Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN HISTORICAL OUTLINES OF ENGLISH ACCIDENCE HISTORICAL OUTLINES OF ENGLISH ACCIDENCE, COMPRISING CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LANGUAGE, AND ON WORD-FORMATION. BY THE REV. RICHARD MORRIS, LL.D. EDITOR OF HAMPOLE'S "PRICKE OF CONSCIENCE," "THE STORY OF GENESIS AND EXODUS," " AYENBITE OF INWYT," " OLD ENGLISH HOMILIES," ETC. ETC. MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LECTURER ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN KING'S COLLEGE SCHOOL. SECOND EDITION MACMILLAN AND CO. 1872. [77ie Ri^ht of Translation and Reproduction is reserved.] LONDON I . Cl.AY, SONS, AKD TAYLOR, FRINTKRS, BREAD STREET HILL. Annex flE 1101 1*7 P- PREFACE. MANY writers on the structure and history of English, in spite of the plain evidence to the contrary, have regarded our language as one that has sprung up, com- paratively speaking, within a very recent period. Some have dared to carry it as far back as Chaucer's time, because he has usually been spoken of as " the well of English undefiled." Others again, not so bold, have deemed it quite sufficient to date the rise of the English language from the time of the greatest of Elizabethan writers. By not regarding the earlier stages of our lan- guage as English, all the necessary helps to a rational treatment of its grammatical forms and idioms have been cast aside. The Saturday Review has, very rightly, raised its voice rather loudly against the absurdity of such a view, and has properly insisted upon the right of all periods to be designated as English, the very oldest term for our language, and one that is identified with its earliest history and with the very best writers of all its periods, from Alfred the Great down to the vi PREFACE. present time. This outcry- against an absurd nomen- clature has been productive of good results, as is seen in the growing tendency that manifests itself nowadays to study the older stages of English, for the sake of the light they throw upon its later and more modern periods ; and in very many of our public schools, the upper forms possess a very creditable acquaintance with some of our old English worthies, and are enabled by the knowledge they have thus acquired to get a satisfactory account of the peculiarities and anomalies of modern English. The unsatisfactory state of most of our English Gram- mars is perhaps due to the limited knowledge of their writers, 1 and to their unwillingness to avail themselves of the help afforded by the remains of our early literature. English Grammar, without a reference to the older forms, must appear altogether anomalous, inconsistent, and, un- intelligible. In Germany, the grammar of our language has been studied and treated scientifically, in the order of its historical development, by means of our early literature, and it has also been illustrated by the results of Comparative Philology. To the most recent of the German works on our language, that by Professor Koch the most orderly and scientific English grammar yet written I have been greatly indebted in the compilation of the present volume, especially for the chapters on word- 1 I do not include Dr. Latham's English Grammars among the works of the numerous grammar-mongers here alluded to. PREFACE. vii formation and the Appendices I. and II. I have also made much use of the lectures of Professor Max Miiller on " The Science of Language," and those of Professor Whitney on " Language, and the Study of Language." I have, I hope, turned to good account the many old English works that have been issued from time to time by our Book Clubs, especially those published by the present Early English Text Society ; l but the size of my book obliged me to admit only so many old English illustrations as were absolutely necessary for the full explanation of the forms under consideration. I have endeavoured to write a work that can be profitably used by students and by the upper forms in our public schools ; a very elementary book formed no part of my plan. I hope, however, to have leisure to write a more elementary work than the present one, as well as to compile " Historical Outlines of English Syntax," as a supplement to this " Accidence." To my own shortcomings I am fully alive, as I know from my experience as a teacher how difficult it is in linguistic matters to make one's statements plain and simple as well as accurate ; I have, however, been more anxious to write a useful than a popular book, and for the convenience of English students I have sacrificed the scientific method of treating English adopted by Koch, 1 It is the plain duty of every Englishman who can in any way afford it, to support this Society, and the Chaucer Society. viii PREFACE. to the more practical one followed by Matzner in his " Englische Grammatik." Koch commences with a hypothetical primitive Teutonic speech (Grundsprache), and traces our language chronologically through all its stages up to its present form. In Appendix II. the reader will find an abstract (with some few additions) of Koch's historical scheme of the " Accidence," exhibiting the chief inflexional forms of the English language in its earlier stages. I have added comparative Tables of Adverbs, Preposi- tions, Conjunctions, and Interjections, and can vouch for their correctness only so far as my own reading goes. The classification is Koch's. KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON, December 1871. GRAMMATICAL WORKS CONSULTED. Lectures on the Science of Language. First and Second Series. By Max Mullet. 18611864. Comparative Grammar of the Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, &c. Languages, by Professor F. Bopp. Translated by B. Eastwick, F.R.S. Third Edition. London : 1862. Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-germani- schen Sprachen, von August Schleicher. Weimar : 1866. Deutsche Grammatik, von Jacob Grimm. Gottingen: 1819 1840. A Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic Languages, by James Helfenstein, Ph.D. London: 1870. Families of Speech, by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, M.A., F.R.S. London : 1870. Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh. London : 1861. The Origin and History of the English Language, and of the Early Literature it embodies, by G. P. Marsh. London : 1862. Historische Grammatik der Englische Sprache, von C. Friedrich Koch. 18631869. Englische Grammatik, von Eduard Matzner. Berlin : 1860 1865. x GRAMMATICAL WORKS CONSULTED. Wissenschaftliche Grammatik der Englishe Sprache, von Eduard Fiedler, I Bd. Zerbst : 1850. 2 Bd. von Dr. Carl Sachs Leipzig: 1861. The English Language, by R. G. Latham, M.D. 1855. The Elements of the English Language, by Ernest Adams, Ph.D. 1870. A Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners, by Max Miiller. London : 1870. A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue from the Danish of Erasmus Rask, translated by Benjamin Thorpe. London : 1865. A Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language, by Francis A. March. London : 1870. Affixes in their Origin and Application, by S. S. Haldeman. Revised Edition. Philadelphia : 1871. A Shakespearian Grammar, by E. A. Abbott, M. A. London: 1870. Language, and the Study of Language. By W. D. Whitney. London : 1867. Philological Essays, by the Rev. Richard Garnett. London: 1859. Observations on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Gower's Confessio Amantis, by F. J. Child. Boston. My own schemes of the Grammar of the Old English Southern dialect will be found in J;he " Ayenbite of Inwyt," " Old English Homilies" (First Series), and "An Old English Miscellany;" of the East Midland, in the " Story of Genesis and Exodus," and " Old English Homilies" (Second Series); 1 of the West Midland, in "Early English Alliterative Poems" (all published by the Early English Text Society) ; of the Northern, in Hampole's " Pricke of Conscience " (Philological Society). i In the Press. CONTRACTIONS. Abs. and Achith. = Absalom and Achitophel. Allit. = Alliterative Poems (ed. Morris). Areop. = Milton's Areopagitica (ed. Arber). Ayenbite Ayenbite of Inwyt (ed. Morris). B. and F. = Beaumont and Fletcher. Boeth. = Boethius. C. Tales = Canterbury Tales. Compl. of L. Lyfe = Complaint of a Lover's Lyfe (attributed to Chaucer). Confess. Amant. = Confessio Amantis (Gower). Coriol. = Coriolanus. Cosmog. = Cosmography (Earle). Cymb. = Cymbeline. Dan. = Danish. E. E. Poems = Early English Poems (ed. Furnivall). E. E. Spec. = Specimens of Early English (ed. Morris). F. Q. = Faerie Queene. Gen. and Ex. = Story of Genesis and Exodus (ed. Morris). Ger. = German. Gest. Rom. = Gesta Romanorum (Early English Version). Goth. = Gothic. Gr. = Greek. CONTRA CTIONS. led. = Icelandic. Lat = Latin. La3. = LaSamon's Brut (ed. Madden). Med. Lat. = Mediaeval Latin. MeL = Anatomy of Melancholy (Burton). Mid. H. G. = Middle High German. O. E. = Old English. O. E. Horn. = Old English Homilies (ed. Morris). O. F. = Old French. O. H. Ger. = Old High German. O. N. = Old Norse. Orm. = Ormulum (ed. White). O. Sax. = Old Saxon. P. L. = Paradise Lost. P. of C. = Pricke of Conscience (ed. Morris). P. of P. = Pastime of Pleasure (Hawes). Pilgrimage = Pilgrimage of the Lyf of Manhole (ed. Aldfe Wright). Prov. E. = Provincial English. Robt. of Gl. = Robert of Gloucester. Sansk. = Sanskrit Shep. Cal. Shepherd's Calendar. Spec. E. E. = Specimens of Early English (ed. Morris). Swed. = Swedish. Tr. and Cr. = Troilus and Cressida. Trist = Lay of Sir Tristram (ed. Scott). CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGF FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES I CHAPTER II. GRIMM'S LAW 13 CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 2^ CHAPTER IV. OLD ENGLISH DIALECTi 4 1 CHAPTER V. PERIOrS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 48 CHAPTER VI. PHONOLOGY 57 CONTENTS. ORTHOGRAPHY CHAPTER VII. FACE 62 CHAPTER VIII. ACCENT 74 CHAPTER IX. ETYMOLOGY 79 CHAPTER X. SUBSTANTIVES 82 CHAPTER XL ADJECTIVES 104 CHAPTER XII. PRONOUNS 116 CHAPTER XIII. CHAPTER XIV. 153 193 CHAPTER XV. PREPOSITIONS 203 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. PAGE CONJUNCTIONS 207 CHAPTER XVII. INTERJECTIONS 2CK) CHAPTER XVIII. DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION 211 APPENDICES. APPENDIX 1 251 APPENDIX II 260 APPENDIX III 337 INDEX 357 ERRATA. 95> 79> c l- 7> f Page 128, footnote I, dele from We to beyond, and add, = O.E. anefent on-efn, on-emn even with, against, &c. Page 171, footnote i. The theory of Riickumlaut, or a return to an original sound which has undergone umlaut, though adopted by most German philologists, cannot be defended. Mr. Sweet has, in the Academy, very clearly explained the apparent vowel-change in such weak verbs as told, sold, &c. The Gothic saljan, to sell, represents the primitive form of the verb in which umlaut has not taken place, as it has in O. Eng. sellan (= sclian). In the infinitive mood and present tense the suffix * dropped out after umlaut had taken place ; but in the pre- terite salde ( salide), sold, the i dropped out without causing umlaut, so that the root-vowel was thus preserved. Page 176, line 12, for 283 read 282. Page 228, line 8, an-hungred is not found in the oldest English, but is met with in subsequent periods. Page 229, line 1 1, for many read navy. HISTORICAL OUTLINES OB ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. CHAPTER I. FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 1. WORDS are articulate sounds used to express perception and thought. The aggregate of these articulate sounds, accepted by and current among any community, we call speech or language. 2. The language of the same community often presents local varieties ; to these varieties we give the name of dialects. 3. Grammar treats of the words of which language is composed, and of the laws by which it is governed. 4. The science of Grammar is of two kinds : (a) Descriptive Grammar, which classifies, arranges, and describes words as sepa- rate parts of speech, and notes the changes they undergo under certain conditions. (b) Comparative Grammar, which is based on the study of words, goes beyond the limits of Descriptive Grammar ; that is, beyond the mere statement of facts. It analyses words, accounts for the changes they have undergone, and endeavours to trace them back to their origin. It thus deals with the growth of language. Descriptive Grammar teaches us that the word loveth is a verb, indicative mood, &c. Comparative Grammar informs us, (i) that the radical part of the verb is lov (or luf), denoting desire (cp. Lat. lubeo) ; (2) that the suffix -th is a remnant of a demonstrative pronoun signifying he, that, of the same origin as the -t in lube-t. B 2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 5. Comparative Grammar has shown us that languages may be classified in two ways : (i) According to the peculiarities of their grammatical structure, or the mode of denoting the relation of words to one another ; (2) according to historical relationship. 6. The first mode of classification is called a morpJiological one. It divides languages into, (i) Monosyllabic or Isolating; (2) Agglu- tinative ; (3) Inflectional or Polysyllabic. These terms also represent three periods in the growth of languages . that is to say, that language, as an organism, may pass through three- stages, (i) The monosyllabic period, in which roots are used as words, without any change of form. In this stage there are no prefixes or suffixes, and no formally dis- tinguished parts of speech. The Chinese is the best example of a language in the isolating or monosyllabic stage. "Every word in Chinese is monosyllabic ; and the same word, with- out any change of form, may be used as a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a particle. Thus ta, according to its position in a sentence, may mean great, greatness, to grow, very much, very. " \Ve cannot in Chinese (as in Latin) derive hamferrnm, iron, a new substantive ftrrarius, a man who works in iron, a blacksmith ; ferraria, an iron mine, and again ferrariarius, a man who works in an iron mine ; all this is possible only in an inflected language. " MAX MUIXER. (2) The agglutinative period. In this stage two unaltered roots are joined together to form words ; in these compounds one root becomes subordinate to the other, and so loses its inde- pendence. 1 Cf. man-kind, heir-loom, war-like, which are agglu- tinative compounds. The Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish, the Tamul, &c., are agglutinative languages. The Basque and American languages are agglutinative, with this difference, that the- roots which are joined together have been abbreviated, as in the Basque ilhun, "twilight," from hill, dead + egun, day. In the Mexican language their compound terms are equivalent to phrases ajid sentences, achichillaf achaean, "the place where people Veep becaftse the water is red ; " from alt, " water ;" chichiltic, "red;" tlacatl, "man;" sjad. chorea, "weep." It has been proposed to call these languages polysynthttic or incorporating. It is remarkable that most of these languages show that the people who speak them are deficient in the power of ab- straction. 1 Cp. Hungarian veit at andot ta tck (= wait and will have you, ~ you will have been waited for. I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 3 (3) The inflectional period, in which roots are modified by prefixes or suffixes, which were once independent words. In agglu- tinative languages the union of words may be compared to me- chanical compounds, in inflective languages to chemical compounds. In most living languages we find traces of all these processes, and are thus enabled to see how gradually one stage leads to another. Take, for example, the following : He is like God monosyllabic. He is God-like = agglutinative. He is God-ly inflectional. Here the syllable ly = like, originally a word, has dwindled down to a formative elemeat or suffix. 7. The classification of languages according to historical rela- tionship is a genealogical one. Historical relationship may be shown by comparing the grammar and vocabulary of any two or more languages ; if the system of grammatical inflexions bear a close resemblance to one another, and if there be a general agreement in the employment of those terms that are least likely to have been lost or displaced by borrowed terms (such as pronouns, numerals, words denoting near relationship, &c. ), then it may be safely asserted that such languages are related to one another. Historical relationship, then, rests upon, (i) the similarity of gram- matical structure ; (2) the fundamental identity of roots. 8. Comparative Grammar teaches us that the English language is a member of a group of allied languages, to which the term Teutonic has been given. The Tentones were a German tribe conquered by Marius : hence the terms Teiitonicus and Theotiais were subsequently applied to all German-speaking people. The Germans still call their language Deut-sch}- The origin of the term is found in Old High German diet, people, dtiit-isc, national. In the oldest English theod and theodisc = people (cf. Umbrian Latin tuticus, from tuta, a city). The Teutons were the people, in contradistinction to the Romans and others, whom they called Welsh, or foreign. The name German was probably given to the Teutons by some continental Keltic tribes. By some philologists the word German is said to mean howlers, shriekers (from Keltic gairm-a, to cry out), on account of their warlike shouts. 1 Dutch is merely another form of the same wcid. 15 2 4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 9. The Teutonic dialects may be arranged in three groups or subdivisions : ( I ) The Low German ; (2) the Scandinavian ; (3) the High German. The English language is a Low German dialect, and is closely allied to the dialects still spoken on the northern shores and lowlands of Germany. This relationship is easily accounted for by the emi- gration of the Angles, Saxon, and other Low German tribes from the lowlands of Germany situate between the Rhine and Baltic coasts. T. To the Low German division belong the following languages : (1) Gothic, the oldest and most primitive of the Teutonic dialects, of which any remains are known, was spoken by the Eastern and Western Goths, who occupied the province of Dacia, whence they made incursions into Asia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. The oldest record of this dialect is found in the translation of the Bible by Bishop Ulphiias (born 318, died 388), the greater part of which has perished, though we still possess considerable portions of the Gospels and St. Paul's Epistles, some pieces of the Old Testa- ment, and a small portion of a Commentary. (2) Frisian, (a) Old Frisian as preserved in documents of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ; (b) Modern Fri- sian, still spoken in Friesland, along the coasts and islands of the North Sea between the Weser and the Elbe, and in Holstein and Sleswick. The Frisian is more closely allied to English than the rest of the Low German languages. (3) Dutch, (a) Old Dutch (as seen in documents from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century) ; (6) Modern Dutch, spoken in Holland and Belgium. (4) Flemish, (a) Old Flemish, the language of the Court of Flanders and Brabant in the sixteenth century; (b) Modern 'Flemish, (5) Old Saxon, or the Saxon of the Continent, spoken be- tween the Rhine and Elbe, which had its origin in the districts of Munster, Essen, and Cleves. There is a specimen of this dialect in a poetical version of the Gospels (of the ninth century), entitled the Heljand (O.E. Heiland} the Healer or Saviour. I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. 5 The Old Saxon is very closely related to English, and retains many Teutonic inflexions that have 'disappeared in other Low German dialects. (6) English, (a) Old English ; (6) Modern English ; (f) Provincial English ; (d) Lowland Scotch. II. To the Scandinavian division belong the following tongues : (i) Icelandic; (2) Norwegian; (3) Swedish ; (4) Danish. The Icelandic is the purest and oldest of the Scandinavian dialects. The Old Icelandic, from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, is often called Old Norse, a term that properly applies only to Old Norwegian. Iceland was colonized by the Northmen, who established a Re- public there, and were converted to Christianity A.D. 1000. III. To the High German division belongs Modern German, the literary dialect of Germany, properly the speech of the south- east of Germany, Bavaria, Austria, and some adjacent districts. It is divided into three stages (a) Old High German, comprising a number of dialects (the Thuringian, Franconian, Swabian, Alsacian, Swiss, and Bavarian), spoken in Upper or South Germany from the beginning of the eighth to the middle of the eleventh century. (b) Middle High German, spoken in Upper Germany from the beginning of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century. (c) Modern High German, from the end of the fifteenth cen- tury to the present time. Luther ennobled the dialect he used in his beautiful translation of the Bible, and made the High German the literary language of all German-speaking people. The Low German dialects of the Conti- nent are yielding to its influence, and, in course of time, will be wholly displaced by it. 10. If we compare English and modern German we find them very clearly distinguished from each other by regular phonetic changes : l thus a d in English corresponds to a / in German, as dance and tanz ; day and tag ; deep and tie/; drink and trink. A t in English iigrees with an s or z in German, as is shown by foot and fuss ; 1 See Grimm's Law, p. 13. ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. tin and zinn; to and zu ; tivo and zwei; -water and -wasser. A German d is equivalent to our th, as die and Afoy dein and thine ; bad and &z/>4, &c. Xot only English, but all the remaining members of the Low German family, as well as the Scandinavian dialects, are thus dis- tinguished from High German. II. The Scandinavian dialects differ from the other members of the Teutonic family in the following particulars : (i) The definite article follows its substantive, and coalesces with it. In O. Norse / = ille; * = illa; *#=illud : hence hani-nn, the cock ; giof-in, the gift ; fat -it, the foot. In Swedish and Danish en (mas. fern.) and et (neut.) = the. bord-<#, the table. hjert-a 1 , the heart. . Konung-) Gadhelic Class. (i) Erse or Irish; (2) Gaelic, spoken in the Highlands of Scotland ; (3) Manx (the dialect spoken in the Isle of Man). III. The Italic or Romanic Languages. (a) Old Italian dialects, as the Oscan (of South Italy), the Umbrian (of N. E. Italy), Sabine. (b) The Romance dialects, which have sprung from the Latin, (i) Italian; (2) French; (3) Pro- ven9al ; (4) Spanish ; (5) Portuguese ; (6) Rhaeto-Romanic (or Roumansch), spoken in Southern Switzerland ; (7) Wallachian, spoken in the northern provinces of Tur- key (Wallachia and Moldavia). The Wallachian is divided by the Danube into two dialects, the Northern and the Southern. It owes its origin chiefly to the Roman colonies sent into Dacia by Trajan. IV. The Hellenic Languages. (1) Ancient Greek (comprising the Attic, Ionic, Doric, and ./Eolic dialects). (2) Modern Greek (comprising several dialects). 8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. The Albanian dialect is a representative of the language spoken by the Illyrians, who probably occupied the Greek peninsula before the Hellenic tribes. All that can be positively stated about it is that it belongs to the Indo-European family, and is closely related to Greek. The Albanians inhabit part of the ancient Epirus and Illyrium. They call themselves Skipetars or mountaineers, and the Turks call them Arnauts ( Arbanites). V. The Sclavonic Languages. (a) South-east Sclavonic. (1) Old Bulgarian (or Old Church Slavic) of the eleventh century. (2) Russian ; (a) Russian Proper ; (b) Little Russian or Ruthenian. (3) Illyric, comprising, (i) Servian; (2) Kroatian ; (3) Slovenian (of Carinthia and Styria). (6) Western Branch. (4) Polish. (5) Bohemian. (6) Slovakian. (7) Upper and Lower Serbian (Lusatian dialects). (8) Polabian (on the Elbe). VI. The Lettic Languages. (1) Old Prussian (the original language of N.E. Prussia). (2) Lettish or Livonian (spoken in Kurland and Livonia). (3) Lithuanian (spoken in Eastern Prussia). The Turkish, Hungarian, Basque, Lappish, Finnish, and Esthonian do not belong to the Indo-European family. B. ASIATIC DIVISION. VII. The Indian Languages. (1) Sanskrit (dead). (2) Prakrit (Indian dialects, preserved in Sanskrit dramas). I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. g (3) I, Pali (the sacred language of the Buddhists) ; 2, Cingalese, spoken in the Island of Ceylon. (4) Modem Indian dialects descended from Sanskrit, as Hindi, Hindustani, Bengali, Mahratti. (5) Gypsy dialect. (The Gypsies are of Indian origin. ) Sanskrit is the oldest and most primitive of the existing Indo- European tongues. VIII. The Iranian Languages. (1) Zend (or Zand), the language of the Zoro- astrians, preserved in the Zend-Avesta, or sacred writings of the old Persians, parts of which are at least a thousand years old. (2) The cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes and their successors (of the Achae- menid dynasty), the oldest of them being about five centuries before Christ. (3) Pehlevi or Huzvaresh, the language of the Sassanian dynasty (A.D. 226-651). (4) Parsi or Pazend, spoken in a more eastern locality than the Pehlevi, about the time of the Mohammedan conquest. (5) Modern Persian, which differs but little from the Parsi, arose after the Mohammedan conquest Its first great national work, Shah-Nameh, was written by Firdusi (died 1020). The Armenian, Ossetic (spoken in the Caucasus), Kurdish (spoken by the mountaineers of the border land between Persia, Turkey, and Russia), Afghan (or Pushto), the language of Bokhara, are all clearly related to Sanskrit and Persian, but it has not yet been decided to which group they severally belong. 