, 153; to Rome, 163 Byzantine Empire, 145 Byzantium, 221 C/ESAR, JULIUS, 104, 105, i 66, 167 Cain, a national type ? 179 Cairo, 150 Calcutta, 155 Calhoun, John C., 13 Calvin, John, 69 Canada, 51, 77, 79, 84 Canal project in Palestine, '55 Canning, Earl, 83 Caprera, 185 Carlyle, Thomas, 144, 181, 223 Carthage, 165, 168 Catherine the Great, of Rus- sia, 124, 126 Causes and occasions of war, 13-15 Cavour, 183, 184 Celts, 104 Cesaresco, Countess, quoted, '85. 2 33 264 Index Ceylon, 77 Champs Elyse'es, Paris, 57 Charles Martel, 104, 145 Chicago, fire, 143 ; World's Fair, 199 China, 1 20 Clive, Lord, 83 Cobden, Richard, 80 Cockerill Iron Works, Bel- gium, IO2 Coligny, Admiral, 206 Colonies, of European na- tions, 49, 78 Columbus, 167, 199, 201 Constance, Council of, 228 Constantine, 167 Constantinople, capital of Turkey, seat of Caliphate, 141 ; beauty and impor- tance, 142 ; taken by Turks in 1453, 148 ; en- dangered in present war, 142, 151, 160, 221 Cortez, 109 Council, of Trent, 203 ; Constance, 228 Crag-Jurgensen rifle, 135 Crawford, F. Marion, quoted, 164 Croesus, 64 Cromer, Lord, 91 Cromwell, 1 6, 74, 1 2 1, 127, 198, 242 Curie, Prof, and Madame, 69 Curzon, Lord, 83, 91 Daily Eagle, Brooklyn, N. Y., 7 Damascus, 150 Dante, 167, 198 Dardanelles, 172, 175 Darwin, Charles, 75 David, 99, 121, 198, 205 Dead Sea, 155 Deak, Ferencz, Hungarian diplomat, 231 De Grasse, Count, 68 Delcasse, French Foreign Minister, 47 De Lesseps (Suez and Pana- ma), 69 Delfthaven, 191 Deltas of the Nile, Amazon, Mississippi, Rhine, 194 Dilke, Sir Charles, 76 Disraeli, 146 Dufferin, Lord, 83 Duma, the Russian, 133 ECOLK DES BEAUX ARTS, 60 Egmont, Count, 111-113, 203, 206 Egypt, 148, 150, 155 Elbe River, 22 Eliot, John, English patriot, "3 Ellis Island, Austrian immi- grants at, 235 Emperor, Charles V., 106, 198; Constantine, 221 ; Francis Joseph, 24, 174, 222 ; Sigismund, 227 Empress Maria Theresa, 223, 224 England, her cause for war, 15 ; compared with Ger- many, 24-31 ; Place of, Among Nations, Chapter III, 73; supremacy of, 74 ; as architect of states, 75-79 ; colonies of, 80 ; fine civil service of, 82 ; incorruptible colonial courts, 83 ; swift justice, 84 ; mounted police of Canada, 84; colonization drains population of, 85 ; shipping and commerce 265 Index of, 87, 88; fairness to commercial rivals, 88 ; House of Lords, 89-91 ; resources of, 95 ; land question in, 127; in Triple Entente, 171, 172 ; distressed by closing of Dardanelles in Italo-Turk- ish war, 174-176; now likely to guard Suez and threaten Dardanelles, 1 60 Ephesus, 150, 1 68 Epictetus, 167 Epicurean philosophers, 146 Erasmus, 192 Eser River, 22 Euphrates River, 154 " Europe in the Nineteenth Century," quoted, 216 FAUBOURG ST. ANTOINE, Paris, 6 1 Fichte, 12 Florida, 1 66 Foreword, 5-7 Fort Sumter, 13 France, character of people, 44; Contribution to the World, Object of Fight- ing, Chapter II, 45 ; open- ing of present war, 45 ; high-water-mark of Ger- man attack, 46 ; stability of government, 46 ; states- men of, undoing Bis- marck's work, 47-49 ; iron ores of, 49-51 ; new financial policy, 51-53; diffusion of the beautiful, 53 ff. ; Napoleon III. and beautification of Paris, 56-58 ; art advancement by government of, 59- 63 ; financial returns from art, 65 ; debt of America to, 68-69 5 resources of, 70; land question in, 128 Francis Joseph, of Austria- Hungary, 24, 174, 222 Francis II., of Austria, 221 Franklin, Benjamin, 68 Frederick the Great, 40, 86, 93, 223-226, 241 Freeman, Edward A., quoted, 140 French Directory and Na- poleon, 156 Froude, James A., 181 Fullerton, William Morton, quoted, 49-51 GALILEO, 167 Garibaldi, 181-183 