13. All the Indo-European languages are descended from one common stock ; that is to say, all the Indo-European languages are dialects of an old and primitive tongue \rhich no longer exists. The people who spoke this tongue must have lived together as one great community more than three thousand years ago. Tradition, as well as the evidence of language, points to the north-eastern part of the Iranian table-land, near the Hindu-Rush mountains, as the original abode of this primitive people. 1 'The Aryan people, as they called themselves in opposition to the barbarian, Cust have occupied a region of vhich Bactria may be regarded as the centre. io ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP We must not suppose that they formed one strongly-constituted state, but were probably divided into distinct tribes, united solely by the general bond of race, by similarity of manners, religion, and language. The language of the primitive Indo-Europeans had its local varieties or dialects, which were distinguished by certain euphonic differences ; and these differences, after the Indo-European tribes left their ancient abode and separated, would become more marked, and other changes would take place, so that these dialects would assume the aspect of languages at first sight wholly unconnected. By the aid of Comparative Philology we find that it is possible to classify and arrange fas. phonetic differences of the various Indo- European languages, and to reduce them to certain rules, so that we are* enabled to determine what sound in one language corresponds to that of another. 1 Philological research has found " that the primitive tribe which spoke the mother-tongue of the Indo-European family was not nomadic alone, but had settled habitations, even towns and fortified places, and addicted itself in part to the rearing of cattle, in part to the cultivation of the earth. It possessed our chief domestic animals the horse, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the swine, besides the dog ; the bear and the wolf were foes that ravaged its flocks ; the mouse and fly were already its domestic pests. " The region it inhabited was a varied one, not bordering upon the ocean. The season whose name has been most persistent is the winter. Barley, and perhaps also wheat, was raised for food, and converted into meal. Mead was prepared from honey, as a cheering and inebriating drink. The use of certain metals was known; whether iron was one of these admits of question. The art of weaving was practised ; wool and hemp, and possibly flax, being the materials employed. Of other branches of domestic industry little that is definite can be said ; but those already mentioned imply a variety of others, as co-ordinate or auxiliary to them. The weapons of offence and defence were those whicli are usual among primitive peoples the sword, spear, bow, and shield. Boats were manufac- tured, and moved by o*a*s. Of extended and elaborate political organization no traces are discoverable ; the people was doubtless a congeries of petty tribes, under chiefs and leaders rather than kings, The primitive Aryan must have embraced nearly the whole of the region situated between the Hindu-Kush (Belurtagh), the Oxus, and the Caspian Sea : and perhaps extended a good way into Sogdiana, towards the sources of the Oxus and the Taxartes. (Pictet.) 1 Rask first discovered, and Grimm afterward* worked out, the law which goveins the permutation of consonants ; hence it is always known us Grimm's I.] FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. n and with institutions of a patriarchal cast, among which the reduction to servitude of prisoners taken in war appears not to have been wanting. " The structure and relations of the family are more clearly seen ; names of its members, even to the second and third degrees of con- sanguinity and affinity, were already fixed, and were significant of affectionate regard and trustful interdependence. That woman was looked down upon as a being in capacity and dignity inferior to man we find no indication whatever. "The art of numeration was learned, at least up to a hundred; there is no general Indo-European word for 'thousand.' Some of the stars were noticed and named. The moon was the chief measurer of time. " The religion was polytheistic, a worship of the personified powers of nature. Its rites, whatever they were, were practised without the aid of a priesthood." WHITNEY. 14. Next to the Indo-European the most important family of languages is the Semitic, sometimes called the Syro- Arabian family, of which the chief divisions are as follows : (a) The Northern or Aramaic, comprehending, (i) the Syriac (ancient and modern) ; (2) the Assyrian and JBaby- lonian, () The Central or Canaanitic, including, (i) Hebrew, Phoeni- cian, Samaritan, and Carthaginian or Punic. (c) The Southern or Arabic, comprehending, (i) Arabic and Maltese ; (2) Himyaritic (once spoken in the S.W. of the peninsula of Arabia), and the Amharic and other Abyssinian dialects ; (3) the Ethiopic or Geez (the ancient language of Abyssinia). It has not yet been shown that the Semitic languages, although in- flectional, are historically connected with the Indo-European family. It has not been decided whether the Hamitic family, containing, (i) the ancient Egyptian and Coptic ; (2) Galla; (3) Berber; (4) Hot- tentot, &c., have any historical connection with the Semitic. 1 5. The other languages of the world fall into various groups. A. The Alatyan or Scythian, comprehending, (i) Hun- garian; (2) Turkish; (3) Finnish and Lappish; (4) the Samoyed dialects ; (5) Mongolian dialects ; (6) Tun- gusian dialects (as Manchu). 12 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. i. B. I. The Dravidian or Tamulic (including Tamul, Telegu, Malabar, Canaries). II. The languages of N.E. Asia (including the dialects of the Corea, the Kuriles, Kamchatka, &c. ). III. Japanese, and dialect of Loo- Choo. IV. Malay-Polynesian or Oceanic languages (comprehending the dialects of Malacca, Java, Su- matra, Melanesia, &c. ). V. The Caucasian dialects (Georgian, &c.). C. South African dialects. A, B, and C are agglutinative in their structure, but have no his- torical connection with each other. D. I. Chinese. II. The language of Farther India (the Siamese, Burmese, Annamese, Cambodian, c. ). III. Thibetan. These are monosyllabic or isolating in structure. E. I. Basque. II. The aboriginal languages of South America all polysynthetic in structure. CHAPTER II. GRIMM'S LAW. 16. I. IF the same roots or the same words exist in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Keltic, Slavonic, Lithuanian, Gothic, 1 and Old High German, then, wherever the Sanskrit or Greek has an aspirate the Gothic has the corresponding fiat mute. II. If in Sanskrit, Greek, &c., we find a flat mute, then we find a corresponding sharp mute ki Low German, and a corresponding aspirate in High German. III. If the six first-named languages show a sharp mute, the Gothic shows the corresponding aspirate, and Old High German the corresponding flat mute. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE SOUNDS. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic and Low Germ. Languages. Old High Gennau. Modern High German. bh*(h) f*(b) b P P dh (dh) e f * (d, b) d t t gh (h) X h,(f) g k g b B b P f f d 5 d t z s,z g y g k ch ch P IT P f, b f, v f t T t th d d k K c h* h* h _* Gothic is here taken as the best representative of the Low German and Scan- dinavian dialects, and Old High German of the other division of the Teutonic languages. Not always regular. O _2 rt -A 1 w 2 ^ I ^ j I 1 J t r ' i 3 b 2-/I' i ^ 1 &&^ 2 -S ^ I 0* L C 4 . c C >_ 1 _ ' c c c R d c i : o c -c h rt c ja !- p u a g S - *= C ^ 'c S) So t I 1 c ^2 ^2 ^ ^ .J . . "c 1 I i Jf ,1 i -^3 ^3 O O O C O ; j | i | |) ^ j i o C .5 "i i 1 *c Jl * ! i i i . ar 3 "a rf O ,d 2 J ' _c i i i i J [ c : c " *- S t : 1 -I 1 c; V. <- *- ^ ^ r S) g D j; O. i O s - T 4 . a * 3 c -* a fc S S i c a. 5. S* a ^ , cv. *e ^<3~ -* -^s < > si a *!>- So. i. -e- -e K -t - fc t= - -6- a ^ rt A ** * 1 S 1 .= J "1 ^ _E 'C _ i ' *W v-r v D S M , t. rt I- ^ ~ 7^1 JL|| ' ' "c c S^ 2 1 5 M u *5 c > 5 2 3 r J--J rt j"g i_" ^--S' o - 1 1 i 3 III III c/ f S 5 >- E *j o o . o to E i o*5 JP*jii rt O i) O C ^ rt "H o ,-i, : : ;i Si S : i i i 4 O u c; 3 Ii 1 ! 'j c H-i *" S t p 'S d "o * o B O 5 ft. ^ -'' S j 1 X : t/J ~o " 1 1 1 Jj i i i 1 1 1 5" 2 I- u; 2 ^ *>*^ "3 3 13 'x r2 r 3 d v^ -5 -c -c tfc "S H : : : o H^ : - 2 i i [ c -^ 1 : o M : : _r : tr" ' V . 1 a - C C s : | 1 'I ,1 o= v2 ^ '> il J>5 <5 H2 ^ i : * : : c : 1 "u : rt u P 09 c Q_ "ol < ~, ' c. N -: > = 3 :--s- S ' hltil tl !i ^ "l <( r o" ^ : * 'P o : : J= E. : J: -= : t 3 ui i, I P c j- : S^'fc-C ' \ ] t o-^-^ S S 3 ^ ^ ^ ^5 - *^D 's ; T3 -O -O 'G In 12 i ^ 'S _: H *. ^45 1 dll 1 O .5 3 S . u 1 I-. ^0 >T t B O .T5 o 1 31 1 ^2 j2 1 1 1 1 cS _c 1 c 3 1 i.' 1 uf.: tT 1 *j 1 6 2 1 | | O I ' it (0 -1 * : 2 2 .J -i^" "s" "^ 5" o ^ 4i g .Q 3 3_ ~^T ^^. 2 ii s : 2 i| 0S* . g *2 2 O r 'i? tx c B 9 - ? Go S u . .i O in 3 n 3 ud c i&|. 1" -i* rt rt 1 i i s 1 1 c o 1 a o c )( 1 c 5 o c rS O I V) "C : T3 S : w *? c s tn c i> >- IS "3 a -3 wO '3 j tjO i f 0} V c ll 1 II 1 S oT tn S ^ O O Zl 1 g, M 1 : 1 < XXX : 'c? -l : ^o S'5, | : * 2,"g * S g al Vc% "So -^ rt rt rt , a i9 "o" ^-' i C. G F (4 fr M ^ "cr aj .s II C 9. ~~^ l 3 ^'- _ r; rt to ? " S |||1 , rt O ^ o i- tx> >> -c r^ ^y; fc,C P ^ P O > "^ 'u w ^"c G d d-7 17 " ^ e^= ^OV.^ H , , , , i- t/! &o u; 1? "s g S 5 ^ *K r S ' : c b i i U zz* ^^ ^~ tc "^ * o I ' ^ J-'c' C rt ^ f C "S S ~* -g 5 r 3 8 ~ 1: ti ? <3 C3 ^ = ? '3 'E O a O ": O x rt rt ^ rt Hi c . % : -j; ;} o : ^ O '-v "" 4 i ^ ! : 3 **J *^. a, o c *^ | ~" rt 1 HH -* ^ rt ^ 1 * C '. ** ' *Zj f^ tp ^ c: c- C S ' * = o u 1 '^ O gl 1 U) t "> "? c t? o V-/ C- J j ^ 5 -^ c V. "^ t E C -= ii i = d crt \ * 1 o . 1 4: J; f> - s O 5 I 5 7 ^ r 6 o f S ? tU) -C ^ _: > t J ^ ^ : ^ g rt o ^ X i i 3 i i ^f. i e> J 3 j ^ ^< lif a "x "x 1 ? K < o b A CC a ca z ^ C ^ ^- n O ^ ^ 1 1 I 1 S Ci- -{- * '"*" IT * ^ ,E C3 "rt -= > ^ | ^ 11 i 3 w $ g"" f O ~ "S 1?] ff ' ^ [ = = - 1 : ; o ^, ^ jj -U 1/1 S '5 d _ c y 5 S U rt vi u - +j ij 4-J +J ' *~* u o d "C 1 * 1 ll N N (A If -H :o rt N N i ~r t K E -- i ' ?i j - 0~ ll sen) zcman, zchmen... Ger. ziinmer 1 o a HH S = : 2.^ 'N 3 1 rt . ^ 3 > d 1 l'l! c 3 9 -a ^ s ~T 3 i 3 gl .5 > . ? 1 8 ;-. a ll 32 ' <0 3 ll -if ,= S rt : 3 . . . .3 II : : : s 3 S 2 J 1 !!! _ CA ^ g T3-3 1 1 j J Si u 11 c3 1 T3 a j \ \ : o 9 3 1 3 !' 8 1 t jA O 1 f-jl j 8-3 v ^1 N *o $5 3 XJ 1- (0 ; | K: tc 1 10 5. | 1 -2 S S i B 1 i | s '8 i : | j= _ . JL -2 2 i ll e ^C3 4-* 13 T3 -1 a1 : I 2 _2 j r* ^' r rt ^ tcj a. Ill 8' s o s -5 'o O IS * 1= ^8 'K 7 ^. h x ! t- "*(=< fe -tv fc t: . . j. i s' ^^ *S* "*"* ,j!J rt 1 og O VM Jl w 1 "5 *"* -^ c W -o c 8 *: "^ >^ d J^ c J"^ ^ d* ^ ^ : c ^.^ (S : *> 3 c EC J*^ | d j! I 4= 2J j: 111 < O c J I 1 * o O rt 'C i> *- *J o if o CJ rt D ?! J >1 ^i. '^rS ^ 2 ^ II 1 1 ^ O C "^ S2 >WH w ^ ^3 o O rC "o c w 2 6 5 O *"2 1 'oS "rt : 5(n'53rt'^C> l y r 34)O' j: ->.,!Jaj3 rt O u 1 rt "3 O ^ g ^ " : <0 . | 1 ,-~-c - '.g T3 S^e^s ^0| =3 S D O ffi V o o J. & V rt S*' if i C fc3 l ' Q.O, > ^ ^lo 1 O If 4 i g| "S. S 1 i X * O x o : : PI II 11 c. : , I II , .- c 1 c rt C rt ^ 'o [^ rt 's j t III 1 O a 1 JH -1 : : -0 : ; ; s ; ; ; R.^. : 3 3 *j Mi i 3 a : | ' a 2 O ! "^" rt ^_ ' S ^ S2 1 c i : 3 S o * J o o i i !2 S ^ u 5, o rt * ** s ^ rt 1 S g CO ^ : I* 8 ' ' >. -j [ill I w ^J( H i i **? X * -S > > -s ^| | i 2^ S ^ 1 ^^ O ^ .Si 2 u j i "<" tn c J II ii. ' ' 2 i 1 i j 3 C C .S2 rt ci S 2 C I/I S S fe &1 O O O O a o 1 1 jll t i S 1 1 1 11 d te rt S -j 3 ^J S ^5 rfl tiS-C 1 A ; ; s ; ; : : .5 : : 1 1 | :J.g j | 1 o ui o cr 1 "u .5 c '. '. t- '. . : : Z : c. g : -a | ; 3* : S ^ * ^2-"^ 3 v* 5 *3 5 s i-sl't 1 ^-= i; ^w W ^^< ^ b i. f - s i4 1 "a? 1 rt n ea ^^ * o , ^ riS^ : .2 i "3 > 1 d H O o O '( to 3 O S^ ! | T3 a o '3 - i_! """ * c '3 t C'S:OC . JE O ^ O 3 ^4 ~ -S-6 ^ '5 'S h <3 y (3 >< C7 1 Jd rt CO o" ^' '& 1 rS 3 8 1 j^ ! s t JO t g C 4. T3 00 C "t/3 5 *C a. i 1 1 ^ 1 1 Co o = & A ^0 ^C T v a 5. ? ^ ^ * -. f** t^ M "^~ ^ D 73 S ^^ 1 -S-J E C c c C 24 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 17. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given of this permuta- tion of consonants throughout the Indo-European family of languages, "nevertheless we have no reason to believe it of a nature essentially different from the other mutations of sound l of equally arbitrary appearance, though of less complication and less range, which the history of language everywhere exhibits." WHITNEY. The changes of sounds just noticed have arisen from what Max Miiller terms dialectic growth. Even in the history of our own lan- guage we find traces of similar changes, as vat, in wine-vat, is the old Southern English form for the Northern fat, a vessel. In the dialects of the South of England, we may still hear dirsh = thrush ; drash = thrash. The aspirate dental th has become s in the third person singular of verbs, as heloveth = he loves. But this was once a dialectical peculiarity. 18. There are other changes that must not be confounded with the permutations coming under Grimm's Law : the chief are those that arise from an endeavour to make the work of speaking easier to the speaker, to put a more facile in the stead of a more difficult sound or combination of sounds, and to get rid of what is unnecessary in the words we use. "All articulate sounds are produced by effort, by expenditure oi muscular energy, in the lungs, throat, and mouth. This effort, like every other which man makes, he has an instinctive disposition to seek relief from, to avoid ; we may call it laziness, or we may call it economy it is in fact either the one or the other according to the circumstances of each separate case ; it is laziness when it gives up more than it gains ; economy when it gains more than it abandons. " WHITNEY. These wearing down processes are often called euphonic 2 changes. Max Miiller terms them the results of phonetic decay. Thus, as he remarks, nearly all the changes that have taken place in our own language within the last eight centuries come under this class of changes. (l) Softening of gutturals at end of words, as silly from s&lig, godly from godlic = godlike, barley from b/, mouth for muntA, (5) Insertion of letters, , (cp. number from numerus, and the insertio:: of / after ;;/ in Latin), thunder for thuner, hind for ^z'^ (cp. souti.i for ww, from Lat. sonus ; and cinder, tender, from Lat. 'ir, tener ; Gr. yafj.&p6s for yanp6s ; and Goth, hund-s, Eng. hound, Lat can-is; Gr. avSpts for apps). It must be recollected that certain letter-changes are brought about under the influence of neighbouring sounds, as English cob-web for O.E. cop-web, where the influence of / has changed the/ into a ; orchard = O. E. art-yard = ort-geard : so we find in the sixteenth century goujeer for good year. When two consonants come together the first is often assimilated to the second, or the second to the first, thus d or t + s will become s, '26 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 11. as O.E. god-sib has become gossip. So gospel, grunsel, foster = god- spel,ground-sel,fodster; chaffare = ehapfare ; cup-board 'is pronounced cubboard ; Lat. ad-fero = affero, &c. ; puella putrella, &c. When two dentals come together, the first is sometimes changed into a sibilant, as mot-te moste = most, and wit-te = wiste \\ ist (cp. Lat. ^v/ from O.E. hat-an, to command; misstts for mittus from 7i#ucrf -\ CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 19. WE must bear in mind, (i) that English is a member of the Indo-European family ; (2) that it belongs to the Teutonic group ; (3) that it is essentially a Low German dialect ; (4) that it was brought into Britain by wandering tribes from the Continent ; (5) that we cannot use the terms English or England in connection with the country before the middle of the fifth century. 20. According to the statements of Bede, the Teutonic invaders first came over in A.D. 449, and for about 100 years the invasion may be said to have been going on. In the course of time the original Keltic population were displaced by the invading tribes, who became a great nationality, and called themselves ^Englisc or English. The land they had won they called ^Engla-land (the land of the Angles) or England. Bede makes the Teutonic invaders to consist of three tribes Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons, he tells us, came from what was known in his time as the district of the Old Saxons, the country between the Elbe and the Eider. The Angles came from the Duchy of Sleswick, and there is still a district in the southern part of the duchy, between the Slie and the arm of the Baltic, called the Flensborg Fiorde, which bears the name Angeln. Bede places the Jutes to the north of the Angles, that is, probably the upper part of Sleswick or South Jutland. There were no doubt a considerable proportion of Frisians from Greater and Lesser Friesland. Bede mentions the Frisians (Fresones) among the natives from whom the Angles were de- scended. The settlements are said to have taken place in the following order : I. Jutes, under Hengest and Horsa, who settled in KENT and the Isle of Wight and a part of Hampshire in A.D. 449 or 450. 8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. II. The first division of the Saxons, under Ella (JElle) and Cissa, settled in SUSSEX, in 477. III. The second body of Saxons, under Cerdic and Cynric, in WESSEX, in 495. IV. The -third body of Saxons in ESSEX, in 530. V. First division of the Angles, in the kingdom of EAST ANGLIA (Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and parts of Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire). VI. The second division of the Angles, under Ida, in the kingdom of Beornicia (situated between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth), in 547. Two other kingdoms were subsequently established by the Angles Deira (between Tweed and Humber), and Afercia, 1 comprehending the Midland counties. Teutonic tribes were known in Britain, though they made no settlements before the coming of the Angles. In the fourth century they made attacks upon the eastern and south-eastern coast of this island, from the Wash to the Isle of Wight, which, on that account, was called " Littus Saxonicum" or the Saxon shore or Saxon frontier ; and an officer known as the Count of the Saxon Shore (Comes Littoris Saxonid per Britannias) was appointed for its defence. These Teutonic invaders were known to the Romans and Celts by the name of Saxons ; and this term was afterwards applied by them to the Teutonic settlers of the fifth century, who, however, never appear to have called themselves Saxons, but always ^Englisc or English. 21. The language that was brought into the island by the Low- German settlers was an inflected speech, like its congener, modem German. It was, moreover, an unmixed language, all its words being English, without any admixture of foreign elements. The Old English borrowed but very few words from the original inhabitants. In the oldest English written language, from the ninth to the end of the eleventh century, we find scarcely any traces of Keltic words. In our old writers, from the thirteenth century downwards, and in the modern provincial dialects, we find more frequent traces of words of Keltic origin, and a few still exist in modem English. 22. The English were converted to Christianity about A. D. 596, and during the four following centuries many Latin words were 1 Mercia. march or frontier. In Southern and West Mercia the people were of Saxon origin ; the others came of an Anglian stock. in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 introduced by Roman ecclesiastics, and by English writers who translated Latin works into their own language. This is called the Latin of the Second period. What is usually designated the Latin of the First period consists of words that have had no influence upon the language itself, but are only to be found in names of places, as castra, a camp, in Don-caster, Chester, &c. 23. Towards the end of the eighth century the Northmen of Scandinavia (i.e. of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), who were then without distinction called Danes, ravaged the eastern coast of England, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Ireland. In the ninth century they gained a permanent footing in England, and subdued the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. In the eleventh century Danish sovereigns were established on the English throne for nearly thirty years. Chronologically the facts are as'follows : In 787 three ships of Northmen appeared and made an attack upon the coast of Dorsetshire. In 832 the Danes ravaged Sheppey in Kent. In 833 thirty- five ships came to Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and Egbert was defeated by the Danes. In 835 the Welsh and Danes were defeated by Egbert at Hen- gestesdun. In 855 the Danes wintered in Sheppey. In 866 they wintered in East Anglia. In 868 they got into Mercia as far as Nottingham, and in 870 they invaded East Anglia. In 871 the eastern part of Wessex was invaded by the Danes. In 874 the Danes entered Lincolnshire. In 876 they made settlements in Northumbria. In 878 Alfred concluded a treaty with Guthorm or Guthrum, the Danish chief, and formally ceded to the invaders all Northum- berland and East Anglia, most part of Essex, and the north-east part of Mercia. In 991 the Norwegians invaded the east coast of England and plun- dered Ipswich ; they were defeated at the battle of Maldon. Before i coo the Danes had settled in Cumberland. 1 In 1013 Svein, King of Denmark, conquered England ; and between the years 1013 and 1042 a Danish dynasty ruled over England. 1 For an admirable account of the Danish invasions see Dr. Freeman's Old- English History for Children, pp. 91 239. 30 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 24. The Danish and English are allied tongues, and consequently there is an identity of roots, so that it is by no means an easy matter to detect the Danish words that have found their way into English. In the literature of the tenth and eleventh centuries we find but few traces of Danish, and what little there is occurs in the scanty literature of Northern English, and not in the dominant English of the South. We know, too, that in the north and east of England the Old English inflections were much unsettled by Danish influence, and that in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries nearly all the older inflections of nouns, adjectives, and verbs had disappeared, while in the south of England the old forms were kept up to a much later period, and many of them have not yet died out. There are numerous traces of Scandinavian words (i) in the local nomenclature of England ; (2) in Old English literature of the north of England ; (3) in the north of England provincial dialects. In modern English they are not so numerous. It may be suffi- cient for the present to say that there are a few common words of undoubted Danish origin, as are, till, until, fro, yhnvard, ill, bound (for a place), dusk, bask, &c. 25. The next great event that affected the English language was the Norman invasion in 1066, by which French became the language of the Court, of the nobility, of the clergy, of literature, and of all who wished for or sought advancement in Church or State. 1 An old writer tells us that gentlemen's children were taught French from their cradle ; and in the grammar-schools boys were taught to construe 'their Latin into French. Even uplandish men (or rustics) tried to speak French in order to be thought something of, so low did the English and their language fall into disrepute. In the universities Latin or French was -ordered to be used. French was employed in the courts of law, and the proceedings of Parliament were recorded in French. 1 To the Normans we owe most of the terms pertaining to (i) feudalism and war, J2 1 tne church, (3) the law, and (4) the chase. (1) Aid, anns, armou^ assault, banner, baron, battle, buckler, captain, chivalry, challenge, duke, fealty, fief, gallant, hauberk, homage, lance, mail, march, soldier, tallage, truncheon, tournament, vassal, &c. (2) Altar, Bible, baptism, ceremony, devotion, friar, homily, idolatry, inter- dict, piety, penance, prayer, preach, relic, religion, sermon, scandal, sacrifice, saint, tonsure. (3) Assize, attorney, case, cause, chancellor, court, dower, damage';, estate, fee, felony, fine, judge, jury, mulct, parliament, plaintiff, plea, plead, statute, sue, tax, ward. (4) Bay, brace, chase, couple, copse, course, covert, falcon, forest, leash, leveret, mews, quarry, reynard, rabbit, tiercet, venison. in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31 The great mass of the people, however, clung to their mother- tongue, and from time to time there arose men who thought it a meritorious work to write in English, for the benefit of the " unlered and lewed," who knew nothing of French. It must be recollected that the Norman invaders did not carry on an exterminating war against the natives as the Saxons did against the Keltic inhabitants, nor were they superior in numbers to the English ; and therefore, as might be expected, there came a time when the two races the conquering and the conquered coalesced and became one people, and the language of the majority prevailed. \Yhile this was taking place French became familiar to the English people, and very many words found their way first in the spoken and then in the written language. But after this coalescence of the two races Norman-French became of less and less importance, and at last ceased to be spoken. In 1349 boys ceased to learn their Latin through the medium of French, and in 1362 (the 36th year of Edward III.) it was directed by Act of Parliament that all pleadings in the law courts should henceforth be conducted in English, because, as is stated in the preamble to the Act, French was become much unknown in the realm. Norman- French had suffered too by being transported to English soil, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had become a mere provincial dialect, in fact a corrupt sort of French which would no longer pass current as the " French of Paris." These changes were brought about by political circumstances, such as the loss of Normandy in King John s reign, and the French wars of Edward III. (1339), which produced a strong anti-Gallican feeling in the minds of both Anglo-Normans and English. 26. We have seen that Norman-French is sprung from the Latin language brought into Gaul by the Romans. It has, how- ever, preserved (i) some few Keltic words borrowed from the old Gauls; 1 (2) many Teutonic terms introduced by the Franks, who in the fifth century conquered the country, and imposed their name upon the country and language ; 2 (3) a few Scandinavian words brought into the language by the Northmen who settled in Nor- mandy in the tenth century. But the Norman-French was essentially a Latin tongue, and it added to English another Latin element, which is usually called the Latin of the third period. 27. From the revival of learning in the beginning of the sixteenth century up to the present time we have introduced a large number 1 As vassal, varlet, &c. 8 Marshal, seneschal, guile, &c. ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. of words from Latin. These have been called the Latin of the fourth period. 28. Greek words have also found their way into the language, but have been borrowed more sparingly than Latin. The Latin element, then, comes to us either indirectly or directly. That introduced by the Norman-French comes indirectly, and has in very many instances undergone great change in spelling. Latin words of the fourth period are borrowed direct from the Latin, and have not suffered much alteration. A few examples will make this clear : Latin. balsamum captivus quietus factum factio fragilis lectio poenitentia securus tractus Compare, too, ancestor and antecessor ; sampler and exemplar ; benison and benediction; chalice and calyx ; conceit and conception ; constraint and construction; defeat and defect; forge and fabric ; malison and malediction; mayor and major ; nourishment and nutri- ment ; poor and pauper ; orison (prayer) and oration ; proctor and procurator ; purveyance and providence ; ray and radius ; respite and respect; sir and senior ; fur/ace and. superficies, treason and tradition. Loyal and legal ; privy and private ; royal and regal; strait and strict. Aggriezt and aggravate; couch and collocate ; construe and con- struct; esteem and estimate; paint and depict; purvey and provide ; rule and regulate. A few words from, the Greek have suffered similar change, as frenzy, blame (cp. blaspheme}, fantom (cp. fantasm), story (cp. history). 29. Our language has naturalized miscellaneous words from various sources besides those already mentioned. (1) Hebrew. Abbot, amen, cabal, cherub, jubilee, pharisaical, Sabbath, seraph, Shibboleth. (2) Arabic. Admiral, alchemy, alkali, alcohol, alcove, alembic, almanac, amulet, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, assassin, atlas, Latin introduced by Norman-French. Latin borrowed directly from the Latin. balm balsam caitiff captive coy ?uiet feat act fashion faction frail fragile lesson lection penance penitence sure secure trait tract in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33 azure, bazaar, caliph, chemistry, cotton, cipher, dragoman, Elixir, felucca, gazelle, giraffe, popinjay, shrub, syrup, sofa, sherbet, talisman, tariff, tamarind, zenith, zero. Arabia exercised powerful influence upon European culture in the Middle Ages. Many words in the above list, as admiral, artichoke, assassin, popinjay, &c., have come to us through one of the Romance dialects. (3) Persian. Caravan, chess, dervish, emerald, indigo, lac, lilac, orange, pasha, sash, shawl, turban, taffety. (4) Hindu. Calico, chintz, dimity, jungle, boot, muslin, nabob, pagoda, palanquin, paunch, pundit, rajah, rice, rupee, rum, sugar, toddy. (5) Malay. (Run) a-muck, bantam, gamboge, orang outang, rattan, sago, verandah ; tattoo and taboo (Polynesian) ; ging- ham (Java). (6) Chinese. Caddy, nankeen, satin, tea, mandarin. (7) Turkish. Caftan, chouse, divan, fakir, janissary, odalisk, saloop, scimitar. (8) American. Canoe, cocoa, hammock, maize, potato, skunk, squaw, tobacco, tomahawk, wigwam, yam. (9) Italian. Balustrade, bandit, brave, brst, canto, carnival, char- latan, domino, ditto, dilettante, folio, gazette, grotto, harle- quin, motto, portico, scaramouch, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, umbrella, vista, volcano, &c. (10) Spanish. Alligator, armada, cargo, cirjar, desperado, don, embargo, flotilla, gala, mosquito, punctilio, tornado, &c. 1 II ) Portuguese. Caste,commodore, fetishism.palaver, porcelain.&c. (12) French. Aide-de-camp, accoucheur, accouchement, attache, au fait, belle, bivouac, belles-lettres, billet-doux, badinage, blase, bon mot, bouquet, brochure, bonhomie, blonde, brusque, busk, coif, coup, debut, debris, dejeuner, depot, eclat, elite, ensemble, ennui, etiquette, entremets, facade, foible, fricassee, gout, interne, omelet, naive, naivete, penchant, nonchalance, outre, passe, persiflage, personnel, precis, pres- tige, programme, protege, rapport, redaction, renaissance, recherche, seance, soiree, trousseau. (13) Dutch. Block, boom, boor, cruise, loiter, ogle, ravel, ruffle, scamper, schooner, sloop, stiver, yacht, &c. (14) German. Landgrave, landgravine, loafer, waltz, cobalt, nickel, quartz, felspar, zinc. D 34 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 30. Taking the actual number of words from a good English dictionary, the sum total will be over 100,000. Words of classical origin are calculated to be about twice as numerous as pure English words ; hence some writers, who have only considered the consti- tuent parts of our vocabulary, have come to the conclusion that English is not only a mixed or composite language, but also a Romance language. They have, however, overlooked the fact that the grammar is not mixed or borrowed, but is altogether English. We must recollect that in ordinary conversation our vocabulary is limited, and that we do not employ more than from three to five thousand words, while our best writers make use of about twice that number. Now it is possible to carry on conversation, and write numerous sentences, without employing any borrowed terms ; but if we en- deavour to speak or write without making use of the native element (grammar or vocabulary), we shall find that such a thing is impos- sible. In our talk, in the works of our greatest writers, the English element greatly preponderates. 3 1. It will be interesting as well as useful to be able to distinguish the English or Ixnv German elements from the Romance terms. Pure English are I. I. Demonstrative adjectives (a, the, this) ; pronouns (personal, relative, demonstrative, ) Of Adjectives, as -ful, -ly, -en, -ish, -some, -ward, (c) Of Verbs, as -en. 2. Numerous prefixes, as a, al, be, for, ful, on, over, out, under. IV. Most monosyllabic words. in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35 S . The names of the elements and their changes, of the seasons, the heavenly bodies, the divisions of time, the features of natural scenery, the organs of the body, the modes of bodily actions and posture, the commonest animals, the words used in earliest child- hood, the ordinary terms of traffic, the constituent words in proverbs, the designation of kindred, the simpler emotions of the mind, terms of pleasantry, satire, contempt, indignation, invective, and anger, are for the most part un borrowed. l Of Romance Origin. Firmament, meteor, planet, comet, air, atmosphere, sea- son, autumn, hour, minute. Mountain, valley, river, rivulet, torrent, cascade, fountain, un- dulation. Of English Origin. I. Heaven, sky, welkin, sun, moon, star, thunder, lightning, fire, weather, wind, storm, blast, cold, frost, heat, warmth, cloud, dew, hail, snow, ice, rime, rain, hoarfrost, sleet, time, tide, year, month, day, night, light, darkness, twi- light, dawn, morning, even- ing, noon, afternoon, winter, spring, summer, harvest. II. World, earth, land, hill, dale, ground, bottom, height, water, sea, stream, flood, ebb, burn, well, spring, wave, waterfall, island. III. Mould, sand, loam, clay, Brass, mercury, names of precious stone, gold, silver, lead, cop- stones. per, tin, iron, quicksilver. IV. Field, heath, wood, thicket, Forest, poplar, pine, fruit, grove, tree, alder, ash, beech, cherry, apricot, juice, grape, birch, elm, fir, oak, lime, wil- low, yew, apple, pear, plum, pea, berry, crop, corn, wheat, rye, lily, oats, barley, acorn, sloe, bram- ble, nut, flax, grass, weed, leek, wort, moss, reed, ivy, clover, flax, bean, daisy, fox- glove, honeysuckle, bloom, blossom, root, stem, stalk, leaf, twig, sprig, spray, rod, bow, sprout, rind, bark, haulm, hay, straw, ear, cluster, seed, chaff. grain, onion, carrot, cabbage, Pea, flower, pansy, violet, tulip, trunk, branch, &c. 1 Rogers in Edinburgh Reviruu, April 1859. n 2 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. Of English Origin. V. Hare, roe, hart, deer, fox, wolf, boar, marten, cat, rat, mouse, dog, hound, hitch, ape, ass, horse, mare, nag, cow, ox, bull, calf, neat, sheep, buck, ram, swine, sow, far- row, goat, mole. VI. Bird, fowl, hawk, raven, rook, crow, stork, bittern, crane, glede, swan, owl, lap- wing, starling, lark, nightin- gale, throstle, swallow, dove, finch, sparrow, snipe, wren, goose, duck, hen, gander, drake. VII. Fish, whale, shark, eel, herring, lobster, otter, cockle. VIII. Worm, adder, snake, bee, wasp, fly, midge, hornet, gnat, drone, humble-bee, beetle, chafer, spider, grasshopper, louse, flea, moth, butterfly, ant, maggot, frog, toad, tad- pole. IX. Man, woman, body, flesh, bone, soul, ghost, mind, blood, gore, sweat, limb, head, brain, skull, eye, brow, ear, mouth, li^,, nose, chin, cheek, fore- head, tongue, tooth, neck, throat, shoulder, ar'ni, elbow, hand, foot, fist, finger, toe, thumb, nail, wrist, ankle, hough, sole, shank, shin, leg, knee, hip, thigh, side, rib, back, wornb, belly, navel, breast, bosom, barm, lap, liver, maw, sinew, skin, fell, hair, lock, beard, whiskers. Of Romance Or Animal, beast, squirrel, lion, tiger, mule, elephant, c. Eagle, falcon, heron, ostrich, vulture, mavis, cock, pigeon. Salmon, sturgeon, lamprey, trout. Serpent, lizard, alligator. Corpse, spirit, perspiration, countenance, stature, figure, palate, stomach, moustache, palm, vein, artery, intestines, nerves. in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37 Of English Origin. X. Horn, neb, snout, beak, tail, mane, udder, claw, hoof, comb, fleece, wool, feather, bristle, down, wing, muscle. XI. House, yard, hall, church, room, wall, wainscot, beam, gable, floor, roof, staple, door, gate, stair, threshold, window, shelf, hearth, fireside, stove, oven, stool, bench, bed, stall, bin, crib, loft, kitchen, tub, can, mug, loom, cup, vat, ewer, kettle, trough, ton, dish, board, spoon, knife, cloth, knocker, bell, handle, watch, clock, looking-glass, hardware, tile. XII. Plough, share, furrow, rake, harrow, sickle, scythe, sheaf, barn, flail, waggon, wain, cart, wheel, spoke, nave, yoke. XIIL Weeds, cloth, shirt, skirt, smock, sack, sleeve, coat, belt, girdle, band, clasp, hose, breeches, drawers, shoe, glove, hood, hat, stockings, ring, pin, needle, weapon, sword, hilt, blade, sheath, axe, spear, dart, shaft, arrow, bow, shield.helm, saddle, bridle, stirrup, halter. XIV. Meat, food, fodder, meal, dough, bread, loaf, crumb, cake, milk, honey, tallow, flesh, ham, drink, wine, beer, ale, brandy. XV. Ship, keel, boat, wherry, hulk, fleet, float, raft, stern, stem, board, deck, helm, rud- der, oar, sail, mast. Of Romance Origin. Palace,temple,cha pel, tabernacle, tent, chamber, cabinet, parlour, closet, chimney, ceiling, front, battlement, pinnacle, tower, lattice, table, chair, stable, garret, cellar, furniture, uten- sils, goblet, chalice, cauldron, fork, nap (-kin), plate, carpet, tapestry, mirror, curtain, cut- lery. Coulter. Garment, lace, buckle, pocket, trousers, dress, robe, costume, pall, boot, cap, bonnet, veil, button, target, gauntlet, mail, harness, arms. Victuals, provender, flour, lard, grcojc, butter, cheese, beef, veal, pork, mutten, roast, boiled, broiled, fry, bacon, toast, sausage, pie, soup, spirits. Vessel, galley, prow. ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Of English Origin. XVI. Father, mother, sister, brother,son, daughter.husband, wife, bride, godfather, step- mother. XVII. Trade,business, chapman, bookseller, fishmonger, &c. ; pedlar, hosier, shoemaker, &c. ; outfitter, weaver ;baker, cooper, cartwright, fiddler, thatcher, seamstress, smith, goldsmith, blacksmith,fuller,tanner,sailor, miller, cook, skinner, glover, fisherman, sawyer, groom, workman, player, wright. XVIII. King, queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, alderman, sheriff, beadle, steward. XIX. Kingdom, shire, folk, hun- dred, riding, wardmote, hust- ings. XX. White, yellow, red, black, blue, brown, grey, green. XXI. Fiddle, harp, drum. Of Romance Origin. Family, grand (-father), uncle, aunt, ancestor, spouse, con- sort, parent, tutor, pupil, cousin, relation, papa, mamma, niece, nephew, spouse. Traffick, commerce, industry, mechanic, merchant, prin- cipal, partner, clerk, appren- tice, potter, draper, actor, laundress, chandler, mariner, barber, vintner, mason, cutler, poulterer, painter, plumber, plasterer, carpenter, mercer, hostler, banker, servant, jour- ney(man), labourer. Title, dignity, duke, marquis, viscount, baron, baronet, count, squire, master (mister), chancellor, secretary, treasurer, councillor, chamberlain, peer, ambassador, captain, major, colonel, lieutenant, general, ensign, cornet, sergeant, of- ficer, herald, mayor, bailiff, engineer, professor, &c. Court, state, administration, con- stitution, people, suite, treaty, unioni cabinet, minister, suc- cessor, heir, sovereign, re- nunciation, abdication, do- minion, reign, government, council, royal, loyal, emperor, audience, state, parliament, commons, chambers, signor, party, deputy, member, peace, war, inhabitant, subject, navy, army, treasurer. Colour, purple, scarlet, vermi- lion, violet, orange, sable, &c. Lyre, bass, flute, lute, organ, pipe, violin, &c. in.] HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39 XXII. All words relating to art, except singing and drawing, are of Romance origin. XXIII. Familiar actions, feelings, qualities, are for the most part unborrowed. Of English Origin. Of Romance Origin. Talk, answer, behave, bluster, Converse, respond, reply, impel, gather, grasp, grapple, hear, prevent, direct, ascend, tra- hark, listen, hinder, walk, verse, &c. limp, run, leap, &c. &c. XXIV. The names of special action, qualities, &c., are mostly pure English ; general terms are Latin, as Warmth, flurry, mildness, heat, Impression, sensation, emotion, ' wrath, &c. disposition, temper, passion, &c. Even, smooth, crooked, high, Equal, level, curved, prominent, brittle, narrow, &c. fragile, &c. 32. The Romance element has provided us with a large number of synonymous terms by which our language is greatly enriched, as benediction and blessing commence ,, begin branch , bough flour member gain desire purchase gentle terror sentiment labour flower amiable cordial meal limb win wish buy mild dread feeling work bloom friendly hearty 33. Sometimes we find English and Romance elements com- pounded. These are termed Hybrids. I. Pure English words -with Romance suffixes : Ance. Hindr-#w) It kept up the genitive of feminine nouns in e, 1 while the Northern dialect employed only the masculine suffix j-, as in modern English. (f) Genitive plurals in -ene 2 are very common, but do not occur at all in the Northern dialect. (d) Adjectives and demonstrative pronouns retained many of the older inflections, and the definite article was in- flected. Many pronominal forms were employed in the South that never existed in the North, as Aa (a) = he ; is = them ; is = her. (e) Where the older language had infinitives ending in -an and -ian, the Southern dialect had -en or -e and -u: 3 The Northern dialect had scarcely a trace of this inflection. (_/ ) Active participles ended in -indt (ynde) ; in the North in -ande (and).* (g) Passive participles retained the old prefix ge (softened down to i or_j/ 5 ) ; in the North it was never used. (h) It had many verbal inflections that were unknown to the Northern dialect, as -st (present and past tenses), -en (plural past indicative), -e (second person plural past indicative of strong verbs). (1) The Northern dialect had many plural forms of nouns that were wholly unknown to the Northern dialect, as Brether = brethren, childer children, ky cows (kine), fund = hands. (2) That was used as a demonstrative as at present, without reference to gender. In the Southern dialect thai was often the neuter of the definite article. (3) Same (as the same, this same) was used instead of the Southern thilke, modern thuck, thick, or t/iucky. (4) Thir, (her (the plural of the Scandinavian article), the these, was often used. (5) The pronominal forms were very different. Thus instead of the Southern heo (hi, hit) = she, this dialect used sco, scho, the older form of our she. It rejected the old plural pronouns of the third person, and substi- 1 Soiilefode = soul's food ; senne nede sin's need. 2 apostlene fet apostles' feet : Gywene will Jews' will. 3 Lervie (= hifian}, to love ; hatie (= hatian) to hate ; tellen, telle = to tell. 4 singinde, N. singand = singing. 5 y-broke = ybroken = broken ; i-farc = ifaren = gone. ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. tuted the plural article, as thai, thdir, thaim (thatu), instead of hi (heo, hit), heore (here), heom (hem) ; ures, yhoures, thairs, quite common then as now, were un- known in the South. 6. At = to was used as a sign of the infinitive mood; sal and sttld = schal and sclnild. 7. The Northern dialect had numerous Scandinavian forms, as hethen, hence = Southern henne thethen, thence = thenne ivhetheti, whence whennes sum fro, til by mtnne plogh iiefe (neve) slerne toss low werre slik gar &c. &c. fram from to tun = town lesse = less su/3 plough fust fist sterre star bere = barley ley = flame wyrse = worse swich such do. &c. 38. The East Midland dialect had one peculiarity that has not been found in the other dialects, namely, the coalescence of pronouns with verbs, and even with pronouns, as caldes calde + es called them iedes = dede + e s = put them hes = he + es = he + them get = ge + it = she + it mes = me + es = one(Fr. on) + them. The West Midland dialect had its peculiarities, as ho she ; hit = its ; shyn = shuln (plural). 39. We must bear in mind that the Midland dialect was the speech that was most widely spread, and, as we might expect, would be the one that would gradually take the lead in becoming the standard language. There were, as we have seen, many varieties of the Midland dialect, but by far the most important of these was the East Midland. As early as the beginning of the thirteenth iv.] OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS. 47 century it began to be cultivated as a literary dialect, and had then thrown off most of the older inflections, so as to become, in respect of inflectional forms and syntactical structure, as simple as our own. In this dialect Wicliffe, Gower, and Chaucer wrote, as well as the older and well-known authors, Orm and Robert of Brunne. It was, however, Chaucer's influence that raised this dialect to the position of the standard language. In Chaucer's time this dialect was the language of the metropolis, and had probably found its way south of the Thames into Kent and Surrey. At a later period the Southern dialect had so far retreated before it as to become Western rather than Southern; in fact, the latter designation was applied to the language which had become the standard one. George Puttenham, writing in 1589, speaks of three dialects the Northern, Western, and Southern. The Northern was that spoken north of the Trent ; the Southern was that south of the Trent, which was also the language of the court, of the metropolis, and of the surrounding shires ; the Western, as now, was confined to the counties of Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, Wiltshire, &C. 1 1 " Our maker (poet) therefore at these dayes shall not follow Piers Plowman, nor Gower, nor Lydgate, nor yet Chaucer, for their language is now out of use with us : neither shall he take the termes of Northern-men, such as they use in dayly talke, whether they be noble men, or gentlemen, or of their best clarkes, all is a matter ; nor in effect any speach used beyond the river of Trent, though no man can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet it is not so courtly nor so current as our Southerns English is, no more is the far Westerne man's speach : ye shall therefore take the usual speach of the Court, and that of London and the shires lying about London within Ix myles, and not much above. I say not this but that in every shyre of England there be gentlemen and others that speake but specially write as good Southerne as we of Middlesex or Surrey do, but not the common people of every shire, to whom the gentlemen and also their learned clarkes do Cor the most part condescend, but herein we are already ruled by th' English dictionaries and other bookes written by learned men." CHAPTER V. PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 40. ALL living languages, in being handed down from one genera- tion to another, undergo changes and modifications. These go on so gradually as to be almost imperceptible, and it is only by looking back to past periods that we become sensible that the language has changed. A language that possesses a literature is enabled to register the changes that are taking place. Now the English language possesses a most copious literature, which goes as far back as the end of the eighth century, so that it is possible to mark out with some distinctness different periods in the growth or history of our language. L The English of the First Period. (A.D. 450 1 100.) (a) The grammar of this period is synthetic or inflectional, while that of modern English is analytical* (b) The vocabulary contains no foreign elements. (f) The chief grammatical differences between the oldest English and the English of the present day are these : (1) Grammatical Gender. As in Latin and Greek, gender is marked by the termination of the nominative, and alst> by other case endings. Substantives and adjectives have three genders masculine, feminine, and neuter. (2) Declensions vf Substantives. There were various declen- sions, and at least five cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and ablative or instrumental! dis- tinguished by various endings. (3) The Definite Article was inflected, and was also used ooth ar- a demonstrative and a relative pronoun. (4) Pronouns had a dual number. 1 Cp. O.E. drituan with " to drink." CH. v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 49 (5) The infinitive of Verbs ended in -an, the dative infinitive in -anne (-enne). (6) Only the dative infinitive was preceded by the preposition to. (7) The present participle ended in -ende. (8) The passive participle was preceded by the prefix ge-. (9) Active and passive participles were declined like adjectives. (10) In the present tense plural indicative the endings were, (i) -ath ; (2) -ath; (3) -ath. (11) In the present pi. subjunctive they were -on, -on, -on. 1 (12) In the preterite tense plural indicative the endings were -on (sometimes -an). (13) The second person singular in the preterite tense of weak verbs ended in -sf, as lufode-st = thou loved-est ; the corresponding suffix of strong verbs was -e, as at-e, thou atest or didst eat. slep-e, thou slept-est. (14) The future tense was supplied by the present, and shall and will were not usually Iznse auxiliaries. (15) Prepositions governed various cases. II. The English of the Second Period. (A.D. noo to about 1250.) 