Gates, Dr., of Robert Col- lege, 158 Gauss, Prof. Christian, 240 German isolation of France reversed, 48 ; colonies few, 49 ; envy of French iron deposits, 49-5 1 ; war preparation, 86; violation of Belgium's guaranteed neutrality, 113; cruelty in Belgium, 1 14 ; justified by Von Disfurth, 178 Germany, Old and New, 12 ; Growth of, Chapter I, 13 ; causes and occasions of present war, 13-15 ; leads world in industry, trade and commerce, 16, 17 ; army and navy, 18, 19 ; population, 20 ; shut from sea, 22, 23 ; foreign- ers imported for harvest work, 23; room needed to expand, 24 ; wealth, work, debt, 25, 26; in- 266 Index vestments, savings, 27, 28 ; beggary abolished, 30 ; influence of Kaiser, 31-33 ; Navy League, 34 ; military education, 35 37 ; attack on Belgium, 38; readiness for war, 40; resources, 41; mili- tarism in, 86 ; only nation ready for the war, 92 ; Bis- marck's policies for, in Eu- rope, 170-172; with Aus- tria began war, 172 ; justi- fied by Von Disfurth, 178 ; andHolland, 195, 196,212 Gettysburg, 46, 136, 259 Gibraltar, 94 Goethe, 12 Grand Palais, Petit Palais, Paris, 63 Grand Prix de Rome, 60 Greece, struggling to escape from Turkey, 152, 153; the Isles of, 153; under Turkey, and now, 154; ^Egean islands, 154 Griffis, Wm. Elliott, quoted, 211 Grote, George, 181 Grotius, Belgian jurist, 115 Gustavus Adolphus, 123 HAGUE, THE, 193, 199 Hamburg, 22, 196 Hamlin, Cyrus, 157 Hampden, John, 74 Harmsworth, Alfred, Lord Northcliffe, 91 Harpigny, painter, 64 Hawthorne, 74, 1 68 Haydn, 12, 227 Hegel, 12 Hejira, the, 147 Holland, colonial possessions of, 190 ; and Germany : The Mouth of the Rhine, Chapter VIII, 191 ; in- debtedness of America to, 191, 192; smallness of, 193; rich farming lands of, 194 ; colonial riches of, 195 ; mouth of the Rhine held by, 196 ; sea- dykes creating land for, 197; commerce and wealth of, 202 ; William the Silent hero of, 197- 211 ; refugees from Flan- ders to, 204 ; " Request " to Regent by noblemen of, 205 ; " Beggars of the Sea," 206 ; Coligny slain in Paris, Neearven des- troyed, Spain's overtures for peace, William's re- ply, 207 ; Leyden be- sieged, dykes cut, 208 ; " Seven United Prov- inces " organized, 208 ; William slain, 209 ; es- tates stood firm, 210; peace, recognition of in- dependence by Spain, 211; rulers of Nether- lands, 212; Germany and, 212 ; resources of, 213 Holy Roman Empire, 221 Holy War, A, ordered by Turkey, 141, 151 Homer, 150 Horatius, 121 Horn, Count, in, 203, 206 House of Commons, British, 79, 89-91 House of Lords, British, 89- 91 Hudson River, 23 Huguenots of France, 206 267 Index Hungary, 25 ; mediaeval and modern, Kingdom in Dual Empire, 228-231 Huss, John, 227, 234 INDIA, 77, 79, 81 Indian Ocean, 175 Inquisition, The, 108 Isaiah, 146 Islam, meaning of, 151 Istria, 232 Italia Irredenta, 173, 233 Italian Tyrol, 232 Italy : Old and New, Chap- ter VII, 161 ; source of great ideals, 164 ; build- ers of, Scipio Africanus, 165 ; Caesar, 166 ; great Romans, 167; the New, development of, 169 ; in- dependence of Triple Al- liance, 170; Bismarck's operations with, 170-172; unity of, 173; possible opportunity for, in present war, 174; relations of, with Turkey, 175 ; clos- ing of Dardanelles against, distressed world com- merce, 175-177; builders of the New, Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, 180- 184; new economic move- ment in, 185 ; land ques- tion and taxes in, 186; democracy and autocracy in, 187 ; present influence of, 1 88; resources of, 1 88 ; popular agitation for war in, 234 Italy of the Italians," quoted, 162 JAVA, 195 y avert, Hugo's, 131 Jean Paul, 12 Jerrold, Lawrence, quoted, 44 