41. Before the Norman Conquest the English language showed a tendency to substitute an analytical for a synthetical structure, and probably, had there been no Norman invasion, English would have arrived at the same simplification of its grammar as nearly ever)' other nation of the Low German stock has done. The Danish invasion had already in some parts of the country produced this result ; but the Norman invasion caused these changes, more or less inherent in all languages, to take place more rapidly and more The first change which took place affected the orthography ; and this is to be traced in documents written about the beginning of the twelfth century, and constitutes the only important modification of the older language. This change consisted in a general weakening of the terminations of words. i. The older vowel endings, a, o, u, were reduced to e. 1 -en is an earlier form of this suffix. E 50 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. This change affected the oblique cases of nouns and adjectives as well as the nominative, so that the termination an became en. 1 ra, ru became re. as es. ena ene. ath eth. on en. uni en. 1 od, ode ed, ede. ii. C or k is often softened to ch, and g to y or w. To make these changes clearer, we give (i) A portion of^Elfric's homily, " De Initio Creature," in the English of the first period ; (2) the same in the English of the beginning of the twelfth century ; and (3 and 4) the same a few years later. 2 1. An anginn is ealra \>\nga, }>et is God ^Elmightig. 2. An anginn is ealra thingen, paet is God Almightig. 3. An angin is alr# eingan )>e he waes sefre. 3. He is ordfrum/z and ende : he is ordfrum^ for )>i oe he wres aefre. 4. [He is] hordfruma and rende : he is ord for he wes efre. 5. He is beginning and end : he is beginning, for-that that he was ever. 1. He is ende buten aelcere geendunge, for San \>& he biS asfre unge-endod. 2. He is senda; abutm selcere gesendunge, for )>an J>e he byO oefre unge-aendod. J. He is ende buton sclcre endunge, for tan Se he biS sefre un,3e-end6d. 4. He is sende buton aelcere 5iendunoe 5. He is end without any ending, for-that that he is ever nnended. 1. He is ealra cyningfl cyning, and ealra hlafordrt hlaford. 2. He is ealra king<"^ kinge, and ealra hlaford^ hlaford. 1 sometimes disappears. 2 Examples 3 and 4 were probably written in different carts of England before 1150. v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 51 3. He is alnz kyng on J>yss^reawr beoS on \>v;&ere weorlde to hermew 4. Twelve vices are there in this world for harm 1. "Eallttm mannum gif hi moton ricsiaw and hi alecgad" 2. Ealkw manni and heo alecgf 3. Alle monneu o'f hi mote rixiaw and hi alleggad" 4. To all men, if they might hold sway, and they put down 1. Rihtwisnysse and J>one ^leafaw amymzdf and mamrj'wx gebringad" 2. Rihtwisnysse and J>one ^leafi? amerred" and mancynn gebringf 3. Rihtwisnt'j^ and \>ene /leafczw amerrad'and moncuti bring^cf 4. Righteousness and (the) belief mar, and mankind bring 1. Gif hi mot0 to helle. 2. Gyf heo mot^ to helle. 3. 5if hi motaw to helle. 4. If they might to hell From 1150 to 1200 numerous grammatical changes took place, the most important of which were I. The indefinite article a (a) is developed out of the numeral. It is frequently inflected. 2 52 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 2. The definite article becomes ]>e, \eo, ]>e, (\>at), instead of se, seo, \(Bt.^ It frequently drops the older inflections, especially in the feminine. We find )>e often used as a plural instead of ]>a or ]>o. 3. Nominative plural of nouns end in -en (ore) instead of a or u, thus conforming to plurals of the n declension. 4. Plurals in -es sometimes take the place of those in -en (-an), the genitive plural ends in -ene or -e, and occasionally in -es. 5. The dative plural (originally -um) becomes e and en. 6. Some confusion is seen in the gender of nouns. 7. Adjectives show a tendency to drop certain case-endings : (1) The genitive singular masculine of the indefinite declension. (2) The genitive and dative feminine of the indefinite declension. (3) The plural -en of the definite declension frequently becomes e. 8. The dual forms are still in use, but less frequently employed. The dative him, hem, are used instead of the accusative. 9. New pronominal forms come into use, as ^a = he, she, they; /J=her; ir = them; me=one. 16. The n in min, thin, are often dropped before consonants, but retained in the plural and oblique cases. 1 1 . The infinitive of verbs frequently drops the final n, as smelle=smellen, to smell ; herieherien, to praise. To is sometimes used before infinitives. 12. The gerundial or dative infinitive ends often in -en or -e instead of -enne (-anne). 13. The n of the passive participle is often dropped, as icume icumen = come. 14. The present participle ends in -inde, and is frequently used instead of the gerundial infinitive, as to swiminde=\.o swimene = to swim. 15. Shall and will began to be used as tense auxiliaries of the future. i Traces of tt and si are found in the Kentish dialect of the thirteenth century. v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53 The above remarks apply chiefly to the Southern dialect. In the other dialects of this period (East and West Midland) we find even a greater simplification of the grammar. Thus to take the Ormulum (East Midland) we find the following important changes : (a) The definite article is used as at present, and that is em- ployed as a demonstrative irrespective of gender. (b) Gender of substantives is almost the same as in modern English. (c) -es is used as the ordinary sign of the plural. (d) -es, singular and plural, has become the ordinary suffix of the genitive case. (o (the nominative being used with all cases of nouns). (2) Nouns exhibit much confusion in gender words that were once masculine or feminine becoming neuter. (3) Plurals in -en and -es often used indiscriminately. (4) The genitive -es becomes more general, and begins to take the place (i) of the older -en and -e (in old masculine and neuter nouns) ; and (2) of -e in feminine nouns. (5) The dative singular of pronouns shows a tendency to drop off; mi-self and //h'-self often used instead of me-self and the- self}- (6) Dual forms of the personal pronouns dropped out of use shortly before 1300. (7) A final e used, (i) for the sign of plural of adjectives ; and (2) for distinguishing between the definite and indefinite declensions. (8) The gerundial infinitive terminates in -en and -e. (9) The ordinary infinitive takes to before it. f 10) Some few strong verbs become weak. Present participles in -inge begin to appear about 1300. French words become now more common, especially towards the end of this period. In ten pages of Robert of Gloucester, Marsh has calculated that four per cent, of the vocabulary is Norman-French. IV. The English of the Fourth Period. (A.D. 1350 1460.) 43. In this period the Midland dialect has become the prevailing one. Northern and Southern words still retain their own pecu- liarities. i We sometimes find miself as well as meself in La3amoo. v.] PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55 The following are the chief points to be noted : 1. The plural article, tho = the, those, is still often used. 2. The -es in plural and genitive case of substantives is mostly a separate syllable. 3. The pronouns are : / for the older Ic (Ich sometimes occurs). sche for the older heo. him, them, -whom, used as datives and accusatives. cures, yaures, heres, in common use for oure, youre, here. thei (they) in general use instead of hi (heo). here = their. hem = them. 4. The plurals of verbs in the present and past indicative end -en or -e. The imperative plural ends in -eth. est often used as the inflection of the second person singular preterite of strong and weak verbs. The infinitive mood ends in -en or -e ; but the inflection is often lost towards the end of the fourteenth century. The present participle ends usually in -ing (inge). The passive participle of strong verbs ends in -en or -e. The termination -e is an important one. 1. It represents an older vowel ending, as nam-e = nam-a, sun-e = sun-u; or the termination -an, -en, as withute -with-utan. 2. It represents various inflections, and is used (a) As a mark of the plural or definite' adjective (adjectival e), as smale fowles ; the gretl see. (b) As a mark of adverbs, as softe softly. (Ad- verbial e. ) (c) As a mark of the infinitive mood, past tense of weak verbs and imperative rnood. ( Verbal e.) Him thoughts that his herte loolde breke. (Chaucer.) Towards the end of this period the use of the final e becomes irregular and uncertain, and the Northern forms of the pronouns, their, theirs, them, come into use in the other dialects. 56 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE [CHAP. v. V. The English of the Fifth Period. (A.D. 146010 present time.) 44. There are really two subdivisions of this period (1) 1460 to 1520. (2) 1520 to present time. From 1460 to 1520 there is a general dearth of great literary- works, but there were two events in this period that greatly affected ;he language, especially its vocabulary (1) The introduction of printing into England by Caxton. (2) The diffusion of classical literature. For some peculiarities of Elizabethan English see Abbott's " Shakespearian Grammar." CHAPTER VI. PHONOLOGY. Letters. 45. LETTERS are conventional signs employed to represent sounds. The collection of letters is called the Alphabet ; from Alpha and Beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The alphabet has grown out of the old pictorial mode of writing. The earliest written signs denoted concrete objects ; they were pic- torial representations of objects, like the old Egyptian hieroglyphics. Then single sounds were afterwards indicated by parts of these pictures. The alphabet which has given rise to that now in use among nearly all the Indo-European nations, was originally syllabic, 1 in which the consonants were regarded as the substantial part of the syllable, the vowels being looked upon as altogether subordinate and of inferior value. Consequently the consonants only were written, or written in full the accompanying vowel being either omitted, or represented by some less conspicuous symbol. Such is the construction of the ancient Semitic alphabet the Phoenician, from which have sprung the Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin alphabets. The oldest English alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters. All except three are Roman characters. )> (thorn) and p (wen) are Runic letters ; J} S is merely a crossed d, used instead of the thorn ; * and j, as well as and v, were expressed by the same character. 1 A pure syllabic alphabet is one whose letters represent syllables instead of articulations ; which makes an imperfect phonetic analysis of words, not into the simple sounds that compose them, but into their syllabic elements ; which does not separate the vowel from its attendant consonant or consonants, but de- notes both together by an indivisible sign. One of the most noted alphabets of this kind is the Japanese. (See Whitney, p. 465.) 58 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 46. The spoken alphabet must be distinguished from the written alphabet. The sounds composing the spoken alphabet are produced by the human voice, which is a kind of wind instrument, in which the vibratory apparatus is supplied by the chorda vocales or vocal chords (ligaments that are stretched across the windpipe), while the outer tube, or tubes, through which the waves of sound pass, are furnished by the different configurations of the mouth. The articulating organs, or organs of speech, are the tongue, the cavity of the fauces, the lips, teeth, and palate, and the cavity of the nostrils, which modify the impulse given to the breath as it arises from the larynx, and produce the various vowels and consonants that make up the spoken alphabet 47. Vowels are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords. The pitch or tone of a vowel is determined by the vocal chords, but its quality depends upon the configuration of the mouth or buccal tube. For the formation of the three principal vowels we give the interior of the mouth two extreme positions. In one we round the lips and draw down the tongue, so that the cavity of the mouth assumes the shape of a bottle without a neck, and we pronounce u. In the other we narrow the lips and draw up the tongue as high as possible, so that the buccal tube represents a bottle with a very wide neck, and we pronounce i (as in French and German). If the lips are wide open, and the tongue lies flat and in its natural position, we pronounce a. Between these three elementary articulations there is an inde- finite variety of vowel sounds. A, i, u are by philologists called the primitive vowels, and from them all the irious vowel sounds in the Aryan languages have been developed. -here are two steps in the early development of these sounds (i) the union of a with a ; (2) the union of a with * and u. Primitive. ist gradation. 2nd gradation. 1. a . . ., f, v). (d) Those sounds produced by a greater effort of the vocal organs are called sharp, as /, f, t, &c. ; if produced by a less effort, they are called flat, as b, v, d. (e) The following table contains the consonants in the English alphabet, arranged according to a physiological plan : 6o ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. J 1 '2 "3 i ri "3 c n C a d 3 rt a c. O J5 "5 BH g fi g O rS a ' a J i? to B : E : if. 1 U H 1 cs *z M Jt o * " ,D h b g 0! ^ M 0. X ^^ ta i- u e X : - h : H i K w K FLAT. 'i' I I g s 4 5 > : 3 X *u j3 b ^ 2 ^^ ff _^ ^, D e a. a 1 o . | J 1 | 4j * *^ . ^2* *^ J? U) 1 o" 5 j= J j J3 o A : II c 1 "^ V 1 : u v . 3 Ml o . e i : u I V h o O "*: "32 P Is o " Tongue and of teeth o " * ? ^ c c f2- |l Upper and 1 lips Upperand 1 lips round M N m * "" ^ 00 * o VI.] PHONOLOGY. 61 50. From this table of consonants we have omitted (i)c, because, when used before a consonant or a, o, u, it has the sound of k, and \vhen used before e, i, y, it has the sound of s (in rice) ; (2) the soft sound of g (in gem}, because this is represented byy; (3) q, because this is equivalen to kw ; (4) x, because it is equivalent to ks or gs. 51. On the Number of Elementary Sounds in the spoken English Alphabet. In addition to the twenty-four consonants already enumerated we have fourteen single vowels andyfw? diphthongs, making altogether forty -three sounds. 1. a mgnat. 2. a inpatr, ware. 3. a 'mfame. 4. a in father. .5. a in all. 6. a in want. 7. e in &?/. 8. e in 0/irf. 9. * in knit. IO. ' in aye. 1 7. in boil. 1 8. tny in &?zf. 19 ??/ in mew. CHAPTER VII. ORTHOGRAPHY. 52. ORTHOEPY deals with the proper pronunciation of words ; Orthography with the proper representation of the words of the spoken language. The one deals with words as they are pronounced, the other with words as they are written. A perfect alphabet must be based upon phonetic principles, and (1) every simple sound must be represented by a distinct symbol ; (2) no sound must be represented by more than one sign. (a) The spoken alphabet contains forty-three sounds, but the written alphabet has only twenty-six letters or symbols to represent them : therefore in the first point necessary to a perfect system of orthography the English alphabet is found wanting. The alphabet, as we have seen, is redundant, containing three superfluous letters, c, q, x, so that it contains only twenty-three letters wherewith to represent forty-three sounds. So that it is both imperfect and redundant. Again, the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, have to represent no less than thirteen sounds (see 51). The same combinations of letters, too, have distinct sounds, as ough in bough, borough, cough, chough, hough, hiccough, though, trough, through, Sc. sough ; ea in beat, bear, &c. (b) In regard to the second point, that no sound should be repre- sented by more than one sign, we again find that the English alpha- bet fails. The letter n (in note) may be represented by oa (boat), oe (toe), to (yeoman), * (soul), mv (sow), rw (sew), ait (hautboy), eau (beau), owe (owe), do (floor), oh (oh !). The alphabet is there- fore inconsistent as well as imperfect. Many letters are silent, as in psalm, calf, could, gnat, know, &c. (c) The English alphabet is supplemented by a number of double letters called digraphs (oa, oo, &c. ), which are as inconsistently em- ployed as the simple characters themselves. (d) Other expedients for remedying the defects of the alphabet CHAP, vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 63 (1) The use of a final e to denote a long vowel, as bite, note, &c. But even with regard to this e the orthography is not consistent : it will not allow a word to end in v, although the preceding vowel is short, hence an e is retained in live, give, &c. (2) The doubling of consonants to indicate a short vowel, as folly, hotter, &c. It must be recollected that the letters a, e, i, o, u, were originally devised and intended to represent the vowel sounds heard in far, pny, figure, pole, rule, respectively. In other languages that employ them they still have this value. During the written period of our language the pronunciation of the vowels has xmdergone great and extensive changes at different periods, while the spelling has not kept pace with these changes, so that there has arisen a great dislocation of our orthographical system, a divorcement of our written from our spoken alphabet. The introduction of foreign elements into the English language during its written period has brought into use different, and often discordant, systems of orthography 1 (cp. ch in church, chivalry, Christian, &c. ). In addition to this there are peculiarities of the orthographical usages of the Old-English dialects. 53. The following letter-changes are worth recollecting : LABIALS B, P, F, V, W. B. This letter has crept into many words, as O.E. slumer-ian, = slumber; thum-a = thum^y lim lim^. Cp. htimble from humilis, number from numerare. B has changed to 1 I ) p in gossip, from O.E. godsib ; purse from O. Fr. borse (cp. bursar, disburse] ; apricot, Fr. abricot.'* (2) To v in have from Q.fL./iabban, heave from O.E. hebban. (3) To m in summerset = Fr. soubresaut. P. P is represented by (1) b in lobster = O.E. loppestre; dribble from drip, drofi=O.~E.. dropian, cobweb O.E. copucb. (2) v in knave = O.E. cnapa. It is often inserted between m and t, as empty O.E. emii* (cp. gleam and glimpse, sempsur and seamster) ; tempt O.Fr. tenter, Lat. tentare. 1 Whitney. 2 We sometimes find in O.E. a^ricock = apricot. 64 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. F. An_/" frequently becomes v, as vat, vetches, vixen =fat, fetches, fixen. C^.Jrve and Jiffy, twelve and twelfth. F has disappeared from many words, as head, lord, hawk, hath, woman = O.E. he&fod (heved), hlaford (loverd), hafoc, hafath (hafth), wifman (wimman). Cp. O.fr.jolif, O.E.jo!i/= jolly. The O.E. efeta, aneft, has become (i) evet ; (2) ewt ; (3) newt (the belongs to the indefinite article). V in some Romance words represents ph, as vial = phial, O.E. visnomy = physiognomy. It has been changed to (i) w in periwinkle = Fr. pervenfhe, Lat. perivinca ; (2) to m in malmsey = O,E. makesic, from O.Fr. jwa/rwj/V. W. This letter has disappeared in ooze = O.E. was. lisp = O.E. tvlisp. four = O.~E.fe0wer. soul = O.E. .rtfzo/, sawul. lark = Scotch laverock, O.E. lawerce. ought = O.E. a-wiht (auht, oht). tree = O.E. treow. knee = O.E. cneow. W has crept into /&?/, Fr. c^r/^, Lat. cerasus. hautboy = Fr. hautbois. relay = Fr. relais. noisome = noise-some, from O.Fr. noise Lat. nausea, or puny = Fr. puisne. In a few words s has intruded, as s-melt, s-cratch, s-creak, s-quas!:, s-quecze, s-neeze, i-s-land O.E. ea=-land, igland; aisle Fr. aile : demesne = demain, O.Fr. domaine, demeine = Lat. domininm. Z was not known in the oldest English, and through the influence of Xorman -French it has taken the place of an older s, as dizzy = O.E. dysig. freeze = O. E. freosan. It also stands for a Fr. c or s, as hazard, lizard, buzzard, seize. Z has intruded in citizen Fr. citoyen. It has changed to g in ginger (Lat. zinziber, O.E. gingrvere). 68 ENGLISH A CCIDENCE. [c n A ; -. GUTTURALS K, G, CH, H. K. (i) c (k) has become ck. In Old-English before the Conquest c was always hard, but under Norman-French influence c (before e, i, ea, co) has been changed to ch ; as O.E. cele, cese, tin, cild \\A\K become chill, cheise, chin, child ; ceorl, ceaf have become churl, chaff. A final c has sometimes changed to ch, as O.E. die to d;ch ; hwilc to which. Sometimes the ch has disappeared, as O. E. Ic = Ich = /; anlic onlich = only; ceferalc = everech = every , berlic = berlich = barley. In a few instances c has become first ch and then/, as jaw = chaw. ajar = achar (on the turn), from O. E. cerran, to turn. knowledge = O. E. knowlech, knmvlach = cnawlac. (2) In some Romance words c has become (a) ch, as cherry = Fr. cerise, Lat. cerasus. chives = Fr. cive. coach Fr. carosse, Lat carocimn. (6) sh, as shingle = O.Fr. cengle, Lat ringitlum. (c) g, as flagon = Tr.Jlacon. sugar = Fr. sucre. (3) C (followed by t) has sometimes become gh, as delight = O.Fr. deliter, Lat. delectare. -straight = O.Fr. streit, Lat. strictus. G. In all words of English origin initial g is always hard, even before e, i, y, as game, give, go, get, &c. G has been softened (i) to /, y, e, a, as O.E. genok = enough. gelic = alike. hand-geweorc handiwork. feger = fair. , h&gel hail. twegen = twain. ivaga way. vn.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 69 (2) To w O.E. lagu - law. sage saw. maga maw. dagian dawn. fugol fowl. sorg (sorh) = sorrow. mearg marrow. gealga gallow(s). Sometimes it is lost in the root and makes its appearance in the derivatives, as dry and drought, slay and slaughter, draw (drag) and draught. It has disappeared in if = O.E. gif. icicle = O.E. ts-gicel. lent O.E. lengten (lencten). It has been softened to (1) ge ( j) in singe O. E. be sengan (seitgen). cringe = O.E. cringan (to die). Roger O.E. hrodgar. (2) to ch in orchard O.E. ort-geard '(or (yard) herb-garden. Gc (Gg] has often become/ (dg) edge = O.E. ecg(egg). bridge = O.E. brycg (brigge). ridge = O. E. hrycg (rigge). In Romance words g often disappears, as master = O.E. maister = O.Fr. maistre, Lat. magister. disdain = O.Fr. desdaigner, Lat. disdignare. Sometimes g becomes w, as : wafer O. Fr. gauffre, goffre, Lat gafrum, cp. -wastel-brede in Chaucer = cake-bread (Fr. gateau). G has crept into the following words foreign = O.Yr.forain, Lat. forensis. feign = Q.Yr.feindre. sovereign = O.Fr. soverain, Lat. superanus. impregnable = Fr. imprenable. Ch did not exist in the oldest English. In foreign words c was substituted for it, as O. E. arcebiscop = archbishop. Through French influence ch came to represent a Latin c, as Lat. cambiare, O.Fr. cangier, changier, change. Cp. chapter, chapel, chamber, chief, &c. 70 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Ch in many Romance words has been changed (1) To dg, as cartridge = Fr. cartouche. (2) To sh, as parish = Fr. faroiste, Lat. parochia. fetish = Tr. fetietie. caboshed = Fr. caboche. (3) To tch, as butcher = Fr. boucher. dispatch = O.Fr. dtpescher. H. This letter has disappeared from many words, especially before /, n, r, as it = O.E. hit. loaf = O.E. hlaf. lade = O.E. kladan. neck = O.E. hnecca. ring = O.E. hring. In the following words h has intruded, as wharf, whelk, whelm. It has fallen away from many words, as tear = O.E. taker, tar. fee = O.~E..feoh,feo. &c. &c. It has become gh in thigh = O.E. theok. high = O.E. heah. nigh = O.E. neah. though = O.E. theah. knight = O.E. cniht. wrought = O.E. wrohte. &c. &c. In some words h has become first gh and thenyj as enough = Q.TL.genok. laugh = O.E. hleahhan. &c. &c. In ilk, O.E. eohl, h has become changed to k. We have both sounds side by side in candle and chandler. carnal and chamel-(house). cattle and chattel ORTHOGRAPHY. 71 LIQUIDS L, M, N, R. L. In some Romance words / has been weakened to u, as- - hauberk (O.Fr. halberc, kalbert). auburn (Lat. alburnum). In O.E. we find assaut, maugre, paume, caudron, soudier, &c. L has disappeared in the following English words : each = O.E. ale (elch). which = O.E. hwylc (while, whilch}. such = O.E. swylc (swilch, swulche, sulche), as = O.E. ealsiva (also, alse, ase). England = O. E. Engle-lond (Engelond). L has become (1) r, in lavender = Lat. lavendula. sinoper = Lat. sinoplum. colonel (pron. kurnel) coronel (Spanish). In O.E. we find br ember and bremel bramble. (2) n, in postern = O.Fr. posterle, posterm ; Lat. posterula. L has intruded into the following words : could = (O.E. cuthe, coufe}. myrtle = I-at. myrtus. manciple = O.Fr. mancipe ; Lat. manripium* participle = Lat. participium. principle Lat. principium. syllable = Lat. syllaba. M. M has been lost in some of the oldest English words, as five = O.E fif (Goth. fimf). soft = O. E. softs ; Germ, sanft = samft. M is sometimes weakened to n, as ant = (O.E. czmete), emmet. count = O.Fr. cumte ; Lat. comes. renowned = O.E. renowmed ; Fr. renomme. noun = Fr. nom ; Lat. nomen. count = O.Fr. confer; Lat. computare. ransom = O.Fr. raancon; Lat. rcdemptio ; O.E. mmson. M is sometimes changed to b, as marblestone = O. E. mannanstan. 72 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. N. In the oldest English we find the loss of w before^ f/i, s, and the vowel lengthened in consequence, as goose = (gens), cp. Germ. gans. tooth = (tont/i), cp. Goth, tunthus ; Germ. zahn. other = (onthcr), cp. Goth anthar ; Germ, ander. Cp. us with Germ. u>is, and could (coud) with can. It has disappeared from many adverbs and prepositions, as beside = O.E. bisidan. before = O.E. beforan. within = O.E. -withinnan. It has also been lost in other words, as ell = O.E. fin. eve = O.E. afen. game = O. E. gamen. mill = O. E. mylen (miln). eleven = O.E. andlifum. Thursday = O.E. thunrcs-dag (thunresdtzi). agnail = O.E. ang-megL yesterday = O.E. gestran-dcsg. fortnight = O.'E.feowertene-niht(fmrteniht). It has dropped from the beginning of a few words, as adder = O.E. mzddre (nadder). apron = O.Fr. naperon. N has intruded in a few words, as newt = an ewt. nag = Dan. og ; O.