Jerusalem, 150 Jesus, timely preacher, 6 Jews, The, in Spain, 108 Jordan, 150 Joshua, 165 Judson, Harry Pratt, quoted, 216 KAISER, The, 16, 31-35, 48, 78, 88, 92, 169, 172, 240 Kiel Canal, 151 King, Clovis, 104 ; Edward VII., 82; Ferdinand of Naples and Sicily, 180 ; James I., of England, 191 ; William of Prussia, German Emperor, 170; Philip II., of Spain, 106, 199, 20 1-2 I i Kossuth, Louis, 229-231 Koran, The, 147, 150, 151 LAFAYETTE, 68, 113 Lake of Galilee, 155 " L'Allemagne aux Abois," 5 1 Land question in Russia, England, France, Mexico, 127, 128 Lansdowne, Lord, 175 Lawrence, Lord, 83 Lenau, 12 Lessing, 12 Lewes, George H., 181 Leyden, 207 " Liberation of Italy, The," quoted, 185, 233 Liege, 102 Lincoln, Abraham, 217 268 Index Liszt, 227 Little States in history, 193 Liverpool, 176 Lombard Street, London, 73 London, 55, 73, 122, 155, 163 Lorenzo the Magnificent, 227 Lorraine and Alsace, 47, 170 Louisiana, 194 Louvain, 41, 115 Lucretius, 167 Luxembourg, gallery of, 60 MACAULAY, THOMAS B., 181 Mayflower, The, 192 MacMonnies' Arch, 56 Maine to Puget Sound, 119 Manchester, 55 Manhattan Island, 23 Manitoba, 79 Marcus Aurelius, 167 Margaret of Parma, Regent of the Netherlands, 203 Maria Theresa, 224-226 Marie Antoinette, 14 Marseilles, 22 Mazzini, iSo, 181 McGill University, Mon- treal, 8 1 Mecca, 146 Medina, 147 Mediterranean Sea, 24 Melbourne, 79 Mennonites, The, 131 Mexico, 23, 51, 94, 128 Miami River, 59 Michael Angelo, 168 Militarism and Autocracy, American Verdict upon, Chapter X, 239-262 Mill, John Stuart, 181 Millet, painter, 65 Milton, quoted, 72 Mississippi River, 23, 59, 194 Modern Germany, 12 Mohammed, Carlylc's opin- ion of corrected, 143 ; ca- reer of, 146-148 Mohammedans, 141 ; after Prophet's death, 148; uni- versity of, in Cairo, 1 50 ; symbol of, a waning cres- cent, 152 Moors, The, in Spain, 108 Moses, 121, 146 Moslems (see Mohammedans) Mosque of St. Sophia, 142 Motley, John L o t h r o p, quoted, 197, 210 Mottoes, national, 20, 21 Mounted police, Canada, 84 Mozart, 12, 227 Mukden, 135 Munich, 23 NAMUR iron deposits, 5 1 Napoleon, 105, 134, 156, 171, 174, 231, 241, 243, 259 Napoleon III., beautifies Paris, 55-58 Navy, German, 34, 35 Neearven, 207 Netherlands, The (see Hol- land) New Orleans, 23 Newton, Isaac, 75 New York, 66-67, 182, 192 New Zealand, 77 " Night Watch, The," 193 Nile River, 194 North Africa, 145 North American Review, cited, 247 269 Index Northcliffe, Lord, 91 Notre Dame, Paris, 58 Nuremberg, 106 ONTARIO, 79 PAINTED LADY, The, 109 Palestine, 151, 193 Panama Canal, 69, 94, IO2, 176, 177 Pan-Slavic union, 216 Paris leads the world in beauty, 55 ; beautified by Napoleon III., 56-58 Pascal's " Thoughts," 69 Pasteur, 69 Persia, controlled by Eng- land and Russia, 154; railroad to, 154 Persian Gulf, 151, 154 Peshkoff, Russian noble- man, 132 Petrograd, 54 Philistines, 165 Phillips, Wendell, 181 Piedmont, 1 80 Plato, 13 Plehve, Russian despotic minister, 130 Plymouth Church, 182 Poincare, Jules H., French mathematician, President of France, 47 Ponce de Leon, 166 Pope Pius IX., 1 80 Port Arthur, 135 " Problems of P o w e r," quoted, 49 Prussia, 16, 94, 223-226 Pym, John, 74, 198 QUEEN, ALEXANDRA, of England, 82; Elizabeth of England, 191, 224; Isabella of Spain, 199 ; Marie Antoinette of France, 14; Maria Theresa of Austria, 224 ; Mary of England, 191 ; Victoria, 222; Wilhelmina of Holland, 195, 212 RAPHAEL, 168 " Real France, The," 44 Red Sea, 155 Reichstag, German, a de- bating society, 16 Rembrandt, 193 Revolution, American, 13, 218; French, 14; Greek, 152; Balkan, 218 Rhine River, 22, 172, 194, 196, 212 Rhone River, 23, 172 " Rise of the