-Sax, ehu (cp. Lat. equa). In Old-English we find noumpere = umpire (= Lat. impar) ; -nojtch = oitche (Fr. oc/ie), nounce (= uncia). Shakespeare has nuncle, naunt. , It has sometimes crept into the body of a word, as nightingale = O.E. niJitegale. messenger = O. E. messager (O. Fr. messagier). passenger O. E. passager (O. Fr. passagur). popinjay = O. E. popigay (O. Fr. papigat). At end of words we find an inorganic n, as bittern = O.E. biiore, Fr. butor : marten = O.E. mearth. vii.] ORTHOGRAPHY. 73 iVhas become (i) m in smack = O.E. snacc (boat), Fr. semaque. hemp O.E. hanep. lime (tree) = O.E. lind. tempt = O.Fr. tenter, Lat. tentare. comfort = O.Fr. confort, Lat. confortare. venom = Lat. venenum. vellum Fr. velin, megrim Fr. migraine. (2) / in flannel, formerly flannen. R sometimes represents a more original s, as ear = O.E. fare, Goth. auso. iron = O.E. isen, iren, Goth, cisarn. It has disappeared from some few words, as speak = O.E. spracan. pin = O. E. preon. palsy = O.E. palasie, fr.paralysie, Gr. paralysis. cockade = O.Fr. cocart. R has intruded into the following words : groom (bridegroom) = O.E. guma(gome). hoarse = O.E. Ms. partridge = Fr. perdrix, Lat. perdix. cartridge = Fr. cartouche. corporal = Fr. caporal. culprit. = Lat. cnlpa. CHAPTER VIII. ACCENT. 54. Accent is the stress of the voice upon a syllable of a word. Syllabic accent is an etymological one, and in oldest English it was upon the root and not upon the inflectional syllables. By the Norman Conquest a different system of accentuation was introduced, which towards the end of the twelfth century began to show itself in the written language. " The vocabulary of the French language is derived, to a great ex- tent, from Latin words deprived of their terminal inflexions. The French adjectives mortal and fatal are formed from the Latin morfatifa.ndfatafis, by dropping the inflected syllable ; the French nouns nation and condition, from the Latin" accusatives natiotum, con- ditionem, " by rejecting the em final. In most cases the last syllable retained in the French derivatives was prosodically long in the Latin original ; and either because it was also accented or because the slight accent which is perceivable in the French articulation represents temporal length, the stress of the voice was laid on the final syllable of all these words. When we borrowed such words from the French, we took them with their native accentuation ; and as accent is much stronger in English than in French, the final syllable 1 was doubtless more forcibly enunciated in the former than in the latter language. " MARSH. French accentuation even affected words of pure English origin, and we find in Robert of Gloucester wisllche (wisely) for -uris'liche ; begynnyng 1 , endyng 1 , &c. ; and Chaucer rhymes gladnes'se with dis- trejse, &c. *. Spenser's accentuation exhibits the influence of French accent Thus he rhymes blonves with shallowes, things with tidings, &c. " A straunger in thy home and ignoraunt', Of Phaedria', thine owne fellovJ servaunf." F. Q. ii. 6. 9. * The* syllables that were accented in O.E. words of Fr. origin are: -eer(Q.Ti. dear = Gr. Otjf,, Lat.y^ra)was once a general term for an animal (wild), hence Shakespeare talks of 'rats and mice, and such small deer.' STAG. HIND. Stag = Icel. steggr, which was applied to the males of many species. In the English provincial dialects stag or steg = a gander or a cock. Bailey has stagg-ard, a hart in its fourth year. WickluTe has shee-oxe. 88 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. HOUND. BITCH. Hound = O.E. hutui, cognate with Lat. cants. Dog dois not occur in the oldest English. It is found m the cognate dia.ects, O.Dan, dogee, IceL doggr. Tike occurs sometimes in O.E. for a dog. Bitck = O.E. bicc-e. STALLION. MARE. Stallion (O.Fr. estalon} has supplanted the O.E. hengcst and steda (steed). Hone (O.E. hon) was originally of the neuter gender. Mart (O.E. tnenJte), the feminine of an original masculine, meark. S OLTl I FILLY. FOAL. ) Foal, O.E. Sola, Ger. fallen, Lat. fullus. Filly = Scotch fillek, Wel COCK. HEN. .// had a corresponding masculine, hana, in O.E. : cp. Ger. haJut and kenne. GANDER. GOOSE. Gander (O.E. gan^l-ra) and O? (O.E.^flr =gons,gans)zre related words. The d and r in gander are merely euphonic ; a is the masculine suffix and the root is gan = fans, a goose ; cp. Icel. gas, goose ; gasi, gander ; also Ger. fans, Gr. xj, Latin anser(= hanser). DRAKE. DUCK. Duck = O.E. doke = diver (connected with the verb to duck, O.Dan, dniken, O.H.G. ttehan, to dive, plunge) has no etymological connection with Drake. The word drake can only be explained by a reference to the cognate forms : O.Norse and-rtft-a, O.H.Ger. ant-richo, ant-reeho, which suggests an O.English end-ric-e (which, however, does not occur in O.E. literature). IB O.E. ened, end = duck (cp. O.H.Ger. anvt, Ger. ente, Lat. anas) ; rice icmp, cp. Lat. rex. So that d-rake is a contraction of end-rake = duck-king, king of the ducks. l \ RUFF. REEVE. Reeve seems a true feminine of Ruff. MILTER. S FAWNER. DROXS. BEE. 73. II. The Gender marked by difference of termination. The feminine is usually formed from the masculine. A. Obsolete modes of forming the feminine : ' The suffix -rick is found in some of the German dialects : in taHber-rich, a male dove ; enterick, a drake ; ganse-rich, a gander. x.] GENDER. 89 (1) By the suffix -en. In the oldest English -en was a. common feminine suffix, as M. F. Cas-ere (emperor) Caser-n (empress). Fox Fyx-en (vixen). God, a god Gyden (goddess). Manna (man-servant) Mennen (woman-servant). Wulf (wolf) Wylten (she-wolf). In modem English we have only preserved one word with this suffix vixen. Vix-en is formed from -vox, the Southern form of fox. The change of vowel is regular : compare god and gyden. In Scotch, cart-in = an old woman. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find a few more of these feminines, as minclicn,* a nun; wolvene, a she-wolf; dovene, a she-dove; schalkene, a female servant, from scJialk (O.E. scealc),a. Kan-servant, which exists in mar- w/Wand seneschal. (2) By the suffix -ster. In the oldest English we have a numerous class of words ending in -ster (sire, siere), corresponding to masculine forms in -ere. M. r. bscc-ere (baker) bsec-estre. fithel-ere (fiddler) fithel-stre. hearp-ere (harper) hearp-estre. sang-ere (singer) sang-e.stre. seam-ere (sewer; seam-estre. taepp-er (bar-man) taspp-estre. webb-ere (weaver) webb-estre Up to the end of the thirteenth century -sterjms a characteristic sign of the feminine gender, and by its meai.s new feminines could be always formed from the masculine. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries we find some curious forms, as bellering-estre, a female bell-ringer. uric-then-estrc, a weekly woman-servant. hordestre, a cellaress. ivasshestre, a washerwoman. In the fourteenth century we find the suffix -ster giving place to the Norman- French -ess, and there is consequently a want of uniformity in the employment of this termination. Thus Robert of Brunne uses sangster, songster, as a 1 This suffix is found in several of the Aryan languages : cp. Ger. sang-er (singer) and sangerinn ; fuchs (fox) and fucks-inn; Gr. ijpouvri, hero-z) men on Anne (O.E. men an horse) and men on foot (O.E. men afoot). 83. Some substantives have a double plural form, with different meanings, as Brothei-s (by blood), brethren T (of an order or community). Cloths (sorts of cloth) ; clothes (garments, clothing). Dies (a stamp for coining, &c.) ; dice (hi gaming). Peas (the pi. of pea) ; pease (collective). Pea, O.E fisa, is derived from Lat. pisttm. In O.E. we find pi. pesen (and peses]. The s belongs to ihe root, and 15 no inflexion. When the old pi. ending was lost, Jease was looked upon as a plural, and a new singular, pea, was coined. 8 Pennies (a number of separate coins) ; pence (collective). Penny, Q.TL.penig, pi. penegas (pennyes, pans, pens), without any distinction of meaning. When pence is compounded with a numeral as the name of a separate coin, we can regard it as a singular, and make it take the plural inflexion, as two sixpences. 84. Foreign words usually take tbe English plural. Some few keep their original plural, as Latin (i) Sing. arcanum addendum datum Plural. arcana* addenda* data. erratum errata* stratum strata. magus magi. 1 This distinction is, of course, comparatively recent. * Spenser has " Not worth Sifese." Surrey " a pen Above a pearl in price." " Net worth two ptason" = f eaten, H 98 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Sing. Plural. radius radii. minutia minuthe. species species. &C. &c. Greek (2) axis axes. basis bases. ellipsis ellipses. &C. &c. Romance (3) monsieur messieurs. bandit banditti. ate. &c. Hebrew (4) cherub cherubim. seraph seraphim. Some of these have the English plural, as appendixes, calixes, vor- texes, criterions, automatons, phenomenons, memorandums, spectrums, focuses, funguses, similes, beaus, seraphs, cherubs, as well as their original plurals, appendices, calices, vortices, criteria, automata, pheno- mena, memoranda, spectra, foci, fungi, similia, beaux, seraphim, c/ierubitn (and seraphin, cherubin 1 ). 85. Some have two plurals with different meanings, as indexes (of a book) indices (signs in algebra). geniuses (men of genius) genii (spirits, supernatural beings). parts (abilities) parts (divisions). 86. Many substantives are used only in the plural, as (1) Substantives denoting things that consist of more than one part, and consequently always express plurality, as (a) Parts of the body : lights, lungs, veins, kidneys, -whiskers, chit- terlings, intestines, bowels. (ff) Clothing : breeches, slops, trowsers, drawers, mittens, garters. (f) Tools, instruments, implements, &c ; shears, scissors, / snuffers, tongs, scales, fcc. (Shakespeare uses ballance as a plural.) '' A peyre of ballaunce." DRANT. (2) Names of things considered in the mass or aggregate, as ashes, embers, cinders, lees, molasses. 87. Many foreign words are used only in the plural, as aborigine, foces, literati, prolegomena, &c. 1 Chfrubims and seraphim* occur in Elizabethan English. x.] NUMBER. 99 88. The English plural sign sometimes replaces the original plural, r.s nomads, plciads, hyads, rhinoceroses. Of a similar kind are abstergents ( = abstergentia). analects (= analecta). arms (= arma). annals ( anna/es), &c. 89. The plurals of some substantives differ in meaning from the singulars, as antic, antics; beef, beeves; chap, chaps; draught, draughts; checker, checkers ; forfeit, forfeits ; record, records; scale, scales ; spectacle, spectacles ; grain, grains ; ground, grounds ; -water, waters; copper, coppers; iron, irons; compass, compasses; return, returns ; &c. c. So too verbal substantives, as cutting and cuttings ; sweeping and sweepings, &c. 90. Many adjectives used as substantives form their plural regularly, as good, goods; captive, captives; lunatic, lunatics; cp. commons, eatables, betters, superiors, odds, extras. To this class, with English plural substituted for foreign adjective plural, belong acoustics, analytics, ethics, optics, politics. 91. Some plural forms are sometimes treated as singulars, as amends,^- bellows,' 2 gallows, 3 means,* news, 6 odds, 6 pains? sessions, shambles, small-pox,* tidings, 9 wages. Most of these are comparatively late plurals, and the singular was once used where we employ the plural. 92. Alms, eaves, riches, though treated as plurals, are singular in form. Alms = Gr. l\ti\fjiOff{,vT\ ; O.E. almessc, almesse, almes. In O.E. we find pi. elmessen, almesses. 1 Amends from Fr. amende. Robert of Brunne has " the amends was." 2 O.E. " a gret belygh ; " "a peyre belyes." Pilgrimage, pp. in, 116. 3 O.E. pi. galgan. 4 Means (Fr. moyen, Lat. medium). 5 News (Fr. native ties, Lat. nova). 6 Odds in it is odds = it is most probable. 7 Fain. There is some confusion with the double origin of the word (i) trom O.E. pin, pain, torment ; (a) from Lat./) Many geographical names are frequently plural in form, as Athens, Thebes, the Netherlands, Indies, Azores, Alps. (f) In names of persons, when a descriptive term is added, only the last adds s for the plural, as master bakers, brother squires, the two doctor Johns, We, however, may say the Miss Browns or the Misses Brown. Where two titles are united the last now usually takes the plural, as major-generals : a few old expressions sometimes occur in which both words, following the French idiom, take the plural, as knights- templars, lords-lieutenants, lords-justices. III. CASE. 95. In some languages nouns (substantives and adjectives) take different forms (cases) in different relations in a sentence. The moveahlc or variable terminations of a noun are called its tase-endings. "At Athens, the term case, or ptotit, had a philosophical meaning ; at Rome, cams was merely a literal translation : the original meaning of/all was lost, and the worJ dwindled down to a mere technical term. In the philosophical language of the Stoics, ftoiis, which the Romans translated by casus. really meant ' fall ' ; that is to say, the inclination or relation of one idea to another, the falling or reding of one word on another. Lone and angry discussions were carried on as to whether the name of ftiisis, or fall, was applicable to the nominative ; ami this is lost to us when we speak of cases." MAX ML'LLER. 96. The oldest English had six cases : Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Instrumental. In the Aryan lan? vry obscure. X.] CASE. 101 The nominative ending s (as in re x = reg-s) is connected with the demonstrative pronouns, O.E. se, seo, tluet; Gr. o, h, TO ; Sansk. sa, sd, tat; Eng. the. The dative suffix was originally a preposition, signifying to or for: cp. the pronouns Lat. tibi with Sansk. tu-bhyam; Sansk. abbhi, Gr. a/ifl>, O.E. umbe and be, which we see again in the plural of Latin nouns of the third, fourth, and rifth declensions. In Sansk. this abhi was shortened to at (e), and is still more disguised in Latin and Greek. The ablative termination was / or d, as Sansk. acuat = O. Lat. eouod, from a horse ; thu t or d is probably connected with the demonstrative to. : cp. Lat. in-de, urde. The locative had the ending i, denoting the relation expressed by our preposition in, to which it is related. The instrumental, expressing the relation by or with, ended in a. The accusative had the letter m for its suffix. The genitive ended in s or sya. which is supposed to be a demonstrative pronoun (cp. Sansk. syas, sya, tyat. this, that). In the possessive pronouns, Sansk. we find tyas, tyA, tyatn, as mudiyas, madiya, madiyam = metis, meet, meum. It is therefore probable that the genitive ending was nothing more than an adjective termination. In Sansk. adjectives are formed by the suffix -tya (=sya}. In Greek the form cogitate with tya was ffio-g. From dti/ioc, people, came the adjective knuoaioQ (belonging to the people). In Greek, an IT between two vowels of grammatical terminations is elided : thus the genitive of t*u is not yefeaoe, butYi>eoor ffvov^; hence offjtovio would become atftolo, the Homeric genitive of Hjfio^. in later Greek replaced by oij^jov MAX ML'LLER. We have something like it in English. Compare the force of the suffix in wooden with that of n in mine, thine. "The Latin geuitivits (genitive) is a mere blunder, for the Greek v.-or&geniki could never mean genitrws. Genitivus, if it is meant to express the case erf origin or birth, would in Greek have been called gennetike, not genike. Nor dot, iheg-enitive express the relation of son to father. For though we may say 'th son of the father,' we may likewise say, 'the father of the son.' Genike, in Greek, had a much wider, a much more philosophical meaning It meant casiu generalis, the general case, or rather the case which expresses the genus or kind. This is the real power of the genitive. . . . The termination of the genitive is, in most cases, identical with those derivative suffixes by which substantives ar changed into adjectives." MA POSSESSIVE CASE. 97. In modern English we have no case-endings of substantives except one, the possessive, the representative of the older genitive. The nominative and accusative have no formative particles to distinguish them, and their position in a sentence, or the sense, is the only means we have of distinguishing them from one another. 98. In the oldest English there were various declensions, as in Latin and Greek : so there were different genitive suffixes (a) for the singular, (/;) for the plural. The suffix -its originally belonged to the genitive sing, of some masculine and neuter substantives ; it was not the genitive sign ol ,02 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. the feminine until the thirteenth century, and then for the most part only in the Northern dialect (cp. Lady-day with Lord's day}. T.ate in the fourteenth century we find traces of the old plural ending -ene, -en (-ena), as kingen-en = of kings. (Piers Plowman.} Probably before the thirteenth century -es betran to take its place : " Alri huerdes louerd, and alre kingetu king." O.E. Horn., Second Scries. 99. The suffix -es was a distinct syllable in Old English, as " Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre." CHAUCER. Traces of this form we have in Elizabethan writers : " Then looking upward to the heaven's beams, With nightis stars thick powder'd everywhere." SACKVILLE'S Induction. " Of aspis sting herself did stoutly kill." SPENSER, F. Q. i. 5, 50. "To show bis teeth as white as -whales bone." SHAKESPEARE'S Love's Labours Lost, v. 2. 100. The sign of the possessive is now -s for both numbers ; and it is subject to the same euphonic modifications as the sign of the plural (see 78). The loss of the final vowel is indicated by the apostrophe ('), as boy's, &C. 1 When a word in the singular of more than two syllables ends in s, x, ge, s is omitted but (') retained, as Lycurgus' sons, Socrates' wife. In poetry this frequently happens with respect to words of more than one syllable, especially if the following word begins with a sibilant, as The Cyclops" hammer ; young Paris' face ; your highness' love ; for justice sake ; for praise sake ; the Phoenix' throne ; a partridge win:; (Shakespeare); princess' favourite (Congreve); the Prior of Jvrvaulx' question (W. Scott): In O.E., fifteenth century, if the noun ended in a sibilant or was followed by a word beginning with a sibilant, the possessive sign was dropt, as a goose egg, the river side. 101. In compounds the suffix is attached to the last element, as the son-in-law's house ; the heir-at-lavf s will ; the Queen of England's reign ; Henry the First's reign. 1 O was at first probably used to distinguish the genitive from theplur.il suffix. Its use may have been established from a false theory of the origin of the genitive case, which was thoroughly believed in from Ren jonson's to Addison's time- that s was a contraction of his; hence such expressions as "the princr his house," far " the prince's house." x.] CASE. 103 THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 102. In the oldest English the dative was the absolute case, just as the ablative is in Latin. About the middle of the fourteenth century the nominative began to replace it. Milton has a few instances of this construction (in imitation of the Latin idiom), as " me over- thrown," "us dispossessed," " him destroyed. " " Schal no flesch upon folde by fonden onlyue, Out-taken y^w a5t (eight)." Allit. Poems, p. 47, 1. 357. 'Thei ban stolen him s slepinge." WICKUFFE, Mali, xxviii. 21. ' Hyin tha gyt spreccttdum, hig coraon fram tham heah-gesamnun M ' '!,\inredurabelocen>-t, oide thint f^icr." M.iit. iv. 13. CHAPTER XI. ADJECTIVES. 103. IN modern English the adjective has lost the inflexions ol number, gender, or case belonging to the older stages of the language. 104. In Chaucer's time, and even later, we find (a) an inflexional e to mark the plural number ; () an inflexional e for the definite adjective that is, when preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or a possessive pronoun, as " Whan Zephirus eek with his nveete breethe Knspired hath in every holte and heethe The tendre croppes, and the.y0/sonne Hath in the Ram his halfe cours ironue, And small fowles maken melodic." CHAUCER'S Prol. to C. Tola. This e in the oblique cases of the definite form, in the oldest English, became , of which, perhaps, we have a trace in the phrase " in the olden time." We often replace an inflexional e or by the word one. Cp. " And the children ham lovie togidere and bevly the velaorede of th greaten. " AJienbite, p. 739. " The vissere hath more blisse vor to nime ane gratnc visse thane ant littlene. " -16. p. a 3 8. " These tweyne oltfe" (= these two old ones). Pilgrimage, p. in. " I sigh toward the tour an old oon* that come and neihede me." Ib. p. 23. " I sigh an old oon that was clumben anhy up on thy bed." Ib. 205. 105. Chaucer has instances of the Norman-French plural s in such phrases as cosins germains, in oiher//ar delitables. # In C E. the adjective of Romance origin frequently took a plural termination (-, -r) when placed after its substantive, 2 as " tValeres principales." Early Eng. Poems, p. 43. " Vertues cardinals." Castele of Love, p. 37. " Ch.tnouns reguleres," "causes resonaoles," "parties tneridionnlfs." M.AUNDEVILLS. '_ The writer of the Pilgrimage only ues the oon when the adjectire is accu- Mtive. a Stow has keyres males = male heirs. CHAP. XI.] ADJECTIVES. 105 106. It is also found without a following substantive, as " Of romances that been realcs Of popes and cardinales." CHAUCER'S Sir Thopas. " He ous tekth to knawe the greate things vram the little, the preciausa vram the viies, the zuete vram the zoure." ASenbite, p. 76. In this last example the unborrowed adjectives greate, little, &c., express the plural by the final e. Sometimes the plural s replaces the final e when the adjective is used substan- lively, as "They love their yonges very well." LAWRENCE ANDREWE. Ones sometimes replaces the plural sign, as " If it fortuned one of the yongei to dye than these aide ones wyll burye them." Ib. Cp. -wantons, empties, calms, shallows, worthies, orderlies, godlies. 107. Shakespeare has preserved one remnant of the older case-endings of the plural adjective in the compound alderlie/est := the dearest of all, the most pre- cious of all. (2 K. Hen. VI. i. I.) A ider (sometimes written alther) is another form of aller = al-re = al-ra (= omnium), the genitive plural of ail. In Old English writers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, we find bath-er, of both, for which we sometimes find bathes, as "your bathes paynes." Pit- grimage, p. 167. I. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 108. Comparison is a variation or change of form to denote degrees of quantity or quality. It belongs to adverbs as well as adjectives. "The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than at present, and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs, prepositions, in which compared correlative terms are implied." MARCH. 109. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, high ; the comparative, higher ; the superlative, highest. The comparative is formed by adding -er to the positive ; the superlative by adding -est to the positive. This rule applies to (i) all monosyllabic adjectives ; (2) all dis- syllabic adjectives with the accent upon the last syllable, MgtHUeP, %enteder, genteelest ; (3) adjectives of two syllables, in which the last syllable is elided before the comparative, zs,able, abler, abUst ; (4) adjectives of two syllables ending in y, which is changed to ' before the suffixes of comparison, as happy, happier, happiest. Orthographical changes : (1) A final consonant preceded by a short accented vowel is doubled, a vtet, wetter, -wettest; red, redder, reddest; cruel, crueller, cruellest. (2) A single final y is changed to i, as happy, happier, hc.ppiest ; but y with a preceding vowel remains unchanged, as gay, gayer, gayest. io5 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE, [CHAP. (3) Adjectives ending in a sil:nt or unaccented t add -r and -st, instead of -< and -est, to the positive, as polite, pouter, politest: noble, nobLr, noblest. I to. When the adjective has more than two syllables, the com- parison is expressed by more and most, as eloqi4fnt, more eloquent, most eloquent. This mode of comparison is probably due to Norman- French influence, and it makes its appearance at the end of the thirteenth century, as " mtst getityl" (ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER), and becomes of frequent occurrence in Chaucer and Wickliffc, as mast mighty, mast clear. In poetry we find even monosyllabic adjectives compared (for the sake of euphony) by more and most, as " Ingratitude more strong than traitors' arm^ " (bHAKEst-EAKE). " Upon a lowly asse more white than snow " (SPE.VSBK). Older writers on grammar make the mode of comparison depend on the ending, not the length of the adjective ; if the adjectival ending is -ing. -ist, -e^, -en, -ain, -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, the comparison is made by more and most. The best writers, however, are not guided by this rule. "Ascham writes tuttittivtst ; Bacon, honourablest, and ancicnter; Fuller, eminentest, eloquenter, leurnedst, soUmnest,famousest, virtnonscst, with the comparative and supsrlative adverbs, tviselier, easilier, hardliest; Sidney even uses repiningest ; Coleridge, safeliest." MARSH. in. Double Comparisons are not uncommon both in old and modern English, as more hottere, most fairest (Maundeville) ; moos! clcnnest (Piers Plowman); more kinder, more corrupUr (Shakespeare); most straitest {Acts of Apostles, xxvi 5). The comparison is sometimes strengthened by adverbs, as still busier, far n>:ser. the lamest of the low. So Chaucer has/a/nrj/ effaire (Knightes Tale). Adjectives with a superlative sense are not usually compared. In poetry, we find, however, perfectest, chiefest (Shakespeare), extremest (Milton), more perfect (Eng. Bible), lonelier (Longfellow). 