Dutch Repub- lic," quoted, 197, 210 Robert College, 158 Robinson, John, 192 Rocky Mountains, 194 Rodin, sculptor, 64 Roentgen, Professor, 32 Romanoffs of Russia, 126 Rome, 73, 119; Byron's apostrophe to, 163; long world leadership of, 163 ; Crawford's apostrophe to, 164 ; in antiquity and Middle Ages, 165-168 Rostand, poet, 64 Rotterdam, 22, 191, 193, 196 Russia, and the Bosphorus, 15; people of, 118; the New, Chapter V, 119; vastness, 120; Peter the Great, 121-126; Cather- ine, 124, 126; Alexander II., 127 ; land question, 127; Mir system, 128; 27O Index oppression, 130-132; Duma, 133; soldier -of, 134; the New, 134; ma- terial means of, 135; democracy in, 136; re- sources of, 136 ST. BARTHOLOMEW, 206 St. Petersburg founded, 124 Salisbury Plain, 81 San Francisco, 54 Sappho, 150 Saracens, 104, 149 Sardinia, 173 Sarre, Valley of the, 50 Savonarola, 227 Schiller, 12 Schlegel, 12 Scipio Africanus, 165, 1 66 Seine River, 23 Serbia, 93, 172 Seven cities of Paul's churches, 150 Sevres porcelain, 62 Seward, Wm. H., 217 Shakespeare, 75 Siberia, 120 Sicily, 173 Silesia, 50 ; stolen by Fred- erick, 93, 223, 224 Sobieski, John, 145 Socrates, 165 South Africa, 51, 76, 79 South Sea Islands, 83 Spain, 145, 149, 166 Spanish cruelty in Spain, 108; Mexico, 109, 200; Peru, 200 ; Belgium, 106- 113; Holland, 201-211 Speedwell, The, 192 Staten Island, 182 Steel, King, in Twentieth Century, 93 Stephenson, George, 75 Straits, used by world com- merce, not to be closed for local warlike opera- tions, 176, 177 Suez Canal, 69, 94, 175 Sumatra, 195 Sweden, soldiers of, 123, 124 Switzerland, 193 Syria, 148, 166 TAFT, WILLIAM H., quoted, 176 " Take what you want ; ex- plain later," 93 Tammany Hall, as patron of art, 66 Thebes, 73 " The Day," 93 Tiber River, 166 Tolstoi, Count, 131 Treaties, to be kept or sneered at? 179 Treitschke, German histo- rian, cited, 80, 246 Trent, Council of, 203 Trentino, 173, 232 Trieste, 22, 173, 232 Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy), 172 Triple Entente (France, Russia and England), 17 1, 172 Tripoli, 175 Turgot, French statesman, 78 Turkestan, 120 Turk, The Unspeakable, Chapter VI, 139; an alien in Europe, 140; enters present struggle, orders Holy War, 141 ; numbers of, 141 ; permanent hold in Europe, 148 ; depres- sion in realms of, 149, 150; 271 Index polygamy and slavery under, 151 ; alliance with Austria and Germany, 151 ; Greece oppressed by and freed from, 152- 154 ; hope for Asia Minor in fall of, 154; commer- cial projects through lands of, 155, 156; the Young, and new dreams, 157; American education in lands of, well treated by, 158; Suez Canal endan- gered by, 159; Darda- nelles a danger to, 159 Turkey (see Turk) Tyndale, William, 132, 192 Tyrol, Italian, 232 UGANDA RIVER, 76 Uhland, 12 United States of Great Brit- ain, 79, 80; of Balkany, 218 University Magazine, Can- ada, 8 1 Utrecht, 198 VATICAN gallery, 166 Venice, 73, 87, 106, 173, 193, 232 Versailles, 68, 170 Victor Emmanuel, 175, 183 Victor Hugo, 131 Vienna, 145 Virgil, 167 Von Disfurth, General, quoted, 177 Von Moltke, General, 170 WALDENSES, The, 132 Washington, 121 ; city of, 230 Waterloo, 174 Watt, James, 75 Webster, Daniel, 13,77, 152 Wellington, 105, 174 West, Dr., American physi- cian in Turkey, 158 Westphalia steel, 50 Wheat lands of Russia, 120 Wieland, 12 William II. (see Kaiser) William the Silent, Prince of Orange, 197-211 Winnipeg, 79 XENOPHON, 150 Y. M. C. A. building in St. Petersburg, 133 Young Turks, The, 157 ZEALAND, 198 Zimmern, Helen, quoted, 162 Zuyder Zee, 207 Printed in the United States of America 272 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 757 535