112. The r of the comparative stands for a more original s, as seen in the allied languages of the Aryan speech. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O.E. Eng. Comparative mdh-t-yas. utt-fa. j ^ j ma-iz-a. mdra. more. Superlative mah-ish-tha. nfy-to-Tuv. - ma-ist-s. ma:st. most. The superlative was originally formed from the comparative by means of the suffix -t. 113. In numerals and pronominal words, &c. we find a relic of an old comparative, as in other, Lat. al-teru-s ; Gr. t-rtpo-t ; Sansk. <:'- tar-d -whether, Lat. u-tent-s ; Gr. Ko-rtpo-s ; Sansk. ka-tard. By bansknt grammarians the origin of -ther, -tfru, -tero, -tara is said to be found in the Sanskrit root tar (cp. Lat. trans. Eng. throit*h\ to cross over, go beyond. XJ.] ADJECTIVES. 107 114. An old superlative ending common to many of the Aryan languages is -ma, as Eng. for-ma, fru-ma ; Lat. pri-mu-s ; Gr.wpa- TO(S) ; Sansk. pra-tha-iiu. Ma is found in composition with fa, as in the numerals Lat. Septimus ; Gr. /3-(3u-jLio(<,) ; Sansk. sap-ta-ind. In Latin, -ti-mu-s (as in septimui,') is added to the old comp. is, whence -istimu-s, and -itsiuttu (by assimilauciij. II. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 115. OLD, ELDER, ELDEST (O.E. eald, aid; yldra, eldra ; yldnst, eldest}. Elder and eldest are archaic, and can only be used with reference to living things. 1 As than cannot be used after elder, it is evident that its full comparative force is lost. Older and oldest are the ordinary comparatives now in use. The vowel change in elder, &c. is explained by the fact that there was ori- ginally an * before r and si, which affected the preceding a or en, hence O.E. eald and eldra, strang and strengra, &c. 1 1 6. GOOD, BETTER, BEST (O.E. gdd ; betera, betra ; betest, betst}. The comparative and superlative are from a root bet (or bat], good, found in O. E. bet-lie, goodly, excellent ; bel-an, to make good, amend. Best = bet-st, illustrates the law that a dental is assimilated to a following sibilant. In O. E. we find a comparative adverb, bet (the sign of inflexion being lost). 117. Bad Evil 111 i worse worst { O.E. y/tt; uyrsa, wyrs ; wyrresl, j I wyrst. Wor-se, wor-st, are formed from a root, wear, which is cognate with Latin vir-us. The -se is an older form of -re (er). The Dan. varre (O.N. verri) found its way into English writers of the North of England. Gower uses it in the following lines : " Of thilke werre (war) In whiche none wot who hath the -werre (worse).' Spenser uses it with reference to the etymology of the word world: " The world is much war than it was woont." Chaucer sometimes uses baddcrio* worse. 1 This distinction is recent : cp. the following from Earle's Muro-cosmograpkit (1628) : " His very atyre is that which is the eldest out of fashion." (Ed. ARBER, p. 29.) log ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 118. MUCH, MORE, MOST (O.E. miff/, mara, rmfst). Much is from O.E. mitel, through the forms michel, muthel. More is formed from the root mag (or mah 1 ), so that more = makrt and most = mah-st. In O. E. mice! = great : mare, mart = greater ; most, mest, mast = greatest. A contracted form of mare (properly adverbial), ma, mo, is used by O. E. writers. It is found also in Shakespeare under the form moe Alexander Gill makes mo the comparative of many; more the comparative of much. Many = O.E. maneg, Goth, manegs, contains the root mang, a nasalized form of mag (mah). 119. LITTLE, LESS, LEAST (O.E. lytel ; lassa (las) ; lasest, hzsf). les-s = O.E. las-se, les-se = las-sa = las-ra. least = Us-st = Lzs-est. Lesser \s a double comparative, as "the lesser light." (Eng. Bible). Shakespeare has littkst (Hamlet, iii. 2). In O.E. we find fyt = little, which has nothing to do with the root of less, which is cognate with Goth, lasivSza (infirrnior), the comp. of lasiv-s (infirmus); cp. lazy. We also find in O.E. min and mis = O.N. minni, Goth, tninniza = less, Lat. m:n-or ; Goth, mitts = Lat minus. 120. NEAR, NEARER, NEAREST (O.E. ne&h, neh ; nyra, ne&r, nearra ; neahst, nthst. Later forms of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were negh ; nerre (ner) ; next (neghest). By the Old EngSsh forms we see that nigJt, near, next, are their proper repre sentatives. Shakespeare ues near' as a comparative adverb. Kea-r = neah-r; next = negh-st or neah-st. (The guttural of course was once pronounced.) High was once similarly compared heah (hen, kegk) ; hlhra, htrra (herre) ; keoJut, htnst (neghest, next)* 121. Near, for negh or nigh, first came into use in the phrase 'far and near,' in which near is an adverb, and represents the oldest English neorran = near (adv.), analogous tofeorran = afar. 1 This root is found in Sansk. moJt (= magh), to grow, become great ; also in O.E. mtrx-ett = main. * "The mere to the Church the ferther from God. 1 * HEYWOOD'S Proverbs, C. " The near in blood the nearer bloody." Macbeth, ii. 3. J * When bale is hekst boote is next." HEYWOOD'S Proverbs, E. iiL back. Hawes (Past, of PI. p. 60) uses the old ferre : " My raynde ' her was so ententyfe That I folowed her into a temple ferre, Replete with joy, as bright as any sterr*," *^l _ ADJECTIVES. ,09 In this we see the positive is replaced by an adverb J- and not by the comparative adjective, as is usually supposed. Nearer, nearest, are formed regularly from near. 122. FAR, FARTHER, FARTHEST (Q.*. feor, fyrra, fyrrat Later forms, fer,ferre (ferrer), ferrest). Farther is for far-er;* the th seems to have crept in from false analogy with further. Farthest = far-est. Further - O E further = ult>-ius, the comparative of furth = forth. The super- lative in O.E. v LATE. LATER, LATEST (O.E. late, lator, latest}; late, latter, last (O.E. late-mest last). Last - O.E. latst: cp. bat - betst* Latter and last refer to order, as "The latter alternative ; " " The last of the Romans." Later and latest refer to time. This distinction is not always strictly observed by our poetical writers. RATHER. The positive and superlative are obsolete. Rathe was the positive, as "the rathe primrose " (Milton) : here rathe means early. Rather means sooner, and is now used where liefer was once employed. The O.E. forms were hrtfd (ready), hrallira, krathdft. 123. Adjectives containing the superlative m. The Old English for-m-a signifies first, the superlative of a roo fore. Fyrm-est = for-m-ost also had the same meaning, but is a double superlative. First (O.E. fyrrest, fyn(] is the regular superlative of fore. Former is a comparative formed from the old superlative. In O.E. we have ferine &n&forfmeste for first. " Adam our forme fader. " CHAUCER. " Adam oure/oremeste fader." MAUNDEVILLK. Forme fader was afterwards changed to (j)forne fader; (a) formerfather. 1 The adverb seems to be comparative. x By some,furi/ifr is explained as more to Hie fore, as if it contained the com- parative suffix -ther. 3 In the " Oimuiam" we have late, lattrc, lattst = late, latter, last. 1 10 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 124. The suffix -most (O.E. /), then, in such words as utmost is a double superlative ending, and not the word most. The analogies of the language clearly show that most was never suffixed to expre the superlative. after-m-ost = O E. afte-m-at, <*fter-m at. further-m-ost = furthest = Q.E. forth-m-at. In O.E. we fmAfortker-M-ore and backer-m-ore. hindmost, hindermost = O.E. hindu-ma, hinde-ma. Chaucer uses hinderest : cp. O.E. interest, merest, ufferest, utterest. hither-m-ost is not found in the oldest English, in-m-ost, inner-m-ost = O.E. inne-m-est, inne-ma. lover-m-ost, (nether-m-ost = O.E. nithe-m-a, mtJie-m-est). mid-m-ost = O.E. mede-ma, mede-mest. out-m-ost, outer-m-ost ) = O.E. ute-ma, uU-rrmt. ut-m-o-t, utter-m-ost ) up-m-ost, upper-m-ost, over-m-ost = O.E. yfe-mest, ufe-meste. 125. Over = upper (cp. a-b-ove) in O.E. writers : " Pare thy brede and kerve in two, The over crust tho nether fro." Bake of Curfasye, p. 300. " With tho ove-tit-ast [uppermost] lofe hit [the saltcellar] shalle be set." Ib. p. 32* 126. In O.E. we find superlatives of south, east, west, as nttkemest, eastemest, and wesfemest. Comp. endmost (O.E. endemest), topmost, headmost III. NUMERALS. 1 1 27. NUMBERS may be considered under their divisions Cardinal, Ordinal, and Indefinite Numerals. 1 The origin of the numerals is involved in much obscurity. Oite seems to- have been another form of the pronoun a, he, that. In Or. elc (= t -0 we have a form cognate with same, fame; cp. Lat. sim-plex, tint-ills, semel, sinputi Two. In Lat. this assumes the form bi, ri (prefixes \ bis ; Gr. 3i'c (adverb). Three = that what gOf s beyond, from the root tri (tar), to go beyond. Four. The original form is said to signify and three, i.e. i and tiirte. Sansk. ikalar. Lat. gnatnor; cha = qua = and ; tur =: tuor =. three. Others explain cha = /fr/i one. [Fii't XI. ] ADJECTIVES. 1 1 1 i. Cardinal. 128. One. O.E. an; Goth, ains; Gr. s?s ; Lat. unus ; Sansk. f-kj. Out of the O.E. form an = one was developed the so-called indefinite article an and (by loss of n) a. In O. E. we find one = ana = alone. Two. O.E. twa ; Goth, tvai; Gr. Svo; Lat. duo; Sansk. dva; O.Sax. tut. Twain = two, O.E. iwegen. We had another word for two in the Northern dialects, of Scandinavian oiigin, viz. twin, originally a distributive : cp. Goth, tveinnai, O.N. ti-ennr. Thrin for three also occurs in O.E. Northern writers, O.N. tkrennr. Three. O.E. thri, threo ; Goth, threis ; Gr. rpfts ; Lat. ires; Sansk. tri. Four. O. E. feovjer ; Goth, fidvor; Gr. Ttrrapej, rsWapes; Lat. (ftiatuor ; Sansk. katvar. This numeral has lost a letter, ///, and there is an O. E. compound fetker-foted, fither-foted quadruped which fcthcr is, of course, more oriinal Five. O.E.///"; Goth, fimf; Gr. trtvre ; Lat. quinque; Sansk. panchan. \\\five we see that a nasal has disappeared. Six. O.E. six ; Goth, saihs ; Gr. e{; Lat. SCJT; Sansk. shash. Seven. O.E. seofon; Goth, sibun ; Gr. fwrd ; Lat. septem ; Sansk. saptan. Eight. O.E. eahta; Goth, ahta^'t.; Gr. UKTU; ~La.t.octo; Sansk. ashtan. Nine. O.E. nigon ; Goth, niun ; O.Sax. nigun ; Gr. irvfa; Lat. nffvem ; Sansk. navan. In the fourteenth century we find ntghen for nine. The gh orf represents an original v. five = that which comes after ffour]. The Sansk. panchan is connected with/ru&r&x = coming after, as mpaskchAt, behind, after. Six. Sansk. shash = Zend, kshvas, which is probably a compound of two Sevtn is connected with a root sap, to follow that which follows [six]. Sansk. ashtiin a. + cha + tan i + and + 3. and is the beginning of a new F.ight i., originally a dual form. Sansk. afhto sithcs too = 2 X 2. 135. Both. O.E. begen (m.), b& (n.); Goth, bai, ba ; Ger. bei-de. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find bey, ba, [><>, boo = both ; gen. beire (bother, botheres). Sometimes ba is joined to tiva (two), as bdtiua, buhva, butu. Bo-th is a derivative of bo or ba, by means of the suffix -th. Cp. Goth, baj-oths; O.N. b&thir. As we find bathe first in the Northern dialects, it is probably due to Scandinavian influence. The O. E. begen softened to beyne occurs in the literature of the fourteenth century : " Well thou maiht, Sif thou wolt, taken ensaumple of beyne, Bothe two in heor elde children heo beore." Vemon MS. 2. Ordinals. 136. The ordinals, with the -exception of first and second, are formed from the cardinal numbers, and were originally superlative* formed by the suffix -fa (th). First. For the etymology of this word see 123. I ,, 4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Second (Lat. secundus = following) has replaced the O.K. other (a comparative form). In O E. other (= on-ther = one of two) might signify the first or the second of two It is sometimes joined with the neuter of the article, as thcrt oilier, which in the fourteenth century was represented by the father (= thet other) ; the first was sometimes expressed by the ton (the toon), the tone = thet one. Third = O.K. thridda, thridde ; -de ( = -dja) is an adjective suffix = tha : cp. Lat. ter-tiu-s. Fourth = O.E. feor-tha. Fifth = O.E. ff-ta. Sixth = O.E. six-ta. Seventh, Ninth, Tenth = O.E. seofStka, nigStha, teotha. In thirteenth and fourteenth centuries these were sevetAe, nethe, and tethe (in the Southern dialects). sevende, neghende, tende (in the Northern dialects). seventhe, ninthe, tenthe (in the Midland dialects). The Midland forms are formed from the Northern ones, and made their appearance in the fourteenth century ; and the latter are of Scandinavian origin. 1 In the Northumbrian Gospels we find seofunda. Eighth stands for eight-th ; O.E. eaht-o-tha. In O. E. (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) we find aghtende. Eleventh* = O.E. endlefta, eellefta (elleuendf, endlefthe in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries). Twelfth = O.E. twelfta (twelfths, twelft, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries). Thirteenth = O. E. threthefaha \threttethe and threttende, thirtende, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries]. So up to nineteen, the oldest English forms end in -othe (without ) as : fourteen, fecruyrteotha ; fifteen, fij 'teotha ; sixteen, sixteotha ; seventeen, seofonteotha ; eighteen, eahtateotha ; nineteen, nigonteotha. The corresponding forms in use in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were: fourteen, fourtethe, fourtende, fourtenthe ; fifteen, fyftetht, fif tende, fifttnthe ; sixteen, sixtethe, sextendt, sixtenthe, &c. Twentieth = O.E. hvcntug-otha (twenlithe}. 1 Cp. O.N. 7 siSundi, 9 ninndi, 10 tiundi, 13 threttandi, \t,fi>ntandi, &c. * For origin of see remarks on Seventh. xi.] ADJECTIVES. IV. INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 137. The indefinite article, as we have seen, is a new development after the Conquest of the numeral one (dti). Before a word beginning with a consonant the n is dropped. One + the negative ne give us none, O. E. nan. None is only used predicatively or absolutively ; l when used with a following substantive the is dropped, whence no. Before comparatives no is in the instrumental case, as "no better," &c Cp "(he belter," &c. V. INDEFINITE NUMERALS. 138. All = O.E. tail, eal (see note on the old genitive plural, allcr, alder, 107). 139. Many = O.E. manig, maneg.* In the thirteenth century we find for the first time the indefinite- article used after it, as : on moni are wisen (La3amon), many enne thing many a wise, many a thing. Hawes has many a fold. 140. Fela, feola, fele, Ger. ^/(many), were once in common use as late as the eighteenth century. 141. Few = O.E.fedwa,fed. In O.E. we findy^, fo, andfone as well as/ewe, few. 1 By absolutely is meant without a following substantive. 1 Many is also a noun, as in "a great many." " A -many of our bodies." Hen. V. v. j. " O thou fond many." 2 Hen. IV. \. 3. " The rank-scented many." " In many 's looks." Sonnets, 93. " A meanye of us were called together." LATIMER'S Sermons " Than a gret many of old sparowes geder to-geder." L. ANDREWS. "And him fyligdon mycele ma-nigeo = and there followed him (a) great many (or multitude)." Matt. iv. 25. I 2 CHAPTER XII. PRONOUNS. 142. ON the nature of the Pronoun see p. 80, 62. 143. The classes of Pronouns are : (i) Personal Pronouns, (2) Demonstrative Pronouns, (3) Interrogative Pronouns, (4) Relative Pronouns, (5) Indefinite Pronouns. I. Personal Pronouns. (i) SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 144. The personal pronouns have no distinction of gender. There are two person? : the person who speaks, called thejirsf person ; the person spoken to, the second person. (a) Inflexion of the Pronoun of the First Person. 1 O. English. SING. Norn. I Ic Ich* Uch* Gen. min Dat. me me Ace. me mec me PLURAL Kcm. we we Gen. Aser ure Dat. us As Ace. us usif us 145. In I the guttural has disappeared : it is radical and exists in the allied languages, as Sar.sk. ah-ant ; Or. t->ho, * ho, * sco. * hire, hire. hi, heo.* NEUTER, Nom. it hit. his. him. hit. PLURAL. Nom. They hi, heo, hit,* )>,* ]>ai,* \>ei* Gen. Aira, heora, here, her, \>ar* )?air.* Dat. Them hem, heom, hem* ham,* \>am* \>aim.* Ace. Them hi, heo, hem,* i>am,* \>o* 157. The Old English pronouns were formed from only one stem, hi ; but the modern English contains the stems hi, sa, and tha. He. For he we sometimes find in Old English ha, a (not con- fined always to one number or gender =&r, she, it, they}. It occurs in Shakespeare, as "'a must needs" (2 Hen. VI. iv. 2) ; qtioth 'a; and is also common in other old writers, as "has a eaten bull-beefe" (S. Rowlands) ; "see how a frownes" (Ib.). Hi-m (dat.) contains a real dative suffix m, which is also found in the dative of adjectives and demonstrative pronouns. 2 1 The demonstrative character of this pronoun is seen in such expressions as, " What is he at the gate ?" (Shakespeare) ; " He of the bottomless pit" (Milton, Areopagitica) ; " hii of Denemarch " (Robert of Gloucester) ; " thai of Lome, Mat of the Castel" (B arbour) ; "they in France" (Shakespeare); " tliem of Greece " (North's Plutarch). Those marked thus (*) are later forms. 2 Him was al~o the dative of it, and we often find it applied to inanimate things in the later periods of the language. Nom. he Gen. Dat. him Ace. him Nom. she Gen. Dat. her Ace. her Nom. it Gen. Dat. it Ace. it 120 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Hi-m (ace.)- This was originally a dative form, which in the twelfth century (in La^amon and Ort.) began to replace the accu- sative. J/i-ne. The old accusative was sometimes shortened to kin and in, and still exists in the South of England under the form en, as " Up I sprung, drow'd [threw] down my candle, and douted [put out] en; and hadn't a blunk [spark] o' fire to teen en again." ( Devonshire Dialxt. ) 1 58. She, in the twelfth century, in the Northern dialects, replaced the old form heo. The earliest instance of its use is found in the A. -Sax. Chronicle. 1 After all, it is only the substitution of one de- monstrative for another, for she is the feminine of the definite article, which in O.E. was seo or sia ; from the latter of these probably comes she. In t'.e Lancashire dialect the old feminine is still preserved under the form ho, pronounced something like he in her. Her (dat.) contains a true dative (fern.) suffix, -r or -re. Her (ncc.) was originally dative, and, as in the case of him, has replaced an accusative ; the old ace. was hi, heo. 159. I-t has lost an initial guttural. 2 The /is an old neuter suffix (cp. tha-t, wha-t) cognate with d in Latin illn-d, istu-d, quo-d, qui-d. It is often a kind of indeterminate pronoun in O. E. ; it was a man = there was a man ; it am there are. It (dat.) has replaced the true form him. For the history of the word his see Adjective Pronouns. 160. They. In the thirteenth century this form came into use in the North of England, and replaced hi or heo ; the earliest forms of it are )> thei, tha. The Southern dialect kept up the old form hi or heo nearly to the end of the fourteenth century. Tliey is the nom. plural of the definite article, O.E. tha, probably modified by Scandinavian influence. 3 1 1140 (Stephen). Dzr efter sccr ferde ofer sas." In the thirteenth century, the ordinary form, of she is sea, found in Northern writers ; scA^(sfte)is a Midland modification of it. a We find this h disappearing as early as the twelfth century (as in Ornt.). 3 The O. Norse forms bear a greater resemblance to they, their, and them than the O.E. ones. O. Norse thei-r, theirra, theim. O.E. tha, th&ra, th&m. The Midland and Southern dialects changed O.E. tha to tJto, not to thei or xii.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 121 " Or gif thai men, that will study In tne craft of Astrology," &c HARBOUR'S Bruce. Them (clat.), O.K. \>dm, is the dative plural of the definite article, and" replaced O. E. heom, hem. The-m (ace.) is a dative form; the true accusative is thd or thy. It has replaced the O.E. hi or heo. "We often find in the dramatists em (ace.), usually printed 'em, as if it were a contraction of them, which represents the old heom, /tern, as " The sceptre and the golden wreath of royalty Seem hung within my reach. Then take 'em to you An i wear 'em long and worthily." RO\VE. 161. TABLE showing the origin of she, they, &c. Definite Article. Masc. Fern. Neut. Singular Norn. . . se seo (sio) thaet THE SHE THAT Norn. Gen, Dat. Ace. Plural . tha thara tham tha II II THEY THEIR THEM \Ve have said nothing about the genitives of the personal pro- nouns, because they are now expressed by the accusative with a pre- position. For the origin of the pronominal genitives, see Adjective Pronouns. (2) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 162. Reflexives in English are supplied by the personal pronouns with or without the word self. " I do repent me." SHAKESPEARE'S Merchant of Venice. " Signor Antonio commends him to you." Ib. " My heart hath one poor string to stay it by." A'/Xf John. " Come, lay thee down." LODGE'S Looking Glass. " Ladies, go sit you down amidst this bower." Ib. "AH (f_hes) have hid them in the weeds."-JoHN FLETCHER'S Faithful Shepherdess. 163. The addition of self renders the reflexive signification more emphatic, ai 122 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. (I) myself, (thou) thyself, &C. Singular . 1st person, myself; 2d person, thyself, yourself. Plural . . ourselves; ,, yourselves. Singular (3d person) . masc, himself; fern, herself; neut. itself. Plural ,, . themselves. 164. Self 1 was originally an adjective = same, as "in that selve moment" (CHAI-CEK). " A goblet of the self " = " A piece of the same." Bake of Curtasye, \. 776. " That self mould " (SHAKESPEARE, Rick. II. i. 2). Cp. self-same _ In the oldest English selfvizs, declined as a definite or indefinite adjective ; as Ic seifanA Ic selfct I (my)self, and agreed with the pronouns to which it was added ; as nom. Ic self a ; gen. min selfes, dat. me silfum, ace. mec si If tie. 165. In O.K. sometimes the dative of the personal pronoun was prefixed to the nominative of self, as (i) It me silf; (2) thu the silf; (3) he him silf: (i) we us silfe ; (2) ge e6w silfe; (3) hi him silfe. 166. In the thirteenth century a new form came in, by the sub- stitution of the genitive for the dative of the prefixed pronoun in the first and second persons, as mi self, thi self, for me self, the self; our self, your self, for us self, you self. No doubt self began to be regarded as a noun. Cp. one's self. " Speak of thy fair self, Edith." J. FLETCHER. " My woeful self." BEN JONSON. "Thy crying self." SHAKESPEARE. " For at your dore myself doth dwell." HEYWOOD, The Four P.'s. " Myself hath been the whip." CHAUCER. Hence self makes its plural, selves, like nouns ending in -f, -fe; cp. " To our gross selves (Shakespeare) a formation altogether of recent origin. "To prove their selfes" occurs in Berner's Froissart. 3 167. Such phrases as Ctesar's self( North), Tarquin's self (Shake- speare), are not, philologically speaking, so correct as AttUa self (North), &c. Comp. " And knaw kyndly what God es And what man self es that es les." HAM POLE'S Pricke of Consc., p. 4. 1 Self, Goth, tilba, Ger. selbe, probably contains the reflexive si (Lat se), and 'If ft, life, soul (as in Ger. leib, body). The Sansk. atman, soul, is used as a reflexive. * 111 O.E. the plural was marked by e or -en : when this disappeared it left the plurals ourself, yourself, themself; but as me and you were often used in the singular number, a new plural came into use, so we now say yourself (sing. ), yourselves (pi.). Cp. " We have saved ourself that trouble." FIELDING. ' You, my Prince, yourself a soldier, will reward him." LORD BYRON. xii.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 123 1 68. In himself, themselves, it self (not its self) the old dative remains unchanged ; his self, themselves, are provincialisms. With own, his and their may be used. 169. In O.E. one was sometimes used for self. " And the body with flesshe and bane, Es harder than the saul by it ant." HAMPOLE, Pricke of Consc., p. 85. " Whan they come by them one two " = " When they two came by themselves." Marie d' Arthur, p. 14. (3) ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 170. The adjective pronouns, or, as they are sometimes called, the possessive pronouns, were originally formed from the genitive case of the personal pronouns, and were declined like adjectives. In modern English, the possessive adjective pronouns are identical in form with the old genitives of the personal pronouns, and are indeclinable. Traces of the older adjectival forms are found in the fourteenth century. 171. Mine, my, thine, thy, O.E. min, thin. The e in mine and thine only marks the length of the preceding vowel, and is no inflexional syllable. -n is a true genitive suffix as far as English is concerned, but is of adjectival origin. 1 In the twelfth century the n dropped off before a consonant, but was retained (a) in the oblique cases, (b) in the plural (with final e), (c) when the pronoun followed the substantive, (d) before a word com- mencing with a vowel. The fourth or euphonic use i of mine and thine is exceedingly common in poetry, as " Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice." SHAKESPEARE. Of the third usage we have instances as late as Shakespeare's time, as brother mine, uncle mine. 172. His, a true genitive of the root hi. In O.E. we often find a plural hist. He-r, O.E. hi-re, contains a genitive suffix, -r (re). Goth, meiiia, theina ; Gr. ^ov, aov (TCOI'O) ; Lat. met, tut; S.insk. warnj, lava. The Gothic forms correspond to Sansk. mad-tya, tvad-lya, the * in meina, tlieina representing d ia mad-iya, &c. 124 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. Its, O.E. his. This form is not much older than the end of the sixteenth century. It is not found in the Bible, or in Spenser, rarely hi Shakespeare 1 and Bacon, more frequently in Milton, common in Diyden, who seems to have been ignorant of the fact that his was once the genitive of it, as well as of he. " And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind." Gen. i. 12. " // shall bruise thy head, and them shall bruise his heel." Gen. iii. 15. " And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world. Did lose his lustre." Julius Cefsar, i. 2. 173. Alonp with the use of his we find, in the fourteenth century, in the West Midland dialect, an uninflected genitive hit. " Forthy the derk dede see hit is demed ever more For hit dede3 of dethe duren there Set." 2 Allit. Poems, B. 1. 1021. This curious form is found in our Elizabethan dramatists : " It knighthood shall fight all it friends." Silent Woman, ii. 3. " The innocent milk in it most innocent mouth." " The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long, That it's had it head bit off by it young." Lear, i. 4. " That which groweth of it own accord." 3 Levit. xxv. 5. 174. For its own we have a curious form that occurs frequently in older writers, namely l the own,' as "A certeine sede which groweth there of the own accord e." Fardell of Fadon, 1555. It occurs in Hooker, but is altered in the modern reprints to its own. The earliest instance of this usage is found in Hampole's " Pricke of Conscience," p. 85 (A.D. 1340) : " For the saule, als the boke bers wytnes, May be pyned with fire bodily, Als rt may be wiih the awen body." 175. Ou-r, you-r, O.E. u-re (us-er), emv-er . All these forms contain a genitive pL suffix (adjectival), -r (-re). See note on Alder, p. 105. Thei-r has also a genitive pi. suffix, -r, and has replaced the older kt-re (heo-re, he-re, he-r). See Table, p. 121. 1 Mr. Abbott notices that it is common in Florio's Montaigne, " " Therefore the dark Dead Sea il is 'leemed evermore, For its deeds of death endure (last) there yet." ! TV mod . ern reprint of the edition of 1611 has altered it to its. 4 A later iorm. xii.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 125 (4) INDEPENDENT OR ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. 176. Mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, are called independent or absolute because they may be used without a following substantive, as this is mine, that is yours. " The tempest may break out which overwhelms thee And thine, and mine." BYRON. 177. Hers, ours, yours, theirs, are double genitives containing a pi. suffix r + a sing, suffix -s. These forms were confined in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to the Northern dialects, and are probably due to Scandinavian influence. Sometimes we find imi- tations of them in the Midland dialects, as /tores, heres theirs. The more ordinary forms in the Southern dialects than these in -i are hire (hir), oure (our), youre (}'0ur), here (her], as "I wol be your in alle that ever I may." CHAUCER. In Old English we sometimes find ouren ours ; heren = theirs, and in provincial English we find hisn, /tern, ourn, theirn. II. Demonstrative Pronouns. 1 78. The demonstratives, with the exception of the and yon, are used substantively and adjectively. (i) The (usually called the Definite Article) was formerly declined like an adjective for number, gender, and case, but is now without any inflexion. 1 SINGULAR. Masc. Nont. se, the* Gen. thce-s, the-s* lhi-s* tha-s.* Dat. tha-tn, tha-n* the-n.* Ace. tha-ne, the-ne* t/ia-rtf,* the-n* thoiu. Inst. till, till. Fern. Nam. sea, theo* thn* the* Gen. tha-re, tha-re,* t he-re* Dat. thce-re, tha-re,* the-re* Ace. tha, theo* the* Neut. Kont.\ and } tha-t, that* thet* Ace. ) Gen. ) and } like the Masc. Dat. } ' Later forms which were in- partial use during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries are distinguished thus (). 126 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. PLURAL. Kern. tkA, Otau* tlto* the* Gen. tha-ra, tha-ra, thare* tkere.* Dat. tJkA-m, tJue-m, tJtan,* ikon,* then* Ace. tM, tkaie* tko* the* The inflexions began to drop off about the middle of the twelfth century. The, before a comparative, is the old instrumental thi, as the inert eo niagis, &c. (2) That. In the O.E. Northern dialects that was used irrespec- tive of gender, as lhatt engell ; thatt allterr (Orm.), and in the fourteenth century we find it as a demonstrative, as now, taking the place of the older thilk (thilte). See next page. Then it took fr itself the following plurals : (a) tho (or t/ia), the old plural of the definite article ; () thos (thas), the old plurals of this. 1 In the Southern and some of the Midland dialects, we find thts> thru, t/tisz, tftcs these. (3) Those = O.E. thas, the old plural of thes = this. The history of the word that should be borne well in mind : (i) It was origin ally neuter, (cp. i-t, vrAa-tl ; (2) It became an indeclinable dctncnstratire, answering in meaning to ill*, ilia, illud; (3) It took the pi. (i) of the; (a) of this. (4) This ( = hif, hoc, hoc) = O.E. thes (m.), theos (f.), this (m.), as formerly declined like an adjective. Here again the neuter has replaced the masculine and feminine forms, which, however, in the south of England were to be found as late as 1357. In Wickliffe we have thins fader = the father of this man. The O.E. thti is (as seen by the O Sax. these) contracted, and it contains the root the (or tka, as in ttu and a lengthened form of se (the;, Sansk. sfa. This u(sya, had the force of Lat. -c, -que, as in Ju-c, quit-gut. These = O.E. thds, thes* these,* thisf* this.* ^ 1 The e is no sign of inflexion, but marks the length of the vowel a. Koch supposes tkose to be a lengthened form of the old pi. tho. He seems to have overlooked the Northumbrian use of MAI (which in the Midland dialects would be represented by tkos). Koch's statement is : " Es kann nicht die fortbildung von Ags. thas sein." Cp. the following passage from Hampole'f Pritkt of Cotuc p. 30 : " Alle tkas men that the world mast dauntes, Mast bisily the world here hiuntes ; And thas that the world serves and loves, Serves the devil, as the book proves." xii.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 127 This refers to the more immediate object, that to the remoter object. " What conscience dictates to be done, Or wains me not to do, This teach me more thau hell to shun, Tluit more than heaven pursue." POPB. 179. We have three demonstratives containing the adjective -Itc, like, with the instrumental case of the particles so, the, and i (Goth. i-s). (1) Such: O.E. fwilc 1 = swi, the inst. of swa = so. and -k = lie = like. Such then signifies so-like (cp. Ger. solch = so-lich) ; such like is a pleonastic expression. In the Northern dialects we find slyk, s/i, silk, of Scandinavian origin, whence Scotch sic. In O. E. siiche ten, &c. = ten times as much (or as many), &c. "The lengthe is suche ten as the deepnesse." Pilgrimage, p. 235. (2) Thilk = the like, that, that same = O.E. thy-lic, thy-lc {thdk,* thulk,* thtke*) ; Provincial English thuck, finicky (theck, thick, thicky, thecky}. Thi = the instrumental case of the. and Ik = like. It corresponds exactly to LaL ta-lis, Sansk. ta-drisha, Gr. frjXinos. " I am thilke that thou shouldest seeche." Pilgrimage, p. 5. " She hadde founded thiike hous." Ib. p. 7. Thys-lic (whence thylltc) = this like, is sometimes found in O.E. (3) Ilk = same: ' of that ilk. 1 " This ilk worthe knight." CHAUCER. " That ilk* man." Ib. Ilk = O.E. ylc ; i or y = the instrumental case of the stem i = he, that, and -Ik = -U like. 180. Same: Gothic saia, O.N. samr, Lat. similis, Gr. ouas, Sansk. sama. In the oldest English same is an adverb = together, and not a demonstrative. As the word makes its appearance for the first time in the Nor! hern dialects, it is no doubt due to Scandinavian influence. 8 It is joined to the demonstratives the, this, that, yon, yond, self. 1 In O.E. of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there are various forms o/ this compound, as'swulc, sulcJt, swulch, stoich, nvucJt, sock. = That ilk, O. E. that ylca, was originally neuter. Ilk = same must be dis- tinguished from O. E. ilk, ilka, eacH, ea :h one. 3 Sam...satn = whether.. .or, is found in O.E. 12 8 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. ICHAP. ifcl. Yon, yond, yonder. Goth./( And the Ixtndur is my quene, Betryce she hette." Chevelere Assign*, 1. 232. " Ys Tirme thy page?" R. OP BRUNNE, Spec, of E. Eng., p. 119. " The 'itoiul is th.it semly." WILL. OF PALERNE. 182. So. O.E. = swa. " Folly (I say) that both makes friends and keeps them so." BP. RENNET'S Translation ^"ERASMUS" Praise of Folly. " If there were such a way ; there is none so." GOWER, ii. 33. In O.E. so (inst.) is used before comparatives like Hie (O. E. tht) : "swa leng the werse" = tlu longer tlte worse ; " smo leng swo more." O.E. Hem. Second Series, pp. 85, 87. III. Interrogative Pronouns. 182*. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, what, whether, with the compounds whoever, whatever, whether- soever, whichsoever. 183. Who. O.E. hwa, hitio* ho* (masc. and fern.), hwaf, wat * (neut. ) ; Goth, hva-s (m. ), hva (neuL ) ; Sans-k. kds (m. ), kA (f. ), ka-t (neut.) ; Gr. KO-S, TO? ; Lat. quis, qua, quod* It is only used of persons, and is masculine and feminine. Whose. O.E. Awas, -whos,*hos* was* was,* gen. sing. Origin ally of all genders, now limited to persons, though in poetry it occasionally occurs with reference to neuter substantives. It is also used absolutely, as " Whose is the crime?" Whom (dat. sing.)* O.E. hwam* wham* 'worn,* originally of all genders. The accusative hwone (hwane) was replaced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by >/;>, but instances of the older Jnvone are to be found under the forms Irwan, wan, wane. 1 We have the same root perhaps in O.E. anent, anence; O.H. Ger. entiont : Mid. H. Ger. jen-unt beyond. Gtonre = Ger. jener, occurs in King Alfred'* translation of St. Gregory's Pastoral. 1 Those marked thus (*) are later forms. xii.] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 129 184. Wha-t, originally the neuter of -who. In the "Ormulum" what is used adjectively, without respect to gender, as "whatt inarm ? " "w/iatt thing?" just as we say, "-what man?" ''what woman?" " what thing ? " Without a noun it is now singular and neuter ; with a noun it is singular or plural, and of all genders. What in Old English was used in questions concerning the nature, quality, or state of a person, as hwizt is tys quis cst /&;V(Matt. iv. 41). " What is this woraman, quod I, so worthily atired ? " Piers Plowman. What is followed by a, like many, such, each, c. 185. What for = -what sort of a, is an idiom that made its appearance in the sixteenth century, and is similar to the German was fur ein, as What is he for a vicar ? = Was, fiir einen Vikar, ister? What sort of a vicar is he? Spenser, Palgrave, and Ben Jonson have instances of it. 186. Whether. Q ... hivccther, ivheth'er,^ -wher ; Goth, hva-thar = which of the two. 2 It has become archaic; but was very common in the seventeenth century. " W ''tether is greater, the gift or the altar?" Matt, xxiii. 19, It is very rarely used adjectively, as in the following passage : "Thirdly (we have to consider) whether state (the Church or the Common- wealth) is the superior." BP. MORTON in Literature of tlie C/iurcA of England, vol. i. p. 109. In the thirteenth century it is rarely inflected ; and the following passages are almost unique : (a, alswa, also,* alse,* ase,* als ;* cp. O.E. hwa-ttua and hose whoso) possesses a relative force on account of its being a compound of so, 1 and is usually employed as such when preceded by the demonstratives such, same, so much.* " All such reading as was never read." POPE. " Unto bad causes swear Such creatures as men dcubt." Julius Cersar, ii. i. " For all such authors as be fullest of good matter ... be likewise alwayes most proper in words." ASCHAM'S Scholemaster, p. 136. " Some such sores as greve me to touch them myself." Ed. 1. in Old Plays, vol. ii. p. 20. " Such, one as is already furnished with plentie of learning." Ib. p. 113. " These are suck as with curst curres barke at every man but their owne friends." GOSSON, School of Abuse, p. 18. " For tho sche thoghte to beginne Such thing as semeth impossible." GOWEK, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 373. " Of sich as loves servauntes ben." Romaunt of the Rose, 1. 145. " In thilke places as they habiten." Ib. 660. After so, as occurs sometimes " So many examples as filled xv. bookes." ASCHAM, p. 157. In Shakespeare it is found after this, that: " That gentleness as I was wont to have." Julius Ccesar, i. 2. " Under these hard conditions as this time is like to lay upon me."//*. But in O.E. writers we sometimes find as = such as : " DrauJtes as me draweth in poudre " ^characters suck as one draws in powder (dust). E. Eng. Poems, p. 77. " Talys shall thou fynde therynne, Mervelys some as Y fonde wrytyn." R. OF BRUNNE, p. 5 207. For such ... as the oldest English has swylc . . . syivlc such . . such : " He sece swylcne hlaford nvylcne he wille." Mths. V.\.\: let him seek such a lord as he may choose. At the end of the twelfth century we find as for stvylc . " Withth all su'illc rime alls her iss sett." Ornt. D. 101. Cp. tke following, where alse as if = the older sivilc : " He wes so kene, he wes swa strang Sw tic hit weore an eotand." Lal>. A. p. 58. ' ^ThVsV/is mov^Vdie people~are ckangcd."-D R . DONNE'S Ser*,** Those marked thus (*) are later forms 136 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. " He wes swa kcne, and so strong, A 1st he were an catande [= giantj." La*,. B. p. 58. (A = earlier text early thirteenth century ; B = later thirteenth.) Sometimes so is found after swylc: " And swilche othre [sennen] so the apostle her nemde." O.E. Homilies, Second Series. " Swylcra yrmtha swa thu unc ser scrife " = Of such miseries as thou pre- viously assigned to us (two). Exeter Book, 373.' 208. Who-so, what-so, who-so-ever, which-so-ever are relatives (indefinite), like the Latin quisquis, quicunque. The latter parts of the compounds, used adjectively, are sometimes separated by an intervening noun, as " We can create, and in what place soe'er Thrive tinder evil." MILTON, i. 260. " Upon what side as ever itfalle." GOWEK, Confess. Ainant. \. 264. 209. What is used sometimes for -whatever : " And, speak men -what they can to him, he'll answer With some rhyme rotten sentence." HENRV POKTBR in LAMB'S Drain. Poets, p. 432, Holm's Series. " What thou here yef no credence." GOWER'S Confess. Antant. i. 50, In O.E. we find who that ever, tuhat that ever, who-as-ever, -what-as-evcr, v>hat-als-c-jer. " Yn what cuntre of the worlde so ever that he be gone." Gfst. Rom. i. " Who that ever cometh thedir he shalle fare well." Ib. 210. Who-ever, whatever, -which-ever are relative and interrogative. They do not occur in the oldest English, and are comparatively late forms. V. indefinite Pronouns. 211. The indefinite pronouns do not specify any particular object. Some are used.substantively, others adjectively. Most of them may be used in both ways. The indefinites are (in addition to the inde- finite relatives) who, tuhat, some, none, no, atig/if, naught, enough, any, each, every, either, neither, other, else, sundry, certain. .'. l?- the S , ax - C h ro n- A D. 1137, there is a similar displacement : i wenden tha:t he sculde ben alsitic alse the com was " = they thought tnf he should be all suth as the uncle was. xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 137 212. Who = any one, some one. " Timon, surnamed Misantropos (as who should' say Loupgarou, or the man- hater)." NORTH'S Plutarck, 171. " Suppose who enters now, A king whose eyes are set in silver, one That blusheth gold." DECKER'S Satiro-Mastix. " 'Twill be my chaunce els some to kill wherever it be or whom." DAMS, Scourge of Folly, DODSLEY'S Old Plays, ii. p. 50, " ' Is mother Chat at home ? ' She is, syr, and she is not ; but it please her to whom.'" Jb. p. 61. " The cloudy messenger turns me his back And hums, as who should say, ' You'll rue the time That clogs me with this answer."' Macbeth, iii. 6. " As -who would saye Astrologie were a thing of great primacie." DRAKT'* Sermons. " Sche was as ivlio seith, a goddesse." GowfcR, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 376. " Thay faught[en] alle that longe day, Who had it sene, wele myght he syghe." Morte d Arthur, p. 126. " I will not live Wfu wolde me all this world here give." CHAUCER'S Drtam, 1. 618. " If ther were not ivho to sle it," &c. Pilgrimage, p. 12. " Alsxua (= als wha) say here, may lyf na man \Vithouten drede, that wiue can."- HAMI-OLE, P. ofC. p. 69. " As hwa se seie he this is mare then theof." O E. Horn., First Series, p. 281. " Thcnne aSaines kinde gath hwa that swuche kinscmon ne luueth." Jb., p. 275. Who is sometimes joined to some. See 217. 213. What is indefinite in such expressions as ''I tell youw/^z/" (= something), "I know not what" "what not," " elles what (Chaucer). " Come down and learne the liltie what That Thomalin can sayne." SPENSKR'S Snef. Cal., July. " As they spek of many what." ROBERT OF BKUNNE, Hatidlyngt Synne, Specimens, p. na " Which was the lothliestfe] what." COWER, i. 98. " As he which cowthe mochel ivhat."Ib. i. 320. " Love is bought for litil what." lb. ii. 275. "A little what." WICKLIFFE, John vi. 7. " Gif thaer hioa-t to lafe si " = If there be anything rcmaining.-C-"^ h Sachs from Ettinfilier. In the oldest English we find ilnes hwat and swilces hivat - somewhat For other compounds, see some, 217. 138 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. 214. Some (O.E. sum, som* aliquis, quelque) is used both adjec- tively and substantively. (i) It has the force of the indefinites a, any, a certain, as " And if som Smithfield ruffian take up som strange going ; som new mowing with their mouth ; wrinchyng with the shoulder ; som brave proverb, some fresh new othe, . . . som new disguised garment . . . whatsoever it cost, gotten must it be." ASCHAM, SchoUmaster, p. 44. " And yet he could roundlie rap out so many uglie othes as som good man of fourscore yeare old hath never heard named before." It. p. 48. " Some holy angel Fly to the court of England." Macbeth, iii. 6. "The fireplace was an old one, built by some Dutch merchant long ago." DICKENS. " Sum holi childe." Life of Becket, p. 104. " Ther was sum prest." WICKLIFFE, Luke i. 5. "Sum Song man suede him." 16., Mark xiv. 51. " Bot len me sum fetel (vessel) tharto." Specimens of E. Eng., p. 156. * The33 wisstenn thatt him wacs summ unncuth sihhthe shaewedd." Orm. 228. " Sum dema wass on sumere ceastre." Luke xviii. 2. We find it sometimes with the genitive plural in O.E., as " Tha com his feonda sum." Matt. xiii. 25. (2) It expresses an indefinite part or quantity, as " It is some mercy when men kill with speed." WEBSTER'S Duchess of Malfy. " The annoyance of the dust, or else some meat You ate at dinner, cannot brook with you." MiDDLETON's^n&w of Feverskam. " And therefore wol I make you disport As I seyde erst, and do you som comfort." CHAUCER, Pro!. 1. 770. (3) With plural substantives, as " some years ago. " " Some certain of the noblest-minded Romans." jful. Ctrsar, i. 3. " And some I see . . . That twofold balls and treble sceptres bear." Macoeth, iv. i. * There be iom serving men that do but ill service to their young masters." ISCHAM, SchoUmaster, p. 48. " I write not to hurte any, but to profit som." ID. (4) With numerals, in the sense of about : " Surrounded by some fifty or sixty fathoms of iron cable." DICKENS. xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. '39 " What a prodigy was't That from sotne^ two yards high, a slender man Should break his neck." J. WEBSTER, The White Devil. " Some half hour to seven." BEN JONSON. Every Man in his Humour. " A prosperous youth he was, aged some four and ten." GREEN, p. 66. " Some dozen Romans of us." Cytnb. \. 7. " Some day or two." Rich. III. iii. \. " Tha waeron hi same ten year on tham gewinn." BOETH. xviii. i. (5) With the genitive pi., O.E. " code eahta. sum " = lie went one of eight. We find in modern Scotch a remnant of this idiom in the phrase "a huasum dance," a dance in which two persons are engaged. " Bot it (boat) sa litell wes, that it Mychte our the waiter hot thresum flyt " (carry). BARBOUR'S Brus, p. 63. (6) In apposition instead of the partitive genitive, as " sef thou havest bred ant ale * * * Thou del hit sum about." BARBOUR'S Brus, p. 98. " Hit nis no5t rigt the tapres tende, bote hi were her some" (/>. except some of them were here). Specimens of E. Eng. p. 41. " Summe heo fleijen to Irelonde." La^amon, iii. 167. " Sume tha boceras." Matt. ix. 3. " Ge magon gehyran sume his theawas." sElfric, Dom. 5. in. mense Septem. " Ac sume ge ne gelyfath." John vi. 64. Instead of this contraction the partitive genitive was used as early as the twelfth century. " Sum of the sede feol an uppe the stane and s:im among theornen." O. Eng. Horn., First Series, p. 133. " Summe offure little floce." Orm. 1. 6574. " Lo here a tale of sow sum." R. OF BRUNNE, Handlynge Synne, p. 309. " Summe of hem camen fro fer." WICKLIFFE'S Int. viii. 3. " The kynge and somme of hys defendede hem faste." ROBT. OF GLOU- CESTER, 1. 1290. 215. Some . . . some = alius . . . alius ; alter . . . alter. " Some thought Dunkirk, some that Ypres was his object." MACAULAY. " The work some praise, And some the architect." MILTON, P. L. i. jy " For books are as meats and viands are, some of good, some of evill substance." Arcopagiiica, ed. Arber, p. 43. " Some say he is with the Emperor of Russia, Other some, he is in Rome." Comedy of Errors, iii. a. 140 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAF. In O.E. we find the singular as well as the plural, 1 as " Sum man hath an 100 wyues, sume mo, sum less." MAUNDE.VILLE, p. 22. (a) Singular: " Sam man desireth for to have richesse, And sjm man wolde out of his prisoun fayn." CHAUCHR'S Knightcs Tale. " He mot ben deed, the kyng as schal a page ; Sam in his bed, sain in the deepe see, Sam in the large felde, as men may se." Ib. " Sum was king and sum kumeling (foreigner)." Gen. and Ex. 1. 834. " Anum he sealde fif pund, summit twa, sunium an." Matt. xxv. 15. {*) Plural: " Sommt the hed from the body he smote, Somme the arms, somme the scholdcrs." LONELICH'S St. Graal, p. 128. " Thus may men se that at thoo dayes suiiime were richere then sunime and retlier to give elmesse." CAPGKAVE, p. 10. " Ofsumme sevene and sevenc, of sunime two and two." Ib. p. 16. " He bylevede ys folc somme aslawc and some ywounded." ROBERT or GLOUCESTER, 1. 4855. Byron ("Don Juan ") uses same's = one's " Howsoe'er it shock same's self love." Heywood uses somes " But of all somes none is displeased To be welcome." 216. Some is also used indefinitely with other, another " Who . . . hath . . . not worshipped somt idol or another." THACKERAV'S Httt. ofH. Esmond. " By some device or other." SHAKESPEARE'S Comedy of Errors, \. i. " By some accident or other." HOIIUES. Some . . . many " She pullcth up some be the rote, And manye with a knyf sche schereth." GOWEK, Specimens of Early Eng., p. 373. 217. COMPOUNDS OF SOME. Somebody, something, some-one, somewhat, othersome, some-who. 1 Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar, p. fi. xii.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 141 Somebody 1 " Ere you came by ther grove I was sombody, Now I am but a noddy (i.e. a nobody) " Damon and Pythias, in Dodsley's Old Plays. Something " Wh'jn as we sat and sigh'd, And look'd upon each other, and conceived Not what we ail'd, yet something we dij ail." DANIEL'S Hymen's Triumph. " For't must be done to-night, And something {torn the palace." Macbeth, iii. i. " Sir, you did take me up when I was nothing. And only yet am something by being yours." B. and F. Philaster. Some who " But ilsomivho the flamme staunche." GOWER'S Confess, i. 15. " Than preyede the rich mon Abraham That he wolde sende Lazare or sum other wham To hys brethryn alle fyve." R. OF BRUNNE'S Hattdlyngc Synne, p. 209. Somewhat " From them I should learn somewhat, I am sure, I never shall know here." WEBSTER'S Duchess of Malfy. "Duck. What did I say? Ant. That I should write somewhat." Ib. " There is somewhat in the winde." Damon and Pythias, in Old Plays, \. 193. " Ther nys no creature so good, that him ne wanteth somnvhat of the perfec- tionin of God." CHAUCER (ed Wright), ii. p. 333- " Ther where he was schotte another chappelle standes, and sotrrwhat of that tre." R. OF BRUNNE'S Chron. "He come to Pers there he stode And askede hym sum of hys gode, Sunnvhat of hys clothing." U>., HamHynge Synne. " Thi brother hath snimuhat ngeins thce." WICKLIFFE, Matt. v. 23. " Sumwhatt Ice habbe shaewedd 3uw." Orm. 958. Some one replaced the O. E. sum man. " Some one comes." LONGFELLOW. " Some one among you all, Shew me herself or grave." T. HEVWOOD s Stiver Age. ' Be, p. 185. Att tkto thet = as she that = as one that. "*] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. I45 | I am oon the fayreste." CHAUCER'S Troylus and Cryseide. c. v. . " He was <*"* in soothe, without excepcioun, oon the best on lyve." lb. Compl. ofL. Lyfe, xxiii. "^ So fair a wight as she was oon" GOWER'S Confess. Ant. ii. 70. " An other such as he was on'."Jt>. ii. 15. " Lawe is one the best." /i. iii. 189. " Suche a lemman as thou hast oon."Morte d' Arthur, p. 25. " Such a dynte he gaffe hym one. ' Ib. p. 117. " For thys is one the moste syniie." ROBT. OF BRUNNK, p. 6. In Shakespeare we find one with superlatives " He is one the truest manner'd." Cymb. i. 6. " One the wisest prince." Hen. VIII. ii. 4. In the fifteenth century we find the partitive form in use, as " One " BYRON. " Servile letters anow." 3 Areopagitica, p. 40. 236. Any (O.E. anig = rtllus] is an adjective formed from the numeral dn, one. In O.E. we find ceni, ezi, ei, for any, and La3a- mon has genitives, eeies and czines. " Ay two had disches twelve." Sir Gaw. : Specimens, p. 224. We find a distinction in O.E. made between the singular eny, any, and the plural anif, anye. " And 3if that eni him wraththed adoun he was anon." ROBT. OF GLOUC. 237. Compounds are anyone, anybody, anything, O.E. any -wight, any man, eny persone. " Unnethe eni man mi3te [h]is bowe bende." ROBT. OF GLOUC. Any originally had a negative nanig nullus, of which a trace exists in the twelfth century. "Niss nani thing" = there is not anything. Orm. \. 61, 1. 1839. "Nani matt" = not any man. Jo. p. 216. We use none instead : "And as I had rather have any do it than myself, yet surely myself rather than none at all." ASCHAM'S Scholemaster, p. 157. 238. Each [O.E. (E-lc = d-gc-Zir ; from d (see remarks on aught), and lie = like ; later forms are elc, elch, euch, uch, ych, ech, ilk]. It is properly singular, but has acquired a distributive sense. It is used substantively and adjectively. 1 As an adverb no whit is found as well as naught = not. " I am no ivhit sorry." DODSLEY'S Old Plays, ii. 84. " Ector ne liked no -aiight The wordis that he herd there." Morte d' Arthur 1 Those marked thus {*) are later forms. 3 Mihon {Arcopagit., p. 28, ed. Arber) writes anoufh, adv. L 2 148 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. " Of the fruit Of each tree in the garden we may eat." MILTON'S P. L. ix. 661. " Simeon and Levi took each man his sword." Gen. xxxiv. 25. " Cloven tongues sat upon each of them." Acts ii. 3. " At each his needless heavings." Winter's Tale, ii. 3. "la beam do find in each of three." Love's Labour's Lost, iv. 3. Each and every are used alike by Spenser : " She every hill and dale, each wood and plaine did search."/ 1 . Q. \. a, 8. 239. Each is sometimes used for both " And each though enemies to either 1 's reign Do in consent shake hands to torture me." SHAKESPEARE'S Sonnets, 28. Hence it often happens that each is wrongly followed by pronouns and verbs as the plural number. " Each in her sleep themselves so beautify." Rape of Lucrece, 404. " How pale each worshipful rev'rend guest Rise from a clergy or a city feast." POPE'S Imit. Hor. ii. 75. 240. In the twelfth and following centuries, we find each followed by an, a, on one. " Illc an tmnclene lusst, Annd illc an ifell wille." Orm, 5726. '' Heo bigonne to fle echon." ROBT. OF GLOUCESTER, 378. '.' llkon of the knightes had a barony." R. OF BRUNNE'S Chronicle. " And ilka lym on ilka syde." HAMPOLK'S P. ofC. " Thei token ech on by hymself a peny." WICKLIFFE, Matt. xx. 10. " For hit clam uclie a c\yKc."Allit, Poems. Each one is a remnant of this, as " The princes of Israel, being twelve men : each one was for the house of his fathers." Num. i. 44. Each other sometimes = each alternate, every other, as " Each otJiefwordc I was a knave." Gammer Gurton's Needle. 241. Every is a compound of ever and each, O.K. izver-elc, ever- ilk, ever-each. It was unknown in the oldest stage of the language ; it occurs in Lajamon (ab. 1200). ' " Everilc he kexte, on ilc he gret (wept)." Gen. and Ex. " Everich * of you schul brynge an hundred knightes." CHAUCER'S Knightes Tale, \. 995. 1 Here means each one [of you (two)]. XII.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 149 " Carry hym aboute to every of his friendes." Fardell of Facion, 8. " Every of your wishes." Antony and Clcofi. ii. 2. We also find O.E. evrichon, everilkan = everyone. Everybody and everything are later formations. The history of every having been forgotten in the sixteenth cen- tury, we find every each, like not a whit, no one, &c. " Every each of them hath some vices." BURTON'S Mel. p. 601. 242. Either [O.E. (i) ag-hivather, aither, ait her ; (2) &-hwather, dwther, Atker, oiuther, outlier, tf/ier.] 1 Ei = otheres) is a true genitive. " Let ech of us hold up his hond to other, And ech of us bycome otheres brother." CHAUCER, Specimens of E. Eng. p. 353 " And eyther tlranke of otheres bloode." Gest. Rom. p. 19. 245. Another is a later form ; x sum other was once used instead of it. 246. One another, each other, are sometimes called reciprocal pronouns ; but they are not compounds : in such phrases as " love each other," "love one another," the construction is, each love the other, one love another ; each and one being subjects, and other and another objects, of their respective predicates. In O.E. we find each to other = to each other. We sometimes find ay {her other either other, in this sense, as " Uche payre by payre to plese ayther other" Allit. Poems, p. 46. " Her eyther had killed other." Piers Plowman, Pas. v. 1. 165. Other what = -what else occurs in Dodsley's Old Plays, ii. 67, " What strokes he bare away, or Other-what was his gaines, I wot not." " And (he) speketh of other-kwat." Ancrert Ri-wle, p. 96. 247. Else (O.E. elles, the genitive of the demonstrative root, ele, e/, as in Lat. alius*). 1 Another is used in the Ormulum. * In the oldest English we find a comparative elra. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 151 We find it in O. E. after ought, nought, as in modern English. It has acquired an adverbial sense = aliter. Cp. O.E. owiht dies = aught of other = aught else. " A pouder * * I-maad, outhcr of chalk, outher of glas, Or soin what elles." CHAUCER, 1. 13078. " Bischopes and bachelers, bote maistres and doctours, Liggen in London in lenten and elles." Piers Plowman, Prol. 1. 91. " So, what for drcde and ellis, they were both ensuryd." Tale of Beryn, 1. naa. In the oldest English we had elks hwat = aught else. 1 Sometimes we find not else nought else. " In Moses' hard law we had Not else but darkness. All was not else but night." DODSLEY'S Old Plays, p. 39. 24 . Sundry (O.E. synderig singularis, sundrie, sondry = separate) is now used in the plural " For sundry weighty reasons." Macbeth, iii. i, iv. 3. It occurs, however, sometimes as a singular in older writers in the sense of separate. " Ale hefde sindri moder." LaZ. i. 114. " Thor was in helle a sundri sted." Gen. and Ex. 1984, p. 57. So in Shakespeare " The sundry contemplation Of my travels is a most humorous sadness." As You Like It, iv. i. 249. Several is used for sundry " To every several man" -Julius Casar, iii. 2. " Two several times." Ib. v. 3. " Truth lies open to all, it's no man's several." BEN JONSON. " By some severals" Winter's Tale, i. 2. 250. Divers (O.E. diverse, O.Fr. divers], and different (Fr. different), and O.E. sere, ser (O.Fr. sevre, separated ; sevrte, sepa- ration), are sometimes employed for sundry. 251. Certain (from Lat. certus) is singular and plural, and is used substantively and adjectively. tls what in Chaucer. 152 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. xn. " A certain man planted a vineyard." Mark xii. i. " There came from the ruler of the synagogue's house certain which said." /*. v. 35. " To hunt the boar with ct rtain of his friends." Vcmis and Adonis^ Cp. its use as a substantive in the following passages : " A certayn of varieties and boyes. " BERNER'S Froissart. " A certain of grain." Fardell of f'acion. " Beseeching him to lene him a certeyn Of gold, and he wold quyt it him ageyn." CHAUCER, 1. 12953. " Sit I wolle have another certayne." Gesta Rom. p. 23. CHAPTER XIII. VERBS. 252. VERBS may be classified into (a) transitive, requiring an object, as "he /earns his lessons;" () intransitive, requiring no object, as " the sun shines." 253. Transitive verbs only have a passive voice. Transitive verbs include (i) reflexive verbs, in which, the agent and object are identical, as " he hurt himself" " I'll /ay me down ;" and reciprocal verbs, as "to love one another." These verbs admit of no passive voice. 254. Intransitive verbs include a large number that might be classed as frequentative, diminutive, inceptive, desiderative, &c. Some intransitive verbs, by means of a preposition, become transi- tive, and may be used passively, as " the man laughs at the boy," " the boy was laughed at by the man." Some intransitive verbs have a causative meaning, and take an object, as "he ran," "he ran a thorn through his finger." See Causative Verbs, under the head of VERBAL SUFFIXES. 255. Some transitive verbs are reflexive in meaning, though not in form, and appear at first sight as if used intransitively, as " he keeps aloof from danger," i.e. he keeps himself, &c. Cp. "he stole away to England." Sometimes a transitive verb has a passive sense, with an active form, as "the cakes ate short and crisp" = the cakes were eaten short and crisp. 256. Intransitive verbs may take a noun of kindred meaning or object, called the cognate object, as to die a death, to sleep a sleep, to run a race. 257. Verbs used with the third person only are called impersonal verbs, as me thinks, me seems, it rains, it snows. 258. The verb affirms action or existence of a subject, under certain conditions or relations, called voice, mood, tense. '54 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. In some languages verbs undergo a change of form for voice mood, and tense ; suffixed ; whence rexi, the perfect of reg-ere. Voice. There are two voices (a) the active, in which the subject of the verb is represented as acting, as "I love John;" (6) the passive, in which the subject of the verb is represented as affected by the action, as " I am loved by John." The passive voice has grown out of reflexive verbs ; but our language has never developed, by change of the verb, a reflexive form, so that the passive voice in English is expressed by the passive participle combined with auxiliary verbs. The Scandinavian dialects have a special form for reflexive verbs. See p. 6. 259. There are five moods (i) the indicative makes a simple assertion, states or asks about a fact ; (2) the subjunctive expresses a possibility : it is sometimes called the conditional or conjunctive mood ; (3) the imperative denotes that an action is commanded, desired, or entreated ; (4) the infinitive slates the action without the limitations peculiar to voice, tense, &c., and is merely an abstract substantive ; (5) participles are adjectives. 260. The tenses are three (cf) present, (b} past, (c] future. An action may be stated with reference to time, present, past, and future, as (a) indefinite, (b) continuous and imperfect, (c) perfect, (d) perfect and continuous. Hence we may arrange the tenses according to the following scheme : TENSE. INDEFINITE. IMPERFECT CONTINUOUS. PERFECT. PERFECT CONTINUOUS. Present . . I praise. I am prais- ing. I have praised I have been praising. Past' . . . I praised. I was prais- ing. I had praised. I had been praising. Future . . I shall praise. I shall be praibing. I shall have praised. I shall have been praising. 1 This j was originally a part of the root as, to be. " Sometimes called imperfect. xni.] STRONG VERBS, '55 261. For I praise, I praised, we sometimes use Ida praise, I did praise, which are by some called emphatic present and past tenses. I am going to praise is called intentional present. I was going to praise past. I shall be going to praise future. In English we have only change of form, for \hzpresent andjasf ; the other tenses are expressed by the use of auxiliary verbs. 262. There are two numbers, singular and plural ; three persons, first, second, and third. 263. Conjugation. Verbs are classified according to the mode of expressing the past indefinite tense, into (a] strong verbs, (b) weak verbs. Strong Verbs. The past tense of strong verbs is expressed by a change of vowel only ; nothing is added to the root. Weak Verbs. The past tense indefinite of weak verbs is ex- pressed by adding to the verbal root the syllable d or its euphonic substitute t. The e before d unites the suffix to the root. The distinction between strong and weak verbs must be clearly borne in mind. (1) Strong verbs have vowel change only ; their past tense is not formed by adding -d or -/. (2) The passive participles of strong verbs do tut end in -d or -t, as do those of weak verbs. (3) All p. participles of strong verbs once ended in -en (-) ; i but in very many p. participles tiiis suffix has dropt off. The history of a word is sometimes necessary to be known before its conjugation can be decided. \Veak verbs sometimes have a change of vowel, and the addition of -d or -/, as boiigh-t; but this change is no result of reduplication. STRONG VERBS. 264. All strong verbs in the Aryan languages originally formed their perfect tense by reduplication, that is by the repetition of the root : thus from the root bhug = bend was originally formed (i) bhug-bhug; (2) bhu-bhug (by shortening the first root) ; then by adding the personal ending (3) blni-bkdga, which is the Sanskrit verb = I bowed or bent, and this is found in Gr. W-^etryo, "L&t.f&gi (~fnfugi), Goth, baug, O. E. bedh, English bowed. In the Latin, Gothic, and O.E. forms, the vowel change shows that the initial letter of the root has gone, and the first consonant is 1 The passive participle in -n is only an adjective like wooden. Cp. Lat. pknus original form = (i) na, whence (2) an = (3) en. 156 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. the. initial of the reduplicated syllable. Thus, Latin, fugi = / + fug- 1 = fu + ug-i. l Thu, we sec, the perfect of facto was probably formed : (i) fa-fac-i, (2) fe-fic-i, (3)/, (4) A'- In languages belonging to the Teutonic group, we have even clearer examples of reduplication, as well as of the loss of it. The verb held (past definite of hold, O.E. Iieald-an) was originally heold; but Gothic preserves the fuller form, hai-hald ; O.H.Ger. hialt (i.e. heikalt) ; Ger. hidt.' i In our verb held the first h is the reduplicated letter. The vowel e is the result of the union of the vowel of the reduplicated syllable with that of the root. 265. The several stages would be (i) ha-hald, (2) ha-hild, (3) haild, (4) Md? Cp. Goth, kaittm to call . . perf. haihait. O.E. k&tan hlht,het. Goth, rtdan to rede (advise) rairdth. O.E. rAedan re6rd. Goth. Utan = to let . . . . O.E. latan Goth, laikan = to leap . . . O.E. l&can O.E. on-dradan = to dread . Iail6t. leirt ( leolt ; rfor 1). lailaik. leflc. on-dreord. 266. In Old English we have two verbs that preserve the redu- plicated syllable and the initial root letter (1) Did, the past tense of do, O.E. dide, O. Sax. de-da. It belongs, therefore, to the class of strong verbs. We have a cognate root in n'OoM'. and Lat do; Sansk.'en his people Israel" Eng. Bible ; ' he half his brother ' CAPCKAVE, p. 30; holp for lielpen is found in Shakespeare, Teiitfest, i. 2. 3 Some grammarians have ascribed these past tenses to the pret. pi. ; but this is hardly probable, for we do not find these forms in use in the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries, i.e. sw-im for nvam in past sing. ; what we do meet with is a change of a into o, as nvom, began, song (soong). Ben Jonson has to fling, past. Jiang, Jl on f, p.p.Jlonf, &c. xiii.] STRONG VERBS. 161 A few verbs have on, which has arisen out of an o or oo, as bound = O.K. bond band ; found = fond (foond) = fund ; ground grand (groond) grand. (6) Wound --= past of to wind (up), but winded = past tense of to wind a horn ; but Walter Scott has "his horn he wound" (Lady of the ' (7) Foughten occurs in Henry V. iv. 6 : cp. " a \ia.rd.-foughten feeld " (Heywood's Proverbs, E. in). Starven p.p. is used by Sackville : " her starven corpse " (Induction) ; " hnnger-starven " (Hall's Satires) ; but " hunger -starved" (Gam. Gurton's Needle). O.E. PRES. PAST. P.i'. PRES. PERF. (i) steal stole stolen stele sta;l ' (2) come came come cume com (3) bear bore born bere bser bare borne* shear shore* shorn scere SCSKT tear tore torn tere tasr (4) speak spoke spake spoken spoke* sprece brece spraec braec 270. DIVISION II. Class II. P.p. stolen cumen boren scoren toren sprecen brocen 1 i ) The old verbs quell (kill) and nim (to take, rob) once belonged to this class. (2) In O.E. (fourteenth century, especially in the Northern dialects) we find the old . CaL\ 3 Cp. O.E. beode, bt&d, boden, to bid, order. STRONG VERBS. ,63 Double forms of the p.p. are eaten and eaf;' 1 bidden and bid;* gotten t; 3 trodden and trod;* woven and wove; 5 lien* ( O.K. i-Uyc=. ge-legen] and lain. 272. DIVISION II. Class IV. P.p. standen sworen sea pen hafen grafen scafen hladen wsscen bacen scocen tacen wacen acen dragen gnagen hleahhen sleahhen weaxen (i) Fare, wade, ache, gnaw, wash, step, laugh, 7 yell, wax,* bake, 9 have at present weak past tenses and passive participles. Cp. " Sapience this bred turnede and book it." Pilgrimage, p. 44. Beuk = book occurs in Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, ii. i. Gnew = gnawed occurs in Mirroitrfor Magistrates, vol. ii. p. 74. " Gne"M and fretted his conscience." TYNDALL'S Prol. to Jonas, Parker So*, p. 456. Shakespeare has begnaivn, Tarn, of Shrew, iii. 2. " He flay a lion." CAPGRAVE. " Both Jlayn and hedid " (= beheaded). 16. Chron. p. 61. " Zoroaster low as no child did but he." Ib. p. 26. " There he wesh nve, there he bathed me." Pilgrimage, p. S. " And in here owen blood han washen hem." Ib. " She . . . hejffuf hire axe to me." Ib. p. in. " She said her hede oke."La Tour Landry. 1 Shakespeare, King John, i. i. 2 Milton, Paradise Lost, vii. 304. 3 English Bible. * Shakespeare, K. Richard II. ii. 2. 5 Milton, Par. Lost, ix. 839. 6 Eng. Bible and Shakespeare, now archaic. 7 Scotch has leugh laughed (past). * Spenser has woxe, past, ivoxcn, p.p. 9 Baken = baked, p.p. in Leviticus ii. 4. " My spirit is waxen weak and fuel ile." Ps. Ixxvii. COVEKDALE. M 2 O.K. PRES. PAST. P.p. PRES. PERF. stand stood stood stande stCd swear swore sworn swerige swSr shape shope* shapen* scape sc6p heave hove* hoven* hebbe ahof grave grove* graven* grafe gruf shave shove* shaven* scafe sc5f lade laden hlade h!6d wash wesh* washen* wasce wosc bake book* baken* bace bdc shake shook shaken scace scOc forsake forsook forsaken take took taken tace tCc awake awoke awoke wace wSc ache ok* oken* ace oc draw drew drawn drage droh gnaw gnew* gnawn* gnage gnoh laugh lough* laughed hleahhe hloh slay slew slain sleahhe sloh wax wex* waxen* weaxe weox wox* I6 4 ENGLISH ACCIDENCE. [CHAP. (2). (a) Strong forms have been replaced by weak ones in the past tense of shape, grave, shave, lade, &c. Strong participles of these are occasionally met with, as shapen (Ps. li. 5), graven (p.p. in Byron, Childe Harold, i. ; as an adjective, in English Bible, Ex. xx. 4 ; p.p. Ps. xcvii. 7), loaden = laden (Milton, P. Lost, iv. 14 ; Bacon, Essays). " The heavier the ship is loaden, the slower it goes " (Bp. Pilkington, p. 208). Cp. " And masts nnskave for haste." SURREY, jEn. iv. " With such weapons they shaft them to defend." Ib. jEtt. ii. (b} We have also double forms, a strong and a weak one, in the past tense, as woke and waked; hove- and heaved. (f) We sometimes in Shakespeare find forms of the past tense employed for the p. participle, as arose (Comedy of Errors, v. i) = arisen ; shook (King John, iv. 2 ; Othello, ii. I ; Milton, vi. 219) = shaken ; forsook (Otfiello, iv. 2) = forsaken took (Twelfth Night, iv. 2; Julius Casar, ii. i) = taken ; mistook (Jnliits Ctesar, i. 2 ; Milton, Arcades) = mistaken; shaked, too, occurs tor shaken (Ps. cix. 25 ; Troilus and Cressida, i. 3 ; Henry V. ii. I ; Tempest, ii. i). (3) Stood, p.p. is properly a past tense ; the old p.p. = standen. Cp. the p.p. understanden and understand. "Have I understand thy mind?" COVERDAJ.E, p. 457. (4) Sware occurs in Mark vi. 23, Titus Andronicus, iv. I ; but the a is not original, but probably has come in through false analogy with spake, bare, &C. 273. DIVISION II. Class V. O.E. PRFS, PAST. - P.P. PRES. PERF. sing. PERF.//. P.P. (i) shine shone shone seine scan scinon scinen (2) drive drove driven drife dt&f drifon drifen shrive thrive shrove throve shriven thriven scrife gescraf gescrifon gescrifen rive rove* riven (3) bite bot* bitten bite bat biton biten smite smote smitten smite smat smiton smiten write wrote written write wrat writon writen a-bide abode abiden* hide bad bidon biden chide chode* chid chidden cick cad cidon ciden ride rode ridden ride rad ridon riden lide slode" i&d si id den 1 slid / Sslide aslfid aslidon asiiden XIII.] STROA J G VERBS. 165 O.E. PRES. stride PAST. strode P.p. stridden PRES. strithe PERF. sing. strath PERF. J>1. strithon P.p. strithen writhe 1 wreathe f writhed writhen* writhe wrath writhon writhen rise rose risen a-rise aras arisen arisen arise arose arisen strike 1 struck struck strice strac stricon stricen stricken (1) Gripe (= grasp), spew, slit, wreathe (writhe), sigh, rive, once belonged to this class, but have become weak : riven is used as an adjective. (2) Most of these verbs have changed the & of the past into o, as shone, drove, &c. The older fonns sometimes occur, as drave (in English Bible and Shakespeare), smate, &c. " Absalom drave him out of his king- dom" (Coverdale); " stroke me with thunder" (Surrey, ./'. ii. ); " he with his hands strove to unloose the knots " (Ib. ). (3) Just as we found sung sang, swum = swam, properly par- ticipial forms, so we find, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, driv = drove, smit = smote, rid = rode, ris = rose, writ = wrote. Cp. bit for O.E. hot, boot. (4) Shortened forms of the participles occur, as writ = written (Twelfth Night, v. i ; Richard II. ii. i), smit = smitten, chid = chidden, slid = slidden. Chid, O.E. ctdde, chidde, is a weak form: "the eldest chidde with the knight" (La Tour Landry, p. IQ). 2 (5) Past tenses are also used for the participles, as drove = driven (2 Henry VI. iii. 2), rode = ridden (Henry IV. v. 3 ; Henry V. iv. 3), smote = smitten (Coriolanus, iii. i), wrote = written (Lear, i. 2 ; Cymbeline, iii. 5), arose = arisen (Comedy of Errors, v. i). (6) Weak forms of the passive participle arc rived (Julius Ccesar, i. 3), strived (Rom. xv. 20), shrived (A'inj John, ii. 4). (7) In shone for shinen, abode for abiden, struck for stricken, we have the substitute of the past tense for the p. participle. (8) For stricken and driven we sometimes find strucken (Milton, ix. 1064; Julius Casar, iii. i) ; "the clock hafh strooken four" 1 Orm. has strike, strac, as in modern English ; in the oldest English strict = I go. 2 Chode occurs in the Bible (Gen. xxxi. 36, Numbers xx. 3). Chide, p.p. in Shakespeare. 1 66 ENGLISH A CCIDENCE. [c HAP. (Lodge's A Looking-glass for London) ; droven = driven (Antony and Cleopatra, iv. 7). (9) Shined shone (Ezek. xliii. 2). Shinde occurs in the fourteenth century. (10) Wreathen, as adjective, occurs in Timon of Athens, iii. 2, " that sorrow -wreathen root ;" " wreathen cables" (Surrey, sEn. iv.). It occurs in The Newfounde World as a p.p. : " out of which may \xturong or writheti water." Abiden occurs in the Knglish Bible. " He had bid" abiden endured (Sidney's Arcadia}. 274. DIVISION II. Class IV. O.K. PRES. PAST. P.p. PRES. PERF. */. PERF.//. P.p. creep crop* cropen* creope creap crupon cropen shove shof* shaven* sceofe sceaf scufon scol'en cleave clave* cloven cleofe cleaf clufon clofen clove shoot shot shotten* sceote sreat scuton scoten seethe sodden seothe seuth sudon soden sod choose chase* chosen ceose ceas curon coren chose freeze froze frozen freose freas fruron froren lose lost losen* forleose forleas forluron forloren suck sook* soken* suce seac sucon socen fly flew flown fieoee > a . u a flee flew* - fleohe / fleah flu S on flo S en (1) Many verbs belonging to this class have become weak, as creep, 1 cleave, seethe, lose, chew, rue, brew, dive, shove, slip, lot, fleet, reek, smoke, bow, suck, lock. Cp. " She sJwf me with hire knyf."- Pilgrimage, p. 132. " Shaven on thilke spere." Ib. p. 130. " Ther sook^ never noon suich milk." Ib, p. 205. (2) Creep, cleave, bereave, flee, lose, shoot, shorten the long vowel of the present in the weak form of their past tenses. (3) Clave and cloven occur in the English Bible (Genesis xx. 3, Ps. Ixxviii. 15, Acts ii. 3) ; cleft, p.p., in Altcah i. 4 (cp., too, a "cleft palate," but a "cloven foot"); chase in Surrey's poems; 2 shotten 1 Cp. Scotch craft (Gentle Shepherd, v. i). 9 "S'uluu for love, Surrey for lord thou chase." P. 92 (Bell's edition). STRONG VERBS. ,67 occurs in sJwtten herring (i Henry IV.} = a herring that has deposited its roe ; forlorn (Milton, Paradise Lost, ii. 615) = for- losen.'i Milton has frore, Spenser frorne = frozen ; froze = frozen occurs in Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV. i. i. Sodden occurs in English Bible; cp. " Twice J